? 
 
 The Eopp Libi^f^. 
 
 COLLECTED BY FRANZ BOP?, 
 
 I^rofessor of Comparative IPliilology in tlxe 
 University of Berlin. 
 
 Purchased- by Cornell University, 1868. 
 
 o2 /- P 
 
Cornell University Library 
 P 201.W74 
 
 >hrasis: 
 
 3 1924 026 448 401 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026448401 
 
PHRASIS: 
 
 TKEATISE ON THE HISTOEY AND STRUCTUEE 
 
 §HUxtni §M^Mp^ 0f ttoe WnU, 
 
 COMPAEATIVE VIEW OF THE FORMS OF THEIR VOEDS, 
 
 STYLE OF THEIE EXPEESSIONS. 
 
 jrwiLso:^', A. M., 
 
 AUVHOE OF ERBO£S OF aaAUUA& AND NATURE OF LANOUAOa. 
 
 ALBANY : 
 
 J. MUNSELL, 78 STATE STEEET. 
 
 1864. 
 
/^ornell\ 
 university 
 
 JBRARYx/ 
 
 j^i-^-^nsTZ , 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, 
 
 BY JACOB WIISON, 
 
 In the Clerk's OfEce of the District Court of the United States for the 
 Northern District of New York. 
 
TO 
 
 TATLER LEWIS, LL. D., 
 
 EMINENT LINGUIST AND PEOFOUND SCHOLAE, 
 
 THIS WORK 
 
 IS MOST REVERENTLY INSCRIBED, 
 
 HIS ADMIRING PUPIL, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 We shall hardly be contradicted, whea we say that the study 
 of language, as a science in itself, has attracted, so far, but very 
 little attention in this country. Indeed, it would be quite im- 
 possible for the student, however great his interest in the subject 
 might be, to find the means with which to prosecute his inquiries. 
 The study of philology, at the present time, presupposes the 
 ability to read, at least, French and German works. There are 
 very few works published in this country which are devoted 
 exclusively to this subject — we know of not a single general 
 or comprehensive work similar to the one before the reader; 
 nor do the works of English authors present us with anything 
 like a complete view of the subject. 
 
 There is, then, a want, which is every day felt, of a work 
 which shall give a fair view of the present state of philological 
 science, which shall initiate the inquiring student into the mys- 
 teries of language, and inform him of its wonders and its beauties, 
 of a work which shall be complete in itself, and which shall not 
 imply anything else than a knowledge of the English and a dis- 
 position on the part of the learner to study and reflect, a work 
 which shall be simple and plain enough for anybody to read, 
 and yet thorough and philosophical enough for even the experi- 
 enced philologist to study with advantage. It is to be hoped 
 that this may be found the work desired. 
 
 No effort, no expense, has been spared by the author to render 
 this work deserving of the attention and confidence of the student, 
 and to make it complete, accurate, and intelligible. To name the 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 number of years, long, weary years, that the author has spent 
 in slavish toil upon this book, or to tell the number of books he 
 had pored upon in order to render him familiar with the subject, 
 and, especially, with the character and structure of the different 
 languages of the world, or to state the amount it had cost him 
 in collecting those books, nearly all of which were imported, 
 many being rare and costly, would seem mere boasting; and 
 hence the silence upon that point. Suffice it, for the present, to 
 say that he never suffered this work to go to press, until he felt 
 that he had mastered the subject, and was able to take the 
 responsibility. 
 
 Some credit is claimed for the general plan and conception of 
 the work — one which is entirely new. It remains to be seen 
 whether there is a better design for imparting a thorough know- 
 ledge of the nature of language. How well the work has been 
 executed, we leave the reader to judge. 
 
 To make the work complete in itself, a brief sketch of English 
 Grammar is given ; this is followed by a sketch of the Latin, a 
 very different language and grammar. This is given to enable 
 the student to understand or recognize the new features which 
 he will continually meet with in the languages he is about to 
 consider. This is followed by a critical examination of the 
 nature of nouns, adjectives, cases, numbers, genders, comparisons. 
 Much light is thrown upon the nature of pronouns, prepositions, 
 adverbs, and conjunctions — showing what they are, and the forms 
 they have in other languages. There is a thorough review of 
 the forms of the participle, and a consideration of its develop- 
 ment — the more particularly, because it is the basis of the verb. 
 The nature of the verb, and the growth of moods and tenses, 
 will be well illustrated in the comparative view that is given of it. 
 
 The most important part of the whole work is the comparative 
 view of the history and idioms of the principal languages of the 
 world. It is believed that nothing can so well instruct us in 
 the true nature of language, as the manner in which the differ- 
 ent classes of people, or nations, express their ideas. Here, the 
 selections have been very copious, and no pains have been spared 
 to render their character and meaning easily understood. The 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 subject of Etymology has, also, been thoroughly treated of, and 
 the rules by which we may trace the connexion of words, have 
 been carefully set forth. The large lists of words under this 
 head must prove very instructive to any one who carefully 
 examines them. 
 
 The main object of the work has been to present a compara- 
 tive view of the different idioms of the world, and, besides, such 
 facts as would best instruct the student in the nature of language. 
 But, to make the work complete, we have sometimes felt it 
 necessary to discuss, philosophically, some of the questions in 
 philology. These discussions, however, occupy but a small space 
 in the treatise, and are not expected to be particularly interesting 
 to the general reader. 
 
 It will be noticed that there are no references in the work, 
 and it is for the reason that it is in no sense a compilation ; the 
 only instances in which we are willing to admit that we have 
 extracted from other works, are in the occasional selection of 
 words and sentences for illustration. We have considered 
 them as common property, and have always felt at liberty to 
 take them when we had nothing better at command. But there 
 are several works to which we are greatly indebted for our 
 instruction in this science ; we have made constant use of many 
 of them — but only as instructors. It may not be amiss to name 
 them, partly to acknowledge our obligation, and partly to suggest 
 to the student the names of desirable works. They are as follows : 
 Bopp's Comparative Grram. (3 vols.) ; Prichard's Eastern Origin 
 of Celtic Nations; Garnett's Philological Essays; Latham's 
 Ethnographic Essays — and Handbook of English Language ; 
 Wm. Humboldt on the Kawi (3 vols. Germ.) ; Rapp's Physi- 
 ology of Language (4 vols. Germ.) ; Eichhoff's Comparison of 
 Languages (Germ.) ; Sulzer's Origin and Nature of different 
 Languages (Ital.) ; Grimm's German Gram. (5 vols. Germ.)'; 
 Grimm's Hist, of Germ. Languages (2 vols. Germ.); Tooke's 
 Diversions of Purley (2 vols.) ; Harris' Hermes ; Dobrowsky's 
 Slavic Etymol. ; Miiller's Survey of Languages.; Dictionnaire 
 Linguistique (Fr.); Bock on the Structure of Languages (Germ.) ; 
 Arndt on the Origin of Europ. Lang's.; Jameson's Hermes 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 SytMous; Diefeiibaoh's Celtica (2 vols. Germ.); Latham's 
 Kussian Kaces; Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man (2 vols.); Adelung's 
 Mithridates (4 vols. Germ.); Pott's Etymological Inquiries 
 (2 vols. Germ.) ; Schleicher's Compendium (Germ.); Donald- 
 son's New Cratylus — and Varronianus; Michel on the Argot 
 (French); Bernhardy's Sprachlehre (2 vols. Germ.); Diefcnbach 
 on the Eoman Lang's. (Germ.); Julien on Chinese Syntax 
 (French); Kask's Researches (Dan.); Drival's Comp. Gram. 
 Sem. Lang's (Fr.) ; Benfey on the Egyptian Language (Germ.) ; 
 Portal's Symbols of the Egyptians (Fr.); Grotefend's Rudiments 
 Umbricas (Lat.); E. Renan on Sem. Lang's.; Huschke's Osk. 
 and Sabel Language-monuments; Spohn on the Language and 
 Letters of Ancient Egyptians (Lat.) ; Jenisch Comparison of 
 Lang's of Europe, — besides other minor works, of which little 
 use has been made. To enumerate the grammars, treatises, and 
 specimens of text, which represent nearly every language treated 
 of in this work, besides the lexicons for a large share of them, 
 all of which have been examined by the author and studied by 
 him for years, would require more space than we have to spare 
 here. 
 
 We have, as said before, taken great pains to make the work 
 plain, as well as complete and accurate; but yet no one, we hope, 
 will expect to find it so easy that he is to learn the science of 
 language from it without effort, without earnest and unceasing 
 study; no such book has ever yet been printed — none ever will 
 be. We must add, finally, that the author's little work, published 
 in 1858, on the Errors of Grammar and Nature of Language, 
 must be taken in connexion with this. It contains an explana- 
 tion of many theories which lie at the foundation of this work ; 
 it will show, too, . the road which the author has traveled to 
 arrive at his present position. 
 
 To Dr. Lewis, of Union College, who has spent several weeks, 
 even while in declining health, in carefully examining, criticising, 
 and improving, the manuscript of this work, the author is under 
 the greatest obligations, and he knows not how to express the 
 gratitude which he feels for a service which so few could 
 perform, and which has been so kindly offered and so ably done. 
 
PHRASIS. 
 
 PART I, 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. In discourse or composition, tlie first and leading divisions 
 are sentences. It is merely the sum of these sentences, perfect 
 and distinct individuals in themselves, that constitutes all that 
 is spoken or written. Grammar, at least, has nothing to do 
 with anything but sentences, either simple or compound. 
 
 2. If we regard language as the medium by which we express 
 or indicate thoughts, feelings, and facts, we may denominate a 
 sentence the simplest and most elementary form of language. 
 Every sentence is an expression indicating that something 
 exists or is, or was or will be. It may have more than two 
 parts, but it cannot have less. It must contain not only the 
 word indicating the doing, or being, or existing, but the name, 
 also, of the person or thing which does, or is, or exists; as, 
 m,en walk, the moon shines, Cicero spoke, the town is old, the 
 hase was hroad. 
 
 3. In every sentence, then, besides the word which indicates 
 what is done, or what is or was or will be, i. e. the verb, as it is 
 called, there is found the name of some person, or thing, or 
 place, or of some property or' quality. Wp call these nafoes 
 Nouns; as, men, moon, Gicerp, town, base, in the examples just 
 given. Two divisions of nouns are usually recognized, those 
 which are common, and those which are proper; common names 
 are such as apply equally to all of a large class, as man, tree, 
 book, while proper names are applied to some individual of a 
 class to distinguish that one from the others, as Joseph, Albany, 
 
10 PHRASIS. 
 
 Europe— or, in other words, one is a family, and the other is 
 an individual name. It is impossible to draw any nice line ot 
 distinction between common and proper names, but the above 
 will answer in practice. Collective nouns are also sometimes 
 spoken of; they are names of bodies or collections, as army, 
 assemhly, company, nation. There are also ahstr act Tuoms, 
 names of qualities, as length, wisdom, goodness; and verbal^ nouns, 
 names of acting, doing, being, as the speaking, the seeing, the 
 becoming. 
 
 4. To a certain extent, nouns have different forms according to 
 the sex they represent; they are said to be of different Genders; 
 as, lion and lioness, poet and poetess, emperor and empress, hero 
 and heroine, testator and testatrix. But a very large class of 
 names are applied to individuals without marking the distinc- 
 tion of either sex ; aa, friend, sheep, servant, worker, lover. In 
 some instances, the male of a class is known by a name very 
 different from that which applies to the female of the same 
 class; as, brother, sister ; lord, lady ; son,daitghter ; boy, girl; 
 gander, goose; drake, duck. In some of these instances, as in 
 that oi goose and drake, the words are clearly related in origin, 
 and in none of these cases were the words, , as hoy and girl, ori- 
 ginally used for gender distinction. 
 
 5. Persons and animals alone, with us, have gender : — things 
 are neuter (the Germans call it the sachlich, thing-ly gender). In 
 Latin and Greek, gender is conceived to extend to things, ou 
 the basis of their possessing masculine or feminine qualities, 
 and, hence, they speak of them, often, as he and she, while we 
 would say it — just as we, again, say of the ship, she sails, the 
 moon casts her shadow, the sun sends his rays. 
 
 6. Nouns denoting males are said to be of the masculine gender, 
 and those denoting females of the feminine gender. Nouns de- 
 noting things which are lifeless, or which we do not speak of 
 as having sex, as book, box, tree, rock, crowd, time, water, are 
 said to be of the neuter gender. We should prefer to apply the 
 term gender only to nouns which distinguish it by their form, 
 but, in grammar, the practice is to call all nouns masculine 
 which denote males, and all feminine which denote females. 
 In other languages, as the Latin, gender is much better marked. 
 
 7. The variation of forms of nouns to indicate unity or plu- 
 rali^, is much more common ; thus, we use the term books for 
 
 , more than one, and book when a single one is referred to, and 
 so boxes and box, trees and tree, affection and affections, valley, 
 valleys, sky, skies. We call plural the form indicating more 
 than one, and singular the form indicating only one. The 
 plural form is generally made by adding s or es to the singular, 
 but not always ; as, in ox, oxen ; child^ children ; brother, breth- 
 
ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 11 
 
 ren ; man, men ; foot, feet; goose, geese; woman, women. There 
 are some nouns which have no plural ; as, ten sheep, ten cattle, 
 tea deer. In many cases, where we adopt the word of some 
 other language, we adopt also its plural; as, datum (from Lat.), 
 and plural data, cherub (from Sem.), plur. cherubim; so, too, 
 the above plural in en is rather after the German manner, en 
 being for s or es. The forms /oo« and feet, man and men, etc., 
 will stand as proof that the plural is only a variation of the sin- 
 gular and contains nothing foreign' or in addition to it. 
 
 8. Case. In the words which are called pronouns, as, /, 
 thou, he, and she, we notice two different forms, according as 
 they come before the word expressing doing or being, and 
 hence are subjects, or follow this word, and are objects ; thus," 
 we say I strike, but not strike J, rather, strike me; so, he strikes, 
 but not strike he, rather, strike him; also thou strikest, and strike 
 the,e, she strikes, and strike her. When these pronouns are 
 placed before nouns to indicate whose or /or whom, that is, 
 possession or origin, they assume still another form ; as, (for I) 
 my hook, (for he) his hook, (for thou) thy hook, (for she) her 
 book; so, again, we say his language, i. e. language coming from 
 him. • • 
 
 9. These different forms are called case forms, and the form 
 before the verb is called the 'Nominative ; that after the verb 
 is called the Objective. (Not only is this form taken when 
 following such verbs as strike, but also after prepositions, such 
 words as to, hy, before, with, etc.; as, to him, with her, before 
 thee, hy me). The third forms, as, his, her, thy, my, are called 
 Possessives. In other languages, as in the Latin, they carry out 
 this System of varied forms for cases not only in the pronouns, 
 but also in the nouns; they have pwer, boy, for the 'Som., pv,eri, 
 boy's, for the Poss., and piberum, boy, after verbs or preposi- 
 tions. (They have even other case-forms, which we will notice 
 elsewhere). The German, in this matter, holds a sort of middle 
 place between us and the Latin. They have endings peculiar 
 to certain case-forms in very many instances where they have 
 long since disappeared vf ith us, thus, they say der Sohn, the son ; 
 des Sohnes, the son's, or (of) the son; dem Sohne, (to) the son; 
 den Sohn, the son (objective). Notice that the article has four 
 forms, while our the has but one (the Germ, der is more like 
 our three case-forms of pronouns ; as, he, his, him ; they, theirs, 
 them.). Even the Anglo Saxon, or old English, had more of 
 these forms than we; thus, thaet word, the word (Nom.); thaes 
 wordes, the word's, (of) the word (Poss.); thaet word, the word 
 (Obj.); and besides these, they had a peculiar form for our 
 objectives when found after the prepositions to and for; as, tJiam 
 viorde, (to) the word, and in the plural, tham wordum, (to) the 
 
12 PHKASIS. 
 
 words (this case-form is called the Dative). All their nouns 
 did not vary in this manner, or to this extent; thus, sunu, son 
 (N.) ; suna, son's (Poss.) ; suna, (to) son (D.) ; sunu, son (Obj .) ; 
 sunena, (of) sons (Poss. plur.) ; so mann, man (N.) ; mannes, 
 man's (P.); men, (to) man (J).); mann, man (Ob.); si/n, sin; 
 sywne, sin's; synne, (to) sin; synne, sin (0.); synna, sins (pi.); 
 synnum,, (to) sins (plur.). 
 
 10. In English nouns, there cannot he said to be more than 
 one case-form, or two, if we count the nominative, and that is 
 the ^ossesstVe ; as, man's authority, hoy's book, hand's effort — 
 regularly formed by adding 's, s and apostrophe. Plural forms, 
 which already end in s, add only the apostrophe to form the 
 
 '■possessive; thus, hoys' hooks, i.e. books of the boys. Still, it is 
 the practice of grammarians to treat the noun as having three 
 case-forms, adding, only, that the nominative diifers from the 
 objective form simply iM the place it occupies — the nominative 
 being the doer or subject of the verb, and the objective repre- 
 senting the object of the verb or preposition. Sometimes the 
 order of words is inverted, and the objective comes before the 
 verb; thus, him, they slew (him, object of sfero); so, the nominative 
 often follows ; as, there stood the man (the man stood, man nom- 
 inative). 
 
 11. Such verbs as is, was, are, will he, hecome, may have a 
 nominative after as well as before; as, he is the man — man is 
 called predicate nominative; 
 
 12. Nouns are not always used as names of things spoken of, 
 that is, as subject or object; they are often placed before other 
 nouns to indicate the kind of thing ; as, wood-csi.r, house-work, 
 iron-mine, forest-tree. Such words as wood, house, iron, and 
 forest, are joined to the nouns to tell what kind, or to form with 
 the noun a new name, that of a subdivision of cars, mines, trees. 
 Nouns so used, or any other words so placed, are called adjectives. 
 Speaking generally, adjectives are words joined to the noun to 
 tell what kind, how many, or what thing. In our language, 
 and more generally in German, nouns are joined as adjectives 
 to other nouns without change of form, and this on the principle 
 that the noun may be used in one and the same form both as 
 subject and object. But, more commonly, a new form has 
 grown up for the noun used as adjective; as, joyful m&n, joyous 
 mirth, humane man, tolerahle success, amusing story. In many 
 instances, the original noun on which the adjective has grown up 
 is entirely lost sight of, or is to be found in some other languao-e • 
 
ENaLISH GRAMMAR. 13 
 
 as, in genvme. logic, wiched men, Jiappi/ men, shrewd men, 
 great men, mortal men, (from Latin mors, death), corporal 
 punishment (from L. corpus, body), physical powers (Grreek 
 phusis, nature). 
 
 13. It is very common lo find these adjectives used not only 
 before the noun as above shown, but following the verb and 
 closely connected with it, — especially after is, was, be, been; 
 thuis, he is happy, this seems excellent, some men are great, he 
 becomes a soldier. It is common to call these words adjectives, 
 
 ,and to say they belong to the subjects of the verbs which they 
 follow. But, in the opinion of the author, this is a very unnat- 
 ural way of disposing of them; they are certainly adjectives in 
 form and nature, but they have not the place of the adjectives. 
 They are no more adjectives than one noun placed before another 
 noun, without varying its form, is a noun. Tbey certainly do 
 not. belong to the noun or pronoun before the verb, but, if at all, 
 to some noun following them, and implied; as, he is happy, i. e. 
 a happy one, or person. Our preference is to treat them as 
 adjectives which belong to the verb and unite with it to form a 
 new verb. 
 
 14. ]3ut it must be borne in mind that every adjective has 
 the nature of a verb (or, at least, of that form of a verb called a 
 participle), and that in many languages the adjectives are treated 
 as real verbs, that in such expressions as is walking, is wise, is 
 prevalent, is excellent, is here, is black, is a man, the very essence 
 of a verb lies in these adjectives — so much so, that is, being a 
 mere auxiliary, is left out entirely, in many languages, by which 
 suppression the whole verb is seen to lie in these adjectives; or, 
 in other words, the adjective holds the place and performs the 
 office of a real verb. It is true, that every adjective is a noun 
 in its origin, but it is that form of the noun, the objective, which 
 is found following the verb and connected with it, either 
 directly or by means of prepositions, and uniting with it so 
 closely as to form with it a new verb — at the same time ceasing 
 to have any of the real characteristics of a noun, which is known 
 as being the name of a person or thing. (_See Errors of 
 Gram/mar cm objectives and adjectives'). 
 
 15. Adjectives have different forms to indicate degrees of 
 quality ; as, hard, harder, hardest ; or hard, more hard, most 
 hard, — or, taking the descending order, hard, less hard, least 
 hard. The first or simplest form is called the positive ; the 
 second, made by adding er or prefixing more or less, is called 
 comparative ; the last form, made by adding est or prefixing 
 most or least, is called the superlative, or highest degree. Some 
 adjectives are compared irregularly; as, bad, loorse, worst; little, 
 less, least ; mitch, more, most ; good, better, best. 
 
14 PHRASIS. 
 
 16. A particular kind of adjectives are nurrlbers, as, ten men, 
 Jive books ; they are called numerals, and are again divided into 
 cardinals, as one, two, three, etc., and ordinals, as first, second, 
 third, etc. 
 
 17. Adjectives of very frequent occurrence, and which may 
 he regarded as marks of the noun, are the words a, an, and the. 
 They are called the articles — a and an being called indefinite, 
 and the being the definite article. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 18. The oft occurring words 1, thou, he, she, and it, are called 
 the persoma? pronouns, or the personals : The first, /, represents 
 the speaker, and is said to be of th.^ first person ; thou is used to 
 denote the person spoken to, and is called the pronoun of the 
 second person ; he, she, and it, are personals of the third person, 
 and they always stand in the place of the name of the person or 
 thing spoken of. 
 
 19. The first personal has, for the three case-forms of the 
 sing., respectively, /, my or unine, me (Nom. Poss. Ob.), and for 
 the plural, we, our or ours, us ; in the same way, thou, thy or 
 thins, thee, and plural, ye ox you, your or yours, you; and for 
 the three personals of the third person, he, his, him (masc.), she, 
 her or hers, her (fem.), it, its, it (neut.); the plural is the same 
 for these three, they, their or theirs, them. 
 
 20. What is called a compound personal is formed by adding 
 self to the objectives of these pronouns; as himself, herself, itself, 
 themsehes, escept that in the case of /and thou, the possessive 
 forin is taken ; as, myself, thyself. 
 
 21. The words who, which, what, and that, are called the 
 relatives, as referring back to some person or thing already 
 spoken of They have no peculiar forms when they represent 
 plurals. The first has the case-forms who, whose, whom) whose 
 is also used as the possessive of which; beyond this, there is 
 no variation in the forms of relatives. 
 
 22. To all of them, except that, the word ever may be joined 
 to form what are known as compound relatives ; as, whatever 
 whichever, whoever, besides whatsoever, whomsoever. ' 
 
 23. Who, which, and what, are used in questions, and are 
 called interrogatives— or, if we may judge from some other 
 tongues. It IS rather the interrogative that is used as relative 
 All pronouns are adjective in their nature, and become independ- 
 ent individuals by the suppression of the noun to which they 
 should belong. Every adjective used without its noun is prop- 
 erly, a pronoun ; as, this is so, all walked, each spoke, none spoke 
 on" said, some said. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 
 
 24. Our own relatives, which, what, and that, are used as 
 adjectives, as, which man, as well as relatives, as, in the man 
 which said. And in other languages, as in Latin, the personals of 
 the third person are used as adjectives too, just as if we said 
 he man, she girl, it thing, as we do say this rnan, this girl, that 
 thing. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 25. We have already anticipated, necessarily, to some extent, 
 the office and meaning of a verb, and we have only to repeat, 
 here, that verbs are used to tell what is done, or what some one 
 or some 'thing does, or what, exists or is (in time either past, 
 present, or future^ ; as, he walks, he is struck, he seems, he becomes. 
 Bearing these characteristics in view, verbs are easily distin- 
 guished from other words. 
 
 26. Verbs fall readily into two very important classes, or 
 divisions, those which take objectivcis immediately after them 
 and are transitive, as, James struck him, aijd, on the other 
 hand, those which cannot have an objective attached to them, 
 except through the connexion of a preposition, and are hence 
 intransitive ; that is, the action is not looked upon as passing 
 over to an object ; thus, James is writing, James speaks, James 
 looked for him. Transitives are regiilarly followed by nouns or 
 pronouns in the objective case ; no other verbs are transitive, 
 save, if you will, those cases where it is assumed that the object 
 precedes; as, him, he slew. But, even here, it may be questioned 
 whether or not him- is not thrown out independently, and another 
 him, the real object, suppressed. 
 
 27. The nouns that follow is or he in its diiFerent forms, are 
 said to be nominatives ; as, he is a man, he will he an officer, 
 but they are certainly not subjects like other nominatives, other- 
 wise the verb would have two subjects, one before and one after 
 (In Arabic, among others, we find ace. after he,). As before 
 intimated, such nouns are pure adjectives, and adjectives are 
 allied to objectives. There are other cases where verbs are 
 followed by nouns which are not properly objects, and the verbs 
 are hence not transitive; thus, he seems a man, (to he implied), 
 he becam,e a man (came to be) , he was elected prince (to be prince) . 
 
 28. But, it is well to bear in mipd that intransitives taken 
 with the preposition are as much transitive as any other verb, 
 that is, they may and do have objects. We understand transi- 
 tives to differ from intransitives only in the suppression of the 
 preposition ; so, to write you is transitive, but to write to you is 
 intransitive; flee the land is trans., but flee from the land ig 
 
16 PHRASIS. 
 
 intrans.; we may say see/c him or seek for Mm — the same verb 
 being transitive or intransitive according as we use or do not 
 use the preposition /or. The verbs, in many instances, which 
 we must use with a preposition, we find in other languages used 
 without them. Verbs which may have objects, but yet do not 
 have them in the particular case in question, are called intran- 
 sitive; thus, the expression he writes is intran., but Ac writes a 
 letter is transitive. {See Errors of Gram, on reflexive yerhs.) 
 
 29. Another important division is into regular and irregular 
 verbs; thus, those that form their past tense and past participle 
 (that form of verb which follows have and had) by adding 
 d or ed to the verb, are regular, and those which do not are 
 irregular. Thus, the verb walk, past, I walked, and part., have 
 walked; the verb love, past, 1 loved, part., have or had loved ; 
 but not so with the verb see, past, I saw, part., have seen (not 
 seed); so oi speak, spoke, and spoken, ot be, was, been, ot make, 
 made, made, of go, went, gone, do, did, done, come, came, come, 
 strike, struck, struck. This last or irregular form, which does 
 not need the new element ed to form pasts, is sometimes called 
 the strong, and the other is called the weak tense. 
 
 30. There are still two other forms of the verb, or rather of 
 the transitive verb, which are uniformly recognized and are of 
 great importance, the active, and the passive form. When we 
 say John strikes Jam,es, or John loves James, we use the active 
 form of strike and love, since John, the subject of remark, is the 
 actor or doer; when, however, we use another form, and say 
 James is, or was, struck hy John, or is, or was, loved by John, 
 there the subject, James, is not the striker, the lover, but the 
 one struck, or loved, the object, the one who suifers. The com- 
 pound form is struck, was strucJe, and the like, is called the 
 passive of strike, etc. But, really, as to form, is struck is no 
 more passive than is happy or is striking, for both expressions 
 denote simply a condition, or state, without reference to the 
 
 , action which produced that state, but it so happens that, in the 
 passive form, the is, was, will be, have been, etc., are practically 
 suppressed, and the whole force is thrown upon the participle, 
 now become a verb, as in the case of struck. Every transitive 
 expression may thus be reversed and put in the passive form, 
 with the object as subject! (See Errors of Gram, on passives.) 
 
 31. Every passive expression is intransitive in its character, 
 and we shall continually find it difficult to distinguish it from 
 other intransitive forms, whenever is, was, etc., are used; thus, 
 he is celebrated is passive, if you understand that some one cele- 
 brates him, but it is intransitive, if he is simply a celebrated man. 
 All that is passive in the form lies in the participle after is, was, 
 etc. ; has struck, in form, is as much passive as is struck, but 
 struck is, in sense, active in the former and passive in the latter. 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 
 
 32 Tenses. Verbs have different forms, or marki3, by which 
 they indicate whether an action or being is present, pi^st, or 
 future. These forms are called tenses or tense forms. 
 
 33. The: present tense denotes a present or continuing doing 
 or being, as walks, speaks, reads, is reading, are saying, 'is struck. 
 
 34. The past tense denotes a doing or being that is finished, 
 or one continuing in past time ; as, walked, read, spoke, was 
 reading, was saying, was struck. The future tense indicates 
 what is to take place, or what will be taking place, and the 
 mark of it is shall or will; as, shall read, will read, will speak, 
 will be reading, will be struck. A second futiJire, or future 
 
 perfect, is made by using have after shall or will; as, shall have 
 read, will have been spoken. 
 
 35. By the perfect it is indicated that something is Just now 
 or recently completed, and it is known by the mark have or has; 
 as, has read, have spoken, have be.en reading, has been read. 
 And, lastly, the pluperfect is known by tl^e sign had, and it 
 indicates a completion some time since j as, had spoken, had 
 read, had been reading, had been read. 
 
 36. Moods. There are certain other forms, or combinations 
 of forms, to indicate some condition or circumstance about the 
 doing or being. These forms are called the moods.. The simple 
 form of the verb, which has no condition or qualification attached 
 to it, is called the indicative; all those tense forms above given 
 are of this, mood- If we place before them if, thoiigh, unless, or 
 other words indicating doubt or condition, we have what is 
 called the subjunctive form ; as, if he walk, unless he walks, though 
 he laugh, if he walked, that he speaks. Whenever we use the 
 signs may, can, musf, might, could, and should, before the bare 
 verb, as, may go, might go, must go, we have what is called the 
 potential mood — indicating that something is possible or neces- 
 sary. In orders or requests, we use the bare verb; as, go away, 
 return now, see him, give me ; verbs used in this manner are 
 called imperatives. That form of the verb which is uniformly 
 found with the preposition to before it, is called the infinitive^ 
 as, to write, to speak — in a few instances the to is omitted, after 
 see, hear, feel, need, help, let, make, bid, dare, may, can, will ; 
 as, may (to) go, hear him (to) speak, I saw him (to) go. 
 
 37. Person. There is a variation also in the ending of the 
 verb according to the person of the subject ; thus, we say / 
 ^)eak, thou speakest, he speaks, we speak ; so, I am, thou art, 
 ne is, we are, and we call these different forms the persons of 
 the verb. Verbs in English can hardly be said to vary for 
 number, since the three persons of the plurai are regularly like 
 the first singular; as, I write, we, yO:U, they write; I, you, we, 
 they wrote. The verb be, as it is called, however, seems an 
 
18 PHRASIS. 
 
 exception; thus, (sing.) lam, thou art, Tie is; (plur.) ive are, 
 you are, they are; past tense, I was, thou wast, he was; we were, 
 you were, they were; the other tenses are regular, as fut., will he, 
 2d. fut. will have been, perfect, have been, pluperfect, or past 
 perfect, had been. 
 
 38. Pauticiples : Every verb has three other forms, known 
 as participles; one in -ing, as, walking, speahing, reading, being 
 (called the present participle) ; another ending in ed, as has 
 walked, and for irregular verbs having various endings ; as, has 
 struck, has gone, is hit, is bent, has been, a man seen there (called 
 the perfect, past, or passive participle). There is a third, called 
 the compound perfect, made by prefixing having to the perfect 
 just noticed; as, having read, having gone, having seen. ^ 
 
 39. These participles are never connected directly with sub- 
 jects, or nominatives, but through some form of the verb be (is, 
 was, will be, etc.), or by have, has, had; thus, he is walking, 
 he is struck, he has walked, has gone, has seen, has heard, will 
 be known. These connective verbs, as well as may, can, etc., 
 signs of the potential mood (besides do, did), are called auxili- 
 aries. 
 
 40. The present and past, or perfect, participles are often used 
 as pure adjectives ; as, a walking giant, a broken reed, a cele- 
 brated man. They, as well as the compound, often stand as if 
 independently; thus, the man walking by the sea heard the 
 roaring; the man impressed with this, said; the man having 
 heard it, said. The present part, in ing is often used as a noun ; 
 thus, the walking. Participles and infinitives, besides other 
 derived forms of the verb, are called verbals. A verb not of 
 the infinitive mood is said to be finite. 
 
 ADVERBS, 
 
 41. Of the different kinds or classes of words which go to 
 make up a sentence, there remain three others usually named in 
 grammar; namely. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 
 These three are not well separated from each other, and we often 
 term them, taken together. Particles. They are generally small 
 words, and often play the part of simple connectives. 
 
 42. Speaking geqerally, adverbs may be termed adjectives 
 which have ceased to belong to nouns, or, in other eases as 
 nouns in the objective case which stand independently in the 
 sentence. They are found either referring to the expression of 
 the whole sentence ; as, then the torrent rushed with terrible 
 roarings, or to the verb alone ; as, to speak fluently, or to an 
 adjective ; as, extremely great, or to another adverb ; as very 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 
 
 Violently. Generally, they tell the how, when, or where, of a fact 
 or doing, or they tell how much. Many of them are of pronom^ 
 inal origin (that is, adjective without noun),-as, how, here, there, 
 now, etc., etc. 
 
 CONJUNCTIOl^S. 
 
 43. It is often Tiard to distinguish the conjunction from the 
 adverb, since there is no real difference in their origin ; they are 
 that kind of adverb which never belongs to any word in the 
 sentence, but they stand independently, or they connect one 
 sentence, word, or phrase, witli another. There are several 
 words which you may call, indifferently, either adverb or con- 
 junction ; as this is so, therefore that is so ; he did as I ordered 
 hini to do. 
 
 44. There are so few coiij unctions that we givie the following 
 list, by which they may be known : and, also, if, or, either, 
 neither, though, although, hut, nor, that, for, as, because, unless, 
 whether j yet, than, lest. 
 
 PkEP'OSITIONS. 
 
 45. They are easily distinguished from the other tWo classes 
 of particles, not in their origin, for they, too, are adverbs, pro- 
 nouns, or nouns, but in their use. A preposiiion is such a 
 particle (not being a verb) as is always followed by an objective 
 noun or pronoun ; as, to him, with us, along the shore, behind 
 the car, instead of that. All, or nearly all, prepositions may be 
 found without an objective following; as, he was spoken to, he 
 ran along, he fell behind, and they become adverbs, just as 
 adverbs used with an objective become and should be called 
 prepositions ; as, near us, down the road^ up the hill, like me. 
 
 46. Here we give a list of prepositions : at, in, on, of, from, 
 for, by, with, among, against, before, behind, till, during, toward, 
 about, up, down, out of, upon, along, under, between, after, 
 above, over, round, through, to, across, below, without. 
 
 47. The classes of words which we have now named are 
 called the parts of speech — they are usually reckoned at ten 
 (counting in participles, articles, and those exclamatory words, 
 called interjections). 
 
 48. Let the learner be cautioned that the rules given for the 
 distinction of parts of speech are not infallible — no such rules 
 can be given in grammar more than elsewhere. Nature has put 
 no landmarks to separate ohe class from another. 
 
20 PHEASIS. 
 
 49. We have given.all that the student of language will need, 
 but, of course, we cannot pretend to have written a complete 
 grammar. Let it be borne in mind that the main object of 
 this grammatical sketch was to enable the common student to 
 understand the meaning of grammatical terms, without being 
 compelled to refer to any other work. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 50. The English language is a moderh language, and it 
 possesses the usual features of modern languages ; but the Latin, 
 as well as the Greek and the Sanscrit, represents a class of ancient 
 languages that presents many features which diflfer from those' 
 of modern idioms. We will take a brief survey, here, of thosfe 
 features in Latin. 
 
 51. The first thing that we remark as strange in Latin, is the 
 six case-forms. Here, the endings of the noun and of the 
 adjective (which is a form of the noun), have developed them- 
 selves into the representatives of our prepositions, or prepositions 
 with the article ; as, of the, to the, hy the ; thus, puer, a boy, 
 but pueri, of the boy, puero, to the boy, or with the boy. 
 
 52. But it is not only in these prepositional cases, that we 
 find an ending distinct from the base of the noun ; the nominar 
 tives, too, have common endings. There is a large class with 
 the common ending a; as, al-a, wing, cur-a, care, silv-a, Wood, 
 a large class in ms, and um; as, vent-us, wind, ma.Tt-us, hand, 
 regn-um, kingdom, mal-um, evil, don-um, gift^ — besides other 
 endings. In the adjective, they have, for their office, to distin- 
 guish gender ; thus, take the three nominative forms hon-us, 
 hon-a, bon-um (for which we have the single, unvarying, form 
 gooif). Of these, we use bonus, when we say good man (a male), 
 bona, for good woman (a female), and bonum, for good thing 
 (a neuter). And, in the noun, too, these endings vary with 
 the gender; so, a is for them generally a, fern., us a masc, and 
 um a neuter ending. Further, we may remark, that there is no 
 doubt that this us, a, um-, is the equivalent of our a and the, 
 suffixed (i. e., joined to the noun at the end). The Latins have 
 no other article. Besides, this us and um are clear variations of 
 one ending — and a is a weaker form of the same. 
 
 53. We have certainly the germ of this common ending of 
 Latin, in our final e, and perhaps in d, and others; thus, for the 
 Latin caus-a, we have caus-e ; tub-a, tub-e. There is but a slitjht 
 
tAtlif GEAMMAE. 21 
 
 difference between e and a. We might compare also som-ms and 
 soun-d, jug-um and yok-e, tot-us and tot-al, riv-us and riv-er, hort- 
 us and gard-en, corv-us and rav-en, man-us and han-d. The 
 Grerman endings em, Z, er, es, belong to this family. Besides 
 these remnants of endings, it may be said, in many cases, that 
 the change of vowel in th<3 body of the word compensates foi' 
 the gender endings lost ; thus, soil, for L. sol-um, vel^m, sail, 
 hoT'a, hour, twrh-a, troop, hon-us^ good, mit-is, meek, pac-e, 
 peace, can-is, hound. 
 
 54. The cases found in Latin, are the Nbmdnative, Genitive 
 (sign of, our poss.). Dative (sign to, for), Accusative, (our ob- 
 jective), Vocative (the person addressed), and Ablative (sign 
 with, from, bi/, in). The endings of these cases are by no 
 means uniform for all nouns. The changes in the original 
 endings of the nominative must produce a corresponding change 
 in the other cases. Thus, the nouns which have the nominative 
 in a, have their cases, in the sing., in this waj : penn-a, penn-ssj 
 penn-se, penn'am, perm-a, penn-a ; and for the plural, penn^sBj 
 penn-a/rvm, penn-is, penn-as, penn-se, penn-is. (The cases just 
 given, correspond in order with the names above given). In 
 English, those forms would be expressed (in the sing.) by pen, 
 of the pen, for the pen, the pen (obj.), the pen (voc), with the 
 pen ; so, in the plur., pens, of pens, etc. 
 
 55. Vent-US, vent-i, iienit-o, vent-um, vent-e, veni-o, (plural) 
 vent-i, vent-orwm, vent-is, i>ent-os, vent-i, vent-is, — wind, of wind, 
 'etc.; plur., winds, of winds, etc. don-um, don-i, don-o, don-um, 
 idon-wm, don-o; plur., don-a, don-ormn, don-is, don-a, don-a, 
 don-is, ^gift, of gift, etc.; plur., gifts, of gifts, for gifts, etc. 
 rup-es, fup-is, r-up-i, rup-em, mp-es, rup-e; ip\w:.,rup-es,rup-iumf 
 rup-ihus, rup-es, rup-es, rup-ihus, — rock, of rock, for rock, etc.; 
 plur., rocks, of rocks, etc. 
 
 56. In many cases, the nominative ending is entirely lost ; 
 as, paer, puer-i, puer^'o; boy, of boy, to boy. In other instances^ 
 this ending isnot lostj bttt blunted; th.\xs,pars (iox parts, partes) j 
 gen. part-is, a part; so, dens, (for dents, denies), tooth; serm-d 
 (for serm-on, serm-ikies), gen., serm-onis, of speech. 
 
 57. A moderate inspection renders it very evident that all 
 these case-forms are variations of those forms with gender 
 endings. We find is often in the genitive, but it occurs also in 
 the nominative in the place of us ; as, classis, a fleet. In the 
 plural, we have the ending es or i combined with the gender 
 ending us, a, um, or, existing as a mere variation of it. Those 
 case-forms which end in i and o, are plainly shortenings of this 
 is and us. The uniform endings of the accusative are um, am, 
 em, which are forms of the neuter um. 
 
 58. The changes of these noun and adjective endings are not 
 
22 PHKASIS. 
 
 so much prepositions as forms to correspond with the nature of 
 the verb, or verbal, which governs them; thus, caret omm culpa, 
 he wants (in) all blame {culpa) ; caret is followed by an abla- 
 tive, or in case, because it means wanting in; ortus regibus, risen 
 (from) kings; oriws^risen from, and, hence, has with it the 
 from ease, or abl ; natura animalibus tribuit, nature (to) ani- 
 mals has given {tribuit, has given to— hence the dat. case 
 with it); curis vacuus, (from) cares free {vacuus, free from — 
 hence the abl. case); hostis virtutibus, (an) enemy (to) virtues 
 {hostis, opposed to, inimical) ; anior nummi, love (of) inoney 
 {amor, love, to be fond of) ; memor fragilitatis, mindful (of) 
 weakness. No principle seems better established, in all lan- 
 guages, than that the preposition is a growth of the verb and 
 belongs to it. Whenever found, it always belongs with some 
 verb, or verbal, expressed or implied. When standing alone, 
 it represents the verb and its participle. 
 
 59. In concluding our remarks upon the cases of Latin nouns, 
 we may observe that all the cases following the nominative are 
 known as oblique cases. It is to be observed, also, that the ace. 
 (obj.) case, in neuter nouns, is always hke the nom. ; and that 
 the ablative plural of all nouns is like the dative. 
 
 ADJMCTIYES. 
 
 60. The Latin adjective has nothing peculiar in its character, 
 save its varying form to correspond with the gender, number, 
 and case, of its noun. Thus there is, as said before, a form 
 bonus for mas., as bonus vir, good man, a form bona for fem's, 
 as bona filia, good daughter, and bonuni, neut., as in bonum 
 telum, good dart. (In short, the form of the adj. is a repetition 
 of that of the noun). And these three, bonus, bona, bonum, 
 have each their six case-forms in each number, like so many 
 independent nouns; thus, (sing.) bonus, boni, bono, bonum, bone, 
 bono ; and (fem. sing.) bona, bonse, bouse, bonam, bona, bona; 
 and (neut. sing.) bonum,, boni, bono, bonunfi, bonum, bono {bonus, 
 like the noun ventus, bona, like pe»Ma, and bonum, like donum). 
 Thus, we have boni viri (of good of man), of a good man--— 
 treating the two as a unit, a compound ; bonse filise (of good of 
 daughter), of a good daughter ; bonarum Jillarum, of good 
 daughters; bonis clonis, for good (for) gifts. It is clear you 
 must consider the adjective as lost in the one compound, or, 
 that the two are individuals unconnected. The requirements of 
 science seem to be, that each is independent ; that good, in any 
 of these cases, does not so much belong to the noun, as, for 
 instance, man, as, rather, to some general term, as, one, thing, 
 included in the adjective itself; so, a good man, a good one a 
 
LATIN GRAMMAR. 23 
 
 man, i. e. a good person or thing of the man class. There is 
 much proof to sustain this position, which will be given, some 
 of it, elsewhere. 
 
 61. The comparative in Latin generally ends in tor, ins, our 
 er, and the superlative, in issim-us (m.? is an adj. ending), our 
 est; as, dur-us, dur-ior, dur-issimus, — hard, hard-er, hard-est. 
 We look upon these endings as a growth of the ending us. It 
 strikes us as somewhat peculiar, to find in Latin that the com- 
 parative is followed by the ablative (the with case) ; as, dulcior 
 melle, sweeter than honey (in Lat., sweeter with honey), i. e. the 
 comparative is a real positive ; and we also have sweet hy the 
 side of honey, or compared with honey. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 62. All the Latin pronouns are real adjectives, (of a particu- 
 lar kind, it is true)- sometimes used with a noun and sometimes 
 alone — we have only to except ego-\, tu-ihon, and se-self ; 
 these latter ones do not vary for gender, and they have only one 
 set of case-forms. The other pronouns, like adjectives, have each 
 three sets of forms and cases, for the three genders; as, hic- 
 this (njas.), ^asc-this (fem.), Apc-this (thing, neut.); so, ille— 
 that (inas.), i7Za— that (fem.), illud-ih&i (neut.) ; ts-that (m.), 
 ea— that (f.), it?— that (n.). These three pronouns, hie, ille, is, 
 mean this, that, when used with the noun, as that man, but they 
 mean he, she, it, when used without the noun, as, ille dixit-h& 
 said (that (one) said). There is also ijjse- himself, ipsa-herself, 
 ipsMm -itself; so, qui-who, quse-viho (f.), 2«0(i- which (n.); 
 and idem-he the same, eadem-she the same, idem-it the same. 
 
 VHEBS. 
 
 63. The Latin verb furnishes us with many peculiarities. 
 The first we notice, is the growth of endings representing nom. 
 personal pronouns ; as, 1, thou, he ; thus, am-o, I love, am-as, 
 thou lovest, amrat, he loves; am-amus, we love, am-atis, ye love, 
 amount, they love. This is precisely as if we should use loves 
 for he loves, lovest for thou lovest — loves being the form proper 
 for he, she, it, and lovest the form for thou ; so, we might use 
 am for I am, and is for he is, art for thou art. These few cases 
 are about the only instances of verb forms in English to corre- 
 spond with the personal pronoun, and these we never use as 
 equivalent to the verb and pronoun, i. e.. without the nominative. 
 Those Latin person endings extend, in slightly varying forms, 
 to all the tenses and moods (not inf.). 
 
24 PHEASIS. 
 
 64. In English, we have only one tense, the past, ending in 
 ed, which shows the tense by the ending, and we use the auxil- 
 iaries lave, had, and wiU, to supply the place of endings. .But 
 in Latin, save in exceptional cases, the tenses are all atter tHe 
 manner of our past in ed ; as, walk-ed lov-ed. 
 
 65. The mark of the Latin past is ah, eb, corresponding 
 exactly to our ed in lov-ed, lov-edst (2d. per.), and to which ab 
 is joined the ordinary person endings already shown in the 
 present, thus: am-abam, am-abas, -abat ; -abamus, -abatis, 
 -abant. 
 
 66. The mark of the perfect is av, iv; thus, am-avi, am-avisti, 
 am-avit; -avimus, -avistis, -averunt. This tense, m meaning, 
 and perhaps in construction, corresponds more with our past 
 than with our perfect. But amabam is usually translated I 
 loved, while amavi is put down as I have loved, amavit, he has 
 loved. 
 
 67. The pluperfect, I had loved, runs thus: am-averam, 
 -averas, -aver at ; -averamus, -averatis, -aver'ant. The future, / 
 will love, is am-abo, -abis, -obit; -abimus, -abitis, -abunt. 
 
 68. The 2d. future is amavero amave-ris, -rit, etc. The 
 present subjunctive (potential) is am-em, I may love, and has 
 no tense element besides em : ama-rem, -res, -ret, etc., I might 
 love (past subj.); amave-rim, -ris -rit, etc., I may have loved 
 (perf. sub.); amavissem, -isses, -isset, etc., I might have loved 
 (p. perf.). 
 
 69. We thus see that in the subj. (pot.) mood there are not 
 those auxiliaries which we find in English. The infinitive has 
 a common ending are, ere, ire, for one form ,our to, and avisse, 
 isse, for another form, our to have; as, amare, to love, and 
 amavisse, to have loved. 
 
 70. If we use the present participle as a noun, as the walking, 
 we use the simple participle form which is found also in the 
 different application, a man walking by the sea. But, in Latin, 
 we have a distinct form (both grown up from one form, however) 
 for each case ; thus, we would have ambulajiduni in the first 
 instance, and ambidans in the .next. The forms ambulans, 
 ambling, amans, loving, are pure adjectives, with very little 
 variation, however, in the cases of the three genders; thus, viro 
 ambulante, to a man walking (dat. form, to agree with viro). 
 These are c&Wed present participles. 
 
 71. The form in andum is a true noun, and has its case forms 
 andi (geji.), ando (dat.), andum (aoc), like other nouns, while 
 we would have one and the same form, of walking, to walking. 
 This is known as the gerund. 
 
 72. There is still another form, grown on the same base as the 
 others, to which we have nothing in English that precisely 
 
LATIN GKAMMAE. 25 
 
 corresponds. We refer to those forms, known as supines, which 
 end in turn and te; as, ama-tum, to love, ama-tu, to be loved. 
 It answers most nearly to our infinitive ; it is not often used. 
 
 73. The passive in Latin presents us with a new set of endings 
 and combinations. Our own passive is regularly made by using 
 some tense of the verb he (is, was, will be), and joining to it 
 the perfect or passive participle of a transitive verb. 
 
 74. JVe use is loved for our present passive, but the Latin 
 amatus sum, loved I am, is a perfect, and is translated have been 
 loved; and amatus erat, loved he was, is a pluperfect, had been 
 loved. 
 
 75. The present is a simple form, thus : amor, amiaris, ama- 
 tur ; amamur, amamini, amantur — I am loved, thou art loved, 
 etc. 
 
 76. The past passive is also a simple form : ama-bar, -haris, 
 -batur ; -hamur, -bamini, -bantur — I was loved, thou wast 
 loved, etc. The future is amabor, I will be loved. The 2d 
 future, amatus fuero, shall have been loved. Prest. subj., amer, 
 I may be loved. Past,, amarer, I might be loved. Am,atus sim 
 (loved may be), I may have been loved ; amatus essem (loved 
 might be) I might have been loved. These two tenses are the 
 perf. and pluperf. 
 
 77. The participle in tus, ama-tus, lov-ed, corresponds to our 
 regular past participles. It has, as it is a true adj., a. fern, and 
 neut. form, as well as m,as. ; thus, amatus, a,mata, am,atum. 
 
 78. Another participle, called the future pass., as, am,andus^ 
 to be loved, must be loved, is a variation of the gerund already 
 noticed. 
 
 79. But the peculiarities of the Latin idiom will be best 
 understood and appreciated by means of some selections from 
 its composition, to which we now turn our attention. 
 
 80. Tenuere (held)- tamen arcem (fort) Sahini — they-held 
 still (the) castle, (the) Sabines (did). It is generally claimed 
 that words placed like Sahini, are nominative to the verb, as, 
 tenuere, but it strikes the author difi^erently ; Sabini is thrown 
 in, as we often find in Latin, parenthetically, as a sort of adverb 
 or explanatory term. Jupiter inquit, tuisjussus avibus hie (here) 
 in Palatio prima urbi fundamenta jeci — Jupiter, he-says, 
 by-thy-own (im's) being-commanded, by-birds {avibus'), here in 
 Palatium first to-the-city (of the city) (the) foundations I-have- 
 laid {jeci) (i. e. here first I laid). Here tois = thy, and avihus= 
 birds, are words which are claimed to belong together, though 
 we find them separated hjjussus ; they certainly agree in num- 
 ber and case. Still we do not think they properly belong 
 together, i. e. not as the adjective belongs to the noun when it 
 is joined to it as in tuis avibus ; we think every word belongs 
 
 4 
 
26 PHRASIS. 
 
 where it is found. The point here lies in the question ly whose 
 or by wliom he had been ordered— Sy thy own (and this comes 
 first as being the most prominent) ; farther on, he puts in avi- 
 hus as explanatory, or as if in apposition with tuis ; prima, too, 
 in form agrees -with fundamenta (both neut, aoo. plur.), but yet 
 it is clear that prima is an adverb=>-si!, and quite independent 
 
 of the noun. a ■ ■ i i 
 
 81. Arcem jam {now') scelere em.ptam, Sahim habefit — the 
 castle now, by-treachery gained (as it was) the Sabines have 
 {it) — emptam (got) is a part, (adj.) agreeing with arcem, and 
 yet it is in every way isolated from it. Quite generally, the 
 Latin ace., or obj., and everything used as objective and belong- 
 ing to it, comes before the verb; but there are frequent instances 
 where the object follows the verb also: tuum. est, Servi, si vir 
 (man) es, regnum — thine (it) is, Servius, if (a) man (thou) art 
 (es), (the) kingdom (thine is the kingdom): regnum is usually 
 taken as the subject of est, but, in its place, it is independent 
 of the verb — kingdom {regnum^ is emphatic. 
 
 82. Ea quae ad (to) aure.s suas- (his) pervenissent — those 
 (things) which to (the) ears, his own, had come — ears his, 
 aures suas, for his ears ; frater Antigoni, regis Macedonia — 
 brother (of) Antigonus, king (the king) (of) Macedonia ; here, 
 regis agrees with Antigoni, but yet no one calls it an adjective, 
 rather, a noun in apposition, i. e. separate from the other noun 
 and distinct, yet agreeing with it and denoting the same indi- 
 vidual; ora modis attollens pallida m,iris — (her) countenance 
 (in) manner bearing, pale wonderfully, i. e. having a countenance 
 pale in a wonderful manner, or wonderfully pale; pallida agrees 
 with ora, but it is evidently connected with the participle which 
 it follows — she was pale as to countenance, not necessarily pale 
 countenance J so miris agrees with modis, but hardly, in this 
 sentence, belongs to it — it is used in the sense of an adverb, 
 she bore a countenance pale in a manner that was wonderful 
 (miris'). 
 
 83. Ignotum argentipondiis (weight) et auri^- unknown (the) 
 silver's weight and (the) gold's (gen. sing.); ignotum agrees 
 ■v/ith. pondus ; fugam Dido sociosque parabat — flight Dido and 
 {que) companions (she) prepared; the meaning 'is that Dido 
 prepared for flight {fugam is ace), but it is not so expressed ; 
 Dido stands independently, she is nom. of parabat, or it has 
 none; -gae is the suffix and, and -bat is the past endino-, 3d 
 sing. Imoque trahens a {{rom) pectore vocem — (from) lo'west, 
 also {imoque=md from the deep) drawing from breast (a) voice, 
 i. e. drawing from depths of (his) breast a voice; inio (que= 
 and) agrees with pectore (abl.), but it is used adverbially or 
 independent; and drawing /rom below a voice. 
 
LATIN GRAMMAR. 27 
 
 84. Si vestras forte per awes — if (to) yours perhaps to ears 
 (it has come) , i. e. if perhaps (it has come) to your ears; vestras 
 agrees with awes, but it is not so placed as to belong to it 
 directly; it is parenthetical — if perchance to ears (that is to 
 yours). 
 
 85. The Latin preposition uniformly governs what follows 
 and not what precedes it. 
 
 86. Italiam qumro patriam — Italy (I) seek (it) (my) coun- 
 try (my native country) ; here Italiam, and patriam agree, and 
 yet, one is not an adjective belonging to the other; vani docuere 
 parentes — vain (they have) taught, (the) parents (have). 
 Here vani, adj., agrees with parentes, but it does not belong to 
 it — it is an adverb in force, meaning in vain, vainl'y, as we also 
 so often use the adjective without change of form in the place 
 of an adverb; et vera (true) incessu patuit dea — and true (in 
 her) gait was-manifested (the) goddess (dea), i.e. she was 
 plainly a goddess by her walk ; vera, agrees with dea, as if it 
 were true goddess, but it has the force of truh/, and does not 
 belong to dea. 
 
 87. At Venus ohscuro gradientes (the walkers) sere sepsit — 
 but Venus, (in) obscure, (•the'i.) walking (in the) air (she) 
 buried, i.e. she concealed theto irolking, the walkers, in the air; 
 ohscuro agrees with sere, but it is an adverb belonging to what 
 follows; Obscurely she hnriiS-Vv6 walkers in the air; gradientes 
 is present part., in the plur:, the walking (ones); ac veniendi 
 poscere causas — and (of) coriiing to-ask (inf.) (the) causes; to 
 ask the cause, here, is one verb, and coming (the gerund), in 
 the genitive, is its object, i. e. to ask the cause (of) coming; 
 lucus in whe fuit (was) media — (a) grove in (the) city was 
 (in the) middle (of it) : media agrees with urhe in the abl., but 
 is independent of it. 
 
 88. Quem si fata virum sertiowi/!'— -whom if (the) fates (the) 
 man preserve, i. e. if the fates preserve him, this man ; quem 
 agrees, as an adj. pron., with virum (ace.) but cannot be joined 
 to it (rather, standing independent); totumvulgata per orhem — 
 whole (wholly) published through (the) world, i. e. through 
 all the world ; totum agrees with orhem, yet it is an adverb, in 
 the sense of wholly, belonging to published, with which it is 
 found; so, too, in clara-que in luce refulsit — clear also in light 
 (he) shone, i. e. and clearly shone {clara, an adj., but in place 
 of adv.). 
 
 89. We have given these examples chiefly to prove that 
 Latin words, especially the adjective, belong where they are 
 found, that, at least for the Latins themselves, the order of 
 words was a natural one, and needed no transposition, that it 
 does not follow that every adjective must have a noun to which 
 
28 PHBASIS. 
 
 it may belong; that it neither follows that every verb must have 
 a nominative outside of it, and every nominative a verb, or 
 every objective a transitive or preposition to govern it. 
 
 90. Farther examples will illustrate other features: Multis 
 cum (with) lacrymis vicinos orare cospit — (with) much with 
 tears (his) neighbors to-beg (he) began (obj. before the verb, 
 as we usually find it) ; multis agrees with lacrymis, but it has 
 the force of much, i. e. much with tears he begged ; venatum, 
 iverant—to hunt (they) had gone (supine = inf. ) ; leo asmum 
 (aco.i illam {a.co. ) partiri jubet—ythe) lion (the) ass that 
 (i. e.'it) to divide (he) commands; to divide it, the lion the ass 
 orders (orders the ass) : first, we have divide that as a verb, and, 
 next, we have ass divide that, as another verb, depending on 
 commands, of which leo is the nominative, and having, hence, 
 its place before the real verb, i. e. all that follows it ; asinum is 
 ace, as the subject of infin. always is} partes poneret eequales^ — 
 (the) parts (he) placed equal (or equally); sequales agrees with 
 
 partes, but belongs to the verb. 
 
 91. Sibi vix minimam reservans particulam — (for) self 
 scarcely (the) least reserving, (a.piere) particle {particulam is 
 independent) ; hvjus me calamitc .i.^ocuit — his me (the) calam- 
 ity (has) taught (me); either lUs-ifte is independent of the rest, 
 or his is subject of the verb, and calamity is parenthetical; his 
 has taught me, i. e. the calamity K^as ; effusa mellis copia est — 
 poured (of) honey (an) abundance (there) has (is); poured, 
 effusa, a past participle, is used here as the verb, and est, is, is 
 simply added at the end, i. e. it poured, the honey did (est) ; 
 Grseci autem, (but) quum, audivissent — (the) Greeks, but when 
 (they) had-heard, i. e. when the Greeks had heard. Yet 
 Grseci is not, most clearly, the nom. of the verb- — ^it is inde- 
 pendent; eum ibi occultari (pass, inf.) — (they hoards him there 
 to be concealed, that he was there concealed (they heard that). 
 
 92. In eodem quondam prato pascebantur grues, in same, once,, 
 (in a) meadow were-feeding cranes (were). Not in the same 
 meadow, necessarily, though eodem agrees with jprato; in eodem. 
 = together, an adverb; legendum est mihi — reading is to me, 
 i.e. I must read; est mdhi voluptati — (it) is to me (for a) 
 delight, while we would say it is a delight to me: peritus belli — 
 skilled of war (skilled in war) ; dignus honore — worthy in 
 honor (of honor) ; Csesar misit suos — C. sent his-own (or his), 
 i. e. sent his soldiers (one case surely where an adjective has no 
 noun to which it may belong). Such a use of the pronoun and 
 adjective is very common in Latin ; the point lies in the whose, 
 or the which, the wha.t, and the thing or person need not be 
 named ; is homo erat ut — he (a) man was (so) that, he was a 
 man that, such a man. 
 
LATIN GEAMMAK. 29 
 
 93. The use of adjectives, especially adj. pronouns, as adverbs 
 having no noun to which to belong, is very common in Latin ; 
 thus, eo pervenit ut — to-this (there) he came that, i. e. so far 
 (eo) he came that; sunt quos juvat — (there) are whom (it) 
 delights (those whom) ; ex doctoris imperitia — from (the) 
 teachers unskillfulness ; earum ope — (by) their help (ope ia 
 abl., but earum^oi fhem, is gen. plur., and yet, earum has the 
 force of an adj. belonging to and agreeing with ope; quod quum 
 ille cerneret — which when he saw (it) ; quod is another inde- 
 pendent word, and not, as is often said, the object of the verb ; 
 so, too, gitaw g'MMWic^Mcej'eJ^- whom (fern.) when (he) lead (her), 
 i. e. when he led her. 
 
 94. Nuntiatum, est classem (fleet) devinci — announced (it) 
 is (the) fleet to be beaten, i. e. that it was beaten (pass, inf.) — ■ 
 an infin. pass, being used where we put a subj. or indie, with 
 that. Ciesar venit, vidit, et vicit — Caesar came, saw, and con- 
 quered ; neither in the Latin nor the English form, has vidit 
 and DiciV any nominative ; quis fecit — who did (it); objective 
 pronouns are often implied, like it, in the verb, as the article 
 and pronouns are often implied in the noun; mrfes-we, seest thou 
 not, i. e. see thou? ne is a mere interrogative mark (not) suf- 
 fixed or added (see in terrog. ^negative); so, too, num. venit — 
 (has he) come, or came he? nMm=non, whether, not, a mere 
 question sign ; ea cum ita (so) sint' — those (things) since so 
 they are ; j5a<«9- anfiat liheros et tam,en castigat — (the) father 
 (he) loves (his) children and still (he) chastises (them) (see 
 the pronouns included in the verb and noun). 
 
 95. Gsesar in Asiam, pro/ectus est — C. into Asia gone (he) 
 has (is^, i. e. has gone to Asia; the noun with the preposition, 
 as in Asiam, is treated in Latin as the true object of the verb, 
 and hence comes before it; quo mihi hanc rem — (for) what to- 
 me this thing, i. e. of what use, quo used as adverb, one of those 
 many cases of pronouns, as well as adj's, without the noun ; si 
 nihil aliud nisi — if nothing other unless, i. e. if nothing else 
 than; m,axima minima — greatest least, i. e. greatest and least. 
 
 96. Many prepositions here, as in English, are used as 
 adverbs, that is, have no objectives following them. 
 
 97. Moc est preceptoris — this is preceptor's (genitive), i. e. 
 it belongs to the preceptor ; post JEnem, (gen.) mortem — after 
 .Eneas' death; cum, secvtus est (is) Silvius — him followed (he) 
 has Silvius (has) ; ut civium (gen.) numerum augeret — that 
 (the) citizens' number (he might) increase (it) ; Marius consul 
 creatus (est) — M. consul made (was), i. e. was made consul; 
 in cornu tauri parvulus quondam (once) cuJex oonsedit — on 
 (the) horn (of a) bull (a) little. (one), once, (a) gnat sat, i. e. 
 a little gnat sat; Hanibal navali prcelio victus — H. (in a) naval 
 
30 PHEASIS. 
 
 battle (being) beaten ; %it ex Europa recederet — that from 
 Europe (he) should-depart ; Europa, is treated as object of the 
 yerb, though governed by ex tlie preposition. 
 
 98. Ilanc (hence) ob causam is usually considered as if written 
 oh hanc causam, for this cause, but it is clear that hanc does not 
 belong to causam, with which it agrees, but it is rather an 
 adverb like the others we have noticed; or, we may take hanc- 
 oZ( = here-of, in which case causam would stand absolute or 
 independent — at least ob outs off causam from hanc ; so hac 
 in re — (in) this in (the) thing, i.e. here in the thing; secundo 
 quo-que ararao-^ (in the) second also (in the) year, i.e. also in 
 the second year. 
 
 99. Scipio dtcere solebat — S. to say used, i. e. used to say; 
 ea quoque res — that also (the) thing, i.e. this thing also; Albse 
 minis, (of) Alba (from) ruins, from Alba's ruins. Thales in- 
 terrogatus an factalwminum deos laterent — Thales (being) asked 
 if (the) deeds (of) men (the) gods (ace.) escaped, i. e. were 
 hidden from the gods. Pythagorse, pMhsophi tanta fuit apmd 
 discipulos suos auctoritas- — (of) P. (the) philosopher such was, 
 among (the) disciples his (own), (the) authority; such was P's 
 authority among disciples, his own. Schaenus Atalantam (ace.) 
 filiam formos-issima'm dicitur (said) habuisse — 8. Atlanta (a) 
 daughter most-beautiful is-said to-have-had (one), to have had a 
 most beautiful daughter, Atalanta ; qux cursu vivos (ace.) super- 
 abat — who (in) running (even) men (she) surpassed; ut ejus 
 (his) voluntate id (it) sibifacere liceat — that (by) his will (abl.) 
 that (thing) (to) selves to-do (it) may-be-permitted, i. e. to 
 permit (license) them to do that; sibi is object of /acere liceat, 
 and id is the object of both together. (^S'ee Errors of Gram, 
 on objectives.). 
 
 100. lllepetiit ut quidquid tetigerat aurum fieret — he asked 
 that whatever (he) had-touched gold (it) might become (past, 
 subj.); Cxsari quum id nunciatum esset — to C. when it told 
 might be (esset), i. e. when it was told to C. ; qui dicerent sibi 
 esse in animo — who should say (that) to selves (it) was in 
 mind, i.e. they intended; esse=inf , to be, butinfin's after verbs 
 are treated as subjunctives or indicatives; obsides-que uti (that) 
 inter sese dent — hostages-also {que) that between themselves 
 (they) may-give (them), that they may give hostages between 
 them; obsides is ace, plur., independent; hac orations ab Di- 
 vitiaco hahita, mittit — (with) this oration of D. (being) had, 
 (he) sends. This form of expression is very common in^ Latin' 
 where we find the abl., generally with a participle, but some- 
 times alone or with nouns, used entirely independent. We 
 observe that the independence of the parts of the Latin sentence 
 IS its prevailing feature. 
 
LATIN GRAMMAR. 31 
 
 101. Caesar GaUorum (gen. plur.) animos verbis confirmavit, 
 C. (the) Galls' minds (with) words (he) strengthened (them); 
 his responsis ad Oeesarem relatis mittit — (with) these answers 
 to C. (they being) related, (he) sends; so, his rebus yestis — 
 these things (abl.) done, being done. 
 
 102. The examples thus far given, illustrate most of the 
 peculiarities of the Latin idiom. In order to prepare the student 
 for what he will meet with elsewhere, we hase given this large 
 number of examples; they will illustrate features which we shall 
 continually meet with in other languages, and which seem strange 
 to us, because not found in our own. We find the order of words 
 oftf n far different from ours, but we see that it is a natural or 
 reasonable one after all. We find, among other things, a 
 beautiful illustration of the truth, that all the parts of the 
 sentence are complete in themselves, and that they do not really 
 lean upon or belong to others; we find the verb, here, contain- 
 ing its own nominative, and its own objective pronoun, and that 
 the noun implies its own adjective, its own verb. 
 
 103. To carry the principle to extremes, each word contains 
 the point, the expression, of the whole sentence, this being 
 made up of repetitions of like terms. We may add, besides, 
 that it can be shown that identity or similarity of forms of 
 words does not prove common origin or connexion, since, viewed 
 through a proper glass, all words have a common form and like 
 marks, 
 
 104. Upon the Greek, it is unnecessary to dwell here, so 
 little there is in it thatis not English, or German, or,- especially, 
 Latin. Among the variations from Latin, we notice the devel- 
 opment of a true article, 'o, 'e, to (three forms to correspond 
 with the genders). It has, besides the plural and singular forms, 
 one that is called dual, a form peculiar to nouns where two 
 things are intended. The Lat. ablative case is absent, its place 
 being supplied by the genitive and dative- — there are, hence, 
 but five case-forms in Greek. There are in Greek several new 
 tense-forms, especially new forms of the past, called aorists, 
 besides an abundant growth of participle and infinitive forms. 
 Besides the active and passive forms of Latin, there is in Greek 
 what is called the middle form of the verb, one in appearance 
 substantially the same as the passive ; but in meaning it is con- 
 fined to cases where self is concerned ; as, love myself, strike 
 self, act for self In other languages, this application of the 
 verb is known as the reflexive. Beyond these, the Greek 
 grammar is chiefly Latin. 
 
 105. But the idiom, while it has much in it that is Latin, 
 has some in it, too, which is Germaii, even English. The object 
 we find, often, as in Latin, before the verb. The independences 
 
32 PHRASIS. 
 
 of the adjective from the noun, is far clearer here than in Latin. 
 The use of those long adjectives which so much distinguish 
 German, is found here to some extent; as, a mark (of) the for 
 you friendship, while we would say of my friendship for you ; 
 (a) token {of) the {my) for Hipponicus friendship, i.e. my 
 friendship for Hipponicus; the for the gods (things), i. e. the 
 (things) of the gods. The genitive is often a pure adjective 
 before the noun. .In Latin, we have hie munitissimus habendi 
 senatum locus — this most fortified (for) holding (the) senate 
 place, i. e. this holding senate place, most fortified ; all the 
 words before locus constitute one adjective, and they belong 
 where they are found. y^ 
 
 106. We must notice, finally, on this branch of the subject, 
 the constant occurrence of participles and infinitives, in Latin 
 and Greek, which hold the independent place of pure verbs — 
 always, however, depending upon some verb, or verbal, as a sort 
 of object; thus, vi coacturos — by force '(they) would compel 
 (them by force) (dependent upon the idea they thought that) ; 
 coacturos, in form a future part., aco. mas. plur., meaning about 
 to compel, is so much a verb, as to include in it sub. and obj. 
 pronouns; it is generally assumed in such cases that esse==be, 
 is, was, is implied, but this is simply unnecessary; se (self) pa- 
 tribus suis didicisse — themselves (from) fathers, .theirs, had 
 learned, {they said) that they had learned; didicisse=:= to have 
 learned, perf. inf. 
 
 107. Some languages, as the Sanscrit and Finnish, have more 
 than six cases, i. e. they have varied the forms more than the 
 Latin has. In Sanscrit, there is a Locative case form, by which 
 place is indicated, and an Instrumental form, denoting the cause, 
 or means, or instrument — they may both be called variations of 
 the ablative, which again is a form of the dative. 
 
 108. It may be necessary to define the term root or base, 
 which we shall often meet with. It is used to designate that 
 imaginary, undefined, part of a word which remains after divest- 
 ing it of its prefixes and suffixes, its initial und its final letters — 
 precisely, as if we should speak of what was left of a stick after 
 cutting the eiids ofi^. That part of a word which is common to 
 a class of words, is called its ending, as the ing of walk-ing, 
 speak-ing, the es of Lat. rup-es, sermon-es — what is left after 
 striking off this ending is the root. 
 
 109. Prefixes are sometimes called preformatives j prefixes 
 less individualized are called augments, as the ge of Germ. 
 ge-sehen=seen, ge-sicht = sight, g oi g'liick=\viek, our a of 
 a-live, a-rise, the e of Greek e-;/y = left. Prefixes and sufiixes 
 taken together may be called the fixes of a word. 
 
HISTOKY OF NOUNS. 33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HISTORY OF NOUNS. 
 
 110. Of nouns as a class, we have little that may be said in 
 addition to what has already been stated under the head of En- 
 glish Grammar. They are, of course, intimately connected with 
 the adjective first, and the verb afterward. Nouns are, appar- 
 ently, unmeaning names of things, but, on close inspection, we 
 find them rather names of qualities and actions, which distin- 
 guish things; and, hence, they readily identify themselves with 
 the two classes named. Nouns, adjectives, and verbs, are alike 
 in each having shoots grown out of them, which we call endings, 
 and which are not so much marks of those classes, as represent- 
 atives of whole words that seem thus to adhere, as parasites, to 
 the main stem. It is the philosophy of these endings of nouns 
 which we propose to consider, and it is their comparative view 
 which we intend to present — beginning with those of case. 
 
 Gase Endiwjs. 
 
 111. Tlje farther back we go, in the history of the German lan- 
 guages, the more we see of case and person ending ; thus, in 
 Gothic cases, we find the broad us and a of Latin ; as, sun-us, a 
 son ; flod-us, flood ; fot-us, foot ; hand-us, hand ; arms, arm; 
 gard-s, yard ; mats, meat ; hveit-a, while, hour ; saurg-a, care, 
 sorrow; hand-i, bond; deds, deed; kriods, kind, kin; blom-a, 
 bloom ; fauh-o, fox ; vard-o, ward ; tugg-o, tongue ; rath-jo, L. 
 ratio, reason ; faurlit-ei, fear. These all have reference to the 
 Greek and Latin nominative endings us, a, um, os. 
 
 112. In old German, we again find these endings, but, gener- 
 ally, not so long and full; thus, sun-u, son; aft-a, L. aqua, water; 
 mond-a, L. mundvs. Germ, welt, world; mur-a, L. murus, wall; 
 stunt-a. Germ, stund, time; tual-a, L. mora, dwell, delay; war-a, 
 L. cura, care; red-a, L. ratio, Germ, ratli, reason; hilouh-a, 
 belief (ki=ge of (fbrm.) ; sel-a, soul ; erd-a, L. terra, earth ; 
 minn-a, mind (love) ; heil-i, L. salus, health ; hert-i, hardness ; 
 chu-o, L. vacca, cow; tuh-a, L. columba, dove {clb=th); wis-a, 
 wise, way ; avar-a, image (after) ; wifaw-a, L. vidua, widow ; 
 herz-a, L. cord-e, heart; oug-a, Germ, auge, eye; sam-o, seed. 
 
 113. Old Saxon erth-a, earth ; forth-a, {ear; fold-a field; 
 gib-a, gift; rast-a, rest; kunn-i,km; gi-wirh-i, work; gisiun-i, 
 vision, sight; rik-i, L. regnum; gum-o, L. homo, man {gm=hm 
 =ot); man-o, moon; tog-o, L. dux, duke. There is, we observe, 
 a great resemblance between Gothic, old German, and old Saxpn. 
 
 5 
 
34 PHRASIS. 
 
 114. Anglo Saxon luf-ii., love; sac-u, Germ. sacA, case; Biig-V'-, 
 stage, step; vrak-u, weak; cijnn-^, L. gemis, kind; nett-e, net; 
 gam-d, L. Aomo, man; -phg-a, play; eorrf/i-e, earth ;/oM-e, told, 
 field. Thus, in Ang Sax., we find these endings Jess prominent, 
 and yet much stronger and more common than in the present 
 English. The old Eriesio is much like the A. S. in this respect. 
 
 115. But, in place of these, the old North, and its descendants, 
 shows the prevailing r {=s = ui); &s,fisk-r, fish; hest-r, horse 
 "hoss"; hring-r, ring; laekn-ir, doctor {l=d) ; end-ir, end 
 (Germ, -er); hwrt-r, hart; Km-r, limb. Germ. lied, leg; Mol-r, 
 keel; sef-i, L. sevum, age; and-i, L. animus, mind; bog-i, bow; 
 daudh-i, death; man-i, L. luna, moon; ux-i, ox; sJcugg-t, shade, 
 shadow; thank-i, thought, mind; ma^'Z-i {i=ir), L. clavus, nail, 
 claw; as/c-o, ask; zij'n^^-r, wind (-r=ffl = e). 
 
 116. In middle German, these endings are less and lighter, 
 in many instances, the final e appearing, as in A. S., where we 
 and modern German have left it out — this e, like ours, being 
 the a of Latin ; thus, tmd-e, L. und-a, wave ; mur-e, L. mur-us, 
 wall; sag-e, siLj ; reis-e, ride; wund-e, wound; hett-e, bed. 
 
 117. The'modern German shows these endings in the adjective 
 very prominently; thus, the mas., fern., and neut. forms of hlind, 
 in Germ., are hlind-er, blind-e, hlind-es, as in Lat., bon-us,-a,-um, 
 good. These endings, er^es=e, are changed, in the other 
 cases, into en, em; er, in difierent Germ, dialects, we find as re, 
 aro, earo,jaro (L. turuf, ture, tura), rar, rer, and el. The 
 Swedish adj. bliiid is (m.) blind-er, (i.)blind', (n.) Uind-t — this 
 t, which we see at the end of the neuter, is for en, et, which 
 appears at the end of nouns; as, pris^et, the price, arfe-et, the 
 bow (L. arcus), ed-en, the oath. Nothing is clearer, than that 
 this suffixed article (so called), is a development of the very 
 endings we have all along been considering, and that the L. us, 
 a, urn, is just such a suffixed article; also Wall, suffixed il, hi, le, 
 a, i, and the Alb. i, e, Bask a — proof that the article is a devel- 
 opment of an ending. That neut. t, et, of Swedish, appears in 
 Gothic as ata (blind-ata), and Jata; this is the same as L. atum, 
 just as ands equals andum. It is the same, too, as the suffixed 
 Per. ra of aec. case, Marathi la. t 
 
 118. No truth is easier to demonstrate, than that the ending's 
 of all cases, and of both numbers, are simple variations of one 
 and the same type, and nowhere is that truth more evident than 
 in the German languages. In Gothic, as we have seen the 
 nom. smg. had an ending s, is, us, like the us of Lat., and the 
 er, en, es, of Germ, adjectives. This nominative endino. contin 
 ually tends to. disappear, in the modern Germ, lano-uao-es bv 
 withering away; yet, its roots are never lost, but Ways' lie 
 hidden in the body of the word. In these languages, some 
 
HISTORY OP NOUNS. 35 
 
 nouns have one form through all the cases, and, over and over 
 again, do we find the ending of one case common to the others. 
 The ending am, em, may be taken as the base for all noun end- 
 ings; in that form it is dat. in Germ., and ace. in Lat. ; in the 
 form of en, nm, it prevails as dat. plural ; er, ar, es, are other 
 forms of this em, and are found prevailing in the gen. and nom. 
 plural — though other ' endings for them are common. It is 
 common to find these endings soften down to mere vowels; as, an 
 ^a, um^u; en, es, er=e — the L. am, ace. end., is known to 
 be merely a developed a (=0- 'i^iiis is the case almost wholly 
 in English, where we have tub-e for all cases in which the Latin 
 would have tub-a, tub-se, tub-am ; and, in the plural, we have 
 fe6-es=L. tub-Be, tub-arum, tub-as, tub-is — observe tub-se (tub-e) 
 = tub-es, i. e. a sing, form for the plural. 
 
 119. It is hardly necessary to say that The Lat. and Gr'k cases 
 can all easily be identified with those of Germ.; the L. gen. as^ 
 our e, gen. t=is, ir ; gen. is=es is also nominative; and we 
 have often met with them in Germ. ; the ace. am we have 
 already noticed, and the abl. a, e {ad), is only a modification of 
 this am, em — the dat. belonging with the gen. (=nom.); the 
 is, in the plural- of the 1st declension, is simply the es of our 
 plur. speech-es. The um of L. gen. plur., we have often found 
 in Germ. ; orum (gen. plur.) is a development of this um, and 
 is properly double — its correspondent being the old North, ar, 
 old Sax. gen. aro, ero,jero, old Friesic era; ibus, dat. plur., is 
 also a development, of is, es, and double — the b in it pointing 
 to the m (dat.) of Germ. ; it is not different from the Gothic 
 (nom. and gen.) plural eis (G'k ees), gis (g^e), gos, jus (/= 
 g=d=b). 
 
 120. The Greek cases are much nearer English ; in the 3d 
 decl., gen. os (L. us, es, is), dat. i, ace. a (our e); nom. plur. es 
 (our es), dat. st=is, es, gen. on=um,, ace. as=es. In the 2d 
 decl., nom. plur. oi=i, dat. plur. ois=oi-es, aoc. plur. ous=o-i-es, 
 L. OS, us — ois=is, is another form of the L. ibus. 
 
 121. Another positive proof of the identity of these L. cases 
 with each other, is the fact that, in the modern Latin languages, 
 those variations found in the old tongue wholly disappear, i. e. 
 one ending is found in all cases, as is the case with us. 
 
 122. The Slavic languages will furnish us with some instruct- 
 ive features in this connexion ; om, em, is a common ending in 
 Russian, instrum. in the sing, and plur., and dat. in the^ plural 
 also — in the adjective, it is found in the dat. sing., as well as in 
 the instr. and prep, cases. In some instances, it is reduced to a 
 mere vowel; it is precisely the L. am, Germ. em. In the plur. 
 prep, case, we find ach or aJc, for the ending of nouns — it is 
 found also in the gen. plur. of adjectives. For animate beings, 
 
36 PHRASIS. 
 
 the ace. sing., here, is like the gen., and for inanimate beings, 
 it is like the nominative. Russ. adj's have gen. smg.an ago ; 
 this is no doubt the prepo. ending ak—und both are identical 
 with the old Lat. abl. ad (Hung. aco. at, and plur. ak), just as 
 in some of the Slavic we find ech, elc, in the perfect tense, while 
 we have ed. ■,,. 
 
 123 In Pol., we find substantially the same endings— adding 
 that here, as in Euss., they are often reduced to mere vowels. 
 We find in the dat. sing, owi, gen. plur. ow, Euss. gen. plur. o_v 
 (oi), L bi of ibi, sibi, and bus of the plural; but ow, ob, is 
 evidently = om. To give the full forms of Pol. oases, we have, 
 for the name John : N. Jan, G. Jan-a, D. Jan-owi, A. Jan-_a 
 V. Jan-ie, In. Jan-em, Loo. Jan-ie; plural cases are Jan-owie, 
 Jan-ow, Jan-om, Jan-ow, Jan-owie, Jan-ami, Jan-ac7i. 
 
 124. In the Bohemian nouns and adjectives, we shall find 
 similar endings; the ago is iho (^ff^h), which may be reduced 
 to a, e; and the owi, ov, appears here as u (uv), i {owi). In 
 the adj., the dat. sing, is imu, emu, while in the noun it is ovi, 
 showing imu = ovi. In Illyrian, we find nothing particularly 
 new. The g, h, j, and ch, which we find running through the 
 Slavic languages, is the ch of Germ. dat. vni-ch, di-ch, si-ch, as 
 the em is that of d-em,, ein-em., welch-em. 
 
 125. Prom the fact, which we think is now made evident 
 enough, that the case forms are produced by a simple change in 
 one and the same ending, and from the fact, too, that one case 
 form, under certain conditions and in certain cases, may be used 
 to perform the office of any other, we infer that the expression 
 of case does not lie in the ending, but that it lies, rather, in the 
 body of the word, or in the context. Those endings are indeed 
 growths to represent the prepositions, which may be considered 
 as developments of just such suffixes, but they have only grown 
 out to represent what was already a force in the word, given to 
 it by virtue of the context. They add nothing to the word, for 
 they have grown out of it. A noun in the dat. case was dative 
 always, dative long before it ever developed its proper ending, 
 dat. long before it was governed by a preposition. Words with 
 endings, all words with prefixes and suffixes, are not compound 
 they are simple, single. Noi: does the preposition put a noun 
 in the dat. case, for example, (as said before, it was dative 
 always) ; it adds nothing to the word ; if it was not already 
 dative, it could not take the preposition which belono-g with 
 datives. So, again, we see the dative may be considered as 
 having its force all reserved in itself, or, as getting that force 
 from the whole sentence — it is immaterial which view we take 
 
 126. Let us not be surprised to find the apparent inconsist- 
 ency, that the word and the ending, or the word and preposition 
 
HISTORY OF NOUNS. 37 
 
 both express the same thing; the whole sentence, when critic- 
 ally examined, is found to be only a multitude of repetitions. 
 Do we not continually find such repetitions ns these— a son of 
 Tiis, extract it from, to which he was directed to, asenatu, by the 
 senate, (wherein we find Ais=of him, exft'ac<=draw from, 
 senatu = hj the senate). 
 
 127. So, we see plainly that the prepositions add nothing, 
 that it is a simple case of duplication; and yet, these are simply 
 illustrations of a principle that is at work in all languages, and 
 in all parts of them. Every time the Latinist says ego umo, or 
 puer amat, I love, the boy loves, he uses nominatives which are 
 already represented in the verb by o and at (for, amo means I 
 love, and amat, he loves) ; and it is really as if said / love-I, the 
 hoy loves-he — and to go still further, those endings indicate 
 only what must be contained in am', the root. You never can 
 put the preposition ah in Lat., or from in Eng., before a word 
 which is not ablative, which does not contain from or ah already; 
 so, it is not man that is good, it is only the good man that is 
 good — good can only be applied to that class of men who are 
 good men (if it properly applied to other men, they would be 
 good too), and the word man must be used to represent that 
 class of good men. We see, thus, what must be the result of 
 all philosophizing, the part expresses as much as the whole, is 
 equal to the whole. 
 
 128. We notice here a principle which we shall have occasion 
 to advert to more than once; any oblique case (one not nom.), 
 in fact, any form that appears in language, may be taken as the 
 base of some new form. Any case form may, under suitable 
 conditions, perform the office of another ; thus, in Latin, caput 
 means head, and capitis (gen.), of the head, and this form cap- 
 itis, still gen., becomes, as an adjective, capital; it is now treated 
 as a new base, and as such receives the adjective ending is, as 
 capit-al-is ; as such new form, it may now go through all the list 
 of cases as if it were a noun — we find, among other forms, cap- 
 it-al-ib-us, dat. plur., which we might treat as a noun meaning 
 to-capital (ones), or to-the-capitals. So, every genitive may go 
 through a new set of cases as the base of an adjective ; every 
 adjective becomes, thus, merely a genitive run through the 
 cases as a new noun. We, too, take the L. capital, and, forget- 
 ting to observe that it was ever gen., forgetting that it is any- 
 thing else but a nom., or base form, we treat it as such, and we 
 get the adjective (called adverb) capital-ly ; we do more, we 
 treat it as a verb = to (have) capital, and get the derivative 
 capital-ist (a pres. part, for a noun, like serv-ant) ; and, 
 again, we take it as equaling to (be) capital, and we get the 
 other participial form capital-ness (called noun). If capitalists 
 
38 PHEASIS. 
 
 were like fish to be caught, we might then say again capital-ist- 
 wf/, wher.ein the same ending, somewhat varied, occurs three 
 times. Behold the origin and mode of all repeated endings. 
 
 129. Further, we may notice that case endings are to be 
 identified with the personal endings of verbs. _ Thus, it is 
 noticed that at of the Latin supine amatum, is allied to at, ad, 
 endings of old ablatives, and this is the at that appears in the 
 3d person sing., as am-at. It is well understood, that the case 
 endings are varied articles or demonstratives; the person end- 
 ings musi; be such also, for they represent pronouns, and bence, 
 the two classes are related. Again, we shall show, hereafter, 
 that the verbal and part, endings are to be classed with those 
 of the persons, but the identity of those verbal endings with the 
 noun and adj. endings of Germ., for example, has already been 
 hinted at, and can easily be proved. Not only these, but all 
 adj. and adverb endings, such as L. -tim, -ter, G'k -then, -de, 
 -thi, belong with the endings of case. 
 
 130. We see, then, the same class of endings applied to several 
 very diflferent purposes ; this is not alone a law of language, but 
 a law of the creation. In the animal and plant kingdoms, we 
 everywhere see this working of one thing into very different 
 results; thus the nose of the elephant becomes his trunk, and 
 his tusks are only teeth ; the shell of the turtle, and its protect- 
 ion, is the internal skeleton of other animals; the beautiful rose 
 flower is only a bundle of leaves ; we might go on thus to infin- 
 ity^ — everywhere one thing ordy differs from, another in being 
 more or less transformed. 
 
 131. In the Finti. and Tart, languages particularly, we have 
 the case endings developed into full suffix prepositions ; as, 
 Hung. /a, tree,/o-6oZ, out of the tree — showing the origin of 
 prepositions following the noun. 
 
 Plurals. 
 
 132. The identity of the plural with the genitive singular 
 has been noticed elsewhere l^Err. of Gram.); just as much as 
 the genitive is a form of the nominative, so much, again is the 
 plural a form of it also. Both the gen. and the plur. have often 
 endings where the nom. has not, and are in so far different 
 from it, but we often find them both either like the nominative 
 or varying from it by only an internal vowel change (as man 
 and men), proving that in fact the three are not essentially 
 different, and are only apparently so by developing, in some 
 cases one more than the other, elements which all have alike 
 
 133. In many languages, the plural scarcely differs from the 
 sing., at least, only as our this and these, goose and gccsc, and in 
 
HISTORY OF NOUNS. 39 
 
 all tongues there are numerous instances of the identity of the 
 two; as we say, ten sheep, tan fish, ten head. The Gr'k and L. 
 nom. plural, (-es) has no element not found in the gen. sing., 
 {-is). In G'k, neut. plurals are treated as singulars, mere 
 collectives. Every gen. really indicates a plural; there can be 
 no of a thing unless it has parts — it must be a minuend which 
 contains the subtrahend and the remainder. Such ' words as 
 money (much (of) money), as wate?- (a pint of water), as land 
 (an acre of land), are as much plural as boys, ten (of) boys — ten 
 indicates simply a certain quantity of the class denoted by boys, 
 the words much, pint, acre, do no less. They are plurals which 
 have no singulars. 
 
 134. But the plural has other connexions besides this ; its 
 agreement in different languages with the features of the fem- 
 inine, is too striking to be passed by afe unmeaning. In Latin 
 and Greek, the fem. ending is a, but a is the ending also of the 
 neut. plur. ; as, hon-a, good, both fem. sing., and neut. plur. ; 
 es, is, a fuller form of this a, ii also a fuller form of the plurals 
 a, i, ai, oi. Our ess, as in lion-ess (fem.) is clearly a variation 
 of that plural ending es, as we see in the L. leon-es =lions, and 
 the fem. ending ina, G'k aina, San. ani, Germ, in, A. S. en, 
 is the same as the Germ. plur. ending en, Per. an. The Slavic 
 languages, and indeed many others, could furnish us proof in 
 the same direction. The plural ending of Arabic and Persian, 
 at, Ethiop. at, an, is also a fem. ending slightly varied. The 
 Syr. tha, ta, is both a plural and a fem. ending. But it is 
 unnecessary to go further to prove a truth so manifest. 
 
 135. [It is true oth, at, ta, are supposed to be endings pecu- 
 liar to the plur. of nouns which are feminine, but' it is true, too, 
 that some maso's (and in Per., neut's also) have this fem. plur. 
 ending. Note that, in Sem., to the plur. in oth {at), im (the 
 mas. end.), is also added — ^and we have the plur. of a plur., 
 precisely like ox-en-s for oxen]. 
 
 Genders. 
 
 136. One thing is at least certain; in the earlier stages of 
 language gender-forms were not used to distinguish sex. What 
 the precise meaning of the variation in forms for gender was, is 
 not so plain. There are uncultivated languages, we know, 
 where the distinction is simply of the animate from the inani- 
 mate, and many others again, where no gender-forms are devel- 
 oped at all. To go back even no farther than the Greek and 
 Latin, and the modern languages of Europe, we find the gender- 
 forms do not indicate sex, and seem to have no reference to it 
 
40 PHRASIS. 
 
 at all. Thus, in L., sermo, a speech, and liber, a book, are mas., 
 but pars, a part, and vupes, a rook, are fern.; and m Euss^, dom, 
 a house, is mas., also korahl, a ship, but kniga, a book is iem. — 
 while in Germ., look (buch) and house (haus) are neuter. 
 
 137. In Kuss., as well as in Lat., and elsewhere, tern, nouns 
 have (for inanimate objects, abstracts) a common ending a la, 
 and for the mas. e and 1/ mute. But that all gender endings 
 are modifications of one and the same thing (and that the ordi- 
 nary ending) is clear enough. There is no ending of any 
 gender but which appears in some form or case of another 
 gender; thus, L. bon-um is nom. neut., but it is ace. mas. also; 
 a is fern., but neut. plural also, and, in Greek, it is acc.sing.— 
 having in Germ, languages even other of&ces. The difference 
 in gender-forms is even less in the oblique cases than in the 
 nom.— ^after the nom., the neuter commonly runs parallel with 
 the masculine. 
 
 138. The neuter seems to be objective in its nature; it 
 certainly often agrees in form with the mas. ace. — in German, 
 es is neut. adj. ending, but also mas. gen. The common Slavic 
 neut, ending o is undeniably a condensed ego, eho, eo, o, of the 
 gen. mas. The conclusion to be arrived at, is that the neuter 
 is, in its origin, an oblique case of the masculine, taken as the 
 base of a new form — it is in this fact, that we find the explana- 
 tion of that universal phenomenon, the neuter nom. never 
 difiering from the neuter ace. — i.e. its nominative is already 
 accusative. Neuters, referring as they do, to inanimate objects, 
 can hardly be regarded as subjective, as acting, thinking — they 
 can be objects alone. They are now assuming a nom. or sub- 
 jective character, just as the infin. and subj. moods, known to be 
 objective and dependent, get to be independent, i. e. indicative. 
 
 139. The coincidence between the fem. and the plural has 
 already been noticed. The coincidence, too, between fem. nouns 
 and abstracts, such as goodness, harmony, justice, is equally 
 striking and general. It is a uniform feature in language, to 
 find abstracts feminine. The nouns of the Latin 1st declension 
 end in a and are fem. ; as, vita, life, hora, hour. There is a 
 class of fem. nouns in Lat. which end in ia (a Russ. fem. end.) • 
 as, justit-ia, justice, concord-ia, concord. There is a class of L. 
 fem's allied to these, those in tas (our ty, the ta of so many the 
 heit of Germ., our ness, n = t) ; as, brevitas, briefness celeritas 
 celerity. The real ending here may be taken as as (the original 
 of fem. end. a) ; the t is a developed element latent or suppressed 
 in the adjectives brevis, celer, but appearing in the abstract noun 
 based on it — just as we have t grown up in verbs. Indeed it 
 appears before ia also, as tristitia. There are feminines in tudo ■ 
 as, magnitudo, magnitude, from magnus—M,\ete the real ending 
 
HISTORY OP ADJECTIVES. 41 
 
 is 0, the t being repeated in d. (Is not magnitud a pure ablative ? 
 that is its form). In the Semitic languages, we find strongly 
 this coincidence between the marks of fern's and abstracts, it 
 being t and a in both cases. 
 
 140. We find also Latin prudentia, prudence, and audacia, 
 boldness; but they are precisely the neuter plural forms of the 
 adjectives ^?'!/cfems and audcfx, i. e. they denote prudent (things), 
 bold (things). There can be no doubt that such nouns are 
 neuter plural adj's, and that they are nothing else — save that 
 they are feminines also. In brief, we should call the fern, a 
 neut. plural taken as the base of a new form — it is an adjective 
 used as a noun in this case. 
 
 141. The agreement of the pron. 2nd person with the fern, 
 marked words, must not pass unobserved. In almost all lan- 
 guages, the letters that mark the fern., also mark the 2d person. 
 In Semitic, we find t used both for fem. and for tJiou; so, in L., 
 tu== thou, and tas is fem. ending; as, es, is, are the marks of 
 the 2nd person sing, of verbs, but also of fem. nouns. Our est 
 of walkest, Rijss. esh, is the same as our she. Thou is properly 
 a feminine pronoun. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 142. This subject we have already considered in some of its 
 phases .(^Err. of Gram.) ; there are other points of view to be taken, 
 and these we will proceed to consider here. Not only is every 
 adjective in origin a noun in the genitive case, it is equally true, 
 that every noun in an oblique case may be considered an adjec- 
 tive or adverb. Again, every case of an adjective with its noun 
 is a real compound of two nouns, just such a compound as v)ood- 
 house, where wood, though a noun, performs the part of a true 
 adjective. When the union is close, as we find it in the Indian 
 and Tartar languages, then the adjective does not vary to agree 
 with the noun. When it has gained more independence, it has 
 case and number endings, and it becomes an independent word, 
 a case like nouns in appqsition ; the more it assumes the char- 
 acter and form of a nojin, the greater its individuality. 
 
 143. The Latin and Greek adjectives have far more individ- 
 uality than those in German and English. Our adjectives must 
 stick close to the noun, like a true parasite; their adjectives are 
 not subject to such unvarying conditions; they are often found 
 
 6 
 
42 PHRASIS. 
 
 r&mote from the noun, playing a part on their own responsibility; 
 we say good man's, but they say good's mans; we say of good 
 men, they say of good of men, i. e. they use forms which make 
 it equivalent to such an expression. 
 
 144. We are prepared to advance still another idea with 
 regard to the rise of adjectives, one which goes still tarther 
 back into their origin ; it is this, that in principle, adjectives 
 are growths or developments oi noun endings; it is certain that 
 a large class of them, nwie\j. pronouns, articles, demonstratives 
 have such a source; and that adjectives are developments of 
 these elements (pronouns, etc.), we do not doubt. The class of 
 nouns called diminutives are important in this connexion — such 
 as the Germ. Lottchen, little l,oti,frd-ulein, a little woman, chen 
 and lein having the force of little. There are abundant instances 
 in all, or nearly all, languages ; in the Italian, they exist in 
 great variety, so also in Persian. So, in Ital. we find libr-one, 
 large book {lihro), and lihr-accio, a large ugly 'book, vcceU-etto, 
 poor, dear, little bird (uccello). This proves two things ; first, 
 that endings may be developed, in nouns, to represent two, and 
 even three, adjectives; and, second, since those suffixes are 
 evidently variations of other noun endings, that the noun alone 
 embodies the idea of the same noun with the adjective. 
 
 145. In regard to the compound that arises out of the adj. 
 and noun, we mark, here, that all compounds are cases of dupli- 
 cates — nothing can be black except 6ZacA; things, nothing shady 
 except shady things. We find, in the Indian languages, abun- 
 dant instances of these doubles, sometimes identical, as going- 
 going, sometimes slightly varying, as issuing-going. Whenever 
 we say he came running, he went going, he ran leaping, we have 
 cases of repetition. (It is just such participles, we think, that 
 give rise to adverbs; in Euss., such participles, or gerunds, are 
 treated as adverbs). There are several absurdities arising from 
 the assumed connexion of the noun with the adj., but we must 
 omit to notice them here ; suffice it to say, there are no things 
 without qualities, there are no mere men, mere books ; they 
 must be bad men, good men, white men, new books, good books, 
 these books, blue books. 
 
 Comparison. 
 
 146. Comparison is by no means peculiar to adjectives • to 
 say wore (of a) bridge, more (of a) city, mostly men, mostly 
 wheat, these are comparative expressions, just as more hlacTc 
 most Hack; thus, we see in the Bask language, qizon man' 
 gtzon-ago, more man. c i ;? > > 
 
HISTORY OF ADJECTIVES. 43 
 
 147. Nor are those comparative endings, as our er, L. tor, 
 G'k ter (and idn), Slav, ejsi, si, peculiar or anomalous; er we 
 have often met with before, and si=is, es, is a form of er ; the 
 G'k ter, Pers. tar, is also a development of er — it is the L. tur, 
 tor. That the comparative is simply a form of the positive, is 
 seen by the frequent use, in all languages, of the positive as a 
 comparative ; thus, speaking of two boys, we call John the tall 
 (one), the taller; again, many of our comparatives are formed by 
 associating the positive with more, less, but we must observe 
 that the adj. is, in this case, (as more beautiful,) comparative 
 aside from the more — for, if more-beautiful alone was compar- 
 ative, then, beautiful could not be so, and we should be reduced 
 to the dilemma of having no comparatives but those in er, an 
 absurdity which cannot be admitted for a moment ; once more, 
 every expression treating the adjective as having a degree, is 
 comparative ; such as so great as, so small, round like a ball, it 
 was white as snow. So, it is clear that adjectives are compared 
 without the adverb ; it is clear, tooj that it is compared without 
 the ending er — so many instances occurring where it is such 
 without that suffix. Besides, to, show the identity of pes. and 
 comp., we have many comparatives which are used as positives; 
 as, the latter one, the former one, the better man, the senior 
 editor, i. e. they are relative, Comparative terms, but not more 
 so than many or all adjectives. 
 
 148. We might say with truth, that every adjective is a com- 
 parative term — nothing is good, or white, or black, by itself 
 alone. A thing is sweet only by something which is not sweet, 
 or which is sour. There are no absolute qualities; A may be 
 tall by JB (a very common form of comparative in many 
 languages), i. e. taller than B, but short by G who is very tall 
 (a common superlative), i. e. tallest by A and B. It is on this 
 principle that we so often find the ablative, or the 6y-oase, 
 following the comparative, as in Latin, for example. The 
 gradation of these three degrees into each Other, is one of the 
 commonest things in language. 
 
 149. Besides, if we think, we shall see that there are really 
 no degrees in qualities ; a thing is more round, or square, or 
 black, or crooked, only as one bridge is more bridge than another, 
 or as one boy is more boy than another. We might saj^, too, 
 that all qualities are really superlatives, for when a thing is 
 really black, or really square, or really crooked, is not that the 
 extreme, can it ever become blacker, or squarer, or croolceder f 
 No more than when a thing becomes a house, can it ever become 
 more a house, or be the most house. 
 
 150. Again, we must see that there can be no degrees beyond 
 a comparative. In no way can the mind compare more than 
 
44 PHKASIS. 
 
 two things, that is, one thing with another. When we say ^ 
 is the belt of the three, or the good or better one,_ we mean the 
 best of the group three (a unit). All we mean is, that he is 
 better than the rest, which reduces it to a «oi>iP^"^°«; ^^Je 
 history of the comparative in all languages, fully sustains the 
 above doctrines ; it is only by remembering them that we can 
 understand the form in which we often find it. 
 
 151. Our superlative ending is est, plainly a form ot er the 
 Lat. tint, ssim, G'k ist and tat. In IHyr. and Boh., we find the 
 superlative existing as a comparative prefixed by nej, na (=tlie;; 
 as, Illyr. bolji, better, najbolji, best, the better— m Kuss. it is 
 also expressed by the eotttpar., and sometimes na is prefixed; 
 so, in French and Ital., we say the more beautiful for the most 
 beautiful; in Hebrew, we find the good for best, i. e. the good 
 one of the group, the best. 
 
 152. Adjectives, we must add too, are very much in the 
 nature of verbs ; a noun never becomes a verb, until it first 
 becomes an adjective. One of the forms of the adjective (the 
 adverb) is always joined to the verb, directly or indirectly. In 
 the more uncultivated languages, the adjective scarcely ever 
 differs in form from the noun, and in character from the verb. 
 The adjective belongs to the noun just as much as the verb 
 belongs to its nominative, but not more, and as, in principle, 
 every verb has its own pronominal nom. (as, the man he-reads), 
 so, the adj., too, belongs not to its noun but to its pronoun; as, 
 the good (one) man, the being-good man, the man the one (who is) 
 good. 
 
 153. In those other languages where the adj. uniformly 
 follows the noun, as the man (the) great= great man, it is clearly 
 the representative of a complete, though dependent, sentence; 
 thus, m,an wise (as in Fr.)^the man (being) wise, who-is-wise 
 (=wise), i. e. wise takes the place of a full sentence. The 
 adjective following the noun is more of an adverb, and is far 
 less closely connected with the noun, than when placed before. 
 
 154. All the agreement that lies between the noun and adj., 
 arises from both representing the same thing in the same manner; 
 both are adj's or nouns, and complete in themselves; as, to the 
 good man, (as in Lat.) to the good (one) to the man. 
 
 155. [As well here as elsewhere, we may, by way of note 
 defend ourselves against the critic who will be sure to see that 
 by the theory of this work everything is reduced to nothing, 
 all dividing lines are destroyed, §tc., etc. We confess that our 
 main eiFort through all the work is to show that things which 
 heretofore, have been thought to have nothing in common we 
 now find to be really much alike, perhaps even identical in 
 character ; but still, we should by no means deny that they are 
 
HISTORY OB PBONOUNS. 45 
 
 yet distinct. Thus, we show that adj's are, in origin, nouns, 
 and that pronouns are adjectives — but they are nouns and adj's 
 of a peculiar kind j they hold places and develop forms foreign 
 to ordinary nouns and adj's. Their connexion with the parent 
 stock is obscured — it requires such an effort as we have been 
 making, to render that latent connexion evident. In practice, 
 the classes are very different, and we so treat them. Things 
 may have the same origin, the same elements of character, and 
 still belong to very different classes. When we say that two 
 classes usually considered distinct are not different, we mean, be 
 it always understood, only as to their origin, only when we 
 examine them philosophically^ just as price, praise, prize, Lat. 
 pretium, known to be forms of one word, are not different, so 
 (and in no other sense,) allthings are not different.] 
 
 CHAPTER V- 
 
 HISTORY OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 156. Pronouns, in their connexions, extend through every 
 department of language j they may, with propriety be regarded 
 as affording the basis of all the forms which we find developed 
 as adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; they are, undoubtedlyj 
 the original of a large class of primitive verbs, as, indeed, they 
 are represented in all verbs by the personal endings ; in many 
 languages, they are grown as possessives at the end of nounSj 
 in others, they appear as the suffixed article, while the endings 
 of all nouns, in all languages, must, in the end, identify them- 
 selves with pronouns. It is a favorite idea of the author, that 
 pronouns have arisen as a growth of these noun and verb 
 endings thrown off, and it may be well for the student to keep 
 this idea in view. We shall learn much of the pronoun in 
 every class of words of which we treat, and to give its history 
 in full here, would involve much which we should have to 
 repeat under other headSj and, hence, we will omit so much as 
 would properly come elsewhere. We shall content ourselves, 
 principally, with presenting the newJind various forms in which 
 the same pronoun appears in different languages. -We shall 
 thus discover to the learner, relationships which will often sur- 
 prise, and always interest him ; it is by tracing the connexions 
 of words, that we shall most successfully learn their nature and 
 
46 PHBASIS. 
 
 157. We may observe, by way of note, that we use the 
 following abbreviations to denote the different languages : Germ. 
 German; G'k, Greek; Dan., Danish; Sw., Swedish; Du., 
 Dutch; Slav., Slavic, i.e. Russian, Polish, Bohemian etc., Rus., 
 Pol, Boh.; Sem., Semitic, i. e. Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, and 
 Ethiopic, Ar., Heb., Syr., and Uth. ; Cel. Celtic, i. e. Welsh, 
 Irish, Gaalio, Cornish and Celt-Breton, Wei, Jr., Cor., and G-B.; 
 i. Latin; /Spj, Spanish; /«., Italian; /V., French; /fer., Persian; 
 San., Sanscrit; Go., Gothic; Lith., Lithuanian; A. S., Anglo 
 Saxon, and others which will need no explanation. In compar- 
 ing the forms of pronouns and particles, the student should have 
 constantly in view, the sections under the head of Etymology — 
 especially those on letters. 
 
 Personal Pronouns. 
 
 158. I: our personal of the first person is reduced to a single 
 vowel, while in Latin it is ego, in Germ, i/c, ich, and ih. It is 
 clear that our simple 1 arises from the quiescence, or vanishing, 
 of the g and ch into a silent h, thus ich=ih=i. In Dan., this 
 pronoun isjeg (L. ego); Fr./e; Sp./o; Slav, ia and ga; Lith. 
 asz, and San. ah : but in Celtic, it is mi (Fr. moi), Per. men, 
 Hungarian en, Semitic ana and ank. 
 
 159. Bear in mind, that the forms above given are nomina- 
 tives, and that even in those languages which are characterized 
 in this .pronoun, by g, ch, k, j, and z, we still find in the 
 accusative (obj.) the mark m, as in our own me. Germ, mich, 
 Slav, me and mne ; and we thus see clearly that all the various 
 forms of /, above given, readily identify themselves with each 
 other, g, k,j, and z, being not only equal to each other, but to 
 n and m also In Sem., we find those two apparently unrelated 
 letters, « and k, united in ank (or anok), just as we see in the 
 Germ, mich (mk), our me. It only proves that n (and m) =g 
 IS aho = Jc=ch, h; we may look upon ank (nk) and mich (mk) 
 as doubled, or as a case of elements repeated (nk, kk). 
 
 160. The plural of this pronoun, which with us is marked bv 
 w (m we), m Slav, is mi and my, Wei. ni, Per. 7na. The es of 
 the Lith. form mes, the s of L. nos, the eis of Go. weis and G'k 
 ■eme^s the s of our ms (ws), the an of San. vayan, are all sub- 
 stantially, marks of the plural, for these forms. We easi'lv see 
 how this, plural is only a variation of some of the cases of I- 
 thus me=«.e (m=w). Germ, mir (me)=wH- (we) and G'k 
 m. (me)=,^o^•_(we)_, and the like. The difference between ^ 
 and me when It exists, consists chiefly in the former leveW 
 ing a plural sign. vciup 
 
 w 
 
HISTORY OF PEONOUNS. 47 
 
 161. Our is another form of we, showing the r lost in our we 
 but appearing in the Germ, wir ; we find these forma of oar; viz., 
 Dan. vor; Go. uns-ar; Du.ojjs (Germ, uns, our as); L.nost-er, Fr. 
 not-re,^ and Port, nosso. The r, ar, er, are clearly growths of 
 adjective endings; the -erer of Germ, uns-erer, and also -eros of 
 Gr'k 'emet-eros, axe cases of double endings, or, they are adjec- 
 tives formed upon an old one as a base, the Germ, form being 
 grown upon unser, the genitive of we (our); our mine (my-en), 
 and theirs (their-s) are of the same kind, and, no doubt, also L. 
 nos-t-er (noster and 'emeteros are, also, clear comparatives — ter, 
 eter, other). 
 
 162. We have only to remark on this pronoun /in conclusion, 
 that the n, m, and especially s and z, which we find the base of 
 it, are clearly demonstrative letters, and its origin may thus be 
 traced back to the pronoun this, or its cognate adverb here ; I 
 denotes the one here, or this, as opposed to that person there, thou 
 or he. 
 
 163. Thou : this pronoun has very little that is peculiar or 
 striking in the forms it presents ; its leading letter is either t, 
 as in Lat. and Per. tu, or s, as in Gr'k su, d in Germ, du, th in 
 our thou, or nt, as in Sem. ant — all showing that thou is a clear 
 demonstrative, like that or there. 
 
 164. But the forms which we find this pronoun assume when 
 it appears in the plural, are decidedly curious and interesting; 
 thus, our own thou (th) becomes with us, i/ou (y), in Go. jus, 
 Iceland ther, Dan. i (=y), A. S. ge (=ye), Germ, ihr and ir, 
 Slav, wy, Wei. chwi. Per. shuma, L. vos, San. yuyan. The er 
 of ther, r of ihr, s of vos, and %n of Sem. chun, are clearly plural 
 endings. The letters which mark all these forms given, are 
 unquestionably alike ; in the Germ, ihr, the th of thou and ther 
 has softened into ih or h; in Dan., the plural mark r disappears, 
 and ih becomes- 1, which again departs little fromy, g,j; the w 
 of Slav., and v of L., are forms only of y {=u and v) which we 
 find in ye and you — The Wei. and Sem. ch is a variation of the 
 th and g sound, seen above. 
 
 165. Tour presents also some peculiar forms ; thus, Go. izv-ar ; 
 Icel. yd-ar; Sw. ed-er; old Sax. iuw-er ; old Germ, iw-ar; 
 Germ, euer j the d of eder has the place of y (=y), as we see 
 by the Dan. form jer (yer); so Go. isv=iv, iw, ju, you. The 
 d of eder also represents the h of German ihr, which is always a 
 softening of th, in these pronouns; both point to the th of thou. 
 That eder=^ihr, we see by the other Sw. form er, for eder.^ The 
 Dutch has uw and uwe (you) for your and thy, i.e. the adjective 
 part er is not developed; the Slavic your is wasz and wass 
 (Latin vos'), Latin vos-ter, French vo-tre. 
 
 166. The pronouns of the i!d person are, unquestionably, in 
 
48 PHBASIS. 
 
 origin, the same as those of the 3rd; the Germ iAr, you, is the 
 same as ihr-er, their, and ihr her; Germ, si^, they, is also used 
 for you-ind.Ud., the use of the;, io^ you is f '=^'^°",,<^l^^J°^i'i 
 over; the th of our thou is the th of the, that, them. The student 
 will also notice, that not only are the different pronouns alike, 
 but also, that the different cases of the same pronoun are iden- 
 tical, one having no element which the other has not; thus, 
 Germ, ihr, you, corresponds to our your, and to the form iwar, 
 iuwar, and we have already noticed how the Dutch use us for 
 our; so, again, Germ, wir, Icel. ver, is our our, though used by 
 them for we; our scarcely differs from your, as also L. vor, you, 
 from us; again, the Dan. han,he (Slav, on) is our Aim— indeed, 
 there is no end to such comparisons if we choose to pursue them. 
 
 167. The personals of the 3d person are far more extensive 
 in their connexions, and in the variety of their forms, and we 
 shall have to proceed with less regard to order than we observed 
 in treating of the others; let it suffice that we give a complete 
 and comprehensive view of them. And, first, take He; our 
 form is equal to tlie, as we see by its plural they, th softening to 
 h; in Gr'k, we find only e, acccompanied with a mark partially 
 representing our h; in the Latin tongues, s, as in se (self), 
 takes the place of A. — the German shows this s in its sein, his, 
 and sie, they, sich, self; in short st» (=him) runs clear through 
 the German languages for Ms. 
 
 168. In German, the s, th, and h, entirely disappear, and we 
 find er (ir in old Germ.) for he ; all we have here is that com- 
 mon ending noticed above. It is the same as German der, the, 
 and ihr, their and your, the d and th vanishing in h, and thus 
 becoming silent ; our here. Germ, her, is also a near relative of 
 this er. There is a Gothic form gains, ovjains, equal to Danish 
 hans (his), Gr'k eJcein-os, Qeim. Jener (that), Slavic on, Fr. son 
 (his), Welsh hon, Semitic hun, ain, Persian an (this), our him. 
 
 169. The Latin has more than one form to represent he, she, 
 and it (or what is the same, this and that) ; in the form ille, Fr. 
 Ze and il, Sp. el, Sem. el, (the), the I, always equal to d, th, has 
 taken the place of the usual t sound, so that ille=le, de, the; 
 in hie the c, no doubt, is for the common Lat. ending -que, and 
 related also to the Germ, ch in ich, dich, sich, so that we have 
 Ai=he, they; indeed, M (these) is the plural form used for 
 they — the other cases of hi-c, the gen. hujus and aec. hun-c 
 easily identify with 7m and him; is, ea, id, (he, she, it), another 
 form, is a variation of this hie, the h=th quite disappearino- 
 and the s, a, and d, being adjective endings; we have in th?s 
 form, ejus for hujus (his), eum for hunc (him), ii for hi (they) • 
 that there is a suppressed s=th=h here, is abundantly proved 
 by its derivative suus (his), by the old Lat. sum for eum, sam 
 
HISTORY OF PEONOUNS. 49 
 
 for cam, and Go. si (she), and sa (tte); id is plainly our it, and 
 ea is our she with sh suppressed; the corresponding Greek is o, 
 e, to, (o and e with h breathing), the characteristic alone appear- 
 ing in the neuter to — this is the Greek the. 
 
 170. She and It, it is hardly necessary to add, are only vari- 
 ations of he and the; in A.. S., heo is she, and se is the; in Germ., 
 sie is she. In A. S., it is hit, in Sw., det (Germ, das), showing 
 that t is not radical, but belongs to the ending as the d in Lat. 
 id and illud. In Danish, he and she differ only as han and hun 
 (L. cMm and earn) ; in Slav., he, she, it, is on, ona, ono, and in 
 most languages the change is no greater. 
 
 171. Of the plurals 2hei/a,nd Their little need be said. Thq 
 former, in Latin, is hi and ii; Dan. de. Germ, die (our tJiei/ani 
 the); Germ, sie; Icel. their, thaug, and thetta (the forms of our 
 their and that); Slav, om (Germ.yene*-); Welsh hioy, Ir. stW, 
 C-B. hi ; Sem. Aem and hum (our i^em, in form). The other 
 Lat. form illi, they, Fr. ils and eSes, It. eglino, has the i7/ to re- 
 present the usual th, or h, and i final for plural mark, i.e. i?fe'= 
 li, di, thi, they ; so, we see illorum (of-them, their), in Fr., leur 
 (their), Sp. les. It. loro. Besides these forins of their just given, 
 there is yet to be noticed the A. Sax. hira; Dan. deres, Germ. 
 ihrer aad ir ; L. eorum. The Welsh affords the form eu for 
 their, Cornish aga (also agan, our, and agas, your) ; when we 
 take in connexion the Welsh forms eich, your, ein, our, ych, you, 
 ei, his, her, him, we can readily see that this eu and aga (^g^ch) 
 are to be referred back to the Germ, euch, you. 
 
 172. For the article, we will simply give some of its different 
 cases, as found elsewhere, to show what various applications 
 have been made of them in English. In the Ang. Sax. nomi- 
 native, we find mas. se (the), fern, seo (she), neut. thaet (that, 
 it) ; gen. mas. thaes (these and this), gen. fem. tha,ere (their, 
 there); dat. tham (them, him); in Germ., nom. mas. der (their), 
 fem. die (the, they) and neut. das (that); gen. deg (these); 
 dat. dem (them). In Welsh, the article is yr (and y), Germ, 
 er, he. In Latin, the nearest corresponding pronoup to our the, 
 is ille, Fr. le. 
 
 Demonstratives. 
 
 173. The usual demonstrative letters are th, d, s, and the 
 like, but I is often met with in such pronouns, (as we saw in ille), 
 and we shall find m and n common letters for a like office. Our 
 own this and that may be regarded, we need hardly observe, as 
 modifications of the. Th^ plurals these and those are only slight 
 variations of this ; the Germ, dieser, this, is in form our these. 
 
 174. In Slavic, we fii^d these forms : Boh. ten, this ; Pol. on 
 
 7 
 
50 PHRASIS. 
 
 (Boh. onen), that (German jener, our o»e) ; there is also the 
 doubled Pol. ten-to, this-here (Greek ton-tos) ;Illyr.^^ these , 
 Hung, e^., this, and az, that, and emez {em-ez, double) this-here, 
 ez-az this (the-that); Alban. ata (also ai, agio), it and this; 
 Sem. ze, dhu, d; Go. sa and i!7ia«a, and San. sas, sa, tan, tat; 
 all these forms are easily placed in one and the same class. 
 
 175. Another class is one which apparently departs from this, 
 but which- still is undeniably only a variation of it— it is the 
 class marked by m, and the like; thus, in Welsh, hwn, lion, 
 hyn, are used for this (Jiyn=..these also), and hyny, hono, hwnw, 
 for that; this is identical with the Dan. han and Slav, on (he); 
 C-B. hen (he) and ann (the); Sem. hon or hun, and ain; Per. 
 an ani shan (them) ; Ir. sin, Dan. Mn (that), and Go. gains (he). 
 
 176. In Hung., enie' and ama' are used for this and that; 
 in Cornish, ma and na are used as suffises at the end of nouns, 
 in place of this and that (besides horn, this, and hon, that). In 
 Manchu, ere = this (Germ, er), and tere=th,a.t (Germ, der); in 
 Mongolian, eMe^this, and toie = that. 
 
 177. In French, this, and that, is ce [the, Sein. ze, Pol. ci) ; 
 we find also ces (these), cet (that) ; it has also celle and ce-la, 
 for <Ais and (l/iai! (L.ille and qualis. Wall. a-qucT). For cei and 
 fe«e, the Ital. has questo (L. iste with g prefix), and for celle, it 
 has jMeZfo (L. i7?e) ; Fr. ce=It. che. 
 
 Relatives. 
 
 178. That the relatives are simply a development of the per- 
 sonals and demonstratives, as who of he, and what of that, is 
 proved beyond a doubt ; in other languages, the Latin for 
 example, they are used as adjectives (demonstratives), as our 
 own which, what, and that, so often are. In Germ., wei-, who, is 
 a form of er, he ; welcher, which, is a variation of Fr. celle, Lat. 
 ille, Ital. quello, (our which is the same word, I suppressed, see 
 Scotch quhille {qu, vv, w) — so L. quod, wod, wot); the Germ. 
 der, the, is very commonly used as a relative, and our own that 
 is a pure article Csee Anglo Saxon se, the, thaet). 
 
 179. The Fr. and Sp. que (which, what) is the It. che {q=k, 
 c), and this readily leads us back to Fr. ce, our the, that ; this 
 que is our tohp (Ang. S. hwa), qu = kv, hv, hw. The Wallach. 
 has, for who, the. forms quare (where), quare-le (suffix article) 
 and quine (him, whomV 
 
 180. The Pol. kto, who, agrees nearly with our what (Latin 
 quid, hid, let), while cp, What, is more like w7io; komu whom 
 (him) ; in Eus., in p]ace ot kto, we find often l-o, for who and 
 chto, or tchto, for what; in Boh., Jcoho and cheho, for whose 
 (L. cujus. Germ. wesSen). The Latin qui, who, easily identifies 
 
HISTORY OP PBONODNS. 61 
 
 itself with our who, qu being equal to qw, hw, and, hence, to 
 A. S. hwa ; ciy'i(s= whoso, g'Mem=whom, c and q'=^k, h; so 
 quod = yihii.t, San. Mm, Alb. ke, kous, Mong. keri, Turk kirn. 
 
 181. In the Irish, we find cia, ce, ci, for who (It. che, Fr. que). 
 Clad, cad, what, (L. quod) ; there is also Ir. da, (that), and this 
 is reduced again to a, who, what. In Welsh is pwy, who, and 
 whom, (jp being used for L. q) ; the foxvo. yr hyn, the-this, is 
 also used as relative. In Cor., also, py, pa, w^o and what; 
 also nep {pen). In C-B., piow, who, and pe, what (Fr. que), 
 Greek pos' (and kos', tis', tos'). 
 
 182. In Semitic, we find ma and mn, for what ^nd who; in 
 Heb., we have asher, shortened she, (Go.and San. demon, sa) ; in 
 Arab., the form the-this is used for relative. Hungarian has mi 
 and m,ik, what, melly, which (Germ, welcher) — besides ki and 
 kik, who. In Manchu, this m is w, as we, who (German wer) ; 
 what is ai, Celtic a. 
 
 183. In Dan. and Swed., som is used for who,'that; it is our 
 some and same, so, as, such, Greek 'oi-men (some). 
 
 184. Other languages have developed a class of pronouns 
 from these relatives which we have not; thus, there is the L. 
 talis, such, Germ, solch-er. Go. swaleiks (so-like), Euss. tolik 
 and Lith. toley, G'k tllik-os, Pol. tak-i, Welsh satpl, Ang. Sax. 
 swUc, Hung, olly-an ; all connected with that, L. ille, Fr. eel'. 
 This is demonstrative, and the relative form is L. qwalis, what, 
 or what'kind, G'k kSlikos, Russ. /cofo'A, Go. hweleiks (how-like), 
 Du. welk {which) Hung, milly-en. This pronoun is identical 
 with Germ, welch-er, and hence our which ; it is, too, the L. 
 quis, who, with the I of ille appearing. Quantus, how great, 
 and quot, how many, in Latin, are other variations of quis ; 
 leave off MS, the adjective ending, a.nA quant=!quot, quod, our 
 what; there is, also, L. tot, so many, our that ; Hung, quot, and 
 quant, is hany (our many). 
 
 We might observe that our like. Germ, gleich, G'k ilikros, is 
 identical with qua-lis (what-like), the q, lost with us, appearing 
 in the Germ, g,- — the Ang. Sax. ylc, same, and hw-yh, which, 
 belonging to the same order. 
 
 185. The student may learn from this relative class, how 
 easily p, q, k, t, eh, c, h, w, and m, change for each other. 
 
 Interrogatives are identical with relatives, and hence need no 
 separate consideration. 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns, 
 
 186. Our every is in Danish, hver, showing that it is the same 
 as where, with which we often find it, as, in every-where ; in 
 
52 PHBASIS. 
 
 Gothic it is wazuh (was, what) . The identity of this ever}/ with 
 the relative, is proved by the frequency With which we find e««r 
 ^ every following it, ^B,who-ever, what-ever; this ever in L is 
 cun, of doubled, cun-que {quern, whom), as m qu>.cun-que, who- 
 ever ; the L. quis is often used for some, any, and hence = all, 
 every. The German every \s jeder, in form our «<Aer, but 
 ,iso whether, and hence »Hc^; we use either ioY both, which 
 refers us back to all== every. In Pol. it is kazdy, the k pointing 
 to ^to, who; in Hung., minden, every, each (me%, which) ; in 
 Welsh, po6 is every, hut pwy is who ; Cor. myns, all, ever, but 
 ma = that, p?(p, all, and py, who. . . „ , , 
 
 187. Each and ara^ must be taken as variations ot every; the 
 three easily replace each other; each, in Ang. Sax., is aelc, (Du. 
 welh, which) ; in Fr. it is chaque ; cha is ce, that, and que is 
 suffix; the Asiatic eka, onej is also equal to each; so we often 
 find each-one. 
 
 188. Any is the same as our an, one, a, and many belongs 
 with it also; so do aU,&ni some. In Italian, qualche {qual-che, 
 which-that) is used for some, as quis is in Latin. The Latin 
 aliquis, some-one, is simply else-who, other-who, which-who, ille- 
 who. The Spanish cada, each, any, is the Latin quot, quant, and 
 Germ. Jeder ; it is also the Slav, jeden, one. 
 
 189. Many, in German, is viele (full), which refers back to 
 wekher, which ^ the L. mtiltus, our much, belongs to the same 
 family. That many is the same as any, an, one, is seen by the 
 Germ, man, Fr. on (old Fr. horn), for our one, and by the Gr'k 
 Tnia, one. 
 
 190. The word other may also be classed with these pronouns ; 
 in Latin, it is alius and alter, Gr'k alios, our else, Fr. autre ; it 
 is plainly, in form, connected with ille (and all), as the ther of 
 o-ther, and der of Germ, o-der, point to the article the. Hither 
 is identical with other. That so?n.e is a relative in origin, is seen 
 by the use of Danish som for who ; some is equal to same, and 
 both refer to Germ, article dem,, and L. i-dem, same, Fr. m,eme. 
 
 191. In concluding our chapter on pronouns, we may dwell 
 briefly upon their component parts. We notice particularly in 
 pronouns, what is observable also in all classes of words, the 
 
 ■ repetition of one element in the same word, as in Lat. quis-quis 
 (who-who) some one, Greek tou^tos. But, most commonly, the 
 elements slightly vary from each other, yet never so much as to 
 leave their identity questionable ; thus, Fr. le-quel, which {the- 
 which), Fr. ce-la, that {the-that) ; L. ille, he (the-that) ; Fr. 
 quel-que,S0Tae {which-that) ; It. qual-cuno, some {wAich-which) , 
 and qu-esto, this {which-that) ; Wall, a-qu-est, that {the-which- 
 that),md in-sami, the-same (L. i-dem); Dan. hvord-an, how 
 {where-then) ; Pol. tarn-ten, this {the-this), and k-to, who '{who- 
 
HISTORY OF PAKTICLBS. 63 
 
 that) ; Ang. Sax. aeg-hwa, whoever {each-who), and liwae-iher, 
 whether (who-there) ; G'k 'os-tis, and 'o-ti, who, what {who- 
 who) ; Germ, den-selhe, the-self, same, and der-jetiigc, he {the- 
 that) ; Ar, bl-la-dzi, which {the-the-this) . 
 
 192. It is hardly necessary to multiply examples where they 
 are found so numerous ; not only may we separate these words 
 into elements, as we have, but those elements again, and so on 
 indefinitely; thus, our that is plainly double, and our what also, 
 as we see by its G'k equal o-ti, L. ut^in brief, we may say 
 that every consonant, every letter, represents this element which is 
 repeated in the word. It may be noted, too, that every ease of 
 one pronoun following another, as he who, that which, this here, 
 which one, is one of double pronouns. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 HISTORY Of particles. 
 
 193. Under the head of Particles are includiad what is usually 
 known in grammar as Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions; 
 particles we will again divide into two classes, putting adverbs 
 and conjunctions together, as there is no real difference between 
 them, when properly considered. (We every where find the 
 purest conjunction replaced by the common adverb). 
 
 194. In investigating particles, we must constantly bear in 
 mind one very important rule ; that two or more words which 
 come together in text, belong together, that they are parts of 
 one compound, just as much as there are such in any compound ; 
 ahd that, as such elements, they are duplicates, repetitions, and 
 the one inay be considered as a form of the other, or both as 
 forms of one type; it is a matter of no importance, that in some 
 cases we find the elements separated, and in others printed 
 together. 
 
 195. [We may mention here, by way of note, that in com- 
 paring words together, as we do under the head of Particles, 
 equaUty, denoted by the sign = , or by words, generally has re- 
 ference to the meaning; it will be easy to separate the words 
 which are mere definitions from those which are considered to 
 be etymological forms of the particle in question.] 
 
 We will consider first the class of adverbs, which includes 
 also conjunctions. 
 
64 fHKASIS. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 196. All adverbs are more or less connected, in their origin, 
 with pronouns (except those which are cases of nouns, and they 
 are not particles, i. e. they are not small words whose original 
 form and meaning have become obscured) ; but a certain class 
 of adverbs are more decidedly pronominal in form, that is, differ 
 less from pronouns, than others; such adverbs, and indeed 
 others, may be looked upon as presenting new forms of the pro- 
 nouns. Thus, we have inhere, when., whence, whither, whether, 
 from relatives, what, which} and there, then, thence, thither, de- 
 monstratives, from this, that, besides the other forms, how, why, 
 while; in many instances, we- can find these very forms as pro- 
 nouns ; so, wKen, Germ, warm, is Go. wana, ace. of who, and 
 thana (then) is ace. of the, this; where, in Icel., is huer, who, old 
 Germ, wer and huer ; so. Go. wathar (whether), is who. Germ. 
 Wer; hither, Germ, hin (be-hind), is Go. ace. hina, of his, hita, 
 this; while is A. S. hwilc, who, Germ, weil, old Germ, huilon, 
 A. S. da-hwile (the while); old Germ, wanan, whence, and its 
 equal wenan, is whom ; there is German der, the, and da, there, 
 Ang. Sax. thaer = of the; how (our who), A. S. hu. Germ, wie, 
 old Germ, wie and wis (wise), hus, wiose ; why (which), A. S. 
 dy (th'e), Gr'k <i, Lat. quia, Ang. Sax. hwi, Lat. quid (what). 
 Germ, warum (was-um)— Latin quare, wherefore, why, is our 
 lehere, L. cur, IWjx. jer; now is also demon., like how, but in it 
 IS used the n (so often found) for t, as Lat. nunc=tunc, in Go., 
 gu CL.Jani, earn), A. S. iu and geo (he, the,) (our ^ei!), besides 
 nu (g=n)— it is after the form of old North inn (Germ, iener)' 
 that, it. \ J J 
 
 197. In Latin (and Greek), the pronominal form and char- 
 acter of these adverbs is unmistakable ; thus, quo (by-what) 
 whether, wherefore; quod (what), that, as, since; qua, wherej 
 how (by-what) ; quam (ace. ot which), how, and quum, a form 
 ot same, when, smce; hie (he), here, then; dum, while, and 
 turn, then (like forms), point to the Greek ion, the, an article 
 lost in Latin —yam, now, then, is a variation of tu7n, but more 
 nearly agreeing with the pron. earn; nun and nunc (nov new 
 L. nov-us), IS a modification of dum : tunc, then, thence 'corre' 
 sponds in character with W (ace. of he) ; utrum, whether 
 (either), a form of uter, which, points also to uti, that Lat id- 
 an, also, whether is the m» of old North, and related'to whm 
 Germ «,an„_ that an is related to nun, now, is seen Lnum 
 
HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 55 
 
 198. By the way, tie student, in looking over the list of par- 
 ticles, in any language, cannot but be struck with, the numerous 
 cases of doubling or repetition, a subject we have spoken of 
 before ; and these instances where the repetition is evident, are 
 only very few compared with those where it is latent — it gives 
 us the secret of the growth of all words. So, we find quO'que= 
 also (where-as, which-what) ; mine-nunc, now-now= sometimes; 
 g'm'-rfem= indeed (which-the) ; nam-que^ior (for-that) ; vel-ut, 
 like (which-that, or-that). 
 
 199. In the German languages, we can see it in an even 
 stronger light ; as, Gothic this-quaruh-thei is where-ever (this- 
 where-that) ; swa-swe=so as, L. sic-ut (so-so) ; A. S. tha-tha^ 
 then (then- then, the-the); on-this-heal/e ^hj-this (L. hac, Germ. 
 des-halb) ; swa-Awoer-sMa=where-so-ever (so-where-so) ; for- 
 hwy, wherefore, why (for-why) ; swa-gelice, like (so-like) ; and 
 all our own cases where two or more particles come together; as, 
 now-then, as-weU-as, so-that, never-the-less. 
 
 200. We might go farther and find the same state of facts 
 existing in all languages ; that this class, at least, of adverbs 
 presents new forms of pronouns, is as tn;e in Asia as it is in 
 Europe^ — -it is true, too, in Africa. But we have done enough 
 fully to illustrate the law; we will now proceed to consider some 
 of the leading adverbs and conjunctions more in detail. 
 
 201. And; this an equals a relative, just as ne equals whether; 
 and equals ad, at, hence, also, that. In Latin, and is et, Greek 
 Jmi; judging by kai, et may be a transformed te ; L. gMe=and 
 
 ■ (but que is which); Fr. que (ke) = how, that, what, but; e« has 
 another form, L. ac {t—q, c) ; what is another form of et, that; 
 so we find A. S. hwaet (what) for et, and, Lat. aut-em, ita-que; 
 Germ, auch, Lat. ac, Fr. que ; in old Grerman ^e, gie,ja {jam, 
 turn, L.) Icel. og, Celt, ag, agus, A. S. eac, and, and kai, but; 
 in Ang. S., ge—c-um, t-mn (g=c) ; Go. ak^ akei=hiJLt, Germ. 
 aber, so b-ut is et; Goth, ith, Lat. autem (if, L. si), et, Greek de 
 (the)=but; old Germ, bethiu (b-et)=but and et, and 5 so but 
 is et, with b; Fr. car (gar), for Latin quare, bence kai, et; 
 Illyr. i and o = but, and (ith=i, ac=^a) ; gar is found in the 
 Tart, languages, slightly varied, meaning &«<; C-B. e-get='Et, 
 que, et, yet. 
 
 ■ 202. As; as is clearly a transposed sa, A. S. se (the). Go. 
 sa; it is same as so (and that) ; in Germ., as is TOie_(how, who) ; 
 it is the same as Fr. que, L. ac, also L. M«=that; in Germ., aU 
 (else, L. alius) is as; Fr. comme (L. quum)=h.o^ as; Welsh 
 can (Fr. comme. Per. chun)=aa— also /el,/eUy (Germ, welcher) 
 Cor. a-vel {f=p, Cor.^a=what), Lat. avec, with— Cor. ma 
 mar, maga=a&, that {ma is demonstrative). 
 
 203. So has a variety of forms also; thus, old Germ, sus, is 
 
56 PHKASIS. 
 
 one of them, L. si-c, si-c-ut, ita, and our same; we find al-BO, 
 hence so equals al, als, all: C-B. Icent, leer, Icen {Fr. comme) = 
 so, L. tant iJc^t); Cor. ages (Irish agus=&n^, Welsh aff=as, 
 with),es=so, than; Fr. am-si=so (this-so). 
 
 204. That is another form of as and so, and it is often used 
 in connexion with them ; that it is a form, too, of what, is seen 
 by L. qiiod, what and that; Go. ei, thi, thei, thatei, unte, (and) 
 mean that, German dass, and well; Swedish at (to, too, two) = 
 th-at, Latin ut. 
 
 205. Again : the idea of this particle is based on that of 
 repetition, hence we find it connected with other, and, (Irish 
 agus) ; in Germ., it is wieder (whether) L. iterum, G'k eteros, 
 other ; the a is prefix, as we see by A. S. on-gean, Du. te-gen 
 {to-gen), Germ- ge-gen, so that gain, gen, is the true form, equal 
 to Go. gains, (G'k eheinos), Celt, gan, as, and with, (Lat. cum, 
 quum, quern) ; also Latin yom= now, Gothic /a, Germ./e, ever, 
 Latin con, with. 
 
 206. After is intimately connected with again; it is often 
 pronounced ater, a form found in other tongues, and as such, 
 we see it related to other, L. iterum =iiga,m, Du. agter ; Germ. 
 n-ach is near, next, and after, Dutch echter=jet, German noch 
 (after)— so, we aaj yet-again ; L. infra {inf, ifr), Pr. apres; 
 'La.t.post is after, It. poi, Fi.puis, It. do-po {p=f), Gor.wose, 
 woge; C-B. arre, yet, after; Illyr.^o%, near (below), I^.post, 
 Slav, prez, our -proach. 
 
 207. Back is related \a post and again (b-ack), San. a-pa^a, 
 a-back, a-fter, old North aptr and eptri, after, posterior ; Slavic 
 paku= a.ga,m, G''kpalin, Illyr. Aa=near, to, also ^0(Z = under; 
 Greek apo, after and away, back, by-:- we say near-hv, hence 
 Meor=by, and &y = back; Greek epi, epei. 
 
 208. But: this we have already seen equal to et (and), ut 
 a^d ye<; Dutch maar (more, o-ver), French mais, Per. magar 
 (L magis) = but— this is also Cor. ma, mar {ma is that, what) ; 
 but, yet,. German doch=noch, and «ac7i, Fr. done (dum-que); 
 (jrerm. so?i£?-era, Lat. sed, our sM^e?-, means but— we use 4i; in 
 the sense of excepi; 5m< may be taken as b-ouf, without in old 
 Germ., uzan being equal to but, sed (out); Go. afoa=but G'k 
 alia, L. afows, other; Germ, aber =hut (over, after) old Germ 
 <^fur,auor (o'er); in Illyr a = but (Germ. a,ber, auer, a), also 
 aZ (Greek alia), onr else, German aZs; Ital. maU never f but 
 T't^ 'ST^ ™''= ''^*' ^^'"^ '^«™ . I^^ss. no (Gr'k mJ«l him 
 that) ; Welsh o«cZ=but (German s^jc^e.^, our a J) o A s' 
 a»c?=but, L. o!«;m; also Wei. we, ped = if is I ii- ' 7 ^Z 
 as well as «,;i<?< (pe =what). "^ "^ ' ^- '"^' O'^'-' ^"«. 
 
 209. Even, ever: even is same as ever, li/ce «, ,.„„„7 / x 
 Cor. avel, C-B. e.e?, as, like, equal, evet^-^tlvei; Sfc^^ 
 
HISTORY OE PARTICLES. 67 
 
 as, like, and hettep =ze:V6ry (Cornish relative nep, also,=any, 
 every; also relative Icemmys, Latin quantus). 
 
 210. Uver (every), Germ, immer, Du. immers, L. s-emper and 
 imoj L. ibi, ubi {ebber), iihi-que (where-as)= everywhere, and 
 'ubi-ubi=-whev-ever; Mod. G-reek ^o/!e= ever (relative); Latin 
 un-quam (two pron's) = ever, and nun-quam =^ never (two 
 pron's), L. eevum, G'k aiSn, ever, age; G'k pSs, all, every, is a 
 relative like^os', hencepantesr'osoi, all-such, all-who (whowho) ; 
 Germ, ye (the) = ever; Cor. a?;ar=early — ^ver, ear, ere, early; 
 Germ, sehr, very, ever, Per. har, old Germ, sar, Tart, gar, old 
 German war, Latin vere, German Kahr, true, 
 
 211. If: It. ove (where, L. ubi, ibi). Germ, ob (whether, or). 
 Germ, wenn (when), all show how if, Goth, iba, Ang. Sax. gif, 
 old Germ, of, ob, jof^ are relatives in origin; Lat, si=\i (the, 
 this, Latin is), Sanscrit chet, Greek ei, Gothic ith (Lat. ut) and 
 ihau; Gothic gau, g-abai (Greek Jcai) =\i, Latin s-ive (that- 
 which) = whether, if; Welsh o, os, od (Latin si, and ut)=TX, 
 alsope, ^ec^ = if' (butpa=what); in Russ., egliis i/, German 
 als, else, Russian li; in Russian, bude equals if and be — we 
 find the same form used for if and be in many languages ; thus, 
 we say be this so, for if this is so — so, Fr. soit = ma.j it be, or 
 be it, is used also for either, or, whether, as, indirectly if (It 
 only shows, among other things, that be is pronominal also). 
 
 2X2. Or : Fr, ou is or and where; It. ovvero is or, and ove is 
 where; Germ, oder is or (other), L. vel, ve=ov, Qtuvm.wehher); 
 the Greek e, S.-pou, or, are also relatives; Icel. eda, edur, (either), 
 and ella (else) = or; A. S. aegther and outher, or, A. S. hwae- 
 ther, either. Go. aith-thau, L. aut {alter, other), or, old Germ. 
 efiha, or, aut (after=other, or), also Go. other=^ov; see what 
 compounds we find — who-el&e, else-where, A. S. elleshva (Lat. 
 aliquis) ; Germ, et-was, et-lich (et, what) ; old Germ, aegh-wider 
 (either- whether) — and, remember that words with which we 
 find else = or, either, associated, are like it; Cor. py is or, but p^ 
 is also a relative. 
 
 213. \Nor is a form of or ; it is or with n prefixed ;. in Latin, 
 ne-que {nee) =nor (not-which), i. e. it is a form of que, which; 
 in Germ., noch^=doch, yet, now, is used for nor — Germ, iveder 
 (whether and neither) also = nor; it is plain that nor is a form 
 of neither = either ; in Welsh na is nor and than, words which 
 are alike — the vulgar say, better nor that (Swed. end (and) = 
 than) ; so, in Greek, e (which, that, as) = oj' and than — as we 
 hear, better as that 
 
 214. Not, in the form in which we have it, is identical with 
 neither, though generally it is an ordinary demonstrative ; as,, 
 the G'k me {men, but), L. we; L. nun is now, and non is not, so 
 our now is like not; Ang. S. we, noht and nocht (Germ, noch is 
 
58 PHRASIS. 
 
 Yef)=not; Gothic nithau (meither) = not Germ, nicht ; in old 
 German, els (else, Geman ah, as) and „ato mean not- n«Kes 
 dev"k.p , with us into nme-less, not-ehe; the Greek has^ form 
 ouk (on or), Icel. ecke, Danish ^■M«, for «o^; and Danish ^^en 
 fanv) means »o«e, Germ. Jcein (Goth, ^-azms, Greek e-Jcemos) — 
 German am^i?^, Greek e»*oi (some), Danish »»^.« 
 
 215 .S^ooji.- I^u. haast is soora (ha.ste) ; Germ bald (bold) is 
 «mc/b, short, soon (Icel. SaZ^r) ; old Germ, san and sane, Goth. 
 suns, mean soo», gwic/. (then, than) —it is often found as suffix, 
 as hera-sun, here-soon; Celt. B. Jcent (Lat. tant) is sooner. Cor. 
 lohare is soow (where)— soon is, like the rest, clearly pronom- 
 inal. Eather, though connected with soon, seems more imme- 
 diately identified with ready. . . 
 
 216. Often: this word is connected first, in form, with a/ter; 
 it is the Ital. s-ovente, Fr. souvent, Lat.' ssepe ; old _Germ._ thicco 
 (our thick) means often, so in Dutch, dilc-wils (thick-whiles) is 
 often. 
 
 217. Our only, in form, is one, hut in other languages, it is 
 more clearly pronominal; so, in Lat., tantum (so-much)is only; 
 so, Russian tolko (Latin tails'); German mtr (Latin nun), Gothic 
 that-ainei (that-one). 
 
 218. Since is connected, in form, most intimately with soon 
 and then, and is clearly pronominal; in Lat., and in many other 
 languages, it takes the form of as and when (a relative) ; A.. S. 
 sith-than, since. Germ, seit-dem (since-then) — A. S. sith, means 
 late; L. posi-guam (after-which). It. poi-che, Fi. jmis-que and. 
 de-pwis, It. do-po, L. post-ea (after those) ; G'k epi, epei (after) 
 ^since — so that since, here, is a form oi post, after, which is a 
 relative like Greek p5s, pote, meaning when. 
 
 219. Yet : Germ, noch means yet and nor ; Du. nochte means 
 neither; thus, we see yet = nor; It. an-che, Fr. ain-si (German 
 au-ch and no-ch'), this-that, yet. Germ. Jedoch; L. tamen (so), 
 G'k toi, our though, tho'. Germ, doch, Lat. quam-quam (which- 
 which)=al-though, G'k kan for kai-an (and-ifj. (Such words 
 as kan, which we may properly consider as the union of 7cai-an, 
 but which is still equal to our Latin quom, prove what we have 
 claimed, that two words coming together, as and-if are really 
 elements of one compound); Ital. has^ar^yet, even, German 
 a-6ej-=but old Germ, afur, a-bur ; Welsh eto is yet (Latin et 
 Germ, doch); Goth, thauh-gaba is yet (that-if), old Germ, thoh- 
 thoh (tho-tho, that-that), and tho-widar (tho-whether). 
 
 220. Though has the form chotia (It. che), Germ, s-chon It. 
 gia, Latin tarn, (then, German denn), Cornish ken (Corn, yth'o 
 (tho) is now, then") ; "Welsh er is tho, and yr is the. 
 
 Till: this is identical with our to, too, ttvo (so); German bis 
 is till, to, and L. bis is twice, C-B. beta; Go. unte, our unto and 
 
HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 69 
 
 until (Germ, und, and, as, so)— again, we see that what we call 
 two words, as un-to, corresponds with our and, which we now 
 see has its elements too — witness also u-t, that, Greek 'o-ti 
 (which-that), our what; in L., till is ad (to) and ante (ad, and, 
 as), also us-que (so-that, ut-que), ante-quam (to- which), do-nec, 
 d-vm, quo-ad, B.nd prius-quam (fore-that), Gr'k 'ds (as, so) and 
 'eOs (what, that). Still is till with s prefixed; Lat. clam is our 
 calm. 
 
 221.^ Together has the forms : Germ, zusammen, It. in-sieme, 
 Ang. Saxon aetgaedere (at-gather)--all identical with the-same 
 (Lat. simul), to-same; in together, to is of course prep., and ge is 
 a common prefix ; and ther is the pronominal part, with which 
 same often identifies; Greek 'omou (same), Persian hem. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 222. We can identify prepositions with pronouns as easily as 
 we have adverbs, indeed, the line between prep's and adv'bs is 
 by no means strongly drawn, the one being often used to perform 
 the office of the other. Prepositions are a growth out of pronouns, 
 and," through pronouns, a growth out of the endings of nouns 
 and verbs also. The case endings, it will be remembered, repre- 
 sent not the prepositions only, but the preposition and the article, 
 of the preposition and demonstratives, which are articles. But 
 pronouns are all clearly developments of the endings of nouns 
 and verbs, proof of which is found in the fact, among others, 
 that in almost, if not all, languages, they are found in some of 
 their forms, inseparably connected with nouns or vefbs, or both. 
 In many languages, in the Semitic and Celtic, for example, the 
 preposition and the pronoun, and article, readily unite into one 
 word, as German beim for bei dem, which proves the intimate 
 connexion of the two classes. It is well known, too, that a large 
 class of prefixes to verbs, in the various languages of the world, 
 are unmistakably prepositions — some of these have been thrown 
 off, as the ab of the L. abstract, while others exist only in the 
 inseparable state. 
 
 223. We find so many of our prepositions identify themselves 
 with each other, after we proceed a short distance in tracing 
 their origin, that it is almost impossible to make any just division 
 among them ; we will use, however, a few leading prepositions as 
 heads, under which, with very little regard to order, we will 
 include all the most interesting and instructive forms of preposi- 
 tions. Nor do we confine ourself solely to prepositions, but 
 we notice, incidentally, the origin of certain other words which 
 come in the connexion, thereby showing what remarkable vari- 
 
60 PHRASIS. 
 
 atioDS some words have, and what unexpected applications they 
 
 are found in. „ /-, v n'u 
 
 224 With: We find the following forms; Germ, mit, (x k 
 mefai^ndmeth, Sem. mm=in, D^n. viod&nd i-mod, meaning 
 against, Germ, wider, and Go. withra, against (whither), A. b. 
 to-weard, (toward) and L. versus, against, A. fe; with, against 
 Sw. vid, by (L. 3mc^ = what), Corn, worth meaning to and 
 against. Hung, vel (Ud, Germ, welcher) and ve, Knss. bez and 
 Pers. 6i, for without; it has its forjns in middle, medium, mean 
 (Per. mi^an and de.r-mii/an, amidst, between), corn-man {com 
 is prefix) = mean. Germ, ge-mein, low, a-mong, Qa,n.madya, 
 Zend, mat; there is another class of forms, as the Gk sun, 
 mm (s = w), Lith. .5m, Kuss. so and sw, San. sa and saw, Pers. 
 AaTO, L. CMTO (quvm), with and when, Lat. con, co (c= s), Welsh 
 can (and ffan)=as and with, Fr. cAez, at and with (Italian che 
 equals when), our a-gainst, Germ, ge-gen (gen is rel. like Celt. 
 can, Pers. cAim, how and as)^L. contra, G'k Jca-ta; as without 
 is only one of the forms of with, the following connect with sun, 
 con; as, Fr. saras (and dans, in and with), G'k aneu, Euss. ■wraya, 
 Germ, ohne. Go. mw, old Germ, ana, aane, and omo (in, on), 
 Germ, sondern meaning but, L. sed (with equals but). 
 
 225. The branch headed by sun has very extensive connexions 
 outside of the list of prepositions; our same is identical with 
 San. sarri, with, Pers. ham, our sim-ilar, G'k ^ama = German 
 zu-sammen, L. iWew (=with), .to-gether (geth equals with); 
 from the sense of with and together, taken with the etymology, 
 we connect L. omnis equal to all, Illyr. vas, sva, Lith. wissas. 
 Boh. wsse (with) =all, whole, full, G'k 'olos, Oskish sollos, our 
 sole, solid; San. sarva is every, whole, Latin salvus (J,=r'), our 
 safe, sound. Per. har. Germ, jeder, Germ. ^a?i2; = all (g=c, s), 
 our even — all these point to San. sa (ha) = with; (in Lat., we 
 found 2m= any, all, and, and g'Me=al-so (both relatives); so, 
 now, we find with, related to qui, also connected with words 
 
 . denoting all, whole, safe; there is also L. semi and hemi=half, 
 which point to San. sam (halves are equals, same) — and many 
 other cases which we cannot notice here. 
 
 226. With, as we hinted above, is connected with betwixt 
 (G'k meta-xu) and between, being identical with midst t-wixt 
 L. inter (a form of m) = between, and German unter (a form of 
 m<er)^be-neath and amid, and German hinter (a form oi inter 
 inner) =behind and down, under; we have the connexions 
 loith-out and with-in, and in A. Sax., with-aeften equals behind 
 after, and withforan equals be-fore; and hence with equals out' 
 in, after, fore, 'since it unites with these words. 
 
 227. Out: Germ, aus, ausser (out-er). Per. as = of, Lith. uz 
 Lett, is, G'k eis for in, Go. id (L. t«=that), Per. e,-i, Lat. e and 
 
HISTOKY OF PARTICLES. 61 
 
 ex, our of, ofi (we say out-of), Sa.n. ut, old Grerman a/ and aue ; 
 this preposition is plainly the same as to, so, that, the letters 
 being transposed. 
 
 228. Up and under: San. wpar and wpa, G-'k 'wpo and 'uper 
 meaning linder and a-bove, Lat. super and subter meaning over 
 and under, San. upari, our upper (outer). Germ. Uber, Fr. sur, 
 Gor. war; Per. bar (u-par) is on, and upon ; L. supra is above 
 and up-on ; old German u-bar (German alier for but, bout) and 
 uffa, wpha foi^ab-ov«, ab-out; A. S. bufan (butan, but)=s*per 
 and a^bove, o-ver (aber, other, ooler') ; A. Sax. up and uppan^ 
 super, de-super ^ Gr'kpeyara meaning above and beyond; Gr'k 
 para, ovlv from ; (J'k peri, onr for ; Dan. j> a a is up-on; Euss. 
 po means a-bout, a-fter (L. post) ; IWyr. pak, our back; Germ, 
 ow/is up, on, of and off; iG-reek apo and epi=o{, up, and on; 
 Alb. mpi (Latin ambi. Germ, u/m-bei), aTidiper=su-per ; Alb. 
 a-pher {after), by; Ita,\.fra (from) equals in-fra, in-ter, in-traj 
 our by; Cornish dre (un-der), through (Latin trans), and a-drb 
 meaning around, Celtic Breton tro, Erench tow, our thro'. 
 
 229. There is no end to the connexions of such words. The 
 student will particularly notice here, what he will observe in 
 every branch of language, that, from the full form Lat. su-per, 
 for example, some languages use per and vary it as ber, bar, ter) 
 others use uper, upper, up, while the Fr. throw out the jj, and 
 have sur ; this shows that it is as true in words as it is with 
 animals, that every part is complete in itself, and has the 
 capacity, under certain conditions, observable chiefly in the 
 lower orders of life, of becoming itself a whole; and we observe, 
 too, that a word may be divided, as to its elements, very differ- 
 ently; thus, irb-ter {in and ter, per, sur) or int-er (ini=and, ad)j 
 and ab-ove (over, of out), or a-bove (bout, but, by). So that 
 we find representatives for parts of words, or for two words 
 uniting together, in other simple (so considered) and complete 
 words. These points, well kept in view, will enable the student 
 to proceed much easier in tracing the lineage of words. 
 
 230 B^ ; G-'k e-pi, Germ, bei, Lat. ob (over), Lith. pi, San. 
 abhi and api, G'k opisB (=a-fter), our back, Gothic bi, in and 
 around, A. S. be, in and to, Fr. de, L. de, e equals of (our to) ; 
 A. S. emb (em), em-be, ym-butan, Gr'k am^hi. Lot. amb (and 
 L. am-bo meaning both, as Germ, bei-de equals both ; by equals 
 and, and both), Russ. o-b, o, ob-o, old Germ. um-U, Welsh am, 
 Irish im-m, Latin circ-um. 
 
 231. (We see by this am-bi, U7n-bi, the growth of a preposition 
 by doubling, while the elements am and by are both used alone, 
 with the sense of the full form unv-bi; and observe, too, those 
 elements um and 6i im-bi) may themselves be conceived of, as 
 made up of elements again like themselves ; Euss. ob is clearly 
 
g2 PHKASIS. 
 
 double, as much as amh, and even the o equal to oh has its 
 parts, undistiDguishable, as o-o. Such facts as these, m language, 
 we find patent everywhere.) The L. a-pud meaning at and with, 
 belongs with epi ; among is to be classed with ambi; to and at 
 are other forms oihy,pi (p = 0> as they are also of the, that. 
 
 232. For: the connexions of this particle are very extensive; 
 the identity of orthography proves its relation with the follow- 
 ing : /ore, he-fore, former, forth, ere (fore), early, Latin prms, 
 first; Gcerm. fruh = early axidi fore, San. pwms, G'k prm, Lith. 
 pirm (all denoting fore, first, and marked by fr, pr, er) ; far 
 and from {Go.fruma for first, Germ, erst), further (Germ, vor- 
 der, fore)— our word prince, Gavm.. fUrst, belongs with for, fore 
 (a fore-man); there is the German fraxi, froh, fromm, and our 
 
 force, frost, fresh, and very many others which we might name, 
 also connected with fore, first, for. 
 
 233. These are the variations /or undergoes : Gr'k pro, pros 
 imdproti (=for), Latin pree meaning for, and before, Kus. pra 
 &nd pred (= before), Kus. pro for of, and about, and pre for 
 beyond, and pri for near ; Go. faura and faurth, L. prseter for 
 before, and above, Fr. pow, Fr. proche for near, L. prope, Kus. 
 protiv, against, Illyr. pored, near, and potlam, after, Welsh ger 
 meaning near, and er, for, and er-hyn, against. Corn, rag, (gar) 
 equal to for, and from, and a-rak, before, Cornish re (rag and 
 er), by. 
 
 234. Of and off; of (p^) is thus connected: L. ah, and, L. 
 C and ex (=from and o/), G'k apo and aph (ofi'), San. apa for 
 ofi', away, and far, our afar, San. ava, away, oif, Goth, af Pers. 
 az, Rus. ov, ot, and o=of, against, and from, Illyr. od and oda 
 (our to), and van (German vori, of, from) = outer, extra, (the 
 Hebrew min meaning from, is to be compared with the German 
 von, of) ; The Germ, v-on, of, shows the on equal of; Welsh o 
 and odd (same as a and ag, with) equal of, and from — it is a, 
 meaning of, in C-B. ; e, whirch in L. equals of, from, in C-B., is 
 seen with the forms enn, el, er, for in, Fr. d-aris. If we bear in 
 mind the G'k apo, we shall easily connect after and its family 
 with'o/. In Alb., nte and mpe (into) is in, and of, and mpi is 
 by; in Fr. and L., cZeisof (to); in Wal., c?e and (ie?a (?a = the); 
 in Hung., it is tol, while nel (t—n) is by; old Germ, ir (is, am, 
 out) means of, from ; Slavic -iz (aus) means out, Latin ex of. 
 
 235. To, at, in, and on : to equal to at, shows easily how the 
 letters of a word transpose; Lat. ad, Wal. la (l=d) — showing 
 to equal the; Sem. I and d, Fr. a and de (at and to). Germ. zu. 
 Kus. d-o and 21a, Gaelic do, Goth, and is in, and un'd is to till 
 A. S. oth, old Germ, ant (at), at, and ana, an, in (hence in-to) 
 also nah (ana) means to and from, and v-an, f-ona (Germ von 
 —on with v) is used ioT from and 0/; Lat. ante, French amn< 
 
HISTORY OF PARTICLES. 63 
 
 (on-to, in-to) meaning before, is a form of at, ad, and; so is L. 
 a'pud, with, and G'k una, on. The pronominal nature of these 
 four particles is very evident. 
 
 236. Through and across : through is thus represented : Lat. 
 trans for over, across and beyond, Graelic thar and trid, Welsh 
 tros for over. Sans, tiras, Kussian cherez, Illyrian srez (s^ch), 
 sez, kroz (cross), all meaning through (cross is tros, trans'), old. 
 Germ, thurg, thuru (thorough), Germ, durch, A. S. thurh, Goth. 
 thairh, Per. dar, in, G'k dia, 1,. per (p = t), G'k peri for about, 
 above, around, beyond, and hence over and across, through; 
 Polish przez equals through (p = f) and przi/ equals by, procz 
 equals out, outer ; and for outer, out, out of, we find Pol. krom 
 and o-ltrom, (a-cross), krom, for trom, (7c=«); the cr of cross is 
 the tr of trans, and the pr of per; so, too, it is the vr, pr, of 
 o-ver, su-per, the ar of around (ard, dar), G^rnj heritm (Polish 
 krom). (Door and all its class connect with through, German 
 dm-ch.) 
 
 237. We may, as well here as' elsewhere, state definitely, 
 what we have before only touched upon, viz., the following law : 
 Every case-form, tense-form, person-form, or form of any kind, 
 is just as mu<|h a proper representative of the word, as that 
 which we call tne word itself, and which', as amo or ama, we 
 erroneously conceive to be the root, the base, the original 
 Every abbreviation of a word is one of its forms, every combina- 
 
 . tion of it with some other element is also a form of the same. 
 And all this arises from the fact that one form may be more 
 condensed or more developed than another ; to illustrate, ama- 
 bant (past tense) is one of the forms of amo, (it is amo in one 
 of its deyelopments, not amo of the present, but that imaginary 
 thing which we call the verb amo, that thing which is made 
 manifest by its forms) ; whom is a form of who, lovest is a forjn 
 of love, loving is another form; before is a form of fore, attract 
 is a form of tract, pretend is one of the phases of tend. 
 
 238. It is only by remembering this law, that we shall under- 
 stand how it occurs, that what we find used in one case, in one 
 number, or in one tense, is found, in another ■ language, in 
 another case, number, tense, or application ; as, what we have 
 for these, the Germans have for this (dies-er, dees). 
 
 ^ 239. We may remark, farther, that verbs are named from 
 the 1st person, sing, prest., but there is no reason why the verb 
 should not be named as well from any other person, or tense, or 
 mood — so the verb amo we might call amare (inf.), or amabat; 
 and so the noun may be called from any of its case or number 
 forms, as well as by its usual name, the nominative. The verb 
 or noun itself is an imaginary thing, and is only represented by 
 the forms, called words, from which it is itself distinct, as the 
 
64 PHRASIS. 
 
 60ul is from the body. So amo is as much one of the forms of 
 what we call the verb amo (but which might be called amare 
 as well) as amai or amavi is. We discard the idea of any form, 
 or word, being the root or original of a class — we may use the 
 term for convenience, but it can never stand testing. Where 
 are the root or base-forms of the human race ? 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 HISTOKY OP NUMERALS. 
 
 240. That at least three of the numerals, the first three, are 
 pronouns, is beyond all doubt. In almost all languages, the 
 numeral one is used as an article, or as a sort of demonstrative 
 pronoun — it belongs to the family of our a, an, any, none, sonie. 
 We have seen under the head of pronouns, that an is demon- 
 strative as well as the. The Pr. on, German man (Russ. on, he, 
 
 • oni, they, Sw. han, he), is used as we employ Sie, in one asks, 
 one says, and as they, in they ask, they say. In Dan., we find 
 eet (it) as well as een, for one. The Germ, man, one, the Gr'k 
 monos, al-one, only, and mia, one, shows many ^ one. 
 
 241. The related forms of one differ from it very materially 
 in form. Even its own adjective _;??-s(. Germ, erst, Gr'k protos, 
 L. primus, Rus. perpi, is apparently far removed from it ; but, 
 that these superlative forms are in the end identical with one, 
 is seen by the Turkish hir, one, and Pgr. bar, once. The Lat. 
 semel, is onoe, our simple, single, similar (same, even), L. sem,i, 
 demi (half), (middle, with, G'k smi), sole. Our each, Per. ek 
 OT yek, one, Gr'k 'apax, once (_p=k,) and Gr'k eka-teros, each 
 (San. eka, one), is another form of one — either, whether, Lith. 
 katras, San. kataras, G'k poteros, is also a remote form (G'k ek 
 (from, apart, alone) is eka, each, one (al-one), Latin ex). 
 
 242. We will now dwell briefly on some additional forms of 
 one as they appear in different languages. Thus, in Slavic, we 
 find such forms as, jeden, eden, yheden ; this d does not appear 
 in our one, L. un-us, Gr'k hen, but it is clearly the r of protos] 
 first — strike out this d, and eden becomes een, one; other Slavic 
 forms are ains, weens, wienas, our one. The Semitic has echad 
 or ehad (San. eka, Slav, gheden), also had, and, miie— the Per 
 class,, besides jek,yek, has also ju, yuo. The Finnish class has 
 egy {,eka),alm, akt, ogy=ot it (Danish eet), wait ^w-one), yJcss 
 and odyk (Slav, eden, d=k). Old Germ, has eyn for egeH,een 
 
HISTORY OF NUMERALS. 65 
 
 (G'k 'eis), Alb. gna equal to una — so, we see we have suppressed 
 the g, k, d, y, t, which appears in other languages, or we have 
 only n to represent it. 
 
 243. Two : The identity existing between some of the forms 
 of one and two, is easy to be observed ; thus, the Turk, hir, our 
 first, is the Latin his, twice, and the either, each, and whether, 
 which we have just connected with one, are also connected with 
 other =i second, two ; so, too, the h and d marks of one, seen in 
 so many languages, are not different from the t and d of two. 
 
 244. The numeral two is plainly identical with the demon- 
 strative element ta, Gr'k to, our the, as well as with the adverb 
 too, prep. to. In Latin, alter, other , is often used for second — 
 in short, it is a prevailing feature in language, to find other equal 
 to second. We can easily connect our two with L. his (bs, bt), 
 by taking tw equal to th, reversed ht, hs. 
 
 245. We will now give some of the forms of two. In Germ, 
 class, we have twei, zwa, zween (een, ein, eins, one), zuene, tu, 
 tov, and hais (Gr'k beta, L. his). In Slavic, two is dva, doua, 
 du, diwe; Sem. dou, ith, aeth (leaving off some of the endings) 
 — there is also cM, quit, kill, haul, and ter (less the endings of 
 the plural), where chl, ql, kl, and hi identify with kl, tl, tr', and 
 point to our three, Lat. tres (See the forms of Sem. three'). The 
 Heb. form for two- is sena-im (aim, im, is plural ending) ; this 
 reminds us of the Malay forms for one, sa, sat, sar, isa, do, taha, 
 tika. Of tfie Tartar languages, those which have emu, omin, 
 for one, have also djuo, djur, dsur, chojur (chj=dj), for two — 
 and those which have hir equal to one, have iJei, oke (k=t), for 
 two. In Finn., two is kak, kyk, kit, kwekt{k=t, w), in Malay, 
 lor, kal, dua, row, nou (I, d, k, r, and n = t, and tw, du) — lr = tr. 
 
 246. Three : That three is not essentially different from ttvo, 
 must be evident on the slightest reflection — they are as nearly 
 identical as this and that, or as here and there, here and tJie ; 
 Germ, der, the, three. 
 
 In the Gr'k, Slav., Gerni., Celt., and Lat. class of languages, 
 tr is the prevailing mark for three. In Sem., it is sel, tel, toul, 
 U, se (all=<r, tl); in Malay, we have this same tal, tel, but also 
 tig-a, tor -ho; Finnish koV , kor' (k = t), also kwiu, kuim, kolm, 
 like our two (k=t); in Tart., it is iV (Sem. t-el), also gur {g== 
 d, t) — and for such dialects as have Ur for one, we find utsch, 
 uss, wisse, for three (this we may divide thus, ut-sch). 
 
 247. Four: The variations which the number /our exhibits, 
 in the different languages, are these : 
 
 Tartar ; duin, digin, dort, dorV. 
 Sem.; arh', har', uV, arr' {arh = har, f-our). 
 Slav. ; chetyr, seter, chtir', zetter (ch=z). 
 Per. J tchetr, djahar, zippar=zittar, tsulor (l==d, t), 
 9 
 
66 PHRASIS. 
 
 Finn. ; nel', negy, njul. 
 
 Malay ; papat, ampat, pat, opat, wutu, fiaa, ra, ja, ejar, 
 hpat, wati (w^p). „ 
 
 Grr'k; kattr, tessar,pessar, catre, qiiatr, bator i^o=q,JJ. 
 Germ. ; Jiar', mer,fidwor,feower (dw = v},u). 
 Celt.; ceithir,pedwar,pevar,peder {p=/^- _ 
 
 248. That all these forms can easily be connected, is a matter 
 that does not admit of question ; in Tartar., du equals dg, dr, 
 which is the tr, ter of G'k and Slav, four; the Slav, chetyr, L. 
 quatuor, our quarter (fourth), Greek Jcattr, catre, quatr, Persian 
 tchetr, djahar, have all developed an internal t which does not 
 appear in OTir four, but which does appear in the German form 
 fidwor, and in the Celtic pedwar for pevar {^fevar, feower, 
 ybitj-)— those letters t, k, q, c, tch, dj, h, are all equals of our 
 f=p. In Finn., nel, neg, 9i;7 equal nr, wr,fr. In Malay, we 
 see how forms reduce ; thus, papat, opat, efat, pat, wat, fa, 
 haa, ra; these easily go with peder, pessar,four. 
 
 249. That this numeral might, as a matter of etym^ogy, be 
 identified with any one of the three which precede it, is some- 
 thing quite evident. The Tartar points clearly, in its duin, to 
 the'L. duo and its own djuo, two; the Finn, negy points to the 
 
 • San. eka and its own egy, aku, one, while the tr, dr, prevailing 
 in the Slavic, Greek, and German classes, indicates tres, three. 
 There is indeed little question, that the diflFerent numerals are 
 all allied, and are merely the different application and develop- 
 ment of one element. But about the precise history of this four 
 further than this, there is nothing demonstrable — though some-^ 
 thing may be said as probable. 
 
 250. It has been supposed by some, that four, in such forma 
 as Celt, peder, Gr'k pessar, Slavic chetyr, our quarter, is a com- 
 pound of one and three, the pe, qua, ch, representing eka, one, 
 and ter, three, yet we cannot say that we have found any evi- 
 dence sustaining this theory. The. resemblance between four, 
 in its different forms, in the course of languages, and two, is 
 greater than that between four and any other numeral. The 
 strongest evidence in this direction, is found in the Tartar class, 
 already noticed, and in the Caucasian class which we may notice 
 here ; thus, we find, there, the forms di and tchor equal to four, 
 and tu, scM,jer {=cher) equal to two. Besides, the ch, f, and 
 p, so common as the initial element of four in the European 
 languages, also points to the two, as does the dw of fidwor. 
 
 251. It is supposed, again, but without any positive proof that 
 we know of, thajt four is a compound = 2x2, or the 2d two. 
 We can only take this proposition as nearly certain, that four stands 
 in a closer relation with two than with any othfer numeral in a 
 word, that two is the element,, or fundamental element, of 'four- 
 
HISTOKY OF NUMERALS. 67 
 
 taking etymology alone for evidence. There is no history on 
 this point. There is, besides this, another theory, of which we 
 can only say that it presents what is barely possible, that fovr 
 equals one from five, on the Rom. system of notation, iv; four 
 and jive, it must be said, often resemble each other in form. 
 
 252. There is some evidence to show that four has at times 
 been treated as the base of the number system, being designated 
 by a word signifying whole, all, end. Taking this as true, and 
 remembering that/oM/- is probably a form of two, we should be 
 finally brought to the conclusion that two is the base of the 
 numerical system. In our opinion, two is the beginning and 
 the end of all numbering — ^beyond this and that, here and there, 
 we have no numbers — all must come under the category of one 
 or the other. To number is to compare, but we can compare 
 only two things, or one with one. 
 
 253. Five : There seems to be not so much doubt about the 
 number _/i«e. It is a fact not to be questioned, that numeration, 
 in the earlier stages of society, was carried on with reference to the 
 fingers', and we still find the child involuntarily resorting to the 
 fingers in his first lessons in counting and calculation. It seems 
 to be well established, that there are tribes who in their system 
 not only count in the fingers of both hands, but after this count" 
 also their toes. — for instance, some of the Am, Indians. The 
 Greenlanders can count with their numbers only to five, one 
 hand, and when they go beyond that they must repeat, as we 
 do when we get beyond ten — thus, six is one-on-2d-hand, eight 
 is on-2nd-hand-three. After ten, the toes of both feet are 
 counted also j thus, for 13 they have on first foot three. When 
 they have twenty, they have, in their terms, "a whole man", 
 and to get beyond twenty, they must use a 2d man. 
 
 254. In several languages, is easily discernible the i(^entity 
 between the term for_/itieand that for hand; thus. Per. panchan 
 means five and pentsha i^eans hand, and there are several 
 instances of the like in the Malay class of languages. In some 
 of the African tongues, not only is hand equal to five, but seven 
 is expressed by hand and two, and fifteen by three hands. Alex. 
 Humboldt tells of American tribes where four is used as such a 
 base, six being /oitr with two, and eight being /«e with three. 
 
 255. Some of the forms oifive are the following : 
 
 Tart.; tunf, ton', tab' (t=Gr'\p); many of the Tart, tongues 
 have hash, hesch, equal to five, but this is precisely the word 
 for head, while hand is kal, gal, gar. 
 
 Slav. ; pett,pent,pink, piatt. (Q'kpente, L. quinq', Geim. fUnf). 
 
 Per.; pendj, pinz. Ions (in Ossete) (J—p)- 
 
 Finn. ; wiss, wjet, wit, net, at, ot (w=p, at=p-at, p-ent). 
 
 Malay; lima, rima, dimi (l=f, p) — lima, rima=hand. 
 
68 PHBASIS. 
 
 Gr'k; pes, pend, quinq, sinq, cinq — p, q, s^f of Jive. 
 
 We notice in many instances, that hand and foot agree in 
 form; notice in Gr'k a\so pes, pend equals five, and pes, pod = 
 foot. 
 
 Germ.; fiinf, fyf, fimm, five ) Celt. cidg,pemp (n = q,p,f). 
 
 Sem. ; kham' (p^k, kK), ham', am' (for kam, pam, ham). 
 
 256. Six : Wc can ascertain nothing decisive about the his- 
 tory of six. The Greek 'eaj is practically equal to ex, out of, 
 beyond, over, and we notice something of this coincidence in 
 some. of the Tartar languages; mor.eover, ex=eks may be iden- 
 tified with the eka, one, and we might thus take six as one after 
 or over (taking 5 as the basis or end), i. e. 5 and one more; or 
 one in the 2d hand, or series. There are many instances of a 
 coincidence between siz and one, also between six and two=one; 
 notice also L. sex=seks, sequor, secukis, secutive (the one after 
 or following). Some, again, have supposed six to be 2 x 3; two 
 threes. 
 
 257. We may notice these forms : 
 
 Tart. ; ning', njun', dsurg', surg (ng, nj=dj, ds, s of sixY; 
 many Tart.-tongues have alt, alty {alt = at, as, sa, six). 
 
 Slav.; chest, se, sest (ch=s). 
 
 Sem,; sis', seth', schash, sedest, soas, sita (six). 
 
 Pers. ; shess, shesch', achs', spuz (sp = sh, s). 
 
 Finn. ; kuss, kot, kud, kwef, kut (A = s). 
 
 Malay; sad,°daou, anom, ono, nel, ol, houn, elen — nam, anarti, 
 appears in many of the Malay tongues ; it resembles the Tartar 
 six and our nine. 
 
 G'k; giast (gi=si'), ex, hex, sex,fiess (/=s), sie, seje, cheie. 
 
 Germ. ; sex, sechs, segs, zies, sess, seks, saihs, six. 
 
 The Tart. a% is connected with our all, whole, heap. 
 _ 258. Seven : There is often a remarkable coincidence between 
 
 six and seven; we even see it in the Lat. sex (6) and sept' (7) 
 
 but this is perhaps the very coincidence of one and two, this and 
 that, a and the. It is quite possible, even probable, that six and 
 seven are 1 + 5, 2 + 5, just as 11=1 + 10, 12 = 2 + 10; in 
 one case 5 being the base, and in the other 10. We know the 
 Eoman numerals are made after that manner, as VI and VII. 
 The forms of seven are these : 
 
 Tart.; nad, dol,jedi, edi, sett (n, d, j =s). 
 
 Slav. ; sedm, sem, sept. 
 
 Sem. ; ^ih' , tah' , sub', 'aft. 
 
 Pers. ; hapt heft, 'aaft, 'awd, 'own (aaft=saft, sent) 
 
 Fmn. ; kjet , ssis, ssat, het, la-hut, la-ssat, ja-qet- 
 
 Malay ; pit', tudj, het, fil, it, fit, pitt, (see s-ept) 
 
 Grk; state, hept, sept, set, siet, cheapt (srf=Malav Hf) 
 
 Germ.; sehi, sibn, simm, sojn, san, sio, sov (sev-en) 
 
HISTORY OF NUMERALS. 69 
 
 Celt. ; seachdf saith, seih. 
 
 All these forms are easily identified. 
 
 259. Eight: This is another number about whose history 
 there is much that is doubtful. It has been maintained that 
 with 8 and 9 we enter upon a subtracting method of notation, 
 that 8 is two from 10, and 9 one from 10. Considering the' 
 great resemblance, often found, between the forms for eight and 
 two, and between nine and one, the proposition is plausible. 
 Indeed in the Eom. method, 9 is ix, one from ten. It is, we 
 think, more probable, however, that the system applies to the 
 nine than to eight, as we find the fact in Roman. 
 
 260. It has been claimed, again, that eight is two fours, as 
 we imagined four to be two twos, and, considering the oft recur- 
 ring coincidence of eight with two and septem (which we believe 
 to be accented on two, yi'iihfive for a base), we regard this the- 
 ory as the most probable. In Tartar and Finn., we find eight 
 pointing most undoubtedly to two. 
 
 261. Here follow the difierent forms of eight : 
 
 Tart.; djak, djaplc, naim' (nm = dp}, sseJc, ss-egis (dk, s7c—st'). 
 
 Slav. J osm, ossam, vossom, aszt, ahf (sm^st, ct). 
 
 Sem. J semoun, tem-on, sem-ent (snn==stn, st). 
 
 Pers. ; Jiasht, hasch, ast, utu (eight, ate, oci). 
 
 Finn. ; kadekssan, kattesa, kykamyss, nilonov,, nuul, nillach, 
 niglach (Jcdk, ktt = oct, ott, Slav, akt, kyk = nul'). 
 
 Malay ; wolu, halu, qual, arrou, afa, de-lapan, salwpan (wl, 
 hi, gl=wr, ar ; af=akt, act'). 
 
 Greek ; tete,okto, oict, uit, vot, ott, vuit, huit, opt. 
 
 Germ. ; acto, acht, qhtan, atta, eight. 
 
 Celt. ; ochd, wyth, eiz, eith. 
 
 Behold the variations that pt, kt, tt, ct, ch, ck, undergoes. In 
 Mai., lua, rua, dalua equal two, a.ndi papat, apat, ampat equal 
 four, hence de-lapan equals tyjo fours. 
 
 262. Nine : very little is to be said of nine, save what was 
 mentioned in treating of eight. In Tamil, nine is clearly one 
 from ten. The initial of Malay nine agrees with one ; the end- 
 ings of all Finn, nines are like ten. It will be observed, also, 
 that some forms of nines equal novus, new, and it has been 
 claimed that those words have the same origin. 
 
 263. The following are the forms : 
 
 Tart. ; ujun, jegin, Jissun, jessu, dokus (jeg=dok=nv). 
 Slav.; devett (Taxt. dok, nov, n = d). 
 Sem.; iisch, tis, tasa, nouh, zet, tse (ts = ds, dv, nv). 
 Pers.; 'nouh, nah (TO=Slav. and Sem. d, i). 
 Finn.; ydekssan, ygoksse, uttesa, ykmyss, ontolon. Here we 
 have ydek=ygok, ykmy, utt, out (=dev, nov, dok). 
 
 Malay . songo, naioa, siwa (s=«), sira, ea, tiva (s=f, »)■ 
 
70 PHRASIS. 
 
 G-r'k; nande, ennea, enar, egnia, nou, nef, nov {nd=dn, dv). 
 Germ. : neun^ onun, negen (ng=g'n,, dn), nio, m (^ein = one). 
 Celt.; naoidh, naw, nao (nd — dn, nw = wn, dn). 
 We may notice here, without difficulty, great resemblance 
 between some forms for nine and those for one and ten. 
 
 264. Ten : We will lastly give the forms for ten ; 
 Tart. ; djan, men, arb, on. 
 
 Slav. ; dessett, desymt, desniith, zassech. 
 
 Sem. ; asro, gasrh, assir, ascher (asr = das, dec-em). 
 
 Pers. ; desnie, deli, des, lus (l=d, des = d-es). 
 
 Malay; dasa, pulu, rouru {rr=pT), seik. 
 
 Gr'k; djett, thiet, deka, dez, den, de, des, dix, deci. 
 
 Finn.; kmn, {km=!=dm), das, lu,jon (^j—d). 
 
 Germ. ; tehan, zehn, tein, tigen, taihun, ti, ten. 
 
 Celt.; deicfi, deg. 
 
 Behold the forms into Which dc, dg, dt, dk, develops itself. 
 
 265. That the basis of ten is two, is evident enough — refer- 
 ring, without doubt, to two hands, or fives. It is even possible 
 that ceTn, in L. decern, represents _/sye, quinq, cinq. Ten, Greek 
 deka, is no doubt, too, connected with dexter, the right, which 
 again connects with deiknwmi (Greek), to show, and with digit, 
 finger or pointer, shower; toe belongs to the same family, as 
 well as Germ. zaM, number, tell, count, show, say, in-dicate. Not 
 only does the right agree with ten, but in some languages also 
 left agrees withji?t)e. 
 
 We will notice briefiy some of the numbers after ten. 
 
 266. The uniform practice in the difierent languages, is to go 
 on, after ten, adding to ten, as 13 = three and ten (thirteen); 
 This position is clear for all except eleven and twelve, which 
 differ considerably in character, so far as appearance goes, from 
 the other combinations. That the initial part of twelve might 
 be two is possible, but the Iv has little to do with tent 
 
 267. The following forms will illustrate eleven. 
 Fries.; andlova, alvene, elleva. 
 
 A. S. ; endlu/on. 
 
 Icel. ; ellifu. 
 
 Goth.; aira-fey (one left). 
 
 Fries. ; twelve is twiliva, tolva, tolef. 
 
 Old Sax.; twelif. 
 
 Icel. ; tolf. 
 
 Goth.; toa-?iy (two left). 
 
 268. That this Iv, If, lif, represents our leave, left. Go. leihan 
 G'k leip5, admits of little doubt; so that 11 would be one-left, one- 
 over, or one-more ; and twelve equals two-left, two-over. The use 
 of this over, or its equivalents, in numbering in this way is com 
 mon with us and elsewhere. In Wall., 11 is one over 10 or ow 
 
HISTORY OF NUMERALS. 71 
 
 and ten, as unu-spre-dece (this spre equals supra, over, and) — so, 
 twelve is two-over-ten. In Lithuanian, 11 is wieno-lika, and 12 is 
 dwylika — and with the same lika up to 20. This lihe, can, it 
 is true, be identified with deka, ten, as ten is remotely connected, 
 again, with and, over, one, but that lika, in Lith., represents 
 directly ten or deka, does not seem probable. It seems prefer- 
 able to refer it to lif, Iv, which we have been considering, or to 
 super, over, and besides to the ly of only, thirdly. 
 
 269. By the way, in French, 11 and 12 are reduced to onze 
 and douze, not different from our once and twice — and even in 
 our eleven apd twelve, the one and two, being accented, prevail 
 almost to the exclusion of the other element; this calls to mind, 
 too, the form of some of those numbers ^hich we have before 
 been considering, simple in appearance, while in fact we know 
 them to be compound (as eight) — the accented element prevail- 
 ing to the exclusion of the other. , 
 
 270. But we do not find such irregularity or ambiguity, in 
 these numbers, in many other languages. Thus, in Persian, 11 
 is ydzdah, 12 is duwazdah {yak = \, du=2, dah^lO). The 
 dah is plain, and is found so in all the rest of the teens, but the 
 z, which is found in no others, save 19, seems to be a third ele- 
 ment equal to az, by, with, and. In Gael., we find deaz in all 
 the teens and in 11 and 12, without connexion, as aon-deaz, do- 
 deaz. This system prevails in Celtic. It is the one of L. and 
 Greek, un-decim, duo-decim, tre-decim. The connective is not 
 developed in the Latin languages generally, though we do find 
 y=and in Spanish. In Polish, commencing with 11, the num- 
 bers are connected substantially as in Latin — the copulative is 
 scarcely developed- — though in Russ., we see it appearing in a 
 strong light; as, ma=on, over, and; thus, odin-na-dzat, one- 
 and-ten, eleven. 
 
 271. The number twelve is often represented by dozen (same 
 as San. dasan = ten): — dozen (Germ, duzend) is connected also 
 with thousand. Germ, iausend. So that thousand is only a ten, 
 and hund (-red) is not perhaps different. Gothic tai-hun is ten 
 (2 fives ?), our teen, teh-en — here we see the hund. It is easy 
 to see that Pr. douze (12) is our dozen ; Lat. cent (-um), hund, 
 equals Pr. cinq, five ; in some of the Tartar dialects, the sarne 
 word is used for 3 and 100. Twenty is a developed two (Latin 
 viginti, twenty, is not far froin qydnque, five). 
 
 272. In Goth., we find for 20, 30, 40, tvai-tigus, ihrija-tigus, 
 fidvor-tigus — <i^ms another form of ten. In Lat., for these they ■ 
 use viginti {bi-ginti), tri-ginta, quadra-ginta — the ginti here 
 plainly representing ten, and yet agreeing in form more with 
 centum (100), and with five (^mw^)— furnishing more proof of 
 ten=AMMcZ, five (200 is du-centi). I» Irish, the case is still 
 
72 . PHRASIS. 
 
 plainer, as 30 is trio-cad, and ceacZ=100 {cead also is Jirsty, in 
 Cor., i-ganz =20, and cans = 100. In San., vm-sati-= 20, sato' 
 = 100, and pancha-sat=50. 
 
 273. In Celtic, by the way, we do not find the same regular 
 system of twenty, thirty, forty, as we do in other European lan- 
 guages, but 30 is ten and twenty, 40 is two times twenty, 80 is 
 4 X 20, 50 is 10 and 40, 300 is 16X20. We notice in Pers., 
 that these numbers have scarcely developed enough to render 
 the latter element distinguishable; thus, 30 is si (a.nd sih =8), 
 shast equals 60 and 6. 
 
 274. In Latin, besides the forms decern et octo, and decern et 
 novem, there are also duo-de-viginti (2 from 20), un-de-viginti, 
 for 18 and 19- — so the usual forms for 28 and 29 are two-from- 
 thirii/, one-fromr-ikirty . This lends credibility to. the position 
 that 8, as well as 9, is made by subtracting one from 10, two 
 from ten. In the teens of Mod. Greek, we find dekatreis (ten 
 (and) three), but 11 and 12 are en-deka, dS-deka. In Alban., 
 the connecting m^e = of, and, over, is developed, commencing 
 with 11; as, nie-mpe-dgiete (11), tre-mpe-dgiete (13). We notice 
 also in Alb., 20 is nie-dzet, 40 is di-dzet, while 10 is dget — so 
 that they stand one-ten, two-ten, so far as form gqes, making ten 
 equal twenty, as it really is. The Greek eiko&i (20) points the 
 same way (deka= 10). 
 
 275. In some of the dialects of Samoid, we find that 8 is 2 
 from 10, and 9 is one from 1 0. .It is claimed that in others, 
 however, it is difl'erent, that 8 is 2 X 4. It is true in this case 
 that det, the last element, is like det^four, but it is also not 
 unlike (Jurak) kot and hied=ten. It is probable, we think, 
 that 8 is formed in the Jurak dialect as in the Ostjak ; in nin-e, 
 the>=i!em is plain. In these dialects, 11 and 12 are formed 
 just as 8 and 9, with only over in place of from. It is clear 
 that these two sets of numbers are really the same on difl'erent 
 sides of the zero mark. It is worthy of note also that in Jurak, 
 9 is called Samoidish-fen ; by the way, we find the very same 
 word used for 10 as for 9 — in other cases, 9 is called Os^'ak- 
 ten; twenty is called two-tens. 
 
 276. Mille, in Latin, is the same as our million in form but 
 is used for thousand. It may be remarked that many words 
 denoting numbers, such as G'k muroi, chilioi, are simply indefi- 
 nite terms, as our heap, lot, host, multitude — and even five 
 hundred, and thousand, may be proved to have connexion with 
 such terms. 
 
 277. It is well known that in many languages, letters are 
 ruR i° ^°^"?n ^""'"^e'-^- Tjiere is at least one language 
 ("Rothwelche ') where names of letters of the alphabet are used 
 to denote numbers also. The first 9 letters of the G'k alphabet 
 
HISTORY OP NUMERALS. 73 
 
 denote units (counting in, for 6 ,an ancient letter not found at 
 present), and the next 9 represent the tens (including an ancient 
 one not used now, representing 90) — the last 9 being used for 
 the hundreds (with an extra one for 900). In Hebrew, the first 
 ten letters are used to denote the 10 numerals, units; 20, 30, 
 etp., up to 100, are denoted by the next nine in order — the 
 remaining four being used for 100, 200, 300, 400. The same 
 in Syr. and Arm. There is evidently a close relationship be- 
 tween the names of letters and the names of numbers. 
 
 278. It is clear to any one who inquires into the nature of 
 numbers, that they are only marks of order; so, we found the 
 first two numbers denoting only former and latt^r^ and that 
 three was allied to them, and four to be the one before five^ or 
 the latter or second two ; we found 8 and 9 to be either the 2d 
 and 1st (latter and former) before ten, or the 8 to be the latter 
 or second /oMr; we found 11 and 12 to be the one or the two 
 after ten — ten being the former or first, the basis. This is the 
 secret of the system ; twenty is only the latter or 2d ten, thirty 
 the ten after 20, forty the latter or 2d twenty. So we find them 
 proceed by steps, by comparisons. There can be no doubt hang- 
 ing around this position. So much, at least, is certain about 
 the nature of numbers ; and it is by virtue of this system of 
 order, that, in Semitic and European languages, the alphabet is 
 used to denote numbers. We repeat it, number is based on 
 order; every number is a m,ere relative marie, or marh of relation. 
 
 279. Twenty, for example, denotes only one, it is the latter 
 or 2d ten — it is still only one thing, one ten — so, ten is the 2d 
 fifth. Hence, we frequently hear it said, he has reached his 
 twentieth year (=20 years). Observe that all ordinals, as 25th, 
 point only to one thing, the 25th — the same must be true, too, 
 of cardinals, as 25. It' is on this principle that the German 
 (and others) says third-a-half (the 8d one being a half), for the 
 number 2 J, showing that in numbering, regard is had alone for 
 the last thing numbered. 
 
 280. The Arabic characters, or figures, can, without doubt, 
 bo identified in their forms with letters. Of these, we notice 
 particularly that 2 and 8 resemble each other, while 7 and 8 . 
 have precisely the same character (v), only difi'erently placed. 
 
 281. We notice in many languages, that the numerals are 
 made to apply to things in the singular, and that where they do 
 belong to the plural apparently, it is really to the genitive sing.; 
 thus, 20 men is twenty of the quantity or class men. Every 
 number, bear in mind, is a unit. Hence, too, a coefficient, a 
 number or a name, never belongs to a thing, but to something 
 of it, as 20 (heads of) men, as we say head of horses, 20 pieces 
 of silver, for 20 silvers— 5 is always 5 one, 5ab is 5 ones of the 
 
 10 
 
74 PHEASIS. 
 
 ab kind. Every plural is a collective noun in the genitive case, 
 it is the quantity, the denomination and the denominator. And 
 as the denominator of a fraction never has reference to number, 
 so it is with the plurals. We must repeat it, no number is plu- 
 ral ; all, many, every, each, used with a plural_ application, are 
 yet singular, and are properly followed by a genitive. It is cer- 
 tain that every nominative plural is a genitive, for it is the 
 quantity. We can have no number, unless it be a number or 
 qxiantity of something. 
 
 282. Six of a thing, or number, is the same as six from it, 
 but every subtraction implies a remainder ; hence, you never 
 can take the whole of a thing, or from a thing, or, if you do, 
 something must still be left. You have a heap of 12 apples, a 
 pile, a quantity; you may take from the pile until the last one — 
 when you come to the last, there will be no taking from or of, 
 but simply a taking. Hence, there is no such thing as one of a 
 thing or from it, if it be the last or the whole ; one and whole 
 equal nothing. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES. 
 
 283. The participle, and under this head we will include all 
 kinds of verbal nouns and verbal adjectives, may, vrith propriety, 
 be taken as the basis of the verb, and as such its forms will first 
 come under consideration. We will give a full comparative 
 view of the participles of different languages, that the student 
 may learn how they are marked, and may observe, also, the 
 curious changes which is undergone by the final syllable which 
 thus characterizes them. 
 
 284. We will commence with the participles and verbals of 
 the G-erman languages. The Swed. infinitive is hind-a, Danish 
 hind-e, A. S. hind-an. Germ, hind-en, our bind ; so, the endino-s 
 all reduce to e, and that, even, with us, disappears. The Gr'k 
 ein, L. ere, er, belongs with them. That the Dan. e represents 
 the L. er-j is seen by the pres't ind., where the er appears; as, 
 hind-er. 
 
 286. The present participle has the following forms • Gothic 
 hind-ands; old Germ, bint-anter; Icel. bind-andi; Germ, bind- 
 end; Eng. bind-ing; Dan. bind-ende; ant, and, end, ing (<'=d) 
 are all modifications of one form, as, again, they are' all a 
 strengthening of the infin. en. The final s, er, i, e, noticed in 
 these forms, are adjective marks. 
 
HISTORy OF PATICIPLES. 75 
 
 286. The corresponding past participle?, of these languages, 
 are as follows; G-o. hund-ans; old Germ, hunt-aner; Icel. hwnd- 
 inn; A. S. hund-en; Du. bond-en; this participle, it will be 
 seen, tends to identify itself with the infinitive, majrking the 
 tense rather by the body of the word than by the ending. We 
 have, for this participle, both hound and bound-en. The en of 
 this part, often appears as ed, et, t, as in our own lov-ed, brough-t, 
 Germ, ge-lieh-t (from lieben, love) — the ed showing the identity 
 of this part, with that in end. The Gothic has a form of this 
 part, in ths; as, salb-onds, sav-ing, sajb-oths, sav-ed — the oth is 
 our ed, with the adjective niark s. 
 
 287. With these German participles, those of Latin readily 
 compare ; the present ends in ans {ants) ; as, am-ans, loving 
 .(Gothic bind-ands) j the past ends Jn atus ; as, cuffi-atus, lov-ed 
 (Gothic salb-ofJji,s, rOts), the Go. s corresponding to the Lat, us. 
 The Anglo Saxon has* a gerund in an%e (with prefix to), from 
 finde ; as writ-ende, writing, gerund writranne, L. ^scrib-endwn, 
 writing— the e of the one and um of the other, being the noun 
 ending. 
 
 288. It should also be remarked, that the German past parti- 
 ciple has the prefix ge (varying in some of the family, and dis- 
 .appearing in others) ; as, schreiben, to write, ancj ge-^chriehen, 
 .\^ritten, 
 
 289. The French, Italian, and Spanish participles afford little 
 that is peculiar, when compared with those already given ; in 
 French, however, the et, it, of tbe papt part, js reduced to e, i; 
 ,as, pwriner, to speak, parl-e, spok-en (for parl-et) — but in olu 
 French, this t appears; as, done-it^ given (French dofin-e), ost-et 
 for ot-e. 
 
 290. Celtic Participles: The Celtic languages have not 
 developed the part, endings so strongly as the Germ, and Latin 
 havOj still, such as do exist are easily ranged along-side of those 
 already noticed. 
 
 291. The Welsh has no uniform infinitive mark, yet the 
 ordina,ry endings od, ed, yll, u, i, o, aw, may be taken as the 
 representatives of it. In G-aelic, we find the more regular adh 
 (Welsh ad^ ; as, leagli-adh, lav-ing ; it takes, also, the form, in ' 
 Irish, of amh, ail In Irish, .Ijhe infin. has prefix do, the to of 
 Qurs; as, buail, strike thou, <^o buoladh, .to strike ; the infin., in 
 Irish, difi'ers from the imperative not only by adding inf. mark, 
 but also by a change in the body of the word ; as, righ, reach, 
 inf -do-roGhtain. This adh of Gaelic is the at of Latin supine 
 am-atum, and the tas of brevitas. 
 
 292. In Celtic, the present participle agrees more with the 
 infinitive. In Irish, this part, has the prefix a, ag_ (our a in 
 go a walldng, also German ge of past part.), thus, teidh, go, do 
 
76 PHRASIS. 
 
 dhuKinim.), and ag did (part.); iahhwlr, give, do tliahhairt 
 (infin.), ag- tahhairt (part.). In Cor., this ag is ou ; as, care 
 (inf.), OM care (part.), loving; in Celt. Bret., it is o; as, kana, 
 to sing, o ^araa, singing (French chant-ant). 
 
 293. The past participle in Celtic is marked by the usual t; 
 thus, in Irish, struck is huail-te; dean, do, dean-ta, done. In 
 Cornish, this t appears as s; thus, care, love, hyr-ys, lov-ed; ry, 
 give, re-ys, given. The Welsh uses its passive part.' only for 
 the persons of the verb; thus, car-ir, (he) is loved; cerid, (he) 
 was loved; cer-ir, (he) will be loved; car-wyd, (he) has been 
 loved; car-asid, (he) had been loved — all these forms going 
 through all the persons of the tense without change. The inf. 
 is here also used for this participle, and it shows well how the 
 two are equal ; thus, I am wedi-dysgu, I am after-learning, i. e. 
 have learned. It has, too, another adj. form for this part., in 
 ed-ig ; as, car-edig, loved, the ig being an adject, development; 
 dysg-edig, learned (teached). In C.B., dalea (and daleout), to 
 delay; dale-et, delayed; kana, to sing, kan-et, sung; kaoout, to 
 find, kav-et, found — from which we see how this part, and the 
 infin. agree. It is seen most clearly, in Celtic, that all the par- 
 ticiples are based on the infinitive. 
 
 294. Slavic Participles: The Polish infinitive is marked 
 by c^=s, z, Russ. t; as, pis-ac, to write. The part's and verbals 
 of Polish are as follows : 
 
 Imper. jDis2, write. P. V&ft. pis-an-y, written. 
 
 Part. Pr. pisz-ans, writing. Past T. pis-al, wrote, written. 
 Ger'd^is-a»8e, the writing. Past. act. na-pis-awszy, liav. written. 
 
 Pisz-ans has also the declinable form pisz-a7is-y, Germ, schreib- 
 end-e, L. scrib-ent-e, from scribens (ans^ens); pis-aii-y is like 
 scrip-t-iis, Lat., our writt-en: it is the precise form of G-o. hund- 
 ans; pis-an-ie is the A.S. writ-anne, L. andum; pis-al ==pis-an; 
 the past active has the common prefix na. All these forms of 
 Polish verbals show very prettily how such forms may gradate 
 into each other. 
 
 295. The Russsan imperative \s pali, burn; infinitive' paZ-i«, 
 to burn ; the other forms are as follows : 
 
 Pr. Part, paly-ash-i, burning. Past act. pal-ivsh-i, hav burned 
 Pr. Pass, pal-im-i, being burned. Pr. gerd. paly-otch-i, in buruinff 
 Past Pass, pal-enn-i, been burned. Past gerd. pal-iv {sh-i), hav. burned. 
 
 296. The Pr. Part, ash-i is Pol. ans-i; im-i is Pol. any (Gr'k 
 pot-im-os, to be drunk); e««-i is a variation of this imi (as we 
 find anne = ande in A. S.)— other forms of this participle are 
 given m t^ (L. t-us, ouved); as, ter-ti, rubb-ed, kalo-ti, pricked: 
 .^vsh-^ IS P. -awsz-y. The gerunds are simply the present and 
 past parts, diflFerently apphed; thus, while the part's are 
 
HISTORY OP PARTICIPLES. 77 
 
 adj's belonging to the noun, the ger'ds are used independently; 
 as, (while) walking on the banks of the river, I -mused, (in) 
 serving our country, we do our duty, having received your letter, 
 I answered ; otchi is found shortened to a, m, and ivshi to iv. 
 There is, too, the past tense paZ-i7, identical with falim, and inf. 
 folit. 
 
 297. The Bohemian infin. is jpiti^ to drink, imper. pi, (py), 
 drink, v6la-ti, to call, volej, call. 
 
 pyj-id {pije), drinking (R. -ashi). volaj-ici, calling. 
 piv-shi, hav. drunk (R. -ivshi). vola-vshi, hav. called. 
 vol-ani, the calling (ger'd). volan, being called (Pass.). 
 
 As we saw in Russian, so here pivshi has the form piv,, which 
 again equals pt7, drank, hav. drank; so, also, volav equals volal, 
 vdlan. 
 
 298. The Slovensh has little that is noticeable; del-ati, to do, 
 del-at (supine), del-ajoc, doing, and ger'd del-aje (Polish ans), 
 and del-anje, the doing (A. S. anne, Lat. andum) Serb. Wend. 
 pal-ic, to burn, jsaZ-acy, hnrnrng, pal-it (pal-imsi), hav. burned, 
 pal-em/, burned (pass.); there is also. a condensed ger'd, pal-o, 
 'RvLSBiau pali-a. 
 
 299. The Illyr. is almost identical with those already noticed; 
 vid-eti (videt) to see, vid-es, seeing, vid-evsM„ hav. seen, also 
 vid-el, vid-jen, seen (Pass. L. vis-urn), vid-jenje, the seeing (Pol- 
 ish anie) — just so in Latin, a/ndum is gerund mark, and andus 
 passive participle. 
 
 300. It remanis yet briefly to consider that past active part, 
 in iwsi, ivshi, awszy. In origin, it is plainly only a growth of 
 the pres't part, ans, yashi, id; its identity, too, with the past 
 in il, al, is seen by its common reduction to iv—il. With its 
 prefix na, as in Polish, it corresponds exactly with German ge- 
 schriehen. But, in form, the ending is double, and it is as a 
 present based on the past part.; as, Huss. paliv-shi on palU; it 
 is like the L. die-to from dic-o, the t representing the ending of 
 an infin. ; this v, iv, av, is used very generally, in Rus., to rep- 
 resent the infin. ending in these forms upon forms ; thus, we 
 find, there, a pluperf. tense of pali, pali-v-al, which is the past 
 of a new form oi pali, paliv for palit, it is the av of am-av-ere, 
 the base of am-av-eram (Lat.) ; the G-'k perf. part, tetu-ph-ot-os, 
 may, no doubt, be compared with it. 
 
 301. The old Prussian infinitive ends in int, it, pres. part, in 
 WIS, ons (Go. ands), and the past or pass. part, in its, int-s (Go. 
 iths). The Lith. has a pres. and fut. pass, in mas (R. imi), and a 
 past act. in d-amas (dams), Russ. iv-shi, Sans, t-avan, also a 
 future s-es (^sens), G'k s'ds. s-Sn, Sans, s-yan. 
 
 802. Hungarian Part's : In Hung., the infinitive ends in 
 ni, as var-ni, to waitj var-o, waiting (short as in Boh.); var't 
 
78 PHRASIS. 
 
 (past part.) waited, (active and passive) ; var-and-o, a part, in- 
 dicating one who will wait, or one to be waited for, and corre. 
 spending exactly to the G-er. zu lohend, to be praised (to prais- 
 ing), and the Lat. a-mand-us, (one) to be loyed. The parallel 
 between these part's and those of Latin, is unmistakable — the 
 present in o being a condensed form, as the Dan. e, infin. for L. 
 are. Not only are the past and fut. part's used with both an 
 active and a passive force, even the present part, is often used 
 passively also. 
 
 It has also a gerund var-van, shorter var-va, corresponding 
 in form with the Slavic, and used like it. It is to be compared 
 with Russ. short ger'd iv, Lith. dams, Sanscrit van. 
 
 There is also a pass, infin. var-at-ni, to be waited (for), var- 
 at-o, pres. part, denoting the waited {for). Here is another 
 case of a verb formed upon a new base — at-ni is a double inf. 
 ending. With varat as the base, it takes the full set of part's ; 
 besides var-ato,, there is the past var-atot, fut. var-atando, ger'd 
 var-atvan, 
 
 303. Finnish Paet's : The yerbals of the different dialects 
 of the Finn, family, present some interesting fornjs; thus, in 
 Suomi, ole-man, the being (Gr'k men) ; ol-eva, being (part.) ; 
 oll-u, been; san-ova, saying (va=mg) ; san-onu, said (past, act.), 
 san^ottu, been said. 
 
 Syrian, inf. ending ray, (Hun. ni); as, ysty-ny, to send, send- 
 ing ; yst-an, the sending ; yst-yg, sending (our ing) ; yst-oma, 
 sent (G-'k, -omen, -men) ; as, me em yst-oma, I am sent. 
 
 Wotjak inf ends also in ny ; as, kary-ny, to do j Ica/r, (imper.) 
 do; kar-en, do-ing (em, G-erm. en) and do-ne; Jcar-ysj, doing 
 (see Illyr.) ; also har-yhu, the doing,; in the latter we find the 
 usual endings change into .h, a letter which we will see again in 
 the Turk, infin. -meh; we find also Zccw-cwand kar-ono, doing 
 (Pol. anie.) 
 
 In Sheremig, we find for coming these variations, tol-em, tol-as, 
 tol-sa (sa=as) ; tol-ema, ,hav. come {ge-kommen, Germ.), also 
 tol-mynga, (-muka), pointing to Turk. -mek. 
 
 In Ostjak, for ver (kar), makei, we find ver-dai{-eni), ver-do, 
 verrmen, ms^ng,,&ni ver-em, made. 
 
 _ In the Lapp, form, we find et as inf. ending; as, aell-et to 
 live; aellem, living, and having lived. ' 
 
 304. Turkish Participle : Following the Finn, and Huno' 
 we may properly speak of the Turkish verbals. The infin here 
 ends in mek, mak, and ma, me— pointing to the men and ma 
 of Greek verbals, and the ma of Finn. ; for the verb love we 
 find inf. sev-mek, sev-mich (-mish) and sev-duk, hav loved — 
 the former being a form of infin., and the latter to be referred to 
 the past act. of Slavic ; sev-er and sev-en, lov-in"- the er com 
 
HISTOKY OS PAKTICIPLES. 79 
 
 paring with Alban. are = 'mg (that er is used for en, is seen by 
 L. inf. are =Germ. en). There is a far longer list of verbals 
 in this tongue, but it will not be of use to review them here. 
 
 305. Albanish Pabticipie : The present participle ends in s, 
 se (L. arts) ; as, mount-es, conquering; pene-se, making; divio-s, 
 hearing; divion-are, heard; dasovr^e, loved — the past ending 
 are, re (Latin -urm, -ari) ■ we find also de-ne, given, and thene, 
 said. 
 
 306. Persian Participle : The Persian offers the following; 
 perest is the imperative form, meaning adore. 
 
 pereat-ende, the adorer. inf. perest-iden, to adore. 
 
 perest-an, adoring. perest-ide. hav. adored. 
 
 perest-a, (shorter form). perest-ide buden, tohav. adored. 
 
 It is easily seen that ende^an, a; even this a is also sometimes 
 dropped, making part.=imper. The form in ide is identical 
 with inf. iden, also with Turkish form in duk. The inf. in d-en, 
 t-an, often, is double, and to be compared with Turkish mek, if 
 not with Latin supine -atwm. 
 
 307. In this connexion, we might briefly refer to the Hin- 
 dostani part's ; for the verb mar, strike, we have mar-na, to 
 strike; mar-ta, striking; WMr-a, struck; mar, mar-Jcar, hav. 
 struck. The inf. mark na is Hung, ni and ani, Grerm. en; the 
 to is our past sign, a is a shortened na ; Jcar is genitive sign. 
 
 308. And here we may also introduce the Bengali verbals. 
 The inf. and pres't part, have the same form, and end in ite 
 (Eus. it~) ; as, kar-ite, making and to make ; past act. kar-iya, 
 hav. done (Hind, a, Kus. iv) ; there is the verbal noun kar-an, 
 kar-na, kar-ana (Pol. anie), doing; there is, too, a form, like 
 Slavic gerund, kar4le, on doing, being done (the precise Slavic 
 past il; and like Slavic it is also found in the past tense), and 
 another gerUnd kar-iba, doing, to do (Russ. iv, Hungarian va), 
 besides a passive in ta (Latin tus). 
 
 309. Manchu PAtlTidiPLE : The infinitive of this tongue ends 
 in me (G'k men, T. mek, me) ; as, klhoach-ame, to nourish; the 
 participle ends in ra, re (L. are, T. er); as, khoacli-ara, nourish- 
 
 * ing (used also for present and future tense) ; there is the form 
 khoVbch-afi (Greek sas, Turkish tser). 
 
 In Mongolian, the infinitive ends in cho, ku (Turk, melc) ; as, 
 abu-cho, to take ; there is a gerund abu-su, taking (Man. afi), a 
 supine dbu-ra, to take (Manchu re). 
 
 We might here present some of the Thibet verbals; infinitive 
 lyed-par (var), to make; hya-rou, hy-ar, to make (gerund); 
 hyed-pa (va), making; lyas-pa (va, ta), made (past part.); hya- 
 va, to make, 'L.faeturus. The endings ar, row, re, va, are such 
 as we have often met with. 
 
 310. Semitic Participle : In Semitic, the participle endings 
 
80 PHRASIS. 
 
 have not developed so strongly as we have seen in the languages 
 so far treated of. It will be observed that such endings keep 
 pace, in growth, with common noun and adjective endings. 
 With us, as in Semitic, the us, a, urn, of Latin adjectives and 
 nouns almost wholly disappears ; we have lost, too, as in Semitic, 
 the ending of the infinitive, using with it only a prefix; we have 
 only the ending inff for all the part's and verbals found in Lat., 
 for such irregular verbs as run, set, strike. The Semitic parti- 
 ciples are formed after the manner, principally, of the Gerruan 
 ge-schrieben, from schreiben, to write, and our strike and struck; 
 that is, they do not develop new endings, but rely upon changes 
 in the body of the word, adopting more or less generally, such 
 prefixes as m, a, I (Germ, ffe, Celt, a, our be, to). But all the 
 Semitic languages show this last participle ending very strongly 
 as a development in the personal endings, which are variations 
 of the verbal endings. The Syriac shows it, too, very clearly 
 in the common noun or verbal ending ath, an (Latin tas, Germ 
 en, Greek ma, Ethiopic ot, o, f). 
 
 311. Thus, in Hebrew, we have : 
 
 gatel-ah, she kills. Part. act. qotel, killing. 
 
 qatal-etta (eth), thou killest. Part. pass, qatul, killed. 
 
 qatal-etti, I kill. me-qattel, ma-qetil, killing. 
 
 qetol (inf.). to kill. 
 
 And in Arabic : 
 
 qatal-at, she kills. inf. qatal-un, to kill. 
 
 qatal-ta (t), thou killest. Part. act. qatil-un, killing. 
 
 qatal-tu (t), I kill. Pass. part, ma-qtul-un, killed. 
 
 imper. a.qtul, kill (root, qtl). 
 So the verb a-nsur, aid (imper.), also l-insur; naser-un, aiding 
 fem. form naser-atmi; nasr-an, aiding, ger'd and inf. : ma-nsur 
 aided (part, pass.), (root is nsr; a, I, ma, are prefixes). ' 
 
 We notice here very plainly, in the persons, the t of our lov- 
 eth, L. am-at and am-atum,am-ant; and the scarcely developed 
 un of Arabic, points to the Latin ending um. 
 v,^\!.- ^i^'®. Y^ ™^y introduce the Malay participles: they too, 
 like the Semitic are marked by prefixes. For diahat, touch 
 we ^Ti^men.diabat, to touch; ada-diabat, touching and touched' 
 telah-dxabai having touched; tur-diabat (and te-), touched 
 
 Zt L^l ;! i ^ °^^''*^' "'' i'«»-^»»Z'«« (verbal noun) 
 beil ^ separate words, the value of is and 
 
 313. Geeek Participle: We will first ponsi-riovti,^- c v 
 and participles of the Greek activ^ brirXTinto L?!'''^''^*-^"' 
 those of Sanscrit and Latin as occ^ion\T| ^J^^ 'ZTZt 
 nary Greek infinitive ending is ein, as lei/ein, I leave (our 5' 
 
HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES. 81 
 
 leaving, Gem. en, hhiben, to leave); in modem Qreek, this ein 
 becomes CT (Dan. e); as, grofh-ein, G-'k, grwpli-ei, mod. G'k, to 
 write. It has, also, the foms occasionally, of men, mein, also s, 
 IS, a. growth or form of em; there is the infin. ending ai, (mod. 
 Gk a) peculiar to one of the past tenses (aorist); as, eleips-ai, 
 to have leit, and a form enai, peculiar to the perfect tense le- 
 Uph-enai, to have left. This enai is a growth of ein, so as to 
 become double ; it is practically an infin. of an infinitive, such 
 as we saw in treating of the Russian participle; it is like the isse 
 of am-av-isse, to have loved, and the t-are of can-t-are, to chant. 
 As it is past and double, it is also passive, and equal to -om-en 
 of Greek participle ending -omen-os. 
 
 314. The regular passive infin. ending of Greek (also ending 
 of middle, i. e. active) is esth-ai We do not regsvrd this as es"^ 
 sentially different from enai, indeed, we find enai also used for 
 passive; esth equals est, eth, en, ein, et. The Latin passive infin. 
 ending ar-i, ar-ier, is also double, it is hardly necessary to add. 
 
 315. It might be matter of interest to the student to point out 
 the connexion between Greek and Latin (especially old Latin) 
 infin. endings and those of cases, but we must pass the subject 
 by, simply reminding him that all verbal endings are to he iden- 
 tified with case and noun endings. 
 
 There is also the Latin supine ending turn, Greek ton, which, 
 in Sanscrit twi, marks the ordinary infinitive; in old Latin, the 
 infinitive ends in um, and tud is an old supine ending. 
 
 316. The Greek ending for the present participle is Gn, ons-a, 
 on; San. an, ati, an; Lat. ans; Lith. as, anti; as, G'k lei-p-dn, 
 leav-ing; it is the same as infin, ein, our ing. In the gen. case,' 
 it developes into ont-os; as leip-ontos, of leaving. In the aorist 
 it assumes the form of as, asa, an (mas., fem., neut.), gen. anf- 
 os (Polish ans, as); 'the full form of this participle is leip-s-as 
 (leaving ofi' augment of the tense), i. e. it is an ordinary partici- 
 ple on the new base leip-s, itself representing an inf. or verbal. 
 This sas is precisely the Slavic past act. part. In the perf. part. 
 Sn becomes Os, and ontos (gen.) becomes otos. In San., Ss, uia, 
 OS, is van, usi, vas — sas, sasa, san, is tavan, tavaii, tavat. 
 
 317. For the passive and middle participles, om-en-os is the 
 usual ending in Greek ; as, leip-omenos, leaving self, or being 
 left. Leaving oiFthe os (fem. e, neut. on) as the adj. ending, 
 we have omen, men — in Sanscrit, an-as, and aman-as; so we 
 see by San., that men=an, German en, t, Lith. am-as, Kuss. mi, 
 emi, Greek ma. There is no more doubt that omen, men, is a 
 growth of inf. ein, than there is that Lat. atus (am-atus, lov-ed) 
 is a form of supine turn, which is active. We find, in the aorist, 
 eis, ent-os, an active ending, in place of omen-os. 
 
 318. The student will not fail to observe in the Gr'k particir 
 
 11 
 
82 PHBASIS. 
 
 pie forms, how beautifully they illustrate that feature of lan- 
 guage by which new forms arise out of old ones, and how the 
 endfngs become thus repeated. It is one of the most interesting 
 phenomena of language, and it aifords us one of its most import- 
 ant laws. . To illustrate the nature of it, we might refer to such 
 forms as these, common among the illiterate ; hestest (superl. of 
 a superl.) ; less-er (compar. of a compar.) ; worstest (sup. of sup.) ; 
 lec-tur-ing (a part, on a part.) — the iur is itself a part.' ending j 
 so thru-st-ing — the st being a past participle mark. 
 
 319. Participle in Ubus : We will use this as a general 
 head, under which to bring, in a manner somewhat disconnected, 
 many leading and important points in the history of the partici- 
 ple ; this participle is connected with all other verbal forms, and 
 we can hardly say anything of those forms which will not, direct- 
 ly or indirectly, have a bearing upon the character of the one in 
 urus. While we have in Latin am-ans, loving, ama-tus, loved, 
 ama-ndus, to be loved (fut.), amor-ndum, the loving, ama-tum, 
 (and -tu), to love, the loving (supine), we have also ama-turus, 
 about to love (future), and what we wish principally to show is, 
 that this participle is a development of the forms just given, 
 containing no element that they do not, that it is an adj. with 
 infin. or part, as basis ; and, again, that it is identical with the 
 passive form ama-tur, he is loved. 
 
 320. In old German, bind-ing is bint-anter, Germ, hind-ende; 
 and in German, this same participle -end, -ing, is used for just 
 such a participle as that in urus (and endus), i. e. both are future 
 (with the diiFerenoe however that urus is active, while the other 
 is pass.) ; thus, er isf zu loh-end, he is for praising, to be praised, 
 while we would use, in a similar case, the infin. or ger'd; as, so 
 much there is to praise, to he praised. In Hung., the future in 
 ando (Lat. andus), a form of Germ, end, is used both for future 
 pass, and fut. act. ; thus, we find ir.ando level, Germ, zu-schreib- 
 ender brief, to-be-written letter, a letter which will be written 
 (pass.) ; one about-to-write (a letter) is also designated as irando, 
 the precise L. scripturus. Still further, in Hung., the common 
 pres't part, is used precisely as this fut. ando; thus, elad-o bor 
 (p == ing)— elad-ando bor (ando = turus), Germ, zu-verhaufender 
 wein, for-selling wine, selling wine, wine to-be-sold. 
 
 321. In the Vedas, this same form tar is used both as pres't 
 part, and present indicative. The Lat. forms do-nor (n=t) and 
 da-tor (G'k do-ter, Sans, da-tar), our giver, belong to the same 
 class; so, rap-tor, rob-ber (from rapio), scrip-for, writ-er (from 
 scribo) That these forms tor, ter, are the Lat. turns, is seen bv 
 the fuller forms scrip-tura, a writ-ing; fac-tura, the mak-ine • 
 ™p-ter« a breakmg._ These forms, it will be seen, are purely 
 active; the or is precisely the er o? giver, serv-er, speak-er, and 
 
HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES. 83 
 
 this er we know is identical with ing (speak-er=the speaking 
 one), as we see by the corresponding L. forms teri-ant, serv-ant, 
 prud-enl (««.* = Latin ans, ens, ing), and we have two ways of 
 regarding this tor, both amounting to the same thing, namely, 
 either from turns, tura, or as a present part, forra (as serv-ant, 
 serv-er=L.seTO-aras) of a new verb, as scriptor from scripto, or 
 scriptere, just as we see do-nor from the new form dono, from 
 do, to give. This ending tor, ter, of nouns, is seen in many 
 languages, and assumes a great variety of, forms ; thus, in our 
 murder (a killing); blun-der, tim-bej, thun-der; junc-ture, frac- 
 ture; sepul-crum (-trum), mira-culum (-tulum, -iMsyaa),ful-crum, 
 Tnons-trum, spec-trum, Gr'k hak-tron (-trum), and lektron; mas- 
 ter, farther, laugh-ter; nee-dle (dl=tr), hal-ter, — and so on 
 without limit. 
 
 322. In the Wallachian, lauda-toriu (as well as laud-andu, 
 L. audits) equals Lat. laud-ans, praising (i. e. toriu=ana, ing), 
 while to express the Lat. turus they need this form, aji lauda- 
 toriu, to be praising = laud-aturus, about to praise. To be more 
 precise about it, toriu rather equals tor than turus, and the above 
 form is properly he is to-he-prais-er, i. e. he will praise, exactly 
 as we saw in German and English. 
 
 And we must observe, too, that in none of the modern Latin 
 languages do we find a future part, in urus (if we count not the 
 above tor-iu), but we do find Span, canto-dor, Rhat. Rom. ca/nta- 
 tur, Er. chan-teur, Wall, canta-toriu, Bng. chant-er or sing-er ; 
 so, we are left to infer that those languages supply the place of 
 this urus by using the pres't in ens (as we saw above, a compound 
 to-he-praising (praiser) for ahout to praise, laudaturus). (By 
 way of note, we may remark that the t of chanteur, chanter, be- 
 longs with the root as well as with the ending t-erf er here=iMr). 
 
 323. If we bear in mind, in connexion with the above, that 
 Turk. ur=ans, ing, pres't part., we shall find it proved beyond 
 question that turus is only a modification, an application, of the 
 present ans, and hence of infinitive are, ar. We may prove its 
 identity with inf. are by a stronger way than such an inference. 
 In Latin, the imperative has not only the form am-a, love, but 
 also the longer form am-ato, showing that a at the end of verbs 
 is a condensed aio, ao, as in Danish o= are, ar. So that we 
 might expect the infin. am-are to be really ama-tre (-tur). Now 
 in French, we find these very endings for infs ; as, e-tre, to be 
 (old Pren. es-tre), also repai-tre, sui-vre (v = t), na.i-trc, join-dre 
 {(l=i), ven-dro. 
 
 324. It only remains now to be shown that turus is passive as 
 well as active, since we have already shown that it is present as 
 well as future. In old North, we find the past (and pass.) part's 
 fall-inn, fall-en ; tel-dr, tol-d ; hreu-der, burn-ed. Here we find 
 
84 PHRASIS. 
 
 dr (=mn in some verbs, German infin. en), which becomes c^m^ 
 hren-dir, in some of the persons of past tense, as the mark of 
 past (and pass.) part. ; it is hardly necessary to say this is tur 
 of Latin. In Icelandic, we find elska-dur, lik-ed, loved, Latin 
 ama-tus, and we find the same form -ader in the past active, but 
 shorter in the compound tense j as, he/e elskad, have liked. 
 (We find also thier elslced, you like (pres't indicative), but hann 
 elskar, he likes, so that ar=ed, edr). So, we find here, clear 
 enough, that dr, dur, Fr. tre, Lat. turns, is used in the passive 
 
 325. Besides reminding the student of the precise L. amatur, 
 he is loved, let us refer more particularly to the Lat. tura, our 
 ture. We find tura constantly used in Latin as an equivalent 
 of tm and turn, noun endings, which are applications of the 
 passive participles ; thus, we find posi-tura =posi-tus, position, 
 which is identical in form with the pass. part. ; so, scriptura = 
 in-scription, something written, sinA. factura=f actus (pass), the 
 making. We can easily see how our part, (or ger'd) in ing is 
 used passively in similar cases; to strike a man is simply to 
 make Mm he struck, which converts it into a passive idea; that 
 which is spoken is a speech, a speaking, the heing loved by Grod 
 is called the loving of Grod ; a man desires a hearing, i. e. to he 
 heard, he expects a scolding, i. e. to he scolded. We continually 
 see our gerund in ing thus used as a passive : everything that 
 is finished becomes passive, becomes something done; a doing 
 itself when finished becomes done (passive) ; so, all our verbal 
 nouns, such as fight, thrust, draught, speech, depth, rent, wreck, 
 bond, song, and scores of like forms, are true passives. The 
 endings t, th, k, d, g, ch, and the like, are the very t of L. pass. 
 tus, our ed. 
 
 326. We have certainly gone far enough in this discussion to 
 enable the student to fully comprehend now the nature of this 
 participle in urus. We find it simply a gerund, infin., or verbal 
 noun, used just as we use our gerund in ing, and our inf., and 
 getting its future force, and passive also, only by its expressed 
 or implied connexion with the verb he; thus, just as we say he 
 is to come to day, he is coming to day, i. e. will come, should 
 come, just so the Latins constantly use urii^ for a future verb 
 suppressing he; as, he promised that he would come, is to come, 
 se venturum. The Danish affords the best illustration of the 
 gerund in ing used as pass. ; as, hlses-cnde instrumcnter, blow 
 instruments, blowing ones, and den udgiv-ende Bog, the outo-iv- 
 ing book, book given out; these forms are based on the more 
 original form of expression the instruments are for blowing 
 where blowing is exactly equal to a Latin verbal noun in tur of' 
 
 327. There are other points of importance than those so far 
 noticed, in the history of verbals of the German langua-es and 
 
HISTORY OF PARTICIPLES. 85 
 
 we may as well consider them under this head, as they have a 
 bearing moreTr less direct upon the verbal in turns. In Ice- 
 landic, we find ad ehka, to like, and (past tense) eg var ad elslea, 
 I was to like, a liking, liking — inf. used as ger'd and part. In 
 Swedish, we have vi ha/va kall-at, we have called (Perf. act.), 
 and vi ha/va hall-ats, we have (been) called (Passive), also vi 
 varda (German werden, are) Jcall-ade, we are called. We see, 
 here, three diiFerent applications of one form, having a corre- 
 sponding change in appearance which is unknown to us, as we 
 use called for all the cases. In the first place, it is very evident 
 that Jcallat equals kallad', evident from the fact that we, and 
 others, use their equivalents without distinction of form ; the 
 identity of kall-ats with them will become evident too, after a 
 little consideration. In Danish, so nearly equal to Sw., those 
 three applications of the past part, have no change in form to 
 mark them ; thus, vsere skrev-et, be written ; ha/t skrev-et, had 
 written ; hdve vseret gj'ore-t, have been done (chor-ed) j er/und- 
 ef, is found, has been found. 
 
 , 328. So, it is already proved, clearly enough, that kall-at 
 (act.) is the same as Icall-ats (pass.). This is enough to convince 
 us also that the whole Dan.-Swed. passive system is not difierent 
 from the active. In the Swed. infin, this kall-ats above takes 
 the form kall-as (ats=as), to be called; so, too, kaU-as is used 
 in five of the persons of the pres't; as, du kallas, thou art called, 
 but also/ kaUens, ye are called (this is the Latin ens = ats, as). 
 If we bear in mind that kall-ar (ar being L. passive ending) is 
 used in the persons of pres't active, as han kall-ar, he calls, we 
 shall have further reason to believe as^^ar to be identical with 
 active. 
 
 Again, in the Icel. ad ehkast, to be lik-ed, the ast (Sw. ats, 
 and as) is our active est of lov-est, as Dan. pass, es is our act. es 
 of giv-es, i. e. what we use for lik-est, they use for to be liked 
 (inf. pass.), and what we have for gives, they take for is given. 
 
 We are thus brought to the conclusion that the Dan.-Swed. 
 passive in its different persons is based on the passive participle 
 (which we have often found to be equal to the act.), that indeed 
 it is that part, varying in the different persons of the sing, and 
 plur., often but slightly, and sometimes not at all. 
 
 329. Verbal Endings : We come now to consider some of 
 the forms 'which these participle endings assume when marking 
 certain kinds of nouns and adjectives. 
 
 We often find several of these endings joined to one root, but 
 by no means all of them ; thus, in Greek po-tos, a drinking, a 
 draught, (tos is L.. tus past part.) — it means also drinkable, to 
 be drank, und potimos has the same meaning; po-tikos, pertain- 
 ing to drink ; po-<es, a drinker {es-=ex); po-lisuw., a drink; 
 
86 PHEASIS. 
 
 po-tisis, giving to Ar'mk; po-ton=^potos, -potion; po-tamos, drink' 
 able water, river. For nearly all these forms wr m9,y use the 
 sirople term drinh, even drink-water (as Grermans would say) = 
 drinkable water, showing, thus, that endings are equal, or do 
 not vary the meaning of the base word. The ending iJeos, =itos, 
 tos^ our ic of graphic; ros, mos, inos Q=7nen, omen, Sans, an), 
 are also found as variations of tos ; as, zul-inos, wood-en (in = 
 en),pot-imos, drinkable, troph-imos, nourishing; nose-ros, sickly, 
 phthone-ros, envious — tos is precisely the equal of mos; thus, 
 lek-tos equals not only spoken, but also speakable, that may be 
 spoken. So, we must consider our able,ful, Lat. His, hilis, and 
 the like, as variations of this tos, L. tus, and in the end of ing. 
 (Note, once for all, that the os, us, a, is, are mere adjective end- 
 ings, which may be left out of consideration). 
 
 330. It can hardly be said that such endings haV6 any force 
 at all, if for no other reason for this, that one is so often used 
 for the others;, thus, joyful = joyous, joy-ing, i. e. having joy; 
 hurtful = hurting, that which is hurting, and flexible =bendingj 
 that which bends; bl, fl=tl, tr, turus. 
 
 331. The ending men, ma (men-os, tus), is very common in 
 Latin and Greek (besides Slavic, and elsewhere). It is equal 
 to ing ; as, certa-men, striving, regimen, ruling, Sans, dha-man, 
 a building, a thing built; it often, too, denotes passives (just as 
 we use build-ing to denote the action and building = house, pas- 
 sive); so car-men, a po-em, a work, (a thing) done; Sans.'yo»- 
 man, a bearing, a birth, passive ; Greek ma, pragma, an act, 
 something done, and gramma, a writing, something written. It 
 has another development in our ment, L. mentum ; as, our gov- 
 ernment=governing, teg-mentum, a 'cover, covering, that by 
 which we are covered; in Fren., it equals our ly of adverbs, as 
 intensive-ment, intensive-ly, as well as our ing^ as etonnement 
 stunn-ing (stun-ment). There is, also, the wide prevailing ta, 
 tas, our ence, ness, th ; thus, Rus. teplo-ta, warm-th, tepid-ness; 
 L. hrevi-tas, brevi-ty, brief-ness. We have scarcely yet made a 
 begmnmg in that long list of Greek and Latin verbal endings 
 but we have given all that it is proper to give here. ' 
 
 332. We will conclude this part of the subject by noticing 
 some of the endings of Pers. The adjectives here are derived 
 from nouns by the suffix ane {en of silken); as, merd, man 
 mxrd-ane, man-like, -ly; also by in; alien, iron, ahen-in of iron- 
 there is the mend, as dovlet, happiness, dcvlat-mcnd happy derd 
 grief, derdl-mend grievous (Fr.me»«=ly) ; tclah, corruption^ 
 tehah-kiar, oorrx,^i-<,r {tor oUcr^p-tor)^ nam, name, nam-dar 
 named, renowned, garan, heavy (L. gravis), oaran-har Inadpd' 
 heavy (6.r of Germ. deMar^ thinkable), (X,- " ^T^ 
 bar takes the form, too, of car, yar, bb hakt, fortune,' bakt-yar, 
 
HISTORY OF VBKBS. 87 
 
 fortun-ate, dil, heart, dil-dar, loved (dar=bar); pur side, &&- 
 manded, jMtrsisA, a demand (id=ish); giriftan, to take, girift- 
 ar, one taken, a prisoner (ar, pass.) — ar is properly twus with 
 a passive application. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 HISTORY OF VERBS. 
 
 333. If we take merely a surface view of language, it will be very 
 -easy for us to divide words into two leading classes, — nouns, and 
 such as belong to nouns, and verbs, together with such as belong 
 to verbs. If we rely wholly upon the appearance of these two 
 classes, and inquire nothing about their origin and history, we 
 shall find little which they have in common, and come to regard 
 them as radically distinct. However, none but a superficial 
 view could bring us to such a conclusion ; these classes when 
 critically examined are found, in fact, to have everything in 
 common. AJl nouns are based upon a verbal idea ; and, again, 
 the basis of all verbs are nouns, that class of nouns called verbals. 
 
 334. It is generally imagined that verbs have that peculiarity, 
 in comparison with all other parts of speech, by which they ex- 
 press and affirm. And yet it must be observed, that it is not 
 alone in the simpler and less cultivated languages, that we find 
 other parts of speech used in the place of verbs and having a 
 value equal to theirs. In all tongues, we find abundant exam- 
 ples where the noun and the verb (as, I walk, the wallc) do not 
 differ in form. In Tamil, nouns and adj^tives are treated as 
 verbs. In Japanese, the adjective is used as verb or adjective, 
 according to where it is placed; as, yokifito, good man•(oryo^ 
 fito), fito yosi, man (is) good (or fito yoi) — so, a child would 
 say man good, for the man is good. In this language, the basis 
 of every verb is clearly a kind of noun or adjective. 
 
 335. In the Thibetan, among others, person endings are not 
 developed, and the verb is simply a participle or verbal, scarcely 
 differing in character from the noun. In all languages, the in- 
 finitive, gerund, and participles, constitute an important portion 
 of the forms of the verb. And yet, verbs as they are, they are 
 also as certainly nouns and adjectives; they have all the cases 
 and qualities that belong to nouns and adjectives. Even- the 
 Infinitive and Imperative are known to be only mere case forms. 
 
 336. In Latin and Greek, we are particularly struck with the 
 number of participles used as verbs ; they not only perform the 
 
PHRASIS. 
 
 office of verbs, they are verbs in fact. Whenever we i^e ex- 
 pressions like these, I saw a man waVdng, hear htm speak, hear 
 his speech, we use walking, speak, and speech, precisely as verbs. 
 Every word used as a predicate, that is following he, is a verb 
 also : as, he -is there, he was wise, he is a writer; in some lan- 
 guages, as the Russian, the is is left out, of so little force is this 
 auxiliary ; in particular cases, we also leave out the auxiliary, 
 and thus the predicate performs the part of a true verb ; thus, 
 the one was here and the other there, he becomes noisy, and I 
 quiet. Indeed, to be precise about the matter, we may say that 
 all objectives, or other words following verbs, bear the main 
 weight of the verbal expression, and may, hence, be called verbs; 
 thus, we say he catches /s/i, i. e. he fishes, he trims with iron, 
 i. e. he irons, he feeds grain to the horse, i. e. he grains the 
 
 horse. 
 
 Personal Endings. 
 
 337. We have already pointed out the identity between all 
 case endings and the endings of verbals and participles. We 
 shall observe hereafter, when we come to treat of tenses, that 
 those endings of verbs which mark the persons, are modifications 
 only of the endings which mark the participles. But what we 
 wish now first to turn our attention to, is the parallel between 
 the personal endings and those endings which in other languages 
 mark the possessive pronouns. 
 
 338. In Hungarian, we have var-tam, I have waited, vart-ad, 
 thou hast, and vart-a, he has waited, or expected. To compare 
 with this, we have lov-am, my horse, lov-ad, thy horse, lov-a, 
 his horse. In Semitic, the parallel is quite as certain, but more 
 remote. In the Finnish, we find the identity exhibited in a 
 still stronger light. But it is the Samoidish that we find most 
 instructive in this matter. 
 
 339. We will state the whole case as we find it in Samoidish j 
 it will surely be no harm that we note some things which have 
 a more direct bearing on points discussed under other heads. 
 Here, we find sawajale, (a) good day, hxyi jale-da sawa, day-the 
 (the day) (is) good; sawa, (it is) good — precisely as we say 
 good for him; jale, (it is) day. Such expressions as the fore- 
 going are often heard by us, but we regard them as only childish 
 or savage. As we said before, every predicate is a real verb • 
 in Samoidish, this fact is so well recognized, that the noun and 
 adjective, when performing the office of predicate, develop end- 
 ings equal to personal endings, and thus stand independent as 
 true verbs ; thus, sawa, good, sawa-m, good-I, good-my i. e I 
 (am) good ; nisea, father, nisea-m, father-my, father-I, i . e.' I (am) 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 89 
 
 father. Not this alone, that personal ending, by a slight vari- 
 ation, may also indicate past time, or even future ; as, nisea-ms, 
 I (was) father, nisej-um, I (will be) father. To show the iden- 
 tity of passive endings with personals, in Samoid., we give the 
 following : hi/r= cow, hyr-m, my cow, hyr-l thy co.w, hyr-t, his 
 cow; so, also, z«(Z=hand, ud-ou (my), mcZ-oZ (thy), ud-et, (his) 
 hand; and %a=fox, loga-u, loga-l, loga-t, his fox — for logau, 
 we find also %am (am=au), and logad equal to logal. To 
 compare with this, we find the verb mada-u, mada-r, mada-da, 
 I, thou, he out, So that the verb, here, may be conceived to be 
 what we see it is in all simple languages, a participle base, or 
 verbal, developing possessive pronouns, and the expression, I cut 
 the wood, would be, in principle, the wood (is) my-cutting (cut- 
 ting-my). We see this clearly when we come to the verbal nounj 
 which may receive these endings and become a true verb ; as, 
 madawy, cut, hewing, beconiea, with the personal ending, mad- 
 amae-m^l was (at) cutting, or was cutting (also is cutting). 
 This is with the ending for predicates, and if we use possessive 
 endings (a form only of the other), we get madawae-u = my 
 cutting [(i. e. it is or was my), having a power equal to I have 
 cut. 
 
 340. Not only do we have, here, possessives belonging to the 
 noun, but the new form (noun with ending) may be carried 
 through all the oases, as tea-u (my), tea-r (thy), and tea-da, 
 (his) deer; and genitive, tea-n (of my), tea-nd (of thy), tea-nda, 
 (of his) deer (reindeer). 
 
 341. There is a slight difference, as we saw above, in two 
 classes of pronoun endings, those called predicative, which 
 grow upon predicates, as we saw in saipam, and those subjective 
 (possessive) endings, which we saw in madau, madar, logau, 
 logdl; but both are one and the same thing. The difference in 
 their use is very slight ; thus, nan mue-m, (the) bread took-I, 
 the bread (was) my taking, and nan mue-u, I took bread. 
 
 342. As a noun in Samoidish can be treated as a verb, can 
 receive endings, and even tense marks, so does the verb, again, 
 come to be treated as a noun and develop the different case end- 
 ings. We see this in all languages where that portion of the 
 verb embraced by participles and verbals, is declined precisely 
 as the noun is, and with, the same number of cases. But, in 
 Samoidish, it extends to other forms of the verb. So it is in 
 Tamil ; there, the verb is declined like nouns also ; thus, the 
 verb denoting he walked, or he the walker, by a slight variation 
 takes a case form, and means through him the walker, or by the 
 walk (one). 
 
 343. There is a remarkable and significant coincidence, in 
 this language (Samoid.), between the endings of case and those 
 
 12 
 
90 PHRASIS. 
 
 endings of verbs denoting pronouns or persons—; thus, »i is 
 tie sign of ace, it is the sign, too, of the 1st person; ^, ad da 
 are marks of dat. and abl, so they are marks, too, of the 2d and 
 3d persons. We have long before this identified the case end- 
 ings with the suffix article or pronoun. 
 
 344. We find in many languages, incorporated as endings 
 with the verb, not only such as we have already noticed, and 
 which denote the subject or the possessor, but also such as denote 
 the object. So, in Hebrew, qataUa, thou-hast-killed, and 
 qatalta-ni, thou-hast-killed-me (to=thou, and m'=me); so, m 
 Italian, di/endi-amo-ci, we defend selves (^ci=self), procura-te-lo, 
 procure-thou-it (?o=it,), procurar-se-h, to procure-self-it; so, 
 in English, caUed-m, for called them, heard-er, _for_ heard her ; 
 also we say, there killed-he-him, there gave-he-him-it, i. e. gave 
 it to him. There is, theoretically at least, no limit to this devel- 
 oping a new pronoun on a new base (for it is that and no more). 
 
 345. It is true, it may be said of these pronoun endings denot- 
 ing subject and object in other languages, that they do not 
 exist separately. But not less may be said of the separate pro- 
 nouns, for they, though printed separate, can only be said to 
 exist in connexion with the verb. In truth, all words are as 
 little independent as suffixes — no word, more than any living 
 thing, can exist hy itself alone, can he separate. The separation 
 of words from the base with which they are connected, is rather 
 apparent than real. 
 
 846. Having given now some general ideas of the original 
 nature of the verb, and having considered also, sufficiently for 
 present purposes, the matter of personal endings, we will now 
 consider more in detail the different person, tense, and mood 
 forms of the verb, as we find them in other languages — selecting 
 only such for this comparative view as we find presenting some 
 new or instructive features, and keeping all the while in sight 
 this main object, the explanation of the growth and structure of 
 verbs. And, for this purpose, we will begin with the Turkish, 
 a language which possesses a verb more fully developed, and a 
 system more complete in its parts, than any other we could select. 
 
 Turhish Yerhs. 
 
 347. We will take the verb deug (imper.), strike, tap (Greek 
 top') ; we will arrange the verb in Turkish, and the same under 
 the other heads, by placing the singular persons at the left, and 
 the plural at the right; we will sometimes, also, perhaps, point 
 off the ending separate from the body or base of the word, but 
 in this case we may give the student tbe caution, here, which 
 we might have given in many other places, that the separating 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 91 
 
 of a word thus into parts, that is, drawing such a certain line 
 between them, is always more or less arbitrary ; it is just like 
 drawing such a marking line between head and neck, and arm 
 and hand, or leaf and stem, or creek and river ; it is clear no 
 such line can truthfully be drawn, and yet the distinction be- 
 tween such things is indispensable ; and so in language, such 
 marks are always serviceable, though always, also, open to 
 objection. 
 
 348. Present Tense. 
 
 dmgw-wm, I strike. deugur-ue, we strike. 
 
 deugur-sen, thou strikest. deugwsiz, ye strike. 
 
 deugur', he strikes. dmgur-ler, they strike. 
 
 The verb 6e, present tense, runs thus : 
 
 im, I am. iz, -rt-e are. 
 
 sen, thou art. siz, ye are. 
 
 dur, he is. • durler, they are. 
 
 We must ajd, too, that 6e«=I, sere=thou, biz=we,siz=ye> 
 you — and ler is the usual plural signj the present participle is 
 devour ^striking. 
 
 349. "We conclude with regard to the forms of this tense, that 
 the present participle is plainly the basis here, as we shall find 
 it, also, in other languages. The endings of the 1st and 2nd 
 persons, both numbers, may be taken as the representatives of 
 personal pronouns, or of the verb he, or of both. If we take the 
 analogy of the past tense, where was is clearly the element (as 
 it is separate), the pres't part, being the base, we might decide 
 that it is the verb he, thus bringing back to us the combination 
 well known to us, in place of the prs'nt, am striking, is striking. 
 But, in most other languages, the endings have vanished down 
 to a mere mark of the persons — though in principle, he is every- 
 where a part of the form. The impossibility of deciding the 
 point, arises from the fact that the verb he is, at best, only a 
 pronoun, and so often has a form not to be distinguished from 
 pronouns. 
 
 350. But we do not in either case look upon the forln deugur- 
 um, for inStanbe, as a compound, biit rather consider that some 
 verbal or pai-t. ending has grown up into such representatives 
 as we have just been speaking of. 
 
 851. Imperfect. 
 
 deugur idum= I struck (striking was-I). 
 deugur idi='he struck (striking was -he). 
 
 Here the elements are separate — idum being past of be (was). 
 In the 3d plur., we find the elements together, as well as sepa- 
 rate; as, deugur idi-ler, and deugur-ler-idi,=ihQJ struck — so 
 we find for 1st sing., deugur-dum. 
 
92 PHKASIS. 
 
 There is a second imperfect (or past), formed with the same 
 deuger and imishem (another past of be) — the two being separate j 
 as, deiigur imisMz, (we) striking were. 
 352. Preterit, 
 deugdum, I struck. dmgduk, we struck. 
 
 deugdun, thou struck. dmgdunuz, ye struck. 
 
 deugdi, he struck. deugdiler, they struck. 
 
 This can be regarded as representing two main elements, deug, 
 a base only existing in the imperative, and the idum = I was, 
 noticed above. But there is the past act. part, deugduh (having 
 struck) ; we may take this deugduk as the basis of these forms, 
 and as having simply developed person endings (indeed it is the 
 identical form in the 1st plural). This would be after the 
 known principles of German, and other languages, where the 
 past participle does constitute the past tense. The d, here, is the 
 representative of our past ed, <•, but none the less may it be taken 
 as the mark of was, verb he. 
 
 353. There is another form, the 2d preterit, aeugndshem = J. 
 have struck, which is clearly on the base of the past part, d&ug- 
 mis^=hav. struck. Or, as in the case before, we can consider 
 that it has the element mishem, one of the tenses of be, and 
 meaning 1 have been. All this proves at least one thing, that 
 one element, if no more, of participles, represents the verb he. 
 
 354. Then follow other combinations, but containing no new 
 principle. The pres't and the past participles, above given, are 
 the common bases, and they combine with new forms of the 
 verb be, of which Turkish has more than one for the same 
 tense. 
 
 The future is either like the present in form, or it makes a 
 new combination of the fut. part, deugjek with am, is; as, deug- 
 jehim, I will strike (also deugfegirn), and deugjekiur (dur='^'), 
 he will strike. 
 
 355. In the optative, there is the form deugem, I would strike 
 (also deugeh irn). This may be looked upon as made on the 
 base deug, with the verb be as element, or as a variation of some 
 part, or verbal, as deuguen (which we find) equal to striking 
 It IS precisely like the Latin amem, I may be. Then there is 
 also the imperf optative, as deugidum (or separate, deugeh idum) 
 with the base as before, and idum=was. These tenses are 
 accompanied by the prefix that. 
 
 356. The pres't and fut. subjunctive has the following form 
 deugursem, I may strike (also deugur isem) —present part and 
 .s.m I may be. There is, besides, the imperfect deugsem, I 
 might strike which we may consider as on the base of the part 
 deugiser = ahont striking, or as deng and isem, I mav be fthe 
 deugeh which we saw befoye). •' ^- 
 
HISTOEY OP VERBS. 93 
 
 357. The Finnish languages, a class related to the Turkish, 
 furnish abundant proof in the same direction. Thus, in the 
 Suomi dialect, we find the six persons of the verb come, tulen, 
 tukt, tulee (or tidevi); tulemme, tulette, tvlevat, they come. These 
 are all variations of verbal or participle forms, such as tuleva, 
 coming, tulema, the coming. In the Esthnish present of verb 
 love, we have armasta, armastat, armastap ; armastamej arm- 
 astate, armastawad ; armasta is imper.=:love, armastada= 
 the loving, also armastama, and armastaw, and armastawas=i 
 loving (part.). In Wotjak, the pres't of do, is Icaro, Jcarod, kar- 
 oz (kara) ; Jearom (Jcaromy), harody, harozy (Jcaro), they do ; 
 the past is kary, karyd, haryz ; karym, karydy, karyzy. And 
 we find &a»'eTO= doing, deed, karyny, karon, Aa>'ysa,= doing, 
 karysj, doer, karem,, done. In the past, we observe yd, ym,, 
 which is Turk, idum, Greek ema, ama. In another dialect, we 
 find for come, pres't tense, tolam, tolat, tales; tolena, toleda, to- 
 lat (tolehes) ; aai ^last, tolenam (tolesam,'), tolenat, tolen (toles') ; 
 tolenna (tolesna"), tqlenda^ tolenet (tolehe), they came. With ' 
 these compare the verbals tolem, tolas, and tolsas, coming, the 
 coming, tolaa, the comer, tolema (Gr'k -ama^, come (past part.). 
 
 358. In Mongolian, another relative of the Turk., we find for 
 ahu-cho, to take, imper. ab, in the pres't hi ahun amui, I taking 
 am, am taking {amvi, I am) ; in the past, we have M ahuhai, I 
 taking- was, I took (ahai, I was). The whole Mongol, verb is 
 very plainly built up on the same plan as the Turkish, but we 
 have not time to dwell on it here. We must observe that the 
 inf. endings are aclio, ucho,, and the inf. of he is acho, showing 
 the identity of verbal endings with he. The Persian verb may 
 easily be placed parallel with the Turkish, and we will now 
 examine this more in detail. 
 
 Persian Verbs. 
 
 859. We Tidll take nmh, drink, imperative and root. 
 
 Present tense. 
 
 nush-am, I drink, may drink. nush-im. We drink, may drink. 
 
 nush-i, thou drinkest. nush-id, ye drink. 
 
 mish-ad, he drinks. nush-and, they drink. 
 
 With these, we must take in connexion the isolated forms of 
 verb he ; as, em, am, i, art, est, is, im, we are, id, ye are, end, 
 they are. We see the unmistakable identity between the end- 
 ings of this tense and the verb he. It must be noted with 
 regard to est, 3d sing., that we find d for the same in Turkish, 
 so we find d in the Per. 2d plur., which generally is intimately 
 connected with the 3d sing. So, we may look upon this tense as 
 
94 PHRASIS. 
 
 the root nush and am, is; or, we can look upon it as a mere 
 variation of the short inf. nusMd, or the part, nushan, nushand. 
 
 360. The present, so called, is the same as this,_ together with 
 the prefix mi; as, mi-nushan, I am drinking. This element mi, 
 which sometimes follows, and again is separate, may be taken as 
 the mark of our be, and we consider it as the equal of Germ, ge, 
 and the Semitic m of part's ; nusham is precisely like L. arnem. 
 The future has the same form, sare that mi is replaced by bi. 
 
 361. Perfect. 
 
 nushidam, I drank. huskidim, we drank. 
 
 nushidi. ' nushidid. 
 
 nushid. nushidand. 
 
 In this connexion, we want to bear in mind that nushid is the 
 short future, and nushidah is part. =i having drunk ; it is pre- 
 cisely the Turkish deugdum. So, we can Speak of rlwshidam 
 as formed on the base of the part, above, with endings to mark 
 the verb be, or, on the basis of the short infin., for they do not 
 essentially differ (so amatvm and amaius, inf. and part, in L.). 
 But the former is the method in the German languages. "We 
 may suppose, still further, that it is on the base Hush, as in Turk., 
 with idam, a lost form equal to Tiirk. idum, was (we find Pers. 
 budam^oe). Again, we find the part, endings agreeing with 
 be in form. There is besides all these, a part, adjective nusha, 
 shortened nush. 
 
 362. Conditional. 
 
 nushidami. I might drink. nushidimi, we might drink. 
 
 nushidi. nushididi. 
 
 nushidi. nushidandi. 
 
 In this connexion, we may mark nushid, the short infin., and 
 and the past part, nushidah; either may be taken as the base — 
 but the former will be found best to agree with the usual form- 
 ation. 
 
 363. Compound Preterit. 
 
 nushidah-am, I have drunk. nushidah-im, we have drunk. 
 
 nushidah-i. nushidah-id. 
 
 nushidah-ast. nushidah-and. 
 
 This is the past part, and be ; we find nushidah the base of 
 several compound tenses, on the foregoing plan. 
 
 364 In Afghan, related to the Per., bi is the fut. prefix, u or 
 
 w for the past, H before the optative, or conditional tense' di 
 
 is also used as a prefix here, as well as in Malay. As in Persian 
 the past part, is found used in the place of the perfect tense • so 
 the simple infinitive is often used for past tense (as we have 
 found it the basis of the past in other languages), chaugino- the 
 infinitive endings into personals. ° 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 95 
 
 Em 
 
 ngarian Verbs. 
 
 365. The present tepse 
 
 is as 
 
 follows : 
 
 va/rok, I wait. 
 
 
 varunk, we wait. 
 
 varse. 
 
 
 vartok. 
 
 var. 
 
 
 varnak. 
 
 Imperfect, 
 
 
 
 varek, I waited. 
 
 
 varank, we waited, 
 
 varel. 
 
 
 varatok. 
 
 vara. 
 
 
 varanak. 
 
 It is easy to see, at the first glance, how nearly identical in 
 form these two tenses are. The base of the present varok is 
 var=varo, the present part., and the endings representing the 
 verb he, in harmony with the system of the related Turkish. 
 And it is a question whether the imperfect is essentially differ- 
 ent. Whatever in principle may be the elements, they are in 
 fact only the present part., with its endings grown to represent 
 the person endings of the verb he. We shall, in other languages; 
 find plenty of like examples. It is well to bear in mind another 
 form of imperfect, a compound of the present tense, with all its 
 endings, and vala, was ; thus, dicserek vala, I praised, dicserz 
 vala, thou praisedst, dicser vala, he praised {dicser = he praises). 
 This leads ns to believe that the past, in Hung., differs from the 
 present only by the implied vala equal to was. 
 
 366. Perfect. 
 
 vartam, I have waited. vartunk, w? have waited. 
 
 vartal. vartatok. 
 
 vart. vartanak {vartak). 
 
 The past part, is vart ; so, we may consider the perfect as a 
 variation of the past part., corres;^onding with the Persian nnsh-^ 
 idam, Turkish deug-dum. 
 
 The pluperfect is made by taking the perfect in all its per- 
 sons, and adding to each the asane vala or valt='wiis; as, vartam 
 vala, vart vala, I had waited, he had waited. 
 
 367. Future. 
 
 varandok, I will wait. varandunk, we will wait. 
 
 varandaaz. varandatok. 
 
 varand. varandanak. 
 
 This is merely a development of the fut. part, varando. An- 
 other future is made by placing the infin. varni, to wait,_ before 
 each of the persons oSfogok, I will; as, varni fogok, I will wait, 
 varni foq, he will 'wait— fog being «o doubt a variation of vag- 
 i/on or van—ia. 
 
96 PHKASIS. 
 
 368. Present Subjunctive. 
 
 varjak, I waited. 'oarjunk we wait. 
 
 varj. varjatoTc. 
 
 iiaryon. 
 
 This i's substantially the same as tte first indicative ; it is im- 
 perative also. 
 
 Past Subjunctive. 
 
 varnek, I waited. varnank, we waited. 
 
 vamal. varnatok. 
 
 varna. varnanak. 
 
 This clearly corresponds with the same tense in Latin, ama- 
 rem. It is plainly a development of the infinitive varni, with 
 personal endings. ,. ■ 
 
 369. The forms of tenses which we have so far given, belong 
 to what is called the indefinite side. By a slight variation in 
 the endings, these same tenses assume what is called the definite 
 form. Thus, in place of the present already given, we have, for 
 the definite, varom, varod, varja ; varjuk, varjatoh, varjak; 
 and, for the imperfect, varam, varad, vara; varok, varatok, 
 varak. This is precisely the case of Samoidish predicative and 
 subjective endings, noticed under the head of personal endings, 
 and which are used substantially to point out definiteness or in- 
 definiteness. So, in Hung., latomaz erdot, (I) see the wood; 
 latok erdot, (I) see (a) wood. If we mark the possessive pro^ 
 nouns joined as endings to nouns, om, od, a, and ja, unk, atoJc, 
 ok, and jok (my, thy, his, etc.), we shall see that they are al- 
 most identical with these definite endings. We find the infin. 
 confessedly receiving these very possessives = personals ; thus, 
 varn-om kell, waiting-my must, it must my waiting, i. e. I must 
 wait; and so varn-od kell and varn-ia kell, thou, he must wait 
 (kell=rmi.&t, there must). • 
 
 370. It is to be observed also that this dificrence of form does 
 not extend to part's and verbals, which do not denote person. 
 
 Slavic Verbs. 
 
 371. The system of tenses in the difi'erent Slavic idioms is 
 substantially the same. We take first, as an example, the Bo- 
 hemian. 
 
 Present. 
 
 volam, I call. volame, we call. 
 
 volas. volate. 
 
 vola, (for volat). volaji. 
 
 372. The Polish, Serb.- Wend., Slovenish, and old Prussian 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 97 
 
 present nothing difFerent. The endings of the Lith. sing, are 
 a little shorter, as we see hy the present lej^, lej4, lej-a; lej-ame, 
 lejate, lej-a (loose). The Russ. varies from the above as follows : 
 Present. 
 
 -io, I make. dala-em, we make. 
 
 dala-esh. dala-ete. 
 
 dala-et. dala-iot {-ut). 
 
 The Russ. 3d sing. (%,nd the 2d plur., which equals 3d sing.) 
 shows that a in Bohemian is shortened for at. 
 
 373. It is clear in the forms already given, that the same 
 system prevails in Slavic that we have found in other langui^ges. 
 These presents may be taken as the growth of some present 
 participle or infinitive, or, with equal propriety, as the base vol, 
 a shortened infinitive or participle, joined to the element am, is. 
 We might call attention to the agreement between the Slavic 
 endings and the Latin o, as, at ; amus, aiis, ant (an~). 
 
 S74:. Perfect. 
 
 The perfect in Slavic is compounded of precisely the same 
 elements as in the languages before spoken of. We will t£|,ke 
 first the Slovensh. 
 
 «m ddal, I have made. smo delali, we have made, 
 
 81 delal. ste delali. 
 
 je delal. so delali. 
 
 This is precisely the Latin amatus sum^l have been loved, 
 save that here amatus would be used as equal to having loved, 
 while in Latin it is being loved — besides, also, the verb ie in 
 Latin follows, as it does also in the Bohemian perfect, as we see 
 by the following : 
 
 volaljaem, I have called. volali jsme, we have called. 
 
 volaljsi. volalijste. 
 
 iBoW (ye«i=iis, left out). vplfili (Jsou = axe, left out). 
 
 375. The Serb.-Wend. has the form of Slovensh. The Rus. 
 is based on the formation of the Boh., but the element is, are, 
 which we find slighted but retained in the others generally, is 
 entirely dropped here, and all we have is the past act. part, with 
 personal pronoun before, thus: 
 
 Ja dalal, I (have) made. mi dalali, we (have) made. 
 
 te dalal. vi dalali. 
 
 on dalal. oni dalali. 
 
 376. The Polish presents still another variation : 
 czytalem, I (have) read. .czytalismy, we (have) read. 
 czytales. czytaliscie. 
 
 czytal. ' czytali. 
 
 In the 1st and 2d persons of this form, we have the element 
 am, is, represented by mere person endings, joined to the part. 
 13 
 
98 PIIRASIS. 
 
 It is the transition between Rus. and Boh. —the 3d persons are 
 the participles, exactly as in Rus. This explains to us the Slav, 
 present, showing that it differs from the perfect only m the ele- 
 ment t (infin.) or I (part.), and that the endings are for am, ts, 
 are. We must remark, too, that the Russ. perfect corresponds 
 entirely with our German past, walhed, el=ed. 
 
 377. Let us turn next to the pluperfect, and first the blovensh. 
 
 Pluperfect. 
 
 sim at delal, I had done. 
 smo bill delali, we had done. 
 This has the same elements as the perfect, and one more, hil 
 =was, or have been; and the form is literally Lam been done. 
 
 378. And next the Bohemian. 
 byljsem volal, I had called. 
 bylijsme iiolali, we had called. 
 
 This is the same as the Slovensh, with a different arrange- 
 ment — heen I-am called. In Serb.-Wend., this element am, is, 
 are, is suppressed, and we have hech wuknyl, I had learned (hech 
 equals I was, I had). 
 
 879. And next, the Polish pluperfect. 
 
 czytalem byl, I had read. czytalismy byli, we had read. 
 
 We have here the hi/l=was following the perfect. 
 
 380. The Rus. does not seem to have anything to correspond 
 precisely with any of these pluperfects. Though there is the 
 form ia hivalo vertal, I had turned (bival^yias, or have been, 
 and vertal, a perfect part.). The ordinary pluperfect is vertival, 
 had turned — on the base of an infin. vertivat, from the ordinary 
 inf. vertet, or from the gerund vertev. It is one of those cases 
 of an infin. on an infinitive — but we may quite as well look 
 upon that val as identical with the vil or bil (was) of the other 
 languages. We have even another infin., vernut, and a perfect 
 on that base; as, -ia vernul, I (have) turned; there is even 
 another pluperfect, ia hivalo vertival — both part's being double. 
 We must, in conclusion, call the attention of the student to the 
 fact that the Slavic participle used as perfect or past tense, 
 varies in gender and number to agree with the subject. We 
 will next turn our attention to the Slovensh future. 
 
 381. Future. 
 
 bom delal, I will do. bomo delali, we will do (make). 
 
 bos delal. bote delali. 
 
 bo delal. bodo delali. 
 
 Bom is for hodem (Per. hudam), I will be, I am ■ we have the 
 part, delal in place of an inf. In Serb.-Wend., the inf. is used 
 as hudwpalic, I will burn {hudu=m\\ be, and ^aZic= to burn)' 
 
HISTOKY 0¥ VERBS. 99 
 
 Polish is like Slovensh ; Russian is like Serb.-Wend., in one 
 of its futures; another is a future = present, on the base of a 
 new infin., as ia vernu, I will-turn, from the infinitive z^ermai, as 
 opposed to the regular infinitive vertat. 
 
 382. Our attention will next be directed to the Subjunctive. 
 In Slovensh it is hi delal, I, thou, he, might do; and plural, hi 
 delali, we, ye, they might do. This is the infin. (or part., if 
 you prefer) with the prefix hi, one that is common in Slavic, 
 and said to be equal to the conjunction that; it is really a prefix, 
 like Per. hi, mi. The past subjunctive inserts a &i7== was, been; 
 thus, hi, hil, delal, I might have done. In Polish, which makes 
 its subjunctive after the same manner, the particle ah (=6?) 
 receives the person endings ; as, ah-ym czytal, that-I read (may 
 read). Polish has another form, a sort of past subj. ; as, czytal- 
 hym, I would read, czytali-hysmy, we might read. This hym 
 is the 6t noticed above and here suffixed — it is identical, too, 
 with he. In Euss., it is clearly seen that the subj. is only an 
 infin. or past part. ; as, ia zhelal hi yachat, I wished that to- 
 depart, i. e. I would wish to depart; ia hi ne dwnal, I not 
 thought, i. e. I should not have thought — hi is a mere prefix, 
 and as such not to be translated. So we say, 1 had wished, for 
 should have wished, 
 
 383. In Boh., we find volal hych, volal hys, volal hy, I, thou, 
 he might call — the Pol. hym, separate, and pointing clearly to 
 he. In Serb.-Wend., 6ec7i = I was, Jese=thou wast; hych palil, 
 (I would burn)=6ecA j3a?i7 (I had burned) — again we see hi^ 
 be, if, that. 
 
 Bengalish Verbs. 
 
 384. The first or indefinite present only difiers from the root 
 by the addition, for the persons of the singular, of i, is, e, and 
 for the plural, of i, a, en. The definite present is composed of 
 the present participle and an element is, am (-chhi, -chhe'). 
 
 The indefinite past adds Ham, Hi, ilek, (for the persons of the 
 sing.) to the root. It is the precise counterpart of the Turkish 
 tense in idum, and may be looked upon as was joined to the 
 root, or as the development of a participle. There is an adverbial 
 part, in He, and ita of the pres't part, is not essentially difierent. 
 
 The imperfect tense is formed of present part, followed by 
 was. The perfect tense is made by using the past part, of the 
 verb and joining to the end am, is, are — and a pluperfect by 
 joining was to the same. There is a future made by placing 
 iba, ihe, ibelc, after the root (as kar-iba, I will do). This is the 
 same as the Lat. future am-abo, and is no doubt a variation of 
 the infinitive in ita. 
 
100 PHEASIS. 
 
 The conditional, I did or would do, is a variation of the infin., 
 like the Latin amare-m, I would love. 
 
 Hindustani Verbs. 
 
 385. This language does not vary its verb to distinguish the 
 persons. The present tense is simply the present participle used 
 with the personal pron's; as, I (am) speaking, he (is) speaking. 
 Another form of present is the same participle followed by hiin 
 =am, I speaking am. The imperfect is I speaking was (tha or 
 ta= was). Another past is made by simply using the past part., 
 as, I spoken (=spoke). The perfect 1 have spoken, is / spoken 
 owi (have); the pluperfect is I spoken was (\\z.ii). To express 
 the subjunctive, I may speak, the form iulun is used — bul=: 
 speak, and un no doubt is for hun=&m. The future hulunga is 
 equal to hul, speak, and unga for hunga, I shall or will be. 
 
 Celtic Verbs. 
 
 386. The tenses of these languages have generally corre- 
 spondents, the one in the other. We will start with the Welsh. 
 
 Present. 
 
 carviyf, I love. carym, we love. 
 
 c'arwyt. carych. 
 
 caryw. carynt. 
 
 Cornish present — same verb. 
 
 caraf, I love. keryn, we love. 
 
 keryth. carough. 
 
 c'". carons. 
 
 Celtic Breton present of kana (for kanat), to sino-. 
 Hanann, I sing. kanomp, we sittg. 
 
 kanez. kanit. 
 
 *a»- kanont. 
 
 Irish present. 
 
 huailim, I strike. buailimid, we strike. 
 
 buailir. buailii. 
 
 buailid. bualid. 
 
 Compared with the languages already examined, we find in 
 the Celtic nothing peculiar. We have the root, as car repre- 
 senting the infinitive, or participle, to which is joined the mark 
 of the« element am, is, are. 
 
 387. In Irish, these endings are not so developed as to dis- 
 tinguish, so strongly as in the other languages, the ending of 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 101 
 
 the infinitive or part, (which is ad, adK) from the element he. 
 Buailid, the 3rd sing., is not materially different from hualad, 
 the infin., as Latin ainatum=^amat. In the other languages, 
 infin. endings are much lighter, so much so that the 3rd sing., 
 which best corresponds with infin., often has no ending at allr— 
 but, in the other persons, the endings, which represent the inf. 
 and part., are better developed. In Gaelic, the inf. is continued 
 pretty uniformly through the persons of the tenses without vari- 
 ation, followed by the personal pronouns separate — an excellent 
 proof that the tenses in their persons are only forms of the inf 
 and participle. 
 
 388. The Welsh present was not formerly used by good 
 writers, its place being supplied by the future, as caraf for 
 carwyf, or by this better, 1 am in loving (I love), using am, is, 
 with the infin., or gerund, governed by a prep. The perfect is 
 formed after the same principle; as, lam after loving, differing 
 from the other only in the preposition used. 
 
 389. In Celtic Breton, verbs have besides the personal form, 
 already given, an impersonal form, one which has no variation 
 of ending for the persons, uSing the separate pronouns before a 
 form like the shortened inf., or part.; as, me a gan=l sing, te 
 o^a?i=thou singest — a being a mere augment of participle for 
 infin. So, in Cornish, my a gar=il love, ty 'a gar=t'hou lovest 
 (using the form of the 3rd sing.). The verb do is sometimes 
 inserted; as, my a wra care, I do love(iora=do). 
 
 It may not be amiss to give the present tense of the verb he 
 in Cornish ; as, of, os, yn, (am, art, is) ; on, ough, yns and ens 
 (are). These are plainly the same as the endings of verbs. 
 
 390. Celtic Past. 
 
 caren, cares, care (cara) ; caren, careugh, carens, (loved). 
 car-wn, car-it, car-ai; car em, carechj carent (loved). 
 kan-enn, kan^ez, kan-e; kanemp, kan-eck, kan-ent (sung). 
 
 The first line is Cornish, the second "Welsh, and the third 
 C.-B. In this connexion we may notice the C.-B. past of he. 
 
 oenrti oez^ oe; oemp, oech, oent. 
 So, with these kept in view, we can, with propriety, consider 
 the car-en, car-wn, and kan^enn, as car and kan representing 
 the gerund or part., and en, wra, enn,=waa. If we compare the 
 Celtic Breton kanenn of the past with kanann of the present, 
 we shall find a close resemblance between them. We noticed 
 such a resemblance in other languages. There should be the 
 same identity between these two tenses that there is between the 
 Lat. supine (inf.) amatum, and the part, amatus, or the same 
 identity which we find between the inf., or gerund, and the past 
 participle, in the German aiid Scandinavian languages. 
 
102 PHRASIS. 
 
 391 We may observe, too, that, from another point of view, 
 caren, 1st person Cornish, and e<^ret (for c«.e), 3rd person, are 
 identical ith the past part.-the ending of the part being 5, 
 in Irish, and en and et, in Celtic Breton. So that we find this 
 tense identical with the deugdum of Turkish, and the nushid of 
 Persian. 
 
 392. The Irish past is for do hualad, to strike, as follows : 
 do buaile-as, do b^ail-is, do buail se, I, thou, lie struck. 
 
 do buaile-amar, do buaile-abar, do buaileadar, we, ye, they struck. 
 
 The prefiz do which we find in the infin. and part., shows very 
 well that this tense is based on them ; and the endings, leaving 
 off the ar of the plural, point very clearly to ad, adh, of the inf. 
 This do is identical with all the numerous prefixes found in 
 Celtic, such as ro, re, 0, a. It is the Slavic da, and it is found 
 also in the old German dialects ; the prefix r is found also in 
 old French, as r-avoir (to have), for avoir. 
 
 There is another form in Celtic for the past, which we will 
 now consider. 
 
 393. Second Past. 
 
 herys, kersys, caras; hersyn, carsough, carsons (loved). 
 cerais, ceraist, earodd ; carason, carasoch, carasant (loved). 
 kanis, kanzoud, kanaz ; kanzomp, kanzot, kanzont (sung). 
 
 buailtea, buailead ; buailimis, buailti, buailidis (strucik). 
 
 The first is Corn., the 2d Welsh, the 3d Celt.-Bret., and the 
 4th Irish (and it has the ptefix do before all persons). In this 
 connexion, we must bear in mind the Cor. past of be, esen, esesj 
 ese; esen, esough, ens (was, were). So, we may regard these 
 forms of the past as was or has been joined to the present part., 
 or, which is preferable, as a development of a past participle, 
 personal endings being added. The Irish 2d persons give very 
 nearly the past part, buailte ; the 3rd persons present the part, 
 ending as it appears in the gerund, or infin. The first persons 
 give the Cornish form of past participle. - 
 
 We regard this tense as a regular Latin perfect, or as a Greek 
 first aorist (mark the s in ker-s-ys"). 
 
 394. Here we will give the pluperfect. 
 
 carsen, carses, carse (t) ; carsen, carseugh, carsens (would love). 
 
 caraswn, carasit, carasai; carasem, carasech, carasent (had loved). 
 
 kansenn, kansez, kanse; kansemp, kansech, kansent (would sing). 
 
 buailfinn, buailfea, buailfead; buailfimis, buailfid, buailfidis (wouM 
 strike). 
 
 In kansenn (Celtic Breton), we have substituted s for/, as it 
 really should be; we find also kanzenn and kanjenn, and so 
 through all the persons. This tense in form is not essentially 
 different from the perfect, just as in Latin, amavermU (perf.) 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 103 
 
 equals amaverant (pluperf.). You can divide car-sen, or cars-en 
 — using se»i=liad been, or ere=was {cars, caras, for perf. part. 
 carat, or caret, as in Cornish and Celtic Breton). The student 
 ■ffill observe here, as well as elsewhere, how the pluperf. indie, 
 identifies with the subjunctive or conditional. Next we will 
 consider the future. 
 
 394. Future. 
 
 In Welsh, the future runs thus, caraf, ceri, cara {car"); car- 
 wn, carwch, carant ; caraf (/^s) and car ant plainly show the 
 inf. ending — the tense is not Jifferent from the present. There 
 is, in Welsh, a second future, carof, carych, caro ; carom, car- 
 och, caront, which is plainly only a form of the other. 
 
 The Irish presents a*future where the mark is /, Lat. bo, Gr'k 
 SjKus.i; -of pluperfect; thus, huailfead, huailfir, huailfid, l)uail- 
 fimid, huailfid, huailfid (will strike) — we have here (see the 
 id= infin. ad') nothin'g but the infin. of a new base, such as we 
 have so often met with. This puts us in mind of remarking, 
 that every tense is really a form of its own, and not derived 
 from some other — indeed, so is every ^person form also. 
 
 396. One single example out of several in Welsh, will show 
 that the principle is unmistakably in the Celtic languages of 
 representing he as a suffix at the end of verbs ; thus, we have 
 
 gwyhod, to know. gwybuaswn, I had known. 
 
 gwn, I know. gwy^ddaf, I will know. 
 
 gwyhyddwn, I knew. gwybyddof, I will have known. 
 gwyhum, I have known. 
 
 Bod (Per. hudan) is inf. of verb he; huaswn = l had been; 
 hyddwn^l was, byddaf=I shall be; hum=l have been. It is 
 in the Celtic languages that we find most convincing proof that 
 the auxiliaries, such as do, he, have, are practically developments 
 of the endings of verbs ; it is there that we find them following 
 the verb, either attached or separate. 
 
 397. There are some other combinations which we must yet 
 notice in Corn. ; thus, kared em euz, loved I have, i. e. I have 
 loved : me em-euz karet, I I-have loved, i. e. I have loved — 
 me and em are both forms of I, but the em is so closely incorpo- 
 rated with euz (have) as to cease to be an independent pronoun, 
 and we have here, as in ec/o am-o, a pronoun separate and one 
 in the verb ; so, in the 1st plural, m hon-euz karet, we we-have 
 loved. We find also karond a rann, to-love (I) do, i. e. I do 
 love, I love (a is an unmeaning prefix) ; so karond a reomp, 
 love we-do, we love ; there is also the heza em euz, to-be I have, 
 meaning simply I have: 
 
104 PHEASIS. 
 
 Greele and Latin Verbs. 
 
 398 We will next consider, in some detail, the elaborate sys- 
 tem of the Greek and Latin verb. What we have already said 
 of other languages will aid us much in obtaining a clear under- 
 standing of the system now before us. 
 
 399. Present. 
 
 Lat. ; amo, amas, amat. amamus, amatis, amant (love). 
 
 G'k ; leipd, Uipeis, leipei. leipomen, Uipete, leipousi (leave). 
 
 Span. ; amo, amas, ama {t). amamos, amais, aman (love). 
 
 Germ. ; backe, backest, backet, backen, backet, backen (bake). 
 
 Dan. ; bager, bager, bager. lage, lage, bagff (bake). 
 
 Go. ; skaida, skaidis, skaidith. skaidam, skaidith, skaidand (Ger. scheide). 
 
 A. S.4 gife, gifast, gifath. gifath, gifath, gifath. (give). 
 
 Eng. ; give, givest, giveih. give, give, give (give). 
 
 A mere glance at the above comparative view, will show the 
 identity between those forms and the part, or infin. ; amat is 
 the supine, less the urn, and amant is the present part., or a 
 form of amat. The amo is short, for amam or amat, as we 
 see by Span. ama=L. amat; G-r'k leipei^Ieipet, as we see by 
 the 2d plural ; leipomen is identical with the middle participle 
 leipotnen-os. 
 
 400. In Germ., we find et and en, known participle endings; 
 in Dan. and Swed., er is equal to L. are of inf. The A. S. ath, 
 adh, is the same as Gaelic inf. ending. That those endings are 
 not properly pronouns added, is seen by the number of instances 
 where the same ending occurs in more than one person, and, as 
 in A. S., in more than one number. There is no doubt but that 
 in many languages, as the Lat. and Gr'k, the developments are 
 so strong that they may be considered, from their differentiar 
 tion, as representing the persons, or, more properly, the different 
 persons of the -verb be — but the condition must be borne in 
 mind that they are only developments of the one and same verb- 
 al ending en, et, ar. 
 
 401. The Fast. 
 
 There are in the indicative mood of Latin, three forms which 
 perform the part of past tenses. They are, for amare, to love, 
 the imperfect (or past proper) ama-bam, the perfect ama-vi, 
 and the pluperfect ama-veram ; the endings of the past and 
 perfect, after leaving the 1st person, have forms like the present, 
 i. e. -am,, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. It is one of the features 
 of the Latin, as it is of others, that the 1st person sing, of the 
 past tenses differs from that of the present, it being am for the 
 former, and o for the latter. We observed this even more 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 105 
 
 strikingly, in Hung, and Samoid., where one denoted possessive 
 endings and the other nominative. And so it is in 'Latin, the 
 past tenses have accusative endings, such as we should find with 
 an infin., while present tenses have nominative endings. The 
 past tenses are everywhere objective, dependent. 
 
 402. The form ama-ham corresponds exactly with Turkish 
 deug-dum, Persian nushi-dam, that is, we have the base am or 
 ama, for the inf. or part, of the original verb, and ham or abam 
 representing was. There is no form of he in Latin which cor- 
 responds with ham (Germ. Un, Eng. heen), unless we take it as 
 a variation of eram= was (or of fui') ; it is clearly identical with 
 Turk, dum, idum, Welsh hum, Slav, hech, hi/l, our was (h^iv); 
 ham is in form a verb of itself, with base h and regular ending. 
 We can, with, equal propriety regard it as amah-am, taking am- 
 ah as a "base, some infinitive as amare, or am,at(jirn), recgiving 
 person endings. In this light, it is the Russ. ■;; of pluperf. and 
 other forms. There Ss no question that h of ham is the t of 
 -atum (supine), and of can-t-o. 
 
 403. But ham taken in connexion with the other endings 
 averam and avi, points more strictly to Lat. habeo, have. It is 
 very clear that have, which is so common as an auxiliary, in 
 Germ., and in other languages which are conceded to be directly 
 descended from Latin (as Fr., It., Span.), and which appears in 
 later years in Latin itself as an auxiliary for these tenses, may 
 be taken as corresponding with this ham and averam. It is 
 equally clear that have is only a development of the endings of 
 the verb, such as we have in Latin, and which has at last been 
 thrown off or separated. 
 
 404. Nearly all writers have treated these elements of Latin 
 verbs as representing tenses of the verb he, but this is only true 
 so far as be is have ; and if have is not he, then this ending 
 under consideration is not be. The difficulty arises from the 
 fact that in many languiiges, perhaps most, he is used in place 
 of have — so it is in Fr. and Germ., among others. The truth 
 is, they are identical in origin, and we so treat them; have is 
 simply later in appearance than he. Not only have, but do, own, 
 mean, may, shall, will (Slav. byT), and perhaps all other auxili- 
 aries, are identical with be. The proof of have equal to he is 
 abundant, and beyond all question ; their use in common is of 
 itself evidence enough; etymologically considered, they are not 
 different in most languages. 
 
 405. Greek Past. 
 
 e-leipon, e-leipes, e-leipe ; eUipomenrdeipete, eleipon (left). 
 The Sanscrit formation is the same. The augment e and a 
 (Celtic do, ro, a, aq) shows the part., or infin., character of the 
 14 
 
106 PHRASIS. 
 
 base, as w* find augments in other languages uniformly before 
 inf s and part's. The forms e-leipon, eleipes, eleipe (for eleipei), 
 are not materially different from German ge-hheben (lelt> 
 
 406. There is another past, called the Ionic or iterative past; 
 it ends in shon, skes, ske (sing.); as, e-tupteskon, for e-tupton — 
 the augment in this form is generally omitted. This sk=s is 
 the s which we shall' find in the aorist, the h of Latin past ; 
 taking s7c=k, it is also the k of the G'k perfect; it is the G'fc 
 z in aitizein (for aitein), to ask often, and the sk in methuskd, 
 I become drunk. So, in Eus., we find v (=G'k sJc) as the mark 
 of the iterative; as, kidat, to cast, kidivat, to throw often; and, 
 again, we have seen it as the mark of the pluperfect. 
 
 •407. We can regard eleipon just as we have the past of other 
 languages already noticed — either as the variation of the end- 
 ings of a participle, or the on, es, e (for et) as the past of be. 
 Though the usual form of was, in Greek, is somewhat different, 
 there are dialectic forms which often occur, enabling us to 
 assume a form for the persons of was ; thus, eon, ees, ee; eomeii 
 eete, eon. 
 
 The Celtic presents us with an exact counterpart of these 
 pasts in Greek and Sanscrit. In ■ none is the final element so 
 strongly 'developed as we find it in Latin, and the cognate lan- 
 guages. 
 
 408. The Greek has another form of the past, called 2d aorist, 
 which we will next proceed to notice. It runs thus : 
 
 elipon, elipes, elipe ; elipomen, elipete, elipon (left). 
 
 This is not essentially different from the foregoing in meaning, 
 and it is identical with it in endings. It varies from the past 
 in having the root or base lip, in place of leip. Just such vari- 
 ations in the body of the word prevail in the German class, and 
 in other languages, in the past tenses; as, German ich schlage, 
 I strike, ich schlug, I struck ; so, our write and wrote, sing and 
 sang. This form compares well with the Germ. part, ge-horg- 
 en, from hergen, to bury, conceal. When we bear in mind that 
 the prefix e is not an essential part of the tense, and is often left 
 off, we will the more readily see how it agrees with our leave 
 and left, see and saw, Latin capio and ccpi (perf.), frango and 
 fregi. 
 
 409. These changes in the base, and of which we shall find 
 more in Greek, seem to be as if in compensation for the short- 
 ness or lightness of the ending, as in taught for teached, where 
 t (forei) is almost silent; so, in the plural, we have men for 
 mans. It might be remarked, further, that these irregular 
 forms, having lost their tense marks, are reduced to the form of 
 mere presents; as,' give, gave, Goth, giba, gab, stila, stal, Latin 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 107 
 
 capio, cepi, ago, egi. There can be no doubt that all such forms 
 as these were originally, and are now, in principle, augmented 
 like this aorist of Greek; so, in Goth., we have sai-slep, the 
 preterit of slepa, to sleep, and hlai-hlaup, preterit of hlaupa 
 (German laufen,x\va). 
 
 Many verbs have no 2d aorist — it is a new form, wanting in 
 all verbs ending in azO, ainS, eud. 
 
 410. Aorist 1st. 
 
 Besides those pasts already noticed, there is a longer and 
 fuller form, the 1st aorist, running thus : 
 
 e-leip-sa, eleip-sas, eleip-se; eleip-samen, eleip-sate, eleip^san (left). 
 
 The Sans, endings to correspond with these are san, sis, sit ; 
 sma, sta, sus; and if, in this connexion, we bear in mind the 
 Sans, asan, asis, asit; asina, asta, asan, the past of he (was or 
 has been), the Greek esan, and Latin esam for eram, we shall 
 have no doubt about what the aorist endings represent. This 
 tense is also a faithful counterpart of the Latin am-abam, Pers. 
 nush-idam. The San. san, 1st per., shows that Greek sa = sam, 
 and Sans, sit, 3rd sing., shows Greek se=i=set or sat; so that in 
 every respect this tense agrees with the Latin -bam, -bas, -bat. 
 In meaning, however, it answers better to our perfect. 
 
 411. As we regard this tense in its parts as identical with such 
 tenses as the Lat. amabam, it is hardly necessary to repeat here 
 what was said of that form. That this s in Greek and Sanscrit, 
 which appears as b, v, in Latin, is the same as the v of Slavic 
 vertivat, the new infinitive on the old infinitive vertet, as well as 
 the t of Lat. rogitare from rogare, the » of Greek komixo from 
 homes, admits of no doubt. 
 
 412. As we have said of the others we say of this, that what- 
 ever may have been its origin, it has developed an ending which 
 represents an auxiliary verb, have or was. There are some verbs 
 which have the aorist in ka for sa, that is, with the augment of 
 the aorist they end in ka, like a perfect — being a transition form 
 of the latter. 
 
 413. Though the 2d aorist is not so full, it represents the 
 same elements — the ending is shorter, less developed, but this 
 is compensated by the vowel change of the root. There is a 
 striking identity, which We must notice before closing this tense, 
 the 1st ao-rist, between its endings and those of the participle ; 
 as, as, asa, an (mas. fem. and neut.). Indeed, we find in mod. 
 Greek imperf. sing., etimousa, etimouses, etimouse (I, thou, he 
 honored) ; but ousa is the regular fem. participle ending in G'k. 
 This not only shows the tense equal to a participle, but that the 
 aorist s is the same as that of ousa. 
 
 We will next consider the perfect. 
 
108 PHRASIS. 
 
 I 
 
 414. Perfect. 
 
 Closely related to the past of Latin and the aorists of Greek 
 is the perfect. . Its fullest form in Latin is vi, as in ama-vx, i 
 have loved, from the verb amo ; a shorter, but nearly identical 
 form is that of the 2d conjugation; as, mon-m (from moneo), I 
 have advised. Neither the u nor the v, we may remark, is 
 peculiar to the perfect ; we find a whole class of verbs with the 
 base ending in u, as acuo, no, metuo, and in v, as moveo, caveo, 
 solvo, lavo. It is hardly necessary to remind the student that 
 this V, u, is the very t which we have so often met before in 
 many places. ' 
 
 415. There is in Latin still another and much larger class 
 which includes those that scarcely differ in their base from the 
 present — regarding t as the ending of the perfect and o that of 
 the present. They are such as follow : 
 
 juvo,juvi; moveo, movi; capio, ccpi ; facia, feci, 
 fugio,fugi; fdrcio,- farsi ;■ haurio, hausi; video, vidi. 
 rumpo, rupi ; linguo, liqui; lego, legi; fundo, fudi. 
 There are instances where a final letter of the base is repre- 
 sented in the perf. by one of its cognates ; such as augeo, auxi; 
 forqtceo, torsi; indiilgeo, indulsi ; ardeo, arsi) juheo, jussi ; 
 vivo, vixi; gero, gessi; spicio, spexi; coalesco, coalui ; jingo, 
 finxi; fergo, tersi ; cedo, cessi ; sino, sivi. It is clear here that 
 g of the present is represented by x of the perfect, dhj s, b by 
 ss, V and chy x, g by s, sc by u. 
 
 416. In more languages than one, we have already found the 
 past participle the base of the perfect tense, with sometimes 
 nothing but personal endings developed, and in some cases even 
 these omitted. It is very natural then that we should consider 
 it the base in Latin also. We have observed this v mark of the 
 perf., in Latin, having a strong tendency to disappear as u in a 
 large class of verbs, and vanishing entirely in a class still larger. 
 Even in that class of Latin verbs where we should uniformly 
 expect it, often it cannot be found ; thus, for amavisti we have 
 amasti, for_pe<zyi we have^eiii, and deleram tor deleveram. In 
 theltal., Fr., and Span, languages, whose tenses are formed on 
 the same principle as those of Latin, these short forms are the 
 prevailing ones, that is, the v ceases to be a consonant, as in 
 petii, and is lost by harmony with the accompanying vowel. 
 
 So, in Ital., we find cant-ai, cant-asti, cant-o, French chant-ai, 
 chant-as, chant-a(t), both for the Lat. cantavi, cantavisti {can- 
 tasti), cantavit. In Fr. forms, such as vendis, vendis, vendit (I, 
 thou, he has sold), we especially see the identity of the perfect 
 with the old Fr. participle ; so, too, in servis, servis, servit (has 
 served) — part, servi, for servit. Such perfects become identical 
 with the German pasts. 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 109 
 
 417. In L., we find a strong tendency of the perf. to identify 
 with the pass, part., and hence with the supine also; thus, pres. 
 jvheo, Tperhct Jussi, participle jmssms (to order); rideo,risi, risus 
 (laugh) ; parco, parsi, parsus (spare) ; scribo, scripsi, smptus 
 {ps=pf); dioco, duxi,. ductus {x=ck=ct). And there is little 
 doubt that the v seen in amavi is the t of amatum ; so that, 
 seen from this stand point, it is a mere part, developing endings, 
 and we have amavi, for amavim (as we see, by amavim-us, 1st 
 plural), amavisfi for q,maviti, a double development often found 
 in the 2nd person. 
 
 The 3rd plural, amaverunt, presents us with an unexpected 
 growth ; we have here not only the MJi<=they, and this av seen 
 in the, other persons, but also the jinf. mark er., In mod. Latin, 
 the V disappearing, we have this, form reduced to a mere infin. 
 with personal endings ; thus, Fr. chanter-ent, Spanish cantaron 
 (they have sung), and the infin. chanter, cantar. This growth 
 of amavwnt (amatunt) into amaverunt. (afmaturwfit'), is precisely 
 the growth of amaturus out of amare, amatus, amandus. The 
 .Wallach. carries the sr through all the persons plur., as lavdar- 
 amu, laudarati, laudaro (for laudarunt), we, ye, they have 
 praised — while in Latin we should have laudavim,us, laudavis- 
 tis, laudaverunt (laudarunt'). In Tuscan, we find poetic forms 
 for the perf. 3d plural where the person ending is entirely lost, 
 and we have the bare inf. == part.; as, creder' for creder-o^cre- 
 der-ono. In the Groth. past (=perf ), we find the same doubling 
 in the plural that we do in Latin 3d plural perfect ; thus, salbo- 
 da, salbodes, salboda ; salbo-dedum, salbo^deduth, salbo-dedun 
 (saved) — the double d-ed being found in the three persons plur. 
 That this d-ed is equal to the Latin av-er, is very evident from 
 the identity of the tenses in which those elements are found. 
 Both languages have a corresponding tense in the subjunctive, 
 and in both this double element appears in all the persons ; as, 
 salbo-dedjau, -dedeis, -dedi; -dedeima, -dedeith, -dedeina ; Latin 
 am-averim, -veris, -verit ; -verimus, -veritis, -verint (might have 
 loved, may have loved). 
 
 418. If we would consider the Latin perfect as composed of 
 parts, we may say it has the auxiliary have (avi) and the perf. 
 or past part., a composition such as we find everywhere ; aver- 
 unt of the 3rd plural has grown to represent the infinitive avere 
 (habere) and the person ending. The past in German is made 
 by suppressing have and using the participle alone, even going 
 still farther and suppressing the mark of the participle, as in 
 the irregular verbs (so as to bring it,still nearerthe present). 
 The same thing precisely seems to have occurred in Latin in a 
 large portion of its perfects. 
 
 419. There are in Latin, also, a few scattered remnants of 
 
110 PHR4.SIS. 
 
 reduplicated perfects, sucli as we find prevailing in Greek and 
 in a portion of tte Gothic pasts; such as mordeo, mo-mord% 
 (bite), pendo, pe-pendi (hang), tondeo, to-tondi (shear). In 
 some of these reduplicated perfects, the root vowel_ is also 
 changed, as in our irregular verbs ; as, parco, peperci, tango, 
 tetigi, pario, peperi, cano, cecini, /alio, fefdli. In that large 
 class of Lat. verbs where the root is changed and the reduplica- 
 tion is not apparent, we may consider it as latent, and they are 
 easily placed parallel with our irregular verbs; as, cresco,. crevi 
 (grow, grew), 7nitto, misi (send, sent), sto, steti (stand, stood), 
 sido, sidi (sit, sat), lego, legi (read, read, past), frango, fregi 
 (break, broke), ago, egi (do, did), cap'k), cepi (take, took). 
 
 420. There is also in Latin the pluperfect amaveram, amav- 
 eras, amaverat (I, thou, he had loved); the 2d future amavero, 
 -ris, -rit (I, thou, he will have loved); and the perf subjunc. 
 amaverim,-- -7'is, rit (1, thou, he may have loved). These are 
 all identical with the perfect as it appears in the 3rd plural — 
 ram and rim mark the ace. pron., and ro marks the nominative. 
 They stand as if made of averam, which is the infinitive habere 
 {avere) with endings, and the root am; in the abam of the past, 
 the endings are joined to the root instead of to the infinitive. 
 
 421. The perfect of Greek will next engage our attention. 
 Of the reduplication we have already found traces in Latin and 
 Gothic; in the Greek, it is a feature more constant, it is one of 
 the most prominent marks of the perfect in that tongue — thus, 
 pres't leipo, perf. le-leipha (\esi\e), pleTco, pe-pleka, 7c=ch (fold). 
 But this manner of regular reduplication is not found in all 
 verbs by any means. In a large class of verbs, namely, those 
 which begin with two consonants (with some exceptions), the 
 augment is e, the same as in 'the aorist and past tenses; thus, 
 zeloo, e-geloka (z=dz); speiro, e-sparka ; psallo, e-psalka. 
 The reason of this variation from what we are wont to regard as 
 the regular mode of reduplication is, that this reduplication is 
 really a case of double letters, leleipa^Ueipa, pepleka=ppleka, 
 and where two consonants come together, as ds ps sp they 
 being alike, as we have elsewhere shown, they are, also, alreajdy 
 double. In such cases as grapho, ge-grapha, krino, kekrika, 
 pneo, pepneuka, Mao, tethlaka, where we have one of the two 
 initial consonants /, n, r, (some exceptions), the augment is 
 regular, because such letters are little more than vowels. It 
 hardly needs from us the hint that the perfect, in its formation 
 is precisely that of the aorists and the imperfect, that the aug- 
 ment e, of those tenses, is only one of the forms of this very 
 reduplication. ' 
 
 422. Having already suggested that all double letters and all 
 cases where two consonants come together are augments, just like 
 
HISTORY OP VERBS. Ill 
 
 this one of the perfect, we must remind the student that even 
 this Greek reduplication is by no means confined to this tense ; 
 it is often found in the present, as ti-trOskd, I wound, pi-prask5, 
 I sell ; it is often found in parts of speech not verbs (as gi^gas, 
 a giant, touto, this), and in other languages much more clearly 
 than in G-'k. This augment has a history identical with that of 
 the Germ, ge ; this ge, too, is a mark not of participles alone. 
 
 423. Having considered the initial part of the Greek perfect, 
 let us next consider that which marks its ending. The regular 
 endings which mark the perfect are ka&ndpha (yd); as, peithd 
 pepeika, tupio, tetupha. Kemembering how often 7c— t, we find 
 no trouble in seeing in this 7e the t of Latin amatus, and the et, 
 ed, of Germ, pasts. In some forms of Slav., we have found the 
 usual past sign l = t appearing as ch=k;-a9, hych, hech, in place 
 of hi/l, was; so, we find wuknich (nifc), I learned, and wuknyl 
 (part.) learned'^it is only a form of the infin. ending ic (is) for 
 it, which we often find. The fha (jod) is only a form of ka ; 
 the form v^t also appears in the Lat. perf's. We need hardly 
 .mention that this h and v is the s of the aorist and of the future. 
 
 424. We must observe here, too, that this ka and va ap- 
 pearing in Greek perfects, is not some new element added to 
 the verb, but simply, as we saw in the Latin perfect and supine 
 a develppment of what was already in it, a growth of cognate 
 letters from the end of the base or root of the verb. Thus, we 
 have tuptH, (te^tupha (pf=p7i) ; plekO, (pe)ple7ea ; legd, (le)- 
 leka{g = 7e); 'aUs7c5, 'Sldka (s7c=k); ktizd, (e)7ctika (_z=k) ; 
 orussB, druka (ss=^z=k); 'amartanO, 'gmarteka (n=g—k'). 
 
 425. But verbs ending in eo, ao, o6, and the like, really seem 
 to have an additional /c ; as, pTiileO, (pe)p]iiWca; timao, (te)- 
 timeka. But there is no doubt that there is an undeveloped n, 
 s or z, in this eo, ao, just as we find it appearing in and, izo, 
 isko ; ao, may be taken as a transition of ano to 6. So, c7ira6 is 
 for dhravo (our grave, German grdben), chao for cTiavo (gape, 
 Germ, gaffen), kleo (Germ, klaffen) ; thao for tTiapo, hruo for 
 hrepTio. 
 
 There are also such perfects as (e)stalka from stello, and (e)- 
 sparka from speiro. These are related to the above in their 
 vowel character, and what is said of one will apply to the other. 
 We want to bear in mind that k though apparently a hard con- 
 sonant is really equal to g=j=i, and associates well with v=u. 
 
 We have thus found the Greek perfect to be the exact coun- 
 terpart of the Latin perfect. As v represents Tiaheo in Latin, so 
 k represents ecTio, have, in Greek (for e7w'). 
 
 426. The perfects in G'k assumeanother form, a forra exactly 
 corresponding with our irregular or strong verbs. It is called 
 the 2d Perfect, and is treated as distinct from the perfect proper. 
 
112 PHRASIS. 
 
 but it is clearly a mere form of it. They are evidently different 
 in age, and one is meant to replace the other. That they both 
 exist together, is no strange phenomenon in nature. Old fashions 
 and new ones are always coeval — but one or the other predom- 
 inates. Degenerated forms which are represented in nature by 
 others, are only suppresseid, they are never extirpated. The 
 forms we speak of are such as pepoitha from peiiho, leloipa, from 
 leipo, pleko, peploka (pcrf. pepleka). It is a matter of history 
 in Greek, in the Attic particularly, that the short forms are the 
 older, and that hence the longer, ones are the result of growth; 
 so, the h and ph (d) are dropped in the more ancient Greek, and 
 we have the ending aa or a, the s of the future does not appear, 
 and we have alo for aleso, halo for kaleso, besides, kao replaces 
 kaio, and alein is for allihein. 
 
 421. In modern Gr'k, there is no simple perfect tense, unless 
 we consider the 1st aorist as its representative; the aorist, having 
 a form precisely that of ancient Greek, is used for the perfect, 
 and also for the pluperfect and future. The modern Greek has 
 not as many forms for past tenses as ancient Gr'k, for this plain 
 reason, that the elements by age and growth had got to be so 
 strongly developed that the auxiliaries, as have, have been cast 
 off from the parent stem, and have become themselves individual 
 verbs. There are as many tenses in later Greek as in the older, 
 but in the later the elements are more frequently separate. Thus, 
 echo, grapsei, I have written, echeis grapsei, thou hast written ; 
 literally it is, / have {to) have written, as grapsei is the aorist 
 (or perfect) infinitive ; this is not the only place where we may 
 find the infin. in place of a part, past; so, in Polish, hede czytal, 
 will read (past part, where we use infin.) — so in old German, ist 
 cuman (int.), is come, has come. We find aho echo grammenon 
 (perf part.) corresponding in form to om: I have written, though 
 not precisely in meaning. In Greek the use of have following 
 the aorist (perf) part, in place of perfect tense, is very common; 
 as, thaumasas echo, wondered I-have (having wondered I-have). 
 The perfect participle followed by be is also very common ; as, 
 gegraphos esomai, (having) written I-shall-be, i. e. I shall have 
 written ; tetumenoi eisi, struck (being struck) they-are, i. e. they 
 have been struck. 
 
 428. The Greek pluperfects, as e-le-leipein, e-pe-plekein, e-te- 
 tuphein, are only imperfects on the base of the perf. The plu- 
 perf., here,- is a true infin. ; it is just such a form as the Latin 
 amaveram, amav,erim. The developed person endino-s at the 
 end of an infinitive we have by this time become famitiar with 
 There is, besides, a 2nd pluperfect, based on the 2nd perfect as 
 e-pe-poithein, on pepoitha. (We may mention here by wav of 
 note, that the Gr'k aorist inf as leip-sai, is in form the same as 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 113 
 
 ama-'vere, which ia Latin, however, we find only in the past 
 tenses with endings added). 
 
 429. In Albanian, we find a compound perfect thus, kam 
 difiouare, Ice difiouare, Icadifiouare, I, thou, he, has heard; kam 
 kapoure,^ I-have opened. Here we have the G'k perfect ending 
 ka existing separate. It has also a simple perfect, ending 'm ha 
 (G'k pha, Lat. ham); as, difio-ha, I have heard, scro-ha, I have 
 written. This ha is, often reduced to a, and has the forms ze, 
 tze, <e— rshowing after all that it is the Eng. past ed, Germ. te. 
 There isa past tense, ending in ona, a»a, ,%* (Gr'k past ending 
 on, Germ, en of part.); as, difi-ona,I heard, chap-na, I opened, 
 pe-na, I made. ■ - 
 
 430. Future. 
 
 , The regular future mark in Lat., is -ho, -his, -hit, -himm, -hitis, 
 -hunt, differing from the past -ham, -has, -hat, etc., in having 
 nominative person endings. But, in the 3d and 4th conjugations,,- 
 this mark 6 is suppressed, and W6! have ^ the future identical 
 (practically) wi);h the present subjunctive, as rec/am is both fut. 
 and pres't subj., I will ride, or I may ride; reget, he will rule, 
 regat, he may rule. There is, besides, a 2d future, which differs 
 from the perf. subj. only in being amavero, in place of amaterim, 
 in the 1st person sing. ; its identity, too, with the pluperfect 
 amaveram also necessarily follows. This identity of futures 
 with pasts is by np means confined to the Latin. In Greek, too, 
 s is both the mark of the fut. and of the 1st aorist, and leip-s-6 
 (fut.) differs from (e^leip-s-a (aorist) only as ama-h-am from 
 ama-h-o. This mark is often suppressed in the futnre, as we 
 find it in Latin. To compare all the persons of these two tenses, 
 we have leips-o, -eis, -ei; -omen, -ete, -ousi (will leave), and 
 (e^leips-a, -as, -e; -amen, -ate, -an (left, have left). 
 
 431. Here we may introduce the Pol. fut., hedepisal, I will 
 write, hedzie pisal, he will write, hedziemy pisali, we will write. 
 This hede (Per. hudam, Wei. hod, Rus. hit) is the fut. of 6e, and we 
 have will he equal to will — pisal is the part, in place of inf. We 
 have, in Pol., another arrangement, j)isa.s hede, (to-write I will), I 
 will write, where the inf. is followed by (will) he. The Slovensh 
 has, for the 3rd persons sing, oi will, hom, has, ho (Welsh hod), 
 which approaches still nearer the future ending ho, his, hit, of 
 Latin. In Bohemian, we have 6e=will be, will, preceding the 
 infin.; as, hudeme piti, we-will (to) drink. Persian has also a 
 compound future composed of will or wish and the infin. jas, 
 khaham nushid, I-shall drink ; khaliad nushid, he-shall drink. 
 The Illyr. uses th'e auxiliary Jwsu.(ot su)^will, with the inf. ; 
 as, ja supitati, I will (to) ask; tises piti, thou wilt (to) drink — 
 and sometimes the su is sufiixed, as sitat su ((to) read I-will), I 
 
 15 
 
114 PHBASIS. 
 
 will read; pit su, I will drink (sounded pw-w). We have, here, 
 the Greek 1 and see what it represents. The Servian has this 
 same auxiliary, in the form of odshu (old Slavic cJioshtu), our 
 wish, Persian hhash. „ „ . t ■ i- 
 
 432. The Wallachian presents the following combination: 
 No) voiu lauda, (I) will praise. vomu lauda, (we) will praise. 
 veilauda. vUi lauda. 
 
 va lauda. "<"•« ^''«<^''- 
 
 Lauda is without douht a shortened infin. We are reminded 
 hy this of the identity of future ending ho, his, hit, and Latin 
 volo, vis, vult (will), of which the Wallachian presents a shorter 
 form. The voru is our were ; so the German uses werde, were, 
 for will, and the Slavic uses hil (will) for was. 
 
 433. In Albanish, we have this for the future : 
 
 do te difoig, (I) will hear. do te difiogeme, (we) will hear. 
 
 do te difiotz. do te difioni. 
 
 do te difioge. do te difiogene. 
 
 The te mark is an augment, sign of infin.; do stands for wUl. 
 The modern Greek form is precisely the same ; as, tha qrapsB, 
 I will write, tha grapsSs, thou wilt write, tha grapse, he will 
 write, i. e. we have tha unchanged and the endings joined to 
 the main verb. This tha is to be compared with the do, for 
 dona, of Alban., with the va of Wall. (y=t'), the Greek thel5=^ 
 volo, and the Irish ta=he. The form grapsS used with it, is 
 called aorist subj., but it is properly an aorist infin. receiving 
 endings, as we saw in Albanian, and elsewhere. This language 
 (modern G'k) forms a future also by using theld (=volo, will) 
 with aorist infin. ; as, thelB grapsei, I-will write, thelei grapsei, 
 he-will write — and sometimes the present inf. is used in place 
 of aorist ; and, again, we find na replacing ta. 
 
 434. Having gone thus far in showing the various forms 
 which the future assumes, in different languages, and now 
 remarking, incidentally, that the pres't indie., pres't subj., and 
 the future are tenses that everywhere identify themselves, we 
 will now consider more in detail the relatives of our auxiliary 
 will, so as to give a still better idea of the future tense. The 
 connexion of be with will has been already sufficiently discussed. 
 Next to this have is one of the most constant representatives of 
 will. We hajve already seen the future placing itself parallel 
 with the past tenses (marked by have), and the s of the Greek 
 future identical with the b and v (for have) of the past tenses of 
 Latin. It is a constant feature in Slav, to find have joined with 
 an infin. to supply the place of the future, as we say, lam to do, 
 or, I have to do, Yovwill do. _ So, Gothic has taujan,haha (to-do 
 I-have)=I will do, and Latin dicere /lafeco (to-say I-have) = I 
 will say, also Polish mam szytas (I-have to-read) =1 shall read 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 115 
 
 435. In Gothic, munan, mun, is used for will; so we say, I 
 mean (same word as mun) to-do, i. e. I shall do it, will do it. 
 This mun relates to G'k mellein, also used for will, and identical 
 with it.' Our owe, ought, is also related to will, as we see better 
 by the Greek form for it, o-pheilO (Jil, will) — and Latin debeo, 
 ought, is a form of habeo =shall : must, may, might, are rekted 
 to owe, ought, and in form to mean. Go. mun ; shall. Germ, soil, 
 is of course a form of wiU. The Danish has 6or= ought, and 
 related to de-heo, to Wall, voru, German werde, our were. We 
 have noticed so far only a portion of the relatives of will, but 
 perhaps the most important portion. 
 
 436. It is in the Illyr. and Serb. Wend, that we notice this 
 important fact, that an augment in the shape of a prefix preposi- 
 tion, is the sign of the future; as, prepisem, I will prescribe 
 (fore-write), za-pisem, I will record, write up (pisem, write) ; 
 so, also, nj'esu, I carry, po-njesu, I will carry (and so in other 
 forms of Slavic). 
 
 437. The futures in the modern L. languages are marked byr, 
 as Span, ama-re, ama-ras, ama-rem,os, ama-reis, ama-ran, will 
 love. When we bear in mind that the perfect 3d plural is am- 
 wron, which we know is for L. amaverunt, we are led to believe 
 that this Span, future is the Lat. 2d future amavero = amaro. 
 So, in French, senti-rai, -ras, -ra; -rons, rez, ront (will smell). 
 There is no 2nd future in these languages. 
 
 438. Passive. 
 
 We will first introduce the passive of Latin, present tense. 
 It runs thus : 
 amor, I am loved. amamur, we are loved. 
 
 amaris. amamini. 
 
 amatur. amantur. 
 
 The 3d sing, is identical with the^ future participle, amaturus, 
 leaving off the adj. ending us, a, um; amantur differs from this 
 form only in the t strengthened by n ; amamur has m used for 
 t as often occurs ; amor is for amatr, as amo is for amam, am- 
 at; another form, common for the 2d sing., is amare (for ama- 
 tr e) which is identical with pres't inf active — amar-is=amor, 
 amar, with an extra person ending common in this person; 
 and, again, we find in the imperative, which should agree with 
 this 2nd person, the form amator (as well as amare). So, five 
 of the six person forms above given, are, unquestionably, iden- 
 tical with amaturus, and the 6th is not less so, as we shall see 
 on closer inspection. The form amamini has long been recog- 
 nized as a participle similar to the -menoi of the Gr'k pass, ajid 
 middle ; this emen-oi is not only middle' (a kind of active),_ but 
 it is active in itself, as we see in the infin. ending cmen .(active). 
 
116 PHRASIS. 
 
 There is do doubt about emen^atw; and hence amin-i==atur-i. 
 Again in the imperative, we find hortamini for hortator, and 
 prmfammo, for prmfator, and hence we are led to beheve that 
 ■ they are equivalent forms. . r. j ii 
 
 439 We must also remember how very plastic we tound tJie 
 part, in urus, when treating of its character. We found it used 
 as pass, as well as act., and that it gave birth to a verbal noun 
 in tura corresponding to our part, in ing, which is used passively 
 as well as actively. And we shall find plenty of examples, indeed 
 we have already under other heads, where the verbal noun is 
 plainly the basis of the passive ; as, in Celtic, Slavic, and Scan- 
 dinavian. We must remember, too, that or = er, r, is by no 
 means a constant mark of the passive ; it is the ending of infin. 
 in other languages, as Fr.; it marks the active person endings in 
 Swed. and Dan. ; it is the er of our speah-er^ and the or of Lat. 
 script-or, writer. We have noticed, elsewhere, the frequent use 
 of the part, in urus as a verb in Latin, as amaturum esse, was 
 about *to love, and amaturus est, is about to love. We find am- 
 aturum =wovL\d love, but amarem, a purely past tense, is used 
 with the same force, and the two are perhaps not essentially 
 different. And then we must bear in mind that all the perfect 
 subjunctives are future in their character, as well as form, and 
 we shall see see how the future equals the past, and hence the 
 passive. 
 
 440. And there is, besides all this, a large class of verbs which 
 have this pass, ending -or, -aris, -atur, but they are still in every 
 respect active in meaning ; as, miror, I admire, miraris, thou 
 admirest, miratur, he admires. It is true, they are called depo- 
 nents, as if they were not a form of the active, but they are act. 
 nevertheless. They are just such actives as those verbs which 
 have the middle form in Greek ; there, every verb is conceived 
 of as having one form which is identical with the passive, and 
 which yet, in meaning, is a true active ; as, levpomai, I leave, 
 and I am left, leipetai, he leaves, and is left. 
 
 441. But the strongest proof on this point lies in the preseist 
 passive of Icelandic : 
 
 eg er elskadur, I am loved. 
 
 thu ert elshaduT, thou art loved. 
 
 hann er elskadur, he is loved. 
 
 Strike out the am, is, which may be easily suppressed, and 
 we have only ekk-adur, precisely the Latin am-atur. But this" 
 language has another form for pass.; as, eg brennest, thu brennest, 
 hann brennest (in form burnest), 1, thou, he, is burned. This is 
 a sort of middle or reflexive form, and is identical with the Dan 
 and Swedish passive, ending regularly in es, as—; as, de taqas 
 (Swed.), they (are) taken, elskes (Danish), is loved. We have 
 
HISTORY OP VERBS, 117 
 
 already shoTfrn, under the head of the participle in urus, how 
 evidently identical this form of passive is with the past part., 
 with the pres't infin., with the er marking the Dan. pres't act. 
 442. There are several interesting facts in Gothic, which we 
 may notice, having a bearing on the connexion between the 
 passive and active. Thus, we find drobgan='L. turhare (active 
 infin.), and rfroJwa»i= Latin turhari (pass, inf.), to be troubled, 
 and MsZuZiaw = Lat. aperire (open), and usluknan — aperiri (Ji = 
 hri), and fraquistan^perdere, fraquistnan^^perdi (to be lost), 
 (st =st7i) — we thus see what a slight difference there is between 
 the active and passive forms of infin. in Goth., as well as in Lat. 
 We might refer here to our own roMten^io be white, thicken^ 
 to become thick, where we have the real German infin.. ending 
 used for passive infin. So, we find in Gothic, too, manna hait- 
 ans Jaisus, (a) man (who is) called Jesus — where haitans^ 
 vocatus (participle) is used for vacatur (is called). It is hardly 
 necessary io say that whenever we use a past part, independently, 
 as the man captured =th,e Tnan who was captured, we use a part, 
 as a passive. We find other instances in Gothic of participle for 
 passive; as, sa reiks this faihrhwaus us-wair-poda, the prince 
 (Lat. rex) (of)' this world (is) thrown-out (e-jected) ; all hagme 
 itsmaitada, gah in fon atlagada, every tree (shall be) cut-down 
 (part.), and into fire (shall be) cast (participle) ; iliarei saiada 
 (sowed) thata waurd, where (is) sowed the word ; gah ahmins 
 weihis ga-fullgada (filled), and (with) ghost holy (shall be) filled 
 (Lat. replebitur'). It will be observed that this pass. part, alone 
 is used not only for the present passive but for other tenses. 
 443. The conclusion we thus far arrive at is, that the past 
 (or pass.) participle is the basis of the passive; but the past part, 
 is intimately connected with the infinitive, as the infinitive is 
 with the participle in urus. 
 
 4:4:4:. Slavic PassivB. 
 
 In Bohemian, for example, we find^esi hledan, he-is sought; 
 Jsme hledani, we-are sought. It will be remembered that this 
 pass. part, hledan (sought) is not different from the verbal noun 
 seeking (ending also in ani). 
 
 445. The Polish presents the same history; as, j'estem Jwch- 
 amy, I-am loved. The reflexive form is used for passive in 
 Polish, as it is in so many other languages ; as, slowo pisze sie, 
 •(the) word writes self (is written). The imperaonal form is 
 also used as with us ; thus, one divides (they divide) the booty, 
 i. e. the booty is divided, And it is worthy of note that the 
 form used impersonally in this way, in the sense of one divider, 
 differs from the passive part, divided only as ano from aii,i/, or 
 as szyt-ano from szyt-any, on podzlcl-ono trom podziel-ony. ■ 
 
118 PHBASIS. 
 
 446 In Eussian, we have another instance of a language 
 having a passive part, in place of present passive, as we see by 
 the following : 
 
 ia dvizem, I (am) moVed. mi dvizemi, we (are) moved. 
 
 ti dvizem. " dvizmae. 
 
 o« dvizem. "«» dvizemz. 
 
 The Eussian infinitive ends in at,_ the past active ends in al, 
 and this ends in em. — see the identity of the three. 
 
 447. Hungarian Passive. 
 
 The present passive of varni, to wait, runs thus : 
 varatom, I am waited (for) isaratunk, we are waited (for). 
 
 varatol. varattok. 
 
 varatik. varatnak. 
 
 Here, we have a new base varat, in place of var, and probably 
 identical with vart, past part., to which are joined person end- 
 ings. It is not different, in its passive infin. var-atni (at-ni), 
 from Latin am-aver (av-er),_ or the Greek leip-sai {s-ai), or the 
 Latin am-atur (at-ur). It is the il found in Turkish deug-iler 
 (ilrur^at-ur), he is struck. It must readily suggest itself to 
 the student, that this so called insertion of an element, as iZ, is 
 only such an insertion as we have found the s mark of the futj 
 to be, and the h and n mark of the perfect, and no more. 
 
 448. 'A.Ibanish Passive, 
 
 In this language, we find difion-em, I am heard; pen-em, 
 I am made ; chap-em, I am opened, and. the 3d sing, for these 
 forms is digion-ete, pen-ete, chap-ete. In this connexion, we 
 want to bear in mind that difion=he hears, and difiona=J. 
 heard; so that Alban. -em, -et=ur of atur, Greek mai and tai. 
 The passive is uhquestionably here, as elsewhere, the growth of 
 a passive participle. In the past passive, we find difion-esaj 
 pen-esa, chap-esa. It is clear that the endings em and esa have 
 come to represent ^I'am = am, and A;ese=was. The pass, tense, 
 called the definite past, differs (in the plural) from the same 
 tense active only by augment ou preceding ; as, difiouame, we 
 have heard, ou difiouam,e, we have been heard. 
 
 449. In Wallachian, we may add here, the passive takes the 
 reflexive form, as jo me laudu, I me praise, i. e. I am praised, 
 noine laudamu, we us praise, i. e. we are praised; but the form 
 of sum amatiis, I-am loved, is also used. 
 
 450. Celtic Passive. 
 
 The Irish passive present for buail, strike, is huailtear, through 
 all the persons, followed by the personal pronouns; as, huailtear 
 me, I am struck — huailte, it will be remembered, is the passive 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 119 
 
 part, equal to Latin amatus, in form ; and, hence, we infer that 
 huailtear = amatur. The past passive has an unvarying base for 
 all the persons; as, do huaileadh me, I was struck, do luaihadh 
 tu, thou wast struck. The form huaileadh corresponds exactly 
 with the 3rd person imperative active ; do is an infin. or part, 
 prefix. Hence, we conclude that this is a pure infin., followed 
 by the separate personal pronouns, but as the infinitive is so 
 completely identical with the participles, in Celtic, we may call 
 it the participle also. We have only to call to mind the identity 
 of the present infinitive and the past active participle in Slavic, 
 and of amatum (infinitive) with amatus, past or passive part., 
 in order to understand this phenomenon. A 2nd past passive 
 is do huailti, for all persons. This is plainly and simply the 
 pass. part, huailte. The corresponding active tense has the same 
 basis. The future passive is for all persons huailfear, which 
 difiers from the present only in / for t. We think them really 
 one and the same. The 1st person future active is luailfeadh, 
 and we doubt not adh=^ar ; feadh=fear=^tear. There is, in 
 Irish, a conditional for the passive as well as for the active, but 
 we can see in it only a form of the future. 
 
 451. In Welsh, the present pass, ends in ir for all persons ; 
 as carir ef, he is loved, carir ni, we are loved. This ir of Welsh 
 is the or of Lat. amor. It will be observed that the correspond- 
 ing Irish is tear=tur-us. In this ir, we have, too, the ad, adh 
 of Gaelic ; the Welsh cared, let him love, is not different from 
 carer e/'(he), let him be loved. The Cornish form is carer. 
 The Welsh past pass., for all persons, is cerid. This, if we are 
 to judge by the Celt.-Bret., Icared (loved), past part., as well as 
 pass., besides the Irish past just treated of, is simply a past part., 
 or if you prefer, an infin. In Cornish, caras =was loved, is the 
 identical form which we find in the past active; as, caras=he 
 loved. The two futures of Welsh passive, namely cerir, carer, 
 cannot be mistaken. The perfect carwyd, and the pluperfect 
 carasid can be seen to be substantially the same as the corre- 
 sponding active tenses, carodd (3d sing.) and carasit (2d sing.); 
 carwyd can scarcely be said to have developed any element more 
 than cerid. 
 
 452. The Welsh may say also, mi a garir, I (am) in loving 
 (being loved), for I am loved ; efe a garir, he (is) a loved. 
 There is, besides, an impersonal form yr ydysynfy neg%aru,'\i 
 is in my loving, i. e. I am loved ; yr ydys yn ei garu, it is in 
 his loving, he is loved. 
 
 It is important to bear in mind that the C.-Bret. uses harer 
 (or AareM?-) impersonally for one loves, and kared, for one loved, 
 karor, one will love, forms which are called passive in Welsh 
 and Cornish. 
 
120 PHRASIS. 
 
 The common passive in Cornish is a compound, the usual one, 
 of he and passive participle. 
 
 453. Having given so much of other languages to illustrate 
 the Latin passive, we have now only to add that its past pass, is 
 amahar, -haris, -batur ; -hamur, -hamini, -hantur, that is, it is 
 a present passive on the basis of past active ; we have amabor, 
 future, on the basis of the amabo; so, we have amer from am- 
 em, and amarer from amarem, present and past subjunctive. 
 The other tenses are compound; thus, amatus sum (loved am), 
 I have been loved; amati erant (loved .were), they have been 
 loved; amati fuerimus (loved will-have-been), we will have been 
 loved; amatus sim (loved may be), I may have been loved; 
 amatus essem (loved might be), I might have been loved. 
 
 454. . Greeh Passive. 
 
 The present has the following forms : 
 
 leipomai, I am left. leipometha, we are left, 
 
 letpo (-esai). leipesthe. 
 
 leipetai. leiponiai. 
 
 Making due allowance for insignificant letter changes, we have 
 simply the element ai added to the pres't act., which (repeated) 
 is leip5 (oTri), eis (ei), ei (et~) : om,en, ete, ousi, or onti. And we 
 find ur or r acting the same part in Latin, which leads us to 
 infer that they are one and the same element. This ai, in a 
 form sometimes disguised, extends to the other tenses, as the r 
 in Latin. We may say, too, that these six persons seem to be 
 merely a variation oi leipomen(os) , thfe pass, part.; but leipomen 
 is middle (or active) as well, and little doubt is left that leipom- 
 en(os) — amatur{us'), in form. The ending mai, and its variation 
 mi, and ma, men, is in Greek a well recognized active ending. 
 Besides, we must remind the student of the form amamini = 
 amatur in Latin ; and we may add, too, that while in Latin the 
 2d plural has the ending amin-i of a part., the 2d plur. in 6'k 
 leipesthe is identical with the pass, infin. leipesthai (unquestion- 
 ably the same as leipomen{osf). So, the Greek imperative 3rd 
 singular, which should be same as indicative, is leipesthS, like 
 the infinitive. 
 
 455. Here we give the past or imperfect. 
 
 eleipomen, I was left. eleipometha, we are left. 
 
 eleipou {-eso). eleipesthe. 
 
 eleipeto. eleiponto. 
 
 The only real difference between this and the present, is, as 
 in the active, only the augment e. The first and second 'plurals 
 are precisely the same, and the 3d persons, sing, and plur. dif- 
 fer only in o for ai. The reason of this likeness in tenses in 
 Greek, which differ m Latin, is the same for the passive as for 
 
HISTORY OF VEEBS. 121 
 
 the active, namely, that the past in Greek has not developed the 
 h mark as in Latin. If the past in Greek really was a tense 
 distinct from the present, it would have, what it now has not, 
 an infinitive and participle of its own. 
 
 Viewing these tenses as composed of parts, we might say ai 
 equals be, is, and e»=was, having for the base a participle. It 
 is certain these tenses have a tendency to develop such elements. 
 
 456. We will next notice the perfect passive : 
 
 • leleimmai, I have been left. leleimmetha, we have been left. 
 
 leUipsai. ■ leleiphthe. 
 
 Uleiptai. leleimmenoi eisi. 
 
 ' There ig no doubt that all these persons are variations of the 
 perf pass. part, appearing in the 3d plural, and if we find such 
 forms as leipsai (leaving off the augment), identical with the aor. 
 inf act., and leiptai not different from leipetai (3d sing: pres't), 
 this only shows that the part. {le)leipm,enos, having the form 
 (le)leimmenos, is not different from the verbal form leiptos, 
 which corresponds in form with amatus. Hence, we may either 
 regard the first five persons as the simple passive part, used for 
 the passive, with be suppressed, or the ending ai as represent- 
 ing he, which becomes separate in the 3d plural. It is worthy 
 of note in this connexion, that in the subj. and opt. moods of 
 this tense, this form in men-os appears in all the persons followed 
 'by be, as tetummenos eiSn, (struck might-be) I might have been 
 struck. In modern Greek, this 'same ' participle without the 
 augment, as grammenos for gegrammenos, is used thus unchang- 
 ed through all persons with he; eimai grammenos, I have been 
 written (literally, I-am written), eisai grammenos, thou art (have 
 been) written, tm^n grammenos, I was (had been) written, Sm- 
 etha grammenoi, we were (had been) written. 
 
 457. And next the Greek pluperfect passive : 
 
 eleleimmen. I had been left. 
 eleleipso, thou hadst been left. 
 eleleipto, he had been left. 
 eleleifnmenoi Ssan, they had been left. 
 
 This tense, evidently, has the same relation to the perfect 
 that the imperfect has to the present. The part, which is at the 
 basis of it is the same as that of the perfect — am being an ele- 
 ment represented in the latter, and was in the former. 
 
 458. The future passive is leiphthlsomai, with pres't endings 
 in all persons, and the 1st aorist passive is eleiphihSn, thSs, tM ; 
 ihemen, thete, thesan. The element leiph, which is common to 
 both, is, it seetas probable, for leiptos, with the element Ssomai 
 =will be added in the future, and e«=was, in the aorist, i. e. 
 these tenses are real participles which have developed their ^arts 
 so as to represent such elements. 
 
 16 
 
122 PHEASIS. 
 
 Tli^ere is a 2d future tupesomai, and a 2d aorist etupen. We 
 regard these forms as substantially the same as the former, with 
 the parts less strongly developed, or a portion of them latent. 
 
 459. The modern Greek varies the 1st and 2nd aorist passive 
 thus, egraphthSka, for G'k egraphthm, and egrapheka, for G'k 
 egrapJim — using /i;a = have, while Greek uses era = was. We 
 have only to add, to complete the survey, that the G'k has a fut. 
 middle, leipsomai, based on the future leipso, and a first aorist, 
 eleipsamen, based on the aorist active, eleipsa. 
 
 460. It may not be amiss to notice briefly here the Bengal 
 mode of forming the passive. There are two ways, one peculiar 
 to verbs of Sans, origin, where ie is joined to the past, or pass., 
 part, in ia, as is done in Germ., and elsewhere; another, .the 
 more usual one, where a sort of gerund or verbal noun is used 
 as the base, and the verb ^'o follows it as an auxiliary; as, it 
 goes to see, or seeing, i. e. to be seen — like our it goes to ruin, 
 is heing ruined, goes to destruction, is being destroyed; get is 
 used in like' manner ; as, get ruin, for he ruined, get hatred, for 
 he hated. The Hindustani passive is made in the same way, 
 save that go follows as an auxiliary in all the tenses. Just as 
 the German says gone lost, for is lost, so the Hind, says lost go, 
 struck go, for is lost, is struck (go lost, go struck}. 
 
 461. That we may leave nothing unsaid that may tend to il- 
 lustrate the connexion between the passive and the active, we ' 
 will notice a point or two more, before we close the subject. 
 The Greeks use hriao in the sense both of to he strong (passive) 
 and to make strong (act.) ; so, when we say the rope is long, we 
 use long passively, but when we use lengthen, the verb form of 
 long, and say lengthen the rope, we use long actively. And, too 
 the most imperfect scholar in Germ, and Fr. knows well how 
 common there the passive form is for the active ; as, is gone for 
 has gone is come for has come, is fallen for has fallen, is frozen 
 for has frozen, is disappeared for has disappeared— to say no- 
 thing of our sells for is sold, and hums for is hurned. The 
 connexion between passives and ordinary intransitives is very 
 close, indeed, it may well be said that the passive is a pure 
 intransitive. It is in the Finn, dialects that we see most plainly 
 the identity of Passives, Reflexives, Causatives, and all other 
 derivative forms with each other. They all have the same 
 tormation, and their characteristic mark, moreover is t=d n 
 which in its variations is the t and d of German 'and Roman 
 participles. ""^au 
 
 462. Subjunctive. 
 
 iT^.f'^*'" subjunctive, so called, .answers to what is usuiUv 
 called the potential in English, and includes the Greek optatfvl 
 
HISTORY OP VERBS. 123 
 
 and subjunctive. All those Latin subj. tenses (of wliicli there 
 are four) are very properly, so named, being all dependent or 
 subjoined, in fact or in principle, to some finite verb. More 
 than this, at least three of the subj. tenses, the past amarem, 
 the perf. amaverim, the pluperf. amavusem, are based on infin's 
 (always known to be dependent) ; the first on amare, the second 
 on the theoretical amavere, and the third on the perfect infini- 
 tive amavisse. 
 
 463. All the subjuno. tenses, the three named above and the 
 present amem, have endings like past tenses. Their close con- 
 nexion with the infinitive may be shown by its frequent use for 
 all of them. Thus, / desired Mm to do if, ■ i. e. that he should 
 do it, that he may do it; I expected him, at that time to do it, 
 i. e. that he m,ay have done it, that he should have done it. Here, 
 in these tVo examples, using the same infin. to do, we have the 
 four tenses subj.j may do, might do, may have done, might have 
 done. And we shall bear in mind, too, that all our futures and 
 subj's (potential) are based on infin's, that is, they are simply 
 infin's with auxiliary loill, m,ay, might, should. Again, the 
 subj. very often identifies itself with the imperative, but this is 
 known to be only an infinitive. 
 
 464. As com,pared with the Latin, the subjunctives of Ital., 
 French, and Spanish, have considerably changed their form. 
 The Spanish has a tense called 1st conditional, thus : 
 
 amar-ia, -ias, -ia ; -iamos, -iais, -ian (should love) 
 
 The corresponding Italian is : 
 
 • amer-ei, -esti, -ebbe; -emmo, -este, -ebbero (should love). 
 
 The corresponding French is : 
 
 aentir-ois, -ois, -oit ; -ions, -iez, -oient (would have smelt). 
 
 All these forms correspond very nearly with the future ; it is 
 evident they are identical with the form amaverim, as the fut. 
 is with amavero. 
 
 There is another form which corresponds, without doubt, to 
 the Latin amavissem. It is in Italian thus : 
 
 am-assi, -assi, -asse; -assimo, -asie, -assero (should love). 
 And in Spanish : 
 
 am.-ase, -ases, -ase; -asemos, -aseis, -asen (should love). 
 And in French : 
 sent-isse, -isses, -it; issions, -issiez, -issent (might have smelt). 
 
 The past subjunctive of Gothic is also formed after the same 
 principles as amaverim. The present subjunctive of this, as 
 well as that of the other Janguages just named, is substantially 
 the same as the present indicative. 
 
124 PHEASIS. 
 
 465. Under the head of the Slavic Verb, we have already 
 seen the infinitive, in the form of past participle, the basis and 
 substance of the Slav, subjunctive, accompanied only, or marked, 
 by the prefix hi sometimes equal to if, sometimes to that, but 
 always in fact identical with be. 
 
 466. But the Celtic subjunctive, under the head of the Celtic 
 verb, was noticed only incidentally, and by far too superficially 
 to permit it to be passed by here. 
 
 In Celtic Breton, the present subjunctive is formed thus, ra 
 ganinn, ra. gani, ra gano (that I, thou, he, may or shall sing). 
 This ganinn, gani, gano, is precisely the future indicative, ex- 
 cept g for 7c by reason of the preceding ra (kanmn). This 
 ra is the augment that appears, in different forms, everywhere 
 in Celtic. It is the do of Irish, the a, ag, of Welsh, the bi of 
 Slavic — it is identical also with the Celt.-Breton ra=^do, make. 
 This is the common augment for the tenses of the Celtic Breton 
 subjunctive, and it may be said to take the place of our that, 
 French que. While we observe here that the subjunctive tenses 
 are all futures, we may add that the subj's of L. are all futures 
 also, that is, amem, the present, has the same form as the futures 
 in the 3rd and 4i:h conjugations ; amarem, the past, is in form 
 the French future; amaverim, the perfect, is the same as the 
 2d future, and amavissem, the pluperfect, is not different from 
 amaverim. The Welsh subjunctive is made by the infinitive 
 with the help of may, could, would, precisely as with us. In 
 Cornish, the subj. tenses are the same as those of the indicative, 
 some of them having the prefix re s= Celt.-Bret. ra. In Irish, 
 as everywhere, the conditional, or subj., is the same as the fut., 
 or it is based on it. 
 
 , 467. Greek optative and subjunctive. 
 
 The Gr'k subjunctive corresponds in form through its tenses 
 with those of the indicative, save that the personal endings are 
 uniformly 6, es, g ; omen, ete, osi. There is every probability 
 that there exists the .same relation between leipo, es, c (subj.) 
 and leipo, eis, ei (ind.), that there is between Lat. amem (subj.) 
 and am,o (indie). All the tenses of the Greek subjunctive are 
 present tenses, present on the basis of the different tenses of the 
 indicative. 
 
 468. We find the indicative tenses taken as bases for the op- 
 tative tenses also, but with the endings oimi, ois, oi; oimen, 
 oite, oien, for all the tenses except the first aorist, which has 
 ■aimi, ais, ai ; aimen, aite, aien. That this optative ending is 
 a development of the indicative is probable, but it has so devel- 
 oped that oi stands forth as a new element. These facts we 
 should bear in mind ; that verbs ending in mi are in their very 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 125 
 
 -nature past tenses; that for oimi, ois, oi, the Attic dialect has 
 oien, oies, oie ; oiemen, oiete, oiesan ; also, eia, eias, eie, for ai- 
 mi,ais, ai (of the aorist); hearing these things in mind, and 
 taking in connexion the undoubtedly related forms of the Latin 
 past subjunctive, we are induced to believe that the Greek opta- 
 tive endings are all past endings, and the tenses all past tenses, 
 corresponding in form, as well as in meaning, with the Latin 
 amarem, amaverim, amavissem. 
 
 469. But what is this element oi? In Sanscrit it is i/a; but 
 i/a is used there ,for other purposes too — it is the passive mark; 
 a class of verbs is formed there distinguished by this element. 
 Our impression is, that oi corresponds to the infin. ending, that 
 it is the re in amarem, amaverim. The ai of middle and pass, 
 tenses represents an inf. endihg; so does the ai of the aorist inf. 
 = ein; mod. Greek inf. ends regularly in ei for ein. We may 
 identify it, too, with the s and b mark of the fut. In the Finn, 
 languages, we find si, the well known fut. sign, as the sign of 
 the subjunctive, coming, as the future s in Greek, before the 
 person endings. We find ka in these langu^ages representing 
 the Greek oi; this is same as si, as Jca^s in Greek; it is also 
 the t of past participle — 7ca is the mark of denominatives, and 
 of desideratives'; it is the mark, too, of imperatives; they are 
 ideotical with subjunctive, here as well as elsewhere. 
 
 470. German suhjunctioe. 
 
 In the verb be, in German, the apparent difference between 
 the present subjunctive and present indicative is greater than 
 the real onel The present indicative is bin, bist, ist (singular), 
 while the subjunctive is sei, seist, sei — but the plurals are more 
 alike, sind, seid, sind (indie); seien, seiet, seien (subj.). The 
 b of ind. = s of subj., as we see by the plural, where s replaces 
 it, also by the sum=:bin in Latin. The subj. 'best represents 
 the inf. sein. In English, we find this be, as we should expect 
 it, in the pres't subj. ; but it is infin. and in place of seien. 
 
 471. In the ordinary and regular verbs of German, the pres't 
 subj. is like present indie. — except the 3rd sing, which diflfers 
 thus; sincfet (ind.), singe (subj.), Uebt, for liehet (ind.), and Hebe 
 (subj.). There are othqr unimportant changes in the vowel of 
 the base that occur in some verbs which we will pass over hefe. 
 
 472. The imperfect subj. is also to be identified with the im- 
 perfect indicative ; war, warst, war is sing. (ind. past), and the 
 subj. is ware, loarest, ware (our loere) ; of have, (indie.) hatte, 
 hattest, hatte, (subj.) hatte, hattes't, hatte; so Jcam, kamst, kam, 
 is past ind. (came), but kame, kamest, kame, is past subjunctive 
 (might come). In lieben, to love, and regular verbs generally, 
 past indicative = past subjunctive. It is very clear that in the 
 
126 PHEASIS. 
 
 German languages, as in other tongues, the very essence of the 
 subi. lies in the particles if, when, that, expressed or ™P jed 
 rthe base being like the ind.)- The particle tlmt may be called 
 the article of the subj., as to is the article of the mfimtive. The 
 German uses the interrogative form very commonly for subj., 
 sayino- is this so, for if this is so, comes he here, for if he comes 
 here, struck he that, for if he struck that ; so, we say does he 
 speak, all listen, i. e. if he speaks. 
 
 The Verb Be. 
 
 473. We propose now to give a general survey of this most 
 important verb as we find it in the different languages. No 
 comparative view can be more interesting to the student,^ or 
 more useful. It will be especially important from its showing 
 the surprising changes which the same word, he, may assume in 
 passing through the different persons, numbers, and tenses, 
 forms which are again varied as they appear in other languages. 
 It will be our aim to show how these forms gradate into each 
 other. It will give to the student, too, the general plan or out- 
 line of one of the most important verbs in the language where 
 it is found, one which you may call the basis of all verbs, or 
 which enters into their composition as an important element. 
 It will show, too, the tense-forms and person-forms in an entirely 
 new light, one which will serve well to illustrate the character 
 of the forms which we have so far been examining. 
 
 And first we will introduce the Gothic. 
 
 474. Gothic Be. 
 
 In the present, im, is, ist; sijum, sijuth, sind; im= German 
 hin, Latin sum, our am. ; sijum for Lat. sumus, is only sum {am 
 for are) — sind, Latin SMm< (are). The past is vas, vast, vas ; 
 vesum, vesuth, vesun. In the plural, ves is for ver, our were — 
 the um, uth, un, are only plur. endings. As our were (and are) 
 is a pure infin., so is vesum^^Groth. visan (infin.). Germ, wesen 
 (our essence). 
 
 The subjunctive is si;aM,sjyais, sijai j sijaima, sijaith, sijai- 
 hia. Call thisj an i, as it is, and we easily locate it with Germ. 
 set, seist, sind, Lat. sum and sim, our he — it has the form of the 
 Gothic present plural carried through the singular as well. It 
 reminds us of Latin sim, sis, sit; swrnw, sitis, sint (may be). 
 
 475. There is a form for may he, thus, visan (wisan), visais, 
 visai; visaima, visaith, visaina. This is the Latin essem esses 
 esset ; essemus, essetis, essent (might be) ; and it is based on the 
 form visan (Germ, wesen) == to he; while the sijai is based on 
 
HISTOKT OF VERBS. 127 
 
 the other infinitive sijan (sigan), Germ. sein. The form vesjau 
 (wesjan), veseis, vesi; veseima, veseiih, veseina, is only a slight 
 variation of visan (visau), and means might he (past subj.). 
 Here we see Lat. esse equals le equals was, and the subj. again 
 based on the infinitive. 
 
 476. Anglo Saapn Be. 
 
 The Ang.-Sax. has three forms for present ; -as, 
 eom, eart, ys ; synd, synd, aynd. 
 beo, byst, byth; beoth, beoth, beoth. 
 weorthe, wyrst, wyrth ; weorthath, vieorthatk, weorthath. 
 
 In the 2nd form, the 6 which we find in bin, our been, is car- 
 ried through all the persons. The form wi/rth is the German 
 werden, another form of were — the ending atJi of the plural has 
 come to be a mere plural mark ; it is the eth of speak-eth, and is 
 not different from the infin. ending. There are two forms for 
 the past, both equal to were; as, waes, waere, waes; waeron, wae- 
 ron, waeron, and waerth, wurde, waerih; wurdon, wurdon, wur- 
 don. Both are forms of the wyrth above — so, we see the pres't 
 =past; the form wurde, which we find also in Germ., reminds 
 us oi would — indeed, it is used in Geriiian for would, as werde 
 (were) is. used for will (see be := will). 
 
 477. With slight variations, those three presents above given 
 are also subjunctive, thus : < 
 
 sy, sy, sy ; syn, syn, ayn (Germ, sein ^^to be), Lat. sim. 
 beo,, beo, beo ; bean, beon, bean (been), Lat. sim, b = s. 
 
 The other form is weorthe (sing.), and weorthon (plur.). 
 The past subjunctive is waere and wurde. 
 
 wes, beo, weorth, are equal forms for imperative. 
 viesan, been (been), weorthan, equal forms for infin. 
 wesen.de, beonde, weorthende, for present participle. 
 wesen and warden, for past participle. 
 
 See wesen— wesan, infinitive^partieiple. 
 
 478. Looking over the imperative, and comparing we-s (w-er") 
 and we-or-th with its equal, our be, we may observe that w-er 
 has developed one infin. element and we-or-th two ; we-or-th-an 
 has three, and we-or-th-end-e, at least four-^see how elements 
 are repeated; the Ijai. fu-t-ur-us has three like Germ, w-er-d-en. 
 We may add that the 2d form of the present, beo, beoth, is used 
 for future (L. ero). There is also an-weard (Lat. prae-sens) = 
 being, and to-waerd (to-ward)= about to he (Latin /wtor-Ms, less 
 the ending,- as /w-i-Mr). These are merely Germ, werden, with 
 augments (or prep's) an and to. If we transpose, as often hap- 
 pens, the letters oifutur, thus, furt, we shall see how it equals 
 werd. Indeed, we can regard our were as equal to futur, the t 
 being suppressed, as in Latin fuero (will have been, or will be) 
 
128 PHEASIS. 
 
 foTfutero ov/uvero. The La,tm Jieri (to be) is another form of 
 futur, where t is dropped, or otherwise represented. 
 
 479. Old German Be. 
 
 There are few forms here that are new, compared with what 
 we have already seen. In the present plural, however, besides 
 the forms sin, sun, sind, sit, already met with^ we find hirumes, 
 we are, hint, ye are (but sindun is they are). This bir.'iB clearly 
 were, which again equals are ; hirumes is identical with Latin 
 eramus, we were (hir=wir, uir, eer, er); sind also equals -were, 
 for sind is sid, sir, were (s=y and w). 
 
 In the imperative, we find sus, sis, wis, wes («es), all variations 
 for he, L. sis, esto — -sis, wes, is for si, we, = he, as German infin 
 wes-en=s-ein, L. esse. Swed. has vara inf. =wesen, i. e. r=s. 
 
 The forms ves, var, ver, are common through the German and 
 Scandinavian tongues for the imperative, showing that impera- 
 tive equals infin. and the past, and, besides, what development 
 he is capable of. 
 
 480. French Be. 
 
 The ipfin..e<re equals hatin /uf,ur(us'). Germ, werde, our were 
 (/ut==uut, eet, et') ; eto?j<=being (part.) is same as Germ, wesen 
 {t = s); ete (been)' is same as was {t=s). The present indie, 
 is as follows : 
 
 suis, es, est ; sommes, etes, sont (am, are). 
 The suis=uuis, was, is; in es and est, the s=b, w,f, disappears; 
 the 2d plural, etes, Lat. estis (Germ, seid, our are), shows what 
 the part, ete must have been. And the past tense etais, etait, 
 for Latin eram, erat, shows t equal r. We find also : 
 fus, fus, fut ; fumes, futes, furent. 
 (La,t.) fui, fuisti, fuit ; fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt (fuere). 
 This is clearly seen to be our was, were, German wesen. It is 
 exactly the same as the present, only /for s; fates equal etes; 
 one of the plurals of Latin (^fuere) shows the were very clearly 
 {fuere^vueri, uuere, were). It is the same also as etais, only 
 fu for et: The future sing, is serai, seras, sera, Latin ero, eris, 
 erit; the s suppressed in Latin appears in French — it is were 
 with endings. 
 
 _ The Er. imperative is sois, same as suis, am, and taking s =w 
 It IS our was, the ves found in some Germ, imperatives the Lat' 
 es. The pres't subj is sois, soit (may be). There is a past subi.' 
 fusse and /Mi! (Lat. /Mssem,/«me<), I might be, he might be— 
 this again is our was. 
 
 rr,^^^■^y^ ■^•^^'^'' P'^f"^ few things of much importance, 
 ihe infinitive is essere {ior sesere). Span, ser, German se»- Fr. 
 etre, Latin esse. The part, heen is sta-to {to being Lat. tus part 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 129 
 
 ending), I*r. ete {et=std) Span, sido ; the imperative is sii, sia 
 {s=w, 6). 
 
 The present indieatiye is as follows : 
 
 aono, sei (se), e; aiamo, siete, sono (are). 
 
 era, eri, era; eravamo, eravate, erano (were). 
 
 This past is plainly the Latin eram, erat, but it is important to 
 observe the v appearing in the 1st and 2d plur. It shows that 
 the h appearing in ordinary past tenses in Latin, is suppressed 
 in eram. The Italian present participle ess-endo is the A. Sax. 
 wes-ende, Spanish si-endo. 
 
 482. Celtic Be. 
 
 Of the Celtic class, we will first turn to the Welsh. The 
 present" is thus: wi/f, wyt, yw ; ym, ych, ynt — also the same 
 forms with prefix ;jf5; as, ydwyf. We want to hear in mind, 
 in this connexion, the imperative forms hwyf., hydd, hoed, and 
 inf.> hod, and we shall see that wyf is for hwyf, relaiting to Germ. 
 hin, hist; the plurals, by replacing the lost s, as sym, sych, refer 
 also to Germ, sind, seid, Latin sum. 
 
 The past singular, hyddwnj hyddit, hyddai, besides oeddwn, 
 oeddit, oedd, refers to our was (h =w). It is based on inf. hod, 
 imperative hydd, Slavic hiti, hede. 
 
 483. The perfect tense is : 
 
 bum, buost, hu; buom, buoch, buant, also • 
 
 buais, buaist, bues; buasom, buasoch, buasant. 
 
 The hum, hu, is our heen, he, French fus, fumes (h=/). The 
 second form, huais, is our was, Latin fuisse, French fusse. In 
 elements, it is like Italian erd-vO/mo {s = ri<£). 
 The pluperfect is not materially difi'erent, 
 
 buaswn, buasit, buasai; buasem,- huasech, buasent. 
 
 The future is : 
 
 bydidof, iyddi, bydd; byddwn, byddwch, byddant. 
 
 It is easy to see in this only the development of the infinitive 
 hod, imperative hydd (1st plural, here, like hyddwn of past). 
 
 484. Cornish. 
 
 The Cornish does not vary materially from the Welsh he. 
 The present is of, as, yu ; on, ough, yns or ens — which will 
 easily compare with the Welsh. These make a new form by 
 prefixing as, ys (the yd of Welsh), giving us assof yssof ythof, 
 esof, sof, thof, (for 1st person) — pointing to is, was, Latin es, 
 French sois. 
 
 The past is esen, eses, ese ; esen, esough, ens — we easily see 
 how this inentifies with Cornish present, our is and was {eas). 
 17 
 
130 PHKASIS. 
 
 There is a future =subj. (should be); thus, lef, hes hethe; 
 hen, heuqh, hens— And. a past tense (was) not different from it; 
 thuL hufiluef), bus, hue (be); buen, heugh bons Here we 
 see repeated again and again been, Germ, bin, be, and 6MS=was. 
 Both are based on the inf., that which we always find at the base 
 of the past and of the fut. = subj . The imperative is It/ th. 
 
 485. Celtic-Breton. 
 
 In this form of Celtic, the infinitive is beza, German wesen, 
 French etre {t=z). The participle been is bet, the French ete 
 less the 6 — or you may divide b-et, for et is part, ending. The 
 imperative is bez, Anglo Saxon lyth, French sois (6=s); the 
 form 6ez-e«= French soy-ez (be-ye). The tenses are as follows : 
 
 ounn, oud, eo ,- omp, och, int (present). 
 oenn, oez, oe/ oemp, oech, oent (past). 
 bezim, bezi, bezo ; bezimp, bezot, bezint (future). 
 benn, bez, be; bemp, bech, bent (would be). 
 
 In the present, the b and s, seen in other languages, as bin, 
 sum, are lost in vowels; the past is not different from it — oes^ 
 was, uas, and oe = wa-s. The future is a form of infin., but it 
 agrees with was. The last form is like it, but has the z sup- 
 pressed, and it becomes our he, been. The Celtic-Breton weza 
 is Welsh hues, buais. 
 
 486. Irish Be. 
 
 The Irish imperative is hi, biod. The present is as follows : 
 bidim, bidir, bideann [bion) ; bimid, biii, bid. 
 
 This bid is Germ, bisf, Celt.-Breton beza (z = d, st}. The form 
 bidim is the French etant, the e^bi. The past is : 
 bideas, bidis, bi; biomar, biobar, biodar. 
 
 So we see by the 3d sing, bi, that it is all a development of he, 
 the inf. ; bidis, leaving off b, is the Fr. ete, etois ; hiod, biom, is 
 our 6eera. _ There is another past, hidinn, bidtea, bidead (biod) ; 
 bimis, biti, bidis — bid-ead is a double infin., like German wer- 
 den, Italian ess-ere. See how the plural agrees with the present 
 plural. The fut. is beidead, not different from the second past. 
 The infinitive is beit, having the prefix do (our to), showing its 
 identity with the pasts, which also put do before all the persons. 
 
 487. The participle with the prefix ar, is mJeii— where we 
 see the participle mark m of Semitic. 
 
 We find simpler forms for be, as follows : is, as, for our is ; 
 bad, ha for our was (h=w) ; bud, AVelsh bod, =will be (bud= 
 bad, ha, be). 
 
 We also find taim, tair, ta ; tamaoid, tataoi, taid for am is 
 etc. — this ta is the French ete. ' • ' ' 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 131 
 
 488. Slavic Be. 
 
 In Illyrian, tte present tense is : 
 jesam, jesi, jest ; jesmo, jeste, jesu. 
 This ye is a prefix like the as, yd, of Celt., e of Latin esum, and 
 as such it is often left off; as, saw,, si, (but Jest becomes je) ; 
 then we see the Latin sum, sumus, sunt. 
 The future is : 
 
 budem, budes, bude ; budemo, budete, budu. 
 This is the imperative hudi, infin. hiti, with person endings — 
 it is, too, a development of he. 
 
 There are two pasts, the first have been, and the next was, 
 thus: 
 
 bih, bi, bi (be) ; bismo, biste, bise (bese). 
 biah, biase, biase,- biasmo, biaste, biaku. 
 
 We easily see the identity of the former with our he, Germ. 
 hist J in the latter, we see was, Celtic-Breton heza. The forms 
 hiv, hil, hit, are all participial forms, and all variations merely 
 of hiti, to be (y=l, t). 
 
 489. Serb.- Wend. 
 
 The present is like the Illyrian, less the prefix ^e. The past 
 is : 
 
 bechj bese (be), bese (be) ; bechmy, besce, bechu. 
 
 This is precisely the Illyrian, hiah, hiase. 
 
 The future develops an extra z; as, plural hudzemy, hudzese, 
 hvdza — this z is the s found elsewhere in the future; but even 
 the imperative is hwdz, while infinitive is hys (hyc), 6yZ=been, 
 hywsi (hav. been), Latin /aisse. 
 
 The present subjunctive is hych hyl (I may -be been), I may 
 be — also hudzich hyl (shall-be been), I should'be. There is a 
 pass. part. 6yfy=been, which is same as infinitive, and like Fr. 
 ete; there is the form sucy, and /so (so), Grerman seiend, being. 
 
 490. SlovenshBe. 
 
 The present is like that of Serb.- Wend. The perfect is com- 
 pound, Sim hil (I-am been), have been ; and pluperfect, hil sim 
 hil (been I-am been), had been — -this tense subjunctive is hil-hi- 
 hil (see the elements repeated). 
 
 The sing. fut. is hodem, hodes, hode (shortened, horn, hos, ho). 
 We &ni for would he, the form hesim, hese, hej. hesmo, hesie, 
 heso — strike off the he, and you have the ordinary pres't. We 
 may regard the he as a prefix, or the whole as a form, such as we 
 often meet with. 
 
 491. Bohemian Be. 
 
 There are few things of interest here, after having already 
 
132 PHRASIS. 
 
 given so much of the Slavic he. The present is jsem,jsi, jest; 
 fsme, iste,jsou—ahomng very clearly that thej^s Qes) is only a 
 kind of s. We find in the suhjunctive, such repetitions as, bt/lr- 
 hych-hyl (been-may-be-heen), I would have been. The partici- 
 ples are {^r&s'f) jsajsouc (Germ, seiend), and (past) byv, hyvd 
 (hyl), L. fuisse, our been. There is also a fut. part., huda, hudoue, 
 Latin futurus, Germ, werden, Persian, infin budan and shudan. 
 
 492. The Polish presents scarcely anything different from the 
 others noticed. The conditional, or subj., is bylhymJiylabym- 
 hylohym (I would be), and bijlbys-bylalys-bylobys (thou wouldst 
 te) — in which byl, or be, is repeated, or appears, twice. 
 
 493. In the Russian pres't, the former prefix J andy« appears 
 as simple e; thus, esm, est, est (am, art, is) — showing also that 
 the e of Latin est may be taken as prefix, making e-st=simt (st). 
 There is another style of 6e in Russ., as bivao (am), Uvaet (is), 
 where we have bi as a prefix, or we may regard it as a mere re- 
 petition of be. There are part's on this basis, bivat (inf.), biyi- 
 vat (to have been), hivaioshi (being), iiyaws/u' (been) — notice 
 that osM and vsM-are pres't and past part, endings respectively. 
 
 We may as well notice after this the Albanish. 
 
 494. Albanish Be. 
 
 This appears in the present thus : 
 
 giam, ge, este ; gemi, gini, giani. 
 
 kese, he, ke ; kemi, kete, kene (past, loas). 
 
 In the giam, we may take gi as prefix and compare with our 
 am, or take g=s and compare with sum, Russ. esm, Bohemian 
 jsem, — the plurals compare with swmus, German sind (^g=s^. 
 When we bear in mind how near g is to k, we see how near th« 
 Alban. past is to the present, especially in the plural. Taking 
 k:=w, hese is our was, German wesen, Celtic beza. It is related 
 to G'k ginomai, Arab, kan, been. In the future, we find do te 
 giam, do te gemi, do te gene (I, we, they, will be). The do-te 
 may be translated will-that — but, in power, they are no more 
 than augments, the whole verb lying in the present for future. 
 The Alb. shows other forms for the verb he ; we find a sort of 
 past subjunctive; as, gese, gesem, gesete (1st sing, and 1st and 
 2nd plural) — it is really a past indicative, where the k has 
 changed to g, corresponding better with the present. 
 
 495. Wallachian Be. 
 
 There are some things to notice in Wallachian. The present 
 is as follows (two forms) : 
 
 sum {stmt), es, e; suniemu, sunteti, sunt, 
 escu, esci, este; 
 
 In the second form (sing, only), we find e as a prefix. 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 133 
 
 The perfect, Latin fui, is as follows (two forms) : 
 fui, fusi, fu ; furamu, furati, furo. 
 fusei, fused, fust, ; fusemu, fuseti, fusero. 
 
 The plural of the first form, ae/uro, corresponds with Latin /«- 
 erunt (from fui) ; but the fusero of the second form is more 
 like the theoretical fuverunt, Latin amaverunt, the s represent- 
 ing V as usual. 
 
 So the pluperfect (Latin fueram, fuerat) is : 
 
 fusesem, fusesesi, fusese ; fusesemu, fuseseti, fusese. 
 This fusesem, fusese, corresponds with fuveram (?)=« = ?•), for 
 fueram, fuverat — or with /wOTSsem, ior fuissem. Infinitive is 
 fi (be), or jfire—-pa,j:t. fostu, been, fiendu, being (Germ, seiend). 
 
 496. Evnga/rian. 
 
 The present, past, and perfect, in order are : 
 
 vagyoh, vagy, vagyon (van) ; vagyunk, vagytok, vagynak. 
 ■valelc, valal, vala ; valank, valatok, valanak. 
 voltam, voltal, volt; voltunk, voltatok, volianak. 
 
 The participles are, valo (being), volt (been), leendo (^futurus). 
 The va^gy or van is our was, been (v=w = h'). The vol of the 
 perfect, is the Slavic hi/l. 
 
 The Hung, has two forms for he, as we find also in so many 
 other languages ; instead of beginning with v, the second form 
 commences with I; as, for the past, leveJc, level, leve ; levenk, 
 levetek, levenelc — the infinitive is lenni (len = ben, bin'). 
 
 497. Finnish Be. 
 
 The be of the Finnish dialects will somewhat illustrate the 
 character of the Hungarian, besides furnishing us with some 
 interesting forms. 
 
 The Wotjak Se has imperative lu, ul ; infiflitive d^Z (Slavic 
 hyl) ] present vanj (Hungarian van); past vylem; luiny (noftn), 
 being, (Hungarian lenni'). 
 
 The Suomi be is, for the present, olen, olet, on (been) ; olem- 
 me, olette^ ovat (was) ; the past is olin, olit, oli ; olimme, olitte, 
 olivat — in the subjunctive, we find the forms Uencn, lien, lie. 
 The ol, lie, which we see clear through, is the Slav, byl, our will; 
 bearing in mind how often in Slavic the l^v and w, b, we can 
 see that le = be, we, was. In the imper., we find olkan, olhaat 
 —that h we have noticed already in Albanish. In Lapp., we 
 find infinitive /e =be, and fem = am, fe/i;=art, fae=is. Syrian 
 vy, «oZ=be (infin.), voly=yi?&, volan, being. 
 
 498. Mongolian. 
 
 I This language presents some interesting forms of be. The 
 forms for the persons here are invariable, as they are, too, in 
 
134 PHRASIS. 
 
 Einnish. The infinitive is huhu (be); present islui (be, bin); 
 past is bolai (Slavic 6yO ; perfect boluge (Slavic b^l) ; subj. 60- 
 lessu (infin. bulcu); the gerund being, having been is borun 
 (our i«ere, Dan. var, Swed. ^ara). There is another form of be 
 thus, acho (infin.), am«i (am), abai (was), asM (being). 
 
 499. Persian Be. 
 
 The infinitive, here, is budan (German werden, be=were), 
 and the past tense is budam, bud (1 was, he was)— change d 
 to I, and we have Slavic but, byl. The imperative is ba%h 1. e. 
 we have here the two elements together, be and s, sft (ha-dC), 
 which we find 6e alone representing in other languages ; it is 
 also our was; the pres't tense sing., is basham, bashi, bashad. 
 
 Then there is the second form shav (sha-v), imperative, and 
 shavam, I am, shavad, he is. Here, again, we find double ele- 
 ments, s;i=s (of sum, sei, si7id'),a.nd v = b,w (oi be,was,wesen). 
 
 500. In the Hindustani, the root of be is hit, infinitive hvr-na, 
 pres't part, huta, past part, hua, past act. part, hu, hukar. This 
 hu is somewhat like G-reek es-for be, and the w represents our b 
 and w of be and was. 
 
 501. In Japanese, are equals am, be, is, and atta (Frenches) 
 equals was. 
 
 502. In Arabic, we have already noticed that be is kan, G'k 
 gin-omai, our can. Germ, kennen; in Syrian and Hebrew, it is 
 ith and is. 
 
 503. Greek Be. 
 
 The present and past tenses are : 
 
 iimi, eis (ei), esti ; esmen, este, eisi. 
 en, es, e ; emen, ete, esan. 
 
 The present is easily connected with forms already met with ; 
 eim,i = am; in esmen, the e is a prefix, as in Slavic. The en of 
 the past refers to our b-een, Celtic o-en ; the es and esan point 
 to our is and was. The imperative is cso, esto, inf. einai (b-een, 
 b-eing) ; present part, on, (b-eing), and ousa (German wesen). 
 
 504. In the Greek, we see the initial b and s disappearing in 
 vowels, but in Sanscrit, which is very much like Greek, the s 
 again appears; as, the present asmi, asi, asti; smas, stha, sand. 
 So, in the optative (subj.), we find, San. syan, si/as, syat (sing.), 
 but Greek eien, eies, eie (might be); San. infin. is as-tun. So, 
 too, in place of Greek past, we have, San. asan, asis, asit; asma, 
 asta, asim — the a is an augment here, but no more so than the 
 a of present asmi. This past is not at all difierent in character 
 from the present. There is another form of the past, known as 
 the perfect; thus, asa, asitJia, asa ; asima, asa, asus — our was 
 and is — this has another form, made by the prefix uv ; as uv- 
 
HISTORY OP VERBS. 135 
 
 asa, uvasiiha, ,usima (for uvasimd). Here, as we have noticed so 
 many times before, there are two forms, at least, of he; besides 
 the infin., as, as-lun, and vas, vas-tun (Germ, wesen, Go. wisan), 
 there is, also, hhu, hhavitun (be, li&t. fm, fuisse). To this form 
 belongs the present part, form, bhavant (being, seiend), contrast- 
 ing with the other forms sant (Lith. esant) and vasant (Gothic 
 wisands). With the usual augment a, we find this aorist or 
 past form, a-hhuvan, a-bhus, a-bhut (sing.). In the past, which 
 is reduplicated, so called, the doubling is just such as we have 
 found over and over again in the forms of other languages; they 
 are such as, ba-bhuva, bor-bhuvus. ' ' 
 
 Impersoniil Verbs. 
 
 505. To complete the survey of the verb, we notice yet cer- 
 tain other forms and applications, in addition to the mood, tense, 
 and person forms, which have so far engaged our attention. And 
 first of these, we will notice impersonals. 
 
 506. In Latin, as we find more or less in all languages, the 
 3rd person sing, is used without a nominative, or subject; as, 
 pluit, it rains, tonat, it thunders, accidit, it happens; so, also, 
 in the passive, as curritur, it is run (there is running), vivitur, 
 it is lived, they live, ventum est (coming is), it is come. All 
 these forms are clearly the same as verbal nouns, and they have 
 none of that expression which is conceived to be peculiar to verbs ; 
 so, pluit ^raining, the raining (is), and vivitur is simply living, 
 the living (is). But after all, these are as much verbs as any 
 we find, and it only proves again what we have seen long before 
 this, that the verb is, after all, nothing but a pure noun (of the 
 verb kind). And we may say, also, that in our own imperson- 
 als, as it rains, it hails, the pronoun it, so called, is nothing but 
 an article of the verb; we may go still farther, and say that all 
 pronouns used thus before the verb, as we walk, are only a de- 
 velopment of this article it. The Latins, also, use such verbs 
 transitively, as decet me, it becomes VB.e,pudet me, it shames me 
 (I am ashamed), miseret me, it pities me (I pity) ; we may see 
 by the two last examples, how what we consider a nominative 
 may be conceived to be objective (ace). 
 
 507. That these impersonals are in fact nothing but partici- 
 ples or gerunds, is shown in Greek, where the participle -and 
 infinitive are used in the place of just such impersonals as wa 
 met with above ; thus, sblpizontos, it sounding, or being sounded 
 (by the trumpeter) — genitive participle; eiremenon, it being 
 notified — accusative part ', prostachthen, it being commanded^ 
 accusative neuter participle; tuchon, it happening — neuter par- 
 
136 PHBASIS. 
 
 ticlple; mikrou dein, a-little it-wants — dein, infinitive, to want; 
 emoidokein, to-me it-seem — dokein=to seem, inf., i. e. seeming 
 (is) to me. 
 
 508. This shows how such forms may be used in place of 
 verb with nominative ; all our cases such as these, to speak pro- 
 perly this is so, turning this over we shall observe, are instances 
 where part's and infin's are used in place of verbs and without 
 subjects, and still being as true verbs as any we can find. More 
 than this, all our expressions, as they say, it appears, German 
 man sagt (one says,.they say), German es gieht (it gives), there 
 reigns, are cases where there is really no nominative or subject, 
 the pronouns it, they, man, there (adverb), being scarcely more 
 than articles ; it is simply meant to be said that there is a say- 
 ing, appearing, giving, reigning, without indicating who — so 
 those verbs,. so called, are mere gerunds, or verbal nouns, with a 
 pronoun for article. 
 
 509. In Hebrew, the 3d sing. mas. is often used impersonally, 
 as qara (he called) = they called, there was calling; so the pas- 
 sive is used impersonally also, here as well as in Sanscrit, as it 
 is thought hy me, for I.think. In Georgian, such impersonals 
 are very common. And in Russian, with others of the family, 
 we find many cases of impersonals, and some which are for us 
 rather peculiar. So, we have the neuter passive participle (as 
 in Greek) used impersonally; as, skazano, it (is) said, helyano, 
 it (is) commanded (is being suppressed); so the adjective is also 
 used impersonally, as legko (it is) light, easy, ne mozhno (it is) 
 not possible — so, again, emu dolzhno pisat, to-him (it) must to- 
 write, i. e. he must write. 
 
 Frequentatives. 
 
 510. This kind of verbs, more or less strongly marked, is 
 found, perhaps, in all languages. In Lat., they are found based 
 oa the supine ; thus, clamo, to call, clamito, to call often or 
 quickly; so rogo and rogito, volo and volito — the supines being 
 clamatum, rogatum, volatum. Other forms occur which are 
 made by taking the supine of a supine as a base, as lectito (ori- 
 ginal supine lectum'), dictito (supine dictum). Some Lat. verbs 
 have two frequentatives ; as, for curro, we find curso and cursito, 
 for 'defendo there is defenso, defensito — showing, thus, very 
 clearly that these new forms are not essentially difi'erent from 
 the .ordinary verb, as well as that a vei^ may alone express what 
 we might think could be expressed only by the verb in connex- 
 ion with auxiliaries and adverbs, or, in other words, that one 
 word expresses as much as several taken in the same connexion. 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 137 
 
 511. In Greek, what we use as a causative mark, the z or ise, 
 as in legalize, to make legal, is the frequentative mark; thus, 
 'riptazcin (from 'riptein), to cast here and there, stenazein (from 
 stenein),, to sigh much and deeply (one word sic/h = itself and 
 adverbs). There is no supine in G'k which corresponds clearly 
 with the Latin supine in turn, but the z mark here observed, 
 has its representative in the t of the verbals; as, poteon, potos, 
 strepteos and streptos (of Greek). So we must give the same 
 history to the z of Greek that we did to the t of Latin frequent- 
 atives — here in Greek, as in Latin, we find this class of verbs 
 to, be only infinitives of infinitives. 
 
 512. But we may as well observe here, that lieither in the t of 
 Latin, nor the z in Greek, do we find an exclusive frequentative 
 mark. In many instances, the derivatives in t and z do not 
 difier in meaning from the simple form to which we refer them ; 
 and, in other cases, verbs with this mark have anything but a 
 frequentative meaning; as, Latin ^oto (on sup. poturn), I drink, 
 canto (on canMtm from cano), I sing. This is especially true of 
 the Greek verb ending zo, as dikazo, judge, distazo, doubt, 
 erizo, strive — verbs with a frequentative form without a fre- 
 quentative meaning. 
 
 513. The Bohemian uses va for the frequentative mark (and 
 so does the Slavic generally) ; as, delati, to do, and delavati, to 
 do often. But in Slavic, as in Greek and Latin, this va or wa is 
 used for other purposes besides a frequentative mark — it is 
 identical with the G'k z and L. t, and has a history in common 
 with them. In the Slov., we find freq's with infinitive ending 
 the same as the common verb has; as, letati, to run often, 
 lamati, to break often — ati being one of the ordinary infinitive 
 endings; we find also in Slovensh, padem, I fall, and pacfam, I 
 fall often — showing how slightly the one difiers from the other ; 
 there is, besides, strelim, I shoot, streljam (inf. streljati), I shoot 
 often — here, we have jati for vati, showing that the Slav, va is 
 the Sans, ya, found in so many different kinds of words. 
 
 514. We should not pass over, in this connexion, that class of 
 verbs in L. which is rather the opposite of those already noticed ; 
 they end in illo, and denote that the thing is done slightly or 
 little ; as, canto, to sing, and cantUlo, to sing low, conscribiUo, 
 to write little, to scribble. That this Hs the iand z seen before, 
 is little to be doubted. Such verbs are also found in other lan- 
 guages. 
 
 • Inchoatives. 
 
 515. There is a class of verbs in Latin, similar to those found 
 elsewhere, marked by sc — as, calcsco, to become hot (caleo, to 
 
 18 
 
138 PHEASIS. 
 
 be hot), puerasco, to become a boy, to act the child (puer, a 
 boy), maturesco, to become mature (maturus, ripe). In general, 
 we may observe that an adjective or noun lies at the base of 
 these verbs in sco, and we find the usual verbal endings develop- 
 ing so as to represent he. It is not, in principle, in the least 
 different from the frequentatives ; thus, in form calesco = calito, 
 lahasco ^lahato — the latter being an assumed frequentative; 
 s = sc, sic, st, t. It must be observed, too, that this sc mark is 
 not peculiar to such verbs; it occurs in verbs whose meaning is 
 distinguished by nothing peculiar ; thus, cresco, perf. crevi, sup. 
 cretum (grow); pasco^pavi^pastum (feed); nosco, novi, notum 
 (know); seisco, scivi, scitum (ordain). Compare with these, 
 amo, amavi, amatum, and moneo, monui, Tnonitum, and we shall 
 see that these presents in sco have merely developed the t 
 which is latent in amo, and which appears as e in moneo ; so we 
 observe that riovi and notum, in their v and t, mark the sc appa- 
 rent in nosco, while wmavi, amatum,, represent the sc = t, sup- 
 pressed in amo. In our own verbs of this kind, we entirely 
 discard this sc, and adopt the form of the ordinary Germ. inf. ; 
 as redden, to become red, whiten, to grow white, or we leave off 
 also the ending en, as to cool (become cold), to warm (become 
 warm), to polish (become polished), to rise (become raised), 
 enlarge (become large), to improve (grow better), to mend (be- 
 come mended), melt (become melted). (See how near such 
 verbs are to true passives). 
 
 516. The Greek has the mark sk, exactly corresponding with 
 the Lat. inchoative sc, but we rarely meet with any signification, 
 in verbs thus marked, which particularly distinguishes them 
 from verbs not marked with sk ; generally the difference is of 
 this nature ; didraskd, I run away, and drao, I run ; or it is 
 such as cannot be perceived at all. Thus, we see that the Gr'k 
 sk belongs more precisely with the sc of those Lat. verbs which 
 have lost, or have never had, any inchoative meaning, instances 
 of which we have already given. Many of the verbs in sko, in 
 Lat. as well as Greek, are also marked by the reduplication ; as, 
 bi-brosko,gi-gn6skd, mi-mnesko, pi-prasko, and in Latin (more 
 rarely) disco, perfect di-dici, posco, perfect po-posci. 
 
 517. This sk is conceded to be the identical sk in the skon 
 which marks some Greek imperfects. This shows that the im- 
 perfects of this kind are made, precisely as frequentatives by 
 takmg a supine as a new base, and that they are, beyond that 
 exactly like other imperfects, such as have not the sk. Just as' 
 m Latin, we saw the sc identical with mfv of perfect, and t of 
 supine, so in Gr'k, we find this sk the same as the s of fut. and 
 hence the same also as the s of aor., and k of perf. ; thus, aresko, 
 tut. areso (sk^s), bi-brosko, fut. broso. It should have been 
 
HISTORY Of VERBS. 139 
 
 remarked, of the pasts i» skon, that they have, also, a meaning 
 of continuance or repetition, thus showing how past tenses are 
 allied with such forms as frequentatives, inchoatives, and -the 
 like. 
 
 518. The mark wa or va, which we have noticed hefore as 
 occurring in frequentatives, in the Slavic languages, is found 
 also in verbs which are purely inchoative ; thus, chori/, sick, 
 ohorowas, to be, or to become sick {as being ordinary infin. end- 
 ing), pi%, diligent, pilnowas, to be, or to become diligent j so 
 also pisas, to write, pisywas, to be busy writing, his, to strike, 
 beat, bijas, to be busy beating, mowis, to speak, mawias, to be 
 busy speaking (Ja and m = wa) . But we find other inchoatives 
 where this wa is not so clearly developed ; as, siwy, gray, and 
 siwies, to become gray (es being infinitive ending), bialy, white, 
 and bieles, to become white. We have only to add, that the 
 term denominative might be used, and often is used, in place of 
 inchoative. • 
 
 519. There is still another class of verbs which we may briefly 
 notice in this connexion, and that is Desideratives. In Latin, 
 they seem to be based on the participle in urus, or rather to be 
 fhat part, used as a verb ; so, we find the verb dicturio (dico, to 
 speak, fut. part, dicturus), to .desire to speak; so also empturio, 
 from empturus (verb emo), esurio, from esurus, to desire to eat. 
 These verbs express a wish, but a wish is a will; so, we see 
 these verbs are pure futures, and no more. In Greek, we also 
 find the desiderative form corresponding with the future; as, 
 gelaso (future), I will laugh, gelaseioj I wish to laugh (I would, 
 laugh) Another class of Greek desideratives end in ao and iao 
 (in the present), and seem to be based on nouns ; as, strategian, 
 to desire to be a general, thanatan, to desire death. It is hard- 
 
 ' ly necessary to remind the student, that ao and iao equal the azo, 
 izo, seen often before this. Desideratives in Sanscrit, are marked 
 by sya, Greek future sign s. 
 
 Oausatives. 
 
 520. In Gr'k, the marks sk and z are not only used in forms 
 such as we have before considered, but also as marks of the 
 causative ; thus, methud, to be drunk, methusko, to make drunk, 
 pino. to drink, pipisko, to give to drink ; kathizo, to make sit, 
 polemizo, to make war, thaumazo, to make or have wonder (to 
 admire), elpizo, to- have hope (be hopeful), nomizo, to make as 
 a law, erizo, to h^g^'a. strife (to strive). (We are constantly 
 reminded how near make good, he good, and have goodness, are 
 to each other -^ we find all of them marked by this z, and by 
 the sk). 
 
140 PHKASIS. 
 
 521. We have such causatives as harden, to make hard (as 
 well as become hard), sharpen, to make sharp ; those in ize, as 
 harmonize, to have harmony, or to make harmonious, legalize, 
 to make legal, eulogize, to give eulogy on, aggrandize, to make 
 great ; those in /^, as magnify, to make great, terrify, to make 
 terrified, or give terror, anvpUfy, to make ample. The ize, it is 
 easily seen, is the Greek causative, while the^ is the Lat. fico, 
 facio (=make or do), which we find in such words as tumefacio, 
 to make swelled, satisfacio, to make enough, amplifico, to make 
 ample, niagnifico, to magnify — facio=fico,Jio,fy. This 7^ is 
 a common causative mark also in French. The Greek izo, azo, 
 is quite identical with t\nsi'fio,fy, (as both are ik, z), and may 
 be taken as representing ago, to do, act. We are to learn from 
 this, principally, how the ordinary t and s mark of supine and 
 tenses grows into the representation and form of ordinary aux- 
 iliary verbs. 
 
 522. But we have also many causatives which are not marked 
 by any ending at all ; as, to lay (cause to lie), to set (cause to sit), 
 to stand (cause to stand)., raise (cause to rise) ; and all such 
 verbs as to iron, to trim, to dress one, to paint, to indent, to 
 shape — indeed, all transitives gradate into causatives. But, it 
 is not alone in English that we find the causative form identical 
 with the ordinary verb ; this fact is patent in all languages ; 
 thus, in Latin inflammo (the causative mark, if any, being the 
 en, in, prefix), loco, to place, give place to, termino, to end, to 
 to cause to end, terreo, to terrify, to cause to be frightened, Jig- 
 uro, to figure, shape — and perhaps all other transitives which 
 have a noun as the base ; precisely so we find in Greek ; as, elpo 
 ffrom elpis, hope), to raise hopes, purgoo, to erect into a tower 
 (from purges, a tower), timao, to honor (from time, honor). 
 All this proves to us again, that ad, eo, azo, iio, isko, are all 
 variations of o alone, that the causative, and all related forms 
 has no element not common to all verbs. 
 
 523. Our own fumigate, navigate, castigate, mitigate, termi- 
 nate, dictate, celebrate, separate, and the like, are all causatives 
 and yet they are only L. supines, in form, used as a new base. ' 
 ^ 524. The Sanscrit causative mark is aya or ya (the ya which 
 is found in so many other places), as karayami,, I 'cause to 
 
 find 
 
 lie) 
 
 lausya, I loosen Qiusa, I lose). In Lithuanian,"' the'' causative 
 mark is in (our en of harden) ; as, ilginu, I make lono- (length- 
 en). This in, en, is the same also as ina^ and, of so many Gr'k 
 verbs, and the nu of Slavic. 
 
 525. In Persian, we find rasidan, to arrive, and ramnidan 
 (marked an), to cause to arrive; pa.rwardan, to educate, and 
 
HISTORY OF VERBS. 141 
 
 parwarandan, to make educate. Th« causative mark in Finn, 
 is t (as well as denominative). The case of the German verbs 
 is precisely that of English. The Semitic languages are inter- 
 esting in this oonnexiouy as showing these derivatives without 
 the apparent addition of an element ; thus, we have qatal, to 
 kill, and qottel (double i), to cause to kill — a change in the 
 body of the word precisely as the German waclien, to wake, be 
 awake, and wechen (wehlcen) to wake, awake. (This form, mid- 
 dle letter doubled, is not only causative in Semitic, but also 
 denominative, frequentative, and the like).. In Arabic and 
 Syriac, causatives are made by assuming the prefix a, as qatal 
 and a^qtdl, our wake and awake — in Syriac, sometimes by the 
 prefix s, as in our s-lay, to cause to lie, or lay. (In Arabic it is 
 asi). 
 
 Derivatives. 
 
 526. Having treated thus far of some special verbal forms 
 with special meanings, we will now consider, briefly, the accu- 
 mulation of new forms of verbs which are not marked by any 
 particular application. In G'k ao, eo, id, oo, u6, eud, azo, osko, 
 anu, aino, uno, airo, eiro, besides others, all forms of one and 
 the same thing, are common endings of verbs — but mark also, 
 they are not only seen in verbs, but they occur as well in other 
 parts of speech ; as, oremos, mountainous (em), Athenaios, Ath- 
 enian (aio), noseros, sickly {er\ grdpliikos, relating to painting. 
 (^i¥), paidikos, juvenile (i/c), paidiskos, a little boy (is/c). 
 
 527. In Latin, we have also eo, io, uo. These vowels e, i, u, 
 are only representatives of consonants which we find appearing 
 in a large share of verbs ; as ^ in fligo, d in dedo, g in lego, d 
 in vado, ng injungo, nd rafindo, r in gero, n in sino, v in juvo, 
 7i in velio, ct in pecto, II in pelh, rp in serpo, m, in premo, b in 
 scribo. Observe, here, what different forms the t, the same as 
 we find in dicto from dico^ and in datum from do, assumes in 
 the different verbs , and observe, too, how it doubles in ct, nd, 
 ng, rp — the gi in fugio is a double of the same kind, so the ci 
 vsxfacio, de in ardeo, ce in doceo. We find the same history in 
 Greek, and indeed in all languages ; for instance, in our own 
 language, the final letters of verbs are properly this same t; as, 
 the Ic in speak, y in say, e in see, nd in send, ng in sing, I in 
 steal, II in sell, w in draw, tch in catch, rv in starve, t in write, 
 m in come, ft in lift. Id in yield. That these final letters do not 
 belong to the base of thS verb, is seen by their entire absence in 
 different languages ; thus, the French dire, for Lat. dicere, ouir 
 for Latin audire; old North fro., Germ, fragcii, h&tiu frango ; 
 old North /a, Germa,n fangen ; French a, our have; Dan. boc, 
 
142 PHKASIS. 
 
 our 
 
 uuL abide, abode — to say nothing of the African and Polynesian 
 languages, where one consonant, with a vowel, represents our 
 longest verbs. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 ETYMOLOGy. 
 
 528. In the science of separating words into parts, or, rather, 
 of discovering new parts of words, etymology has lately made* 
 great advances. It is the course taken by all science ; the more 
 intimately we become acquainted with the object of our study, 
 the more points and parts about it we successively discover. It 
 was first learned that sentences were made of parts, or, rather, it 
 was assumed to consider certain parts of the sentence as distinct 
 individuals — just as we are wont to look at the man as made up 
 of head, hands, feet, while to the child or savage, perhaps, he 
 appears as one whole, single and simple. 
 
 529. But philology did not rest satisfied with dividing sen- 
 tences into words ; it has divided compound words into their 
 elements, and those elements again into syllables. Not content 
 with that, syllables have again been separated into letters; and 
 there philology apparently halted — but halted only to renew 
 the undertaking. Words have not only been divided into syl- 
 lables, and syllables again'into letters, but it was often observed 
 that one letter is equal to or represents two or more lettersj as, 
 e = ie infield, i=ei in Germ, tlieil, or ai in Greek pais, j^dg 
 in bridge, short u^oo va. flood; s^st in listen, m = lm iu calm, 
 n = gn in sign, s = ss in hiss. So that these single letters 
 which are representatives of the two combined, may be con- 
 sidered, as equal to the two, and as practically containing 
 the two within themselves — latent though it be; just so the 
 bud contains the leaf and the flower, and as this bud de- 
 velops itself into the leaf and the flower, or the branch, so may 
 we say, in language, that one letter develops itself into two or 
 more of its own cognates — as s into st, m into Im, n into gn, k 
 into ck, r into rr, e into ai (in said), o into au (in song). 
 
 530. Nothing is more common in language, than for one 
 letter to be the representative of two or more ; and though we 
 may not see so much of it in the same language, we shall find 
 more instances where a single character in one lano-uao-e is re- 
 presented by two or more letters iu some other language, as our 
 tch for one of the Russian letters, ds for one in Greek, 'dsh for 
 one in Armenian, dschJia for a San. character, scha for 'another 
 and gha for another. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 143 
 
 ■ 531. It is clear that we may regard these as actual equivalents, 
 and one lettar may thus represent several others; and, we may 
 either consider the combination of letters, as tch, the growth or 
 development of the single letter, as c, or that the single letter is 
 really made up of the (invisible) parts represented in the devel- 
 oped combination, and as including in itself, as the whole includes 
 its parts, those different elements, in a latent, unappreciable 
 state. This is no new thing, it is the universal phenomenon of 
 nature. All the different instruments of a band of players, 
 sounding in perfect harmony, produce one single strain, in which 
 the single instruments lose their individuality and become un- 
 distinguishable ; besides, any one of them may represent the 
 elements of the whole combined, as one letter represents a com- 
 bination of letters. (It is the leading law of nature, that the part 
 is as great as the whqle, contains as much, and (under suitable 
 circumstances), can do as much. Every whole is but an accumu- 
 lation of equivalent parts, parts which only apparently differ ; 
 every whole is hut the repetition of one and the same part. No- 
 where is this law better exem,plijied,^than in language'). 
 
 The blending of colors furnishes us with another apt illustra- 
 tion ; thus, any number of colors mingle and produce a new 
 color — mark, but a single color. So, as we found that every 
 letter may be an equivalent of several other letters, again, every 
 color may be conceived of as made of two or more other colors ; 
 and reversed, as every two or more letters combined produce 
 some one sound, which is or may be represented by some one 
 letter or character, so, too, in colors, any number of colors 
 blended will produce some new color, one only, which we do 
 represent, or may, by some new or other name. 
 
 But whete sounds or colors mingle and produce one, they 
 are by no ttreans lost or destroyed ; this new color, this new 
 sound, is secJly those old colors; those old sounds, acting in 
 harmony, in ^oncert^ and so losing their individuality. Two 
 forces acting in concert produce a new force, or new direction — 
 which is only new so far as we have two forces acting instead 
 of one ; one force never destroys another, and its own direction 
 is never affected or varied. 
 
 532. It is with letters as it is with numbers, every one is 
 part of some combination of numbers, as 2 is part of 4, 6, 
 30, and 'it is itself made up of i, i. So we can divide a 
 thing to infinity, with this difference; that for 28 and 2 we have 
 a name 30, and for the parts of 2, as i, i, but not for the com- 
 bination of letters str, or for the unnamed elements that go to 
 make the sound s, or t, or h. That they, too, have their equiv- 
 alent parts, is just as certain as that the sound booh,^ or str, has 
 parts. It is the point of philology, now, having divided speech 
 
144 PHRASIS. 
 
 into sentences, sentences into words, words into syllables, and 
 these again into letters, also to establish the value of the ele- 
 ments which unite to produce the effect of a letter; — thus, we 
 may take the elements of o to be certain values of a and u (ah- 
 00, spoken quickly), of e to be a in ale and i in it (sa-id, sed). 
 
 Letters. 
 
 533. Words are not represented in all languages by a com- 
 bination of separate letters, as in our own. In the old Egyptian 
 inscriptions, we find the figures of men and animals, and other 
 objects besides, wrought up into symbols, hieroglyphics, which 
 have no connexion with letters, or, at least, only a remote one ; 
 this part of the subject is too intricate and extensive to be treated 
 of here with any degree of fairness, and we will pass it by. 
 Next is the Chinese system, which vfe will dwell on briefly 
 under the head of Chinese language. Here, the signs whioh 
 stand for words appear, at first view, to be single; though made 
 up by a combination, or interlacing, of strokes or lines, the whole 
 presents to the uninitiated only the appearance of one idea. 
 And, lastly, there is what is called the syllabic mode, one mid- 
 way between our single letters and the Chinese word-signs. 
 This we are now about to consider. 
 
 534. In the Sanscrit and Thibetan languages, among others, 
 every consonant is assumed to have within itself the force of 
 the vowel a. Thus, their h has the force of ha, and I of la; 
 other vowels are denoted by affixing some mark to this b, V, or 
 ha, la — sometimes above or below (after the Semitic manner), 
 and again after or before the consonant, as in Europe. In these 
 cases, the original a sound inherent in the consonant seems to 
 be suppressed — ha-i becomes hi. These alphabets are called 
 syllabic. 
 
 535. That our modern alphabets, and especially, the Semitic, 
 are syllabic too, though perhaps not in the same degree, can be 
 easily demonstrated. One of the Semitic class, the Ethiopic, is 
 syllabic in the highest degree. The same letter there, as h, 
 slightly marked, is ha, he, hi, ho, hu. But, are the forms in the 
 other Semitios, the Hebrew for instance, the h with its dots and 
 marks above it and below it, for ha, he, etc., anything else, in 
 reality, than just such marked h's as we have in Ethiopic ? 
 It is of no moment that in Hebrew the marks are separate from 
 the consonant, and in Ethiopic attached to it. In both cases, 
 the vowel mark and tlie consonant constitute one single element! 
 Besides this, the vowel marks in Semitic are of comparatively 
 late origin, and, even yet, they are very commonly left out in 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 145 
 
 the text; now, in all such cases the consonants act as syllables, 
 for they, even unmarked, represent an element composed of 
 vowel and consonant, as h for ha, mlk for melek. 
 
 536. In all our cases where consonants come together, there 
 is no doubt that we may conceive of an undeveloped vowel be- 
 tween them — so drive is hardly distinguished from derive 
 {der = dr'), sled from select, fi from ful, pretend and pertend, 
 claim and cullaim. We may see large numbers of instances in 
 Slavic and elsewhere, where they insert a vowel, or leave it out, 
 when we do not — showing that if it is not expressed, it is only 
 implied, and if it is expressed, it is merely not implied. Again, 
 it is well understood that you cannot pronounce a consonant 
 without uttering it with a vowe^l, showing thus the inseparable 
 connexion of the two. 
 
 537. We notice in most of the syllabic alphabets, that there 
 is simply some mark accompanying the consonant, or attached 
 to it, to denote the vowel, but in some instances, for example, 
 the Mongolian and Ethiopic, there is considerable change in 
 the form of the consonant itself, when different vowels are 
 denoted. All this, too, shows the intimate union between the 
 vowel and consonant; it shows too, that the vowels are not 
 only all derivatives from the same base, but that the consonant 
 with the vowel, as ha, he, .etc., is a mere, variation of one and 
 the same thing — just as letters in Semitic vary according as 
 they are initial, middle, or final, — and still remain the same 
 letter. 
 
 538. It is evident, too, that these different forms of letters to 
 indicate consonants with vowels, with or without marks, depend, 
 entirely upon the consonant they are associated with, and that 
 their assuming the new form, or taking the particular vowel 
 marks, is simply a matter of harmony between them and the ac- 
 companying consonant. But it must be borne in mind that there 
 is nothing in these vowel marks, or representatives of vowels, 
 that distinguish them from some or all of the consonants. So, 
 wb have bridge^ where g may be considered a mark to denote a 
 particular sound of d, exactly as if it were a vowel mark, or 
 vowel ; also laugh and myth, where h is used with g and t in the ^ 
 same way, and I and r in able, centre. 
 
 539. In all these instances, and many more might be given, 
 the following consonant is merely a mark to indicate a- sound of 
 the consonant to which it is attached ; it adds nothing to the 
 sound of the fundamental consonant, but merely expresses or 
 shows what force that consonant has ; and, in all these cases, 
 we can find, somewhere, instances where the consonant has the 
 same value alone that it has with the consonant attached. Thus 
 d is often dj, dg, th is often t, so is U, b, and fr, t (in French). 
 
 19 
 
146 PHKASIS. , 
 
 Let it be said, once for all, tliat adding letters to a word, in the 
 course of its development, gives it no sound that was not in it 
 he/ore, hut it is a marh only to indicate a new force discovered 
 or developed. Thus, in our spelling books, we find certain 
 sounds of letters distinguished by certain marks, as $ =z, and 
 they are precisely in the nature of those vowel marks we have 
 been speaking of. No one thinks those marks give that sound 
 to the letter, but rather that they indicate the sound which the 
 letter has, even without the mark (so s has the sound of z in 
 rise, mark it or not, as you like) ; so it is, exactly, with vowel 
 marks, and with consonants joined to consonants. 
 
 540. The Sanscrit family of alphabets, and the Manohu, show 
 all the features of the Chinese and related alphabets ; several 
 letters are here united into one character, or, rather, one char- 
 acter possesses the marks of two or. more letters ; this principle 
 is at work in the Semitic, where letters are varied in form ac- 
 cording to their place in the word. In all alphabets, more or 
 less, we find one character representing two or more letters, as 
 the German ss, tz, G-reek st — and' particularly in the Irish and 
 Slavic alphabets. In the Manchu, the top part of the character 
 is the consonant, and the bottom grows into the representative 
 of the vowel, varying according' as tha'tis a, e, i, etc. 
 
 541. The Thibetan, alphabet, though it does not appear so at 
 first sight, is yet clearly related to the Sanscrit, and both are 
 evidently built on the same basis. They are both equally, as it 
 is called, syllabic, that is each consonant has a as its base. And 
 we think it may Idc discovered that there is a fixed part of this 
 corisonant to represent that a. The point is clearest in the San- 
 scrit ; here, the consonants, with very few exceptions, have a 
 perpendicular line, like our 1, as a basis, and the characteristic 
 portion of the letter is fixed to that stroke. There are, too 
 leading facts having an influence on this question ; first, this 
 perpendicular stroke is used separately as the vowel a, and second 
 when two letters, as ka and la, unite to form a single character' 
 as Ma or kl, the a sound is lost, and with it, also, this stroke in 
 question. Besides; for the other vowels we find appropriate 
 signs fixed to the consonant in some way — indeed it is the 
 prevailing feature, in Asia, to find vowels attachedto consonants 
 We have noticed this as a striking appearance in the Manchu 
 In Sanscrit, there are a few letters as t, th, d, dh, and r, where 
 this, base stroke is not so clear; but that these are vowels and 
 even variations of this a mark, is certainly undoubted: the first 
 
 T.o''®i°™f .°^' '■ ('"''^ '') ^ f°™ of "> related to i 
 
 542. But this base stroke of consonants is not confined to Asia; 
 It is found in our own, and m perhaps all others- we see "it in 
 our B, D, b, d, ], m, n, t, E, P_it is'still plainer in Rus where 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 147 
 
 some letters, as sh, are formed by the repetition of this I mark 
 (like Greek n). We need not be surprised that it disappears 
 in some letters, when we remember how capital E, with its angles, 
 changes for the rounded small e, and how A is changed into its 
 related 0. So it is, we see, in the nature of letters, as well as 
 of words, to be made up of elements. You can find no element 
 so small, that it has not also elements, and as many as the origi- 
 nal. 
 
 543. So, we are left to understand, from what has been taught 
 under the head of letters, that words are merely a sign made up 
 of signs, and hence that we do not in principle differ from the 
 Chinese. Their signs of words are made up of parts as well as 
 our own ; it is already admitted that most of these have two or 
 three elements and contain a base character or key, just as we 
 have found our alphabets to have a key in their consonants. 
 That they have not developed their word-signs into as many 
 elements as we have, is in perfect harmony with their evident 
 want of consciousness of the division of sentences into words. 
 That their alphabet is built up on the same system as the Euro- 
 pean,, or other Asiatic alphabets, is one of the clearest things in 
 the world. It exists only in a particular stage of advancement, 
 while the E,oma.n, the Semitic, the Sanscrit, represent each an- 
 other stage of the same performance. The hieroglyphic system 
 of word representation, in its different degrees of development, 
 takes another place and presents still another phase. The 
 Japanese system of characters is interesting as affording the 
 transition between the Chinese and the syllabic arrangement. 
 
 544. Marked AND Double Letters : There are two sources 
 from which the number of characters in an alphabet are in- 
 creased : one, .by marking old letters when they get a new force, 
 and the other by doubling or combining two like letters. Eeally, 
 all our letters which have two or more powers should be marked 
 to distinguish them, and, thus, our alphabet would be greatly 
 enlarged.' This is done to a far greater extent in other lan- 
 guages than in our own. The marks used are unmeaning, and 
 are simply dots, or other marks above or below the letter, or a 
 stroke across it — our own i with its dot above it, is a marked 
 letter, so is Q a marked ; the G-'k 6 and (p are both a marked 
 o = u,v and t ; our 7c is only a marked c or </, the perpendicu- 
 lar line being often found separate from the c or gr part, i. e. 
 from the two lines meeting at an angle. 
 
 545. The number of letters which arise from the union of 
 two, like our w=uu, in the different alphabets, is considerable, 
 and it includes some we would hardly expect. Our B is a 
 double o,v; when placed on its back ( W) its identity with W 
 is plain, being crossed by a line at the top (as K is on the side), 
 
148 PHBASIS. 
 
 and rounded at the angles; one of the Gr'k forms ofp = b (zs) 
 is this precise form ; these resemblances are all not unexpected, 
 for b we know equals p, v, /, w. If we invert our M (m) we 
 have W; m is clearly a modification of b and lo, and hence 
 double ; this is not unexpected, for m equals b and is often 
 found for w ; n, which is half m, is often hardly distinguishable 
 from u, V (as Greek v). . 
 
 546. Our s (S) is another double letter, and not only that, it 
 is double o, v, and identical with the b and m; the Greek .s (2) 
 is only our W placed on its side. In Syriac,^ s is two o's (q2_), 
 Heb. ayin (=o, v) is identical in form with its z, s ; old Heb. 
 s (shin) was precisely oilr W, and B on its back unmarked (w); 
 in ancient Greek, s was precisely M, also in Phenician; it is an 
 important fact that in Hebrew (and Greek) an s follows the m, 
 n, group ; in the Copt, alphabet, sh, ch, is marked o (Greek u); 
 s and sh we found in Russian based on 1 = 11, o, v ; it has long 
 been known that /and s were equal, but/= v, u, o. ^ 
 
 We may remark while on this subject of o's, that it is to be 
 observed that the base part of p, b, q, d, is o — this is not ac- 
 cidental, they are marked o's. In Russian, we find many cases 
 of united letters, sometimes side by side, sometimes one over 
 the other, sometimes one on the other ; in G'k, many instances 
 are found of two or more letters united into one character, ex- 
 actly as in Sanscrit. 
 
 547. Assimilation of Letters : There is a tendency, 
 which we observe, more or less, in all languages, for words (or 
 syllables) and letters coming together to change so as to assume 
 like forms, and thus coalesce so as to produce a single element. 
 So, what would be tetupmai, in Gr'k, is tetummai (pm^mm), 
 somatsi becomes somasi (is = ss~), deiknuntsi becomes deiknusi 
 (unts^uuss), to heteron becomes thateron (to-he ^the, tha) ; so 
 in Lat., we find effero where we might expect exfero, and assisto 
 for adsisto (ads = ass). In Celt., the change of words or letters 
 according to what they are associated with, is carried on very 
 extensively and systematically. 
 
 548. As an explanation of this phenomenon, we repeat here 
 what we have often touched on already, that it is only like letters 
 that come together, that uU the letters of a word are assimilated, 
 
 made like each othe-i and not alone the letters of the same 
 
 word, but, also, the letters of two words which are associated 
 together, and hence their tendency to unite and form a single 
 word ; as, the Greek katheudo from kata heudo. 
 
 The old North byggja, to build (bide), will illustrate the case 
 of like letters ; the /=</, and y =y and £r, hence, the word is 
 byyyya ; but b also equals v, m, y, hence we have vyyyya, or 
 yyyyy»- It is by this assimilation of letters, that lijng words 
 
BTYMOLOfiY. 149 
 
 may be reduced to single letters; thus, our have is, in French, 
 a, for have equals aave, aaue, aauu, aaaa, so that the French 
 a equal to have, contains, or is, four undistinguishable a's. We 
 need not be surprised that the letters of a word should be like 
 letters, really repeated letters, and still have such different 
 powers apparently; the two g's in suggest, and the c'b in accent, 
 are double, find yet what could differ more than the former g 
 or c from the latter g or c. Indeed, we may say that every case 
 of double letters presents two letters of different powers ; thus, 
 we have adjective, and the Italian has aggettivo — its gg must 
 differ as our dj or dg, and its tt as our ct ; so, the Dutch has 
 hoek where we have hoolc, oe = oo. In 'conclusion, we may say 
 that since the words of the most undeveloped languages are 
 very short, as no, na, ha, they really contain latent as many 
 letters as our words, but they are so much in unison, so little 
 differentiated, that they cannot be distinguished by our ears, 
 though they might be by others more refined. 
 
 The Form and Value of Letters, 
 
 549. A — In the Samaritan, a=< (we shall use the sign of 
 equality, or the words, to denote that the two letters, both of the 
 same alphabet, are alike in form) ; in Eth. and Arabic, a^l, 
 indeed, our A is no doubt a modification of the Greek A (and 
 perhaps A) : in Copt,, A can hardly be distinguished from its 
 D, as our a = d. 
 
 550. B — -In Hebrew, B equals P; in Samaritan, B equals R, 
 and D is only a marked B or R; in Arabic, B equals F (j)); in 
 Ar. and old Hebrew, B=N; in Syriac, B equals K and P, so 
 Ethiopic B equals K, also Hebrew ; Sanscrit B and M equal S. 
 B must be like I and r, for we find hi, hr, very often, as in hlacJc, 
 break J h and g are related, as we see by our go, Greek haino, 
 and Latin hous {hos), our cow {gau) ; we also find gladius (L.), 
 our hlade, and Lat. rabies, our rage (b=g'). B for he, is iden- 
 tical with German prefix ge, as bleihen (for geleiben), our leave. 
 B equal to m and w we have noticed before. 
 
 551. (7— This letter, as we have already noticed, is identical 
 with g. We often use it for s, and that is the only value it has 
 in Russian and Copt. Eth. c is a double k. C is equal to h', 
 as we have chop equal to hack ; c is equal to I, as Span, llamar 
 for L. clama,re (and llama tot flama, 11= fl). Our chore (work) 
 is Danish gjor, Sanscrit kar, Heb. hara, our cre-ate. C is like 
 d and b, for our cut equals bite, Greek daknu. In German, c 
 identifies with h, as sch equals sh; carry equals Latin /cro, our 
 bear (c=f, b) ; c for t, as Latin capio (our catch), take. Germ. 
 
150 PHBASIS. 
 
 fangen. Observe that the different sounds of ch are also sounds 
 of c. 
 
 652. Z) — The Heb. D has the form of Gr'k G-, turned (n); 
 I and R (Hebrew) are only variations of this Dj Syrian D=R; 
 Arabian I) = E, Z; Ar. D = ]Sfj Copt. D equals Eoman A. D 
 equals ii and w, for we have L. duo, and our dwell, also Welsh 
 diofr; we find also devour, define, digest, decamp (dev for dv, 
 dig for dg'). D equals t and b, as we see in Greek deo equal to 
 our tie and hind. There is a great resemblance between the 
 character of our c? and that of our e; thus, mile is often pro- 
 nounced mild ; the Danish uses d at the end of words (also t) 
 much as our e, a sort of mute vowel ; as, mand for man, langt 
 for long, godt for good, frit ior free. Again, d is often identical 
 in sound with j, i, hence d^i. D equals p and t, as we observe 
 in German denJcen, Latin pensare, our think ; d equals r, as in 
 Greek <ii7i:e = right, just (d=j); d^l, as in Greek dakru, our 
 tear, Latin lachryma ; d^f, as Latin viduus, French veuf, our 
 widower. 
 
 653. U, I, Y, and — It is well known that our E is the 
 same as G'k H (eta); 'it must be equal, also, to the letters con- 
 nected with h in history, as /, g, d, a, o. Our F is a form of 
 E, as it is of Greek r and D ("r). As e is equal to g, so it is 
 equal to y and g, as we see again in holt/, sounded hol-e. E is a 
 form of c, as we see by small e=c. 
 
 The identity of i with y and u, is so often seen that it hardly 
 needs any illustration here. I is the same as j, but / besides 
 being often y, as in German, is in French z,zh — hence, we see 
 how ?■ =z ; i being equal toy, is also equal to g (and d), a form 
 of y, as we see by Greek 7 for g. I is identical with H, indeed 
 H is really a double I connected. The Sans. i=e, u, d; i = 
 l^d, hence i equals d inpower. 
 
 Of y little need now be said ; it is u, as we see in Eussian; it 
 is i,J, g, and e; in Goth., y has power of w. In Eth., y (y) has 
 the form of d and precedes it. As is well known, o = u,v,w; 
 it is h also, as we see by Eth. A = ayin (o)— in Eth., h has the 
 form of U and y. O is identical with Q= P, B. 
 
 554. F~The identity of /with p, ph, i's very common — 
 one character is often used for both ; / is same &s v u w f 
 _ also equals t, for we often see the same sign used for th and'ph 
 (/). The Geim&n fangen equals our take, Lat. capio, seize, so 
 • ^'' ^i XT ^i-^'l ' '^?^'" L.ferio, our strike, Fveuohf rapper, 
 IS mod NoTtl^drepa (Germ, treffen) ■ /equals g, as iifJnish 
 equal to garnish, and>^, German /a«^™,, get, gain ; / equals 
 r, as /oo« equals roo«- Heb. regel is foot, J.^tin nuUus (root). 
 
 55o r.-That g equals /., ., ch, is well known; that it equals 
 n, I, d, and r, we shall find very common; it equals /, and hence 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 151 
 
 z also ; its identity with u, v, w, is seen by gu for w, as guard 
 equal to warcf, Pr. guerre, war, and Gwil for Bill, Will. Its 
 identity with Ji is seen by its so often harmonizing with it and 
 becoming silent, as in sight, night; see our mix, San. mih, Lat. 
 mingoj Greek micho, Lith. meziu (x, h, ng, ch, z) ; ^ equals z 
 and h, as we see by Lith. asz. Sans. aAam, Zend, azem,- for our 
 I, Germ, ich, Lat. e^o; 5- is for/, d, as in laiigh, toiigh; g=h, 
 as Lat. hoedm (kid), our ^oai. Germ. Ziege ; (7 = w, as in (70= 
 weni, cZraj/ and draiu, A-Sax. swelgan and swallow ; g equals p 
 and I), as in sage, Latin sapiens ; sergeant, Latin serviens. Our 
 beam, Germ, baum (tree), old North badm-r, Go. bagm, bajms, 
 shows that g,j, of Goth., takes the place! of d, u, and e; Germ. 
 and Sax. ge,je, ye, equals our the; g with n is very common, as 
 in gnaw, and the two letters are often found to agree in form in 
 other alphabets ; in Greek, gg equals ng. 
 
 556. R— This letter has very extensive connexions, but most 
 of them will be noticed under other heads ; its most immediate 
 relatives are those with which we find it associated ; as, th, ch, 
 gh, sh, ph, wh, ah, oh — that h gives birth to such letters, is 
 most evident in Semitic. The Greek e; Russian e, i, has the 
 form of H ; th takes the place of our h in the Greek alphabet. 
 
 557. K — The nearest relatives of h are c, g, h, p, g, and t. 
 It equals t because c, one of its forms, equals t ; and g, another 
 form, equals d. It is naturally like q, which is really a k sound, 
 as in French ; and since it is like q, it is also like p, a form of 
 q. Arabian k {q) equals /; 7c (or ch} in Eth. equals n, also in 
 Hebrew. French ch=sh, but ch=k, hence A;=s. Take the 
 relative pron. forms, and they will show the family to which k 
 belongs; as, 7ci (Hung.), qui (L.), ti (G'k), Osc. pi, G'kpote, 
 Gelt, and Sans, ma, German wer, our wJio and that, Gothic hwo 
 (Fr. ce, L. se). It. che; k = r, for Latin rex is our king; Sans. 
 srut-as, Gr'k Mut-os, Lat. clutus, our heard (sr, Id (kr), cl {cr), 
 hr, all equal); k = w; as, Germ, krieg, Fr. guerre, our war ; it 
 often, in German, takes the place of the prefix ge ; as, k-lein, 
 little, h-lotz, log, h-lump, lump — it is here a mere vowel equal 
 to e, h ; k, in some forms of German, is in such cases replaced 
 by h; as, hlachen. Germ, lachen, laugh; Gr'k kuon, Lat. canis, 
 Fr. chien, Lith. szU, German hund, our dog — shows k^d, as g 
 
 ' equals k, d. 
 
 558. L — This is most nearly related to m, n, r, d,g, and the' 
 vowels. Ital. bi equals our bl, as Zn'amco = blank ; Frejich I has 
 the power of i, y ; we find also oud for old, goud for gold — in 
 Slav., l=w, u; L. lect-vs.'vs, our bed, I for b; look=see, like = 
 seem, l=s,. Freiich le is our he, the (she) ; Germ, schluss, our 
 close, loose, schl, cl = l; Dan. alt for all. It for II. 
 
 559. M — The connexion of m and n with I, with b, w, s, and 
 
152 ^ PHRASIS. 
 
 the vowels, we have already noticed. The Osc. on shows itself 
 to be a double H, or two n's ; the Greek m is a marked m (ja) ; 
 Eth. «i is B on its back ( td) ; m, equals A, as L. manus equals 
 hand ;' our make, too, is San. Jcar, L. facio, G-erni. tliun, do, m, 
 k, f, th,,d ; mar = err, where m becomes £» vowel and vanishes; 
 so, make is ago, act, aijd mars equals war. 
 
 560. N — The identity, in form, of » with H, is too frequent in 
 the different alphabets to pass by unnoticed, or to be considered 
 unmeaning — thus, Kus. N is our capital H, and the G-'k small e 
 (h) is n (t)). This only shows in a particular way, what has long 
 been recognized, the vowel tendencies of m and n. Being so 
 nearly like vowels, these letters have a very extensive connexion; 
 but we most frequently find and, ing, ent, ence, ens, In, rn, kn, 
 which point out the relatives of to, i. e. those associated with it. 
 
 561. Pand Q — The identity oi p and q has been long known, 
 and that of r withjp and q, is not more doubtful. In Samaritan, 
 q has the form of our P, the Greek R (P) — so, also, in Heb. ; 
 q is only found in a few alphabets. Go. q is u, and its relation 
 to u, V, w, we might expect by its always occurring with u. Eth. 
 p is our T ; Eth. u, w, is a crossed 0, varying so that it identi- 
 fies with our Q, Greek *; Eth. q proper is this same marked o, 
 Greek * ; Eth. j and d have the form of our P. As ^ = q, k, 
 g, we can see how the form r, 1, and F (without the middle 
 mark) occurs in the Gr'k alphabets for P — that is, it identifies 
 with g and/, as we might expect. In Russian, small p is n of 
 our letters ; P (see Gr'k n) is, ^like N, (Russ. H), a character 
 of double I's connected at top (n) ; 2=8, as in Lat. qusero, our 
 search ; p==w, as L. penna, oni jin, wing; San. p^', y. P is 
 a late letter in alphabets. 
 
 562. R — This letter has already received, under other heads, 
 most of the attention that is due to it. We will remind the 
 student that its relatives are s, t, d, I, besides p and q. The 
 Chinese had no r, but I for it, (and the old Per. had no I). R, 
 as well as m, n, d, and I, is closely identified with vowels, and 
 is easily replaced by them. 
 
 563. S — The true character of this letter has already been 
 shown under the head of double letters. Its changes are prin- 
 cipally with r, t, h, w, /. It often plays the part of a prefix, 
 like German ge and k, as Greek smikros for mikros. 
 
 564. T — The connexion of this letter with p, k, s, r, u, v 
 w, a, i, h, and others, has already been noticed. In Christian, 
 t=ch ; in mention, t=sh. The connexions of t may be well 
 seen by taking the article the, that, and tracing the difi'erent 
 forms it assumes as it appears in difi'erent languages, and in dif- 
 ferent kinds of pronouns. In Rus., we find a form of t exactly 
 as if the points at the ends of the cross line of T should extend 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 153 
 
 down to an equal length with the middle line, makins three 
 parallel lines or i's connected at top like m (m); this makes t 
 a double j5(G-k n); our T is not different from E, except that 
 It IS placed diff-erently, and the middle line is extended 'instead 
 ot the end lines; there are other reasons, which we will omit 
 here, that go to prove T equal to e, i, and m, besides H, as a 
 consequence. 
 
 565. U, r, T^— These letters, all forms of one and the same 
 . thing, as I is of,/, n of m, or p of q, r, need but few remarks 
 
 here. Ihe pronouns will best show their connexions. They 
 are beautiful illustrations of vowels which become consonants. 
 In Russian, u, y, and i, are represented by a letter like our H, 
 another case of double i — we knew thaty = i, and that u=y] 
 our own u is an illustration of parallel i's (u) connected at bot- 
 tom. W equals d, as German wer and der, our will and Gaelic 
 toil; w = k, G'k kalos, well, and kahos, wicked; wind = round 
 turn, w, r, t. We have seen u^=^g ; it is also equal to c/t, k] 
 as, German ddch, Lith. tawe, Russ. tebia, Sanscrit tva, our thee. 
 
 566. X, Y, Z — We have already spoken of X as a form of 
 K; it is nearly related to Z;y, too, has been sufficiently noticed 
 already, and z needs but a few words. As we consider Z a form 
 of G'k G (r), and hence of D also, we do not find it surprising 
 that it often changes with d, g,j, v, y — hence, we find G'k zao 
 equal to San.jivami, Lat. vivo, our live; also Gr'k zeugon, Lat. 
 
 jugum, our join, union, yoke. The striking identity of z with i 
 and h we -will again recall to the mind of the student. 
 
 567. Order op Letters : The number and order of letters 
 in the different alphabets vary. It is said that the original 
 number of letters in the Gr'k alphabet was sixteen, while later 
 Greek, the one of which our own is a modification, has twenty- 
 four. We have great doubts about the number sixteen having 
 anything more to do with the precise limit of fundamental letters 
 than the number twenty-four or thirty. All letters in all lan- 
 guages are closely related to each other ; it is very easy to see 
 in letters which appear very remote, that one is only a modifica- 
 tion of the other. The number of characters, no doubt, increased 
 in olden times, as we know it to have done in later ones, by a 
 letter gradually assuming a new force in particular words, and, 
 in the end, being marked, or in some way taking a new form to 
 correspond with the place it holds ; so with our marked s for z 
 '($) the marked i's and d's of Arabic; and, again, by uniting 
 wo letters into one character, doubling, as it is admitted to be 
 the case with our w (two w's), of which feature we find so many 
 illustrations in Slavic and others. 
 
 568. The Heb. alphabet has twenty-two letters, corresponding 
 substantially with the Greek and Roman, and in the following 
 
 20 
 
154 PHRASIS. 
 
 order; a, I, g, d, e (h), f (u, y), z, ch (h), t, y (Gr'k iota), ch 
 (k), 1, m, n, s (G'k xi), o (a), p, s or z (not m G'k), q (G k r), 
 r (not in G'k), s, t. 
 
 This 'order is almost identical with that of Gr'k, and it differs 
 from Koman chiefly as the G'k differs from it. The third letter 
 in both is ff; this not only has the place of our c, but is identi- 
 cal with it; one of the sounds of c is k=g, and by tracing the 
 G'k ff (r) through the various forms which it has assumed, we 
 find the angle made by thd perpendicular and cross line, become 
 rounded so as to resemble C. The /is the Greek F, digamma 
 (a form of T), now lost. The Hebrew e has the value of ^ and 
 corresponds better with the Gr'k eta which has the form of H. 
 The Heb. z, G'k dz (zeta) is plainly a form of ^r and indirectly 
 of d; Heb. z scarcely differs in form from Heb. d or v; in old 
 G'k, this z has the form of I, and in Phenician it is N placed on 
 its side ( !z;), a form which shows its connexion with, eta (H) — 
 in Russian, it is s reversed (3); in Eth., it has the form of H, 
 which is also the form of/; hence z=j, ff, again — Fr. g often 
 has the sound of z, zh. The Heb. ch after z, is the Hebrew, e, 
 G'k eta; t is the Gr'k theta — in both cases derivatives of ^^ 
 e, z (t equals z in them, pronounced by foreigners zem) ; the 
 Heb. ch^h is our c, G'k 7c; the s after n does not correspond 
 in place or origin with our S; it is the Greek chi=zi; in old 
 G'k, it has, like z, the form of capital I; the Heb. and Rabbinic 
 forms evidently tend to identify with m of the same alphabet 
 (again we see the connexion of m and n with z) ; the Heb. ayin 
 (0) is almost identical in form with the 5 or 2 following it — ■ in 
 Arab., one of its powers is that of ^, and in Syr. it has the form 
 of Syr. g and I; the s or sh is in form a double ayin or o (also 
 double z) ; the th or f is a form slightly varying from h and ch. 
 
 569. The Gr'k adds to these a u and a v, and iv in the char- 
 acter ((p) phi (ph, f, v) ; it is really a marked o or v, w, and it 
 is not different from theta (th), which in Russian has the sound 
 of/, « — it corresponds to our v and w ; the next Greek letter 
 is our X, called chi, and having the force of Jc — indeed, it is 
 evidently only a modified k, as small k, in G'k, and x are exactly 
 alike in form ; the next letter psi (T) has the place of our r, and 
 the value of ps equal to s, z ; in Russian, it loses its right arm, 
 and has a form mostly like small y, and a value like fc/i, sh ; it 
 may be considered as a marked c (on its back), or s; it is clearly, 
 too, identical with the Hebrew sh, or s (shin), which letter in 
 Ethiopic (one of its forms) has the precise form of Y. Hovr j> 
 should be associated with s or a, as in this psi, need not appear 
 strange, when we bear in mind what the Russian teaches us ; 
 there, p and z have the same form, that of Greek n, (save that 
 the z is connected at the bottom instead of the top, as in «) • 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 155 
 
 again, p=<, and <==s and z ; in Sanscrit, p equals j and often 
 becomes z, zTi. 
 
 570. We have, as stated before, the c, a converted g^ and we 
 have the k besides, while Greek had only the latter. Slightly 
 varying the i, we have/, not known in Gr'k — comparing i and 
 /, see what diiferent powers the same letter may assume ; we 
 havep, g-, r (three nearly related), while G'k has onlyjj and r ; 
 we have w, which was formerly written two m's, and then m, 
 and so w. In Rus., two 6's are developed, the latter having the 
 va,lue of D, w; after e, in place of Gr'k zeta, Russ. has two z'%, 
 one already noticed as s inverted (aj; it is evidently connected, 
 in history, with the Greek chi, as, ch; there are two i's, one (5f 
 which is merely double, like G'k n ; its r is our P ; its s and « 
 is our C; its m is oury; after u comes/, v, in form of Gr'k *, 
 and then K, being our X, and having its form ; and next come 
 four letters, all related, and having the value of z (ts), ch and 
 ih, sh, and sJi — they are, the. first two, two i's repeated, and 
 hence the same as n(connected at bottom) ; and the next two 
 are three parallel i's (LU) connected at bpttom, that is, they are 
 made by repeating one of the two first and uniting the two mid- 
 dle lines; they are related to the Hebrew ch (cheth) and th 
 (tav) — the latter two are identical with the Hebrew sh (shin). 
 The old Heb. furnishes a parallel in its z, identical with i, y ; 
 so, in Ethiopic, the sh, and t, is a double H, which equals i. 
 
 571. Making allowance for the introduction of additional let- 
 ters in the Armenian alphabet, and the considerable variation 
 in the name and form of the characters, we may say that it is 
 substantially the same as the G'k. The Arab, has added several 
 letters to the Semitic as it exists in Hebrew and Syriac, making 
 much change in the form and name of the characters, and yet 
 the identity of the two classes is unquestioned. .The b has de-. 
 veloped into a t, and th, besides a j) in Pers., (marked only by 
 dots and without change of form) ; three letters, not differing in 
 form, are/ (dg), h, and k, kh (this group includes the g which 
 here identifies with 7j) ; two z's or d's, from Heb. d ; an s and 
 d, z, from Heb. z (tsadhe); a t, and a d, z, from Heb. t (teth); 
 an a, A and g, gh, from Hebrew ayin. • 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 572. This subdivision of letters demands still further consid- 
 eration; we will treat principally of the connexion of vowels 
 with each other. That a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, are intimately 
 related to each other, will not be questioned; we will, however, 
 give the following illustrations. Our a in late is precisely the 
 European long e; a in ah equals o in not, a in all equals o in 
 
156 
 
 PHKASIS. 
 
 long cost; metal, in sound, would not differ if it was ul, tl, ol, 
 el yl, instead of al; pahn, at a distance, can hardly be distin- 
 guished from pine; French i long is our e in steel; and it can 
 hardly be distinguished from et ; hence, we hear^is for yes, min 
 for men, thim for them. The Greek u becomes our y, and the 
 Germ, u our i init ; but hardly differs from let, and bur not at 
 all from ber, bir- — and we hear fur in place oi for, hum for 
 liome, i. e. home=hom=hum. 
 
 573. From the diphthongs we have much to learn in relation 
 to vowels, as well as in regard to the union of letters generally. 
 It is hardly necessary to remark that such letters as readily unite 
 into diphthongs are closely related — but all the vowels unite 
 in this way- "We notice in regard to these unions of vowels, 
 that they, as well as with consonants, do not arise from the de- 
 struction of one of the vowels, but from the two harmonizing 
 togethei', or from the one preponderating over the other ; in no 
 case is the new sound, the diphthong, anything more than the 
 ordinary sound of the two vowels following in quick succession; 
 so, boil is bau-ilj the o of son<j, and the i disappearing in il; so, 
 in said, sa-id, sa-d, sed — when the id preponderates, we get 
 s-id, sid ; so, lo-af lo-ef loaf, and re-ad, re-ed, read; we get 
 break by breh^ake, short e in met and long a in make, and bread 
 by breh'cd, short e and short a ; in view, the i and e are both 
 short (i in mit, e in met), and lo as u preponderates; in field, 
 fih-eeld, the i is short and e long ; in their, theh-ir, there, the e 
 and i are both short; in sound, we have o in not and u=oo, or 
 u in /mZ?^ Germ. aM=this ou, ah-oo, and is the simple union 
 of the ordinary German a and u; German ei'^long i, and /eiVi 
 sounds as fine — here, the e is short, and it makes the i long, 
 just as our e mfine does; Gr'k ai=our long i, so pais, pah-is, 
 
 . sounds as pice ; another German au is very much like this 
 Greek ai, and arises from the use of German accented ii, like 
 our i in mill (nearly) ; German eu has same sound and on same 
 principle. 
 
 574. The following list of words, taken chiefly from the Ger- 
 man languages, will better illustrate the connexion and change 
 of vowels. 
 
 Old Ger 
 
 . English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Old Ger. Eng. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 durh 
 hunt 
 sahan 
 hrao 
 
 through 
 
 dog 
 
 sow 
 
 raw, rough 
 
 per, trans 
 canis 
 Go. saian 
 crudus 
 
 heim home 
 feim foam 
 dheoda kin 
 houbit head 
 
 domus 
 spuma 
 gens, Ger 
 caput, Ge 
 
 fo 
 
 keano 
 
 feal 
 
 few 
 
 gone 
 
 fell 
 
 paucus 
 Ger. gang 
 ce-oidit 
 
 troum dream 
 guat good 
 
 somnium 
 bonus 
 

 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 15' 
 
 Mid. German. 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 stranc 
 kol 
 
 string 
 coal 
 
 funis 
 carbo 
 
 bourn 
 
 beam 
 
 arbor, Germ, baum 
 
 toum 
 ruo 
 
 tuot 
 
 steam 
 
 rest 
 
 deed 
 
 vapor, " dampf 
 quies, " . ruhe 
 egi, " that 
 
 Mid. Netlier, 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 haer 
 
 hair 
 
 crinis 
 
 scaep 
 clet 
 
 sheep, ewe 
 cloth 
 
 ovis 
 
 vestis. Germ, kleid 
 
 ghet 
 wiel 
 
 goat, kid 
 wheel 
 
 capra, " ziege 
 A-S. hveol 
 
 moude 
 
 world 
 
 mundus. Germ, welt 
 
 hout 
 
 wood 
 
 lign-um, " holz 
 
 man 
 
 moon 
 
 luna " mond 
 
 There is also Go. dails, Eng. deal, Germ, iheil, L. pars ; Go. 
 taikns, Eng. toJcen, Germ. Zeigenj'Jjat. signum ; Go. mais, Lat. 
 magis, Eng. more, Germ, mehr } Go. dauths, Eng. dead, Germ. 
 todt ; Go. skeirs, Lat. clarus, Eng. shine, Germ, schein ; Goth, 
 stiurs, Eng steer, Latin taurus ; Goth, giuta, Eng. gush, Germ. 
 giessen; Germ, siegel, Eng. seal, Lat. sigilluni. 
 
 German Etymology. 
 
 675. 
 
 Ab-halien, hold-off (a?»=off). 
 Ab-legen, lay-off, lay-by. 
 Achten, 1-ook, Gr'k agad, San. 
 
 ac, Gr'k osso, esteem 
 Ahnlich, even-like, like. 
 Ahnen, ancestors, anticipate; it 
 
 is the Lat. ante. 
 Ah, al-so, as, else. 
 Amt, oifice, m, v, f. 
 Angst, anxious. 
 Arm, poor, as branch =arm. 
 Arten, (take-) after (imitate). 
 Arg, arch, arrant. 
 Athem, br-eath, Greek asthma, 
 
 Lat. anima, Euss. duch , 
 
 Auf-ruhr, up-roar. 
 
 Auge, eye, 1-ook. 
 
 Aus-hruch, e-rupt, out-break. 
 
 Aus-dehnen, ex-tend. 
 
 Aus-fuhr, ex-port. 
 
 Aus'-ruf, out-cry. 
 
 Bauer, ^ boor, far-mer, 'bode. 
 
 Bach, brook, G'k pege. 
 
 Be-fehl, (order), fail, want — 
 the idea of words of com- 
 mand seems based on wish, 
 want, not on authority ; so 
 bid == beg. Germ, heten. 
 
 Be-gielir, desire, crave, be-g. 
 
 Be-quem, be-come, comely, con- 
 venient, Swiss kummlich. 
 
 1 Note that u is nearer i in it than u ; so, tf is nearer a m ale — au is 
 like 0% in our; e is not silent at the end of words, hut is sounded uk 
 (u in up) ; as, habe = liah-buh {a^ah uniformly) — See Germ. Lav. 
 
158 
 
 phrasis. 
 
 Be-sitz, pos-session. 
 
 Be-such,y\sii, (be-seek),be = v. 
 
 Be-zahl, tell, pay, count, say. 
 
 Bild, (shape), build. 
 
 Billig, (fair), belle, L. meli-or. 
 
 B-latt, leaf (h is com. prefix). 
 
 Blasen, blow, s, w. 
 
 B-lelben, leave, (b-leave). 
 
 B-lick, look, blink. 
 
 Bloss, (bare), plain, bleak. 
 
 Base, (ill), bad, base. 
 
 Braien, roast, br, r. 
 
 Brauchen, (want), break, Lat. 
 friii, use, re-quire. 
 
 Brechen, break, San. dar, cut, 
 G-'k dero, strip, bare, but 
 ffe-brechen = want, frail. 
 
 Brief, (letter), write, cliart. 
 
 BrUcke, bridge, breach. 
 
 Briinnen, (well), spring. 
 
 Brennen, burn, G-er. dorren. 
 
 Burg, fort, G-'k purgos, polis. 
 
 Bund, bunch, bundle, band. 
 
 Bach, (roof), deck, L. tectum. 
 
 Damp, steam, dew. 
 
 Ddmmern, dim. 
 
 Degen, (sword), dagger. 
 
 jDehnen,^ ex-tend. 
 
 Dicht, tight, think. 
 
 JDienen, serve, tend. 
 
 Dolch, dagger, dirk. 
 
 Druch, thring, throng, press, 
 drive, d, p, t. 
 
 Dunkel, dim, dunn. 
 
 Dulden, dure, L. tollo, our in- 
 dulgence. 
 
 Durfen, dare, durst. 
 
 Burr, torrid, dry, burn. 
 
 Eclte, nook, edge, corner. 
 
 Edel, noble, d, b. 
 
 Ellen, hurry, G'k elao, hie. 
 
 Eifcr, ire, ardor. 
 
 Eivzcln, single, once. > 
 
 Eis, ice, It. ginccio, Fr. glace, 
 glass, smooth, Ger. giaft. 
 
 1 Those endings en are of llie infin., and may drop. 
 
 Eisern, iron; ei sounds uni- 
 formly as i in ice. 
 Eridlich, final, end. 
 Eng, near, narrow. Sans, ag, 
 
 G-'k ago, eggus, 
 Erhe, heir. 
 Er-fahren, ex-pert. 
 Erlauben, allow. 
 Erwerh, (gain), ac-quire. 
 Er-zeugt, be-got, L. satus, 
 Essig, acid (vinegar). 
 Fahren, fare, ferry, go. 
 Fang, catch, finger, f, c, fc. 
 Fassen, fast, catch. 
 Feder, feather, pen, Gi'kpter- 
 
 on, wing, bird. 
 Fertig, ready, pre-pared. 
 Fessel, fetter, fast. 
 Finster, dim. 
 Flach, flat. 
 Fleissig, fleet, ap-ply. 
 Fliessen, flow. 
 Flugel, (wing), fly. 
 Fragen, ask, fraction, break, 
 
 G'k ag, L. rogo. 
 Frau, (woman), L. virgo (Jierr). 
 Fremd, foreign, strange. 
 Freude, mirth, joy; eu sounds 
 
 between i and oi. 
 Friede, peace, rest. 
 Froh, cheer-ful, joy-ful. 
 Friih, early, fore. 
 Furcht, fright, fear. 
 Ga&eZ, (fork), pierce, gore; Cor. 
 
 gaval==^Qt, hold, find. 
 Gahnen, yawn, gape. 
 Ganz, all {g pref), whole. 
 Gar, ready, L. paro, very. 
 Gattung, (sort), cast, class. 
 Ge-hiet, (district), beat, bid; 
 Ge-fallen, please, fall. 
 Ge-fahr, (danger), peril, try, 
 
 risk, ex-periment. 
 Gehen, go, m-ove, San. ah. 
 Gheist, ghost, gas. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 159 
 
 Gelb, yellow. 
 
 Ge-lenk, pliant, link, limber. 
 
 Ge-mein, common, mean. 
 
 Ge-prdge, im-pression. 
 
 Ge-sell, fellow, se-lect. 
 
 Ge-scJilect, sect, class. 
 
 Ge-sicht, sight, visage. 
 
 Ge-walt, (power), pre-vail. 
 
 Gewinn, gain, win. 
 
 Ge-wolbe, vault. 
 
 Ge-wohneii, wont. 
 
 Giessen, gush, pour, G'k cheo. 
 
 Glatt, sleek. 
 
 Gnade, grace, kind. 
 
 ' Graben, (dig), grave. 
 
 Grei/en, grab, gripe. 
 
 Grds, (old), Gr'k geraios, San. 
 jarat, Euss. stary. 
 
 Grimm, grim, wrath. 
 
 Groh, coarse, great, gross. 
 
 Gunst, (favor), kind. 
 
 Gurgel, gorge. It. gola. 
 
 Sa/ten, take, cleave. 
 
 Sals, (neck), collar, L. coEum, 
 hill, G'k gualon. 
 
 Hagel, hail. 
 
 Eandeln, (act), handle. 
 
 Harren, tarry. 
 
 Haschen, catch. 
 
 Hafuhe, hood. 
 
 Hwiich, whiif, puff, fnouth. 
 
 Haupt, head, top, Fr. tete, It. 
 cwpo, Fr. chef, t, c, ,h. 
 
 Haut, hide, coat, skin. 
 
 Heissen, hight, L. voco. 
 
 Heer, host, army, crowd. 
 
 Held, hero, 1, r. 
 
 Hell, clear, light (hi, cl), bril- 
 liant. 
 
 Helm, helve, handle. 
 
 Herr, sir, lord. Sans, cur, (]rr'\ 
 
 kurios, karl, Lat. vir. 
 Hemd, (shirt), Fr. chemise. 
 Herz, heart, breast. 
 Heute, L. hodie, Sp. hoy. 
 Himmel, heaven, Fr. del, Go. 
 kimins, hell. 
 
 Him, brain, cran-ium. 
 
 Hirsch, hart. 
 
 Hohel, level, heaver. 
 
 -ffoc/i, high, L. alt = stVLU, G'k 
 
 a/rros. Go. CMiAs, wax. 
 Hohl, hollow, hole. 
 Holen, haul. 
 Holz, wood, L. syfoa. 
 Hulle, veil, husk, case. 
 .Hiifee, hull, husk, shell. 
 Hund, dog, L. caw/s, G-'k /cmom. 
 Hurtig, hurry. 
 Hasten, cough, ftusky. 
 Hut, heed, guard. 
 Jagen, chase. 
 
 Jammer, lament, whimper. 
 Junge, young, boy. 
 Jugend, youth, L.juvenis. 
 Kahl, callow, bald. 
 KaTnin, chimney, channel. 
 Ka.mpf, combat. 
 Karg, chary, spare. 
 Kasten, chest. 
 Kane, coop, cage. 
 Kauen, chew. 
 Kauchen, squat, crouch. 
 Kauf, (buy), chap-man, get. 
 Kehle, (throat), channel. 
 Kehr, turn, veer, k, t. 
 Kein, no, none, G'k ouk. 
 Kaum,, scarce, rare, sick. 
 Keck, (daring), quick. 
 Keichen, gasp, cough. 
 Keifen, chide, f, d. 
 Kelch, calyx, cup. 
 Kennen, know, can, 'quaint. 
 Keusch, chaste. 
 Kiefe, jaw, chap. 
 Kiesel, pebble. 
 Kind, child, kin, young. 
 Kippe, tip, edge. 
 Klage, com-plaint, wail, clamor. 
 Klappe, flap. 
 
 Kleid, (dress), cloth, G'k kleio. 
 Klein, lean, little. 
 Klug, skill, sly, 'look. 
 Klump, lump, clod. 
 
160 
 
 PHBASIS. 
 
 Knabe, (boy), knave, L. natus. 
 Knecht, new, young, Gr'k^ira. 
 Kiiall, clap, knell. 
 Knapp, tight, nip, pinch. 
 Knochen, bone, knuckle. 
 Knojpf, knob, bud, button. 
 Knorz, knob, snob. 
 Knospe, knot, knob. 
 Konig, king, zarr, reg-e. 
 Kolhe, club. 
 Kopf, head, L. caput, top, cap, 
 
 G'k >i;ar, hephale. 
 Korh, (basket), curb. 
 Korn, grain, kernel. 
 Korper, body, corpse. 
 Kraft, force, strong, L. wiVes. 
 Kralie, crow, rook, raven. 
 Kralle, claw, craple. 
 Kranh, (sick), grieve, L. je(7re, 
 
 Er. cn-ferm, Swiss /dmto = 
 
 Kranz, wreath, crown. 
 Kratzen, scratch. 
 .Kraut, herb, k, h. 
 Kriegen, reach, ac-quire. 
 Krieg, war, "Srenah. guerre, cry, 
 
 jar, quarrel, kr., wr. 
 Krippe, crib. 
 Krug, crock, jug. 
 Kiiche, kitchen. 
 Kugeln, roll, hill. 
 Kuhn, (bold), keen, 0. Germ. 
 
 kuene. 
 Kuinmer, grief, trouble. 
 Kunft, (arrival), come. 
 Kund, ao-quaint, cunning. 
 Kunst, (art), know, kennen. 
 Kuppe, top, cap. 
 Kurz, short, curt. 
 Lappe, flap. 
 Lassen, let, leave. 
 Ldssig, lazy, Go. lats. It. Jlacco. 
 Laster, (vice), load, charge. 
 Last, load. 
 Lauh, leaf. 
 Lauern, lurk. 
 
 iaw/, (run), loafer, elope, Swiss 
 fope, San. ray, Lat. rao. 
 
 ifflw<, (sound), sound, loud. 
 
 Ledig, idle, clear. 
 
 Leer, void, clear. 
 
 Lehnen, lean, lie. 
 
 Leiche, flesh, 1, fl. 
 
 Lesen, read, lesson, 1, r. 
 
 Lesen, col-lect, glean. 
 
 Lief em,, de-liver. 
 
 Lied, (song), lid, limb, mel-os. 
 
 Lob, praise, laud, San. lap, lesen 
 
 Loch, hole, loop. 
 
 Locken, al-lure, e-licit. 
 
 L'offel, ladle. 
 
 Lohn, (wages), lend. 
 
 Loben, L. laudo and lego. 
 
 Los, loose, slack, 
 
 Luft, (air), loft. 
 
 LUgen, lie. 
 
 iMs«, (pleasure), de-light. 
 
 Mangel, want, m, w. 
 
 Mandeln, mangle. 
 
 Marie, marrow, k, w. 
 
 Masse, measure. 
 
 Mauer, (wall), L. mnrus, mort. 
 
 Maid, muzzle, mouth. 
 
 Menge, many ,mix, men. 
 > Messer, (knife), mace. 
 
 Miicke, midgfe. 
 
 Miihe, pains. 
 
 Mimd, mouth. 
 
 Muth, (courage), mood, mind. 
 
 Nach-ahmen, take-after, (imi- 
 tate). 
 
 Nacken, neck, nape. 
 
 Nahren, nourish. 
 
 Narr, (fool), L. ignarus, marge. 
 
 JVass, wet, moist. 
 
 Natter, adder, as we say Ned 
 for Ed. 
 
 Nebel, (mist), veil, L. nubes. ' 
 
 Nehmen, (take), L. emo. 
 
 Neigen, bend, kneel. 
 
 Neid, strife, need, San, nid. 
 
 Netzen, wet, n, w. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 161 
 
 Nutz, use, need. 
 
 Oh-walten, pre-vail. 
 
 Ort, (place), comer. 
 
 Otter, otter, adder. 
 
 Pfaffe, pope, parson, papa. 
 
 P/and, pawn. 
 
 Pfeil, dart, bolt, pile, b, d. 
 
 Pflegen, (tend), ap-ply. 
 
 Pflicht, plight, o-blige. 
 
 Pfropf, cork, graft. 
 
 Pfund, pound, pf, p. 
 
 Plump, blunt, clumsy. 
 
 Pochen, knock, beat, p, kn. 
 
 Pracht, pride, bright. 
 
 Praklen, brag, brawl. 
 
 Predigen, preach, dig, dg. 
 
 Prufen, try, prove, p, t. 
 
 Pulver, powder. 
 
 Punkt, point. 
 
 P%itzen, polish, re-buke. 
 
 Pack, wrath, wreak. 
 
 Rad, (wheel), L. rota, radius. 
 
 Rahm, cream. 
 
 Rand, rira, rind, brim. 
 
 Rasen, (sod), grass. 
 
 Rasen, rave, rant, rage. 
 
 Reden^lesen, speak, L. lego. 
 
 Rath, (counsel), ratio, reason, 
 
 L. ratus, Grer. reden. 
 Rauch, rough. 
 Rauchen, reek, quaff. 
 Redlich, (honest), reasonable. 
 Reihe, row. 
 Rein, pure, se-rene, Sax. hren, 
 
 kran, Groth. hrain. 
 Reissend, rapid, rash. 
 Reissen, tear, rent, rip. ^ 
 
 Reiz, grace, ir-ritation. 
 Retten, rid, rescue. 
 Riss, rent, crack, gap. 
 Ritz, -rift, crack, gap. 
 Rock, (coat), robe, f-rock. 
 Rodel, roll, scroll. 
 Roh, raw, rough. 
 Rohr, reed, crane. 
 Rotte, rout, troop, herd. 
 21 
 
 Rucken, ridge, back. 
 Rufen, call, voco, shriek. 
 Ruhm, renown, rumor. 
 Ruhe, rest, quiet, Sanscrit, ci, 
 
 G-'k keio. 
 Riihren, stir, roar. 
 Rvp/, pluck. 
 Runzel, rumple, wrinkle. 
 Rustig, lusty,'robust. 
 RUsten, dress, arm. 
 Sache, (thing), from sage=:^ 
 
 say, as L. res, reason, from 
 
 ?-eo=speak, San. ah, G'k 
 
 ao, ask. 
 Saal, saloon, hall. 
 Sacht, soft, ch, f. 
 Satz, sentence, set. 
 Schaar, (troop), herd. 
 Schade, damage, scath, the 
 
 same as schande, shame. 
 Schaffen, (do), shape, make. 
 Schalig, shelly, scaly. 
 Schatz, treasure, tax, ex-che- 
 quer. 
 Schauen, shudder. 
 Schaum, scum, foam. 
 Scheibe, sheaf, slip. 
 Scheiden, cut, di-vide. 
 ScheUe, bell, peal. 
 Schehn, villain, scoundrel. 
 Schick-lich, (fit), beeomiijg, 
 
 suitable, con-venient; in 
 
 all these, come, go, is the 
 
 base. 
 Schicken, send, San. cac, Gr'k 
 
 kekio, go ; ging {gick') is 
 
 past oi gehen, go. 
 Schimmer, glimmer. 
 Schinden, skin. 
 JSchirm, screen. 
 Schaker, joker. 
 Schlagen, slay, slew. 
 Schlange, long, Latin anguis, 
 
 serpent, snake. 
 Sch-lecht, (bad), light, low, as 
 
 schlank =\a,nk. 
 
le^ 
 
 PEfEASiS. 
 
 Schluss, con'cflusion, dose, lodse, 
 
 key, 'Celt. doi. 
 Schmuck, (dress), neat, from 
 
 ichmticJc = taste, 'tasty. 
 Schndbel, nozzle. 
 Schnau, nose, snout. 
 Schnell, L. celus, It. •snello. 
 Schnitt, cut, 'S. ci, G'k heio. 
 Schnur, string; the n here and 
 
 above is inserted, or schn 
 
 equal to sc'h. 
 SchSn, (fine), shine, belle, bril- 
 liant, bright. 
 Schreien, cry. It. gridave. 
 Schrech, fright, crack. 
 Schrift, writ, sch, w. 
 Schritt, step, stride. 
 Schuld, guild, fault, L. scel-us. 
 Schurf, scrape, out, San. hsur, 
 
 G'k ^urao, shear. 
 Sehutz, shed, shelter. 
 Schioach,'\ieak, It. ehete. 
 Schwinden, vanish, dwindle ; 
 
 sch is often a meire prefix. 
 Schwefel, sulphur, Fr. soufre. 
 ScJiwer, severe, heavy, hard. 
 Schwing, wing, sweep. 
 Sehen, see,^how, g, h. 
 Sehr, very, true. 
 Segel, sail. 
 Sehrie, Sinew. 
 •Seide, 'silk, d, 1. 
 Seicht, shaillow. 
 Sei/e, soap. 
 Sdigj'holj, s, h. 
 'Seltsam, seldom. 
 Sicker, secure, sure. 
 Sichten, sift, sight. 
 Seufzen, sigh. 
 Sieg, victory. Sax. sig-or. 
 Sinn, sense. 
 Sitte, (custom), seat. 
 Sollen, shall, s, sh. 
 Sonder, sever, nd, v. 
 Sor'gen, Sorrow, care, s, o. 
 Spalten, split, cleft, chop, 
 
 Span, bend, bent'; a span is a 
 
 connexion, team, "bridgfe. 
 Speise, food, sp, f 
 Sperr, pinch, poor, ;press. 
 SperVin, bar, sp, b. 
 Spiegel, (mirror), speculuifn. 
 Spiel, plajr, sport. 
 Spiess, spit, spear. 
 Spitz, peak, top, 'piquant. 
 Spinne, spider, spinner. 
 Spliss, cleft, split. 
 Spott, scoS, mock, sport. 
 Sprechen, speak, preach, Sahs. 
 
 vak, L. voco, spr, v. 
 Spur, trace, step, spur. 
 Stadt, town, city. 
 Starke, starch, stiff. 
 Stark, strong, sturdy. 
 Stange, stake, stick. 
 Starr, stiff, stare. 
 Stauh, dust. 
 Stduch, toss. 
 Staude, stalk, buSh. 
 Steil, steep, 1, p. 
 Steigen, stage, step, San. stigJi, 
 
 stair, G-'k steidhd. 
 Stellen, place, put, stl, pi. 
 Stentmen, dam. Cut. 
 Sterhe,(dea.th.'), de-sttcfy, starve. 
 Stern, star, rn, 'r. 
 Stick, prick, bite. 
 Stiel, stalk, 1, Ik. 
 Sti/t, tack, peg. 
 Stiften, found, fix, Stiff. 
 Stimme, (voice), tune, say, G'k 
 
 stoma, San. stu. 
 Stirn, front, stern. 
 Stock, stick, stop, staff. 
 Stolz, (proud), L. stultus. 
 Storen, di-sturb. 
 Sto.ss, thrust, jog, Stat. 
 Stossen, 'push, stave. 
 Strafen, (punish), straighten. 
 Straklen, ray, San. ul, G. eileo. 
 Strack, strait. 
 Stra^, strait, tight. 
 
BTTMOIiQQY. 
 
 163 
 
 Strang, string, tr£(«e. 
 Strasse, road, street,, 
 Strauch, shrub, busji. 
 Strecke, tract, stretch, 
 Sirick, string, cord, str, r. 
 Streiten, strife, struggle. 
 Streng, strict, stropg, 
 Strich, stroke, strike. 
 Strumpf, (stocking), trunk, 
 
 stem, stump. 
 Stube, (room), step, stoop. 
 Stuck, piece, stick, bit. 
 Stumm, dumb, st, d. 
 Stumpf, (dull), stupi4 and 
 
 stumpy, 
 Stunde, time, st, t. 
 Sturtzen, thro^, hurl, 
 Stutz, shock, stab. 
 Suchen, seek, ch, k. 
 Sump/, swamp. 
 SUnde, sin. 
 
 Siiss, sweet. Sax. suot. 
 Sylhe, syllable. 
 fadel, chide. 
 Tag,, day, g, y. 
 Talg, tallow, g, w. 
 Tand, toy, dandle. 
 Tasche, pocket, ssick. 
 Thier, deer, L./era, wild. 
 Tasten, taste, touch. 
 Tauchen, duck, dip. 
 Taumel, tumult, (recline). 
 Tauten, (fit), from which is 
 
 tugend, tuch. 
 Tausch, trick, cheat. 
 Teich, tank, (pond). 
 Teppich, tapestry. 
 That, deed, act, did. 
 Theil, deal, share, cut, part, 
 
 San. da, kar, vil. 
 Thrdne, (tear), run, drop. 
 Thranen, running, train. 
 Thurm, tower. 
 Tilgen, ex-tinguigh. 
 TUlen, dig, till. 
 Tinte, ink, tint. 
 
 Tisch, table, dine, dish. 
 Toll, dull, fool, (mad). 
 Ton, tone, soijnd, strain.. 
 Top/, tub, pot. 
 Tracht, draft, dress. 
 Tragen, (carry), drag, bear. 
 Trauen, trust, true. 
 Trauhe, grape. 
 Trauer, sorrow. 
 Treffen, strike,, toi^^ch, L, tracto,, 
 
 'Er.f rapper, San,., cfarp. 
 Trennen, sever, separo. 
 Treten = reden — path,, in San., 
 
 equals read and tread. 
 Trift, drove, drive. 
 Tritt', tread,, tr^ck, 
 Trocken, dry, torrid. 
 Trodelri, dawdle. 
 Trost, (hope), trust. 
 Trotz, (dare), scorn. 
 Triibe, trouble. 
 Trug, fraud, trick. 
 Truism, (wreck), ruins, our 
 
 thrum. 
 Tyx:h, (cloth), jtowel, Fr. drap, 
 
 t, tr^dr. 
 Tucke, trick, t, tr. 
 Tugend, (virtue), from Tuchtig, 
 
 fit, tight, also good, strong, 
 
 equal to virtue. 
 Tummeln, bustle, tumble, hurry 
 Urri-kehren, re-tiirn, turn-a- 
 round, M??i = around, cir- 
 
 Uebd, (ill), evil. 
 
 Uebung, use, (practice), 
 
 Uhr, (clock), hour. 
 
 Urn-stand, circujii-stance. 
 
 Unrgar, not-done, San. kar. 
 
 Un-gern, un-wiHing, not-grain, 
 against-grain. 
 
 Un-gluck, ill-luck- 
 
 Un-kraftig, (inrefiectual), in- 
 firm, kraft = kar, form. 
 
 llin-fchiulc^, (in-flocence), not- 
 hurt;, not-guilt. 
 
164 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Unter-Tialtung, sus-tenance, en- 
 ter-tain, (s«6 = under), 
 ten, tain = halt, hold. 
 
 Unter-schrift, sub-script. 
 
 Urhar, arable. 
 
 Ur-laub, fur-lough. 
 
 Ur-sache, principle-both words 
 are developments of ere, 
 fore, or-igin, cause. 
 
 Uppig, (luxurious), up-y, heap- 
 y, high. 
 
 Vrtheil, (judgment), or-deal, 
 fore-part. 
 
 Ur-wesen, fore-being, or-igin. 
 
 Veilchen, violet. 
 
 Ver-haft, caption, take. 
 
 Ver-lcehr, inter-course, run or 
 turn-around, -among. 
 
 Ver-lassen, let. 
 
 Ver-loren, lose, for-lorn. 
 
 Ver-lust, lost. 
 
 Ver-neJimen, perceive, take-be- 
 fore, or take-through. 
 
 Ver-stand, under-stand. 
 
 Ver-werfen, re-ject, re = ver. 
 
 Vieh, beast. 
 
 Viel, full, very, much. 
 
 Vogel, (bird), fowl, falcon. 
 
 Vor-fahr, pre-cessor, go-fore. 
 
 Vor-gehen, fore-go, pre-cede. 
 vor-gang = pre-cedence. 
 
 Vor-haben, fore-have, in-tent. 
 
 Vor-nehmen, pre-eminent, emi- 
 
 «eo = L. emo, take. 
 Vor-rede, pre-face, fore-read. 
 Vor-spiel, pre-lude,fore-play. 
 Vor-theil, pro-fit, for-part. 
 Vor-tragen, fore-carry, pro-po- 
 
 sal, for-place. 
 Wach, awake. 
 Wachsen, wax. 
 WacJceln, waver, wabble. 
 Wage, balance, weigh. 
 Wagen, (risk), wage, hazard, ■ 
 Wahlen, (choose), cull, pohl, 
 
 S. val, G'k eld, will, pull. 
 
 Wahn, fancy. 
 
 Wahr, true, L. verus. 
 
 Wal, battle. 
 
 Wald, wood, L. syha. 
 
 Wallen, wallow, walk, G'k po- 
 
 leo^ San. pal, pad. 
 Wand, wall. 
 Wappen, weapon. 
 Wanken, waver. 
 Wanne, fan, van. 
 Warten, wait. 
 Weber, weaver, L. opero. 
 Wechsel, change, L. vicis. 
 Weg, way, L. via. 
 Wegen, move, Greek ago, wag, 
 
 shake. 
 Weg-stecken, stick-away. 
 Weg-scheren, shear-away. 
 Weich, weak, It. Jiacco. 
 Weide, food, L. victus. 
 Weisen, (show), wissen. 
 Welk, wilt. 
 
 Wenig, few, many, L. minus. 
 Werden, (become), turn, the 
 
 same as iuenden=go, wend. 
 Wesen, essence, being. 
 Wichtig, weighty. 
 Wickeln, wind, wick. 
 Wider-sprach, oontra-dict. 
 Wiese, mead ; Wie, why, wi. 
 Wimmeln, swarm. 
 Winseln, whimper, whine. 
 Winkle, angle, corner. 
 Wirklich, (actual), from wirk- 
 
 en = work, as ef-fectual, 
 
 from facio = do, and act- 
 
 tual, from 09-0 = do. 
 Wissen, wit, L. vidi, wisdom, 
 
 San. cudh, cvidh. 
 Wittwe, widow. 
 Wohl, well. 
 Wolke, cloud, welkin. 
 Wucher, usury. 
 Wuhlen, wallow. 
 Wunsch, wish, will, S. av. 
 Wurde, worth, honor. 
 Wurf, throw, warp, wreck. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 165 
 
 Wurtz, root, wurzel. Ziege, gpat, L. hoedus. 
 
 Wust, waste. Ziegel. title. 
 
 Wuth, fury, fume, muih. Ziehen, draw, tow, tug, S. du. 
 
 Zahl, (number), tell, say. Ziem-en, seem, come, suit. 
 
 Zagen, shake, z, sh. Zier, grace, a-dorn. 
 
 Zank, wrangle, z, wr. Zimmer, chamber. It. camera, 
 
 Zap/en, stopple. room. 
 
 Zart, tender, rt, d. Zinn, tin, Fr. etain, It. stagno. 
 
 Zaiiher, charm. Zinse, interest, rent. 
 
 Zausen, touse, tug. Zorn, thorn, wrath. 
 
 Zehe, toe. Zuchten, e-ducate. 
 
 Zeichen, token, sign, be-to-ken ZUchtig, chaste, chastise. 
 
 ^iliennen, know. Zwecken, peg, tack. 
 
 Zeichnung, design. Zwangen, pinch, press. 
 
 Zeile, (line), file. Zweifeln, doubt, double, doubt 
 
 Zeit, tide, time, Jj. sevum, diem, = think = L. t)ofoo, turn, 
 
 age, setas, ewig. so re-flect = re-turn ; med- 
 
 Zelt, tent. itate equals middle, doubt, 
 
 Zer-storen, de-stroy. double. 
 
 Zer-reissen, tear, rend. 
 
 The parallels we have selected are the most difficult we could 
 find. A vast majority of German words difier far less from En- 
 glish than those do which we have selected. Nothing can be 
 plainer than that Germ, has a representative for every Eng. word. 
 Even in the present state of philology, scarce a word can be 
 found that cannot be traced by plain rules to some like word 
 with us. Not only are the simple words made like ours, but 
 their compounds also — and often when least expected. Thus, 
 German ver-nehmen is per-take, precisely as per-ceive (ceive = 
 capio, take), ge-walt, pre-vail (^e=pre), g-lauben, be-lieve (g= 
 be), un-schuld, in-nocence, ob-ject, vor-werp, {ject and werp 
 both equal throw). 
 
 Dutch Etymology. 
 
 576. The Dutch has most of its words practically identical 
 with German, making allowance for the replacement of some 
 letters by their nearest relatives. There are, however, many 
 words which bear a greater resemblance for English. Aside 
 from the words which in their form are plainly Germ, or Eng., 
 v«ry few indeed can be found — and even those few can be 
 brought near us by close examination. 
 
 We select only a few Dutch words, enough merely to give an 
 idea of the manner in which the Dutch orthography compares 
 with English and German. 
 
166 
 
 PHRASIS, 
 
 Woede^ Grerm. wuth. 
 Wissel, Germ, wechset. 
 
 Wis, Germ, ge-wissj. 
 
 Winst. Germ, ge-winn. 
 
 Wet, G. gesetz, law. 
 
 Week, G. wach. 
 
 Wasdom, G. wachstlium. 
 
 Wars, averse. 
 
 Wah, wet, G. mass. 
 
 Wagten, watch, wait. 
 
 Waan, G. wahn. 
 
 Vroom, G. fromm, fair. 
 
 Vroeg, G./roh. 
 
 Voeren, ferry, Gr./ahren. 
 
 Vlut, Qf.fleiss, fleet. 
 
 Ver-pligt, o-bliged. 
 
 Ver-keerd, per-vert. 
 
 Vergen, urge, press. 
 
 Vatten, Ger. fangen, take, vat, 
 vessel, hold, fast. 
 
 Vah, vacancy. 
 
 Uit-loopen, out-lope, elope. 
 Teken, sign, token. 
 Stoot, push, G. stoss, tap. 
 Stede, stead, G. stadt. 
 Spaade, G. spat, late. 
 Scheppen, shape, G. schaffen. 
 Hook, G. rauch, smoke. 
 Pligt, Gr. pfligt. 
 Slot, G. schloss, lock, 
 
 Sleepen, drag,, sledge. 
 
 Zoet, sweet, G. suss. 
 
 Scheelen, ail, want. 
 
 Mat, measure, mete. 
 
 Keek, look, keek. 
 
 Schuif, shove, draw, as push, 
 eqaalspull. 
 
 Blink, (shine), blink, look ; 
 shine = seem, see. 
 
 Laat, leave, let. 
 
 Schillen, shell, pare, part, se- 
 parate, de-cide. 
 
 Veeg, wipe, sweep. 
 
 Vlied, fly, fled. 
 
 Ge-niet, (enjoy), use, need. 
 Braad, roast. 
 Bezig, busy, 'use. 
 Kwaad, bad, worse. 
 Be-leid, be-Iead, con-duct. 
 
 Ro99<'; rye. 
 Eisch, ask. 
 
 Er, there, G. da, daar. 
 Op-hoogen, up-high, raise. 
 Mooi, (fine), pretty (pooty), 
 Be-loop, be-run, course. 
 Be-lieven, p-lease. 
 Hout, wood, G. holz. 
 Erg, irk, grieve, w-orse, Germ. 
 drgern, L. mgre. 
 
 Danish 
 
 bll. 
 
 Adbne, open. 
 
 Aag, yoke. 
 
 Aager, usury, gain. 
 
 Aand, (ghost),' L. anima. 
 
 Aare, artery, ear, grain. 
 
 Aarsag, Germ, uhr-sach. 
 
 Ad-faerd, de-port,/ae?-£^ = fer- 
 ry, carriage. 
 
 Ad-gang, iLC-ceas,to-go, gang = 
 cess, both = go. 
 
 Ad-skilt, (separate), ad -split. 
 
 Ad-vare, ad-warn, warn. 
 
 Etymology. 
 
 Af-fordre, re-quire. 
 Af-kraeve, 'quire, crave. 
 Af-rage, shave, raze. 
 Af-stige, step-Tip, (a/=up). 
 Af-tegne, de-sign. 
 Agt, thought, act. 
 Agtelse, esteem. 
 Al-meen, common. 
 Alt, all; Aldrig, (never), 
 An-give, in-dicate. 
 An-ledning, in-ducement, led 
 equals duce, lead. 
 
ETTMOXOaY. 
 
 16T 
 
 ATi-namm'e, re-eeive, tate. 
 An-raabe, dall-to, (German 
 
 ru/y. 
 Ar, soar, seam. 
 Arbeide, work, operate. 
 Art, sort, race. 
 Bange, 'fraid, anxious. 
 Banke, beat, spank. 
 Bare, bare, mere, pure, but, 
 
 only, fore. 
 Barm, breast. 
 
 Barn, (child), born, boy, babe. 
 Be-loe,^ (dwell), L. mvo, Ger. 
 
 wohnen, a-bode. 
 Be-hreide, re-proach, up-braid. 
 Bede, beg, Germ, 'heten. 
 Be-drag, fraud, be-'tray. 
 Be-dbmme, deem, esteem'. 
 Beesk, bitter. 
 Be-fatte, contain, vat. 
 Be-gave, en-dow, g, d. 
 Be-gegne, meet, engage. 
 Be-giaere, desire, 'grudge. 
 Be-gribe, ap-prehend, grab. 
 Be-greb, Ger. be-griff, com-pre- 
 
 hend, grasp, (idea). 
 Be-graede, re-gret, grieve. 
 Be-hor, depend, co-here. 
 Be-Jdende, own, know. 
 Be-klaede, clothe. 
 Be-lee, laugh-at. 
 Be-moie, molest, move. 
 Be-qvem, be-come, con-venient. 
 Be-rette, (advise), G. rath. 
 Be-sked, share, de-cide. 
 Be-skue, view, a-skew, 
 Be-slutte, conclude. 
 Be-tiene, at-tend, 6e=at. 
 Be-troe, in-trust. 
 Be-tryk, press, t, p. 
 Be-tyde, be-tide, be-token. 
 -Be-Mwrfre, wonder-a:t. 
 Be-vant, usual,'wont. 
 Be-vare, pre-serve, guard. 
 Be-viis,shoY!, device. 
 
 ^ We notice prefix Se'tn Daaiisli, 
 
 Bi-kube, hive, coop. 
 B-lik, look, bl, 1. 
 B-Uve, leave. 
 B4ok, log, block. 
 Blot, but, bare. 
 Bo, a-bode, house. 
 Bolle, bowl, swell. 
 Borge, borrow. 
 Brage, crack, crash. 
 B-rase, roaSt. 
 
 Brede, broad, spread, strew. 
 Brev, letter, card, G. brief. 
 Bro, bridge. 
 
 Bnig, use, G. branch, bru, u. 
 Bruse, roar. 
 Bryn, brim, hrow. 
 Braende, burnt. 
 BriJk, break, fraction. 
 Bulder, bustle. 
 Bund, bottom, soil. 
 Bytte, (change), L. muto. 
 Baekken, basin, beaker. 
 Baelg, hull, shell, peel. 
 Bode, patch. 
 B'olge, billow. 
 Bor, barrow. 
 Basse, 'buss, box. 
 Daad, deed. 
 Baare, (fool), G. narr. 
 Danne, (form), do, G. ihun. 
 Deel, G. theil, deal. 
 Digt, fiction. 
 Z'taej-u,- hard, rude. 
 Drage, drag, draw. 
 Dragt, draught. 
 Dreie, turn. 
 Dtikke, duck, dip. 
 Dulme, slumber. 
 Dyd, virtue, good. 
 Dyrt, dearly. 
 Dolge, con-ceal. 
 Domme, deem. 
 Eensome, on-ly, lone-some. 
 Eg, edge; Egen, own. 
 Enig, united, one. 
 not appearing sometimes with us. 
 
168 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Er-fare, ex-periment, prove, 
 
 ex-pert, erfahren. 
 Erindre, warn, wonder. 
 Faae, Gr. fangen, get, aa, an. 
 Faa, few, Tu. paucus. 
 Fad, disli, vat. 
 Falde, fall. 
 Folk, falcon. 
 Falsk, false. 
 Fare, peril, fare, go. 
 Fatte, fasten, fetch. 
 Favn, fathom. 
 Fegte, fight, fence. 
 Feil, fault, fail. 
 Finde, (think), feel, find. 
 Fiaele, veil, con-ceal. 
 Flere, -more, li. plure, p], m. 
 FUg, fly, flap. 
 Flid, ap-ply. 
 Flyde, flow, fly, fleet. 
 For-andre, other, alter. 
 Forske, search, in-quire. 
 For-staae, under-stand. 
 For-syn, fore-sight. 
 F-red, rest, (jr.friede. 
 Fremmed, foreign, G. fremd, 
 
 strange, from. 
 Fuld, full. Id, 11' 
 Fynd, force, nd, r, (under= 
 
 over = ver = for). 
 Gal, wild. 
 Gavn, gain. 
 Gide, like, choose. 
 Gierde, hurdle, yard. 
 Gigt, gout. 
 Gior, do, kar, chore, 'pare; old 
 
 North gera=fac' 3,ndi par'. 
 Glim/re, glitter. 
 Gloe, gaze, look, glore. 
 Green, branch, Gr. Grenz. 
 Griin, grin, L. rideo. 
 Grue, dread. 
 Grov, gross, coarse. 
 Guul, G. gelh, yellow. 
 Hah, (neck), hall, channel. 
 Han, (male), he, one. 
 
 Handle, deal, handle. 
 
 Hede, (call), Gr. heiss, quoth. 
 
 Heelt, wholly. 
 
 Heft, hilt, handle. 
 
 Hegn, hedge, fence. 
 
 Hegte, hook. 
 
 Hekko, hatch. 
 
 Hemme, stop, hem. 
 
 Hen-syn, re-spect, seen. 
 
 Hevn, avenge. 
 
 Hex, witch. 
 
 Hibrne, corner, horn. 
 
 Hiul, wheel, Sw. hjul. 
 
 Hoved, head. 
 
 Hoppe, hop. skip, jump. 
 Hoveri, average. 
 Hugge, hew, haggle. 
 Hoi, hill, high. 
 Hdvl, level, heaver. 
 Idel, only, eet = one, etlich. 
 llde, ill. 
 lid, (fire), zeal. 
 lie, hurry, Gr. eilen, 1, r. 
 Jage, chase. 
 Jorde, bury, earth. 
 Kaabe, cloak, cape. 
 Kaas, course. 
 Kald, calling. 
 Kalk, cup, chalice. 
 Karm,, frame, form. 
 Karrig, chary, spare. 
 Kielder, cellar, cell. 
 Kiende, known, 'quaint. 
 Kind, cheek, chin. 
 Kiaede, chain, Gr. kette. 
 Ki^h, buy, kaufen, k, b. 
 Klavre, clamber, climb. 
 Kliigt, wit, look, klug. 
 Knap, close, narrow, tight. 
 Knuh, knob, stump. 
 Koge, cook. 
 -^"S'^e, juggle, k, j. 
 Kone, wife, queen. 
 Kriegt, (servant), knave. 
 Krog, corner, crook, hook. 
 Krum, curved. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 169 
 
 Kun, (but), on-]y, Ger. schon. 
 
 Kaemper, champion, combat, 
 camp. 
 
 Lade, let, al-low. 
 
 Ziad, lazy. 
 
 Labe, lick, lap. 
 
 Led, (gate), lead. 
 
 Ledig, lazy, leisure. 
 
 Lee, laugh, L. ru' , 1, r. 
 
 Lie, (bed), L. lect', lay. 
 
 Lide, (suffer), lot, L. latum. 
 
 Ligge, lie. 
 
 Lov, (praise), laud. 
 
 Lue, flame, 1, fl. 
 
 Lure, lurk, lure. 
 
 Lukke, c-lose, lock. 
 
 Lyde, (sound), loud, lute. 
 
 Lyst, de-light, lust. 
 
 Laene, (prop), lean. 
 
 Lobe, flow, run. 
 
 Maal, mete, mark. 
 
 Mage, match, make. ' 
 
 Magt, might. 
 
 Mandbar, (marri^eable), i e. 
 man-able. 
 
 Mangel, want. 
 
 Mat, faint, G. miide. 
 
 Maver, meager. 
 
 Medlem, member, with, med, 
 mete, end. 
 
 Meierei, dairy, Gr. Meierei. 
 
 Melden, mention. 
 
 Menneske, man, Gr. mensch. 
 
 Mergel, marl. 
 
 Minde, memory, mind. 
 
 Mis-hage, dis-gust. 
 
 Mod, (spirit), mind, mood. 
 
 Modne, mature. 
 
 Mor, mellow, 1, r. 
 
 Naade, (grace), kind. 
 
 Nual, needle, nail.. 
 
 Naae, near, i each. 
 
 Navn, name, renown. 
 
 Negte, de-ny, L. nego. 
 
 Nemme, memory, from nehmen, 
 
 22 
 
 Nidsk, niggard. 
 
 Nyse, sneeze. 
 
 I^aeb, beak, nib. 
 
 Naere, nourish. 
 
 Naes, cape, (point), nose. 
 
 Noie, nice. 
 
 Nole, de-lay. 
 
 NMe, urge, force, need. 
 
 Om-bytte, per-mute. 
 
 Om-hylle, en-volop. 
 
 Ond, ill, bad. 
 
 Op-stUle, set-up, still. 
 
 Ord, word ; Orm, worm. 
 
 Pant, pawn. 
 
 Passe, fit, suit, pass. 
 
 Peen, fine. 
 
 Penge, coin, penny. 
 
 Perse, press. 
 
 Pille, pick, cull, pillage. 
 
 Pind, pin, peg. 
 
 Plads, place. 
 
 Pleie, (care), ap-ply. 
 
 Plet, blot. 
 
 Pose, bag, budget, purse. 
 
 Prale, brag, brawl. 
 
 Priis, price, praise. 
 
 Prygl, club, cudgel, drub. 
 
 Pol, pool, puddle. 
 
 Past, blow, brush. 
 
 Raa, raw, crude. 
 
 Raage, rook, raven. 
 
 Rage, shave. 
 
 Rank, right, e-rect. 
 
 Ramme, frame. 
 
 Rask, quick, rash, brisk. 
 
 Reen, neat, clean. 
 
 Regne, reckon. 
 
 Ret, right, reason, G. rath. 
 
 Rette, correct, straight. 
 
 Rift, rent, cleft. 
 
 Ringe, poor, cringe, G. ge-ring, 
 
 little. 
 Roes, praise, r, pr. 
 Rude, rue. 
 Ruge, brood. 
 Run, rude, raw. 
 
170 
 
 PHBASIS. 
 
 Ry, rumor. 
 Rydde, void, rid. 
 Ryg, back, ridge. 
 Ryge, smoke, reek. 
 Ryh, tug. 
 Ryste, toss, rush. 
 Red, af-raid. 
 Raekke, reach, stretcfe. 
 Rore, stir, brisk. 
 Ror, reed, seed. 
 Rove, rob. 
 Rost, voice, roar. 
 Saare, Jiurt, wound. 
 Sagte, soft. 
 jSa/Ii;, sale ; Sal, halj. 
 Salve, volley. 
 Sand, sure, sound, safe. 
 Sunds, sense. 
 Sandt, sound, certainly. 
 Sige, say. 
 
 Sikke, sure, secure. 
 Sind, sense, mind. 
 Sinke, hinder. 
 Skade, hurt, sqath. 
 Skaffe, get, Gr. schaffen. 
 Skandse, sconce. 
 (SA;a<, tax. 
 
 Skiende, chide, scold. 
 Ski/te, part, shift. 
 Skin, shine. 
 Skiaere, carve. 
 Skiaerpe, sharpen. 
 Skiaev, (crooked), skew. 
 Skion, (fair), shine. 
 Skov, wood, grove. 
 Skose, scoff, s, f. 
 Skraa, skew. 
 Skridie, stride. 
 Skrig, cry, shriek. 
 Skrive, write. 
 Skud, shoot. 
 Skvffe, (cheat), shuffle. 
 Skugge, shades- 
 Slag, blow, slay. 
 Slet, little, slight, light, Germ. 
 schlecht. 
 
 Slig, like, such. 
 
 Slikke, lick, sleek. 
 
 Slug, gulph. 
 
 Slutte, close, shut. 
 
 Slaegt, class, sect. 
 
 Smaa, small. 
 
 Snabel, snout. 
 
 Snappe, snatch, snap. 
 
 Snar, rapid, smart. 
 
 (Sni<, cut, slice, slit. 
 
 Snu, sly, cunning. 
 
 Snyder, cutter, cheat, sn=c 
 
 and ch. 
 Sorg, sorrow. 
 Save, sleep, L. somnus. 
 Sparke, spurn. 
 Spedene, ais-patch. 
 Speide, spy. 
 Sperre, bar, em-bar. 
 Spidse, peak, speck. 
 >Spt7, play, sport. 
 Sprog, speech, Q-'k logos. 
 Spaende, span. 
 /S^ecf, step, spot. 
 Stemme, tune, G. s«i«ii»e. 
 Stik, stitch, stick. 
 Stille, still, place. 
 Stoppe, stop, stuff. 
 JStraal, ray, str, r. 
 Storme, rage, roar. 
 Strid, strife. 
 Stunde, tend. 
 Sturte, hurl, start. 
 ^<ocZ, stab, thrust, shock. 
 /Sw^, sigh, sob, k, g, b. 
 /Stoi, stir. 
 
 S-vag, weak, faint, sv, w. 
 Svare, an-swer, (s)word. 
 Svamp, sponge. 
 Svaere, move, hover. 
 Synes, seem, seen. * 
 Saert, strange, forth. 
 Sod, sweet, G. suss. 
 S'oge, seek, search, ask. 
 S'dlv, silver. 
 Somme, seam, hem, a, h. 
 
ETTHOLOaT. 
 
 171 
 
 Sdt-gej grieve^ care. 
 Taage, fog, t, ft 
 Taarn, tower. 
 lab, damage. 
 Tag, thatch. 
 Tapper, brave, stout. 
 Tarv, (need), dafe, dearth. 
 Tegn, sign, token.. 
 Tkjijer, beggar, , t, b. 
 Tilfaelde, ac-eidemt, both=to- 
 
 fall, fall-to. 
 Til-rette, a-righf, to-right.' 
 Tirre, stir, irritatei 
 Tot, ton, t, n. 
 Tour, turn. 
 Trane, crane, t, c. 
 Trang, strait, narrow. 
 yrcre^e,'hit,.stri)ke: f, ki 
 Traenge, {jress; . throng. 
 2Vac<, tired. 
 Traette, strife, tr^ str. 
 Taekke, (cover), deek.. 
 
 Taet, tight, thick. 
 Tarke, drought. 
 Vd-drag, out-drawy e24raot. 
 Und-tage, ex-cept. 
 Urt, wort, herb. 
 Vakker, vigorous. 
 "Vakle, wiggle,, totter. 
 Vanke, wander. 
 Ven, friend, v, fr. 
 Verden, world, earth. 
 Vente, wait, want. 
 Vide, (know), see, L. video. 
 Vinde, win, gain. 
 Vise, see, show, v, s. 
 Void, force,. G-. tdalt. 
 Vred, wrath. 
 Vride, wreath, wring. 
 Vaelge, cuH,.-pull,.pohl. 
 Vaen, fine. 
 Vaev, web, weave. 
 Yde, yield. 
 
 Yngel, (brood), young, en-gen- 
 der. 
 
 Tysse, quiet, q, t. 
 
 . Itt' Danish, as in Gerimail, we have selected for cottiparisoii 
 word^ which vary most froni their cori-esporiding English Or 
 German ; a vast majority of Danish words are eithfer identical 
 with English or German, oj* they differ from them by unimpor- 
 tant variations. What words dannot be' id'entified with otife or 
 the other of these two languages, constitute an extremely small 
 class. 
 
 The general' cast of the Danish, as of tte Swedish orthogra- 
 phy, is far more Englifeh than German. 
 
 Latin iltymohgif. 
 
 578. 
 
 Acies, ax, adz, shjtrp'. 
 
 JEgi-er, sick, grief. 
 
 JEstimo, esteem. 
 
 jEtas, age, Stkte, (^Mtate'). 
 
 JEvum, age, v, g. 
 
 Ager, (field), acre. 
 
 Ag-gero, heap, hefd, ci'o't^. 
 
 Ago, do, act, g; d. 
 
 Aio-f say. 
 
 Albus, white, blank, pale' 
 
 Ala, fly, wing, fl', w. 
 
 A-les, light. 
 
 Alius, other, else. 
 
 Alter, other, alter. 
 
 Alte, (high), loft. 
 
 Atno, love, friend, m, 1, v. 
 
 Ani-plus, ample, full. 
 
 Ango, strangle^ anguish. 
 
 Anittid, mind; nm,.mn. 
 
172 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Annus, year, ring, n, r, — a 
 or an, am, usually prefix. 
 
 Aperio, open, cover. 
 
 A-pex, point, peak. 
 
 A-ptis, bee. 
 
 Ap-paro, appear. 
 
 Ap-pello, peal, call. 
 
 Apt-US, fit, apt. 
 
 A-qua, water. 
 
 Aquila, eagle, q, g. 
 
 Arh-or, tree, rb, tr. 
 
 Aroeo, keep, guard, bar. 
 
 Ard-ens, burn-ing. 
 
 Ard-uus, hard, high. 
 
 Argen-tum, silver, ore. 
 
 A-ries, ram. 
 
 Aro, ear, till, r, I. 
 
 Ars, art, virtue, force. 
 
 Arvmn, plow (r, 1), corn. 
 
 Arx, ridge. 
 
 Artus, joint, part. 
 
 Asper, harsh, hard, sharp, se- 
 vere; At^hnt. 
 Ater, black, fatal, dark. 
 Atr-ox, dark, cruel, dire. 
 Aud-eo, dare. 
 Aud-io, hear, ear, d, r. 
 Angeo, wax, make (ago). 
 Aula, hall. 
 Aiiris, ear. 
 Aur-imi, gold, ore, 1, r, also 
 
 yellow. 
 Bai-ha, beard, b, d. 
 Beat-US, bless-ed, b, bl, 
 Belle, pretty, well, bl, pr. 
 Bell-um, war, bl, wr. 
 Bene, well, very. 
 Benign-US, kind. 
 Bon-um, good, bn, gd. 
 Bov-e, cow, b, c. 
 Brev-is, brief, short. 
 Boo, bellow, low. 
 Brach-ium, branch, arm. 
 Bulla, bubble. 
 Ca-do, shed, fall, go. 
 Caecws, se-oret, close, (blind). 
 
 Csel-um, (heaven), hell, Fr. 
 
 del, welk-in, cli-mate. 
 Cal-amus, stalk, quill. 
 Cal-co, (tread), walk. 
 Calid-us, scald, bold. 
 Calix, cup, hollow. 
 Cal-or, warmth, scald, cl, wr. 
 Call-US, hard, cl, hr. 
 Calx, heel, cl, h. 
 Candeo, shine, c, sh. 
 Can-is', Or. hund, dog, hound, 
 
 as bon' = good. 
 Can-o, sing, sound, sink, chant, 
 
 sang. 
 Can-US, (white), shine. 
 Cap-ax, keep, hold, i.e. large, 
 
 wide. 
 Capio, take, catch; habeo = 
 
 capio, as G.haupt^ caput. 
 Caput, head, Go. haubith, A-S. 
 
 heafod (heap, high). 
 Capra, goat, Fr. chevr. 
 Car-ho, coal, r, 1. 
 Car-cer, (prison), bar, capio. 
 Car-eo, (lack), scarce, spare. 
 Car-men, poem, work. 
 Carpo = capio, carve. 
 Ca7--us, dear, c, d. 
 Casa, house, case. 
 Caste, chaste. 
 Castigo, chastize. 
 Casus, case. 
 Cauda, tail, d,l. 
 Caveo, heed, care, v, d. 
 Caulis, stalk. 
 
 Cavo, scoop, cage, coop, v, p. 
 Cavus, hollow, cave, v, I. 
 Ce-do, go, yield. 
 Celer, fleet, Ger. schnell, Celt. 
 
 kell. 
 Cel-sus, tall, {altu£). 
 Cen-seo, think. 
 Cera, wax, seal. 
 Cer-no, see, cut. 
 Certe, sure, rt, r. 
 Certo, try. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 1T3 
 
 Cervus, hart. 
 Ces-so, cease, go. 
 Cieo, in-cite, stir. 
 Civitas, (civtiate), state. 
 Cla-mo, call, Sans, kal, Jcirad, 
 
 Sans. Mrap = sonnd, rap, 
 
 strike, clap, (club), cling. 
 Claudo, close. 
 Clavis, 'lock, key, close. 
 Cle-po, con-ceal. 
 Cognit-us, 'quaint, known. 
 Colo, till, c, t. 
 Co-lumba, dove, 1; d. 
 Collum, (neck), Gr. hals, hill. 
 Co-mis, meek, mild. 
 Con-or, can, S. can, G-'k Jcon-eo. 
 Corn-u, horn. 
 Corona, crown. 
 Corpus, corpse, (body). 
 Cortex, bark, rind. 
 Cor, heart, cour-age. 
 Cremo, burn, (itro^, 
 Creo, grow, form, S. 7car. 
 Crepo, crack, creak, rattle, 
 
 jingle, rustle, etc. 
 Cruor, blood, stream, gore, 
 
 flow. 
 Crudus, raw, Sax. hreaw. 
 Cudo, Ijeat, cufF. 
 Culpa, fault, Ger. schuld. 
 Cupio, wish, hope, San. hup. 
 Cuprum, copper. 
 Curro, run, hurry, Sans, dra. 
 
 Germ, tragen, Gr'k drao, 
 
 (draw). 
 Currus, carriage, chariot, car, 
 
 cart, coach. 
 Cursus = currus, (course). 
 Cygn-us, swan. 
 Demo, take, Ger. nehmen. 
 Dens, tooth, (dent). 
 Dens-US, thick, dense. 
 
 Dexter, right, d, r. 
 
 Di-co, say, show, do. 
 
 Dign-us, deign. 
 
 Dis, rich, d, r. 
 
 Do, give, dal-at, gave. 
 
 Doceo, teach. 
 
 Dom-vs, home, d, h. 
 
 Dos, dowry, gift. 
 
 Duco, lead, d, 1. 
 
 Dulcis, sweet, Ic, s, G. siiss, 
 
 (duce), dear, 1, r. 
 Dur-us, hard, d, h. 
 Ehur, ivory. 
 Eo, go, walk, be. 
 Equus, horse, q, h. 
 Erro, rove, err, roam. 
 Esca, eat, moat. 
 E-veho, con-vey 
 E-vul-sum, pull, pluck. 
 Ex-piro,^ breathe, ex-pire. 
 Fa-cio, do, make, fashion. 
 Fallo, gull, slide. 
 Far, corn. 
 
 Ferio, strike, Fr. frapper. 
 Fero, carry, bear, brood. 
 Ferrum, iron, f, i. 
 Ferus, wild, fierce, r, 1. 
 Fides, faith. 
 Fil-itm, thread, 1, r. 
 Fin-is, end, bound, f, e. 
 Flagrum, flog, lash, flame. 
 Fleo, be-wail, flow. 
 Flo, blow. 
 Flos, {fior^, flower. 
 Foris, door. 
 Fortis, hardy, strong. 
 Fravgo, (fract), break. 
 Fremo, roar, fr, r. 
 Frigidus, fresh, rigid. 
 Fuga, flight, f, fl. 
 Fugo, chase, G.jagen. 
 Fundus, land, ground. 
 
 'The prefix i is a form of « or es ; thus, expire = spiro, or espiro, ex- 
 punge = 'spunge, extent = stent, s-tretch, ea:-(er = s-trange, ex-ude = 
 s-weat. So, we may reduce other prefixes to mere ordinary initial 
 letters. 
 
1T4 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Funus, pomp, f, p. 
 Futilis, foolish, ftl, fl. 
 GalUiia, hen, Hi, i. 
 Gannio, whine, moan. 
 Gaudium, joy, d,y, and glad, 
 
 Gemini, twins. 
 
 Gemo, groan, moan. 
 
 Gens, kindred, gent. 
 
 Genus, a kind. 
 
 Gero =fero, wear. 
 
 Gesto^gero. 
 
 Gigno, en-gender, gain, get. 
 
 Gkla, clod, lump. 
 
 Glutino, glue. 
 
 Gradus, de-gree, grade. 
 
 Gramen, grass. 
 
 Gravis, heavy, S. gur, gr, h, 
 grave, dear, bear. 
 
 Grex, herd, crowd, g, h. 
 
 Hsed-us, kid, goat. 
 
 Halo, in-hale, blow. 
 
 Haurio, draw, hr, dr. 
 
 Helix, coil. 
 
 Hilaris, glad, (hlar, hlad). 
 
 Hio, gape, yawn. 
 
 Homo, man, hm, m. 
 
 Humilis, mean, small. 
 
 Jaceo, lie, Sans, i/ug, German 
 
 jagen. 
 Jacto, ^jaceo, (throw, cast). 
 Ico, str-ike, sm-ite. 
 Ignis, 1-ight, fire. 
 Iter, route, road. 
 Inanis, vain. 
 Juheo, bid, jb, b. 
 Judicium, {juum), Saxon do- 
 
 mo, doom, judg-ment. 
 Jugerum, acre. 
 Jiigitm,, yoke, unite. 
 Jungo, join, yoke. 
 Juris, right, jur, r. 
 Juvenis, young, jv, yu. 
 Juv-o, aid, V, d. 
 Labor, slip, 1, si. 
 La-bor, o-pera, work. 
 
 Lapis, (lapid), G'k laas, stone, 
 Ipd = Is = si, St ; lap = sax- 
 um, rock; 
 
 Lacer, tear, rent. 
 
 Lac, milk, le, mlk. 
 
 Levels, light, sleek. 
 
 Lat-us, wide, broad, as hear 
 from fero = laf . 
 
 Lat-us, side, coast, waist. 
 
 Lav-o, wash, la, wa. 
 
 Lego, read, G'k log', Ig, rd. 
 
 Lenis, gentle, 1, g. 
 
 Levo, lift, help, light. 
 
 Lex, (leg), law, lay. 
 
 Liber, free. 
 
 Liber, book, G'k bibhs, lb = 
 bl, br, fr. 
 
 Libo, lick, slip. 
 
 Libra, (weigh), bear; li, ?, oft- 
 en takes place of a prefix. 
 
 Lign-um, {ignis), log,, wood. 
 
 Ligo, tie, bind, Ig, t,, b. 
 
 Lingua, tongue, 1, d, t. 
 
 Linum, linen, flax. 
 
 Loco, place, 1, pt 
 
 Lo-quor, qiuoth, (speak). 
 
 Luceo, light, shine. 
 
 Ludo,, p'iiiy. 
 
 Lumen, light. 
 
 Lupus, wolf, Ip, If! 
 
 Luna, moon, month, 1, m. 
 
 Lutum, loam, t, a. 
 
 Mac-ula, spot, speck. 
 
 Mad-eo, moist, G. nass. 
 
 Mag-nu£, much, major. 
 
 Majestas, G'k megethos, might,, 
 majesty. 
 
 Hale, ill, m, i. 
 
 Malum, apple, melon. 
 
 Man-US, hand. 
 
 Mare, water, r,^tr. 
 
 Margo, border. 
 
 Merces, hire, re-ward- 
 
 Mereo, earn, merit. 
 
 Meto, mow. 
 
 Mi-gro, move. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 175 
 
 Mit-is, meek, sweet, m, a. 
 
 Mitto, send. 
 
 Moles, bulk, mass. 
 
 Mollis, mild, plain. 
 
 Mora, delay, tarry. 
 
 Mos, mode, way. 
 
 Moveo, G'k mugeo. Sans, may, 
 
 Ger. wegen, much. 
 Muto, change, turn. 
 Mun-us = donum. 
 Morior,^ murder, S. mar. 
 Nidus, nest. 
 Niger, (ater), dark. 
 Nox, night, (nocte). 
 Nudus, naked. 
 Nuhes, cloud, G. Walke. 
 Numen, nod, (jiwfo). 
 Oleo, smell. 
 Omn-is, all, mn, 11. 
 0-pera, work, S. kar. 
 0-pes, power. 
 Orb, circle. 
 Orior =.suvgo, rise. 
 Oro, preach, (speak). 
 Otium,, ease. 
 Ov-um, egg, V, g. 
 Os, mouth, oral. 
 Pab-ulum, food. 
 JPanga, strike, spank. 
 Par, (even), pair. 
 Par-cus, spare. 
 Parlo, bring, bear. 
 Partus, birth, (brought), 
 Par-vus, spare, short. 
 Pa-SCO, feed. 
 
 Pateo, open ; Pauci, ffew. 
 Paveo, fear; Pax, peace. 
 Pect-us, chest, breast. 
 
 Pendo, weigh, hang. 
 
 Pen-na, .Tpen, feather, fin, wing, 
 
 G'k ptenos.'i 
 Penso, ponder, think. 
 Pet-o, seek, beg, beat, bid. 
 Pign-jis, pawn. 
 Pingo, paint, picture. 
 Pinguis, fat. 
 Pisc-is, fish. 
 Plaga, blow, flog. 
 Plebs, folk, people. 
 Pi!i«s, more, pi, pi, r. 
 Pono, put, place, lay, set. 
 Porta, door, p, d. 
 Pot-ens, power, t, w. 
 Premo, press, San. pare, Gr'k 
 
 prasso -=» do, form. 
 Prendo, grab, pr, gr. 
 Pretium, price, worth. 
 Pro-cul, far. 
 jP«er, boy, born, as natos (born) 
 
 means son. 
 Pug-no, fight. 
 Pulso, beat. 
 Pulcher, Fr. BfeWe, fceoM, jolly, 
 
 beautiful. 
 Qusero, search. 
 Quatio, shake, jog, quash. 
 Radix, root. 
 Rado, scrape, razor. 
 Rapio, take, (capio), rob, grab^ 
 
 Ger. rfflaS, It. ratio, rap^ 
 
 tus, ravished. 
 Ratio, reason, cause, occasion. 
 
 It. ca^/ione := cause, from 
 
 reor = say, reckon. 
 Rego, rule, g, 1. 
 Res, (thing), reason, read. 
 Rete, net, snare. 
 Rege, king, (r, k), G'k archos, 
 ■ San. raj, Per. sha, queen. 
 
 Pejor, worse, p, W. 
 PifUis, felt, pelt. 
 Pello, drive, pi, dr. 
 
 'In some of these Words, m is a mere silent prefix fbr us, in others it 
 exuals h, w, s. 
 
 2 We must here remind the student that the parts of words are like 
 the parts af animals, so intimately eonneoted together, that cut as 
 you will, you are sure to take more or less than belongs to the part. 
 
176 
 
 PHKASIS. 
 
 Rigor, cold, hard, rg, rd. 
 
 Ri-deo, laugh, r, 1. 
 
 Rite, right, rect-us. 
 
 Rixa, strife. 
 
 Rubur, power. 
 
 Roffo, crave, ask. 
 
 Rota, Fr. roue, wheel, r. W. 
 
 Ruber, red, ruddy, 
 
 Rudis, rude, fresh. 
 
 Ruffa, c-runiple, w-rinkle. 
 
 Ruo, rush, run. 
 
 Ruptus, brokoa, burst, and rip, 
 
 rend. 
 Sxvio, rage, fierce. 
 Sngitta, shaft, gt, ft. 
 Sag-um, sack, frock, jacket. 
 Sagus, wise, w, s. 
 Sulio, leap, skip, si, hi, 1. 
 Saliva, slaver, spit. 
 Salve, hail, s, h. 
 Salus, health, sound. 
 Salvus, safe, heal, holy. 
 Sanguis, blood, sap. 
 Sano, heal, whole, sound. 
 Sapio, savor, taste. 
 Sax-um, rock, s, r. 
 Scalpo, scratch, carve, claw, 
 
 rake. 
 Scopus, shank, shaft. 
 Scelus, villainy, sc, v. 
 Scio, (know), sage, see. 
 Sci-tus, skill, civil. 
 Scribo, write, sc, w. 
 Sculpo, scalp, carve. 
 Seco, (sco), cut, gnaw, saw, S. 
 
 sagh, Gr'k ago, 
 Sella, seat, saddle. 
 Semen, seed, m, d. 
 Sero, sow, strew, r, w. 
 Serp-o, creep, spread. 
 Servo, save, guard, care. 
 Severus, serious, sober. 
 Sider', star. 
 
 Signum, sign, token. 
 
 Sllex, flint, s, f. 
 
 SLlva, holt, G. holz. 
 
 Solid-US, It. sodo, sound. 
 
 Sol-vo, loose, si. Is. 
 
 Somnus, (sleep), dream. 
 
 Son-o, sound, ring. 
 
 Sop-or, sleep, s, si. 
 
 Sors, lot, fortune. 
 
 Spar-go, stre-w, spr-ead. 
 
 Species, shape, fashion. 
 
 Spes, hope, s, h. 
 
 Spero, hope, trust. 
 
 Spiro, breatlie, savor, Sanscrit 
 
 spar, live, spread. 
 Spis-sus, thick, sp, th. 
 A^j/enrfirf', bright, light, sp = 
 
 b, spl = 1. 
 Spum-a, foam, sp, f. 
 Stat-uo, stand, set, sit. 
 Stern-o, strew, spread. 
 Stipula, stubble. 
 Stirps, stalk, stem, root. 
 Strideo, crack, roar. 
 StuU-us, fool, silly, sot. 
 Surgo, rise,- grow. 
 Sus,'^ swine, sow. 
 Tahella, tablet. 
 Tact-US, touch, S. tag, ihigo. 
 Tardus, slack, slow. 
 Tect-us, hid, deck-ed. 
 Tecticm, house, Gr. dach, Grr'k 
 
 stegos, thatjh, deck. 
 Telum, dart, 1, r. 
 Temp-US, time, mp, m. 
 Tendo, stretch, spread. 
 Teneo, hold, keep, t, k, find, 
 
 bind. 
 Tento, tempt, try. 
 Tener, tender, thin, fine, nice, 
 
 young. 
 Tero, rub, break, thrash, bray, 
 
 wear, waste. 
 
 1 The main point to be kept in view in regard 1o s, is that it equals h 
 and often disappears entirely — that, besides, it is allied with c, e. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 177 
 
 Terra, earth. <= vowel often, 
 or disappears. 
 
 Tergum, ridge, ,G. rUck. 
 
 Tepeo, hot, tp, ht. 
 
 Testis, Gr. Zeichniss, evidence, 
 show, de-sign.- 
 
 Texo, weave, knit, net, (t, w), 
 web, make. 
 
 Timeo, fear, dread, t, f, v. 
 
 ToUo, lift, S. tul, G'k talao. 
 
 Tond-eo, S. tud, cut, shear. 
 
 Tono, sound, thunder. 
 
 Torqueo, twist, turn, writhe, S. 
 dhurv, curve. 
 
 Torreo, toast, roast, parch. 
 
 Trabs, beam, tree, G. haum. 
 
 Tract-o, treat, touch, tact. 
 
 Trado, (^do), give, trd, d. 
 
 Traho, draw, drag, bring, force, 
 stuetch, wrest, drink. 
 
 Trepidus, tremble. 
 
 Tristis, harsh, cruel, dark, sor- 
 ry, Go. gaurs. 
 
 Trudo, thrust, push. 
 
 Tueor, see, look, view. 
 
 Tutus, safe, total, whole, sound. 
 
 Vacuum, void. 
 
 Val-ens, able, force, 'vail. 
 
 Velio, («e-r/o), carry, draw, drag, 
 
 (go, cause- to-go). 
 Velio, pull, pluck, tug. 
 Venio, come, go, went, v, c. 
 Venor, hunt, v, h. 
 Verto, turn, borrow. 
 Vestis, G'k estJios, ge-wand. 
 Veins, past, old. 
 Video, see, view, vision. 
 Vigil, waking, watch, see. 
 Vincio, bind, tie, v, b. 
 Violo, force, vl, fr. 
 Vir, (manj, first, former, fore, 
 
 as man = one, hero. 
 Vireo, fresh, green, strong. . 
 Virtus, virtue, force, courage, 
 
 heart, value. 
 Vita, life, v, 1. 
 Vivo, live, dwell, v, dw. 
 Unguis, nail, claw, ng, nl. 
 Volo, will, fly, wish. 
 Uro, burn, grieve, tease, Sans. 
 
 ' us, pr-us. 
 Vultus, look, face. 
 
 We have selected from among the most difficult words for 
 comparison, and we have taken a large share, but by no means 
 all of them. Few words can be found in Latin which are not 
 represented in the English and German languages. In most 
 instances, the variation is very slight, often n6ne at all. Of in- 
 stances where the differences are greatest, illustrations have just 
 been given in our parallel columns. It is worthy of note that 
 all, or nearly all,- of the endings, case, personal, adjective, verb- 
 al, and noun, are generally the same in Latin, German, and 
 English ; so, too, are the compound verbs, as they are called 
 (really those which have developed representatives of preposi- 
 tions in their initial letters), made of like elements. _ Even 
 where the difference between two words is great, yet having the 
 same meaning, as ignis and fire, somnus and sleep, audio and 
 hear, pello and drive, ago and do, those words have still, in 
 English, forms like them in some other parts of speech, as som- 
 nolent, andience, compel, igneous, act. These latter words have 
 been claimed to be Latin words, but they are no more Latin 
 words than nine tenths of the English — they are English 
 words as much as there are such. "We hence deduce the infer- 
 
178 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 ence that though we may not often find the parallel so clear in 
 the precise equivalent_of the Latin, we will generally find it in 
 some related word. 
 
 Greek Etymology. 
 
 579. 
 
 A-bolos, foal, colt. 
 
 Aga-mai, awe, adm-ire. 
 
 A-gatJi-os, good, [Jcal-os). 
 
 A-gallo, brilliant, light. 
 
 A-geiro, crowd, herd. 
 
 Agele, herd, flock, g, h. 
 
 Age, awe, 1-ook. 
 
 Age, b-reak, wave, g, v. 
 
 Agkale, (elbow), ankle, arm, 
 branch, crook, break. 
 
 Aglc-os, cr-ack, cleft. 
 
 Aghur, h-ook, anchor. 
 
 A-glaos, (agallo), gleam, bril- 
 liant, Ger. glanz. 
 
 Ag-mos, br-eak, bank. 
 
 Agn-os, Gr. rein, cl-ean. 
 
 A-greo, grab, {aireo). 
 
 Aguia, way. 
 
 AngM, squeeze, strangle. 
 
 Ago, lead, go, Latin velio, go, 
 br-ing. 
 
 A-dinos, dense, thick, thin. 
 
 ^Ados, joy, L. gaudium. 
 
 Adros, mature, ripe. 
 
 Aeiro, raise, b-ear, c-arry, air 
 ^high. 
 
 Aze, heat. 
 
 ji-zefos,i' zealous, jealous. 
 
 Athl-os, battle. 
 
 Aideo-mai, awe. 
 
 Aitho, heat, (burn). 
 
 Ail-inos, ail, wail-ing. 
 
 Aima, blood, L. sanguis, flow, 
 
 str-eam, cruor. 
 Aimulos, mild, (ai prefix). 
 Aine, fame, 1-aud. 
 Ainos,'{deinos), dire. 
 Aix, goat, Jised-us. 
 Aiolos, fleet. 
 Aipos,^ height, d-eep. 
 'Aireo, g-ripe, rob, take, kill, 
 
 r, 1, de-stroy, G. sterhen, 
 
 (airo). 
 Aisso, rueli, w-ax. 
 Aiskos, shame, (ai prefix). 
 Aiskune, shame, ab-ash. 
 Aited, s-eek, ask. 
 Aitia, c-ause, c-ase, Lat. ratio, 
 
 Ger. r-ath. 
 Aion, L. evum, time. 
 A-kan-os, thorn, pin, spin. 
 Ake,s point, edge. ' 
 Ake, silence, L. t-aceo. 
 A-koue, sound, still, k, s. 
 A-kouo, L. audio, hear. 
 Aktin, light, fl-ash. 
 Alale, howl, yell. 
 Ala-OS, b-lind, 'look. 
 Ala-omai, walk, Fr. aller. 
 Algos, ache, anguish. 
 A-lego, reckon, read, 1, r. 
 Alio, ro-11. 
 Alke, strength, 1, r, valor, 
 
 force. 
 Alla-sso, alter. 
 
 1 Note that a is in Greek a very common prefix, or augment, without 
 force. 
 
 2Note that os, on, i, 6, mai, and others, are endings that with us are 
 generally suppressed. 
 
 ^Akis, akle, akon, akron, akoni, akoke, akmS, aichmS, are forma of 
 this Ake, and they give a good idea of the manner in which derivative 
 forms arise generally. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 179 
 
 'Allo-mai, leap, L. salio. 
 
 Alu/ce, trouble, anxiety. 
 
 Alukros, luke-warm. 
 
 Alasso, walk, (escape). 
 
 Amaxa, wagon, w, m. 
 
 Amuo, heap, cumu-late. 
 
 Ama-uros, dim. 
 
 A-mhlus, blunt, mbl, bl. 
 
 A-melgo, milk. 
 
 A-mergo, press, urge. 
 
 A-milla, mill, battle. 
 
 Amnos, lamb, Fr. agneau. 
 
 Amos, sand. 
 
 J.-TOMmo, de-fend, L. munio. 
 
 A-naghe, need, anxious. 
 
 Aner, man, one. 
 
 ^ra-w<5, finish, end. 
 
 ^ro, prayer, curse. 
 
 Ar/ceo, ward, care. 
 
 Ar-ma, car, chariot. 
 
 ^rji-os, ram, lamb. 
 
 'Arpazo, rob, ravish. 
 
 j4rro<-os, hard, harsh. 
 
 Arren, brave, (male). 
 
 Artios, right, ready. 
 
 Arche, origin, first. Sans.' arh, 
 power, L. rex. 
 
 AuU, lia\\, yard, fold. 
 
 Auhs, flute, hollow. 
 
 Auxo, wax, grow, augment. 
 
 Ach-os, ache, pain. 
 
 Baih-tbs, deep, bt, dp. 
 
 Baino, {Bao), go, pass. 
 
 Ballo, fling, kill. fall. 
 
 Barus, grievous, heavy, br, gr, 
 force, strong, harsh, grave. 
 
 Bapto, dip, b, d. 
 
 Basis, pace, base, gait, foot, 
 beat, tread, (Gr'k bema). 
 
 Belos, dart, L. telum, (Jballo) 
 
 Beltion, better. Sax. bet-ra. 
 
 Blax, flaccid, loose, lax, slug- 
 gish, dull, silly. 
 
 Blapto, stop, dam-age. 
 
 B-lepo, look, live, light. 
 
 Baud, bubble, swell. 
 
 Boe, roar, shout, bawl. 
 
 Bombed, bombast, hum, rum- 
 ble, grumble, buzz. 
 
 Bo-sko, feed, fodder. 
 
 Boton, cattle, beast. 
 
 Boun-os, mound, mount. 
 
 Bradus, tardy, heavy. 
 
 Bra-sso, stir. 
 
 Brach-us, short, crash, break, 
 rattle, clash. 
 
 Brecho, wet, sprink-le. 
 
 Britho, burden, press. 
 
 Brime, rage, force, br, fr. 
 
 Bronte, thunder, roar. 
 
 Brno, bubble, bud, bloom, 
 flower, (bluzo, bluo, Jluo). 
 
 Buthos, deep, bottom. 
 
 Bdlos, ball, lump, globe, clod. 
 
 Gaid, rejoice, L. gaudium. 
 
 Gamed, marry, woman. 
 
 Gan-os, shine, sheen. 
 
 Gauros, proud, gr, pr. 
 
 Gad, be, bear, born. 
 
 Gelao, laugh, smile. 
 
 Gen-OS, birth, be-gin, (been). 
 Sans. /an, young, family, 
 nation, race, g, r. 
 
 Gemd, stem, hem, hold, Sans. 
 
 Geneion, chin, jaw. \j/am. 
 
 Geran-os, crane, bird. 
 
 Geud, taste, ^ustable, chew. 
 
 Ge-phura, bridge. (Notice that 
 g, ge, is often a prefix as 
 
 Gi-gno-sko, know, [in Grer.) 
 
 Glax, {glalc), milk, L. lac. 
 
 Glauk-os, blue, yolk, yellow. 
 
 Glasso, glance, shine. 
 
 Gluk-us, sweet, Latin dulc-is, 
 gluk = duk, dulc, Gr. suss. 
 
 Glupho, hollow, scalp, carve, 
 grave, G'k graphs. 
 
 Gldssa, tongue, L. lingua, 
 
 Gnesios, native, L. naius. 
 
 Goes, cheater, 'chanter. 
 
 Grapho, write, L. scribo, grave, 
 carve, score, sketch. 
 
180 
 
 PHBASIS. 
 
 G-riphos, riddle. 
 
 Grup-os, stoop-ed, curv-ed. 
 
 Gual-on, hollow, vault. 
 
 Grone, grotto, rock. 
 
 Guion, hand, knee. 
 
 Gur-os, circle, gyre. 
 
 Gonia, nook, angle, corner. 
 
 Daizo, cut, tear, divide. 
 
 Daio, burn, torch, ar-deo, dah. 
 Dak-no, sting, stick, bite. 
 Dakru-on, tear. 
 Dap-to, hack, dev-our. 
 Das-OS, thicket, dense. 
 Deido, dread, awe. 
 Deiko, show, say. 
 De-ma, string, tie. 
 Deled, deal, split, kill. 
 Demo, build, timber. 
 Del-OS, plain, dl, pi. 
 Deris, {ens'), strife, quarrel. 
 Dik-aios, just, right, d, j. 
 Dips-OS, thirst, dry. 
 Dmao, tame. 
 Dok-eo, think, seem. 
 Don-eo, wind, bend. 
 Doru, tree, spear, dart, trunk. 
 Drao, do, serve, S. trag. 
 Drepo, break, tear, strip. 
 Dro-mos, run, course. 
 Doma, house, a-bode. 
 Do-ron, gift, dower. 
 Dos, gift, dow-ry. 
 Deo-mai, need, want. 
 Dero, strip, bare. 
 Deuter, t-other, other. 
 Deuo, dew, wet, soak. 
 Dexios, right, just, d, r. 
 Egeiro, arouse, stir. 
 Edra, seat, throne, chair. 
 Eikos, like, just. 
 Eilo, roll, whirl. 
 Eirgo, ward, guard. 
 Ela-uno, im-pel, drive. 
 E-lachus, little, k, t. 
 'Elko, pull, haul, draw. 
 En-timos, es-teemed. 
 
 En-tonos, tend, strain. 
 Epeigo, push, quicken. 
 Ep-os; speech; word, S. ah. 
 Erao, love, friend, de-sire. 
 'Erpo, creep, S. sarp, serp' . 
 Erg-on, work, task. 
 Ereiko, break, split, bruise. 
 Ereuna, search, track. 
 Eruo, draw, tug. 
 Esthes, L. vestis, dress. 
 Eur-us, broad, wide, far. 
 E-pliedra, sitting, seat. 
 Echur-os, secure, firm. 
 E-pseo, seethe, boil. 
 Zao, live, blow, L. vivo. 
 Zeug-os, yoke. 
 Zel-os, zeal, jeal-ous. 
 Zemia, damage. 
 Zeteo, seek, search. 
 Zone, girdle, z, g. 
 Zords, pure. 
 Ege-omai, head, lead. 
 Ed-omai, pl-ease, glad. 
 Ediis, sweet, delight. 
 Eko, come, go. 
 Elakafg, stalk. 
 El-OS, nail. 
 'Epar, liver. 
 Epiao, appease, soothe. 
 .£■?•, spring, early, fore. 
 'Esson, less, weak. 
 Thakos, seat, chair, tH, s. 
 Thalassa, Qals), sea, salt. 
 Thallo, bloom, th, b. 
 Thamh-os, awe, dumb. 
 Tham-nos, stump, stem. 
 Tha-omai, see, (wonder). 
 Thapo, stup-ified. 
 Tharros; courage, dare. 
 Thau-mazo, es-teem, search, 
 
 see, seem. 
 Therm-os, warm, ardent, rash, 
 
 fresh, tepid, hot, Sa. tap, 
 
 Greek tupho, warm, dry, 
 
 burn, (thero). 
 Tiled, run, go, L. itu. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 181 
 
 Tliego, whet, edge. 
 
 Thigo, touch. 
 
 Thiao, {thrauo, ' Mao, t,rao)i 
 thrash, bruise. 
 
 Thrasus, brave, hardy, dare. 
 Courage, rash. 
 
 TJiroco. up-roar, dis-turb, ter- 
 rify. 
 
 Thusan-os, tassel. 
 
 lallo, (hallo), fling, roll. 
 
 la-omai, heal. 
 
 lapto, h-Jacto, throw. 
 
 lacheo, shout, ch, t. 
 
 Idios, fit ; Idio, sweat. " 
 
 Idnoo, bend, dn, nd. 
 
 'Idruo, sit, seat. 
 
 'Zeros, holy, r, 1. 
 
 'Ik-anos, fit, equal. 
 
 'Ikano, come. 
 
 Ikmios, wet, moist. 
 
 Ikria, deck. 
 
 'Iko, come, go. 
 
 'llaos, mild. 
 
 lie, troop, group, 1, r, ball, 
 roll. 
 
 Ilus, filth, dirt, 1, r. 
 
 Ipn-os, oven. 
 
 'Ippos, L. equus, horse, p, r. 
 
 Ichthus, fish. 
 
 Ichnos, track, foot ; i often =: 
 /, or some similar conso- 
 nant in English. 
 
 Kaio, burn, cook. 
 
 Kak-os, bad, wick-ed. 
 
 Kal-os, well, belle. 
 
 Kampto, bend, cramp. 
 
 Kardia, heart, L. corde. 
 
 Karp-os, kernel, fruit. 
 
 Karter-os, strong, force. 
 
 Keiro, shear, bore. 
 
 Keimai, lie, rest. 
 
 Keleuo, im-pel, mp, k. 
 
 Ken-OS, empty, vain. 
 
 Kent-ron, point, thorn. 
 
 Keno, pin, pick, k, p. 
 
 Keuiho, hide, coat, S. kut. 
 
 Kephale, head, L. caput. 
 Ked-os, care, sad, d, r, dear, 
 
 trouble. 
 Keleo, calm, heal, charm. 
 Kelt, swelling, coil, boil. 
 Ker, scarce, want, dearth. 
 Kerux, herald, crier. 
 Ket-os, (whale), fish. 
 Kik-us, vigor; k, v. 
 Kithara, liatp, thr, rp; 7c is 
 
 often h, V, w. 
 K'i-neo, in-cite, stir. 
 Kind-unos, danger, k, d. 
 Kiclio, catch, reach, fetch,' at- 
 tain, find, {ch in Gr'k has 
 
 the power of k). 
 Kis, weevil, worm. 
 Kla.gge, clang, clatter. 
 Klaio, wail, weep, de-plore. 
 Klao, clip, break. 
 Kleio, close, lock, key. 
 KUno, lean, bend, kneel. 
 Kluo, hear, listen, S. slu. 
 Kogche, concave, shell, conch. 
 Koilos, hollow, coil. 
 Koinos, common, n, m. 
 Kolla, glue. 
 
 Kopis, dagger, knife, cut. 
 Kopto, cut, kpt, ct. 
 Korax, crow, raven, croak. 
 Kor-os, hoj,puer, born. 
 Kotuli, hollow. 
 Kraino, reign, rule, .kr, r. 
 Krater' , hard, cruel, strong, 
 
 brave, force, Ger. krajt, 
 
 gripe. 
 Krauros, dry, hard, brittle. 
 Kreko, strike, knock, crack. 
 Krene, (well), spring. 
 Krizo, creak, shriek, sqk, cry, 
 
 squall, bawl, shrill. 
 Krino. part, cut, . kr, pr. 
 Kroud, crush, strike. 
 Krupto, hide, coop, kr, h. 
 Kru-eros, cold, fresh, freeze. 
 Kta-omai, get, ob-tain. 
 
182 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Kteino, kill, cut, S. han. 
 
 Kukl-os, coil, circle. 
 
 Kull-os, coil, circle. 
 
 Kupe, hollow, cup, goblet. 
 
 Kupto, stoop, bend. 
 
 Kur-ios, sir, G. herr, k, h. 
 
 Kut-os, cavity, cup, hump. 
 
 Kuon, dog, cants, G. hund. 
 
 Lagaros, laggard, slack, lank, 
 lean, thin, flaccid. 
 
 Laios, left. 
 
 Lakeo, rack, read, lacerate, 
 J tear, tatter. 
 
 Lakh-OS, tank, pit. 
 
 Laleo, talk, prate, prattle. 
 
 LaTtipo, light, shine. 
 
 Laos, folk, G. /eiiie. 
 
 Lasios, bushy, leafy. 
 
 iao, see, look. 
 
 Le-go, say, spea-k, tell. 
 
 Leipo, leave, left, rest. 
 
 Lept-os, sleek, lank, thin. 
 
 Lep-os, peel, hull, husk, strip, 
 
 rind. 
 Letho, hide, (Jeeutho). 
 Liar-OS, warm, clear, bright, 
 
 {ch-liaros). 
 Lith-os, rock, L. lapid'. 
 Litos, little, fine, thin. 
 Log-OS, ta-lk, word, speak. 
 Luk-os, wolf, SI. 2;«ZA;. 
 Lupe, grief, Ip, rf. 
 Lusis, loose, free. 
 Mak-fos, long, much. 
 Malak-os, L. mollis. 
 Mall-os, wool, m, w. 
 Math' , (mantJi), teach, L. tZo- 
 
 ceo, (m prefix). 
 Maraino, burn, parch. 
 Marpo, grasp. 
 Masso, touch, mash. 
 Mast-end, wish. 
 Me-gairo, grudge. 
 Me-gas, great, m-uch. 
 Melos, verse, member. 
 Men-OS, might, mettle. 
 
 Mer-os, part, turn. 
 
 Mesos, middle, mean. 
 
 Mig-numi, mix, join, yoke. 
 
 Melon, (sheep), wool. 
 
 Mik-ros, small, little. 
 
 Mneme, mind, memory. 
 
 Molos, toil, mill. 
 
 Mogos, misery, toil. 
 
 Moth-OS, battle, tumult. 
 
 Naio, dwell, live, stay. 
 
 Neatos, next, last, new. 
 
 Neikeo, bicker. 
 
 Nemo, deem, G. nehmen. 
 
 Ned, go, move, swim, spin, net. 
 
 Neros, wet, G. nass. 
 
 Nike, victory, n, v. 
 
 Noeo, know, see. 
 
 Nipto, wet, wash, dip. 
 
 Nusso, push, spur. 
 
 Zed, shave, scrape. 
 
 Zeros, torrid, arid, dry, parch, 
 
 sober. 
 Ziphos, sword, cut, shave. 
 Zuron, razor. 
 
 0-gkos, hump, bulk, hunk. 
 O-dazo, stick, pick, bite. 
 0-dous, tooth, Ipdazo). 
 Od-os, road, way. 
 Odune, pain, sad, d, p 
 0-zos, shoot, sprout, shrub, G. 
 
 ast, R. suk. 
 Oikos, house, tent. 
 Old, see, think. 
 0-kazd, squat, crouch. 
 0-ligos, little, small. 
 ' Omilos, family. 
 Onux, nail, hoof, Fr. angle. 
 0-xtcs, sharp, a-cute, cut. 
 0-pisd, post, back, (o prefix as 
 
 it often is). 
 Ope, hole, open, hollow. 
 O-ptao, roast, bake, parch. 
 Opd, look, (orao). 
 Orge, ire, anger. 
 O-regd, reach, stretch. 
 0-rthos, right, straight. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 183 
 
 Ormao, urge, rouse. 
 
 0-ros, rock. 
 . ' Oros, goal, mark, shore. 
 
 Ossa, voice, (ops). 
 
 Olid, n-ot. 
 
 Oura, tail, rear. 
 
 Our OS, guard, ward. 
 
 Ochos, L. veho, wagon, coach. 
 Pagios, fixed, bind, S. pac. 
 Pais, boy, L. puer. 
 PateS, beat, tread, path.' 
 Paud, pause, cease. 
 PacJms, thick, fat, (tachus). 
 Peitho, obey, faith. 
 Peira, try, proof, peril. 
 Pempo, bend, p, s. 
 Peno, pains, do, penury. 
 Pepto, cook, bake. 
 Petao, spread, e-xpand. 
 Pikros, bitter, piercing. 
 Pinax, plank. 
 
 Pi-pto, fall, (L. cddo'), pitch. 
 Plax, plank, plate, table. 
 Platus, flat, broad, wide. 
 Plelco, plait, fold. 
 PUsso, flog, strike, 
 i^feo, fly, ply, S. jiZm, sail. 
 Pneo, blow, breathe, wind. 
 Polla, (many), full. 
 Por-os, ford, ferry, fahren. 
 Pote, flight. 
 
 Prasso, do, form, practice. 
 Praos, friend, philos, San. /car, 
 
 L. para. 
 Ptaio, strike, beat, fall. 
 Pttr-on, plume, bird. 
 Ptoa;, tuck, pucker, fold. 
 Pugme, fist, fight, box. 
 Puthmen, bottom. 
 Pule, door, port, pi, dr. 
 Purgos, tower, p, t. 
 'Rahdos, rod. 
 'Ragos, crack, cleft, flaw, rent, 
 
 crevice, chink. 
 'Raino, rain, wet, drop. 
 'Raid, break, ruin. 
 
 'Ra/eos, {'ragos). 
 'Rachis, ridge, back. 
 ■ 'Rach-os, crag, rock. 
 'Retos, said, G. reden. 
 'Rinos, rind, skin. 
 'Ripto, throw, rip. 
 'Roe, stream, current. 
 'Ruma, stream, run. 
 'Rome, force, robust. 
 'Rox, rook, c-rag. 
 Sagma, saddle. 
 Sairo, grin. 
 Sagis, sack, pocket. 
 Saos, safe, sound, whole. 
 Satto, saddle, seat. 
 Seid, shake, toss. 
 Selene, moon, L. luna. 
 Selas, light, lustre. 
 Sema, sign, omen. 
 Sigao, silent, g, 1. 
 Sitos, wheat. 
 SJcairo, skirt, leap, skip. 
 Skallo, scratch, scrape, rake, 
 
 grub, hoe, scull. 
 Shapto, dig, scoop, shave. 
 Slcaphe, scoop, trough. 
 Skello, wilt, wither. 
 Skepo, cover, pro-teot. 
 Skene, tent, shed, hut. 
 Skirtao, skirt, skip, leap. 
 Slcotos, shade. 
 Skul-on, spoil, peel, shell. 
 Skuph-os, cup, bowl, scoop. 
 Sobed, shove, move. 
 Sophos, sage, wise, sp, sw. 
 Span-OS, scant, scarce, span, 
 
 spare, rare. 
 Spendo, spend, pour. 
 Stegos, deck, cover, tectus. 
 Steiho, step, tread, track. 
 Stenos, narrow, G. eng, want, 
 
 penury. 
 Stereos, strong, hard, firm. 
 Stereo, strip, rob, de-prive. 
 Stele, pillar, prop, Ger. stuhl, 
 
 (stellS), style. 
 
184 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Stonux = onux. 
 
 Strqylw, (tvRpho), turn, twist, 
 
 torture, Gr. treffen. 
 Stupos, stub, stock, club. 
 Sphen, wedge, sp, w. 
 Schema, shape, form. 
 Tago, take, stretch. 
 Taker-OS, soft, tender. 
 Talant-on, balance. 
 Talao, en-dure, dare, Lat. tuU, 
 
 Gr. dulden, bear, child. 
 Tarhos, terror. 
 Tarasso, stir, disturb. 
 Tachus, quick, swift. 
 Teggo, tinge, stain. 
 Teino, strain, stretch. 
 Teiro, rub, wear. 
 Tekmar, token, sign. 
 Tek-os, chick, child. 
 Teuch-os, G. ^eu(/, tool, 
 ri^io, be-get, chick. 
 Tillo, pull, pluck, tug. 
 ^(0, pay, atone. 
 Tolmao, L. fofflo, bold, dare. 
 Topos, space, spot. 
 Toreud, bore, pierce. 
 Treo, tremble, terror. 
 Truge, fruit. 
 ?Vmo, rub, bore, wear, 
 Tuko, do, make, fact. 
 Tuche, luck, chance. 
 Ugros, Watery, 
 
 ' Ulao, howl, yell. 
 ' Vie, wood, L. s^Zua, Gr. hoh. 
 ' Upse, weaving, woof. 
 ' Vps-os, high, up, heap. 
 ' Us, wet, rain. 
 Phaino, view, show, fancy. 
 Fhalar-os, clear, flare. 
 Fhan-os, clean, G. rein. 
 Phaos, day, light, see. 
 Phao, say, show, shine. 
 Fhaul-os, small, foul, bad. 
 Pheno, kill, wound. 
 Phtheir-o, de-stroy. 
 Phthogge, tone, sound". 
 Phial-OS, vial, bowl. 
 Phil-OS, friend, kind, phr, fr, 
 S. pal, Ger. pflegen, Lat. 
 
 Phleo, flow, pour, boil. 
 Phlego, flaine, blaze. 
 Phloio, flay, strip. 
 Phra-z6, pray, say, phrase. 
 Phule, file, tribe, folk. 
 Chalkos, copper, Ik, pp. 
 Chaos, chasm, gap, yawn. 
 Charis, grace. 
 
 Cheir, (hand), arir 
 
 force. 
 Chile, claw, (hand). 
 0-kus, swift, quick. 
 0-leiie, elbow, ulna. 
 0-ruS, roar. 
 
 grasp, 
 
 This list like the others, is selected from the most difficult 
 words. When we keep constantly in view the particular laws 
 which the Greek follows in orthography, the different letters 
 with which many of our own are represented there, besides the 
 peculiar combinations which they sometimes make, we shall not 
 find the Greek etymology doubtful or difficult. We must keep 
 constantly in mind, also, that any single letter or combination 
 of letters gives character to, or decides the whole word ; that if 
 we find a particular letter, or combination of letters, at the 
 beginning of a word, for example, that letter may be taken as 
 the basis of the whole, since all the remaining letters must be 
 cognate with it. Occasionally we have brought together the 
 like letters at the end of the line, with a comma between them; 
 but generally we leave the learner to bear in mind that when 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 185 
 
 we bring a word which is Greek along side of one or more 
 which is English, if is because the letters of the two words are 
 alike or cognate, and that they may be replaced, the one by 
 those of the other; thus,pate6, beat, tread;— pai and beat are 
 easy; pat and tread are also easy, when we remember that p = 
 t, and t=lr. It is a safe rule, one which is important and uni- 
 versal, that, in etymology, a letter is always equal to those with 
 which it is found combined, or it is equal also to th6 combina- 
 tion of which it forms a part; thus, that str=:r, or t, or s, or 
 St; that mp=nd, because n—m,p = d, or m=b=p; that k= 
 sq, because k=q; fh'dt pl=/, because p=f ; that pt=pl, be- 
 cause p=p, and < = ?, both t and I being combined with the 
 same letter p. Take also Jmpto=stoo^ — h=t, also st, pt=p, 
 since p=p; and ?a/£eo=rack, because l=r, also rend, since k 
 (of lak^6)=d and t, also tear, because I (oflaky=t, and k=r; 
 and kteino— kill, since kt=k and n=l ; thermos =warm, since 
 ih=w, and the same equals ardent, since th may be dropped, 
 and r^rd, or rm=rd, — ar(?eo= burn, where the b again re- 
 presents the w oi warm:, th of therm; karp-os ^fxw.t, since k = 
 /, and rp=rt. Understanding these things, we shall find Greek 
 etymology easy. Then, we have to remind the student again, 
 that many of the Greek words have their initial letters, which, 
 compared to those of our own words, are mere prefixes or aug- 
 ments. Taking the basis we have just established, the Greek 
 can be easily made familiar. Very many words, and those the 
 most common and characteristic ones, are alike in Greek, Eng., 
 and German ; and in those where the difference is greater, we 
 can, in most instances, easily explain it, and trace the connexion. 
 In conclusion, we may remark that the orthography of Greek is 
 much more German than is usually conceded. 
 
 French Etymology. 
 580. 
 
 A.-beille,hee, It. ape. Aout, August. 
 A-bord-er, to board, (er is inf. Appui, prop, help. 
 
 ending). A-rbre, tree, L. arbor, br, tr. 
 
 A-cheter, buy, get, kauf. A-rene, sand, gravel, r, s. 
 
 Agneau, It. agnino, lamb. Atre, hearth. 
 
 Aigre, sour, severe, acrid. Aune, elder, au, el. 
 
 Aile, wing, fly, L. ala. Aussi, so, as, also, G'k os. 
 
 Aller, walk, alley. It. ando. Raiser, buss, kiss. 
 
 A-mas, heap, mass. Balai, broom, 1, r. 
 
 Ame, L. anima, mind. Saisser, bow, a-base. 
 
 Ami, L. amicus, friend. Balayer, sweep, balance. 
 
 Annee, year, n, r. Bas, base, low, bottom. 
 24 
 
186 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Bassin, basin, pan, vase. 
 
 Bateau, boat. 
 
 Batir, build, baste. 
 
 Baton, stick, beat, bat. 
 
 Beau, L. honus^ good. 
 
 Beche, spade. 
 
 Benet, ninny. 
 
 Berceau, cradle, bower. 
 
 Bete, beast, cattle. 
 
 Beurre, butter. 
 
 Bien^ well, L. bonus. 
 
 Bile, choler, gall. 
 
 Blanc, clean, white, albo. 
 
 Boire, drink, b, d. 
 
 Bois, wood, b, w. 
 
 Bon, good, kind, b, k. 
 
 Bourru, morose, cross. 
 
 Bout, button, tip, end^ 
 
 Brillant, brigbt. 
 
 Briller, sbine, sparkle. 
 
 Briser, break, bruise. 
 
 Bris, wreck, break, b, W. 
 
 Broult, gruel. 
 
 Bruire, roar. 
 
 Bruler, broil, boil, flask. 
 
 Brute, rough, brute. 
 
 Cachet, cover, hide, c, h. 
 
 Carr-eau, square. 
 
 Gayer, quire. 
 
 Caveau, cave, cellar, vault. 
 
 Caver, hollow, hole. 
 
 ChoMore, cancer, sore. 
 
 Chateani, castle, seat. 
 
 Chaud, hot, warm. 
 
 Chaime -jltal. calvo, Ger. hahl, 
 
 bare, bald. 
 Cheiminee, chimney. 
 Chef, head, chief, f, d. 
 Cher, dear, L. cams. 
 Chev&u, fibre, hair. 
 Chez, with, L. cum, gue. 
 Chien, dog, L. oamis. 
 Chose, thing, L. res, 'cause. 
 Ciel, sky, shine, 'clear, Grerm. 
 
 himmel, h^eU, Lat. celum, 
 
 Greek helios. 
 
 Cire, seal, (wax). 
 
 Cite, city, L. cvuitns, state. 
 
 Cle and Clef, La*, clevis, Ger. 
 
 schliissel, It. chiave, key. 
 Coeur, heart, «ore. 
 Coi, quiet; Coin, corner. 
 Col, neck, G. hals. 
 Compter, count. 
 Couler, flow, melt. 
 Coup, cufF, blow, fit. 
 Courhe, curve, crooked. 
 Courir-, run, L. curro. 
 Cout, cost. , 
 Couture, suture, seam. 
 Crainte, fear, cringe. 
 Cramoisi, 'crimson. 
 Crete, crest, t, st. 
 Crepu, crisped, p, sp. 
 Creux, crucible, grave. 
 Croc, crook, hook. 
 Croire, credit, trust. 
 Croit, in-crease, growth. 
 Croupe, crop, top. 
 Creche, cwacible, mug. Germ. 
 
 •krug, crock. 
 Cru, grow, ground. 
 Cueillir, c«ll, collect, gather. 
 Cuire, icook, bake. 
 Ouisse, thigh. 
 Cufve, icup, tub, coop. 
 De-bat, de-bate, battle. 
 Debile, feeble. 
 Dedain, disdain, Ital. sdegno, 
 
 deign. 
 De-border, leap, board. 
 De-lit, fault, L. delict'. 
 Devoir^ duty, debt, need. 
 Di-re, say, tell, L. dicere. 
 Doigt, toe, L. digit. 
 Doit, ought, should. 
 Dol, fraud, Latin dolus, cheat, 
 
 dl, fr. 
 Dos, back, ridge. 
 Douce, sweet, L. dulcis. 
 Dress-er, straight, dress, Fren. 
 
 drop ; De, (of), the, to. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 187 
 
 Droit, straight, right, just, It. 
 
 jure, eretto, direct. 
 Duit, lead, L. ductus. 
 Eau, water, L. aqua. 
 E-carter, s-catter. 
 E-chelle, s-cale, shell. 
 E-clat, clap, lustre, splendid. 
 E-corce, bark, L. cortex. 
 E-couter, hear, G'k a-kouo. 
 E-crit, w-rit, L. script. 
 E-cu, shield. 
 E-cueil, shoal. 
 Effet, fact, deed. 
 Egare, error, wild. 
 Eglise, church, gl, chr. 
 E-lan, leap, rapture. 
 E-leve, raise, lever, Lat. alius, 
 
 lift, tread, (pupil). 
 Elire, elect, L. e-legere. 
 E-loge, eulogy, laud, loh. 
 Elu, elect, chosen. 
 Email, enamel. 
 Erthoi, anxiety, Gr. mUhe. 
 Em-pecher, push, stop. 
 E-mu, moved, angry. 
 En-ceint, fence, close. 
 Ei-cre, ink. 
 
 En-droit, place, part, region. 
 E-pais, thick, L. spissus. 
 Epingle, pile, pin, It. spillo.' 
 Epoque, epoch, era, p, r. 
 Esquisse, sketch. 
 Etage, stage, de-gree, story. 
 Etient, extinct, quench. 
 Eteule, stalk, stuljble. 
 Etoile, star, L. Stella, e=s. 
 Etonner, astonish, stun. 
 Etrier, stirrup. 
 
 Etroit, straight, strict, ez-act. 
 Ex-tor quer, ex-tort, wrest, turn, 
 
 twist. 
 Facile, easy, free. 
 Facher, vex, anger. 
 Fa-ire, do, make, It. fa-cere. 
 Fait, fact, feat, deed, act. 
 Faux, false. 
 
 Fa.ut, fault, want, defect. 
 Fer, iron, sworn, h. ferrum. 
 Feu, fire, Qt'kpur, li. focus. 
 FeuUle, leaf, foliage, foil, Ital. 
 
 foglla. 
 Fief, fee, feud. 
 Fier, trust, faith. 
 Fierte, pride, fierce. 
 Filet, thread, string. 
 Fin, end, aim. 
 Fils, child, son, Jj.filius. 
 Flot, wave, L. fluctus, flow. 
 Forain, foreign, alien. 
 Forer, bore, drill, pierce. 
 Fort, stout, strong, firm. 
 Fosse, pit, dig, grave. 
 Foule, throng, troop, many. 
 Fouler, tread, follow, fall. 
 Fournir, furnish, afibrd. 
 Foyer, focus, fine. 
 Fragile, frail, feeble. 
 Frere, L. frater, brother. 
 F-ripon, rogue. 
 Froid, frigid, fresh, cold. 
 Frotter, rub, friction. 
 Fuir, flee, L. fugere, g, i. 
 Furie, fury, passion, bear. 
 Gage, pawn, pledge. 
 Gager, en-gage, hire, wages. 
 Gagner, gain, win, earn. 
 Gant, glove, gantlet. 
 Gateau, cake. 
 Geler, freeze, 'geal. 
 Genou, knee. 
 
 Gorge, throat, gullet, gulley. 
 Guere, s-carce, spare. 
 Gorge, Gr. hals, channel. 
 Goutte, jot, drop. 
 Gras, fat, greasy, Gr. gross. 
 Grave, serious, severe. 
 Grele, shrill, slim. 
 Griffe, claw, grab, paw. 
 Gris, gray, brown. 
 Eaut, height, tall, altus. 
 Heurter, hurt, hit, butt. 
 lie, island, isle. 
 
188 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Jawhe, limb, leg, G'k kampe, 
 
 knee, j, 1. 
 Jaune, yellow. 
 Jeu, game, jest. 
 Jet, cast, jj-jacto. 
 Joie, joy, de-light, j, 1. 
 Joli, pretty, belle. 
 Jour, day, L. dies, clear. 
 Jurer, swear, j, SW. 
 Lever, lift, raise. 
 Libre, free, bold, loose. 
 Lier, league, tie, bind, join, 
 
 ligature. 
 Lievre, L. lepwt, G'k lagos. 
 Lit, bed, L. lect-us. 
 Li-vre, book, L. liber. 
 Macule, spot, stain. 
 Maison, mansion, main, 
 Mai, ill, e-vil, harm. 
 Mari, (husband), marry, 
 Mauvais, bad, (mal). 
 Mat, mast. 
 Meche, match, wick. 
 Meier, mis, blend. 
 Mer, sea, water, aqua. 
 Mettre, put, set, m, p. 
 Moeurs, manners, ways, mode. 
 Mains, less, more. 
 Moitie, half, middle, meson. 
 Montre, show, monitor. 
 Mordre, bite, carp, cut. 
 Mart, death, murder, kill. 
 Mot, word, note, speak, say, 
 
 verb, G. melden. 
 Movdre, mill, mould, grind. 
 
 Mu, moved, stirred. 
 Mur, mature, ripe. 
 ^ Mur, wall, G. mauer. 
 
 Moudre, mill, mould. 
 
 Muge, mullet. 
 
 Naitre, born, spring, natus. 
 Nbir, black, niger. 
 Nuage, mist, L. nuhes. 
 
 Obeir, obey, bend. 
 
 Oeil, eye, L. ocid-us, auge. 
 
 Oisif, lazy, idle, L. otium, easy. 
 
 Oiseati, It. uccello, fowl, bird, 
 G. »o(;e?. 
 
 Ongle, nail, claw. 
 
 Or, ore, gold, old = or, 
 
 Oreille, ear, auris. 
 
 Orme, elm. 
 
 6>-ser, dare, bold. 
 
 Oubli, oblivion. 
 
 Ours, bear, L. ursus. 
 
 Ouvert, open, free, (liber). 
 
 Ouvrer, work, operate. 
 
 i-Vws, patria. It. paese. 
 
 Paitre, feed, pasture, graze, 
 
 Paon, peacock, L. pavo. 
 
 Pareil, pair, e-qual, like. 
 
 Parer, parry, ward. 
 
 Parler, parley, prattle, talk, 
 
 Purtir, depart, start, go. 
 
 Patte, foot, paw, flap. 
 
 Peler, peel, pare, bald. 
 
 Pencher, bend, pinch, 'cline. 
 
 Peser, weigh, ponder, think. 
 
 Peu, few, little, L. paucus. 
 
 Peur, fear, dread, terror. 
 
 Parte, ruin. 
 
 Pe<ii, petty, little, few. 
 
 Peuple, folk, L. vulgus. 
 
 Pierre, drain, L. Zopis, stone, 
 L. rupes, rock, s-par. 
 
 Poids, load, weight, L. pondus, 
 ponder. 
 
 Poisson, fish. 
 
 Poivre, pepper. 
 
 PoZr, gloss, polish, glass. 
 
 Pour -voir, pro-vide, fore-see. 
 
 Puce, flee, It. pulice. 
 
 Pousse, shoot, push. 
 
 Prendre, take, grab, prize. 
 
 Priere, prayer. It. preco. 
 
 Racine, root, radix. 
 
 Raie, ray, streak, stroke. 
 
 Roide, stiff', rigid, steep, stub- 
 born, rapid. 
 
 Rouge, red, ruddy. It. rubro. 
 
 Rouler, roll, rumble, rove, reel. 
 
 Sa-voir, see, know, sage. 
 
ETYMOLO&Y. 
 
 189 
 
 Sage, L. sagus, G'k saphis, G-. 
 sehen, S. sue. 
 
 Saut, leap, jump, salio. 
 
 Semble, seem, re-semble. 
 
 Soie, silk. Gar. seide. 
 
 Soif, thirst, wish. 
 
 Solde, pay, L. soho, soldier. 
 
 Suivre, Lat. sequor, seek, San. 
 saik, see, go. 
 
 Sanger, dream, think. 
 
 S-ouvent, often. 
 
 Tai'ffie, tally, cut, tailor, S. dal, 
 split,. deal, divide. 
 
 Teint, taint, dye, tinct. 
 
 Temps, time, L. tempus. 
 
 Tendre, tend, ex-tend, go. 
 
 Tete, top, L. tectum, head, sense. 
 
 ^j^gre, s-tock, stalk. 
 
 Timbre, stamp. 
 ^Tirer, draw, pull, tug. 
 
 Tomber, tumble, fall, drop, ex- 
 tract, re-quire. 
 
 Tondre, cut, tome, shear. 
 
 Tour, tower, rock, turn. 
 
 Trait, trace, dart, draught, 
 treat, touch. 
 
 Troupe, troop, herd, crowd. 
 
 Trouble, thick, dull. 
 
 Tuer, kill, slay, die. 
 
 Tui/au, tube, pipe, tunnel. 
 
 Val, valley, vale, dale. 
 
 Valoir, worth, value, 1, r, 
 
 Veillir, wake, watch. ' 
 
 Vendre, sell, vend. 
 
 Venir, come, go, went. 
 
 Verge, rod, yard, wand. 
 
 Verser, turn, pour, fill. 
 
 Viand, food, meat. 
 
 Vetu, clad, vest. 
 
 F^, alive, active, quick. 
 
 Vil, vile, mean, low. 
 
 Voeu, vow, vote. 
 
 Foie, way, means. 
 
 Vollee, flight, volley, brood. 
 
 Voute, vault, arch. 
 
 Trai, true, right, Ger. loahr, 
 very, mere, L. Dez-ws. 
 
 Ferre, It. giara, jar, vessel. 
 The foregoing list constitutes a large share of such French 
 words as differ very materially in their form from English and 
 German. The great body of the French scarcely differs from 
 those languages in orthography. It has strong hold, it is true, 
 t)n the Latin, but its general appearance is decidedly German, 
 if for no other reason, for the total absence of case, gender, per- 
 sonal and other endings, or at least their existence in a blunted 
 • form. 
 
 The French orthography is particularly useful in showing 
 how one letter is equal to any development of that letter into 
 two or more; as, d for Id, t for st, /for/, t for ext, ege for i, in 
 legere=lire. Even many letters, following the principle of one 
 letter equal to several like letters, which appear in print, are 
 not sounded in speaking; thus, temps is pronounced as if writ- 
 ten tern (even m is reduced to a mere vowel), and so it identifies 
 itself with our time, much nearer than the Latin tempus. This 
 is all because mps is a develepment of w, or^, or s, and quite 
 equal to either one of them; so bris=bi'i, i'=is ; depot=depo, 
 oi=o, just as we in so many instances do, as in 6fow (w silent), 
 lamb {b silent), calm (I silent), psalm (p silent), debt (b silent), 
 back (c silent), receipt (p silent), charm (r nearly silent), gist 
 (s silent), oblique (tte silent). 
 
190 
 
 PHBASIS. 
 
 The principle is the same in all languages; no letter is entire- 
 ly silent, but some letters become so like others that they can- 
 not be distinguished by the ear, any more than one double letter 
 can from another. In fact, there is a perfect identity between 
 the double letters, i. e. the vowel united with consonant, or the 
 consonant with consonant; hiss, Mis, hist; the two s's are as 
 much distinct as i from s, or as s from t in hist — and we con- 
 stantly find different consonants, as st, becoming double, as ss, 
 or one becoming a vowel, as is. We see this in tall for talt, 
 full for fuld, evil for ill, writt for script. 
 
 We notice, again, that only like letters come together, and 
 vowels are equal to the consonants with which they are found. 
 Letters are never dropped, they are only merged with others, 
 as sounds are lost in sounds which are in harmony with them. 
 
 Russian Etymology. 
 
 581.1 
 Agnez, lamb, Fr. agneau. 
 Bagor, purple, g, r. 
 Bazan', wash. 
 Bania, Gr. hdhen, bath. 
 Bayo, say, G-'k fhao. 
 Beregu, be-ware, G. sparen. 
 Bereg, border, shore. 
 Beru, brat, bear, carry, tragen, 
 
 brought. 
 Blazhu, 'plaud, praise. 
 Blyad, bleach, hlass, bleich. 
 Blesh, look, hlick, glance. 
 Bliacha, blech, plate. 
 Bohr, biber, beaver. 
 Biene, beating. 
 Bob, bohne, bean. 
 Bog, God, Bo. Buh, b, q. 
 Bogatch, rich. 
 Bodu, stick, pick, beat. 
 Bozhu, beg, an-beten. 
 Bo, battle, war. 
 Boltayo, beat, plaudern. 
 Bol, paiu, smart, L. dolor. 
 Bormotchu, grumble, brum- 
 men, trommeln. 
 
 Boroda, brada, beard, bart. 
 
 Botaio, beat, strike. 
 
 Boyo, fear, bange. 
 
 Brat, brother, friend. 
 
 Brov, eye-brow. 
 
 Brayo, shear, barber. 
 
 Briatchu, rattle. 
 
 Bu, fool. 
 
 Burtchu, rush, roar, German 
 
 brausen. 
 Butchu, bucking, bench. 
 Buik, buck, ox. 
 Byo, bet, beat, strike. 
 Byagu, flee, L. fiiga. 
 Byada, pity. 
 Byalenie, bleach, bleich. 
 Byas, base, wicked. 
 Vaga, hazard, wage. 
 Valcshu, wax, wichsen. 
 Valki, wag, wankend. 
 Val-ios, fall. 
 Valiayo, roll, ivalken. 
 Vanna, fan, loanne. 
 Varyo, brew, boil. 
 Vaiayo, hew, dig. 
 Wergayo, throw, iverfen. 
 
 iLet it be understood that words not English and not otherwise 
 marked are German. "i.uci.wioc 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 191 
 
 Vgoniayo, hunt, vg, w. 
 Vgrebayo, dig, grahen. 
 Vdova, widow, wittwe. 
 Vedu, lead, head, guide. 
 Velitchu, 'plaud, flatter. 
 Velyo, be-fehJen, fail, will. 
 Verbuyo, earn, werhen. 
 Vertchu, turn, L. »erto, bore. 
 VetcM, old, L. vetus. 
 Vetcher, vesper, -evening. 
 Vesh, thing, L. res, sache. 
 Yid, view, see, L. video. 
 Vzval, throw, wcilzen, Greek 
 
 balls, vzv = vvv = w. 
 Vilki, fork. 
 Vino, wine. 
 
 Vishu, hang, wave, hover. 
 V-kratchia, short, kurtz.. 
 V-kushayo, kost, cost. 
 V-lagayo, lay, place, vl, pi. 
 Vleku, drag, schleppen. 
 Vmalia, small, bald. 
 Vnov, new, {v is prefix}. 
 VkM/u, ankle. 
 Voda, water. 
 Vzgliad, look, blick, vz.gl= 
 
 vvvl, wl, hi, as G. schreibr 
 
 en equals reiben. 
 Voshu, boss, fiihren. 
 Vozmog, might, vozm^vm. 
 Yolk, wolf, L. vulpes. 
 Yolna, wool, wo^e. 
 T'bZia, ,will. 
 Vormi, raven, orow. 
 Yopros, ask, Lat. rogo, frage, 
 
 vopr = vpr, vr, fr, r. 
 Vorota, port, door. 
 Yremia, time, L. iempus. 
 Vosk, wax, wachs. 
 Vpad' , fall, Lat. cacfo, Greek 
 ^ijpio, vp, p, c, pp. 
 
 Yyadayo, know, L. video. 
 
 Yper', bring, vp, p. 
 
 Yyas, weight. 
 
 Yi-dyao,^ give, L. c?o, vd, d. 
 
 Yyashu, wage, wiigen. 
 
 Yya-zhayo, say, yyz, s. 
 
 Fma^u, bind, press, fast. 
 
 Gadayo, say, rathen. 
 
 Gas, gauze, gaze. 
 
 Gvardia, guard, gard. 
 
 Gir, weight, L. gravis. 
 
 Grasni, red, scarlet. 
 
 Gero, hero, held. 
 
 Glaba, Bo. Ma,va, head, chap» 
 
 ter, G'k kephale. 
 Glagol, word, L. %o, gl, 1. 
 Gldzh, flat, ^?a«. 
 (rZfflg, (eye), glance, gaze. 
 Glas, voice, call, loud. 
 Gluh, deep, gl, gi, d. 
 Glncki, deaf, hear, gl, h, 
 G-liazhu, look, see. 
 Gnetu, bind, press, knit. 
 G^WM, Isend, knee. 
 Gnyzado,^ ijest. 
 Goboryo,,ss).j, sprechen ;■ gpbor, 
 
 gbr, br, pr, pray. . 
 God, year, L. annus, d, v. 
 (rofo, bald, AaAZ. 
 (ro?os =glas. 
 Golub, dove, L. columh' . 
 Gora, rock, Ser^. 
 Gordo, proud. 
 Gorlo, gurgel. 
 Gorki, sour, bitter. 
 Gorod, (jgrad?), state, de-gree, 
 
 Sur^, dorf. 
 Gorgo, warm, burn, g, w. 
 Grabezh, rob, grab. 
 Gradar, gardner. 
 Gradais, grade, grad. 
 
 1 The Russian shows Biflst clearly the transition from initial letters 
 to prefixes ; in such case?, as vi-dayo, we have a prefix without force, 
 and the word is not different from dayo. 
 
 2 See how ofteo, ^ == A is a mere prefix, or is lost in the following 
 letter. 
 
192 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Grad, hail, Lat. grando, Fr, 
 grele. 
 
 Granitchu, fence, grWnzen 
 
 Gran, grey, grau. 
 
 Gran, corner. 
 
 Greblo, rudder, oar, row. 
 
 Greza, dream. 
 
 Groh, grave. 
 
 Groza, threat, drohurig. 
 
 Grozd, grape, trauhe. 
 
 Gromko, strong, loud. 
 
 Grom, roar, rumble, thunder. 
 
 Gruda, group. 
 
 Grud, breast, bosom. 
 
 Gruhi, hard, coarse, groh, rude, 
 rough, derh. 
 
 Gruzlii, L. gravis, hard, heavy, 
 schw.er. 
 
 Grunt, ground, grund. 
 
 Grusha, pear. 
 
 Grushu, grieve, sorry, triiben, 
 trauern, gloomy. 
 
 Guliayo, walk, go. 
 
 Gryadu, go, L. gredior. 
 
 Gunia, lumpen, trumpery. 
 Gurt, herd. 
 Gusar, hussar. 
 Gusto, tight, thick. 
 Gus,^ goose. 
 Dal, far, long, dl, fr. 
 Dayo, give, L. do, dabo. 
 Dver, door, port. 
 Dvigayo, move, be-wegen. 
 Dvor, court, hof. 
 Dek, deck, cover. 
 Den, dna, day, L. dies. 
 Derebnia, town, dorf. 
 Derevo, tree. 
 Derzayo, dare. 
 Deru, tear, zerreissen. 
 Dlan, palm, hand. 
 D-lin, long, far, Fr. loin. 
 Dob-ro, good, d, g. 
 Dolgo = dlin. 
 Dolg,pJlicht, guilt. 
 
 ' O, in Russian, has principally 
 
 Dol, deal, tlieil, part. 
 
 Doma, home, house. 
 
 Doroga, road, way, dr, w. 
 
 Dorogo, dear. 
 
 Dosha, desk, tisch, table. 
 
 Dotch, daughter, tochter, Boh. 
 deer a. 
 
 Dragi= dorogo. 
 
 Drug, friend, dear. 
 
 Drrho^dereho. 
 
 Drob, scarf, scherben. 
 
 Drotchu, thresh. 
 
 Duga, bow, d, b. 
 
 Dumayo, deem, think. 
 
 Dura, fool, thbrin. 
 
 Durno, bad, worse. 
 
 Duch, ghost, gas, dunst, rucJi, 
 Gr'k thuos. 
 
 Duyo, blow, hauch, dunst. 
 
 Dsher=Dolch. 
 
 Duim, steam, damp/. 
 
 Dyalo, deal, done, deed. 
 Delayo, do, deal, make, Boh. 
 
 dilo, equals done, work. 
 Dyayo, equals delayo, do. 
 Edinyo, unite, vereinigen. 
 Emez, man, mensch. 
 Emlyo, take, L. emo, nehmen. 
 Eres, heresy, ketzerei. 
 Eshe, yet, schon. 
 Zhar, warm, fire. 
 Zhgu, stick, bite, burn. 
 Zhallco, Maglich, clamof. 
 Zhal, harm, schade. 
 Zhdu, wait, dure. 
 Zhezl, stick, stab. 
 Zhelayo, wish, will. 
 Zhelt, yellow. 
 Zhena, woman, queen, zh = z 
 
 =g, G-'k gune. 
 Zhibu, live, L. vivo. 
 Zhidki, thin, shad, G. schlank. 
 Zhmu, press, L. premo. 
 Zhilo, dwelling, live. 
 Zhru, greedy, fressen. 
 tlie force of a strong h. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 193 
 
 Zhuyo, chew, kauen. 
 
 Zamok, lock, castle. 
 
 Zima, winter, L. hiems. 
 
 Zvon, sound, scJiall, klang. 
 
 Zvuk, shout, schall. 
 
 Zvyar, deer, 'L.fera, thier. 
 
 Zdo, dach, thatch. 
 
 Zelen, yellow, green. 
 
 Zemlia, L. terra^ earth. 
 
 Zizhdu, build, stiften. 
 
 Zlo, ill, schlecht. 
 
 Znak, sign, mark, zn, s. 
 
 Znayo, know, Grr'k gno, z, g. 
 
 Zohu, call, rufen, L. voco. 
 
 Zlui, slim, schlimm. 
 
 Zol=zzlui. 
 
 Zoloto, gold, yellow, z, g. 
 
 Zralc, look, hlick. 
 
 Zryo, see, Gr'k orao, 
 
 Zug, tooth, zahn, z, t. 
 
 Zitchu, hiss, sigh. 
 
 Zialo, very, far, sehr. 
 
 Igo, yoke. 
 
 Igra, play, sport, 
 
 Zatw, go, L. itvrni, it. 
 
 Ima, imeni, name. 
 
 Inok, monk, fnonch, 
 
 Js-chod, out-going, ex-odus. 
 
 Is-Myotch, ex-clude. 
 
 Jshu, seek, wish. 
 
 /ere, priest, Gr'k Jiieros. 
 
 Kazanie, sign. 
 
 Kareta, coach, chariot. 
 
 Kad, cot, coop, kufe. 
 
 Ka-zhu, say, show. 
 
 Kalyo, glue. 
 
 Kam-en, stone, km, stn. 
 
 Kamera, chamber, room. 
 
 Kandil, candle. 
 
 Koupayo, drop, trickle. 
 
 Kapral, corporal. 
 
 Kara, correction, strafe. 
 
 Kit, whale, L. costus. 
 
 Klada, log, klotz. 
 
 Kladu,^ lay, place, load. 
 
 » Kin Russian, is for us generally a prefix, 
 
 25 
 
 Klad, load, last. 
 
 Klas=kolos. 
 
 Klegtchu, call, screech. 
 
 Klik, call, clang. 
 
 Klok, lock. 
 
 Kniaz, prince, king. 
 
 Kniga, book, Sem. kitah, 
 
 Knut, peitsche, whip. 
 
 Koza, goat. 
 
 Koleso, wheel, rad, 
 
 Kozha, coat, skin, hide. 
 
 Kolo, circle, wheel. 
 
 Kol, pale, pfahl. 
 
 Kom, heap, clump, 
 
 Konez, finish, end, point. 
 
 Kon, pony, horse, ross. 
 
 Kopa, heap, cumulate. 
 
 Kopayo, scoop, ditch. 
 
 Kora, bark, L. cortex. 
 
 Koren, root, radix. 
 
 Korga, crow, Iv. corvus. 
 
 Korzina, korh. 
 
 Korma, stern. 
 
 Korova, krava, cow, kr, k. 
 
 Korol, (karV), king, Latin rex, 
 
 Bo. Aros^ {^k-rege). 
 KortcJuig, cup, Airit^'. 
 Kotel, kittle, kessel. 
 Kosha, korh, curb. 
 KoshJca, cat, katze. 
 Kradu, steal, G-'k Afepo. . 
 .STra, rind, brim. 
 Kra^ayo, drop. 
 jEVi/i;, creak, shriek. 
 Kritchu, screech. 
 Krob, roof, cover. 
 Kroma, crumb. 
 Kroyo; cover, bury. 
 Krug, round, circle. 
 Krwpa, grit, graiipe. 
 Krupno, groh, coarse. 
 Krut', strong, gross. 
 Kryap, force, /cro/i!. 
 Krotki, kind, soft. 
 Kvpa, heap. 
 
194 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Kiipuyo, buy, haufen. 
 
 Kiisayo, kiss, bite. 
 
 Kuknia, kiteben. 
 
 iayo, yell, bellow, low. 
 
 Lgu, lie, lilgen. 
 
 Lev, lion, L. leg. 
 
 Legki, light, hicht. 
 
 Legkoe, lungs. 
 
 Led, ice. 
 
 Ladno, one, (Z is prefix). 
 
 Lezhu, lie, L. foc«s. 
 
 iera, linen. 
 
 iei!, flow, flight. 
 
 Liver, lever, (hever), heaver, 
 
 raiser. 
 lAzhu, lick, leclcen. 
 List, leaf, 6?ai<. 
 i>ize, look, gaze, face. 
 Lovl, claw. 
 Lozhe, lay, lodge, Latin ?ec<ws, 
 
 place, bed. 
 Lokon, lure, locke. 
 Losk, look, glance. 
 Luna, moon, L. luna. 
 Lywoo, left. 
 Lyas, wood, L. Zmcms. 
 Lyohlo, love, lieben, like, long, 
 
 S. foA, (lyohov). 
 Lyod, leute, folk. Bo. Zi'c?. 
 
 J!/oZo, small, little. 
 
 Manyo, wink, mahnen. 
 
 Maslo, butter, si, tr. 
 
 Mat, mother. 
 
 Mayo, ermiiden, db-matten. 
 
 Mgla, nehel, veil, L. nuhes. 
 
 Med, honey, L. mel. 
 
 Melyo, mill, maiden. 
 
 Mezh, with, mit, twixt,' mid. 
 
 Metcli, sword, messer, mace. 
 
 Merknu, murky, dark. 
 
 Mir, friede, froh, peace. 
 
 Mir, world, L. mundus. 
 
 Mleko, milk, L. lac. 
 
 Mnoga, much, many. 
 
 Mnufkneten, knead. 
 
 Mnyo, mean, believe. 
 
 Mogu, may, might. 
 
 Mokro, moist, mucky. 
 
 Moloko = mleko. 
 
 Mare, see, meer. 
 
 Moroz, mraz, frost. 
 
 Motchu, moisten. 
 
 Match, might. 
 
 Mrak, dark. 
 
 Mru, murder, die. 
 
 Mucha, fly, Fr. mouche. 
 
 Myalki, small, hlein. 
 
 Myasto, spot, place, state. 
 
 Myaryo, measure. 
 
 Mias' , meat, flesh. 
 
 Muzh, man, niensch. 
 
 Na-chozTiy, in-go, in-vent. 
 
 Nag, naked, bare. 
 
 JSfizki, be-neath, deep. 
 
 Novo, new. 
 
 Nbga, hoof, foot, Fr. angle. 
 
 Nozh, knife, messer. 
 
 Nora, hole, gruhe. 
 
 Nos, nose. 
 
 NosJrn, L. veho, bring, push. 
 
 Nuzhu, need, press. 
 
 Ohost, ohst. 
 
 Ovza, L. ove, sheep, ewe. 
 
 Ogon, ogn, L. ignis, fire. 
 
 Orda, horde. 
 
 Orel, eagle, adler. 
 
 Oryo, L. aro, harrow. 
 
 Okno, window, look, see, 
 
 Ostrui, sharp, L. acer. 
 
 Padu, fall, Gr'k^zpio. 
 
 Pa, part. 
 
 Parad, pracht, parade, 
 
 Paryo, burn, parch. 
 
 Pashu, wehen, wind. 
 
 Piita, poet, dicJiten. 
 
 Pishu, paint, write. 
 
 Pitie, drink, L. pinp,. 
 
 Plam, flame. 
 
 Plod, fruit, pi, fr, 
 
 Plug, plow. 
 
 Pluivu, swim, sail, p^eo. 
 
 Polnoe, full J pulia, b^ll. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 19^ 
 
 Prahilo, law, rule, straight, 
 line, true ; law = lex == 
 rex. 
 
 Fetch, stove, bake. 
 
 Ptiza, bird, Boh. ptak, Greek 
 petomai, fly. 
 
 Pravo, right, de-praved. 
 
 Robot, work, arheit. 
 
 Rah, serve, slave. 
 
 Rvu, tear, mpfen.^ 
 
 Razum, reason. 
 
 Rdyayo., red. 
 
 Rehro, rib, rippe. 
 
 Rad, ioj,/roh. 
 
 Rov, grave. 
 
 Rod, kind, art, way, (road). 
 
 Rog, horn, rock. 
 
 Rota, oath. 
 
 Ryatch, word, rede. 
 
 Ruhez, riefe, furrow. 
 
 Ruka, hand, arm, Gr'k cheir. 
 
 Riba, fish, rb, f 
 
 Ryobka, river, run. 
 
 Riad, row, rank. 
 
 Rul, rudder, helm. 
 
 Sazhayo, set, place. 
 
 Solo, tallow. 
 
 Svinia, swine. « 
 
 Solnze, sun. Bo. slunce. 
 
 JSvara, quarrel, streit. 
 
 Svishu, whizz, whistle. 
 
 8-dayo, give-up, (s prefix). 
 
 S-doryo, strive, streiten. 
 
 S-dirayo, tear-off. 
 
 Sladki, sweet, G'k, glukus. 
 
 Shiroki, broad, spread. 
 
 Semia, family. 
 
 Serdze, heart, s, h. 
 
 Sizhu, sit. 
 
 Sila, strong, el, str. 
 
 Sito, sieve. , 
 
 Siayo, shine, light. 
 
 Skatcku, skip, spring. 
 
 1 Through all Kusaian, strike off 
 ending. 
 'Sis s, prefix identical with g, h: 
 
 Skoro, short, hurry. 
 
 Skrbu, scrape, shave. 
 
 Slahi, slack, scMaff, 
 
 Slava, glory, laud. 
 
 S-lagayo,'^ lay-up. 
 
 Sliva, plum. 
 
 S-lovo,'^ word, G-'k hgos', sylbe, 
 
 syllable. 
 Sluch, hear, ear, gerucht, S. 
 
 sru, G'k kluo, 
 S-mert, death, murder. 
 S-myalo, bold, m, b. 
 S-myach, s-mile, laughi 
 S-nimayo, ab-nehmen-. 
 So-bak, dog, bk, dg» 
 jSotchu, catch, take* 
 Sol, salt. 
 
 iStari, old, strong. 
 Stehel, stalk, Stengel. 
 Strogi, strict, straight. 
 Son, sleep, Lat. somnus, Fren. 
 
 Spat, splyo, sleep. 
 
 Stablyo, stable, steUen, stall; 
 
 stand, stay. 
 Stan, stand, station. 
 Stez', stop, step, path. 
 Stol, table, stuTil. 
 Stop, foot, step. 
 Stoyo, stand, L. sto. 
 Stroenie, structure. 
 Struyo, stream, pour. 
 Sttik, stick, strike, stossi 
 Suzhu, judge. 
 Si^c, coin, twig. 
 Su-rovi, rough, coarse. 
 Suchi, dry, L. siccus. 
 Sushi, sure, certain. 
 Str ana, tract, stretch, strich; 
 
 land == tract, as line = 
 
 rule, rect. 
 Schod', go, scud, scatter. 
 Syaku, hack, cut. .' 
 
 the ending yo as a mere person 
 
106 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Syayo, sow, spread. 
 
 Sad, garden. 
 
 Tvoryo, work, tragen, born< 
 
 Telia, calf. 
 
 Temno, dim, dark. 
 
 Ternie, thorn. 
 
 Tkan, web, tissue. 
 
 Tna, dim, darkness. 
 
 Tolpa, troop, L. ^mj-So!. 
 
 ^or^, trade, handle. 
 
 Tonkie, thin, fine, tiny. 
 
 To-vare, wares. 
 
 Truha, trumpet, L. tuba. 
 
 Trud, tired, trouble. 
 
 Trutchu, press, driichen. 
 
 Tupo, dumb, stump. 
 
 Tyalo, body, corpus, tl, cr. 
 
 Tyok, pack, ball. 
 
 Tianu, ex-tend, dehnen. 
 
 V-hozk, poor, pov-erty. 
 
 (7-^0?, angle, winkel. 
 
 TJ-gol, coal. 
 
 U-met, mist. 
 
 U-tchu, teach, L. doceo. 
 
 Ghvdla, praise, loh. 
 Chozhy, go, walk, seek. 
 Cholodno, cold. 
 Chotchu, wish. 
 Chud, bad, worse. , 
 ^a?, heal, whole. 
 Tchado, child, kind. 
 Tchad, vapor, steam. 
 Tchernie, black, schwartz, dark, 
 
 tawny. 
 Tcherta, stroke, chart. 
 TcJiislo, cipher, zaM. 
 Tchisto, just, chaste. 
 Tchitayo, read, re-cite- 
 Tchlen, member, glied. 
 Tchudo, wonder, awe. 
 Tchvyo, hear, L. audio. 
 Tcherv, worm, L. ver. 
 Tchas, time, zeit. 
 Tchin, rank. (TcA is one 
 
 letter). 
 lazuik, tongue. 
 Uzki, narrow, eng. 
 Um, wise, d-eem. 
 
 To this we will add only a limited number of Bohemian 
 words, such only as present important forms, since the great 
 mass of Bohemian words, as well as the rest of Slavic, are sub- 
 stantially the same as in Russian. ^ 
 
 Bohemian 
 582. 
 Klohouk, hat, cap, head. 
 Dum, house, home. 
 Pilny, diligent, fleissig. 
 Sely, whole, ganz. 
 Velke, great, much, viel. 
 Stul, stool, table. 
 Sin, deed, done, thun. 
 JJci, learn, teach, L. doceo. 
 Idou, go, L. itu, it. 
 Pri-sel, came, walk. 
 Koch, boy, knabe. 
 Kosar, coach, carriage. 
 Mndho, much, many. 
 Rad, willing, ready, rather. 
 
 Etymology. 
 
 Bydli, dwell, a-bide. 
 
 Stin, shadow, dim. 
 
 Imeno, name. 
 
 D-louhe, long. 
 
 Kapr, carp. 
 
 Muz, man, menscA. 
 
 Slis, key, lock, L. clevis. 
 
 Leto, year. 
 
 Zivot, life, L. vivo, G'k zao. 
 
 la-zyk, tongue. 
 
 Miluj, love, G'k, phihs. 
 
 Psar, Writer, painter. 
 
 lehla, R. igla, needle. 
 
 Bitva, battle. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 197 
 
 Ko-sile, shirt. 
 
 Kuze, iide, coat. 
 
 Zluc, gall. 
 
 Kost, bone, L. os.. 
 
 Gekoti, wait. 
 
 Sirati, sport. 
 
 T'ofeii, call, L. voco. 
 
 Loviti, hunt, laufen. 
 
 Di, say, L. (^ico. 
 
 Brati, here, bring, take. 
 
 Psati, write, scri-psi. 
 
 Prati, strike, bring. 
 
 Gnu, be-gin. 
 
 Chci, will, choice. 
 
 Miti, have, habeo, (ti, iti, ati 
 
 is the infinitive ending). 
 Ziti, cut; diti, do. 
 Gtu, read, re-cite. 
 Strihu, shear, strip. 
 Hid, say, L. reo, pr-each. 
 Chlehy, (bread), loaf, Gr. laih, 
 
 Go. chlabs. 
 Bily, white, bleach, L. alhus. 
 Zeply, warm, tepid, hot. 
 Yerny, true, L. verus. 
 Piny, full, L. plenus. 
 Susty, thick. 
 Chudy, poor, bad. 
 
 Drah, dear. 
 M7, friend, Q'kpMP. 
 Kriv, curve, krumm. 
 Mrtev, dead, mort. 
 Prost, free ; tvrd, hard. 
 Znam, known, sign. 
 Zichu, still ; <M^y, steif. 
 Tmavy, dark, dim. 
 Svaty, holy, saint. 
 Ruchly, quick, rush, rapid. 
 Sezky, pretty, hiibsch. 
 Zimni, winter, L. hiems; 
 Zadost, joy, L. gaudium. 
 JVbc, nos, night. 
 Kratke, short. 
 Ouzkost, anxiety, angst. 
 Lez, lie, Zw^e. 
 Dluh, debt, schuld. 
 Pero, feather, feder, fer. 
 Olovo, lead, hlei. 
 Piti, drink, im-bibe. 
 Stribro, silver. 
 Svire, steer, thier, L. /era. 
 Neve, heaven, L. nubes. 
 Krk, neck, hols. 
 Pes, dog, bite. 
 Bor, wood, for- est. 
 Vlk, wolf, L. ^JwZpes. 
 
 Slavic Etymology. 
 
 583. Enough words have been given as examples, to show 
 the peculiar cast and appearance which Slavic words present, 
 when brought into comparison with Latin and German words. 
 The list which has been given is pretty comprehensive, and it 
 embraces a large share of the most common and leading words 
 to be found in a language. With all their peculiar dress, the 
 words of Slavic can with certainty be identified with those of 
 the Latin, Greek, and German class. It bears, when properly 
 viewed, a close relationship with each of these languages — few 
 words being found in Slavic which cannot, even at the present 
 day, be easily identified with those of Greek or Latin, or Ger- 
 man and English. 
 
 We have selected chiefly from the Russian, with only a few 
 from the Bohemian, as it was of little use, as aimatter of etymo- 
 logy, to bring more dialects into the comparison. Very few 
 
198 PHBASIS. 
 
 words could be found, in the related dialects, which do not ap- 
 pear uniform with either those of Russian or Bohemian. There 
 is indeed a remarkable identity, making allowance for letter 
 changes, found in the forms of words in the whole Slavic class. 
 After passing from the Bohemian and Russian, we should find 
 little that would be particularly new or important in the ortho- 
 graphy of the words. 
 
 The most striking appearance in the forms of words in the 
 Slavic, is the accumulation of consonants without intervening 
 vowels. In this respect, it greatly resembles the Semitic class. 
 We here find letters united which with us are separated by 
 a vowel. And, in this prevailing character of the Slavic, as 
 well as of other languages, we find renewed proof that the pre- 
 fixes, so called, of the verb are not a distinct part of it, but 
 rather inseparably united with the body of the word at the 
 beginning, having, as we may say, grown upon it and from it. 
 We have found in Slavic, as elsewhere, many of these prefixes 
 existing only as a single letter, not divided from that which 
 follows by a vowel, but united with it to form one single growth 
 or element. Our own direct, straight, Fr. droit, right, furnishes 
 a good illustration of this principle. We are wont to call di a 
 prefix, because it is separated from r by a vowel, but it is plain 
 that dir, str, dr, and r, are all equal, and that st, or d, is just 
 such a prefix as the di, and, again, that they are no more prefixes 
 than any other initial letter. The Slavic has left out this con- 
 necting vowel of the prefix so often , that its dependent existence 
 is clearly proved. We have done the same thing in thousands 
 of words ; as in w-rong, compared with right, p-lace with lay, L. 
 locus, in h-now, k-nee, st-rip, sc-ruh. It need not be answered 
 that these prefix letters have no meaning, for what meaning has 
 de in de-light, de-fer, which is acknowledged to be a genuine 
 prefix preposition ? Most prefix prepositions, and we think all, 
 have no more of an individual meaning than this de, or the let- 
 ters p, sc, h, which have been pointed off. 
 
 It cannot be too well borne in mind that those accumulated 
 consonants, as mn, zv, zvy, dl, vgr, in Slavic, are really to be 
 taken as one letter, or as repeating elements like our vv=w • 
 besides, in several instances, we are obliged to represent their 
 single letter by two or three of ours, as in tch, shtsh, ia, zh. 
 
 It must be noted, too, that the prodigious growth of endings 
 in Russian, and often when we have none at all, tends greatly 
 to obscure the real resemblance — instance hlyad-ni, German 
 hlass, our bleach. We have occasionally left off, or marked off 
 these endings in the list, and where we have not, they should 
 always, in etymological _ comparisons, not only in Russian but 
 in all, be struck off or disregarded. ' 
 
BTYMOLOHY. 
 
 199 
 
 We may as well remark here as elsewhere, and once for all, 
 that our lists are only etymological comparisons, and they can- 
 not by any means he relied on as giving the true definition of 
 the word, as we have often found it proper to give some related 
 rather than direct meaning. Besides, considering that a word 
 never loses its original force by becoming a new part of speech 
 and developing endings, we have, for instance, used faithful = 
 faith, wise = wiser, anno = amare, true = truth. 
 
 Gaelic Etymology. 
 
 584.1 
 A-hairt, speech, preach. 
 Abhar, cause, L. res, Q-. rath, 
 
 from reden, speak. 
 Abhaist, habit, fashion. 
 A-bhra, dark, b, d. 
 Achd, except. 
 Achd, case, state. 
 Achiar, tart, sharp, L. acer. 
 Acht, deed, statue, act. 
 Acht, claw ; Ad, water. 
 Adh, law, S-et. 
 Adhm, know, L. video. 
 Aedh, eye. 
 Agh, awe, battle. 
 Aghaisach, easy. 
 Aicim, ask, be-seech. 
 Aid, c-old. 
 Aigein, ocean. 
 Aighe, hill, high. 
 All, will, while. 
 Aill, place, course. 
 Aille, praise, laud. 
 Ailt, house, dwelling. 
 Ailidh, white, blank. 
 Aiminn, smooth. 
 Aimsir, time, season. 
 Aine, ioj. 
 
 Ainninne, anger, ire. 
 Ainn, ring, L. annus. 
 
 1 It will be constantly noticed 
 words, when compared with ours 
 The initial letters of our words 
 may consider them as silent. 
 
 Air, arise. 
 
 Aire, straight. 
 
 Aircann, certain. 
 
 Aird, quarter. 
 
 Airde, height, arduus. 
 
 Aire, servant. 
 
 Airghe, herd. 
 
 Airg, prince, rex, arch. 
 
 Airri, tyrant. 
 
 Ais, bashful. 
 
 Aisc, ask, re-quest. 
 
 Ait, stead. 
 
 Aith, quick, active. 
 
 Al, stone, flint, G'k laas. 
 
 Al, horse, Fr. cheval. 
 
 Aladh, malice, skill. 
 
 Allaidh, wild. 
 
 Alon, stone. 
 
 Alt, brook, valley. 
 
 Am, time, season. 
 
 Amail, evil. 
 
 Amha, man. 
 
 Anac, wound. 
 
 Anal, breath, L. animus. 
 
 Anam, life, L. anima. 
 
 Anachuram, anxiety. 
 
 Aug, r-ank, str-ing. 
 
 Aoi, island, hill. 
 
 Aoide, youth. 
 
 Aoil, mouth, Gr. maid. 
 
 . that the ^aelic, and the other Celtic 
 have the appearance of abbreviations, 
 are for them mere prefixes, and we 
 
200 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Arad, strong, brave. 
 
 Aran, bread. 
 
 Arc, dwarf. 
 
 Asam, do, make, L./acio. 
 
 Aia, hat, cap. 
 
 Ba, good, L. bonus. 
 
 J3a, death, b, d. 
 
 £ac, hook. 
 
 Bad, bunch, tuft, bush. 
 
 Bagh, bind, bond, tie. 
 
 Bail, place, (see ailV). 
 
 Baine, milk, b, m. 
 
 Bair, game, battle. 
 
 Bais, water. 
 
 Ballog, blot. 
 
 Ban, wan, pale. 
 
 Banna, band, troop. 
 
 Bar, bread, Sam. bara. 
 
 Bar, son, born. 
 
 Barr, top, head, first. 
 
 Bata, stick, staff, French 6a- 
 
 ton. 
 Batham, die, faint. 
 Be, life, L. vita. 
 Beali, broom, 1, r. 
 Beac, bee. 
 
 Bean, woman, queen. 
 Bearg, ire, anger. 
 Bearr, short, brief. 
 •Beas, sure, Gr. ge-wiss. 
 Beirt, burden, birth. 
 Beo, alive, L. vivo. 
 Beo, cattle, beef. 
 Bothach, beast, wild. 
 Bes, custom, way. 
 Bi, bit, small, piece. 
 Bian, skin, hide. 
 Bil, blossom, flower. 
 Bil, good, Fr. belle. 
 Big, little, L. paucus. 
 Bid, hedge. 
 Bill, fool. 
 
 Binn, sweet, voice, sound. 
 Bior, water. 
 Bir, brief, short. 
 Bith, being, Gr. welt. 
 
 Bith, ha-bit, house. 
 
 Bla, village. 
 
 Bla, pale, yellow, blue. 
 
 Bladh, flat, smooth. 
 
 Bladh, flattery. 
 
 Bladhm, brag. 
 
 Bias, flavor, taste. 
 
 Blath, clean, white, blank. 
 
 Bo, cow, bull, L. bos. 
 
 Bocan, hook, crook. 
 
 Bochd, poor, want. 
 
 Bog, soft. 
 
 Boidhad, beauty, pretty. 
 
 Boile, ire, bile. 
 
 Bolg, bag, belly, swell. 
 
 Bolg, bellows, swell, blow, 
 gulp, bowl. 
 
 Bor, pride, swell. 
 
 Borb, fierce, cruel. 
 
 Bord, board, table. 
 
 Bord, border, brim, brink. 
 
 Borg, burg, borough. 
 
 Borr, boss, burr, knob. 
 
 Borral, proud, swell. 
 
 Bos, base, low. 
 
 Both, booth, house. 
 Brae, arm, iDranch. 
 Bran, poor, black, rock. 
 
 Braos, gape, br, g. 
 
 Bras, brisk, active. 
 Brafh, betray, treachery. 
 Breas, prince, reign. 
 Breisg, brisk, quick. 
 Breog, weak. 
 Bri, wrath, word. 
 Briar, prickle, thorn. 
 Brin, dream, Fr. reve. 
 Brog, sorrow, brogan. 
 Bru, bank, brow, brim. 
 Brug, burg, borough. 
 Bruighe, farm, Gr. bauer. 
 Buas, belly, pouch. 
 Buas, breach, rout. 
 Builgam, swell, boil. 
 Bunn, work, done, been. 
 ■Bur, swelling, ire, auger. 
 
ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 201 
 
 Bus, mouth, snout, I^atin os, 
 
 buss, \\m. 
 Ca, house, L. casa. 
 ; Gab, head, cape, gap, 
 Caban, cabin, cab. 
 Cad, high. 
 Cadall, battle. 
 Caec, blind, L/cascws, 
 Gagar, whisper, 
 Cai, way, road, 
 Gaidh, chaste. 
 Gail, shield. 
 Gaill, call. 
 
 Caimis, shirt, Fr. chemise. 
 Gain, rent. 
 Cairc, fur, hair. 
 Carraic, crag, rock. 
 Gairihe, chariot, cart. 
 Gait, sort, kind. 
 Galh, head, 81. glaha. 
 Gala, hard, callous. 
 (7aZZ, veil, con-ceal. 
 Gam, sham, de-ceit, 
 Ganam,, sing, L. cano, 
 Ganaib, hemp. 
 Gaobh, bow, branch- 
 Gaoimh, kind. 
 Gaol, slim, small. 
 Garaid, friend, near, 
 Garbh, barge, car. 
 Gas, foot, c, f. 
 Gasag, coat. 
 CoiA, battle, 
 Ce, earth, Gr'k ge, 
 Ceal, heaven, Fr. del, 
 Gealam, eat, Sem. cAul. ' 
 
 Gealg, malice, begi;ile. 
 Gean, favor, kiijd. 
 Geangail, bond, L. cingo. 
 Gearb, silver. 
 Gearn, man, L. vir. 
 Geasna, ne-cessity. 
 Geill, sense, will. 
 Geilg, de-ceit, L. celo. 
 Geird, trade. 
 Geisd, question. 
 26 
 
 Giach, fog, 
 
 Gian, long, far, 
 
 Gine, kind, I*, ^ewtts. 
 
 Ging, strong, bind. 
 
 Cior, hand, Gr'k cheir. 
 
 Gith, mist; cZaS, lip. 
 
 Glaidamh, sword, L. gladius. 
 
 Glarach, cigar, bare, bald. 
 
 C^eiV, clergy. 
 
 Glioc, hook, clan. 
 
 C?o<^, praise, laud. 
 
 Gluas, hear, ear, Gr'k Jclud. 
 
 Gnag, knob, peg, snag. 
 
 Gneadh, wound. 
 
 Cneas, neck, (c is a prefix 
 
 equal to g, Jc). 
 Cno, nut. 
 
 Coin, wood, L. sy&a, 
 Coimde, custom. 
 Coin, hound, L. canis. 
 Coinneal, candle. 
 Coir, right, correct, crt, 
 Coire, cauldron. 
 Cois, foot, hoof. 
 Coll, ruin, fall. 
 Colum, dove, columha,. 
 Con, sense, dog, canis. 
 Cor, twist, turn. 
 Cor, corner, near. 
 Cosg, cease, stop. 
 Corrbham, carve, grave. 
 Coth, meat, victuals. 
 Crann, tree, branch. 
 Craptha, warped, curved. 
 Creas, narrow, straight, 
 Criobh, trifle. 
 Criodh, heart, core. 
 Criosd, quick, swift. 
 Crogan, crock, Gr. krug. 
 Croc, horn, L. cornu. 
 Cromh, worm. 
 Cron, time, Gr'k chronos. 
 Cruadh, hard, crude. 
 Cruan, red. 
 
 Gruimam, thunder, grumble, 
 Cruog, neg4) press, crush. 
 
203 
 
 P5EASIS, 
 
 Cuala, heard. 
 
 Ouirsam,^ tire. 
 
 Ouire, throng. 
 
 Cidsne, ice, frost. 
 
 Ouison, wise. 
 
 Cul, chariot, coach, guard, cus^ 
 tody. 
 
 Cum,- combat, Gr. Jcampf. 
 
 Cumas, can, strength. 
 
 Our, power. 
 
 Cutha, rage, G. wuih. 
 
 Gust, coat, skin. 
 
 Cuth, head, cap. 
 
 Z)ae, man. 
 
 J)aghani, singe, burn, 
 Dail, deal, part, lot. 
 Daith, quick, active. 
 Daigli, fire, pain, hot, 
 Dan, work, done, poem, 
 Daoirse, dearth, scarce, 
 Dabh, coach, cab. 
 JOartan, herd, drove. 
 Dath, dye, paint. 
 Deachair, follow, after. 
 Deadla, dare, bold. 
 Deaith, wind, L. ventus. 
 Dealg, thorn, needle. 
 Deanam, do, done, work. 
 Dear, daughter. 
 Dearbham, try, prove. 
 Dearc, grave, cave. 
 Dearnam = deanam, 
 Deas, right, just. 
 Deas, neat. 
 D-eigh^ ipe. 
 Deilchead, ill, bad, 
 Deim, want, dearth. 
 Deir, say, L. dico, dire. 
 Deo, breath, G'k^meo. 
 Deolaidh, aid, help. 
 Det, food, victuals, 
 i^i, want, G-'k deomai. 
 Diachadr, sorrow, care. 
 Diheail, dumb, mute. 
 
 Difir, difference. 
 
 Digham, come, go. 
 
 Dile, love, (^']s. philos, 
 
 DioUochdadh, delight. 
 
 Dimeas, con-tempt. 
 
 Dinn, hill, deep. 
 
 Dioach, divine, L. deus. 
 
 Diog, dyke, djtch, pit. 
 
 Dioghaii, high, tall, deep, 
 
 Diolas, true, dear. 
 
 Dire, tribute. 
 
 Diih, want, defect. 
 
 D-leachd, law, p-lace, 
 
 Dluih, near, tight. 
 
 Doh, stream, flow, go. 
 
 Doid, hand, Fr. doigt, 
 
 Doire, grove, thicket. 
 
 Dqite, quick, active. 
 
 Dol, space, distance. 
 
 Dorm, dun, brown. 
 
 Dorr, wrath, L. durus, 
 
 Dothar^=dob, con-duit. 
 
 Drab, spot, stain. 
 
 Drabh, draw, cart. 
 
 Dragh, trouble. 
 
 Dream, tribe, family. 
 
 Drean, wren. 
 
 Droch, evil, bad, wrong, right, 
 
 straight, droit. 
 Du, just, due, 
 Du, land, Q-'k gg. 
 DucJias, visage, face. 
 DuilJe, leaf, fold, folia, 
 Dulbhar, doleful, dark, gloomy, 
 
 direful. 
 Dur, hard, water, durus. 
 Each, horse, L. eguus. 
 Each, any, each. 
 Eacht, feat, act, state. 
 Eadh, time, season. 
 Eag, death, go. 
 pagar, order. 
 
 Eaglais, church, Fr, eglise, 
 Ealang, fault, flaw. 
 
 f:J^:LZn.lk^^^^i,^\^^l .«^--^-e find as the sign of 
 
ETYMOLOGt. 
 
 203 
 
 j&a^, excellent. 
 Eallach, load. 
 Eang, year, L. artrews, 
 JEarb, offer. 
 Ar, head, ere, crane. 
 Earunn, share, portionL 
 Easha, want, absence. 
 Earr:, grand, noble. 
 Ease, water, whiskey, 
 Eide, clotR, G. Meid. 
 Ei/edcht, effect. 
 Eight, science, art. 
 Eirigh, rising, arise. 
 Ell, flock, he"rd. 
 Ell, battle. 
 Er = earr. 
 Ette =± eadh, age. 
 .&5', death. 
 Eugas, likeness. 
 Eun, bird, hen. 
 Eulogh, escape, flight, 
 Fabhar, favor. 
 Fachaim, fact, reason. 
 Fadail, delay. 
 Faghaim, find, catch. 
 Faigham, speak, L. for. 
 Faime, hem, brim, border. 
 Fair, watch, guard. 
 Faith, heat, fire. 
 Fallain, health, whole. 
 Fan, wander. 
 Fang, raven, vulture. 
 Faoil, deceit, li.faMo, 
 Farran, force, anger. 
 Fas, Void, vase, hollow. 
 Fas, growth, wax. 
 Feach. see, view. 
 Feadhh, widow. 
 Feal, bad, ill, e-vil. 
 Feal, treason, villain. 
 Fear, man, L. vir. 
 Fearg, warrior. 
 Fearb, word, L. verhuni. 
 Fee, weak, feeble. 
 Feathal, bowl, vessel. 
 Feis, pig, swine. 
 
 Fen, wain, wagon. 
 Fes, mouth, face, L. os-. 
 Fiadh, land. 
 Fiatnh, fear. 
 Fiar, crooked, warp. 
 Fine, family, L. genus-, nation. 
 Fioch, wrath, Cr. wuih. 
 Fion, few, small, fine; 
 Fionach, old, ancient. 
 Fionn, white, blank. 
 Fior, true, L. verus. 
 Fios, science, L. video. 
 Firsi, power, strength. 
 Fis, dream j vision. 
 Fiu, worth. 
 Fkdih, flower. 
 Flan, red, flame, blood; 
 Flur, flower, blossom. 
 Floclc, lax, soft, flaccid. 
 Foairn, swarm^ herd. 
 Focal, vowel, word. 
 Foghar, voice,- sound; 
 Fois, rest, quiet., 
 Folg, fleet, active. 
 Follas, plain, clear. 
 Fonn, tune, song. 
 Foras, old, R. stari/. 
 Forcam, learn, instruct. 
 Fortan, fortune, found. 
 Fortil, hardy, L. fortis. 
 Fot, giant. 
 
 Frag, woman, Gr. frau. 
 Fraoch, rage, fury. 
 Fras, ready, active. 
 Froghim, wrong. 
 Fuach, word, vocal, sound. 
 Fuar, cold, chilly, freeze. 
 Fuascraim, fright, fear. 
 JFuatham, hate. 
 Fuil, blood, gore. 
 Fuigam, leave, flee. 
 Fulla, false, lie. 
 Furtachdj comfort. 
 Gabhail, spoil, catch. 
 Gabhal, fork, Gr. gabel, gore. 
 Gath, dart, want. 
 
204 
 
 PHKASIS. 
 
 Gag, chink, cleft. 
 
 Gail, kill. 
 
 Gaillian=gath, L. telum. 
 
 Gaid, father, dad. 
 
 Gair, cry, laugh, Fr. nVe, re- 
 joice, L. gaudiuin. 
 
 Gal, battle, L. bellum. 
 
 Garhh, rough, coafse, grab. 
 
 Garam, warm. 
 
 Garg, rough, fierce, firm. 
 
 Gasun, boy, Fr. gargon. 
 
 Ge, geadh, goose. 
 
 Geal, clear, fair, white. 
 
 Gean, favor, G-. gunsL 
 
 Gearr, short, curt. 
 
 Geilt, wild, mad. 
 
 Gen, wound, knife. 
 
 Gion, will. 
 
 Gmlam, follow. 
 
 Glacam, take, Gr'k lab. 
 
 Glaedh, broad, L. latus, 
 Glam, shout, clamor. 
 Glan, clean, pure. 
 Glas,^ lock, scMoss. 
 Glas, grey, pale, glass. 
 Gleann, glen, falley. 
 Gleire, elect, Fr. elire. 
 Gleith, clean, pure, neat, whitej 
 
 Gr. rein. 
 Gleas, order, class. 
 Glic, wise, G-. Mug. 
 Glinn, light, sky, gleam, 
 Glib, glide, slide. 
 Gloir,^ glory, take. 
 Glor, noise, speech, yell. 
 Geal = glor. 
 Gna, mode, way. 
 Gnae, woman, Gr'k gune. 
 Gneaih, born, L. natus. 
 Gnic, know. 
 
 Gno,^ note, kflown, fame. 
 Go, sea, water, L. a-qua^ 
 Gabhar, goat, Gr. gowl. 
 Goic, joke, sees'. 
 Goirt, sour, bitter, tairt. 
 Goor, light, ore. 
 Gort, hunger. 
 Gradh, charity, L. gradus. 
 Graig, herd, drove. 
 Grata, great, noble^ 
 Grian, gfound, Gr. grund, 
 Grinn, garrison. 
 Grith, skill. 
 Grothal, gravel, sand. 
 Guala, shoulder. 
 Gublia, combat. 
 Guiti, pain, dart. 
 Gul, Wail, weeping. 
 Gus, anger, an-guish. 
 Guth, voice, Vowel. 
 
 I, island. 
 lal, light. 
 
 lar, dark, black, bird. 
 lath, land ; ibh, drink. 
 Ic, cure, eek. 
 Idh, use, L. utor, 
 Idna, weapon. 
 
 II, well, plenty, milch. 
 Inhear, marble. 
 Im-lan, full. 
 In-shiocas, choice. 
 Ingne, nail, Fr. angle. 
 Inntin, mind. 
 
 lolar, eagle, Gr. adler. 
 lomdha, many much. 
 lomhadh, envy. 
 Tonga, flail, claw, hoof. 
 lonnraic, upright. 
 lonn-samhuil same. 
 
 Ir, ahger, ire. 
 
 1 G, like other letters in Celtic, is often for us a prefix. 
 
 "^ We shall constantly notice, in Gaelic, the tendency of its orfhn 
 graphy to identify itself with French. enuency ot its ortho- 
 
 ' C is a prefix precisely as in Greek and German • w» =»,> „i *i. 
 Buffix = L^ ,ue, at the end of the Gaelic wdruke'LaUn' t-o - 
 there are other suffixes, or common endings j as, am, s-am 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 206 
 
 Iris, friend; irr, rear. 
 Itheadh, eating. 
 L-ahhairt,^ say, speech. 
 Lachd, milk, L. lacte. 
 Ladron, thief, L. la^o. 
 Ijag, Tfeak, lag, lax. 
 Laihh, clay, lime. 
 Laiih, many, G. leute, 
 tiamh, hand. 
 Laoghaf, claw, too. 
 £ia, day^ 1, d. 
 Xiocom, bla*«. 
 iara, full; Zast?, load. 
 Lath, youth,' lad. 
 Labe, bed, L. lectus. 
 Le-abhafn, read, fe^o. 
 Jje^hhar, book, ?i6er, (so that 
 ' L. liber is equal to say^ 
 
 read.) 
 Leas, reason, K res. 
 Lew, clear. 
 
 Lemthan, broad, wide, L. latus. 
 Leijgam, let, leaVe, allow. 
 Leimami, leap, jump. 
 LetSbs, light, look. 
 Lia, stone, G'k laas. 
 Liach, spoon, ladle. 
 Liakham^ smooth, glib. 
 Liv^ follow. 
 Loe^, place, Fr. lieu,^ 
 Lorn, lean, bare. 
 Lonn, strong, force. 
 Lot, wool, L. lana. 
 Luach, price, Gr. foAra. 
 Luan, aioon, L. Iwna. 
 Luath, fleet, foot. 
 Luh, loopj hoop. 
 L-uhhra, work, opera. 
 Lnch, mouse. 
 
 Luclidj equal to laitlh. 
 
 Long, ship, sail, p-low, G'k 
 
 p-loion, jj?eo equal to sail. 
 Luth, strength, power 
 i/ac,2 son, born, maiiMs, Go. ma- 
 
 gus, maid. 
 Mad,^ hand. 
 Maiddin, morning. 
 Main, day, G'k ^emera. 
 Madh, field, mead. 
 Mai, king, L. rec/, Sem. mal. 
 Maoin, loVe, mind, think. 
 Moon, mute, dumb, 
 ilfao?, bald, blunt. 
 Marhham, murder. 
 Marc, horse, mare. 
 Meall, ball, blunt. 
 Meogal, medley, mix. 
 Mil, honey, L. mel. 
 Milis,^ sweet, L. mel. 
 Mios, mouth, L. mensis. 
 Mir, part, bit^ 
 Mogh, man. 
 Main, mount. 
 Mois, mode, L. mos. 
 Mor, great, much. 
 Mort, murder. 
 Mucag, mug, cup. 
 Muill, delay. 
 
 Muinam, teach. L. moneo, 
 Mul, multitude. 
 Mur, wall, L. muirus, 
 Nahadh, neighbor. 
 Naoi, ship, L. navis. 
 JVamh, enemy. 
 Nath, science, note, know. 
 NaiJiair, adder, shake. 
 Neal, cloud, L. nuhes. 
 NeamJi, heaven, nuhes. 
 
 1 Abhairt<, with the prefix I, corresponding with Gef. Usm, read, t. 
 iego. 
 
 ^ We find also macgim equal to bear, carry; so mac has the same 
 origin as son, in all languages equal to horn, L. naius, L. puer. 
 
 ^ The forms mad, main, and lamh, are all equal to Latin manus, our 
 hand. 
 
 'Prefix mim^mis, and un=uot, bad, is common in Gaelic. 
 
206 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Weasta, jUst- 
 
 JVeip, turnip. 
 
 M, Dot, thing. 
 
 JVim, do, make. 
 
 Nos, know, mode. 
 
 Nuall, noble. 
 
 Olair, work, opera. 
 
 Og, young, twig. 
 
 Ogh, whole, ear. 
 
 Oir, shore, border. 
 
 Olan, wool. 
 
 On, gain. 
 
 Ong, fire, L. ignis. 
 
 Ord, order, series. 
 
 Pais, passion. 
 
 Paiteog, butter. 
 
 Peall, horse, Fr. chevah 
 
 Plosg, quick; Gr. plotz. 
 
 Pore, pig. 
 
 Rac, kingj L. rex, rege, 
 
 Racan, noise, racket. 
 
 Racht, arose, arrive. 
 
 Rag, wrinkle, rugous, 
 
 Raiih, ent:reaty. 
 
 Rang, rim, border. 
 
 Raon, green. 
 
 Read, thing, Gr. raih, L. res. 
 
 Rad-ham, say, Gr'k reo. 
 
 Readh, rage, fury. 
 
 Raith, went, ran. 
 
 Reim, troop, bandj 
 
 Reo, frost. 
 
 Rith, arm, bracket. 
 
 Rodi, rotten, shrunk. 
 
 Roid, race. 
 
 Roth, wheel, L. rotai 
 
 Ruchd, room. 
 
 Rus, wood, brush, grove. 
 
 Sacham, at-tack, set. 
 
 Saisde, sage. 
 
 Saor, free, S, f. 
 
 Sar, v^ry, Gr. seliri 
 
 Sasat, L. satis. 
 
 Scib, skis', ship. 
 
 Sdaid, state. 
 
 Sdair, story. 
 
 Sdeud, steed. 
 AS'eara, ancient, L. senex, 
 Searbh, sour, L. acer. 
 Searg, seared, dry. 
 Searr, horse, colt. 
 8eis, skill ; sga^ sake. 
 . Sgail, shade, sg, sc, sh, 
 Sgaol, scatter. 
 Sgeil, skill. 
 Sgille, quick, agile. 
 Sglata, slate. 
 Sgraiham, scrape, scratch, 
 
 write, grave, 
 Sguabam, sWeep.' 
 Silam, drop, distil. 
 Sion, chain, bond, tie. 
 Slan, sound, healthy. 
 Sliogam, sleek, smooth, 
 Smuid, smoke, yapor. 
 Sochd, silence. 
 Sodan, joy, L. gaudium. 
 Spre, sparkle. 
 Sread, herd, troop.- 
 Sreamh, stream. 
 Srian, strain, rein. 
 ^tom, tin, Fr. etaini 
 Suil, eye, sun. 
 Sur, search, in-quire. 
 Tahhair, give, L. daho. 
 Tai, deaf, silent, L. taceo. 
 Tais, wet, dank, 
 Talamh, soil, L. terra. 
 Tarmadh, dwell, tarry. 
 Teagh, house, sty, tectum, 
 Teiih, hot, toast. 
 Tiag, sack, G. ta^che. 
 Time, fear, timid. 
 Tig, go, come, L. it. 
 Tin, be-gin. 
 Tioncam,, at-tend. 
 Tir, ground, L. terra. 
 Ting, tight, thick. 
 Toid, whole, total. 
 Tor, lord, sovereign. 
 Torg, de-stroy. 
 Tread, herd, drove. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 207 
 
 Trean, strong, brave. VidJi, care, heed. 
 
 Treotam, trot, come. Vir, fire. 
 
 Trom, heavy, L. gravis, Uisge, water, whiskey, 
 
 Tuile, flood, deluge. Una, hunger. 
 
 Tur, dry, bare, torrid. Ur, earth. 
 
 Ugh, egg ; C/i^-e, wise. , TlacM, delight. 
 
 We have noticed, ip thus reviewing the Gaelic etymology, a 
 striking tendency to the French and German forms of words. 
 The words are very short ; in comparison with the Latin and 
 Greek languages, there are here but very few of what may be 
 called formative syllables or letters. It is not alone the absence 
 of gender and case endings, of endings to denote the persons of 
 the verb and the agreement of the adjective; there are very 
 few of what in other languages we understand by derivative 
 forms — that is, forms developed by the appearance of new syl- 
 lables. Thus, we' find horg for horough, hla for yellow, cearh 
 for silver, cealg for he-guile, cleir for clergy, fis for vision, ha for 
 Latin hojius, difir for difference, duil for delight, fee im feeble. 
 We §nd, also, many instances where one consonant, or vowel, in 
 Gaglic, represents two or more in our own language, as c-am^^ 
 sh^am, a-it=^st-ead, ei-de = clo-th, oir = sh-ore. 
 
 The comparison of Gaelic words which we have mad^ -^ith 
 those whiclj follow them, will easily be understood. Th^ wogrds 
 which are given as Gaelic equivalents, are equal to each other 
 as well as to the Gaelic term itself; and ,the letters of the 
 Gaplic are supposed to correspond with those of its definitions ; 
 ^s, in cail= shield, c = sh, and l=ld; hran==hlack, hr=s^hl, and 
 an==aclc; bord=hrim, i.e. hrd^hrm ; hosd=hoastiiiig, d^ 
 ting — as ting is only a development of t ; bearr=short, h^^sh, 
 rr=—rt, (briefs short). 
 
 Bearing in mind the peculiar representatives or correspond- 
 ents of letters in Gaelic, and Celtic, when compared with other 
 European languages, we find but very, few words there which 
 pannot readily be placed along side some equivalent in English, 
 German, Latin, French, or Greek. Indeed, it is almost as easy 
 to identify Celtic orthography with these, as it is to identify 
 English with German, provided that we proceed in the right 
 manner. 
 
 We might add, also, that the number of Celtic words identi- 
 cal ^ith Semitic, or nearly so, should not escape the notice of 
 any inquirer, as it is really striking. 
 
208 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Welsh Etymology. 
 
 585. 
 Chaled, hard, callous. 
 Bran, crow, raven, black., 
 Gwmwl, cloud, L. ciimuV. 
 Merch, girld, maid. ; 
 
 Ffenestr, -window, finster', 
 Bryn, hill, brow. 
 Dyn, man, d, m. i 
 
 Golwg, look, sight. . i 
 Porsa, pastiire. j 
 
 Adar, birds. 
 
 Melyn, mellow, yellow, ' 
 Coch, red ; Casglu, gather. 
 Go-sod, set, place. 
 Fremin, king, rex, first, 
 Gw-lad, land. 
 Cr?//, strong, G-. kraft, 
 Awdl, ode. 
 Plygu, bend, fold. 
 Cwra, dog, Gr. Tiund. 
 Peclwd, sin, wicked. 
 Miar, briar. 
 
 W^m, lambs, Fr. agneau, 
 Bachgen, boy, mac. 
 Sefyll, stand. 
 Geffyl, horse, Fr. cheval, 
 Arih, b-ear, L, ursus. 
 Llyfr, book, L. liher. 
 Milwyr, soldier, L. miles, 
 Cad.pen, captain. 
 Llythyr, letter. 
 Ddinas, city, town. 
 Peth, thing, L. res. 
 Amser, time. 
 J)dear, terra, earth. 
 Plwm, lead, plumb. 
 Chleddyf, sword, L. gladius. 
 IJiechyd, health. 
 Hehog, hawk. 
 Hwch, swine, hog. 
 Mwygl, muggy. ' 
 Posiaw, pose, puzzle. 
 
 Troed, foot, tread. 
 
 Esgyrn, bone, L. os. 
 
 Pwmp, bump, lump, 
 
 Crim, crimp. 
 
 Cic, foot, kick. 
 
 Peled, bullet. 
 
 Llwyar, ladle.* 
 
 Gwyfr, wire. 
 
 Gwn, gown, Gr. ge-wand, 
 
 Gwalt, welt, hem. 
 
 Crwt, crust. 
 
 Mwg, smoke. 
 
 Plyg, plait, fold. 
 
 Llimp, slim, slender. 
 
 Colpo, cuff, Fr. coMj). 
 
 Stang, tank. 
 
 Chweg, ^weet. 
 
 Saff-wn, shaft, staff. 
 
 Swmwl, stimulus. 
 
 Gwylt, wild, L. velo'x. 
 
 Cwrwf, Gr. Sier. 
 Dewr, strong, L. diV. 
 Haul, sun, L. soZ. 
 ^Ser, star,/ii. stella. 
 Llyn, lake. 
 Prynu, buy, 
 Marw, dead, morte. 
 Clvwerw, bitter, sour. 
 C-loff, lame. 
 Caer, wall, Gr. mauer. 
 Enw, name, 
 ^re/, town, G. (?or/. 
 Go/V, goat, L. capra. 
 G-raig, rock, crag. 
 Gwr, L. i;iV. 
 y»-a, very, L. verus. 
 Cnoi, bite, gnaw. 
 Bach, little, L. pauc-us. 
 Tywyll, dim, dark. 
 Clywed, hear, G'k yfcZwrf. 
 Chwant, want, wish. 
 
 Sufficient has been given of Welsh to show what forms our 
 words have when they appear there, and, besides, enough to 
 give some idea of the way in which Welsh compares with Gaelic 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 209 
 
 Semitic Languages. 
 
 Our selections will be first and mainly from Hebrew. 
 
 We shall notice continually in Semitic, and in Hebrew par- 
 ticularly, that certain initial letters are pure augments, or pre- 
 fixes, for us, and if we would compare them with European 
 words we must cast them oflf entirely. The letter a in Hebrew 
 we shall find often to be such an augment. 
 
 A-hir, strong, force, vir. 
 
 Ae-ben, stone, SI. ka-men. 
 
 A-bag, bind, ball, wick. 
 
 Agam, ignite, burn. 
 
 A-gan, go, gone, tread, G'k 
 baino. 
 
 A-zan, ear, hear, ahouo. 
 
 A-zal, walk, glide, go. 
 
 A-gar, gather, collect, G'k 
 ageiro, our hefd. We 
 find the related forms 
 i/e-gar, gur, garar, 
 
 A-chal, eat, chew, San. g'aZ; to 
 compare with our eat, we 
 ■must strike oif the I, al, 
 which is often a sufiix, 
 like several other letters ; 
 Alb. cha. 
 
 A-dam, red, Ger. roth. 
 
 Adomo, bottom, G. boden. 
 
 Aeder, Adir, wide, (r suf.) 
 
 Ahab, aab, love, G'k agapad, 
 
 Ahal, G. »e?<, folk, oeZ. [L.amo. 
 
 Av, au, L. vel, wish. 
 
 Aud, wood, brand. 
 
 A-val, oval, fool. 
 
 Aid, strong, might, as we see 
 by the form meodh equal 
 to might, — ail is a cognate 
 form, 1, d ; this ail, el, 
 shows that Aha, Alia, 
 God, means power, the 
 Almighty. 
 
 Aor, light, aurora, G'k orao 
 equal to see, stare; ore 
 equal to bright, shine. 
 27 
 
 Aoth = aor, sign, show. 
 Azad = Azal, Ar. zal. 
 A-chaz, catch, L. capio. 
 A-char, after, follow. 
 A-mal, weak, G'k. amalos — 
 
 other forms, malal, mala, 
 
 malaq ; wilt. 
 Ametz, might. 
 
 Ae-7nesh, night, L. nox, even- 
 ing, G. abend. 
 A-mar, o-mer, word (m, w); 
 
 mr, pr, spr, pray, Gael. 
 
 abhar equal to speak, say. 
 A-phal, veil, G.. verhiiUen ; 
 
 forms, aphil, afaf. 
 Aphen, ofen, time, temps. 
 Aphes, pause, cease. 
 A-phar, G. fahren, fare, form, 
 
 pharar, Ar. farak, Ger. 
 
 sprossen, sprout. 
 A-qqo, G. bock, goat. 
 A-rag, string, right, strong, 
 
 firm, force. 
 Arrar, stick, arrow. 
 Aerez, earth, erde. 
 Aesh, ash, fire. 
 Ashur, G. schritt, tread, ashar; 
 
 Chal. atar, tread. 
 Atha, ata, Celt. aeiA, L. it, go, 
 
 come, went. 
 Aenosh, ensh, G. mensch. 
 Baar, bury, G. graben. 
 Beer, G. brunnen, spring. 
 Baash, Ar. bans, Ger. b'ose, 
 
 base, bad. 
 
210 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Bad, part; ladal, Gr. iheil, 
 divide — other forms are, 
 lad-ad, lad-aa, had-aq, 
 had-ar (bdr, brd, spread) 
 — showing 1, d, a, q, r, to 
 be equivalent suffix end- 
 ings. These are letters 
 which we shall often meet 
 with as mere endings. 
 
 Balal, G-'k halh, pour, throw, 
 Fr. meler, blend. 
 
 Bazar, spread, strew. 
 
 Bo, hoa, G'k laino, go. 
 
 Bus, tread, foot, /mss. 
 
 Bur, hor, G. forschen, fragen, 
 break, bury. 
 
 Bosh, bash, shame. 
 
 Baz, booty. 
 
 Baza, Ger. spotfen, mock. 
 
 Baz-aq, piece (j suf.) 
 
 Bata, hatal, hollow, empty, 
 bottle, hauch. 
 
 Biyn, deem, b, d, L. video, 
 G'k phaino, mean, medi- 
 um, think. 
 
 Biyra, burg. 
 
 Bajfitli, beth, dwell, house, 
 a-bode. 
 
 Bacha, weep, G. weinen, G'k 
 dalcru. 
 
 Bal-aq, pour, spill; hal-a, 
 bal-al, hal-ag. 
 
 Bal-am, swell. 
 
 Bana, build, G. hauen. 
 
 Bead, a-bout. 
 
 Baat, beat, tread, walk. 
 
 Baar, burn, brand. 
 
 Baal, boil, flow, swell. 
 
 Baqa, split, stream, brook, G. 
 hack, break ; haq, haqaq, 
 gush, pour. 
 
 Boqer, early, morn ; so we use 
 break in day-break, dawn. 
 
 Bar, boy, born, L. puer. 
 
 1 ff is a prefix in Hebrew which 
 the g of Europe. 
 
 Bara, harad, haraz, stick, 
 stab, brad, dart; pare 
 equal to cut ; harach, 
 break, is a related form. 
 
 Bara forms, S. kar, L. paro, 
 part, break ; harar, cut, 
 part. 
 
 Gad,^ go, come. 
 
 Geeh, high, G. hoch. 
 
 Gav, heave, high, heap, cave, 
 bow, back, ridge, hollow 
 — all founded on the idea 
 of concave = convex. So 
 we find the gee, slightly 
 varying, representing all 
 those meanings ; forms, 
 gav, gav-av, gav-ah, gav- 
 al, gav-ach, gav-ar, gav- 
 ash. We see here one of 
 the • principal means of 
 multiplying derivatives in 
 Semitic, that of varying 
 the final letter, with a 
 corresponding variation in 
 signification. 
 
 Ge-hor, force, strong, German 
 ge-waU and kraft. 
 
 Ga-bal, belly, G. gauch. 
 
 Ge-her, ge-ver, L. vir, man. 
 
 Gadal, allied with gab, gav, 
 ■ heap, means great ; gdl 
 = gld, grd, grand. 
 
 Gadaa, cut, hew. The whole 
 family of words meaning 
 cut, pierce, part, shear, 
 shave, etc., etc., are iden- 
 tical in Greek, Ger., and 
 Sem., as a slight inspec- 
 tion will show. 
 
 Gadar, hard, grd, hrd. 
 
 Gubh, guv, hew. 
 
 Gur, draw, deer, tliier. 
 
 Ga-zar, shear, cut, pare. 
 
 Ga-cheleih, coal. 
 
 is very common, identical, too, with 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 211 
 
 Giyl, Ar. hal, coil, Gr. liohl, 
 
 cylinder, G'k kuldos. 
 Giyr, corner, short, curt. 
 Galab, clip, Gr. fflatt. 
 Galgal, galal, foil, wheel; 
 
 Russ. JcolO, G. kreis, circa. 
 Galah, walk, wallow. 
 Galach, Or. glatt, callow. 
 Gam, heap, high, cumu-late, 
 
 aug-ment. 
 Ga-mal, ga-imar, mass, much, 
 
 multns, viel. 
 Gaph ^gam. 
 Ga-nab, knth, steal. 
 Garad, scratch, grate. 
 Gaph-an, heap, curve. 
 Ga-rah, raise, e-rect. 
 Gerah, corn. 
 
 Ga-ral, rough, raise, ran. 
 Ga-raph, grave, tear, rent, rip. 
 Garar, turn, G. kehren, schar- 
 
 ren. 
 Gash-am, harsh, fast. 
 Ba-har, speak, pray (==am.ar), 
 
 word, Gaelic la-bairt = 
 
 Dagah, dagal, deck, clothe. 
 Dor, dur, tarry, during, [d-gl). 
 Dachah, stick, tap, beat — ^all 
 
 the family of beat, strike,' 
 
 press, bind, etc. 
 Dal, door. 
 
 Diyn, deem, doom) just. 
 Dalah, L. tollo, bear. 
 Dam, blood, Fr. sang. 
 Damah, like, same. 
 Dapaq'= dachah. 
 Darag, tread, Gr. trecho. 
 Barer = darag, turn. 
 Darash = darar, thrash, 
 
 search, yra^rere, break. 
 He-hel,'^ blow, breath. 
 Madah, lead, guide. 
 Ha^dar, draw, break.' 
 
 iJJis a common prefix. 
 
 » Ch (one letter) is often a prefix. 
 
 Havah, Ar. hiiach, Ger. hauch, 
 puflF, breathe. ' 
 
 Se-vah, be, was. 
 
 ^oj*, G. herg, rock, R. (j'ora. 
 
 Halak, walk, go. 
 
 Halal, Ar. Aa?, clear, AeZ?. 
 
 Hamas, mass, gather. 
 
 Zehan, gain, win. 
 
 Ze-hul, dwell. 
 
 -Z^i'cZ, seethe, cook. 
 
 ^Tif^, guide; zur, press. 
 
 Zakar, think (r suf.). 
 
 Zal-al, eat, feast, gal. 
 
 Zam-ar, song, sing. 
 
 Zem-an, time. 
 
 Zaak, squeak. 
 
 .Zara, strew, spread; zaraq, 
 zarar. 
 
 Cha-bal,^ bind, ball ; related, 
 cha-bar, cha-bash, cha-bad, 
 chd-bab, (notice 1, b, r, sh, 
 th, m, q, are the common 
 suffix letters). 
 
 Cha-bath, bake. 
 
 Chad-aa, cut, L. acer, axe. 
 
 Chul = giyl. 
 
 Chomah G. mauer, wall. 
 
 Choph, coast, brim. 
 
 Chur, hole, r, 1. 
 
 Oha-za, See, L. video. 
 
 Chd-zon, vision. 
 
 Cha-zaq, fast, G'k ischus. 
 
 Ghaya, live, G'k zao. 
 
 Chaka, wait, watch. 
 
 Gha-kam, G. kennen, sage. 
 
 Chalal, wound, kill. 
 
 Cham, warm. 
 
 Gham-ar, scum, foam. 
 
 CTien, kind, favor. 
 
 Gha-sah, shun. 
 
 Ghatab, out, hew ; in Ar., 
 ^I'toS = book, piece; writ 
 = carved, graved, cut. 
 
 Chasaph, G'k skapto, shave. 
 
212 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 Chapha, cover, cap, deck. 
 Ohaphar (krf), grave, carve. 
 Chereb, sword, b, d. 
 Charah, char, burn. 
 Charath, Gt'k haratto, grave. 
 Char-ash, chore, vfork, Ger. 
 
 arheit; raa,char-ah,char- 
 
 at. 
 Cha-sah, silent, sigao. 
 Tus, toss, Gr. stossen. 
 Tov, tob, good, t, g. 
 Taphash,. fat, G'k pachus. 
 Taraph, tear. 
 Ye-or, river, run. 
 Yaal, fool. 
 Ya-al, go, Fr. oiler, 
 Ya-ba.b, Gr. ru/en, babble. 
 Yabal, Gr. jubeln, L. jubeo. 
 Ya-bal, stream, flow, go. 
 Ya-bash, a-bash. 
 Yaga, yoke, bind, press. 
 Yagabh, Gr. adeem. 
 Yaga, L. ago, act, vrork 
 Yagar, fear, horror. ^ 
 Yadah, throw, li.jactb. 
 Yadaa, know, oida, L. video. 
 Yom, day, Gr'k emera, year. 
 Yach-adh, yoke, eA;a, one. 
 Yacham = cham, warm. 
 Jom, wine, G'k oimos. 
 Ya-hol, can, could, Cel. (/ra?. 
 Ya-ladh, L. latum, born. 
 JeZer? = child, brought, born. 
 Ya-sadh, ya-sab, set, place. • 
 Jaara, yearn, G. gierig. 
 Ya-za, go ; Ar.ja = go. 
 Ta-zar, form, S. Aar, zmj". 
 Ya-qabh, scoop, cave. 
 Ya-qar, G. schioer, L. gravis. 
 Ye-qar, worth, dear, Latin 
 
 carus. 
 Yara, throw, werfen, arrow. 
 Ya-shar, straight. 
 Kat-had, heavy, G. bar-us. 
 
 ' /or T [ya) is a common Semitic 
 ^ Kis often a prefix. 
 
 Ka-bash, wash, tread. 
 
 Ka-baa, bend, bow. 
 
 Kabar, great, G. "grab, Ger. 
 
 AeJera, heave, high; kabrb, 
 
 gabab, gabar. 
 Kad, G'k kadus. 
 Kadar, gather, L. tur-ba. 
 Kava, G'k Icguo, char. 
 Kul, hold, G. halten. 
 Kum, high, heap, cumu'. 
 ^t4?i = hum, stand-up, raise, 
 
 Arab, kan = be, stand. 
 Kus, ball, cocoon, kuklos. 
 Kur, roll, turn, ball. 
 Kush, heap. 
 Kid, G. keil, dart. 
 Kokar, circle, G. kreis. 
 Kol, all, whole. 
 Ka-labh, G'k lab, grab. 
 Keleb, whelp, L. vulpes. 
 Kalaa, full, complete. 
 Keliy, fasten, hold. 
 Kal-am, call, speech; Ar. AaZ 
 
 = say, kul = voice. 
 Kalaph, kalaa, kalabh, grab, 
 
 G. greifen, claw, club, G'k 
 
 kolapto. 
 Ken, when. 
 
 Kemo, L. quomodo, how. 
 Kau-am, wound. 
 Kaph, cave, heap, hollow. 
 Ka-phal, fall, fold. 
 Kaphaph (kff), G'k kampo, 
 
 cumbo, bow, bend, cramp, 
 
 scoop, hollow ; forms, /ta- 
 ^/la, gaiai, ya-kav, ka- 
 
 vah, ku, na-qab, gav. 
 Kaphar, cover, scoop. 
 Ke-pliath, fasten. 
 Kar, L. aries, G'k ^a?-. 
 -Sor, G'k koros. ■ 
 Karah, grave, carve. 
 Kerem, garden. 
 Karar, turn, G. drehen. 
 prefix. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 213 
 
 Karaih, cut, part.) 
 
 Keter, G'k kitaris, crown. 
 
 Katuth, contusus. 
 
 Ratal, chain, G. Icette. 
 
 Kat-am, cut, stick. 
 
 Kuton-eth, coat, G'k Jciton. 
 
 Laat,^ L. lateo, hide. 
 
 Leom, G'k feos, folk. 
 
 Laam, L. Zt^ro, bind, tie. 
 
 Laba, lava, lion, L. Zeo. 
 
 Lah-ah, laq, love. 
 
 Laban, white, L. aZSa. 
 
 Leb-ush, c-loth. 
 
 Laab, flame, lamp, light. 
 
 I/aha, languish, lechen. 
 
 Laat, laab, burn. 
 
 Lava, bind, L. Zi^o, Ze^o. 
 
 Lucha, light, L. Zwceo. 
 
 Lachach,'^ Iqq, G, leclcen. 
 
 Lach-a/m, a variation of ?acA- 
 acA, lick, and of akal = 
 eat, showing I to be pre- 
 fixed, and to be divided, 
 l-ach-am, m, am, being 
 siifiix, and ach = eat ; it 
 equals comb-at, G. kampf, 
 la-cham. 
 
 La-kadh, catch, G'k lab. 
 
 La-tash, tap, thump. 
 
 Lamadh, learn, beat, Greek 
 math ; l-ama-dh. 
 
 Laag, speak, L. lego. 
 
 La-path, wind, packr 
 
 La-qach, catch, take. 
 
 La-qat, gather, co-llect. 
 
 La-shon, tongue, L. lingua. 
 La-shadh, suck, lick. 
 La-thaa, Isite, tooth. 
 Ma-a/mar == amar. 
 Ma-boa, in-go, entrance. 
 Me-golla, roll, volume. 
 Ma-gan, give, geben. 
 Me-gamma, heap, gam. 
 Mo-debar, drift, drive. 
 Ma-dad, G. denen, stend, tend, 
 
 mete, measure. 
 Mo-deyan, zank, wrangle. 
 Me-dar, tarry, dwell. 
 Ma-halach, walk, go. 
 Mug, m-ove, go, mog. 
 M-ora, fear, horror. 
 Muth, die, mors. 
 Mazag, mix. 
 Ma-zah, G. sauge.n. 
 Mo-zah, fear, quake. 
 Me-zomma, sin. 
 Mo-zem-or, sing, song. 
 Me-chiyr, hire, price. 
 Me-tah, extend. 
 Malea, fill, whole. 
 Mo-lla^ word, Zo^ros. 
 Malach, salt. 
 Me-lech, rego, lego (r, 1), Gael. 
 
 maZ, king, reg-e. 
 Ma-lal, speak, talk, Za?eo. 
 Maraq, G. am,ergo, rub. 
 Marar, turn, press, force, run, 
 
 sour. 
 Ma-shal, rule, /ten-. 
 Maat, smooth, ^faw. 
 
 ' i changes with re, as lachaz and nacAaz ; with r, as aZw ; with rf, as 
 rflc^and ral ; it is often introduced — besides being suffixed, as we 
 have seen before. 
 
 2 The cha-ch, gg, is one of the many instances of double letters at the 
 end, showing clearly that as a universal principle in Semitic, words 
 grow by repeating the final letters. These doubles again vary, as 
 double letters so often do, and instead of lechch, Igg, we might have 
 Igr, Igt, Igk, Izm, Igsh - — those gr, qt, qk, qm, qsh, being double as much 
 as kk,qk, qq. 
 
 ^ Mis pretty uniformly a prefix, few words occurring with this ini- 
 tial where it has not clearly this office. 
 
214 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Naa, raWji n, r. 
 
 Naad, wet, Gr. nass. 
 
 Naam, G'k muo, roar. 
 
 Na-lal, fall, flow, fool. 
 
 Na-gad, go, gad, K. chod. 
 
 Nagiyd^ guide, prince. 
 
 Nag-aa, flog, strike ; forms 
 nag-oil^ nag-aph, nag-ach, 
 Na-dibh, give, L. do. [nag-as. 
 Nnhh, heave. 
 Nua, nod, G'k neuo. 
 Num., sleep, L. somn-us. 
 JVur, fire, Gr./eur. 
 Na-chal, hold, Jialten. 
 Na-zal, glide. 
 Mu-tal, L. tollo, talah. 
 Na-tar, na-zar, be-ware, L. 
 Nasas, sick, nosos. [tueor. 
 
 Naar, boy, L. puer, new. 
 Na-phach, G./achen. 
 Na-qaph, cuff, Pr. coi<p. 
 "Na-shak, bite, G'k c?a£ 
 Na-shal, fail, slide. 
 Na-tibh, G'k tribos, tread. 
 Na-zar = L. <Meo>-. 
 Na-than, give, ge-than. 
 ■Na-thar, G'k <reo, tremble. 
 Na-qar, bore, carve. 
 Saba, G. zechen, suck, drink, 
 
 L. 6;"6o. 
 Sa-gad, L. carfo, fall. 
 Sa-gar, grab, hold. 
 Sadar, order, rank. 
 >S'ms, horse, L. e-quus. 
 Suph, L. sumo, shave. 
 Sak-ach, deck, thick-; forms 
 
 sk-r, sk-th, sk-1, sk-n. 
 Salaa, sileo, silent. 
 Salach, walk. 
 Sa.man, sign, G'k semain. 
 Saphar, scrape, scribe; sipher 
 = book, scrip, bit, — L. 
 Zi6e?' belongs with it. 
 
 Seren, prince, czar. 
 
 Abhad,'^ oper-ate, ergo, G. ar- 
 
 beit, S. kar. 
 Adar = sadar, order. 
 
 Aeder, herd. 
 
 Aud, wind, wood. 
 
 Aod, again, L. iterum. 
 
 Aun, G. wohnen, dwell. 
 
 .4ez, G'k at'x, goat, aie^e. 
 
 jliV, gir, fire, warm. 
 
 Auph, guph, cover, fly. 
 
 Ala, high, L. alta. 
 
 Alaz, G'k alalazo. 
 
 Am, L. ^ews, G'k dSm-os. 
 
 Am-ar, L. mergo. 
 
 Ana, ai;iswer. 
 
 j4ma(i, stand, qam. 
 
 Aphal, gaph, hill, swell. 
 
 Aphar = chaphar. 
 
 Atsabh, G. schaffen, shape. 
 
 jig'a?, aqar, turn, AeAr. 
 
 Aepher, heifer. 
 
 Arag, L. rugio. 
 
 Ara, bare. 
 
 A-rach, aram, G. rilsten, rich- 
 ten, -rect, raise. 
 
 Araph, strip. 
 
 ^saA, L. facia, act, a^-o. 
 
 J.<aA, age, L. aetas. 
 PeaA, face, mouth, L. os. 
 Pa^a, L.pugna, beat. 
 Fucha, blow, L.pneo, ruch. 
 Pur, part, lot. 
 Pa-zar, spread, strew. 
 PacJiar, paar, bake, parch. 
 Pala-a,pala-h, pal-ad, pal-ag, 
 
 pa-lach, split. 
 -Pe%, flood, Jj.fluss. 
 Pal-at, pal-az, pala-th = pal- 
 ad. 
 Palaih, flow, fleet. 
 -Pasas, pause, piece. 
 Pasach, pass, pas-a^-, pas-al. 
 
 ^ ^ The letter aym, which we will represent by a, is closely related to 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 215 
 
 Paa-l, G'k poieo, facio, Icar, 
 Ar. faal, gaal. 
 
 Paam, beat, vanish. 
 
 Parad, spread ; forms, par, 
 par-as, par-am, par-az, 
 par-aq, par-ach, par-at, 
 par-ah, par-ar, par-ag. 
 
 Perach, G. spross, sprout. 
 
 Pash-at, pash-aa, pash-ash, 
 pash-ar, are other forms 
 of parad, where sh = r, 
 meaning 5reak, split, 
 spread. 
 
 Pdtah, L. pateo, o-pen. 
 
 Patal, battle, beat. 
 
 Paar, ap-pear, ^areo. 
 
 Ts-aba, go, G-'k bad, war. 
 
 Tse-baa, will, wish. 
 
 Tsadh, side. 
 
 Tsa-diq, just, G'k to-dikaion ; 
 in Syr.a(?ag':= right, just. 
 
 Tsa-hal, G. hell, glance. 
 
 Tsa-har, G'k oraO, ore. 
 
 Tsovah, li.Jubeo. 
 
 Tsalal, ye\], G. schall. 
 
 Tsur, turn. 
 
 Tsa-adh, go, itu, G. steig. 
 
 Tsaag, squeak, cry. 
 
 Tsaphah, show, G'kpAow. 
 
 Tsachaq, joke, laugh. 
 
 Qabar, grb, G. be-grdben. 
 
 Qadal, cut, G'k kedao. 
 
 Qava, wish. 
 
 Qoi, voice, glas, call. 
 
 Qum, raise, be, been. 
 
 Qat-ab, qat, qat-al, cut. 
 
 Qat-an, little, bit, cut. 
 
 Qal, light, G. schnell, a-gile. 
 
 Qat-al ^= gal, L. levis. 
 
 Qa-mal, wilt. 
 
 Qaph-ah, heap, cover. 
 
 Qaraa, call, cry, /cra^. 
 
 Qanaz, hunt. 
 
 Qa-zer, short, kurt, cut. 
 
 Qeraa,'CTy, call, read. 
 
 ' (Sis prefix. 
 
 Qarebh, G. Ane^, war. 
 Qarobh, proach, near. 
 Raah, see, G'k o-rao, L. reor, 
 
 think. 
 Eesh, res, head, L. rea; in 
 
 Corn, my = rex; in Ar. 
 
 ras' res = prince, first, 
 
 fore. 
 Shem, name. 
 Rabha, gross, G. grab. 
 Ragal, rd, tread, go. 
 Regel, foot, tread, Wei. troed. 
 Radah = regel, tread. 
 Raat, ruz, run. 
 Rucha, G. hauch, Ger. ge-ruch, 
 
 spirit. 
 i^Mm, raise, a-ram, high, gwrn. 
 Ribh, riv, strive. 
 Rakabli, d-rive, ride. 
 RapJiah, rap, G'k rap. 
 Raq-aq, strike. 
 Sa-gabJi, high, = gav. 
 Such, shoot,- stock. 
 Sum, set. 
 Sur, shear, part, cut, strive, 
 
 rub, G. herr. 
 Sachaq, joke, laugh. 
 Sachah, see, seek, sak-al, hal 
 
 = light, look. 
 Saar, rough, raw, hair. 
 Sa-phaq, pick, peck, strike. 
 Saraph, burn, scorch. 
 Sar, sarah, czar, prince, G. 
 
 herr, sir, res. 
 Shaa, see, show. 
 Shab-ab, cut, saw. 
 Shebet, staff, stock, scepter. 
 Sha-bal, G. waUen. 
 Sha-bar, break. 
 She-beth, dwell, beth. 
 Shir, sing, sa,ng, speak, L. reor, 
 
 cry. 
 Shith, set, lay. 
 Shakach, seek, wish. 
 Shalach, G. schicken, siellen. 
 
216 
 
 PHEASIS. 
 
 Shelet, Gr. scMld. 
 Shalal, spoil. 
 Shamat, smooth. 
 Shamaa, hear, 11. slu. 
 Shena, sleep, L. somnus. 
 Shaar, shudder, fear. 
 
 Shaqaa, sink, drink. 
 Tama, wonder, G'k thauma. 
 Taph-apJi, tap, rap, tup. 
 Tur, turn, ring, drehen. 
 Twph. G'k tupto, tap. 
 TapJi-aph = tupJi. 
 
 587. The style of orthography is essentially the same in 
 Syriao and Arabic as in Hebrew, and we will content ourselves 
 with but a few words from these two — taking first the Syriac. 
 
 Garo, an-ow, dart. 
 Gudo, crowd, troop. 
 Acho, brother, 
 Atho, go, L. it, Celt. aeth. 
 Anosh, man, G. mensch. 
 Apha, face, over. 
 Gunio, shame. 
 GalapTi, grave, sculp, 
 Zan, kind, L. gentus. 
 Zaq, call, L. voco. 
 Ghiro, free. 
 Ghoh, debt, owe. 
 Chado, joy, L. gaudium. 
 Chaya, life, G'k zao. 
 Chor, see, stare, cer-no. 
 Z-uro, rock, G't or-os. 
 Tarn, taste, 
 Taraph, strike. 
 I-lapJi, learn, take. 
 Kus, cup. 
 Karyo, sorrow, sorry. 
 
 Laho, liver, heart. 
 
 Machor, morrow. 
 
 Ma-tho, go, come, (m prefix). 
 
 Ma-lo, word, G'k logos. 
 
 Mazo, may, might. " 
 
 Mora, mister, sir, G. herr. 
 
 Sar, S. har, make, schaffen. 
 
 Raho, grow. 
 
 Ragam, stone, rock. 
 
 Rucho, wind, breath. 
 
 AMho, hate. 
 
 Azar, treasury. 
 
 Bish, base, bad. 
 
 Bank, break, knee, bend. 
 
 Gaibo, choose, heap. 
 
 Ghba, common. 
 
 Ba-niar, ad-mire. 
 
 Gvr, form, fi-gure. 
 
 Adar, aid. 
 
 Ghusa, love, ck, k, 1. 
 
 Cha-za, saw. 
 
 Very few words can be found in the Hebrew list that cannot 
 be easily recognized in Syriac, as well as in Arabic ; besides 
 there are a great many Words in Syriac so nearly like Greek' 
 that they are erroneously thought to be borrowed from that 
 language. 
 
 The following are from Arabic. 
 
 A-zar, power, force. 
 
 A-far, fare, go, G. fahren. 
 
 A-fal, fall. 
 
 A-hil, rex, Icar. 
 
 A-mar, say, word, mando. 
 
 Ansan, man, nas. 
 
 Aal, folk, Heb. am. 
 
 Awzz, goose. 
 
 Aad, hard.' 
 
 Baga, begin. 
 
 Bara, form, make, free. 
 
 Barad, frigid, freeze. 
 
 Baq, back, rest. 
 
 Bar, per-ish. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 217 
 
 Goal, haf, make. Ra-gib, wish, L. ciipio. 
 
 Gamal, collect, cumulate. Riih, rest, Gr. ruhig. 
 
 Gaz, go, went. Eaa, g-row. 
 
 i^arr, burn, warm. San, tooth, I,, dens. 
 
 ^asaraj handsome. Sail, schall, yell. 
 
 Hall, L. solvo, loose. Sanaa, do, G. ?Aun. 
 
 Hdlu, It. dulcis. Sar, form, Aar. •« 
 
 ^ar, L. curro, run. yoZ, long, tall, SI. rfaZ. 
 
 5o*, watch, wait. Alam, Urn, know, teach, learn, 
 
 Karaj, e-gress. Heb. lamadh. 
 
 Hdzir, horror. Ala, high, L. alta. 
 
 Kan, sham. Amtk, gamj common. 
 
 Kal, false. Uud, wood. 
 
 Daa, daga, talk, call. Fana, vanish. 
 
 Dall, tell, L. dico. Qaddr, could, val-eo.^ 
 
 Zdrd, L. creo, grow. Qa-sar, short. 
 
 Zardb, sharp. Qal, call, say, (te?). 
 
 .ZaW, vile, ill. Qam = lean = stand. 
 
 Ra-gaai go, re-turn. Kalaz, collect. 
 
 Ra-gal, foot, walk. Laqat, L. legit, -lect. 
 
 589. Note. — Liable as we necessarily are, in a work new 
 and peculiar as this is, to be misunderstood, or not understood 
 at all, we may with propriety add a few words here to explain 
 and justify the positions we have taken. 
 
 It has been objected, that we pay too much attention to the 
 growth of words, that we do not sufficiently regard the decay 
 which 4lways accompanies growth, or follows it — and the 
 exception is perhaps well taken. It must be confessed that 
 there is no more universal or important law in language than 
 this, that words decrease or decline by decay, quite as surely 
 aud constantly as they increase or grow by development. This 
 is the law of nature everywhere. But we have not thought it 
 proper, here, to go into an extended discussion, such as would 
 be necessary to point out the line of distinction between words 
 which have become degraded by decay, and those, on the other 
 hand, which have increased by development. Generally, with 
 the data so far at the command of philologists, it is almost 
 impossible to decide whether in a certain form which we find, a 
 word has become reduced by decay, like the withering plant, or 
 is in the first stages of development, as the tender germ. Again, 
 it is often difficult to decide, in reference to two words, which is 
 the older ; thus, we have regarded the Greek math and lab as 
 older than manth and lamb, the latter having grown from the 
 former by development ; but Dr. Lewis contends, and perhaps 
 with as good reasons as we could bring to the contrary, that the 
 1 Sound J' as i in Semitic. 
 28 
 
218 I PHBASIS. 
 
 reverse is true, that math, and lab are the later forms, arising 
 hy reduction from the others. 
 
 But whether it is difficult or easy to draw the lines in ques- 
 ' tion, we have found it sufficient for our purpose to show that it 
 is a law in nature that words, that languages, do live and grow, 
 as the vegetable and the animal (and hence must necessarily 
 depay also), without making the least attempt to show what 
 words are decaying, and ^hat words, again, are increasing by 
 growth. And, in very many instances where we have said that 
 a certain word is a development from some shorter form, if some 
 one should claim that they have rather arisen by decay from 
 forms still longer and' fuller, we should not object to it. 
 
 590. To those who would feel alarmed at'the evil tendencies of 
 some of the doctrines of this work, or, at least, at the gross 
 absurdities they must inevitably lead to, we have only to call to 
 mind the fact, or phenomenon, known to. every true thinker, 
 that philosophizing on any subject, when carried to extremes, 
 will always lead to absurdities ; that, if you would try the great 
 ocean of thought, you must be content to keep close to the 
 shore, resting, assured that if you venture beyond your depth, 
 you are certain to go down, and be buried in the depths of its 
 dark and silent waters. He who has not had this experience, 
 wherever may have been his path of inquiry, has surely never 
 pursued thought very far. 
 
 591. It is no objection, again, that the reader may know some- 
 thing to be true which is quite contrary to some proposition in 
 this work, and that what is found in one part of it may not seem 
 to be exactly consistent with what is stated in some other part; 
 a great many very different things may be true of one and the 
 same subject — counting, mark you, from different stand-points; 
 thus, a man six-foot-eight is very tall (high) compared with 
 common men, but by the side of a respectable liberty pole he 
 would be called quite the opposite. The question should be, as 
 we understand it, whether the proposition is in itself true ; are 
 the facts such as they are stated to be ; are the conclusions from 
 them legitimate ? No matter about the consequences, or about 
 the other things that, no doubt, are likewise true. 
 
 592. And, finally, we ask those who complain that we identify 
 and confound all things in language, to reflect and inquire, and 
 see if they do not find that the identification of the unknown 
 (which we exar.iine) with the known (with which we are fami- 
 
 ,liar) is |he sole business of all inquirers, and if that identifica- 
 tion is 'not all there is of progress in science. He who sets 
 about showing you that the splendid locomotive is but a devel- 
 opment of the tea-kettle (on wheels), that the law by which the 
 planets revolve in their orbits is the same as that by which the 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 219 
 
 apple falls to the ground, that the pretty flower with all its 
 variety of sepals, petals, stamens and pistils, is simply a leaf 
 again and again repeated in all its changes of shape and coloring, 
 busies himself solely with that identification which constitutes 
 the basis of this work. 
 
PART II. 
 
 HISTOKY OF LAlfGUAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 593. When we treat of the English, we must also treat of the 
 Anglo-Saxon, for the English takes its origin from the Anglo- 
 Saxon, and there is no definite dividing line to distinguish the 
 one from the other. Somewhere between 450 and 550, we 
 cannot be precise about the time, England was invaded and 
 settled by tribes from Germany. The foothold they gained was 
 never wholly lost ; they received accessions from time to time, 
 and thus became the prevailing and fundamental people of the 
 British Isles. Who it was that they replaced, what was the 
 language of these aborigines, are problems that carry us too far 
 back in the darkness of ages yet to be solved. Whatever was 
 done, or whatever existed before the arrival of these German 
 tribes, (Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, as they have been termed), 
 ^relates to a people without history and without record ; we must 
 be content to remain in passive ignorance of these ancient days, 
 or to amuse ourselves with mere fanciful conjecture. 
 
 594. For us, as philologists, we must start with the Anglo or 
 the English-Saxon. As might be expected for history that 
 dates back from us at least 1300 years, much of even this is 
 questionable and uncertain. It is agreed that German is the 
 basis of the English, that the Anglo-Saxon is German re-formed 
 add re-wrought, and hence we are certain that German people 
 are the stock out of which or on which has grown the English 
 people ; indeed, philology can prove all this without the aid of 
 history ; but the German people were, like all rustic and aborio-- 
 inal people, a nation of tribes. It is not probable that one tribe 
 alone made and maintained its settlement in EnHand ■ indeed 
 we find different dialects in England, and these^ dialects could 
 not have had one and a common base. 
 
 595. Three names are common in history as denotino- those 
 tribes which, or parts of which, are said thus to have left their 
 homes to settle in England, the Jutes, from Jutland, the Saxons 
 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 221 
 
 from Saxony, and the Angles, supposed to have been located in 
 northern Germany. But all this is CE^^!ed in question ; it has 
 been- claimed that Jutes and i Saxons were not different, and 
 that, such a people as the Apgles,. from whose name that of the 
 English is claimed to have come, never existed, or at least never 
 had, a "local habitation." But , all these are points we gladly 
 pass over; they affprd little amusement, less profit, and infinite 
 trouble- \ * 
 
 596. From about the latter part of the, 8th century, the Danes 
 and other Scandinavian ^people inade frequent incursions into 
 England, often for the mere purpose of plunder, but again with 
 the apparent design of a permanent settlement. Under Canute 
 and his sonsj the Daiuish was used as the court language ; but 
 as the Panis,b. or Scandinavian settlement and, mastery of the 
 country, was of comparatively short duration, it does not appear 
 that their language had any material effect upon.thP de.velop- 
 ment of the Saxon-of-England. The precise, or even approx- 
 imate, value of tha;t influence hag not as yet, been ascprtained. 
 
 597. A more important, because more lasting, influence was 
 that of the; 'Norman, Erencb- The period of its, introduction 
 usually dates from the yicfory of William, o:C Normandy, at the 
 battle of .Hastings, in the year one, thousand and sixty-six. But 
 Norman Prenph ^as introduced, though we may no.t say fixed, 
 in England many years before tbis., ' Edwar4 the Confessor was 
 a Frenchman by, educatipii) and, inspired with a Ipte for Nor- 
 man customs and Norman language, he never, ceased in his 
 endeavor i to make them, pppular and predominant, The effort 
 to root out the Saxon and put Norman French in its place was, 
 however, under William, carried, on in .a, more persistent and 
 systematic manner. This French was not alQne made the court 
 language and the language of tbe, higher classes of people ; it 
 was ordered to be taught in the schools ; it was the language in 
 which the laws were written,; an<J: in which legal papers were to 
 be ; drawn., ,Yet with, all the§e efforts, carried on for years, sust 
 tained by all the power of ,kings and their, nobles^ thie English 
 still remained a Saxon, that is a .German, language. And those 
 very kings vfere compelled jtheimselves J;0! turij from teachers ^of 
 French to .learners of Saxon; so hard is the way of him. who 
 undertakes tp destroy or change the spirit of a language, instead 
 ofbeing content tO; cultivate jt as it is, or, at most, with .changing 
 its .direction. , . , ., .i ., .| 
 
 598. This Norman French, has b^en the nieansj no doubt, of 
 it(trpducing many,iFreneh: terms, but it has pomore changed 
 the true. character and inherent spirit, pf the, language than has, 
 the Latin inthpse European countries ^here ,it,was used., as the 
 language of |Soience^, But we must bear in tnind^ finally, that. 
 
222 PHEASIS. 
 
 the Norman French in its native land bordered on the German, 
 and that even there it has much that is identical v^ith German; 
 and if we find the English in the end somewhat assimilated to 
 it, we must conclude that it was because of the original likeness 
 in their natures. 
 
 599. Some there are who endeavor to give the very year 
 (1356 and 1362 have beep named) from which the English, 
 as opposed to the Anglo-Saxon, is to date its existence ; but we 
 shall content ourselves with treating the English and the Anglo- 
 Saxon as one and the same language, wearing diflFerent dresses, 
 and presenting a difierent appearance in the various periods of 
 the world and stages of its existence. 
 
 600. We will illustrate the nature of these two languages, or 
 two forms of one language, by giving numerous examples, com- 
 mencing with the Anglo-Saxon, and giving the age, when we 
 happen to know it. 
 
 601. We will start with the Lord's Prayer in Anglo-Saxon, 
 of about the Ninth century, (called also Dano-Saxon) : 
 
 Fader ure, thu the earth on Heofenum 
 Si thin Naima gehalgod ; To he cume thin Rice 
 Geumrthe thin willa on Eorthan swa swa on 
 Jleo/num. Urne ge ddgwanlican. Hlaf syle us 
 to dag, Andforgyfus ure gyltas, swa swa we 
 fo'rgyfo'th urum Gyltendwn. 
 And ne geliidde thu us on Costnung. Ac alyse 
 us of Yfie. 
 Ure, our ; thu, the, thou, that, or who ; on, in ; si, be (Ger. 
 set;) ge.halgod, is our hallowed, holied; ta-he-cume, impera. 
 come, with prefix to and be ; rice, rick, Lat. regnum ; ge-wurthe, 
 Ger. werden, be, become ; swa-swa, so-so, so-as; urne, our, ourenj 
 ge, every, or as a mere prefix ; claghwanlican hlaf, daily loaf, or 
 bread ; syle, send, Ger. stellen ; gyltas, guilt, Ger. schuld, debt, 
 should ; gyltendum, owing-ones ; in geliidde, lead, ge is prefix ; 
 costnung has, in other dialects, the form corung, koring, k bein<i 
 a prefix, the word being equal to wrong, error, correction, try'^ 
 peril, prove ; a-lyse, loose, Lat. liber, a being prefix; of, from.' 
 In the forms of other dates, we find swi^c for such so • for- 
 lete_, let, let-oflF; halyed for hallowed ; ah it in Heaven v do as 
 It rn heaven is done, y being the Ger. prefix oe: uch, every 
 each. The prayer form of English in 1160 difiFers scarcely from 
 the one which we have given. In the form of 1870 we find 
 come-to tor to-be-come, impera. come 
 
 ,l.t% ^«' f°"°^'°g li^f^^'-e from the Saxon chronicle: And 
 three Scots came to Alfred king on (or in^ a (one^ boat Z 
 bat waes ge-^orht of thriddan\eal}re A^^^e.^The boat wt 
 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 223 
 
 wrought of third half hide, that is, two and a half hides, a Gar. 
 expression. He cwae'th that he hude on thaem lande northe- 
 weardum with tha west sae. He quoth (says) that he bide 
 (dwell) in the land northward with (against) the west sea. 
 
 604. And the following from the laws of Ethelbert; Gif 
 Ci/inng Ms leode to Mm ge-hatath, and heom mon thaer yfel 
 
 ge-do — if king his people (Ger. leute) to him citeth (hight), and 
 him one (any one) there evil do ; in the last clause, do is brought 
 last, as in German, while we say do Mm evil. 
 
 605. We take the following from an Anglo-Saxon poem : 
 Iha mec on-gan hreowon — then me 'gan (it) rue, 
 
 , Thavt m,in hand ge-weorc — that my hand work 
 Onfeonda ge-weald — in fiends' power (Ger. ge-walt) 
 Feran sceolde — should fare (go), (fare should). 
 
 606. We find this in another poem, marking the transition 
 of Anglo-Saxon to English : ^ 
 
 Se heom hofiiche hi-heold — he them lovingly beheld, 
 
 Lithe Mm beo drihten — merciful (to) him be Lord, 
 
 Fethenen he nom mid fingre — feather (pen) he took with 
 fingers. 
 
 And fiede on hoc-felle — and wrote (paint) on book-skin. 
 
 And tha sothe word — and the true word 
 
 Sette to-gadere — set together. 
 
 The verb pretty uniformly in Anglo-Saxon, as in German, 
 comes last ; thus, Hwaet do ic thaet ic ece lif age — what (shall) 
 do I that I eternal life have (may have) ; sam hit ihonnum god 
 thince — whether it (to) men good seem (think); heo hine 
 axode h-lafes — they (of) him asked loaf ; sceolde Ms Drihtne 
 thancinn thaes leanes — should liis Lord thank (for) this favor 
 (lend, loan, Ger. lohn.) 
 
 607. He witeth and wialdeth alle thing — knoweth, wieldeth. 
 He i-scop alle sceafte — shapes all (things) shaped. 
 
 He wrohte fisc on ther sae — wrought, on the sea. 
 And fogdes on thar lefte — fowls, loft (air.) 
 These last last lines belong to the language in its later stages. 
 
 608. We give the following quotations of English in its 
 earlier stages, principally illustrative of the peculiar forms of 
 certain words, as well as the style of expression : 
 
 John Mghte that oon and Aleyn Mghte that other, 
 
 Of 00 town were thei horn that Mghte Stroiher, 
 
 Ffer in the North, I cannot tellen where. 
 
 This Aleyn maketh redy an Ms gere, 
 
 And on an hors the sah he caste auoon. 
 Highte, a common word in old English, is cite, called, and it is 
 here used as part, for pass, verb ; that oon, the one ; thei, they ; 
 ffer, far, over; ready all his gear — gear is apparatus. 
 
224 ' PHRASIS. 
 
 John knewe the weye — hym nedes no gide. 
 And atte melk the sak adown he layth. 
 Him needs no guide — obj. pronoun for nominative, or we may 
 treat needs as passive ; at the mill down he lays the sack. 
 And therefore is I come and eek (also') Aleyn, 
 To grynde oure corn, and carye it ham agayne. 
 What wol (will) ye done (do) while it is in hande ? 
 lis (am) as ille (ill) a metier (miller) as are ye. 
 
 This John goth out and fint his hors away, 
 And gan to crie, harrow, and wele away. 
 Groes out and finds ; began to cry, hallo, and wail. 
 
 Whilke way is he goon f Which way ? Ger. welcher. 
 The foregoing lines are from Chaucer, who was born in 1328, 
 and died in the year 1400. 
 
 Then waxes his herte (heart) herde and hevye. 
 And his heade grows febill and dyssie (dizzy). 
 Bis gast (soul) then waxes sek and sair (sick, sore), 
 And his face ranches mair and mair (more) — lines from 
 Northumbrian dialect of 15th century. 
 
 The following lines are from the piece " Havelok the Dane" : 
 We haven (have), loverd (Lord), alle gode (goods), 
 Hors, and neth (cattle), and ship on jlode (afloat, flood). 
 Gold and. silver, and michel (much) auchte (else). 
 That Grim ure (onr) fader us bitawchte (betook, gave). 
 
 But hise (his) children alle fyve (all five) 
 
 Alle weren (were) yet on live (a-live). 
 Bi-leve her (live here), loverd, and all (shall) he thin (thine). 
 Tho (thou) shalt hen (be) loverd, thou shalt hen syre (sire). 
 And we sholen serven the and hire (they, your, their), 
 Me (nor) wantede (was) there no god m,ete (meat). 
 
 The following is from the York dialect of the 14th century : 
 In erthe (earth) is treys (trees) and gres (grass) to springe, 
 Bestis (beasts) and f only s (fowls) hothegret (great) and smalle, 
 Fysschis (fishes) in Jlode; all othyr thyng 
 Thryffe (thrive) and have m,y blyssyng alle. 
 
 In hevyn er (are) angels fayre (fair) and brighte, 
 Sternes (stars) and planetis yar (their) curssis to ga (go). 
 Ye mone (the moon) servis on to ye nyght, 
 The son to lyghte ye day alswa (al-so). 
 
 To swylke (so like) a lorde in all ye degre, 
 
 Be evirmore lastande lovynge (loving, praising). 
 
 Yat tyll (to) us swylke a dyngnite (dignity). 
 
 Sas gyffyne before alle othyr thynge (has given). 
 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 225 
 
 These two lines are Northumbrian : 
 
 Wha es he (who is the) Jcing ofblisse ? Laverd Strang (strong), 
 And migJUand (mighty) to fight, Laverd mightand lang. 
 Here follow miscellaneous selections : 
 
 A wark ets fit (work that's fit) for nin (none) but parson et 
 dea (to do, at do). 
 
 Thou that art to com/ynge (to come, a-coming). 
 Thynges that been to flien (are to flee, to fly from), 
 For suche men that ben vilayns (that are villains), 
 
 Be so thei mighten come a-londe — if that they might come 
 to land (Gower, 14th century). 
 
 In Douglas, born in 1475, we find ^ers=^rass, and in Grower 
 brydde = bird. 
 
 Tlie quhilk (which) Juno noiothir lang dayis nor gyeris, nor 
 nane diuyne sacrifice may appeis (appease), — neither long days 
 nor years, nor no (none) divine sacrifice ; and fatis war hir 
 contrare — and fates were (to) her contrary (Douglas). The 
 is often left out, and « = u, w. 
 
 QuMther thay war livand — whether they were living. 
 And that gyc lenato at quhais instance Ituke — ye know at 
 whose instance I took; gyit ne-the-les I aucht louit to, be — 
 yet none-the-less I ought praised to be (Ger. loben, our laud 
 (Douglas.) 
 
 Tyl she gan asJcen him howe Hector ferde — till she began 
 (to) ask him how fared (how he did.) 
 
 Ful wel I thank it God, sayde Pandarus, 
 Saue in Ms arme he hath a lyttle wounde. 
 Full well, very well; I thank (for it) God — save, a little 
 wound (Chaucer.) 
 
 Gif luf be vertew, than it is leful thing — if love be virtue, 
 then it is lawful (Douglas.) 
 
 Yeoven (given) under our signet (sign, seal). 
 Take penne in hande and shape him a ful and plaine an- 
 sweare — take pen in hand and shape (make, Ger. schaffen) a 
 full answer. 
 
 Les sum (lest some) historic, subtell worde or ryme, 
 Causis me (to) mak degressioun sum tyme (some time.) 
 Withouten (without) noyse or clatteryng of belles, 
 Te Deum was our songe and nothing elles (else.) 
 Rim behoueth seme himselfe that has no swayn. 
 Or els he is afole (fool) as clerkes sayn (say) — Chaucer. 
 It behooves him to serve, he must serve. 
 29 
 
226 PHBASIS. 
 
 Thah mi tonge were mad of stel (though my tongue), 
 The godness myTit y (might I) never telle. 1307 
 
 With fate holde they shullen hem selue (them selve) excuse, 
 And here (bear) hem down, that wold (would) hem accuse. 
 But rede (reed) that boweth down for ewery (every) Uaste, 
 Ful lyghtly cesse (cease) wynde, it wol aryse (will arise) — 
 if the wind ceases. (Chaucer.) 
 
 That sche (she) might haue (u = v) the copies of the pretendit 
 writingis giuen (u=v) in, quliilkis (which) they haue diuerse 
 (u==v) tymes requirit of the Quene's maiesiie (i=j) and Mr 
 counsel, suppois (supposing) thay haue not as git (yet) obtenit 
 the samin (same) (Mary, Queen of Scots.) 
 
 From hens to wfnd (go, went) fullfer into exile, 
 And ouer (over) the braid sey saylfurth many a myle, — 
 From hence to go — far into — the broad sea (Douglas.) 
 
 Quhat (what) auenture (u=v) has brocht the leuand hidder ? — 
 thee living hither (Douglas.) 
 
 Bot athir towart uthir turnis, but m,are 
 
 And can behold his fellow in a stare, — 
 But other (one) toward the other turns, but more. 
 If that I spelce after my fantasy (fancy) 
 its taheth not a grefe (grief) of that 1 say. 
 
 For myn (my) entent is not but to play, sithe (since) ye ben 
 (am) as gentyl borne as I. 
 
 For neuir syne (never since) with ene (eye) saw I her eft 
 (after). (Douglas.) 
 
 Al shulde I dye — although I should die. 
 Take rewarde (regard) of thyn owne valewe (value). 
 And certayne he was a good felawe (fellow) 
 Ful many a draught of wine had he drawe (drawn.) 
 Plesance of God (pleasure) ; governance, (government) ; I 
 wote well, (wot well, know well) ; outcept Kent, out-take (Ger. 
 aus-nehmen), ex-ceptj out-taken one, excepting one- hie up in 
 thelyft high up in the loft, sky, Qyft, luft, is German, and so 
 we find many German words m old English which do not occur 
 in the present language.) 
 
 For as the fisshe, if it be drie 
 
 Mote (might) in defaute (default) of water die (Gower ) 
 nf ^Pptl'it'^ century, we find criand for crying (the and^ux^g 
 f52tr£jtlktg^^^^^^"^'^»^"'^^^^--y-S^ -d - 
 
 pan^^(nknl;i^-i-t^:f^-;rs 
 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 227 
 
 tlie ge of German) ; as, on hunting, a hunting, in hunting; also, 
 sound on sleep, asleep. We may notice also that some letters 
 •which we unite with a word, as the a in alive, are in old Eng- 
 lish separate prepositions — hence, again, we infer the identity 
 of prepositions with prefixes and initials. To a very late day 
 we notice, too, the existence of y, i, in place of German prei^x 
 ge of part. ; as y' taught for taught ; in the 15th century, we find 
 a child that is i-horj/n (born) to us, and a sone i-gevyn us, a son 
 'given us ; also ge mowe i-leven, ye might believe (be=i, ge,y); 
 in the 14th, we find alle heth i-turned.of cristdle, all be (were) 
 turned of crystal. 
 
 610. We find also the en, in, of German inf. occurring very 
 late in English, as, in a manuscript of 1400, we find, he schal 
 lovin (love)jio man hut for Mis (his) owne profyt (own profit). 
 And still later occurs the final e in the different parts of speebh, 
 which we have lost ; thus, keuefid (kivered, covered) or clothid 
 with a cloude (cloud) ; also, uwpr&perlicke sayde, improperly said; 
 hryddes shall ete (eat) thy hodye (body) ; hraste on peces smale, 
 burst in pieces small ; the hrid is flowe, bird is fiew', flown ; as 
 she was bode (bid) to say. '< 'i. 
 
 611. The instances where participles differ not fronj vejrb^i 
 (after the Celtic manner), and where the tenses and persoijs are 
 not distinguished, , are very numerous in old English; as, i/ie 
 evill spirytes that hen (been, be, am, are) in the regyon (region) ; 
 that she must gon (gone, go); up is she go (gone); so, Germa'ri 
 thuw=^diO is our done. ' ' \ 
 
 That char is char' d, chore is chored (Sans, ^ar, do) ; l%kue 
 wel leuer — I have well rather (liever) ; fr'ende steige heifer — 
 friend step (mount) higher; whanne (when) he was' dreynt 
 (pressed, tj:&c. drucken, throng, drive) with a grievous sleep ; 
 sekynge fruyt, seeking fruit; was to takynge, was to take. 
 
 612. We proceed next to notice some of the phrases and 
 expressions of the different dialects of England, of which there 
 are several. Some would be inclined to pass them by as spuri- 
 ous or vulgar, and hence unimportant ; but it must be observed 
 that there is nothing spurious in language, that the colloquial 
 idiom of the peasantry is just as much a form of language, and 
 just as valuable to the philologist, as the more refined expressions 
 of the court and nobility. ■ ■'; 
 
 In a Cheshire poem we find : 
 
 Hym (for him) hade hene (been) hetter, in good f aye, 
 ■ Made (if had) spared oyntmente that daie. 
 For wrocken (wreak) I will he some waie 
 Of waste that was done thier (there). 
 
 613. In Cornwall : 
 
 Arrear then, Bessy, ly aloane the hacJcy (leave, tobacco). 
 
228 PHRASIS. 
 
 Sty (stay) here a tiny hit, and let us talky (talk). 
 
 Av hut I've more to say ; this isn't ale (all), 
 
 You deanc'd wy (with) Mall Rosevear 't a sarttn hale; 
 
 She toald me so, and lefts me wy a sneare (with sneer). 
 
 Ay you; Fengrouse, did dance wy Mall Rosevear. 
 Eire (hear) me, I says, and thou shut (shall) hire the whoale. 
 I hires some mizzick at an oald hearne (barn) doore. 
 
 614. In Cumberland : 
 
 Then I'll sit down and wail 
 And greet (weep, re-gret) aneathe a tree, 
 And gin (if) a Uaffa' i' my lap, 
 Ts ca't (I'll call it) a loordfrae thee, 
 Wi' sec (such) thoughts i' my mind. 
 
 615. In Derbyshire : 
 
 Becoz (cause), mester, 'tis zo cood (cold) I Conner (can't) work 
 wee the tachin at aw (all). Why dunner (don't) yo mend meh 
 shoom (my shoen, shoes). 
 
 And I said if they were frunted (affronted) wee 
 Hester, they mid (might) he frunted wee mee. 
 Hester hanner (haint) hin a charrin (choring) there sin (since). 
 
 616. In Devonshire : 
 
 Lefs tell o'zummet (of something) else; and yov, warent 
 (wont) hear me ; iv I say is, if I say yes } iv thee disnt (doesn't) 
 zay thee wid (will) ha (have) me. 
 
 I he a hit vrightened, hut let us hide yerr (stop here.) 
 
 A urning (running) along like a hoss upon wheels. 
 
 Us was fools to come yerr and to urn (run) into danger. 
 
 617. In Kentish : 
 
 And one of theym cam into an hows (house) and axed for 
 mete (meat), and specyally he axyd after eggys (eggs) ; and the 
 goode t«y/(wife) answerde that she could speke no Frenshe. 
 Loo, what sholde a man in thyse dayes now wryte, egges or eyren. 
 Oertaynly it is hard to playse ■ every man, hy cause of dyversite 
 and chaunge of langage. 
 
 618. The following is from an extract of 1340 : 
 
 He answerede thet (that) he com vram (from) the ze (sea) huer 
 (where) he hedde y-mad (made) manye tempestes, vele (full, 
 many) ssipes to-broke (ships break), and moche volk (folk) 
 adreyct (drown, drink). The maister acsede ine hou (in how) 
 long time. He zayde, ine zuo (so) moche time hest (hast thou) 
 zuo lite (little) y-do (done) ? Manye toerren and manye vigtinges 
 —many wars and many fightings ; thet he hedde grat thing y-do 
 (Ger. ge-than) — that he had great thing done. 
 
 619. In Lancashire : 
 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 229 
 
 Then lopp'nt (the) dur (door), on whot te dule dust think — 
 and what the devil dost (thou) \think ; I took her for a hoo 
 (high) justice, hoor (her) so meety (mighty) fine. 1 axt hur of 
 Mr. Justice wur o (at) vihoam ; hoo (she, he) could naw (not) 
 opp'n hur meawth (mouth) t-sey eigh or now (to say aye or no). 
 
 TVwVs nawt like thryin (there's not like trying. Dunnos 
 (dont) be fyert (f'raid) us aw (as I) sed ofore (before), but ston 
 (stand) up for wots reet (right) ; so aw nrvun lyev awt moor ut 
 aw av to say — so I must leave out more what I have to say. 
 Wayn (we've) helpt Kobdin, un wayn 'elp yo (you) if yoan 
 (you'll) set oiieawt (about) yur wark gradely. 
 
 620. In Somersetshire : 
 
 Hem (he, me) war nation aveaiC when tha vuss put him in 
 
 Ta the grut ooden box, maust sa big's a corn hinn ; 
 
 T'had two gurt large winders, wi' 'oles vor tha glass ; 
 
 Tha locked tha doors, an' there hem were vass (fast) — 
 Afeai-d when they first put him (me) in — To the great wooden 
 box, most so big — It had two great windows, with holes — 
 They locked the doors. ^ 
 
 Us war glowing right at hem, ta zeen who hem coud find. 
 
 But avore hem coud look tha tear a mile behind — 
 We were staring to see who him (me). 
 
 Nif Mr. Guy war hirch avaur, 
 A now war hircher still — 
 
 If Mr. G-uy was rich before, he now is richer still. 
 
 621. In Westmoreland : 
 
 Us aw (as I) was a-sa'ing, me sweethart Nanny went ta Lwn- 
 nen ta be a laddies (lady's) made, en aw sud (should) like varra 
 weel (very well) to see her et times. By gum,, if aw thout (if I 
 thought) he'ed been breken t' seals ov my letturs es (as) aw sent 
 ta Nanny, first time aw met him aw wad (would) giv him sic 
 (such) a thumppen es he niver gat in his life befowre. 
 
 622. In vulgar Cleveland dialect : 
 
 She ommost flyted An' scaii'ded me oot o' my wits (almost 
 blowed (chided) and scolded). She war't t' arrantest scau'd 
 'at (that) ever I met wi' i' my boom (born) days. She had 
 sartainly sike (such) a tongue as never war i' ony woman's head 
 but her awn (own). 
 
 623. The next is Craven : 
 
 Me nepped a lile wee nooken on't (nipped a little wee corner 
 (nook) of it), not t' validum o' my thoum naal (thumb nail), 
 an' spluttered it out ageean, gloaring (glaring) gon he war 
 puzzom'd (staring as if he were poisoned). 
 
 624. The next, from the Lancashire dialect, is rather long, 
 but its amusing character will warrant its insertion here. The 
 subject is a newly discovered hedgehog : 
 
230 PHKASIS. 
 
 Ee wTioaved his wMsJcet owr't (hov-ed, heaved his basket over 
 it), runs whoam (home), an' Hells his neighbours he thowt in his 
 guts 'at he'd fund (found) a thing 'at God newer mede eawt 
 (never made out) ; for it had nother head nor tele, hond nor 
 hough (hoof)) midst nor eend. Loath to believe this, hoave 
 (half) a dozen on em woud geaw (go) t' see if they coud'n mey 
 shift to gawm it (make shift to game it, make it out) ; boh it 
 cap't em a^o (but it capp'ed them all) ; fur they newer a won on 
 'em e'er saigh (saw) th' like afore. Then theyd'n a heawnsil 
 (had a council), cm' th' eend on't war, 'at teydn fetch a lawm, 
 f awse,' owd felly (they'd fetch a, lame, false, old fellow) het 
 (called) an elder, 'at coud tell oytch (any) thing, for they look'nt 
 on him as th' hanvmd scoance, an' theawt he'r fuller o' leet 
 (thought he are fuller of light) than a glow-worm's tele. When 
 they'dn towd (told) him th' kese (case), he stroaked his beard, 
 sowghd (sighed), an' order' d th' wheel-barrow wi' th' spon (span) 
 new trindh (wheel) to be fotch't. Twur done, an! they beawld 
 (bowled) him awey to th' urchon (urchin) in a crack. He 
 gloared (stared) at 't a good while, droyd (stroked) his beard 
 down, an' wawted it owr wH his crutch, v" Wheel me abeawt 
 agen o' th' tother side," said he, "for it sturs (stirs) and by 
 that su'd be whick" (should be quick,alive). Then he dons his 
 spectacles, steared at 't agen, and sowghing said, " Breether, its 
 summot (something); boh feather Adam nother did nor cou'd 
 kerson it (christen it). Wheel me whoam, agen." 
 
 625. We will conclude our notice of English, by giving a 
 still further selection of Anglo-Saxon sentences, taken from the 
 gospels. 
 
 Tha com thaer an wif of Samaria wolde water feccan — then 
 came there a wife (woman) of Samaria, (who) would water 
 fetch ; tha cwaeih se haelend to hyre, gyf me drincan — then 
 quoth the Lord to her, give me (to) drink. 
 
 Tha answerede se haelend and cwaeth to hyre (then answered 
 the Lord *nd saith to her), gif thu wistes Godes gyfe (if thou 
 knowest God's gift), and hwaet se ys he cwaeth to the, sele me 
 drinken (and who (what) that is who says to thee, "-ive (sele) 
 me to drink). Witodlice (then) thu bede hyne thaet he sealde 
 the lyfes weater (thou (would) beg him that he (should) give thee 
 living water) ; thu hafst nan thing mid to hladene, and thes pett 
 ys deop—thon hast none thing with (which) to draw (lade) 
 and this pit is deep. '' 
 
 626. Let us observe once for all, that all translations given 
 under this head, as well as under the heads which follow are 
 with very rare exceptions, meant to be word-for-word, follow^ 
 mg the precise order of the text. 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. 231 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 627. On the German language we shall dwell longer than 
 ilpon any other ; it is important, not only by the number of 
 persons who speak it, and the number of minor languages 
 which are related to it, but more especially by the eitent and 
 variety of its literature, and the peculiar manner in which its 
 thought is expressed. 
 
 628. The English is, as said before, a German language, and 
 yet between the English and the German there is a great dif- 
 ference, one far greater than is generally supposed. The words 
 in one, it is true, have their undeniable representatives in the 
 other, and yet we put these German words in a very different 
 place, and apply them in quite a different manner, from that 
 which would meet the choice of a true German. The German 
 thought is different from the thought of any other people, and 
 as we might expect, it is clothed in a corresponding garb. 
 They, the Germans, have the same grammar as we ; it is easy 
 for us, English as we are, to recognize their moods, their 
 cases, their nouns, their adjectives, their pronouns, their par- 
 ticles ; and yet they do, in some way, manage to work up those 
 very same elements in such a novel yet true German style; that 
 we find it hard to bring it home to us. It takes time to master 
 the language '^— let the student bear that in mind. He may get 
 a smattering in a far less period, he may learn the meaning of 
 the words from the lexicon, he may get some little conception 
 of the import of what he reads ; but, nevertheless, he has not 
 mastered the idiom, the style, the thought of the German 
 people. It takes years for an Englishman to do it, hard labor 
 and long months with that. But when it is done his toil will 
 be well repaid. He has then mastered, if he be English, all the 
 idioms of Europe, save the Latin and what belongs with it. 
 And if, having the English and the German at command, he 
 also be master of the Latin expression, there is no idiom of 
 Europe that he will not easily understand. JHe may study the 
 Slavic, the Finnish, the Celtic, the Scandinavian languages, 
 and he will find little in their style of expression that is peculiar 
 or strange to him. The idiom is the soul, the essence, of lan- 
 guage ; when we have mastered that, and not before, all flows 
 along with us easily and smooth. The following selections will 
 serve to illustrate the German idiom and peculiarities — with 
 translations word-for-word. 
 
 629. So scheint (shines) wirldich nichts hestdwdig (standing) 
 
232 PHRASIS. 
 
 ewig (ever) und des-namens-^rincip-wUrdig zu sein, denn (than) 
 allein die materie — so seems really nothing (nothing seems) 
 lasting, eternal and of-the (des) name principle worthy to be, 
 than (save) alone the matter (of-the-name-prinoiple-worthy, is 
 one adjective, referring back to nichts, nothing). 
 
 Us kann eine kraft (power) so wenig ohne einen (an) stoff 
 existiren, ah ein sehen ohne einen seh-apparat — it can a force 
 so little without a stuff exist, as (a&) a seeing (seKen) without 
 a seie-apparatus (a force can so little exist). 
 
 Geht man anf (upon, up) den grund, so erhennt man laid 
 (soon) dass es weder (neither) krafte noch (nor) materie gibt — 
 goes one down to the bottom (ground), so knows (perceives) 
 one soon (one soon sees) that it neither force nor matter gives 
 (es gibt, there gives, is). 
 
 Indem (in-that). der ver-fasser die feder (feather) er-greift 
 (grasps) — when the author the pen takes; um sich\mit einem 
 vor-wort (fore-word) zu der hinnen wenigen (few) monaten nothig 
 (needy), ge-wordenen dritten aujlage (edition) seiner " Studien" 
 an (on) das (the) puhlihum zu wenden- — -for (in-order-to) self 
 with a preface to the within few months necessary become third 
 edition (of) his " Studies " to the public to turn (apply to); (for 
 to turn (sich-wenden), or go, to the public with a preface to the- 
 within-few-months-become-necessary-third edition). The long 
 adjective belonging to aujlage (edition) is one of the striking 
 peculiarities,' very common, in German. The sich, self, often 
 cannot be rendered in English — often being a mere article. 
 
 Geschrieben wird (are) der accent nur zum (for-the) unter- 
 schied (distinction) verschiedener formen und ah-leitungen (ofF- 
 leadings) — written becomes the accent (it is written) only for- 
 the distinction (of) different forms and derivations. 
 
 Was die his-her (to-here) be-kannten (known ) Samoiedischen 
 sprach-proben (speech-proofs) he-trifft — what the to-here (now) 
 known Samoidish specimens concerns (what-concerns, as con- 
 cerns). 
 
 Den winter lang werde (will, were) ich Jische fangen — the 
 winter long (all winter) will I (am I) fish catch. 
 
 Ich toeiss (wot, wit), das die menschen zu hause (house) sind 
 (are) — I know, that the men to home are. 
 
 Was W. Humboldt, in seinen (his) geist-reichen (spirit- 
 rich) werke iiher die Kawi sprache, gelegentlich uber die aus 
 uralter (early-age) zeit her-stammende (here-coming) ver- 
 wandtschaft der Malay isch-Polynesichen mundarten (dialects) 
 mit dem Sanscrit merkt hat — what W. Humboldt in his 
 ingenious work over (on) the Kawi language (speech)', oppor- 
 tunely over the-out-(of)-early-time-originating relationship of 
 the (der) Malayo-Polynesian dialects with the Sanscrit, re- 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. 233 
 
 marked has. (What W. Humboldt has remarked, in his work 
 on Kawi, incidentally on the relationship of, etc.) 
 
 Wcire das Gothische/ur unsver-loren ge-gangen — were (if it 
 were) the. Gothic for us lost gone (go-lost = los^). 
 
 Gott ist das un-ah-hdngige (un-hanging), selhst-standige wesen, 
 welches (which) keines (no) andern wesens (essence) zu seiner 
 existenz he-darf, folg-lich (follow-ly) von und durch sich-selbst 
 ist — God'is the independent, self-standing essence, which (of) 
 no other essence to its existence needs (has need of no other),, 
 con-sequently of (von) and through itself (it) is. 
 
 Der von (from) der schranhe des thdsmus freie Kant, ist Fichte 
 — the-from-the-limits-(of )-the - theism-free (free - from - theism) 
 Kant, is Fichte. 
 
 Was nicht ge-liebt wird (are), nicht ge-Uebt werden (be, 
 were) kann — <■ what not loved is, not loved be can (cannot be 
 loved). 
 
 Wird man sich so-dann (so-then) die /rage zur (to-the) klaren 
 ent-scheidung (de-ciding) bringen mUssen — will one self then 
 the question to-the clear decision (separation) bring must (if one 
 will must bring, i. e. if one will bring, the question). 
 
 Ich habe deinen bruder diesen morgen ge-sehen — I have thy 
 brother this morning seen (I've seen him). 
 
 Ich bin schon zehn yahre in Amerika — I am (have been) 
 already ten year in America; ich muss ihn sprechen — I must 
 (to) him speak.- Ein stein fiel mir (to-me) art/" (up) den kopf — 
 a stone fell (to) me up (on) the head. 
 
 Das buch ist keinen (no) thakr werth — the book is no (none) 
 dollar worth. 
 ' Was ist aus ihm geworden — what is out (of) him become ? 
 
 Ich sehe dich (thee) als meinen freund an — I see you as my 
 friend on (look on thee as a friend). The separation of the 
 an from sehe is a very common feature in German — and often 
 they are far wider separated. 
 
 In einem (one) tage Idsst sich viel thun — in one day lets self 
 much do (may much be done). 
 
 In zwanzig jahren werde (am) ich ein greis sein (be) — in 
 twenty years will (am) I a gray (old man) be. 
 
 Wenn ich nicht sinnen und dichten soil, so ist das leben mir 
 (to me) kein leben mehr — when (if) I not muse and think 
 shall, so is the life (living) to-me no hfe more (if I should not 
 muse). 
 
 Er wusste nicht, sollte er (he) gehen oder nicht — he wist 
 (knew) not, should he go or not (whether he should). 
 
 Ich schame mich, dass ich es vergessen habe — I shame me 
 (am ashamed), that I it forgotten have. 
 
 Ich habe niemals (no times) in seinem hause mit ihm (him) 
 30 
 
t 
 
 234 PHEASIS. 
 
 wein ge-trunken — 1 have never in his house with him wine 
 drunk (drunk wine). . x ^ . i 
 
 Ein hund staM dem (from-the) Jwche em stuch{^ieo&) fleisch 
 am der hUche, und ent-floh darmt -^Aog stole (from) the cook 
 a piece meat (flesh) out the kitchen, and away-flew there-with. 
 
 Dhdsprach: "den alien sultan (a dog's name) schiess (shoot) 
 ich morgen todt,der ist zu nichts mehr nUtze ;" the old sultan 
 shoot I (to-) morrow dead, who (the, he) is to nothing more use 
 (I will shoot him to-morrow, he is of no more use). .... 
 
 Sie nehmen iJir (their) fdeines kind mit-thej take their little 
 child with (them). 
 
 Alles licht unserer atmosphare geht von [fvom) der sonne aus 
 — all light (of) our atmosphere goes from the sun out. 
 
 Nehmen wir an — take we on (if we take on, claim) ; wenden 
 wir (we) diese analogie auf das licht an— turn we this analogy 
 up (on) the light on (we turn it to the light). 
 
 630. We may observe here that, in pronunciation, German 
 ie = ee, ei=ii, ^ = 00, au = ou in our, a = ah, or as o in on, 
 i=ee (short), e= a in ate, o mostly as u in up, or long 6,j is 
 always as our y; e final is always sounded; v=/, w=v, or 
 vw, th= t. Thus, (very nearly) die is pronounced dee, mein = 
 mine, wm = oom, haus = hous, man = mon, mir = meer, mehr 
 = maT/r, kop/=kup-/, so = so, je = ^e, hahe = hah-buh, vater 
 =fahter, was = vwas, thun = toon, schein = shine (sch = sh). 
 
 Forms of German. 
 
 631 . The selections which we have so far given belong to the 
 literature of the present standard German. But there are many 
 forms, branches, and dialects of this language ; that is, the term 
 German may be applied to a great many varieties of the old 
 Teutonic idiom, and we must endeavor first of all, to understand 
 the application, of the particular names which these varieties 
 assume. 
 
 632. The first important division is that of High German and 
 Low German, and alongside of these is usually placed another 
 parallel class, the Gothic, called also Mceso-Gothic, or the Gothic 
 of Moesia. 
 
 638. The High German is again divided into sections, corre- 
 sponding with its age : the old or ancient High German, or the 
 earliest stage of High German known to us. Middle High Ger- 
 man, or the same as it appeared in the 12th to 15th centuries 
 and the present or modern High German. The old High Ger- 
 man, in different dialects, was spoken up to about the 11th and 
 12th centuries in southern Germany, in Switzerland, in Bavaria, 
 Suabia, and Franconia — the name Prancic, or Alemannio is 
 also applied to it, or to a particular stage of it. 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. .235 
 
 634. The present G-erman, or modern High German, is pro- 
 perly the written language of Germany, dating from the time of 
 the introduction of Luther's Bible ; as a spoken language, it is 
 best represented in Saxony, Hanover, and Prussia — but at 
 present, as well as in past times, the language spoken by the 
 people greatly varies in the different portions of Germanic 
 Europe. 
 
 635. The Low-German class is large; besides including the 
 Anglo-Saxon and the English, the Old Saxon and Old Frisian, 
 there is also belonging to this class the modern Dutch, and the 
 Low German proper. The latter term, as a subdivision, appKes 
 to the dialects of the Elbe, Ems, and Weser. Grimm speaks of 
 old Low German and middle Low German (or Netherlandish). 
 The old Low German writings are found between the 8th and 
 the 11th centuries, and the middle Low German between the 
 11th and 16th. The modern, or new. Low German (also called 
 Modern Saxon) has ceased to be written as a dialect, since the 
 16th century, being replaced by the present High German. 
 The Low German which is now spoken on the shores of the 
 Baltic, differs very materially in sound from the ordinary 
 German. 
 
 636. The following are early specimens of German (Prancic), 
 belonging, perhaps, somewhere between the 6th and 8th cen- 
 turies — these selections also very well represent old Anglo- 
 Saxon : 
 
 Fader ist usa firio harno ; thu hist an them hohen himilo riJeie ; 
 giuuihid si thin namo uuordu gihuilicu ; cume thin craftiga riJei; 
 uuerthe thin uuilleo obar uuerold ; alia so samo en erdu, so thar 
 ujppe ist an them hohon himilo rikie. Gib us dagegihuilices (whole ) 
 rod, drohtin thie guodo, thina helaga helpu — Father is our (of us) 
 men born (sons of men, mortals ; _;?rio=Lat. vir, a man) ; thou art 
 (be'st) on the (them) high heaven kingdom {rikie, rick) ; blessed 
 be (si) thy name \Vord all (every word) ; come thy powerful king- 
 dom ; become (German werden) thy will over world ; all so same 
 on earth, so (as) there up is (as it is up there) in the high heaven 
 rick. Give us day every (each day) bread, Lord the good (one), 
 thy holy help. (It must be constantly kept in mind that uu = w). 
 
 Thu list thie uuaro, quat Petras, uu'aldendes swno, libhiandes 
 Godes, the thit lioht gi-schop (shaped), Crist cuning euuig (ever) 
 — thou be'st the true (waro), quoth Peter, pre-vailing son (of 
 the) living God, that this light (lioht) made (made this light), 
 Christ king eternal (ewig). 
 
 Eluttrohabis thu an thinan herton gi-lohon — sincere have 
 thou on thy heart belief (Ger. glauben) ; gi-frumide mid 
 uuordunendi mid uuercun — formed (performed) with words 
 and with works ; endi (and) mid iro handen scriben an buok — 
 
236 PHRASIS. 
 
 and with their {iro) hands (to) write in book ; helagna (heal- 
 ing) gest (ghost) — holy spirit. 
 
 The Kudi stuodun unU — the people (German leute) stood 
 around (by) ; hie gi-sah thar after — he saw there after (ffi, chi, 
 ge, is often found with the past tense as a prefix here, while it 
 belongs to the part, alone in German) ; hie sprak him mid is 
 uuorden tiio — he spoke (to) him with his words to; ik is engil 
 ieon — I his angel am (been) ; thina dadi sind — thy deeds are ; 
 thie guodo giimo — the good man (Lat. homo). 
 
 So uuit an uncro jitguthi — so we (two) in our youth : hel 
 uuis (was) thu — hail be (was) thou ; ihu scealt furi aUon uuesan 
 uuibon giuuihid — thou shalt (be-) fore all be (was) wives blessed 
 (before all wives); huo mag that gi-uuerthan so — how may 
 that be-eome so ; gi-sahan endi gi-horean ■ — (to) see and (to) 
 hear; thit ist mahtig thing — this is mighty thing. 
 
 Dhuo ir (he) himilo garuuida dhar uuar ih — when he hea- 
 ven pre-pared there was I; chi-chundit^k.no^n, acquainted, 
 chirscaffanes ist = created is (shaped) ; chi-holan istfona manno 
 angom — con-cealed is (it is) from men's eyes {chi'= ge-} ; chi- 
 burt = hirth, chi-boran, born; Got chi-scuof mannan — God 
 made man; chi-frumida dhen — (he) formed him; chi-deda 
 (did) mih — -made me. 
 
 Gotes gheizt ist sprehendi dhurdh m,ih — God's spirit is speak- 
 ing through me; vuip., obe thu vuissis — woman (wife) if thou 
 wist ; vuielih Gotes gift ist — what God's gift is ; veiz ih daz du 
 war (true) segist — know I that thou true sayest. 
 
 Unde dir sinemo (his) boden, vuanda ih sundic bin, ioh in 
 ge-ddhidon ioh in miorden — and (to) you his messenger, since 
 I sinning am, both in thoughts and in words ; ih chi-sah, I saw ; 
 ih gi-sahd, gi-herte, I said, heard ; so waz so ih uuidar gotes 
 uuillen gi-tati, so who so (what-so-ever) I against God's will did 
 {widar = Latin iterum, our with = against). 
 
 Nu auh huuer mac dhesiu stimna uuesan (be) — now of who 
 (whose) may this voice be? ih quhimu — I come; chi-sendit, 
 sent ; chi-deda, made ; chindh uuirdit uns chi-boran, sunu uuirdit 
 uns chi-gheban — (a) child (Ger. 7cind) becomes (to) us bom, 
 (a) son becomes (to) us given ; suueribi Gate — swear by God ' 
 dhine daga ar-fvMideuuerdhant — thy days fulfilled were • them'o 
 selueme cic^e-^(at) the same time; thuruhe salichedi s'elu sin- 
 eni — through (for) health (safety) (of) soul his (his soul). 
 
 Athe vane cAidern thie theru selvern vuizzidi leven theru er 
 selvo leoitt—or (other) from others that (thie) (by) the same 
 (self) law live (by) which («Aer-«) he (him-)self lives; thaz er 
 habe alhcha gi-lauba — tha.t he have all-like (catholic) belief 
 (gi=he). ^ 
 
 637. Much of what we have now given would be classed with 
 
GBKMAN LANGUAGE. 237 
 
 the old Saxon, but we must observe that it is difficult to draw a 
 line between old Saxon and old High German. There is a great 
 resemblance in the orthography, the words being often identical. 
 We notice the following differences ; the German person endings 
 are -u, -is, it; -ames, -at, -ant, but in Saxon they are -u, -is, 
 -id; -ad, -ad, -ad ; Ger, inf. ending is -an, prest. part, -ant-er, 
 past part, -an-er, but Saxon inf. -an, part, -arid, part, -an' ; the 
 case endings do not materially differ. 
 
 638. It is worthy of remark^ that in both these languages (or 
 dialects) the endings of nouns and verbs resemble those of Latin 
 touch more than the endings of the present German do, and they 
 have, besides, more words like Latin, and English, in orthogra- 
 phy ; thus, in old High German we find hreini, pure, serene ; 
 kiri, greedy ; reiti, ready (L. pa-rains') ; lindi, s-lender, thin 
 (L. le-nis") ; peraht, bright ; Mob (L. calUdus') skillful ; Mat 
 L. laetus), glad ; vruot (h. prudens'), prudent; hmlten, to look j 
 spreitan, to spread; iueljan, dwell, delay; scolan, seal, shall; 
 scolta, should; chnahan, to know — and the corresponding Ger- 
 man words are rein, gierig, ie-reit, Mein and schlanh (Jdar), 
 Mug (^froK), (vor-sichtig), (sehen), breiten, ver-weilen, sollen, 
 sollte, kennen. ' 
 
 639. From the old Saxon, we may introduce the following : 
 scado, shade, Ger. schatten ; wac' , watch, Ger. wach; hard, 
 hard, Ger. hart ; ward, guard and ward, Ger. wache and wehr; 
 toaier, water, Ger. wasser. 
 
 ■ Ecid, acid, L. acet-mn, . Ger. essig ; ' sweban, L. somnium, 
 dream and sleep, Ger. traum ; heru, sword, L. gladius (gld .= 
 hrd), Ger. schwert ; wiht, (some-)thing, L. qv,id, Ger. et-was. 
 
 Mikil, much, L. map-JiMs, Ger. manche ; thimm, dim, Ger. 
 dunkel; scip, ship (c=h), Ger. schiff; lith, limb, L. memb-rum, 
 Ger. g,-Iied ; worold, world, Ger. welt, L. mundus (m = w) ; toth, 
 tooth, L. dens, Ger. zahn. 
 
 Lud, look (face), Ger.. ant-litz ; gumo, man, L. homo, Ger. 
 mensch; juguth, youth, L. juventus, juvend (Ger.); cumbal, 
 cymbal, L. signum, Ger. zeiohen; brastjan, burst, Ger. bersten ; 
 muth, mouth, Ger. mund; dad, deed, Ger. that, It.fact-um. 
 
 Wapan, weapon, Ger. waffe ; seola, soul, L. (amma), Ger. 
 seele; wreth, wrath, L. iraima, Ger. wuth ; mester, master, L. 
 magister, Ger. meistef (e = a = ag = ei) ; suet, sweat, L. sudor, 
 Ger. schweiss; Mot, lot, L. fors, Ger. loos; grot, great, Ger. 
 gross; bom, beam (tree), Ger. baum, o = ea, au. 
 
 Eobid, head, Li caput, Ger. haupt {o^ea, a, au, and 6icZ, 
 ■put,pt = dd, did, d) ; grwri, horror (g=h), Ger. grau-en, gray, 
 hoary, (also Ger. schauer, shower, shiver, shudder, dread); hliop, 
 leap, Gqx. laufen\, L. curro (cr.= hr = h); simnen, ever, L. 
 semper, Ger. immer. 
 
238 PHEASIS. 
 
 Wtirt, root, L. rad-ix, G-er. wurz-el ; ertha, earth, L. terra, 
 Ger. er(ie; mor/A, murd-er, Ger. morden; tMoh, thief, Ger. 
 dieb ; hros, horse, Ger. rossj her, el-ear, Ger. Ae«. 
 
 Quic, quick (q-vick), L. dtoms, Ger. leben (lb = vv) ; garu, 
 ready and prepared, L. paratus, G. 6e?-et<, grar ; /cm^A, ac-quainted, 
 L. «ote (for gnotus), Ger. ^mjk^ ; suot, sweet, Ger. sitss ; snar, 
 severe, L. ^rai^is (sur, svr, vr =grv, rv, vr), Ger. schwer (s-ch 
 = s-k, s-g). 
 
 Blithi, b-lithe, L. Isetus, Ger. Zms^i^-; crumh, crumb and crimp, 
 L. curvus (cr-v, cr-vm, cr-um, cr-imp), Ger. hrumm ; cvic, quick, 
 L. vivm ; suepu, sweep and brush, L. »erro ( su = s-v, v), Ger. 
 /e'gen (fg, vg, vp). 
 
 Hropu, call, L. clamo, Ger. /-it/ew (h^p = clp, elm ; h-rp = rf ) ; 
 radu, per-suade, L. suadeo, Ger. rath; faru, fare, (go), L. 
 fore, were, L. vado ; sJcaku, shake, L. g'Maiio (skk, shk =kt, kk, 
 qt), schutteln; gripu, gripe and grasp, L. arripio (arr = gr), 
 Ger. ergreifen. 
 
 Writu, write, L. scribo, Ger. schreiben; scridu, L. gradior, 
 stride, Ger. schreiten ; hnigu, kneel, L. in-dino (cln = nl, knl), 
 Ger. Imien ; luhu, lock, close, L. claudo, Ger. sch4oss ; iiuhu, 
 tow, L. iraAo (tr = t), Ger. Ziehen ; biddu, beg, bid, L. ^efo, 
 Ger. beten, bitten ; deljan, deal, L. dividere (dlj = dlv, dv), Ger. 
 theilen ; hlinon, incline (hi = cl) ; copon, get, Ger. Jcaufen. 
 640. We will next give the following specimens of old Ger- 
 j man poetry. They will afford a fair idea of the way the ancient 
 
 Germans, in common with the whole of northern Europe, 
 expressed their thoughts, and an idea, too, of the peculiar vein 
 in which those thoughts are found to run. The lines are taken 
 from a poem supposed to belong to the 9th century. 
 Einan huning uueiz ih — A king knew I, 
 Heizsit her hiuduig — called Herr Ludwig, 
 Ther gerno gode thionot — that willing God tend (served) ; 
 Ih uueiz her imos lonot — I know he him reward ; 
 Kinduuarth herfaterlos — (while a) child were he fatherless. 
 Thes uuarth imo sar buoz — this was (to) him soon redressed; 
 Soloda inan truhtin — favored him (the) Lord (did), 
 Magaczogo uuarth her sin — (his) leader became he his; 
 Gab her imo dugidi^- gave he him virtue (he gave) 
 Fronisc githigini — arid noble servants (people), 
 Stual hier in urankon — (a) throne here in France 
 So bruche her es lango — so use he it long (time) ■ 
 Thaz gideilder thanne — that divide-he then (he did) 
 Sar mit karlemanne — soon with Carloman 
 JBruoder sinemo — (a) brother (of) his 
 Thia czala uuunniono — the (a) great joy (to both). 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. £39 
 
 Koron uuolda sin God — try (him) would his God 
 
 Oh her arbeidi — whethier he labor 
 
 /So iung tholon mahti— so young bear might (could bear it) • 
 
 Lietz her heidine man — ■ (then) let he heathen man 
 
 Ohar seo lidan — over (the) sea come (lead). 
 
 This is considered a specimen of old High German. 
 
 641. We add a few extracts from another Old German poem, 
 called " Der Nibelunge Not." Its great resemblance to old Eng- 
 lish will be easily observed ; indeed, its style is not German. 
 
 Do wuohs in Niderlanden — there grew (wax) in Netherland 
 
 Eins richen kUneges kint — a rich king's son (child) ; 
 
 Des vater hiez Sigemunt — the father (was) called Sigemunt. 
 
 Sin muoter Sigelint, — (And) his mother Sigelint, 
 
 In einen hurye riche — in a (one) burg rich (a rich one), 
 
 Witen wbl he-kannt — wide, well known (ac-quaint) 
 
 Niden hi dem Bine — Down (neath) by the Ehine, 
 
 Diu was ze Santen genant — It was to Santen named. 
 
 So hin ich dines willen — So am I (of) thy will 
 Waerlichen vro — Truly (verily) glad 
 
 Vnd wil dirz helfen enden-r^sioA will thee (it) help accomplish 
 So ist aller beste kan,-r-So I all best can (the best I can), 
 Doch hat der kunic Gunther — Though has the king Gunther 
 Vil manege hoch vertigen m,an — full many (a) valiant man. 
 
 Welt ir den kunic vinden — Will you the king find, 
 
 Daz mac vil wol geschehen — That may full well happen (be) ; 
 
 Injenem, sale witen — in that hall wide 
 
 Han ich in gesehen — have I him seen, 
 
 Bi den sinen helden ■^- By the his heroes ; 
 
 Da suit ir hine gad — There shall you (to) him go. 
 
 " Das tuo'n ich," spracTi Hagne — " That do I," said Hague, 
 Zeinem venster er do gie — (To) his window he then went, 
 Sin ougen er da wenken — His eyes he there (let) waver, 
 Zuo den gesten lie; — To the strangers (he) let (them); 
 Wol hehagte imir geverte — Well pleased hini their trappings, 
 Undouch ir gewant — ^^And eke their garment (pleased). 
 Si waren im vil vremde — They were (to) him full strange 
 In der Burgunden lant -^ In the Burgundy land. 
 
 sk Hz ' sIC' ^ Hz Hz H^ *^ ^ 
 
 Ir ros diu sint schoene — Their horse they are shiny (pretty), 
 Ir kleider harte guot — Their clothes hard good ; 
 Von swannen sie koment — From whence they came, _ , ' 
 Si sint helde hoch gemuot — They are heroes (of) high mind. 
 
240 PHEASIS. 
 
 Also sprach do Hague — So spoke then Hagne, 
 "Ich wil des tool verjeJien — I will this well confess, 
 Swie ich nie mere — So (though) I never more 
 Sivriden habe gesehen — Sivridea have seen, 
 So wil ich wol gelouhen — Yet (so) will I well believe 
 Swie ez dar umhe stat — so (that) it there of stands, 
 Daz ez si der recke — That it is that hero 
 Der dort so herlichen gat — Who there so lordly goes." 
 The words are pure German, but with a tendency in ortho- 
 graphy to the simplicity of the old English. 
 
 642. FkiESiC. — The old Friesic was spoken a long time 
 since by the Frisons of the Rhine, extinct since about the 16th 
 century. It very closely resembles the Anglo-Saxon, and was 
 intimately related to it, as well as to the Icelandic and old Saxon. 
 
 There is the modern Friesic, still the language of a portion of 
 the German race, in Friesland and elsewhere ; even this is again 
 divided into different sections or dialects. 
 
 643. Under the term Netherlandish, may be included two 
 forms, varying slightly, of one and the same dialect of the great 
 German language — the Flemish, or Flandrish, and the Hol- 
 landish, or Dutch. They constitute a class running parallel 
 with the Friesic, and identical with it in almost every essential 
 point — save variation in orthography; A brief notice of the 
 Dutch will suffice to give a general idea of the peculiarity of the 
 whole. 
 
 644. Notwithstanding all the similarity between the Dutch 
 and German in their natures, there is yet considerable difference 
 in the appearance they present. The Dutch construction and 
 composition of words is entirely German, but the orthography 
 is as decidedly English, rather English, however, in its older 
 days — what of the Dutch is not either German or English, is 
 a very small portion of it; so that for an English scholar under- 
 standing German, the task of acquiring the Dutch is very short 
 and easy, not to say pleasing also. 
 
 645. A few examples will illustrate these facts : Voorts meen 
 ik, insgelijks, als regel te kunnen stellen — further think (mean) 
 I, likewise, as (a) rule to can give (that I can give as a rule) j 
 
 ge-lijk-ook de daarvan af-ge-leide (off-lead) naam-woorden 
 
 like also {ook,eke) the therefrom derived name-words (nouns). 
 Om het bepalend lidwoord in het Makassaarsch uit te drukken 
 _ for the limiting (be-paling) article (limb-word) in the Mac- 
 cassar out to press (for, to press out (express) the limiting 
 article). 
 
 Dikwijls ook treft men zelfstandige naam-woorden an thick- 
 whiles, (often) also meets one (one meets, hits) independent 
 (self-standing) name-words on {treffen-an =^ an-treffen, strike 
 on, hit). 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. 241 
 
 Set onderscheid tuss-chen heide formen — the differencs (un- 
 der-cut, sever) twixt both (leide) forms ; daf er een zekere no- 
 drulc op het wohrd volt — that there {er, Ger. gar, dar) a (an) 
 certain (secure) force (strike, blow) up (on) the word falls : 
 
 hetzij door aan-hechting van letter-grepen it-be (al-beit) 
 
 through on-fixing of syllables (letter-groups). 
 
 _ Oolc tot beteren ver-stande der oude scJiryvers is de kennis der 
 dialehten hoogsf ge-wigtig ~ a.iid for-the {tot, to, till) better un- 
 derstanding of-the {der) old writers (scribers) is the knowledge 
 (of) the dialects highest important (weighty). 
 
 De enkele consonanten Minhen zoo ah men ze uit een zuiver 
 ne^derlandschen mond hoort — the single consonants sound 
 (cling) so as one them (ze) out (of) a pure (sure, sober) Nether- 
 landish mouth hears (sound as one hears them from a). Met 
 scheelde weinig of hy was dood ge-weest — it wanted (lacked) 
 little but (or) he was dead been (as we would say, a little more 
 and he had been dead, or killed). 
 
 Ik zal 't henl doen doen — I shall it him make do (do do = 
 make do); ht/ zalhemnooit Jeonnen doen werken — he shall him 
 never can (be able) to-make work (never make him work) ; de 
 gene die ons kwamen zien — the ones that (the, which) us came 
 to-see (came to see us) {gene, written geen, is Ger. ^ei?i = none, 
 our any, one-^it has the force also of which). 
 
 Zie of (if) hy dat ge-daan hebbe — see if (whether) he that 
 done has (has done that) ; Ik doe het eens-deels om de vriend- 
 
 schap te onderhouden, en ander-deels om niet leeg te ziiten I 
 
 do it partly (one-parts) for-to the friendship to uphold (under- 
 hold), and on-other-hand (other-parts), for-to (om) not idle 
 (Ger. ledig, void, lazy) to sit (for not to sit idle). 
 
 Zo gy my (me) t^e eer wilt gunnen u altemets te zien — so 
 (if) you (thou) me the honor will grant (give), you alltimes 
 (sometimes) to see (to see you sometimes). De ziekte is erger 
 (worse) dan men denkt — the sickness is worse than one thinks. 
 Het ys boog (bow-ed) onder onze voeten — the ice bend-ed. under 
 our feet (foots). 
 
 One single example (John xx, 2) will suffice to compare the 
 Dutch and German, as to appearance — and first the German : 
 Da liiuft sie, und kom/mt zu Simon Petro, und zu dem andern 
 jUnger, welchen Jesus lieb hatte, und spricht zu ihnen : Sie haben 
 den herrn weggenomm,en aus dem grdbe ; und wir wissen nicht, 
 wo sie ihn hingelegt haben. 
 
 (Dutch) : Zij Hep dan, en kwam tot Simon Petrus, en tot 
 den anderen discipel, dien Jezus lief had, en zeide tot hen : Zij 
 hebben dew Heere weggenomen uit het graf, en wij weten niet, 
 waar zij hem ge-legd hebben. (Translated) : She ran (leap) 
 then, (Ger., then leaped she), and came to Simon Peter, and 
 31 
 
242 PHRASIS. 
 
 to the other disciple, that {dien, the, which) Jesns dear had 
 (held dear), and {en) said to them : They have the Lord way- 
 taken out (of) the grave, and we wot (know) not where they 
 him laid have (have laid him). 
 
 646. Swiss Idiom. — We will next dwell briefly on the 
 Swiss form of the G-erman. It is spoken in the greatest part of 
 Switzerland, and is found in several dialects. It is particularly 
 interesting from some of the peculiar forms which its words 
 present. It is evidently German, but Q-erman with a ruling^ 
 tendency to identify itself in orthography with the English. 
 The German article ein is here reduced, as with us, to one let- 
 ter, e, a; J is i; em and m, Ger. ilim,^ our Mm; e is ace. of 
 our he ; our, Ger. unser, is here use, euse, ens, us ; from-us is 
 von-us, prep, united with pronoun, as we often find it elsewhere ; 
 i/ou, in the oblique cases, is ech, uch, uwe, Ger. ewcA — in the 
 nom. of this pron., we find the forms der, er, ier (i-er, as if we 
 said ye-r, Ger. ihr") ; de is for Ger. den and der, our the ; also 
 da, as da stier won-i g-chauft ha — the (that) steer which-I (wo 
 =^ which) bought have (which I bought); mi, Ger. mein, our 
 my ; wele, Ger. welcher, L. qualis and 'ille ; de ma woTt-i gseh 
 hah — the man whom-I seen have; — there is a general tend- 
 ency to slight the final n and m, as in ma tor man. 
 
 Er hed, he has, Ger. hat; mer hand, we have, Ger. hahen 
 and habend ; i ha g-ha, 1 have had (G. ge-habt) ; mer si, we 
 are, G. wir sind ; i hi g-si, I be (am) been (G. ge-wesen) ; si, 
 be, G. sein ; i will, or i wolt, I will, or would ; give is ga, or 
 gah, G. geben; mer gend, we give, G. gebend ; for go, with /, 
 we find the forms, gan, ga, gah, goh, gauge; er gat, and er- 
 gohd, or geit, he goes (he go-ed) ; Ger. hommen, to-come, is here 
 cho =go ; i hi cho, I be gone, have gone (go). 
 
 647. We notice, here, many beautiful illustrations of the fact 
 that every part or person of the verb presents one of its simple 
 forms, and that the form which we find with one application in 
 one language, is found in a very difierent place in another ; thus 
 here, er leit (or lait), he lies, in form equals he laid; er seid 
 (or said) he says (said) ; i gan (or gange), I go (gone, goinff) ; 
 t Kott,l will (would); i hi, I am (be); er lobt, he praises 
 (praised) ; gang, impera go (going). So we see, again, that 
 the past tense, or any other part of the verb, is quite identical 
 with the present. 
 
 This language presents, too, many excellent illustrations of 
 
 one letter representing two or more condensed, latent ; thus 
 
 'k°L^K^^ rJ-- ^T"^^! i^'^ge {&.liegen, lie), and er lit 
 
 ii^hn\' \ '' ' %^»' (iggi, iyyi, iiii, i); so Ger. hahen 
 
 ?) (gite ""7 "'""' "''' "^ ' "■ ^''' ^' giv^;, Ger. giebt (ieb 
 
■aSRHAS LANGUAGE, 243 
 
 648. We will next add a list of a few of its most peculiar or 
 instructive words : 
 
 A and aa (brook, river), Ger. b-ach, L. amnis, Icel. aa) 
 auw, ow, L. o»M, our ewe, sh-eep ; haa, pa, Ger. vater, father; 
 <^asig, tame, still, L. taceo ; dolen^L. toUo, Icel dol, Gc.dulden, 
 'en-dure: trant (course, step), train, Du. <mn<= pace, tread, 
 tramp, Ger. schritt ; dwr, througk; engen^ alon«, one, Ger. ein'; 
 •eppis, (something), Ger. etwfis; eren, Ger. achern, acre, ear, L. 
 '«»'o — till; gell, yell, G. schall; glaren, to glare, g-lance, look^ 
 ^ropp, crop, top, head,. Ger. kopf; lUp/en, lift, heave, L. leva, 
 Dan. lofte "(loft) ; lustig, lovely, lusty ; Mtzel, little, Du. luttel. 
 Go. leitil, Ger. 7c-Iein ; mar and tAor, Dan. mor, Fr. meur and 
 ^ur, L. maturus {matur^rtiaur, mur). 
 
 649. There are, besides, many other forms, or dialects, of 
 German as it is now spoken in Europe ; but to notice fully their 
 many instructive features, would require a moderate-sized vol- 
 ume. Many of them differ from the present standard; German 
 but slightly, and others vary from it as much, perhaps, as the 
 Swiss form just noticed. There are, among others, the Bavarian, 
 Austrian, Tyrolese, Thuringian, Transylvanian, and Jewish., 
 
 650. The following is from the dialect of Augsburg : Fothfer 
 •anser, daehf (Ger. der) duh bischtem Semmel; Gehoyligt weard 
 deih nahm; zua ons Jcumm daih Raich; Daikwill g-schawierti 
 JELenimel, Q,tz och.avf earde ; Ons'dr dekliph broad yib ons keint 
 1(Ger. heutey-;. Ond vergiab ons onsr schuld, ais wikr vergaba 
 
 .onsdrn schuldigara; Ondfuhar (Qt&v. fulir) ons nittind v.er- 
 suaohong; Sunder an er-lqas (loose) ons vom ibel. Denn dain 
 ischt das raich, ond dia Tcrafft, ond dia harlikoit in ewikoit — 
 Father our, who (the) thou be'st (art) in Heavein ; holied were 
 ((be) thy name ; to us come thy kingdom -(^rick) ; thy will be 
 (Ger. ge-schehen) as in heaven, as also upon {auf) earth; our 
 day-ly (daily) bread give us to-day (this) ; and forgive us our 
 guilt, as we forgive our debtors; and lead us not into (ind) 
 temptation ; but ^Ger. sondern) free us from evil. For thine 
 is the rick, and the power, and glory in eternity (ever). 
 
 651. In the Bavarian form., we find, keUigt werd, holy, hal- 
 lowed, be ; zvr-kwmme wis, come (to) us ; gihw uns heind, give 
 us to-daf ^heute) ; unsre schulln (our shalls), our debts, guilts ; 
 ton alU Ahblamm, from all evil (blame). In Transylvanian : 
 ■zau-kom aus deing rehch — to-come (come) us thy kingdom.; 
 deing uell ge-schey aff (auf) jevden — thy will be. on earth j 
 iriut gaff aus heigd — bread give us to-day; auser schuld, aw 
 debt ;• mier fergien — we forgive ; Jier am net — lead us not,; 
 erlUs aus von dem iiweli — loose us from the evil. 
 
 These are as great differences (from common German) as we 
 usually find in these dialects, andwe easily see they are confin^ 
 to mere wthographic variations. 
 
244 MftAsIs. 
 
 652. GrOTHlo. — ^The Gothic is a German language, but &et- 
 man in a somewhat peculiar form. It may be placed alongside 
 with the other two branches of the great German family,- the 
 High German and the Low German, not running parallel and 
 independent of thein, but rather in a line converging with thenj 
 the farther back we' press into the shades of antiquity. Grimm 
 takes the Gothic as the base of German, but it is only so because 
 it is older than the rest, or that we have learlier records of it. 
 It stands nearefr to the High and Low German (with which, 
 especially the foi'ilier, it is easily compared^ than to the old 
 North, or Scandinavian. 
 
 653. It was the language spoken by people known in history 
 as the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, and the Moesogoths. Gothie 
 is a v6ty indefinite term — -as the Goths are, for us, a very inde- 
 finite people. Goth was a favorite name with the Romans, td 
 Spply to wild hordes to the north of them. These Goths seem, 
 too, to have been especially a progressive, a moving people: 
 They made their settlements not only in the whole south of 
 Europe, but we in time find Goths in Spain and in Italy. In 
 later times, they seem to be more particularly located in the 
 Worth of Europe. Indeed, it is claimed that the Germans and 
 the Scandinavians belong to the Gothic stock, that they are 
 descendants, that is, a continuation, of the Goths, or that they 
 have commingled with them, the Goths. The term Gothic, 
 finally, is often used as a convenient word to denote the German 
 and Scandinavian combined. 
 
 654. The Moeso-Goths have the greatest importance for us, 
 they being by far the best known to us by their writings ; Moeso- 
 Gothic is often (generally) denoted by the. term Gothic alone, 
 it being the Gothic with which we are acquainted — it has 
 been considered by some, and with some plausibility, as beino- 
 the original of High German. ° 
 
 655. The oldest specimen not only of the Gothic, but older 
 also than any other Germanic idiom, is the Gothic translation 
 of the gospels by Ulfilas, the bishop of Moesia, supposed to have 
 been made about the year 370. Some specimens from that 
 translation will best illustrate the character of that language as 
 compared with our own and with other GeTman tongues ' 
 
 656. First, the beginning of the 7th chapter of John : Jah 
 warhoda Jesus afar thata in Galeilaia ; ni auk vilda in Judaia 
 gaggan, unte soJeidednn ina ihUi Judaieis usqiman — and walked 
 Jesus after that in Galilee; not for (for not) would (he^ in 
 Judeago (^««^,go"ig),for (and) (they) sought him ■(»»«). 
 the Judeans (did), to-kill (him), {us-qiman, over-come). ^ ^ 
 
 Jhanuh quethuh du imma hrotkrjus Vs—then quoth (said^J 
 to him brothers bis (bis brethren); m-leith thathro jah\agi 
 
(JbKMAN LAlTQUAaE. 245 
 
 (pan^) -* depart (out-lead) hence (thither), and go (gang). (So 
 the Scotch say, where are you gangen ?) 
 
 M mag so mariaseths (the world) fijan izvis (you), iih (but) 
 mile fijaith — not may (cannot) the men hate you but me (it) 
 hateth (men hate me, not you) ; thatuh than qath du im, visands 
 in Galeilaia-^ thiB when (he had) said to them (im), being 
 (dwelling, as he did) in Galilee (when he had said these things 
 to them); ith ihhann ina, unte /ram imma im,jah is mile in- 
 sandida—hnt (and)' I know (ken, acquaint) him, for (unte) 
 from him (I) am, and he me sent (me). 
 
 Vas Johannes daupjands — was John dipping (he was bap- 
 tizing) ; ati-gibans i^art/j-'^up'giTen were (were given up); 
 qemun than motarjos dawpjan — came then publicans to-baptize 
 (to be baptized) (prest. inf. often for pass.) 
 
 '657. There are, as has been already suggested, strong like- 
 nesses between the Gothic and High German, as well as between 
 the Gothic and Low German; and yet, notwithstanding the 
 impossibility of measuring quantity in such cases, we feel con- 
 strained to say, in comparing these tongues, that the Gothic is 
 inore like the Low German, the Saxon, the English, than the! 
 High German, the literary German of the present day. 
 
 658. First, the style, the expression, is rather Low German 
 than modern German. From Mark i. 8, we take the following : 
 Athijian ile daupja izvis in vatin, ith is daupeith izvis in ahmin ■ 
 veih-amma — And (for) I dip you in water, but he dip-eth 
 (dips) you (izvis) in (the) ghost holy (I baptize, but he will 
 with holy ghost). In German it reads : I dip you with water, 
 but he will you with the holy ghost dip (baptize) ; 11th verse, 
 jah stibna qam us himinam; thu is sunns m,eins sa liuha, in thuzei 
 vaila galeikaida — and (a) voice carae out (us) heaven : Thou 
 art (is) son (of) mine the (j3e-)loved, in whom (that) well (I 
 am) delighted. In German : There was (came) a voice from 
 heaven, thou art my dear son, on whom I well.>pleasing have. 
 
 Jah suns sa ahma ina ustauh in authida — and soon the 
 spirit (Fr. ame) him drove (out-towed, out«lead), into (the) 
 wilderness (Ger. wiiste). In German : and soon drove him the 
 spirit (did) into the Waste (wilderness). 
 
 659. And next we find many words which are more like 
 English, for example, than German, as the following list will 
 demonstrate— 1st Goth., 2d Ger., 3d Eng.: a/ta, nach, after; 
 aibr, gabe, offer; air,fruh, ere; airtha, erde, earth; aivs, zeiij 
 age, L. sevum; akvila, adler, eagle. 
 
 Baurd, bret, broad ; beitan, beissen, bite ; bugjan, kaufen^ 
 buy; dags, tag^ day; deds, that, deed; dails, theil, deal; divan,, 
 sterben, die ; diups, tie/, deep. 
 
 Dumbs, stum'fn, dumb ; d-vold, naar, £"001 ', /airra, /em, far J 
 /otus, /uss, foot ; /odeins, speise^ food. 
 
246 tilEAslS. 
 
 Gaits, siege, goat ; karan, sorgen, care ; hairto, herz-, teart 5 
 halts, lahm, halt ; hauhs, hoch, high. 
 
 Lamb, lamm, lamb ; letan, lassen, let ; liban, leben, live ; 
 leiks, gleicli, like ; liihm, glied, limb ; lukan, schliessen, look. 
 
 J/aK, mensdi, man ; managei, tnenge, many ; maurthr, mord^ 
 murder ; mikils, viel, much ; raihts, recKt, right ; rwms, raurn^ 
 room. 
 
 iSair, schmerz, sore ; siYaWj schweigen, silent j sltadus, schatfen-^ 
 Bhade ; «?eps, scfilaf, sleep ; sliuthan, gleiien, slide ; swms, JaZc^j 
 Boon ; svistar, schwester, sister, (suister). 
 
 Taikns, zeicken, token; triu, haum, tree; tungo, zunge, tongue; 
 tunthus, zahn, tooth ; van, mangel, want ; viljan, wollen, will J 
 vothis, siiss, sweet ; viko, woohe, week. 
 
 We must, of course, strike off the final s, as the representative 
 of the Latin gender ending, us, a, um. To this list we add the 
 following interesting forms, without any particular reference to 
 the question in view. 
 
 660. Airzis, err, German irre ; aii^ei, mother ; aiws, aiiims 
 (horse), L. equus ; alev, oil ; ana-leiko, Ger. ahnlich, like, one- 
 like; anda-vaurdi, answer, Ger. ant-wort (on-word) ; ansts, Gef. 
 gunst, gnade, grace, thank ; ara, Ger. adler, eagle ; augjan, 
 show, Ger. zeige-n, and augo = eje,- — hence we see eye = see, 
 look, show; auknan, wax, (grow), L. augeo ; aurahi, g-r&Ye ; 
 awrlceis, Ger. k-rug, c-roek ; auths, Ger. wiist, waste ; avi, ewe, 
 eh-eep ; aiou, w-asser, L. aqua. 
 
 Bai, both, Ger. heide ; bairan, G«r. iragen, drag, carry, bear ; 
 bairhts, bright ; baitrs, bitter ; halvs, evil, base ; baian (good), 
 better; bi-aukan, w-ax, in-crease. 
 
 Faur-ihei, fear, Ger. furcht ; fra-liusan, Ger. ver-lieren, lose 
 (.fra= from— ver); frets, free, fresh ; frijonds, friend ; friks 
 (greedy), L. a-varus. • 
 
 Snaivs, beneath, Ger. nied.rig ; hropi, Ger. ruf, report; in> 
 veiten, an^beten, in^vite; juk= joke, and jiukan = &ght, con^ 
 quer — so we say to join in battle, to match (G'k makomai= 
 to fight), to equal, and we get the idea of strife, contest, from 
 that of union, joining ; every union implies two things united; 
 as well as contest, fight, does. 
 
 Xas, cask, Ger. gefdss; kaurs, Ger. schwer, L. gravis, heavy j 
 kavtsjo is the way they spell caution. 
 
 Laigaion is their orthography for legion; laisjan, Ger. lehren, 
 learn, L. doceo, teach, dt=l ; leisan, learn, lesson ; Ivhan, (love) 
 = hope. 
 
 Magus = hoj, Celt, mac, maid ; mais, more, L. majus, magii 
 (moyis) ; meljan = write, Ger. malen = paint ; mins, Ger. 
 wenig (less); naqaths, naked, Ger; nackti new = near Ger. 
 nahe. ' 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE. 24T 
 
 Qums (comes), Ger. artrJcun/t (on-come), arrival ; reiJcs, princey 
 Jj. regis; sa-wazuh (the-what) = each, s-was in old G-er., et-wa& 
 in Ger. ; siggqan, sink (gg=ng); and siggvani&&\ag (and read); 
 siluhr, silver ; sinthan (= go), send ; sitts, Ger. sitz, seat, saddle, 
 Ger. stuhl {situhl) ; sinks, sick, Ger. sch.wach, weak, s = w; 
 skath, Ger. scTiaden, scath ; s-kevjan, go, scud; s?ayara, still, 
 (sly) ; smVan = go, come ; staiga, way, st = w ; s-vers, worth. 
 
 Triggvs (triuuvs) true; «Aim<A, good; th-vahan, wash; iJaiA^s 
 (thing), wnat, Ger. et-was; vair, man, L. mr; i;aMr<i, word, 
 Ger. recZe, read ; i;eito» (see), L. »itfeo ; •yi'tow, wit, know ; vizon, 
 live, L. vivo ; vopjan, whoop (call) ; v-raton, ride (go). 
 
 We must not omit to observe that there are also many Gothio 
 words which are German and not English. 
 
 661; Scandinavian : The Scandinavian (or North) language 
 constitutes a large and important part of the great German or 
 Gothic family. The three leading branches of this division are 
 the Icelandic, the Danish, and the Swedish ; indeed, if we count 
 in the dialects of these, especially of the two latter, we shall 
 have, substantially, all there is of Scandinavian. 
 
 662. These languages did not become individualized until 
 after the 14th or 15th centuries ; before that time, they were 
 merged in what is called the Old North ; or, turning to the de- 
 scending side, the Old North gave birth to these modern dia- 
 lects. The best representative of that old idiom is the Ice- 
 landic. Living far away on their distant island, the Icelanders 
 have been little afifected by the culture of the continent, and 
 have scarcely yet, as makers of language, been warmed into life. 
 It may not be amiss to remind the reader of the great resem- 
 blance between the Icelandic and our own, especially the old 
 English, and the parallel which we can draw between it and the 
 Gothic. It is claimed as a matter of history, and it is certainly 
 very probably from the location, that the ancestors' of these 
 islanders were Norwegian colonists. Certain it is, the Norwe- 
 gian, or a great portion of it (for it, too, has its varieties), is a 
 dialect very closely connected with the Icelandic. Taken as a 
 whole, the Norwegian has a distinct character as compared with 
 the Danish or Swedish, and differs from them considerably; yet 
 that difference lies chiefly in the variation of orthography — the 
 grammar being the same. 
 
 The language of the Faroe Islands is a dialect with some dis- 
 tinguishing peculiarities. 
 
 663. We will treat more fully of the Swedish and Danish, 
 and after them the Old North, and that will suflSce to give a 
 
 ■general idea of the Scandinavian peculiarities. 
 
 664. To the student who is acquainted with both English and 
 German, the acquisition of Danish and Swedish ia exceedinglj 
 
248 PHKASIS. 
 
 easy so little does lie find in them that he does not readily rcoog- 
 nize'as either English or German. The general appearance, the 
 cast, of Swedish and Danish, is rather English, rather Saxon, 
 than modern High German ; the style, the idiom, with some 
 exceptions, is not German hut English. Yet, notwithstanding 
 the orthography of the language is decidedly English, when 
 considered generally, there are many words which are as decid- 
 edly German and not English, as the following forms will 
 illustrate : 
 
 Angenlim, angenelim, agreeable (first Swed., next Ger.) ; anlete, 
 antlitz, countenance; hegdr, hegierde, desire; hefdl, hefehl, 
 command (befail) ; he-rom, ruhm, renown ; betala, hezahlen, 
 pay ; bo,wohnen, dwell (bide); fara, ge-fahr, peril ; fogel, vogel, 
 bird (fowl); fdrdig, fertig, ready; Icnappt, knapp, scarcely 
 (tight); kropp, k'orper, body; bgonUick, augenUick, moment 
 (eye-look). 
 
 665. A few specimens of the language will give something 
 of an idea of its character, and we take up first the Swedish : 
 
 Jag onskar dig den gladjen, att se dina barn lyckliga — I 
 wish thee the gladness, to {at() see thy (thine) children (thy 
 born) lucky (prosperous) ; — barn is singular ; one of the 
 Swedish declensions has singular and plural alike. 
 
 Den soldat Jiogaktar jag, som vdgar (wages) sitt liff for 
 fdderneslandet — the soldier high-respect I {jag), who risks his 
 life for fatherland (I much respect him); han alsJcar honom 
 sasom sin egenson — he loves (likes) him so-so (so-as) his (sin) 
 own son. 
 
 Det bli/ver fyra dr (year) i morgan sedan {sithen') jag sjuk- 
 nade — it becomes (leaves, is) four year to (i, in) morrow since 
 I sickened; jag har lemndt dem ett nojaktigt svar — I have (liar) 
 given (let) them an (the) accurate (satisfactory) answer ; jag 
 pd-minner mig den omsttindigheteh — I remember me (be-mind 
 me) the circumstance. 
 
 Jag sag henne liommande — I saw her coming; det dr fara 
 om lifvet — it are (there is) danger about (the) life; vi salja 
 efter vigt — we sell after weight ; jag tror, att du fcan gora det 
 — I trust, that you can do (chore) it; han kom gdendes — he 
 came going (on foot) ; jag bad honom (att) Idna mig sin bok — 
 I bade him (to) lend me his book (in Ger. (to) me his book to 
 lend, while the Danish is precisely English). Fa personer 
 hafva varit (been) begdfvade med sd utmdrkta (out-marked) 
 sjdls/brmogenheter (souls-for-might-hood-er, soul-power), som 
 (as) Gustaf Adolph — few persons have been endowed (be- 
 gifted) with so remarkable soul-power as Gustav Adolph ; jag ' 
 har leapt en hdst — I have bought (got) a horse, (in Ger., I have 
 a horse bought). 
 
GERMAN LAKGUAGE. 249 
 
 666. Danish : Det var (were) en loverdag morgem, og netop 
 den/orsie September, da d^n unge Eusser meget tidlig rejste sig 
 frasit leje, i den hensigt at gaa (to go) ud, for at optage et par 
 
 skidser af Albaners'dens meest romantiske partier. It (det) was 
 
 a Saturday morning, and (og) just (neat) the first September, 
 that the young Russian much early (timely) raised (him-)self 
 from (fra) his bed (L. lectus), in the view to go out, for to take 
 (off-take) a pair (couple) sketches of Albanersen's most romantic 
 parts. 
 
 JSn Jepbmand modtog (with-took) en fern sMlings-mynt, der 
 ikke syntes ham at vaere (to be, were) a^gte, og spurgde (Ger. 
 fragen) derfor en sagforer, som gik {gang, went) forU ham 
 (his) butik, hvad han (he) meente om (of) den^ — A merchant 
 (buy-man) received a five-shil ling-piece, that not seemed to-him 
 to be pure (aegte), and asked therefore an attorney, that went 
 by his shop (booth), what he thought (meant) about it (that). 
 
 I mange tU-faelde, hvor der i (in) andre sprog vilde vaere hrugt 
 et adjectiv, bruges i Zulu sproget et substantiv — in many cases 
 where there in other language would {vilde) be used an adjec- 
 tive, is-used (bruges, uses) in Zulu language a substantive. 
 
 Taelle (tell) med fingrene, begyndende fra venstre haands, 
 lille-finger, idet hver finger som er optagen i taellingen, raekkes 
 ud (stretches out) — count (they do) with fingers, beginning 
 from left hand, little-finger, until (idet) every finger which 
 (some) are (is) up-taken in counting, is-stretched out (ud:); — 
 medens de ovrige (the overs) forblive knyttede — while the 
 remaining (ones) leave (are left) knitted (shut); ere ogsaafor- 
 mede udaf (ont-ot) vedkommende (with-coming) begyndelser — 
 (they) are also formed out-of with-coming prefixes (beginners). 
 Skulle bruges — should (be) used; tiderne kunne ind-ddes 
 (dea,l, divide) — tenses can be-fbrmed (can form, can form selves) ; 
 det er naeppe (nip, Ger. knapp) vaerd at se — it is scarce worth 
 to see; jeg har et lille besbg at gj'ore i nabolauget — I have a 
 little visit to make in (the) neighborhood. 
 
 667. To show the great similarity between the Danish and 
 Swedish, we will give the same verse used in German with 
 Dutch. First Swedish : 
 
 Da lopp hon, och horn till' Simon Petrus, och till den andra 
 Idrjungen, som Jesus dlskade, och sade till dem; De hafwa tagit 
 Herran hort utaf grafwen, och wi wete icke hwart de hafwa lagt 
 honom. 
 
 Danish : Da lob hun, og kom til Sim,on Peder, og til den 
 <anden discipel, hvilken Jesus elskede, og sagde til dem : De have 
 bort-taget Herren af graven, og vi vide ikke, hvor de have lagt 
 ham — Then ran (leaped) she, and came to (till) Simon Peter, 
 and to the other disciple, which Jesus liked, and said to them, 
 32 
 
250 PHKASIS. 
 
 They (de) have taken Lord forth (airay), (Dan. forth-taken) out- 
 of (Dan. off, eaf) (the) grave, and we wot not (ikke) where they 
 have laid him. 
 
 668; Old North : Speaking approximately, we may say that 
 the Old North has the same relation to the modern Scandinavian 
 languages, that the Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, has to the 
 present English, or that any old language has to its living de- 
 scendants. The Old North is abundant in its relics, both poetry 
 and prose. Poetry, in the early centuries, of course predomin- 
 ates, and it possesses all of that laconic and quaint style which 
 characterizes so preeminently the earliest productions of all 
 northern Europe. Its mythological impress is also a striking 
 fact ; its tales of gods and of the deeds of gods, suffer not, in 
 beauty and interest, in comparison with the long-admired history 
 of the divinities of Kome and of Greece. This impress, which 
 we have noticed, is one of a hundred forcible evidences that 
 connect and comlDine the German of the North with the Classics 
 of the South. 
 
 669. The oldest monument of the German-North languages, is 
 the poem entitled " Vaulu-Sj)a," of a date uncertain to history, 
 but supposed to belong between the 5th and 8th centuries. A few 
 selections from it will give some idea of the features of composi- 
 tion in Old North, and some idea, too, of the comparative form 
 of the words it contains : 
 
 Awnd than ne attu, oth thau ne ha/do — mind (L. anima), 
 they not had, sense they no had ; lae ne laeti, ne Ktu goiha — 
 motion nor hearing, not face (look) (Ger. antlitz) good; aundgaf 
 Othinn, oth gaf Haenir — mind gave Odin (he gave), sense gave 
 Haenir ; lae gaf Loihr ok litu goiha — motion gave Loder and 
 face Qitu) good (also). ' 
 
 Ask veit-ek standa, heitir ygg-thrasill 
 
 Har-hathmr, ausinn hvitom auri ; 
 
 Thathan koma dauggvar, thaers i dalifalla ; 
 
 Stendr aei groinn yfir Vrthar-hrunni 
 
 Ash knew^I (to) stand, hight Odins-horse 
 Hair-tree, strewed (with) white dust • 
 Thence come dew (rain), that in dale' fall, 
 Stands (it) ever green over Urthar-brunni. 
 
 Thrisvar brendu thrisvar horna 
 
 Opt ok osialthan, tho hon enn lifir 
 
 Heithi hana hetu, hvars til husa kom -— 
 
 Thrice burned (they) thrice born 
 
 Oft and unseldom, though she yet live 
 
 """^whSsTsKm?' "'"' ^"'"'^'*° '"'"^ ""-^ (*« 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGB. 251 
 
 Ein sat hon uti, tha hinn aldni kom, 
 
 Yggiongr Asa, ok i augti hit; 
 
 Svers fregnith ndk, hvaf freistith min 
 
 Alone sat she out, there the old come 
 
 (The) king (of) Ases, an(l in eye (of him) looked; 
 
 What ask (you) me, why try (thou) me (of me ?) 
 
 The following is a verse of another style, taken from another 
 poem : 
 
 Fraemr mun ek seigia — farther will (mean) I gay (tell) 
 Effirdar jtheigia — if (the) men (L. vir) (be) silent; 
 Fragom fleira — (we) learned more 
 Tilframa theira' — to (of the) journey (of) theirs ; 
 Aestust vrndir — (were) made wounds (they were made), 
 Vith Jofurs fundir — by, king's arrival; 
 Brustv, hrandir — strike (the) swords (did), 
 Vith. Mar randir -i— witlt (against) blue shields. 
 
 670. A selection from Preysgode's Saga : 
 
 Mrafnkell reid upp ^tir Fljolsdulsheradi,, ok m hvar eydi- 
 dalr gekk (went) upp. of Jakalsdal ; sa dalr syndist (seemed) 
 Mfafnkdl hyggiligri, erm adrir dalir, their sem hann hafdi ado- 
 set; en er Hrafnkell komheim, heiddikannfidur siwajjarskiptis^ 
 ok sagdist hann (he) bustad vilja reisa thar. Thetta veitir fadir 
 hans hanum ; oJc hann gorir hoe i dal theim, ok kdllar a Adal- 
 boli. Mrafnkell feick (took) Oddhjargar, Skjaldulfs dottur, or 
 (out) Laxaifdal; than atta tva sonu : het (hight) hinn (the) 
 ellri Thorir, en hinn yngri Ashjorn. 
 
 En tha er Mrafnkell hafdi land numit at Adalboli, tha efldX 
 hann blot mi/cit (much) ; Mrafnkell let gora (make) hofmikit. 
 Mrafnkell elskadi ekki annat (no other) god meir (more) enn 
 (than) Frey, ok hanum gafhann (he) alia hina beztn gripi sina 
 (his) half a vid sik. MrafnkeU hyggdi (dwelt, bide) allan dalintu, 
 ok gaf monnum lond, en vildi tho vera yjirmadr iheirra, ok tdk 
 godord yfir theim. Vid thetta var lengt nafn hans, ok kalladr 
 freys-godi—rok var ujafnadarmadr mikill, en menntr.vel. 
 ' 671. (Translated, word-for-word). Hrafnkell rode up through 
 (sifter) Fljots-dals-pass, and saw (sa) that (where) (a) waste- 
 dale weht up from Jokulsdale ; that (the) dale seemed (to) 
 Hrafnkell (more) dwellable, than (enn) other dales, those that 
 (which) he had before (ere) seen {set); and when Hrafnkell 
 came home, asked (bade) he father (of) his (for) goods-division 
 (to divide the property), and saidest (that) he (his) dwelling- 
 place (abode) will move there (would fix his abode there). That 
 grants (the) father his (to) him (the father gives) ; and he made 
 (a) dwelling (a bye) in dale that (one), and calls (it) to Adal- 
 
252 PHBASIS. 
 
 boli. Hrafnkell married Odd., Sk's-daughter, from Lax. ; they 
 had two son ; called the older Th, and the younger Asb. 
 
 And when there Hrafnkell' had land taken at Ad, then 
 (would) make he (an) oflFering (a) great (one). (H. let make 
 offer-plaee Qiof) great (one). Hrafnkell loved no other god 
 more than Frey; and (to) him gave he all the best property (of) 
 his half with self. Hrafnkell settled all (the) dales, and gave 
 men land, and woujd then be (were) over-man (of) theirs (their 
 governor), and took office-of-overseer (godord) over them- 
 With that was long name (of) his (from that came his surname), 
 and (is) called Freysgodi ; and (he) was (an) unfair-man (very) 
 much, but brave much (very brave, able). 
 
 672. A few lines of Danish will show how it compares with 
 the above : Erafnkell red op gjennem Fljotsdalsherredet, og saa 
 at en ode Dal gik op fra Johdsdalen / denne Dal syntes ham 
 hehoelligere end de andre dale, han for havde seet. Men da han 
 kom hjem, had han sin Fader om, at skifte Godset med sig, og 
 sagde, at han vilde opslaa (strike up, move) sin Bolig hist. 
 
 673. We conclude the subject of Grerman languages by re- 
 marking, that to the philologist the most important members of 
 the whole class are, besides the German proper, the Dutch, 
 Danish, and Swedish, as they contain much of value, on the 
 eubject of his inquiry, which he will not find translated. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CELTIC LAKGUAGES. 
 
 674. The Celltic class of languages readily falls irtto two lead* 
 ing divisions : the first composed of the Welsh or Cymric, of 
 Wales, the Cornish, of Cornwall, now extinct, and the Celt- 
 Breton (Armorican), of Brittany, a province of France ; and 
 the second embracing the Scotch, or Gaelic, of the Highlands 
 of Scotlandj the Irish, or Erse, and the Manks language, of the 
 Isle of Man. The term Cymric, or Welsh, is often used to 
 denote the whole division to which that language belongs ; so, 
 Gaelic is used to denote Scotch and Irish together ; Erse is 
 used in the samie way by some ; Erse is also applied to Scotch. 
 
 675. These two divisions have important features to distin- 
 guish themj and yet when we become thoroughly acquainted 
 with them, we readily see that they are simply strongly-devel- 
 oped dialects of one and the same tongue. The Celtic idiom is, 
 to the philological student, a subject of great interest. With all 
 
CELTIC LANGUAGES. 253 
 
 the odd dress it wears, and the peculiar lines of direction it is 
 sometimes found to take, we have only to become thoroughly- 
 acquainted with its true character and spirit, to perceive th'at it 
 is not so strange as we have been wont to conceive it. We find 
 that there is, after all, often cloaked in its own Celtic fashion, a 
 remarkable identity with the English, French, and German 
 idioms. 
 
 676. The most striking feature which impresses us on our 
 first acquaintance with Celtic, is the strange orthography into 
 which it shapes not alone its own but foreign words, and we 
 have only to master that peculiar fashion which it has, in order 
 to make the Celtic appear to us a very common and familiar 
 idiom. The oddities of arrangement in its sentences, when we 
 keep French as well as English in view, are by no means great. 
 We find, it is true, particles piled on in greater profusion than 
 we that are Flnglish might expect, though not so much greater 
 than we find in many other languages which are not Celtic. We 
 find the adjective, as in French and Semitic, very generally after 
 the noun, though by no means uniformly in any of the difierent 
 forms of Celtic, nor in all of them equally. The nominative is 
 often after the verb, while it is generally before it with us. 
 There are many other important differences, but which we must 
 pass by entirely, or which will be observed in the selections 
 which we are about to give. There is one very noticeable point, 
 however, which we will dwell on here, a feature not by any 
 means peculiar to the Celtic, for we find it well defined in French, 
 in German, in Greek, and in many, if not, indeed, in all others 
 — though perhaps nowhere so prominent as in Celtic ; we refer 
 to the change which a word undergoes (to adopt the current 
 idea) to correspond with some other word connected with it, and 
 either preceding it or following — thus, in Greek, apo, from, 
 before some words, is written aph, and kata, kath; and sun, with, 
 connected with a following k or g sound, becomes sug by assimi- 
 lation. It is on this same principle that we find, in Celtic, pen, 
 a head, alone and with eu, as eu pen, their head ; but, with dy, 
 as dy hen, thy head,pem changes to ben, and withyj/, my, as^y 
 mhen, it changes to mhen ; and we find eiphen, her head ; also, 
 brawd, a brother, dy frawd, thy brother; /^ mrawd, my brother; 
 also the forms, troed, droed, nhroed, throed, (foot) ; and ci, gi, 
 nghi, chi (dog) — according to their connections. 
 
 677. It will be observed that all these changes or mutations, 
 are mere variations of cognate letters, that these variations are 
 on the same principle as those which occur in compound words, 
 or in the different part& of the same word. All variations in 
 the epd of words, in all languages, to denote tense, person, case, 
 etc., arise from this same principle of assimilation between cog- 
 
254 PHKASIS. 
 
 nate letters ; it is regarded as certain that these mutations in 
 Celtic may be taken as representations of the case relation, or 
 case variation. We nowhere find stronger proof than this 
 which we find in Celtic, of our position that all the letters of a 
 word all the letters of compound words, of words coming to- 
 gether in any way, are of the same nature, and continually tend 
 to assimilate. 
 
 678. The following selections will serve tp illustrate the 
 character of the Celtic languages, and we take first the Welsh : 
 
 Prynoddy dyn geffyl—\>ough.i the (y) man (did) (a) horse 
 (Fr. cheval); y dyn hwn (this) — the man this (one). Cododd 
 y milwyr yn-erhyn eu cadpen — rose the soldiers (did) a-gainst 
 their {eu) captain. Darllenwyd eich llythyr i-r aeloda,u — was- 
 read your {eicK) letter (was) to-the members.^ Pa (what) der- 
 fysg sydd yn y ddinas — what disturbance is (Ger. sind, are) 
 ■ in the city (town) ; gwelais ef — I-saw him (e/) ; a-welsoch chwi 
 efneu hi — a-saw you (did you see) him or her ? 
 
 T gwr a-i wraig a-ddaeihant — the man and-his (a-i) wife 
 a-came (a is common verb prefix, like the Ger. and G'k aug- 
 ment). Gallwch chwi a^ch (and-your) gwraig fyned — can-you 
 (you can) you and your wife go (moxLwi, fyned) ; daeth efe — 
 came he; daethant hmy — came they; deg llyfr — ten book; 
 Gwelais geffylau, a phrynais hwynt — I-saw (some) horses, and 
 I-bought them. Yr-wyf yn credu ei hod yn gwawrio — ^ there- 
 am (I) in believing {i. e. I believe) it is (be, bod) in dawning 
 (it dawns) (j/r is a prefix, like our there in there is, and like Ger. 
 es, Scand. er, and we may regard yr-wyf as double be, for yr = 
 are). 
 
 Gwelais y milwyr a-r carcharwr yn myned i-r llys — I»saw 
 the soldiers and-the {r=yr, the) prisoner in going (a-going) to 
 the (r = the) hall ; jfel nas gella/ei chredu — that not I-can its 
 (ei) believing (cannot believe it). Pe lladdai efe fi, eto mi (I) 
 a-obeithaf ynddo — though (pe, what) kill he me, yet I (will) 
 a-trust in-him {ynddo). It is a prevailing feature in Celtic, to 
 find the pronoun and preposition united, as in yn-ddo, or accord- 
 ing to our view, to see the preposition, as to, develop elself into 
 the representative of pron. and prep., as to-me. 
 
 Yr oedd y dyn yn ddoeth — there was a man in knowing (the 
 man was wise (knowing); adjectives like in-wisdom, for wise 
 are common) ; mor drwm a phlwm — as heavy (drag) as (and) 
 lead (L. plumb'); y fenyw yr oeddych yn ei gweled — -"the woman 
 there (which) were (you were) in her seeing (the woman which 
 you saw). Fy mhen, fy mraich, fy nhroed — my head, my arm, 
 my foot. Paham yr ydych yn ceisio fy Uadd — why there are- 
 you {ydych) in seeking my killing — seek to kill me {yr must 
 be counted as an augment). 
 
CELTIC LANGUAGES. 255 
 
 Myji yw y hara hywiol,yr-hwn (the-this) Orddaeth i waered 
 o-r nef — I (I-I, my-self ) am (is) the bread living, which a-came 
 to down froin-the (o-)') heaven (L. nubes). Tna y cy flawnyd 
 yr-hyn a-ddytoedasid — then there (was) fulfilled the-this (what) 
 (was) a-spoken; lle.f a-glyhuwyd — voice (was) arheard (a is 
 prefix); ac wedi ei gyfodi — but after his hearing, i. e., when he 
 heard ; y gelwid ef — there (shall-be)-called he, i. e. he shall be 
 called. 
 
 Ac yn y dyddiani hynny y daeth Joan Fedyddiwr, gan bre- 
 geihu-yn niffeiihwch Judea — and in the days those {y augment) 
 came John (the) Baptist, with preaching in (the) wilderness 
 Judea. 
 
 . 679. Cornish : Little can be said that is peculiar to the 
 Cornish, when compared with Welsh. We notice our form of 
 passive : a-n nef of danfenys — from-the heaven I-am (of) sent ; 
 bos rewardyys -^ be rewarded ; an gorhel my a-n gura (wdrk) 
 — the ship I it (will) make ; me as ygor an (the) darasovi — 
 I (for) them (will) open the doors. « 
 
 680. Celt-Breton : The Celt-Breton has greater and more 
 important peculiarities, not only orthographic but grammatical, 
 as the following examples will show : Ann douar ho tigemero 
 goude ho maro (death), am, gwelo o vervel, hag enn han e vezinn 
 douaret — the earth (L. terra") you (it) will-receive after (goude) 
 your death (which receives you after), me (it) will-see (gwelo) 
 to die (in dying) (see me die), and in it (e augment) I-shall-be 
 (vezinn) earthed (interred); it gant (with) hi — go with her; 
 evid mond e bro — for (to) go into (the) country, gand he c-hreg 
 hag he zaou vab — with his (he) wife (Welsh wraig) and his 
 two sons (hub, Ger. knabe) ; he zaou vab a-oa ha.nvet — his two 
 son a-was named ; ead e bro — go into (the) country ; JVbemi 
 a-lavaraz d-ezhi — Noemi arsaid (a augment) to her (hi). 
 
 681. A few more words must suffice to give an idea of the 
 orthography : Kaloun, heart (l==r); eva, drink, L. bibo, bever- 
 age; mad, good, L. magnus; mor, sea, Fr. mer ; an or, the 
 door ; chatal, cattle ; gar leg, arm, G'k cAeiV= hand; lech, place, 
 L. locus. 
 
 ife?eji, yellow, mellow; moaZ, bald; werz, force, nerve; niver, 
 number ; paz, all, Gr'k pas ; penn, head, L. caput, mount, point; 
 ti, house, sty, L. tectus ; teod, tongue ; deiz, day, L. dies. 
 
 Breach, arm, L. brach ; iach, health ; choad, wood ; war, 
 sure ; gwarek, arc ; gwir, true ; uhel, high, hill ; fall, e-vil, bad ; 
 kaer, ^reitj ,li. pul-cher ; 6raz, great; mean, stone; rfowr, wa-ter; 
 breur, brother, Fr./rere. 
 
 Koulm, Fr. colombe, dove ; paotr, boy, L. puer ; hano, name ; 
 fan, fire; kelch, circle; env, heaven; ali, bird, L. avis, 1, v; tra, 
 thing, L. res ; avel, blow, wind, Fr. vent; viel, look. 
 
256 PHRASIS. 
 
 Ki, dog, Fr. chien ; haz, stick, beat, Fr. baton; gweU, better, 
 well, Fr. meilleur; gwenn, white, Fr. Mane, L. can'; biz, digit, 
 Fr. doigt ; he zourn, his hand, G'k cheir ; piou, who ; c-hoar, 
 sister, Fr. soeur. v t j- 
 
 Kresk, grow, Fr. crois, increase; dtgor (learn), L. disco; ro, 
 give, L. do, r, d ; /cret^, Fr. crois, credit, trust ; laka, put, place, 
 
 L. focMS. 
 
 Kar, love, dear, care ; lavar, f speak), L. fe^o; Aaw, Fr. trouv 
 (find), re-trieve; graZZ, can, will; gwez (know), sage, wise; dont, 
 come, gone, d, g; mont — dont, mount, went; kea, go, Fr. va; 
 gan, sing, L. cano ; dale, delay. 
 
 Ober, work (make), L. oper-e ; ra, do, rorara, done, r, d ; gra, 
 do (g' prefix) ; sevel, raise, Fr. lever ; kaout, have, k, g, h ; 
 krenn, round, Fr. rond, kr^r ; glin, in-cline, knee, Fr. genou ; 
 den, man, Fr. gens (plur. of den is tud, Ger. Zeate, folk). 
 
 Lagad (eye), look ; g-eo, yoke, Fr. joug ; enk (straight), Ger. 
 eng, narrow, anxious; garrek, rock; trouz, Fr. bruit (noise); 
 bran, raven. 
 
 These, and very many more which we might give, comprising 
 a large portion of the language, are easily seen to be variations 
 of French and German words. 
 
 682. Gaelic : Our next selections we will take from the 
 Gaelic proper, or Highland Scotch: Agvsa-deirim ribh — and 
 1-say unto-you (a is an augment); agus ri m-shearbhant, dean 
 so, agus nise e — and to my-servant (I say), do that, and doeth 
 it he (he does it) ; nach d-/hair mi creidimh co mor as so — 
 not (have) found I (mi) faith so great {mor) as that (I have 
 not found) — d' , for do, is the prefix or augment for the past 
 tense. 
 
 Thigaedh (infin.) do rioghachd — come thy kingdom (Ger. 
 rick, L. regnum) ; deanar do fJioil air an talamh, mar a-nithear 
 air (on, in) neamh — (be) done thy will (thoil) on the earth 
 (L. terra) as a-done (as is done) in heaven (a augment); chualas 
 guth an Rama — (was) heard (G'k kluo) voice in Rama ; agus 
 anuair a-chunnaic iad (they) an reult — and the hour (i. e. 
 when) a-saw they the star (when they saw); bha a chulaidh 
 (clad) aig Eoin — (then) was the raiment to John (John was 
 clad, clothed); thubhairt e m — said he to-them ; oir ata (is) 
 e scriobhta — for is it written (it is written) ; am pobull a-bJia 
 'nan suidhe an dorchadas — the people a-was (was) in sittino' 
 (was sitting) in darkness; ag imeachd da Josa — in walkin? 
 (coming) of Jesus (i. e , Jesus while walking). 
 
 Agus bha e an-sin gu (to) bas Eeroid — and was he there 
 (the-there) until death (of) Herod ; a,nns na laithibh sin (those) 
 
 thainig Eoin Baiste, a-searmonach am. fasach Judea in the 
 
 days those, (those days) came John Baptist, a-preaohing in wil- 
 
CELTIC liANGUAGES. 257 
 
 derness (of) Judea — agus ag-radh, and a-saying (in saying, 
 radh (Ger. reden). 
 
 Agus bhaisteadh tad leissam (by-him) ann an Jordan, ag- 
 aidmheil am peacanna — and (were) baptized they (were) by- 
 him in the Jordan, a-confessing (admitting) the (their) sins; 
 chum gu-m hiodh e air a bhaufeadh leis (/e=by) — for that be 
 be (for him to be) in (air) the baptizing by-him (baptized by 
 him) — a is a prefix ; chaidh (goed, went) e air ball suas as an 
 uisge — went he (e) on (the) spot (i. e. immediately) up out the 
 water. Is e so mo (my) mhac gradliach, am bheil (Slav, byl) 
 mo mhor thlachd — is he that (this is he) my son (mac) beloved, 
 (he) is my great delight — am is prefix. 
 
 Chum gu-m hiodh e air a bhuaireadh (try, proved, b-r-d) leis 
 an diabhol — for that be he (he be) on the (o is prefix) tempt- 
 ing by {Ids, by-him) the devil (to be tempted) ; air teachddo-n 
 hhuaireadair — on coming of-the tempter, i. e., when he came ; 
 an sin thug an diabhol e do-n bhaile (ville) naomha — the then 
 (then) took the devil (did) him into-the city (the) holy (one); 
 Leanaibh mise (my-self ), agas ni (make) miiasgeirian (fishers) 
 air daoinibh dhibh — follow-(ye) me, and make I (I will make) 
 fishers of men (of) you (dhibh); lean iadesan^ — follow they 
 him. 
 
 Cha-n fheudar baile a ta air a shuidheachadh air sliabbh 
 '■fholach — not can (a) city which (a) is (to) on a sitting 
 (which sits) on (a)hill hide (be hidden) ; ni h-ann a sgaoileadh 
 a-thainig mi, ach a choimhlionadh — not for the destroying 
 (to destroy) a-come I (do I come), but the fulfilling. — (the a 
 here may be treated as the, to, but it is as much a part of the 
 verb as any prefix is ; so, in the sentence before, a, which was 
 called which is so much a part with ta, that in Irish it is 
 written ata). 
 
 Chvala sihh gu-n dubhradh, Suit air son sula, agusfiacail 
 air son fiacla^heaxA ye (ye have heard) that say (it is said), 
 eye (L. occulus) for sake (of) eye, and tooth for sake (of) tooth ; 
 tabhair (L. dabo) do-n ti (the, that) a dh-iarras ort — give to- 
 the he (to the one ) who asks of-thee — (dh is prefix, iarras, ask) ; 
 huailihh an dorus, agus fosgailear dhuibh- — knock (blow-ye) 
 the door, and (it shall be) opened to-you ; o-ir gach uile neach 
 a dh-iarras, glacuidh e -— for each all one (every one) who asks, 
 receives he (does) ; lean cuideachd mhor e — followed multitude 
 great him (followed him), 
 
 683. The idiom and grammar of the Irish is so nearly identi- 
 cal with the Gaelic, which we have illustrated thus copiously, 
 that we will not stop to select expressions from the Irish. We 
 will next give a comparative view of the Gaelic, Irish, and 
 33 
 
258 PHRASIS. 
 
 Welsh, using, in this case, the verse in John already taken for 
 a similar purpose. . . 
 
 Gaelic : Ruith i an sin, agiis thatmg % gu Simon readar, 
 amis ffus an deisciohid eile a l-ionmhuinn le h-Josa, agus a-devr 
 i(she)rm; thug iad ho an Tighearn as an uaigh, agus cha 
 n-eil/hios affainn c-ait an do ehuir iad e — run she (t) the then 
 (then she run), and came she to Simon Peter, and to the {an) 
 disciple (the) other, who w-dear (was dear) to h-Jesus, and 
 a-said she (she said) to-them (ria) : Took they (have) away the 
 .Lo^d out the grave, and not is (not) knowing to-us (aga-rnn) 
 where that (do pref.) laid they him (we do not know where (the 
 place) they have laid him). 
 
 684. The same verse runs in Irish thus : Uime-sin (there- 
 fore) do-rioth si (do is prefix, si=i), agus tainigh si mar 
 (where) a-raibh (was) Simon Peadar, agus an deisciohal eile,^ 
 noc do-b (who was) ionmhin le Hiosa, agus a (pref.) dubhairt si 
 riu, Rugh-adar (they took) an Tighearna leo as an dt-uama, 
 agus ni (not) bhfil (is) a /Mos aginn gha-hait (what-place, 
 where) ar (pref) chir-eadar e (is laid he, they laid him). We 
 notice that they (iad of Gael.) is here represented by the end- 
 ing -adar, and we see the prefix do = Gael, a, our to. 
 
 685. And next we give the Welsh : Yna (tlaen) y-rhedodd hi, 
 ac a-ddaeth at Simon Pedr, a-r disgybl arall (other) yr-hwn 
 (who) yr-oedd (3/r = there, prefix) yr (to) Jesu yn ei garu (in 
 his care, love), ac a-ddywedodd (a-said) wrthynt (to them) : 
 Bwy (they) a-ddygasant (took) yr Arglwydd ymaitJi o-r bedd, 
 ac ni wyddom ni (not we-know not) j)a le (what place) y-doda- 
 sant e/(him). 
 
 686. The Irish is written with letters of its own, an alphabet 
 of eighteen characters, differing considerably from the English 
 or Roman. 
 
 The amount of writings in Irish is very large, and in point of 
 time they range between the 8th and 14th centuries. Those of 
 the Gaelic are not so abundant as the Irish, nor do they bear a 
 date by any means so ancient. 
 
 687. In conclusion, we may remark on the Celtic languages, 
 that though they present many features in a new form of new 
 light, they are still much nearer the German and Latin class of 
 languages than is generally supposed. When once we fully 
 understand the nature of their orthography, and their system oS 
 prefixes, or augments, we shall find few words and few points 
 in grammar, that cannot be compared with the English or 
 French. 
 
LATIN LANGUAGES. 259 
 
 CHAPTER ly. 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 688. The Latin, long since an idiom without a living people 
 to speak it, is represented still by these three important families : 
 the Italian, the Spanish, and the French — and with these we 
 may count the less prominent Portugese, Wallachian, and Pro- 
 vencial. There are, indeed, many other members of this great 
 Latin family, which we may either regard as branches of these 
 late living languages, or as themselves independent dialects. 
 Such of them as come within our scope, will be noticed in the 
 course of the review. The old Latin itself we treat of sufficiently 
 in another place, and it remains to speak briefly of the main 
 points observable in its descendants. We will introduce the 
 French first. 
 
 689. We may with propriety divide the French icto a north- 
 ern and a southern dialect, as we divided the German into High 
 and Low German. For practical purposes. We may say the Loire 
 marks the separation of two idioms very easily distinguised. The 
 oldest, and once the ruling one, as a cultivated language, was 
 the southern, to which the comprehensive term Provencial is 
 applied, as well, too, as the name Langue d'Oc. The northern 
 is the source of our present modern French, the written lan- 
 guage ; the names Langue d'Oil and Norman French have been 
 applied to it. Besides these two leading sections of the French 
 epoken language, in both north and south there are other sub- 
 dialects, more or less defined and extensive in point of area, but 
 we have not the space io dwell on t]jem here. Suffice it to say, 
 that several of them present some very interesting and instruc- 
 tive features, when compared with the modern standard French. 
 
 690. Of these two leading divisions we may say further, that, 
 as we might expect, the northern, coming constantly in contact 
 with the German culture, has received a German impress, while 
 the southern, intimately associated with the Latin languages, has 
 been affected in its growth by their pressure, or, in other words, 
 one presents a phase more or less German, while that of the 
 other is quite as much Latin. 
 
 691. It should be noticed, with regard to the names Langue 
 d'Oc and Provencial, that they are sometimes used without dis- 
 tinction, as denoting the southern languages of France; still, 
 the names are used in a narrower sense, to denote the idioms of 
 two different localities in Southern France ; or, again, Provencial 
 is used as the comprehensive name of the old idiom of South 
 France, of which the Langue d'Oc and others are now dialects. 
 
260 PHKASIS. 
 
 692. A few examples selected from Prench autiors, -with the 
 explanations belonging to them, will give a better idea of the 
 leading points in this language than any abstract remarks. 
 
 De nteme que (which, as) Kepler ^-^oi same (the same) as 
 Kepler {de is called a prep, equal to of, but it often, as here, 
 takes the place of our the, with which it agrees in form also) ; 
 Thomme (J = the) quise serf du (of-the) microscope parte (speaks) 
 de grossissements, et s'imagine pouvoir a leur (their) aide con- 
 naitre mieux les objeis — the-man who self serves (serves him- 
 self with) of-the microscope speaks of enlargements, and imag-* 
 ines self (s' = self, a pure article, or pref.) to-be-able {pouvoir, 
 power, \i. potis, possum, It podere) by (a) their aid to-know 
 better the objects. 
 
 Pent encore nous conduire — can yet us conduct (can conduct 
 us) ; une dernier e fois nous I'avons (I' — it, the^press^ sur notre 
 cosMJ* — one (a) last time we it-have pressed upon our heart 
 (have pressed it); il est, it is, there is , nous avons vu que — we 
 have seen that; ce corps se irottae—" that body self finds (finds 
 self, is found) ; de cette maniere -^ of that (in that) manner ; 
 une partie en est dissoute dans le sue — one (a) part of (it) is 
 dissolved in the juice (s ==/). 
 
 A dA Jeter — has ought (due) to-throw (^as ought is good 
 French and German, if not English); de donner^ot giving, 
 to give (<^e=to) ; de plus en plus— ^ of more in more (more and 
 more). 
 
 L' etude de la structure intime — the-study of the structure 
 intimate (adj. follows) ; et meme de Thomme — and same of the- 
 man (even of man). 
 
 Comme ils (they) le sont in effet — as they it (Ze) are in efi'ect 
 (are it=are) ; il a egalement — it has (there is) equally ; d'une 
 (an) maniere tout opposSe—^oi (in) a manner wholly opposed. 
 
 Rien de soHde — nothing of solid (nothing solid) ; le monde 
 animal suit les plantes' — the world animal follows (pur-sues) 
 the_ plants; sans dire — without to-say (i. e., saying, without 
 saying); dit il — says he; ma.is ce principe unique de la vie, 
 comment Barthez I'a-t-il concu?' — but that principle unique of 
 the life (of life), how Barthez it {V) has-he conceived (how 
 has he conceived it, Barthez) ? The French use generally this 
 surplus it in questions — t between a (has) and il (he) is the 
 usual connective letter. 
 
 Je I'ai deja dit — I it (V) have already said («^iV) — already 
 said it, for already said that; il faut de plus considerer — it 
 must of (the) more to-consider— there is need of more consider- 
 ing ; Eire roi proprement, c'est avoir (to have) des sublets et 
 n avoir point d' amis — to be king properly that-is (ce-est) to- 
 have of-the subjects, and not (n') to-have none of (d'j friends 
 
LATIN LANGUAGES. 261 
 
 (not to have friends) — the of, and none, are some of the many 
 words, or particles, which the French employ, and which we 
 have no use for ; luidis-je, to-him said-I (^e =:I); I'un et V autre, 
 the-one and the-other i. e., the both, or both; Us se poussent I'un 
 T autre — t]iB^ self push the-one the-other, i. e., they push each 
 other ; ye iJieres de recevoir — I come to (of) receive, come to 
 receive, i. e., have received. 
 
 Donnez-moi ce livre-la —■ give-me that book-there, i. e., give 
 me that book ; cette femme-ci' — this woman-here (as we say, 
 this 'ere woman); elle se hrula la mam — she self burnt the 
 hand, she burnt herself the hand, i. e., on the hand. This self 
 is very common in French, and in German and other European 
 languages ; in many instances, it has the force of an article, or a 
 simple prefix, and generally it has no equal in English ; vende- 
 m'en un (one) — sell-me of them (en) one (one of them);^a»-Ze- 
 lui-en — speak him-of-it, speak to-him (hi) of-it (en); de lire 
 
 — of to-read, of read, of reading; dites-lui de venir — say-him 
 (to him) to come (d.e = oi, with inf.) ; il ne fait que son devoir 
 
 — he not does only (que, which)his due (duty) {ne = que, not 
 that, only). 
 
 693. There are many other idiomatic expressions in. French 
 as important and interesting as those just given, but there is not 
 space to go further here ; it should be noted, however, that, 
 strange as these expressions may seem to us, they are very com- 
 mon forms, in Europe, in other languages besides the French. 
 
 694. The principal difiference between the Provenoial and the 
 French proper, is one of orthographic dress— though that is 
 not the only difference ; we often find one using a word, French 
 though it be, in a place and in a manner not common to the 
 other. A few examples will illustrate the difference in orthog- 
 raphy : 
 
 695. First, Prov.j next, Fr. : Nouastre, notre, our; noum, nom, 
 name ; crespa, cripe, crape ; cagar, chier ; chin and can, cMen, 
 L. canis, dog ; cabra, chevre, L. capra, goat; espigat and espade, 
 epee, spade and sword ; espina, epine, spine and pin. 
 
 Espes, epais, thick ; aigua, eau, L. aqua, water ; grat, gre, 
 will ; goust, gout, taste ; jaire, gesir, lie ; camha, jambe, leg, 
 limb ; abri, ivre, drunk ; hort, jardin, garden ; juni, jeiine, 
 junior. 
 
 Lack, lait, milk ; luec and loc, lieu, L, locus, place ; liame 
 and lianc, lien, lien ; liech, lit, L. lectus, bed ; ligible, lisible, 
 legible; iiian, main, hand; boutar, metfre, put; neou, neige, 
 snow; negre, noir, black. 
 
 Pes, poids. Weight ; pourpre, poulpe, pulp ; prochi, pres, near 
 and'proach; prest, prit, leadj ; prewar, joner, pray and praach ; 
 
262 PHRASis. 
 
 rahi and ragea, rage, rage; ffarri, rat, rat; ren and ves,rien, L. 
 res, thing ; buou, taureau, stier and bull. 
 
 696.' It must by no means be supposed that the above may be 
 taken as the proper measure of the difference between French and 
 Provencial ; they are selected from the very few of their like — 
 the vast majority of words varying but little, or not at all, from 
 the French ; and it is to be noted, too, that the variation of the 
 Provencial which we have seen above, is in almost every case a 
 variation in agreement with Latin. 
 
 697. The changes of words in Old French, in its gradual 
 growth into the late or new French, presents some interesting 
 facts which may be noticed here. The older these forms are, 
 the nearer they approach to Latin : acheter, to get, has the dif- 
 ferent forms acapter (L. capio, catch), acater, achepter (c = ch, 
 pt=t); donner, give — dorrai, dourai, doint, doing ; parler, 
 speak — parokr, paraut, aparlui, mes-parler ; trouv, retrieve — 
 troz, truis, troeffe. 
 
 Courir, course and run — escourre, sequeur (L. sequor), keurt, 
 corre, se-cor ; dormir, sleep — dort, dorg'e, devorge ; ouvrir, 
 open, overt — aouvert, apert (apart), overt, uevrir, ubrir ; tenir, 
 retain — tieignent, tieg, tigne, tendrai. 
 
 Faillir, fail, false and fault — faldra, faulra, faura, fara ; 
 ouir, hear, L. audio — oyr, oyt, et, orra, oon, cues; voir, see, 
 view — verra-i, voyrras, veoir, vehoir, vehu, veir, veois, veoid, vir, 
 vinrent, varout. 
 
 ' Boire, drink and beverage — heurai, hurez, heivre, hoif; con- 
 noitre, know, ac-quaint — cognoistre, conistre, quenoist, conuistre, 
 co^nehu, conusier, conissies; dire, saj- — did, dient, dioms, dixons, 
 desis, dites ; ecrire, write, scribe — escripre, scripsi, escripvi, 
 ecrivi. i 
 
 698. The Gascon is an important dialect of the French. There 
 is, too, in Switzerland, besides others found there, a form of 
 French approaching near to the Latin, and called by the differ- 
 ent names of Romanic, Rhaetish, and Celto^Rnmanic. It runs 
 parallel with the other Latin languages in every essential parti- 
 cular. We find such variations in orthography as these, com- 
 paring Romanic, Latin, and French : eh, UK, les, the, those ; 
 madem, Fr. meme. It. medesmo, same ; tschel, quis and ille, celle, 
 which and that ; jou and eug, ego, je, I ; fova,fvi, /us, was ; sunt, 
 sum, suis, am; ean, sunt, sont, are; filgs, L. filii, sons; ilg, Fr. 
 il, L. iUe, he. 
 
 Un hum veva dus filgs; Fr. Un homme avait deux fils a 
 
 man had two sons; schet alg hah, Fr. dit a-son (to-his) pere — 
 said to-the {alg) father ; mi dai la part, Fr. donnez-moi (o-ive 
 me)^a part— me give [mi dai) the part (give it to me) • a 
 
LATIN LANGTJAGES. 263 
 
 parchirar ih pores, Yv. pour (ior-ixi) paitre les pourceaux — to 
 feed the porks (swine). 
 
 Mo nagin Igi deva — but none (to) him gave (Pr. donnaii); 
 a joy, miei (die) d'fom, Fr. et je meurs defaim — and I die of 
 famine (hunger) ; jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier (Fr. irai vers, go 
 to) mieu hah — I will raise self (rise), and go to my father ; jou 
 haifaig puccau ancimter (^contra) ilg tschiel (Pr. ciel) ad avont 
 tei — I have done sin against the heaven and before (Pr. avont) 
 thee ; ilg qual eis (is), the which art, who art (Pr. qui es); tieu 
 raginavel (L. regnum) vengig — thy kingdom come, (Fr. ton 
 regne vienne); nou tiers — us to (to us); tia velgia^a-ventig — - 
 thy will be-come. 
 
 In the different forms of this idiom, for there are several sub- 
 dialects, we find for da-ventig (be-come), daventa, d'vaint 
 dvainta; naun proa, for nou tiers} hoatz, Gcr. heute ; for debts 
 we find dahitts, dhits; culpants, L. culpa, Ger. schuld. We see 
 that this Eomanic is French, with a strong tendency to the 
 German, with which it is' associated. 
 
 699. The Walloon and Flemish (or Plandrish)are two kinds 
 of French, possessing the form and spirit of the French, varyino- 
 from it not by any striking differences of orthography, and yet 
 so pressed by the German people, among which they have been 
 located, that they have received much of the German finish. 
 The Walloon and Flemish have much in common with each 
 other, whole sentences being translated from one to the other in 
 almost identical words. Both are interesting and valuable to 
 the philologist, but more especially so the Walloon. 
 
 Other forms of French we must pass by without notice. 
 
 700. Italian : The Italian is a language spoken by a people 
 known to be direct descendants of the Latins, and occupying 
 to-day the very country which was the central part of the once 
 proud and powerful Roman Empire ; and yet, take it all in all, 
 the Spanish is a closer imitator of the Latin than the Italian is. 
 Still, the para,llel between the Italian and Latin is very regular 
 and exact. Its words are like emigrants, which, however far 
 they may have wandered away, never seem to forget their nativ-' 
 ity, and point constantly homeward. 
 
 It seems to have pretty much the same history as the French, 
 and is more like it than any other language. Were they spoken 
 in more limited localities, and by a people less strongly defined, 
 they would easily be taken for dialects of the same language. 
 It is common to French and Italian, that though they use the 
 Latin word, somewhat varying in its form, they often give it a 
 different place, and generally a different meaning. We select 
 the following examples : 
 
 701. Pochi giorni dopo la hattaglia di Waterloo — (a) few 
 
264 PHRASIS. 
 
 days (Fr. jour) after the battle of Waterloo ; non avete un in- 
 stante da perdere — not you-have a (one) instant to (of) lose 
 ( da =to, of ) 5 i momenti sono preziosi — the moments are 
 precious. 
 
 Ma gli uomini degli (of-the) altripartiti cominciarono aUora 
 contro di Iwi (him) una crociata, che fu poi (L. post) causa 
 principale di sua grandezza- — but the men of the other parties 
 commenced then against to him a crusade, which was (/m) after- 
 wards (the) cause principal of his greatness ; che cominoiavano 
 a temere delV influenza, che poteva (^o«^= could) esercitare il 
 nome di lui^o ammisero con diffidenza al consesso loro — (tbey) 
 who {che) commenced to (a) fear of-the influence, which could 
 (poteva) exercise the name of him (his name could exercise), 
 (they) him sent, with distrust, to-the {al) assembly (of) theirs 
 (their assembly). 
 
 Palla di cannone — ball of cannon (cannon ball) — as it is 
 uniformly, too, in French ; il suo porio — the its port (its port) ; 
 i nostri libri — the our books (our books) ; egli non si limito a 
 far (L. facere) conoscere il effetto — ■ he (did) not self limit 
 (limit himself ) to make (^far) know the effect (to publish the 
 effect) ; e la sua fantasia undo inflammando 'si — and the his 
 fancy went (on) inflaming (it) self (went inflaming) ; in che si 
 giaceva. — in which self laid (he was placed); lo faro — it (I) 
 will-do (I will do it) ; dite-lo — tell-it; e cerca (search) di ritor- 
 na.re a vita il poverello — - and seeks to restore to life the poor- 
 one (poor-little); che credeva perduto ~^ vfhich (he) believed 
 lost (perished). 
 
 Rispose-gli — responded he ; per esprimere — for (to) express ; 
 coh cuiuna sillaha viene pronunziata a preferenza dell' altra — 
 with which one syllable comes (is) pronounced in (to) prefer- 
 ence of-the other. The personal pronoun is very often not 
 expressed where we would find it indispensable ; viveva — lived, 
 i. e., there lived; era — was, i. e., there was; finita la corn- 
 media si hallo — (being) finished, the comedy, one danced (they 
 danced) ; piu ricco di mi — more rich of me (than me); voglio 
 parlar-vi di questi affari — (I) will (wish) speak-you of these 
 affairs. 
 
 . La citta ha fatto construire un pdnie — the city has made 
 conslruct (has had constructed) a bridge; al lata di — to-the 
 side of (near) ; che che sia — what that be (= whatever) ; nel 
 modo che — in-the manner that (=how) ; fin a quando — till 
 to when (= till when); quando vuol ella (she) mandarmiil 
 pamiere — when will you send-me the basket; mLole dar-mi del 
 ^ane — will (you) give-me of-the bread (some bread); li ho (I- 
 have) avuti — ihem I-have had; non mi (myself ) Zomejito —- 
 
LATIN LANGUAGES. 265 
 
 not me (do-I) lament, lament myself, lament; far dei progressi 
 — to-make the progresses, to make progress. 
 
 E ella ricca ? h sono — are you rich ? it I-am (I am it, i. e., 
 I am), (she is used for you); l' aiuto afar-lo — himl-aid to do- 
 it, help him do it ; egU & plit dotto ch' io non credeva — he is 
 more learned (taught) than I not believed, i. e., than I believed; 
 io me lo procuro — I me it procure, I procure it (for) me, i. e., 
 I procure it ; noi veniamo amati — we come (= are) loved ; le 
 quail andarono faUite — the which went failed, which failed 
 (as Ger. go lost). 
 
 702. In conclusion we may say, there is not a single impor- 
 tant feature in the Italian idiom that is not French as well. 
 
 703. Like the French, the language of the Italians may be 
 divided into northern and southern classes, influenced by differ- 
 ent forces, and taking directions, hence, somewhat varying. As 
 standing between the two, we may count the Tuscan and Romish. 
 
 * Other dialects are the Genoese, Milanese, Tyrolian, Venitian, 
 Piedmontese, Bologaish, Sabine, Tarentian, Friulan, Neapolitan, 
 and a few others, besides Sicilian and Sardinian. These are 
 dialects pretty well distinguished, and having their own books 
 — yet all plainly starting from the Italian, or Latin, as a base, 
 and departing more or less from it. 
 
 Of the Sardinian it must be said, it has more of the Spanish 
 than of the Italian cast. 
 
 704. Spanish : To the Spanish, or Castilian, we come next. 
 For the English and Latin scholar, this is one of the easiest 
 languages in the world to acquire. It is a Latin language in 
 every respect ; it has not departed from the mother tongue so 
 far by any means as the French, or even the Italian — but 'so 
 far as it has gone, that has been in a direction in common with 
 them. To use a figurative expression, it has been somewhat 
 squeezed out of shape, but the body is Old Latin none the less.. 
 It has been pressed, hard pressed, on the south by Moors, or 
 Arabs, from Africa, and on the north it has been subject to 
 incursions from the notorious and powerful Goths. The Moors 
 left a lasting impression ; they added many words ; they changed, 
 too, in a measure, the style of the native. Indeed, the Moors 
 were masters of Spain for something near eight hundred years. 
 They did not destroy or change the spirit of the tongue, but 
 they did warp its form and mar the finish. 
 
 705. The following will illustrate some of its peculiarities 
 compared with our own idiom : 
 
 luvo la boca grande — (he) had the (a) mouth large (a argc 
 
 mouth) ; quiero los ojos grandes—(T) like the eyes large (large 
 
 eyes) ] casa de ladriUo — house of brick, i. e., a brick house ; 
 
 coluna depiedr a— column of stone, i. e., stone pillar (Span, as 
 
 34 
 
266 PHKASIS. 
 
 well as Fr.'andlt.); entannoblecomotuladecias — (she) is 
 so noble as (how) you it said (as you said it, as you said) ; wia 
 nacion vencida — a. (one) nation conquered, i. e., a conquered 
 one; la dijo (also A}Wa) — (to) her (he) said, i. e., said (to) 
 her (fc=the, her); yo me he cortado el de.do — I me have (Zie) 
 cut the finger (*V/iV)— cut for me the finger, i. e., cut my fin- 
 ger ; iin hombre rico^a, man rich, i, e.,'a rich man. 
 
 To Mismo (Fr. meme, same) lo vi-^1 same (myself ) it saw; 
 dla leecM los hrazos al cuello (L. co^im) — she him (Ze) threw 
 the arms to-the {ol) neck — threw around him the arms, i. e., 
 threw her arms around his neck ; so again, el cahallero (cavalier) 
 le besd (bussed) las manos — the knight (for) her kissed the 
 hands ; no sabe lo que quien-e — not (he) knows the which (what) 
 (he) wants (re-quires) ; este qm'so {-quire, wish, qu) sujetar-^, 
 this (one) wished (to) subject (some one); nada se hahecho—^ 
 nothing self has done (done self, been done). 
 
 ge gice — self says, i. e., is said; no tiene razon de decir esta 
 — (you) no have reason to (de) say (inf.) that (no tiene, not 
 it-has, has not, is not); he de salir — I-have to (de =of, to) go, 
 must go out {salir, our walk) ; esta Uyendo — is reading, powe- 
 ando, walking (passing) ; tiene de hacer-lo — he-has to do-it ; 
 entraron caM^ow^o^ they-entered singing; lo iran (run) dici- 
 endo a todos-^it (they) will-go (iran') telling to all (go tell- 
 ing it). 
 
 Quiere que lo haga yo — (he) desires (-quire) that it do I 
 (that I do it) ; hay (has) mucho que hacer — there-is (hay) 
 much which to-do — much to do ; mis hijos 6 hijas vinieron todoa 
 hoy para ver-me — my sons (L. filii) and daughters came all 
 (todosy to-day (Ger. heute) for (to) see-me (ver-me) j yo amo 
 aun a mis enemigos-^1 love even to my enemies (I love them). 
 An extra preposition is very common in other languages). 
 
 Fue asolada — was d-esolated; es estimado — is esteemed; 
 todos miis cartas estan por escribir hoy — all my letters are for 
 to-write to-day — rmust be written to-day; pero no le he hablado 
 jamas — but not (to) him have-I {he) spoken never — never 
 spoken (to) him (double negatives are common in Europe) ; todo 
 esto se hizo — all this self did, i. e., was done, did self; esto es 
 d6 mi hermano -^ this is of my brother — it is my brother's. 
 
 706. The Catalan, or Catalonian, and the Valencian languages 
 in Spain, are built upon the Spanish basis, and are Spanish 
 throughout, but they have received, from their locality, much of 
 the French totch ; there are those who think them more French 
 than Spanish. In the Catalonian is especially observable the 
 ending -it for the past part., as in Old French ; as, esta possehit 
 — is possessed; haveu llegit — have read; havent ohit — having 
 heard (L. audit). While the idiom is purely Spanish, the Ian- 
 
gttage ia chiefly interesting fvom the peculiar orthoa-raphic 
 torms in which Spanish words appear here. 
 
 707. The Castilian has several minor dialects, not particularly 
 known to philology, and which we cannot here dwell on; 
 
 /08. The PoETUGESB is spoken by a people having a sepa- 
 rate nationality, but so far as difference in written lano'uao'e is 
 ■concerned, it varies from the Spanish no more than one dialect 
 , does froni others of its class. Its nature is purely Spanish : it 
 is true, the pronunciation of the words as written, differs consid- 
 erably from that of the same words in Spanish. Its orthography 
 presents us with forms of much interest. 
 
 709. We will give here a comparative view of four of the 
 languages related to the Spanish, taking first the Italian, John, 
 ■xx, 2 : ' 
 
 Laonde eUa se ne corse ((therefore she self then ran) e venne 
 . (went) a giiMn Pietro,eaM'.(tOrt'he)diseepelo,ilqmiithe 
 which, who) ffesu amawa (loved), e (an(i) disite loro (to-them): 
 han tolto (have taken) dot (from-the) monmnento il Signorte, e 
 noi (we) non sappiamo ooe (where) I' (him) abbianposto (have 
 put). ■ 
 
 710. French : HUe courut diorec (then) trouver (to-find) Simon 
 i'ierre, etV autre (?', the) disciple que Jesus aimaii (loved) jiCi 
 vile leur (to-them) dit, ore a (one has) enlevS du (from-the) 
 sepulcre le Seigneur, et nous (we) ne (not) savons (know) ou 
 (where) on Va (him has) mis (put) (where: one has put him). 
 
 711. Catalan: Ycorregiie(jkadL&he-rw^,y vingue a {to) Simo 
 Pere, y a aquell (that-which) altre (other) deixeble amat (loved) 
 de (of, by) Jesus, yh (to-them) digue : Sen hanportat (carried) 
 io Senyor del (from-the) sepulcre, y no sabem (not we-know) 
 akont V han (him.(they)-have) posat (put)^ 
 
 712. Portugese : Qorreo pqis (then), e veio (went) a Simao 
 Pedro e ao (to-the) outro discipulo a quern (to whom) Jesus 
 crniava, e disse-lhes (saidrthem) ; Ao (tp-the) Smihor tomarao do 
 (from-the) Sepulcro, e nao (not) sah-emA)s'onde (where) o (him) 
 ^ozel-ao (they-have-put). 
 
 '713. And, finally, one of the dialects of Eomanie (low Euga- 
 dina) : Per il qual (for the which, therefore) eUa currit, e venn 
 ^ro Simon Petro, e pro (to) V'auter scular il qual Jesus amaiia, 
 e diss ctd els : Maun els (have they), tut dal (from-the) monu- 
 maint il (the) Segner, e nus nun (not) savain (know) ingig 
 l'Jidjantschanta{'pla,oed),. 
 
 714. Basque Lan-gttagb : There is a language, of ;Spaio., 
 known to philology under the name of Basque, and sometiaies 
 ■cpilled Iberian — an idiom somewhat celebrated, but certainly 
 taot well understood. The Basque, with some kindred dialects 
 
268 PHRASIS. 
 
 is the present language of the people of Biscay and Navarre, 
 and is the representative of an ancient language, now extinct, 
 and of a people once powerful and prosperous, but long since 
 departed and forgotten. There is reason to believe that it was 
 once the idiom of all of Spain, or nearly all, besides of a large 
 portion of southern France. 
 
 715. It has been supposed, and with good reason, that the 
 Basques, and their family, belonged in their cennections with 
 the Celtic people. There is, indeed, much in the general cast 
 of Basque orthography that reminds one of Gaelic or Cymric, 
 hut in the grammar there are many strong points of difference. 
 With the limited knowledge we now have of the Basque, we 
 would prefer leaving it to stand as some solitary monument, 
 alone. It is not enough to say that all of its points of construc- 
 tion and grammar have something similar to them in other lan- 
 guages ; that many, no doubt most, of its words can be traced 
 back to a relationship with words in the European or Asiatic 
 languages ; the road we have to travel is far too long to allow 
 us to call this connection and relationship a family likeness. Its 
 very marked character can never be changed, though it is of 
 course probable that time will make us more familiar with its 
 peculiar features, and bring it nearer to some languages with 
 which we are better acquainted. 
 
 716. The language is found in Spain (and that is the only 
 reason why it is introduced under the head of Latis Languages), 
 but it is quite as different from Spanish as Irish is from Eng- 
 lish. We will proceed now to give some idea of its prominent 
 points : 
 
 717. The article, so-called, is here found suffixed, as we find 
 it in Scandinavian and elsewhere ; thus, gizon, man ; gizona, 
 the man; gizonak^ the men; gizonbat, a man — bat is the 
 numeral one, used for a, an, as we everywhere find it. The 
 cases are formed by varying the endings, as in Latin ; thus, aita, 
 father ; aitaren, of the father, or father's ; aitari, to the father. 
 This genitive aitaren (the father's = that of the father), may 
 undergo another change, or may be used as a base on which to 
 form a new genitive; thus, aitaren-arena, that-of-that-of-the- 
 father, and the latter form aga,m as a new base, going on so 
 without limit, just as we may say, that-of-that-of-that-of, inde- 
 finitely. 
 
 718. What we use as prepositions, they use as post-positions, 
 placing them after the noun, and generally united with it at the 
 end ;_ as, ogi^gabe, without (gabe) bread ; jauna-gatic, through 
 (^gatic^ the (a) Lord ; jauna-re-kin, with (kin) the Lord; aita- 
 gana, to (gana) father; ceruar&n conira— -heaven against: au- 
 gwiM, — to us {go). 
 
LATIN LANGUAGES. 269 
 
 719. The adjective is found after the noun; &% guicon on, 
 man good ; aire on, good (on) animal. Not only are adjectives 
 compared by a change of endings, but nouns are compared in 
 the same manner ; thus, hide, way ; hideago, more way ; so can 
 participles be compared ; as, edertzen da, improving he is ; 
 edertzen-ago da, more improving is he. 
 
 _ 720. In verbs there are two ways of conjugating, one the 
 simple and older form, and the other compounded or circum- 
 scribed by the use of participles with auxiliaries — the simple 
 form being used only with a few verbs. Verbs which are used 
 in the simple can also be used in the compound form ; as, nator, 
 I come (from etorrt), and etorten naz, coming I-am {naz). It is 
 particularly noticeable that not only are nominative pronouns 
 developed at the end of verbs, but, also, the objective (ace.) and 
 dative occur very generally in connection with the verb ; as, 
 dut (dot, dei) I have him, or it. Here d is the representative 
 of the object Mm, u of the verb-root, and t the pronoun I; so 
 du is he has him, or it — here the mark of 7ie, the subject, is 
 not so developed as to be distinguished from u of the verb-root. 
 It will be remembered that the marks of the third person very 
 commonly lie latent. Again we find dugu, we have him, or it ; 
 due, thou hast it ; natzatzu, I am to you — where n marks J, 
 atz, root he, a is connecting letter, tzu marks to-you, dat. 
 
 721. Speaking generally, the auxiliaries he and have, as we 
 find especially evident in Turkish, are the basis of the verb, and 
 are in fact the only real verb in Basque — to form the usual 
 tenses of the verb, we must attach the participle to these as a 
 base. The auxiliaries, as in other languages, are placed last ; 
 thus, maitefuten dot — loving him-have-I (d-o-t), I loving have 
 him, love him; maitetuten naz — loving I-am (naz). The aux- 
 iliaries play a very conspicuous part in Basque, as we shall see 
 by the examples we are about to give, and they are often too 
 numerous for us to dispose of in the translation. We find many 
 elements united into one word, which we regard as distinct in 
 
 ■ our own and other languages, and, as we have seen in dvt, those 
 elements are often so little developed as to have only single let- 
 ters to represent them. Examples will best illustrate further 
 the character of the Basque : 
 
 722. Eta Mtz-aren ministre igan (been) diradenec — and the- 
 word's minister been being (having been), i. e., who were min- 
 isters of the word (Ma); hats-etic fin-erano — beginning-from 
 end-to, i. e., from beginning to end. Eerodes /udeaco regue- 
 ren egun-etan cen Zacharias deitzen cen (G-'k gin, been) sacri- 
 fieadore 6a<— in-tho days (ep'MM-etara) of-Herod of-Judea, the- 
 king (of-the-king,,re^Me-?-em) was (there was, cen) sacrifizer one 
 (a certain one, hat) named (who waa named, deitzen cen) Zacha- 
 rias. 
 
2T0 ffifeASis. 
 
 Eta Tiareii (his) emaztea can Aaron^n alab-etaric — and (eta) 
 his wife was {cpm) Aaron's daughters-from-tlie (one from the 
 daughters of Aaron) ; iai-qidric ioanen naiz (be, will) neure 
 nita-gana — rising, go (ionaiien) will-I my father-to (to my 
 father); eta erramn draiicat — and say wiW-l; etJwv cedm-y 
 come has, has come ; iJcus cecan — seen has; Ml egagite — kill 
 do-ye ; ecen ene seme haar Ml cen — for my son this (one) dead 
 (killed) was. 
 
 ' Mi hetlii ene-qidn aiz — thou he me-with (with-me) ever (art 
 ever with me) ; ceren Mre aiiciye haur Ml baitzen-^ for thy 
 (Mre') brother this (one) dead was ; ene gucia Mre due — my all 
 Igucia) thine it-hast-thou (thou hast (it) my all). 
 
 Ecen ikussi dugu Jiaren icarra Orientean — for seen it* 
 have-we (^d-u-gu) his star East-in (his star in the East we have 
 eeen); truhla cet^wi — troubled was, had trouble; ezaiz Ju- 
 daco gohernadoren arteci) cMpiena — art-thou-not (thou art 
 not) Judea's governors among (arteco) the least (art not the least 
 among). 
 
 Scrihatua due — (is) tvritten thou-hast-it (hast written) ; 
 'engancciu igan cen -■'— mocked been Was,,had been mocked ; erran 
 igan cena — -said been being, having been said ; io cegan Jiaren 
 J^ainac Syria gucia — gone (io) has his fame Syria all-through 
 (throUgh-all, (/Mcm) ,• cmc carete munduco at-guia — ye are the- 
 World's light ; eznaiz ethorri abolitzera, taitia complit-zera — ' 
 I-am-not come to-abolish-fpr (for^to-abolish), but complete-for 
 (to complete). The present part., used like oUrs, ends in -ic j 
 as, itzir-ic, leaving. 
 
 723. Here we introduce, for fhrther illustration of the char- 
 acter of the language, a list of some of its words : aditu, hearj 
 L. auditum ; andia, grand (a= gra) ; aurra, fore, ere ; beguia., 
 eye, Grer. auge (be is pref ) ; beroa:, warm ; biar, morrow ; bidea, 
 way, path ; burua, head ; cMloa, hole, ch, h ; cillara, silver ; 
 cerua, heaven, Fr. del, r. 1. 
 
 Beitu, call, L.dico^ doya, just, Gr') diJce ; eann, when ; echea, 
 house, case ; esan and erra/ii, say, G'k red ; edo, or, other ; eguin, 
 make, do, L. ago and egi ; egima, day, Pr. jdur, g, d ; eman, 
 give, L. dono ; ez, not, G-'k ou7c, Ger. kein. 
 
 Zaca, save, without, Fr. sans ; gacia, acid ; gan and goan, go; 
 gosna, cheese ; gaitba, night, g, n ; goia, high, g, h ; gucia, all> 
 Ger. ganz ; guero, near, g, n ; gura, will, Ger. gierig, gr, wl ; 
 guti, little, bit ; Mru, three ; ihaya, river. 
 
 Mintza and Mtza, word, Fr. mot ; icena, name ; icasi, teach ; 
 tOTst, see, look; il, die, kill; igan, go, Ger. st-eigen; igil and 
 isil, silent ; jan, eat ; Io, sleep, 1, si ; lora, flower ; lurra, earth, 
 L. terra, 1, d, t. 
 
 Mendia, mount; mia, mouth, tongue, word; obe, better (notice 
 
LATIN LANSUAQES. 271 
 
 that many letters in Basque are prefixes for us) ; sendoa, sovrnd-, 
 sua, fire, s, b. 
 
 Tipia, bit, little; ucitu, cut, deal; zaldia, horse, Fr. cheval} 
 erre, burn ; ikuo, see, 1-ook ; al, can; Celt. gaU, our will; arriay 
 (stone) rook ; hicia, life, L. vivo ; choria, bird. 
 
 Effon, be, stand, do, L. ago; izun, ucan, Ger. sein, be — i ia 
 in Basque commonly a prefix, as, also, in igo, for our go ; molay 
 L. multus,' -msiKy, Ger. viel; ona, good, L. i-ona. 
 
 724. Wallachian Language : The last language of the 
 Latin class which we come to, and the mostof all diiferent from 
 it, is the Wallachian. It is unquestionably built on the Latin 
 basis; its whole framework is Latin; but it must not be forgotten 
 that it is Latin as it has grown up in a Slavic atmosphere, and 
 under Slavic influences. "What there is of it that is not Latin 
 is Slavic — speaking generally, of course. While a vast majority 
 of its larger words are almost identical with Latin, there is enough 
 of the smaller words and particles so un-Latin as to divest the 
 text of very much of its Latin cast — especially so; when we find 
 find it, as wo often do, written in the Cyrillic, or old Slavic 
 alphabet. 
 
 725. The Wallachians call themselves Romaid, • and their 
 language is spoken in Wallachia (a country in Austria), in 
 Moldavia, in Transylvania, in Bessarabia, and in parts of Hun- 
 gary. It is divided into a northern and a southern branch. 
 
 726. Among the prominent features of this lapguage, we 
 notice the suffixed article il, le, L. ille ; as, oane-le, the dog; 
 serpe-le, the serpent ; ceriti'l, the heaven ; and we find the fem- 
 enine article a ; as, mente-a, the mind ; Jiore-a, the flower — ■ 
 all of them, it seems evident, a pure development of the ending 
 -us, -a, -Mm, of Latin nouns and adjectives ; as, hon-iiis, -a, -um. 
 This suffixed article takes a dative and genitive form in ui; as, 
 socru-l, the father-in-law (L'. socer) ; a socru-lui, of the father- 
 in-law (L. sooeri) ; frate-h men, the my brother (L. frater 
 meus) ; a frate-hd meu (L. fratris mei, gen), of the my bro- 
 ther; pre frate-le meu (L. fratrem meum, ace), to the my 
 brother — pre is a mere sign of the accusative, a mere insep- 
 arable prefix, and is not translated in English ; and a performs 
 the same part for the genitive ; de la frate-le meu (L. a fratre 
 meo, abl.), from the my brother. Conclusive proof we find in 
 these facts, that the prepositions are mere prefixes, and the 
 articles, pronouns, case endings, and the like, are simply devel- 
 opments of the endings of nouns. In the plural, we find afrati^ 
 lor mei (L. fratrum meorum, gen.), of the my (mei) brothers. 
 
 727. Other features will be best understood by the examples 
 which we are about to give : 
 
- 272 PHEASIS. 
 
 Cicero oratoru-l quelu mare — Cicero orator-the which great 
 (one), that great, the great one, or who (is) great (Cicero the 
 great orator) ;. /a' casa' de lemnu,nee de petra — make (L./ac) 
 the-house from (de) wood (L. lignum), not from stone; caluP 
 quelu suru mi 'I dede — the-horse (Pr. cheval) that cerulean 
 (one) (to) me it ('0 given (he has), has given it, the horse, to 
 me (this superfluons it, as well as many other superfluous parti- 
 cles, we find in other Latin languages as well) ; quare-le (the- 
 which) au (has) datu legi poporu-lui Romanu — who has given 
 laws (to) the-people Koman (to the Romans); se chiama — self 
 calls, calls self, i. e., is called. 
 
 /era mi s-au (self has) aratat in visu — a beast (to) me has- 
 self appeared (has appeared) in sight (to my vision) — show- 
 self = appear; se vede — self sees, is seen; leuP au invinsu pre- 
 ursu — the-lion has vanquished the bear — call pre an unmean- 
 ing prep., or the sign of aco. ; omu cu intelepciune mare (L. 
 magnus) — - (a) man with intelligence great, man of great intel- 
 ligence ; j^Wecaton^ CM direptale — judge with justice, a just 
 judge; casa aquesta e buna — house this (this house) is good. 
 We find the leading character of the Latin family here, the 
 adjective after the noun. It will be observed that all the fea- 
 tures which strike us in the modern Latin languages, are only 
 developments of what we may also find in the old Latin. 
 
 Uste de vendutu— is to (de= of) sell, i. e., to be sold ; nu e 
 tempu si giaci (L. jaced) in patu — not is time (it is not time) 
 that you-lie in bed, time not to lie in bed — this si = that, may 
 be treated as the or to, and we shall always find the, that and to 
 used to perform one and the same oflS.ce ; the Wallachian lan- 
 guage continually reminds us, by the identity of form, of the 
 identity of prepositions with articles and pronouns ; witness the 
 prepositions la, de, din, a. 
 
 Vedu-l' io — see-him I, I see him (I'); io I'asi (him-that) 
 lauda^l him might-praise (ast= that is merely sign of subj.); 
 cedru-l este arhoru-l quel (which) mai maltu (L. altus) — the- 
 the cedar is the-tree that (the) most high, highest tree (we see in 
 in-altus the addition of prep, in, not found in other idioms, and 
 we find very many like instances — this shows that thero is an 
 in undeveloped in L. altus) ; da-mi — give me, to me; june (L. 
 juvenis) albu (blank) la facia — (a) young (one, a youth) white 
 to face, i. e., with a white face {la is preposition with force of 
 article) ; tener (tender, young) ager la mente — (a) youth acute 
 (ager) to mind, i. e., in mind; gradina nostra (our) cu (with) 
 doa iugere este mai mai mare de (from) quat' (from what, from 
 as-much) a-vostra (your) — (the) garden ours by (with) two 
 acres is more more great from what yours (is), i. e., greater by 
 so much than yours is ; greu {gravis, grievous) de suitu, diflacult 
 to ascend. 
 
LATIN LANGUAGES. 273 
 
 t1,/!'^1' ''Ti juestu ^—son.jou (to-you, H) is that, i. e., is that 
 tny son t stele-le quele mari (great) noui (us) se in-paru a-fire 
 mcKmuch and mite) -the-stars which great (the great ones) 
 to-us self show (appear) to-be small; que voiu (will) /ace (do) 
 qua St (subj. sign) me mentuescu ~ vha.t shall-I do that (guj) 
 •me(-self) I-may-save (may save myself) ; da-midare (there-fbre) 
 una dmtre (de-inter) quele — giYe-me there one from them ■ 
 
 a-m^^are_to me (it) 'pears (ap-pears to me); me dore capu 
 -—lae it.pains (m-the) head (L. caput). 
 
 : 728. There is very little else in Wallachian that is sufficientlv 
 peculiar to justify further notice here. We will next introduce 
 the 2d of the 20th John, so as to compare it with the rest of the 
 family : , 
 
 Deche au alergat, si au (has) venit' la Simon Petru, si la chela 
 (quela) lalt ouchenik (disciple), ^re Icarele iuvia Jesus, si au-zic 
 lor (to-them) : Au luat pre Dmnul din mormunt, si nu (not) 
 sciu ounde l-au (him-have) pits' (put) >— afterwards (she) .has 
 run (i. e., she ran), and has come to' {la) Simon Peter, and to 
 that other disciple, whom {pre-Jcarele, which) loved Jesus (did), 
 and has-said them (to-them) : (they) have removed the {pre 
 sign ace.) Lord from grave, and not I-know where (unde) him- 
 they-have put (have put him). 
 
 729. Here follows a list of some important and interesting 
 words, with Latin and English counterparts: peptu, pectus, 
 chest ; chidu, clando, close, ; ^cetate, civitas, state : dosu, dorsum, 
 backj d, b. 
 
 _ Foame, /ames,. hunger, f,- h ; geru, gelu, cold, r, I; nopte, nox, 
 night; quelu, ille, he, Ger. welcher ; tunu, tonitru, thunder, and 
 tone, sound; porumhi, columhse, doves; reu, mahis, worse. 
 .. Puntea,pont,hTidLg&; pruncu (horn), puer (hoj); plopu,pMs, 
 a.ndpopul-us,-peoTple; spunu and espunu, expono, expose; scriu, 
 scribe, •write ; angeru, angelus, angel; santu, sanctus, saint; sore, 
 sol, sun. ,, . ■■:■..■■ 
 
 Ghiacia, glades, ice, gla, ya, i; delu, collis, hill; neue, nix, 
 ■s-now ; ocMu, ocul-us, eye, Qer. auge; chiae, clavis, key ; gaiina, 
 gallina, hen, gal, gai, hai ; scurtu, curtus, short, s prefix. 
 ■ Oercu, quaere, search and seek, cr, sr, qr; gatu, para, get, g, 
 p ; scapu, fugio, es-cape ; sarw, salio, sprinig, walk, sr, ipr, and 
 si, wl. r 
 
 Tocu, tango, touch ; tragu, traho, dragy g, h ; jude, judex, 
 judge, d, dg; diori, aurora ;• golu, (nudus), bald, bare, g, b. 
 
 Micu, s-mall, mite; mane, morrow, morn (maun); afundu, 
 profound, a, pro; naltu\ (for inaltu), jj. altus ; amu, have (our 
 am); atingu,liy. tango, a,t,t; astemperu, L. tempera, ast, t; 
 asunui\ Jj. sono, as,, s; sbatu,quaiio; quash, shake; sb, qu, qv; 
 spa/riu, terreo, sp, t. 
 
 35 
 
274 PHRASIS. 
 
 CHAPTBE V. 
 
 SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 730. We pass next to the language of that extensive and 
 powerful race, the Sclaves. These people were the last to come 
 into notice on the theatre of European civilization ; but, once 
 organized, they have ever been active, and their march has been 
 constantly onward. Their course has exhibited the unchange- 
 ableness and majesty of the moving mountain. They stand as 
 an ever-enduring monument of our Asiatic ancestry ; they afford 
 us a living demonstration of the transition from the wild and 
 monadic Tartar to the proud and polished citizen of enlightened 
 Europe. 
 
 731. While we call to mind again the fact, that all classifica- 
 tions are more or less arbitrary, and that, particularly, subdivis- 
 ions in language cannot stand the test of critical examination, 
 we will yet, on the ground of convenience, and because even 
 unjust classification is far better than none at all, divide, the 
 Slavic idioms into thefollowing usually recognized families. 
 
 732. First, the Lettic, or Lithuanian class, composed of the 
 Old Prussian, the Lithuanian, in its forms of Lithuanian proper, 
 Samogitian, and Pruss-Lithuanian, and the Lettic or Livonian, 
 together with its several dialects ; the line of distinction be- 
 tween this family and the rest of the Slavic, is very clear and 
 striking. 
 
 733. Next, the Russian, comprising, again. Great, Little, and 
 White Russian ; and the Illyrian, or South Slavic, comprising, or 
 used as synonymous with;. Servian, SloveniaUj and Croation-— 
 the Slovenian having the minor dialects of Carinthian, Windian, 
 Carniolan, and Styrian. This constitutes the south-eastern 
 branch of Slavic. 
 
 734. And, finally, the western portion ; being the Polish, 
 Bohemian, and Serbian, or Wend. 
 
 735. There is, besides, the Bulgarian and the Polabian, quite 
 distinct from any of the above. 
 
 736. Having given this brief notice of the classification of 
 these languages, we will now take the Russian and describe it 
 more particularly, as the representative of the whole Slavic 
 class. The Russians are the leading and ruling people of the 
 whole Slavic race ; Russia is the literary center, too, of the 
 Slavic territory; the Russian language contains the works 
 which will be found by far the most important to the philolog- 
 ical student. 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 276 
 
 737. Jn passing to the Eussian, and to the Slavic eenerallv 
 you find together with much that is Latin or German, a great 
 deal besides that is peculiar to it. It takes some time to be- 
 come: acquainted with and accustomed to its stranee orthos. 
 raphy, its consonants piled upon consonants, and its compart 
 tive scarcity of vowels;— in Eussian, too, though not in most 
 others, you must learn to know its peculiar, though not very 
 dafficu t, alphabet. When you have once fully mastered these 
 obstacles, your task, if you properly direct your efforts is half 
 done. ■ Learn well its orthography, and you will find its prepo- 
 sitions. Its. pronouns, its eonjun<?tions, apd its adverbs, all famil- 
 iar to you; you will find they have all their easily recognized 
 relatives in Greek, in Latin, or in .German. Personal endings 
 participle endings, and lastly, though less plain, the case, end' 
 inga, all those seeming little marks which when really mastered 
 leave but little of our work yet to be accomplished, will be easily 
 made familiar, from the resemblance which they bear to similar 
 marks found elsewhere. . 
 
 738. The idiom of the Eussian, and of the Slavic generally, 
 the arrangement of its words, is to an Englishman exceedingly 
 easy. There are, it is true, important difi'erences, but they are 
 very few; and, without assuming to have counted the points of 
 likeness or unlikeness in any two cases, we have a feeling that 
 the order_of the Eussian, and of others, of its class, is more like 
 the English than the order is of any other language of Europe. 
 One cannot but. be struck at every step, especially in Eussian, 
 with this, remarkable identity. Eussian is also strikingly Greek 
 in many of its features, particularly in orthography; after Greek, 
 it is German. , 
 
 739. The only real and lasting difficulty (and that one occurs 
 in most foreign languages, particularly so in Greek) is in the 
 difference between the root given in the dictionary, especially in 
 velbs, and the derivatives in the text which are assumed to come 
 from it. No quickTor far-sightedness can provide against these 
 obstacles, and so long as our dictionary system remains as it is, 
 those derivatives must \)e learned as a mere matter of memory. 
 The science of etymology can aid some, but it can do.no more 
 than help.Us. i., . , 
 
 ; 740. We give now the following examples in Eussian, re- 
 marking generally that the points illustrated, in nearly every 
 instance; are points equally the same in most or all of the other 
 Slavic idioms., i, ^ ; 
 
 Ja dam vam trech tchelovyq,h — l (will) give^ (to) you threp 
 man. The Eussian numerals are followed by the genitive sin- 
 gular after: 2, 3, and 4, and the genitive' plural after other 
 numerals — some few nouns are used in the nominative singular 
 
27& PHRASis; 
 
 with numerals, as we say 20 foot ; dva glazd, two (of) eye (two 
 eves^ ; koqda (when) hi vi mnya ne ddli (given) poziiolemya,. 
 to yaU neprishel—i{ that {hi) you (to) me not (had) given 
 permission, then (to) I would not (have) come— 6i has the force 
 of would, but it is a simple particle that, sign of subjunctive 
 
 Skolko naiduya podohnich mmsC — hOw-many (would) tind 
 I like places (how many like places would I find); svm: pogry- 
 ashnost strogo nakazivat dolzhno — (one's) own faults strongly 
 (strogo) (to) reprove (one) must (one should reprove his own 
 faults) ; ti polytchil ot nego pismo — thou (hast) received from 
 (out) me (a) letter. There are no articles proper in Russian, 
 nor in Slavic generally ; gdya ymersMi pogrehen (be-graved) hit 
 choichet— -where the-dead (one) buried be will (will be buried); 
 ne mozhno dumat tchtob vsya cii (these) ohriadi zamedeni UK 
 takim narodom, hotorii — not (is it) possible (to) think that all 
 these ceremonies performed were (hili) by-such-a (takim) people, 
 which — 
 
 Tarn vidyal gori nad sohoyo — there saw (I) rocks over self 
 (over me). 
 
 Ti heri u nas zlato, serehro 
 
 Ti i nas vozmi vo riadi svoi 
 
 (Do) thou take from ( u, to) us gold, silver. 
 
 Do) thou also (t) us take into covenant (of) self — 
 also take us into thy covenant; i ni kakich zanimatelnich 
 predmetov v glaza ne popadaet-sia — and not any interesting 
 object to (v)- eyes not presents-self (sia is suffix self) (no object 
 presents itself to the eyes). This extra negative not is common 
 in Russian, as elsewhere; y vorot zapisali nashi imena — at 
 (the) gate (they) wrote our names; na paradnom myastya protiv 
 dvorza ytchila's ('s = self) gvardiya — on (the) parade place 
 opposite (the) palace (dvorza) exercised-selves (the) guards 
 
 (did). 
 
 V holshoi • ulizya mnogo vehkolyaphnich domov — in (the) 
 great street (are) many (of) magnificent houses (gen. plur. after 
 many, mnogo). A leading feature of the Russian is the general 
 absence of the verb he, in cases where we find it indispensable ; 
 in this matter, Russian is by no means alone. 
 
 Zanimayot sya soldatairni — (they) occupy 'self (by) soldiers, 
 i. e., are occupied — this form of passive is very, common. In 
 the expression of case relation by varying the endings, and with- 
 out the use of prepositions, Russian is very much like Greek 
 and Latin ; mi mogli siskat ego — we could (might) find (infin.) 
 him; drug-drug — other (the) other, i. e., each other. 
 
 Moskva dolgo hudet krasovat-syd vo glavya gorodov RussMch 
 — Moscow long will (hudet, be) shine-self (shine) at (the) head 
 (glatya) (of) cities (of) Russia; soldat etot sluzhil dolgo, i (and) 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 27T 
 
 visluzhil pewtyo — soldier this (one) has-served long, and has- 
 reeeived (a> pension ; za eto ego noffradiU ordenom — for that 
 hrai (they) rewarded (witha) decoration (he was rewarded with) • 
 liossii/a obitaevia mnogimi narodami—VM&sia. (is) inhabited 
 by-many nations; la vas utchu, zhelaya vam dobra, i nadavas 
 tchtom (you) uspyaete v naukach — ljovi teach, wishing fas I 
 wish) you good, and hoping-self (as I hope) that you (will) 
 progress in (y) (the) sciences. j j \. j 
 
 Odna vdova imyala (had) dvuch dotchere — a (one) widow 
 had two daughters ; tchto ia vizhu — what (do) I see? gdya ti 
 tak (so), dolgo 6i7a — where thou (ti) so long (hast) been ? i 
 onya brosili's bit .menshuyo dotch — and they (Ger.yene?-) ran- 
 selves (ran) (to) beat (the) little girl (child, daughter). 
 
 741. It may not be amiss to remind the student that I, il, li, la, 
 as endings of verb, mark the past, and equal our -ed ; that t, it, 
 at, are infin. endings ; that am marks dat. plur. ; om, and em, 
 instrum. sing. ; ach marks instrum. plur., and ich marks gen.plur. 
 of adjectives. We must note, too, that ya, ia, yo, tch, sh, and zh, 
 we use as representatives each for a single character in Euasian. 
 _ 742. It must be observed, finally, that the examples we have 
 given here, as elsewhere, are those which contain some peculi- 
 arity of expression, while, as a general rule; the Russian order 
 scarcely differs from ours. The number of idiomatic expressions 
 is not very large. 
 
 743. Bohemian : The Bohemian possesses the general struc- 
 ture of the Russian, as well as of the other Slavic languages, 
 with, however, several strong points of difference. The orthog- 
 raphy, while it possesses thoroughly the Slavic character, is 
 yet considerably different from Russian — there are many words 
 common to both, and many words, again (in the two' languages), 
 with equal meanings, have very different forms. 
 
 744. The Bohemian has an extensive literature, and some of 
 it dates back several centuries. Bohemia, it will be remembered, 
 is a country of Austria bordering on the German States — the 
 people call themselves Tchezki, and number between seven and 
 eight millions. It is spoken, too,' in Moravia and Hungary ; 
 the SlovaJc of Hungary is a leading form of it. There are 
 several dialects of the Bohemian; which we cannot notice here. 
 
 745. A few examples will be given from what would strike 
 us as peculiar : 
 
 MuJ bratr narozen jest (is) v Praze -^ my brother born is 
 (was) in (v) Prague ; to mesto kde jsem (am) prava studoval 
 — that (the) town (place), where (I) am (have) (the) rights 
 (laws) studied ; slave Viden, calls (self) Vienna, i. e., is called; 
 jakjste star — how (much) are (you) old, i. e., how old are you; 
 cisare sameha jsem videl — (the) emperor (czar) himself (the 
 
27$ 
 
 PHRASIS. 
 
 same^ have (^m) (I) seen, i. e., I have seen him ; sl^simho asH 
 !rrY) hiar him read Ciut.) jeho s^/n byl ucUeJem -h.s son 
 was (forrteacher, I ..,wasi teacher. This is a common form 
 Tn SlavTo-the dative instr.) after be.. So again, budesejeden- 
 kraeTr^en-ovati nasimclsar^m-Q^e) will self ^ome-day (one- 
 time 'name (for) our czar (he will be named as our czar); buds 
 se-jmenovati, Will himself name = will be named This sepa 
 ration of self horn the verb is very common m Slavic, as well as 
 in German/ and the use thus of reflexive for passive is very 
 
 ^'^^m'jest /.oim-what is (it) hour, Ger. how much clock 
 is it : with us,- what time is it ? narodil gsem se—horn (1) am 
 self, I have born self, i. e, I am or was born ; chodilo se-it 
 went self (there went) ; Mas w (v) Bama slyssan gest — (a) voice 
 from Kama heard is (was heard) ; Uly jako smh — yihiU as 
 snow ; coz mam ciniti — what have (I) to-do (what shall I do) ; 
 to nemuze %^^■— that not-may (cannot) be; cJict meJio bratra 
 navstivM— (I) will my brother visit. The persons being well 
 indicated in this language, as in Russian, the pronouns are 
 mostly left out, as in Latin. _ 
 
 Kdo vam to rekl — who (to) you that (has) said ; ne-verte 
 mu nic — (do) not-believe him nothing; toje zly doveh —thai 
 is bad man; on mluvi cely den — he speaks all day; mluvilo se 
 o vojne — (it) spoke self of war, i. e., they spoke. 
 
 Mrtvola, ktera se v lese hledati mela, byla na silnici nalezena 
 —(the) body, which self in (the) wood seek (inf.) had, was in 
 (the) street found (se-Uedati mela — has to find itself, was ex- 
 pected to be found, Ger. should be found) ; myji diteti ruce — 
 (I) wash (for the) child (the) hands ; hdy-bych-om byli (was) 
 
 meli zizen when-that-we had (was) had (meli) thirst ; ptak 
 
 Jctereho jsem vcera chytil, dnes uletel — (the) bird which (I) 
 have (am) yesterday caught, to-day (has) flown ; co to mas v 
 olc-u,. — what that (thou) hast in eye, i. e.,what hast thou in eye; 
 pilny syn jest ve skole — (the) diligent son is in school ; sel k 
 tobe — (he has) gone to thee, Ger. he is to thee gone ; Muj kun 
 ma (has) dlouhe nohy — my horse (pony) has long feet ; chlapec 
 (Ger. knabe) nema (me = not) sve knihy — (the) t)oy not-has 
 his books ; kdo sil tuto Icosili — who (has) made this shirt,. Ger. 
 who has this shirt made. 
 
 746. Polish : The Polish is the language of a people once 
 the most powerful and important of the Slavic race ; but for 
 many years past they have been the mere vassals of Russia. A 
 people distinct in character, and distinct in language, they have 
 been merged, for all practical purposes, in. the race that has 
 mastered them. The Polish has many points. of likeness with 
 the Bohemian, with which we, with others, have classed it ; but 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 279 
 
 it has, too, many points that place it parallel with the Russian. 
 "We leave the examples given to afford some idea of the relation 
 between the three. It must he ohserved, too, that Polish, as 
 we might expect from its location, has reflected very much of 
 the Grerman hue. 
 
 747. Bielsza od sniegu — whiter from (than) snow; uczye de 
 
 — (to) learn self (to learn) ; IciMi nie chcecie (will) sZac^ac, to 
 hedzieee (will) czm^i'i— when not (you) will hear, then will (you) 
 feel (felt)-- cz-wfe' is really a perfect participle, or tense.' David 
 zabil Goliata kamienem — David slew Goliath (with a) stone 
 (the prep, denoted by ending em) ; malo chleba -^ little (of) 
 bread (little bread); powiem ci (thee) co nowego — (I) will-say 
 (to) you something (anything, what, co) of-new (tell you some- 
 thing new); daj mi chleba — give me (of ) bread (loaf), i. e., 
 me some bread ; nie mage ci praiedy jtowiedziec — (I) not may 
 you (to you) truth say (not tell you the truth); nie zlac to rzecz 
 
 — not bad (ill) that thing (L. res) (is), i. e.,:it is not bad. 
 
 Ma hyc w (in) domu — '(he) has to-be in house, Ger. he 
 should be, i. e., they say he is in the house ; stance swiecace — 
 (the) sun shining (shining sun) ; list napisany- — (this) letter 
 written (written letter); idac do kosciola spotkalem mego przy- 
 jaciela —^ going (as I went) into (the) church met-I my Qm6go) 
 friend ; ide swoia droga (road) — (I) go own way, i. e., my own 
 way; zjadlszy wstal od stolu — having-eaten (he) arose from 
 (the) table ; wiele do czynienia — much for doing (much to do); 
 juz slonce vieszlo — already (has the) sun risen ; ja slyszalem, ze 
 umarl wczorajszej nocy — I (have) heard, that (he) died yester 
 night. ' ' 
 
 Tys (thou-est) suooje przedal ^—ihou-hss own (i. e., thy own) 
 sold (in ty-s we find only the person endings joined to ty, thou, 
 for thou art ; and iky-smy , we-are, we and person ending of 1st 
 plural); m,y-smy (_y!e-a,re) widzieli jego' (his) pismo'- — we-are 
 (have) seen his writing ; slucham, I hear, and wy-slucJiam, I 
 will hear, or listen -^ m and wy is a mere prefix, like the ge of 
 Grernian, here used as sign of future ; mam czytac-- I.^have to- 
 read, I shall read; stal sie panem — (he) became self (stood self) 
 for-(a) lord, became a lord; kto ma wiele —(he) who has much; 
 ja wiem (wit, Ger. weiss), czemu (for-what) siepytamj — I know, 
 why self I-ask, i. e., why I ask. 
 
 There are several minor dialects of Polish, hut none of them 
 present features of any great importance. 
 
 748. Illyrian : The Illyrian stands at the head of a family 
 possessing the form and spirit of the Slavic in every part, yet 
 with such other marks, made by the neighboring German and 
 Latin, as render it particularly distinguishable from the rest of 
 
280 PHKASIS. 
 
 the great class of which it forms a part. The modera Illyrian, 
 it will be noticed, is separated from Venice and northern Italy, 
 by the dividing line of the Julian Alps ; the limits of ancient 
 Illyria are not well understood, but there is every evidence to 
 lead us to believe that the Illyrians were once a people far more 
 numerous and more powerful than the modern Illyrians now 
 
 are. 
 
 749. The words are nearly all Slavic, but with a strong tend- 
 ency to the Latin and German methods of orthography. As 
 compared with the rest of the class, it is particularly noticeable 
 that this family forms its past or perfect tense by the ending ah, 
 ach, or ech, in place of Slavic I, or our ed ; thus, Polish czytal, 
 read (past), Illyrian citah, read (past) • — and so, Illyr. hi-ah, Pol. 
 b-yl, Servian h-ech, our w-as. 
 
 750. Illyrian compares with Bohemian thus : Otce nas koji 
 (who) jesi na, nebesih ; (Boh.)' Otce nas, jenz jsi na nebesicJi 
 — father of-us (our) who art in (no) heaven Q'enz, Ger. 
 jener, that = who) ; Svefi se ime tvoje ; (Bo.) po-swet se jmeno 
 
 twe — hallowed (saint, holy) be name thy (sveti se, hallowed 
 self, for be-hallowed, reflex = pass). (In Boh. po-swet com- 
 pared with sveti, we see pos = s, or that prefixes are devel- 
 opments of initial letters, and add nothing in any case to the 
 original or base word) ; pridi kraljevstvo tvqje ; (Bo.) prijd 
 kralowstwi twe — come kingdom thy (jpridi = pr-idi ; pr is a 
 prefix, and idi=^go, L. ivit and it~). 
 
 Budi volja tvoja kako na nebu tako i na zemljij (Bo.) £vd 
 wule twa jako w nebi tak i na zemi — be will thy so {kako) in 
 heaven so and (as) in earth ; Jeruh svagdanji (daily) daj nam 
 danas ; (Bo.) chleb-nas wezdejsi dejz nam dnes -- — bread (Bo. 
 bread-our, our bread) daily give (daJ) to-us to-day (dnes) ; nego 
 izbavi nas iza zla ; (Bo.) ale zbaw (see iz-b = izb = zb) nas od 
 zleho (ill, evil, z = v = i). — but (G'k alia') deliver us from 
 (out) ill. 
 
 751; We cannot resist the temptation to introduce here some 
 Illyrian words, to show their departure from the northern and 
 eastern Slavic style of orthography, in words clearly identical ; we 
 will introduce some words, too, which are more or less peculiar 
 to Illyrian. 
 
 Ako (when), L. ac, and, at; bar (at least), bare, barely : Bees 
 Vienna; Z-e^ (white), blank, bleach ; berz (quick), hurry : biber 
 pepper, li,. pevere ; bodni, point (bodkin) ; bohe, well, better It! 
 megho, L. melius ; brada, beard ; brebir, beaver ; brek (doa;) 
 bark; brek, burg; brod, boat, br, b; buha, It. puhe, flea! 
 uh, ul. X- J , 
 
 Car, czar, L. rex (king) ; carkva, church ; cam, dark (black) 
 It. nero, l..,mger, Ger. Schwartz, n, schw ; eel, whole ; cepatl, 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 281 
 
 Ger. spalten, It. spaccare, split, cep, cp, sp; cerv, worm, It. 
 verme; cto= oil, whole, Ger. ganz ; cipela, It. Scarpa (cpl, 
 srp), shoe; civ, tube; csa, It. cosa, die, what; cseao, child, 
 Ger. kind, cs, o ; csela, bee ; csep, It. tajoo, stopple ; csestb, It. 
 spesso, oft, St, sp, ft; csez, with, G'k meifa (through) ; csin, 
 done, deed, cs, s, d; csj-ecfo, It. greggia, herd, gr, hr — mark 
 that the cs of Illyr. is very clearly only a kind of s, or a kind 
 of c; csMt^, sense, Ger. sinn ; csudan, wonder, cs, w; csutti, 
 It. udire (cs prefix),' It. scntire (hear) ; csuvar, ward {csuv, csv, 
 sv, w), guard ; csverst, force, strong, Ger. stark ; cwa/c, It. cane, 
 Ger. A«™<Z, (dog) — ak is a common noun ending of Illyr.; cukro, 
 sugar, 0, s ; cura, girl, G'k kore. 
 
 Dabar, beaver ; dar, dower (gift) ; darvo and drevo, tree 
 (wood) ; davati (give), L. past, dabat (gave) ; debeo, thick, 
 dense ; decs^ak. It. giovine (yoMU^), child, d, g, ch.; desan, and 
 desno, It. destro (just, d, j), right, d, r; diliti (iti, Illyr. inf. 
 ending), deal, divide. It. s-partire (ire, inf. ending), separate, 
 dvd, dl, spt ; dim. It. fumo, steam, d, st ; dlakka. It. pelo (pi, 
 dl), hair; dreti, tear. It. stracciare, strip, Ger. zerreissen, dr, 
 str, zerr — see Ger. prefix zer lost in the Illyr. dr j dug, due, It. 
 debiio, Ger. schuld, sch, d ; duha, o-dor, Ger. ge-ruch, r, d; dvor, 
 court. 
 
 Frigati (ati, inf. end.), It. friggere, fry, parch (bake) ; GarJc^ 
 Greek ; Gjuro, George, gj, ge, g ; glas (sound), Ger. laut (gl= 
 I or g pref.), loud ; gled, look (ff pref ), Ger. Mick (b pref.); gltih 
 (deaf), G'k Mud = hear, as It. sordc^ (deaf) ^ heard; godina, 
 year, gd, yr; gorje, worse; gorki (bitter), sour; govor (speech), 
 word, verb (go, pref.); grahiti, L. rapio, rob, gr, r ; ■ gravran, 
 raven. It. corvo ; gredem and grem, go (gr = g), L. gredior ; 
 griem, warm )grih (sin), error (go, wander). 
 
 Haran (thank). It. grata ; hit, jet, (throw). It. gittare ; jab- 
 Ian, apple ; jagnje. It. agnello, 1-amb ; jaje, egg, Ger. ey, ei. It. 
 novo ; jedin, union, join, one (^suppressed); iskatti, seek, search 
 — is is treated as prep = iz = out, but it is our s in seek, isk, 
 sk; /«;an, John, It. Giovanni; izfrigati = frigati, izf, f ; and 
 izgrabite = grabiti, izg, g. 
 
 Kcsi, daughter ; kerv, gore (blood) ; kip, Ger. Kid, pict-ure, 
 fig-ure; kisel, acid; kljucs, key, Ger. schlUssel ; Hup (bank), 
 cliff; /cola, car, r, 1 (wheel) ; koleno, knee, (-cline, bend) ; kost, 
 bone. It. osso; kralj, royal, kr, r; krepost, force, Ger. kra/t ; 
 krics, cry ; krivo, wrong, curve, -prave, It. reo ; krov, roof — 
 Illyr. k is often for us a prefix; kroz, through, -cross; krupan, 
 gross, robust, rp, rb (k pref.) ; krut, rude, c-rude, hard ; kucha, 
 house, cage ; kuhan, cook ; kupiti, Ger. Jcaufen, It. comprare, 
 buy — so we see k of kaufen is com of comprare, or pref. com 
 36 
 
282 PHRASIS. 
 
 becomes lost in the word ; and ttis is only one illustration of 
 the universal law; /cts (bite), /«ss. _ 
 
 Labda, ball, Ibd, bl; lagak, light. It. leggiero (strike off ak 
 ffenerally as mere ending) ; mek, meek, weak, (jer. weich, It. 
 moUe: mil (deal), G'k phU-os, L. a-mc«s. It. a-malile ; mir, 
 Ger. /rief^e and ruhe, joy, fr, j ; mlad (young), lad ; mocfi, 
 might, may; mraz, ripe; mriti, die, r, d (m pref.) _ 
 
 Nag, naked, nude ; narav, nature ; «a«^a, doctrine — na is 
 Illyr. pref., but it is our t of teach and Z of learn; na-ucsan, 
 taught, L. doctus, n, d ; nechjaJc, It. nyjo^e, nephew; nfiTO, dumb, 
 mute; nemogu, not>may (cannot), nem = nm = m; nor, fool, 
 Ger. narr, ig-nor-ant, ign = gn (know); rmglo, a-ngle, Ger. eck, 
 nick, nook. 
 
 Ocsi, eye ; odJmt (od pref.), discover. (dscover). It. scoperto, 
 Ger. ent-deckt (decked) — A;«<, covered ; odpert, o-pen, German 
 o-ffen, It. a-perto; ogled (o = od), (object) look, glook; opad, 
 fall (p, f), L. cado; ov (this), L. m^ Fr. ou. 
 
 Pal, fall; peMKO, foam, It. schmma, scum ; poJcrit, cohered 
 {po Tpret.') ; posobnost, substance (po pref.); pot, sweat, It. 
 sudor ; po-znan, known, Ger. he-kannt ; prav, right, -prave (p 
 pref). L. verus ; pridi, L. gredior, come, go, L. it (pr pref.) — 
 so pri-chi, come, go (pri pref.) ; pri-lika {jpri pref.), likeness; 
 pri-pek, burn, bake ; pvk, folk, people. 
 
 Rahiti, work, Ger. a-rheiten ; rasti, g-row, L. c-resco ; rat, 
 war, Ger. k-rieg ; razhor, reason, It. ragione ; razdel=del, deal, 
 and razgovor = govor, word — raz is prefix ; so raz-krivati, 
 cover ; raz-lika, un-likeness ; red, order. 
 
 Sam, sole, some ; san, sleep. It. sonno, s, si ; sarce, heart, It. 
 cuore, core; sMtti, beat (s pref.) ; sirov, rough (si pref.); skerb, 
 care. It. cura, Ger. sorge (we see Ger. s, our c = k, both used 
 in Illyr. as sk) ; sJcrovan, secret (s-covered) ; skuhati, cook 
 (s-cook) ; slava, glory ; smart (death), L. mors ; smok, sap ; 
 sneg, snow. It. neve (s-neve) ; spor, spare. It. parco ; suh, dry 
 (s, dr), It. secco; sur (s, g), gray. It. grigio ; svet, world, Ger. 
 Velt (sv ^ vv = w). 
 
 Tat, thief. It. lad-ro (1, t) ; tvard, hard, It. dura ; tvor, work 
 (tv = vv = w) ; ud, limb, Ger. gl-ied ; ugal, angle, Ger. eck ; 
 vart, gard-en; voz, wagon; vraia, port, door (p, d). 
 
 J[iv, live. It. vivo; zanak, knot (z, k). It. nodo ; zanat, 
 -quaint, Ger. kunst, know; zima, frigid, winter, L. hiems ; zvir, 
 Ger. thier, It. fier a (beast). 
 
 752. Servian : The Servian subdivision is easily classified 
 with the Illyrian; they run parallel in every essential point; 
 they are evidently closely related dialects of one original tongue. 
 Indeed. Illyrian is used as a comprehensive term for the Servian 
 taken in connection with Slovenian and Croatian. 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 283 
 
 753. Servia extends west to the Adriatic; and on the south 
 merging into Bulgaria, it extends to Albania and northern 
 b-reece. ihe Danube separates it from Wallachia on the north ; 
 further towards the west, taking in the Illyrians, it crosses that 
 river, and the Save, and extends to the southern limits of Hun- 
 gary. The Servians number over five millions. Speaking gen- 
 erally, bervia is the northwest portion of Turkey. 
 _ 754. There are, of course, many forms of Servian ; two lead- 
 ing forms, after the Illyrian portion, are the High and Low 
 Wend, or High and Low Lusatian. The term Wend is used by 
 the Germans often as synonymous with Servian. The High 
 Lusatian is spoken in the country about Budissin, Reichenbach, 
 Kaimenz, Bautzen, Loebau, and Muskau; and the Low, in vari^ 
 ous dialects, in the region about Cottbus. 
 
 755. The following selections are from the High Wend : To 
 czini, so mamy wustojneho a-pilneho sahrodnika — that makes 
 (Ger. thun), that (so) we-have (a) clever and (a) diligent gar- 
 dener (s = g) ; wone budze dre skoro (shortly) czass — it (will) 
 
 be very soon time (yjone = one, Euss. on, he); to moze iyez 
 
 that might be; pol punta zokora — half pound sugar (of 
 sugar). 
 
 Schto moze to wedziez — who {scht = w) may that (to, the) 
 
 know (Ger. wisseri) ; ja hdu 'mu tuhlej njeschto na-pissacz 
 
 I will (be) him here (of-this) something write (jia-write, 
 n-write). 
 
 A tejz to ssi/m ja sesnal — and also that am (have) I known ; 
 schtoz (what) /a newjem (ne pref.) — what I not-know; chzecze 
 (choose) dacz — will (you) give {dacz). 
 
 756. It is well to observe that these Lusatian dialects are 
 often treated apart from the Illyr.-Serb., and placed in the 
 Bohemian class, under the name of Serbian, Sorabian, or Wend. 
 The term Servian for a language is like Servian to denote a 
 people, anything but definite. 
 
 757. Croatia lies between the Drave and Save rivers ; Cro- 
 atian is spoken, too, in western Hungary. The Croatians, or 
 Croats, are also named High Slavonians. The language is emi- 
 nently Illyrian; it also very much resembles the Bohemian. 
 Compared with these two, nothing particularly important can be 
 said of it. The orthography presents very few peculiarities. It 
 has, however, several forms, or sub-dialects. 
 
 758. There is yet an extensive family, called the South Wends, 
 who belong with the Illyrian race, or may be classed with it. 
 Their language is called, also, Slovenian and Corutanian, and is 
 spoken in Styria, Carinthia, Carniola (Carniolan or Krain), 
 countries above the north Adriatic — also in a portion of Illyria 
 and in Hungary. ' 
 
284 PHEASIS. 
 
 759. The following from the Hung-Wend (Lord's Prayer) 
 will show how it compares with Illyrian or Servian : Otscha 
 nasch, M ssi (who art) vu nelemy ; ssveti sse (hallowed self) 
 {me fvoje;prUi (be) uola tvoja, Icako (a.a)je (it-is) vu nehi, tak 
 i (also) na semli ; krucha nasega (our) vszaJidenesnyega (daily, 
 each day) daj (give) nam ga dnesz (to-day). 
 
 760. We may notice here briefly the North Wend, or Fola- 
 bian. This dialect represents a language once, beyond doubt, 
 prevailing in different dialects, to a large extent, in northern 
 Germany. We hardly know where to class it; it is neither 
 German nor Slavic, or it is both, as you like. A very large 
 proportion of the words are German and not Slavic; again, there 
 are many others which are Slavic and not German. The follow- 
 ing, from the Lord's Prayer, presents one of its forms : 
 
 Ifos holya wader, ta toy (that thou) chus (art) wa nehisgay; 
 sjunta woarda (holy be, were) tugi geima (name) ; tia rik kom- 
 ma ; tia willy a schingot (be) koke (so) nehisgay kokkak (as) no 
 sime (earth). 
 
 . This language has been extinct since about the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 761. Btjlgaeian : Here we may speak also of the Bulgarian. 
 Bulgaria is a country in the northern part of Turkey. The lan- 
 guage is clearly Slavic in its form and spirit, easily classed with 
 the Servian or Illyrian, but having much .stronger evidences of 
 Greek relationship than any other Slavic tongue. The alphabet, 
 differing somewhat from the Russian, may, like that, be called 
 a form of the Greek, or, the three may be all forms of a common 
 original. 
 
 762. The following are selections: Oni mu relcocha — they 
 (to) him said; e pi'samo, is written ; oirotche to — child the; 
 zashoto videchme zvyadza ta negova (of-him) na vostok (east), i 
 doidochm,e da mv, (him) ce pokloninie — for (we) have-seen 
 star that (the) of-him in East, and (we) have-come that (to) 
 him self worship(-we) — rthat we may worship him, worship-self 
 = worship. 
 
 We notice, here the ch^k, sign of past tense, like Illyrian, 
 which may be looked upon as standing nearer the ka of Greek 
 perfect, and the ed of English, than does the I of other Slavics. 
 We find here the article, or demonstrative, ta, te, to, following 
 the noun, as we find possessives and relatives doing in the 
 other dialects. 
 
 Dum-ashe — (and) said; veshe — was; govoreshe — he said; 
 she .a dam — -will (to) thee I-give, i. e., I will. give thee (will 
 ^s used separate to form future here, as in Illyrian) ; retchenno 
 to — spoken the (the (thing) spoken); da bude vola ta tvoa — 
 then be will the thy, i. e., be thy will; i sitchko to-ti (and all 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. £85 
 
 the-thy)«^afo (hody)she da bude sv^astlo — and all the-thy 
 body shall then be lighted {svyastlo) ; da ne sudeni hudete — 
 that not judged (ye) be (that ye be not) ; she da retchesh—wiW 
 then (thou) say (thou wilt say); i kato videcha narodi le — 
 and when saw (they) people the (people sa.^). 
 
 Dade, L. dedi, gave; vide, L. vidi, saw; hoito (which) ce 
 narUcha — -who self called (was called) ; ste, (ye) are; tchuli ste 
 zasho e (is) refcheno — heard (ye) are that (it) is said (have 
 heard, it has been said) ; ne mozhete da rahotlte na (to) Baa i 
 na mamima — not ye-,oan (may) that ye-serve to God and to 
 mammon (ye cannot serve); so, will that I deny, for I will deny; 
 and 1 have come that I destroy, for come to destroy. 
 
 763. Da is a prefix (separate)- used before infinitives and im- 
 peratives, equal to our to, do of Celtic, and the da of other 
 Slavics — it is used also for that, and it shows very clearly what 
 augments may become by development. We have nothing to 
 add that is peculiar to the language, so thoroughly is it Slavic, 
 not only in its form and grammar, but also in its orthography. 
 
 764.^ The Bulgarian is an interesting and valuable language, 
 and it is greatly to be regretted that it has not received greater 
 attention from philologists. 
 
 765. Lithuanian : The most interesting, in a philological point 
 of view, of all the Slavic families, is the Lithuanian, sometimes 
 called German-Slavic. It is intesesting because it shows the tran- 
 sition of the Slavic to the German, or of the German to the Slavic. 
 The leading members of the family are the Old Prussian, the Li- 
 thuanian, with its branches, Samogitian, or Shamaitish (called also 
 Pol. -Lithuanian), the Pruss-Lithuanian, which, too, has several 
 minor dialects, and the Lett, or Livonian, which, again, has at 
 least five recognized divisions (one of which is Semgallian). 
 These languages constitute a well-defined family, possessing 
 uniform features, and alike distinct, as an individual, from both 
 the Slavic and the German, while they are yet each and all 
 made up of elements common to one or the other of the two. 
 
 . 766. The Old Prussian we will take up first : it is, of all the 
 family, the nearest to the German. This was once, it is agreed, 
 the language of a'numerous people, divided into different tribes 
 with corresponding difference of idiom. They dwelt in north- 
 ern Germany. Of the language, extinct since the seventeenth 
 century, very little remains to us, and we know less of it than 
 could be desired. . With all its German or Gothic orthography, 
 it is still essentially Lithuanian. Some examples will best show 
 what it is : 
 
 767. As quoi stesmu ainan po-galban techint — I {as^ will 
 (to) him an (a) help make (give) — iSnt is one of the inf. end- 
 ings); stwi biUa stas smunents — then spoke the (Ger. das) 
 
286 PHRASIS. 
 
 man ; 
 
 turri gerdant — shall say; <Mrri = have and shall, is like 
 
 Lith.', and connected with Ger. soil, shall, 1= r; laikutswirst — 
 held becomes (is held) ; kai stai ismukint mast — that they (to) 
 learn (inf.) may (may learn); tou ni-turri — thou not-should 
 (shouldn't); ka ast sta Ulliton — what is that said; -on, -ats, 
 -ints, -ts, -ton, are pass. part, endings; -ans, -ms, are of the act. 
 part. ; -twei, -ton, -int, -ut, -it, -f, are infinitive endings. 
 
 Ains dilants ast waisei (his) algas weris — a worker is (of) 
 his pay worth (worthy); fcai erains labban segge — what every- 
 one good does ; hhe prei loiran hilla Deiws — and to (the) man 
 spoke (tell) God ; quoi warein kirsa (over) din turri — which 
 power over him has (turri) (has power over him). 
 
 768. We may notice the following orthographic forms be- 
 sides : 
 
 Adder, other ; a-nimts,Ger. ge-nommen (taken) ; arwis, true, 
 right; astin, thing (a form of stas = the) ; ausins, ear. 
 
 Billa, say, tell; huttas, house, a-bode, Semitic faith : dilas, 
 works (dl =dr); druwe (believe), trust; eit, goes, L. it; gan- 
 nan, woman, queen ; garrin, tree ; giwan, life, L. vivo, g, v, z ; 
 gurins, poor, g, p ; ilga, long. 
 
 Kackint, to catch ; kaicids, which (ka pref.) ; kermens (body), 
 L. corpus; kird' , hear; kittan, other (k pref.); labs (good), 
 Slav, dobry, d, 1; lavkit, seek, look(-for). 
 
 Maldai (young), small ; mylis, love (my pref.), L. a-micvs ; 
 packe, peace ; per-eit = eit (go) ; per-gimmons (born) = gim- 
 mons, G'k ginomai; po-lygu, Ger. g-leich, like (jpo pref.) ; po- 
 simma, Ger. be-kenne, know. 
 
 Schlusi, serve (^schl = sr) ; sidons, sitting ; sparts, Ger. stark, 
 strong ; stas, Ger. das, the, st, d ; teiku, do, Ger. thun, make ; 
 urs, old ; toyrs, L. vir, hero, man, force. 
 
 A very large portion of the words of this language are decid- 
 edly Slavic. 
 
 769. Lithuanian proper is spoken by a people not very large 
 in numbers, nor possessing any particular national importance. 
 They are found in Prussia and in Russia, and number, with the 
 Letts, perhaps two millions. We proceed immediately to illus- 
 trate some of the features of the language : ' 
 
 770. Kas tur ausu (ears) klausyt — who hath ears to-hear — 
 in Samogitian, ant klausimo, for to-hear; sujuni- — with him; 
 fie at-sakejam — they to-said (said) to-him ; ir jis kel-es, nakcze 
 erne (took) waikeli (wkeli, w-child) — and he (_jis) arisen (hav- 
 ing), by-night took (the) child ; bet girde-dams — but hear-ing 
 (Same, iz-girdes, heard); jis bus (be) wadinnams — he (shall) 
 be called ; tary-dams, saying ; asz sakaujnms — I say (to) you ; 
 sakyti — to say; gal prickelt — can raise-up (jpri pref.) (^gal for 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 287 
 
 can is common — our sAaZZ, Welsh gal); wandervimi—VMh 
 water; ««5'emmt— with fire; tsz wjanrfens — out (of ) water ' 
 
 ^at^^o kriksztijams butu — hy him baptized to-be (iMtoV; ir 
 tu ateimpasmane (mo) —and thou comestto me ; pa-krik/ztitas 
 — (being) baptized (pa pref.) ; ffundinams butu— tempted to- 
 be; ^«y essi (art) Diewo sunus— if (thou) is God's son; poto 
 wede ji welnas % szwenta mtesto — then took him (nV(the^ 
 devil (did) into (the) holy city (place) ; ir state ji ant— ^ni 
 stood hm on ; tat wislab du-su taw — these all (I) will-eive 
 thee (Samo. wistag duosin tau). See the s mark of the Greek 
 and Irish future —it is common in Lith. Notice also the paste 
 with suppressed endings, like L. dedi and feci, in the forms 
 sake, said, wede, took, state, stood. 
 
 Jus este swieto szwiesybe — ye are (the) world's light; ne 
 atejaupaniekint, bet iszpildit — not (I) come to-destroy, but to- 
 fulfill; sakyta esant — said being (being said) ; eit wiena myle 
 to-go one mile ; eik su jumi — go with him (sM = G'k sun, L. 
 cum); butumbit — maybe. 
 
 Mekz ne gal dwiem ponam szluziti — no-one "ct can two 
 masters_ serve (none can);yey Jiori (L. nofo) — if (thou) wilt 
 (this will is used with future also) ; busit wedami — (ye) shall- 
 be brought^ (Samo. busite wadziati) ; ne turrit dumati — not 
 (ye) have to-think (not to think, shall not) ; pa-duti yra — 
 given are {pa pref.). Prefixes in the way of meaningless aug- 
 ments are very common. 
 
 Zlnnotumbit — ye may know (had known), (Samo. zinotumet); 
 kasgi tadda gal iszganytas buti — who then came saved be ; zin- 
 note — ye know ; kas daryta yra — which done is {dar = kar 
 chore); zmogus — man(2m = m); lygiyra — like is. 
 
 771. After the examples given in Lithuanian, little need be 
 said of Samogitian ; for the two are much alike. The Samogitian 
 often changes the form, but seldom changes the principle. These 
 few examples will suffice : 
 
 Ejo pirm ju — (it) went before them ; ey-kite — go ye ; kur 
 bowo — where was (L. cur = why) ; ineje (in pref. ) ing namus 
 (L. domus) — coming (they) in (the) house ; idantji nuzuditu 
 
 — for (-to) him destroy (itu is a common supine ending) ; tar- 
 da.mas — saying; kas ira pa-sakaii — what was said ; ira gir- 
 detas — is heard; norejo buti palinksminta — will be comforted; 
 isz-girdes — having heard; buwo nuwestas — was lead ; ^a?ay- 
 minti — blessed ; bus wadinti — shall-be called ; priesz zmonies 
 — before men, 1j. homines; noriu — Iwill (L.nofo); idantmokitu 
 
 — for (to) speak (preach); walgans ir gierans — eating and 
 drinking: kur turejo Ghristus uzgimti (uz pref.) — where should 
 (has) Christ (be) born. 
 
 772 The Lettish is spoken in Livonia and in Kurland. It 
 
288 PHBASIS. 
 
 has considerable literature, and some of it goes back as far as 
 the thirteenth century. We give only a portion of the Lord's 
 Prayer of oue of the forms of Lettish : Muhssu tehws debessis — 
 our father (in) heaven ; sswetihts lai tohp taws wahrds — sancti- 
 fied let be thy word (this lai is the prefix da we have seen else- 
 where); lai nahk pee mums tawa wahtiha — let come by us thy 
 kingdom ; m,uhssu deenischka maisi dohd m,um,s schodeen — our 
 daily bread give (dohd) us this-day (to-day, heute') ; peedohd 
 =::^dohd. 
 
 It bears a strong resemblance to the other Lithuanian dialects, 
 but it has also several peculiarities of its own. 
 
 773. We give here the Lithuanian form of the 20th John, 2, 
 and will follow it with the other Slavic tongues, for comparison 
 with it and with each other : 
 
 Tay ji hega (then she ran), ir ateit (came) pas Simona Pe- 
 tra, ir pas (to) ana kitta mokitini (disciple), kurri (whom) Jezus 
 mylejo, ir sako jiem dwiem (to-them two) ; ateme (they have 
 taken) Wieszpati isz kapo (out the grave), ir ne zimmame (we- 
 know) kur (where) ji (h.\vc() padejo. 
 
 7"4. In Samogitian : 
 
 Nubego tada (came-she then), ir atejo pas Simona Petra, ir 
 pas kita m.okitini kuri milejo (loved) Jezus, o sakiejfns ; ateme 
 Wieszpati isz grabo, o nezinome kur ji padejo (they-have-laid). 
 
 775. In Bulgarian : 
 
 Otortcha protchee, i doide (came, do pref.), kod Simona Pe- 
 tra, I kod drugiat (o(her) outchenik, kogoto (whom) obutchashe 
 Jisus, i retclie (and said) im ; zeli (taken) Gda o grobat, i 
 ne znam (we-know) gdya sa (have) go (him) pohzhili (po 
 prefix). ^^ 
 
 776. In Bohemian : 
 
 / hezela (and she-ran), a prissla k (to) Simonowi Petroxoi a 
 kd.ruhemu (other) ucedlnjkowitomu (this) gehoz (which) milowal 
 (loved) Gezjs,arekla{Gr'kreo)gim: Wzali Pana z (out) hrobu 
 a newjme (not-know-we) kde (where) geg polozili (placed-thev' 
 po =^ of place). "" 
 
 777. In Hungarian Wend : 
 
 Bezi zato i pride (ran then and came) k Simon Petri i h 
 
 tomi (that) drugomi (other) vucseniki, steroga je lubo Jezus 
 
 X ercse (said) nyima; odneszli (taken-they, od-ne pref ) s-J 
 
 laced? ^ ^''°*"' * "^^""'"''' ^'^'^"- ^^^ (to) ga djali (him 
 
 778. In the Polish : 
 
 Biegla tedy (therefore) i przyszla do Symona Piotra, i do 
 drugxego uczma (disciple) ktorego (whom) milowal Jezus a 
 
SLAVIC LANGUAGES. 289 
 
 779. And last, in Russian : 
 
 I tah (and then) hyazhit i prickodit (comes, pri pref.) k Si- 
 monu Petru, i k drugomu utcTieniku kotorago (which) lyohil 
 Jisus, i govorit im ; unesli Gospoda iz groha, i ne znaem (we- 
 know) gdi/a polozhili ego (him). t 
 
 780. (We may make the general note here, that the contents 
 of parenthesis, in the text, generally gives the meaning of the 
 word that precedes that ; occasionally it only suggests some 
 related word. In tfhe selections from John just given, we have 
 only given the meaning of a few words, the rest being sufficiently 
 determined by the translation known, or from comparison with 
 the others accompanying it. The order and number of words 
 in our translations will uniformly correspond with the text, and 
 when the meaning is not sufficiently clear it is explained in pa- 
 renthesis. Glenerally, words in parenthesis, in the translations, 
 are meant to be only explanatory and suggestive. Through the 
 whole work, be it marked, letters and groups of letters are meant 
 to denote actual equivalents when placed side by side, with or 
 without the sign of equality). 
 
 781. In concluding our remarks upon the class of Slavic lan- 
 guages, we may review some of its peculiarities. "We notice, 
 especially, the great abundance of prefixes and augments, not so 
 developed as to affect the meaning of the root; or, as we may 
 otherwise express it, we find them representing our initial letters 
 by groups of letters, as gov for w, pol for p, miZ for 1 — also many 
 separate adverbs used as augments, as da; the existence of 
 a dual, as in G-reek — but not so prominent ; the tendency to 
 put the possessive pronouns after the noun, which show them- 
 selves as suffixes in Hungarian, and which are like the follow- 
 ing article in Bulgarian ; the use of the singular after numerals ; 
 the absence of personals with verbs, and the medium between 
 the particles of Greek and those of German ; also the common 
 use of the reflexive (G'k middle) for either the passive or active ; 
 the use of gerunds as a sort of transition between verbs and par- 
 ticiples ; the strong development of case endings, and endings 
 of all kinds, placing the class much nearer to Greek and Latin 
 than to German ; the absence of an article such as German has, 
 and the continual tendency to develop it from the numeral one 
 and the demonstrative this, that — seen more strongly in some 
 members of the class than in others; as, in the Wend, to, to, 
 ton, Greek to and ton. 
 
 37 
 
290 PHBASIS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ^INNISH LANGUAGES. 
 
 782. The Finnish languages proper, the Hungarian or Magyar, 
 and the T^kish, are usually put together as one family ; but 
 ■wtiile we leave the classification so, it is with the observation, 
 ^hat there is a greater difference between the three than is usu- 
 ally found between members of the same family. The Finnish 
 languages, embracing a large number of distinct dialects, are 
 sometimes denominated Uralic, being found originally in the 
 region of the Ural Mountains. The Voguls, Ostjaks, and Hun- 
 garians, constitute the Ugric branch of the Finnic languages. 
 
 783. We will treat first, and principally, of the Hungarian. 
 There is, evidently, a closer relationship between this and Slavics, 
 than is generally supposed ; and so there is between Finn and 
 Slavic. There is not a feature in one that we cannot recognize, 
 somewhat changed, in the other. The pronoun is not exactly 
 suffixed in Slavic, as in Finnish, but it is one of the leading 
 
 marks of Slavic to find the possessive following the noun and 
 
 in Bulgarian the article also. 
 
 784. The suffix preposition in Finnish strikes us as peculiar, 
 but we find it even in German and English ; as, dem-nach (that- 
 after), wo-mit (where-with), where-in, there-after, where-to, 
 there-on ; so, Ger. meinen-freund an — my friend on, i. e. upon 
 •my friend ; ist keinen thaler werth — is no dollar worth, i. e. not 
 worth a dollar; we say, read a book throiigh,, i. e., through a 
 book ; the suffix nach, after, is very common in German ■ as 
 der sprache nach, the language after, i. e., after the language,' 
 dem umfange nach, the extent after ; also, but, as he hut, for 
 hut he, as we say he however, for however he. 
 
 785. But we find, in the family in question, prepositions before 
 as well as after, and those that follow are not different from the 
 case endings of Slavic, except that they are more developed than 
 those of Slavic. The verb system is about the same in both • 
 and in orthography they have much in common, ' 
 
 786. The Hungarian is Eastern, but Slavic is Eastern too. 
 The following illustrations will give the best idea of the charac- 
 ter of the language : 
 
 Az atyak— the father (Ger. d-as) ; a'kalap — the hat (a = 
 az); szep estoe — (a) beautiful evening; hazat epiteni — U') 
 house to-build; a'hegy-en embert (man) lattam — the mountain- 
 on (on the mountain) (a) man I-have-seen (en is suffix prep = 
 on). Prepositions uniformly follow in Hungarian, save in .some 
 
FINNISH LANGUAGES. 291 
 
 instances of pronouns; egy (one) Mahorcd kiraly — a, Balsora 
 king (king of Bals.) ; derek egy ember — excellent a man; szena 
 gyujteni ment — hay to-collect he-went; ez a' Iwnyv a' gyer- 
 »»eAe/ce — this the book (is) tte children's, i. e., belongs to them. 
 The final e in the last word takes the plac% of the possessive 
 sign ; a' Id magae feAeJ— the wbo (i. e., who) his-own (i. e., own 
 master) can-be. 
 
 Nagy.ohb volt mint — greater was aS (greater than); mas 
 Europai nemzet — (an) .other European nation; ezen a' fa'n 
 sok alma van — this the tree-on (on this) much (many) apple 
 is; heteg volt — sick was; betegek voltak — sick were; vettem 
 hvat de nem igem szepet — I-bought (have) (a) horse, but not 
 very (igen) beautiful (t, et, at, are accusative endings ; jiaA, gen. 
 and dat. ; k, ak, ok, plural sign). 
 
 The adjective, when standing before the noun, is not changed 
 for case, number, and gender; as, a' nagy varos — the great 
 town ; a' nagy varos-nak — the great towns — but after the verb 
 he it sufiers changes. 
 
 Lov-aim, igen kicsinyek — horses-my (are) very little (e/c is 
 plural sign of adjective taking place of verb — poss. pronouns 
 uniformly sufBix) ; legeros-ebb a' negylabu allatok kozot — (tb*) 
 strongest the four-footed (lab, foot) among (prep, following sep- 
 arate, frequently). 
 
 The use of personal is very limited in Hung. — possessives 
 are never found separate ; kaptam levelet, de meg nem olvastam 
 
 — I-received (have) (a) letter, but yet not (have) I-read (it) ; 
 g.z en hazam, nem a' tied — the I house-my (i. e., my house), 
 pot the thine (this double personal / is very common — it is 
 emphatic, like I myself) ; az o hazok — the she house-her (hei 
 house) — we would say his house, John's ; house of him, John; 
 szavam, my word; szavad, thy word; szava, his word. 
 
 Boldog az a' Jiu — bulky this the son (is) ; o magat dicseri 
 
 — he self (same) praises; a' vilqtgnak teremto-je — {of), the 
 world (gen.) its-creator (the world's creator). This superfluous 
 its, the ending je, and the like, is common, as our the manhds 
 house J az ember elete — the men life (for men's) -r- as we say 
 goose quill, for goose's quill; a,' mi-rol szolok — the what^pf 
 (where-ofj of which) I-speak (say); mdlyet maJaMMraA— which 
 to-day {ma) we-seen (have) (M?iA;=we); a' micsoda jo lo-nak 
 tudom annyit meger — the what (-ever) good of-horse I-knew 
 (tudom) so-much worth (it is) (as far as I knpw):} a' mi-m van 
 
 the my-what is, that what is to me, what I have; a' mid van 
 
 ■=— what you have (what is to you, yours). ( , ^ 
 
 Latok (I see) valakit a' kert-ben—l-see some.one the gardea- 
 in (ben=in); Mir, ki olvas— who (the-one) writes, who (the- 
 other) reads; tudom hogy nemelly itek szegeny ^I-know that 
 
292 PHEASIS. 
 
 many of-you poor (are); a' Iconyvtarha vah Uonyv-ek — the in 
 {ha) library being (belonging) books; kezdek szolni — I-begin 
 to-speak (ni inf. ending). 
 
 A' tanulo gyermek — the learning boy; egre kiaUo vetek — 
 (a) heaven-to (to-heaven) crying sin ; setalvan az oramat elvesz- 
 tettem — walking (i. e., as I walked) the my-watch I-lost (in 
 oramat, m = my, and at is aco. sign)-; varva vartam — waiting 
 I- waited (have), i. e., I have long waited (in vartam, t is sign of 
 past tense, the ending also of past part., and m =1) ; irva van 
 — writing (it) is = it is written, the pres. part, used as passive ; 
 varalak ■^~ I expect you ; kivan-lak latni — I-wish-you to-see ; 
 egy reszt igen szeretem — (to) a part (i. e., partly) very (much) 
 love-him-I (partly love him much) ; ezt mondjak — this one- 
 says (they say this) ; mikor pedig szuleiett volna — when but 
 (but when) been-born was (had been born). 
 
 & mikor lattak volna — and when they-saw was (when they 
 saw, or had seen). We find prepositions before the pronouns; 
 as, bennem, in me, henned, in thee, henne, in him, rajtam, on 
 me, rajtad, on thee; kelj fel — rise up; feJrkehan — up-rising, 
 i. e., rising up; msg'hallatott — is-heard {meg. pref.); meg-holt 
 ioZraa— dead was; o nekiink atyank — he (is) to-us for-father 
 (we have him for father). 
 
 Negyven nap — forty day; mind ezeket neked adom — all 
 these to-thee I-will-give; mondatnak — they-shall-be-called {nak 
 denotes they, and at the passive Tnond, Ger. mund-art, say, speak) ; 
 
 ti vagytok e' foldnek savai — ye are-ye the earth's salt; ne blj 
 
 not kill (kill not) ; valaki alend — whoever killing, i. e., that 
 shall kill ; mi Atyank ki vagy a' memiyek-hen — we father-our 
 who art the heaven-in, i. e., our father; senki nem szolgalhat 
 ket urnak — no-one not can-serve two master (no one can). 
 
 787. We here furnish a list of Hungarian words, to show the 
 form which German and Slavic terms assume there : 
 
 Szek, stool; kar, arm, branch, G'k cheir ; has, meat; ser, 
 beer; nap, day, sun; torony, tower; ekt, life, el, 1; lo, horse, 
 colt ; o, old ; so, salt ; seo, say, word, L. os. 
 
 Ko, stone, Slav, ka-men ; szu, heart, Slav, serdze; fi, son L 
 /?t«s; so/i, much, Ger. sehr ; folyo, flow, river; uj, new, uj = 
 nu ; de, and, but, G'k de i juh, sheep, L. ovis, ewe ; arany, gold, 
 
 Ev, Slav, net;, sky, heaven ; kez, hand, claw; tuz, fire, heat; 
 tms,writ; legy &j ■ keves, little, Ger. wenig ; hev, heat;iea 
 ice; szel, wind, blow (sz is used here, as in Slavic, as the equa 
 of w, V, u, b). ' ^ 
 
 p r-oad, L. i^ = go ; viz, water ; okor, ox ; alom, sleep, al, si; 
 efe^ food eat; bereg, worm ; halom, hill ; jarom, yoke 
 
 Olom, lead, L. plumb', ol, pi; sir, grave; i,!, nerve, Ger 
 
FINNISH LANGUAGES. 293 
 
 sehne ; iz, limb ; Gyula, Julius ; draga, dear ; vastag, thick, 
 L. spissus ; vas, iron, Ger. eisen ; ercz, earth, metal. 
 
 Ferji, man, L. vir ; penz, money, pence; pedig, but; hard, 
 sword ; het, week, seven ; hang, clang ; mod, mode ; ev, year, 
 L. aevum, age ; hurt, horn. 
 
 Gomb, know ; resz, part, L. res = thing ; csillag, star, L. Stella; 
 hal, go, walk, Fr. aller j lab, foot, c-law ; szem, see, eye ; barat, 
 friend ; leang, daughter, 1, d ; szo, Toice, sound. 
 
 Fal, wall ; hany, how-much, L. quot ; erdo, wood, Ger. wald ; 
 yMS,just, tamte^ni, to teach; tV-ni, to write ; e?'t?ewi, work ; keres-m, 
 to seek, search ; lop-ni, to steal, G'k klep ; te and tesz, do ; Ai 
 and hiv, call, Ger. rufen; akar, after, either. 
 
 Ad-ni, to give, L. cio ; allani, to stand ; ar, river ; azon, that ; 
 to<, look; emie/-*, man, L. vir (mber) ; Bees, Vienna, Ger. 
 Wien ; biz, true, Ger. wahr and ge-wiss ; csata, battle, Ger. 
 schlacht ; csinos, clear, shine, Ger. rein. 
 
 Edes, sweet, G'k et^ws; egesz, whole, Ger. (^anz; p/, night; 
 el-ni, to live, be; er-ni, to reach. 
 
 Fed^i, deck ; /e;e?-, white, fire ; fel, half, Slav. ^oZ; /o and 
 fey, head, f, h; fold, land, field ; Gorogr, Greek; gyonge, weak; 
 Acyb, ship, L. navis ; hatra, after, back; hallani, hear, 1, r; 
 Ae^y, high, rock ; AiV, hear, Ger. ruf, report ; M, oath ; hon, 
 home. 
 
 irfo, time, tide; igaz, true, Ger. wahr ; ivas, drink, L. 5t6d; 
 jor-ni, go ; jut-ni, go, L. item. ; /as, little, Ger. klein ; kimen-ni, 
 go, come ; kora, early ; kota, note ; /co«, common ; korul, circle, 
 around. 
 
 Me-gholt, killed, dead ; me-gint, a-gain ; myacA, neck ; oji, tin ; 
 ok, cause, Ger. sache ; rossz, bad, worse. 
 
 TeJJes, full ; <ew-m, do, Ger, thun; tett, deed, Ger. that; tor-ni, 
 break, twist; iturf-Jii, know, L. ■i'lWeo; m<-«i, beat (b-eat) ; vad, 
 wild ; ver-ni, strike ; viadal, battle. 
 
 ^oM, yellow, Slav. zeUn ; zsei, sack ; Zeve?, leaf, letter; ur, 
 sir, Ger. Aerr; aro/fc, grave; nyil, nail, dart, Ger. pjeil; fond, 
 pound, Ger. pfund. 
 
 Zsido, Jew, Ger. Jude (yude); nep, folk, people; ?;er gore 
 L. cruor; azon, tHSt, Ger. yemer, rfas ; ar, price ; 6o, wide and 
 rich ; eho, first, 1, r ; hives, be-lief; igy, so; At-toV, out-turn {kx 
 Dref ^ ; Z.o<-m, bind, knit ; kSrom, claw, r, 1. 
 
 i.a«(7, flame; Zen-m, be, been, 1, be; miv, ^ox\; mivel-m 
 build (mi pref.); nev, name; o<<, there, Ger. dort; oreg, old, 
 Slav, stary; ven-ni, take, G^v. fang-en; veg, end, L. firm 
 
 788 The fact particularly noticed in Magyar, is the shortness 
 of the words, the condensing, if you please, of two or more let- 
 ters of ours into one of theirs ; thus, we often find that our initial 
 letters are entirely suppressed; as, «« = b-eat, ar- price, on = 
 
294 PSRASIS. 
 
 tin. Prefixed, prepositional, verbs of all kinds, ate well developed 
 in this language. 
 
 789. Finnish : The Finnish class proper is as interesting 
 and valuable as it is peculiar and beautiful. It has all the prom- 
 inent features of the Magyar ; the two stand very nearly related 
 in many particulars; and yet the Finnish, and especially some 
 of its forms, possesses the whole Slavic structure, only develop- 
 ing some of its features in an unusual manner. The Finnish 
 must, stand as an invaluable light to show us the path that leads 
 from Magyar to Lithuanian and the Slavic, or the reverse. All 
 the endings and prefixes of Finnish, the verb be, all the pro- 
 nouns and particles, all the participles and tense forms, manifest 
 a strong tendency to identify themselves with Slavic, and indi- 
 rectly with German and Latin. Hence, the acquiring of the 
 language is quite easy, and always full of interest. The Finns, 
 as a whole, are not an organized people, though some portions 
 of them are highly cultivated and possess many men of learning 
 for example, those of Finlaijd proper. They are divided inffl 
 many sections, with their dialects each peculiar to them. 
 
 790. There is an east and a west Finnish group, with consid- 
 erable marks of difference ; the tribes or sections are, the Suomi, 
 jjjpthnish, Syryanish, Wotjak, Mordvin, Tcheremish, Ostjak, and 
 Wogul. We regret that there is not room here to speak of 
 some of their most interesting peculiarities, especially in the 
 structure of the verbs. 
 
 791. We will give but few examples, sufficient only to give 
 a rough idea of Finnish orthography and structure : 
 
 Koska he olit Icuningan Icuullret — when they (Ae) had (was) 
 (the) king heard (ol of olit is the hyl of Slav, was) ; syndy-man 
 piti — born shall-be (shall be born — puti is Slav, hudu, be, the 
 sign of future) ; syndy-nut oli — born was (was born); sen (that) 
 Icuuli — (he) that heard (heard that). Pasts are formed like 
 Latin perfects, dedi, feci, rexi, with vowel endings ; nou&i ja 
 utti, arose and took ; nousej'a ota, rise and take ; on kuulu-nut — 
 is heard; tdmd (same) on se — this is he (that one); (teZi), went; 
 jonga minun kansaani pita haUitz-eman — ^who my people shall 
 rule (pita = 'be, shall) ; mina sanon te-ille — I say to-you (mine 
 *= I); Isa meidan — father our. 
 
 The case endings are heavy — prepositions follow, either suf- 
 fixed or separate. Pobs. pronouns are developments of noun 
 endings not separated; ou prophetan kautta kirjoi-tettu — is 
 prophet by written (written by the); on tulewa — is to-come, 
 will come; menit he — went they; huoneseen — house-in; he 
 tahden nd-it — they (the) star saw; he olit menne; (went) — 
 they had gone ; Egyptistd kutzuin mind (I) poik-ani (boy-my) 
 
FINNISH LANGUAGES. 295 
 
 -S-awo^teo^i — spoken was; Rham-asa on aani kuulimut — 
 Kam^-in is (a) voice heard ; Joka Jcutzutan—^Uch (was) called ; 
 wedella ~^^lth-w^teT■, tuMla- mth.&ve ; kastetfa hdieMa- 
 to.(be)-baptized him-by; he kastettin—thej (were) baptized- 
 7ca8tan teita — U^ptize thee; ;ion /.astaa — he (shall) baptize- 
 ei ihmmen (L. hominem) ela — not mm (shall) live (epref >■ 
 asettihanen — set him (a pref.). \ r ■/, 
 
 Jos sina olet—ii thou art; ja osoiii (show, o pref.) Aa»e?Ze 
 /fcoiAAt (all) mailman (G-er. «e;«, L. otmwcZw) waMakunnat — 
 and showed to-him all world's kingdom (of the world): namat 
 kaikki mmd annan (give) smttZfe — these all I (will) give to- 
 thee ; silma on (is) ruumm walkeus — (the) eye is body's light 
 h Mt''js^°'^y^ ' **^™" siYwasia— eye for-eye; kuollef— the dead 
 (killed) ; seura minua — follow me; se sana — that word (that 
 = the), say; Joka tehty os — which did is (made) ; Mnesd (in- 
 him) o^t elama — in him was life; he kysyit — they asked. 
 
 792. It would be a very easy task to show a multitude of Fin- 
 nish words agreeing substantially with correspondents in Hunga- 
 rian, and, with suitable allowance for their style of orthography, 
 we might identify a large majority of its most common words with 
 German and Slavic, particularly Lithuanian — but we can barely 
 touch upon this question here ; thus, we notice e?«, live, Hung. 
 el-wi; tiinde-nut, knew, kn6wn, H. tud-ni ; mem, go, H. menni; 
 tul, fire, H. tuz ; poja and_pa, head, H. fo ; jahj, foot, H. lal, 
 Ig, lb ; wesi, water, H. viz; ssilme, eye, H. szem ; sm, mouth, 
 
 . H. szaj ; kasi, ked, ki, hand, H. kez ; nait, saw, H. nez-ni ; 
 kuoUet, dead, killed, H. holt; puu, tree, H. fa, p, f; ihminen, 
 man, H. ember ; voj, night, H. ej ; anna, give, H. ac^-m— and 
 every one of these words can be identified with German or 
 Slavic. 
 
 793. We give, next, the 2d of John 20, to compare with 
 Hungarian : 
 
 NUn hdnjuoxija tuli Simon Petarin tygo,ja sen opetuslapsen 
 tygo jota Jesus rakasti, ja sanoi (said) heille: he owat Serran 
 ottanet pois haadasta, ja en me tiedd, kuhunya he hdnen (him) 
 panit — then she ran and came (tuli) Simon Peter to (tygo), 
 and that disciple to (to that one) whom Jesus loved, and said 
 -to-them : they have (are, owat) (the) Lord taken away grave- 
 from, and not we (me) know, where they him put (have), 
 
 794. In Hungarian : 
 
 El-futa azert es el-mene Simon Peterhez, es ama masik tanit- 
 vanyhoz, a' kit Jezus szeret (cherished) vala, es monda (said) 
 nekik : El-vittek az Urat a! koporso-hol, es nem tudjuk hova 
 tettek otet — then (azert) she-ran (el pref.) and came Simon 
 
296 PHRASIS. 
 
 Peter-to {-ez), and that other disciple, the whom (kit) Jesus 
 loved had (was, vala), and said to them : taken (they have) the 
 Lord the grave-from (-bol), and not know (I) where (hova) laid 
 (they have) him (ot-et). 
 
 795. The Syryan deserves this especial notice : In it we find 
 muna (mount), I go ; niuny, went ; munly, has gone ; muna, 
 will go; the verb be has em (am) for all persons singular, and 
 emos in the plural — a fine proof that any person of a verb may 
 represent all the persons. We find me vbly (will), I was; syja 
 voly, he was ; vony, been, be. In a form of this language, we 
 find vyjym = em, showing e = vyjy, yyyy, eeee. 
 
 796 Lapp : The Lapp language, of the Laplanders, is most 
 undeniably a Finnish language; it is, if anything, nearer the 
 Magyar than the Finnish itself. It has by no means received 
 that attention which its numerous points of interest justify us in 
 saying it deserves — and this has arisen from the political insig- 
 nificance of the Laplanders as a people, numbering, as they do, 
 less than thirty thousand. A single example must serve to give 
 a comparative view of its features. Same verse as above : 
 
 Wiakei sodn tahhelt ja pati Simon Petru-sen kaik, ja tan 
 m,ubben appetesalman kaik, j'liob Jesus etsi, ja jatti sonnon: Sije 
 Idh eritwaldam Herrab gruoptest, ja epe tete, kosa litjeh piajam, 
 so — ran she therefore and came (pati) Simon Peter to (kaik), 
 and (ja) (tan mubben) that other disciple to, whom (juoh) Jesus 
 loved (etsi), and said to-them : they have (are, lah) taken-away 
 (the) Lord grave-from, and not-we know (tete) where they-have 
 put him. 
 
 Attjes kuoren — father-his near (by his father); mo-kum, me- 
 with; mon etsetowap — I loved-am ; sotn etsetowa; he loved-is; 
 sije lah etsetowomen — they are loved-been; mije lepe etsetowomxn 
 ^— we are loved-been (are loved) ; etset, to love. 
 
 In Suomi, ovat = owap is used for are, and ova, more or less 
 
 varied, is a common ending for verbals in the Finn languages 
 
 it is the ending, too, of active tenses ; as, antavat, they give ; 
 tulevat, they come ; tulivat, they came. In Lapp we find hi 
 or li, for was; and orrat for be (are, L. eram); it is not different 
 from ol, lei, li, of past. Lapp verbs have a dual form. 
 
 797. The Serenian is the language of a Finnish tribei, on a 
 Finnish basis — but having strongly developed the Slavic ten- 
 dencies of the family. There are many points where it is Slavic 
 and not Finn, and as many others where it is Finn and not 
 Slavic. It is found written in the Slavic letter. 
 
 798. The Karelian is another Finnish language, with a Slavic 
 finish. It is written in the Russian letter. 
 
SAMOIDISH LANGUAGES. 297 
 
 799. Samoidish Languages. — The Samoidish languages 
 constitute a family located in the north of Kussia and in the 
 north and centre of Asia. They are connected, on one side, 
 with the Finnish, and, on the other, with the Siberian family. 
 Many of the leading features of the language are Finnish ; there 
 is a strong tendency, however, to the peculiar North-Asiatic 
 stamp. 
 
 _ 800. The following translation of Samoidish composition will 
 give some conception of the manner in which they tell their 
 stories : 
 
 The woman goes ; the servant goes ; the woman (to) father 
 came, into house went, father up-raised, father old ; two man 
 sit, three brother stand — those two bad (are), those two sleep: 
 woman sits, (to) servant says, back go, (to) him say, " two man 
 came "; servant back went. Other (one) man got up, out went, 
 bow sounds, servant (he) killed ; man (into) house capae, (with) 
 selves they talk, laughing go-to-sleep ; morning get up, from- 
 around folk came, "thy servant killed" (-is, they say); woman 
 sits, sleep, woman wakes ; one-has-stolen-her (tualambadat), two 
 mea came (in-)boat, take-her {tadarei). 
 
 801. This gives us an instructive lesson on wha,t language is 
 in its infantile style or -state — it shows how particles and end- 
 ings and fixes are the result of growth out of fundamental 
 words. The ancient poetry of northern Europe has advanced 
 farther than this towards our present complicated style, but 
 evidently by traveling the same road as this. 
 
 802. Albanian Language. — The Albanian, we do not 
 hesitate to say, is to be classed as ope of the remote forms of 
 Greek, especially of modern G-reek. Philologists are at a loss 
 where to place it, partly from the little knowledge they have of 
 it, and partly, too, from the peculiar phase the language pre- 
 sents. But we feel confident that the more we become acquainted 
 with it, the nearer we shall find it to Greek. It has not the 
 character of an ancient language — it is essentially modern ; it 
 has the article, compound tense, passive on the reflexive and 
 with to he, the declining appearance of endings, and the like. 
 
 803. It has many points that are Celtic, if not Greek, as the 
 abundance of augments and little meaningless particles, and 
 adverbs ; it has many more that are Slavic, others, again, that 
 are particularly French, such as the adjective following the 
 noun, and the orthography of some of its words. But all these 
 points of agreement do not necessarily prove it related to these 
 languages in particular; it rather shows that they have all 
 traveled the same way, and have the same history. 
 
 38 
 
298 PHKASIS. 
 
 804. Albania proper belongs in Turkey; it lies north of Greece, 
 and between the Adriatic sea and Bulgaria. 
 
 805. The language presents little that is really strange, little 
 that we have not already seen in some other language. A few 
 examples must suffice for it : 
 
 Me mirre — more good (better) ; me is scarcely more than a 
 prefix; fort poukoure (L. pulcJier, pretty) — very pretty (most, 
 super.); ti me dese — thou me lovest; doua ie shruoaig — I-will 
 that (to, the) I-write (will write) ; douame te skrouageme — we- 
 wish, etc; difioig, difion — l, he, hears; cJiap — 1 open (gap); 
 thorn, ihote — I, he, says, th, s ; dall — go, Fr. 'oiler ; pat skrou- 
 are — he-had written; pat bdekoure — he-had died. " 
 
 U i pirri (L. puer) i dot atig — and the son he said to-him 
 (atig') (you may also call the i before dot an augment) ; se este 
 kioutet i mpretit (prince) se mad (magnus) — for (it) is town that 
 (the one) (of) king the great (that of the great king); betempe 
 stepi (stoop) te Petrit — I-go into {mpe) house that (of) Peter 
 (hete = went) — te here may be called a suffix article, indeed our 
 own relatives that and which are not more than post-positive 
 articles ; i lioutem perntise — (to) him I-pray to-God, i. e., I 
 pray to him, to God (or call i an augment). 
 
 Po ou thorn giouhet — but (to) you I-say to-you, i. e., to you 
 I say to you (or call ou an augment). Such difficulties we have 
 seen often before, and the student must be reminded that all the 
 words of a sentence, when traced far enough back, prove to be 
 duplicates like these; ai ke seste me moua — the (who) who not- 
 is with me (as we say he who); se kouig pirri im — for this son 
 (of) mine. 
 
 Si kountre este skrouare nte profeter, na oune der/oig eggeline 
 tim perpa/ra phakese soie, ate-ke do te dertoge oudene tente (thy) 
 perpara tege — so again (contra) it-is written in (nte) prophets, 
 behold I (oune) send angel the-my {tim) before face (of) thine, 
 the-which shall (do = te) prepare way (road) thine before thee; 
 e si thurri nie gka kopigte, e pieti tzdo te gene (been) keto — 
 and so (he) called one (nie) from servants, and asked (Ger. 
 heten) what that be (been) this, i. e., what it was (te augment), 
 or what it may be. 
 
 Etha: nie (one) nieri kis di dgielm — and (he) said : a man 
 (G'k aner) had two sons (child) ; giati ine ke ge mpe Mel — 
 father our which thou-art (^re, be) in heaven ; pas (post) gio 
 (G'k ouk) soume (some) ditet (dies) — after not many days. 
 
 806. There are still a few words which we must notice for 
 their extraordinary orthography :■ 
 
 Skourtoig — to shorten; skoig, go (s pref), scud; ikeig, go; 
 tzourare, t&a.r ; pounoig (woik), (Jr'k poieo, Ger. thun ; krache 
 (arm), bracket. 
 
ALBANIAN LANGUAGE. 299 
 
 £ rtrVeW r^' S"^'^'/^"*'^' outjpme (tree), (fer. Sawm,- 
 P? ^i -,' ^'f™*"^ '■ '""■°'^''' °'"'^«'^ ■> ^erpeiff, serve 
 
 nf W ' ■' r^' ^''?^ (°°*^''^ *^'^* "^^^ «*i?, eiff, are endings 
 
 of first per. singular,- and that -are is a part ending) ■ Je ZneT 
 
 IV ^''"IP^^^rP^e; *A,..m (call), Ger. rufen. ''''^'"'"^^' 
 
 plumb (xer. 6fe (lead); Iwule, b-loom, f-Iora: ^a& Cblood-) L 
 MM^-ms; 7i:eA;ia, bad, G'k /cakos. ■' ^°'°°">'' •^■ 
 
 Po^-e (bread), bake-Ger. hrot, bread, is allied to Iraten 
 roast, bake; pm, break ; /e/-^., broad, far; ^/r«, bring, bear^ 
 hela brother, 1, d, t; fea<i, L. teotvm, roof; <en<, thine 
 
 ^^rod, turn, Ger. c^j-eAeji; streggoig, stress, press; tZe, earth, 
 Gk ^e; stere, earth, L. ferm; ar«^, reach, Ger. erreichen: 
 tremp, tremble ; pare, first. ' . 
 
 am, carry, ferry; zgiar, fire; ><, finger; pM, fish; li, 
 flax, linen; OTise, meat; muze (fly), mouche ; Uoume (river) 
 flume; /rom (wife), Ger./mit; ZepAfej- (free), left, loose; fa.z 
 peace, L. gaudium, L. pax. 
 
 PAnoM<, fruit; pAnAe, fear, fright; fithe (all), Ger. ganz — 
 sound the / as g, as it may in all cases in Albanian; dourim, 
 Ger. ge-duld, -dure. 
 
 Riziko, risk ; chapsa, catch ; garapJie, grasp ; g'/feri^, freeze 
 gk,_f; musteri, mystery; spirt, spirit; ^itowj-e, lettered; sos L. 
 satis ; dreigte, straight, direct. ' 
 
 Foune, business; nom (law), G'k nomas; phake, face; stat, 
 state, Ger. ge-stalt ; pesoig (bejieve), faith; ta-lich, luck; zere- 
 miri, grim; berde, verdant; phound, ground ; stepi (house), L. 
 tectum; We (head), L. cranium; sent (holy), saint. 
 
 Bape, hot; kemise, Ger. hemd (shirt); drou (wood), tree; 
 ougia, hunger ; re, young, new; niocha, know; ropa (cloth), 
 Ger. rock ; mount (can), might, mought ; kake, Ger. kopf, head ; 
 sorra, crow ; gete, be, live ; doua, love, d, 1 ; megges, morning ; 
 maie, night ; more, Ger. raarr, fool. - ■> 
 
 Gkrigta, take, grasp ; kale, colt, Fr. cJieval; phuti, plant ; 
 pJilet, read, Ger. fcew, %o ; sktad, shade ; skoume, scum, foam ; 
 sioch, see, seek ; hitorea, victory ; mownt, sur-mount. 
 
 Kentoig, sing, L. cano ; stereos, strong ; hdes, die ; mpourr, 
 proud; zog, Ger. vogel (bird), fowl; fco, folk, G'k laos, Ger. 
 leute; bape, warm; ouge, water; phgiale (word), G'k fo^os. 
 
 Seker, sugar ; be, lay ; bichem, become ; boub, dumb, mute ; 
 pise, beast ; pout, foot ; pri, horn ; geni, genus, kind ; giam, am ; 
 gio, no, g, n ; giou, you, your;- gkia, wild, gk, w; grAr^, cry. 
 
 Fial (^gidl), like, gleich ; frik, herd ; c^ex, take; drite, bright 
 (light); eleuthero (free), loose; emere, name; zi, black, Ger. 
 
300 PHEASIS. 
 
 Schwartz, dark, dim, z, d; thele (deep), L. alius; tJieke, dagger; 
 
 thu, swine, L. sits. , , ^ i n t 
 
 I-ken, gone, go ; karre, car; kelk, glass; ken (dog), L. cants, 
 Ger. hund; kies (laugh), L. Ws-itm; kipi, heap; fosfe, L. os, 
 Ger. kno-chen, b-one ; /cowrm, L. co?yMs, body ; kous, who, Ger. 
 
 Lebdoig, laud; moZe, L, moZum, apfel, Ger. p/eZ, ppe?, wipe?, 
 mel, mol; monede, money; mpareig, bear, carry, Ger. ira^iera; 
 nam, fame ; nemer, number ; ntgiek, chase. 
 
 Xestra, cistern; oull, star, L. s<-e?to; owrite, prudent; pgiel 
 (bear), beget ; pelouma, L. columba ; pgiese, piece ; pioul, wood, 
 Ger. waM; powe, thing, done, p, t. 
 
 Ropa, rob ; skiat, hat ; skias, glide, skip ; fea?e, halt ; trap, 
 grave, t, g; phemige, family; pJile, sleep; phsech, bedeck; 
 phseche (thing), Ger. sache ; choda, go, lead. 
 
 This is but a small portion of words of the kind. 
 
 807. Turkish Language. — The Turkish is the last of 
 the European languages which we shall notice ; it stands on the 
 very threshold of Asia, and we must pass over it to reach Asia. 
 Thoroughly Eastern in its spirit and origin, it has yet developed 
 itself in the atmosphere of European civilization. Born of Arab 
 and Persian ancestors, it has been educated under the roof of 
 the Greek and the Slave. 
 
 808. Very little need be said on this language here, for the 
 reason that it has scarcely a feature that does not in a stronger, 
 or at least in as strong a light, appear either in languages which 
 we have already noticed, or, more especially, in the Tartar, Per- 
 sian, and Semitic languages, which we shall notice hereafter. 
 These few lines must suffice : 
 
 809. Baba-muz ki sema-de sin — father-our who heaven-in 
 thou-art (swi) ; mukaddes ola senin ismin — sanctified be thy 
 name ; senin emrin olsun nitek i goj-de qjie jerde-de — thy will be 
 so in (i) heaven and earth-in ; iUa chelas qjle hizi, fena-dan — 
 but free make us (bizi) evil-from. 
 
 810. We have already said that it is often grouped with the 
 Finnish and Magyar, but we must also observe, that while it 
 has several leading points in common with them, it clings as 
 strongly to the Tartar as they do to the Slavic. 
 
 811. There are many forms or dialects in which Turkish is 
 spoken by the people. Leading branches of the Turks are the 
 Turkomans, Kirghis, and the Osmanlis, or Ottomans. The latter 
 are the dominant people of the Turkish empire, and it is their 
 language which is generally intended by the term Turkish. 
 
PERSIAN LANGUAGES. 301 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 PERSIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 812. One of the most interesting languages of Asia, or of the 
 world, and to the philologist one of the most valuahle is the 
 1 ersian. It gives evidence to us of the easy transition between 
 the idioms of Europe and those of Asia, particularly Semitic 
 Its remarkable coincidence with the English, or German not 
 only in orthography but also in grammatical structure, is hardly 
 what history would lead us to expect. We have been told or 
 rather it has been conjectured, that our ancestors were Asiatics 
 but not that they were particularly Persians or Semites. For 
 aught we know, they might as well have been Tartars, or the 
 people of India. Yet it must not be supposed that Persian is 
 the only one of its neighborhood which is especially .related to 
 ours ; it only stands in the front of that relationship. The Se- 
 mitic and Indian first, and the Tartar languages next, manifest 
 a strong tendency to identify themselves with the European — 
 the Persian has only developed that tendency in a higher 
 degree. 
 
 813. Let it be remembered that Persian, while it agrees so 
 nearly with ours, is still, nevertheless, eminently a I'artar and a 
 Semitic language. The number of words in Persian confessedly 
 Semitic, particularly Arabic, is very large, and an expert ety- 
 mologist could easily identify nearly all the words of the two 
 classes — not only the words, but the grammar also. Those 
 decaying a, st, m, n, b, prefixes of verbs and verbals, are forcible 
 illustrations of the connection. And Hindostani, which may be 
 called a form of Persian, has also a large supply of Semitic 
 words. Persian is also intimately connected with the Indian 
 and the Afghan. 
 
 814. The Persian which we treat of now is that of modern 
 Persia. We have said that the Persian has the European style 
 of orthography, and the grammar toa of modern Europe, but, on 
 the other side, the arrangement of the words and of the members 
 of the sentences, the idiom, the thought, is not European but 
 Asiatic. We are at the- same time aware that others think differ- 
 ently. In fact, the leading diificulty in thoroughly mastering 
 the Persian, after knowing its particles, its endings, and its irre- 
 gular imperatives (on which some verb forms are based), is the, 
 to us, peculiar nature of its compounds, its arrangement,, its 
 expression, its thought. Persian words are far from being fully 
 
302 PHEASIS. 
 
 individualized (being like Sem. and Sans.). We find many 
 words united together whicli witli us are separate ; thus, one- 
 part, not-is, my-head, who-is. A limited number of exaihples, 
 to illustrate, among other things, this peculiar thought, we will 
 now give : 
 
 815. The article does not exist developed as it is in Europe, 
 or even as it ia in Semitic ; there is a common ending of nouns, 
 i, which, among other uses, performs the part of a suffixed a or 
 an ; thus, kuh, a rock, kuM, a certain rock ; padishah, pacha or 
 king, padiahahi, a certain king (Gr'k hasileus). As we have 
 seen often before, and will often see again, here the numeral one 
 is often used to supply the place of a, an, and uniting, with its 
 noun as a prefix ; so an, that (Dan. han, Slav, on'), and ain or 
 in, this, he, are used in place of the definite article, the; also 
 uniting with the noun, as im-ruz, this day, the day, to-day, 
 im-sal, this-year. Of course, there is nothing unusual in all 
 this. 
 
 816. Noun endings are here in about the same stige of advance- 
 ment as we find them in English ; thus, padar, father, padar- 
 an, fathers (an = en of children, oxen) ; mwgh, bird, mwgh- 
 an, birds ; 'tnan, 1, man-ra, me-to, to me, tu-ra, ttou-to ; zan, 
 woman, izan, of woman (the i coming from preceding word) j 
 zan-ra, to woman (ace. and dat.) ; also ba-zan (ha = tp)' az zan, 
 from woman, az zan-an, from women ; dil-am, my heart (-am 
 = my), padar-ash, his father (-ash = his), kitab-at, thy book 
 (-a<=thy); also, dili man, heart-of me (man), ani man, thatof 
 me, i. e., the mine; bah, good, bah-ter, better, bah-terin, best; 
 ind az inglistan garm-ter ast — India than (by) England warmer 
 is (warmer than England). 
 
 Mah nicku-st — (the) moon splendid-is (all adjectives may 
 thus develop be at the end) ; rahi-st rah ashek — (the) way-is 
 (st = is) way (-of) love; kah Mch-esh kanarah ni-st — that any- 
 its (to it) end not-is ; ani kud — that-of self, his own. They 
 say mai-ra nushidam — the wine I-drank; but if indefinite 
 then the form is, mai nushidam, wine I-drank (so that ace. end- 
 ing ra has sometimes the force of the) ; in-zamin — (at) this- 
 time; im-shah, to-night; dust-am, or dust-i man, my-friend 
 friend-of me; asp-i kud-qish — horse-of his-self, t.' e., his owii 
 horse ; hira-dar-i kud-at — brother-of thy-self (at = thy) ; da- 
 vidan, to run, davanidan, to cause to run. 
 
 817. In the abundant capacity for such compounds as fire- 
 temple, rose-garden, mountain-country, lion-heart(ed) kub-awar 
 pretty-voice(d), nik-nam, (of^) good-name, gul-afshan, flower- 
 scattering, sar-afraz, head-exalting, battle-seeking, hard-hearted 
 we know of no European language it so much resembles as the 
 German. The Persians are very partial also to compound verbs 
 
PERSIAN LANGUAGES. 303 
 
 made by a noun or adjective joined to mahe, do, have, strike, 
 come, sit, Jind, take, like our , take-rest, for rest, sit-smiling, for 
 smile, make-inquiry, for inquire, keep-watch, for watch, mak&- 
 happy, for delight. 
 
 818. Asp-ra didi — (the) horse did-you-see {ra sign of aoc.) ; 
 dar kuab didan — in sleep to-see (i. e., to dream); mard hah 
 au-ra didam — (the) man (L. vir) that him Lsaw {that is an- 
 other case of doubles), i. e., the man I saw ; so again, an mard 
 kah au gaft — that man (the man) that he said (that-he = he) : 
 parsidah shudah hudam — asked been was-I, i. e., I had been 
 asked; m,a-pars — (do) not^ask ; tamam ^arcZam^— complete 
 to-make (to complete) ; rujuu namudan — returning to-show (to 
 return) ; dar amadan — in to-come, i. e., come in. 
 
 Prefix prepositions to verbs are common; ba-daria dar — in- 
 sea in, i. e., in the sea (double, like Lat. ad homin-erri); dilcani 
 hagi dasht — a-husbandman a-garden had (the usual order is 
 nom., obj., verb), (adjectives uniformly follow nouns); padi- 
 shahitakt-nishiri-^th.e-\img (the) throne-sitting (one), i. e., who 
 sits on the throne; silah u (and) *?iVAam dad lashkar-ash-ra — 
 arms and money gave-he (dad) army-his-to (to his army). 
 
 Ati-ra gu/t kih na-kuaham kurd (eat) — to-her (he) said that 
 (kiK) not-I-will eat (we would rather say, that he would not eat; 
 kurd is inf. less the ending) ; so we find, commanded that to- 
 master robe and reward they-gave (that they should give, we 
 would say) ; bay ad kah hizani — it-must that you-beat, i. e., you 
 must beat ; so, I-wish that I-go, for I wish to go. 
 
 Man (I) igbar bi-didcm-ash raftam w-abas — I once to-seeing- 
 his (to-see-him) I-went, and-only (once and only once) — w — 
 and, pref. ; man kah man dashtam — I that I had-I, i. e., I. who 
 had (thrice I, while we would have it only once). We need 
 hardly remind the student again, that there is a tendency to 
 such repetitions in all tongues — so we say, of whom it was 
 spoken of; 1-had-I, is taken as a new base, where the I's are 
 quite absorbed and cease to be felt ; birun shud — out he- was, 
 went out (be = go); gahi abi surk na-didam (seen) — some- 
 times (i. e., never) water-of (being) red not-seen (have I) (never 
 seen water red); haad az du ruz — after from two day (after 
 two days); hama sarhai kahka zadah kandidand — all (the) 
 heads (sarhai) a-shout striking they-laughed. 
 
 . Yaki ha-sanat-i kushti ba-sar amdah bud— one (a-man) m- 
 art-of wrestling to-head (at-the-head) come was (bud), i. e., stood 
 first in the art; dar-in — there-in; awardand — they have 
 brought (related, L. fero, bring = tell) ; dar-u sih mahi shigmraf 
 — in-rt three fish fine (ones), i. e., three fine fishes; kah Hut-i 
 simihr az rash-ki aishan bar ta-bah ghair at birian shudi — so- 
 that Hut-of sphere (pisces) by (az) envy-of them (aishan) on 
 
304 PHRASIS. 
 
 frying-pan-of (tabaK) envy burnt might-be (was roasted on pan) ; 
 kada-ra shukar baid (must) hi-kanam (hi pref.) Mh namat-i 
 sihat hi-man (on-mo) ita farmudah ast (est, is) — to-Grod praise 
 (it) must (that) I-make (I must praise) who (kih) blessing-of 
 health on-me gift (ita) made has (ast) (who has bestowed). 
 
 819. The foregoing will give a fair idea of the peculiarities 
 and difficulties of the Persian. Most of the difficulties are such 
 as we find in all Asiatic languages; they did not, evidently, 
 recognize the division of sentences in composition, and of words 
 and phrases from sentences — at least not to the extent that we 
 do. You do not find capitals, and periods, and commas, and 
 such guide marks to steady you. The running of words to- 
 gether, or rather the non-development of terms or expressions 
 into their word-elements, is a uniform Asiatic feature, a feature 
 which places them all so far back toward the original or infantile 
 character of language. 
 
 820. These compounds, as we are wont to conceive them, are 
 the real words of the Oriental ; and as long as we have dictionaries 
 that have not these words, bu* rather their assumed elements, 
 so long must the first day's travel of the Oriental student be 
 " hard upon the weary way." Be it remembered, that our own 
 words are not ultimates — there are no ultimates in wholes. Our 
 own words have their parts, parts that we now recognize, and 
 more yet that we some time hence shall recognize ; and still we 
 find the necessity of defining words aside from the elements. 
 
 821. Of the forms of the Persian we have this to say : 
 Parsee is a name applied to the Old Persian ; it has been 
 
 extinct for long centuries. There is a modern form of this 
 ancient idiom, that of the Parsees, and called by that name. 
 The Parsees live in the southern province of Pars; and a larger 
 number still dwell in a portion of India. The term Persian, as 
 applied to a people, is very comprehensive ; it includes the vari- 
 ous tribes or people .which constitute the Persian nation. This 
 Parsee was for a long time the prevailing language of Persia ; 
 but when the Persians were mastered by the Arabs and the 
 Tartars, there grew up under their influence, from this Parsee, 
 a new language, the modern Persian. This became the national 
 language, and it left the Parsee, or ancient Persian, to grow - 
 along into a mere provincial idiom. Persian is spoken in a large 
 part of India.; a form of it is the language of Bukhara. 
 
 822. The Pehlvi, called also Huzwaresh, and the Zend, are 
 names of old languages of Persia, closely allied to the Persian, 
 and once more or less prevailing. The Pehlvi shows the transi- 
 tion of Persian to Semitic. 
 
 823. The Zend is admitted to be one of great age ; it seems 
 to have been a church language. It is not now much known 
 
AFGHAN LANGUAGE. 305 
 
 though it is attracting the serious attention of phiIoloa.ists Its 
 Identity with the Sanscrit, and, through it, with the Greek and 
 Latin; is certainly remarkable. 
 
 • ^i^^'i ^" i"t«/'est'ng and valuable language is the Kurd It 
 s closely allied in forn. to the Persian, even so much as to appear 
 to be a mere dialect of it. It, too, gives us many valuable hint 
 on the connection between Semitic and .Persian. It is the Ian 
 guage of Kurdistan and Luristan, and exists in several different 
 dialects It IS neighbor to the Armenian, and is much like it 
 It is without literature. 
 
 825. The Beluchees language is evidently built on the same 
 basis as the Persian, but it has varied the Persian orthoffraphv 
 very materially. There are two leading dialects. '=»'•>' 
 
 826. It is here that we would remind the student, that a care- 
 tul comparison of the different forms of Persian, must lead us to 
 the belief m the identity really existing, in their origin, between 
 the Semitic and the Persian families. 
 
 _ 827. Afghan Language — The language of the Afghans 
 IS by no means well known, and its place in the family of tono^ues 
 IS not accurately defined. Some place it with the Persian.^and 
 others, again, put it in the Semitic division — and there are of 
 course, reasons for both conclusions. It is related to both,' as 
 they, too, are related to each other. It plainly possesses the 
 foundation common to both, but there are many points, especially 
 in the orthography, where it differs very materially from either. 
 It possesses those marks which we should expect to distinguish 
 the idiom of a rude and wild people from that of a comparatively 
 intelligent and progressive people. We will briefly notice some 
 of its leading features. 
 
 828. A prominent mark is the agreement of the transitive 
 verb, in the past tense, with the object in gender and number 
 while the intransitive agrees with the nominative in gender. And 
 there is reason in this. Their verbs, and, really, verbs in all 
 languages, are true- participles, and, as such participles, like 
 adjectives, they have an agreement; the past tense is, especially, 
 everywhere based on the passive or past participle. We have 
 here a case precisely like that of French and Italian perfects 
 where the participle agrees with the object. So, I struck him 
 = Iliave Mm struck, where it can well be seen that struck should 
 agree with Mm. They, the Afghans, do still more — they put 
 an objective or instrumental form where we put a nominative: 
 as, the striking of him, hy me, rather than 1 struck him, i. e., 
 they make of it a case exactly like our passive expression. All 
 this in Afghan has its counterpart elsewhere : by-the-man the- 
 39 
 
306 PHEASIS. 
 
 woman (was) struck, the man the woman struck, i. e., struck the 
 woman. 
 
 829. The cases are clearly on the Persian system ; so are the 
 plurals. The adjective precedes the noun. The Persian com- 
 parative ending ter is found here, but attached to, or connected 
 with, the noun compared with; many comparatives are made by 
 doubling the positive. 
 
 830. The pronouns are decidedly Persian, and not Semitic : 
 haga, he and him, reminds us of Danish han, L. hac; d-ga, da, 
 di, this, the; kum and kam, whom; zana, some, any; zah = l; 
 ma, me ; taji, ta = thou, thee ; mung or muz, we. 
 
 831. The Afghan has not only developed such endings as we 
 fidd in Latin, and in nearly all other languages, as zah aus-m, I 
 exist, iah aus-i, thou or you exist, but it has some peculiarities 
 besides. These endings, with or without the separate pronouns 
 also (as liked), may be used with intransitives, and with the 
 tenses, not past, of transitive verbs also. 
 
 832. With transitive pasts they use the instrumental form of 
 pronoun, as bi/me struck = 1 struck; or, more particularly, they 
 adopt a form of pronoun, either prefixed or inserted, and not 
 having an independent existence, which is different from the 
 separate pronouns, and from the endings above noticed ; thus, 
 mi kah — I did ; di Uah — thou didst ; m,u hah — we did. 
 
 888. These pronouns, or prefixes, when used with verbs not 
 transitive, denote the object or the possessive case. They remind 
 us of the Semitic tense, where also the person endings are initial, 
 and they must be explained in the same way. Their intimate 
 connection with those augments which we find so prominent in 
 Afghan (as hi, da, u), and which seem to characterize particu- 
 larly the Semitic and Persian families, is undoubted. There are 
 also pronouns, or prefixes, in Afghan used solely with the verb 
 to denote the object. 
 
 884. We find the infinitive used for past tense, and the past 
 for the perfect and pluperfect tense ; indeed, it is very clear 
 that all their tenses are but variations of participles and infin- 
 itives. Passives are formed as in English or Persian, compound, 
 and compound tenses are found made like theirs. 
 
 835. The infinitive ending and those of the participle are 
 Persian ; so, evidently, are many of the particles. Taken as 
 a whole, we might call the Afghan a remote form of the 
 Persian. 
 
CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES. 307 
 
 CflAPTER IX. 
 
 CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 836. An important, though by no means well-known, family 
 of languages, related to the Persian, is the Caucasian group. It 
 includes the Georgian and Armenian, both more or less cultivated 
 and these we will treat of separately in their turn ; but there are 
 too, belonging to this group, many little dialects, well defined as 
 they are, but unwritten. The four chief divisions are Lesghian, 
 Misjeghian, Ossete or Iron, and Circassian; and they, too, have 
 their various forms or subdivisions. 
 
 837. That they are all of them Persian in their character, 
 disguised by a strange orthography, we hold to be unquestion- 
 able. They bear a close relationship With the Finnish, Samoidish, 
 and East Slavic ; but it is only as they also are related to the 
 Persian. 
 
 838. Compared with ours, their order of words is much in- 
 verted ; though, if we place them along-side the Persian and 
 the languages of Eastern Europe, We shall find almost nothing 
 that . is remarkable. Their sentences are short, disconnected, 
 and emphatic ; in a word, they possess the character of all 
 uncultivated idioms. 
 
 839. We will introduce a few examples of their expression, 
 and we will note some points that are peculiar : 
 
 In Lesghian : Emen nedscher sovalda-ish hugewk — father' 
 our heaven-in (thou) art; hugabi chatir dur lein sov-alda Tiagadin 
 ratl-alda—'he will thy (dur') so heaven4n like-as earth-in; dur 
 zar — thy name. 
 
 To-God death not (is), ^. e., God dies not; toyman life much 
 not-lasting (is), i. e., man lives not long; yet she sick (is); 
 daughter hy sits (sits by), weeps (and weeps) ; this man blind 
 (is), his wife deaf is ; from-us (the) speaking not-hearing is (she), 
 i. e., (she) hears not the speaking by us ; little eats, little drinks, 
 i. e., eats and drinks little; nose (of the) face middle (is), (in 
 the middle of face) ; tongue-and, teeth-and (and is suffix) ; (on) 
 head hair grow; hones (are) hard stone like; moon great is 
 star by, sun by (it is) small (large by a star, larger than a star); 
 (the) hair long is, thin is, i. e., long and thin ; Jire burn, we see 
 smoke, flame (and) coal. It may be well to mention that words 
 in parenthesis are not in the text. 
 
 840. As an instance of the peculiar form our words take in 
 this group, we note the numeral one, which is zo, zis, and hos, 
 z equal to the d of the Slavic one ; other dialects have mi, Gr'k 
 
308 PHKASIS. 
 
 mia, and others still have ert and art, our erst and first; for two, 
 we find hi-go, go being suffix, and lei — ti ; in Circassian, we find 
 tu=Wo; day has the forms dge, ga, jogh, djaka, detii, toha, 
 div — all variations of one form equal to day, i.T.jour; we find 
 also for dai/ the form ko, which equals ga = dge = da. It would 
 be interesting, had we the space to spare, to go through many- 
 other comparisons of this kind. 
 
 841. We come next to the Ossete, or Iron, the idiom of a 
 people neighbors to the Circassians and the Georgians. It is 
 without literature, and yet it is a language of great interest to 
 the philologist, from the form in which it presents to us the 
 Persian, and remotely the European in general. The orthog- 
 raphy presents a very unexpected agreement with that of the 
 Persian and the Eastern European, and even with the German. 
 
 842. Mai stalutei istir-daru, choreitei kzill-daru — moon of- 
 star (than star) great-er (is), of-sun smaller (it is), i. e., but 
 smaller than the sun; as = l, di = thou., ui = he {ho, Per. au), 
 mach = we (Per. ma, Slav, my), smach = you (Per. shuma, G'k 
 humeis), %idon = thej (Slav, yeden, one, Sw. eder, Ger. der and 
 Jeder) ; as dan, I am, de = art, isz = is ; mach stem — we are ; 
 stut^ are-ye, isii = are- they. This d of dan (am) brings us 
 back to the Turk, idum,, Pers. hudam,. A better representative 
 is found in the Ossete past, uden, ude, udi ; plur. udsimen, udsine, 
 udseni ; wod (would) = be, was. 
 
 843. Many verbs are formed here, as we find in so many lan- 
 guages, by using make (hanin, Ger. thun, t = k, L. paro. Per. 
 kardan), and noun or adjective as a base ; as, kar-kanin — cry- 
 make (to cry); achur-kanin — learn-make (to-learn). 
 
 844. Augments before verbs here play a prominent part — 
 they are fe, ni, ha (forms of Pers. bi, and Sem. m). We find 
 the perf. part, ending nag and ag ; as, from kus or qiis, hear, we 
 have qus-ag, which we find varied to qus-gond (this ag and nag 
 are clearly related to our ing, Turk. mek. The imperative has 
 prefix lai, hi, as hai-qus — infin. qus-en. So in the Tushi, an- 
 other Caucasian tongue, the present part, ends in -in, as dagu-in, 
 eating, from dago, eat ; and the perf. part, ends in -no, as xac-no, 
 heard, from xace, hear. The prest. indefinite of Ossete scarcely 
 differs from the infinitive. 
 
 The prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, are easily recog- 
 nizable as either Persian or European. 
 
 845. A few selections will further illustrate its peculiarities : 
 Ui-thychei, ama man urnin chnzaw — this-for (for this), that 
 
 I trust God; zei-thychei, Ger. was-fur, what-for; ama kanin 
 chors — and do good; za ui sidag dsinad sahi — what his (ui) 
 holy law command; as kud fand-kanin chuzawei — las judg- 
 ment-make of'God (as I judge of) ; jul uni,jul kusi, jul soni — 
 
\ CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES. 309 
 
 all (everything) sees, all hears, all knows ; kud (how) id iss ud 
 (ghost) — as he is spirit. ^ ^ 
 
 Fid mach hazi de looZ-arwji — father our who art (c?e) in- 
 heaven ; ^^ag loortti;— holy be (was, being) ; ali andar chmon 
 all other things (Fr. chose); zitkin dar da-fidi ama da-madi— 
 honor give (L do) thy-father and thy-mother; ma amar (mur- 
 der)— not-kill; ma-2!Ma^ — not-say; e /ram _his-d welling (e 
 his) ; dsul mach honthy (daily) ratt machen aioji — bread our 
 daily give us to-day (abon). 
 
 846. It is to be hoped that in time this remarkable idiom will 
 come to receive more study than it has so far. 
 
 847. To the Circassian the same general remarks will apply 
 that were made on the rest of the family. A few examples must 
 suffice for this : 
 
 Szie shad (Per. shud) — I was ; arr shad — he was ; masar 
 whagoh me nachjin-sh — moon star by (jne) greater-is (sh = is) 
 
 — moon greater than star (nach = more, jin = great). The 'sh 
 is an is developing itself at the end of adjectives, as we saw in 
 Persian — it is not really is, but a mark for it, and at the same 
 time a part of Jin; hache, do|;s ; ha-kode, much dogs (7cod= 
 much) ; sheh-kod, much horses (a beautiful illustration, this, of 
 the growth of adjectives from nouns, similar to diminutive end- 
 ings); sse unneh me ssoJco — I house to go (to house) ; s-ah, my 
 father; w-ab, thy father; r-ab, their father. 
 
 Bdse-ma una (eye) iash, thakhuma eakom (not) — fish-to (to 
 fish) eye is, ear not (is) ; my zugur naf-sh — this man blind-is. 
 The pronoun object of a verb is incorporated with it. We notice 
 in this language, as everywhere, words assuming difierent forms 
 according to their difierent connections. 
 
 848. G-EOK.GIAN. — The Georgian is another language belong- 
 ing with the group under consideration ; it has received some 
 attention at the han^s of philologists, but it has not been studied 
 with any great amount of perseverance. It is only valuable in 
 respect to its linguistic illustrations. 
 
 849. We will dwell but briefly on this tongue : Me am tsigns 
 gtser — I this letter you- write (jg is pref. = obj. you) ; ak dids 
 kalahs Pharizs mowe<^ith — here (to-this) great city Paris (I 
 have) come; mowedin supeva scheni — come kingdom thy;^MW 
 tshweni — bread our; danu — and not; szeda — earth-on; teato 
 
 — heaven-in. 
 
 850. Postpositive particles, or prepositions, after the noun 
 are here quite prominent. The comparative, marked by its 
 ending, is followed by the genitive. The pronouns are easily 
 referable to the Persian-German class ;, their genitives are used 
 as possessives. The demonstrative letters are g — d,m==n, and 
 
310 PHEASIS. 
 
 s = t.- The verb has considerable development in person end- 
 ings ; and prefixes, or augments, are prominent. The endings 
 of the participle are well developed. A leading difficulty, 
 in acquiring a knowledge of this language, is its exceedingly 
 strange alphabet. It is only after careful search that it can be 
 found to be connected, though remotely, with the European 
 alphabets. 
 
 851. The Armenian is the last of the class before us ; and 
 it is by far the most cultivated and the best known. There is 
 much written in this tongue — going back even to the fourth 
 century. The ancient Armenian is extinct. The alphabet is 
 odd to us, but very handsome ; and it is easily traceable to the 
 G-reek and Semitic alphabets. It has, like the Georgian, cap- 
 itals as well as small letters. We notice, briefly, some of the 
 features ef Armenian : 
 
 852. In Armenian, and also in all the class, gender as a dis- 
 tinctive mark is scarcely developed. The k mark of the plural 
 is so far Hungarian and Tartar. The objective here, as we so 
 often see elsewhere, does not differ in form from the nominative ; 
 it has a prefix z, our to, the, and Heb. eth. The ra ending of 
 some genitives reminds us of the ra of Persian cases ; the dat. 
 ending is m, the am,, em, of L. accusative — the abl. ends in e. 
 There is, besides, a dative prefix or augment, i, z. Many case 
 changes are manifested by what are called inserted letters, but 
 what is really a development of the letters in the word, as we 
 .term it, rather than at the end of the word as usual. 
 
 853. The pronouns, and the particles generally, are clearly 
 recognizable. Pronouns are often found as suffixes to the noun, 
 as in Persian. The verb is well developed, having its augments, 
 endings, and participles. We find the active and the passive 
 participles undistinguished. There are full sets of compound 
 tenses, by the aid of he and hecome. The infin. ending is el, al, 
 and the part, endings are a variation of it. The verb he is el, 
 as in Amharic ; it reminds us, too, of the Finnish and Slavic 
 classes ; hecome is Knil, and this also reminds us of Hungarian 
 and Finnish. The present participle ends in og, our ing, while 
 the past or passive ends in eal= infin. el. 
 
 854. A few selections from the language we now give : Hair 
 mer or zergins ies — father our who in-heaven art (is) ; kam kho 
 (will thy) — thy willj karayr-n oievan norm woch evs hencher i 
 tsaynyerkotz nor a — (the) cavern (-ra = the, her) the-abode of- 
 her (norin) not more (no more) resounded with (i) sound of- 
 voice hers; kosel, to speak ; henchel, to resound. 
 
 Ev linizi int orti — and may-come (be born) to-me (a) son 
 (L. puer') ; ergou ortil ant — two sons are : es em ortin ko — I 
 
CAUCASIAN LANaUAGES. 311 
 
 am son thy (thy son); ev deseal ezna—s.TiA seeing him : ase z-na 
 
 which sacrifice he-made; .- Ormite, to-Ormiz ; or^» ^om - boy 
 his; t^amoroA- cause (of) which; ^.as^-fo _ cause-th? 
 ^oas■ym-mJ cause; .-o. a«am- which I-make (™fV 
 Aa?-cZ amr — sacrifice (he) Made, i. e., sacrificed. ^ ^ ^^ ' 
 
 began and A. to-make creatures; im orti-n e-my son is 
 .(«= the) ; to« es - thou art (L. tu es) ■ des-eal ez-na (.-„„) - 
 seen ^im; e« awe^iam ine zor Ormiztn arner pari erev ouqic, 
 — and all that what 0. made (a«-er) good was (are, were) and 
 
 _ Asei, I said; aBem, I say; asen, they say; Ud-az, knew; 
 mr, his, her; «ma, him, to him; z-na, him, (hat; me/t, we 
 mer, of-us (our), mez, to-us, z-mez, us; m/c, our; touk, ye, !!se/ 
 of-you, your; sir, love (dear, cher-ish); present indie, dr-em 
 zir-es, sir-e ; plur. sir-emk, sir-ek, sir-en; imp. ind. sir-er, sir-eir 
 sir-er ; sir-eak, sir-eik, sir-em; aorist sir-ezi, sir-ezir, sir-eqg.'- 
 sir-ezak, sir-ezik, sir-ezinj infin. sir-el, part, sir-og. The end- 
 ings of the pres. indie, are almost identical with am, art, is etc 
 (em, es, e; emk, ek, en); infin. to be is el, part. eal. ' 
 
 And we may note here, that the uniform agreement every- 
 where of verb and participle endings with the forms of he, is not 
 accidental, but it proves the fact that the verb be is only a devel- 
 opment of those endings thrown oflF. 
 
 _ 855. Of the verb give we may notice these forms : dam, I 
 give (L. dam', dem), damk, we give, dan, they give ; dal, infin. ; 
 dou-ael, part, aorist ; dou-og, pres. part. ; future part, daloz ; 
 impera. dour; imperf. dahi ; dou-eal linim — given am (am 
 given, become given); pazeal linim — openened (I) become 
 (am openened) ; kid-em, I know, L. vid-eo ; gou-el^ to go (tsh 
 = g); lo-el, to liear_(G-'k k-luo)^ listen; say, impera, is asa, 
 aorist part, asa-zeal, infin. as-el — other participles, as-og, aseloz, 
 and asa-zog ; e-dov (e augment), have given, L. dedi. 
 
 856. Aside from the alphabet, the language is easy to learn, 
 and when learned it will prove one of much interest, importance, 
 and beauty. The idiom is by no means hard or unnatural. For 
 an Asiatic language, there is, much that is European. There 
 are very many- words which are clearly identical with words in 
 Europe ; the oirthography of these is very interesting ; we have 
 space here only to instance such words, in addition to those, 
 already named incidentally, as these: tun (house), L. dom-us; 
 oskr (bone), L. os ; air (man), L. vir ; lusin (moon), L. luna; 
 am (year), L. annus, time; mis (flesh), meat; &«/■?•, tree ; 
 djur, water; ghuk (head), Slav, glava ; amarn, summer; koz 
 (swine), L. sus ; Imr, fire ; div, day; agn, eye, Ger. aage; liezu 
 
312 PHRASIS. 
 
 tongue, L. lingua; odn, foot, G'k jpod-os ; adanm, tooth, Gr'k 
 odous. 
 
 Sbl. It is greatly to be regretted that, this language has not 
 been better studied, so well does it illustrate our own languages. 
 The facilities for studying it are very limited, and the number 
 of thorough Armenian scholars is very small. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TARTAR LANGUAGES. 
 
 858. That the Mongolian, Manchu, Tartar, and Turkish, 
 constitute one great family of languages allied to each other by 
 various and unmistakable marks, and that they belong also with 
 the Semitic and the Persian, are facts beyond all doubt; and 
 yet these positions have each been often questioned. As a 
 whole, we may denominate them the Tartar class. Those people 
 are by no means all Tartars ; but as they are all closely related 
 to the Tartars, and as the Tartars, if not the oldest, were at least 
 the most prominent and most numerous branch of the family, 
 the name seems fully justified. But let it be borne in mind, 
 also, that Tartar as a name of a people or a tongue, is very 
 indefinite. They, the Tartars, have at times conquered others, 
 and have been lost with the vanquished ; they have themselves • 
 in turn been overrun, and the limits that defined them have 
 vanished in the darkness of the past. The Mongolians have 
 absorbed a large share of them — they are themselves Tartars ; 
 but Mongolian, as a country name, has to a great extent taken 
 the place of Tartar. The name Tartar is now confined to nar- 
 row limits, and is applied to that portion of the class most nearly 
 connected with the Turkish. The term Ouighour is also applied 
 to it, or to a form of it. 
 
 859. We may as well remark here, that the term Turanian 
 is often applied to this class, taken in connection with Finnish 
 and Samoidish ; the term Avian, or Indo-European, is opposed 
 to Turanian ; the Semitic is accounted a third class, distinct 
 from both these — as to which we will see hereafter. What is 
 not Semitic or Turanian (Tartar) in Europe and Asia, spQaking 
 generally, that is, all that has the European character, is Arian. 
 The Chinese and Malay class have so far been compelled to take 
 a place outside. 
 
 860. Tungusic and Manchu are names which may cover nearly 
 the same limits, the one as the other ; and yet Tungusic is used 
 
TARTAR LANGUAGES. 313 
 
 in a narrower sense to apply to a subdivision of Tungusic, paral- 
 lel to the Manchu, and indicating a people consisting of tribes 
 in the north of Asia, principally in Siberia. 
 
 861. Tartar : The Tartar (-Turkisb) possesses those features 
 which so strongly mark the whole class. And, first, we notice 
 the strongly developed case endings, so far advanced as in the end 
 to separate from the stem and become postpositions. The o-en 
 mark is long, ing ; as, hach-ung — of-head (Slav, -ego, -ych, Hung. 
 -nelc) ; de and den are abl. marks, as hach-de, in-head (L. de, Per. 
 -ra, and der) — besides these marks, separate postpositions are 
 used. The suffix possessive pronouns appear here as we saw 
 them in Finnish and Hung. The adjective is always before the 
 noun, with which it unites so strongly that the latter only re- 
 ceives the case and number endings. The plural ending is ler. 
 The absence of the article is a mark of the whole class, save that 
 hir, one, is used for a, and that for the. A few illustrations, in 
 the way of selections, may now be given : 
 
 _ 862. Chedjy nam harye — Chedjy (by) name (a) village (a 
 village called); guieuz-um lean dolsa — ,eye-my blood should- 
 fill-with (if my eye should be filled with) ; bu Mar-ing ferdjami 
 — that aifair-of (of that affair) end-its (the end of that aflfair) ; 
 su luch-i — water chief-its,, i. e., head-water, the sea; heyler-hey, 
 of beys-the-bey ; mutemed adem-isi guiel-uh — faithful men-his 
 arriving (his faithful men arriving) ; kimi-miz — who-your, i. e., 
 who of you, some one of you ; her hirimiz — every one-us (one 
 of us); kande haghtche — where (is) garden. We find com- 
 pounds as in the Persian style. 
 
 Beuiles-ini guieurme-mich idi — like-of-him (his-like) seen- 
 not had-he (was) (had not seen ; me inserted = not) ; henim hir 
 haghtch-em var dyr — to-me a {hir = one) garden-my is there 
 (I have a garden of mine); guieurduk-leri — their-having-seen 
 (^eri = their), i. e., what they had seen; guiold-iguim — my- 
 having-come, i. e., what I had come to; bun-ing birle — that- of 
 for (because of that) ; hunler guihi — those as (as those) ; henim, 
 djins-im — of-me race-my (my race of mine); senung-ki — of- 
 thine that, i. e., that of thine, thine (Ai = that), like Grer. deinige; 
 yok-dur — not-is, i. e., there is not. 
 
 763. Besides the pronouns and particles of Tart.-Turkish, so 
 easily reduced to European relationship, there are many other 
 leading words, verbs and the like, which are by no means strange, 
 , if we bear in mind the laws of letter changes. In the case of 
 verbs, we drop the m,ek of the infin. ; as, for itmek, we take it 
 as the representative : 
 
 Bas, press, bind ; var, go, walk, L. erro ; vir, give, L. ferg, 
 bring; al, take, G'k el; geur, see, peer, view; eul, die, kili; 
 40 
 
314 PHRASIS. 
 
 hyl, Sans, har, I, r ; gel, go, walk ; di, L. di^co, say ; it, do, 
 G-er. thwn ; ores, search ; ak, blank, white ; oku, read, L. lego ; 
 sev, love; ko, put, L. po' ; kara, black, dark; at (horse), Gr'k 
 'ippos. 
 
 864. Mongolian : This has all the features characterizing 
 the Tartar languages; but, more than this, it can with a slight 
 effort be placed along- side the Persian and European. The pro- 
 nouns, the participles, the structure of the moods and tenses, 
 the form of the verbals, all these are quickly made familiar to 
 us by their resemblance to languages known to us, not only 
 Asiatic but European also. 
 
 865. The leading sections of the Mongolians are the Bast and 
 West Mongolian, the latter being again named Kalmuk. They 
 are closely related dialectic forms. 
 
 866. Manchu. — This refers particularly to the language of 
 the people of Manchuria. It is in all respects a Tartar language, 
 but Tartar which has been pressed by the Chinese. It serves 
 well to mark the transition of Chinese to Tartar. 
 
 867. As a language of the class, we find little in the grammar 
 to remark as peculiar. The plurals (for living beings only) end 
 in sa, ta, (the /c of other forms) ; i is the gen. sign, de is dative, be 
 is ace., tcM is abl. We find an ending ngga, our ing of verbals, 
 which is seen in all Tartar ; also, miningge, mine, and siningge, 
 thine (Ger. deinige). As we find in the whole class, so here we 
 find no proper relative. We find, between the root of the verb 
 and the infinitive ending, 6m as a pass, mark; ako, Turk, me, is 
 the negative mark, joined to the verb (k ni). Many of the 
 particles are easily connected with the Greek. 
 
 868. We will give a few examples of its peculiarities : Ere 
 gisun-he niyalma tome kitchetcM atchavibi — this word (he is 
 ace. sign) man all to-inquire ought (all ought to inquire, con- 
 sider). The genitive, like the adjective, is always before the 
 noun : emke emkei — one to-one, one after another; emou niyalma, 
 i-ni dchoue niyaman imhe handchifi — one man, his two parents 
 him bearing (whose two parents have borne him). 
 
 Ouhahe dchafafi gisouretchi — this assuming (if we) speak 
 (ou-ha is a double this, he is ace. sign,_;? pres. part., tchi is con- 
 ditional mark — verbs have not developed personal endings, and 
 the persons are often neither indicated nor expressed) ; touba-de 
 (dative mark) bitcM — that-in (there) (he may) be. ;'. e., he may 
 be there (6i = be); toumen dckaka — all thing; mini bey e — my 
 body, my self ; terehe we same moutembi — that (-thing, ace.) 
 who (we) to-know might (who might know) ; men-de em,ou sain 
 sargan dchoui hi — us-to a (one) good girl daughter be (is) (we 
 
TARTAR LANGUAGES. 315 
 
 have a beautiful daughter) ; geneme, to go, gone ; geno^ go ; 
 gen-ere — will go (Er^ irai) j 'sa-mbi — I, thou, or he know (Fr. 
 sens) ; sar-ko — know-not (ko = not). 
 
 Xake keke — husband (and) wife {and is omitted, as it is uni- 
 formly — conjunctions are scarcely yet developed here); banin 
 keseboun sere dchoue kergen — nature (and) fate (so) called two 
 words (two words, names, nature and fate) ; dergi edcheni band- 
 chiboukangge (of or by) supremb lord being-been-born (bandchi- 
 bouba, has created, or borne); moukchan dcheingge-i warangge 
 — (with) staff (or) sword slaying ; emou ikan-he bakatchi — one 
 (a) ox (if you) receive (receive one ox, i. e., if you receive). 
 
 Si aika sain-be yaboutchi — thou if good (you do) do; taU 
 chire-de (teach) amourangge — to-learn loving {i. e., loving to 
 learn) ; bov touketchibe — house fall, i. e., although the house 
 fall, Grer. wohnen, a-bode ; bandcMboure wemboure sekiyen tede 
 bi — (of) bearing (and) dying (the) fountain (in) him (tede) is 
 (be), i. e., their fountain is in that; bi;i/a 'chunA — moon sun- 
 with; goa koungtse-i barou khend-ouke — one Confucius before 
 said (one said to C). 
 
 869. A few parallel lines will give some idea of the compar- 
 ative form of Tartar, Mongolian, and Manchu : 
 
 Tartar : Atha wisum chy kok-ta sen — father our who heaven- 
 in art ; wer wisum gvmdahbch otmak — give (bring) to-us daily 
 bread ; wou-gun — this-day ; garta wisni geman-dan — free us 
 evil-from. 
 
 870. Rumanian :,Sezom. aWa-masz ^ to-us father-our; kem- 
 /i;o — who-art; kik-te — heaven-in ; sze-lezon szen-ad-on — holy- 
 be (lez) thy-name-thine. 
 
 Kalmuk, or West Mongol : ^tshiga mani octorgi-du batktshi 
 
 . father our heaven-in being (who art) ; tani naratani — thy 
 
 name-thine; mani odor — our day; tani gar-tu amai — thy 
 hand-in am (is) (in thy hand it is). 
 
 871. Tungusic : Aminmun mungi avagu negdavgidadu — 
 father-our (of) us (thou) art heaven-in; gerbish singi — name 
 thine (word) ; on singi bisin — for thine is (be-st, Ger. hist); on 
 neg-dordu do endra-du — as heaven-in so earth-in. 
 
 872. And, finally, Manchu : Abka-de thege megni ama — hea- 
 ven-in (there) dwell our father; sini kebu enturinge okini—thj 
 name (word) holy be (Arab. ^a« = be); na-de — earth-in. 
 
 873. The Mongolian and Manchu have both an alphabet 
 peculiar to them, though the two have a clear reference to each 
 other, and are supposed to have been built on the same basis. 
 They'are written in lines downward, proceeding from left to 
 right These alphabets are syllabic, and are evidently related 
 to the Chinese; and they have the character, too, of the 
 Sanscrit. 
 
316 PHEASIS. 
 
 874 The leading point which we notice in these languages, 
 and in those of Asia generally; is that words here, where so 
 many are connected together, are not yet individuahzed as they 
 are in Europe : they are not yet old enough to be detached 
 from the parent stem — as is particularly the case, also, in 
 Sanscrit and Semitic. 
 
 ' CHAPTEE X. 
 
 CHINESE LANGUAaB. 
 
 875. Our knowledge of the Chinese language is commensurate 
 with our knowledge of the Celestial people. There is more than 
 one point of obscurity in both. Still, the study of the Chinese 
 character and Chinese idiom has many able devotees, and we 
 are flattered with the assurance that We are daily becoming more 
 enlightened in respect to this portion of the history of the 
 " Central-Elowery-Kingdom." 
 
 876. It is not many years since we were taught that the 
 Chinese were a people without another with which to compare 
 them, and that their language was without a parallel or connec- 
 tion in the whole wide world. Buf time and labor have made 
 us wiser. We now know for a certainty that the roots of both 
 the language and the nation extend far back into the great 
 Tartar class, in the north and west, and into the Malay and 
 Indian, in southern Asia — thus proving that here, at least, we 
 do not find an exception to the great truth, that nothing is 
 found in this world without its kind, its like, its homologue. 
 
 877. All things considered, the Chinese is to be ranked 
 among the most infantile and uncultivated idioms so far known 
 to us. Speaking generally, we may say the language has all 
 the characteristics of a wild people, and that it lacks those which 
 mark the idioms of enlightened men. There is almost a total 
 absence of those derived forms of adverbs, adjectives, verbs, 
 case, number, and gender forms, besides those of tense, mood, 
 and participle — an absence of everything that is properly in- 
 flexion and derivation. The parts of speech and their subdi- 
 visions are not distinguished by appropriate forms, but, rather, by 
 their connection, and by the relative place they occupy. There 
 is much in all this, and more that might be mentioned, that is 
 Polynesian, that is even African. We have, here, says one 
 author, only to do with naked stems or roots. 
 
 878. The genitive is a pure adjective, and as such it is placed 
 
CHINESE LANGUAGE. 317 
 
 before the noun. It is placed thus without any variation from 
 the noun form, as we do in our iVojthorse, horse of iron; or, 
 the genitive is followed by a sort of suffix prepostion, ti or chi, 
 I.e., of, or of the ; as, wa-ti, I-of, of me, or my ; ta-ti, he-of, or 
 his. Other cases are marked by prepostions placed before or 
 after. The plural may be expressed by the singular, marked by 
 some, word equal to much, all; also by suffix mun (= other). It 
 is expressed also by the well-known mode of repetition. 
 
 879. For all persons, all tenses and moods, all participles, it 
 may be said that the same unchanged and bare form of the verb 
 is used, i. e., the Chinese mind is scarcely conscious of these dis- 
 tinctions. They know only live and dead, or full and empty 
 words — meaning by the former verbs and nouns, and by the 
 latter, particles ; beyond that, they are uncertain, unconcerned. 
 The persons they distinguish by the context, or they use pro- 
 nouns before the verbs; as, wo yu- kin — I have gold; ni yu 
 kin-sha — thou have gold-dust. The tenses are either not dis- 
 tinguishable, or auxiliary particles are used as in English. 
 
 880. There is, in these' respects, a great difference between 
 the ancient and modem Chinese : in the former, there is an 
 absence of these particles and auxiliaries — the sentence being 
 here one unresolvable whole (while the other form shows the 
 result of development). The modern is again divided into the 
 Pekin and the Nankin dialects, having considerable differences; 
 and, besides this, the written form varies greatly from the spoken 
 language. ^ 
 
 881. The words of Chinese are chiefly of the simplest kind, 
 such as we find in Polynesian and African — but they are not 
 all monosyllabic. Not only is there an absence of derivative 
 forms, but we scarcely find what we may call true compounding 
 — unless we may consider every noun with adjective, or indeed 
 the sentence itself, as a commingled mass or compound. Others, 
 looking at it from another stand-point, decide that there are 
 many compounds in Chinese. They, to say the least, are com- 
 pounds of a character very different from what we consider com- 
 
 " pounds in our languages. 
 
 882. From the 'absence of derivative forms, we find many 
 instances where the same word, if we look to the form alone, is 
 applied to several different objects — or, as we express it, one 
 word has several different meanings. Generally, we' either use 
 different words, or words which have varied their form to corre- 
 spond with the new application ; as, price, prize, praise ; _ also 
 rise, rose, raise, raised, raiser, raising, rising. But the Chinese 
 has no capacity for such variation. In spoken language, they 
 distinguish by nice variations of tone or accent, precisely as we 
 do, to a limited extent, in prem-ise and pre-mise, read (present) 
 
318 PHRASIS. 
 
 and read (past), man and inen. All changes of vowels, and, 
 more remotely, all changes of the word, are the workings of this 
 variation of tone, found so prominently in Chinese. The Chinese 
 carry the principle much farther, and they have many shades of 
 tone not perceptible to us — these changes of sound being in- 
 cipient to a change of form, and in a measure representing it. 
 
 883. A very fruitful source of new words, or terms, in Chinese, 
 is found in the associating of two words of similar meaning — 
 an application of the universal principle of doubling or repeating 
 words to form new elements. Their words having each a great 
 variety of different applications, their meaning must be fixed in 
 some way. They take two words having each one meaning like 
 one of those of the other, and thus use one to determine the 
 other. Our compound stage-coach, will serve to illustrate this 
 system in Chinese. The word itage applies t(| a great many 
 different things, besides to a certain kind of coach, and so does 
 coach apply to many other kinds of car besides that used in 
 staging ; but put them together, and we know with certainty the 
 object intended. 
 
 884. In this and like cases, both itage and coach denote the 
 very object pointed out by stage-coach^ but also so many other 
 things as to be indeterminate. We see here, again, that the part 
 really includes the meaning of the whole, that it is equal to the 
 whole. This affords an instructive lesson on the origin of new 
 words. 
 
 885. Chinese Writing. — There are no letters in Chinese, such 
 as we find in European tongues. Their words are represented by 
 characters which are known only as one sign, i. e., the parts have 
 no separate existence, more than the parts of the figure 4. But, 
 more generally, the representatives of ordinary words are made 
 up of two individuals, having each a separate value, somewhat 
 as in our fractions 1-3, 2-5 — or even of three parts, as in our 
 complex fractions 2-3-5. 
 
 886. What may be considered the base of this Chinese word- 
 sign, is the so-called radical, of which there are about 214 in the 
 language. These radicals, or keys, are themselves words, refer- 
 ring to elementary ideas. 
 
 887. The other part of the word-sign is called the phonetic 
 part ; it, too, is a separate word, as the 3 of 1-3 is a separate 
 number. The phonetic alone gives the name to the whole char- 
 acter, as the fraction is called 4ths, 5ths, from its denominator 
 alone. That is, as we understand it, generally the Chinese 
 words or names are all adjectives, as indeed the case is every- 
 where, and the radical is the base noun which becomes obscured 
 or lost in pronunciation, as we say the good, for good men, the 
 senior, for senior one, a level, for level ground. This, we think 
 
CHINESE LANGUAGE. 319 
 
 is the precise principle in Chinese. So the words sea, river, 
 lake, in Chinese, have for their key or base the element water, 
 %. e., they are certain kinds of water ; the kinii alone is expressed 
 fthe adjective), and water as a sound (but not as a sim) is lost 
 bo the sign composed of the parts shui, water, and cing, blue, is 
 callea ctnc/, and it means clear or pure. • / 
 
 _ 888. Some of these sound-giving signs have lost their mean- 
 ing, and are mere characters, while others are proper words 
 Chinese word-signs have at least one radical, and some have 
 more ; they are hence all compounds", as Egypt-land^ for Egypt 
 — in which land is not sounded. It is a very extensive appli- 
 cation of that principle of determinatives, or radicals, which we 
 notice in the Tartar, Malay, and other Asiatic languages; just 
 as if we sa.id, gold-metal for gold, America-land for Amerioa., 
 Persian-man for Persian, male-man for male, city-place for city^ 
 king-ruler for king, speech-make for speak, walk-go for walk. 
 
 889. The Chinese word-characters have parts, as our own 
 words have, but not so many recognized as we have. The Tar- 
 tar and Sanscrit write their letters after the same principle as 
 we find in Chinese. There is no doubt but that the origin of 
 these Chinese characters will be found in hieroglyphics. A few 
 examples will best illustrate some of the peculiarities of the 
 language : 
 
 890. Ngo fu — I father, my father; s-in sin — man heart, 
 heart of man; smsm— man man, each man. The pronouns 
 
 , are, wo, I ; ni, thou ; ta, he ; wo-mun, we (mun sign of plural) ; 
 tamwi, they ;■ wo yu, I have ; wo sien-slii-yu — I had ; ta sien- 
 shi-yu — he had; wotsiu yu — I will have (the words before 
 yu being used as signs of tense — but even these auxiliaries are 
 not used in the written language) ; wo mu yu — I not have; wo- 
 ti ta-shan — I-of coat, my coat. 
 
 Na, which; shui, who; tung-si, thing; na-ho, the, that; che-ho, 
 this ; che-ko ma, this horse ; ji ji, day day, every day ; hau-ti, 
 high; twan-ti, short (ti gen. or adj. sign); ki to, how much; 
 chi, only ; kin nien — this year ; kin ye — this night, to-night ; 
 wo shi — I am; ta shi, he is; yu, there is, has; shi-ti, right (ti, 
 the, of) ; lai, come, ku, go ; ta lai — • he come ; wo-mun lai — 
 we come; wo lai-liau — I came; ku-liau, went; ta tsiang lai — 
 ho will come ; <so, do; tso-yuen-liau — done. 
 
 891. The following translations will exhibit some other fea- 
 tures of this idiom : 
 
 V (The) folk (is) quiet (adjective used as verb, is being sup- 
 pre.ssed); fu hai, sev san — (his) luck (is a) sea, (his) Kfe 
 (-length) mountain, i. e., his-fortune (is) great-as-sea, his-life- 
 length (length of life) like that of a mountain. All those qual- 
 ifying words are not expressed in Chinese, or they lie latent in 
 
320 PHRASIS. 
 
 the words Inch, sea, mountain : they regard the points only of a 
 sentence. 
 
 Heaven (and) earth (are) hlue (and) pale (remember that all 
 words in parenthesis are not in the original text) ; (in) that land 
 much mountain (is); (to) m.en all deep eye (and) high nose, i. e., 
 they all have deep eyes ; body (and) face (were) broad. (The 
 tense is known by context, and broad is a real verb in its office) ; 
 m.un prince {sin hiun) — a man (who is) a prince; cold come 
 heat go — (when the) cold comes (then the) heat departs. 
 
 / sew — has taken (several verbs are used, as with us, with 
 otherverbs to denote past or complete action, as i, yu, ke"). The 
 noun before another noun is uniformly the adjective, and the 
 noun before the verb is the subject; je m,ing — night sing, i. e., 
 in-the-night he-sings ; not can (he) far fly ; (the) prince why 
 (he) grieve ? (in) name^report under Kuang very far (was he), 
 i. e., in reputation (was he) far under Kuang ; thou come already 
 long, i. e., hast long been here. 
 
 Place-place, every place ; he saw ivater suddenly came, i. e., 
 saw it come ; he was a m,an he possessed, i. e., who possessed ; mid- 
 dle-land hear it (but) not believe it, i. e., China heard but did 
 not believe (all those conjunctions and particles so used with us, 
 are left out in Chinese); thou where see him,, i. e., thou whom 
 you see ; I where have money, i. e., money which I have. 
 
 892. Adjectives, as great, good, can be used not only for is- 
 great, was-good, but also for transitive verbs, as make-great, 
 consider-great ; as, to = great, chi=\\,, ta-cAi = increase-it, i. e., , 
 make-great it. Adjectives not before the noun are, as with us, 
 adverb, participle, or verb; as, we %a,j great in all, being great 
 in all ; form,erly say Chin-tu, i. e., formerly they said Chin-tu ; 
 India-of man, i. e., Indian man, Indians; different country dif- 
 ferent use, i. e., (for) for different countries (are) different usages; 
 from-far to-cite, i. e., to cite from far; (to) express (what) they 
 it beautiful, i. e., what they think it beautiful (here, mei, beauti- 
 ful, is used causatively or transitively = to-think-beautiful). 
 
 Man it love — what men love ; (if) king say how for good I 
 (of my) empire (must I act) (then) great man say how for good 
 I family — i. e., if the king says how (must I act) for my coun- 
 try's good (then too will the) great man say how for (that of our) 
 families. 
 
 893. We conclude the Chinese with the remark, that there 
 is nothing there that is not found, at least in the germ, in other 
 languages. The time will yet come when it will liot be thought 
 amiss to compare European words with those of Chinese. 
 
SEMITIC HISTORY. 321 
 
 CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 SEMITIC HISTORY. 
 
 894 The Semitic languages constitute a large and distinctly 
 marked class. From the peculiar phases in which they present 
 language, they are to the philologist of the utmost interest and 
 importance. They are very properly located on the confines of 
 Asia ; their character and history affords us the transition from 
 what is European to what is Asiatic. It afi'ords us another illus- 
 tration of the truth that languages uniformly belong where they 
 are geographically located. 
 
 895. The Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabia, constitute the main 
 body or branch — they are what we generally have in view 
 when we speak of the Semitic languages. The Ethiopic is 
 located in Abyssinia, and has been so long and so far removed 
 from the fatherland in Asia, as to receive, on a Semitic basis, an 
 impress peculiarly its own. The Egyptian is Semitic too, but 
 it differs from the original family even more than the Ethiopic 
 does. 
 
 896. The Hebrew is without doubt the oldest of the family ; 
 certainly, at least the oldest written monuments are found here. 
 Like its near relative, the Syriac, it is now, and long since has 
 been, for all practical purposes, an extinct idiom. Hebrew as 
 well as Syriac, is still spoken in some form or other by the 
 scattered remnants of the old Hebrew family ; but it is rather, 
 like Latin, when spoken in its purity by the students of Europe, 
 as a language that once was, but now is not. It is a language' 
 only of literature ; it is, and in so far like the Sanscrit, a sacred 
 language, one appropriated to the church. The Hebrews no 
 more exist as an organized race, or people; they were first swept 
 down by the Syrians, and they in their turn were vanquished 
 by the Arabs, a people that have long since absorbed all that 
 was either Hebrew or Syriac in Asia. Scattered as the Hebrews 
 now are over the broad face of -the earth, they readily yield to 
 the influences of the people that adopt them. 
 
 897. Among the dialects or forms of the Hebrew, we may 
 name the Rabbinic, which is Hebrew and Chald. in its features, 
 and the Samaritan. The latter may indeed be called a dialect, 
 but nevertheless it has several leading characteristics of its own. 
 The Rabbinic alphabet is Hebrew slightly varied. The Samar- 
 itan alphabet is Hebrew very much changed — it is old Hebrew 
 (it has no vowel points). The number of Samaritans still living 
 is very small : their language ceased to be a living one several 
 41 
 
322 PHKASIS. 
 
 centuries ago, but it is still written and read, like the Hebrew, 
 as a church language. It is now replaced, as a vulgar tongue, 
 ,by the Arabic. 
 
 898. The Phoenician runs closely parallel with the Hebrew, 
 with several distinctive features-however. It yielded much to 
 Greek influences. Very little in the Way of specimens of the 
 language, and those inscriptions only, have come down to us, 
 and hence our knowledge of it is very imperfect. The Phoeni- 
 cian has an alphabet — it is old Greek also. 
 
 899. The Chaldaio with the Syriac constitute a branch of 
 Semitic called Aramaean. The former is mostly Syriac in its 
 features — but it has some, too, which are not Syriac, but He- 
 brew. It is written in the Hebrew alphabet. 
 
 900. The Sabien is an obscure form of Semitic, noticeable 
 for its peculiar kind of alphabet. We might name also the 
 Assyrian. But little is known of it ; it is, however, attracting 
 some attention. It is known to be essentially Semitic. 
 
 901. If the extent of territory which it covers, if the number 
 of people by whom it is spoken, and the extent of its family 
 connections, render a language worthy of study and attention, 
 then, certainly, Arabic ranks among the very first in is claims 
 upon us. Of ancient Arabic we have little that remains to us, 
 and little that can be said of it. One of the forms of Old Arabic, 
 Southern Arabic, is the Himyaritic, of Yemen. It differs very 
 materially, however, in a, dialectic way, from the Arabic now 
 known to us. It is known by inscriptions, and much is yet to 
 be learned of it. It was spoken in Yemen as late as the fif- 
 teenth century. Another form of old Arabic is known as the 
 Koreish. 
 
 902. Unlike the Semitic idioms already spoken of, the Arabic 
 is a living, progressive language. The Arabs as known to us 
 are by no means an ancient people ; they do not seem to have 
 begun to have an individualized existence until some centuries 
 after Christ. 
 
 903. There is a difierence between the literal Arabic and the 
 vulgar or spoken language ; and the spoken language has difier- 
 ences also, according to the region where it is spoken. 
 
 904. The Ethiopic, as we find it, is supposed to have had its 
 origin in an Arabic colony. Amharic may be called a modern 
 form of Ethiopic, one modified by African influences. The lat- 
 ter is now become practically a sacred language ; in its true 
 form, it is no longer spoken. 
 
 905. Ethiopic literature embraces about two hundred works, 
 mostly translations from Greek and Arabic — the oldest repos- 
 itory of Ethiopic is a copy of the Bible. About the fourteenth 
 century, it began to cease to be spoken. The Tiyre is a language 
 
SEMITIC X/ANGUAGBS. 323 
 
 similar to Amharic, and holding about the same relation to 
 rithiopic. , 
 
 906. The Egyptian we notice next;- the connection between 
 this and Semitic is undoubted. But it has a peculiar form 
 nevertheless, which we shall see when we come to treat briefly 
 of its character. The Coptic is properly modern Egyptian — it 
 is the language spoken by the Christian portion of Egypt. The 
 Coptic alphabet, in form, is a modification of the Greek letters. 
 The Coptic has three dialectic forms, differing from each other 
 but slightly, and called, respectively, the Theban, Memphitic, 
 and Basmurian. 
 
 907. The Maltese is a Semitic (Arabic) language, greatly 
 modified by European touches, or, if you prefer, by European 
 admixtures. The Berber is the last of the class which we shall 
 name. 
 
 908. Semitic Languages. — The peculiarities that charac- 
 terisse 'the style of any one of the Semitic idioms (Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopio), speaking generally, characterize 
 the others also. So, we will dwell at length upon the idiom 
 of the Hebrew ; and we shall after that have little that need be 
 said on any feature belonging exclusively to any one of the 
 remaining tongues. 
 
 909. , The difficulties in acquiring the Hebrew, or any of the 
 class,' do not arise from the unusual position and strange com- 
 bination or order of the words ; for there is in all this, making 
 due allowance for the simplicity of the language and its ex- 
 pression, much that is quite natural to us. There is, however, 
 a great uncertainty, often, arising from the absence, to a great 
 extent, of inflexion, or variation of the forms of words, to indi- 
 cate that one word belongs with another, and from the absence, 
 . too, of those marks or auxiliaries which point out to a nicety the 
 different shades of mood and tense. We have to depend much 
 upon position, and more upon the context ; there is much of 
 latent or unindicated meaning in Semitic terms. But to the 
 uninitiated learner, there is yet a greater and more embarrassing 
 difficulty -T- that of flnding in the lexicon the words which shall 
 denote the meaning of the word which he finds in the text ; for 
 he finds one form of word, a sort of root, in the lexicon, and a 
 very different, more intricate, form in his reading. His gram- 
 mar informs him that some parts of the word which his text 
 offers are ending or prefix, to denote the pronoun, subject or 
 object, the gender, and to some extent, the case; that each verb 
 has its derived forms or conjugations, which have developed 
 new letters, either prefixed or infixed ; that there is a large 
 number of prepositions and adverbs, or conjunctions, welded to 
 
324 PHRASIS. 
 
 the word at the beginning, or incorporated with it, in a manner 
 that is quite fpreign to most of the European languages. 
 
 910. It takes time, considerable time, before we can at a 
 glande, as if by intuition, separate the formative letters (the pre- 
 fixes, suffixes, and infixes) from the body of the word, and turn 
 without hesitation to the very root or base-form which we should 
 look for in the lexicon. The student of Greek can well under- 
 stand these difficulties, but he must mark this difference : in 
 Grreek, it is the irregularity of a few words, while in Semitic it 
 is the irregularity of the whole system. It is with great effort, 
 too, that we become familiar with the Semitic alphabets, and 
 with the oddity of reading the words (save the Bthiopic) from 
 right to left. 
 
 911. Nearly all the characteristics of these languages Mfhich 
 seem so strange to us, are those which are more or less common 
 in all the languages of Asia ; for instance, the union of particles 
 and pronouns with the main word. So we see, that in Semitic, 
 also, words are not individualized to the extent that they are 
 with us. We offer -now selections from Hebrew composition, 
 as the best method of pointing out the peculiarities of the 
 language : 
 
 912. U-legach-tiy-cha — and-I-have-takeutthee (M = and, tiy 
 = I, cha = thee, and legach is the root or base-form of the verb, 
 found isolated in the third person present); legache-ta-nu — 
 (hast) taken-thou-us (thou has ttaken us) (nu— us) ; be-modech-o 
 — in-reigning-his (malech is the infin. or verbal noun, he = in, 
 pref. prep., and o, or m =his, meaning when or while he reigned, 
 or he reigning ; this he is, without doubt, only a modification 
 of the participle prefix m, as well as of the hi of Persian verbs) ; 
 achat — he-ate j he-achele-nu — in-eating-our, i. e., when we eat 
 or ate (inf. is achol); so, we find and-in-speaking-my , i. e., in 
 my speaking; le-shachen-iy — for-dwell-my, i. e., for me-to dwell, 
 that I may dwell; u-he-yade-cha — and-in-hand-thine, i. e. in 
 thy hand (j/ad = hand). 
 
 ■The-voice-thine-heard-I-in-garden (thy voice I have heard) • 
 given-I (I have given) to-thee the-all (given thee the whole) ; 
 all-these (were) drawers (of) sword. The verb he in all its forms 
 is very generally omitted, i. e., the nouns and adjectives are 
 real verbs here ; in the last example, sholephey is a participle = 
 the drawing (ones), the drawers — the word for sword, charehh, 
 is really a part of the participle, though separate from it i. e! 
 they (were) sword-drawers. ' ' 
 
 And-not shall-he-they {yo-hey-u) to-thee, i. e., there shall not 
 be to thee, you shall not have; give-to-us water and-shall-drink- 
 we (that we may dnnk) ; fruit-of greatness-of heart (i. e. boasts 
 ing) (the mark of the genitive being, in Hebrew, put on the 
 
SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 325 
 
 word governing it, when two nouns thus unite) ; (it was) heavy 
 verb^ *"^ *" ""'^' *'■ ^■' ^^^''^ ^^^ ^ heavy famine (heavy =\ 
 
 913. The infinitive form, as that of to-hnow, equals a noun, 
 Acknowledge; many participles and verbal forms are used, with- 
 out any change, as real nouns. We find, comparatively, but 
 few adjectives but rather nouns and verbals with preposition 
 used instead of them ; thus, we find ark of wood, for wooden 
 ark ; with-power, for powerful. 
 
 914. As we find the pr^ositions, or case fixes, placed at the 
 beginning of the word, so we find also the article ; as, ha^om 
 — this-day, the day; ha-aaretz, the-earth. In the use of the 
 articles, we find such instances as men the-war, i. e., the war men 
 those-of-war ; tjie-city the-great (one); the-place the-that, that 
 place ; honest (are) we; thou he king mine, i. e., thou art my 
 king {he taking the place of he). The possessive suffixes are 
 used to denote objectives also ; as, wrong mine, i. e., my wrong, 
 wrong to me ; so, fear his, i. e., his fear, the fear for him; daughter 
 (of) who,i. e., whose daughter; which fo-him, i. e., to whom; 
 which in-it (in-there), i. e., wherein. 
 
 9J.5. We find verbs repeated, one of them being infin., and 
 the other acting as adverb with it ; thus, ask he-asked, i. e., he 
 asked much, or urgently; so, he went going, i. e., he continued 
 to go (like L. contendit ire = goes to-go, starts to-go — so, in Ger. 
 come-going, come-walking, our came-running ; hence, we see how 
 one of them becomes an auxiliary, which gradually changes its 
 form and meaning, and in the end the repetition which really 
 exists becomes obscured). The infinitive is used, too, in the 
 place of a full verb, as, we-have-rehelled and turned, instead of 
 we have turned (really, we do the same when we say we will go 
 and see, where see is only an infinitive) ; water for the people to 
 drink, in Hebrew is water for-the-drinking of-the-people. 
 
 916. In general, we may say that the infinite is used in most 
 cases as a finite verb. The participle does not distinguish time, 
 and may be used, according to context, for any tense; so, no- 
 phel is used to denote one jailing, or having fallen, or who will 
 fall. 
 
 917. God perfect (is) way-his (his way is perfect); ihe-people 
 removed he them (it); (a) light (a) great (one), i. e., a great 
 light — the adjective follows the noun; sin (is) hitter very (very 
 bitter); (the) spirit and-soul (are) of-God (pref prep.); often 
 year was-he (ten years old was he) ; (a) woman (being) good 
 loves-sJie the-Jehovah (she loves God) ; placed-he, Jehovah (did), 
 to-Cain (pref prep.) (a) sign (G-od placed a sign). 
 
 They-caused'to-err the-people-mine hy-hoasting (caused them to 
 err ; here is used simply the causative of the verb err, ta-gah, 
 
326 PHRASIS. 
 
 just as qatal, to kill, hi-qetiyl, cause-to-kill — which form, again, 
 has its persons, like the original qatal ; we can see by this how 
 such verbs as cause, make, do, etc., grow out of other verbs; he- 
 made, God (did), the-iwo (of) the-lights, ihe-great (ones), i. c, 
 God made the two great lights. 
 
 918. If Hebrew, and the rest, prove anything conclusively, 
 it is the independence of the nominative from the verb to which 
 it is supposed to be joined, and the independence, also, of the 
 adjective from the noun to which it is supposed to belong. 
 
 Behold we (are) binding sheaves (part. == verb) ; carrying, 
 masc. form, == he (is) carrying, he carries; two (and) ten (of) 
 lion (are) standing-they there, i. e., twelve lions are standing 
 there. This participle is used precisely as if L. amantes (they- 
 loving) be taken for amant (they love) — showing very clearly 
 that the verb is a participle, and vice versa. 
 
 919. The potential may say, can say, etc., is expressed by the 
 future, will say ; go/or-meet Moses (to meet) ; this (is) the-man 
 who fears the-Jehovah ; for not has-obeyed-she (she has not); 
 wonders (are) thy testimony (wonderful) ; and-have-said-we, for 
 we will say ; go (going) hast-gone-thou from-with-me {go-gone 
 = hast gone); (the) cZoors (of ) Srass i-M>i'W-6reaA (them) ; the 
 pride (of the) man it-shall-humble-him ; with-the- God walked he, 
 Noah (did) ; saddled-they-him (for him) the-ass, (and) rode-he 
 (he rode) upon-it ; I I-will-comfort-you. 
 
 920. Short and disconnected sentences, we observe, prevail. 
 One example more, illustrating repeated words, will close the 
 Hebrew : dachoh de-chiy-ta-niy li-nephol — to-thrust hast-thrust- 
 thou-me for-to-fall, i. e., thrust at me that I might fall (to=thou, 
 niy = me, Zi = foe, to, like our sign of infin. — we have here the 
 double verb thrusting he-thrust, simply he thrust) . 
 
 921. The Syriac we find, in character, but little difierent. 
 The following are selections, translations : came-he set-he against 
 Acco, i. e., he came to besiege Acco (he-set, used for to-set — so, 
 he began he opened, for he began to open) ; arose-they went-they 
 — they arose to go, i. e., thtey went ; all (every one) who shaM- 
 drink from this water again he-shall-thirst ; he-shall-come to-me 
 and-he-shaOrdrink, i. e., let him come to me and drink; that-he- 
 shall-go and-shall-see, i. e., he might go and see (future = sub. 
 and potential); entreatrthey with-him that-he-shall-be (shall re- 
 main) with-them, i. e., they entreat his remaining (this future 
 shall-be has the Syriac prefix d, a true augment, with the force 
 of that, the; we find this d frequently with the infin. and part., 
 and it is evidently a variation of the Hebrew and Arab I, and 
 the m of verbals); who shall-say, i. e., can say; not shallfear, 
 i. e., fear not (future for impera.) ; sought-he that-he-shaU-hill, 
 
SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 327 
 
 L''',^/°"l'** *?■ ^'" ('^tx'ing prefix to the future, equal to 
 me, that, and indicating the true gerund 
 
 Messing Mble,s i. e., I will greatly bless ; going not weni. 
 
 ollJi:- K^ 1.?* ^° ';*^"' ^ought.hefor.catch,i. e., (for- 
 
 catchmg) he sought to catch; <Ae-A«o«,% (ones) roftheikJ 
 
 £T,3 fr '""?^ (:the.comi„g (one), who came) f«.L4%e 
 SwJ^ .'^ 'T*n^^ T ''''.'^'' 'l'^«»°ted by the prefix c^, already 
 noticed); (he-shall be) rising brother-thine, i e., thy brother 
 sha 1 rise (part, for future). Speaking generally, it may be said 
 that the participle- and infinitive may be used for the difi'erent 
 moods and tenses. 
 
 _ Thou but (but thou) what (why) judge thou brother-thine fwhY 
 judgest thou thy brother) ; 1 1, i. e., I am (pron. = be) ; ve in- 
 me ye (are), ^. e., ye are in me ; wgainst-him (the) tyrant; I he 
 (&m) Jesus; %n-it in^field (in the field) ; to4t to-law (to the law.) 
 (this extra pronoun is common). 
 
 i / (I am) Joseph that-sold-ye-me (i. e., whom ye sold ■ for 
 that, whorn, we find, again,that prefix d) ; but that-of-he (his) 
 that-sent-he-me (his who sent me— both thats are represented by 
 prefix d) ; which-created God (did) in-the-making (it) (which is 
 represented by prefix d, in by I, prep., and the by m verbal pref.) • 
 queen^ that-of-south (queen of the south, d = that here is sign of 
 genitive); sorrow-thy and-conception-thy, i. e., sorrow of thy 
 conception, and (u) having place of of; da-bnay-nosho — of- 
 sons-men (of sons of men — that da, the d above, has the force 
 of a preposition). 
 
 922. Prepositions are jjot prefixes to verbs in Semitic, but, in 
 Syriac particularly, we find them as sufiixes to the verb, though 
 separate; as we say speak-of, wonder-at, drink-from. The tend- 
 ency in all Semitic is to bring the verbs first, and adjectives and 
 participles after the noun. Comparisons are made thus, dear 
 before (the) queen, i. e., dearer than. 
 
 923. In Arabic there is very little that is not Syriac first, 
 and Hebrew afterwards. We will notice only the following 
 features : 
 
 Proposed-he to-them what commanded-he-the-Mamun, i, e., 
 showed them what. Mamun had commanded; (it') was weni-he, 
 i. e., he had gone ; was-henot doing, i. e., he did not. In Arabic, 
 Ms a common prefix,' identical with our that, to, the, and the 
 Syriac d ; it may be termed the article of the verb, and it js 
 often a mere unmeaning augment ; /, u, is used as a prefix, in 
 the same manner — it is not different from the Semitic prefix u 
 = and ; that-go- 1 ^thaX I may go [that is prefix). 
 
 924. Those double verbs, one being participle or infinitive, 
 which we noticed in Syriac and Hebrew, are also common here. 
 
328 PHRASIS. 
 
 From the verb give-yovr-it, having suffix pronouns, we get the 
 participle, (the one) giving-you-it, i. e., the giver-to-you-of-it. 
 We find and =Mith.; thns, what (is) to-you and-Zeid (with- 
 Zeid) ; not to-me (there is) father and not-mother (I have not, 
 etc.) ; (there is) dead to-me (a) brother, i. e., my brother is dead; 
 the-creating-thee, the one creating (he who creates thee) ; that- 
 aid-I= that I may aid ; I (am) going = I go ; we (are) going 
 ^ we go ; to-us (it is) long time not (have) heenrwe-you (it is long 
 since we have seen you). 
 
 Business-thy what (it is) thing now ? i. e., what is thy busi- 
 ness? one from, the-anim,als, i. e., some animal, an animal; time- 
 time = from time to time. The genitive scarcely differs from 
 the nominative; T-aTmir-u-kum — shall-command-he-you, i. e., 
 shall command you (j/ is sign of future, kum is suffix pron. you, 
 and u may be taken as equal to he, or as part of the root) ; 
 fa-mala-u-hunna — and-fillcd-they-them (they filled them),ya 
 = and, u = they, and hunna (fem.) = them., , 
 
 El-ma = the water [el, 'I is the prefix article) ; elrm-asiru = 
 the-returning (el is article, m or ma is the augment of participles 
 or verbals, common in Semitic). 
 
 925. Semitic Eelations. — It is very generally claimed, 
 even to-day, that the Semitic is an anomalous and distinct class. 
 We will, however, examine briefly some of the leading features 
 of the class, with a view to show that they are .not so extra- 
 ordinary as they have been considered, and that we may find 
 clear parallels to them in the European and related languages. 
 
 926. That the pronouns, particles, and numerals can be iden- 
 tified with those with which we are familiar, is a truth which 
 no one will dispute who understands the forms that are found 
 in Semitic — we will at least pass them by without any special 
 consideration. 
 
 927. One of the most striking points of resemblance between 
 Semitic and European, is the strongly developed prefix article. 
 It is true that in Semitic it is associated with the noun, or united 
 to it; but we must remember that in European, also, though 
 printed apart from the noun, it is in conversation treated as an 
 inseparable part of it. The Arajjic article el, il, reminds us of 
 the Latin ille, Fr. le ; a and ha of Heb. points to Lat. hi, hoe, 
 Cr'k i, — and the Syriae prefix d, used in so many different 
 cjipacities, is a clear representative of Ger. die, der, Semitic ze. 
 in Egyptian and Coptic, we find the articles pe, te (the), ne. 
 In Ethiopic, the prefix ma is a demonstrative akin to the articles 
 of the other Semitic tongues, though used in them more as a 
 relative. 
 
 928. We may call attention to the fact, also, that the noun 
 
SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 329 
 
 endings n and t, so well developed in the formation of Syriac 
 nouns, a so the i ai, et, of Ethiopic, are evidently related to the 
 sumx article of the Scandinavian class, and to that of the Alba- 
 "'o'lrM T T *n° *^^ sender endings of Greek and Latin. 
 T7n l->, °^ ?T.^i° ^"^ ^""^ *^^ prefix article, but .also, as in 
 -b^nglish and other European tongues, we find prefix prepositions 
 (not separate, as with us, but united with the noun or pronoun). 
 iiut It IS a very common thing in Europe to find the preposition 
 unite with the article or pronoun, as in Ger. helm, for hei dem 
 and our own to-em, for to them; in Celtic, it will be remembered 
 the union of preposition with pronoun is a very prominent fea- 
 ture, as in Irish a^am = with me (a^ = with). 
 
 930. All these Semitic prepositions are, without doubt, only 
 a variation of the article el, il, I — indeed, one of the most com. 
 mon Semitic prefixes is I, and another is ch or k (clearly point- 
 ing to the ch, k, q, which we find everywhere marking either 
 the relative or demonstrative). Another is m (also demonstra- 
 tive) ; a fourth is 6. This b is identical with m, as well as with 
 the Syriac d, used as article, relative, conjunction, and preposi. 
 tion. -We might add to these eth, th, t, our to and the. The 
 very common prefix u, though a conjunction equal to and, is to 
 be classed with these, and is evidently identical with the prefix 
 6; the prefix /= and, in Arabic, is another form of the u, v. 
 
 931. But by far the most common of all the prefix letters of 
 the Semitic languages, is m. It compares almost perfectly with 
 the German g and ge ; it is used not only as the prevailing mark 
 of the participles and the infinitives, but it is, like the Ger. ge, g, 
 also a common mark of nouns and adjectives — just as we find 
 ge-sicht, sight, face, from sehen, to see, and g-lUck = luck, g-leich 
 = like, a-likc, Fr. e-gal, equal. As there is no doubt that the 
 Ger. ge is closely allied to the various prefixes and inseparable 
 prepositions of the language, so, too, there is quite as little doubt 
 that the Semitic m is closely allied to all the prefixes and articles 
 
 "of that class of languages. It may be even convenient to con- 
 sider this verbal prefix m as identical with the article I, and the 
 two as the bases of all the other prefixes in the class. We find 
 this I not only used as a prefix preposition, but it is also, like 
 this m, used as a prefix to verbs, a mere augment, particularly in 
 Arabic. 
 
 932. The identity of the prefix prep, h with the m is shown, 
 among many other ways, by h, as well as m, being used in Per- 
 sian as an augment before the verb, and at the same time as pre- 
 fix preposition. Even m itself is used somewhat with the force 
 of a preposition in those abstract or verbal nouns, with prefix 
 m, denoting place where (and equal to in), and the instrument 
 42 
 
330 PHKASIS. 
 
 (equal to hy) ; as, in Arabic, katdb, write, and ma-htab, (a place) 
 for-writing. 
 
 933. We must not forget that the Syriac prefix d, in its dou- 
 ble force of relative, or article, and preposition, is also a good 
 representative of this m. The Egyptian participle prefix nt, t, 
 = who, which, also represents Semitic m. In Ethiopic, the par- 
 ticiple prefix m, ma, has the force of the, as ma-ammes = the- 
 wrongdoer. 
 
 934. To understand the nature of this m, we must bear in 
 mind that one of the most common pref. preps, is »i, and that 
 »i is a prominent relative or demonstrative letter (and Coptic 
 n^m is, one of the articles). 
 
 935. But m has still other very important representatives or 
 connections in Semitic. We find it, varying its form and taking 
 that of some related letter, used as the mark of certain forms of 
 the verb. In the form of n (known to be equal to m the world 
 over) it marks in Hebrew the reflexive ; as, qatal, kill; ni-qetal, 
 kill self (and in some Hebrew verbs, it marks the passive ; in 
 others it is a simple active). Welsh has the same prefix for the 
 same purpose ; as, plygu, bend, ym-hlygu, bend self; in Cornish, 
 it is em ) in Armoric, it is double, en-em,, thus, en-emr-wiska, to 
 dress self (wiska, to dress), en-em-wiskomp, (we) dress selves. 
 
 936. Among other proof's of the identity of this n with the m 
 treated of, we notice that while the participles of other forms of 
 the verb are marked by m, the participles of this reflexive-pass, 
 form is marked only by this.ii, i. e., the participle form practically 
 identifies with the tense form, niqetal, above. 
 
 937. In Arabic, this n, ni, has the form an; in Syriac, eth 
 takes the place of an, n, ni; the Ethiopic as (as well as an), 
 the Arabic, Amharic, and Ethiopic ast, are other forms of eth 
 = en. In Amh. and Eth., as=ast is chiefly a causative mark 
 — in Arabic, it indicates a wish ; as, ilm, know ; ast-ilm, or 
 ast-alam, desire-to-know. 
 
 938. But n is by no means peculiar to such forms of the verb ; 
 it is often used, like other augment letters, to begin verbs (and 
 other words) with, and then it seems to have no special ofiice ; 
 thus, we have na-tal, to raise (G'k tlao, L. tollo), in Heb., and 
 the form Lalal besides ; so, na-shal, slip, fall (s =/), also na-than, 
 na-tan, give, L. dono (t^d). It is a prefix letter also in Per., 
 as m-shan = sign, ne-zr, see, peer. It is used, too, as a mark of 
 persons in the future tense. Again, it is not only the mark of 
 many other things besides passives and reflexives, but, on the 
 other hand, many of these are made by using other marks, and 
 others again are found without any prefix letters at all ; thus, in 
 Heb., qittel, kill, massacre; quttal, be killed, massacred. 
 
 939. In concluding upon this letter, we may notice that the 
 
SEMITIC LANG-UAQES. 331 
 
 prefix eth, est, is so strongly developed as to well represent is, 
 he. Is there any doubt that these passive forms, thus marked 
 with prefixes, are anything more than participles with the prefix 
 m developed ? 
 
 940. We find, in Heb., the prefix Ai%=Syriac eih, another 
 prefix to indicate the reflexive, and hath or hoth to indicate the 
 passive. This hith, ith, equals is and the. This same hith, 
 reduced to hi, becomes a causative mark ; as, hyqetiyl, oause-to- 
 kill ; it is identical with Syr. and Ar. a, Syr. sh, and Ar. t, an. 
 We must notice that these forms, commencing with hi, as well 
 as those with ni, do not take an additional m in the participle, 
 but change the hi to m, showing that A.i = m (but forms with 
 hith have mith in the participle). 
 
 941. In Arabic, < is a very common prefix to verbs. It is 
 used to mark the passive and reflexive, and is plainly identical 
 with a, an, ast, as well as Heb. hith, Syr. eth. In Amhar. and 
 Eth., we flnd the prefixes nt, ant, showing that n, being asso- 
 ciated with t, is equal to it; and hence t = n = m. This t is 
 found in many other places besides passives and reflexives ; 
 among others, in the form of th, it marks person forms, as a 
 prefix, in the future, 
 
 942. We miist add to this, that we find in Persian this same 
 m, a, an, ast, t (among others) as prefix to verbs, nouns, and 
 adjectives, and having precisely the same office as our prefixes 
 or augments he in he-wail, per in per-form, re in re-cess, Ger. ge 
 in ge-sicht, our a in a-live. 
 
 943. So, we easily come to this conclusion about the verb- 
 forms in. Semitic : that those prefixes are developments of m, 
 being all identical with each other ; that while they do appear 
 in these verb forms, they are by no means peculiar to them, 
 being found not only in the original form of the verb, but also 
 as initial letters of parts of speech which are not verbs ; and we 
 conclude, finally, that these prefixes, as well as others, are iden- 
 tical with the inseparable prefixes and augments of our own and 
 other languages. • 
 
 944. And we must remark, also, by the way, that no class of 
 languages is so valuable as the Semitic to point, out the history 
 and" character of prefix letters, to show that they have all one 
 common origin, and that they all diverge from one and the san^e 
 point; and again that there is no class of languages so valuable 
 to prove that all particles, pronouns, and auxiliaries, are devel- 
 opments of initial (or final) letters, which in the end separate 
 from the stem and become individualized. _ ,i 
 
 945. We now perceive that, contrary to the general opinion, 
 the Semitic languages have inseparable prepositions before verbs. 
 They are not used to the same extent, and not always in the 
 
332 PHBASIS. 
 
 same manner, that they are in all European languages ; but we 
 can find parallels for them, in Europe, for every office which we 
 find them performing in Semitic. Not alone in Celtic do we 
 find prefixes used to play such parts, but even in our own we 
 find them; thus, in en-large, make-large ; en-trap, taki: in a trap ; 
 Ger. ein-kleiden, en-clothe, to dress; er-lauben, give-leave — we 
 find en, ein, er, used precisely as the Semitic causative a. (And, 
 if we mistake not, the form is-gone, is-le/t, is-tahen, is a fair 
 representative of the Semitic passive form). We might refer 
 also to «-%== cause to lay, G'k si!e-Z/o= cause to go (from elo); 
 Ger. sch-icken = cause to go (from gehen, ging, gicK). 
 
 946. So the Greek reduplicated forms, as pi-^«sA;o= cause to. 
 drink, may be taken as forms similar to the Semitic. And 
 the Slavic languages use their prefixes of verbs in a manner, if 
 not identical with, very similar to, that of Semitic. They are 
 there used as signs of tenses (particularly future) ; also to denote 
 completed action. And the prefix m we know has its repre- 
 sentative, as a mark of infinitive and participle, in more than 
 one of the languages of Europe. 
 
 947. There is no single instance of importance where we shall 
 find the Semitic verb system diifering from that of Europe. We 
 have thus far seen prefixes play an important part in the making 
 of new forms, but it is far more common to find new forms arising 
 not by assuming these augments, but by changes in the body of 
 the word — just as we get ^wng and iong from sing, rose from 
 rise, written from write, men from man. 
 
 948. A very prominent way of deriving new forms of verbs, 
 is by doubling some of its consonants, as we have/a< and fatten, 
 gleam and glimmer, heat and battle, Ger. leiden, past litt, part. 
 ge-litten (suffer), mix and mingle, ng^gg, wag and wiggle. 
 
 Many new forms are made, again, by inserting letters (as 
 it is said), just as we have L. dicto from dico, fundo from, fudo, 
 G'k twpto and tupo, esthlos and ethlos, thapso and thapo. 
 
 949. There are but two simple tenses in Semitic, and there 
 are no more in any language. These two are made to supply 
 the places of our usual compound tenses, just as we use the 
 present sometimes for the future, and the past for the perfect 
 and pluperfect. The past tense of Semitic has developed end- 
 ings in full, as they are in Latin and othets, to denote the per- 
 sons. But -the tense called future has the apparent peculiarity 
 of developing the initial letters to indicate the pronouns, instead 
 of the final letters as usual. We consider this subject one cf 
 sufficient importance to entitle it to special notice here. 
 
 950. We remark, first, that so far from being peculiar, it is 
 precisely as we form all our tenses ; thus, he-says, we-say, thou- 
 sayest — with this difference only, and that not real, that with 
 
SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 333 
 
 US the pronoun is printed apart from the verb, though in con- 
 versation it is closely united to it. 
 
 951. To enable us to understand what these initial letters in 
 Semitic are, we give them as follows : 
 
 1st sing., a for Heb., Syr., Ar. 1st plu. n for Heb., Ar., Syr. 
 2d " th " " " " 2d " th" " " '' 
 
 3d " y " " Ar., Syr. ra 3d " y " " " Syr. n. 
 
 952. In Coptic, we see what the initial letters are by noticing 
 the persons of mer, fill; thus, sing., tmer, k-mer, fmer ; plur., 
 tn-mer, tetn-mer, se-mer. The 2d singular, k-mer, is masculine ; 
 te-mer is feminine. The Amharic and Ethiopic present nothing 
 peculiar compared with Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac. 
 
 953. There are several facts which we must now notice. All 
 except 1/ are letters which we have already seen to be verbal 
 prefixes or augments. But this i/ or i is also a very common 
 prefix. That it is identical with the others, as they are identical 
 with each other, is a fact not to be doubted. That it is equal to 
 n, is seen by n replacing it in Syriac ; that it is equal to f and s, 
 is shown also in Coptic; that a=^t, we see by t, ti, of Coptic 
 1st singular. 
 
 954. It is not in the least to be doubted that these future 
 initials are the ordinary prefixes of the verbs, and that they may 
 be considered as a variation of the prefix m. The basis of the 
 future is the infinitive, in other languages; and, in the Semitic 
 class, it is known also that the infinitive is the basis of the 
 future ; but the infinitive we know also has the prefix m. It is 
 one of the plainest laws in natural history, that tlie same member 
 in different animals may he developed in a very different man- 
 ner and put to very different uses; thus, the fore feet of quadru- 
 peds, the wings of birds, and the fins of fish, are known to be 
 homologous. In the Latin, for example, it is the ordinary end- 
 ings of participles that we find representing the persons. And, 
 if we notice the Semitic future final letters, we shall observe 
 that the future has the same person element as the past tense, 
 though not so fully developed as in the past. 
 
 955. We may with equal propriety consider the future as a 
 participle having the article prefixed, as we find it in Arabic ; 
 thus, the knowing (ones), the knowers, for those who-know shall 
 know. This transformation of participle with prefi^x article into 
 a verb with pronoun nominative, is most clear in Coptic. 
 
 956 It is important in this connection to notice that in one 
 of the forms of Arabic, that spoken in modern Syria and Egypt 
 an m is prefixed before the first person plur. future, and a 6 
 before all the other persons — showing that such prefixes do 
 change for the persons. This 6 and m is in place of the I which 
 
334 MEASls. 
 
 we find so constantly, in ordinary Arabic, united to the future 
 in some of its applications (that h and m is prefixed in addition 
 to the usual person letters, as well as the Arabic V). 
 
 957. The whole history of the Semitic future shows that it is 
 really a dependent form ; it is the exact counterpart of the Lat. 
 subjunctive, in application as well as in origin. Both are alike 
 identical with the infinitive, and both from mere usage are trans- 
 formed sometimes from a dependent, objective expression,^ to 
 one which is independent, indicative, as oppteed to subjunctive. 
 Dependent, or objective, as we know the Latin infinitive to be, 
 it is still often used as aq indicative. 
 
 958. It is over and over again, particularly in Arabic and 
 Syriac, that we might replace their future by a participle or an 
 infinitive' — and the Syriao uses the gerund or participle, with 
 the prefix ?, where the Arabic uses a future. Where we say, he 
 went to sow, the Arabic has it went that-he-shall-sow (future) ; 
 instead of saying he desires to aid, it is, in Ar., desires that he 
 shall aid. The imperative, with its prefixes a and I, is one of 
 the forms of the future. 
 
 959. To all this we may add, that, in all instances where 
 relatives occur as subjects of the verb, we have a parallel to 
 this Semitic future ; as, I speak of him who-does it, i. e., the- 
 doer of it, the one-doing it ; the word which-was-spoken, i. e., the 
 word the-spoken (one) "— the relatives being developments of 
 prefix articles, as we may assume. 
 
 960. To continue the parallel of the Semitic and the European 
 languages, we must remind the reader of an auxiliary which, in 
 Semitic, has the office of our be, and which is clearly identical 
 with it. In Arabic particularly, we find this auxiliary be used to 
 form compound tenses as in Europe: We learn, too, in Semitic, 
 that this be is only a variation of he, she, it - — they being often 
 used for he. 
 
 961. And Coptic teaches us that this be is, in Semitic at least, 
 a development of the ordinary prefix letters. Thus, we find ai, 
 1 was, or have been, and ai-me, I have loved (me, love) ; and 
 nei, I was, nei-hmoos, 1 sat (Jimoos, sit) ; eie, I shall be, eie- 
 mou, I shall die (mou, die). Other forms of be are prefixed to 
 denote may, might, would. The infinitive has the prefix e, n, m, 
 and participles the prefix e, et, and we may with propriety con- 
 sider the auxiliaries above as developments of these prefixes. 
 
 962. Having thus disposed of the apparent anomaly of the 
 tenses, we may add, further, that as far as regards the assumed 
 peculiarity that Semitic roots are composed of three letters, we 
 have only to remark that, by a proper method of reduction, we 
 can bring the number down to two, or even one, and, on the 
 other hand, if we insert the vowels, the h of aspirates, and dou- 
 
SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 335 
 
 ble letters, we shall increase the number considerably beyond 
 three. 
 
 9Q3. There is an almost entire absence of such compounds as 
 we find in the nearly related Persian — yet we must consider, at 
 least, that every case where two nouns are united, one of which 
 is genitive, is a true compound. 
 
 964. Endings such as the tas, ia, nm, of Latin, are not very 
 prominent in Semitic ; still we begin to find them pretty gen- 
 erally and clearly in Syriac and Ethiopio, as well as in Arabic ; 
 thus, we find such verbal endings as o, ot, an, ta, na, av, avi. 
 
 965. Egyptian.— The Coptic, and Egyptian, while it is em- 
 phatically a Semitic language, as said before, still has developed 
 some Semitic features in a peculiar manner. So far as stage of 
 life is concerned, it is considerably in advance of the common 
 Semitic, with a strong hold, nevertheless, upon its embryonic 
 structure. Not only the alphabet is not Semitic, but rather 
 G-reek, but the orthography too, as we might infer, is not Sem- 
 itic. There is the same system of prefixes that so strongly char- 
 acterize the others of the class, but they are strongly developed, 
 and are often strangely applied, while the old uses, such as that 
 of prefixes for verbs, are often nearly or quite lost sight of. 
 
 966. There is here the Semitic pref. article, but it is no longer 
 al and ha, as there, but pe, te, approaching nearer to our own ; 
 it is ne in the plural, like the Persian an ; thus, the vowel being 
 eclipsed, p-noute, the-God, n-rome, the-men. We find also the 
 double na-p = the-the = that-the, that-of. We find here deriv- 
 atives formed by change in the word, as opposed to fixes so pre- 
 valent in the other Semitics. Compound terms, which are rudi- 
 mentary in the rest, are here more common. 
 
 967. And, after the pure Semitic style, we find derivatives 
 thus, mat, to-love, met-mai, the-love, or loving (met is the Sem. 
 pref. m). We find, as we have seen elsewhere, the pref ma to 
 denote the place where. As in the rest, cases are denoted by 
 prefixes and prepositions ; nte marks the genitive case, ha the 
 dative, e the ace; 715-1= the, is the sign of nom. Derivative 
 adjectives are formed by prefixes, that same part, prefix modi- 
 fied. We find compound adjectives as in Persian. 
 
 968. The pronouns are strictly Semitic, and they readily be- 
 come suffix with particles ; poss. pronoun is suffix as in Semitic. 
 Double pronouns are common, as pe-A; = the-thy, for thy. Im- 
 peratives have the prefix ma of Semitic ; so has the infinitive. 
 Tenses and moods are formed by augments or prefixes, as in 
 Semitic. Among the many compounds of Coptic, is that of the 
 genitive following its noun, and identical with the construct 
 case of the other Semitic languages. 
 
336 PHRASIS. 
 
 969. The following selections will also illustrate the Ian- 
 guage : 
 
 Pi-lioudgi ebol oxite niapostolos ter-ou — the-small from among 
 tlie (ill) apostles all-thcse (ter = all), i. e., the least of the apos- 
 tles all ; tei-hime — this-woman ; pe-et — he-who. The articles 
 are used for verb be; as, j>e = he is, te = she is, ne = we are ; 
 anh-pe — I am; anan me — we are ; p-hoout ta-pe pe nte-s-hime 
 — the-man the-head is of-the-woman ; nt-af — of-him (in Celtic, 
 e/ = he); ojt = what, eM< = who, es/i = what (Sem.), Jim^who; 
 shat= to cut, shent = to be cut; tofo=to offer, taleout^^^ to be 
 offered; A;o=place, /i;e=:be placed (see active ^passive). 
 
 Pen lot et khen ni pheoui — our father who (et) in the heavens ; 
 pen oik nfe (gen. sign) rasti meif nan m-phoou — our bread to- 
 morrow give us (nan') this-day ; n-etero-n — our-debts (the-debts- 
 our) ; ethrefi (e-thre-f-i — e = to, iAre = make, /"= him, t = go, 
 come) to-make-him-come (see how one word develops iteelf into 
 several of ours). 
 
 In pek ram = thy naxae, p-e-k is composed of at least three 
 parts, p = the, e = his, k = thy ; so also in p-e-n iot = our father ; 
 ro k = face-thy, thy face or mouth ; ro-i = face-my ; akteif^ 
 a-h-tei-fj thou hast given him (a = past augment, or have, k = 
 thou, ^ei^give, y= him, to-him); .0M6e-/f; = against-thee, ouhe-f 
 = against him ; meOTC-i = with-me (nem, with) ; pe-dsh-an=-we 
 say, may be considered as having the elements (at hast) pe-dsh-an 
 =the-say-our, the-saying-of-us (these elements may be again 
 divided). 
 
 970. While the Persian exhibits the Semitic as taking one 
 direction, and having a certain phase, the Coptic, or Egyptian, 
 exhibits Semitic as taking another direction and assuming an- 
 other phase. We learn from Coptic many important facts, 
 among these, that pronouns and particles may be developed from 
 either end of the word ; that one and the same element, with or 
 without variation, may perform the oiBce of pronoun, particle, 
 and auxiliary ; that the letters of a word represent an accumula- 
 tion of repeated elements, which in the end come to represent 
 individual words (and that even these letters have their elements 
 in turn). 
 
 971. Ethiopic : The Ethiopio and Amharic are so thoroughly 
 Semitic that very little need be said of them now. The Am- 
 haric, especially, shows a very strong development of endings, to 
 correspond with our -ous, -ness, -ing, etc. — proving again that 
 the germ of such endings really exists in Semitic, and is sup- 
 pressed in some of its forms. Many derivatives are formed by 
 prefixes also, and we find the very prefixes of the Sem. conjuo-a- 
 tions, such as t, a, m, as, ast, the initial letters of nouns as well. 
 
SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 337 
 
 Nouns are derived by infixing, as well as prefixing, such letters; 
 also by reduplication of letters. 
 
 972. The auxiliary he here plays a conspicuous part. It is 
 placed (in form of al, hal, identical with Arabic article aV) after 
 the verb, as it is in Lat. amatus es< = loved is. In Ethiopic, 
 we find it used with the ordinary future, before it or after, and 
 separate from the main verb. When the auxiliary is thus used, 
 we have an expression equal to he-mll-come he-will, for he will 
 come; also, it-was he-came, for he came (as in Arabic). 
 
 It is in the Amharic that we find the peculiar constructive 
 mood, a transition, as it is, between verbal, or infinitive, and verb, 
 but still possessing more or less of the nature of a verbal noun. 
 It will yet be found to be identical, in its character, with the 
 Semitic future. 
 
 973. Berber. — The Berber language, spoken by people 
 living in North Africa, must be considered a very rude form of 
 Arabic. 
 
 974. The Berber verb is full of interest. The language may 
 be said to have but one individualized tense, and that the past; 
 but this is so far like the Semitic future, and unlike the Semitic 
 past, that it has initial letters varying for the persons. Thus, we 
 find askar, imperative, make (Sans, har = do) ; past tense, 1st 
 person, seker-agh, 2d te-seker-ad, 3d i-sker ; 1st plur. n-esker, 2d 
 te-sker-em, 3d seker-end ; so also the persons of he (il, Arab. art. 
 el), dlrigh, te-lli^d, v-iUa ; n-ella, te-lla-m,, ell-rant. We see be- 
 sides the variation of the prefix letters, also the regular changes 
 for person endings ; so, we are taught that in the Semitic future 
 the former are not to take the place of the latter ; also that these 
 prefix changes are not confined to the future (indeed those end- 
 ings id, am, ant, must remind any one of the person endings 
 it, am, ant, of Latin). 
 
 975. The future, and present, is made by prefixing ad = d to 
 the tense already given (just as I and d in Semitic, which letters 
 ad equals, as well as Persian bi). Thus, ad-isker=he makes, 
 ad-nesker=ve make. Possessive pronouns are developed at the 
 end of nouns, as in Semitic. 
 
 976. The tendency in all Semitic to discard real adjectives, 
 abstract terms, and individual conjunctions, has gone in Berber 
 almost to their entire absence. Hence, its sentences are very 
 short and disconnected ; thus, he-eats he-goes,_ he eats and goes. 
 There are evidently many points of interest in the idiom, but 
 there is much yet to be learned in regard to it. It is chiefiy 
 valuable in showing how Semitic languages may have European 
 orthography. 
 
 43 
 
338 PHRASIS. 
 
 .CHAPTER XII. 
 
 INDIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 977. None of ttie family tongues of Asia are at present receiv- 
 ing greater attention, or are studied witt greater interest, than 
 the languages of India, and of these, especially the Sanscrit. The 
 Europeans have made permanent settlements in Southern Asia, 
 and a knowledge of these languages is the more valuable on that 
 account. But more than this, the Sanscrit, the type, if you 
 choose, of the family, is found to be a great repository of ancient 
 philosophy. This has been one of the impulses to the Study of 
 Sanscrit, but there is yet one more. There has been unexpect- 
 edly found a remarkable identity in the words and structure of 
 the Sanscrit and European, and of the European, particularlythe 
 Greek and Latin. 
 
 978. The Sanscrit is an ancient language, with all the char- 
 acteristics of one which has grown old and gone down. It has 
 not been a spoken language for many centuries ; it has become 
 a mere repository of literature, laws, and particularly of religion; 
 running in this respect a course very much resembling that of 
 the Latin. To what extent it has given rise to the modern 
 idioms of Southern Asia, is not at present accurately deter- 
 mined. It is certain they have replaced it, but not it alone. 
 There is reason to believe it was not the only language of India. 
 One thing is certain ; the languages of India which we shall 
 notice hereafter, all bear a close connection with the Sanscrit, 
 and seem beyond doubt to have the relation to it of a modern 
 to an ancient tongue. 
 
 979. The Ss^nscrit is written in an alphabet peculiar to it and 
 to its cognate idioms. Neither the Semitic nor Greek alphabets, 
 at first sight, bear any resemblance to it ; though, on closer in- 
 spection and careful study, we find it has a basis in common with 
 them. If we look at the grammatical structure of the Sanscrit, 
 and even to the form of many of its words, we shall be forced to 
 confess that it has a greater resemblance to Greek than any other 
 Asiatic language. But this we do not understand proves that 
 the Sanscrit has, as often is claimed, in respect to origin, a so 
 much clqser relationship to Europe than the Semitic does or 
 the Persian, or the Tartar. It has only developed, exhibited, 
 germs and features which, to a greater or less extent, lie latent 
 in those less cultivated idioms. Hence we see that the modern 
 
SANSCRIT LANGUAGE. 339 
 
 languages of India are far more Persian first, and next Tartar 
 and Semitic, than Greek, or Latin, or even Slavic. 
 
 980. And mark still further ; notwithstanding this remarkable 
 parallel between Sanscrit grammar and Greek grammar, and 
 Sanscrit orthography, to a certain extent, and Greek orthog- 
 raphy, a fact which must be surprising to every student, yet the 
 style, the thought, the idiom, the soul, of Sanscrit, is not Greek 
 or European, but rather Asiatic, and not only Asiatic but Indian. 
 It is hard estimating values in such cases, as said before, and yet 
 we feel constrained to say, that in these latter respects, the Per- 
 sian, and even the Arabic, is more European than even the San- 
 scrit is. 
 
 981. So little do we find pectiliar in the Sanscrit grammar, in 
 the case and person endings, in the forms of their comparatives, 
 their pronouns, their particles, their moods, and their tenses and 
 participles, when compared with Greek and Latin, we shall need 
 but little space for it here. Its forms worthy of remark we 
 notice elsewhere. The striking and characteristic features of 
 the language are the size and number of its compounds. 1iVe 
 had particularly noticed this principle at work in the Persian, 
 but the Sanscrit has carried it much farther. We do not look 
 upon this phenomenon as a simple union of two or more individ- 
 ual words. It indicates, rather, that in Sanscrit the words are 
 in many cases not individualized; it is in this respect far behind 
 the languages of Europe. The words had not so far grown to 
 maturity as to be able to separate from the parent stock. This 
 same feature we find in alj ancient languages ; we find it in Latin 
 and Greek, in their moods and tenses, their cases, their partici- 
 ples, and prepositional verbs — and, to a limited extent, in their 
 compounds. 
 
 982. One class of compounds is made by the non-development 
 of and, and the union of two words or more which we co'uld con- 
 nect by it; as sun-moon, for sun-and-moon ; soilff-Music-dance 
 (and dance). These elements unite as a single unit, the last 
 alone taking the case-sign ; just as we say, Feter-fhe-Greafs (not 
 Peter's). It is clear in all these compounds, that of their being 
 made of elements the Sanscrit mind was quite unconscious; 
 so we find pretty-hrow-nose-eye-hair, for having a pretty brow, 
 etc or pretty browed, nosed, etc.; this-shape, i. e., this-shaped, 
 shaped like this ; lance-hand, i. e., lance-handed, lance-in-hand 
 fhavinaO In all the compounds of Sanscrit, we shall find united 
 only sifch as belong together in all languages; the principle is 
 the same in all languages, and it only works m Sanscrit On a 
 
 ^^^983 One single selection must suffice to give a little idea of 
 Sanscrit composition : Asti Magadha-dese Champakavati nam- 
 
340 PHKASIS. 
 
 aranyani. Tasyam chiran mahata snehena mriga-kakau niva- 
 satah. Sa cha mrigah swechchhaya bhramyan hrishta-pushtan- 
 gah, kenachit srigalenavalokitah. Tarn drishtwa srigalo chin- 
 tayat: ah, katham-eian-man-sam sulalitam hhakshagami — 
 (there) is (in) Magdha-land (dese) Champakavati (a) name-large- 
 forest (a forest called Ch.); there (in-it) long (in) great 
 (mahata) friendship (a) deer-crow (and-crow) dwell (the two 
 did) ; (he) the also (cha, L. que) deer (the deer also) at-pleasure 
 roaming gay-fed-body (by a) certain jackal-seen (-avalokitah, 
 part, seen) (i. e., the deer was seen roaming at will) ; him (tarn) 
 (having) watched the-jackal (he) thinks (thus) : oh, how-this- 
 flesh delicate (shall I) eat (how can I get it). 
 
 984. Here follows a list of some of its most important funda- 
 mental or root words : 
 
 Asf be, Ger. sein; an (live), animal, mind ; ah, say, spr-echen, 
 G-er. ; ag, near, Ger. eng ; ag, move, go , Ger. wegen, shake ; agh, 
 fl-og, Ger. sch-aden; ac, respect, Ger. iicht; av, viH, wish, love; 
 am, honor, L. ama ; ah, speak, G'k e^o ; ah^=ag ; ap, have, 
 hold, L. c-apio ; arh, power, G'k archo; arj, work, Ger. arbeit. 
 
 Svan, sound, tone ; saik, go, seek ; sagh, saw, cut ; sue, see, 
 sage ; sarp, go, creep ; sar, go, run, spring ; da, give, L. dono, 
 do ; da, divide, deal, Ger. theil ; dah, burn, L. ardens, ar-dens; 
 duh, draw, tug, L. duco ; die, show, say, digit; dar, tear, break ; 
 dra, run, G'k drao; dal, split, deal, Fr. taiUe ; dha, put, L. 
 do, po. 
 
 Tan, tend, extend; tag, take, touch; tvac, deck; tap, burn, 
 tepid ; tw, move, turn ; tars, torrid, toast, parch ; trag, go, drag; 
 ttd, bal-ance. 
 
 Stigh, step, steep ; star, strew, spread ; iks, see, look ; ir, run, 
 go, L. erro ; il, go, Ger. eilren, walk ; yam, hem, hold ; han, kill, 
 G'k kteinS, wound ; hi, pour, gush ; har, grasp ; hal, hollow ; 
 hul, veil, conceal. 
 
 Cvid, white ; ci, lie, G'k keimai; cau, hew, L. cavus; car, 
 bore; cru, hear (sru) ; gal, eat, swallow; Jam, been, born, kin, 
 G'k genao ; jna, know ; jna, bend, knee ; jiv, live, L. vivo. 
 
 Ghas, chew; kan, sing, tone, L. cano ; kup, hope, desire, L. 
 cupio;krui, screech; karp, break, li. carpo ; /i;a;,'yell, call ; 
 cad, shine, L. candeo ; khya, say, L. lego ; ksur, shear. 
 
 Us, burn, L. us-tum, from uro ; ul, flame, Ger. stralen ; va, 
 go, L. wemo,_Fr. va ; vid, know, L. video; vac, speak, voice, L. 
 voco ; vil, di-vide, Ger. theilen. 
 
 Ma, measure ; man, think, mean, mind ; math, move, L. mitto ; 
 mar, kill, murder ; hal, live ; hhi, fear; hhar, bear, L. gero, wear, 
 carry ; pa, hold ; ^a and pi, drink, 1,. pi-no ; pad, go, foot, path ; 
 pac, pack, bind ; pu, pure, Ger. rein ; parth, spread, part ; pri, 
 love, friend; prach, preach, speak; pil, press, tread, walk, fly. 
 
SANSCRIT LANGUAGE. 341 
 
 S-far, breathe, L. spiro; arch, go, G'k erchomai; radh, work, 
 G-'k redo } rat, read, speak; ri, run, flow; ruj, break; raph, 
 break, force, ravish; lut, read, L. lego; luh, love; laks, look; 
 luhh, love, will, wish ; lai-p, leave, run. 
 
 985. These, it must be observed, are the elements of the lan- 
 guage ; they do not generally occur in this crude form, but rather 
 with the additional development of pre- and suf-fixes, like our own 
 pel, in the form ex-pel or ex-pelling,/er, in pre-fer-ence, \i.fero, 
 rag, L. rogo = ask, in pre-rog-ative. 
 
 986. It will be noticed, also, that the above forms given are 
 greatly reduced, i. e., many of their letters have not developed into 
 two or three, as with us and elsewhere ; compare an and mind, 
 ac and look, respect, arh and force, power, da and deal, divide, 
 
 . ab and speak. We observe, also that they represent our letters 
 by very different ones, but, as we shall find elsewhere, always in 
 accordance with the law of letter changes ; thus, d = sp, t = b, 
 g^v,j — v and I, h^g, gr,jn = kn, p = h, d, etc. 
 
 987. Marathi : The following is a short list of words from 
 the Marathi, a modern Indian language : Asan, seat; avaz, voice ; 
 ehede, one; uga, quiet; umer, age, Grer. immer ; upar, 'over, 
 upper. 
 
 Xattr, severe, hard ; had, edge ; kar, do, form ; kal, time, 
 Ger. mal; kul, all ; Mr, dirt ; kaid, catch, capture ; kith, csTstle ; 
 khali, hole ; khara, salt, r, 1 ; khali, hollow ; khed, dig. 
 
 Oat, gang, band ; gat, fate ; gam, compassion ; gaman, giving; 
 garami, warm; ga^a, cow; ga, sing, ca-no ; guha, cave; gira, 
 fair ; ghar, house, yard ; ghe, catch (the infinitive ending ni in 
 all cases left out). 
 
 Ghal, walk ; chir, tear ; chain, sound ; chap, stamp ; jan, live ; 
 jad, join ; jalad, quick, L. celer ; jar, force, L. vir. 
 
 Tar, trick; dail, form, style; tamam, all, Ger. zammen; 
 tar, wire, t, w; ter, great; dam, breath, Ger. damp, steam; 
 dar, per; dad, just, G'k dike; das, slave, tie, bind; de, 
 
 give. V J. T 
 
 Nanga, naked ; nak, nose ; nad, noise ; nav, boat, U. navis ; 
 nir, water ; pad, foot ; par, through, L. trans ; pun, again ; pus, 
 ask; per, boy, L. puer ; phar very ; phir, turn. 
 
 5cw-a well, very; im, without, L. sine; belt, talk, old Prus. 
 WZ; 6AaZa, well, L. bonus; bhal, bear, 1, r; Mecf, view; mis, 
 meat ; mws, mould. 
 
 ifeka, great, L. ma^^nits; ran, war, rattle; mra^, rank, row; 
 raza, king, L. re^e; vach, read, L. %o, voice ; vap, vapour; i;am, 
 air; otV, hero ; vel, tivae. , , • , • t,^ 
 
 This is only a few of the very many words which we might 
 cite as familiar in this language. Many are Sanscrit, many more 
 
342 PHRASIS. 
 
 are Semitic and Persian ; and then, besides, there are large num- 
 bers of words almost identical with those found in European 
 tongues. 
 
 988. Bengali: The two most important languages of modern 
 India are the Bengali and the Hindostani. The former is spoken 
 by perhaps over thirty millions of people, and the latter, in its 
 dialects, is spoken by fifty millions. 
 
 989. The Bengali is perhaps the most Sanscrit, but slightly 
 varying from it. Case endings are well developed, and post- 
 positions are also common. The adjective with the noun forms 
 a compound, and hence it takes no case or number signs ; it is 
 compared by -tara (our -er) and -tama (our -est, L. -timus). 
 The verb seems to be built up after the Turkish manner, with a 
 participle for base, and be, in its tenses, for auxiliary. The pro- 
 nouns, particles, and endings, are all familiar. . A few examples 
 will best illustrate the character : 
 
 990. Si balakke amara-mkat ana — the boy me-to (to-me) 
 bring (bring to me; si=that, used as the). This language 
 abounds in compounds, as in Sanscrit, which may have an inde- 
 finite* length ; as, the-beauty-of-shoots-fruits-Jiowers-clusters-and- 
 buds. A standing rule in arrangement, in Bengali, is to put the 
 nominative first and the verb last, bringing the object before the 
 verb? This may be peculiar to us, but it is a common Asiatic 
 feature. The adjective goes before the noun. 
 
 Amra tanhar tara dekhite •paiyachi — we his star (tara) see- 
 ing have-got (have-seen, ^ci= get); tahate tahara kahila — 
 then they said ; ei mat likh-ita ache — it thus written is ; 
 takhan se uthiya shishu o tanhar mata-ke (ke ace. sign) la-iya 
 Ishrael-deshe aila — then he ris-ing (the) child and his mother 
 tak-ing (la-iya), Israel-land (into) went (he), i. e., taking them 
 he went. 
 
 Prachar kar-iya kahila — preach making said (he), i. e., he 
 preached (compound verbs of all kinds are very numerous) ; ei 
 amar priya putra — this my dear son (is) ; Johan dwara — 
 John-through (by- John) ; tini nttar karilen — he (this-one) 
 answer made (answered) ; kebal rut-ite manushya banch-ihe na 
 only bread-by (by-bread) man shall-live not (not by bread 
 alone). 
 
 Not only the noun comes first (the nominative), but also all 
 that belongs to it as an adjective ; the rule is the same with 
 regard to the object and all that belongs to it. 
 
 Tumijadi ama-ke — thou if me (if thou me) ; ami si sakal 
 ioma-ke dlha — l this all (to) thee will-give (diba) ; tanhar seba 
 kar-ite lag-ila — him service to-do (they) began (another com- 
 pound, they-began-to-make-service = they serve) ; jaite-jaite, 
 
BENGALI LANGUAGE. . 343 
 
 going-going, l e., while going (double words of this kind are 
 very^ common) j upadesh dite-dite — (his) teaching making- 
 making, i. e., making-teaching, teaching simply ; prachar 
 karite-karite — preaching making-making, simply preaching. 
 (Our possessives, as his, its, are rare — so also him, it, them, as 
 the object of verbs); tomar ichcha swargete jeman hauk — 
 thy will heaven-in so be. 
 
 Se giya tomar-agre path prastut karibe — he going thee- 
 before (thy) way prepared shall-make (shall-make-prepared, 
 shall prepare) ; Jardan nadite haptaijit haila — Jordan in bap- 
 tized (they) were ; pashchat-pashchat-gaman-karil<i — (to) fol- 
 low-foUow-going-he-did {karila=he did), i. e., did go following, 
 he followed simply ; raja jini janmi-yachhen tini hothay — 
 (the) king who was-born he (this-one) where ? i. e., where is he 
 who ; hhar-er sahit — (their) load-s with. 
 
 991. A leading peculiarity of Bengali is the inversion in the 
 order of clauses, from the fact already noted, that not only the 
 object, but all that belongs to it, must come before the verbs — 
 thus, we find, I which man I saw this (is) that (one), i. e,, this 
 is the man whom I saw ; he my desire (if he) grant does, I sat- 
 isfied shall be, i. e., if he grants my desire. , 
 
 992. HiNDOSTANi : To this language we come next. It is 
 written in the Persian (Arabic) character. It is this form of 
 Indian that shows most forcibly the connection with Semitic and 
 Persian. 
 
 993. Here, as in Afghan, we find transitive verbs in their 
 past tenses agreeing with their objects — the nominative appear- 
 ing in an ablative or instrumental case. It is really using a 
 passive form thus, by-me he was struck, for I struck him (in Hin., 
 it would be me-by the man-to the-striking (was). 
 
 Alone, the language is the most interesting of its class, but 
 compared with what we have already noticed, there is little that 
 is new, being, as it is, mostly Bengali or Sanscrit, as well in 
 arrangement as in orthography and gi-ammar. Much of it is 
 Semitic also. 
 
 994. Hence very little must suflSce as a specimen of the lan- 
 guage : tu kis tarahjanta hai — thou (in) what manner known 
 hast (is) ? (how hast thou known) ; aur kaha ki is larke-lw tar- 
 hiyat kar — and said that this boy (ko ace. sign) instruct make 
 (do instruct, i- e., instruct him; he told him to instruct the boy) ; 
 ek bat menja (go) nikla — a, wood into gone coming (or wander- 
 ing) i- e., wandering into a wood ; wise wahan aur to koina nazar 
 aya — (to) him there other then some not (nothing) sight came 
 (came to him), i. e., he saw no other sight; puchha, ate-ho 
 kahan-se aur (and) ja-oge kahan — asked (he), (you) coming- 
 
344 . PHRASIS. 
 
 are where-from and go- will (you) where (he asked whence come 
 ye and where will ye go). 
 
 995. An older than the Hisdostani, but one closely resembling 
 it and the Sanscrit, is the Hindee. Another one of the ancient 
 languages of India, and long since dead, is the Pali. It is closely 
 connected with the Sanscrit, but in what precise relation as to 
 origin is not yet determined. There is also the Pbacrit, a form 
 of Sanscrit. There are other languages in Southern Asia be- 
 longing to the Indian, or more or less related to it, and more or 
 less important, but all these we must pass by here. 
 
 996. We can only name the Telinga as belonging to the San- 
 scrit family, and partaking largely of its characteristics. 
 
 997. The Tamil is a language of considerable interest. It 
 belongs to the Sanscrit and Indian class, and so little is there in 
 it that we have not already noticed in these languages, we will 
 scarcely dwell on it here. It is the leading member of the class 
 which includes also the Telugu, Malayalam, and Cdnarese. Its 
 literature is considerable. 
 
 998. Prepositions, adverbs, and conjugations, are all rare; 
 the relative is absent. The whole verb system is plainly built 
 on participles, or verbal nouns, from which are developed per- 
 sonal and tense endings. "What few prepositions do exist are 
 real nouns, or adjectives, and are placed after. 
 
 999. The Birman is a language of Southern Asia, which is 
 very instructive to the philologist, but by no means well known. 
 Many of its essential characteristics are those of the language of 
 Thibet, but in simplicity and lack of development it is, perhaps, 
 most like the Chinese. It maybe said to be destitute of inflex- 
 ion — a want which is compensated for by compounding. Many 
 parts of compounds have no separate or individual existence. 
 
 1000. In the structure of sentences, the relations of words are 
 indicated by particles. The adjective and noun constitute a com- 
 pound. The verb, in all its forms, is nothing but a participle 
 As we might expect, the parts of discourse are scarcely distin- 
 guished. Intonation here, as in Chinese, plays a conspicuous 
 part. Like the people of Southern Asia generally, thev rather 
 sing than talk. •''J 
 
 The languages of Siam and Anam are classed with this. 
 
MALAY LANGUAGES. 345 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MALAY LANGUAGES. 
 
 1001. From the Indian we naturally pass to the Malav lan- 
 guages. This class, from the peculiar and new phase in which 
 It presents language, is very imporUnt as well as very extensive 
 Its roots plainly extend far into the Indiam idioms, but as an 
 individual growth, it has much to distinguish it from' its neigh- 
 bors. The whole family is decidedly infantile in structure • yet 
 some of its members are more so than others. ' The leading 
 members of the class are the Malay proper and the Java tono-ue 
 _We will start with the Malay, and notice the others in the order 
 in which we come to them. 
 
 1002. One of the most striking features of the Malay is the 
 inordinate growth of inseparable particles, often where none 
 exist in other languages ; but the character of those particles, 
 prefixes, and suffixes, are like those of all tongues ; thus, from 
 ada=he, they get ka-ada-an =: existence ; me-m,u/col= to beat 
 from pulcolj strike — p changing to m after me. 
 
 1003. We find here, too, in a strong light the variation in the 
 forms of words according to what they are associated with. At 
 the same time, with the great growth of the particles spoken of 
 above, there is an absolute want of .what should correspond to 
 the Latin case, gender, and person endings — of everything that 
 belongs to inflexion. We find double or repeated words very 
 common; as, radia-radia, for princes (L. reges); Icata-kata, 
 word-word (words), (Fr. mot). And we should remark, that 
 much as the members of these .duplicates seem to resemble each 
 other, they are still very distinct and difierent, and one is used 
 as a mark or determinative for the other ; this is clearly estab- 
 lished in Chinese. 
 
 Orang lakulald — person (man) male-male, i. e., a male man, 
 a male ; ka-pada rum,ah (L. domus, room) — to-wards (the) 
 house ; deri-pada rumah — from-away (the) house (double, and 
 even treble, prepositions are common, like our down-alongside, 
 aioay-from, fromr-beneath) ; dengan tulong nahi — by aid (of) 
 prophet (genitive without sign) ; pukol akan andieing itu — 
 strike to dog that (one) {akan is often used as a mere sign of 
 ace, and itu as a sort of suffix the); mata hari — eye (of) day, 
 (i. e.', the sun) ; hamba punia ouang — I (=my) own silver. 
 
 Mati'=&esiA; /ca-maii-ara == death ; boat := to do; per-boat-an 
 Ca) work : baien = pay ; pem^baier = payment ; peng-ikut = fol- 
 44 
 
346 PHBASIS. 
 
 lower {peng is prefix) ; kawal=to-gusitA. ; peng-awal= (a) guard ; 
 mma-sama, together, Ger. sammen; ber-sama-sama-an= umon; 
 kuda (oo\t) putih— (a) liorse white (adj. generally after); but, 
 putih kuda radia— white (is) horse (of) king. The verb 6e_is 
 generally left out, or it is represented by pronouns, as inSemitic, 
 as / thai = I am. 
 
 Lebeh manis deri-pada (hy-vitli) gula — more {leheK) sweet 
 by (than) sugar ; ter-ladiu, very-rapid ; ter-lebeh tua,^ very great 
 old, very old ; ka-mana (to-where) tuan hendah pergi (L. perge) 
 — where (do) thou (prop, master) wish (to) go ? apa tuan man 
 (must) maka — where thou must (will thou) eat (or eating) ; 
 marika-itu — those-there, they; akupunia^ — I (my) own; mata- 
 mu=eje{of) yours; anak-kau = son-thy (thy son); kapala- 
 ma = head-of-his {nia, his). 
 
 Prefixes to verbs are common; di-puko-nia = 'h\s striking, he 
 strikes, or struck {di is a mere augment) ; yang haik — which 
 (is) good ; itu, the, that, L. id; ini, this, L. hinc, Slav, on; si-apa 
 =the-which, what; orang mana itu — man what that? (what 
 man is that); yang ampunia ruma — who (whose) the-own 
 house, i. e., to whom belongs the house ; ia-itu = this-that, 
 that is. 
 
 Ada is used for'ie, and di-adi=hecome (ada with augment); 
 ada-lah pada hamba — (there) is to mc (I), i. e., I have (lah 
 is not person ending) ; hendak ada —.will be {ada, Fr. ete, Turk. 
 idum, our the and that} ; orang ada maka — man be eating, i. e., 
 the men are eating, they eat ; dia diadi kaia — he becomes 
 rich. 
 
 Men-diadi-kan radia — to-make-be king (causative of diadi — 
 kan is often for infinitive ending, but not for that alone) ; ter, 
 like Ger. ge, is pass. part, sign, as ter-tuUs = written, ter-bunoh 
 = killed ; bri, give, bring ; pergi, go (thou) ; mari-lah, come ; 
 kata and burkata, speaks, says; apa kata kamu — what say 
 you. 
 
 Di-tidor-nia = he slept, or sleeps (nia = his) ; tidor — sleep 
 (thou); dia akan tidor — he (is) to sleep, i. e., will sleep; ada 
 tidor — is sleeping (see the absence of person and verbal ending); 
 mdah tidor, or telah tidor, having slept (sudah and telah are 
 both used for have and having, but they are called adverbs — so 
 lagui, yet, now, is used in place of is) ; ber-tidor = to sleep ; 
 ka-tidor-an, also ber-ka-tidor-an, sleeping, in sleeping (see the 
 growing particles, like our accumulated consonants at the begin- 
 ning of words, as strip, for rip, dispense for spense, secede for cede; 
 dialan = to walk ; kamu sudah dialan — thou hast walked • telah 
 bur-dialan — have walked. 
 
 1004. Most of the prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, are 
 rendered familiar by keeping in view the forms of the Indian 
 
MALAY LANGUAGES. . 347 
 
 languages ; s-ini, s-itu, s-ana, m-ana, and many others, are com- 
 pounds, the-this, the-ihat, for here, there, then ; so the preposi- 
 tions dalam, Fr. dans, in ; arah, around ; ka, to, yt= t — conj. 
 dan =a and. 
 
 1005. Prepositions have pronouns as a sort of affix ; as,pada- 
 ku =to.me {ku) ; pada-nia= to-him ; humi dan languit — earth 
 and heaven ; kuda-hu (te=my) =my horse ; kuda-mu =your 
 horse; anakmanusia itu — son (of) man the (one) (suffix art.Y; 
 itu-lah dunia ini — is world this (the) (is this world) ; gigiganti 
 gigi-r^o^ for tooth ; kata-nia = saying (nia is a verbal ending, 
 as well as pronoun) ; her-kata-lah ia = said he ; kamu telah 
 munungar — ye have hear (heard); bapa-mu yang ada dishorga 
 father-our who (he, that) be (art) in-heaven. 
 
 Sagala fihak fihak — all part part (all parts) ; ka-rumahnnu 
 = to-house-thy (thy house) ; dosa dosa-mu telah di-ampwii — 
 sin sin-thy (thy sins) are forgiven (te-lah= is, the, that) ; huat- 
 lah ini maka di-buat-nia itu — do this and (maka) doeth-he it 
 (he does it); akan di-bri — shall give, for giving, i. e., shall be 
 given ; te-lah inati—~- is dead; telah ber-bang-kit deri-pada (up- 
 from) mati — was risen from dead ; telah datang -^is come. 
 
 Kata kamu aku ini — say you I (am) this. It seems to be a 
 leading feature of Malay to develop a verb be from he, the, this, 
 or that. Malay only thus illustrates a universal principle ; ini-lah 
 aku handak buat — this I will do ; sudah mati — was dead ; telah 
 hidop —is alive; yan ber-nama Yahya — who by-name (named) 
 John (was named). 
 
 Subab tiadd di-kunal-nya {nya = his, he) akan (the) suara 
 orang-orang-asing — for not knew-he the voice (of) man-man- 
 stranger (strangers, or strange ones; akan is sign of ace.) ; orang- 
 itu = man-the, the one ; aku burkata fada-mu — I say (bur is 
 prefix) to-you (otm= you) ; ahi, inidah pintu — I am door (ini 
 = this, and it has lah the verb ending) ; aku-lah gombala yang 
 baik itu — -I-am (lah verb end.) shepherd which good the, i. e., 
 I am the good one ; mum-bri (mum is pref.)yMa-Bya ganti domba 
 {(^ _ (^he) gives life-his for sheep the (the sheep) ; angkau ini- 
 iya itu-dia — I this-he (am) that-he, i. e., I this-here (am) that- 
 there, for 1 am he. 
 
 1006. We notice a great abundance of conjunctions, for which 
 we can find no place in translation ; just as we say, now- when- 
 therefore he went, for when he went. We have given this large 
 amount of space to the Malay, to illustrate some of its many 
 peculiarities. The order of words is remarkably natural to us— 
 but their form and composition are often strange. Besides this, 
 the features which we have noticed are common, more or less, to 
 all of the class, and they will not need to be noticed again. 
 
848 . PHRASis. 
 
 1007. JaVAN : The Java idiom runs closely parallel with the 
 Malay. We find, here, the same absence of proper inflexion, of 
 case, number, gender, and person ending, the same duplication 
 of words, the same abundant growth of inseparable prefixes and 
 suffixes, particles which have not yet gained an independent ex- 
 istence. The prefix si represents an undeveloped article. Not 
 only are many new terms formed by doubling, but the initials 
 are often doubled after the manner of the Greek reduplication. 
 Personal pronouns are not used for lifeless objects; we find suf- 
 fix pronouns, as aku tuku omah'mu-^I buy house-your. 
 
 1008. One of the most common prefixes of the verb is ma, so 
 often seen in Malay and Semitic. The prefix ha, seen often in 
 Malay, is used, among other purposes, as a sign of past participle, 
 like ge in Ger. gc'sehen, ge-macht. Tenses are marked not by 
 developed endings, but, as in Malay, by proper adverbs or aux- 
 iliaries. New words are formed by compounding or uniting 
 difierent words, as well as by doubling or repeating the same 
 word. 
 
 There is so little in the grammar of the Java idiom that is not 
 Malay, that we need not dwell on it farther. The orthography 
 alone is somewhat different. The Java alphabet is peculiar, 
 while the Malay is written in Arabic. 
 
 1009. Macassar : One of the Malay class is the Macassar, 
 a leading language of the island of Celebes. We find the same 
 prefixes here in like abundance as in Malay, and very nearly 
 every feature found in Malay and Javan, is found here also, and 
 but little more. In this, as in all the related languages, there is 
 great want of individuality in the words ; they have all a strong 
 tendency to run together. 
 
 1010. In this language there are no relatives, and possessive 
 pronouns are suffix. Derived verbs are formed by doubling, and 
 by using the prefixes a, ma, ni, ta, pi, ha, pa-ka, and si. ' We 
 find the ending ang very common; it is the Malay an, our -ing, 
 4on, as in per-form-ing, per-form-ance. It is clear that all these 
 prefixes and endings have their representatives with us. 
 
 1011. Many verbs are made by compounding two different 
 words, as akanatodjeng = to true-word (make), i. e., to make an 
 oath, a being prefix, A:a?ia = word, todjeng =^ true. These com- 
 pounds are treated in all respects as simple verbs, and as such 
 they receive the ordinary fixes. The prefix ni, Malay di, else- 
 Jl?here ri, is used, like ge in German, for pass. part. ; as, ni-yalle 
 s=(becn)taken, a&, take; ni-huno= tiW^A; ni-^aw = become 
 blue, make blue; and ta, Malay ter, is used also as participle 
 prefix. 
 
 1012. We find here, as in Javan, (it is) true his-word, i. e., 
 
MALAY LANGUAGES. 849 
 
 his Word is true; inahhe asare- — I giving, i. e., I give, gave 
 have given, should give, etc.; i/caMe asare — we giving, etc. ; 
 inakke ni-sare — I (am or was) given; also, ku-sare — I give, 
 gave, etc.; ki-sare — we give; na-sare — he give (pronoun 
 united with verb as prefix^ a Semitic feature); asare-ya^ 
 give I, i. e., I give, gave (it also means give me) ; asare-dj-a^ 
 give-ever'I, i. e., I ever give, am giving; osare-s-a =; give-once- 
 I; asare-kang — give-we, i. e., we give (giVe-us). 
 
 1013. These added or inserted adverbs, so called, are plainly 
 the result of a tendency to develop auxiliaries, precisely as L. 
 am-ab-am = lovin'g-was-I, loving-did-I, I loved. As we might 
 expect, it tends to develop pbj. and subj. pronouns, like Semitic, 
 at the end. Adverbs are, as in Malay, used to denote time as 
 auxiliaries ; as, lebah, past, done ; leba ku-sare — already-I-give, 
 i. e., have given ; or the personal, as with our auxiliary, unites 
 with the adverb, so called, as ZeSa-Zca asare— already.J give, 
 have-I given, did-I give. 
 
 The alphabet is one of its own. ' 
 
 1014. Kawi : The Kawi was once a language on the isle of 
 Java, and no doubt on some of the neighboring islands. Its 
 precise relation to Javan and Sanscrit is not yet determined. It 
 has the grammar of the Javan, but many of the words are San- 
 scrit. It represents, no doubt, an ancient growth of the Malay 
 class, which has been long since dead. It evidently stood nearer 
 to Indian than the modern Malay idioms do. 
 
 1015. Its article is sang, Malay ^awy, who, and the si and se 
 of others ; ka, Ger. ge, is not Only passive sign, but it is often 
 used elsewhere ; sa =one, the, is a prefix denoting the singular; 
 ma-na«ia, by-name, named — this is the, common Semitic and 
 Malay prefix, used for adjectives as well as verbs. 
 
 1QJ.6. Here, as in all the class, it is a prominent feature to 
 find the verb a mere verbal noun, and the nominative pronoun 
 in the poss. or instrumental case ; as, my giving, or giving by 
 tne, for 1 give ; my seeing (was) star = I saw star. As we might 
 e;spect, we do not find a real passive in these languages. All 
 the passive we find is made by the use of verbal nouns with be 
 omitted. A word without the least change may be used as verb, 
 noun, and adjective. 
 
 1017. Hawaii Language : Still more infantile in structure 
 than any we have so far noticed is the Hawaii, or the language 
 of the Sandwich Islanders. It is one of the members of the 
 Polynesian branch 6f the Malay languages, a branch which may 
 be said to represent Malay, and indeed language in general, in 
 its least advanced stage. The Polynesian idioms are those of a 
 
350 PHRASIS. 
 
 savage people, with, the usual features of savage idioms, but with 
 a greater tendency to develop itself, and far greater inherent 
 power for that development, than we find in the languages of 
 the wild Americans. The numerous members of this Polynesian 
 class are unmistakably connected with each other, and more 
 remotely with the Malay. 
 
 1018. In these languages, differentiation in classes of words 
 has gone but a little distance ; there is scarcely to be found either 
 clauses or accent ; even our individual words are hardly distin- 
 guishable in the molten mass This is the history of all wild or 
 uncultivated languages. It is worthy of rematk, too, that there 
 is a great predominance of vowels over consonants. Vowels are 
 clearly earlier than consonants. 
 
 1019. In all savage idioms, speech has but few variations, few 
 notes ; there is much of singing about it, but it is mostly like the 
 singing of infants, merely an up and down, up and down. 
 
 1020. Inflexion we find, of course, at zero. We give the fol- 
 lowing illustrations : wahine niaikai — wife good, wife (is) 
 good, or good wife; wahine Icane-make — wife (of) man-dead, 
 i. e., a widow (we have here separated the words, but they are 
 found united together) ; liaawi, to-give, haawi-ia, begiven (ia is 
 pass, ending, it is the Malay iya). Duplicates are numerous ; 
 keiki, child; keiki-kane, male-child, i. e., son. 
 
 1021. There is, as in Malay, much of prefixes, and some, as 
 ke^ka^na^ are called articles; ke-kanaka — the-man; ka-mea 
 — the-thing ; kuu mea — my thing ; keia niau mea — the some 
 thing, I. e., these things ; kahi, one, ke-kahi, the-one. The sin- 
 gular is often used for the plural; o = the; o na mea — the 
 these things, i. e., the things. 
 
 ffe is used for the article and for he ; he aina maikai o Fa- 
 rani — be (is) land good the France (good country Trance is) • 
 he maka no ka maka — be eye for an eye ; o ka mokv. nui Nu 
 holani o na moku a-pau ma ka honua nei — the this island great 
 (one) New Holland (of) the those (na) island the-all {a-pau) 
 in (ma) the earth here (largest of all islands) ; ia (he) is used 
 for preposition. 
 
 1 kei la — on this day; kana hana — his deed ; kana olelo 
 
 his word; o-ke keiki hipa — the (o-ke) child (of the) sheep 
 (lamb); or, a-A;a Aipa— of-the-sheep ; /to is article and preposition 
 also; ko Aigupita — to Egypt; na Zma — the hand (hands); 
 (no = the and of); no Perusia — of Prussia; ma = in and 
 wliere, really a pronoun (it is in this language that we particu- 
 larly see prepositions and he identical with pronouns). 
 
 lo makou nei — to us here; au and waU^l (Mai. aku) • 
 oe and oukou = thou, you (Mai. kamou) ; ia and na = he (Maf. 
 ii/a, nia) ; all these pronouns have prepositions correspondin<^ 
 
HAWAII LANGUAGE. 351 
 
 with them, and these again unite' with these pronouns; thus, 
 na-na = oi him, his, o-wa=to him ; ko wahine — thy wife; kela, 
 that ; nei, here and now ; lakou nei— see here (look) ; ia kanaka 
 la — the man there, that man ; wai, who, which ; ka inoa wai la 
 — the name which there? (what name); m-tt)ai = whom ? o^ai 
 = whose? wie = with, as, and how; me ka lima — with the 
 hand; poepoe ka honua — round the earth (is). 
 
 1022. As we have seen in the languages before, verbs are not 
 properly varied with inflexions such as we have, but they develop 
 particles or auxiliaries like prefix prepositions. They are prop- 
 erly augments ; e, mai, o, for the present and future, i for the 
 past, as £ in Greek; ke is used like that — indeed, all these 
 augments are clear pronouns. 
 
 Ana, which we found in Malay equal to -ing, is here also ; ke 
 ola-ma, the living; ai=le, have, shall, and pass, sign — the iya 
 of Malay; aloha, loves, aloha-ia, is-loved ; ike, see, know, tyteia, 
 seen, known; ho-ike, let-see (caus.); ike-ike and ho-ike-ike, see 
 often ; e =by, ia = to; oia ka mea au e-haawi aku nei ia-oe — 
 this the thing (is) (which) I (by-me) give there now to-you (e 
 is present sign; ia is dat. sign) (the thing which I give you). 
 Mark the abundance of adverbs. 
 
 Ka-u keia i-haawi aku ia-oe — I (by-me) this gave (giving, 
 with pas* mark i) there to-you ; e-haawi ana aku — giving there 
 him (e and ana are both present or continuing signs) ; ka mea 
 e-haawi-ana aku — -the one giving there, i. e., the giver (mea = 
 thing, one) ; ka haawirana — the giving; o oe no ke Akua nana 
 i-hana ka-lani — the thou art the God he (who, by whom) made 
 the-heaven (no = indeed, but it has the place of be) ; na-^a = 
 by-him {ka is article or ace. sign, i is past sign). 
 
 1023. The simplicity of this language is its difficulty for us. 
 There are many other points which it illustrates, and we regret 
 to be obliged, for want of room, to stop here. Its relation to 
 the Malay, through all its variations, is never lost ; very many 
 of the words are-clearly Malay — and others can be discovered 
 with a little effort. Through the Malay we connect the Poly- 
 nesian with Sanscrit and European. Nothing could be more 
 interesting than to compare with European the forms of many 
 related elementary words in Malay and European, but there is 
 no space for it.. We should find many surprising identities. 
 Pronouns, numerals, and all particles, are easily traced back to 
 those with which we are familiar. 
 
 1024. All the Polynesian languages, particularly the Eastern, 
 as the New Zealand, Pejee, Tonga, Tahitian, and Marquesian, 
 have the general characteristics of the Hawaii. We find aug- 
 ments to denote tenses, particles or prepositions as signs of cases, 
 the same abundance of adverbs, and the use of one and the same 
 
352 PHRASis. ■-' 
 
 word for present, adverb, pronoun, auxiliary, and augment or 
 prefix (proving the common origin of these parts of speech and 
 elements, here at least). As in all the Malay, except Tagale, the 
 adjective follows. Here we may give some of the forms of the 
 pronouns as we find them in Malay, Jav,, Bugis, Mad., and Tag., 
 in order : I, aku and ku, haku, iyak and idik, zao and ahou, aco 
 and co; thou, angkau and kau, kowe and ko and iko, ano and no, 
 tea and ii/o and toyo ; he and the, iya and i/ang, Mya, yatu, izan, 
 siya and niya. 
 
 1025. Madagascar : An interesting language of the class, 
 and possessing the usual characteristics of the Malay proper, and 
 Javan, is the Madagascar. Here, all verbal prefixes begin with 
 m ; soulon, a change, ma-noulon (n for s), to change ; fouUi, 
 white, ma-moutsi, to whiten. The prefix de, the di of Malay, is 
 very common here, and, though an augment, it has the real 
 value of be, is. The passive (or intransitive) is used in prefer- 
 ence to the active ; so, rehe/a Mtorny ny Petera izany — as see- 
 he (his) by P.eter this, i. e., Peter he-saw this {-ny = \n%); mi- 
 tady, he seeks ; nitady, has sought ; hitady, will seek ; tenses 
 are formed by a change of initials, as well as by augments or 
 adverbs. 
 
 Izany no sorata-ny — this is write-bis (he), he write this, is 
 his written ; ary no ny efa nilaoza-ny ny Devoli izy — and was 
 the been (efa, past sign) leaving-he (by-him, his) by (by-the) 
 devil he, i. e., he was left by him the devil, the devil left him 
 (jiy = his, the, by, and by-the). 
 
 1026. Tagalb : Another important Malay language, of the 
 Phillippine class, is the Tagale. The words do not vary by in- 
 flexion, but, as in others, they use particles separateand fixed. 
 Its verb is perhaps the most complete of the Malay class. It 
 has, like others, a fondness for passive in place of active. A 
 peculiarity, which we find, too, in Malay, is the insertion, so 
 called, of in and un after the initial consonant. We find some- 
 thing like it in Semitic ; but we regard it rather as a new form 
 of the initial than the insertion of a new element ; so, from bating, 
 cut, cutting, we get b-in-ating-an, cut-been, been-cut (in being 
 inserted, and an the passive end.) ; can-in mo ito — eaten-been 
 by you (too) this, i. e., eaten or eating by you, or you eat, will 
 eat, this ; i-bigai mo — given by-you, you give (there are three 
 styles of passive — i as prefix, an as suffix, and in) ; in is future 
 and impera. sign ; from sulat, writing, s-um-ulat, to write. Pre- 
 fixes ma, mag, and man, are very common ; ma is intrans. and 
 passive sign. Reduplication of initial syllable, as in Greek, 
 prevails here ; it is used in the present. 
 
THIBETAN LANGUAGE. 853 
 
 CHAPTEE XIV, 
 
 THIBETAN LANGUAGE, 
 
 1027. The transition from the Indian languages and the 
 Malay, to the Thibetan, is both easy and natural; Thibet lies 
 to the north of India, and the idiom has evidently much of its 
 history in common with the Sanscrit and its related tongues. It 
 is already conceded that there are many points of resemblance, 
 and it is certain that as we become more acquainted with it, we 
 shall ^nd it built on the same foundation as the Indian lan- 
 guages — and hence, too, the same as the European. It is, 
 indeed, a very different growth from any European or Indian 
 language ; but the elements, the base-forms, are the same as in 
 them. 
 
 1028. There are the pronouns, the. reliable indez in all cases, 
 nga, I, L. ego ; Jckyod, thou, jo\x (khi/==fi/ ^ymye — or trans- 
 pose Wid to dkli, Ger. dicli) ; kho, he, who ; Tide, this, the, there, 
 Aheing prefix; sou, who -^also c7m, Ital. che, our that. 
 
 A little examination renSers the numerals familiar ; there is 
 djug, six^sigs; dun, seven — other forms, chet and sayt ; gad, 
 eight — other forms, pay* and^ei; gu, nine, g = n; dju, ten, = 
 two ; la, five — other forms, rtga and nam ; fschi, four — also 
 pou; ssum, three — also sam and thum; nniss, two — also so, 
 hait; djig, one, a, an — also nm,noo. These are easily com- 
 pared with European and allied forms. 
 
 1029. Then take, besides, such leading words as dje, tongue; 
 sso and fan, tooth (fang); lag, hand, also me, ma, Fr. main; ■ 
 nawa, nose; hu, go; hou, head; ma, mother; pa, father; ssa, 
 earth, L. terra, G'k gB ; la, moon, L. luna; me, fire; — then 
 the verb and the verbal endings, which we notice elsewhere ; 
 also the particles. 
 
 1030. As we have found in so many other languages, we tind 
 here also a great abundance of prefixes; but they are yet so 
 feeble, in most instances, that though they exist in writing, 
 they are mute in pronunciation, exactly as ourp in psalm, or A 
 in hour It is clear that these are as much prefixes as those in 
 the Thibetan— and so in all other cases where words begin 
 with a consonant. There are endings like those of Latin ; they, 
 too, are not of strong growth ; they are often silent or but feebly 
 expressed. This language presents the Chinese feature of small 
 words -generally mere monosyllables reduced to the smallest 
 possible; as, va, fox, na, malady, kha, snow, na, fish, sa, earth, 
 djo, master. 
 
 45 
 
354 PHEASIS. 
 
 1031. In inflexion, it has much of the Malay character — 
 everything is expressed by particles, so called ; they represent 
 inflexion in its earlier stages. There are endings following nouns 
 and adjectives, corresponding to suffixed articles, and grown into 
 gender endings, like the -us, -a, -um, of Latin. So we find mi- 
 ■vo, the-man (vo — the) ; mi-mo, the-man (fem.) ; lag-pa, the- 
 hand (j)a = the). Sometimes we find double endings; as, hi/ed- 
 pa-po — the-doer, i. e., do-er-the (jpa = -er). Cases are ex- 
 pressed by preposition endings, such as hi and c/i for gen., la for 
 dat. We look upon these endings, as with those of Latin, as 
 the development simply of the suffix articles just noticed. , 
 
 1032. In regard to the adjective, we notice that when it is 
 placed before the noun, it takes no case particles, or it assumes 
 the genitive form, just as in Latin we use the same unvarying 
 form ejus, of-him, his, for the full number of eases of its noun; 
 as, by his (ejus') act, his (efus) act, his (ejus) acts. But when 
 the adjective follows, it, and not the noun, takes the case end- 
 ings, just as we place the preposition before the adjective'alone, 
 as for all times — and for like reasons in both cases, that the 
 whole unites as one unit. 
 
 1033. The verb is pretty well developed for an Asiatic lan- 
 guage. The present participle ending is pa, corresponding to 
 our -ing ; a variation of this, par, is the infinitive ending. Aux- 
 iliary verbs are used in the formation of tenses. The past part, 
 has the same ending, pa, as the present, but on a new base, 
 apparently just as we find in Latin two infinitives, esse and fuisse. 
 Such aux's as do and make are often used ; as, do go forgo. The 
 perfect is only a past part, used as a tense; we find augments 
 also. The future is formed as in German, le go, or become go, 
 for win go. The imperative takes sometimes the dative form 
 as our infinitive to go ; we find this so in several other languages. 
 Pronouns are used before verbs just as we use them ; taking one 
 form of the verb for all pronouns, there being no variation for 
 number and person. 
 
 1034. The arrangement of the words is somewhat peculiar. 
 The verb is placed at the end of the sentence. The use of the 
 instr^imental, or ablative, for nominative, is favored ; we find it 
 before transitives and passives, and the nominative before in- 
 transitives. 
 
 .1035. The passive is a mere verbal noun, and so is not dis- 
 tinguished from the active, except in the use of the instrumental 
 
 pronoun; thus, ngas hhyod rdoung-lar hyed-do by-me thou 
 
 striking (inf.) make (hyed-do, make-do, do-make), i. e., I strike 
 thee, or thou art struck hy me. Another important point is the 
 making a participle by adding the particle jing to the verb ; as 
 smra-jing, bay-ing. ~ ' 
 
JAPANESE LANGUAGE. 355 
 
 1036. There are many points of interest in the language, but 
 none of importance that have not been illustrated under other 
 Heads. The alphabet is peculiar to it, and is after the Sanscrit 
 style; we also find letters connnected together and placed one 
 above the other. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 JAPANESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 1087. The Japanese has many of the characteristics of the 
 Thibetan, but it is perhaps nearer related to some forms of the 
 Chinese than to any other. Here, as in other Asiatic idioms 
 we find but three parts of speech are recognized by the Japanese 
 themselves ; they are noun, verb, and particles. They seem to 
 be conscious of no other classes, and indeed they are all that 
 can be said to properly exist in these idioms. 
 
 1038. There are au&x .gender signs, and, as in Thibetan, 
 suffix articles and case signs ; as, fito-va, man-the, or a man ; 
 fito-no, oi-maxi; fito-wo, man (a.cc. ); jito-ni, ia-msm.; fito-Uto, 
 men. _ The genitive, like the adjective, precedes. As in all 
 Asiatic tongues, we find much of the so-called determinatives, 
 base-words of a compound ; as, Egypt-land, for Egypt, Paris- 
 city, for Paris. We may notice the pronouns ware and waga, I ; 
 nandzi, thou ; ano-fito, this-man, he ; ho-re, ko-no, this ; so-re, 
 so-no, that ; ta-re, to-no, who, which ; a-re, a-no, he, this. In 
 the verbs, there are no person endings, and the tenses are based 
 on the participle, and compounded after the usual manner with 
 be ; thus, ware aro, I am ; are aro, he is ; ware atta, I was (has). 
 The subj. ends in ha, as ware areha, that I be. We find verbals 
 with /(;oto'= thing as ending; aro, to be, aro-koto, be-thing, being; 
 atta-kotoi, been-thing, been-jseing, or being-been. 
 
 1039i The past tense is a participle. The passive ending is 
 rare, as act. age, pass, age-rare. Doubling is very prevalent. 
 'Prepositions follow. The progress of inflexion here is indicated 
 by the following : Iwro, (Pr.) le noir ; horosa, noir-ceur ; koroki, 
 noir, noire (black); koroko, black-like; horosi, is-black; koro- 
 moro, noircir ; koromo, se noiroir (blacken). The use of pro- 
 nouns is rare. 
 
 1040. The Japanese writing is much simpler than the Chinese, 
 but is evidently connected with it. They write down in per- 
 pendicular lines. The language exists in several different forms 
 or dialects. 
 
856 FHEASIS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ajbican languages* 
 
 1041. If we except the country north of the Great Desert* 
 where we find Arabic in some of its forms, and also Egypt and 
 the country of the Ethiopians, where>we find other idioms of the 
 Semitic family, we may say that Africa presents us with a wholly 
 new and peculiar class of languages. They are the tongues of 
 people wild and little known to us, and we find the language 
 untamed and uncultivated. Our progress towards an acquaint- 
 ance with them is very slow. However, one by one, at intervals 
 more or less long, a grammar of the idiom of some new tribe or 
 nation appears, and we are gratified with the consciousness that 
 our sphere of vision is becoming more and more enlarged, and 
 that the data on which we are to found our conclusions, are be- 
 coming daily more and more extensive. 
 
 1042. Yet we must not suppose that these wild tongues, how- 
 ever peculiar they may seem, are without their relatives, in Asia 
 at least. The idioms of Eastern Africa are neighbors to the 
 Malay class, exhibiting strongly its leading features ; while the 
 idioms of Southern Africa are evidently also connected with 
 Malay or Semitic. Through these southern idioms we may 
 connect those on the western coast with the languages of South- 
 ern Asia. 
 
 1043. As a people, all the tribes of Africa are too insignificant, 
 too ill-defined, and too little known, to admit of any labored 
 account of their idioms. Speaking generally, we may say that 
 most of the chief characteristics of the great 'Malay class also 
 prevail here in the African languages. 
 
 1044. The first thing that impresses itself upon us, more in 
 some than in others, but strong in all, is the prefixes or augments. 
 Many of them are used to perform the usual ofSce of prefixes in 
 other languages ^-but very many more have not developed them- 
 selves into any individual significance. We see these prefixes 
 in great abundance in the Herero, a language of the western 
 part of Southern Africa. We find here such prefixes as omu, e, 
 okuy as, omu-ndu, man ; omurko, region ; oku, which is really 
 an infinitive prefix, like our to, is used also as an ordinary noun 
 prefix ; oku-oko, arm ; oku-ripam-hu, pride. 
 
 1045. Many of these prefixes clearly identify themselves, in 
 use, with the Malay articles. Many of them are doubled, or 
 receive a new pronominal element with them; such are the 
 double prefixes ivrdi, im-ha, in-ga. We find others thus, omu- 
 
AFRICAN LANGUAGIlS, 357 
 
 ^a-.^j=the.with.hating, i. e, the hating one, the enemy (a« 
 
 1046. The common origin of these prefixes wjth demonstra- 
 tives, or pronouns m the first place, and with prepositions next 
 1 proved over and over again in these tongues. We notice in 
 all these languages an entire absence of all that labored system 
 
 CrZt' ^^' T .-' ^°^ Pf'"" ."""^^"S' ^^i"'^ characterizes th^ 
 Greek and Latin and others of their cla^s. And yet we find iu 
 
 all these languages, in some more than in others, an evident 
 
 tendency to develop this very system of inflexion. Hence we 
 
 hnd a general absence of those marks which with ua, and others 
 
 distinguish the noun, adjective, and verb from each other and 
 
 the same form unchanged may be used to perform the office of 
 
 any one of them. 
 
 1047. In the Naniaqua or Hottentot, in South Africa, we find 
 the pronouns take .the place of a suffix article and case ending • 
 as, Jcoie, the man ; koi-na, the men ; kois, thou man ; koi-da, we 
 men — proving the identity of pronouns, case-endings, and arti- 
 cles. So we find ba here as a dative ending; thus, koi-ba, to 
 man — this ba is a clear demonstrative, and we shall find it also 
 with the verb ; di is in like manner used as a genitive sign. In 
 Akra, or Ga, we find tse, among others, as a sort of determinative, 
 or ending ; thus, man-tse, sien-tse, friend ; dien-tse, self. 
 
 1048. In all these languages, we find diminutives more or less 
 developed ; as, in Zulu, a form of Caffer, in South Africa, mja= 
 dog, ijyajia = little dog; mZM = house, Mjoana = little house. 
 In this tongue, we find nouns derived from verbs, distinguished 
 by a certain prefix, as im in im-bazo = an ox (from baza). So, 
 in Suaheli, from sowa=to read, we have wi-so9»a= reader (show- 
 ing that this im, m, is the Semitic prefix m of verbals). Infin- 
 itives are used as nouns, retaining their prefix uku; as, uku- 
 hamba, going. 
 
 1049. The plural is not generally well distinguished, but in 
 Zulu, as in others, we find it varying thus from the singular : 
 umuntu = ma.jx, abaniu = mea ; inlu=h.ovLsej izinlu = houses 
 — ^being a change in prefix. 
 
 1050. The adjective generally, in the African languages, fol- 
 lows the noun, showing its participial or verbal character. Com- 
 parisons are expressed by difierent contrivances; as, in Herero, 
 mountain thi^ goes above that, i. e., is higher than that ; honey 
 this very fine by that, i. e., is finer than that. In the Ewe lan- 
 guage, of West Africa, adjectives formed by reduplication are 
 very common ; as, dso-dsoe = right, ko-ko, holy. *[n short, redu- 
 plication appears everyTfhere in the African languages. In them, 
 too, we find the adjective used as verb, just as if we should use 
 wise for is-wise, was-v)ise. 
 
358 tHKASlS. 
 
 1061. In Zulu, we find adjectives of elements like this, ih&- 
 with-strengih, for strong ; as, umuntu u na-manla — man the 
 with-strength (ma ^ with); umuntu o na-manla — man who (is) 
 with-strength, i. e., who is strong. The absence of is in African 
 tongues is general. Verbs as well as nouns can be used as 
 adjectives, with the affix _/o, and that, too, not only in the present 
 but the past ; as, inJcosi e lungile-jo — king the good-being, i. e., 
 being good, the good king; umuntu o haTna-jo-^ (the) man the 
 wandering, i.e., ■who wanders; izinto e ngi zenzile-jo — (the) 
 thing the I heard, i. e., which I heard. In all these cases, the 
 verb is turned into a true participle, and e and o are used as 
 augments = the, who. ■ 
 
 1052. We notice particularly of the Zulu adjective, that it is 
 preceded by prefixes which vary according to the initial of the 
 noun pteoeding it ; as, umuntu om-kulu — man great, i. e., great 
 man (kulu — great) ; into en-kulu — thing great; isika esi-kulu 
 — tub great. Properly speaking, the real adjective hardly exists 
 in African, and it is rarely used. In some of the tongues at 
 least j the attributive adjective varies in form from the predica- 
 tive, as de and dew, den and denen. In some cases, the single 
 adjective is Used in one application and the duplicate, or double, 
 in the other. 
 
 1053. In the African class generally, the pronouns thou and 
 I exist independent, but the demonstratives, and hence the per- 
 sonals he, it, and she, tend to identify themselves with prefixes 
 and suffixes of nouns and verbs, and they are generally found as 
 such. In Zulu, this is particularly evident ; there, as in Herero, 
 the personals of the 3d person and demonstratives seem to have 
 a very close connection with the noun ; they are mere forms of 
 the noun prefix, and vary according to the prefixes of the noun 
 they are associated with ; as, Jena for he, when the noun prefix is 
 um, or u, and sona when it is isi — also kona when it is uku. So 
 we find le in-doda — the husband (le with prefix tm). All this 
 shows that the personal and demonstrative are mere duplicates 
 of the noun and verb augments. 
 
 1054. Here, too, the interrogative is to be referred back to 
 
 the demonstrative, and questions are made thus : ini loku na 
 
 what this here ? ini na are used together equal to what, but both 
 are demonstratives ; so, again, into ini loku na — thing what this 
 here ?**. e., what thing is this ? Mi Hike lijini — that (the) stone 
 it what (jini, what that), i. e., what stone is that? fo umuntu u 
 jini — that man he what, i. e., who is that man ? 
 
 1065. Eelatives here are only demonstratives of a certain kind 
 varying according to the noun they are found with ; for example' 
 ilizwe eli-mkaulo u kude — (the) land which-limits (whose-lim- 
 its) it far (are far) (di is noun prefix, eli is relative prefix, really 
 
AFRICA3Sr LANGUAGES. 359 
 
 = a,the that but here which, whose) ; umimtu ili-iswe lake li no- 
 mania— (the) man the-word his it mighty, i. e., a man whose 
 word IS mighty; %kaJ{i u li tandajo— (the) horse thou it hold 
 horse thou hold which, i. e., which you hold; amadoda e nqi 
 bonile wona — (the) men which (e) I seen them, or which I have 
 seen; o ngi huluma Am /e — whom (o) I speak to him (/e) i e 
 whom I speak to. ^ ' 
 
 1056. The use of pronoun for verb he is also common ; thus 
 m Herero, oami Jehova — I (am) Jehovah; oeie imh-a — vfe 
 (are) this. Here, too, the separate personals used as object 
 are before the verb ; as, ami me ku tono — I, I thee strike or 
 I will strike thee. The superfluous pronoun is very common • 
 as, the man he speaJcs, for the man speaks; ami ami ani — I I 
 who, I who am I. 
 
 1057. In Namaqua, the personals are all demonstratives ; so 
 is the interrogative. The pronouns of this and other African 
 languages, are easily referable to those of Semitic and South 
 Asiatic ; for instance, in Akra, ?rae and no, the, this ; le, the ; ni, 
 who. Here, too, all the augments, prefixes, andrauxiliaries, are 
 seen to be pronouns, or it is seen that pronouns are not different 
 from these augments. The same thing is seen very clearly also 
 in the Oji, In the African languages generally, we may say that 
 pronouns, in all their kinds, are found both separate and as fixes ; 
 the relative, like conjunctions, being usually absent or repre- 
 sented by demonstratives. 
 
 1058. With regard to the verb of African tongues, we notice, 
 generally, that regular forms for tense and mood are not found, 
 but that they are indicated by augments and auxiliaries. So, in 
 Namaqua, koiha ma, man gives ; koiha go ma, man has give 
 (£0 perf. sign). We find, here, tita ma — I give, or ma-ta^ give- 
 I; so, ma-ta go, give-I have, have given. The imperative and 
 infinitive here are the root ; there is a participle ending ia, as 
 ma-ia, giv-ing ; ge and a represent the verbs be and have (really 
 they are pronouns) ; tita ge koita, I be man ; koib ge ma, man 
 be give, does give, gives. 
 
 1059. As an instance of that repetition, that superfluity, so 
 often found in uncultivated languages, we instance this in Na- 
 maqua : tita ge ra ma — I be do give, i. e., I give. The passive 
 in this language is a form of the active ; as, tita ma-he — I am- 
 given Qie being passive sign). In Zulu, the passive differs from 
 the active, thus, loba (active), lokwa (passive); tanda, love, 
 tandwa, be loved ; buhisa and bujiswa; to form causatives, they 
 use is or isa; as, hamb-isa, from hamba, to go ; gi hamba, I go ; 
 ga hamba, I went (change in gi, the pronoun) ; go hamba, I 
 shall go (pronoun changed) ; gi hamb-ile, I have-gone (ending 
 
860 PHEASIS. 
 
 1060. The help-verbs are ha (be), ja (go), and za (come) ; 
 gi nga hamba — I can go. In Akra, e is the augment of the 
 perfect, as in Greek; as, /o:=:to do evil, e/b=has done evil. 
 We find here a great many compounds of two verbs, one of 
 which grows into a simplfe auxiliary ; as, go-see (go and see), for 
 see; take-shorn (take and show), for show ; he walks and goes 
 Ga, i. e., he goes to Ga; read this story show me, i. e., read to 
 me this story. 
 
 1061. In Herero, as in Gaffer, there are many derivative forms 
 of verbs ; as, suta, sutisa, sutika, sutira, having causative, reflex- 
 ive, and other meanings. Here, as in Zulu, tenses and .moods 
 are indicated by augments and auxiliaries. In Herero, ri= be, 
 ri7-a= become. In Oji, nii-ko, I go; wo-ho, thou go; o-ko, he 
 goes; ma-ko, I (have) gone; wa-ko, thou (hast) gone (change 
 of pronoun, as in Zulu) ; mi-her-ko, I will go ; wo-be-ko, thou 
 wilt go. It is hardly necessary to remark that in all these lan- 
 guages, the participle and its class are scarcely developed. 
 
 1062. In Ef^) ^s ™ ^'1 Wesf Africa, there is a great heaping 
 of verbs to express a single idea — all but one being a pure aux- 
 iliary; thus, he brought (a) sheep come give me, i. e., brought a 
 sheep to me ; he took his boy (to) go (to) stand up, i. e., stood 
 him up. Many of these form-, or help-verbs grow, in some 
 languages, to be conjunctions and prepositions, and their origin 
 is thus shown. 
 
 1063. We find in all the known languages of Africa, conjunc- 
 tions, prepositions, and adverbs. The last are more numerous, 
 being mostly pronouns, nouns, adjectives, and verbs, used ad- 
 verbially, just as we find in other languages. Conjunctions 
 especially are rare, and so are prepositions. Sentences and clauses 
 are detached, or they are connected as the elements of our com- 
 pounds without a conjunction. In Herero, it is said, there are 
 only four real prepositions, mu == in, pu = by, ku = up and on, 
 na = with ; all of which are pronominal in their character. 
 Many others are compounded from these, taken with some 
 noun or pronoun, like our in-stead, ?n-/rore<= before. 
 
 1064. But in many instances where we use prepositions, they 
 express the relation by the verb alone. The conjunctions in 
 Herero are almost identical with those four prepositions already 
 named. We find here, as in all languages, but particularly in 
 Semitic, nouns used as prepositions; as, in Ewe, ta, head, dsi, 
 cover, gbo, side. In Namaqua, the prepositions are principally 
 to be referred back to a verbal origin, and stand regdlarly after 
 the noun. 
 
 1065. We notice particularly in these languages, a scarcity of 
 abstract terms, and a multiplication of words by reduf lication. 
 We find many points of resemblance in orthography, not only 
 
AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 361 
 
 between the languages themselves, but between them and the 
 languages of Europe and Asia. We find reduplication, or repe- 
 tition, to express frequency of action, plurality, etc.; but we 
 notice often a slight variation in one of the duplicates, just as 
 we find with us. We might remark that all our cases of verb 
 with kindred bbjects (or any other) are also duplicates ; as, dream 
 a dream,, ash a question, talk a talk, see a sight ; also, one-hy-one, 
 here-and-there. 
 
 ■ 1066. A very noticeable peculiarity of the South African, is 
 the clacking, geese-like sound of their talk; in short, it may be 
 remarked that in all the rudest languages the talk partakes' more 
 and more of the character of the clacking, chirping, or even the 
 singing of birds. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 1067. The aborigines of the New World, the Indians, present 
 us with a class of uncultivated languages, diifering considerably 
 from those we have already noticed; yet the more light we get 
 on them, the more do we perceive that they are built on a basis 
 precisely similar to those of the Old World. As they have no 
 literature of their own, that is, as their language is not tangible 
 and we are left to the uncertainties of oral discourse, we can make 
 but a slow and unsteady progress towards an acquaintance with 
 these American idioms. Using such information as we now have 
 upon the subject, we will notice a few of the features of some of 
 the languages coming under this head. The Greenland tongue 
 
 we will notice first. i ii. a 
 
 1068. It possesses that leading character which marks the Amer- 
 ican languages generally, namely, long words and few of them ; 
 every word is here properly a whole or condensed sentence. 
 TheUnouns are developments not yet detached from the noun 
 orverb^; thus, igdlua^^his honse, iffdlut='thy ho^^e; takuva, 
 he sees' it; .a/isa.a, he will see ^}-^> j-^;:^'^,^:iS' ''' 
 terianiak takuva— (the) fox he-saw-him (he saw the tox) 
 
 T069 In the noun we find developed endings like the La in 
 
 46 
 
362 PHEASIS. 
 
 the nature of inflected forms — especially a great variety of forms 
 of verb like the Semitic. 
 
 1070. The demonstratives are familiar to us ; ma, here, tass, 
 there, w, here ; manga, from here, mana, this, na that and what ; 
 7dna, who, suk, what, Jcikut, which ; nuna-ga, my land, nun^et, 
 thy land, nuna-mit, of land, nunaunit, of my land. 
 
 1071. Nominative and objective forms exist; as, nuna, land 
 (ohj.), nunap (nom.); so, tasek (obj.), tatsvp (nom.). Even the 
 particles are developed at the end like the Latin -que, -ve, -ne ; 
 pitsut, th.Q poor, pitsutdle, but the poor ; Jcavane, in South, kavani- 
 lunit, or in South. Some particles are separate ; tokuvok angu- 
 nito — he-is-dead his-father-also, i. e., he and his father are dead ; 
 dngune tokimgmat, uterpok — his-father-when he-was-dead, he- 
 came-back (when his father died) ; kitornanut tuniupa — to-his- 
 child he-gave-it; kajalc issiyara omikatit — (a) kajak I-saw- 
 him he-oomes-to-you, i. e., I saw a kajak who came to you. 
 
 1072. Many of these particles which we use, are not expressed, 
 or they lie latent in the verb, showing, as we understand it, that 
 every sentence, with its pronouns and particles, is a pure growth 
 of the verb of that sentence; so, in naparssimassup misigilerpoh 
 — he-began-to-mark that-he-is-siok — the first being a growth 
 of the verb mark, and the latter, of the verb-adjective sick (a fine 
 illustration of the growth of the parts of a sentence in all languages. 
 
 Nuna-vtinit kanipok — by-our-lands he-is-near (he-near). All 
 adjectives in this and other American idioms, are real verbs or 
 participles; as, nuna panertok — land the-dry, being dry, which 
 is dry; they develop endings, as I-great = am great, he-great 
 :^is-great; igpagssak kikia-lia-ra — yesterday my-made-nail 
 {kikiak is nail, liak^^lia has the force olmade, ra=mj). 
 
 1073. Participles, infinitives, and moods, have their own end- 
 ings ; tenses are not much distinguished. Prepositions follow 
 the noun. We notice here and throughout the class, that a dif- 
 ferent object makes a diflS'erent verb; so, they might have the 
 word wash in wash-hands, and another verb to express wash-face, 
 i. e., they do not always generalize as we do. What we consider 
 as the same kind of action, known by one common name, they 
 may look upon as quite difi'erent, and on the other hand, for very 
 different things, they have names which can hardly be distin- 
 guished, that is, they generalize often where we particularize or 
 separate. 
 
 1074. The absence of abstract, insensible, ideas exists every- 
 where in the American class of languages ; they can think of 
 this tree and that tree, my tree or his tree, beech tree ov pine tree, 
 but not of a tree in general, i. e., of no particular tree at all. We 
 notice in all these Indian tongues, that they do not see things 
 
AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 363 
 
 as iadiyiduals, but always as being somewbere and belonging 
 with something. Their sentences are not made up of words, but 
 they seem to be struggling to grow words out of sentences. 
 
 1075. In Dakotah (Sioux), we find a suffixed article, kin; 
 ivicaxta-kin^- the man. The adjective follows the noun ; as, 
 maka waxto — land good; from which we judge that the adjec- 
 tive is a true verb or participle. Poss. pronouns are prefixed ; as, 
 <a-wa =his God ; ta-wala =his ship. So the persons are known 
 through prefixes; SiS,wakaga=^l make, i/a-kaga=t}io\im3k.est, 
 kaga ^=\e makes ; loa-ni, I will, ya-ni, thou will, ni, he will ; rd 
 kta = he make will, will make ; waya. ^ I am ; yaya = thou 
 art ; ya == he is. Prefixes are prominent in this language ; as, 
 jia-j-om = hear, ma-pa = flee, raa/m=stand; in like manner the 
 prefixes ana, ko, o, etc. There are many verbs with ending ya, 
 the verb he ; cante-ya = love ; iye-ya = make. The passive, 
 infinitive, moods, tenses, and participles are hardly differentiated 
 here ; they are either indicated by particles, or known by con- 
 nection. 
 
 1076. There is a general tendency in all these languages, as 
 well as elsewhere, to conjugate all parts of speech, that is, to 
 treat them as verbs. It should be borne in mind, by the way, 
 that when we put a noun, adjective, adverb, etc., after le, we 
 treat it as participle, *. e., as a verb ; thus, is here, is on, is a man, 
 is good. So they also take the word man in the sense of being 
 a man, and from or on this develop the pronouns; as, he-man 
 = he-being-a-man, or he is a man, all a development of man. 
 This is not strange, when we bear in mind that with us go-er= 
 one-who-goes, and this latter expression contains no more than 
 goer-one, the who being represented by the development er. 
 
 1077. In the Lenapi (Delaware) language, we find the adjec- 
 tive and noun united; as, chingo-teney = gvea.t yiWage (cMngue 
 = great, and oiteMey= village. Indeed, in all the wild tongues, 
 we can say that the parts of the sentence, short and frequent 
 as sentences are, constitute one undistinguishable mass. 
 
 1078. Ki-soghen-injenin =1 take you by the hand (one word, 
 or the growth of one) (of this, the part sogenav,t=i&te, grasp, 
 oninjima = hand, ^i = thee) ; soginikenvn = take-by-the-hand- 
 him (mm™==my hand, ki/n,ing = thy hand). In these conglom- 
 erations of words, we do not find the full form of the separate 
 elements, but only a part of them, indicating that those parts are 
 not full grown. We find this mutilation of elements m the com- 
 pounds of other languages not American. In the first example 
 take.hy.hand is plainly a growth on hand^ a basis -and we 
 may call to mind our own handle, from hand, which may be 
 used for take-by-the-hand. And the moment it gets to be a 
 
364 PHRASIS. 
 
 verb, it may of course also develop nom. and obj. pronouns, like 
 
 any verb. 
 
 1079. Lei us take one term more : quita-guchg-ook^^ serpent 
 which fears the day (and lives in the earth) ; the first part indi- 
 cates quitameu = to fear; gischgu flight, day; acJigood— ser- 
 pent (a fear-ligbt serpent). We find in this language, as in 
 others, many prefixes. Here, as elsewhere, the person signs of 
 verbs are prefixes to them ; as, n-pendame = I understand, ji-pem- 
 daxi= I am understood. 
 
 1080. We will dwell a moment on the Huron, one of the most' 
 instructive of these wild idioms. They have neither derivative 
 nor compound forms as we have. No noun is found without its 
 pronoun — not father alone, but his-father, my-father, etc. They 
 are without the use of pure abstract terms. Their adjectives are 
 pure verbs. They do not speak of good and had alone, but they 
 always use those words as a verb ; thus, he is good, yon are had. 
 And if they do not have separate adjectives, they neither have 
 
 , separate verbs, as walk, go, cut. Active verbs are found only 
 with their objects; as, cut-wood, cut-head-off. The same is true 
 of the Mexican verb. To take the verb away from its object or 
 subject, is an abstraction unknown to them. They have no pre- 
 positions or conjunctions. They do not have distinct forms to 
 denote act, actpr, acting:. Tenses hardly exist. Such are some 
 of the points in the account given of the Huron. It accords 
 with our notion of what a language most infantile would be in 
 these respects. 
 
 1081. There are many points of identity which we find be- 
 tween the difierent and even remote American idioms, especially 
 the prevailing n for 1, k for thou (as in Semitic). In the Peru 
 tongue, ca-ni = I am, ca-nqui = thou art, can = he is, or they 
 are; mamai/^=mj mother, mama.n=.his mother. In Mexican, 
 m-auh=l go, ti-auh,j-auh = he go ; mo-9n.a=:thy hand, mo-ca 
 = you with, wo-ca = me with; m-ca = I am, ii-ca = thou art, 
 era = he is. This language and that of Peru seem more elevated 
 than the other Indian idioms. 
 
 1082. The importance of any of the American tribes as a 
 people is not sufficient to justify here any extended review of 
 these idioms. We have given only briefly a few points in which 
 they particularly instruct us. They are languages embryonic 
 and more or less chaotic. They give us positive proof of what 
 embryonic language is. In so far, and only so far, are they 
 Valuable at present. 
 
ABSTBACT PHILOLOGY. 365 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ABSTKAOT PHILOLOGY. 
 
 Reduplication. 
 
 1083. No feature is found more universally in language than 
 reduplication. It is found in all idioms, but it is most promi- 
 nent in the wildest and rudest tongues. It is in these languages 
 that we see most clearly that doubling is the leading and Ijrigi- 
 nal source from which new terms are got — doubling not only of 
 syllables but of words. This phenomenon continually impresses 
 itself upon us, meeting us everywhere, at every step and at every 
 turn, forces us to conclude that language in its whole growth 
 and in the growth too of its parts, is a mere result of the working 
 of the principle of repetition. That language is in the likeness 
 of a living organism, following the laws of a living organism, is 
 a fact admitted by all intelligent philologists of the present day. 
 The proposition itself is not denied, but the notion of it is crude 
 and imperfect; it needs time and- thought to enable us to feel 
 and see that language does live and grow. 
 
 1084. But if language does live and grow, it must live and 
 grow as the animal, the plant, and the crystal, for all things 
 grow alike. And what is the fundamental law of their growth? 
 It is development by repetition ; thi's is plainest in the lowest 
 orders of creation, and it grows dark as we reach the organism 
 which is more perfect, more intricate. In the plant we see the 
 leaf, even the twig, the branch, repeated hundreds of times. In 
 the lowest animals, which are still far above plants, we see the 
 same arm, the same foot, the same segment, repeated, with 
 scarcely arly perceptible difference, over and over again. As we 
 rise higher in the scale of being this likeness of parts, this dou- 
 bling, becomes obscured. The highest animal has just as many 
 parts or organs as the lowest, but they have become differentiated, 
 so that in quadrupeds; for example, what things we find so much 
 alike as to be called by one name, we find again m man so much 
 unlike that- we call one set arms and hands, and the other set 
 legs and feet. . ,, 
 
 1085 But even in the highest organism, as man, there are 
 certain parts of the structure that evidence this duplication prin- 
 ciple most clearly; there are the two ears two eyes, two teet, 
 the fingers, the hairs of the head, the teeth and the like. Go 
 where you will in the living creation, you will find all increase to 
 be a continuous repetition of one model, as one cell followed by a 
 like cell, one bud followed by another bud, one segment by a 
 
366 PHKASis. 
 
 like segment, one arm by another arm. And if when the being 
 is arrived at maturity, we find the highest parts differing from 
 the lowest in character, the skillful naturalist can show you 
 where this difference is apparent and not real, and that the two 
 most remote parts of the body are yet repetitions of one type. 
 No new part is ever created ; one structure has as many and the 
 same parts as every other structure. To repeat illustrations 
 given elsewhere, the elephant has a trunk and tusks, but they 
 are only a developed nose and teeth; the wings of the bird and 
 bat, the fins of fish and the claws of the crab, are only develop- 
 ed arms and feet; the shell of the tortoise is but the internal 
 framework of bones of other animals, here grown upon the out- 
 side. In chemistry we find the same evidence ; a few simple 
 elements lie at the base of all things, that is, all things are made 
 of the same ingredients repeated over and over again. (Even 
 the number of these few elements is becoming less and less, as 
 we become acquainted with their cha^raoter). 
 
 1086. The picture we have given of the living creation is the 
 picture as well of language and its parts. We need only take a 
 comprehensive view to perceive this truth ; in fact, we may use lan- 
 guage to illustrate growth in nature generally. The Eight or 
 Ten parts of speech are the development of one type, and we can 
 easily trace them all back to that common ancestry. The dif- 
 ferent letters which we find in the alphabet are the growth of 
 one single letter, or at least of a very few; and it is the repetition 
 of this one, or these few, which constitutes the framework of so 
 many thousand words. Words repeated or words growing upon 
 words make new terms; these new terms by doubling again pro- 
 duce new terms of a higher scale, as leaf follows leaf and twig 
 follows twig. Terms make phrases, phrases make sentences, and 
 these again make composition, and all by growth, all by the re- 
 petition of like elements. There is no true compounding, no 
 putting together of old parts ; all being one from the other or on 
 the other, as we find budding in plants and the lower animals. 
 
 1087. We have seen elsewhere that the letters of the word 
 are duplicates, as the hairs of the head are duplicates; the words 
 of every term, as that from adjective and noun, of every phrase 
 or sentence, are repetitions of words having meanings in fact 
 alike, without which likeness they would not grow together. 
 The cause gives character to the effect, the parent cannot beget 
 that which is not in harmony with its nature. When we say the 
 fisher fishes fish with a fishline (fisher), every one sees the repeat- 
 ed words, and yet the same kind of repetition exists in every 
 sentence. When we say the man catches fish with a hooh, we 
 use mcs?i= fisher, cafcAes^ fishes (a particular kind of fishing), 
 7iooA:= fisher, fishing-thing (sometimes used in fishing). 
 
ABSTRACT PHILOLOGY. 367 
 
 _ 1088. But then there is about this term and idea of repe- 
 tition, something to be borne in mind, in natural history as 
 well as in philology. Nothing is properly repeated; it is only 
 that imaginary thing, the form, that is thus repeated. The 
 h of book is as different from the h of boy as o and y, or o 
 and Jc. However much alike any two doubled words or doubled 
 letters may be, they are yet besides as unlike, as distinctly in- 
 dividual, as any two other words or letters. So, again, in living 
 beings, similar as may be our two eyes, two ears, two hands, they 
 are nevertheless, too, very distinct, very different, things; one 
 never does and never can take the place of the other. 
 
 Interrogative Expressions. 
 
 1089. The difference between interrogative and affirmative 
 amounts, when carefully sifted, to nothing. We know indeed 
 that we use the relatives who, which, and what, as interrogative 
 without any change of form and meaning; we know, also, that 
 we can take an affirmative expression, as you spoke, and make a 
 question of it by adding the interrogative sign, thus, you spoke? 
 Again, the very form which we commonly denominate interrog- 
 ative, as does he speak? is not peculiarly such; we use it in cases 
 not interrogative ; as, does he speak, (then) all listen, i. e., if ' 
 he speaks. Every subjunctive expression is one which con- 
 tains a question, and is hence interrogative. Our ordinary 
 question forms, as what (did) he say?, imply another part which 
 is commonly suppressed, as I ask what didhe say, or what he said ? 
 
 1090. Every question is a dependent form, like a subjunctive 
 expression, governed by some such verb as ask, wish-to-know, 
 etc.; thus, can he read^^^^Iwish to know (if) can he read, or 
 tell me (if) he can read. Hence, we must insist that our ques- 
 tions are subjunctive, questionable, doubtful, and not, as gram- 
 marians say, indicative. While our question-form differs often 
 from the indicative, we must bear in mind that, in very many 
 languages, there is commionly no difference at all in the arrange- 
 ment. In many cases, a particle is used with the form to indi- 
 cate doubt or question, like our if he speaks, does he speak, 
 whether he reads, perhaps he reads = does he read? All such 
 words or particles in any language indicating doubt or question, 
 are pure interrogative marks. 
 
 1091. Negative forms are closely related to interroga,tives. 
 We can say equally can he read?, or can he not read?, will you 
 take this? or will you not take this? It is as true in philology 
 as it is in philosophy generally, that the negative is a form, a 
 growth of the affirmative, or that both are different developments 
 
368 PHRASIS. 
 
 of the same form ; thus, ignorant denotes knowing, but a particu- 
 lar kind of knowing, i. e. knowing nothing or little ; so, unsuc- 
 cessful is a kind of successful, and the former is a growth of the 
 latter by a development of the prefix nfi, just as wrong is a form 
 of right, and there a form of here. 
 
 1092. We must identify negatives with opposites; the opposite 
 of heat is cold, and we may call one the negative of the other, and 
 still one is just as positive, as real, it is as much something, as 
 the other is^— so, taking is as positive as giving, minus is as pos- 
 itive as plus, low as high; empty as full, bad- as good. 
 
 1093. The idea should be forever banished that a negative is a 
 nothirt^, a nonentity; that nothing is not a thing as well as some- 
 thing is. We have more than once had occasion, ety mologically, to 
 identify what are usually considered the most opposite terms, as 
 hig a,ud.< little,' one and none, few and many, to and from. We 
 have noticed in other languages a regular class of negative verbs; 
 based on the affirmative, they are merely a departure from it, as 
 our cant from can, mistake from take, undo from do — just such 
 verbs as de-bar, in-lay, dis-cover. 
 
 Compounds. 
 
 1094. Every instance where an adjective is joined to a noun 
 affords us an example also of a compound; and we must bear in 
 mind in this connection that the case of one noun joined to an- 
 other to denote a single, object, is one precisely that of an ad- 
 jective joined to a noun — every adjective being a real noun in 
 an oblique case, and always to be so considered. 
 
 1095. But the real question under this head is, how two names 
 usually denoting each one thing, can come to be so united as 
 together to denote but one object. It occurs to us that these 
 two names, however much we may endeavor to unite them, never 
 do cease each to denote their own object, though it may be true 
 that one is more or less slighted, as road in rail-road. Express- 
 ed in other words, we are using two names to denote one object, 
 with the design of being more specific or definite, exactly on the 
 same principle as we say a tall old-oak-tree, one which is tall, old, 
 and of oak. That the name rail may be used to denote the ob- 
 ject known as a rail-road, may be seen by such expressions, as 
 goods sent hy raU, travelling hy rail. 
 
 1096. Another kind of compound is found in such expressions 
 as Clayton- Bulwer treaty, i. e. the treaty of Clayton and Bulwer, 
 the South-Atlantic ocean, i. e. which is south and Atlantic. 
 
 1097. So that we conclude any two or more words joined togeth- 
 er by any connective, as tall and straight, men and women, better 
 than that, men of talent, nails with heads, iron for wheels, constitute 
 
ABSTRACT PHILOLOGY. 369 
 
 a true compound, and just such a one as taknted men, headed- 
 nails, wheeUron. It will be remembered that in the Eastern 
 languages tV great body of compounds were found to be words 
 thus connected. We now understand that there is a reason for 
 such expressions, in Hebrew, as the choice of thy valleys, for iky 
 choice valleys,the strong of shields, tor strong shields, and a reason 
 why we say the fashion of the place, for the fashionableness of 
 
 1098. Compound sentences are as much compounds and iust 
 such compounds as we have found in words— they are made up 
 of two or more inseparable parts, elements, and yet the compound 
 is practically a unit, a single sentence. How two sentences as 
 this is the man, whom 1 saw, i. e. this is the man, him I saw, can 
 ever become one sentence, is just as incomprehensible, for 'it is 
 the same question, as how we should ever come to consider one 
 thing as being two, or two things one. It is the identical ques- 
 tion of the idea of number, and one not so easily solved. 
 
 1099. It will have been observed long before this, that the lin- 
 guistic system of this work is based not on the current doctrine 
 that two things unite and form one, but, reversed, that one thing 
 develops, grows, and manifests the new elements not as real, separ- 
 ate individuals, but as formerly latent, covered, folded parts now 
 becoming visible. This idea is illustrated and repeated in the 
 history of every living, growing thing. The majestic oak now 
 with its thousand leaves and scores of boughs, once emerged 
 from the ground a simple, single, stem, with all its parts folded, 
 compressed, encased. It has displayed its innumerable parts, 
 but all the while it remains in number simply one, an oak. So 
 it is with words that grow into parts, and so it is with the sen- 
 tence also. 
 
 1100. In the sentence named above, if we take the idea of 
 one sentence, we must consider whom I saw as an adjective, or 
 rather participle, belonging to man; that is the relation it now 
 holds to the main body of the sentence. The word whom as a 
 relative is known to be an adjective ; it has a tendency to become 
 independent, just as the personals, originally adjective pronouns, 
 are now become individualized; — in this respect, the relative 
 stands as a sort of transition from the adjective to the personal. 
 As before suggested, whom-I-saw is a true participle=</ie-see»i- 
 one-by me; indeed we say, he is the man seen hy me, he is the 
 man I-saw (me-seen, my-seen). It is very clear that whom is 
 not the object of saw, that it is the mere development of a parti- 
 ciple prefix, like the in the-seen-one. We have no doubt that all 
 adjective expressions like these in compound sentences, are the 
 growth of participles at first suffixed to the main verb in a rude 
 state. 
 
 47 
 
370 PHRASIS. 
 
 1101. All other compound sentences are to he referred back 
 to the relative class as the original one, especially those made by 
 connectives, as and, as, when, all of which are pronouns, and 
 more than that, relatives also; thus as=iisk-os^as=:v>ho;¥T. 
 qiie=wMch^and, as; ««^e?i=: which; i/z='L. ibi,uhi, where^ 
 which. 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 1102. After having discussed the other moods as we have, 
 little need be said of the imperative. In all languages, it has a 
 history in common with the infinitive first, _^nd with 'the future 
 and the subjunctive next^all of which are often used for the 
 imperative, though they may difier from it considerably in form. 
 With a uniformity remarkable, in the different languages, the 
 imperative is the shortest, barest, form of the verb — so much so 
 as to give us often what is called the root of its class. 
 
 1103. Indeed there is very little of the verb about the imper- 
 ative ; it is a mere term of exclamation, and partakes most of the 
 character of an interjection. When a man exclaims in terror, a 
 tiger! a tiger! he uses an imperative as much as if he said see! 
 see ! If 1 say roam where we will, I use roam as a mere abstract 
 noun = a roam he it where we will, or he the roaming where we 
 will. 
 
 1104. The imperative, being identical with the infinitive, is a 
 dependent, objective, term always governed by some implied 
 verb, as Iwish that, or ask that, or demand that you do this, 
 for do this. Hence, we easily understand how it tends to identify 
 itself with the form of an oblique case; thus, in Latin, r€^e = imp. 
 rule; is identical with rege=^j a ruler; and aMC?ito = hear thou, 
 and hear him, also aM(^i<84=with hearing; and ama= love thou, 
 aMd'i=hear thou, have the form of an ablative singular. G'k 
 imperatives have case endings; witness on-t6nz=g&a.. plur. 
 
 1105. It is worthy of remark that the simple form of the 
 Latin imperative, as ama=: love, is condensed for amat, for we 
 find another form of the same, amato ; besides, it is often seen 
 that the imperative is a mere departure from the 2d sing, prest. 
 ind. (or subj.) amas, ames. But amato may perhaps better 
 show the supine in the abl. case. In G'k, too, tupte (imp.) = 
 twptet, as one of the forms is tupteto. The old L. estud^he 
 (imper.) also shows the ablative. 
 
WOKDS IMPLIED. 871 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 WORDS IMPLIED. 
 
 Z106. We frequently speak of words being understood or im- 
 plied; we seem to imagine that a word expresses or indicates 
 more than it does express or indicate, that a word means more 
 at one time than it does at another, more when it stands alone 
 than when accompanied by other words. Thus, we say that in 
 the expression the wise are esteemed, wise means wise men, or wise 
 people. The point which we must first settle- in discussing this 
 question is, what is the difference between the wise are esteemed, 
 and wise men are esteemed? There is certainly a difference in 
 the forms of these expressions, and is there not an equal differ- 
 ence in their value and nature ? iln the first case, wise presents 
 to the mind one idea, that of a certain and distinct class, the 
 wdse; in the next, there is- an attempt made to direct. the mind 
 to two objects, two classes, at the same time, men and the wise 
 of men. But as it is impossible for us to think of two objects 
 at the same time, when we turn to' one, we must lose sight of the 
 other ; we think of the wise or of meray according as we empha- 
 size, or accent, the former or the latter. , It is a mistaken idea 
 that wise is not as much the name of a class as men is, and that 
 one is I not as much adjective or noun as the other. All such 
 terms made by the adjective and noun are compounds, two inde- 
 !pendent.:WOrds united, precisely as in any other compound; — as 
 in stone-house, hamrHer-handle. ' 
 
 1107. Butmtire than this, 'in all such cases, when we mean 
 to speak oi wise men as a class of men, distinguished or marked 
 by their wisdom, the adjective, so called, is the real principal, 
 and mew is the real adjective, the cipher. It is not men that are 
 esteemed, it is a class,'a part, of men; it is the iwisdom, and not 
 •the. manhood../ Nouns following adjectives in this way, are the 
 determinatives, the radicals or general terms, which prevail in 
 the Asiatic languages. They are the kind of thing named, but 
 the adjective points out the what of that kind. The denomina- 
 tor of the fraction represents -the noun, while the numerator, 
 which tells how many or what, is the adjective. And just as, 
 the numerators, and coefficients, are alone added, subtracted, and 
 divided, leaving the denominator, the thing named or number^ 
 ed) to follow along as * valueless and unnoticed element, so it is 
 precisely with the adjective. _ ., '• ., , 
 
 1108. lixe point always lies in the adjective; that is the real 
 
372 PHKASIS. 
 
 subject. When we say we like good men, or ta?rmen, or sweet 
 a;pples, or sour wine, it is not the men, or apples, or wine in gener- 
 al, that we like; it is only a certain kind of these' classes; it is 
 the goodness, the tallness, sweetness, sourness, that strikes us so 
 favorably. When we say ten hooks will suffice, we have no re- 
 ference to what will suffice, the thing, the kind, but rather how 
 much, or how many, and that point lies in the word ten. Hence 
 ten, we apprehend, is the real and only subject — hooks being 
 parenthetical, adjective, valueless. If we say ten of books have, 
 the ancient of poets have, much of money has, this of business 
 has (all which are common and prevailing forms in other lan- 
 guages), no one would for a moment doubt that the adjective is 
 the subject, and that the noun is the real adjunct or adjective. 
 Why is not the fact the same in the equivalent English express- 
 ions, ten hooks, ancient poets, much money ? 
 
 1109. But if the point does lie in the adjective, if that is the 
 real and only subject, of what use is the noun following it? Of 
 the same use as the denominator, the thing numbered, in Arith- 
 metic — this and no more. But numbers are alone considered 
 in Arithmetic, while the thing numbered is continually lost 
 sight of. This is exactly the case in language. When we speak 
 of a certain kind of thing, denoted by the adjective, we lose 
 sight of the thing to which the kind belongs ; and though the 
 kind is not dropped in print, or in conversation, it is so disre- 
 garded, so slighted, in pronunciation as well as in thought, that 
 we leave it unaccented, and it passes along for a mere cypher. 
 In language, as in mathematics, as soon as the subject of thought 
 or conversation is named or known, we need not have it repeat- 
 ed again; we deal after that only with adjectives, with marks 
 that point out who, what, what kind, exactly as in mathematics 
 we deal only in numbers, or marks which indicate how many. 
 Thus, speaking of John, we say : he (or John) rises early in the 
 day, prepares himself for its labors, and sets about performing 
 them ; at night (he) may turn back and see what (he) has ac- 
 complished.! Observe that the subject appears but once for all 
 these verbs; and should.it be named before each one, it would 
 be none th« less a mere cipher. 
 
 1110. We now "begin to see how one word may represent 
 several words, as is often said, and we see what the real state of 
 the case is when words are said to be implied. We say the wise 
 are esteemed (instead of wise men}, because the point lies only 
 in the adjective, and the noun falls oflF as useless. (It is usual- 
 ly said, in such case, that the adjective stands for a noun. This 
 is not correct, for wise, if it stands for anything, stands for wise 
 men. But is there not a palp?,ble absurdity here, when wise 
 
WORDS IMPLIED. 373 
 
 is assumed to stand for, or be equivalent to, itself and something 
 more ?) ° 
 
 1111. We observe still further, that in the expression ivise 
 men are esteemed, wise and men both of themselves indicating 
 a class, one or the other, in the thought, must be eliminated, for 
 we cannot speak of the wise and of men also. If we give the 
 adjectives the force, we wish to distinguish the wise from the 
 foolish (nothing said or thought of men); but if we give the 
 force to men, we wish to distinguish men from those who are 
 not men (nothing said or thought of wise, or any other class of 
 men). 
 
 11 12. The student cannot be impressed too thoroughly with 
 the idea that nouns point out a kind of thing, to distinguish 
 from some other kind of thing, precisely as the adjective does ; 
 that a noun may be or is understood after every noun, just as 
 much as after wise in the expression the wise are esteemed. 
 There are book things, men persons, house property, table articles, 
 exactly as there are good things, wise persons, this property, that 
 article. We speak of servant, and that is a pure noun ; but 
 servant is a serving one '. — it is really the Latin form of our 
 serving, and no more. Our words, senior, level, walker, wader, 
 youths, a black, a gray, we see clearly are adjectives, and only 
 adjectives ; — other nouns are just such adjectives, though their 
 history may not be quite so plain. And as no one thinks that 
 any noun is understood after such nouns, so no one should think 
 of supplying a noun after adjectives' used alone as these nouns 
 are. 
 
 1113. The sooner we come to understand that many words 
 stand unquestionably alone and independent, the sooner we shall 
 find language a simple and easy thing. It is perhaps unneces- 
 sary, so often has it appeared already in the course of this work, 
 in different ways, and yet we reproduce it, and remark, that not 
 only some adjectives have no nouns with which to be connected, 
 but rather that no adjectives have such nouns, in the sense in 
 which the proposition is usually understood; that they each 
 stand independent of the other, and are wholes in themselves, 
 bearing latent, each in its own individuality, the essence of the 
 whole clause. We see this most strikingly in the Chinese 
 tongue, where there is no connection or agreement, and where 
 every word stands apart from the others and independent of them. 
 
 1114. And the difficulty which we so often experience when 
 we undertake to dispose of adjectives in which we assume that 
 something- is understood, lies in the fact that we start upon this 
 wrong basis, namely, that every adjective must belong to some 
 noun. We all know that many adjectives do occur where it is 
 impossible that any word should be implied ; such as, in vain, 
 
374 ;: PHRASis, , 
 
 at least, at first, besides all pronouns and adverbs (wlycb we 
 know to be adjectives in origin). There are also those cages 
 where the adjective follows the verb ; as, is fflad, grows warm, 
 looks fine, stands erect, was mine : who would say that it is glad 
 something, or erect something ? Just as niuch as in the express- 
 sion he is an orator, it is orator something — just as muph and 
 no more. So in the case of participles, as he is walking j here 
 we are wont to call walking a. participle, i. e., an adjective, and 
 to say it belongs to he. But it is well-known that walking is, as 
 much a noun as any one can be which follows a verb in this 
 way, and hence it need not have, any more than such a noun, 
 another Wiord to belong to. The original form of such expressions, 
 it must be remembered, and that form still exists in m,any lan- 
 guages, was he is a walking, at or in walking,-^- in which the 
 noun character of the participle cannot be mistaken.. Again, 
 we speak of the Germans, the Romans (L. Homa/ni) , and never 
 think of putting people after them ; so in tropics, blacks, ones, 
 skeptics. 
 
 1115. But this fu,ndamental error which we have spoken of, 
 is not confined to adjectives. It is also . wrongly assumed that 
 every verb must have a nominative,' while in . fact many verbs 
 have none (if any do). Thus, John reads a, sentence, reflects, 
 and understands (it). The subject is named , but once, and it 
 need not be repeated. The point is not who, but what. What 
 does John do ? — Answer, reads a sentence, reflects, and under- 
 stands (it). Will any one insist that those verbs ought to have 
 nominatives ? It is at least certain they do not have any. 
 Again, what is John engaged in?. — answer, reading, reflecting 
 (or reflection), and understanding. Do these nouns need to 
 have nominatives forced upon them ? No. But all words are 
 developments of just such verbal nouns as these ; and in their 
 application, they never get to be more than verbal nouns, never 
 have any more of expression or affirmation than they do. In 
 other words, to insist that every verb must have a nominative, 
 whether it will or not, is to assume that every infinitive, every 
 participle, must have one ; it is to insist that every .verbal noun, 
 or one derived from a, verb, as addition, reception, governnient, 
 and the Hke, must also have one. We need pot, then,, say that 
 many verbs have no nominatives, but that they do no more have 
 them than all. nouns and adjectives do, those derivedi from verbs 
 at least. 
 
 1116. In other languages much more generally than in this, 
 verbs are without nominatives, it being assumed, as in Latin, 
 for example, that the endings (which we have elsewhere shown 
 to be a mere development of participial endings), repregent 
 nominatives. Again, in all our cases where pronouns are assumed 
 
ElDICALS. 375 
 
 to be the nominative, we may say the verb really has none. 
 When we say John writes- and he reads, the he is valueless ; it 
 isnothing but an augment Of' prefix. : We have shown else- 
 •where that a ^e, -sAe, if, and «%, are otily forms of i!Ae, an article 
 wHich we^now to be a meaningless prefix to the word that fol- 
 lows It We have seen in more than one language, they reading, 
 the reading (pn^ plur. form of part.),, get to be they read, or 
 represent It. We have proved over and over again that the 
 verb in all its moods, tenses; and persons, is only the participle 
 wrought up into difi'erent shapes. So when we sa.j it rams, 
 there goes, 'they say, there is really no nominative ; it is not 
 meant to say who or what goes, says, rains, bnt merely that there 
 i§ a going, saying, raining (verbal nouns and no more). 
 
 1117. In conclusion, we claim that words should always be 
 treated as what they are, and not as what we would assume or 
 wish them to be. 
 
 1118. We turn next and consider, in this connection, the sub- 
 ject of abbreviated words. Is . there anything implied in an 
 abbreviated word ? To use a paradoxical expression, is there 
 anything in it that is out of it?- By what right do we assume 
 that. Rob., or Bob, is a shortening of Robert ? We say a part is 
 left ofi' in the case of Rob. (-ert); hence, it is only a part of a 
 word, only a 'part of Robert. Is that true? Only a part of 
 a word! Is not Bob a whole word, a real name, as much as 
 Robert itself ? We might as well' claim that rise is a shortening 
 of rising, or faith of faithful, or bit of bite. Words are not 
 parts of words, or less than a word, because they are short ; a 
 is as much a word as and, and as much a whole word. So we 
 apprehend that par, kath, meth, and aph, are just as much forms 
 of Greek prepositions, and independent forms, as para, metd, 
 kata, and apo, from which they, the former, are assumed to be 
 derived. 
 
 Radicals. 
 
 1119. In looking over the Asiatic languages, we are struck 
 with the unwonted abundance of general terms. They are 
 wanting in that luxurious growth of endings which we find in 
 European languages, and among other substitutes for these 
 endings, they employ general or generic terms which are lost 
 with us ; thus, they would say male man, for male, London city, 
 for London, walk go, for walk, Persian man, for Persian, preach 
 make, for preach, stranger man, for stranger, white metal, for 
 silver, great water, for ocean. These general terms are known 
 as radicals, or determinatives. 
 
 1120. The Chinese radicals or keys belong in this category. 
 
376 PHRASIS. 
 
 Every Chinese word has at least one of these generic or common 
 names as an element. These radicals have so little force, are so 
 abstract and ethereal, that, although found in the written char- 
 acter representing the word, they have no part in the sound of 
 the word when spoken; they are unaccented — mere ciphers. 
 They play a part exactly as the ending of our words, such as 
 -ous, in joyous, -er, in worker, -ment, in treatment, and we 
 consider the two classes parallel in every respect. Some of 
 these endings of ours grow into distinct individuality, and being 
 detached, become themselves words. So in Chinese, of these 
 keys, or radicals, some are found as separate words, while others, 
 again, exist only as component parts of the word-sign. That 
 these generic terms, these radicals, have grown out of or On the 
 other part, the sound-giving and accented element, of the 
 word-sign, just as ous, from joy, and er from work, we believe 
 is capable of demonstration. 
 
 1121. But it must be remembered that while those Asiatic 
 languages which thus abound in these general and apparently 
 superfluous terms, are by no means destitute of common end- 
 ings, our own languages are quite as far from being destitute of 
 common radicals. Every time we say go lost, for lost, go walk- 
 ing for walk,, take a sleep, for'sleep, keep watch, for watch, stand 
 talking, Delaware state, Albany city, negro, men, for negroes, 
 
 . loving ones, for lovers, ten heads of horses, for ten horses, we 
 are using those very same meaningless, valueless, terms which 
 we think characterize the Asiatic tongues. Our auxiliaries, 
 such as do, be, make, go, keep, etc., belong here — so do our 
 pronouns and particles. 
 
 1122. Prefixes ma,y also be referred to in this connection; 
 they also are meaningless marks, having a general and abstract 
 characterj similar to those radicals under consideration. That 
 they have no more value than these radicals, is seen by the 
 numberless instances where the word which is found with the 
 prefix in one language is found without it in others ; as, the 
 Latin ^eZfo=expel, re.pel, paro 3= ap-pear, paro::^ prepare, 
 por to = trans-port, Fr. pariir :=:; depart. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 THE NUMBEES BEFEB TO THE SECTIONS. 
 
 Abbreviations, explained, 157. 
 
 Adjectives, what they are, 12; when found after verbs, 13; they have 
 
 the nature of verbs, 14'; their degrees, 15; numerals, 17; adj. 
 
 and noun make a compound, 142, 143 ; they are developments of 
 
 noun endings, 144 ; like verbs, 152 ; after nouns they are adverbs, 
 
 163 ; how adj's and nouns agree, 154. 
 Adverbs, 41 ; what they are, 42; their forms and history, 196; those 
 
 of clear pronominal origin, 196, 197. 
 Afghan lang., 827 to 835. 
 After, its forms, 206. 
 African lang's, 1041 to 1066. 
 
 Albanian lang. and specimens, 802 to 805 ; forms of words, 806, 
 American lang's, 1067 to 1082. 
 Amharic lang., 904. 
 And, its forms, 201. 
 
 Anglo Saxon lang., its history, 593 to 599 ; its forms and specimens, 
 • 601 to 607, and 625. 
 
 Aorist, 104: in Greek, 408; 1st Aorist of Greek, 410 to 413. 
 Arabic, Etymology, 588; its forms, 901; selections, 923. 
 Armenian lang., 851 ; selections, 854. 
 Articles, what words, 17 ; forms, 172. 
 As, its forms, 202. 
 Augsburg dialect, 650. 
 Augments, defined, 109. 
 
 Back, its forms, 207. 
 
 Basque lang., or Iberian, its features, 714 to 721; specimens, 722; 
 
 forms of words, 723. 
 Bavarian dialect, 651. 
 Be, the verb ; in Gothic. 474 ; Ang. Sax., 476 to 478 ; Old Germ., 479 ; 
 
 French, 480 ; Italian, 481 ; Celtic, 482 to 487 ; Slavic, 488 to 493 ; 
 
 Albanish, 494; Wallachian, 495; Hungarian, 496; Finnish, 
 
 497; Mongolian, 498 ; Persian, 499; Arabic, 502; Greek, 503, 
 
 504. 
 Beluchees lang., 825. 
 
 Bengali lang., 988 and 989; selections, 990. 
 Berber lang., 973 to 976. 
 Birman lang., 999. 
 
 Bohemian, etymology, 582, ; lang. and specimens, 743 to 745, and 7/fa. 
 Bolognish dialect, 703. 
 
 Bulgarian lang., and specimens, 761 to 764, and 775. 
 But, its forms, 208. 
 By, its forms, 230. 
 
378 PHKASIS. 
 
 Case, what are case forms, 8; names of cases, 9 ; in Latin, 51; names 
 and forms in Latin, 54, 55; in Germ, and Ang. Sax., 9; in Latin, 
 case-forms a variation of gender-forms, 57; they rary to corres- 
 pond with verbs governing them, 58; oblique, 59; more than six 
 in some lang's, 107; endings of case, history and forms. 111 to 
 131 ; common ending for nom. case, 112 to 118; endings of all cases 
 a mere variation of one type, 118 ; Greek cases like Germ, and 
 English, 119, 120; endings disappear in mod. Lat. lang's; Slavic 
 case ending, 122; every genitive a plural, 133; identical with 
 personal endings, and a variation of suffix articles and demonstra- 
 tives, 129; adverbial endings belong with those of case, as well 
 as verbal and part., 129; case endings in Polish, 128; in Bohemi- 
 an, 124;' they are a growth to represent prepositioa'S, they add 
 nothihg to the word but grow out of it, 125. 
 
 Catalan lang., 706 ; specimen, 711. 
 
 CausaAives, 520 to 525. 
 
 Caucasian lanig's, 836 to 857. 
 
 Celtic lang's, history, 674; features, 676 and 687; Celtic mutations, 
 676 and 677. 
 
 Celt Briton, specimens, 680; forms of word's, 681. 
 
 Chaldaic, 899. 
 
 Cheshire dialect, 612. 
 
 Chinese lang., 875 to 893; writing, 885; specimens, 890 and 891. 
 
 Circassian lang., 847. 
 
 Clacking sound of African lang's, 1066. 
 
 Cleveland dialect, 622. 
 
 Comparison, of adj's in Latin, 61; not peculiar to adj's, 146 and 147; 
 'Oompiur. a form of positive, 147; every adj. a comparative, 148; 
 really no degrees in quality, 149; and none beyoind comparative', 
 150; superlative endings, 151. 
 
 Compounds, all dupliicates, 145; all made of like elements, 194; dis- 
 cussed, 1094. 
 
 Conjunctions, what they are, 43; the list, 44. (See Particles.) 
 
 Cornish lang., 679. 
 
 Cornwall dialect^ 613. 
 
 Craven dialect, 623. . 
 
 Croatian lang., 757. 
 
 Daootah lang/, 1075. 
 
 Danish, etymology, 577; Its words and Germ., 664; 'specimens, 666 
 
 and 672; compared with Swedish, 667. 
 Demonstratives, 173 to 177. 
 Det<byshire dialect, 616. 
 Derivatives, 526. . 
 Desiderativeis, 519. 
 Devonshire dialect, 616. 
 Dutch, etymology, 576; lang., 644; speoimeHS, 645. 
 
 Each, and any, their relatives, 187 and 188. 
 Egyptian, 906; lang. and specimens, 965 to 969. 
 Eight, its forms, 259 to -261. 
 
 Endings, defined, 108; of case. 111 to 131; personal, 387 to '345 
 English lang., its historyi 693; Old Eng. specimens, 608 to 61l' 618- 
 specimens of Eng. dialects, 612 to 624, ' ' 
 
 Ethiopio, 904; lang. and character, 971 to 972. 
 
INDEX. 379 
 
 Etymology, separating words into parts, 528; separating letters into 
 parts, 529,530; that of Germ., showing the form -which certain 
 words of ours assume there, 676; that of Dutch, 576 ; Danish, 577 ; 
 Latin, 578; Greek, 679; how its words identify with ours, end of 
 679; of Russian, 581; Gaelic, 584, note on same, end of 584; of 
 French, 580 — Fr. Orthography shows one letter equal to seyeral, 
 end of 580; Welch, 685; Hebrew, 586; Syriac, 587. 
 
 Every, its relatives, 186. 
 
 Even, Evor, forms, 209, 210. 
 
 Ewe lang., 1062. 
 
 Faroe Islands, lang., 662. 
 
 Femiuiues, 137 ; agree with plurals, also fem's and abstracts, 139 ; 
 
 fern's and 2d person agree, 141. 
 Finnish lang's, 782 to 798; Finn, proper, 789; divisions, 790; and 
 
 specimens, 791 to 798. 
 Finite, what it is, 40. • 
 
 Five, its forms, 253 to 255. 
 Flemish lang., 643 and 699. 
 For, its forms, 232, 233. 
 Four, its forms, 250 to 252. 
 Forms of words, any case-form or peraou'form is a form of .a wprd, 
 
 237 to 139. 
 Frequentatives, 510 to 514. 
 French lang., its forms and history, 689 to 691; specimens, 692 to 
 
 710; Old French forms, 697. 
 Friesic lang., 642. 
 Friulan dialect, 703. 
 Future, in Latin, 480; in Pol., etc., 431; Wallaohian, 482; Albanish, 
 
 433; equals prea't ind. and subj., 434; in Goth., 435; inlllyrian, 
 
 436; modern Latin, 437. 
 
 Gaelic, etymology, 584; specimens, 682; compared with Irish, 683. 
 
 Gascon dialect, 698. 
 
 Gender, what it is, and the kinds, 4, 5, 6; endings in Latin, 52; its 
 
 * true nature, 136. 
 Genoese dialect, 703. 
 German lang., its history and character, 627, 628; specimens, 629, end 
 
 of 645; pronunciation of Germ, letters, 630, note, page 157; 
 
 forms of Germ., 631 to 635; Old Germ., Francic, specimens, 686; 
 
 Old H. Germ, endings, 638 ; and its poetry, 640 641; dialects of 
 
 Germ., 649; etymology, 575; their compounds like ours, end of 
 
 575. 
 Gerund, what in Latin, 71. 
 Georgian lang, 848 to 850. 
 Gothic lang., 662 to 655; specimens, 656 to. 658; forms of words, 659 
 
 and 660. 
 Greek lang., idiom like Latin, 104; comp'd adj's, 105; articles, 104; 
 
 Greek etymology, 579— ho-ff words identify with ours, end of 579. 
 Greenland lang., 1068 to 1073. 
 
 Hawaii lang., 1017; specimens, 1020, 1021. 
 
 Hebrew, etymology, 586; difficulties, 909; selections, 912 to 920. 
 
 Herero lang., 1066 and 1063. 
 
 Hindostani lang., 992; selections, 994. 
 
 Hindee lang., 995. 
 
380 PHEASIS. 
 
 Hungarian, lang. and specimens, 783 to 786, 794; forms of words, 787. 
 Huron lang., 1080. 
 
 If, forma, 211. , „_^ 
 
 lUyrian lang. and specimens, 748.to 750; forms of words, 751. _ 
 
 Implied words, 1106 to 1118; adj. and noun form a compound, in 
 whicli one or tie other must be lost, 1106; the adj. is the real 
 principal, 1108 and 1109; the noun folio wing adj. is like the denom- 
 inator in arithmetic, 1109; nouns have nature of adj's, 1112; 
 adj's stand independent, 1113 and 1114; all verbs do not have . 
 nominatives, 1115. 
 
 Impersonal verbs, 505 to 509. 
 
 Inchoatives, 515 to 518. 
 
 Indefinite pron's, 186 to 192. 
 
 Indian lang's, 977. 
 
 Infinitive, in Latin, common ending, 69. 
 
 Instrumental case defined, 1 07. 
 
 Intevrogatives, 23 ; compared with affirmatives, 1089 to 1090. 
 
 Intransilives, 31. 
 
 Irish lang., compared with Gaelic, 684; letters, 686. 
 
 Italian, its character, 700; specimens, 701; lilseFr., 702; dialects, 703. 
 
 Japanese lang,, 1037 to 1040. 
 
 Javan lang., 1007. 
 
 Kawi lang., 1014 to 1016. 
 Karelian lang., 798. 
 Kalmuk, 870. 
 Kentish dialect, 617. 
 Kumanian, 870. 
 
 Latin, grammar, 50 to 79; selections, 80 to 101; its etymology, 578; 
 how easily it compares with Eng., end of 578; Latin lang's, 688. 
 
 Lancashire dialect, 624. 
 
 Lapp lang., 796. 
 
 Laws; the working of one thing into different results, without losing 
 identity, 130; that addding letters to a word gives no new sound, 
 but indicates an old one, 539. 
 
 Lenapi lang., 1077. 
 
 Lesghian lang. with specimens, 839. 
 
 Letters, the latent parts, 531; syllabic, 535; vowels implied in conso- 
 nants, or latent, 535 to 539; the base stroke or key of consonants, 
 540 to 543 ; our words like Chinese letters, 543 ; marked and single 
 letters really double, 544 to 546; assimilation of letters, 547, 548; 
 the form and value of the letters of the alphabet, showing the 
 connection of each, 549 to 566; the order of the alphabet in Heb., 
 Greek, and Russ., 567 to 571; other alphabets, 571; vowels, rela- 
 ted to each other, 572; they unite in diphthongs from harmony, 
 573; what vowels for ours, in Old Germ, and Lat., 574; letters 
 never lost nor silent, end of 580 ; their harmony, note, page 184. 
 
 Lettish lang., 772. 
 
 Lithuanian lang., 765 and 769; specimens, 770. 
 
 Locative case, 107. 
 
 Macassar lang., 1009 to 1013. 
 Madagascar lang., 1025. 
 
INDEX. 381 
 
 Malay lailg's, 1001 to 1016; selections, 1003. 
 
 Maltese, 9j7. 
 
 Manchu lang., and specimens, 866 to 869, 
 
 Many, its relatives, 189. 
 
 Middle, form of verbs, 104. 
 
 Milnnese dialect, 703. 
 
 Mongolian lang., 864, 865. 
 
 Moods, what are they, and the names, 36. 
 
 Namaqua lang., 1047, 1058, 1059. 
 
 Neapolitan dialect, 708. 
 
 Negatives, allied to interrogatives, 1091; and opposltes, 1092; not a 
 nothing, 1093. 
 
 Neuters, objective in character, 138; neut. plur. and abstract, 140. 
 * New forms, any oblique case may be base for sueh, 128. 
 
 Nine, its forms, 262, 263. 
 
 North {Old), 662; history, 668; specimens, 669 to 671. 
 
 Nominatives, after be, 27. 
 
 Nor and Not, forms,.213, 214. 
 
 Notes, about all reduced to identity, etc., 155; explaining the mean- 
 ing of equality, 195; on decay of words, 589; all philosophizing 
 leads to absurdity, 590; explaining translations, 780; it isno ob- 
 jection that one proposition does not agree with every other, 591; 
 on identifying all things, 592. 
 
 Nouns, defined and divisions, 3; their history, 110. 
 
 Number, in Grammar, the kinds, 7. 
 
 Numerals, their history, 240; those over twelve, 272 to 275; letters 
 used for them, 277; are only marks of order, 278 to 280. 
 
 Oblique oases, what are they, 59. 
 
 Of, Off, their forms, 234. 
 
 Often, its forms, 216. 
 
 One, its forms, 240 to 242. 
 
 Only, its forms, 217. 
 
 Or and nor, forms, 212, 213. 
 
 Order of words — words belong where found, in Latin, 80 to 101, 89. 
 
 Ossete (or Iron) lang. and specimens, 841 to 846. 
 
 Other, its forms, 190. 
 
 Out, its forms, 227. 
 
 Pali lang. and Pracrit, 996. 
 
 Parts of Speech, how many, 47; no distinct line to mark them, 48. 
 
 Parsee lang., 821. , , .01 
 
 Parts of words, their development, 229; part as great as whole, 531. 
 
 Particles, their history, 193. 
 
 Participles, what they are and the kinds, 38; used like ad^ s, 40; used 
 for verbs in Latin, 106; their history, 283; German, 284 to 288; 
 Celtic, 290 to 293; Slavic, 294; Huug. part's, 302; Finnish, 303; 
 Turkish, 304; Albanish, 305; Persian, 306; Hindostani, 307; Ben- 
 gali, 808; Manchu, 309; Semitic, 310; Malay, 312; Greek, 313 to 
 318- part, in urus, 319 to 326, 489; other points in German verb- 
 als, '327 and 328; Old Eng., 609 to 611. 
 
 Passive in Latin, 438 to 443; Slavic, 444 to 446; Hung., 447; Alba- 
 nish 448; Wall., 449; Celtic, 450 to 452; Latin past pass., 458; 
 Greek 454; Greek past, 465; Greek perfect, 456, and p. perf., 
 
382 PHKASIS. 
 
 457; Greek future, 458; Bengali, 460; other points in Gteek 
 passive, 461. 
 
 Past tense, in Latin, etc., 401 to 404; in Greek, 405 to 407. 
 
 Persian lang's and specimens, 812 to 819; forms of, 821 to 823. 
 
 Pehlvi lang., 822. 
 
 Pelcaon, what it iis, ^7. 
 
 Perfect tense, in Latin, etc., 414 to 419; Greek, 421 to 426; Mod. G'k, 
 427. 
 
 Philology, abstract, 1083. 
 
 Phoenician lang., 898. 
 
 Piedmontese dialect, 703. • 
 
 Pluperfect tense, in Latin, 420; in Greek, 428; in Albanian, 429. 
 
 Plurals, connected with fern's, 134, 135; identical with genitives, 132; 
 not different from sing., 133; a noun in gen. case, 281. 
 
 Portugese lang., 708; specimens, 712. 
 
 Polish lang, and specimens, 746, 747, and 778. 
 
 Polabian lang., 760. 
 
 Polynesian lang's, 1024. 
 
 Possessives, 10. 
 
 Preformatives defined, 109. 
 
 Present tense, in Latin, etc., 399 and 400. 
 
 Prepositions, what they are, 45; growth by doubling, 281. 
 
 Pronouns, personals, 18, 19; compound, 20; relatives, 21; compound, 
 22; interrogatives, 23; pron's equal adj's, 23; in Latin, 62 ; their 
 history, 156; they have arisen by growth of noun and verb end- 
 ings, 156; personal, I, 158, 159; it is a demonstrative, 162; plu- 
 ral, we, 160; poss., bur, 161; personal, thou, 163; in plural, ye, 
 164; poss., your, 165; those of the 2d person identical with the 
 Sd; the different cases of pron's all variations of the same form, 
 166; personals of 8d person, 167 to 171; he and it, 169; she and 
 it, 170; they and their, 171; demonstratives, 173 to 177; rela- 
 tives, 178 to 185; indefinites, 186 to 192; the parts or elements 
 of pron's, 191, 192. 
 
 Proveneial lang., forms of words, 695. 
 
 Prussian (Old) lang. and specimens, 766, 767 ; forms of words, 768. 
 
 Rabbinic lang., 897. 
 
 Radicals, in Asiatic lang's, what they .aye, 1119 to 1121; prefixes, 
 
 1122. 
 Eeduplication, 422; words grown by repetition of like elements, as 
 
 plants and animals, 1083 to 1088. 
 Relatives, 178 to 185, 21. 
 Repetitions, the sentence is made up of them, 103, 126, 127; repetition 
 
 or doubling in adverbs, 198, 199; in compounds, 194. 
 Romanic, or Rhaetish, dialect, its words and specimens, 698, 713. 
 Root, or bj.se, defined, 108. 
 Russian etymology, 581; lang., 736 to 739; specimens, 740 to 742, 
 
 779. 
 
 Sabien lang., 900. 
 
 Samaritan lang., 897. 
 
 Samoidish lang's, 799. 
 
 Samogitian lang. and specimen, 771, 774. 
 
 Sabine, Sicilian, and Sardinian dialects, 703. 
 
nsTDEX. 383 
 
 Sanscrit lang., 978; alphabet, 979; list of words, 984; compounds, 
 982; specimens, 983. 
 
 Saxon fOld), differs from Old H. Germ., 637; forms of words, 639. 
 
 Saxon (Ang.), see English. 
 
 Scandinavian, its branches or forms, 661. 
 
 Semitic lang's, 908; history and forms, 894 to 907; relations and pe- 
 culiarities, 925, 964; prefixes, 932 to 964; tenses, 949; Semitic 
 etymology, 586. 
 
 Sentence, what it is, 1, 2. • 
 
 Servian lang., 752. 
 
 Serenian lang., J97. 
 
 Seven, its forms, 258. 
 
 Since, its forms, 218. 
 
 Six, its forms, 256, 257. 
 
 Slovenian lang., 758. 
 
 Slavic etymology, 583; lang's, 730 to 781; its forms, 732 to 735; its 
 peculiarities, 781. 
 
 So, its forms, 203. 
 
 Soon, its forms, 21E. 
 
 Spanish lang., history, 704; specimens, 705. 
 
 Still, its forms, 220. 
 
 Subjunctive, in Lat., 462, 463; modern Lat., 464; Slavic, 465; Celtic, 
 466; Greek (and optative), 467 to 469; in German, 470 to 472. ■ 
 
 Suomi lang., 796. 
 
 Supine, in Latin, what, 72. 
 
 Swedish, specimens, 665; compared with Danish, 667. 
 
 Swiss idiom, 646, 647; list of words, 648. 
 
 Syrian lang., 795. 
 
 Tagale lang., 1026. 
 Tamil lang., 997. 
 
 Tartar la-ng's, 858 to 874; Tart, proper, 861, and spec, 862. 
 Telinga lang., 996. 
 
 Tenses, what are they, 32 ; in Latin, 64 to 68. 
 Ten, its forms, 264, 265. 
 That, its forms, 204. 
 Thibetan lang., 1027 to 1036. 
 Though, its forms, 220. 
 Three, its forms, 246 to 249. 
 Through and across, 236. 
 Tigre lang., 90f. 
 Till, its forms, 220. 
 To, at, in, on — their forms, 235. 
 Together, forms, 221. 
 Transitiv.es, what are they, 26, 28. 
 Translations, are word-for-word, 626. 
 Turanian, 859. 
 » Tungusic lang., 860. 
 Turkish lang., 807 to 811. 
 Tuscan lang., 703. 
 Twelve and eleven. 266 to 271. 
 Two, its forms, 248 to 245. 
 Tyrolese, Thurihgian, and Translvanian dialects, 649. 
 
 Up and upper, their forms, 228. 
 
384 PHRASIS. 
 
 Valencian lang., 706. 
 
 Venetian dialect, 703. 
 
 Verbs, what they are, 25; trans, and intrans., 26; reg. and irreg., 25; 
 history, 333; do not peculiarly affirm, 334 to 336; in Latin, 63; 
 Turkish verbs, 347 to 357; Finn., 357; Mongolian, 358; Persian, 
 859; Afghan, 364; Hung., 365 to 370; Slavic, 371 to 383; Ben- 
 gali, 384; Hind., 385; Celtic, 386 to 397; Greek and Latin, 398. 
 
 Verbals, what are such, 40; verbal endings, 329 to 332. 
 
 • 
 
 Wallachian lang., 724; features, 726; specimens, 727 and 728; words 
 compared with Eng. and Latin, 729. « 
 
 Walloon lang., 699. 
 
 Welsh, etymology, 585; specimens, 678; compared with Gaelic, 685. 
 
 Wend, language and specimens, 754, 755; Hung. Wend, specimens, 
 759 and 777. 
 
 Westmoreland dialect, 621. 
 
 With, its forms, 224, 225, 226. 
 
 Yet, its forms, 219. 
 
 Zend lang., 823. 
 Zulu lang, 1051.