t-' '^%'^. ?:^'* *iCJ:' ?;i ■f'-i^'i.sg^jtti mi p. g U' CC; »' PR, "1- ,\^- STUDIES IN PHILOLOGY VOIv. I CHAUCER'S RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS BY LOUIS ROUND WILSON IvJBRARiAN OP the; UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE PHILOLOGIOAL OLTJB OF THE UNIVERSITY OP NORTH OAROLINA CHAPEL HILL THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1906 , Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013113273 STUDIES IN PHILOLOGY VOL. I CHAUCER'S RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS BY LOUIS ROUND WILSON LIBRARIAN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the University of North Oarolina as a partial requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE PHILOLOGICAL CLUB OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH OAROLINA CHAPEL HILL THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1906 5^ W7f A- loco THE UNIVERSITY PRESS CHAPEL HILI. TO MY FATHER AND MOTHER PREFACE Althoug-h this paper has to do solely with Chaucer's rela- tive constructions, it has been prepared with the hope that, so far as it extends, it may help to fix one construction of Middle English syntax which hitherto has received but little consideration. While it embraces sug-g-estions from" a number of sources,* it has been based upon a careful study of W. W. Skeat's five volume edition of The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, published by the Clarendon Press, 1894-1900.1 It has taken for granted that the pronoun that is the predominant Chaucerian relative, and that the pleonastic that, which is constantly used after relatives, conjunctions, and adverbs, does not in any way affect the value of the relative which it follows. J All comparative figures found in the body of the paper, not specifically accounted for in the paragraph in which they occur, are taken from Troilus and Criseyde. Dif- ferences in citations appearing in Schrader's Das Altenglische Relativfronmnen mit besonderer beriicksichtigung der sprache Chaucer'' s and in this paper are to be attributed to the differ- ences in the editions used. Differences between that and ■which are given in Chapters II and III rather than in Chap- ter I. *See Bibliography, p. 1. tVol. I., ed. 3, 1899; vol. II., ed. 2, 1900; vol. Ill, 1894; vol. I.V., ed. 2, 1900; vol. v., 1894. XEi. A. Kock, p. 65, §149: "During the 13-15 centuries that was often attached to relative pronouns, as well as to interrogative pronouns, adverbs, and conjunctions, apparently without modifying their signifi- cations. ' ' V CONTENTS PAGE Bibliography 1 Abbreviations ' 3 Method of Citation 5 CHAPTER I Demonstrative Relatives (§§ 1-4) 6 CHAPTER II Interrogative Relatives (§§ 5-25) 13 CHAPTER HI Differences between That and Which (§§26-27).... 32 CHAPTER IV General Relatives (§§28-32) 34 CHAPTER V Relation Expressed through As (§§33-36) 36 CHAPTER VI Relation Expressed through Relative Adverbs (§ 37) . . . . 39 CHAPTER VII Omission in the Relative Sentence (§38) 41 vii viii Contents CHAPTER VIII Concord in the Relative Sentence (§§ 39-40) ^'^ CHAPTER IX The Structure of Chaucer's Relative Sentence (§§ 41-46) 49 Summary 57 Life 59 Index 60 BIBLIOGRAPHY Special treatises, introductions, dictionaries, and glossaries which have afforded direct material or suggestions for this paper, are mentioned below: C. S. Baldwin, The Infiections and Syntax of the Morte d'' Arthur of Sir Thomas Malory. Boston, 1894. B. ten Brink, The Language and Metre of Chaucer. Lon- don, 1901. A. Darmesteter, A Historical French Grammar. London, 1899. E. Einenkel, "Syntax". Gi'iindriss der GcrnUiniscJten Phi- lologie, I. Band. Strassburg, 1901. O. P. Emerson, The History of the English Language. New York, 1903. W. Franz, Shakespeare- Gra^nmatik. Halle, 1900. J. C. Harris, Told by Uncle Remus. New York, 1905. J. C. Harris, Uncle Remus and his Friends. New York, 1892. L. Kellner, Historical Outlines of English Syjiiax. Lon- don, 1892. L. Kellner, Ed., Caxton^s Blanchardyn and Eglajitine, Lon- don, 1890. C. F. Koch, Historische Grammatik dcr Englischen Sprache, II. Band. Cassell, 1878. E. A. Kock, The English Relative Pronouns, A Critical Essay. Lund, 1897. S. Lanier, Poems. New York, 1892. E. Matzner, Englische Grammatik, III. Band. Berlin, 1885. W. E. Mead, Ed., Selections from Sir Thomas Malory'' s Morte d' Arthur. Boston, 1901. R. Morris, Historical Outlines of English Accidence. Lon- don, 1894. 1 2 Louis Round Wilson R. Morris, Ed., Chaucer: The Prologue, The Knightes Tale, The Nonne Preestes Tale, from The Canterbury Tales. Oxford, 1898. R. Morris and W. Skeat, Eds.,. Specimens of Early English, I. and II. Oxford, 1898. J. A. H. Murray, Ed., A New English Dictionary on His- torical Principles, I. Oxford, 1888. J. C. Nesfield, English (Grammar Past and Present. Lon- don, 1901. P. Noack, Eine Geschichte der relativen Pronomina in der englischen Sprache. Gotting-en, 1882. C. T. Onions, An Advanced English Syntax. London, 1904. A. Rohs, Syntaktische Untersuchungen zu Bacon's Essays. Marburg-, 1889. A. Schmidt, Shakespeare Lexicon, II. Berlin, 1902. A. Schrader, Das Altenglische Relativpronomen init heson- derer beriicksichtigung der sprache Chaucer's. Kiel, 1880. W. W. Skeat, Ed., Specimens of English Literature, 1394- 1579. Oxford, 1892. C. Alphonso Smith, An Old English Crrammar and Exercise Book. Boston, 1896. C. Alphonso Smith, "Shakespeare's Present Indicative ^'-Ending's with Plural Subjects. " Publications of The Modern Language Association, IV. new series. Baltimore, 1896. C. Alphonso Smith, "The Short Circuit in English Syn- tax." Modern Language Notes, XIX. Baltimore, 1904. H. O. Sommer, Ed., Le Morte Darthur by Syr Thomas Malory, I. London, 1889. H. Sweet, A New English Grammar, Logical and Histori- cal, I. Oxford, 1900. H. Sweet, A Short Historical English Grammar. Oxford, 1892. W. D. Whitney, Ed., The Century Dictionary. New York, cl889. J. E. Wiilfing, Die Syntax in den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, I. Band. Bonn, 1894. • ABBREVIATIONS A. B. C. = An A. B. C. Against W. U. = Against Women Unconstant. Amor. Comp. = An Amorous Compleint. An. & Ar. == Anelida and Arcite. Astr. = A Treatise on the Astrolabe. Bal. of Comp. = A Balade of Compleynt. Boe. = Boethius de Consolatioue Philosophic. Book D. = The Book of the Duchesse. C. T. = The Canterbury Tales. Ch. Y. T. 3= The Chauouns Yemannes Tale. Chau. Words unto Ad. = Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, his owne Scriveyn. CI. T. = The Clerkes Tale. Cok. T. ^ The Cokes Tale. Comp. of Chau. = The Compleint of Chaucer to his empty Purse. Comp. of M. = The Compleynt of Mars. Comp. of V. = The Compleynt of Venus. Comp. to his Lady = A Compleint to his Lady. Comp. to my Lode-S. = Complaint to my Lode-Sterre, Comp. to my Mort. F. = Complaint to my Mortal Foe. Comp. unto P. = The Compleynte unto Pite. For. Age = The Former Age. Fort. = Fortune. Frank. T. = The Frankeleyns Tale. Freres T. = The Freres Tale. Gent. ^ Gentilesse. H. of F. = The Hous of Fame. Introd, standing after a title = Introduction to the title mentioned. K. T. = The Knightes Tale. 3 4 Louis Round Wilson L. of G. W. = The Leg-end of Good Women. L. of Sted. = Lak of Stedfastnesse. Len. a Buk. = Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton. Lea. a Sco. = Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scog-an. M. of L. T. = The Tale of the Man of Lawe. Mar. T. = The Marchautes Tale. Maun. T. = The Maunciples Tale. Mer. Beau. = Merciles Beaute: A Triple Roundel. Mil. T. = The Milleres Tale. Mo. T. = The Monkes Tale. N. P. T. = The Nonne Preestes Tale. P. T. = The Pardoners Tale. Par. of F. = The Parlement of Foules. Per. T. = The Persones Tale. Ph. T. = The Phisiciens Tale. Prior. T. = The Prioresses Tale. Prol. standing after a title = Prologue to the title men- tioned. Prov. = Proverbs. R. T. = The Reves Tale. Ro. of R. = The Romaunt of the Rose. Ros. =; To Rosemounde. A Balade. S. N. T. = The Seconde Nonnes Tale. Sh. T. = The Shipmannes Tale. Sir T. = Sir Thopas. Som. T. = The Somnours Tale. Sq. T. = The Squieres Tale. T. of G. = The Tale of Gamelyn. T, of M. =The Tale of Melibeus. Tr. & Cr. == Troilus and Criseyde. Truth = Truth. W. of B. = The Tale of the Wyf of Bathe. Wom. Nob. = Womanly Noblesse. METHOD OF CITATION Citations are given, whenever possible, by the line number of the individual title: C. T. Prol. 486 = Prologue of The Canterbury Tales, line 486. Continuous line numbers are not used except in very rare instances, and then because the indi- vidual line number is not g-iven. If a title is subdivided into books, paragraphs, parts, etc., reference is made to the specific part: Tr. & Cr. III. 172 = Troilus and Criseyde, Book III., line 172. The Tale of Melibeus and The Persones Tale are cited by paragraph. Satisfactory line numbers are not given. In Boethius, Pr. and VJ/., standing immediately after the book number, refer to Prose and Metre, respectively. Reference to works used frequently is made by name of author, without title; to other works used only occasionally, by name of author and title. The line number given is that in which the relative word occurs. 5 CHAPTER I Demonstrative Relatives 1. That is used in Chaucer as a relative A. When the antecedent is a. The name of a person: and Claudius, That servant was un-to this Apius Ph. T. 270. Emelye, that fairer was to sene Than is the lilie K. T. 177. Perotheus, That felawe was un-to duk Theseus K. T. 334. Under Alia, king of al Northumberlond, That was ful wys M. of L. T. 481. b. The name of a personified object: And next was peynted Coveityse, That eg-geth folk Ro. of R. 182. and hir porter Richesse, That was ful noble Par. of F. 262. Sawe I Delyt, that stood with Gentilnesse Par. of F. 224. c. The name of a country, place, or river (all exam- ples found are cited): He conquered al the regne of Femenye, That whylom was y-cleped Scithia K. T. 9. In Armorik, that called is Britayne Frank. T. 1. In Engelond, that cleped was eek Briteyne Frank. T. 82. Goth forth to Via Apia, . . . That fro this toun ne stant but myles three S. N. T. 173. AUe the thinges that the river Tagusyevethyow ... or that Indus yeveth, that is next the hote party of the world, that medleth the grene stones with the whyte Boe. III. M. 10:11. lasoun is romed forth to the citee, That whylom cleped was laconitos, That was the maister-toun of al Colcos L. of G, Chaucer's Relative Constructions 7 W. IV. 224. O worthy Petro, king of Cypre, also, That Alisaundre wan Mo. T. 402. Where as the Poo, out of a welle smal, Taketh his firste springing and his sours, That estward ay encres- seth in his cours CI. T. Prol. 50. And speketh of Apennyn, the hilles hye, That been the boundes of West Lumbardye CI. T. Prol. 46. d. A name implying the idea of person: A worthy duk that highte Perotheus K. T. 333. At requeste of the quene that kneleth here K. T. 961. e. The name of a thing: To speke of wo that is in mariage W. of B. Prol. 3. Ire is a thing that hye god defended Som. T. 126. f. A personal pronoun: But I, that am exyled K. T. 386. O thou, that art so fayr and ful of grace S. N. T. 67. He that it wroghte coude ful many a gin Sq. T. 120. Help, for hir love that is of hevene queue! Mar. T. 1090. g. A demonstrative pronoun: And taketh kepe of that that I shall seyn Ph.T. 90. But tak this, that ye loveres ofte eschuwe Tr. & Cr. I. 344. Thou shalt ben wedded un-to oon of tho That han for thee so muchel care and wo K. T. 1494. h. An indefinite pronoun: Conseil to axe of any that is here Mar. T. 236. no man finden shall Noon in this world that trotteth hool in al Mar. T. 294. To ech that wol of pitee you biseche A. B. C. 136. as folk seyde everichoon That hir bihelden in hir blake wede Tr. & Cr. I. 177. i. An interrogative pronoun (all examples found are cited) : Louis Round Wilson "What have I doon that greveth yow? Comp. to his I/ady 66. what is ther in hem that may be thyn in any tyme? Boe. II. Pr. 5: 5. what may a man don to folk, that folk ne may don him the same? Boe. II, Pr. 6:46. Who lived ever in swich delyt o day That him ne moeved outher conscience, Or ire? M. of L. T. 1038. For who is that ne wolde hir glorifye? Tr. & Cr. II. 1593. Who is it that ne seide tho that thou were rig-ht weleful? Boe. II. Pr. 3:25. B. As the equivalent of what, or that which a. When not preceded by a preposition: That ye desire, it may not ryse Ro. of R. 3115. That erst was no-thing-, in-to nought it torneth Tr. & Cr. II. 798. nece, I pray yow hertely, Tel me that I shal axen yow a lyte Tr. & Cr. II. 1278. b. When preceded by a preposition: Who shulde recche of that is reccheles? Par. of F. 593. leveth me, and yeveth credence to that I shal seyn T. of M. §65. But wel I wot, with that he can endyte. He hath maked lewed folk delyte To serve you L. of G. W. Prol. 402. C As the equivalent of as after a. A noun modified by such: swiche guerdoun, that she never yaf to privee man Boe. II. Pr. 3:47. and other swiche shelle- fish of the see, that clyven and ben norisshed to roches Boe. V. Pr. 5:22. Youthe ginneth ofte sich bargeyn, That may not ende withouten peyn Ro. of R. 4930. b. A noun modified by same: the same heyghte that is the deg-ree of the sonne for that day Astr. II. 30:2. Note. The following single example occurs in which sa^ne does not modif}'^ an expressed noun: And gan him tellen, anoon-right, The same that to him was told H. of F. III. 973. Chaucer's Relative Constructions 9 D. After superlatives a. With noun unexpressed: Sith I, thunworthiest that may ryde or go Amor. Comp. 19. on whiche the faircste and the beste That ever I say, deyneth hir herte reste Tr. & Cr. III. 1281. b. With noun expressed: Thereto he is the freendlieste man Of grete estat, that ever I saw Tr. & Cr. II. 205. The moste pite, the moste rowthe, That ever I herde Book D. 466. Why niltow fleen out of the wofuUeste Body, that ever mighte on grounde go? Tr. & Cr. IV. 304. Note 1 . Which is used only twice after superla- tives. See § 23, D. Note 2. That occurs once after a comparative: I nil yow nought displese, Nor axen more, that may do yow disese Tr. & Cr. II. 147. E. To refer to a sentence, or to a sentence member. While this use of that has been supplanted in Modern English by which or a relative adverb, it was the rule in Old English and did not fall into disuse until late in the Middle English period, as the following exam- ples, taken from E. A. Kock, p. 30, §96, C, will show: Waeron heo feower gebrotSor . . . , ealle Godes sacerdas, feet seldon gemeted biS, msere & gode Be. 232:28. ne ich ne seh him neuer fat me sare forfunche« Sp. I. 8:88. While similar sentences occur in Chaucer, it is neces- sary to pay strict attention to the context in order to determine the exact value of that. In the following sentences, however, ^y^«/ might be replaced by which: Theffect is this, that Alia, out of drede. His moder slow, that (which) men may pleinly rede M. of L. T. 796. How that the cursed king Antiochus Birafte his doghter of hir maydenhede, 10 Louis Round Wilson That (which) is so horrible a tale for to rede M. of L. T. Introd. 84. Lo, nece, I trowe ye han herd al how The king, . . . Hath mad eschaung-e of Antenor and yow, That (which) cause is of this sorwe Tr. & Cr. IV. 879. But doun on knees she sat anoon, And weep, that (which) pite was to here Book D. 107. Note. This list includes examples which were considered beyond question. F. If the antecedent is a noun not preceded by an article and the relative is ilsed as a predicate complement: O Sterne, O cruel fader that I was! Tr. & Cr. IV. 94. Fox that ye been, god yeve your herte care! Tr. & Cr. III. 1565. No other examples occur. G. In the function of a phrase. It is thus employed to express a. Time: This passeth forth al thilke Saterday, That Nich- olas stille in his chambre lay Mil. T. 234. And, to that day that I be leyd in grave, A trewer ser- vaunt shuUe ye never have Amor. Comp. 74. the tyme is faste by. That fyr and flaumbe on al the toun shal sprede Tr. & Cr. IV. 118. Examples are numerous. b. Place: on thilke side that the sonne stant Astr. II. 29: 4. Evere fro the hyer degree that man falleth, the more is he thral Per. T. §9. And certes, up-on thilke syde that power faileth Boe. III. Pr. 5:13. Examples are rare. c. Reason or cause: What is the cause, if it be for to telle. That ye be in this furial pyne of helle? Sq. T. 440. And seyde, that she cause was That she first lovede [Eneas] H. of F. I. 370. The thinges thanne, . . . that, whan men doon hem, ne han no necessitee that Chaucer's Relative Constructions 11 men doon hem Boe. V. Pr. 4:71. Examples are rare. d. Manner: This ug-ly sergeant, in the same wyse That he hir doghter caughte CI. T. 618. I have avauutage, in o wyse, That your prelates ben not so wyse Ro. of R. 7690. thou hast been punisshed in the manere that thow hast y-trespassed T. of Mel. §39. Examples are rare. 2. Although a pleonastic that is frequently used after all the other pure relatives in Chaucer, and after a number of adverbs and conjunctions, it is never used after the rela- tive that. In the following examples And taketh kepe of that that I shal seyn Ph. T. 90. For-thy take hede of that that I shal seye Tr. & Cr. IV. 1107, I concur with Schrader, p. 13, in the opinion that the first that is to be considered as a demonstrative and the second as a relative. In sentences similar to these, and to the one following For wit and imaginacioun seyn that that, that is sen- sible or imaginable Boe. V. Pr. 5: 33, a tendency is seen to use that almost to the exclusion of the other relatives, in spite of the fact that it was easily confused with the conjunction and demonstrative pro- noun. This tendency became so marked in the eighteenth century that the Spectator, in its seventy-eighth num- ber, presented to its readers "The Humble Petition of Who and Which,'''' in which was strongly urged the revival of the use of these two relatives. 3. To the statement "Dahin gehort, dass that nicht von einer vorangehenden . . . Praposition begleitet werden kann," made by Matzner, III. 558, which is supported by P. Noack, p. 73, I wish to oppose that of E. A. Kock, p. 35, §102: "paet (that) could formerly be governed by a preceding preposition; more frequently, however, the 12 Louts Round Wilson preposition followed. . . . Now-a-days that can be gov- erned only by following words, and the preposition is placed after both the verb and the object." Kock's statement seems to agree with the Chaucerian usage: But Resoun conceyveth, of a sight, Shame, of that I spok aforn Ro. of R. 3041. Who shulde recche of that is reccheles? Par. of F. 593. And blessed be the yok that we been inne Mar. T. 593. The first exam- ple stands alone in Chaucer. 4. The old indeclinable demonstrative relative/e, which was constantly used in late Old English, does not appear in this edition of Chaucer, though one case is cited by Schrader, p. 7, which is taken from the Aldine Edition, by Richard Morris: Unto that countrey thou me adjourne, the cleped is thy benche of fressh flower.* A. B. C: V 7. *Lady, un-to that court thou me aiourne That cleped is thy bench, O fresshe flour! A. B. O. 152— Skeat, CHAPTER II Intbrrogative Relatives 5. While the development of the iuterrogfative-relative forms belongs to historical English grammar rather than to my subject, I think it not amiss to offer an explanation con- cerning it which is different from that usually offered.* Kellner's statement of this development, p. 207, §335, Historical Outlines of English Syntax^ is as follows: "The transition from the Old English relatives to those used in Middle and Modern English was effected by the indefinite or general relatives. It is in these that the interrogatives who and what were first used in the relative sense." This explanation, though quite generally accepted, has not passed without question, and, to my mind, does not agree with the genius of the language as revealed in the speech of children and the illiterate, in which syntactical tendencies, unfettered by grammatical tenets, appear most clearly. A theoryt which accords more exactly with the spirit of the language and which is practically illus- trated daily in the speech of the unlettered, is that offered by C. Alphonso Smith, p. 52, § 74, note 3, An Old English Grammar and Exercise Book : "How were the Mn. E, relative pronouns, who and which, evolved from the O. E. interrogatives? The »See O. F. Emerson, History of the English Language, p. 336. ■rSee Br^al's Essai de Semantique (cap. XXII. ), T. Hewitt Key, in Pro- ceedings of the Philological Society (London), vol. III. p. 57, Dr. Noah Porter, in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. XII. p. 661, and O. T. Onions, An Advanced English Syntax, p. 148. 13 14 Louis Round Wilson chang-e began ia early West Saxon with /iwcet used in indirect questions: Nu ic wat'eall hwaet Su woldest. The direct question was, Hwaet woldest «u? But the presence of eall shows that in Alfred's mind Awczi was, in the indirect form, more relative than interrog- ative." Wiilfing, I. pp. 421-3, out of a large number of sen- tences containing indefinite or general relatives, cites only one example in which the indefinite form is made to refer to a direct antecedent: to ^on paet swa hwaet swa on hyre unclaennysse . . . gelumpe, f«t eall ]>dzt se ofn . . . ofasude Be. 576:27. On p. 426, Wiilfing cites this additional iudirect question in which Awcei is again more relative than interrogative: englas habba]' rihte domas & godne willan, & eall hwaet {Coit.:]i2et) hi willnia]' hi begita]' swife eafe Bo. 370:14. In Chaucer, out of the many occurrences of the indefi- nite and general relatives, only four examples are found in which the indefinite relative has an antecedent: Repreve he dredeth never a del, Who that biset his wordis wel Ro. of R. 5260. A thousand Troians who so that me yave, Eche after other, . . . Ne mighte me so gladden Tr. & Cr. II. 977. This fable aperteineth to yow alle, who-so-ever desireth or seketh to lede his thought in-to the soverein day Boe. III. M. 12:43. I praise no-thing what ever they see Ro. of R. 2430. To these may be opposed the following indirect questions in which the pronouns have greater relative force than interrogative: Til she had herd al what the frere sayde Som. T. 493. But god and Pandare wiste al what this mente Tr. & Cr. II. 1561. every lover though te, That al was wel, what-so he seyde or wroughte Tr. & Cr. III. 1799. *Wulflng, I. p. 426. Chaucer's Relative Constructions IS This latter usage, which was known to Old and Middle English alike, and which is characteristic of the speech of the American negro today, seems to indicate the origin of the pure relative forms. The development may be represented by the following sentences: (1) Who passed through the gate? (2) I know who passed through the gate. (3) I know the man who passed through the gate. (4) John was the man who passed through the gate. Whenever the person questioned wishes his answer to convey full information or to be emphatic, an antecedent is supplied, and the pronoun following ceases to be inter- rogative and becomes relative. The following sentences from J. C. Harris, Uncle Remus and his Friends, though they do not conform exactly to the types (1) to (4) given above, illustrate the principle: "What are you talking about?" the lady asked con- temptuously. " 'Bout dat ar snake what I smells. I kin allers smell um when dey gits stirred up." "What snake?" asked the lady with something more than curiosity. "Dat ar snake what I bin interferin' wid." p. 259. "I lay back, I did, fer to 'joy myse'f, en I ain't mo'n doze off 'fo' he begin fer ter fetch on de comic." "On the what?" the society editor asked. "On de comic — dis yer stair w'at shows up 'fo' day wid 'er back hair down." p. 262. "Dey tells me," the old man continued, "dat 'fo' me an' Miss Sally come here, de whole place was ha'nted." "Oh, hush, man!" exclaimed Chloe, "who tell you dat?" "Dem what know," said Uncle Remus, solemnly, p. 285. 16 Louis Round Wilson 6. Two other points of interest which have also arisen in the preparation of this paper may be noted here: A. That who, as a pure relative, entered the language through its oblique cases rather than through what I may term its head case, the nominative. This fact has been pointed out by O. F. Emerson, History of the English Language, p. 338, and is established beyond question in the treatment of the forms who, whose, and whotn in this chapter. B. That the use of who in the nominative case, though not general until the sixteenth century, was more fre- quent than is usually supposed.* When all the exam- ples are collected, the meager list commonly attributed to the centuries preceding the sixteenth will be con- siderably enlarged, and the statement made by E. Einenkel, "Syntax", Grundriss der Ger^natiischen Philologie, I. p. 1119, to the effect that who first appeared in the fourteenth century, and by F. J. Furni- vall, "On the Use of Who in the Nominative, as a Relative, before A. D. 1627," Transactions of the Phi- lological Society, London, 1865, N. IX., to the effect that who did not occur until the year 1523,t will be found to be wide of the mark. To the brief lists given by L,. Kellner, Historical Outlines of English Syntax, p. 208, §336, and E. A. Kock, p. 60, §142, B. a., in which examples are cited from the tenth century on, my reading in connection with the prepa- ration of this paper has enabled me to add the two * As a Relative, though found occasionally in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, it did not come into common use before the sixteenth, and then, as now, it was restricted %0-penonal antecedents.— T. O. Nesfield, English Grammar Past and Present, p. 335. For other similar statements, see R. Morris, Historical Outlines of English Accidence, p. 131; E. Matzner, III. p. 568; T. R. Lounsbury, History of the English Lamjuaye, p. 296. tP. Noack, Elite Oeschichte der relativen Pronomina in der englisohen Sprache, p. 64, cites Furnivall's conclusion without adverse comment. Chaucer's Relative Constructions 17 following- examples taken from A. W. Pollard's Fif- teenth Century Prose and Verse:* And every wig-lit who, in such case, him delight- eth The Letter of Cupid, p. 21. The Monk who was not so courteous Robin Hood Ballad, p. 57. 7. Who, without an antecedent, is used very frequently as a general relative. It always relates to the idea of person. It occurs: a. With a personal pronoun in the correlative: Who hath no wyf, he is no cokewold Mil. T. Prol. 44. b. Without a personal pronoun in the correlative: And who hath that, may not asterte Book D. 1154. Note. The ratio between a and b is about three to one. 8. Loke who occurs once, and is used as the equivalent of ■whoever: Loke who that is most pacient in love. He is at his avantage al above Frank. T. 43. 9. Although indefinite who, as shown above, is frequently found in Chaucer, a careful search throug-h his works fails to bring to light a singlet occurrence of who as a pure relative in the nominative case. As indicated by E. A. Kock, p. 61, §142, Note, b., Skeat substitutes whtche for who in the one place in which it occurs originally in the Glasgow MS. and in Thynue's edition of 1532: Men seyn over the walle stonde Grete engynes, [whiche] were nigh honde Ro. of R. 4194. *The Letter of Cupid is dated by Pollard 1403. The lioUn Hood Ballad was printed in 1510, but Pollard claims in his Introduclion, p. xiv., that it is a production of the fifteenth rather than of the sixteenth century. ■fO. F. Emerson, History of the English Language, p. 386, says: "It is true there are occasional examples of who as early as the twelfth century, and later in Ohaucer, but it was not until the sixteenth century that who began to be used more commonly as a relative." This statement lacks exactness in that no direct reference to the occurrences in Chaucer is given. 18 Louis Hound Wilson In the sentence: Repreve he dredeth never a del, Who that biset his wordis wel Ro. of R. 5262, it is difficult to determine the value of -who. Inasmuch as it has a detinit'e antecedent, and inasmuch as that may be pleonastic, it approaches the value of a pure relative, while on the other hand it has very much the appearance of a general relative. 10. Whos is used in Chaucer as a pure relative A. When the antecedent is a. The name of a person: I graunte wel that thou endurest wo As sharp as doth he, Ticius, in helle, Whos stomak foules tyren ever-mo Tr. & Cr. I. 787. Mary I mene, . . . Bifore whos child aungeles singe Osanne M. of L. T. 544. b. The name of a personified object: I beholde my norice Philosophie, in whos houses I hadde conversed Boe. I. Pr. 3:4. Not many examples occur. c. A name implying the idea of person: Seiog his freend in wo, whos hevinesse His herte slow Tr. & Cr. IV. 363. Sik lay the gode man, whos that the place is Som. T. 60. d. The name of a thing (all examples found are cited): The formel on your hond so wel y-wrought, Whos I am al Par. of F. 419. For yif that al the good of every thinge be more precious than is thilke thing whos that the good is Boe. II. Pr. 5:102. But ay theoynementwente abrood; . . . Through whos vertu and whos might Myn herte loyful was and light Ro. of R. 1901. e. A name, which, in form, seems to represent a thing, but which, in reality, represents a person (all examples found are cited): O moder mayde! o mayde moder free! O bush Chaucer's Relative Constructions 19 unbrent, brenning-e in Moyses sig-hte,That ravised- est doun fro the deitee, Thurgh thyn humblesse, the goost that in thalighte, Of whos vertu, whan he thyn herte lighte, Conceived was the fadres sapience Prior. T. 19. Right fresshe flour, whos I have been and shal Tr. & Cr. V. 1317. f. A personal pronoun: And if yow lyketh knowen of the fare Of me, whos wo ther may no wight discryve Tr. &. Cr. V. 1367. So inly fair and goodly as is she, Whos I am al Tr. & Cr. III. 1607. To hir, whos I am hool Amor. Comp. 87. 11. Whos is used peculiarly in the following cases: A. As a predicate possessive: Sik lay the gode man, whos that the place is Som. T. 60. I hadde a lord, to whom I wedded was. The whos myn herte al was Tr. & Cr. V. 976. Right fresshe flour, whos I have been Tr. & Cr. V. 1317. Other examples are to be found: Tr. & Cr. III. 1607; Amor. Comp. 87; Comp. of V. 6; Boe. II. Pr. 5:102; Par. of F. 419. B. Following the analogy of the the which construction, it is preceded b}' the definite article (all examples found are cited): thou shalt wel knowe by the autoritee of god, of the whos regne I speke Boe. IV. Pr. 1:36. [Crisejde], The whos wel-fare and hele eek god encresse Tr. & Cr. V. 1359. I hadde a lord, to whom I wedded was. The whos myn herte al was, til that he deyde Tr. & Cr. V. 976. 12. Whom is occasionally used without an antecedent as a general relative. It always relates to the idea of person: Rys, take with yow your nece Antigone, Or whom you list Tr. & Cr. II. 1717. This cherl was hid there in the greves, . . . To spye and take whom that he fond Ro, of R. 3021. In whom that drinke hath domina- 20 Louis Round Wilson cioun, He can no conseil kepe P. T. 232. For soth it is, whom it displese Ro. of R. 5697. Other examples occur. 13. Whom is also used in Chaucer as a pure relative A. When the antecedent is a. The name of a person: And eek his fresshe brother Troilus, ... In whom that every vertu list abounde Tr. & Cr. II. 159. amiddes lay Cipryde, To whom on knees two yonge folkes cryde Par. of F. 278. b. The name of a personified object: That she is Fortune verely In whom no man shulde affy Ro. of R. 5480. c. A name implying the idea of person: Moder, of whom our mercy gan to springe A. B. C. 133. For if a preest be foul, on whom we truste C. T. Prol. 501. To love my lady, whom I love and serve K. T. 285. d. The name of a thing (all examples found are cited): Tho loked I doun up-on myn est orisonte, and fond ther 23 degrees of Libra assending, whom I tok for myn assendent Astr. II. 3:39. she [the formel eagle] shal have right him [one of three eagles] on whom hir herte is set Par. of F. 627. Note. While -whom in these two examples is used to refer to things, I hold, with Schrader, p. 18, that it is not so used in the examples cited under e below; but that in reality it refers to the idea of person, which, in some way, is associated with the antecedent. Other examples than those cited in d and e do not occur. e. A name, which, in form, seems to represent a thing, but which, in fact, represents the idea of person. Schrader, p. 18, after citing the two fol- lowing sentences which I do not find in Text A of Chaucer's Relative Constructions 21 the edition by Skeat and which I cite upon Schrader's authority: And eke in service of the flour, whom that I serve. Leg. of g. W. Prol. 83. Now, love, to whom my sorweful hert obeyede Leg. of g. W. p. 297. 102. says: "In diesen beispielen sind die substantiva jlour, love vollkommen identisch mit geliehte. Auch in: Ne* she was dark ne broun, but bright and clere as the monelight, ageyn whom alle the sterres semen but smale candles Rom. of R. 1011. lag dem dichter der begriff lady so nahe, dass er in dem monelight giwissermassen seine lady personificirt sah. In dem beispiel: 0,t verray light of ey en that ben blyndel O verray lust of labour and distresse! O, tresorere of bounte to mankynde, The whom God chees to moder for hurablesse A B C:04 liegt alien dem whotn vorantstehenden abstracten begriffen der personenname Marie zu grunde." To these examples are to be added the two follow- ing in which the antecedents thing and relyke, respectively, are apparent substitutes for God and loved one: But thilke thing thanne, that hath and compre- hendeth to-gider al the plentee of the lyf inter- minable, to whom ther ne faileth naught of the future, and to whom ther nis naught of the preterit escaped Boe. V. Pr. 6:29, 30. And loke, for love of that relyke, . . For [whom] thou hast so greet annoy, Shal kisse thee er thou go away Ro. of R. 2675. f. A personal pronoun: And I, of whom the sighte, plounged in teres, *Skeat's edition, Ro. of R. 1011. tSkeat's edition, A. B. O. 108. 22 Louis Round Wilson was derked Boe. I. Pr. 1:55. That he, to whom that I am shriven Ro. of R. 6391. But now help god, and ye, swete, for whom I pleyne Tr. & Cr. I. 533. g. An indefinite pronoun (all examples found are cited): Now, queen of comfort, sith thou art that same ■ To whom I seche for my medicyne A. B. C. 78. and another, to whom thilke naturel office of feet lakketh Boe. IV. Pr. 2: 80. h. A superlative (only one example occurs): But herte myn, sin that I am your man, And been the ferste of whom I seche grace Tr. & Cr. V. 940. 14. Whom is used peculiarly in the following cases: A. As the equivalent of him or her in sentences in which it has no immediate antecedent other than that sup- plied by the context (all examples found are cited or indicated) : To whom Cecile answerde boldely S. N. T. 319. To whom answerde Tiburce S. N. T. 333. To whom Almachius [answered] S. N. T. 468. Other examples are to be found: Tr. & Cr. I. 829; Tr. & Cr. V. 1562; Ro. of R. 2665. Note. The explanation of the context for the three cases cited from the S. N. T. will suffice for all the other examples as they are to be explained in an exactly similar way. Seint Cecile and Tiburce are represented as taking part in a pro- longed discussion. In 318-9, Tiburce stops speaking and Cecile replies to him. At the con- clusion of her reply, Tiburce addresses her again (333). Later, Almachius comes in, and having heard Cecile, addresses her (468). B. As the equivalent of the subjective genitive whose (all examples found are cited): And I, of whom the sighte, plounged in teres, Chaucer's Relative Constructions 23 was derked Boe. I. Pr. 1:55. But than a cherl . . . Bisyde the roses gan him hyde, ... Of whom the name was Daunger Ro. of R. 3018. C. Schrader, p. 19, cites the following- example of the ■whom : O tresore of bounte to mankynde the whom God chees to moder for humblesse ABC. :04. Skeat's edition reads: O tresorere of bountee to mankinde, Thee whom God chees to moder for humblesse! A. B. C. 108. Accordingly, no example of the the whom construc- can be cited. 15. The construction exemplified in as -who sayth occurs fre- quently in the poetry of Chaucer and very frequently in his prose works in sentences similar to the following: With that he loked on me asyde. As who sayth, 'nay, that wol not be' Book D. 559. I have wel desired matere of thinges to done, as who seith, I desire to han matere of governaunce over comun- alitees Boe. II. Pr. 7:3. Its use is attributed byEinenkel, "Syntax", p. 1119, to the influence of the Old French idiom comme qui diraii, and is considered by Matzner, III. 583, to be an elliptical expression of condition. The formula whoso list, and other expressions of similar meaning, are occasion allj^ used parenthetically. Note. That the construction expresses condition, as stated by Matzner, is beyond question. It is also quite probable that Einenkel is right in attributing it to French influence. F. H. Sykes, French Elements in Middle Eng- lish, pp. 63-4, though failing to cite the verbal phrase com?ne qui dirait, reaches the conclusion "that OFr. exer- cised an extensive influence on the development of the meaning of phrasal uses of important MidE. verbs," and supports Einenkel's general opinion as given in his "Syn- tax", of the effect of this influence. . 24 Louis Round Wilson 16. 'What, with indefinite meaning-, is used in the nomi- native and accusative cases without an antecedent. When thus used it is equivalent to that which or to the more indefinite whatever: For what that on may hale, that other let Par. of F._ 151. But natheles, bityde what bityde Tr. & Cr. V. 750. And what that I may helpe, it shal not fayle Tr. & Cr. IV. 938. 17. Although what is no longer used, except by the illiterate, as a relative after an antecedent, it is so used by Chaucer in the examples following: A. When the antecedent is a. The name of a thing (only one example occurs): Tak thou thy part, what that men wol thee yive Freres T. 233. b. A demonstrative pronoun (only one example occurs): Til he have caught that what him leste H. of F. I. 282. c. All (all examples found are cited): And al is payed, what that he hath spent L. of G. W. III. 202. Til she had herd al what the frere sayde Som. T. 493. But god and Pandare wiste al what this mente Tr. & Cr. II. 1561. 18. What is used adjectivally A. With a noun which it modifies: For it is set in your hand . . . what fortune yow is levest Boe. IV. Pr. 7:73. For truste wel, that over what man sinne hath maistrie, he is a verray cherl to sinne Per. T. §27. B. With a noun which it modifies followed by that: And yit more-over: whjat man that this toumbling welefulnesse ledeth, either he woot that it is chaungeable, or elles he woot it nat Boe. II. Pr. 4:109. That what wight that first sheweth his presence Comp. of M. 170. Chaucer's Relative Constructions 25 What maner thing that may encrese wo Comp. to P. 103. What maner man, stable and war, that wole founden him a perdurable sete Boe. II. M. 4:1. Examples of A and B are common, espec- ially in the prose works. 19. Whatever is used adjectivally in the following example: Now am I maister, now scolere; Now monk, now chanoun; now baily; What-ever mister man am I Ro. of R. 6332. 20. What ... 50 is frequently used adjectivally when it mod- ifies a noun which is followed by that: That I nil ay, with alle my wittes fyve, Serve yow trewly, what wo so that I fele Comp. to his L. 99. 21. What-som-ever is used once adjectivally: But what-som-ever wo they fele Ro. of R. 5041. 22. Lokc what, with that after a noun whicli it modifies, is used adjectivally in the following sentence: Loke what day that, endelong Britayne, Ye remoeve alle the rokkes, stoon by stoon, . . . Than wol I love yow best of any man Frank. T. 264. 23. Which and its composite relative equivalent the which are used quite frequently in Chaucer. In regard to the latter relative combination which is characteristic of Middle English generally as well as of the works of Chau- cer, it is of interest to note that it is not necessarily a direct imitation of the Old French leqtcel,* but on the contrary that it had its prototype in the Old English composite relative se l>e. Which, or its equivalent the which, is used as a relative A. When the antecedent is a. The name of a person: Criseyde, which that wel neigh starf for fere Tr. & Cr. II. 449. Pandare, which that stood hir *See P. Noack, Eine Geschichte der relativcn Pronomiitn in der englischen Sprache, p. 60, and A. Darmesteter, Historical French Grammar, p. 663. 26 Louis Round Wilson f aste by Tr. & Cr. II. 1275. Twenty-four exam- ples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in sixty-two examples. b. The name qf a personified object: To Daung-er cam I, al ashamed, The which aforn me hadde blamed Ro. of R. 3396. And with that word cam Drede avaunt, Which was abasshed, and in gret fere Ro. of R. 3959. Four examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in eight exam- ples. c. The name of a country or place: Whylom ther was dwellinge in Lumbardye A worthy knight, that born was of Pavye, In which he lived Mar. T. 3. This is the regne of Libie, ther ye been, Of which that Dido lady is and queen L. of G. W. III. 70. d. A name implying the idea of person: Now that I see my lady bright, Which I have loved with al my might Book D. 478. Nineteen examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in ninety-nine examples. e. The name of a thing: Thise vers of gold and black y-writen were, The whiche I gan a stounde to beholde Par. of F. 142. One hundred and two examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in one hundred and forty-two examples. f. A personal pronoun: Such sorwe this lady to her took That trewely I, which made this book Book D. 96. Twelve examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occvirs in one , hundred and sixty-two examples. g. A demonstrative pronoun: I passe al that which chargeth nought to seye Tr. & Cr. III. 1576. Distorbe al this, of which thou art in drede Tr. & Cr. IV. 1113. Four Chaucer's Relative Constructions 27 examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in thir- teen examples. h. An indefinite pronoun: Ther walken many of whiche yow told have I P. T. 202. I love oon which that is most ententyf Tr. & Cr. II. 838. Two examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in forty examples. 1. A whole sentence or sentence member: And at the brondes ende out-ran anoon As it were blody dropes many oon; For which so sore agast was Emelye K. T. 1483. And lat us caste how forth may best be drive This tyme, and eek how freshly we may live Whan that she cometh, the which shal be right sone Tr. & Cr. V. 391. B. As the equivalent of whos when it is preceded by of and implies the idea of person: a. And many a mayde, of which the name I wante Par. of F. 287. For his felawe, daun Polymites, Of which the brother, daun Ethyocles, Ful wrong- fully of Thebes held the strengthe Tr. & Cr. V. 1489. Other examples are to be found: CI. T. 884; Ro. of R. 4485; Boe. IV. Pr. 4:214. C. As the equivalent of as after a. A noun modified by such: and iugen that only swiche thinges ben purveyed of god, whiche that temporel welefulnesse com- mendeth Boe. I. Pr. 4:205. But bet is that a wightes tonge reste Than entremeten him of such doinge Of which he neyther rede can nor singe Par. of F. 516. b. A noun modified by same: and that is thy mene mote, for the laste meridian of the December, for the same yere whiche that thou hast purposed Astr. II. 44:15. D. After superlatives (all examples found are cited): And if the next thou wolt forsake Which is. not 28 Louis Round Wilson lesse saverous Ro. of R. 2823. This yong-est, which that wente un-to the toiui P. T. 509. E. In combination with as after the analogy of ther as, wher as, etc. (all examples found are cited): And in the chambre whyl they were aboute Hit tretis, which as ye shal after here CI. T. 275. Set the heved of the signe which as thee list to knowe his ascensioun up-on the est orisonte Astr. II. 28:1. F. In the function of a phrase to express time: A-cursed be the day which that nature Shoop me to ben a lyves creature! Tr. & Cr. IV. 251. Sith thilke tyme which that ye were born Frank. T. 808. Two examples occur in Tr. & Cr. That occurs in twenty examples. 24. WAick is used as a relative adjective very frequently in Boethitis, The Tale of Meliheus, and The Persones Tale, and appears to take the place of demonstrative pronouns, demonstrative adjectives, personal pronouns of the third person, and the relative pronoun which itself. To its frequent occurrence, along with that of the resumptive formulas as who sayth and that is to say, is to be attrib- uted, largely, the heaviness of Chaucer's prose style. In The Astrolabe, which was written as a text book for a mere child, and in the poetical works, which, as an adjec- tive, and the parenthetical expressions mentioned, appear but rarely and do not affect the style in any appreciable way. It is used with A. A substantive which has preceded: At Trumpington, nat fer fro Cantebrigge, Ther goth a brook and over that a brigge, Up-on the whiche brook ther stant a melle Reve T. 3. For shrewes discorden of hem-self by hir vyces, the whiche vyces al to-renden hir consciences; and don ofte tyme thinges, the whiche thinges, whan they han don hem, they demen that tho thinges Chaucer's Relative Constructions 29 ne sholden nat ben don Boe. IV. Pr. 6:224, 225. Similar examples are numerous in the prose works. B. A substantive which is similar in meaning- to the sub- stantive which has preceded: This proude king- leet make a statue of g-olde, Sixty cubytes long-, and seven in brede. To which imagfe bothe yonge and olde Comaunded he to loute Mo. T. 171. After Accidie wol I speke of Avarice and of Coveitise, of which sinne seith seint Paule Per. T. §62- C. A substantive which represents a preceding- verbal concept: Greet was the pitee for to here hem pleyne, Thurg-h whiche pleintes gan hir wo encresse M. of L. T. 970. D. A substantive which sums up the idea of a sentence or clause: For in this manere men weren wont to maken questions of the simplicitee of the purviaunce of g-od, . . . and of the libertee of free wille; the whiche thing-es thou thy-self aperceyvest wel, of what weig-ht they ben Boe. IV. Pr. 6:20. Hir whyte brest she bet, and for the wo After the deeth she cryed a thousand sythe, Sin he that wont hir wo was for to lythe. She mot for-g-oon; for which disaventure She held hir-self a forlost creature Tr. & Cr. IV. 755. Note 1. E. A, Kock, p. 70, §160, A. b., con- siders which an adjective and the equivalent of such in the following sentence: But which a congregacioun Of folk, as I saugh rome aboute . . . Nas never seen H. of F. III. 944. No other similar examples occur in Chaucer to strengthen or weaken this seemingly correct 30 Louis^Round Wilson explanation. It must be noted, however, that the first member of the sentence bears a very close resemblance to the following citations from Chau- cer which Matzner, III. 201, 260, would dispose of as indirect questions: whiche a fool she was! Book D. 734. And whiche eyen my lady hadde! Book D. 859. In these examples it is an indirect which, like Modern English what in e. g. What a fool! Note 2. In the following sentence, which seems to be used in the sense of whichever : For ever, in which half that he be. He may wel half the gardin see Ro. of R. 1593. 25. Whether, or its contracted form wher, occurs several times, but only once does it claim consideration as a rela- tive: Now chese your-selven, whether that yow lyketh W. of B. T. 371. C. F. Koch, II. p. 286, without any note or explanation, says: "Im Ae. und Me. kommt auch ein relatives whether vor: He bed hym chese, wefer he wolde. RG. 5953," and quotes as an additional illustration the sentence from Chaucer cited above. Schrader, p. 28, having these sen- tences under consideration, says: "Da aber im Ae. derartige zweifelhafte falle nur sehr wenige sich finden und auch bei Chaucer nur dies eine beispiel vorkommt, so erscheint es uns natiirlicher auch fiir diese beiden falle wether interrogativ und nicht relativ zu fassen." E. A. Kock, p. 73, §172, F., Note, takes the opposite view, and in harmony with his theory of the relative against the indirect question, as outlined on page 60, §140, B., Note, contends that it is a relative. He quotes in support of his view the following sentences: Chaucer's Relative Constructions 31 Ahsa l>jes pu wille Be. 2(16:22. utrum placet, sum- ite! (the famous declaration of war ag-ainst the Car- thag-enians, Livius XXI. 18:13). The position held by Schrader seems to me to be the cor- rect one. According-ly, -j.'hether, as a pure relative, does not occur in Chaucer. CHAPTER III Differences Between That and Which 26. Prom the examples cited under that and which, it is apparent that the two relatives were, in general, used to perform like duties. A few differences, however, are to be noted. A. That is usually employed (1) after nouns preceded by the definite article; (2) personal pronouns; and (3) superlatives. B. Which is usually employed (1) if a preposition appears before the relative; (2) if the antecedent is the name of a country or river; and (3) to refer to whole sen- tences or sentence members. 27. Schrader, pp. 32-37, in discussing- this topic, holds that ■which is preferred to that (1) when the relative clause attributes a special characteristic to the anteced^ent, and (2) when the relative stands at the beginning of a num- ber of clauses, all of which refer to the relative and its antecedent as a kind of text. Though these distinctions may not be entirely correct, a view taken by E. A. Kock, p. 36, §104, they do point to the fact noted in the follow- ing quotation from C. Alphonso Smith, "Short Circuit in English Syntax," that which' has "greater carrying power than that", and when placed after its antecedent it commands a more unobstructed view through the clauses following than that: "Moreover, among relative pronouns it can be easily proved that who and which have greater carrying power than that. There is noticeable a tendency, at least in Modern English, to substitute and who or and which for and that in a series of relative clauses begin- 32 Chaucer's Relative Consirnclions 33 ning with that. The writer or speaker feels instinct- ively that in and that there is a possibility of mistak- ing relative for demonstrative that, whereas who and ■which are necessarily relative." (Illustrative sen- tence): "It is the inexorable consolidation and perpetua- tion of the secret that was always in that individ- uality, and which I shall carry to my life's end." — Dickens, Tale of Two Cities, cap. in. Though no examples occur in Chaucer in which the sequence is from iliat to and which, a number occur in which the sequence is from that to which. Occasionally, the opposite sequence occurs. Both sequences follow: a. The grete tour, that was so thikke and strong, Which of the castel was the chief dongeoun K. T. 198, 199. b. Of briddes, whiche therinne were, That songen, through hir mery throtes Ro. of R. 506, 507. The ratio between a and b is iive to one in the examples collected.* A number of sequences similar to a are cited by A. Schmidt, II. p. 1197, Shakespeare Lexicon. Only one example of b is cited. No examples of the sequence that. . .and which, or and who, are cited. One example of the sequence that. . .-whom occurs in Chaucer: Withinne the cloistre blisful of thy sydes Took mannes shap the eternal love and pees, That of the tryne compas and gyde is, Whom erthe and see and heven, out of relees. Ay herien S. N. T. 45, 46. *Bxainple8 similar to the following are not considered, as the preposition demands which: This egle, of which I have yow told, That shoou with fethres as of gold H. of F. II. 31, 33. CHAPTER IV Generai, Relatives 28. In addition to who, the use of which as a g-eneral relative has already been discussed in the second chapter of this paper, whoso and whatso occur frequently as general rel- atives. They are rarely preceded by antecedents and they seldom take the ending ever. Whoso occurs A. Once with an antecedent: A thousand Troians who so that me yave, Eche after other, . . . Ne mighte me so gladen Tr. & Cr. II. 977. B. Frequently without an antecedent: For who so kissing may attayne, Of loves peyne hath, soth to sayne, The beste Ro. of R. 3677. Who-so with Love wol goon or ryde He mot be cur- teys, and void of pryde Ro. of R. 2351. 29. Whosoever occurs A. Once with an antecedent: This fable aperteineth to yow alle, who-so-ever desireth or seketh to lede his thought in-to the soverein day Boe. III. M. 12:43. Note. This example is also interesting because the antecedent yow all is followed by a third sin- gular. B. Without an antecedent: For who-so that ever be so overcomen that he ficche his eyen into the putte of helle Boe. III. M. 12:45. 30. Whoever ozcvixs without an antecedent: And I shal loven, [sith] that I wil, Who-ever lyke it wel or il Ro. of R. 3434. No other examples occur. 34 Chaucer'' s\Rcl alive Conslnictions 35 31. Whatso is used as a g-eneral relative A. With an antecedent: every lover thoug-lite, That al was wel, what-so he seyde or wroughte Tr. & Cr. III. 1799. No other examples occur. B. Without an antecedent: My peyne is this, that what so I desire That have I not Comp. of P. 99. For what so that this carpen- ter answerde, It was for noght Mil. T. 657. what- so-ever in al these three Is spoken, . . . The wey therto is so overte H. of F. II. 208. Ne semed it [as] that she of him rougfhte, Nor of his peyne, or what-so-ever he thoug-hte Tr. «& Cr. I. 497. Note 1. Whatever occurs once with relative rather that interrogative force: I praise no-thing what ever they see Ro. of R. 2430. Note 2. What may be separated from so by inserted words: what after so befalle, This entremes is dress- ed for you alle Par. of F. 664. 32. The forms ivkichso and whichsoever do not occur.* *See Schrader, p. 30. CHAPTER V Relation Expressed through As 33. Oaiy two* examples occur in which as stands alone without a preceding- correlative: Ne his rotes ne his othere geres, As been his centres and his arguments Frank. T. 549. Make thy rote fro the laste day of Decenibere in the maner as I have taught Astr. II. 44:34. Note. In several sentences similar to the following, as can be regarded as the equivalent of thai which, or which, but it is better to regard it as a conjunctive adverb: Every man dide, right anoon, As to hunting til to doon Book D. 374. And boom un-to hir housband is she fare, And tolde him al as ye han herd me sayd Prank. T. 819. 34. As occurs very frequently as the relative correlative of swich : Hast thou not seyd, . . . Swich thing as in the law of love forbode is? Len. a. Sco. 17. for swich maner folk, I gesse, Defamen love, as no-thing of him knowe Tr. & Cr. II. 860. Note 1. No examples occur in which -as is the correlative of same. One example, however, after its equivalent thilkc, occurs: In many places were nightingales, Alpes, finches, and wodewales, That in her swete song delyten In thilke place as they habyten Ro. of R. 660. ♦Differences between citations given above and in Schrader are to be explained by differences in texts used. 36 Chaucer''s Relative Constructions 'yj Note 2. E. A. Kock, p. 53, § 134, B., contends that in the foUowingf examples as is used as a con- junctive adverb, and not as a relative: at Troye, whan Pirrus brak the wal . . . Nas herd swich tendre weping for pitee As i^as that ■which) in the chambre was for hir departinge Chauc. 479:293.* these be no swiche tyding-es As {as those which) I mene of Chauc. 345:1895. f In discussing this point he says: "In these exam- ples a comparison and an ellipsis are easily noticed. And such is not qualitatively indifferent (§ 132 A). It expresses by itself a certain quality or circumstance, which the hearer or reader is supposed to know already, or which will be explained afterwards, but which is not explained in the «s-clause." In making this distinction, he goes a step further than J. A. H. Murray, A New English Dictionary, and Matzner, III. 534, who indicate no difference between the usages mentioned above. Inasmuch as Kock is forced, in his discussion of this point, to the employment of hypothetical sentences to illustrate the distinction, and admits the difficulty of detecting the occurrence of the implied comparison, I do not feel that the point is well taken. 35. As is occasionally replaced by A. That: I shal moeve swiche thinges that percen hem-self depe Boe. II. Pr. 3:17. B. Which: and iugen that only swiche thinges ben purveyed of god, whiche that temporel welefulnesse com- mendeth Boe. I. Pr. 4:205. C. That, with phrasal value: This ugly sergeant, in the same wyse That he hir doghter caughte CI. T. 618. »Skeat's edition, M. of L. T. 195. iSkeat's edition, H. of F. III. 805, 38 Louis Round Wilson D. Relative adverbs: And sithen thou hast wepen many a drope, And seyd swich thing wher-with thy g-od is plesed Tr. & Cr. I. 942. In swich another place lede, Ther thou shalt here many oon H. of F. III. 825. 36. In the following example, as occurs with phrasal value: But in the same ship as he hir fond, . . . Hir . . . He sholde putte M. of L. T. 701. Examples are rare. CHAPTER VI Relation Expressed Through Relative Adverbs 37. Relation is frequently expressed in Chaucer by means of relative adverbs. These are often combined with prepo- sitions and are followed by a pleonastic as, or that. As, when thus employed, is always the equivalent of pleonas- tic that. The following adverbs occur: A. Wher: a. Without prepositions: Ther is, at the west syd-e of Itaille, ... A lusty playne, . . . Wher many a tour and toun thou mayst biholde CI. T. 4. b. With prepositions: And made a sig-ne, wher-by that he took That his preyere accepted was that day I^. T. 1408. B. Ther: a. Without prepositions: How sholde I thanne, . . . Come to the blisse ther Crist eterne on lyve is? Mar. T. 408. b. With prepositions: He priketh thurgh a fair forest, Ther-inne is many a wilde best Sir T. 44. C. Why: a. Without prepositions: For thou art cause why thy felawe deyth Som. T. 331. b. With prepositions: Thy maladye a-wey the bet ,to dryve, For-why thou semest syk Tr. & Cr. II. 1516. D. Whan: At Ester, whan it lyketh me Ro. of R. 6435. 39 40 Louis Round Wilson E. Whennes: a. Without a preposition: he was wont to seken the causes whennes the souning windes moeven Boe. I. M. 2:12. b. Preceded by a preposition: Thou shalt eek considere alle thise causes, fro whennes they been sprongen T. of M, §24. they retornen sone ayein in-to the same thinges fro whennes they ben arraced Boe. III. Pr. 11:110. F. Whider: But we that ben heye aboven, siker fro alle tumulte and wode noise, warnestored and enclosed in swich a palis, whider as that chateringe or anoyinge folye ne may nat atayne Boe. I. Pr. 3:56. CHAPTER VII Omission in the Rei.ative Sentence 38. Throug-hout its entire history, the English language has been characterized by a rather frequent occurrence of relative ellipsis, especially in the accusative case in restrictive clauses. Occurrences in the nominative case, and in non-restrictive clauses, have been noted. In this chapter, I wish to give examples of the ellipses, not only of the relatives themselves, but of antecedents, preposi- tions, and verbs, which occur in Chaucer's adjective clauses. Examples follow: A. In which the relative in the nominative case is to be supplied after a. Substantives: He sente after a cherl, was in the toun Ph. T. 140. He had a knight, was called Achates L. of G. W. III. 41. Ye ryde as coy and stille as dooth a mayde, Were newe spoused CI. T. Prol. 3. they herd a belle clinke Biforn a cors, was caried to his grave P. T. 337. Other examples are to be found as follows: Ch. Y. T. 581; Ro. of R. 1199; Book D. 702; Par. of F. 19; Tr. & Cr. V. 165; L. of G. W. Prol. 498; Sir T. 4; Som. T. 121; Book D. 823; H. of F. II. 536. b. Pronouns: Ther was noon with Gamelyn • wolde wrastle more T. of G. 265. But ther is [noon] a-lyve here Wolde for a fers make this wo! Book D. 740. Ther be but fewe can hir begyle Book D. 674. I asked oon, ladde a lymere Book D. 365. 41 42 Louis Round Wilson B. In which the relative in the objective case is to be supplied after substantives: Greet was the wo the khight hadde in his thog-ht W. of B. 227. Alias! that day The sorwe I suf- fred, and the wo! Book D. 1245. Note. Examples occur also in which relatives g-overned by prepositions are omitted: Ye, that to me, . . . ful lever were Than al the good the sonne aboute gooth Tr. & Cr. III. 1108. Of al the lond the sonne on shyn- eth sheneTr. & Cr. IV. 1239. Ther is a-nother thing I take of hede Tr. & Cr. I. 577. C In which prepositions are to be supplied with relatives after conceptions other than those of time: To knowe a sooth of that thou art in doute Tr. & Cr. V. 1295. For the mochel love • my fader loved thee T. of G. 400. Other examples are to be found: Mo. T. 486, 487; Tr. & Cr. IV. 1626, 1627; Ro. of R. 2888; Tr. & Cr. 648; Ro. of R. 2936. D. In which prepositions and relatives are to be supplied after conceptions of time: Sin thilke day ye wente fro this place L. of G. W. VIII. 112. Til thilke tyme he sholde y-freten be L. of G, W. VI. 67. Other examples are to be found: Tr. & Cr. IV. 1656; Tr. & Cr. IV. 37; Mo. T. 191. E. In which the antecedent is to be supplied: What! shal she crye, or how shal she asterte That hath her by the throte? L. of G. W. V. 124. For wit thou wel, withouten wene, In swich astat ful oft have been That have the yvel of love assayd Ro. of R. 2417. Other examples are to be found: Ro. of R. 1054; Boe. II. Pr. 3:53; Comp. to my Lode-S. 8; Boe. III. Pr. 12:151; Boe. IV. Pr. 4:51; Tr. & Cr. II. 777. Chaucer's Relative Constructions 43 Note. An example of omission and attraction occiirs in: Me thinketh this, that thou were depe y-holde To whom that saved thee fro cares colde! L. of G. W. VI. 70. F. In which antecedent, relative, and preposition are to be supplied: For yif that they migfhlen wry then awey in othre manere than they ben purveyed Boe. V. Pr. 3:16. No other examples occur. G. In which the relative and a verb are to be supplied: She hadde seyd, and torned the cours of hir resoun to some othre thinges to ben treted and to ben y-sped Boe. V. Pr. 1:2. Where fyndest thou a swinker of labour Have me unto his confessour? Ro. of R. 6858. This use is rare. H. In which a preposition is to be supplied: As I have seyd, by him that I have sworn L. of G. W. IX. 101. Save in somme thinges that he was to blame CI. T. 20. This use is rare. I. In which the that of the that . . . his construction is to be supplied: And to be bounden under subieccioun Of oon, she knoweth not his condicioun M. of L. T. 173. No other examples occur. CHAPTER VIII Concord in th^ Rei^ative Sentence 39. C. S. Baldwin, p. 55, § 179, The Injlections and Syntax of the Morte cP Arthur, calls attention to a number of sen- tences in the edition by Sommer in which plural antece- dents are followed in the dependent relative clause by verbs ending in -th. With regard to them he says: "The plural -th seems to survive in the following:" wil ye al that loveth me speke with Merlyn 47:13; ye knyghtes arraunt, the whiche goth to seke, etc. 629:9; I praye you gyue to me al my ryghtes that longeth to a chrysten man, 858:19; al lentyl men and lentyl wymmen that redeth this book, 861:4. Continuing, he says: "It will be observed that all these instances are in relative clauses." W. E. Mead, p. 279, Selections from Sir Thomas Malory's Morte Darthur, gives the following explanatory note on the -th form occurring in the second example given above: '■^goth. The plural form in -th may be the survival of the older form." These suggestions, taken in connection with the addi- tional example from Sommer's edition:* come on fyersly, and soo slee alle that ever before you stondeth 845:26, and the one cited by Kellner, p. 205, §331, Historical Outlines of English Syntax: Aefter fsem Romane curon III hund cempena and siex, pset sceolde to anwige gangan. — Orosius, 72, 15, *A11 sentences taken from Malory are paged according to the edition by Sommer and punctuated according to the editions by Mead or Baldwin. 44 Chaucer's Relative Constructions 45 point to the fact that the notion of plurality implied in a plural antecedent becomes contracted or focalized into a sing-ular concept on having- to pass throug-h the medium of the relative; and that in reality the forms in-//i, which Baldwin and Mead consider Old English plurals, are genuine Middle Eng-lish singulars. This conclusion is confirmed by the examples from Chaucer below (see also C. Alphonso Smith's "Shakespeare's Present Indicative .S-Ending-s with Plural Subjects")* in which plural ante- cedents are followed by A. Sing-ular forms of the verb to be: And after that the melodye herde he That com- eth of thilke speres thryes three, That welle is of musyke and melodye Par. of F. 62. Almighty g-od, that saveth al mankinde, Have on Custance and on hir child som minde. That fallen is in hethen land eft-sone M. of L,. T. 811. For we, . . . wol us swich formes make As most able is our preyes for to take Freres T. 174. Now cometh ydel wordes,t that is with-outen profit of him that speketh tho wordes Per. T. § 47. Now wol I speken of lesing-es,t which g-enerally is fals sig- nificaciuon of word Per. T. § 39. B. Singulars in -th: Ye, blisful god, han me so wel beset In love, y-wis, that al that bereth lyf Imaginen ne cowde how to ben bet Tr. & Cr. II. 835. And dide also his othere observaunces That to a lovere longeth in this cas Tr. & Cr. II. 1346. And alle tho that suffreth him his wille L. of G. W. IV. 208. and preye god save the king, that is lord of this Ian- gage, and alle that him feyth bereth and obejeth *PuhllcntioiiR of The Modern Language Association, IV, new series, 368if. iYdfl wordes and lexinges, though plurals, may be conceived of as single topics to be discussed. If so considered, the correct concord is preserved in the relative clause. 46 Louis Round Wilson Astr. Prol. 40. But ever worthe hem wel • that doth thee moche sorwe T. of G. 482. sotnme of hem shewen the boce of hir shap, and the horrible swollen membres, that semeth lyk the maladie of hirnia Per. T. § 2V. And thogh so be that no man can outrely telle the nombre of the twig-ges and of the harmes that cometh of Pryde Per. T. § 24. And kepeth in semblant alle his observances That sowneth in-to gentillesse of love Sq. T. 509. The thridde, is foule wordes, that fareth lyk fyr Per. T. § 76. Note 1. In the following examples it is difficult to determine the number of the antecedents as conceived by Chaucer: Now comth the remedie agayns Lecherie, and that is, generally, Chastitee and Conti- nence, that restreyneth alle the desordeynee moevinges that comen of fleshy talentes Per. T. § 77. Gamelyn held his feste With moche mirth and solas • that was there T. of G. 328. Note 2. la the following sentence the emer- gence of he proves a sudden change to the singular: It resembleth to thise flyinge flyes that we clepen been, that, after that he hath shad hise agreable honies, he fleeth away Boe. III. M. 7:3. Note 3. With these may be cited two doubtful sentences from Malory: for within a whyle he had defouled many good knyghtes of the Table Round, sauf twenye, that was Syr Launcelot and Sire Per- cyvale 619:20. Whanne Bors had told hym of the adventures of the Sancgreal, suche as had befalle hym, and his thre felawes, that was Launcelot, Percyval, Galahad, and hym self 724:21. Chaucer'^s Relative Constructions 47 40. Other interesting facts concerning- concord in the relative clauses are: A. A plural form of the verb is used after a singular antecedent. This is plainly the constructio per synesin : And many an ynipne for your halydayes, That highten Balades, Roundels, Virelays L. of G. W. Prol. 411. Ne ther nas foul that cometh of engen- drure, That they ne were prest in hir presence Par. of F. 307. Ther nis planete in firmament, Ne in air, ne in erthe, noon element, That they ne yive me a yif t echoon Of weping Book D. 695. Coempcioun, that is to seyn, comune achat or bying to-gidere, that were estasblisshed up-on the people Boe. I. Pr. 4:65. Note. With these may be cited the following from Malory: And thenne every knyghte of the Round Table that were there at that tyme 757:10. B. Relatives referring to collective nouns are sometimes followed by singular verbs, at other times by plural verbs: Of al the folk that on the daunce is Ro. of R. 1002. or of folk that been entred in-to ordre Per. T. § 76. Note. A plural verb form is usually employed. In the following example from Malory both forms follow in the same sentence: Thenne the party that was ayenst kynge Arthur were wel comforted 743:27. No exam- ples of this kind occur in Chaucer. C Chaucer's skill in handling relative clauses referring to personal pronouns of the first and second persons is shown in that he violates the principle of concord but rarely: and it am I That loveth so bote Emelye the brighte K. T. 879. Ye, that is out of drede Tr. 48 Louis Round Wilson & Cr. I. 775. Ye yeve good counseil, sikirly, That prechith lue al-day Ro. of R. 5174. But shal I thus [to] yow my dceth for-g-ive, That causeles doth me this sorow drye? Amor. Comp. 32. Ladyes, I preye ensample taketh, Ye that ageins your love mistaketh Ro. of R. 1540. No other examples were fouud. Note. The dominance of the 3d. singular, as in § 39, A, B, is to be noted here. CHAPTER IX Thb Structuru of Chaucer's Relative Sentence 41. In the first part of this chapter, I have subjected the construction of Chaucer's relative clause to a treatment very similar to that given by L. Kellner in his edition of Caxton's Blanchardyn and Eglantine. Though Caxton wrote a century later than Chaucer, he deviates but lit- tle in his use of the relative clause from the norm fur- nished by his predecessor. Chaucer uses three general types of relative construction. These will be treated under A, B, C: A. The antecedent or correlative is a noun or pronoun in a complete sentence which is followed by a complete relative clause: He conquered al the regne of Femenye, That whylom was y-cleped Scithia K. T. 9. a. If the relative is in the nominative case, two forms occur: 1. The relative, as in Modern English, is not followed by a pleonastic personal pronoun: Ful craftier to pley she was Than Athalus, that made the game Book D. 663. 2. The relative is followed by a pleonastic per- sonal pronoun: A knight ther was, and that a worthy man, That fro the tyme that he first bigan To ryden out, he loved chivalrye Prol. C. T. 44. Note. This is not a correct Modern Eng- lish construction. For a discussion of the combinations that ... he, that he, etc., see §§42,43. 49 So Louts Round' Wilson b. If the relative is in an oblique case, two forms occur: 1. Examples in which, as in Modern Eng-lish, simple relative and prepositional forms, such as ■whos, whom, of whom, in which, that . . . to, etc., are used: And, as I seide, amiddes lay Cipryde, To whom on knees twQ yonge folkes cryde Par. of F. 278. This is the usual construction. 2. Examples in which the demonstrative rela- tive that followed by an oblique* case of a per- sonal pronoun, is used. In these examples, that . . . his stands for whose, that . . . him for whom, etc. Genitives: Ther nas baillif, ne herde, ne other hyne. That he ne knew his sleighte and his covyne C. T. Prol. 604. Whilom ther was an irous potestat. As seith Senek, that, duringe his estaat, Up-on a day out riden knightes two Som. T. 310. With his slepy thousand sones That alway for to slepe hir wone is H. of F. I. 76. Now fele I wel the goodnesse of this wyf. That bothe after hir deeth, and in hir lyf , Hir grete bountee doubleth hir renoun L. of G. W. Prol. 509. Ther was a womman eek, that hight Shame, that, who can reken right, Trespas was hir fader name Ro. of R, 3032. Al were they sore y-hurt, and namely oon. That with a spere was thirled his brest-boon K. T. 1852. If they be swich folk as they ♦Genitives of the personal pronouns: Masc, his; fern., hire, hir; neut., his; plural, here, (her, her, hir). Datives and accusatives: Masc, him; fern,, hir, hire, here; ueut., hit, it, plural, hem. — R. Morris, Chaucer: TIte Prologue, The Knightes Tale, The Nonne Preestes Tale, p. xxxv. Chaticer's Relative Constructions 51 semen, So clene, as men her clothis demen, And that her wordis folowe her dede, It is g-ret pite Ro. of R. 7251. Ne she hath kin noon of hir blood, That she nis ful hir enemy Ro. of R. 269. Note. Which is used similarly in the fol- lowing- example: Set the heved of the signe which as thee list to knowe his ascensioun up-on the est orisonte Astr. II. 28:1. Datives and Accusatives : What sleighte is it, thogh it be long- and hoot, That he nil finde it out in some manere? Mar. T. 883. Ther is som mete that is ful deyntee holde, That in this lond men recche of it but smal Sq. T. 63. For in the lond ther nas no crafty man. That geometrie or ars- metrik, can, . . . That Theseus ne yaf him mete and wages K. T. 1042. Ther nas to hir no maner lettre y-sent That touched love, from any maner wight, That she ne shewed hit him, er hit was brent An. & Ar. 115. Other examples are to be found: Per. T. §11; Ro. of R. 681; T. of G. 512; Boe. III. Pr. 2:69; Mil. T. 244. Note 1. Which is used similarly in the fol- lowing examples: But what shal I seye of dignitees and of powers, the whiche ye men, that neither knowen verray dignitee ne verray power, areysen hem as heye as the hevene? Boe. II. Pr. 6:1. thanne is it covenable to tellen specially of sinnes whiche that many a man per-aventure ne demeth hem nat sinnes Per. T. §22. Ther been ful fewe, whiche that I wolde profre To shewen hem thus muchc 53 Louis Round Wilson of my science Ch. Y. T. 570. Al redj out my woful gost to dryve; Which I delaye, and holde him yet in honde Tr. & Cr. V. 1371. Note 2. This construction is very rarely met with in Modern Eng-lish. For an expla- nation of its occurrence and for examples in Modern English, see § 42. B. The principal clause is divided into two parts by the relative clause: O lady myn, that called art Cleo, Thou be my speed fro this forth Tr. & Cr. II. 8.. With reference to this form of construction Kellner, p. xlii, Blanchardyn and Eglantine, says: "In Old and Middle English this type is nearly always a sort of anacoluthon to our modern eyes and ears, and perhaps it was such indeed. The essential point in which this construction differs from the modern use is, that the correlative always appears in the nominative case, without regard to its place in the sentence; it is only the redundant pronoun, personal or possessive, in the second part, which marks the subjective or objective case of this correlative." Two types are to be distinguished under this division: a. If the correlative or antecedent of the relative pro- noun is the subject of the independent sentence, the redundant personal pronoun is in the nomina- tive case: These wommen, whiche that in the cite dwelle. They sette hem doun, and seyde as I shal telle Tr. & Cr. IV. 685. Note 1. This resumptive use of the personal pronoun, though comparatively frequent, is not characteristic of Chaucer. As in Modern Eng- lish, the pronoun is usually omitted-. Chaucer's Relative Constructions 53 Note 2. In the following- sentence, which . . . his is equal to whose. The redundant pro- noun is omitted: the kinges dere sone, . . . Which alwey for to do wel is his wone, ... so loveth thee Tr. & Gr. II. 318. b. If the correlative or antecedent of the relative pro- noun is the direct or indirect object of the sen- tence, the redundant pronoun is in an oblique case: And Pandarus, that in a study stood, Er he was war, she took him by the hood Tr. & Cr. II. 1180. For thilke thing- that simply is o thing, ... the errour and folye of mankinde departeth and devydeth it Boe. III. Pr. 9:13. Other examples are to be found: T. of M. §71; Book D. 1326; Boe. III. Pr. 9:132; Boe. III. Pr. 5:48; Boe. IV. Pr. 2:189. Note. Kellner's statement, p. xliii, Blanchar- dyn and Eglantine., to the effect that b is appar- ently the rule in Caxton, will not hold in Chaucer. C. The relative clause precedes the principal clause. The use of the redundant pronoun is the same as in class B: a. If the relative clause is the subject of the sentence, the redundant pronoun, if used, is in the nom- inative case: And who-so seyth that for to love is vyce, . . . He outher is envyous, or right nyce Tr. & Cr. II. 855. Note. Numerous examples of this construction occur. The resumptive pronoun is employed more frequently than it is omitted. The ratio is three to one. b. If the relative clause is the direct or indirect object of the sentence, the redundant pronoun is in an oblique case: Who me chastysith, I him hate Ro. of R. 3331. 54 Louis Round Wilson Note. This construction is very rare. I find no example in which the redundant pronoun is omitted. 42. In the relative sentences given in classes §41, A and B, in which that is followed by an oblique case of a personal pronoun {that . . . his, etc.), the personal form is used to express the case relation of the relative to its antecedent. The use of this combination of relative and personal pro- noun is limited exclusively to the function of expressing- the oblique case relations of the inflectionless that. It compensated, as it were, for the loss of the orig-inal case endings of the relative. However, notwithstanding the fact that these oblique cases of the personal pronouns thus emplyed have definite values, they must be distin- guished from their nominative forms in the combinations that . . . he, that . . . they, etc., in which the nominative forms are vised pleonastically or resumptively. Note 1. The causes which made necessary this periph- rasis were: (1) the loss of the case endings of the Old English relative Acet; (2) the difficulty of handling the oblique forms whose and whom; (3) and the refusal of the relative that, unless it was the equivalent of that which, to be preceded by prepositions. Note 2. The rare combinations which . . . his, which . . . him, etc,, seem to be due to the analogy of the cor- responding combinations with that. Note 3. A curious survival of which in the combina- tions which he, which . . . his, is to be noted in the fol- lowing dialect extracts from Sidney Lanier, Poems, pp. 180-184: I knowed a man, which he lived in Jones. This man — which his name it was also Jones. Yan's Jones, which you bought his land. My lower corn-field, which it lay 'Longside the road that runs my way. Three other examples occur in the same pages. The two Chaucer's Relative Constructions 55 following are taken from Joel Chandler Harris, Told by Uncle Remus, pp. 151 and 201, respectively: "She holler so loud dat Brer Rabbit, which he wuz gfwine by, got de idee dat she wuz callin' him." "Mr. Man look thoo de crack, an' he see Brer Wolf, which he wuz so skeer'd twel his eye look right green." 43. Although it is true that a personal pronoun is occasion- ally used in connection with the relative pleonastically or resumptively when a phrase or clause is inserted between the relative and its predicate {that . . . he, etc.), it is also to be noted that it is frequently used in imme- diate combination with the relative {that he, etc.), not resumptively, but to give it a peculiar relative, or rather conjunctival quality. When thus employed along with a negative, the combination seems to be the equivalent of the modern adversative conjunction but. The combination is thus used in connection with some negative after: A. Negative statements: For in this world, certein, ther no wight is, That he ne dooth or seith som-tyme amis Frank. T, 52. Note. The personal pronoun of the that he combination is frequently omitted. B. Rhetorical questions: Wher see ye oon, that he ne hath laft his leef? L. of G. W. III. 337. Who lived ever in swich delyt o day That him ne moeved outher conscience, Or ire? M. of ly. T. 1038. Note. Very few rhetorical questions occur. 44. A careful comparison beeween the relative constructions of Chaucer and Malory brings out the fact that Chaucer was the greater master in the art of compression and sub- ordination. His style is more hypotactic, there being practically no cases of clauses introduced by and he, and she, etc., instead of relative pronouns. There are also very few cases of anacoluthon. Malory, on the other 56 Louis Round Wilson hand, approaches the loose construction of Alfred at times in sentences similar to the following: Now have I that swerd that somtyme was the g-ood knyghtes Balyn le Seveage, and he (who) was a pas- synge good man of hishandes 618:6. 45. Inasmuch as Chaucer wrote at a time not far removed from the Old English period, it is worthy of notice that the word order in his relative clauses is similar, as a rule, to that of Modem English, rather than to that of Old English. But few examples are to be found in which the transposed order of Old English occurs: Who me chastyseth, I him hate Ro. of R, 3331. For both have I the wordes and sentence Of him that at the seintes reverence The storie wroot S. N. T. 82. Occasionally this transposition is due to the requirements of rime: Withinne the cloistre blisful of thy sydes Took mannes shap the eternal love and pees. That of the tryne compas lord and gyde is S. N. T. 45. 46, The fact that that could not be preceded by prepositions, unless it was equivalent to that -which^ was probably responsible for the following divergences from modern use: A. The preposition stands near the end of the clause after the verb: And blessed be the yok that we been inne Mar. T. 593. B. The preposition precedes its verb: The goode folk, that Poule to preched Ro. of R. 6679. Note. B occurs usually with verbs of telling, knowing, etc. Occasionally the verb follows the preposition to meet the requirements of rime. SUMMARY 1. That is the most frequently employed Chaucerian rela- tive. It is used in restrictive and non-restrictive clauses alike and refers occasionally to entire sentences or sentence mem- bers. 2. The old demonstrative relative t>e does not appear in Chaucer. 3. The pure interrog^ative-relative forms, who, which, what, though g-enerally supposed to be derived from general or indefinite relatives, are derived from interrogative pronouns , used in complete or emphatic clauses in indirect discourse. 4. Who, as a pure relative, in the nominative case, does not appear in Skeat's edition. Its oblique forms are used fre- quently to refer to persons or personified objects, but very rarely to things. In an indefinite or general relative sense, it occurs very frequently. When thus used, it is often fol- lowed by a personal pronoun in the correlative sentence. 5. What occurs very rarely as a pure relative. Its use as an indefinite or general relative and as a relative adjective is frequent. 6. Which is used both as a relative pronoun and as a rela- tive adjective. It rarely refers to superlatives and interroga- tive pronouns. It is constantly employed to refer to sentences and sentence members. 7. Whether does not occur as a pure relative. 8. Which has greater carrying power than that, and fre- quently replaces it in a sequence of relative clauses referring . to one antecedent. 9. The general relatives whoso, whatso, and their variant forms, occur frequently. Whichso and whichsoever do not occur. 57 58 Louis Round Wilson 10. Relation is very frequently expressed throug-h as and relative adverbs. 11. Chaucer's relative ellipses present no special pecul- iarities. 12. Chaucer occasionally uses a singular predicate in his relative clauses after a plural antecedent. His usage, in this respect, is not unlike that of Malory or Shakespeare. In a very few examples, he uses a plural predicate in the relative clause after a singular antecedent. When the antecedent is of the first or second person singular, Chaucer rarely violates the concord of number and person in his relativfe predicates. Relatives referring to collective nouns are as a rule followed by plural predicates. 13. The structure of Chaucer's relative sentence is at times very different from that of Modern English. The most striking differences appear in the frequent use of the oblique forms of personal pronouns used in connection with the rela- tive that, rarely which, to express the case relation of the relative to its antecedent. The combination that he tie, etc., after negative statements and rhetorical questions, is the equivalent of the modern but, meaning who not. 14. Chaucer exhibits a fine feeling for relative subordina- tion. He permits anacolutha to appear but rarely and joins his dependent clauses to his principle clauses by a hypotactic nexus of which Malory was wholly incapable. 15. Though Chaucer was not, in actual time, very far removed from the Old English period, his word order in rela- tive clauses, when not influenced by the demands of rime, is very similar to that of Modern English. Occasionally, the old transposed order occurs in the relative clause. That, when the equivalent of that which or what, is frequently preceded by a preposition. In very rare examples, that is followed by a verbal combination like of speke, in which the preposition precedes the verb instead of following it. LIFE I was born ia Lenoir, N. C, December 27th, 1876. After attending- several private schools, I entered Haverford College, Haverford, Penn., in September of 1895. From this institution, where I held the positions of assistant librarian and private tutor in Latin, I received the "Class of 1896 Latin Prize", in June, 1897. Leaving Haverford at the end of my third year, I entered the senior class of the University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, the following Sep- tember. I received the degree of A.B. in 1899, and v/as awarded the "Hume Essay Medal" for special work in English. During the year 1899-1900, I was Principal of Vine Hill Male Academy, Scotland Neck, N. C, a position which I resigned to become instructor in English at Catawba College, Newton, N. C. In September, 1901, I returned to the Uni- versity to become its librarian, a position which I still hold. In 1902, 1 received the degree of A.M. after pursuing graduate courses in English, Greek, and Latin. In 1904, I received "The Early English Text Society Prize" for work in Old and Middle English. To all of my instructors, and especially to Dr. C. Alphonso Smith, Dr. Thomas Hume, and Professor W. D. Toy, under whom it has been my privilege to pursue the courses leading to this dissertation, I am deeply indebted, both for wise guidance in study and for the sympathetic interest and unfail- ing kindness which have at all times characterized their rela- tions to me. Louis "Round Wilson. Chnpul Hill, N. C, May 15, 1905. 59 INDEX And he, etc., 55. As, 36-38, 39. As who saith, 23, 38. But, 55, 58. Loke what, 35. Loke who, 17. Se fe, 35. That, V, 6-13, 32-33, 39, 56, 57-58. That he ne, 49, 55, 68. That ... he, etc., 49, 54-65. That . . . his, etc., 50-51, 64, 58. pe, 12, 57. The which, 25. The whom, 33. The whos, 19. Ther, 39. Whan, 39. What, 13-15, 34-35, 57. Whatever, 36, 85. Whatso, 34-35, 57. What-sojn-ever, 35. Which, 9, 11, 13, 35-30, 33-33, 67-58. Which he, etc., 54-55. Which . . . his, etc., 61, 53, 64, 58. Whichso, 35, 57. Whichsoever, 35, 57. Wlio, 13-18, 83-88, 34, 57. Who not, 58. Whoever, 34. Whom, 16, 19-38, 33, 60, 54, 57. Whos, 16, 18-19, 50, 54, 57. Whoso, 34, 57. Whoso list, 3a. Whosoever, 34. Whennes, 40. Wher, 39. Whether, 30-31, 57. Whider. 40. Why, 39. 60 Cornell University Library PR 1948.W74 Chaucer's relative constructions, 3 1924 013 113 273 i