BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henri} W. Sage 189X ' Ajmuul -HZI _*hfc*_ Cornell University Library JS1268 .P41 The city government of Philadelphia le city go 111 olin 3 1924 030 540 086 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030540086 Publications of the University of Pennsylvania. Political Economy and Public Law Series. EDMUND J. JAMES, PH. D., EDITOR. VOLUME I. No. i.— Wharton School Annals of Political Science. Outof print. No. 2.— Anti-Rent Agitation in New York. Prof. E. P. Cheyney. Price, 50 cents. No. 3. — Ground Rents in Philadelphia. E. P. Aw,lNSON and BoiES Penrose, of the Philadelphia bar. Price, 25 cents. No. 4.— Consumption of Wealth. Prof. S. N. Patten. Price, socents. No. 5.— Prison Statistics of the U. S. for 1888. Prof. Roland P. Falkner. Price, 25 cents. No. 6.— Rational Principles of Taxation. Dr. S. N. PaTTEN. Price, 50 cents. No. 7. — Federal Constitution of Germany, with Historical Intro- duction. Translated by Prof. E. J. James. Price, 50 cents. No. 8 — Federal Constitution of Switzerland. Translated by Prof. E. J. James. Price, 50 cents. Price of Nos. 2 to 8 in one order, $2.40. VOLUME II. No. 9. — Our Sheep and the Tariff. William Draper Lewis, Ph. D., late Fellow in Wharton School of Finance and Economy. Price, cloth, $2.00; paper, $1.25. VOLUME HI. No. 10. — The German Bundesrath. A study in comparative constitu- tional law. Prof. James Harvey Robinson. Price 75 cents. This institution is the very centre and core of the existing form of government in Germany, and deserves to be much better known by students of constitutional government. No. 11. — The Theory of Dynamic Economics. Prof. Simon N. PAT- TEN. Price, $ 1. 00. A review and criticism of the new political economy from the standpoint of consumption. VOLUME IV. No. 12 The Referendum in America. Dr. EllisP. OberholTzer. Price, $1.50. Price of Nos. 2 to 12 in one order, $5.50. Wharton School Studies in Politics and Economics. This series consists of monographs by the students of the Whar- ton School of Finance and Economy. NUMBER I. The Recent Development of American Industries. ByTHE Class OP '91. Price, 50 cents ; cloth, $1.00. NUMBER 2. The City Government of Philadelphia. By The Class of '93. Price, $1.50. Publications of the University of Pennsylvania. 3ffifiarton School Stuoics IN Politics mt& Economics* VOL. II. JUNE, 1893. Whole No. 2. THE City Government of Philadelphia. A STUDY IN Municipal Administration. PREPARED BY THE MEMBERS OF THE SENIOR CLASS IN THE Wharton School of Finance and Economy, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY EDMUND J. JAMES, Fix. D. Professor of Public Finance and Administration in the Wharton School. PHILADELPHIA : Wharton School of Financb and Economy, University of Pennsylvania. 1893. Copyrighted, 1893. University of Pennsylvania. Wharton School of Finance and Economy. press OF A vil Printing Company, 3041 Market Street, PHILADELPHIA. CONTENTS. PAGE. Class of 1893, Wharton School 11 Publication Committee . 12 Introduction 13 I. The Mayor 17 II. City Councils 25 III. Department of Charities and Correction 37 IV. Department of Education 49 V. Department of Controller 74 VI. Department of Law 80 VII. Department of City Treasurer 88 VIII. Department of Public Works : Director 98 1. Bureau of Gas 99 2. Bureau of Lighting no 3. Bureau of Water in 4. Bureau of Highways 130 5. Bureau of Street Cleaning 137 6. Bureau of Surveys 138 7. Bureau of Ice Boats 144 8. Bureau of Public Buildings Commission . . . 145 IX. Department of Public Safety : Director 151 1. Bureau of Police 152 2. Bureau of Fire 169 3. Bureau of Health 179 4. Bureau of Markets and City Property 189 5. Electrical Bureau 195 6. Bureau of Building Inspectors 198 7. Bureau of Boiler Inspectors 200 X. Taxes and Finance : Receiver of Taxes 202 1. Board of Revision of Taxes 205 2. Sinking Fund Commission 213 3. The Budget 221 IO Contents XI. Board of City Trusts 226 XII. Park Commission 230 XIII. Board of Port Wardens 234 XIV. Recorder of Deeds 138 XV. Register of Wills 243 XVI. County Commissioners 248 XVII. Department of County Prisons 252 XVIII. Department of District Attorney 259 XIX. Department of Coroner 263 XX. Board of Directors of Nautical School Ship 266 XXI. Board of Civil Service Examiners 270 XXII. Prothonotary 273 XXIII. Sheriff 275 CLASS OF 1893. WHARTON SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND ECONOMY. William Y. C. Anderson. Forger Barker. Edwin Littleeield Blabon. Walter Isaac Cooper. William Mortimer Crowther. James Henry Donnelly. Edward John Dooner. Frank Spencer Edmonds. Benjamin Evans. Philip Fine Fulmer, Jr. Thomas Sovereign Gates. James Harry Graham. Frederick Samuel Gross. Joseph Maurice Haywood. John GiThens Horner. George Washington Kendrick, 3d. James Lawton Kendrick. Samuel Murdoch Kendrick. Harry Eugene Kohn. Frank Livingstone Laird. Benjamin Wole Loeb. Joseph Samuei, Lovering. Clarence Stanley McIntire. James Clark Moore, Jr. Martin Luther Nicholas. John Nolen. Howard De Haven Ross. Stoyan Vasil Tsanoff. Adrien Francois Wellens. James T. Young. PUBLICATION COMMITTEE. J. CLARK MOORE, JR. {Chairman). ~WnAiA.ii Y. C. Anderson. Wiuiau M. Crowthbr. Frank S. Edmonds. J. Harry Graham. John Noi,en. Introduction* [HE founder of the School of Finance and Economy, Mr. Joseph Wharton, required that the school should provide, among other things, for an " adequate education in the princi- ples underlying successful civil government. " There is cer- tainly no more fundamental need in our American system of higher education than that for a training which shall interest our young men in public affairs, and qualify them to act the part of public spirited and intelligent American citizens. This object has been kept steadily in view in the develop- ment of the Wharton School. No opportunity has been lost to impress upon its students the peculiar obligation which rests on those young men who enjoy the advantages of a higher education, to give of their time and thought, of their labor and money, to the advancement of the common interests of our society and country. Of course, one ought not to expect too much of college boys, whose energies are largely absorbed in getting the broadest and most liberal training possible, and who, at best, can give only a portion of their college career to the special study of these subjects. But one may fairly demand that 14 Introduction they shall leave college with a permanent interest in these matters, and with some little training as to the methods of investigation suitable to the great department of economics and politics. And it is to this end that the efforts of the faculty of the Wharton School are constantly directed. The students in the Wharton School, like most other col- lege students, are required, as a preliminary to graduation, to present formal and rather elaborate essays upon some topic agreed upon between the student and the faculty. The custom has grown up in this department of selecting some subject which may be easily sub-divided into a number of topics, and assigning each of these topics to one student. The subject chosen for the year 1893 was the " City Gov- ernment of Philadelphia. ' ' The result of these essays is the present book. The essays, as originally presented, were much longer, and have all been abridged in order to bring them within the compass of a small volume. Each student is entirely re- sponsible for the essay appearing over his own name. Those who are familiar with the works already published relating to Philadelphia will recognize the sources from which much of the material has been drawn. Acknowledgment has been made in various places ; but owing to the special importance of Allinson and Penrose's valuable work on Philadelphia, it is proper to mention it in this place as a work without which the present one would have been im- possible. Introduction 15 A committee of the Class of '93 edited the essays for pub- lication. It is, of course, too much to hope that all the errors have been eliminated from this book ; but the committee took great pains to reduce them to the lowest number possible. The members of the class desire me to extend most cordial thanks to the various city officials who have been of aid to them, and who, with unceasing patience, have listened to their questions, and so far as possible answered them. It is evident to any one who has attempted to make a study of our city government, that our public administration is costly and inefficient ; it is also evident, that much of the inefficiency is due, not to our present officials, but to the sys- tem of administration, which an indifferent and prejudiced public sentiment permits to exist. A careful examination of certain city departments will convince any one that we impose a number and variety, and a weight of duties upon many officials which they cannot possibly perform efficiently. In other cases we require bricks and give no straw. Inade- quate appropriations account in many instances for unsatis- factory results. Philadelphians have no reason to fear com- parison of their city government at present, with the government of any other large American city. It is certainly as efficient and as free from corruption, whether political or financial, as any of its counterparts on this side of the ocean. But, on the other hand, our citizens should not be content with such a state of affairs. Philadelphia should not only be 1 6 Introduction abreast of other cities in this regard, she should lead the procession by a long way. Our conditions are, in many respects, extremely favorable, and it depends on ourselves to make them more so. It is the sincere wish of the young men who prepared this book, and of the faculty of the Wharton School of Finance and Economy, in which they received their education, that this little work may do something toward arousing and informing the public mind on that most important of subjects — municipal government ; and may also do its part toward begetting a vigorous and permanent interest and pride in the purity and efficiency of our city adminis- tration. Edmund J. James. Wharton School of Finance and Economy, University of Pennsylvania. October i, 1803. L— THE MAYOR. /&\HE history of the mayor's office in Philadelphia dates from f 1 69 1, when the first charter was received from William Penn. The records for the ten years ending with 1701 are incomplete, but they indicate that authority was vested in a close corporation consisting of a mayor, aldermen and common councilmen. Penn's second charter in E701 practi- cally created a new Government of the Freeholders under the title of "The Mayor and Commonalty of the city of Phila- delphia." This charter named a mayor, recorder, eight aldermen and twelve common councilmen, all of whom were integral parts of the corporation. The presence of the mayor or recorder and a majority of each board was neces- sary at the meetings to insure the legality of ordinances,, although the mayor had neither vote nor veto. . The mayor was to be elected annually from among the aldermen by a majority of the two boards, and had to take the oath of office and make profession of faith before the Governor within three days after election. On the theory, that a corporation has a right to the services of its members, a refusal to serve in any office subjected the person refusing to a fine. This fine was often paid by a man chosen as mayor in preference to serving for a year without salary * in an office to which was attached the unwritten duty of entertaining the corporation at an expensive banquet. The duties of the mayor, as set forth in the charter of 1 76 1, were to execute acts and ordinances, and, with the agreement' of the recorder and three aldermen, to call meetings/of the corporation. I^ater additional duties, such * From'1747-49 a salary of one hundred pounds was paid to the Mayor. 2 1 8 Government op Philadelphia as acting as city treasurer or inspecting the bread bakeries once a month., were imposed on him. In case of malfeasance in office the mayor could be removed by the agreement of the recorder, five aldermen and nine common councilmen. In the event of his removal or death, his successor was chosen within five days, and the oldest alderman was to act as mayor during the interim. The charter was abrogated by the advent of the Revolu- tion. Another charter might have been obtained from the Colonial Assembly, but the people distrusted close corpora- tions and were content for a time to have the co-ordinate powers of the mayor, recorder and aldermen vested in three justices of the peace. A new charter was obtained in 1789, which contained some important new provisions. In the first place, the corporation consisted of the ' ' Mayor, Aldermen and citizens of Phila- delphia." The mayor was at first chosen by the aldermen from among their own number, but in 1796, when Councils became bicameral, he was elected by viva voce vote in Councils from among the aldermen. This method was followed until 1826, when Councils were authorized by act of Legislature to select the mayor from the body of Free- holders. In 1839 the mayor was first elected by the people from the people. The mayor remained a component part of Councils until they were divided in 1796, from which time his duties were limited to the promulgation and execution- of acts and ordinances. His salary was fixed at $1000 in 1796, and was increased to $2000 in 1805 and to $3000 in 1835. He also retained the fees of the office. The charter of 1789 established a Mayor's Court, consist- ing of the. mayor, recorder and aldermen, and having the power of Courts of Quarter Session and Oyer and Terminer. This court existed until 1854, when the mayor was prohibited from sitting as committing magistrate, and was empowered to appoint an alderman to sit in that capacity at the central station. An effort was evidently made at first to strengthen the The Mayor 19 power of the mayor, and he was granted the power to fill nearly all offices created by the ordinances of Councils, but in 1839 this power, except with regard to constables and police, was vested in Councils. Thus the tendency during this period was to diminish the powers of the mayor. The ■delegation of increased authority to committees of Councils, however, did not secure increased efficiency in administration. The creation of boards and commissions caused lack of co- ordination, mismanagement and corruption, while the mayor became merely the chief of police and figure-head of the municipality. ' This condition of affairs resulted in the passage of the Act of 1854, whereby "the city" and its outlying and independ- ent districts were consolidated, and the powers of the chief executive enlarged and more clearly defined. The mayor was elected by a plurality vote of the citizens for a term of two years, which was afterward increased to three. The office of marshal of police was abolished, his duties being granted to the mayor, who was to have power of appoint- ment and dismissal of the officers, while the subordinate police duties were to be performed by a chief of police appointed by the mayor. Other duties of the mayor, were to send an annual message to Councils, to cause laws and ordinances to be executed and to register the amount of appropriations. He was required to withhold his signature for all new constructions or extraordinary expenses till the accruing debt and regular expenses were paid, but in 1864 this class of appropriations was placed on the same footing with others. To pass an ordinance over the mayor's veto required within five days a two-thirds vote in each branch of Councils. The only safeguard placed upon the actions of the mayor, was a provision that on impeachment for malfeasance in office, the charges must be passed by a majority vote in Common Council, and that Select Council was to sit as the ■court of trial. In case of conviction the mayor was to be removed from office. The legality of this impeachment 20 Government of Philadelphia process has been questioned, but only one attempt was ever made to test it. In 1886 charges were brought against Mayor William B. Smith, but they did not pass Common Council. nayor's Present Powers and Duties. Under the Act of 1885, now in operation, the mayor is responsible for the good order and efficient government of the city, and has five general duties : (1) To cause the ordinances of the city and the laws of the State to be executed and enforced. (2) To communicate to Councils at least once a year a statement of the finances and general condition of the affairs of the city, and, also, such informa- tion relating to the same as either branch of Councils may from time to time require. (3) To recommend by message in writing to the Councils such measures as he shall deem expedient. (4) To call special meetings of Councils, or of either branch when required by public necessity. (5) To per- form such duties as may be prescribed by law or ordinance. Any citizen is eligible to the office of mayor who is over twenty-five years of age, and has been a citizen and resident of the city for five years next before election. Absence caused by public business of the United -States or of this State is for this purpose considered as residence. An in- cumbent is not eligible for re-election for the immediately succeeding term. The mayor must subscribe to the oath or affirmation in Article VII. of the Constitution of the State of Pennsylvania. His term of office is four years, beginning from the first Monday in April after election. The method of election is by a plurality vote of all the citizens, to be counted by the judges of the counts'. A tie vote is decided in a joint meeting of the incoming Councils. Vacancy caused by death, resignation or removal is filled ' ' at the next municipal election occurring more than thirty days after the commencement of such vacancy, ' ' unless the vacancy occurs in the last year of the term, when, on call of the president of Select Council, the two chambers in joint The Mayor 21 meeting to be held between ten and twenty days after the occurrence of the vacancy, elect a mayor pro tern. The president of Select Council acts as mayor in all cases of vacancy until a successor is either chosen by Councils or at a municipal election. The mayor is responsible for the execution of the laws, and has control of the machinery of execution and adminis- tration by the power of appointment vested in him. He appoints the directors of the departments of public safety, public works and charities and correction, the members of the board of health and of the civil service examining boards, the inspector of boilers and the state inspector of oils. His appointments on the civil service examing boards must be confirmed by the heads of the executive departments ; all his other appointments, except that of oil inspector, who is a state officer, must be by and with the consent of Select Council. During the recess of Select Council, the mayor fills vacancies in all offices to which he has power to appoint, and such appointments shall be considered confirmed unless rejected within thirty days after the next convening of Councils. In order to insure control, there must also be secured with the power of appointment the co-ordinate power of removal, and this is vested in the mayor, provided he exercise it by written order to be transmitted to Councils at its next meet- ing, giving his reasons for such action ; but he must within thirty days, nominate to that body a successor, appointing an officer, ad interim, with the full powers of the office. In reality, the power of the mayor to eject from office is greater than the power to appoint, for an appointment of the mayor may be rejected by Councils, but his notification of removal of an occupant of office must be accepted, no matter how trivial his reason may be. The mayor must call together the heads of the executive departments at least once a month for consultation and advice upon the affairs of the city ; and the head of any department must report such matters under his control, as 22 Government op Philadelphia the mayor may desire to know. These meetings are held in accordance with the law, but, as a rule, no business of im- portance is transacted. They are not strictly ' ' cabinet meet- ings," for a head of a department is only responsible for the advice he may give the mayor on his own department, and the matters concerning any one department are not discussed generally, nor is the opinion of the majority on any question taken or followed. The only control the mayor is able to exercise over those departments whose heads he does not appoint, is purely moral, as they are independent of him. He has authority, however, to appoint, as often as he may see fit, three compe- tent persons to examine without notice the accounts and securities of any city officer or employee. Minor duties assigned to the mayor, such as control of telegraph lines, railroad crossings, etc., are executed by the subordinate officers, but art, nevertheless, imposed upon him as the responsible head, so that all orders may come from one source, and thus unity of administration be main- tained. The maj'or's approval is regarded as essential to the valid- ity of a resolution or ordinance passed by Councils ; but if he disapprove an ordinance or resolution, it is valid if passed by a vote of three-fifths of the members in each branch of Councils within five days after such veto ; or the ordinance is equally valid if the mayor neglect to return it to Councils within ten days of its receipt. The mayor may approve ordinances in vacation of Councils, and may call special meetings of Councils to reconsider ordinances which he does not approve. Although the attempt is made in all forms of government in this country, to divide the duties and powers between the three departments— executive, legislative and judicial — yet the legislative power of veto is generally in its modified forms wielded by the chief executive officer, and this excep- tion is peculiarly fitting in a municipality, on the principle that the mayor is better able than Councils to feel the pulse The Mayor 23 of the people, and, also, more apt to be guided by their wishes as expressed by delegations, or by the press. And, indeed, it would seem that this is the principal duty, as well as power of the mayor, and that by its exercise more than by any other his efficiency is judged. Certain judicial powers are vested in the mayor. He may act as committing magistrate, or as a justice of the peace, and may commit to the house of correction or to the county jail. The findings of police and fire-courts (which try the cases of delinquent firemen or policemen) must be approved by the mayor before they can go into effect. The power of the mayor to grant licenses is the only one under his control by the exercise of which any return may accrue to the treasury of the city. He alone may grant licenses for places of amusement, for pawnbroking, for tem- porary stands for hacking carriages, for selling gunpowder or gun cotton. The cost of these licenses varies from five ($5) dollars for selling gunpowder, to three hundred ($300) dollars for large pawnshops. The mayor must sign and execute in the name of the city all contracts created by ordinance, when the ordinance does not provide for its own execution. All contracts must be filed and registered in the mayor's office, and attested copies must be sent to the controller and to the department charged with the work. The signature of the mayor, as the legal representative of the city, is required upon sinking fund warrants, and upon warrants withdrawing city money from deposit. The State recognizes him as the representa- tive of the municipality in the law that obligates him to notify the Governor of the names and courts occupied by the several magistrates of the city after the lots for courts have been drawn in his presence. Beside the regular labors necessarily belonging to the chief executive of a city, the mayor ex officio is a member of many different bodies, which generally meet once a month, and do not, except in extraordinary times, take up much of his time or thought. He is a member of the Board of 24 Government of Philadelphia Health ; Board of Charities and Correction ; Sinking Fund Commission ; Board of City Trusts ; Park Commission ; Public Buildings Commission * ; Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art ; Board of Managers of the Edwin Forrest Home, and an official visitor of the county prison and penitentiary. The mayor, as highest executive officer, is responsible for the execution of the laws. But the first necessity for any form of government is peace ; and, therefore, in times of emergency or riot, the mayor himself is expected to take •command in suppressing disorder. To do this, he may en- roll any number of special police, and may demand assist- ance from the commanding officer of the military division composed of Philadelphia. The salary of the office of mayor is meant to be large enough to attract the worthy to the office, without tempting the avarice of the unworthy. The sum supposed to answer these conditions is $12,000 per annum, while the other ex- penses, including salaries, printing, etc., amount in all to about $75,000. The Mayor has the assistance of a private secretary, three contract clerks and one messenger. The office hours are generally from 9 a. m. to 3 p. m., though a great deal of work is often done after the office closes at 3 p. m. Provision for the impeachment of the Mayor, or of any other municipal officer, is made by the Act of 1885. Com- plaint in writing must be made by not less than twenty citi- zens, of whom five must make affidavit to the Court of Common Pleas. If the court find good cause for proceed- ings, it shall appoint a committee of investigation, composed of five citizens. If a majority of this committee find the com- plaint well grounded, the charges and all the record of the case shall then be transmitted to Select Council, which shall sit in open session as a court of impeachment, a judge of the Court of Common Pleas presiding. If the accused is found guilty, the Court of Common Pleas shall enter judgment accordingly and declare the office vacant. S. Murdoch Kendrick. * This commission has j ust been abolished by Act of legislature. II.— CITY COUNCILS. | NDER the charter granted by William Penn in 1701 the government of Philadelphia was vested in a close cor- poration consisting of a mayor, a recorder, eight aldermen and twelve common councilmen, all of whom, except the mayor, held their offices for life. They had power to add to their number at will, and to fill all vacancies in the cor- poration. All questions of government were decided in a meeting of the corporation known as the ' ' Common Coun- cil." Executive, judicial and legislative functions were all united in the corporation, which existed in absolute inde- pendence of the people. Long prior to the Revolution the corporation, by its abuse of power, its loose and extravagant management, its general inefficiency, had made itself most obnoxious to the people, but there was no effective move- ment for a new charter. During the years of the Revolution there was practically an interregnum in municipal govern- ment, the city being most of the time under martial law, although the legislature in 1777 had authorized the munici- pal officers then in power to exercise their functions until the appointment of their successors. The charter under which modern Philadelphia has devel- oped was granted by the legislature in 1789. The form of government which it prescribed was representative, in strik- ing contrast to the oligarchy which it displaced. It provided for the election by the freeholders of fifteen aldermen every seven years, and for the election by the freemen of thirty common councilmen every three years. In 1796 the charter was amended in several important respects. The member- ship of the Common Council was reduced to twenty and of 26 Government of Philadelphia the Select Council to twelve, all being selected by the free- men ; and the two bodies, which had hitherto always sat in joint session, the mayor or recorder presiding, were thenceforth to hold separate meetings, each with a president elected from its own membership.* legislative power was vested exclu- sively in Councils. They elected the mayor and the city- treasurer. The power of appointing other municipal offi- cers was conferred upon the Mayor and he nominally exer- cised this power until 1839, when it was formally assumed by Councils. In reality, the executive functions of Councils steadily increased during the first half of the present cen- tury, while the powers of the mayor steadily decreased. The aim of the charter of 1789, namely, to centralize legislative power in Councils, and executive authority and responsi- bility in the mayor, was gradually forgotten and ignored, until by 1850 Councils through their standing committees were performing manifold duties and assuming manifold responsibilities that had orginally devolved upon the mayor. A committee of Councils had more power than the chief executive officer of the city. This complex system of government, with responsibility divided among a dozen committees, necessarily resulted in extravagance and corrupt administration. By the Act of 1854, which consolidated with the city the various townships, boroughs and districts of the county, the fundamental powers of Councils were but little changed. The act provided, indeed, that no member or members of Councils should perform any executive duty whatever, but at the same time the act made it the duty of Councils to establish, regulate and supervise all the departments. Hence, Councils, through their committees, continued the exercise of important executive duties, and few of the evils and abuses of the old regime were corrected. The need of reform was * The Act of 1796 made the aldermen appointees of the Governor, and stripped them of all legislative power, leaving them only their judicial function. The Con- solidation Act of 1854 made them practically police magistrates, elected by Coun- cils. By virtue of the Constitution of 1874 they were supplanted by magistrates elected by the people. City Councils 27 strongly felt and resulted, first, in the adoption of the new State constitution in 1874, which restricted the power of cities to incur indebtedness, and, secondly, in the enactment in 1885 of the Bullitt Bill, the new charter for cities of the first class, of which Philadelphia is the only one in the State. The Bullitt Bill attempted a radical change in the organic law of the municipality, aiming to provide machinery whereby the executive functions should be performed in almost absolute independence of Councils. To accomplish this result, and in order that administrative responsibility might be central- ized, the power to appoint and remove heads of departments was transferred from Councils to the mayor ; and it was expressly declared that ' ' Councils shall not pass any ordi- nance directing or interfering with the executive functions of the mayor, departments, boards, or heads, or officers thereof." In other important particulars the powers and duties of Councils remained as laid down in the charter of 1789 and subsequent acts of the Legislature. Benjamin Evans. Present Organization of Councils. The Bullitt Bill of 1885 makes a general grant of legisla- tive powers to the Councils of the city of Philadelphia. It empowers them to provide for the proper and efficient conduct of the affairs of the city by the mayor, the departments and the board thereof, but it restricts Councils from passing any ordinances directing or interfering with the exercise of their executive functions. Councils are also empowered to provide for such bureaus and employees as may be required for the transaction of the business of the departments. The Select Council is composed of one member from each of the various wards of the city, who has the same qualifi- cations as are required by the constitution of the State for members of the Senate. Each ward has one common coun- cilman for each of the 2000 taxable voters that it contains on the completed canvasser's list of the year the election is to 28 Government of Philadelphia be held. The qualifications for membership in the Com- mon Council are identical with those required by the Com- monwealth for membership in the House of Representatives. The term of office is three years in the Select chamber, one- third being elected each year ; and two years in the Common branch, one-half being elected each year. A removal from the ward from which a member has been elected operates in either case as a forfeiture of office. The election of members of Councils is held the second Tuesday after the first Monday in February of each year.* No member of the State legislature, nor any one holding office or employment under the State at the time of election is eligible to membership, but this rule does not apply to deputies, employees not holding commissions, nor to notary publics of the State. The two bodies respectively have power to judge and determine the qualifications of these members. Councils organize on the first Monday of April of each year. The members are required to swear or affirm that they will discharge their duties with fidelity, and support the Constitution of the United States and State of Pennsylvania. A president is elected and rules to govern the proceedings in each branch are adopted. A chief clerk of each chamber, with one assistant in Select and three in Common Council is chosen, and also a sergeant-at-arms for each body. The meetings of Councils are open to all citizens, and the jour- nal, or record of proceedings, kept in each branch, is avail- able for inspection at any time. Immediately after the organization of Councils the presi- dents of the two chambers appoint standing committees on the following subjects : — Finance, water, highways, surveys, charities and correction, railroads, schools, police and pen- sions, boiler inspection, law, election divisions, to verify cash accounts of the city treasurer, gas, fire and health, electri- cal, city property, printing and supplies, to compare bills, * Elections of councilrnen, as of other city or state officers, are conducted under the Baker Ballot law, which is based upon the Australian system. City Councils 29 commerce and navigation, municipal government. Each of these committees consists of twelve members of each body, nine members constituting a quorum.* The presidents of the two chambers are members of all standing committees. No member of either branch may be chairman of more than one of these, and the chairmen of the committees on water, railroads, schools, law, to verify cash accounts of the city treasurer, electrical, city property, boiler inspection, printing and supplies and commerce and navigation, are members of Select Council, while the chair- men of the other standing committees are members of the other body. These committees are required to hold at least one stated meeting in each month for the consideration of bills, petitions, etc. , pertaining to their respective domains. In order that the financial condition of the city may be known to Councils as accurately as possible, the committee to verify cash accounts of the city treasurer is required to make to both chambers at their first stated meeting after the second Monday in each month, a complete statement of moneys received during the previous month by the city treasurer, comparing the statement with those of the different city departments. Every legislative act of Councils must be by resolution or ordinance. No ordinance may be passed except by bill, which can not be altered or amended in either branch so as to change its original purpose. A bill, to be considered, must be referred to a committee, returned therefrom, and printed for the use of members ; it must contain but one subject, which the title must clearly express, and must be read at length in each branch. Amendments must be printed before the final vote is taken, which is by yeas and nays. A majority of the votes of members in each branch is necessary to pass any bill.f Elections by Councils, separ- ately or jointly, are by viva voce vote. An ordinance author- izing a loan, or giving extra compensation to any public * Bxcept the committee to verify cash accounts of the city treasurer, of which only five members are required to be present for the transaction of business. t The power of Councils in case of veto is discussed in the chapter on the mayor. X 30 Government of Philadelphia servant after the services have been rendered, or after a con- tract has been made, requires a two-thirds vote in each branch. Each branch of Councils makes its own rules. The presi- dent of each body has general charge of it, and on each question votes last. The president of Select Council acts as mayor in the event of a tie vote for the same, and remains so until the vacancy is filled.* By virtue of their positions the presidents are members of the Commission of Fairmount Park, Public Buildings Commission, and the Board of City Trusts. As early as 1854 it was seen that in order to secure just legislation the members of Councils must be entirely cut off from the means of corrupting administration ; and so they were forbidden, by an act of the legislature, to make dis- bursements of money in any manner, to audit accounts, or to perform any executive duty. The payment of money by any means, or the provision for the payment of any kind of compensation for services rendered by them as councilmen or members of committees, was expressly forbidden. An Act of i860 forbade a member of Councils to be a salaried officer of the city, or to be in any way interested in any contract for the sale or furnishing of supplies or materials to the city, to receive reward or gratuity from anyone interested in such a contract, or to become surety for any city official under penalty of forfeiture of office and indict- ment for misdemeanor, subject to a fine of not more than $500. In the hope of securing the unbiased action of councilmen in the performance of their official duties, an act was passed by the legislature in 1874, which provided, that any person who should in any way, directly or indirectly, give or promise any money or reward to a member of Councils in order to influence him, should be held guilty of bribery and punished accordingly. * The power of Councils to fill a vacancy in the mayoralty is discussed in the chapter on the mayor. City Councils 31 It was further provided, that if any member should have ■personal or private interest in any measure or bill proposed ■or pending before Councils, he must disclose the fact and not vote thereon, and in the event of such a member neglecting to do this, and voting, if by his vote the measure is passed, he must forfeit his seat. The penalty imposed upon a mem- ber convicted of receiving anything from a corporation, company or person for his vote, or for withholding it, is a fine not exceeding $10,000, solitary confinement for a period not exceeding ten years, and perpetual disqualification for any place of honor or trust in the Commonwealth.* The members of Councils are ineligible to any office or employment under the direction of Councils ; nor during the time for which they have been elected can they hold any city or county office. Select Council has been granted some powers peculiar to itself. The names of all appointive officers whose salaries are drawn from the city treasury, whether appointed by the mayor or by the head of a department, are subject to confir- mation by Select Council. This body also sits as a special court of impeachment in case of complaint against any city officer, f It is the duty of Councils to levy and fix a tax rate on or before October' for the year next ensuing, and in default of their so doing, the rate of the preceding is held to be the rate for the current year, and appropriations must be made in conformity with it. For the purpose of creating a sinking fund for the gradual extinction of the bonds and funded debt of the city, Councils are empowered to levy and collect . annually an additional tax of not less than one- fourth of one mill, and not exceeding three mills upon the assessed value of the taxable property of the city. Councils may also *No case under this act has ever come up for jurisdiction in our municipal -government There has been, however, an instance of a councilman, in Ignorance of the law, acting as surety for a city official. He resigned from Councils. frhe procedure in an impeachment case is described in the chapter on the -mayor. 32 Government of Philadelphia assess taxes each year to maintain and keep in order the parks, or to meet the requirements of the Public Buildings Commission. Loans for specific purposes, as for the support of Fairmount Park, purchase of turnpikes or the laying of culverts, may be raised by Councils. No appropriation of the moneys of the city can be made without an ordinance therefor, expressing the objects and the amount appropriated for each. It is the duty of Councils to fix the salaries of all municipal officers elected by the people, but the salary of no officer may be increased or reduced by an ordinance to take effect during the term for which he has been elected. Councils may exempt rural portions of the city from the operations of the rules of the Board of Health, and have exclusive control and direction of the opening, widening, narrowing, vacating and changing the grades of all the streets, alleys and highways within the city limits. The care of the streets and regulation of the sidewalks are also subject to the dis- cretion of Councils, as well as the laying of water pipes, sewers and branch sewers and the regulating of the cost and insuring of its collection by filing liens against the properties affected. With regard to all manner of street encroachments Councils may establish such rules as they deem expedient. Having fixed the wharf lines, they may authorize the con- struction of wharves on a scale to meet the demands of commerce. They provide for the selection and appointment, regulation and compensation, of pilots, and for the disposition and security of vessels within the ports. All private corporations carrying on business in the city are subject to reasonable municipal regulations, and so Councils are empowered to provide for the inspection and sampling of leaf tobacco of domestic growth received at this port; to regulate the prices demanded by wagoners, carters, draymen, etc. ; to provide for the inspection of milk, and to regulate pawnbrokers and oyster dealers. They are empowered to contract with railroad companies as to reloca- tion, change or elevation of tracks, and may authorize a City Councils 33 railroad company to occupy the streets and build a railroad subject to reasonable regulations. Telegraph poles and lights may be erected only when authorized by Councils. All the departments of the city must regularly report to Councils, which may inquire into the work of the depart- ments at any time. Appropriations to the different heads are made by Councils each year, based upon a statement from each. Councils cannot enter into or execute any con- tract relating to municipal affairs, but no contract for the construction of any new building, school-house, bridge or culvert, or for the new paving of streets, or redemption of the tolls of any turnpike or plankroad to be paid for by the city, is binding without an ordinance duly enacted by Coun- cils therefor. The objects, in fact, of all contracts must be authorized by Councils. Councils direct the manner and time of the yearly estimates and proposals for supplies re- quired by the departments, and enact ordinances regulating the contracts for them. Contracts cannot be changed with- out the consent of Councils, and ordinances authorizing contracts must contain in full a copy of the one proposed and specifications of the work intended to be done, the prices for which the accepted contractor offers to do the work, the copy of the estimated quantities of the different kinds of work, and the total estimated cost. All leases for the renting of any property by any of the departments must be confirmed by Councils in order to become binding. Councils locate magistrates' courts, regu- late sales on Sunday, fix the amount of bonds of the city commissioners, and elect annually a sinking fund com- missioner. Witnesses may be called upon to testify before either branch or any committee of Councils upon affidavit of suffi- cient cause and the issue of subpoenas in the name of the Commonwealth . Under the present system it will be seen that the respon- sibility devolving upon Councils is of great importance. Although it was the intent of the Bullitt Bill to divide the 3 34 Government of Philadelphia legislative from the executive or administrative branch of government, yet we do not even now find the line between the Council chambers and the city departments always clearly drawn. Any of the ordinary functions exercised by Councils will serve to illustrate this. The creation, for ex- ample, of new water or sewer lines, or the opening of new highways, matters that are certainly executive in their nature, must be initiated in Councils. With regard to the internal make-up of the two bodies there is also room for improvement. Councilmen are not recognized as holding offices of trust and honor. It is suggested that this ill-repute may be the heritage in a large degree of the days when the city was managed by " commit- tee government." There may be some truth in this explan- ation, yet a reform is, certainly necessary to give the office ot councilman the character it ought to have. The position ought to be an honored one. As one means of securing improvement it has been suggested that councilmen should be given compensation for their services, the idea being that a salary would induce a higher class of men to accept •nomination for the office. Another suggestion which meets with some favor, looks to the reduction of the number of ■common councilmen. At present there are one hundred and nineteen members in Common Council, as against thirty-seven in the Select chamber, and this disproportion is constantly increasing. On the whole, however, it would seem that Philadelphia • obtains as good legislation from Councils as can fairly be expected, for if the office of councilman affords little honor and no legitimate remuneration to its holders, only those who desire to do public good at their own expense, or who wish to utilize the position of Councilman to further their political ambitions, or who desire to increase their wealth by illegitimate means, or who are employed to protect the interests of individuals or corporations, are attracted to it. T. S. Gates. City Council' 35 Clerks of Councils. Select Council upon its organization elects one clerk and an assistant clerk, who hold office until their successors are elected by a new council, although they may be removed by a two-thirds vote of the body. Common Council, in like manner, elects one clerk and two assistant clerks. These clerks have joint charge of the library of Councils, which is open from 9 a. m. to 3 p. m. The clerk of each chamber is required to keep a written journal of its proceedings, and is .secretary of all committees of Councils whose chairmen are members of his chamber. The clerks have charge of the printing, stationery and ordinary expenses of' Councils not otherwise provided for by ordinance. Within three days after the passage of an ordinance the clerk of the chamber in which it originated must deliver it to the mayor for his approval, and when the ordinance becomes operative he must publish and record it. When an ordinance making an appropriation is passed, the clerk of the chamber in which it originated must within one day deliver a certified copy of it to the city treasurer, to the controller and to the head of the department for which the appropriation is made. In the transcribing of ordinances and joint resolutions the clerks have the assistance of a transcribing clerk, who is elected by Common Council. The clerk of Select Council is required to inform the mayor and heads of departments with regard to the action of Select Council upon nominations submitted by them for approval. The clerks of Councils must sign, seal and deliver to each person elected to any office by a joint vote of both Councils a certificate of such election. The clerk of Select Council must record in a book under separate heads the names of all appointees to office who have been ■confirmed. This book must be on the clerk's desk at all the meetings of Select Council. The salary of each of the clerks of the two chambers is $3000 a year, and of each of the assistant clerks $2500. In 36 Government of Philadelphia the Common Council, besides the two assistant clerks, there is an assistant journal clerk and an index clerk, each with a salary of $2000, and a committee clerk with a salary of $1600. Each body elects a sergeant-at-arms, whose salary is $1500. The messenger of the finance committee receives $100 a year, and a secretary $500. Joseph S. Covering. III.— CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. /JgHE State of Pennsylvania in its general poor law ♦ declares it to be the duty of every district to provide for every poor person within its bounds who shall apply for relief. If such poor person cannot find employment and is yet able to work, the overseers of the poor shall provide work for him according to his ability ; if he is not able to work, he shall be provided with the necessary means of subsistence. The first legislative enactment to which the present Department of Charities and Correction is traceable was passed by the Pennsylvania Colony in 1700. Its object was to effect a better provision for the poor, but unfortunately the act was annulled by the Queen of England in 1705. The next year, however, the Pennsylvania Assembly passed an act requiring the justice of the peace to name two over- seers of the poor in each township, and to tax all personal and real estate one penny a pound, ' ' and four shillings a head not otherwise ratified." In 1712 the Common Council ordered that a workhouse be built for the poor under the direction of the overseers. It is not definitely known whether or not this law was executed. In 17 13, however, the first almshouse was established, but Quakers only were eligible to admission. In 1717 an act was passed by the Pennsylvania Assembly providing for the erection of a workhouse in Philadelphia, Chester and Bristol. In 1 7 19 the overseers of the poor and the city of Philadel- phia petitioned the Assembly for a loan of .£1000, to be 38 Government op Philadelphia expended in the construction of a building for the poor of the city. Their appeal was granted, and with the funds then borrowed the property bounded by Third, Fourth, Spruce and Pine Streets was purchased. This plot, known as the ' ' Green Meadows, ' ' became the site of a new alms- house, which was ready for occupancy about 1732. The building was not only an asylum for paupers, but also con- tained a hospital for the sick and insane. The increasing demands upon the institution soon necessitated a new struc- ture, and the "Society Grounds," comprising the block between Tenth, Eleventh, Spruce and Pine Streets, were procured for that purpose. In October, 1767, the new building was completed and opened for applicants. It con- tinued in use for sixty-seven years, when its facilities again became inadequate. The present site in Blockley township was then purchased, and four large buildings were erected, which, with the ground surrounding, then occupied an area about six hundred feet square. The structure as now stand- ing is practically identical with that of 1834, save for the addition of a few minor buildings to provide for the increas- ing number of inmates. The management of the almshouse has also undergone great changes. The original system continued until 1766, when the Assembly of Pennsylvania passed a law by virtue of which a body known as ' ' Contributors to the relief and employment of the poor within the city of Philadelphia ' ' was established. Every person who paid ten dollars toward the maintenance of the almshouse became a member of this body, and was entitled to a vote in the election of the alms- house officers. This method was continued until the Revolu- tionary War, when the comparative poverty among the people so reduced the number of contributors as to necessi- tate a new plan. In 1781, therefore, a law was passed creating the Board of Guardians of the Poor, who were on the same footing as the original overseers of the poor. In 1803 the Assembly ordered that the guardians should be Charities and Correction 39 elected, sixteen by the corporation of the city of Philadel- phia, six by Southwark corporation, and eight by the justices of the peace in Northern liberties township. Outside of these limits, the poor were attended to by the overseers in their respective townships. This method of choosing the officers of the institution obtained, with slight modifications, until the Consolidation Act of 1854. There- after the guardians of the poor were elected by the people from their respective wards, each ward being entitled to one guardian. The Twenty-first, Twenty-second and Twenty- third Wards, and a few outlying boroughs, however, on account of their relative unimportance, were denied repre- sentation on the board. The board elected its president and other officers. The unbridled independence of the guardians of the poor quickly led to abuse, and the board during its latter days was travestied as the "Board of Buzzards.'' In consequence, after a few years a new method of chousing the members was adopted, three members being named by the District Court, three by the Court of Common Pleas and three by the Common Council, one by each body every year for a term of three years. In 1871 their election was entrusted entirely to Councils. The board became a depart- ment of the city, and was made up of twelve persons, four being elected annually to serve for three years. The new management continued in effect until 1885, when the Department of Charities and Correction was substituted for both the Board of Guardians of the Poor and the Depart- ment of the House of Correction. The latter institution is of recent origin, and has hardly any history worthy of note. About twenty-five years ago the almshouse became taxed beyond its capacity, and it was proposed that a separate institution be founded for the care of vagrants, paupers, drunkards, etc. , who up to that time had been domiciled in the almshouse. The plan met with favor, and the House of Correction and Employment was established by ordinance of Councils in December, 1870, 40 Government of Philadelphia and incorporated by the State in June, 1871. It was under the control of ten managers, five of whom were chosen by- each branch of Councils. The House of Correction existed independently until the passage of the Bullitt Bill, when it coalesced with the almshouse under the management of the Department of Charities and Correction. Present Scope of Department. With the formation of this department, a new epoch in municipal charities was inaugurated. The old system was swept away, and a new method of administration, vastly more efficient than its predecessor, took its place. The new department is conducted by a president and four directors, appointed by the mayor. They exercise control over all the municipal charities, almshouses, hospitals, houses of correction, and all similar institutions. Only citizens who have attained the age of thirty years, and have been resi- dents of the city for the last five years, are eligible to the office of director. The directors receive no remuneration, but are exempt from military and jury service ; no security is required as a guarantee for the faithful execution of their function. The board appoints all subordinates and fixes salaries, although Councils may designate the extent of the service necessary to secure an efficient administration. Recognizing the necessity of responsible supervision, the department requires that all members of the Bureau of Charities shall visit Blockley , and that all the members of the Bureau of Correction shall visit the House of Correction, at least once a week, while all the members of the department shall pay at least one visit to both institutions each month. The most important, and scientifically the most charitable, grant of power to the department is contained in the ordi- nance allowing that body to compel all healthy paupers to work, the proceeds of their labor being retained by the city Charities and Correction 41 as compensation for the expense incurred in their main- tenance. Refusal on the part of the inmates to work is punished by close confinement upon a bread and water diet. This provision is not a dead letter on the statutes. The board is required to make a financial report to the Councils every January, together with an estimate of the expenses to be incurred during the ensuing year. It is not allowed to spend any fund which may be collected by its officers, such funds being paid immediately into the city treasury ; nor may it enter into any contract without the counter-signature of such authorities as Councils designate. If any citizen chosen a member of the board refuses to serve, he shall be fined sixty dollars, the money to be used in the service of the poor. If a member of the board die, his official accounts must be settled before any of his debts are paid, save his funeral expenses. Willful misapplication of funds, or other official corruption, is punished by a fine of not less than $100 or more than $1000, and by imprison- ment of not more than one year. In 1840 an important departure was instituted by the repeal of the law prohibiting outdoor relief, which was thereafter allowed in all cases approved by the majority of the board. This relief is, however, only of a medical char- acter, although the department has under its administration the disposal of certain private funds, bequeathed by various citizens about 1790 for the purpose of supplying the poor with coal and bread. The income for this purpose is slight, not having exceeded $1200 in any year. If any inmates of the institutions possess property, enough may be seized by the authorities to defray all expenses in- curred in maintaining them, and in all such cases the claim of the city has precedence over all other claims. Inmates who are able to pay board are taxed a moderate charge, not exceeding $4 per week, and all work which they do is credited to them at its market value. Sick patients who have' been under the gratuitous care of the department 42 GOVERNMENT OF PHILADELPHIA must, after their recovery, fully remunerate it with their personal services. The expense of caring for incurables, and those incapabla of work is divided between the county and the State.* Minors over sixteen years of age are apprenticed to- trades. All normally healthy pauper children between two and sixteen years of age are placed in respectable families or homes for children, and the personal attention of the almshouse functionaries is given to each to see that it is, well cared for. In this work the department has been greatly helped by the Children's Aid Society, a private- institution, which in 1891 placed ninety-three children in the care of respectable families in the city and vicinity. Of the remaining pauper children in the city's charge in that, year, 108 were placed in the Training School at Elwyn and thirty-eight in various Roman Catholic institutions. The department pays the Children's Aid Society $2 per week for each child placed under its care, with the understanding that the society shall have such children adopted by a private family or placed in some beneficent institution as soon as possible. The total expense incurred last year by the department in the discharge of this function was $58.50.! The care of persons outside of their own precincts has been provided for by appropriate legislation. The district in which a pauper was last legally settled must take care of him, unless he reimburses the city almshouse, which will then provide for him. To acquire legal settlement in a dis- trict a man must have been engaged in some lucrative occu- pation therein for at least one year. The expense of ^ * The Shields fund, a private endowment, affords a moderate income, which is expended for comforting equipments and luxuries for the sick and insane poor ir* the hospital. fit is lawful for the department, with the financial assistance of Councils, to establish, if expedient, an industrial school for the education of children, along the line of specific trades, but such a school would be independent of the alms- house or poorhouse. Charities and Correction 43, pauper's removal from a district to that in which he belongs, must be borne by the latter, as well as any outlay which may have been incurred in other districts through the sickness or death of such paupers.* Near relatives of paupers are nominally bound to support them. A parent or grandparent is required by law to care for a child or grandchild, and the reciprocal obligation is also binding, but unless real estate be possessed by the relatives, little is accomplished by the law, as the salary or wages cannot be seized. Relatives further removed than those mentioned are entirely exempt from the necessity of supporting their unfortunate kin. Any unsound immigrants maintained by the almshouse must have their board and incidental expenses while in the institution paid by the persons importing them. Masters of all incoming vessels must report all the immigrants aboard, and may be required to deposit a sum not exceeding $150 for each immigrant, as security that he shall not, within two years, become a charge of the city. Bureau of Charities. All the institutions of the Bureau of Charities at Blockley are operated under the same general regulations. The chief functionary in the actual working of the Blockley institutions is the superintendent. He is required to supervise all the departments, and is empowered to suspend any employee whom he considers incompetent, the matter being immedi- ately brought to the attention of the president. He must authorize the purchase of all goods, and superintend the manufacturing departments in the institution. Next in rank to the superintendent is the matron, whose functions are similar to the more specific duties of the former, although she is under his authority. The house-agent is the vice- superintendent, and in the absence of the superintendent *In 1892, the balance was against the city, which was compelled to pay to the various counties an aggregate sum of $195, while about $300 was expended in shipping paupers to their respective districts. 44 Government of Philadelphia perforins his work. He also examines all the paupers who apply for admission and keeps a record of those that enter. That portion of the work of the bureau which is done out- side of Blockley, is under the charge of the outdoor agent, who must be constantly on hand to attend to whatever cases may present themselves. He executes all warrants that may be issued, on application. Working along the same lines as the outdoor agent are the physicians for the outdoor poor, there being two in each of the twenty-five districts ; one a homeopathist, and one an allopathist. They are chosen by the board annually, for one year, and rather stringent qualifications are required. They must attend to the call of any poor person as quickly and as thoroughly as to that of any other patient, and all such cases must be reported to the secretary of the bureau. The apothecaries for the outdoor poor are also chosen annually, those who charge the least percentage over the wholesale cost of drugs being selected. No public religious teaching is allowed either in the hos- pital or insane departments, although services are regularly held every Sunday in the other departments. The rules governing the hospital are mostly of a technical character. There is a course of training for nurses, at the end of which diplomas or certificates are granted. There is also a medical board composed of leading specialists of the city. They are required to visit the hospital at least three times each week and whenever called upon by a resident physician, and must see each of their patients at least twice in each week. The chief resident physician is the most important officer in the hospital. He has general supervision of all the wards, and full control over the resident physicians and the nurses and attendants. There are under him twenty resident allopathic physicians, who serve fifteen months each. They are almost without exception recent graduates of medi- cal schools in this city, who avail themselves of this oppor- tunity of securing an invaluable experience. They receive Charities and Correction 45 no pay but are provided with rooms, board, light, and such other accommodations as are necessary. These resident physicians are divided into squads, which alternate in the various wards, and they must visit the patients under them at least twice each day. They are forbidden, during their term of service, to practise their profession in any place other than the hospital, nor may they absent themselves from the institution, for a period longer than twenty- four hours, unless special permission be granted by the chief resident physician. There are also in .the hospital the chief druggist and his assistants, whose duties are those which are consistent with the general execution of such an office. There is also a chief nurse, who has complete supervision over the minor nurses, and a head nurse in each department. The requisite minor servants are also employed as in all other similar insti- tutions. In connection with the hospital there are the nursery and the children's department, in which the children are temporarily supported until a suitable home can be found for them. The insane department has special officers and rules consistent with its nature, and the best possible service is accorded the inmates. Bureau of Correction. The scope of the Bureau of Correction is less extensive than that of the Bureau of Charities. Like the latter it is but a committee of the directors of the Department of Charities and Correction, and all definite action is taken, not by the smaller bureau, but by the department itself. All inmates of the various departments of the House of Correction must pay their board, or work for the institution, and thus repay as far as possible the incurred expenses. The board makes all rules and regulations concerning the admis- sion of inmates. A member of the board, the mayor, an inspector of county prisons, or a magistrate may commit a person on application. The petty offenses punishable by 46 Government op Philadelphia commitment to the House of Correction, are vagrancy, drunkenness and disorderly street-walking. Vicious minors may also be sent to the institution on complaint of a parent or of any citizen, and the department must employ and instruct the children so committed. The term of confine- ment of adults for minor misdemeanors increases progres- sively from the first to the fourth sentence, the minimum being from three months to one year, and the maximum two years. Tramps are punished for their offenses, from vagrancy to those more serious, by solitary confinement and hard labor for a period not longer than three years. This law, however, -does not apply to females, nor to minors under sixteen years •of age, nor to cripples. The various functions of the House of. Correction are divided among officials, who discharge duties similar to those ■of the officials under the Bureau of Charities. There are the superintendent, who has general supervision, and the master-warden, who is the vice-superintendent, with the regular routine work to perform. The captain of the guard is, however, a distinctive functionary, whose duty is to com- mand the guard, a body employed to keep order among the inmates and to see that their work is properly performed.* There are also in connection with the House of Correction a visiting physician, who must be at the institution at least once every day, and a resident physician, who is constantly in attendance. The druggist, nurses and matrons are also on the premises, and their duties correspond to those of the similarly titled officers at Blockley. There is also a moral instructor, who delivers a sermon every Sunday, holds private conversations upon ethical subjects with the inmates, and has ■charge of the library. Among the general rules of the insti- tution there are a few provisions of interest. At 6.45 a. m. * Corporal chastisement is forbidden in any institution under the department, but misdemeanor in the House of Correction is punished by a forfeit of the tobacco ratio, and at Blockley by solitary confinement and a spare diet. Second offenses are punished by such means as the superintendents may direct. Charities and Correction 47 the inmates are required to begin work, continuing until 11.45 a. m., when there is an hour recess for dinner, after which the work continues until 6 p. m. Inmates are allowed to receive visitors on Saturdays only. The officers and em- ployees are positively forbidden to accept any gift or service from the inmates or to grant favors to any particular one without the consent of the superintendent ; nor may they use any spirituous liquors, or indulge in indecorous language -about the premises. The last reports of the mayor show how well the proposed end of the department is attained, and how economically the affairs are conducted. From December 31, 1890, to December 31, 1891, there had been in all the Blockley insti- tutions a population of 10,511, and the funds drawn from the city treasury for the Bureau of Charities, during the same time was $644,784.00, making the cost of supporting each inmate 27^ cts. per day. In the drug department "there were compounded during that year 96, 459 prescriptions, at an average cost of 9 7-10 cts. each. The training school for nurses graduated fifty-nine. The physicians for the out- door poor visited 2 7 , 7 8 5 patients. There were 7 , 909 inmates of the hospital, of whom 3,314 were cured. Such statistics -clearly show that these features of the department are active and effective elements in the municipal administration. The House of Correction is conducted on the principle that charity extended to those who are able to be self- supporting is no charity at all, and the able-bodied inmates within its walls are compelled to work, daily and systemati- cally, the proceeds derived therefrom accruing to the city. Although there is no direct financial return from this labor, most of the products being used by the inmates, still the provision accomplishes a good purpose, since it discourages the pauperism that would result were requirements less exacting or discipline more lax. During the year 1891, there were 6,976 persons received in the House of Correction ; •deducting the sum of $26,605. 18, as the estimated return 48 Government of Philadelphia from their labor, the cost of their maintenance was $168,372- .68, being an average cost of 11^ cts. per day. These vast drains made by the Department of Charities and Corrections upon the city treasury are indeed a consid- erable burden upon the city, but the department is a necessity, and appears to be conducted on the most rational and most economic principles that are practicable. Harry B. Kohn. IV.— DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. EDUCATION in this city has had an interesting and checkered development. ' ' Public Schools, : ' as the term is used to-day, did not exist prior to 1818. The so-called pub- lic schools prior to that time, like the great English schools of Rugby, Eton, etc., were merely "private, endowed schools, admitting a certain number of indigent pupils free, and con- trolled only in a general way by the government." Such an institution exists to-day in the William Penn Charter School, which was founded in 1689 as a "Public Grammar School." Down to the end of the eighteenth century, the Commonwealth took little interest in education. Hence, many schools were established under the control of the churches. Three general ideas seemed to pervade the sys- tem : (1) That the children of the rich should pay for an education ; (2) That the State should pay for the schooling of the poor ; (3) That parents, who would not see to the education of their children, should be amenable to the law. With the new century, however, there came an awakening of interest in popular education. In 1809 an act of legisla- ture laid the foundation of our present school system. It specified that, at the annual assessments, the assessors, under the direction of the county commissioners, should receive from indigent parents the names of all children between the years of five and twelve. The commissioners then issued certificates, and the parents sent the child to the most convenient, so : called ' ' Public School, ' ' and the expense of tuition was paid to the school out of the county treasury. This act applied to the whole State. Three years later the 4 5o Government of Philadelphia county commissioners were given power to erect and estab- lish schools under the direction of Councils. The Act of 1818 gave cohesion to the whole system. Philadelphia County was made the "First School District of Pennsyl- vania. ' ' * The district was divided into four sections, viz : (1) The city proper ; (2) Northern liberties and Kensington ; (3) Southwark, Moyamensing and Passyunk ; and (4) Penn Township. The City Councils were to elect annually twelve directors. The commissioners of Northern liberties, Moyamensing, Southwark and Spring Garden, each elected six directors. The directors of each section chose one of their number for every six directors, and this inner group was ' ' The Board of Controllers of the First School District of Pennsylvania. ' ' As the city increased in size and population, new sections were formed, whose directors were selected by the Court of Quarter Sessions. This same Act of 1818 established in Philadelphia the I/ancasterian method of instruction, whereby older pupils became monitors and sub-teachers, so saving a great expense for teachers' salaries, f At the same time a Model School was established, which, in 1848, was merged into the Girls' Normal School. This Model School, which was really a training school for monitors, was the first school for the training of teachers established in the United States. Down to 1836, the distinction between the rich and poor was main- tained, and the free J or public schools were stigmatized pauper schools. In 1836, however, by act of legislature, the schools were thrown open to all, rich and poor alike. At the same time, the unscientific, penny-wise I^ancasterian •Since that time 2357 other districts have been formed. A district in the interior of the State corresponds to a section or ward in Philadelphia, and a division, i.e., a county, in the interior corresponds to the term ' ' District " in Philadelphia. t Under this system one teacher, aided by monitors, was considered sufficient for one thousand pupils, although the practice was never as bad as the theory. X Under the Act of 1818 the schools established in Philadelphia were not intended to be free to the children of all classes of citizens. Philadelphia had no free schools open to rich and poor alike until after the law of 1818 had been changed in 1836, so as to admit all children without any distinction. Department op Education 51 system was abolished, and the establishment of that excellent institution, the Central High School of Philadelphia, was authorized. This system continued with varying success until 1854. During this period (1836-54), the organization of what are called the primary, secondary, grammar and higher schools was perfected. Prior to the passage of the Consolidation Act of 1854, which united into one municipality all the boroughs and villages of Philadelphia County, the legisla- ture had put the school system of Philadelphia upon its present basis. Each ward was made a section of the district, and each section was to elect a board of twelve directors for a. term of three years, one-third being elected each year. Each sectional board was to elect one controller. The division of powers between the Board of Controllers and the sectional boards was about the same as at present. At the time of consolidation, there were in the city one Central High School, one Girls' Normal School and one hundred and fifty-seven school houses and lots. In view of the historical development of the system, the sectional board seems to have been a compromise between two opposing tendencies ; one, the general desire for unification, and the other, the reluctance of the different sections of the county to give up their school property to the control of the central board. The year 1854 also witnessed the opening of the present Central High School Building at Broad and Green streets, which has continued in active use for nearly forty years, during which time the population of the city has doubled. In 1867 the right to elect controllers was taken away from the sectional boards and vested in the local courts. The next year was signalized by the introduction of the first graded course of study ; at the same time senior classes were organized. As the demand for higher and technical education increased, scholarships were established in neigh- boring institutions. In 1875, under a contract with the city, fifty free scholarships were permanently established in the University of Pennsylvania for the benefit of pupils from 52 Government of Philadelphia the public schools. In the next year, similar scholarships were established in the School of Design for Women, and finally, in 1880, in the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Arts. These progressive steps rendered the general chaos of the school system all the more noticeable, and, finally, necessi- tated the introduction of scientific supervision. To this end, the ofiice of superintendent was created, in 1883, by the Board of Public Education — the title by which the Board of Controllers was designated after 1871. When Dr. James McAlister was elected superintendent, Philadelphia's schools had little claim to homogeneity, and hence his reforms, although considered radical by many, have had their wisdom evidenced by time. He organized the ofiice of superinten- dent, and reorganized the course of study in the lower schools, viz., the grammar, secondary and primary schools. Manual training, both for boys and girls, was introduced under his administration into the public schools. Prior to his advent, four or five principals could generally be found in one building, each having charge of a small knot of teachers. To correct this evil, Dr. McAlister secured the institution of the ofiice of supervising principal. In 1891 Dr. Edward Brooks succeeded to the superintendency. The two reforms which he has urged most strenuously are : First, the introduction of a system of promotions based, not on examinations, but on the general standing of the pupil in connection with the judgment of the teachers ; second, a thorough and scientific training in pedagogics for all teachers. The Girls' High and Normal School is to be divided, a new and perfectly-equipped building being provided for the Normal School. Provision has also been made for a new building for the Boys' Central High School. Upon almost every * public school of the city influence is * The Sectional Boards have no authority over the higher schools, viz., Cen- tral High School, Girls' Normal School, Central and Northeast Manual Training Schools, James Forten Elementary Manual Training School, and the Public School of Industrial Art. Department of Education 53 brought to bear from three separate, distinct and legally- created bodies, viz. : (1) The State Department of Public Instruction ; (2) The Municipal Board of Public Educa- tion, and (3) The Ward Sectional Boards. This system has been established by the legislature of the State, which exercises supreme authority over education, but in all school legislation the integrity of the Philadelphia district has been maintained, either by express exemption from the operation of the laws, or else general laws have been declared concur- rent with the special acts relating to the city. The State Constitution of 1874 imposes upon the legislature the duty of providing for the maintenance of an efficient system of public schools for all children over six years of age. The Constitution also requires that at least $1,000,000 annually must be appropriated to public schools, and further, pro- hibits the appropriation of public school money to sectarian schools. The Constitution also declares the eligibility of women to all school offices. The State Department of Public Instruction is rather statistical and advisory than administrative. The superin- tendent has little to do with Philadelphia. Until quite recently there was serious difference of opinion between the Superintendent and the Philadelphia school authorities as to the form in which reports as to attendance, etc., should be made. The introduction of a new system of reports in April of 1893 removed the causes of disagreement. Cer- tain general rules have been laid down by the legisla- ture, in accordance with which the schools of Philadelphia, as well as those of the interior of the State, must be con- ducted. Thus, all schools are free to children of every race, color and sex ; the minimum school year is six months ; every school month comprises at least twenty days, exclu- sive of Saturdays, Sundays and legal holidays ; every school is required to teach physiology and hygiene, with especial reference to the effect of alcohol and narcotics on the human system. The State superintendent decides whether or not a school has complied with these rules, and 54 Government of Philadelphia by so doing established its right to a share in the State appropriation. The financial aid given by the State to the public schools, the annual appropriation now being $5,000,000, has always been a mainstay of the educational system. In 1892 Philadel- phia received from the State's appropriation $1,078,570.55, which covered over one-third of the city's total expendi- tures on account of schools. The basis of distribution of the State's appropriation is the number of taxable citizens * in each school district, which number is certified to the State Superintendent triennially by the county commis- sioners, aided by the assessors. The superintendent then issues orders to the state treasurer for the payment to the treasurers of the district boards of all moneys to which they are entitled out of the appropriation. Philadelphia is required from its share to give annually $3000 to the Teach- ers' Institute, and $3000 to the School of Design for Women. With the payment of its share of the appropria- tion the exercise of the State department's authority over Philadelphia's schools comes to an end. The second and third bodies in the trio previously men- tioned, viz. : The Board of Public Education and the Ward Sectional Boards, are vastly more important than the State department. The real organization of the school system is dual. General authority is vested in the general board ; special authority of supervision and management, in some instances co-ordinate, is vested in the sectional boards. The Board of Public Education is formed by the appoint- ment of one person from each of the thirty-seven wards by the judges of the Court of Common Pleas, and these appointees, by virtue of that fact, are members of their respective sectional boards. They serve for three years, the terms of one-third expiring each year. To be eligible, ♦Philadelphia's number of taxable citizens is obtained in the following man- ner : The county commissioners ascertain the number of registered voters, every- one of whom must be a tax-payer ; this number is certified to the Board of Revision of Taxes, and is increased by them by the addition of all tax-paying women. This total, which in 1891 was 296,078, is then certified to the state department. Department of Education 55 a candidate must possess the qualifications requisite for admission to the State Senate. No councilman, poor guar- dian, prison inspector, member of the Board of Health, or any salaried officer under these bodies may be a member of the Board of Education. This rule of eligibility is prac- tically inoperative, for among the present members there are a common councilman, a United States commissioner, an assistant district attorney, and a member of the Board of Revision of Taxes.* The board organizes annually by the election of a presi- dent, secretary, superintendent and various subordinate officers. It is an executive department of the city govern- ment, and must report to the mayor every February, f By the Act of 1854, all municipal departments were made subject to the establishment and regulation of Councils, with the sole exception of that of education. Hence, in the words of the State Supreme Court, " everything pertaining to public schools within the county and city of Philadelphia has been committed to the Board of Controllers [Board of Education] excepting only the public purse, which has been kept carefully in the hands of City Councils." The Board of Education decides upon the necessity for school houses and erects them ; it may establish schools for the training of teachers : it elects all the teachers in the higher schools, and determines the qualifications of teachers in the lower grades : it provides free text-books for all pupils ; it adopts and promulgates all courses of study ; it confers degrees upon graduates of the Central High School, and it exercises a. general supervision and management over all the public schools of the city. The president of the board is the only one of its officers who is a member of the board. He is its official head and * The constitution of the state declares; "no member of congress, or other person holding any office (except of attorney-at-law or in the militia) under the United States or this commonwealth, shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office." f Owing, however, to the inadequacy of the clerical force, these reports are rarely delivered on time. 56 Government of Philadelphia representative ; he annually appoints the various committees of the board, and he signs all money orders on the city treasury. As a rule, the incumbent of this office has not contented himself with the performance of merely routine duties, but by investigation and experiment, has materially aided progress. The secretary is the executive officer of the board. Through him, the board receives monthly reports from the various schools ; from him, all teachers receive warrants on the city controller for salary ; he also records the proceedings of the board, has charge of the correspond- ence of the board, and attests all legal papers. The archi- tect and supervisor of school buildings plans and supervises the construction of all school buildings, which must conform to the rules of the Department of Public Safety concerning security, etc. For instance, fire-escapes must be provided for school buildings according to the specifications of the act of Legislature ; if they be not provided, the members of the Board of Education would be liable for damages in case of the death or injury of any child from fire. All material alterations and additions to school buildings are done accord- ing to the plans of the architect. That due attention may be given to the safety and sanitary condition of the school buildings, he is aided by several assistants and inspectors. Many of the schools of the city are poorly ventilated and wretchedly lighted, and hence produce serious physiological effects. The abatement of this evil rests with this depart- ment, but the fault seems to be with those who have the power to carry out the recommendations of the inspectors. For the year 1893, the sum of $25,925 was asked for sanitary repairs ; it is worthy of note that the schools under the direct control of the Board of Education had no requests to make in this direction. The superintendent of public schools is by far the most important officer of the Board of Education. He is the general advisor of the board — its agent to gather information. He has no authority over principals, teachers, or manage- ment ; he can only observe, suggest, advise and report to his Department of Education 57 superiors. The teachers in the various schools report monthly as to attendance, etc., to their respective principals, who in turn report to the board. From these data, together with that furnished by his assistant, the superintendent reports to the board and makes his recommendations. As a rule, his suggestions are adopted by the board. Thus, he has virtually prescribed the course of study in the lower schools, as his advice was taken by the board. Until recently, the higher schools dealt with the board and its committees directly, with little or no aid from the superintendent. This is, however, being changed with a consequent increase in the homogeneity of the system. The superintendent attends the monthly meetings of the board, and is entitled to speak upon questions and to give information when desired. His office is thus seen to be advisory ; he accomplishes reforms only by indirect methods ; his recommendations are always liable to be vetoed by the board. No feature of the system is more regrettable than that which secures an educator of ability for the superintendency, and then gives him no positive administrative power. The success of the superintendency in the past is due entirely to the personality of its incum- bents. It would seem desirable that purely educational matters should be entrusted to educational experts instead of being as at present entirely in the control of non-expert committees and individuals. In his' work, the superin- tendent is aided by six general assistants and a director of drawing and a director of kindergartens. To each of the general assistants a particular field is assigned, wherein he visits and supervises with the especial end of ascertaining the efficiency of the teachers. As there are 2878 teachers employed by the city, it is evident that the supervising force is inadequate. Educators have estimated that one man can oversee the work of about one hundred and fifty teachers. If this be correct, then the number of superintendent's assistants should be tripled at least. The superintendent and his assistants hold regular meetings for report and con- sultation, which are believed to be productive of much good in a general way. 58 Government of Philadelphia The school system is practically managed by the com- mittees of the Board of Education, and the committees of finance and schools of the municipal Councils. Twenty- three regular committees of the board are appointed annually, with from four to thirteen members. Every feature of the system has an appropriate committee ; almost every question is referred to a committee ; and the recom- mendations of a committee, if made with anything like unanimity, are rarely reversed. Hence, the composition of the committee determines the condition of its particular sphere of control. Practically, the system is controlled by the committees ; and if politics enters into this part of the system, it must be by means of the committees. To all intents and purposes, a committee has the disposal of that portion of the school funds and patronage relating to its department ; hence, there is an incentive to rivalry between committees, from which the system, as a whole, is liable to suffer.* On or before the first day of May of each year, the sec- tional boards send to the Board of Education estimates of the amounts required to defray the expenses of the public schools in each section. These estimates are reviewed by the Board of Education and by Councils' committee on Finance. The appropriation is generally made in December for the following year. In order to comply with the law, education is said to receive $0.22 out of the $1.85 tax rate. As a matter of fact, however, the actual appropriation is generally double this amount. As a rule, Councils have been fairly generous to the public schools ; within the last ten years there have been six general increases of salaries, but they are still lower in Philadelphia than in Boston, New * Thus, at a recent meeting of the board, one committee urged that an appro- priation of $15,000 be asked from Councils for the purpose of purchasing dictiona- ries for the schools, asserting that it had received assurance that such a request would be granted by Councils' finance committee. The proposition was antago- nized by members of other committees, one of whom endeavored to arouse the sympathies of the board by asserting that in his section pupils were sitting on benches, supported by peck-measures. Nevertheless, the proposition, amended to $10,000, passed the board. Department of Education 59 York, Chicago or Brooklyn. The appropriations for inciden- tals, furnaces, repairs and furniture are carefully watched. For 1893, the sum of $269,330 was asked for these purposes, and $211,500 was actually allowed. The appropriation of Councils is classified under general items, and the Board of Education divides the specified sum among the several sec- tions. The title to all school property is vested in the city of Philadelphia, and Councils alone can authorize its sale or the purchase of new property. The school money is paid out by the city treasurer on the presentation of warrants drawn by the president of the board, and countersigned by the City Controller ; the warrants must be drawn against an appropriation previously made, which is the limit of the city's liability. The city treasurer receives and holds all moneys payable to the board. The making of contracts for building repairs and supplies is minutely regulated by legis- lative enactment. For all of these, proposals must be received and the contract awarded by the Board of Educa- tion to the lowest responsible bidder; no city or school employee can contract for labor or materials ; no contract is legal unless authorized by Councils, which must previously make an appropriation therefor, and the amount of the con- tract must not exceed the amount appropriated ; security must be given by all contractors ; no contractor, defaulting in the performance of his contract since 1879, can serve ; no contractor can sub-let work; proposals for supplies, etc., must be opened in the presence of Councils' committee on schools. If the work is not performed properly, the board may use the security deposited to complete it. Such is an outline of the sphere of action reserved to the central power, the Board of Education. The general idea of the system seems to be, that local matters should be left to local committees, and general matters to a non-partisan board of business men and women. The plan has not worked as well as one could wish. Three general scientific objections may be urged against it, which may account for its non-success : (1) It results in an extravagant administra- 60 Government of Philadelphia tion ; (2) It gives business men and women a supreme authority over educational matters, concerning which they are, as a rule, comparatively uninformed, and hence, easily led astray ; (3) It expects from the members of the board a great deal of time, attention and study, for which they are not remunerated : as a consequence, few of the busy members of the Board of Education have more than a superficial knowledge of the interests of the schools for which they are legislating. The third and last body in the trio previously referred to is the Sectional or Ward Board of School Directors, which has been a part of the system since 1854. The large area covered by the city, and the several interests and neighbor- hoods brought together under one system caused the fear that one locality might suffer to the advantage of another. This, together with the Anglo-Saxon love of local inde- pendence, caused the establishment of these ward boards, which were given special powers of supervision and control. Unfortunately they were not made subordinate to the Board of Education, but comparatively independent, deriving their power and authority from specific legislative enactment. A sectional board is composed of the member of the Board of Public Education from the ward, together with twelve citizens of the same qualifications as the member, who are elected by the voters of the ward. No person can vote for more than three-fourths of the number of vacancies, so that, as a rule, the minority party has one-fourth of the directors. Like the members of the Board of Education, directors serve without pay, and are exempt from jury and militia service, etc. They hold office for three years, the terms being so arranged that one-third expire each year. A sectional board is organized somewhat on the same plan as the Board of Education. It meets monthly. In April it formally organizes by the election of a president and secre- tary, the latter receiving a salary of $ 100 a year ; it formu- lates rules for its own guidance ; it annually appoints a sep- arate committee for each school of the district ; it has power Department op Education 6i to erect and establish as many schools in the ward as the controllers, i. e., Board of Education, may determine. Its powers relate exclusively to kindergartens, primary, sec- ondary and grammar schools ; for these schools it formu- lates rules of order and management ; it elects all princi- pals, teachers, janitors and employees, and reports its action to the Board of Education. It may contract bills to any amount not exceeding $100. As the sectional board derives its powers from the same source as the Board of Public Education, and possesses, in many cases, co-ordinate powers, there is a constant tendency toward conflict between the two, to the serious impairment of the efficiency of the system. Thus the Board of Educa- tion determines the qualifications of teachers ; when the average attendance exceeds the number required for the appointment of an additional teacher, the sectional board reports that fact to the central board, which, upon exami- nation, creates the division or class ; the sectional board then elects the teacher, and, if holding a certificate, the Board of Education must confirm the election and place the teacher's name on the pay-roll. The Board of Education prescribes the course of study, frames a list of text-books (generally three on each subject), and makes general rules of control. The principal of each school decides what text- book on the list shall be used, and the sectional board decides the intricate matters of school-room management. The principal is subject to the rules of the Board of Educa- tion, to the supervision of the superintendent, to the con- trol of the committees on his school, and to the orders of the sectional board. In case of uncertainty as to his course of action, he might obey the sectional board and, if necessary, mandamus the Board of Education for pay, or he might obey the Board of Education and then be discharged by the sectional board, and the Board of Education could afford no redress. All teachers look to the sectional board for promotion, yet the only proper examination into efficiency is that made by the superintendent. As a result of that 62 Government of Philadelphia rule of the Board of Education which gives principals a lim- ited right to select books, the cohesion of the system is destroyed, and furthermore, the principal is made liable to the attentions and wiles of the book-agent. The sectional boards can contract bills for repairs to the amount of $100 ; hence, a job of $300 may be done piece- meal, $90 one week, $75 the next, and so on, so that the sectional board may favor its own contractor to the total disregard of economy. Furthermore, the Board of Educa- tion is the custodian of the school property, but the sec- tional board appoints the janitors. Hence, it may happen that to serve political ends, a man is appointed whose inefficiency ruins the buildings in his charge, and the Board of Education, which pays the bills, cannot remove the cause. The sectional boards discourage children from going to schools outside of the section. Hence, one ward is fre- quently overcrowded, while the next ward has plenty of accommodations ; so the Board of Education is compelled to erect new buildings. Thus, when Superintendent Brooks came into office he found that six hundred children had been refused admission to the schools because of inadequate facili- ties ; in a number of cases, ' ' sectional lines interfered with the solution of the difficulty." These are but a few of many possible ways in which the system may break down. The result is waste, extravagance, misappropriation of funds, inefficient teaching and hetero- geneity of administration.* The system adopted by the Board of Education for deter- mining the qualifications of teachers, divides itself into three periods: (1) Prior to 1876, teachers' certificates were given to those alone who had passed the examination of the * The waste is evidenced by statistical comparison. In 1S91 it cost to teach each pupil in one ward, the Thirty-third, the sum of $13.58 per annum. In another, the Eighth, at the same period, it cost $22.99 P er annum, a difference of 70 per cent and yet the course of study and the teachers' salaries were the same. In St. Louis which has been called "the best governed city of America," it cost in 1887 the sum of $1,095,773 to educate 56,936 children, or about $19.20 per child. In Philadelphia to educate 118,268 children cost $3,222,886, or $27.28 per child. The school plant in St. Louis is worth but one-third that of Philadelphia. Department of Education 63 controllers. (2) Then trial certificates were granted to those who had been graduated from the three-year course in the Girls' Normal School. (3) Finally, permanent certificates were granted to graduates of the School of Practice. These distinctions are recognized at present, for there are three ways in which a person may become qualified to teach to- day : (1) Graduates of the Central High School or of the post-graduate department of the Manual Training School, upon being graduated from the School of Pedagogy, receive a collegiate certificate,* qualifying them to teach in the higher grades of the grammar schools. (2) Graduates of the Girls' Normal School, upon being graduated from the School of Practice, receive a principal's or assistant's cer- tificate, the scholarship shown regulating the character of the degree. (3) Candidates, successfully passing the ex- amination of the Board of Education and also graduates of the Girls' Normal School of a certain standing receive trial certificates, which, upon recommendation of the superintend- ent, are either made permanent or revoked after a year's teaching. There are in the lower schools seven distinct types of teachers : Supervising principal, principal, assist- ant, kindergarten principal, kindergarten assistant, cook- ing teacher and sewing teacher. The functions of the supervising principal have been previously referred to ; he has charge of all the classes in one building. The office can only be established when the school is of a certain size. Thus, out of the 427 schools of the city, but 76 are under supervising principals. The sectional board may or may not establish the office, and motives of economy frequently prevent its establishment. There are three cooking schools in the city, to which pupils are sent for instructions while in the grammar grades. Cooking teachers, sewing teachers and kindergarten teachers are essentially technical. In the schools under the exclusive control of the Board of Educa- tion, vacancies in the teaching staff are filled by competitive examinations, conducted under the auspices of the committee in charge of the school. In case a teacher is absent from any school, he must provide and pay for a qualified substitute. 64 Government of Philadelphia Within recent years much attention has been attracted by the evident need of scientific pedagogical training for those who aspire to teach in the schools of the city. For decades the Girls' Normal School and the Boys' Central High School trained almost all the teachers of the city. The workings of the system gave a teacher a life-tenure of his office. Even at the present time a teacher, if reported to the Board of Education as incompetent, can generally be shifted by the sectional board to another class, when he must be re- ported again, and the process can be continued ad infinitum. The near completion of the new Normal School for Girls augurs well for a better under-graduate preparation. The establishment of the School of Pedagogy was a recognition of the need for better equipped teachers. Of the 287$ teachers in the schools of the city, but 126 are men. The profession offers little pecuniary inducement and, as a calling, does not seem attractive to men. After securing teachers of adequate qualifications, great care must be taken to see that proper attention is paid to the 'post-graduate preparation of teachers. "The pupil," says Arnold of Rugby ' ' must drink from a running stream, and not from a stagnant pool." To supply this need, there exist at present two institutions, viz : the Teachers' Institute and the Educational Club, membership in each being purely voluntary. Dr. Brooks has lately been investigating the practicability of a system of post-graduate work. For ex- ample, some professors at the Central High School are tak- ing courses of lectures at the University of Pennsylvania. The Educational Club has lately commenced a great work in the public discussion of educational questions : it is un- fortunate that there is no positive way in which its conclusions may be impressed upon the system at large. The system of University Extension lectures lately intro- duced into the city under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, seems likely to prove one of the most efficient means of affording teachers good opportunities for post-graduate work. It Department of Education 65 would be well for the Board of Education to offer special inducements to teachers to follow these courses. The choice of text-books is vested in the Board of Edu- cation and is exercised by a committee. Upon application by a publisher or author, the committee passes upon a book and reports to the board. If the report is adopted by a two- thirds vote, the book is placed on the list from which the principals are required to make their choice. The books are loaned free of charge to the pupils of the schools. The board is forbidden to displace books oftener than once in three years, and no officer of the board can be interested in the publication or authorship of any book used during his term of service. Whenever a collection of books has been made, or funds have been collected for their purchase, for the purpose of forming a public library, the Board of Education may place the library in a school building, and it is then free to any- one over twelve years of age under such regulations as the board may prescribe. little has been done in this way. Recently, however, a specific appropriation was obtained from Councils for this work. Some months ago the Board opened the first library in the Wagner Institute, Seven- teenth street and Montgomery avenue. A second library has just been opened in the Young Men's Christian Associ- ation Building at Broad and Federal streets. The Board of Education is compelled to admit to the schools all persons desiring education who are over six years of age ; there is no upper age limit. Furthermore, the board may establish schools for children under five years of age, and it has recently used this power with a liberal hand to establish kindergartens. legislation has made no provision for children of five years, but the board has cor- rected the omission by a rule fixing the kindergarten age at four to six, inclusive. In 1887 the first kindergarten was opened. In January, 1893, there were sixty-four kin- dergartens, employing ninety-five teachers, and educating 3532 children, an average of 37 pupils per teacher. Kindergartens 5 66 Government of Philadelphia are established by the board whenever and wherever there is a demand for them. Recent developments seem to indicate that they are rapidly growing in popular favor. From the kindergarten the child goes in due course to the primary school, or else he may enter the primary school without previous training These schools contain 55,107 children, or more than 46 per cent of the entire attendance at the schools of the city, and as the lower grade contains 20,443 children, it is obvious that a vast majority have not attended the free kindergartens. There are 161 primary schools in the city. A primary school contains four grades, and a pupil advancing regularly spends a half-year in each grade. The two-year course of study includes reading, spelling, writing, phonetic language, arithmetic, object les- sons, drawing and, recently, clay modeling. Whenever, for the sake of economy and convenience, there is a demand for a school combining the courses of study in the primary, secondary and grammar schools, such schools are created, and are called consolidated schools. Out of the 161 pri- mary schools, thirty-one are consolidated. The normal child completes the primary school at eight years of age. The secondary school is established on the same lines as the primary, having four half-year grades, the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth. The studies pursued are the same as those in the primary schools, and in addition geography. Courses in sewing and cooking are also offered to girls. There are seventy-two separate secondary schools, and about fifty that are classed as combined or consolidated. The number of pupils is 32,927, or 28 per cent of the total attendance of the city. The normal child completes the secondary school at ten years of age. The grammar schools contain 23,611 pupils, or about 20 per cent of the total attendance. While the number of pupils in the grammar schools is considerably less than the number in the secondary schools, the difference is not so great as between the attendance at the primary and that at the secondary. This is due in great measure to the fact that Department of Education 67 many children are educated at home until competent to enter the grammar schools. In these schools there are radi- cal differences in system. As a rule they have male princi- pals. The course covers four one-year grades, ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth, and at the end of the fourth year the pupil is presumably fitted to enter the higher schools. In the grammar schools there are fewer "culture studies" than in the lower schools, and more stress is laid on the actual acquisition of knowledge. Instruction is given in reading, use of words (tenth to twelfth grades), spelling, writing language, arithmetic (from fractions to mensuration), geography (with especial reference to commerce), United States history, civil government and physical science (with especial reference to the influence of alcohol and narcotics on the human system). In the natural order of things the pupil would now go to the high schools. In 1868, however, there was established an advanced grammar grade known as the two-year Senior classes. With improved facilities in the higher schools, these classes languished, and were at one time abolished. In 1891 they were re-established as an experiment, but as they contain at present only 112 pupils, they are again likely to be abolished. The course of study is somewhat similar to that in the freshman and sophomore years at the Central High School. Up to this time the pupil has been under the sectional board's rule and supervision. He has been under many good teachers and some bad ones. The details of financial management have affected him but little. Henceforth, he comes wholly under the Board of Education. The differ- ence in the quality of the education afforded by the differ- ent sections has been so evident that each pupil must prove by a special examination his qualifications for entrance to the higher schools. After passing his examination at the twelfth grade, conducted by his teachers, he has to pass another at the higher school conducted by the superintend- ent, aided by the faculties and a committee of grammar 68 Government of Philadelphia school principals. This second examination is a wholly unscientific procedure, and has no place in a graded system. Whenever the facilities of the higher schools have been overtaxed, the standard at the second examination has been raised so as to exclude many pupils. No one, after passing the examination, has ever been refused admission, except at the Girls' Normal School. The better facilities for higher education afforded by the buildings now in process of erec- tion is an encouraging sign of popular interest. Upon their completion it will be many years before there is a renewed danger of overcrowding. Pupils enter the higher schools,* as a rule, between the ages of thirteen and sixteen. The higher schools are the Central High School, the Girls' Normal School and the Manual Training School. The Central High School offers a four-year course of instruction and confers upon the pupil completing it the degree of bachelor of arts. Prior to 1891 the course, although productive of good results, was based on rather old-fashioned principles. In that year, however, a new course of study was adopted, which was a compromise between those who sought to make it a "feeder" to the university, and those who desired to see it a college, com- plete in itself. The present plan established five distinct courses, all leading to the same degree : These are the regu- lar, preparing for business life, the classical, preparing for a collegiate career, and the chemical, physical and scientific courses, three technical variations of the regular course. The instruction afforded is, of necessity, rather elementary, but owing to the excellent character and thorough prepara- tion of most of the teachers the school has always main- tained a high reputation. There are at present twenty- three instructors and 631 pupils, which is twenty-five less than attended in 1854, when the present building was opened. The decrease in attendance is due in great meas- ure to the insufficient facilities and poor accommodations. * The mean age of pupils upon entrance to the Central High School, i. c, the .age of the larger part of the entering class, is fifteen years. Department of Education 69 Councils have just appropriated $275,000 as a preliminary grant for the erection of a new building, so that this defect will soon be remedied. At the present time (1892-3), the school offers instruction in constitutional law, geometry, latin, algebra, physical geography, natural philosophy, anatomy, German, higher mathematics, political economy, mental science, chemistry, astronomy, rhetoric, elocution, history, English literature, drawing, mineralogy, botany, French and Greek. In 1 89 1 a School of Pedagogy was established for the education of male teachers as an adjunct of the high school. It is open to graduates of the school and of the post-graduate department of the Manual Training School. The course covers but one year, and embraces studies which it is difficult to master in that time. It is conducted by professors of the Central High School, assisted by Superintendent Brooks. As yet, it can hardly be called a success,* but it is to be hoped that it may be revived and become a credit to the system. To enter the Girls' Normal School, the conditions and examinations are the same as those to enter the Central High School. The object of the school is primarily the prepara- tion and education of young women for the teaching pro- fession. The regular course of study covers three years ; there is also an elective post-graduate year, wholly pedagogi- cal in its nature. Supplementary to the lower schools, courses in sewing, cooking and music are given. Courses of instruc- tion are offered in history, civil government, science (general), English, drawing, mathematics, book-keeping, literature, etc. There are 46 teachers and 1775 pupils. The School of Practice, established in 1878, corresponds in part to the School of Pedagogy : ample provision is made, however, for practical training in teaching. The novice conducts a primary school under the supervision of ex- perienced instructors, and, if successful, receives a teachers' certificate. The school is an adjunct to the Normal School : it graduated, in 1891, 233 teachers. * The attendance fell from ten in 1891 to two in 1892. 70 Government of Philadelphia The Normal School has long been over-crowded in all its departments, and its efficiency has, in consequence, suffered. A new building, however, is now in process of erection, to be used exclusively for a Girls' Normal School. A two-year course of study has been adopted, combining the theory and practice of teaching. If these plans are executed this school ought to become the leading institution of its kind in the country. The present Normal School Building will be used exclusively as a Girls' High School. The course of instruc- tion will be radically altered. Three courses of study will be offered : — the first, fitting for practical life, the second, preparing for college, and the third, preparing for the Girls' Normal School. The Central and North-East Manual Training Schools aim to fill a want untouched by other schools. The course is divided between academic instruction and mechanical work in the ratio of two to one. The former course includes history, civil government, literature, science and mathe- matics. The aim of the mechanical instruction is rather to give a correct comprehension of principles, to acquaint the pupil with his capabilities and to give such information as will aid in a more extended study of the technical arts, than to give special preparation for any particular trade. To this end, instruction is given in the use and care of tools, in planing and chiseling, in pattern-making and designing, in turning and smithing, in filing, chipping and fitting metals, in modeling and drawing, and in engineering. A post- graduate course of one year in the culture studies is offered to graduates who desire to qualify for admission to the School of Pedagogy. The two schools have 31 instructors and 573 pupils. They have won a warm place in the hearts of Philadelphia's educators, and are destined to occupy an increasingly important place in the system. A student need not end his scholastic life with graduation from the public schools. Under a contract between the city of Philadelphia and the University of Pennsylvania, fifty free scholarships have been permanantly established in the Department of Education 71 University for the benefit of pupils from the public schools of the city. They are awarded by the Board of Education under the direction of its Committee on University, strictly upon the merits of the applicants, as shown in competitive examination. As a rule, they are divided between graduates of the Central High School and the Manual Training Schools. Nor does the public education stop with minors. The Board of Education has power to establish night schools which adults may attend, and has opened the public schools from October to March of each year The board regulates the term, determines the age of admission (the average age of pupil is eighteen) and appoints visitors or inspectors of these schools. At present there are 54 night schools, which are taught by the day-school teachers. The number of pu- pils in attendance during 1892-93, was 15,998 of which 29 per cent were foreign-born and 29 per cent were females. The total cost of night schools during 1892 was $44,456.86. The curriculum is utilitarian, the majority of the studies being practical in their nature. The sketch of the schools of the city would be incomplete without some mention of the sociological experiment which is being made in the slums of the city in the James Forten Elementary Manual Training School. Prior to 1891 this was a consolidated school ; it is situated in a peculiar neigh- borhood, peopled with negroes, Slavs, Hebrews and Italians. The graded course of study first adopted failed to attract pupils and the school languished. Finally, the Sectional Board relinquished its control to the Board of Education. The school as now established is part kindergarten, part pri- mary, part secondary and mainly manual training. Instruc- tion in English, arithmetic, cooking, sewing, modeling, drawing and carpentry is given in one building. The grades extend only to the seventh, but as the school grows larger, higher grades will be annexed. At present the school con- tains 13 teachers and 425 pupils. It bids fair to play an important part in solving the problem of education in the 72 Government of Philadelphia slums of a great city. In such localities, the need of the masses is merely the rudiments of an education to aid in the active pursuits of life. Until education is made compulsory upon every child in the community, it must be made especi- ally attractive to the poor, and such elementary manual training schools are well fitted to accomplish that end. There is one other feature of the system which must be noticed. It is the Public School of Industrial Art. It gives instruction to 800 pupils and 540 teachers. Each grammar grade of the city sends its quota of pupils on stated days and at certain hours for instruction. The attendance is purely voluntary on the part of both pupils and teachers, yet the privilege is eagerly sought. All work in this school is by hand ; no mechanical device is used. The fundamental principles which must underlie all true manual training are (1) Free-hand drawing ; (2) Free-hand modeling ; (3) Apply- ing the foregoing to hard substances ; and (4) Encourage- ment of inventions and designs by the children. The prob- lem in infant education is how to develop and train the human faculties. The greatest obstacle encountered in doing this has been the failure of old methods to attract and interest the child. To develop and extend industrial education is an impera- tive demand in our public schools. The principles which underlie manual training, also underlie all artistic and me- chanical callings, and should form a part of the public-school system, side by side with the purely mental training. Pro- vision could be made whereby one or two teachers in each school could give manual training to the whole school. Also, every teacher should be compelled to avail himself of the industrial art courses offered. These changes would be productive of vast results for good which would be immedi- ately evident. In the development of this paper, an attempt has been made to trace the history of the public schools, to describe the nature of the controlling authorities, and finally to ex- plain the schools, courses of study, etc. While it would be Department of Education 73 unjust not to acknowledge the great progress of the last decade, yet we believe that it might be accelerated in the future by the fulfilling of the following suggested conclusions: (1) That industrial art training should be extended throughout the entire system — especially from kindergarten to high school. (2) That there should be an annual census of the number of children of school-age. (3) That there should be compulsory education. (4) That all teachers should be induced to avail them- selves of opportunities for post-graduate education, such as those afforded by the School of Industrial Art, Educational Club, Teachers' Institute, University Extension, etc. (5) That there should be an increase in the number of assistant superintendents. (6) That the superintendent and principal should be given enlarged powers. (7) That the superintendent and assistants should appoint and remove teachers, should promulgate courses of study and should adopt text-books. (8) That there should be a reform of the whole administrative system, involving the reconstruction of the existing boards of control and an efficient unity of authority and respon- sibility. The suggestions may be questioned, but it is believed they are sound. In the words of Benjamin Franklin, — " A Bible and newspaper in every house, a good school in every district — all studied and appreciated as they merit — are the principal support of virtue, morality and civil liberty ; ' ' and the good school can certainly not be secured without a rigid observance of the principles of good administration. F. S. Edmonds, M. I,. Nicholas. V— DEPARTMENT OF CITY CONTROLLER. §)HE Department of City Controller had its origin in the f Consolidation Actof 1854. The controller is a check upon, and supervisor of, all the heads of department in all matters of finance, whether in the receipt or expenditure of money, and as such may investigate the finances of any office, pre- scribe the methods of keeping accounts, and have access to the books at all times. His office, although purely adminis- trative, is one of the most important offices of the city, and is the outgrowth of the old county auditorship. In spite of the name and the fact that the duties have been imposed upon him by Councils, the Supreme Court has decided that the city controller is a county officer, the decision being based largely on the fourteenth article of the Constitution and the Act of 1876 (see Vol. 6 of the Reports). Yet his office is classed as one of the executive departments of the city in the Bullitt Bill. The controller is elected by the people at the November election. Prior to 1861 he was always elected in the spring, but since 1874 he has been elected, like other county officers, in the fall. He is obliged to give bonds to the amount of $ 20,000 and to take oath, the violation of which subjects him to the same penalty provided in the case of the city treas- urer. The term of office is three years from the first day of January next after his election. As his office is a county office, a vacancy between elections is filled by appointment of the Governor confirmed by the Senate. The fact that all officers having the direct management of finances are county officers accounts for their being elected instead of being Department of City Controller 75 appointed by the mayor, as are the heads of other depart- ments. In other words, the reason for the election of these officers is based on a difference of classification, not on any theory of public policy. Under the present laws no money can be paid out by any department of the city unless the signature of the controller is obtained. Each department sends all bills and vouchers to the controller, with a warrant for the desired amount signed by the director of the department and by the chief of the bureau in which the expenditure has been made. No warrant can be issued except by appropriations made by Councils, and it must name the appropriation against which it is drawn. If the controller finds that one item of appro- priation is being drawn upon for unauthorized purposes, or that the particular item is being overdrawn, or if a warrant contain an item for which no appropriation is made, or if for any other cause he does not approve a warrant, he notifies the proper department of the fact, and the only way in which the money can be obtained is by getting an appro- priation bill through Councils or through the courts. If the ■controller should approve a warrant in violation of the law, he and his sureties are individually liable to the holder of the warrant, and whenever a warrant or claim is presented he may require evidence that the amount is justly due, and for that purpose may summon any officer, agent or employee of the city, or any other person, and examine him relative to the same. Thus the controller exercises an essentially judicial authority in the payment of warrants. The warrants are printed blanks, authorized by an Ordi- nance of Councils, passed about October 1, of each year. Councils are guided by the controller, who submits to them the probable number required for the coming year. The blank warrants are distributed by the controller to the various departments of the city. Each department keeps an account of the number issued, and at the end of each year returns to the controller those unissued. A register in book form is kept of all warrants, and when the number reaches a thousand it is delivered to the city treasurer. 76 Government of Philadelphia Prior to the enactment of the Bullitt Bill in 1885, it was the custom to make contracts when there was no cash in the treasury that could be appropriated. The warrants drawn on account of such contracts were stamped by the controller as bearing six per cent interest, and were sold at a discount varying from two to six per cent. This practice has been discontinued by legislation. Another important check of a semi-judicial nature exer- cised by the controller upon the various departments of the city is seen in connection with contracts, which must be countersigned by him when involving an appropriation of money. Every contract names the item of appropriation on which it is founded, is numbered by the controller accord- ing to date, is charged as numbered against such appropria- tion, and is not payable out of any other fund. If the con- troller certifies a contract in excess of the appropriation, he and his sureties are liable for the difference. Warrants for materials supplied to the city under contract must be accom- panied with a bill of sale before they can be countersigned by the controller. The controller is required to audit all the accounts of the various departments and trusts of the city, and all other accounts in which the city is concerned, and to publish the result in his annual report. All the accounts of depart- ments receiving money and paying it into the treasury are audited and balanced by the controller, who secures thereby a positive check upon the treasurer. The controller keeps a duplicate account of every individual taxpayer in the city and charges the receiver of taxes with the full amount of the tax certificates of the several wards, and also with all other accounts placed in his hands for collection. Since the receiver is obliged to report on the afternoon of each day the amount of money paid him and by whom, if a citizen pays his taxes in the morning the fact is known at the con- troller's office on the same day. The Bureaus of Water and Gas make a like daily report. The treasurer, into whose hands nearly all the city Department of City Controller 77 money ultimately passes, also makes a daily report to the ■controller of all money received and the source, and accom- panies his statement with a certificate of deposit. The statement is made in writing, verified by oath or aflirmation. The controller also has the power to require the presentation and verification of the treasurer's accounts as often as he may deem necessary. The value of this provision depends •entirely upon who is controller, as it is a discretionary power. So far as city funds are concerned, the controller exercises a perfect system of checks upon the treasurer, but over money collected by the treasurer for the State the controller has no jurisdiction whatever. This lack of jurisdiction is ■due to a defect in the State law, and undoubtedly opened the way to the peculations of the late city treasurer, Mr. John Bardsley, who misappropriated money belonging to the State. At the expiration of the terms of the several courts of the ■city the prothonotary makes a statement to the controller of the fines and penalties imposed, judgments and jury fees received, and arbitrators' and witness fees collected. The sheriff' submits his accounts to the controller quar- terly for settlement. He is charged with all money received, and pays the balance to the city. All other officers make reports to the controller on the third Monday in the month. At the end of the term of any officer, or in case of death or resignation, his accounts are audited, and if he is found indebted to the city the controller files a statement of the account in the Court of Common Pleas, together with the official bond of such officer, and gives notice to him and his sureties. The city loan and transfer agent sends monthly to the •controller the canceled certificates of city loans for which new certificates have been issued. Under the head of trusts come the city loans which are deposited in the Farmers and Mechanics' Bank. The city's account with this bank is audited by the controller twice a year. It is provided that ' ' the controller shall perform all the ■duties imposed by law or ordinance not inconsistent with the 78 Government op Philadelphia provisions hereof." He, the mayor and another person elected by Councils, constitute the Sinking Fund Com- mission. As may be imagined from the foregoing description of the duties of this department, it necessitates the keeping of a great variety and quantity of accounts. The controller's books must account for all property, real or personal, vested in the city ; all trusts and the care of them ; all debts due to and owing by the city ; appropriations made by Councils and the amount expended, and all the receipts and expenses in the various departments of the city. In other words, the controller keeps a duplicate account of every department of the city, and not a cent can be received or expended without his knowledge. These accounts are published annually in what is known as "The Controller's Report," which is in book form, and may be obtained on application. A more adequate idea of the growth and importance of this department and the diversity and volume of the work performed is shown in the number of clerks employed and the remuneration received. In an ordinance of 1862 we find a provision that ' ' the controller shall have one principal clerk and nine assistants and a messenger. ' ' The duties of the office are now performed by the controller, receiving a salary of $8000 per annum ; a chief clerk and a chief auditor, receiving $2500 each ; seven department auditors, receiving $1350 each ; one return clerk, one warrant delivery clerk, one Farmers and Mechanics' Bank auditor, two water and miscellaneous auditors, and eight tax audi- tors, all of whom receive $1200 each ; six gas auditors, two water auditors, three registrars, two clerks to revise the delinquent tax register, receiving $1000 each ; two clerks for preparing and indexing records, one messenger and one typewriter and miscellaneous clerk, receiving $800 each ; and two janitors, receiving $300 each, making the total number of employees thirty-nine, all of whom,with two exceptions, must be skilled accountants. They are appointed by the controller after passing a civil service examination. Department of City Controller 79 This examination is not very rigidly adhered to, but the department is above the ordinary abuses of a political machine. The regular hours of labor are from nine until four in the afternoon, but the employees are often obliged to remain late in the evening to complete their work. The efficiency of this department depends on three things : First, clothing the controller with sufficient power ; second, supplying the controller with adequate means to execute his authority ; and, thirdly, on the v/ill of the con- troller. As to the first two, the officials in the department do not complain either of a lack of authority or of means to render it effective ; as to the third essential attribute, it may be said that the office is so pre-eminently of a judicial nature that many of the provisions depend upon the con- troller's will for execution. He could render them useless on the one hand, or on the other he could make himself a nuisance to all the other departments. The importance, therefore, of having a good man in the office is evident. The question may be asked, on what theory of public policy is the annual expenditure of $61,000 for the depart- ment of controller based ? Have the people so little confi- dence in the persons whom they elect to places of trust and honor, or whom the mayor as their representative appoints, that they must expend this sum to maintain a department to watch every move they make ? The answer is, that while the Department of City Controller offers no immediate bene- fit to the city, save as of obtaining a concise statement of the finances, and that while the election or appointment of an officer is a sufficient proof of the public belief in his in- tegrity, nevertheless the fact still remains that there has been corruption in the past ; and with human nature as we know it, we see no reason to believe that man is less subject to temptation now than formerly. In an ideal State, the controller would be an unnecessary functionary, but with society as it now exists, he is the ounce of prevention which has doubtless saved many a pound of cure. P. F. FuunER. VI.— DEPARTMENT OF LAW. 7|vO trace the history of the Department [of I^aw in Phila- ^f delphia it is necessary to begin at a time, when it is difficult to recognize any of the functions of the office of to- day. The frame of government for Pennsylvania was proposed by William Penn in 1682. By this early instrument the Governor and provincial council exercised all the judicial and legal functions of the embryo municipality and State. They proposed all bills to the General Assembly and were em- powered to see that the laws were properly executed. In the charter granted by William Penn in 1701, mention is made of an officer known as recorder, who was " to do and ex- ecute all things which belong to the office." The office of recorder, while widely different from the Department of I^aw of the present day, is nevertheless its parent. The most striking feature is the similarity of the powers and duties of the recorder to those of the mayor, as is shown by the frequent recurrence of the phrase, ' ' the mayor or rec- order." He exercised judicial functions and in general those duties which before the city charter was granted had devolved on the Governor and council. He was empowered to draw ordinances and was required to account to the treasurer for all money he received. On one occasion he was ordered by councils to draw up a new city charter, and an act for the confirmation of it. When the city bought a piece of property the recorder was directed ' ' to examine into the lease;" while in a similar case — an officer was ordered "to get a lease and bond drawn accordingly and leave the same with the recorder for his approbation ; " in Department op I,aw 8i another instance in a suit-at-law brought by the city ' ' against the trespassers in carrying away the materials provided for erecting the addition to the market in High street," at the suggestion of the recorder, counsel was retained to assist in prosecuting the offenders. In each of these instances there is a precedent for pqwers exercised in later years by the city solicitor. In 1801 was established the office from which the Depart- ment of L,aw of to-day was to grow directly. By an ordi- nance of Councils of that year the mayor was directed to appoint "a member of the bar, a citizen and resident of Philadelphia, admitted to practice in the Supreme Court of the Commonwealth, to be the attorney and solicitor for the mayor, aldermen and citizens of Philadelphia." The duties of the solicitor were to draft all bonds, obligations, contracts, leases, conveyances and assurances which might be required of him by ordinance of Councils. He was to commence and prosecute all actions brought by the ' ' mayor, aldermen or citizens" on behalf of the corporation, and to defend all suits brought against the city. He was to furnish opinions on all subjects submitted to him by the mayor or Councils, and "to do every other professional act incident to the office" when required by the mayor or by ordinance. For his services he received a salary of $500 per annum, payable quarterly, and he was removable at the pleasure of the mayor. The office of solicitor thus created, continued without material change for almost fifteen years, when an ordinance repealing that of 1801 and abolishing the law office, was passed by Councils. No reason is apparent for this action, but it would seem that Councils soon regretted it, for two years later an ordinance, framed in almost the same language as that of 1801 and recreating the office, was passed. A fixed salary, however, was denied the solicitor, and he was required to render quarterly to the city commissioners his account for professional services. In 183 1 the solicitor was granted a fixed salary of $1000 per annum, payable quarterly. 6 82 Government of Philadelphia He was required to furnish to Councils, instead of the city- commissioners as previously, a quarterly account of his services so that they might be charged by the city treasurer to the different trust accounts. The next year he was required to render his account directly to the city treasurer, specifying his services on account of the several trusts vested in the corporation and the amount that should be charged against each of them. In 1842 the solicitor with other officers became an appointee of Councils. The Act of Consolidation in 1854 directed Councils to establish a law office in which should be deposited and pre- served all "patents, deeds, wills, leases, mortgages and other assurances of title ' ' together with all ' ' contracts, bonds, notes, official bonds, books and other evidences of debt belonging to the city," besides any other papers which Councils might order. The head of the department was to be known as the city solicitor, to be elected by the qualified voters on the first Tuesday in June, 1854, and on the first Tuesday in May every two years thereafter. He was to be "a person learned in the law," and was to have as many assistants as Councils thought necessary. The "law office of the city of Philadelphia" was accord- ingly established by Councils under the supervision of a city solicitor. He was required to give bonds in $10,000 with two or more sureties. He received no salary, his remuneration consisting of fees for professional services rendered. His duties were much the same as formerly, with the addition that he was to keep a lien docket and in it enter all claims for curbing, paving, piping and such matters as might be the subject of claim on the part of the city. The docket was kept by an assistant receiving $1000 per annum and giving bonds in $5000. The duties and powers of the city solicitor were increased from time to time. In 1855 it was provided by ordinance that no contract should be made by the head of any depart- ment unless the contract and sureties were first approved by the city solicitor. The next year it was further enacted Department op I,aw 83 that notice of all meetings of viewers of streets to lay out, open, or vacate any street must be served at the office of the city solicitor. He was to protect the interest of the city in all road matters and to countersign all orders granted by the court for the payment of road damages, but not before an appropriation for the purpose had been made by Councils. The city treasurer, commissioners and controller were to report to him on the first five days of each month all persons delinquent in money, fines, et cetera, when he would proceed to enforce the law. He was to enter satisfaction on bonds and mortgages when accounts had been properly audited by the several departments. He was also required to furnish annually to Councils a copy of all the laws relative to Phila- delphia. In 1864 the department consisted of the city solicitor, three assistant solicitors and one clerk. Their salaries were $3600, $2000, $1400, $1400 and $1000 per annum respec- tively. In 1868 the city solicitor was required to furnish the Councils Committee on Iyaw a list of all suits pending against the city with the nature and amount of each claim, and a list of all judgments obtained but remaining unsat- isfied. In future such return of new suits and judgments was to be made within thirty days after their institution and rendition. The solicitor was to compromise no claim unless it was first reported to the committee on law and an ordi- nance passed by Councils for the compromise. In 1873 the term of office of the city solicitor was length- ened to three years and in 1881 his salary was increased to $15,000 per annum, but he was required to pay into the city treasury all fees and commissions received as city solicitor. He was to draw all contracts in which the city was inter- ested, the contractors paying a fee ranging from three to twenty dollars, according to the amount involved. He was to draw up all bonds required by ordinance, receiving a fee of two dollars for a proposal bond, and five dollars for every other sort of bond. On the first Monday in April he was 84 Government of Philadelphia required to give to the clerks of Councils a copy of all the opinions rendered by him during the year. The Act of June i, 1885, under which the office is now administered, provides that the Department of Law shall consist of the city solicitor and as many assistants and clerks as Councils may authorize, The solicitor is elected by the people in February and holds office for three years. Both he and his assistants must be attorneys-at-law, admitted to practice in the courts of the commonwealth. As previous laws had provided, he is the legal adviser for the city and all its departments and officers, and no other counsel is to be employed by any of the departments, except that in special cases assistant counsel, selected by the solicitor and approved by Councils, may be employed by the mayor. He prepares and keeps a registry of all bonds, contracts and other in- struments of writing in which the city may be interested, and approves all security given to the city. He is required to make a daily return to the city controller of all money received in fees by his department. He reports to Councils all judgments rendered against the city, and if there is no money in the treasury to satisfy these, the amount is raised at the next levy of taxes. The Department of I,aw as at present constituted includes the city solicitor as chief, seventeen assistant solicitors, ten clerks, two stenographers, a messenger, and a conveyancer. The office is divided into the following sub-departments : building inspectors, tax lien, municipal claims, road, charities and correction, bond and contract, magistrate's court, and the Courts of Common Pleas. The city solicitor appoints an assistant in charge of each of these departments and it is the duty of each appointee to attend to the interests of the city as its representative in his department, and to conduct all litigation that may arise therein. The assistant in charge of the building inspectors' department files all petitions for the removal of wooden buildings and unlawful structures. In the tax lien de- partment it is the duty of the assistant to see that all liens Department of I are appointed under the civil ser- vice rules and regulations by the director of the Depart- ment of Public Works, subject to confirmation by Select Council. The principal officers are a chief of bureau, an assistant chief, superintendent of distribution, paymaster, controller (and book-keeper), chief clerk, chief meter inspector, three office superintendents, superintendent of shops, architect and draughtsman, and one superintendent at each of the four generating works. Including stokers and helpers, mechanics, laborers and other employees, the average force employed by the bureau is 1300 men. The power of removal is also placed with the director of public works, but when a salaried officer is removed the director must notify Select Council, giving the reason or cause of removal. The receiver of taxes is empowered to receive and collect all moneys that were previously received and collected by io6 Government of Philadelphia the trustees, and he is required to deposit the same with the city treasurer according to law. Annual contracts for the purchase of coal and the sale of coke are awarded by the director to the lowest responsible bidder, security being given for the faithful performance of the conditions of the contracts. The present powers and limitations of the gas bureau are obtained from acts of assembly and ordinances of Councils, extending from 1836 to date. Warrants for the payment of employees are approved by the director of public works, and countersigned by the city controller. Councils alone, by ordinance, can give permission to lay gas mains, thus practically determining where and to whom gas shall be distributed. Before connection may be made with gas mains, permission must be obtained from an authorized agent of the department. The owner of a property is required to make a written application before gas can be introduced into a property. The authorized agent has right of access into premises lighted by gas for the purpose of examining the apparatus, or for the removal of the meter and service pipe. Written notice must be given by the tenant of his intention to remove, or he will be liable for the gas subsequently consumed on the premises. The depart- ment reserves the right to refuse to introduce gas into any premises until all arrears due shall have been paid. If any person or corporation applying for the use of gas shall be indebted for arrearages due on premises formerly occupied by them, the gas shall be denied until all arrearages are paid. The location of public lamps is determined by ordi- nance of Councils. The power to fix and regulate the price of gas is placed in Councils. The rate now charged for the gas consumed is $1.50 per thousand cubic feet, but it might now be reduced to $1.00 and still afford a profit to the city. The following table shows the price of gas in former years, while Philadelphia's gas works were under the worst form of public ownership, and also affords a comparison with Department op Public Works 107 New York City, which was under a system of private owner- ship and had the advantages of larger population and far less extended area. TIME. Price in New York. Price in Philadelphia. TIME. Price in New York. Price in Philadelphia. 1845 $7.00 fo-oo 1870 $2-75 fa-55 1850 3-50 2.25 1876 2.50 2.30 1855 3°0 2.25 1880 2.25 2.00 i860 2.50 2.25 1885 i-75 1.70 1865 2-75 3.00 1890 1. 25* 1.50 *Notk.— The price was reduced to $1.25 by State law in May, 1886, for cities ot orer one million inhabitants. CONTRACT WITH PRIVATE COMPANY. The inability of the city from lack of funds to meet the demand for an increased supply of gas led to the passage of an ordinance by Councils, in April, 1888, which authorized the mayor to enter into a contract with a private corporation for an increased supply of gas. Under this ordinance a contract was made in August, 1888, with the "Philadel- phia Gas Improvement Company" for one year, with the privilege of renewal from year to year. By the terms of this contract the company supplies ' ' water-gas ' ' of not less than 22 candle-power for thirty-seven cents per thousand cubic feet delivered into the holders. The works, machinery, etc., are owned by the company, but under the terms of the con- tract the city can take these works at a valuation fixed by arbitration, the price not to exceed that named in the con- tract. Of the total quantity of gas consumed during 1891 (3,391,887,000 cubic feet) about one-third, or 1,299,572,000 cubic feet, was hydro-carbon or water-gas purchased from the Philadelphia Gas Improvement Company. 108 Government of Philadelphia The mayor of the city (Edwin S. Stuart), has recom- mended the purchase of the plant of this company. "The control," he says, "of our supply of gas should forever remain with the city of Philadelphia herself, and should never be surrendered by either sale or lease." The director of public works (James H. Windrim), advo- cates the same policy of control by the city of its entire gas supply. In his report for 1891, he says "it is imperative for the city to extend its plant for the manufacture of the entire quantity of gas required by the consumers." By doing this and adopting improved methods, gas can be sup- plied to consumers at the lowest possible prices. An outlay of about $800,000 would put the city in possession of an improved plant capable of supplying the entire demand. By ordinance of Councils in 1858, the trustees were author- ized to purchase the property of the gas companies of the several districts on the outskirts of the city, at an assessed valuation. This ordinance led to the purchase, during 1858- 59, of the Germantown, Richmond, Kensington, Northern liberties, Southwark, Moyamensing and Manayunk gas- works. The total amount paid by the city for these works was $725,500. CONSUMPTION AND PROFITS. The city in 1891 owned a total of 1036 miles of gas mains, about forty-five miles having been added during that year. The total quantity of gas manufactured and purchased was 3,391,887,000 cubic feet. The largest production of gas in any twenty-four hours was 14,253,000 cubic feet. The total number of consumers was 140,052, and the total number of lights 2,449,270, besides 19,947 public lamps. During the year 220,991 tons of coal were bought (at an average of $4 per ton), and 3,005,163 bushels of coke were sold. In order to insure economy in the use of gas in public offices it has been urged by the director of public works, that gas used by any of the city departments should be paid for from the appropriation made to the department. This is Department of Public Works 109 urged to be necessary to dispel the popular fallacy among public officials that " gas costs nothing." With the growth of the city and increased experience, extensions and improvements are made, although the de- partment is considerably handicapped by lack of funds. The average candle-power in 1891 was 20.02 against 19.73 * n 1890, and the increase of gross profit in 1891 over 1890 was $110,289.20. The present rate of $1.50 per thousand cubic feet affords more than the ordinary profits of business. The profits for the year 1891 were $1,441,308.61. To this should be added the value of 587,398,328 cubic feet of free gas furnished to the city for public offices, street lamps, etc. If sold to the public at the present rate this amount would have placed an additional $881,097.49 in the city treasury. The total gain to the city in 1891, therefore, from the manufacture of gas and its sale at the rate of $1.50 was $2,322,406.10. Five general conclusions may be drawn from a study of this bureau : (1) The corruption which existed in the gas-works under the management of the trustees is not chargeable to public ownership. It was inherent in the system adopted. It did not have its origin in the character of any particular set of men, but in the very methods of organization and the powers granted. (2) The city should obtain and then retain possession of a gas-plant sufficient to supply the entire demand of the peo- ple, for purposes not only of illumination, but also of heat and power. (3) As rapidly as possible improved methods of manufac- turing gas should be introduced, for such improvements would result in lowering the cost of production and the price to the consumer. (4) The cost of gas consumed in the several city depart- ments should be deducted from the appropriations made to those departments. Thus the waste of gas by city officials might be prevented. 1 10 Government of Philadelphia (5) The price of gas should be reduced to a point suffi- cient to pay the expenses of manufacture (including wear and tear on works), with allowance only for a fair profit. Otherwise a portion of the gas rate becomes a tax upon the consumers of gas, and as the wealthy classes, on the whole, use less gas in proportion to their income than the poorer classes, this tax is an unfair burden upon the latter. John Nolen. 2.— Bureau of Lighting. The Bureau of Lighting was formerly under the direction of the trustees of the gas works, but under the Bullitt Bill it became one of the bureaus of the Department of Public Works. The bureau is under the direction of a chief, who is assisted by a clerk and six superintendents, one for each of the six districts into which the city is divided. There are also 276 lighters, thirty substitute lighters and two repair gangs, all of whom, except the day laborers, are required to pass civil service examinations before appointment by the director of public works. The bureau is charged with the public lighting, which is done by means of electricity, gas and gasoline. Contracts for lighting by gasoline and electricity are annually awarded under the direction of Councils, but most of the gas con- sumed is furnished by the city. Contracts are made by the director for lamps, materials, etc. , except in the Northern Liberties district, for the lighting of which a contract is annually made under the direction of Councils with a private company. Fifty electric lights are maintained by the Board of City Trusts, and about 200 gas lamps are maintained by the Bureau of Charities and Correction at Holmesburg and Tacony. During the last few years electric-lighting has enormously increased and it has been repeatedly recommended by the mayor and director of the Department of Public Works, that the city should establish its own electric plant. Few com- plaints as to public lighting are received, and it is believed Department of Public Works hi that, except in the matter of an electric plant, the bureau is abreast with the times. James T. Young. 3. — Bureau of Water. For over one hundred years after the settlement of Phila- delphia in 1682, the citizens depended upon wells for their water supply. The wells were at first owned by private per- sons and were not subject to public control, but at an early date the importance of the water supply in its influence upon the public health was recognized, and in 1713 it was ordered by Councils that the place where a well was to be sunk and a pump erected should first be viewed by the mayor, recorder and at least three aldermen. The owner of a pump was author- ized to charge a rent from the neighbors who made use of it. Two years later another step toward the control of the water supply by the city was taken. An ordinance was passed providing that the owners of pumps should hold the same of the corporation for the term of twenty-one years at an annual rental of one shilling. The same ordinance provided that the authorities might order the removal of a pump, or the filling up of a well that became a public nuisance. In 1756, the general control of the pumps was placed in the hands of the wardens. They were given authority to sink new wells and to buy private pumps. In the following year they were empowered to assess householders that used the public pumps. The year 1789 marks the change in the city government from the close corporation of the middle ages to a modern municipality. The change was soon followed by the intro- duction of a better water supply. The ground on which the city stands was originally well watered and pumps furnished at first an abundant supply of pure and wholesome water. But with the growth of the city the ground was gradually covered with buildings and pavements, which caused the rain to drain into the rivers instead of soaking into the earth ii2 Government of Philadelphia and replenishing the brooks and springs from which the well water was drawn. At the same time, faulty sanitary arrange- ments allowed the sewage to contaminate the subterranean water-courses, and diffuse germs of disease. The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 led to an earnest discussion of the subject. A petition signed by several hundred citizens was presented to Councils, advocating the adoption of some plan for securing an adequate supply of wholesome water. They argued that such a supply would moderate or prevent the ravages of yellow fever and at the same time greatly reduce the loss occasioned by fire.* The Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company, by its char- ter of April 10, 1792, was given power to take water from the Schuylkill anywhere between the mouth of Stony Creek, at Norristown, and the northern bounds of the city, and con- duct the water by a canal along the east bank of the river. The company also, for the purpose of supplying the city with water, was granted the right to conduct the water by means of pipes through the town and dispose of it to the citizens at fixed rates. In 1798 Councils offered the company $250,000 for the water which would pass through a waterway twelve and a half feet high and three and a half feet wide. This water was to be carried in an open canal, bridged at the street crossings, to a reservoir in the vicinity of Broad and Callowhill streets, whence it was to be con- ducted by pipes into private cisterns in cellars. The plan was finally rejected as inexpedient. After investigating several proposed plans, Councils referred the matter to Benjamin H. L,atrobe for considera- tion and report. In his report to Councils, December 29, 1798, he recommended a reservoir in Centre Square (Broad and Market streets), with an elevation of forty feet, the water of the Schuylkill to be lifted into this reservoir by steam. He also recommended the construction of an * Benjamin Franklin was a leader in the movement for a better water supply until his death in 1790. In his will he recommended a gravity supply from Wissa- hickon Creek. Department op Pubuc Works 113 aqueduct from Spring Mill Creek, Montgomery County, a dis- tance of twelve miles. Only the first of the recommenda- tions was adopted by Councils. The plan met with con- siderable opposition from the adherents of other schemes. The proposed employment of steam-power was especially criticised. The Philadelphia Gazette spoke of the plan as a ridiculous project, and hoped the good people of the city would not allow themselves to be duped by such a chimera as a reliance upon steam-engines for a proper supply of water would prove to be. Councils, however, proceeded promptly to carry out the plan adopted. A loan of $150,000, to be taken by subscrip- tion, was authorized. The entire revenue of the city, except the tolls of the Market Street Bridge, was pledged for the payment of interest and the redemption of the loan. Sub- scribers to the loan were to be exempt from the payment of water rents for three years. Further loans were authorized in 1799 and 1805. The works were completed January 27, 1801. Philadelphia was the first city in the country to secure a public water supply. The engines were the first pumping- engines used and the largest of any form in the United States. A basin was formed on the Schuylkill, on the north side of Chestnut street. From this basin the water was carried by a canal and subterranean tunnel to the lower engine house, at the northwest corner of Chestnut and Schuylkill Front (Twenty-second) streets. It was then pumped into a brick tunnel six feet in diameter, leading down Chestnut street to Broad, and then to Centre Square, where the second engine house was situated. Here the water was again pumped into a reservoir containing about 20,000 gallons, and then distributed by wooden mains down Market, Chestnut and Arch streets. The engines were very defective, being made almost entirely of wood. The first cost of the works was $220,360. Councils prescribed penalties for injury done to the pipes or for waste of water. The introduction of water into private houses did not increase very rapidly, and the city 8 ii4 Government of Philadelphia did not, up to 1815, realize enough from water rents in any year to pay the expenses of maintenance. The cost of the works, including maintenance, from March, 1799, to Sep- tember 1, 1815, was $657,000, while the gross receipts were but $105,000. The Chestnut Street Works, with their distributing point in Centre Square, had not been in operation ten years before it became obvious that they could not be depended on as a permanent source of supply. The difficulty experienced in keeping the engines and boilers in repair, and the small storage capacity made the supply irregular and uncertain. The newspapers of the day agitated the question of securing a better location, where water of better quality would be obtained at less expense. The water committee examined several plans, and finally decided on Morris Hill, now known as Fairmount. Work was begun in 18 12, and finished in September, 1815. These first works at Fairmount were operated by steam. Water was pumped directly from the river through a sixteen-inch iron main into a reservoir on the hill, having a capacity of about 3,250,000 gallons. From this reservoir the water was conducted in wooden mains to the distributing reservoir in Centre Square. As it was necessary to lay pipes through Penn Township, an act of legislature in 1813 gave the city the right to use for this purpose the streets of Penn Town- ship and the District of Spring Garden. The supply thus furnished was for a few years very satis- factory, but with the increase of population, the cost of pump- ing was found to be excessive, reaching $36.60 per million gallons. Councils were led, therefore, to seek a cheaper supply. It was finally decided to substitute water power for steam at Fairmount. Work on the dam began April 19, 1819, and the first wheel was put in operation in July, 1822. Others were added from time to time, the ninth and last having been put in place in 1852. The cost of pumping was at once greatly reduced. In 1852, it was $1.33 per million gallons, and in some years it has been less than $1.00. Department of Public Works 115 In 1826, the city contracted to supply water to the districts of Spring Garden, Northern Liberties and Southwark, at an advance of fifty per cent on the regular rates. The districts were allowed six per cent for collecting the rents. This arrangement did not suit the people of those districts. They objected to the city's enjoyment of a monopoly and held that the rents they paid were almost all clear profit to the city. Every attempt, however, to have the rates reduced was defeated in Councils. Finally, the Commissioners for Spring Garden and Northern Liberties applied to the Legislature, and in 1843 obtained permission to erect independent works if the city should not, within three months, equalize the rates. Councils refused to do so, and the Spring Garden Works were erected on the Schuylkill between Girard avenue and Thompson street, and put into operation Decem- ber 31, 1844. They came into the possession of the city by the act of consolidation in 1854, and are at present the main pumping station. The reservoir is located at Twenty- seventh and Master streets. The people of Kensington were at first supplied from Spring Garden, but in 1848 they took steps to erect an inde- pendent plant. The foot of Otis street was selected as a site for the pumping station, and distribution of water began in 1 85 1. The reservoir was built at Sixth street and Lehigh avenue. This plant was used by the city until about six years ago, when the pollution of the Delaware at that point caused its disuse. The authorities of West Philadelphia erected works on the present site of the Zoological Garden, which went into opera- tion in 1853. These works were not provided with reser- voirs, and were abandoned in 1870, when the Belmont Works were completed. Before the consolidation of the city in 1854, the control of the water works was in the hands of the water committee, one of the first of the regular committees of Councils. This committee appointed the superintendent, registrar, and all necessary laborers and workmen. The duty of collecting 1 16 Government of Philadelphia water rents was at first imposed on the city commissioners and the water committee, but after 1801 they were collected by the tax collectors upon lists furnished by the water committee.* The rate for private houses was at first fixed at $5 a year. For use in manufacturing, the rate was to be a matter of special agreement. In 1806, however, the water committee was given power to fix all rates. After the consolidation of the city in 1854, the Water Department was reorganized. Besides the Fairmount Works, the city then possessed those at Spring Garden, Kensington and West Philadelphia. The department was placed under the control of a chief engineer elected by Councils, by whom the subordinate officers were to be appointed, subject to the approval of Select Council. The joint standing committee of Councils had supervision of the acts of the chief and of all other officers. All accounts and bills had to be submitted to them for approval. The administration of the department has changed very little since that time, but the works under its control have been greatly extended. In 1866, the private Germantown Works were purchased by the city, and in 1873, the plant at Chestnut Hill was acquired in the satme way. New pumping plants went into operation at Belmont in 1870, at Roxborough in 1872, and at Gardner's Point, on the Delaware, in 1876. During the same period, by the addition of the Roxborough, Belmont, Frankford and East Park reservoirs, the storage capacity has been increased over 800 per cent. At the close of 1891, the Bureau of Water included six pumping stations and three auxiliary high service pumping plants with a total capacity of more than 180,000,000 gallons a day. Additional engines were erected in 1892, but the figures are not yet available. The storage system includes nine reservoirs, some of which consist of from three to six sections, and three high service tanks. The location and capacity of these reservoirs are as follows : * In 1S22, the mayor was authorized to appoint the collectors, but in 1839 their appointment was vested in the water committee. Department of Pub wc Works 117 LOCATION. CAPACITY IN GALLONS. Fairmount East Fainnount Park, Green St. entrance, 26,350,800 Lehigh Sixth and Lehigh Ave 26,394,000 Spring Garden, Twenty-sixth and Master 12,000,000 Corinthian Corinthian Ave. and Poplar St 37.34 i j4° East Park... East Fairmount Park, Columbia Ave. to Diamond St 673,874,614 Frankford Oxford Turnpike and Comly St 36,046,000 Belmont. George's Hill, West Fairmount 39.758,000 Mount Airy, Allen's Lane and Mower St., Germantown, 4,546,000 Roxborough Ridge and Shawmont Ave's 12,838,000 Manatawna Tanks, Manatawna and Ridge Ave's 100,000 Chestnut Hill Tank, Hartwell Ave. and Chestnut Hill R. R., Chestnut Hill 40,000 The total capacity of the reservoirs is 870,000,000 gallons. The new Roxborough Reservoir and the Schuetzen Park Reservoir, Queen Lane, Germantown, now in course of con- struction, will increase the storage capacity to about 1,250,- 000,000 gallons. The average daily consumption is now about 160,000,000 gallons. During 1892, the daily per capita consumption was 143 gallons, an increase of three gallons over 1891, and of thirty-three over 1889. The cost of pumping in 1891 was $2.99 for each million gallons pumped one hundred feet high, as compared with $3.05 in 1890, and $5.51 in 1880. During the year 1892 the total expenses of the bureau for mainte- nance and extensions were $1,372,457.31, while the receipts amounted to $2,575,687.77. The distributing system in- cludes 1050 miles of mains. One-fifth of the total quantity consumed is pumped by water-power at the Fairmount sta- tion, the cost being about one-third that of steam-power. All the available water-power at the Fairmount station is now utilized. From the consolidation of the city in 1854, until the Bul- litt Bill went into effect in 1887, very few changes were made in the administration of the Water Department. Councils elected a chief engineer every three years. He had entire charge of the water-works, including engine houses and n8 Government of Philadelphia their machinery, reservoirs, pipes, mains and all property and fixtures connected therewith. He had control over all of the officers of the department, assigning and directing their duties. He was required to report annually to Coun- cils ; he prepared plans of construction and made all neces- sary estimates whether for construction or repairs. He was also charged with the supervision of all contracts for labor or material, and was required to notify Councils of any breach of such contracts. The chief engineer appointed three assistants and the necessary clerks, inspectors, purvey- ors and a registrar, who was the financial officer of the department. The latter made the assessments of water rent for water used in manufacturing, received all water rents, paying them to the city treasurer, and making a report of the same to the controller. The ordinance of December 30, 1886, carrying into effect the new city charter, did not provide for any radical reorganization of the Water Department. Several changes, however, were necessary in order to bring it into conformity with the new scheme of municipal administration. The old Water Department became the Bureau of Water, forming a part of the Department of Public Works under the control of the director of that department. An ordinance was passed April 4, 1887, providing for the transfer of a chief clerk, a cashier, seventeen clerks and a messenger from the Bureau of Water to the Department of the Receiver of Taxes, and abolishing the office of Registrar of the Water Bureau. The collection of water rents, formerly in charge of the registrar, was made a part of the duties of the receiver of taxes. A similar change was made in the Bureau of Gas in order to bring the collection of all money due the city under the control of one department. As at present organized, the Bureau of Water is under the control of a chief engineer, appointed by the director of public works, subject to the approval of Select Council. His salary is $6000 and he is required to give security to the amount of $10,000. He appoints his subordinates subj'ect Department op Pubwc Works 119 to the approval of Select Council. He exercises general control over the officers and employees connected with the bureau and sees to the direction of all repairs and new work. He makes an annual report to the director of public works in regard to the condition of the pumping stations, reservoirs, distribution system, and other public property placed in his charge, and recommends such improvements and extensions as he may deem necessary. Regarding contracts, payment of warrants, employment of day labor and other necessary duties of the office, he exercises the same powers as did the chief engineer before the adoption of the Bullitt Bill. His position is one of great importance, and the control of the water supply for a city with an area of 1 29 square miles and a population, at present, considerably over one million, and continually increasing, requires professional skill of the highest order. The chief engineer has two assistants, with salaries of $2000 and $1600 respectively. He also appoints a general superintendent at a salary of $3500, and a chief clerk at a salary of $2000. The other employees of the bureau are as follows : four draughtsmen, an assistant clerk, a correspond- ence clerk, two superintendents' clerks, two search clerks, pipe clerk, time clerk, permit clerk and assistant, general clerk and two assistants, pipe inspector, three telephone operators, a messenger, a chief inspector, nineteen inspec- tors, a superintendent and clerk of the city repair shop, six purveyors, six purveyors' clerks, seven general foremen, five foremen of repairs, an electrician, lineman, storekeeper, and the necessary engineers, firemen, coal-passers, oilers and other workmen at the various pumping stations. There are in all about 600 men employed. All the employees, except the day laborers, are subject to the civil service rules. They are appointed by the chief engineer after examination and certification by the appropri- ate examining board. Their salaries are fixed by Councils and they are removable only for cause. The removing officer is required to give his reasons in writing. Day tio Government of Philadelphia laborers are given employment at fixed wages, in the order of their application. The general superintendent has entire charge of the vari- ous buildings, grounds, reservoirs and pumping stations. He is expected to keep the works under his charge in a proper state of efficiency and he directs all repairs needed to this end. The pumping and storing of the water are under his control, as are also all extensions and additions to the pumping plant and storage capacity. The superintendent of the repair-shop has charge of the shop maintained by the bureau at Twelfth and Reed streets, for the construction and repair of tools and apparatus, such as fire-hydrants, stop-cocks, valves, stop-screws, iron bands, bolts, chisels, wrenches and keys. Articles valued at $67, 3,00 were manufactured during 1891, with a balance on the credit side of the books of more than $10,000. The pipe inspector is required to inspect and approve all pipes and pipe castings furnished to the city, before their acceptance. He is required to give bonds in the sum of $3000, and to be sworn to the faithful performance of his duties. The care of the distribution system is under the control of the purveyors under the general supervision of one of the assistant engineers. The city is divided into six districts, each purveyor having charge of one of these districts. The purveyors have the control of all the mains, pipes, stop- cocks, fire-hydrants and other fixtures appertaining to the distribution of the water throughout the city. They attend personally to the laying of new, and the repair of old pipe and other fixtures. They have power to shut off the water for repairs, and must keep an account of all new pipes laid or repairs made. They must keep constantly on hand a sufficient quantity of materials of all kinds to provide ade- quately for quick repairs in case of accident. This part of their work has been greatly systematized. The purveyor is notified of a break within the limits of his district, usually by the police. The materials and laborers being constantly Department of Public Works 121 in readiness, work is begun almost immediately. Only in very serious cases is the supply of water cut off more than a few hours. The inspectors are required to examine all premises to which water is supplied, and make a report of all water connections and their uses. They distribute water rent bills and notices. They are also expected to keep themselves informed in regard to their particular districts, and to report all cases of fraudulent use of water and the abuse of permits. They wear a suitable badge or uniform, and are required to take oath and give bonds for the faithful performance of their duties. The water rates and charges now in force were approved by the water committee of Councils, January 15, 1884. The rate for a dwelling having a hydrant in the yard, and a faucet in the kitchen, or having either alone, is five dollars per annum. Additional charges are made for other connec- tions in dwellings. The rates for other than dwelling-houses are scheduled sometimes with regard to the character of the business and the probable amount of water used, as in the case of bakeries, bars, breweries, druggists, hatters, etc. ; sometimes by the size of the ferrule employed, as for foun- tains ; or in the case of engines and boilers, at a fixed rate per horse-power. All water rents are payable February 1, in advance, and a penalty of five per cent is added to all bills remaining unpaid June 1, and of ten per cent to all bills unpaid after August 1. Persons wishing to discontinue the use of water, or of any appliance for the supply of water, must give notice to the bureau before December 1 ; other- wise they will be charged for the whole of the ensuing year.* Meter bills are paid quarterly, within ten days from the date of service ; a penalty of five per cent is added for non-pay- ment within that period. Water pipe can only be laid in streets which have been opened and dedicated. When a street has been so opened the pipe may be laid by the city on petition of the property * Ordinance June i, 1871. 122 Government of Philadelphia owners. The district surveyor is then notified ; he assesses the cost on the property owners in proportion to their front- age on the street in question, at the rate of one dollar per foot. For corner lots a rebate of one-third the length of one front is allowed. This allowance must not exceed fifty feet, and applies only to streets that run at right angles to streets on which pipe has already been laid and paid for. When water pipe is laid to the rear of a lot which has already been assessed for pipe along its front, a charge of fifty cents per foot is levied ; but if connection is made with this pipe the charge is increased to one dollar per foot.* Bills for water pipe are made out in duplicate. One is sent to the property owner, and the other retained by the bureau. All bills which remain unpaid at the end of four months are sent to the city solicitor for collection. Property owners may lay the pipe for themselves, but in such cases they must agree to use pipe of standard quality. After the main has been laid and payment made, a permit must be secured before any attachment can be made with the main in order to supply a house with water. The per- mit must specify the size of the ferrule, the use to be made of the water, and the number and character of the fixtures. The ferrule varies in size according to the amount of rent to be charged, and is supplied by the bureau for $2. The pipe making the connection with the main must be laid at the same depth as the public main. If the provisions of the permit be violated, the water may be cut off. Various fines are imposed for violations of these regulations and for refusal to allow an inspection of the premises, if such a violation be suspected, f For manufacturing establishments meters may be used to determine the water rent to be paid, the charge being at the rate of thirty cents per thousand cubic feet. The Zoological Garden, Academy of Natural Sciences and charitable insti- tutions receive water at fifteen per cent less than the regular * Ordinances— February 15, 1862 ; June 2, 1866, and October 27, 1884. t Ordinances, Dec. 9, 1847 ; June 1, 1871. Department of Public Works 123 rates. All unnecessary waste of water is prohibited under penalty of a fine and the shutting off of the supply. Fines are also imposed for injury to the pipes, the sale of water, the illegal use of fire-hydrants and the use of wash paves between October 1 and May 1. Considered merely as a business department of the city government for pumping and distributing water, the Water Bureau may be claimed to be a model of economical man- agement and good administration. The excellent character of its service may be ascribed largely to the introduction of civil service rules. The Water Department was formerly a part of the political machine of the city. The number and grade of employees was subject to arbitrary change, and appointments and removals were made at the caprice of the appointing officials, from the committee of Councils down to the foreman of day laborers. Colonel I^udlow introduced many reforms during his administration as chief engineer (1886-1889), andlaidthe foundation for further improvements. The working force, it is claimed, has been reduced to the minimum necessary for efficiency, various economies have been introduced, and contracts appear to be carefully awarded and carried out. In fact, it seems fair to say that the man- agement of the bureau, in point of economy and efficiency, approaches as nearly as possible that of a well managed private corporation. The water rents have not been in- creased, and they have never in recent years been so high as to be burdensome. The effects of efficient administration are seen in the financial results. Notwithstanding the cost of maintenance and the large annual outlay to keep the supply equal to the needs of an ever increasing population, a handsome surplus, averaging since 1887 about $1,000,000, is annually paid into the city treasury. The cost of pumping has been reduced — principally because of changes in the kind of coal consumed — from $5.51 per million gallons raised one hundred feet high in 1880 to $3.05 in 1890 and $2.99 in 189 1.* 'Although we have not access to the detailed figures for 1892, the mayor's mes- sage to Councils indicates a cost for that year of $2.68 Compare these, figures with those for Boston and Chicago, $5.30 and $5.17, respectively. 124 Government op Philadelphia While these financial results are very satisfactory, still better results might be reached by the enforcement pf proper regulations concerning the waste of water. Councils have, indeed, provided penalties, but they are practically of no avail. An offender is sometimes reported, but the officials can, as a rule, only warn him against a repetition of the offence. Sometimes the waste is stopped, but oftener it is continued. While it is true that Philadelphia's large in- dustrial interests require large amounts of water, yet their requirements hardly account for a daily per capita consump- tion of 143 gallons. Other cities complain of the wasteful use of water, although few consume as much per capita as Philadelphia. The per capita consumption of Chicago in 1891, was 135 gallons; of Brooklyn, about 65 gallons; of Boston, about 85 ; and of St. L,ouis, less than 70. With the view of determining the proportion of water wasted in Phila- delphia, several experiments were made by the bureau dur- ing 1 89 1. It was found in a resident section of the city that the per capita consumption was 113 gallons, and nearly forty per cent of this amount was traced to urinals in which the water was running continuously. This, however, was a legal- ized waste, and could only be checked by the employment of a meter. Two other experiments were made in manufac- turing districts. One establishment that was paying a water rent of $1792 was found to be using an amount for which the charge at meter rates would have been $17,520. In another manufacturing district, the per capita consumption was found to be over 1500 gallons a day. In order to prevent misuse of water Director Windrim and Chief Engineer Ogden have recommended the use of meters for factories, hotels, saloons, public buildings, theatres, libra- ries, business and apartment houses, and for fountains, horse troughs, and other appliances in which water is running continuously. The rate has been fixed at thirty cents per thousand cubic feet, which approximates very closely the cost of pumping. It is not desired to limit the use of water, but merely to prevent waste, and to make manufacturers and other large consumers pay in proportion to the amount Department of Public Works 125 consumed. The manufacturers protest against the proposed legislation as a discrimination against them ; they claim that meters are not accurate ; and that there should be no change in rates as long as the bureau yields a profit to the city. In his report for 1892 the director for the second time recom- mended the subject to the consideration of Councils. Some such plan must certainly be adopted if the present enormous waste of water is to be checked. As the rate charged barely covers the cost of pumping, it would seem to be entirely fair to the manufacturers. At the same time, also, more strin- gent regulations concerning the wasteful use of water by private families should be adopted and enforced. Care must be taken, of course, not to limit by such regulations the proper use of water for purposes of health and cleanliness. The creation and maintenance of a system of water sup- ply for a great city is practically a never-ending problem. The needs of each generation so largely transcend those of the preceding that existing systems, despite additions and extensions, are constantly proving inadequate. Such has been the history of the systems of water supply in nearly all American cities. It is largely a consequence of the common custom of providing for immediate necessities without much thought of the future. On account of the rapid develop- ment of industries, and of the freer use of water for domestic purposes, to say nothing of the rising standards of comfort and luxury among the people, the consumption of water increases at a faster rate than does the population. The following figures illustrate the rapidity of the increase of the consumption of water in Philadelphia : * GALLONS DAILY CONSUMPTION. PBR CAPITA. 1810 669,000 gallons 7 1820 1,800,000 " 16 1830 2,675,000 " 17 1840 5,000,000 " 20 1850 8,700,000 " 21 i860 20,400,000 " 36 1870 36,700,000 " 55 1880 57,700,000 " 68 1890 137,000,000 " 131 'These figures show, ot coarse, simply the use of hydrant water, Increasing not merely as population increased but as the use of well water decreased. 126 GOVERNMENT OF PHILADELPHIA For 1892 the per capita consumption was 143 gallons. The particularly rapid increase during the last few years has not been met by correspondingly increased appropriations. While a large annual surplus has been turned into the city treasury the pumping and storage facilities have been allowed to remain inadequate. During the severe drought of last summer (1892) the pumps, although working to their utmost capacity, could not keep the water in the reservoirs at the proper level. No provision has been made for a relay service to be used in case of accident, as has been done by most other cities. If an accident had happened during the period referred to there would have been most imminent danger of a water famine. Even without accident such a calamity was only averted by the most strenuous efforts to curtail all unnecessary use of water. During the present year (1893) the pumping plant will be increased by the addition of several engines, but they will yield only a temporary relief and in a few years, unless some other provision be made, the demand for water will be greater than the capacity of the works. The reservoir capacity should equal at least ten days' supply, both that they may be depended on in case of acci- dent, and that the water, whenever the river is muddy, may precipitate its sediment. The combined storage capacity at present equals less than six days' supply for the entire city. By the division of the city into districts dependent upon cer- tain reservoirs and pumping stations, the reservoir capacity varies for different sections. It is fairly sufficient for all the districts except West Philadelphia, where it equals less than three days' supply ; the district south of South street, with two days' supply ; and the Fifteenth, Twenty-eighth, Thirty-seventh, Twenty-ninth, Thirty-second and part of the Twentieth Wards, which are supplied by direct pump- age. The water supplied to these three districts is often very poor, and after a rain that supplied in the direct pump- age district is either yellow with mud, or black with sus- pended coal dust. To remedy this condition of affairs the Department of Public Works 127 director recommends the rapid completion of the Schuetzen Park Reservoir, with the addition of two for West Phila- delphia. Were these recommendations carried out, the supply of fairly wholesome water might be sufficient for several years. The Schuylkill River, on account of its decreasing flow and its increasing impurity, cannot much longer remain the source of water supply. The intimate relation existing between the water supply and the public health cannot be overlooked. To furnish a good water supply to citizens is one of the most important duties of the municipal authorities. The plea in defence of a poor or insufficient supply that it yields a revenue to the city, is entitled to no consideration whatever. In earlier days the Schuylkill furnished an abundant sup- ply of wholesome water, as well as the power to operate the pumps, but the increase of population and the growth of new industries along its banks have resulted in its pollution. At the same time, owing largely to the destruction of forests, its volume has decreased. In 1816 its minimum daily flow was estimated at 500,000,000 gallons and in 1874 at about 250,000,000 gallons. It is now estimated at 210,000,000 gallons. As the maximum daily pumpage last year was over 190,000,000 gallons, it is evident that the water of the Schuylkill, even without further diminution of flow, will soon become insufficient for the needs of the city. It has been proposed to increase the flow by impounding dams on the upper waters of the Schuylkill. As, however, its water is not free from pollution even above Norristown, such a system would have to be combined with a filtration plant such as has been proposed for the Belmont or Frankford stations. Filtration would remove the solid matter held in suspension, but it is doubtful if it would purify the water from deleterious substances held in solution. Dr. Charles M. Cresson has traced in the Schuylkill water, obtained from Fairmount and from Flat Rock Dam, the germs of typhoid fever and other diseases. Other scientists have agreed with 128 Government of Philadelphia him in the opinion that the Schuylkill is being polluted by the drainage from the towns and industrial establishments along its banks, and that it is rapidly nearing the limit of wholesomeness. The matter has been under discussion for many years and various plans have been investigated, approved and disapproved. The Reading Railroad has submitted to Councils a plan to bring the water of the Schuylkill from above Norristown Dam to the city by means of an aqueduct and distribute it to the present pumping stations and to an additional station at Flat Rock. The total cost is estimated at $6,500,000. Another plan proposes to collect the waters of Tohickon, Perkiomen, Rich Valley, East Swamp and other creeks in the Schuylkill Valley, by means of dams, and conduct them in an aqueduct thirty-one miles long to the new reservoir at Queen I,ane. This system would give a daily supply of 209,000,000 gallons, capable of being increased to 276,000,000. The cost is estimated at $20,000,000 to $23,000,000. A third plan, submitted by Joseph Wharton, possesses several unique features. Its gathering grounds are in the pine forests of South Jersey. The population of this region is sparse, and the soil furnishes a natural filter. Provision is made for several dams and reservoirs, furnishing a daily supply of 206,000,000 gallons, which could be increased, if needed, to 400,000,000 gallons. The water is to be con- ducted under the Delaware in steel pipes and pumped into the mains and reservoirs. A fourth plan proposes to obtain a supply by gravity from the Delaware above the Water Gap, where there is but little danger of future pollution. The aqueduct might first be built to the Delaware at Point Pleasant. It is proposed to establish a pumping station at that point to supply the city while the aqueduct is being finished. This system promises an almost unlimited supply of water by gravity. The cost would be from $25,000,000 to $30,000,000, according to the amount of water needed. Department of Public Works 129 Various commissions have examined these plans and elaborate surveys and records of rainfall have been made at a total expense to the city of more than $80,000. The mayor and director of public works recommend that immediate action be taken to select some system for a future supply so that work may be begun at once. The present source of supply is inadequate in amount, and the water furnished will soon become, if it is not already, a menace to the health of the people. As considerable time must elapse before any new system can be completed, steps should be immediately taken to provide Philadelphia with pure water from a source that will be sufficient for many years to come. The officers and employees of the water bureau, with their salaries, are : Chief engineer, $6000 ; two assistant engin- eers, $2000 and $1600 ; chief clerk, $2000 ; assistant clerk, $1200; correspondence clerk, $900; time clerk, $900; mes- senger, $720 ; draughtsman, $1800 ; two draughtsmen, each $1000 ; general superintendent, $3500 ; clerk to superintend- ent, $1100; assistant clerk, $900; pipe inspector, $1350; pipe clerk, $850 ; search clerk, $1200 ; four assistant search clerks, two at $1000, one at $900, one at $850 ; chief inspector, $1200 ; nineteen inspectors, each $1000 ; permit clerk, $1200; assistant permit clerk, $1100; seven purveyors, one at $1800, six at $1480 ; twelve purveyors' clerks, six at $800, six at $750 ; superintendent repair shop, $1500 ; clerk, $900 ; general storekeeper, $1000 ; yardkeeper, fourth district, $915 ; ten hydrant inspectors, each $705 ; general foreman, $1000 ; six foremen, each $939 ; five foremen of repairs, each $780; two storekeepers, each $700 ; electrician, $1200 ; line- man, $1000; fifteen engineers, two at $1200, two at $1100, six at $1000, four at #810, one at $750; helper at Chestnut Hill, $750 ; twenty-four oilers, each $800 ; nine oilers, eight months at rate of $800 ; fifty firemen, each $850 ; sixteen coal-passers, each $725 ; foreman of machinists, $1500 ; fore- man of bricklayers, $1100; foreman of carpenters, $1000; foreman of stonemasons, $900 ; foreman of painters, $900 ; foreman of riggers, $840; foreman of laborers, $840; 130 Government of Philadelphia twenty-seven watchmen, each $675 ; four policemen, $750 (extra for uniform, $40) ; janitor of main office, $720 ; six janitors, each $600 ; river watchman, $960 ; telephone operators, night $600, day $500, clerk $500. Wages paid day laborers are at the following rates per diem : Machinists, carpenters, painters and stonemasons, $3.00 ; bricklayers, $3.60 ; caulkers, $2.50 ; laborers of first- class, $1.75; laborers of second-class, $1.50; drivers and helpers, $2.00. J. Harry Graham. Folger Barker. 4. — Bureau of Highways. The streets of Philadelphia are parts of the "king's highway," and final control of them is vested in the State. This is true of the streets in all the cities of Pennsylvania. The city's power to open or close, or to change either the course or width of any public highway, is a direct grant from the State Legislature. As early as 1700, the Governor and four members of his Council, were authorized to nominate commissioners to regulate the streets and water-courses of all the towns of the province, and with the consent of two justices of the peace to levy and collect assessments on property owners. Another provincial act provided that the citizens of any town might be required to furnish the labor necessary for the paving of its streets. This latter act was practically a dead letter, however, until 17 11, when an act was passed providing for its enforcement and permitting the commutation of labor for money at the rate of is 6d for a day's service. The streets continued in wretched condition, however, receiving little attention from the corporation, and in 17 18 it is recorded that many citizens voluntarily paved from " ye kennel to the middle of the street before their respective tenements with pebble stones." Property owners were afterward compelled to pitch and pave in front of their lots under penalty of having it done at their expense by the corporation. Department of Public Works 131 All through the first half of the eighteenth century, the great defect in the street management was the absence of any definite superintending executive officer. This defect was recognized and in 1762, the mayor was authorized to appoint one or more supervisors of highways. But the act promised no good results, and it was repealed within a month, a board with more elaborate powers being created. Public scavengers were to collect ashes and refuse once a week ; owners were to pave footways ; and a lottery was legalized for the purpose of raising funds. A board of six commis- sioners was created, which co-operated with the mayor, recorder and aldermen in the management of the streets, and with the assessors in matters of taxation. The act of 1762 was to be in effect only seven years, but it was renewed in 1769, and the commission remained in power for twenty years longer. The condition of the streets, however, was but little improved. In 1789 began a new era in the management of the streets. The city charter granted in that year vested the powers and duties of the commission in the corporation itself, with the right to pass all necessary ordinances. Within a few years, Councils made use of this right to create a new highway commission, practically determining the future policy of the city. In 1835 the "Joint Committee of Councils on High- way Supervision," was made one of the standing commit- tees. It has ever since had the supervision of all contracts for street improvements, and the distribution of appropria- tions over the different sections of the city. The act of consolidation of 1854, created the "Depart- ment of Highways, Bridges, Sewers and Cleansing of the City," one of thirteen departments under the supervision of committees from Councils. At the head of the department was a chief commissioner at a salary of $4000 per annum, who was elected by Councils in joint session to serve three years. It was his duty to present to Councils an annual financial report of the department, and to assign his six assistants to their respective districts. 132 Government of Philadelphia In 1885, the Bullitt Bill changed the Department of High- ways into a Bureau of the Department of Public Works. The statement of the bill is : " The grading, paving, repay- ing, cleaning and lighting of streets, alleys and highways, shall be under the direction, control and administration of the Department of Public Works." There was no specific statement either in the bill or in the enabling ordinance, to establish the form of the new bureau, the same officials con- tinuing in power under the supervision of the director of public works. To complete the history of the bureau, mention must be made of street cleaning, which was one of the duties of the old department from 1855 to 1877. In the latter year, this duty was assigned to the Board of Health, but four years later it was returned to the Department of Highways. The cost of street cleaning in 1882 was $252,000, against an average of $2 1 2,000 under the Board of Health. The present Bureau of Street Cleaning was established January 1, 1888. Under the Department of Highways the contract system was exclusively used, and would have been satisfactory if the State law had not required it to assign all contracts to the lowest bidder. The limit of one year imposed on contracts was also a hindrance, as contractors could not afford to buy the best tools when their employment was assured for so short a time. PRESENT ORGANIZATION. At the head of the bureau is a chief commissioner appointed by the director of public works, at a salary of $4500 a year. He has six assistant commissioners, each assigned to a district as before, a number of clerks, a messen- ger and a street superintendent. It is the duty of the chief commissioner to make an annual report to Councils of the receipts and disbursements of his bureau. He must make semi-weekly returns to the controller of all money received by him for the corporation, and make payment to the treasurer daily. He must give $25,000 security for the faithful performance of his duty. There are six street Department of Public Works 133 superintendents who are assigned to the six highway dis- tricts of the city and hold their office during good behavior, being subject to removal by the chief commissioner for cause. The chief commissioner also appoints twelve inspectors, who examine contract work under his direction. The jurisdiction of the Bureau of Highways extends to (1) the building and repairing of all bridges and culverts; (2) the repairing of all sewers and inlets ; and (3) the opening, grading, curbing, paving, repaving and repairing of all streets, roads, lanes, alleys and other highways of the city of Philadelphia. The most important of the bureau's functions is in refer- ence to the opening, grading, etc., of the city's streets and alleys. As already stated, the ultimate control of all public highways rests in the State. The legislature has formally conferred the power to open any street in a city upon the Court of Quarter Sessions, a county tribunal, and the regular method of opening a street is by petition to this court. Councils, however, have been given the power to open a street under certain exigencies, provided three months' notice is given to property owners, and the courts have decided that Councils may themselves determine when such an exigency requiring their intervention exists, so that the power of the county court has been practically trans- ferred to Councils by a provision which was intended to apply to only a narrow range of cases. As soon as a street is on the city plans, Councils may order it to be opened, withholding their appropriation, however, until all benefited property owners have contributed toward the expense.* When Councils decide that a street needs paving, they make the appropriation, and the chief commissioner awards the contract, under security. As soon as the application is made for the paving, the chief commissioner must ascertain from the chief engineer and surveyor whether a sewer will be necessary, and if such be the case, the street cannot * There is a provision that no such contribution shall exceed the damages awarded for the ground taken. 134 Government of Philadelphia be paved until the sewer is constructed. When the paving is finished, the chief commissioner reports its cost to the surveyor of the district, and he assesses it on the property owners in proportion to the frontage of their lots. The city pays for the paving of streets at their intersections, and for paving in front of city property. The proportion of the expense of street paving borne by the city on these accounts is about twenty per cent. Until 1868, there was no ordinance to prevent paving any part of the city with cobblestones. In that year the laying of cobble and rubble pavements was prohibited between Tasker street and Girard avenue, and between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, on streets fifty feet wide or more. This prohibition was removed from certain districts by ordi- nances passed in 1869 and 1870, and the price which might be assessed for laying the different sorts of pavement was carefully limited. Cobble pavement, for instance, was not to cost more than $1 .00 per square yard. It was not till December, 1881, that cobble and rubble paving was finally abolished. If there had been such legislation earlier in the history of the city, Philadelphia would not now be so far behind other cities in the matter of improved pavements. One of the principal causes of the recent rapid improve- ment in the pavements of the city, is the requirement made in 1882, that every street railroad shall annually pave with Belgian blocks at least one mile of the streets over which its line runs, the work to be done wherever the chief commis- sioner may direct. For the repaving of streets on which there is no tramway, Councils provide by special ordinances and appropriations. In 1892, twenty-six miles of street were newly paved with granite blocks, asphalt, vitrified brick or macadam, and at the end of the year the city had 788 miles of paved streets, and 446 miles of unpaved. In addition to the twenty per cent paid by the city for new paving at street intersections and in front of city property, the corporation did enough repaving to make its share in the year's outlay for this purpose between Department of Public Works 135 forty and fifty per cent. The total cost of all work under the direction of the Bureau of Highways in 1892 was $2, 124,- 506, and the appropriations for bridges, sewers and streets amounted to nearly $1,462,000. Turnpike companies, at present, own within the city limits thirty-one miles of road, including the Lancaster, Iyimekiln, Academy and Bustleton pikes and the Old York Road. There are two ways by which the city may gain control of a toll road : (1) When the progress of building improvements makes the grading and paving of a road necessary, a jury of view is appointed to assess the damages to the company, after the payment of which the city has the right to pave the road at the expense of the property owners adjoining. (2) The company may voluntarily surrender its franchises, in which case it becomes the duty of Councils to take charge of the road and keep it in repair. This item has often been a considerable drain upon the city treasury, as some of the toll roads have been in such bad condition when surrendered that the city has been obliged practically to rebuild them. The third important duty of the Highway Bureau relates to the repair of streets. It is the duty of the chief commis- sioner to give contracts for the repairing of such streets as in his judgment require it. The cost of repairing a street must not exceed forty cents per square yard. He is also author- ized in repairing narrow streets and tramway streets, where more than half the stones in the old pavement are broken to repave with granite blocks, a yearly appropriation of $20,000 being made for this purpose. The bureau has, of late, been put to considerable trouble and expense by the frequent excavations for the laying of private conduits for electric wires, and it has been suggested that the city should con- struct large subways in the principal streets, and order that all private wires hereafter laid shall be placed in them. The bureau has jurisdiction over footways or sidewalks. As soon as a street is graded, the chief commissioner of highways must notify property owners on each side to grade their sidewalks. He may direct them to be paved, repaved, 136 Government of Philadelphia or repaired at the owner's expense whenever in his judgment they need it. The city has been subjected to much expense in the suburbs on account of the owners' neglect of sidewalks. A decision of the courts makes the city powerless to recoup itself by liens for the expense of sidewalk repairs in suburban districts, and an ordinance has recently been passed to com- pel repairs by means of fines. As a property owner, how- ever, can afford to pay the fine rather than pave his footway, the success of this remedial measure is very doubtful. Whatever may be the defects of the present paving of the city, it may be fairly claimed that they are due to past negli- gence rather than to inefficiency on the part of the bureau as at present organized. Philadelphia is, indeed, behind many other cities in the matter of improved pavements, but it is now on the right track, and the question of progress is mainly one of expenditure, for the system of street control is certainly calculated to insure economy and efficiency. BOARD OF HIGHWAY SUPERVISORS. Closely connected with the Bureau of Highways is the Board of Highway Supervisors. It was created in 1884, for the purpose of ' ' preventing frequent and unnecessary open- ings in street pavements, and to promote system and econ- omy in repaving over breaks made for underground work." The board is composed of the director of public works and the chiefs of the bureaus of highways, water, gas, electricity, city property and surveys. The director of public works is president of the board. It meets once every two weeks, and all applications for leave to make excavations in the streets must come before it. Emergency cases in the repairing of gas pipes are the only instances in which an opening can be made in the streets without a permit from this board. Its decision is final in regard to the time, manner and exact place of all openings in the streets. It is the board's duty also to prosecute offenders against the ordinance which requires a protective roof to be raised over the sidewalk wherever building operations are in progress. Its functions are, therefore, restrictive and of a very important character. Walter I. Cooper. Department of Public Works 137 5. — Bureau of Street Cleaning. Under the Bullitt Bill the Bureau of Street Cleaning was organized as part of the Department of Public Works. The chief of the bureau is assisted by a clerk, messenger and five inspectors, who supervise the work ; the police lieutenants in the various districts also make frequent reports to. the director of the department as to the condition of the streets. The bureau has charge of the cleaning of all streets, inlets, markets and public highways. Philadelphia, with its 1, 150,- 000 people, has 9500 inlets, 788 miles of paved streets and about 222,000 buildings. The work of the bureau is all done under contracts made annually by the director of public works. Certain streets in the business and more crowded portions of the city are cleaned more frequently than others, some six times a week, others once a week, others only once a month. In winter, crossings in the central part of the city are cleaned regularly, this work being done as often as thought desir- able by the chief of the bureau. Ashes are removed once a week, and garbage three times a week during the cooler half of the year and six times a week during the warmer half. It has been suggested that the contractors should be able to remove dirt and garbage without cost to the city by sell- ing it to farmers for fertilizing purposes, or by selling it to the owners of lots that need filling. But in his report for 1 89 1 the chief of the bureau points out that contractors are now obliged to pay for the privilege of dumping ashes on lots within the city. Neither of these suggestions seems to be practicable. Cremation is to be tried in the summer of 1893, and it is confidently expected that it will effect a con- siderable saving for the city. A plant will first be con- structed in the southern portion of the city and, if it is successful enough, others will be constructed to dispose of all the city's waste material. The system has been introduced in several other large cities and has proven satisfactory. 138 Government of Philadelphia In New York City a new plan is being tried. No con- tracts are awarded, all the work being done by employees of the city. To each employee a certain street area is assigned, which he is expected to keep in good condition. There is a foreman for every thirty-five or forty men, and he is held responsible for their work. The system has thus far proved more expensive and less satisfactory than the one employed in Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Bureau seems to be organized upon a sound plan, but it is hampered, as are others of the Depart- ment of Public Works, by insufficient appropriations. The cleaning of streets in a large city is an arduous task and the performance of it seldom meets with public approval. The sharpest criticisms of foreigners are passed upon the condition of the streets of American cities and of Philadelphia in particular ; but it is to be remembered that the street area here in proportion to population is much greater than in European cities, and that the street-cleaning burden is rela- tively a much heavier one. With the enforcement of the law compelling street railway companies to lay improved pavements on the streets used by them, it is not unreason- able to expect in time better paving over a large area of the city and a consequent lessening of the difficulties of street cleaning. James T. Young. 6. — Bureau of Surveys. The Bureau of Surveys, which ceased to be a department in 1854, is closely allied to the department of highways. Prior to 1721 surveyors were deputized, but by an act of February 24 of that year, the mayor and commonalty were authorized to appoint two or more discreet and skillful persons as surveyors and regulators, to whom all persons were directed to make application before erecting a party wall. An appeal from their decision was allowed to the mayor and commonalty. Regulation of partition fences was also placed within the scope of the surveyors. Department of Public Works 139 By an Act of March 26, 1762, it was provided that three surveyors and regulators be elected for the District of South- wark, and 1787 four commissioners were appointed for that district with the powers of surveyors and regulators. By an Act of March 9, 1771, the commissioners of Philadelphia County were authorized to appoint three surveyors and regulators for the district of Northern Liberties, to be approved by the Court of Quarter Sessions, and the right was given to appeal from the decisions of surveyors to that court. By an Act of March 24, 1812, the commissioners of Moyamensing were authorized to appoint one or more surveyors and regulators with powers similar to those of Philadelphia, and the right of appeal was given to the Court of Common Pleas. After the outlying districts of South- wark, Northern Liberties, Moyamensing, Spring Garden, Kensington, Passyunk, Richmond and West Philadelphia were incorporated, acts of assembly from time to time pro- vided, sometimes for the appointment, and sometimes for the election of surveyors and regulators, with or without appeal to the court. The General Assembly in 175 1 passed an act regulating fees for the surveyors of land. For recording the proprie- tary's warrant the fee was 2s. 6d. ; for every 100 acres or less surveyed, 7s. 6d.; for all above 100 acres, 3$. for every 100 acres ; for traveling charges, 2d. per mile. By the ordinance of November 9, 1854, the bureau was duly established, consisting of twelve city surveyors and the chief engineer ; the latter being president of the Board of Surveyors, of which the district surveyors were members. The chief engineer had superintendence of all surveys and regulations as authorized by acts of assembly. The board held two meetings per month and was directed to prepare a full, minute and accurate survey of the whole city with horizontal curvatures, and showing how the same should be graded and leveled to secure the best drainage. The chief surveyor was to submit to the Council's committee on surveys all plans, draughts and applications for new streets, 140 Government of Philadelphia furnish the chief commissioner of highways with all plans and specifications for laying out, grading and regulating public ways, and for bridges, culverts and improvements to be done under the direction of the committee. The execu- tive duties of each district devolved on the city surveyors, who were elected by the voters of the respective districts, the qualifications being experience of five years in surveying. By an Act of April 5, '1855, the board, under the direction of Councils and subject to the approval of the Court of Quarter Sessions had power to alter the lines and regulate the grades of streets that were on the city plan but not yet opened. The Bullitt Bill in 1885, attached the Bureau of Surveys to the Department of Public Works, and provided that the surveyors should be appointed by the director of that depart- ment, subject to the approval of Councils, for terms of five years. Slight changes were made in their duties. The chief surveyor must have had five years' experience in surveying, and before entering upon the duties of his office he must take oath before the Court of Common Pleas. He is entitled to vote at all stated and special meetings of board. He must sign all plans and profiles of surveys, and furnish the Department of Highways with necessary plans. He pays daily into the city treasury all moneys received by him. By an ordinance of March, 1865, establishing a Registry Bureau, he was authorized to cause to be made books of plans of the city divided into sections, with dimen- sions of properties, house numbers and names of owners. These books are to be kept in the offices of the Boards of Surveys and Revision of Taxes. The city is divided into thirteen survey districts, each in charge of a district surveyor. A district surveyor must have had three years' experience in surveying and must take oath to that effect. His salary is $500 per annum in addition to fees and charges. His duty is to lay out and survey his respective district when necessary and designate the proper lines, levels and grades as established by the confirmed plan, and to keep records of all surveys and adjustments of party Department of Public Works 141 lines, furnishing to the chief engineer within a month dupli- cates of such plans of the district as he shall require for official purposes. At the close of his term all surveys, plans and minutes must be delivered to his successor. District surveyors are allowed to demand in advance from owners of property the following charges : $3.00 for a lot not more than twenty feet wide, $4.00 for all over twenty and not over forty feet, $5.00 for more than forty and not more than sixty feet, $6.00 for more than sixty and not over one hundred feet, and $.02 for each additional foot ; returns for paving and curbing, $.02 per linear foot, payable by the contractor ; heights and stakes for resetting curbs, $1.50 per 100 feet and $.02 for each additional foot ; for measuring and making returns for paving new intersections, $.02 per square yard, payable by the contractor. From city corporations the fees are as follows : Measuring and making drawings of water pipe, $.02 per linear foot on each side inclusive ; gutter and grading stakes, $.01 per linear foot ; for preparing liens for municipal claims, $1 .00 ; for superintendence of branch culverts with lines and levels, $.06 per linear foot ; for ex- amination of plans and record, $.25 ; same with extracts, $.50; copies of documents, $.10 per 100 words; copies of plans, $1.00 per hour. The chief pays daily into the city treasury all money received by him, and it is the duty of the city solicitor to prosecute all penalties incurred. An Act of April 21, 1855, contains the provision that no railroad company terminating in Philadelphia can construct that part of its line within the city limits until the plans have been approved by the bureau. An Act of May 16, 1857, provides that the assessors be obliged to return to the city commissioners the dimensions of each lot in the city, and when such returns are incomplete the receiver of taxes may direct the surveyor to make accurate measurement. By subsequent acts the chief sur- veyor was directed to complete his records from the records in the recorder of deed's office and from those in the sur- veyor-general's office at Harrisburg. It was made the duty 142 Government of Philadelphia of the surveyor to measure all repaving of cartways, and he could not give stakes for paving without the certificate of the chief engineer of the water- works that pipes were laid, or not needed. The board was given power to examine and ap- prove or reject all plans of surveys or revisions when they are made by direction of Councils. No street could be added to the confirmed plan unless confirmed by the Board of Surveys. Petitions for widening streets were to be pre- sented to the board, and examined and passed on by it, and an appeal lay from its decision of the Court of Quarter Sessions. At present the decision of the board is final, and no decision is of weight from any other source on matters relating to the bureau. The Bureau of Surveys may confirm or reject new street lines without appeal, and no plan or revision may be acted upon by the bureau until six times advertised in the daily papers for thirty days and by hand bills. Owners of property must have the consent of the city to make a street public, and if it is not on the city plan it is treated as a private way and cannot be put on the plan unless the streets which are its termini are on the plan. The chief of the Highway Department, after paving a street under the authority of Councils, shall send to the surveyor of the district an account of the expense. No plans can be contracted for until approved by the bureau, and no estimates paid without the certificate of the bureau as to correctness. The Bureau of Surveys returns to the city controller each month a certified schedule of assessments for water pipe, etc., which is attested by the registrar of the water department asserting that he has received such for collection. The bureau keeps a correct list of the names of all streets and approves the names of new streets, and the chief com- missioner of highways is authorized to offer $20 for the arrest and conviction of persons defacing street names. The building of sewers, drains and inlets is under the management of the chief surveyor, and appropriations and Department of Public Works 143 warrants for such work are to be issued to the Bureau of Surveys. The chief of the bureau awards the contracts. He appoints two inspectors of sewers, one of whom must be a practical bricklayer. No warrant is issued in payment for construction of a sewer until the certificate of inspection is filed with the chief engineer. The chief engineer appoints two competent persons, either bricklayers or plumbers, to supervise and control the connec- tion of sewers. For the privilege of connection an owner makes application to the department upon a book provided for the purpose. The charge for the privilege of connection is $8.50, and the cost of sewers $1.50 per linear foot. In the books of the Registry Bureau are entered the dimensions, names and situations of streets and properties, the city numbers, the names of owners, and the dates of transfers. It is the duty of every seller or purchaser, or any one to whom partition has been made by will, to make the fact known to the chief surveyor. All appointments in the bureau are made by the chief with the approval of the director of public works and Select Council. The employees are appointed for terms of five years and are removable for cause only, the bureau being subject to the civil service rules. The officers and employees of the bureau, with salaries, are as follows : Chief-engineer, $4000 ; principal assistant, $3500 ; assistant engineer, $1800 ; recording clerk, $1500 ; eight draughtsmen, one at $1500, one at $1400, one at $1350, one at $960, four at $1000; sewer registrar, $1500; sewer clerk, $1000 ; stenographer and typewriter, $850 ; rodman, $820 ; two inspectors of sewer connections, each, $1200 ; two inspectors of sewers, each, $1 200 ; supervisor of intercepting sewers, $900 ; janitor, $600 ; thirteen district surveyors, each, $500 and fees. In the Registry Bureau are employed : Registry clerk, $1100; search clerk, $1000; four clerks, each, $1000 ; five draughtsmen, each, $900. Adrien F. WEiiENS. 144 Government of Philadelphia 7. — Bureau of City Ice Boats. It is the duty of the Bureau of City Ice Boats to keep navigation open during the winter, and also to prevent ice from damaging property along the river front. Three boats are employed by the bureau. In the winter they endeavor to keep the ice broken up in the Delaware from the foot of Allegheny avenue in the city to the head of the bay, a point about sixty-one miles below the city, and also in the lower part of the Schuylkill. The boats are manned by eighty men, in charge of the superintendent of the bureau, who has the assistance of one clerk. The superintendent and all deck officers and engi- neers of the boats are licensed by certificates from the United States Board of Supervising Inspectors. This board is appointed by the secretary of the treasury and is usually composed of naval experts, who examine applicants for licenses. A rigid test for color-blindness is undergone by all applicants, and a complete record is kept of all persons holding certificates. These certificates must be renewed every year, and thus a practical guarantee of efficiency is provided. The superintendent and officers of the bureau, although nominally subject to the civil service regulations of the city, are not required to pass examinations, it being deemed sufficient that they have obtained certificates from the United States Government. As soon as the rivers are cleared of ice and there is no prospect of the boats being in use, until another season, their crews are paid off and dis- charged. Thus expenses are reduced to a minimum. The boats also engage in towing vessels to or from the city, for which fixed rates are charged, the receipts being paid to the city treasurer. The bureau accomplishes its task satisfactorily, except in seasons of unusual cold, when it is found to be almost impossible for these boats to keep the Delaware always in navigable condition. It is rare, however, that navigation is blocked, and in view of the importance of keeping the port Department of Public Works 145 open, the annual outlay of $37,500, which is about the aver- age appropriation to the bureau, appears to be wisely directed. James T. Young. 8. — Public Buildings Commission. The Public Buildings Commission was created by act of assembly, August 5, 1870, to have in charge the erection of a city hall. For many years prior to the passage of this act, the need of a new city hall had been felt and several futile attempts had been made to provide for the erection of one. In response to numerous petitions urging the need of better accommodations for the courts and municipal offices, an ordinance was introduced in Councils in 1838, providing for the erection of buildings on Penn Square, but it failed to pass. In 1847, the Legislature passed an act anthorizing Councils to erect a city hall on any part of State House Square. The subject was much discussed, but nothing was done. Interest in the matter again revived, and in i860 the Legislature passed an act creating a commission for the erec- tion of public buildings on either Penn or Independence Squares. The commission organized and selected Penn Square as a site and awarded contracts. There was consider- able popular opposition, and several bills in equity were filed to restrain the commission from carrying out the pro- visions of the act, but all the bills were dismissed in both the lower and supreme courts. Councils opposed the com- mission, and in a resolution approved July 18, i860, denounced the act of assembly and authorized the city solicitor to commence injunction proceedings in the Supreme Court if the commission attempted to exercise its powers. The commission, however, practically lapsed with the advent of the war. A fourth attempt was made in 1868, Councils taking the initiative by passing an ordinance appointing commissioners to erect municipal buildings on Independence Square. Early 146 Government of Philadelphia in 1870, arrangements were made to begin work. Opposi- tion to the use of Independence Square had always existed, partly on account of its patriotic associations and partly on the ground that it was not centrally located. The opposition was so vigorous and determined that the Legislature felt called upon to interfere, and in March, 1870, passed a bill leaving the selection of a site to the people at the October election ; and on April 5, 1870, a bill creating a new commission was passed by both houses. It is claimed that the bill was passed before it had been printed. The session was nearing its close and the bill was hastily rushed through with little debate.* The Governor approved it August 5, 1870. The act named eleven commissioners, including the mayor of the city and presidents of Select and Common Councils. They were empowered to fill all vacancies, and if they deemed it advisable to increase their number to thirteen. The buildings were to be erected either on Washington or on Penn Square as determined by vote at the general election October, 1870. The commission was to make requisition on Councils, each year prior to December 1, for the money required by it for the coming year, and Councils were required to levy a special tax, if necessary, to meet the expenses of the commission. The act, so soon as its nature became known, was gener- ally criticised and condemned as unlawful, unjust and impolitic. The city, it was claimed, owned the squares in question, and the Legislature had no right to dictate as to their use. Attention was indignantly called to the fact that no provision was made for any check upon expenditures by the commission, and it was prophesied that the buildings would not be completed for twenty-five years, and would cost twenty-five million dollars. At the October election, Penn Square was chosen as a site. Early in 1871, the abolition of the commission was agitated *It has been claimed that the bill was passed "at the instigation of the City Ring, then in the first flush of youthful hope and energy." — Bryce's American Commonwealth, Vol. II., p. 375. Department of Public Works 147 and attempts were made in the legislature to bring about the repeal of the Act of 1870. The sentiment of the advo- cates of abolition was ably expressed by prominent citizens at a mass meeting held March 24, 1871. The act, it was declared, was an uncalled for intermeddling with the city's internal affairs, designed to benefit not the City, but a few interested individuals. The vital question did not concern the location of the buildings or the personnel of the commis- sion, but the fundamental principle of whether the powers of the municipality could be taken away from it and vested in an irresponsible corporation. To confer upon an auto- cratic and self-perpetuating body the right to disburse public moneys unrestrained was declared to be a flagrant violation of the principle that all just government is founded upon the consent of the governed. The act, it was said, was equiva- lent to a virtual declaration that Philadelphia was incapable of self-government. Numerous appeals were made to the Legislature, but all efforts to repeal or amend the act proved futile. The commission, meanwhile, began work upon the build- ing. Its demands on Councils for appropriations were com- plied with until 1876, when Councils refused to honor a requisition for $1,138,000 for the next year. The case was taken to the Court of Common Pleas, and the commission was refused the right to mandamus the city ; but the Supreme Court, to which the commission appealed, reversed the decision of the lower court and granted a peremptory man- damus, declaring that Councils were bound to raise, by tax, levy or otherwise, the money required by the commission. New ground for opposition arose in 1890. In that year the expenditures of the commission exceeded the appropria- tion, and it issued warrants to the amount of $500,000, to be paid out of the appropriation for 1891. The controller refused to countersign the warrants, on the ground that they were drawn on a future appropriation and were, there- fore, contrary to Section 2, Article XV. , of the Constitution of the State, which provides that no municipal commission 148 Government of Philadelphia shall incur debt except in pursuance of an appropriation previously made therefor by the municipal government. The controller was sustained in his refusal by the city solicitor. The commission defended its action by claiming that to perform certain work it was necessary to exceed appropriations, and that the constitutional provision quoted had no reference to this particular commission. February 7, 1 89 1, the mayor approved an ordinance authorizing the controller to countersign warrants drawn against the appropriation for 1891. The action of the commission in thus creating a debt at its own option caused discontent, and the demand for its abolition was again frequently heard. As in previous cases, relief was sought in the legislature. February 2, 1 891, a bill was introduced in the House, to abolish the commission and have the work continued by the Department of Public Works. Councils adopted a resolution demanding the abolition of the commission, and a committee consisting of five from each branch was appointed to visit Harrisburg and urge the pas- sage of the measure that had been introduced. This com- mittee, together with members of the commission, appeared before the Committee on Municipal Corporations March 11, 1 89 1. The old arguments were again advanced against the commission. The act, it was claimed, should at least be modified so as to bring the commission directly under municipal authority, and a definite date for the completion of the work should be fixed ; the commission should be compelled to advertise annually for work to be done each year and place all accounts, bills and contracts in the office of the city controller ; each requisition on Councils should be accompanied by an itemized statement of the proposed ex- penditure ; and the issuing of certificates of indebtedness should cease. The president of the commission spoke against the bill He declared that the arguments of the opposition were not borne out by the facts ; every bill had been itemized and filed with the controller ; all contracts were carefully drawn ; Dbpartmknt of Public Works 149 the requests of Councils for statements and reports had always been complied with ; moreover, the mayor and the presidents of Councils, as members of the commission, had cognizance of its proceedings. The public press, which always played an important part in these discussions and claimed to reflect public opinion, favored the continuance of the commission with modified powers. The bill was reported to the House March 17, with a negative recommendation. The commission contiuued to issue certificates of indebtedness* and in two months almost the entire appropriation had been consumed. In 1892 the certificates issued amounted to $600,000, so that the appro- priation of $800,000 for that year was almost immediately exhausted. Councils in 1892 refused to appropriate more funds unless the commission prepared an itemized statement of proposed expenditures and an estimate of the amount required to complete the structure. This action was prompted by the fact that although the building had been in course of erec- tion for twenty years and had involved an expenditure of $16,000,000, the date and cost of completion were still uncertain. A joint committee of Councils, consisting of five from each branch, was appointed to urge the Legislature to modify the powers of the commission. With this committee were associated representatives of the press and of various organ- izations of citizens. As a result of this agitation, a bill to abolish the commis- sion and place the public buildings under the control of the Department of Public Works passed the Senate February 15, 1893, and was amended and passed by the House May 18. The Senate accepted the House amendments on May 23, and on May 24, the bill, which is known as the Penrose Bill, received the Governor's approval. The mayor and *These certificates were declarations in writing that there was due to the holder, on account of work done or material furnished, a sum of money for which a warrant would be issued upon surrender of the certificates. 150 Government of Philadelphia director of public works immediately took possession of the City Hall. The commissioners protested and filed a bill in equity, contesting the constitutionality of the Penrose Bill. The Supreme Court took the case under advisement June 7.* The commission has expended in round numbers $16,000,- 000. The appropriations by Councils have averaged a little over one-half of the requisitions. The hope is now expressed that under the supervision of the Department of Public Works the City Hall will be completed before April, 1895, when the term of the present city administration expires. Frederick S. Gross. * As this book was going through the press, the Supreme Court granted an inj unc- tion which practically returns the control of the City Hall, to^the Public Buildings Commission for an indefinite period. IX.— DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SAFETY. fHE Department of Public Safety, which was created by the Bullitt Bill in 1885, has charge of all matters relating to the public health, to the fire and police force, fire alarm telegraph, erection of fire escapes, city property and the inspection of buildings, boilers and markets. For adminis- trative purposes the department is divided into bureaus, the chiefs of which are appointed by the director of the depart- ment. The director also appoints all the subordinate officers, clerks and employees, but in so doing must make use of the lists of eligible candidates which he receives from the various examining boards. The director receives daily reports from the fire and police bureaus. He is an ex officio member and president of the board of health, and much of his time is consumed at meetings of this board, which in quarantine season are held daily. All plans affecting city property must be approved by the director, and all contracts are awarded by him. In his office the director has the assistance of a bookkeeper, private secretary, clerk, messenger and errand boy. The bookkeeper has charge of the leases and other documents referring to city property, and keeps an account of the various appropriations to bureaus, charging against them the warrants as drawn, in order that the director may know at any time the condition of each appropriation. The private secretary attends to the communications to the department and does the necessary corresponding. The clerk takes charge of all complaints and sees that they are referred to the proper bureaus. The director of public safety is appointed by the mayor, subject to confirmation by Select Council, and may be removed from office by the mayor. His salary is $7500 per annum. J. Clark Moore, Jr. 152 Government of Philadelphia 1. — Bureau of Police: History. The preservation of the peace in the early days of Phila- delphia was the duty of constables and their deputies, who were appointed by the Governor and Council. . Their duties were similar to those of the police of the present day, although at first they kept no watch during the night. The first step toward a night-watch was in 1700, when it was ordered by'the Governor and Council that a night watch- man be appointed. In 1704 it was ordered by the Common Council that the city be divided into ten districts, each in charge of a constable appointed by Council. The able-bodied men of the city were divided into ten patrols, one for each district, and from these the constables selected nine men each night who served with the constable as the night watch of the city. They were selected in turn, rich and poor alike, and served with- out pay. In 1743 this system was so much in disfavor and so inefficient that the grand-jury complained of it and the Council voted for a paid watch and applied to the Assembly for authority to establish it, but without any immediate result. The appeal was supplemented by another in 1749 for a "sufficient and regular watch" similar to the one existing in L,ondon at that time. Council asked for the power to raise the necessary money by taxation. In response, the Assembly passed, in 1750, an act "regulating the nightly watch within the city of Philadelphia and for enlighting the streets, lanes and alleys of the said city, and for raising money on the inhabitants of the said city for defraying the necessary expenses thereof. ' ' The act granted the much needed power, not to the corporation, but to a body of six wardens, two to be elected annually. They were authorized to light the city and to ' ' order, appoint, hire and employ what number of watchmen they shall judge necessary and proper." They had general control of this force and with the mayor, recorder and four aldermen were to fix stands throughout the city, at which the watchmen were to be posted. The constables reported daily at the Department of Public Safety 153 court-house and had general superintendence of the watch. Violations of the police rules were reported by the watch- men and punished by fine. This system continued in vogue until 1789.* The ordinance of 1789, putting into effect the charter of that year, created the Board of City Commissioners, and the police force came under its control. This ordinance, and several supplementary ones, placed the power of appoint- ment in the hands of the city commissioners, where it remained until 1833, the mayor having power of removal. The commissioners were to appoint a superintendent of the night watch, and were to hire and employ a sufficient num- ber of able-bodied men to light and watch the city at fixed rates, present rules for their government, and dismiss them when they thought proper. The police force at the time consisted of the high constable, the constables, the watch, and the superintendent of the watch ; the former two being appointed by the mayor and the latter by the commissioners. At this time the constables did police duty by day and the watchmen by night. The pay of the police was about $20 per month. The high constable was provided for by the ordinance of 1798, and was appointed by the mayor; the constables by an act of 18 10, which provided for the annual election of two constables from each ward, from whom the mayor should appoint one to be high constable. As the city enlarged, the mayor was given power to increase the number of constables. A captain and a lieutenant, appointed by the mayor and required to give bond, took the place of the superintendent in 1819. In 1830, an ordinance providing for the appoint- ment of additional policef officers was passed. * During: the early period of the Revolutionary War the city was without the service of watchmen, save that furnished by the military guards. The system of watchmen was, however, revived in the closing years of the struggle, ■f This is the first official use of the word police in reference to the city guar- dians. The ordinance provided that the mayor should appoint twelve able-bodied discreet persons, of good moral character * * * who should be styled officers of the general city police. They were subject to the orders of the mayor by day and night, and were removable at his pleasure. 154 Government of Philadelphia The will of Stephen Girard called attention in 1830 to the inefficiency of the police force, and he left a bequest for its improvement. A committee was appointed by Councils to investigate the subject, and in their report severely condemned the then existing system. In 1833, an ordinance was passed by Councils dividing the city into four districts and each district into three divisions, and making the police force consist of 120 watchmen, with a captain and one lieu- tenant for each district, and an inspector for each division. All the members and officers of the force were appointed by the mayor, and were subject to his orders or to those of the recorder. The inspectors superintended the watch of their respective divisions and reported to the officers of the district, who reported to the mayor. By this same ordinance a clerk of police and four special officers were appointed to attend at the mayor's office for special duty, and all former ordinances relative to the police were repealed. The ordinance of 1833 was itself repealed in 1835, when an ordinance was passed dividing the city into four watch districts, the mayor to appoint one captain, eight silent watchmen and thirty-five watchmen for each district, all being removable at his pleasure. The mayor divided the city into beats and appointed four special constables, one for each district. A joint standing committee of Councils had charge of the police fiscal matters. In 1842, the mayor was given power to appoint special policemen as he deemed necessary, in case of riots or other emergencies. The riots of 1838 and 1 841, especially the latter, clearly showed the inefficiency of the police force, and in 1845 the legislature passed an act, requiring the city to keep a police force of one man for every 150 taxable citizens. A superin- tendent of police was to be elected in each of the districts, and the mayor was authorized to appoint a lieutenant of the night police. I,ater in the year an ordinance was passed making the mayor superintendent of the general city police. In cases of emergency, the sheriff was given power to call on the superintendents of the districts for part or all of their Department of Public Safety 155 force, and in case of riot, upon presentation of a certificate, he could call on the major-general in command of the militia. In 1848 an ordinance was passed remodeling the entire system and repealing all previous ordinances pertaining to the police. This ordinance preserved the four districts ; divided the force into night and day police ; presented station houses for each district ; made the mayor super- intendent with the power of appointment and removal ; retained the high constables, appointed by the mayor, and authorized the mayor to appoint private watchmen at the request of property owners. All the requirements of the Act of 1845 were complied with. For the first time the police were required to be in uniform while on duty. In 1850 the Legislature passed a bill providing that the city and districts be made into one police district under a marshal, who was to be elected by the people for a term of three years and was to be vested with all the police powers of the mayor. The city was divided into four divisions and each of the outlying districts was made a division. A lieutenant for each division was elected ; in the city by the Councils, and in the districts by the commissioners. The police force was to number one man for every 150 taxable citizens, and was to be appointed by the marshal from a list of candidates sent him by Councils and the commissioners. The marshal and lieutenants made all necessary rules and regulations for the force. The presidents of Councils and the presidents of the commissioners of the districts consti- tuted a board, which had charge of the fiscal matters of the police, raising the necessary funds and paying the salaries. The force had the power to act in any part of the city or districts. The presence of the marshal, or of one or more of his lieutenants, was required at all fires. The mayor, aldermen and judges had the power of justices of the peace throughout the entire city and in the districts. The marshal had special duties and powers in case of riots, and on his written certificate asking for assistance, the major-general 156 Government of Philadelphia was enjoined to assist him until notified by the marshal that his services were no longer required. The requisition of the mayor was also conclusive proof that aid was needed. Councils speedily passed an ordinance to carry the act into effect and it continued in effect until the passage of the Act of Consolidation in 1854. The inefficiency of the police force was one of the import- ant causes leading to the Act of Consolidation, which made radical changes in the system. The mayor was made the responsible head of the department ; he had co-ordinate powers with the sheriff for the suppression of any riot or disturbance, and was given the power to make requisition upon the commanding officer of the militia. The act pro- vided that the marshal was to execute the orders and war- rants of the mayor and make reports to him ; he could suspend subordinates from duty until the decision of the mayor was made. The powers conferred by previous laws on the police boards were to be exercised by Councils, which fixed the number of police and watchmen for the whole city. Policemen and watchmen were appointed by the mayor with the consent of Councils. The office of marshal was abolished, part of his authority being transferred to the mayor and part to a chief of police who was appointed by the mayor and was to perform such duties as were presented by Councils. The ordinance organizing the department in pursuance of the act of consolidation provided that each ward should be a police district, and that in each district there should be a police station-house with a turnkey appointed by the mayor with the consent of Councils. The mayor was empowered to appoint a lieutenant and two sergeants for each district and to prescribe their duties. The force was to consist of 820 men, exclusive of the officers ; also eight high consta- bles, four special officers, and two messengers, who were to attend at the mayor's office. Rules and regulations for the force were prescribed by the mayor, subject to the approval of Councils. Councils were to elect an alderman to be police Department of Public Safety 157 and committing magistrate in each district, except the first and twenty-fourth, which had two each, who attended daily at their offices and kept dockets, the lieutenant, or one of the two sergeants being required to attend at all hearings. By the provisions of the ordinance the police were forbidden to engage in any other business. An ordinance of 1855 reorganized the department, divided the city into sixteen districts, with a station-house in each district ; allowed each district a lieutenant and two sergeants ; reduced the rank and file of the force to 650 men ; and pro- vided for the election by Councils of a magistrate for each district. In other particulars the provisions of the ordinance of 1854 were left substantially unchanged. Subsequently the districts were increased to eighteen, and still later to twenty-four, and from time to time additions were made to the force. By a provision in the ordinance of 1855 police- men were allowed to receive gratuities and rewards for extra services, provided that the same was not asked for or prom- ised before the service was rendered. All police stations were under the charge of the mayor. The superior officers were to co-operate with the chief en- gineer of the fire department in extinguishing conflagrations. In all cases of arrest made by any officer it was his duty to take the offender to the nearest magistrate ; except that in cases of intoxication the offender was taken to the nearest station-house. The mayor was given power to invest private watchmen with the authority of policemen for the arrest of vagrants and offenders, and officers were authorized to make an arrest without a warrant in view of a breach of the peace. In 1 87 1, the police districts were divided into four divi- sions, for each of which the mayor appointed a captain, whose duty it was to see that the orders of the mayor and Councils were enforced and that the station-houses were kept in good condition. The reserve corps was organized by the ordinance of November, 1871. It provided that a body of men, not less than fifty, should be picked from the force by the mayor 158 Government of Philadelphia and held in "reserve" for emergencies. The reserve corps was to be in charge of a lieutenant and sergeant, who were to be appointed by the mayor. The provisions relative to this body have never been greatly changed. In order to furnish security to property along the river fronts Councils, in i860, created a body, known as the river and harbor police, consisting of ten patrolmen and a lieuten- ant. They were divided into two boat crews, one for the Delaware and one for the Schuylkill river. In 1865, a sergeant and five patrolmen were added to the force and, in 1870, ten more patrolmen. This force at first patroled the river by means of row-boats, but in time their duties became so great and their beat so long that two police tug-boats were equipped for the service. In 1874, four pilots, four engineers and four firemen were added to the force. The Delaware harbor police boat (No. 1) is the tug Wm. Stok- ley, which lies at Vine street wharf and patrols the river from Pennypack creek to the mouth of the Schuylkill. It is provided with a steam pump capable of throwing four streams of water and does efficient service at fires along the river front. It is also provided with sleeping quarters for the men and cells for prisoners. The Schuylkill harbor police boat (No. 2) is the tug Sam'l. G. King which is equipped and manned like the Stokley. Its patrol is from Fairmount Dam to the mouth of the river. By ordinance of April 29, 1859, it was provided that the mayor should appoint a body of men to be known as ' ' substitutes, ' ' who were to serve in cases of disability on the part of any members of the regular force. They were to receive the same pay while on duty as the regular police. The first step toward the organization of the detective squad was taken in 1841, when an ordinance of Councils provided that the mayor should select from the most worthy members of the police a special force for the prevention and detection of crime. The force was to comprise a first and a second lieutenant, a special constable and a clerk of police, and was to be under the supervision of the mayor. An Department of Public Safety 159 ordinance passed October 28, 1859, provided for a force to consist of one chief of detectives and eight subordinates, to be drawn from the body of the police force. In 1869, addi- tional subordinates were put on the force. In 1 87 1 , the office of chief was abolished, but an acting chief was retained by the mayor. In 1875, the detectives were put in charge of the chief of police, and in 1885, the office of chief of detec- tives was re-established. In 1886, the "specials" were made a branch of this department. The office of fire marshal was created in 1857, the office being filled by an appointee of the mayor. It was his duty to investigate the cause of fires within the city. J. G. Horner. Bureau of Police ; Present Organization. The city of Philadelphia, under the existing charter, exercises full control over its police affairs. Appointments in the Bureau of Police, which belongs to the Department of Public Safety, are made by the director of that depart- ment, subject to confirmation by Select Council. The head of the bureau, who is officially known as the superintendent of police, has immediate command and supervision of the police force. At fires or in case of riots or other disturbances, he takes command of the force and uses every exertion to save and protect property and restore peace. He reports to the director all violations of law and all charges preferred against members of the force, investigating the charges himself and for adequate cause suspending the accused from duty. Security in the sum of $10,000 is required of him for the faithful performance of his duties during his term of four years. For police purposes the area of the city is divided into four divisions, with a captain at the head of each division, and is subdivided into twenty-nine districts, with a lieu- tenant at the head of each district.* * The boundaries are arranged by the director of public safety and approved by the police committee of Councils. 160 Government oe Philadelphia In addition to the central police station at the City Hall there are twenty-nine district station-houses, eleven sub- station-houses in suburban districts, two harbor stations and eighteen patrol stations. There is a district station-house in each police district. In each district station house there are a lieutenant, a telegraph sergeant, a street sergeant, a patrol sergeant and several officers detailed for special duty. The captains of police cause the laws to be enforced and discipline to be maintained by the force and care for the station-houses and other property of the bureau in their respective divisions. The lieutenant of each district is charged with the main- tenance of the public peace, enforcement of the law, and control of the force in his district, and is responsible for the good order of the station-house. The lieutenant is respon- sible for the custody of prisoners until discharged, bailed or committed to prison.* In cases of felony or crimes of great magnitude, discharge upon bail is made only by the Supreme Court or Court of Common Pleas, or upon a writ of habeas corpus. In case of riot or serious disturbance the lieutenant proceeds to the locality with the largest available force and strives to restore order and disperse the crowd by moderate conciliatory efforts ; if these fail, he is to use the requisite force and arrest the principal offenders. The lieutenant reports daily to the superintendent of police the force on duty and all facts relative to the condition of the force in his district. He also reports all fires, crimes and arrests, with their hearing and disposition and the fines and costs imposed, and all other occurrences of interest to the service within his district. The sergeants of police report cases of misconduct or neglect of duty on the force. When on patrol duty they constantly visit every beat and see that each officer is at his post. *The central police court is at the City Hall. There are twenty-eight police magistrates who are elected by the people for a term of five years, two-thirds by the majority party and one-third by the minority. The salary of each is fecoo Department op Public Safety 161 The reserve corps, consisting of a lieutenant, sergeant and sixty men, is attached to the Central Station ready for duty in case of emergency. They do patrol duty at the principal street crossings to prevent a blockade in traffic and give security to pedestrians. Connected with the force are 175 men known as substi- tutes, by whom temporary vacancies are filled. The substi- tutes receive compensation only for the time actually employed, their pay being deducted from that of the officers whose places are filled. The central police station has telegraphic communication with the district station-houses, and radiating from each district station are telegraphic lines running through the entire district, connected at points with street sentry patrol boxes. Each district station is thus brought in touch with the force in the several beats and can give and receive- information. Alarms for assistance are given from the patrol boxes by use of a key. These keys are carried by the police and responsible citizens. The citizen in communicating the signal for police aid, opens the outer door by use of his key, and pulls down a hook or lever on the inside. The key is released by a master key. Each key, being numbered, can be easily identified. Officers hold keys to inside boxes in the patrol boxes, containing a telephone and transmitter. They are required to report at the boxes every hour while on their beats, and a record of their reports is kept at the station-houses. At the district station or patrol station the patrol wagon and detail await orders for service, and in case of alarm proceed to the point indicated by the signal apparatus. The alarm by means of an electrical adjustment lights the quarters of the men in the stable and opens the stalls of the horses. The patrol is manned by a patrol sergeant, driver and patrolman. It is also furnished with stretchers, a fire extinguisher and other apparatus. The patrol service is under the care of the lieutenants of the respective districts. The Gamewell police signal system 1 62 Government of Philadelphia is used. There are in all eighteen patrol stations and 341 patrol boxes in use. The patrol service affords means of carrying prisoners to the station-house without an officer leaving his beat, and also of conveying squads of police to remote localities quickly. Sick and disabled persons may be conveyed to a hospital or station-house. The service makes a comparatively small force extremely efficient and greatly reduces the expenses which would otherwise be incurred. The van service is managed in connection with the patrol service and is used to convey prisoners from the station-houses to the county prison. The bureau controls all telegraph wires used for the trans- mission of messages for municipal purposes. Banks and other institutions are connected with the Central Station by telegraph at their own expense. The director and superin- tendent have direct telephone communication between their offices and residences. The detective department is part of the Bureau of Police. The detective squad is employed for the discovery of in- tended crime, for the recovery of stolen property, and for the arrest of thieves and pickpockets. The detectives are assisted in the several districts by the special officers. The secret service force of detectives, who know the faces of expert criminals, keep constant watch at the railroad stations. Criminals are taken upon arrest to the Central Station, where the Bertillon system of identification is in vogue. Photographs (one face and two profiles) are taken and pre- served, together with a physical description and measure ments of various parts of the body and face. These are stored away in a cabinet for reference. As copies are ex- changed with other cities, criminals are inclined to keep away from cities where the system is in vogue. The river and harbor police protect life and property along the river fronts. They are divided into two crews, one for each of the two police tugboats. They co-operate with the firemen in extinguishing fires along the river fronts. There Department of Public Safety 163 is telegraphic communication between the Central Station and the wharves. The district surgeons give attention to injured persons brought to the station-houses. The matrons receive and care for female prisoners and children. The force continually patrol the several beats, covering nearly the whole area of the city. The force in each district is divided equally into two squads. The day is divided into four "outs." No. 1 squad goes on duty at 6 p. m. and remains until midnight. No. 2 relieves No. 1 at midnight and remains on duty until 7 a. m. when it is relieved by half of No. 1 squad, which is on duty until 12.30 p. m., when the other half of No. 1 squad relieves it, remaining out until 6 p. m. Thus half the force is on street duty at night, the other half remaining in the station-houses ; and during the day one-quarter is on duty in the streets, one-quarter is off duty, and one-half is on duty in the station-houses on fire detail. The police force is required to wear an appropriate uni- form* as prescribed by the department, an allowance of $40 per annum being made to each patrolman for its purchase. The equipment bureau, under the charge of the storekeeper, purchases the material from the factory at the lowest price, but the uniforms are made by outside parties under contract. Inspections of the force are held twice a year and new uni- forms furnished. This method of equipment has given Philadelphia the best uniformed police in the country, and the expense on account of uniforms is less than in any other large city. The uniform improves the personal appearance of the police and adds dignity and honor to the office. It also furnishes a means of identification. The [police when on duty are required to appear in full uniform under penalty of loss of pay, suspension or dismissal. False personation of * The winter uniform consists of a double-breasted blue frock coat, an over- coat, blue trousers and a black helmet. The summer uniform consists of a blue, single-breasted sack coat, blue trousers and a light-gray helmet. The men are equipped with a belt, baton, revolver, and a badge bearing the coat-of-arms of the cityi 164 Government of Philadelphia a police officer by uniform or badge is punishable by a fine not exceeding $500 and imprisonment not exceeding six months. Some figures from the reports will give an idea of the work of the bureau during the year. During 1892 there were 52,944 arrests, the principal causes being intoxication and disorderly conduct, breach of peace, vagrancy, larceny, assault and battery, and misdemeanors. During the summer 9425 vacant houses were under the protection and care of the police. The number of lodgers accommodated in the district station-houses was 11,884. The number of stores and dwellings found open was 8327. The detectives recovered and restored to the owners property to the value of $46,361.67. The total value of property recovered by the bureau was $155,306.18. The fire marshal reports 1531 fires, involving a loss of $2,615,206. There were 2,784,860 calls and messages transmitted by the police signal system. The appropriations to the bureau for 1892 were $2,049,- 524.87. The police stations owned by the city are valued at $592,000. The bureau employs 257 horses, of which 143 are used by the mounted service and 72 by the patrol service. The qualifications of a policeman are : Passage of an examination given under the civil service rules by three examiners, appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the heads of executive departments ; physical health and vigor ; unimpaired sight and hearing ; ability to read and write understandingly in the English language ; unblemished char- acter and habitual sobriety. Each applicant is inspected by the superintendent of police, and no applicant is passed who is older than forty years (except an honorably discharged Union soldier, as to whom the age-limit is forty-eight) or less than five feet seven inches in height. Each applicant is first required to undergo a rigid medical examination by the police surgeon, who testifies as to his physical capacity. A record is kept of the standing attained in the examination under the civil service rules, and appointments are made by the director of public safety from a list made up of those having attained the highest average. The lieutenant of the district Department of Public Safety 165 in which the applicant resides inquires into and reports as to his character and reputation. It is further required that the applicant be a citizen of the United States and a resident within the State for at least one year preceding his appoint- ment. The force is comparatively native-born, about five- sixths having been born in Philadelphia and seven-eighths in the United States. Appointments and promotions are made on account of fitness without regard to political opinions or services, promotions being a reward of faithfulness and efficiency. No political considerations or personal influences are of weight in the appointment of policemen. A policeman cannot take part in political primaries or con- ventions, being, in theory at least, absolutely independent of politics. Dismissals of policemen, unless by their request in writ- ing, can be made only after decision of a court of trial or inquiry, composed generally of three captains and a clerk, who are appointed by the director of public safety. They take oath to perform their duties impartially without fear or favor, and have authority to secure attendance of witnesses by subpoena, and to administer oaths. The decision is determined by trial of charges, at which the accused has the right to be present. When they are appointed as a court of inquiry to try charges of disability received during ser- vice, the finding of the court may be for the honorable discharge of the officer from service ; when appointed to try charges of neglect or violation of law or duty, the court may authorize the director to impose fines and penalties, or to suspend the officer from pay or duty for a period not exceed- ing one year, or to dismiss him from service. Officers against whom charges are brought may be suspended from duty by the director pending trial, with or without pay as the court shall determine, but the trial must be held within one month after the charges are made. Until approved by the mayor, the decision of the court shall be of no effect. The security thus given to the position of policeman, un- doubtedly acts as an incentive to faithful service. 1 66 Government of Philadelphia The desirability of the position of policeman in Philadel- phia is further increased by the existence of a police pension fund. This fund is maintained by the Police Pension Fund Association, which has for members all the officers and mem- bers of the Bureau of Police, many former members of the police force, and other persons more or less directly con- nected with police work. The fund is maintained by monthly dues of fifty cents from all members of the association ; by fees of $25 from private individuals or corporations elected to life-membership, without claim to benefits ; and from out- side contributions. The receipts to date from all sources amount to $85,834.65. The cash balance, January 1, 1893, was $65,834.65. An annual expenditure of $11,501.50 is required to pay the current pensions. The present member- ship numbers 2062. The money is invested in good securi- ties, or deposited with banks or trust companies, for the benefit of members honorably discharged from service by reason of age or disability, and of the families of those injured or killed while in the service. Any member perma- nently incapacitated for police duty by injuries received while in the service is retired on half-pay. Members who are disabled after having served fifteen years on the force, and all members who have served twenty -five years, whether disabled or not, are retired on half-pay. In case of the death of a member from injuries received while on duty, the widow receives $20 per month, children under fourteen years of age receive $6 per month until they attain that age, and an aged parent receives $12 per month for life. Pensions are awarded by the board of directors. By a two-thirds vote they can abolish any pension at will. No pension shall exceed $600 per annum. There is also a Police Beneficiary Association, composed of members of the Bureau of Police, and managed by a board of five trustees. A fund is maintained by general contributions. On the death of a member an assessment of fifty cents is levied on each member, the money being used fpr the benefit of the bereft family. Department of Public Safety 167 The services of the police have been utilized in Philadel- phia of late, as in some other cities, in compiling the city census. They are able to collect more accurate and reliable figures than the government census takers, for the reason that they are more familiar with the territory. In case of an emergency the mayor may take command of the force and appoint special patrolmen with regular police powers, who receive the regular pay. The mayor reports such appointments to Select Council. The superintendent of police may appoint additional patrolmen for special duty at the expense of the person asking the appointment. The director of public safety reports the appointments to Select Council. Private watch- men and patrolmen are appointed with regular police power at the request of citizens for private protection at their ex- pense. Such watchmen must render assistance to the reg- ular force when needed. Any society for the protection of children from cruelty may recommend an agent to be commissioned as police officer. By State enactment the Gov- ernor is empowered to appoint " special officers" for charit- able associations, for societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals, or for corporations ; ' ' railroad police' ' for any railroad ; ' ' coal and iron police ' ' for collieries, furnaces, and rolling mills; "camp police" for camp meetings; and ' ' police ' ' for protection of fisheries, or for service at the exhibitions of agricultural societies. Upon view of any breach of ordinance it is the duty of a policeman to arrest the offender, no warrant being neces- sary. In case of an arrest on a criminal charge or for felony, without a warrant, the officer must have witnessed the commission of the offence. If the accused take refuge in any house, the officer, upon stating his business, if per- mission to enter be not given and if immediate arrest is neces- sary, may break open any outer or inner door or window and enter and arrest the offender. Arrests are avoided except where crime has been committed, or to prevent crime or breach of peace. In making arrests policemen are directed to use only sufficient force to secure the offender. 168 Government of Philadelphia Policemen are directed to serve writs of summons and capias for the violation of any penal or criminal act ; to execute warrants for the arrest of offenders, and for the finding of stolen goods ; to report as to the condition of streets, sidewalks, dangerous signs, and detached wires ; to prevent obstructions of footways, crossings, and carriage ways ; upon notice of a dangerous place in any highway, to place a red light there as a warning ; to notice the condi- tion of public lamps and electric lights ; to remove limbs and branches of trees obstructing the light of public lamps ; to prosecute and report violations of the ordinance against the erection of frame buildings ; to prosecute violations of the ordinances against overhead wires and nuisances ; to report work in progress on any highway that it may be ascertained whether it is being done under permit ; to care for lost children ; to examine doors and windows of stores and dwellings and see that they are properly fastened ; to watch vacant houses ; to prevent fast driving, or driving cattle through the streets during the day ; to prevent cruelty to animals ; to disperse all crowds of idle and disorderly persons ; to report accidents ; to report as to snow-covered pavements ; to preserve quiet on Sunday and report all in- fractions of the law concerning that day ; to prevent the sale of liquor on election day or Sunday ; to prohibit night processions of political organizations within ten days pre- ceding any general election ; to require bicycles to have a bell, and a lighted lantern after dark ; and, in general, to report all occurrences that may be of interest to the bureau. Persons begging or asking charity, with no fixed place of residence or business, are liable to arrest and confinement to labor in the county jail or workshop. Females, minors, and blind or deaf and dumb persons, or cripples, are exempt from arrest under these provisions. Vagrants are provided with lodgings at nine district station-houses and at several "wayfarer's lodges," the latter supplying supper and breakfast. Each vagrant is compelled to saw and split an eighth of a cord of firewood in return for his lodging. Department of Pubuc Safety 169 Officers are not to receive any reward except for extra services, and then only with the director's permission. It is unlawful for any officer to perform any service in citizen's dress, or to engage in any other business or profession. The police force is required to co-operate with the fire department by preserving peace at all fires, protecting prop- erty from plunder and preventing persons from hindering firemen in the performance of their duties. The police force clears the streets in the vicinity of a fire, and places ropes across them, forming an enclosure into which no person is permitted to enter except firemen, occupants of property, fire insurance agents with authorized badges, and newspaper reporters with accredited cards. Policemen give the alarm of fire and report all particulars in relation to it. In comparison with other cities of the same population, the police duty in Philadelphia is comparatively greater because of the great area and number of houses. * In propor- tion to the population the number of policemen is compara- tively small, and yet the work is claimed to be more efficient than in other cities of the same population. It has been confidently asserted that there is no other city of any mag- nitude in the world whose inhabitants enjoy such peace and security from disorder and crime as do those of the city of Philadelphia. Howard D. Ross. 3. — Bureau of Fire. The history of the fire department in the city of Philadel- phia begins almost with the settlement of the State. Within a year thereafter a conflagration in the home of some newly- arrived Germans caused sufficient damage to deserve record. The principal cause of fire in those days was the practice of burning out chimneys to clean them. Conflagrations became * There are 775 night beats, covering an area of 139 square miles. The largest area embraced in one beat is six square miles, while the smallest is one-six- hundredth of a square mile. 170 Government op Philadelphia so frequent from this cause that the Assembly in 1700 en- acted a law to the effect that any person who set his chimney on fire, or let it get so foul as to blaze out from the top, should be subject to a fine of forty shillings. The money raised from such fines was to be used in the purchase of proper apparatus for extinguishing fires. Each householder was further ordered to provide and keep at his house ' ' a swab at least twelve or fourteen feet long, as also two leather buckets, to be ready in case of accidents by fire." In 1 71 8 the city acquired its first fire engine, buying it for ^50 of Abraham Bickley, an alderman and member of the Common Council. Where he got it is not known. The mayor was directed to " provide a suitable place for keeping ye same from ye weather," and one corner in the yard of the Friends' Meeting house, at the corner of Market and Second streets, was chosen as the most convenient and cen- tral spot. The machine bore no name other than ' ' The City Engine." * The next move in the line of precaution against fire was made in November, 1720, when James Henderson was appointed by the Common Council to be public chimney- sweeper. As a result of a fire on Fishbourn's wharf, on the Dela- ware River, below Walnut street, early in 1730, which caused a loss of ^5000, the Common Council, in May of that year, voted that there should be purchased three engines, 400 leather buckets, twenty ladders and twenty-five fire hooks with axes.f Two of the engines were bought in England. The construction of the third was entrusted to Anthony Nicholas, a Philadelphian, who, after five years of diligent labor, completed an engine, and was then referred * It is believed that this engine yet exists. At Bethlehem, Pa., there is an ancient engine bearing the name of the maker, " Lond I^mdon, 1698." It formerly belonged to the city of Philadelphia, and was sold when the necessity for more powerful machines arose. As late as 1848, it was successfully used in extinguishing a fire at the Young ladies' Seminary in Bethlehem. t To pay for this apparatus a tax of two pence per pound and eight shillings per head was assessed on the inhabitants of the city. Department of Public Safety 171 to the "gratuity " of the magistrates and assessors, because ' ' some parts are made of wood which ought to have been of brass." Philadelphia's first volunteer fire company was organized at the suggestion, if not under the leadership, of Benjamin Franklin. It was known as the Union Fire Company, and was organized December 7, 1736. Franklin and several other prominent men of the day were active members. Their apparatus comprised buckets, bags, hooks, ladders and one engine. In a list of all the volunteer companies made in 1791 , this company stands first as follows : ' ' Union Fire Company, founded December 7, 1736 ; having thirty members, one engine, two hundred and fifty buckets, thir- teen ladders, two hooks, no bags and one eighty-foot hause." * It is probable that this company was in active service until 1820. The formation of the Union Fire Company marked an epoch in the history of the city's efforts to provide security against fire. The company was in high favor with the pub- lic and many citizens wanted to become members, but its constitution restricted the membership to thirty, and in con- sequence a new company, the Fellowship, was organized, January, 1, 1738. Several other companies of like character and purpose were organized soon afterward. One of these companies in action would provoke laughter to-day. Perched about on the galleries of the engine, the pumpers, as the water was poured into the cistern by bucketsful, forced it through the short goose-neck with which the line- man directed the stream as best he could from his position on the engine. Up to 1800 the only apparatus used by the city for the extinguishment of fires consisted of fire engines, with buck- ets, and a few pieces of hose in possession of the Humane, the Delaware and the Reliance Fire Companies. The * This word " hause " probably referred to rope for pulling the engine, as hose was not used for some time after this. 172 Government op Philadelphia hooks, ladders and fire escapes in service belonged to the engine companies. The introduction of the Schuylkill water in 1800, and the setting up of fireplugs and hydrants in 1803 led to the use of hose. Its use began with the organi- zation of the Philadelphia Hose Company, December 15, 1803. After hose came into general use, the fire companies gradually abandoned the use of buckets ; and as many of these useful vessels were on hand, separate organizations, known as "bucket companies," were formed.* In 1800 the Philadelphia Fire Association, consisting of twenty-three companies, was organized for the better regu- lation of modes of extinguishing fires ; but the association lived only one or two years. The Fire Hose Association was organized in 1805 by the Philadelphia, the Good Intent and the Humane Hose Companies, f It adopted a set of rules for the conduct of the companies at fires, but it was unable to enforce them, and was dissolved in 1817. It was immediately succeeded by a new fire association, which appears likewise to have existed but a few years. The history of hose carriages is interesting. At first the engines that carried hose placed it loosely in their cisterns. But this was inconvenient ; and in 1800 we find the Assist- ance Fire Company, returning thanks " for their ingenious invention," to the engineers who had suggested the idea of a box in which to carry hose. The first hose carriage — for the Philadelphia Hose Company — was built by Patrick Lyon in 1804. It was simply a square box on wheels, holding 800 feet of hose. In August, 18 14, was built the first hose reel, a cylinder placed directly on the wheels of the carriage. The arched carriage for the hose reel, introduced by the * From 1818 to 1821, inclusive, fifteen of these companies were organized. t When hose was first used, its orthography was a subject of much disagreement. The various secretaries spelled it in their minutes hooze, hoaze, noose and hoase , as their fancy liked. There was organized the " Good Intent Hoase Company," and despite all usage to the contrary, it remained a " hoase " company until August, 1824, when, by special resolution, the secretary was ordered to spell the word according to modern form. Department of Public Safety 173 Phoenix Hose Company in 181 8, the three- wheeled carriage of the Neptune Hose Company, made in the same year, and the spring carriage of the Resolution Hose Company, made in 1 82 1, exhaust the inventions of the period in this line. In 18 1 8 there was formed the African Fire Association. Opposition arose, and a meeting representing the various companies was held July 9 at Still's tavern. Resolutions of remonstrance were adopted and a committee appointed to wait on the proper authorities and request them to prohibit the African company from opening the fireplugs. At a subse- quent meeting the committee reported that the water committee held no discretion in the matter, and a petition to Councils was therefore recommended. Meanwhile, some persons of color, who foresaw in the agitation probable trouble to themselves and their race, met and adopted reso- lutions deprecating the plans of the African Association. Accordingly the association met July 19, and, after avowing the rectitude of its intentions, resolved to dissolve and re- turn its funds to the subscribers. Even at the present time there is but one colored fireman in the city.* The middle of the present century had passed, and Phila- delphia firemen, like those of other cities, were still pump- ing laboriously on the old-fashioned hand- engine. But about 1857, a Cincinnati man, named letter, came East to exhibit the product of his genius — a steam fire engine. It was more than the people of Boston and New York could bear, and they brickbatted the engine and hooted its in- ventor. It is not surprising, therefore, that I,atter expressed pleasure with Philadelphians on account of their cordial reception of him, and the fair trial they gave his invention. The machine was cumbersome, and in many points defect- ive ; but it showed the possibilities of thes^eam fire engine. Accordingly, the Philadelphia Hose Company proposed a prize for the most practical plans for such an engine. Sev- eral were submitted, and the prize was finally awarded to * Company n, at I,oinbard and Eleventh streets, has one colored member. 174 Government of Philadelphia Joseph L. Parry, who still lives in Philadelphia. A contract was immediately awarded by the Philadelphia Hose Com- pany for the construction of an engine after Mr. Parry's model, and in 1858 was finished the Pioneer, Philadelphia's first steam fire engine, which has won many laurels in con- tests with the fire engines of sister cities.* The new invention met with much favor among the volun- teer companies, and between 1858 and 1871, when the city took charge of the fire department, they purchased and paid for forty-eight steam fire engines. During this period the city annually appropriated $2000 to each steam engine com- pany, and $400 to each hose company, and the same amount to each ladder company. Beyond this meagre assistance from the city, all the expenses of the volunteer companies were borne by themselves. But the volunteer system, no matter how perfect the appa- ratus or active and skillful the men, possessed inherent defects that made the best results impossible. The men were will- ing to sleep by the engines at night, but during the day they had other duties and could not make prompt and thorough fight against a fire. Accordingly, the volunteer system was abandoned in 1870, and the control of the fire department assumed by the municipal authorities. * In the same year in which the Pioneer was built, the city of Boston offered $500 to the steam fire engine that should make the best exhibition in that city. There were three entries : one from Boston, one from Manchester, and the Pioneer from Philadelphia. The Philadelphia engine was easily the winner, and returned amid much rejoicing with the prize. On its way home, the Pioneer stopped in New York to be exhibited before the insurance companies of that city. When all was ready for the exhibition, a fire broke out in the vicinity and the mayor suggested a practical test. The men in charge of the Pioneer accordingly started for the fire, but the jealousy of the New York companies was beyond restraint ; they turned their hose on the Philadelphians, and would not allow them to get near enough to the fire to use their apparatus. New York afterward sent an apology and a second invitation, but the invitation was declined. * It is interesting to note that twenty-five years later, in 1883, the Pioneer again visited Boston and threw water from fifty to sixty feet farther than the newest and best engine then in use there. Many excuses were given for the failure of Boston's new machine, but it is affirmed on good authority that after being twice overhauled it was still unable to do better work than the Pioneer had done. The venerable Pioneer is still in good condition, and may be seen at the house of the First Insurance Patrol, 516 Arch street, Philadelphia. Department of Public Safety 175 The Act of Consolidation in 1854 had given Councils power to organize a fire department, and the city had there- after exercised considerable authority over the volunteer companies. The ordinance of 1870, which organized a paid fire department wholly under the control of the city, pro- vided for its management by a board of seven commissioners, of whom five should be republicans and two democrats, three republicans and one democrat to be elected by Common Council, and two republicans and one democrat by Select Council. The commissioners appointed a chief engineer, five assistant engineers and as many subordinates as were deemed necessary, all the appointments being subject to confirmation by Select Council. New commissioners were elected every four years. The service under this new sys- tem, although at first sharply criticised by the adherents of the old volunteer system, is generally believed to have furnished the city better protection against fire than it had ever had before. AS ORGANIZED UNDER THE BULLITT BILL. By an ordinance of April 4, 1887, the fire department was organized under the new city charter as a bureau of the Department of Public Safety. The bureau is managed by one chief engineer and eight assistant engineers, with salaries of $3000 and $1500, respectively. For the faithful perform- ance of his duties the chief engineer must give security in the sum of $10,000. The chief and assistant engineers and the foreman of companies in the active discharge of their duties have the authority of police officers. All members of the Bureau of Fire must be persons of good moral character, and may continue in their respective positions during good behavior. They must be twenty-one years of age and legal voters in the city of Philadelphia, and cannot hold office of any kind under the United States or the commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Their appointment, which is made by the director of the Department of Public Safety, must be confirmed by Select Council, and they can 176 Government op Philadelphia not be removed for any political, religious orother sentiment so long as it does not interfere with the discharge of their duties. In the event of complaint against any member, the chief engineer summons a court of inquiry, which must consist of three members of the force, having rank equal to, or above that of, the accused. An impartial trial is held and a penalty recommended to the director of public safety. Dismissals must be countersigned by the director and the mayor, but for any less penalty the signature of the director alone is sufficient. The bureau is now composed of forty-one steam engine companies, six hook and ladder companies and two chemical engine companies.* Each engine company is composed of one foreman, one engineman, one driver, one fireman and eight hosemen ; each hook and ladder company is composed of one foreman, one tillerman, one driver and ten hosemen ; and each chemical engine company of one foreman, one driver and three hosemen. These men must be continually in or about the houses of their respective companies, except when unavoidably absent. Every man is allowed to be off duty one hour for each meal and every seventh twenty-four hours. A vacation, not to exceed two weeks in any one year, may be granted to any officer or employee of the bureau, although at present no employee is given a vacation of more than seven days in the year. Each steam engine company may have on its rolls four extra men and each hook and ladder company six extra men who are entitled to pay only when ordered on duty in place of absentees, their pay being deducted from the wages of the absentees. If a vacancy occur these extra men are eligible to promotion. The force now numbers nearly 600 men, whose salaries are as follows : foremen, $1150 ; enginemen, $1050 ; and drivers, tillermen, firemen, hosemen and laddermen, $2.25 per day for the first year, and $2.50 per day thereafter. * The two police tugboats, which are described in the Chapter on the Bureau of Police, have proved so efficient at fires that, a fire boat for the exclusive use of the Bureau of Fire is now in process of construction. Department of Pubuc Safety 177 The property of each steam engine company consists of not less than one steam fire engine, one hose carriage, and three horses, together with such other apparatus as is deemed necessary. Each of the hook and ladder companies has one ladder truck, two horses and all necessary ladders and implements. Each chemical engine company has one chemi- cal engine and two horses, the hose being carried on a reel attached to the engine. The chief engineer has sole control at fires over all officers, members and apparatus of the department, and all other persons present. He is authorized to direct all proper measures for the extinguishment of fires, protection of property and preservation of order. He is also required to transmit to the director of public safety all returns of officers, members and companies ; keep a fair and exact roll of the respective companies, specifying the time of admission and discharge, and the name, age, occupation and residence of each member ; and annually, in the month of January, or oftener, if required by Councils, report to them the condition of houses, fire apparatus and other property of the depart- ment, together with the names of the officers and the members of the various companies, the number of fires since his last report, the causes thereof, and the extent of the damage. In the absence of the chief engineer, an assistant engineer, designated by the chief, executes the duties of his office. The engines, hose carts, hook and ladder trucks and fuel wagons of the fire department, when driven on any passen- ger railway, in answer to an alarm of fire, have right of way thereon ; and all persons driving vehicles on such railway are required to turn entirely off the track. The conductors of street railway cars must cause them to stop immediately and keep them at a standstill until the fire apparatus has passed. An alarm of fire is sent from the box nearest the confla- gration, and through the operator in the Electrical Bureau is sent to all the companies and police station-houses in the 178 Government of Philadelphia city. Alarms are known as first, second, third, fourth and local. At the first alarm only those companies in the district* and one squad of policemen respond. If the fire assumes such proportions as to warrant it, a second alarm is given, to which adjoining districts respond, and so on until the whole force may be concentrated. Local alarms, which are called still alarms in some cities, are given directly to a company at its house by any person, when the fire does not demand the attendance of more than one company. In such a case no bell alarm is given and the useless calling of the other companies in the district is avoided. The popular idea that simultaneously with an alarm, all the doors con- fining the horses are thrown open by electrical attachments, is erroneous, yet the doors are so adjusted that the horses may be liberated from their stalls, and the company from the house as readily as one turns on or off an electric light. If the front doors of an engine house were thrown open immediately, it is probable that the horses would be in the street before they were attached to the apparatus. The engines are constantly connected with boilers in the cellars so that no time is lost in the generation of steam. The fire- men never remove their clothes while on duty, and have nothing to do but put on their rubber boots, coat and helmet, which they do en route to the fire. Alarms are interpreted by the number of taps on the bell, which corresponds with the number of the box from which it is sent. The time consumed in getting out of an engine house varies; ten seconds being the minimum, f * These " districts " must not be understood as separate units in the system, but only as including the companies within the scope of certain boxes ; for example, four engine companies, one hook and ladder company and three assistant engi- neers might answer an alarm from one box, while another box but a square away might call three of the same engine companies and one not included in the first instance, a different hook and ladder company and two of the same, and one other assistant engineer. t Company 20, housed at Tenth and Hunter streets, is credited with having been attached ready for service at Market and Thirteenth streets, in three and one-half minutes from the time a policeman pulled the alarm at 1 a. m. when all the men were in bed. Department of Public Safety 179 A comparison of Philadelphia's Bureau of Fire with the fire departments of other large cities indicates that it is the equal of any in efficiency, and superior to most in point of economy. For instance, in 1891 the expenses of the bureau were $653,521, whereas the smaller city of Boston spent in that year $1,041,729 on its fire department. It is a question if Philadelphia is not achieving economy in part by the sacri- fice of human interests more important than any number of dollars. The employees of its Bureau of Fire can at present have no family life worthy of the name, being kept night and day at their posts. The interests of humanity and good citizenship certainly appear to demand that the force of the bureau be increased until it shall be unnecessary to keep any fireman on duty for more than twelve out of each twenty- four hours. The desired result could be reached by increas- ing the membership of engine companies to sixteen, and of hook and ladder companies to eighteen, and the additional expense to the city would be less than $200,000. The ques- tion of reform along this line is worthy of immediate and serious consideration. _ Frank Livingstone Laird. 3. — Bureau of Health. The government of Pennsylvania was one of the first to recognize the duty of caring for the public health, and as early as 1774 an act was passed to prevent infectious diseases from being brought into the province. The next step was the establishment of a health office in Philadelphia by act of the legislature in 1794. In 1806, a Board of Health was established in Philadelphia and all prior health laws were repealed. The board consisted of five citizens : three from Philadelphia, one from Northern Liberties and one from Southwark, who were appointed by the Governor. It had under its control a port physician, a lazaretto physician and a quarantine master, who were also appointed by the Gov- ernor. Their expenses were paid by a county tax. 180 Government of Philadelphia In 1818, the Board of Health was made to consist of eleven members, six of whom were elected by the Councils of the old city ; two by the commissioners of the district of Northern Liberties, one by the commissioners of Penn town- ship, one by the commissioners of Southwark and one by the commissioners of Moyamensing. It had power to make rules and regulations concerning the lazaretto, and vessels and cargoes detained ; for the health office and public hospi- tals and for the manner of inspecting houses and vessels. It also had power to appoint officers to serve at the health office, the lazaretto and the city hospital, but the health offi- cer, lazaretto physician, quarantine master and port physi- cian were appointed by the Governor. The buildings near Bush Hill were declared to be a public hospital for persons infected with contagious diseases. By an Act of 1849, the term of service of the Board of Health, still appointed as before, was made three years. The board was a quasi- independent body, amenable only to State authority, from which its funds came and to which its accounts were presented. An Act of 1854 provided that each ward of the city should elect a member of the Board of Health. The property of the board was vested in the city and appropriations for its use were made by Councils. In 1855 the authority of the city over the board was fully recognized and confirmed by the Legislature . An Act of 1859 made the board consist of twelve reputable citizens appointed for the term of three years ; three by the Court of Common Pleas of the county, three by Select and three by Common Council, and three by the District Court. The "Bullitt Bill" in 1885, while leaving the powers and duties of the board unaltered, placed it under the charge of the Department of Public Safety and reduced the number of its members to five, who are appointed by the mayor and confirmed by Select Council, their term of office being three years. The director of the Department of Public Safety was made ex officio a member and president of the board, Department op Public Safety 181 with power to appoint, supervise and control all the subor- dinate officers and employees. The Governor still retains the appointment of the health officer, the lazaretto physi- cian, the quarantine master and the port physician, but they are under the control and direction of the Board of Health. The acts fixing the powers and duties of the Board of Health may be divided into three classes : (i) to prevent disease ; (2) to prevent unsanitary conditions ; (3) to aid the board in the administration of its functions. 1. The board can prevent the spread of contagion by pro- hibiting all communication with infected houses and fami- lies except by means of physicians, nurses and necessary messengers. Infected houses may be placed in the charge of a disinfector. Persons afflicted with pestilential or contagious diseases, if they cannot be properly attended at home, may, upon the advice and order of the port physician, or any other person authorized by the Board of Health, be removed to the municipal hospital * by the health officer, where they are kept until discharged by a permit signed by the physi- cian of the hospital. For the expenses of poor patients the board is repaid by the Bureau of Charities, but the charge must not exceed $3- per week per person. Patients having means and pro- perty are liable for their expenses unless exempted by the Board of Health. The Board of Health also receives for treatment in the municipal hospital, paupers and inmates of the county prison who are sick with contagious diseases. The Board of Health by a resolution has declared what diseases shall be considered pestilential and contagious, f and a report is required by law to be made to the health •The municipal hospital is at Twenty-first street and tehigh avenue, and was established by the Act of January 29, 1818. It has attached to it a medical atten- dant, steward, matron, nurses, etc. fThe diseases are: Asiatic cholera, relapsing fever, yellow fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or membranous croup, typhus or ship fever, epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis or spotted fever, small-pox and varioloid, typhoid or enteric fever ; or any other disease which may at any time assume, either generally or in some par- ticular locality, a pestilential character. 1 82 Government of Phii.adei.phia officer by any physician having under his care a person afflicted with any of them. A medical inspector receives these reports and selects such cases as require the attention of the board. A physician who neglects to report a conta- gious disease under his care is subject to a fine not exceeding $50.00. To prevent the introduction of contagious diseases from abroad, a vessel arriving from a foreign port between June 1 and October 1 is required, under penalty of a fine of $500, to come to anchor in the Delaware River near the lazaretto* and submit to an examination by the lazaretto physician and quarantine master before any part of her cargo or baggage is landed, and before any passenger leaves her or any person is permitted to go on board except the pilot; If the vessel is free from pestilential or contagious disease, the master receives a certificate of health, which he must deliver to the health officer of the city within twenty-four hours after the arrival of his vessel. But if it is learned that the vessel came from a port where a malignant or contagious disease prevailed, the vessel is detained at the lazaretto for such period as the Board of Health deems necessary for purifica- tion. The period of detention, by the Act of 18 18, is limited to twenty days. If any persons afflicted with a contagious disease are on board a vessel arriving at the port, the lazaretto physician causes them to be removed to the building provided by the Board of Health for their reception and is expected diligently and impartially to attend them. He is also expected to cause to be executed the orders of the Board of Health con- cerning the lazaretto and vessels, cargoes and persons under quarantine. * The lazaretto or quarantine station has been maintained for almost a century at its present site on the river bank above Darby Creek in Delaware County. By the act of January 39, 1818, the Board of Health was vested with full power and authority to make general rules, orders and regulations for the government and management of the Lazaretto and vessels, cargoes, and persons detained there or under quaran- tine. The Board of Health, under its general authority, opens quarantine at any time before June 1 and continues it after October 1. Department of Pubijc Safety 183 The quarantine master attends to the mooring of vessels detained, in order that they may avoid infection from other vessels under quarantine. He prevents personal intercourse between persons on board different vessels under quarantine and enforces the orders and regulations of the Board of Health. Between June 1 and October 1 the lazaretto physician, quarantine master, or other officers and servants of the laz- aretto, are not allowed to absent themselves from their places of duty without permission of the Board of Health, under penalty of forfeiting their positions and paying a fine not exceeding $500. As vessels from foreign ports submit to an examination at the lazaretto only between June 1 and October 1, during the intervening time they are examined by the port physician upon their arrival at Philadelphia. He also visits and examines any vessel in the port of Philadelphia upon receiv- ing information from the health officer, or any person whom- soever, that sickness of a pestilential or contagious nature exists or is suspected to exist upon her, or that any part of the cargo is infected with such diseases. If any persons on the vessel are found sick with contagious disease, they are removed by his authority to the lazaretto or any other safe place specified by the Board of Health, and he reports the condition of the vessel, cargo and crew to the Board of Health, which determines what course shall be pursued with regard to them. At the request of the Board of Health, or of the health officer, the port physician visits and examines houses or persons suspected of being infected with contagious diseases, and reports the result of his investigation. Whenever the Board of Health ascertains that any malig- nant or contagious disease prevails at any port or place in America, all communication by land or water with such port or place is subject to the control of the Board of Health. The board elects annually, twenty-four physicians to hold office for one year, whose duty it is to vaccinate gratuitously 184 Government of Philadelphia all persons in their respective wards who make application or are reported to them by the collectors of vaccine cases. Thirteen collectors of vaccine cases are elected annually by the Board of Health, their duty being to call on the families in the wards for which they are elected and inquire if the services of a vaccine physician are required. Each of the vaccine physicians keeps on hand a supply of genuine vac- cine matter for distribution without charge to all practicing physicians in Philadelphia who apply for it. An annual appropriation of $5000 is made to pay the vaccine physicians and collectors, and of $500 for vaccine virus. Inoculation of small-pox is not allowed except by special permission of the Board of Health. The inspection of meat and milk is an important duty of the Board of Health. For the inspection of meat the board employs a detective and patrolman, detailed from the Bureau of Police, and one veterinarian ; and for the inspection of milk, a chief inspector, four assistant inspectors, five col- lectors and a chemist. Milk is admitted to be a prolific means of conveying disease, but within a city into which it is brought from many distant places, no system of inspection can be effective. A uniform inspection of dairy farms, by law of the State, is necessary before there can be any certainty that the milk sold in any city is free from the germs of disease. The utmost that can be accomplished at present in Philadelphia is the prevention of adulteration and dilution. 2. "Under the second function of the Board of Health, the prevention of unsanitary conditions, the subject of nuisances is most prominent. To abate nuisances* caused by the keeping * What is a nuisance ? The Concord (N. H.) Board of Health has declared in a resolution that " strictly speaking any use of property annoying to another's rights is a nuisance. Still two things are necessary — a right and an injury. * * * The nuisance may not be injurious to health; it is enough that it is annoying and offen- sive to the senses. Most nuisances may be classified as violations of our right to pure air and water." In the case of the Commonwealth against Van Sickle, the Court declared that " a pig-sty in a city is a nuisance per se, and it is no defence that it has been in the same place for a long series of years and is connected with a large and flourishing manufacture." Department of Public Safety 185 of hogs or other animals, the board, by an act of April 5, 1849, was given authority to destroy the pens and to seize and deliver the animals over to ' ' the guardians for the relief and employment of the poor of the city of Philadelphia," for the use of the poor. The guardians, on notice of the Board of Health, must receive the animals and pay the expenses of their removal. But nothing in the act is to be construed to interfere with the keeping of well regulated markets for the purchase and sale of any cattle excepting swine. By an act of April 5, 1849, the Board of Health was given power to remove the causes of nuisances, and it was decided by the courts in the case of Kennedy against the Board of Health (2 P. S., 366,) that " the Board of Health have final jurisdiction in determining the fact of a nuisance which they order removed." The expense of removing any nuisance was made, in 1830, a lien upon the premises from which the nuisance was removed, but to obtain a valid lien it was decided (Baugh vs. Sheriff, 7 Phila. 82), that the board must proceed strictly in accord with the Act of January 29, 1818, which gave the board, or a committee of its members, power to enter and search all houses, stores, cellars and other enclosures where they may have just cause to suspect any nuisance to exist, provided that they first obtained a warrant from a justice of peace founded on the complaint of two householders. For the inspection of nuisances the director of public safety has appointed a chief inspector; a clerk and twenty assistant inspectors. The Act of January 29, 1818, gave the Board of Health power to remove from the streets, wharves, docks or other parts of the city any nuisance which in its opinion has a tendency to endanger the health of the citizens, and the ex- pense of such removal was made a lien upon the premises from which it was removed, but it has been the contention of Councils that the board was authorized only to employ the fund granted it for the removal of nuisances from private 1 86 Government op Philadelphia property, on which a lien could be filed. A nuisance on the highways, it is contended, can only be removed by the con- tractors for cleaning streets. The board has frequently claimed the broader interpretation of its powers, but the matter has not been tested in the courts and the interpreta- tion of Councils* has prevailed. The Act of 1818 further provides that the Board of Health shall have power, as often as it deems best, to cause all privies within the limits of Philadelphia to be emptied, or corrected with lime or otherwise, at the expense of their owners. Owners neglecting to comply with the orders of the board are liable to a fine of not less than $20 nor more than $200, to be recovered in any court having jurisdiction. By ordinance of September 23, 1864, it was declared a nuisance to construct or maintain within two feet of an adjoining lot any privy or vault or sink receptacle of offen- sive matter. The penalty for violation of this ordinance is $5 and the vault must be filled up at the expense of the owner by the building inspectors. The Board of Health grants licenses to clean privies. It adopts rules 'for the construction of house drainage and cess- pools, and establishes a system of inspection over all house drainage and cesspools, and appoints such inspectors as in its judgment may be necessary, at their compensation, being subject to the approval of Councils. There is a chief inspector of house drainage, a clerk of house drainage and six assistant inspectors. 3. Under the third head fall the laws that, although they do not concern directly the conserving of the public health, are, however, auxiliary and necessary for the conducting of the general business of the bureau. All moneys collected by the board must be paid into the city treasury and all sums paid on account of its expenses * The appropriations of Councils designate the purpose for which the money is to be used. The Board of Health from 1869 to 1876 had the power of Councils in regard to street cleaning, removing ashes and garbage, etc., and might enter into contracts therefor and on default of the contractors might order the street! cleaned and draw on the treasury. These duties now belong to the Bureau of Street Cleaning under the Department of Public Works. Department of Public Safety 187 are paid by the city treasurer upon orders drawn against appropriations regularly made by Councils.* No contract made by the board is binding on the city unless a warrant is issued therefor and countersigned by such officer as Councils by ordinance designate. The board has the same power for the collection of all debts due to the Bureau of Health as the receiver of taxes has for the col- lection of delinquent taxes. The health officer is required at seasonable hours, on each week day, to open a public office at a place designated by the Board of Health, where its meetings are held, f He also enforces and executes the regulations and instruc- tions of the board. It is his duty to collect penalties. He also collects fees for services rendered in issuing permits or certificates of health to vessels or to the collector of the port, and from the captains of vessels arriving at Philadelphia from certain ports named in the Act of 1818. These fees are turned into the city treasury. The health officer is required to give a bond and to account for all moneys coming into his hands. The president, secretary and chief clerk of the Board of Health, and the health officer have power to administer oaths and affirmations in conducting the business of their respect- ive offices. By the Act of January 29, 1818, any person convicted of willfully and knowingly obstructing or resisting the Board of Health, or any member thereof, or any person by it appointed, in the execution of the powers given them, or in the performance of duties enjoined by law and the rules and regulations of the Board of Health, is subject to a fine of not more than $500. The prosecution is conducted by the city solicitor and the fine is turned over to the city treasury. Included in the work of the Board of Health is the keeping of a registry of the marriages, births and deaths in the city. The registry is under the charge of the health officer. "The amount paid into the city treasury in 1892 was $51,671,28. The expendi- ture of the bureau in the same period was $178,936.25. t The health office is in the City Hall. There is a sub-office at 604 Sansom Street, which issues vessel certificates for entrance to the Custom House. 1 88 Government of Philadelphia A certificate signed by the health officer, and bearing the seal of the health office, is admitted in any court of the State as prima facie evidence of the marriage, birth or death to which it certifies. The record of marriages is obtained by the health officer from clergymen, magistrates, etc., whose duty it is to fur- nish him with reports every three months. The law pro- vides that the return shall be in the form of a certificate setting forth the full name, birth-place, occupation, resi- dence, color and age of the husband, and the full name, color and age of the wife ; also the place where the marriage ceremony was performed. The health officer obtains a record of births by returns from midwives on the last Satur- day of each month ; and of deaths by certificates of a physi- cian, coroner or health officer, setting forth the name and age of deceased and cause of death. These certificates reach the health officer through the sextons of burial grounds. No sexton may receive a body for interment until the death certificate has been delivered to him. In order that the health officer may get complete and cor- rect returns of marriages, births and deaths, persons whose duty it is to make such returns are made liable, if they fail to make them, to a fine of $25. The health officer also has a register of the names and places of residence of all clergy- men, sextons of religious societies, and of other persons by whom the marriage ceremony may be performed, and of all physicians and midwives. This law makes it the duty of all such persons to report their names and residences to the Board of Health. The correctness of the returns greatly depends on the energy and vigilance of the health officer. The number of marriage licenses issued at the Orphans' Court furnishes a check in the case of marriages. The death returns are made quite accurately under existing arrangements, but to secure complete returns of births is difficult. Edwin I,. Blabon. Department of Pubwc Safety 189 4.— Bureau of Markets and City Property. The charge of property belonging to corporations was in the earlier times vested in the wardens, but commissioners of public property were spoken of in 1705, when Councils ordered the purchase of a lot of ground to be used " as a potter's field for the burial of strangers." In 1772 an act of assembly provided the means of paying the expense of building a workhouse of correction, building and repairing the public wharves, regulating the streets and erecting suita- ble markets. It was made the duty of a committee of aldermen to superintend the wharves and other public works. By an act of assembly in 1775 the clerks of the markets, who gave a bond for the faithful performance of their duties, were authorized to seize all articles exposed for sale found deficient in weight ; and by an act of 1789 the mayor was empowered to appoint one or more clerks of the markets, who were to have the right of weighing and inspecting articles exposed for sale within the market houses or in the provision stores. The control of public property was by this act vested in the control of the city commis- sioners, who had charge of the real property of the city, such as the real estate, markets, docks, wharves, etc., and also of the wells, pumps and lamps. It was also their duty to advertise for proposals before leasing any of the property of the city. In 1794 the district of South wark, by an act of Legisla- ture, was made into a corporation with fifteen commissioners empowered to employ a watch, to have the streets lighted, paved and cleaned, to erect market houses, school houses and public buildings, and to levy taxes. In 1803 the Legisla- ture passed an act creating a corporation to be styled ' ' the commissioners and inhabitants of that part of the Northern Liberties, lying between the west side of Sixth street and the river Delaware and between Vine street and Cohocksink Creek. ' ' Fifteen commissioners, to be elected by the people, were to have power over local enactments, street matters, wharves, etc. i go Government of Philadelphia In 1835 the mayor was authorized to appoint a commis- sioner of city property, who, under the direction of the committee on city property, had charge of the repairing and the improvement of real estate, market houses, wharves and landings belonging to the corporation, and also the superin- tendence of the public squares. The commissioner collected all rents (except those of the Girard Trust), and with the city commissioners superintended the prosecution of public works. The charge of all real estate was given to the Councils committee on city property by the ordinances cre- ating the general standing committees. The committee selected the commissioners, who appointed the several minor officers and had such other work assigned to them as the construction of bridges, railroads, the charge of the public clocks, etc. By many acts of the Legislature the municipal ordinances in regard to the building and the extending of market houses were sanctioned. On August 29, 1854, an ordinance was passed organizing the department of city property, at the head of which was a superintendent, chosen annually by Councils. He was entrusted with the care and renting of all real estate except that used for police and county purposes. He was required to report semi-weekly to the controller and to the Councils committee on city property, and all his collections were to be paid over to the city treasurer. He had the power, with the consent of Select Council, to appoint his various subordinates, such as collectors, superintendents and watch- men. The commissioner was required to furnish annually to the controller the amount of probable expenses of the department in the next ensuing year, and he was obliged to exhibit his books and papers whenever called upon by the mayor or controller, or by the committee of Councils. It was lawful for the city to make public sale, as rapidly as possible without sacrifice, of the public halls, lots and real estate vested in the city (not including trusts) which was not required for municipal purposes, and to apply the proceeds to the payment of the city debt. Department of Public Safety 191 By virtue of the legislative charter of 1789, the city com- missioners had the care of wharves, but by later acts the control of the Schuylkill and Delaware wharves was vested in the port wardens. Wharves and landings were put in charge of a separate department by an ordinance of Decem- ber 7, 1854. The superintendent, who was elected by Councils, was given charge of the erection, repairing and leasing of wharves. Proving unsatisfactory, the depart- ment was abolished after a two-years' trial, the duties being assumed by the commissioner of markets, who by an act of July 8, 1858, was authorized to buy in any city property sold under mortgage at a price not exceeding the amount of the mortgage. In 1867 the department of city property was merged into that of markets under the title of the " Department of Markets and City Property," Councils annually electing a commissioner. The commissioner of city property drew warrants, reported to the controller and paid all moneys to the city treasurer. In 1868 the additional duty was imposed upon him of collecting the interest due the city on bonds and mortgages.* In 1869 the confirmation of permits was added to the duties of the commissioner, and in 1870 the care of the pub- lic bath-houses, morgue and public squares. In 1873 the city arsenal came under the control of this department, and the term of the commissioner was lengthened to three years. The commissioner in 1877 was empowered to sell any city property not in use by the corporation. The proceeds of such sales were to be deposited in the sinking fund, and all sales had to be confirmed by Councils. In 1880 the issuing of licenses to hucksters and venders was given to this department. Under the Bullitt bill, which went into effect in 1887, the department of markets and city property first became ♦He was also required to cause the State House bell to be rung at midnight of July 3, one peal for each year of the nation's existence. An ordinance of June 14, 18S0, required that he ring the bell at noon of July 4, one peal for each state and territory in the Union. 192 Government of Philadelphia a bureau of the Department of Public Works, but by- ordinance in 1888 it was transferred to the Department of Public Safety. The bureau has charge of all city property except the new City Hall ; repairs and additions thereto ; paving in front of the city property ; repairs to market houses, wharves, landings, public urinals ; repairs to property owned by and used for city purposes ; repairs to the city burial-ground, including the crematory ; repairs to Independence Hall and the National Museum ; repairs and other alterations in public bath-houses ; repairs and cleaning of the public clocks ; cleaning and dredging of docks ; pay- ing of auctioneers employed by the city ; repairs and other alterations and improvements in the public squares ; clean- ing cesspools ; renting of the Orphans' Court room, city solicitor's office, and patrol and police stations ; renting of premises on which the sub-gas office is situated ; removing of ice and snow from the pavements in front of the State House row, public halls and squares ; supplying of ice to the several courts ; repairs and cleaning of the court rooms and rooms of city officers, and repairs of the furniture and the providing of new furniture for the same ; the procuring of new flags, poles, awnings, halyards, etc. ; supplying the citj^ morgue with stationery, gas and other expenses ; replacing trees, boxes and flowers around the public squares ; supplying of light and fuel to the various mili- tary organizations of the city ; the erection, alteration and repairs of station and patrol houses ; sale and pur- chase of city property ; issuing of farmers' and venders' licenses. At the beginning of each year the bureau sends into Councils a detailed list of the desired appropriations for the ensuing year. Each item has a specific sum assigned to it, and when that sum has been expended, further work on account of that item must cease unless a special appropria- tion is made by Councils. No money is paid directly to the bureau ; all moneys accruing from licenses being paid to the receiver of taxes. Department op Public Safety 193- The chief is assisted by a chief clerk, clerk and messen- ger, typewriter and clerk, a superintendent for each public square, for Germantown Hall, for the National Museum, and for the "City Burial Ground;" by a superintendent for each of the six bath-houses, a superintendent and a deputy superintendent for the city morgue and by clerks of the several markets. The policy of the city in regard to markets is to dispose of them as rapidly as possible. At present only four market houses are owned by the city. The North Second Street Market extends from Fairmount avenue to Poplar street on Second street. The South Sec- ond Street Market extends from Pine to South streets. The Washington Market is situated on Bainbridge street between Third and Fifth streets. The Wharton Market is on Moya- mensing avenue between Prime and Federal streets. The chief of the bureau reports annually in January to the director of public safety the receipts and expenditures of the preceding fiscal year. He is empowered to issue warrants for the payment of salaries of the officers of the bureau, and for the payment of its regular expenses. All leases of wharves and landings are drawn for from one to three years, as the committee on city property may deter- mine ; a longer lease can be granted only by ordinance of Councils. The chief has also under his control the renting of market stalls, and it is provided that a notice of ten days, whenever stalls are to be rented, shall be given in two or more public newspapers, or by bills posted at the corners of the market houses. He keeps a rent roll of markets, land- ings, wharves and stalls, and furnishes copies every month to the controller. The chief of the bureau exposes for sale to the highest bidder all leases for the renting of public wharves and land- ings ; if no bid be made at the designated time the chief is empowered to lease them under the supervision of the com- mittee on city property. The clerks of the markets give security for the faithful performance of their duties. Their duties are to keep a «3 194 Government of Philadelphia general supervision of the market houses and to test and weigh bread and other articles offered for sale. The officers and salaries of the Bureau of City Property- are : Chief, $3900 ; chief clerk, $1500 ; clerk and messen- ger, $900 ; typewriter, $500 ; clerk, $900 ; thirteen superin- tendents of halls, public squares, etc., at from $450 to $720 ; seven janitors at from $500 to $675; three watchmen of the courts, each $540 ; special officer of Independence Hall, $800 ; fireman for Independence Hall, $405 ; six superin- tendents of bath-houses, each $600 ; superintendent for the city morgue, $700 , a deputy superintendent, $470 ; twelve clerks of the markets, for whom Council's appropriated in 1892, $4810. The total valuation of the real estate owned by the city of Philadelphia (not including that held by the Board of City Trusts), as appraised by the Board of Revision of Taxes in 1892 is $44,823,574.* The appraisement for public squares is $4,346,400 ; for markets, $162,000; for vacant lots, $409- 230 ; school houses, $6,208,700 ; police stations, $658,500 ; the fire department, $300,000 ; dwelling houses, $83,000 ; armories, $120,000; wharves, $790,000 ; the potter's field and burial lots, $8300; county prison, $300,000 ; house of correction and the site of the new prison, $806,000 ; bureau of gas, $2,992,000 ; poor department, $1,587,000 ; Fairmount Park, $13,227,441. ; water department, $1,049,000 ; munici- pal hospital, $150,000 ; morgue, $26,000. The insurance policies on the city property amount to $184,700, of which $52,700 is on fire stations and $40,000 on the State House. There are forty-one rented wharves of the city, the annual rental from which is about $40,000. They are leased for one, three and ten years. Besides Fairmount there are twenty-eight parks and squares in the city, the total area of which is almost 300 acres. J. M. Haywood. * This total estimates only $10,000,000 for the City Hall whereas nearly {20,000,000 have been spent in its erection. Department of Public Safety 195 5.— Electrical Bureau. An ordinance of Councils in 1855 established what was known as the Police and Fire Alarm Telegraph, which was put into operation in the following year. It was under the control of a superintendent, who was elected for one year by a joint vote of Councils. He had the right to appoint an assistant. For a time messages were received and trans- mitted by the lieutenants and sergeants in the various police stations, but this proved unsatisfactory and Mayor Vaux in 1856 appointed operators specially for the purpose, selecting them from the police force. Two operators were appointed to each police district station-house and four at the central station. The operators at the central office received all alarms and by means of a speaking tube announced the fire alarms to the bell-ringer in the bell tower of Independence Hall. The first house alarm was used in the quarters of the American Hose Company in 1857. It consisted simply of a battery and a bell, but was found to be of little practical value. Various improvements have been made since then. The main line alarm with small bell attachment, and the eight inch gong were both invented by Mr. Walker, the present chief of the bureau. The system now in use is the fourth that has been tried. Police alarms are sent direct from the box to the station-house of the district in which it is located, while fire alarms go to the central station and are thence sent to every engine house, truck house and police station-house in the city, including the houses of the two insurance patrol companies. The Police and Fire Alarm Telegraph was made a distinct city department in 1868, the superintendent having sole power of appointment of employees. By ordinance of July 11, 1884, the department was designated the Electrical Department. Under the new charter of 1885 the department became a bureau of the Department of Public Safety, and the chief was made responsible to the director of public safety, by whom he and his assistants are now appointed. 1 96 Government op Philadelphia The headquarters of the bureau is in the new City Hall. It employs forty-four persons at an annual expense for sala- ries of $52,340. The earnings of the bureau in 1892 amounted to $23,782. The officers and salaries are : Chief, $5000 ; manager, $3000 ; assistant manager, $1600 ; clerk, . $2000 ; two assistant clerks, at $900 and $750 each ; drafts- man, $1000; chief inspector, $1240; six inspectors, each at $1220; seven operators, each $1140; seven linemen, each $890 ; ioreman, $940 ; electrical plumber and assistant, $1040 and $940 respectively; battery-man, $900; two jani- tors, each $250. Within the city there are 4,743.37 miles of overhead wire used for telegraph, electric lighting and telephone purposes, and these wires are supported by 15,516 poles.* There are, also, 1,769.82 miles of wire underground, making a total of 6,536.56 miles of wire in use in the city for purposes of lighting, communication, etc. Of the poles 6337 belong to the city, and 9179 to other parties. Of the overhead wires 980.25 miles belong to the city, 756.33 miles to electric light companies, and 3,006.79 miles to telegraph and telephone companies. Of the underground wires 391.2 miles belong to the city. During 1892 there were transmitted over the wires belong- ing to the city over 400,000 messages. A comparison with the work in 1856, when 9,000 messages were transmitted, shows the growth of the bureau since that time. During 1892 there were transmitted 3,147,409 police signal calls, and 601 fire alarms. The construction of all lines of telegraph, telephone, electric light wires, etc. , or the changing of the route of any such lines, is carried on under the supervision of the chief of the Klectrical Bureau. When permission has been granted by Councils to any person or corporation to construct lines requiring the erec- tion of poles on the streets or highways of the city, an application must be made to the chief of the Electrical * These figures do not include poles and wires owned by railroad companies. Department of Public Safety 197 Bureau, specifying the number and size of the poles and their proposed location. The chief issues a license in accordance with the specifications submitted, or with such modifications as he deems advisable. Such a license must also be procured whenever any poles along an established route are to be replaced. A fee of $5 for each pole erected must be paid to the city treasurer. At least once each year it is the duty of the chief of the Electrical Bureau to cause an examination to be made of all the poles erected within the city, that any defective or dangerous ones may be removed. All telegraph poles erected within the city are numbered and marked with the name or initials of their owners ; and on or before the first Monday in February of each year the owners must make application to the chief of the Electrical Bureau for license to maintain poles another year. For each pole thus licensed one dollar must be paid to the city treasurer. Persons attaching lines or fixtures to any of the poles belonging in whole or in part to the city must, on or before the first day of March of each year, certify to the chief of the Electrical Bureau the number and location of such attach- ments, and pay to the city treasurer fifty cents for each attachment. Parties controlling any sort of lines or cables, for lighting, communication or other purposes, are required, on or before the first Monday in April of each year, to certify to the chief of the Electrical Bureau the number of miles of such wires, and pay $5 a year for each mile or part thereof of each and every conductor for lighting purposes, and $2.50 a year for each mile or part thereof of each and every con- ductor for telephone or telegraph purposes. Persons desiring to construct underground conduits to hold wires for communication or other purposes, must first file an application with the Board of Highway Supervisors, with a general plan showing the location of the proposed conduit and so far as practicable that of all structures 198 Government of Philadelphia existing under the streets or highways which they wish to occupy. Upon approval by the Board of Highway Supervis- ors, the plan is drafted into the form of an ordinance and submitted to Councils. The construction and maintenance of such conduits is under the supervision of the chief of the Electrical Bureau, and is subject to his approval as well as to the regulations of the Board of Highway Supervisors. Upon the passage of an ordinance granting the privileges of construction, the persons so privileged give a bond, drawn and approved by the city solicitor, in the sum of $5000 for the proper repairing of openings made in the streets by them, and as surety in case of damage to gas or water mains, or sewers. A certificate of approval must be furnished by the city solictor to the Board of Highway Supervisors before a permit for construction is issued ; and the person to whom the privilege is granted must pay to the city treasurer $50 for printing the ordinance. Frank Livingstone Laird. 6.— Bureau of Building Inspectors. The Bullitt bill in 1885 provided that the Board of Build- ing Inspectors should continue as it was then constituted. In this particular instance the Bullitt bill was defective, for at that time the board with its three members was entirely inadequate for the proper performance of the duties required of it. This fact became more apparent as the city grew, and in 1889 the Legislature passed an act providing that in cities of the first class the Board of Building Inspectors should consist of seven members. The present bureau is constituted in accordance with the Act of 1889. The city is divided into six districts, to each one of which an inspector is assigned. The seventh inspec- tor is the president of the board. He exercises a general supervision over the other inspectors and superintends the Department of Public Safety 199 office work, which consists principally of the granting of building permits. The inspectors must be practical builders, bricklayers, stonemasons or carpenters. They are appointed by the director of public safety, to whose department the bureau is attached. The salaries of the inspectors are fixed by Coun- cils and are at present $2000 each. The board is allowed a secretary at a salary of $1600, a clerk at .$1000 and a mes- senger at $600. The two latter offices are sometimes held by the same person. The bond required of the inspectors was originally $10,000, but by an act passed April 11, 1893, it was reduced to $5000. Meetings of the board are held every Monday at 3 p. m. in its office in the City Hall, at which time appeals from the decisions of the inspectors may be considered. This board is the only one connected with the city govern- ment of which the mayor is not an ex officio member. The building inspectors are governed by a series of acts of assembly and ordinances dating back to the consolidation of the city in 1854, when the board first came into exist- ence. Each inspector is required to inspect from time to time all houses in course of erection or alteration in his district. He must not only inspect the superstructure, but must see that the foundations are properly laid. His duties cease when the walls are completed and enclosed. Laws are in force governing the thickness of the walls of buildings of various heights and it is the duty of the inspectors to see that they are complied with. Buildings cannot be erected on streets less than thirty feet in width and dwellings must have an open yard space of at least 144 square feet. A number of regula- tions tending to lessen the possibility of loss from fire must also be enforced by the building inspectors. A permit must be obtained by persons wishing to erect or alter a building. The application must be accompanied by a written statement of the location and nature of the build- ing or alteration. If buildings are intended for use as;places of 200 Government of Philadelphia worship, hotels, public halls, theatres or schools, plans must be submitted showing the modes of ingress and egress, and in case the inspectors disapprove of the plans they may decline to issue the permits. The fee for a permit for a building not exceeding thirty feet in height and eighteen in width, nor covering more than 1600 square feet of ground is $2. It increases with an in- crease in any of these dimensions. The penalty for erecting or altering a building without first obtaining a permit is $25. When requested, an inspector is required to give the owner or contractor his certificate that the building has been properly constructed. J. Clark Moore, Jr. 7.— Bureau of Boiler Inspection. By an act passed May 7, 1864, the mayor is given the power to appoint, with the consent of Select Council, a com- petent person to be chief inspector of stationary engines in the city of Philadelphia. The act provides that the candidates must first be examined by a commission of five persons "either practically engaged in the manufacture of steam engines and boilers, or scientific experts familiar with their management, ' ' who shall report the results of the examina- tions to the mayor. Select Council is prohibited from con- firming the appointment of any nominee until he has been reported by the examining commission as qualified for the position. The act also gives Councils the power to make such rules and regulations as shall be found necessary to carry out the provisions of the act ; to provide for such assistants and other officers as they may deem necessary ; to fix the rates of compensation for the inspector and other officers, and to establish the fees for services, which shall be paid into the city treasury. The chief inspector enters upon the performance of his duties on the first Monday of July and serves until his Department of Public Safety 201 successor is duly qualified. Before assuming the office lie is required to give a bond in the sum of $10,000. An ordinance passed July 13, 1868, requires the inspector to be a person who has had practice in the construction of steam engines and boilers and experience in their manage- ment. The inspector or his assistants must not be interested in the manufacture or sale of any appliances connected with steam engines and boilers. The salary of the chief inspector is $2250 per annum and the bureau is permitted to incur expenses for the transport- ation of instruments at an amount not exceeding $2000 per annum. The ordinance of 1868 allows the inspector five assistants, a clerk and a messenger. In accordance with the Bullitt bill the inspector is now appointed by the director of public safety. He must inspect all stationary steam engines and steam boilers before their erection and is permitted to examine them at any time there- after and must do so at least once every year. After the inspection he must give the user of the boiler or engine a certificate that it is safe if he has found it to be so. He must also in the case of boilers furnish a certificate after each exam- ination stating the maximum pressure at which the boiler may be worked. Another one of his duties is to examine applicants for ■engineers' licenses and grant such licenses when he finds the applicant to be competent. These licenses must be renewed yearly. All moneys collected for charges must be paid to the city treasurer. Certificates of inspection from any of the boiler insurance companies incorporated by the State of Pennsylvania must be accepted by the inspector in lieu of the inspection required by law. The penalty for using a boiler without a certificate is a fine not exceeding $5000 and imprisonment not exceeding two years, together with liability for all damages. J. Clark Moore, Jr. X.— TAXES AND FINANCE. Receiver of Taxes. fHIJ office of receiver of taxes was created by the Act of Consolidation in 1854. The city's first charter con- ferred no general power to levy taxes, the legislature retain- ing it exclusively, and granting to the city the power of taxation for specific purposes only. The collectors of taxes were first appointed, by ordinance in 1791, by the city com- missioners; then by the mayor, by an ordinance of 181 1; and finally by the Councils committee on finance, by an ordinance of 1843. The next change was made by the Act of Consolidation. According to the first ordinance concerning collectors,, it was provided that the city commissioners should levy taxes in accordance with the county assessment, duplicate lists of taxable citizens being furnished to the collectors. In 1806, the collectors were authorized upon order of the mayor, recorder and aldermen to collect delinquent taxes by distress and sale ; but it was not until 1824 that taxes were made a lien from date of assessment ; they had priority to judg- ments, but not to mortgages. An act of 1845 required that taxes, to remain a lien over five years, must be registered before July 1, and suit brought to recover them. The early ordinances required the city treasurer to demand and receive all moneys of the corporation, to keep distinct accounts, to present quarterly accounts of receipts and dis- bursements, to examine tax lists and report delinquent tax col- lectors, to preserve countersigned duplicates of receipts, and to exhibit the same to the Councils committe on accounts and finance, and to the city commissioners. A discount for the prompt payment of taxes was allowed at an early date. The Taxes and Finance 203. rate of discount was fixed by Councils, and for some years before 1861 was as high as twelve per cent. In 1886, Coun- cils fixed the rate at one per cent if the tax was paid before June 30, and for taxes paid after that date provided a sliding scale of penalties equivalent to an interest charge of one-half of one per cent a month for the first four months and one per cent a month thereafter. The Act of Consolidation, which created the office of receiver of taxes, provided that he should be elected bien- nially by the people, but his term has since been lengthened to three years. He is required to give bond to the amount of $40,000, and to collect and receive all taxes, both city and State, and public assessments payable within the city. He was invested by the act with all the powers already con- ferred upon the collectors ; and was authorized to employ the assistance of clerks and to appoint deputy receivers in various wards and districts, who were to be in some suitable place for the receipt of taxes for at least two days in June and each succeeding month, the time and place to be pub- lished at least three times in two newspapers. A deputy receiver was required to give bond in the sum of $1000, and was allowed for compensation two and one-half per cent of all regular taxes collected and five per cent of delinquent taxes, with seventy-five cents on each bill. The receiver of taxes also appointed a collector of delin- quent taxes who had to give security in the sum of $30,000, and as compensation was allowed five per cent of all moneys collected. It was his duty to collect all delinquent taxes from lists given him at the end of each year, and to report monthly to Councils the amount collected. It was claimed by many that the creation of this office was unnecessary on the ground that the receiver of taxes was armed with ample powers for the collection of delinquent taxes, and that Coun- cils had authority to furnish him with an adequate staff. In 1 879, the office became the subj ect of an investigation by Coun- cils, and the report of the finance committee showed that up to 1877 there were outstanding delinquent taxes amounting 204 Government of Philadelphia to $9,795,149; that in the list of delinquents were many- persons abundantly able to pay, some of them holding high official position ; that much money had been lost to the city by the neglect and refusal of the collectors to file liens ; that the moneys collected were not paid daily to the treasurer as required by law ; that the emoluments accruing to the col- lector amounted to eleven per cent, instead of five per cent as allowed by law ; and that the net profits of the office amounted in 1878 to $147,500. Common Council immedi- ately adopted a resolution declaring ' ' that the retention of all fees and costs in excess of five per cent by the collector was illegal," but the resolution was defeated in Select Coun- cil. A bill was introduced into the Legislature in 1879, legal- izing the previous conduct of the office, and a resolution passed both branches of Councils, calling upon the Gov- ernor to veto it, but despite the protest it became a law. This act, besides legalizing the previous conduct, directed the collection of all delinquent taxes by sale of goods on the premises, whether belonging to tenants, executors or trustees. The collector was authorized to proceed against real estate, etc. , and all registered taxes were declared a lien until the tax bill was paid. The enormous emoluments of the office of collector of delinquent taxes, at length excited a strong feeling against it, which resulted in 1881 in the passage of an act to merge it fully in the office of receiver of taxes. This act, how- ever, was declared at variance with Article III., Section 6, of the State constitution, in that, by implication, it transferred to the receiver the powers and duties conferred by various acts without specifically re-enacting such acts. Two years later, another act, drawn to cover the legal objections, was passed, effectually abolishing the office and conferring on the receiver the powers necessary for the efficient collection of delinquent taxes. In the meantime the receiver of taxes elected on the reform ticket in 1882, John Hunter, removed the collector of delinquent taxes, and the question was raised as to his Taxes and Finance 205 power to do so during the term for which he had • been appointed. The Supreme Court held, ' ' that by virtue of Article VI. of the constitution appointed municipal officers might be removed at pleasure of the power by which they were appointed ; that the collector of delinquent taxes was such an office, subject to removal by the receiver, and that it was the duty of the Councils to approve the bond of such successor as might be appointed ; in the event of their refusal to do so, the city might be enforced by mandamus." Pending the final abolition of the office, the post was filled by an appointee of the receiver, who agreed to turn over the bulk of the fees, beyond a reasonable salary, to the treasury. A candidate for the office of receiver of taxes, to be eligible, must have been a citizen of Philadelphia for seven years prior to his election, unless absent on public business. Recent legislation has made some changes in the duties of the receiver. He is now required to make returns only to the city controller, who audits his accounts at the expiration of his term. Returns of the delinquent taxes must be made monthly, but "desk returns" are required daily. He has to furnish the city solicitor a list of claims unpaid within the time prescribed by law, against which liens may be entered. Finally, the duty of collecting water rents and gas bills has been transferred recently from the gas and water bureaus to the Department of Receiver of Taxes. Thus the receiver collects taxes of all kinds within the municipal bounds and pays the State taxes to the city treasurer, who pays them to the State by July 25 of each year, the city receiving five per cent and one per cent for the collection, but allowing the five per cent to those tax-payers who pay before July 25. Geo. W. Kendrick, 3d. 1. — Board of Revision of Taxes. It is an important feature of the tax system of Pennsylvania that State and county derive their income from different sources. The State taxes are laid chiefly on the loans of 206 Government of Philadelphia counties, municipalities and corporations, on the stock and receipts of corporations, and on money let out at interest by individuals ; all real estate, however, which is not exempted by law, is relinquished to the counties for taxation for their own purposes. The effect of this feature on the valuatipn of property for purposes of taxation is very important ; when State and county both obtained their revenue from the taxa- tion of real estate, and the valuation was left to the counties, the fear lest a county should pay more than its proportion of the State tax often led to low and unequal valuations, so that the State got but a small revenue, while the counties, being fully acquainted with the actual conditions, were able to obtain all the revenue necessary by increasing the rate of taxes for county purposes. Under the present system, how- ever, the counties are induced to make an approximately full valuation, with greater benefit to themselves and justice to the taxpayers. The fundamental functions of a County Board of Revision of Taxes are the assessment and equalization of taxes. By assessment is meant the valuation of property for the purpose of taxation. Equalization, according to Justice Dixon, ' ' requires that the tax exacted from each person owning or possessing property of the class assessed, shall bear the same proportion to the whole amount of taxes exacted from all persons having property of that class as the true value of each one's classified property bears to the true value of all the property." The system of assessment and equalization in Philadelphia County differs from that used in the other counties of Penn- sylvania. In the latter, these functions are performed by the county commissioners, who are elected by the people of the county and who have additional duties to perform. In Philadelphia all the officers in this department are appointed, and moreover, have no duties to perform except those imme- diately connected with the assessment and equalization of taxes. This difference is important ; the Philadelphia Board of Revision is able to devote all its attention to its important Taxes and Finance 207 functions and is not influenced by duties connected with other departments of the government, and moreover, the officers, being appointed, do not have to look for re- election to the people whose property they have to assess, but can proceed with their work fearlessly and without favoritism. The Board of Revision of Taxes consists of three members, who are assisted by forty-four assessors, a chief-clerk, one assistant and sixteen sub-clerks. The appropriation made by Councils in 1892 to pay the expenses of the department amounted to $127,200. The salaries of each member of the board is fixed by law at $4000, and of each assessor at $2000. As provided by an act of the Pennsylvania legisla- ture passed in 1867, the members of the Board of Revision of Taxes are appointed for terms of three years each by the Judges of the Court of Common Pleas. A majority of the members constitutes a quorum, and meetings are practically continuous, taking place almost every day. The board is required to divide the county into districts for the purpose of equalizing the labor of assessment ; and to rearrange or alter these districts, or create additional districts, whenever it thinks such action necessary ; to appoint two assessors for each of these districts ; to report to Councils, on or before August 15 in each year, the aggregate value of all property taxable for city purposes ; to report to the State revenue commissioners the aggregate value of all property taxable for State purposes ; to make out a complete statement of all persons required to pay either State or county taxes, together with the amount which each person is required to pay ; to furnish the receiver of taxes with a duplicate and the city controller with a triplicate copy of this statement, as early as practicable in the year for which the taxes are assessed, to send annually to the secretary of internal affairs a statement, made out in tabular form by assessment districts, showing the amount of property in each assessed for county purposes, together with the total amount assessed for the county, and also the debt of the 208 Government op Philadelphia county ; to regulate and rearrange when necessary the numbers of all houses ; and finally, to hear appeals and applications of tax-payers. The decisions of the board are subject to appeal to the Court of Common Pleas, whose deci- sion is final. The assessment districts have no connection, except incidentally, with the wards of the city. For each district, two assessors are appointed by the Board of Revision, one representing the majority and the other the minority political party of the district, so that no room is left for com- plaint on the ground of political prejudice. Assessors are not required to be residents of the districts in which they serve, and are subject to removal for incompetency, neglect or refusal to perform faithfully the duties required by law ; no appointment or removal of assessors can be made, how- ever, without the concurrence of all the members of the Board of Revision. The term of assessors is five years, but the incumbents, as a general rule, are reappointed during good behavior. The assessors are called together and instructed in their duties annually, and on or about May 15 they proceed to make the annual valuation. They are required to make a list of all taxable persons residing in their respective districts, together with a just valuation of the taxable property of each, to be assessed either for State or county purposes. Those State taxes which are collected by county officers are levied upon ' ' money at interest ' ' and on ' ' carriages used for hire ; ' ' city or county taxes are levied upon real estate and upon ' ' horses and cattle over the age of four years. ' ' To each taxable person is furnished a "blank" containing a list of the forms in which ' ' money at interest ' ' may exist, blank spaces for the insertion of the amounts of these, and of the number and value of ' ' carriages for hire ' ' and ' ' horses and cattle ; ' ' the ' ' blanks ' ' also contain explanations and quotations from the laws to guide the taxpayer. When the statement is completed, it is sworn to by the taxpayer in the presence of the assessor, who is authorized by law to Taxes and Finance 209 administer the oath. The sworn statement of the taxpayer, therefore, is the only basis for determining the valuation of personal property, but in regard to real property, the assessor is guided by his own observation and experience. All real estate is taxable for county purposes except the roadbeds of railroads, which are exempted by law, and that used for public, charitable or religious purposes, which is exempt by the State constitution. Assessors, however, are required, according to the best of their knowledge and judgment, to estimate the value of all forms of property, whether exempt or taxable. Property is assessed at a little under what is held to be its market value in order to give the taxpayer the benefit of a doubt. A definite description is given of all property assessed, indicating the house numbers and dimensions, in accordance with the plan of the city drawn up by the chief engineer and surveyor. In order to discriminate between the rural and built-up portions of the city, real estate is divided into three classes : "city," " suburban " and " farm," and it is the duty of the assessors to designate to which class every property assessed belongs. In estimating real estate subject to ground rent, the taxes on the ground are to be assessed to the owner, except where there is a provision that they shall be paid by the lessee. In making assessments, the two assessors in each district work together, so that every taxpayer has his property assessed by a member of his own political party, and when the assessors cannot agree upon an assessment, the valuation is made by the Board of Revision ; the latter body has power also, to apportion taxes ratably upon dis- tinct properties when they have been assessed as one pro- perty. It is the duty of assessors to report to the chief engineer and surveyor any errors that they may discover in the city plan, to revise and rearrange the house numbers when required to do so by the Board of Revision, and to appear before the board whenever their attendance is required. Beside the performance of these specific functions, assessors are required to keep themselves informed of sales 2IO GOVERNMENT OF PHILADELPHIA or other transactions in their respective districts which may affect the value of property. The returns of the assessors must be completed before August 15 in each year, in order that the Board of Revision may be able to furnish Councils with an estimate of the city's revenue, upon which estimates the appropriations made by Councils for the coming year are based. A second return, however, is made by the assessors, on or before November 1, of the values of all new buildings which have been erected and not included in the previous return, as well as of other similar changes. All the returns are carefully examined by the Board of Revision, valuations are made where they have been omitted, errors are rectified, assessments are equalized by raising or lowering the valuations either in individual cases or by districts, and the appeals and applications of the taxpayers are heard. The Board of Revision then completes its statement to the receiver of taxes by calculating and posting the amount of tax owed by each taxpayer. Property in the built up por- tions of the city is taxed at the ' ' city ' ' rate, which is $1.85 per $100 ; " suburban " property at two-thirds of this rate, or at $ 1.23 }i per $100; and "farm" property at one- half the "city" rate, or at 92^ cents per $100; horses and cattle are taxed at the same rate as" city" property; money at interest and carriages for hire are taxed at the rate of four mills on the dollar. The statement, when com- pleted, is sent to the receiver of taxes, who collects both State and city taxes at the same time ; an exact copy of the statement is also sent to the city controller, who posts against each item the daily receipts of the receiver of taxes, thus making a very effective system of audit. The Board of Revision of Taxes occupies four rooms in the northeast section of the City Hall, where all the clerical work is performed and the records of the department are preserved, a complete list of all property, with the amount for which it is assessed, being arranged in a convenient form for reference. Taxbs and Finance 211 Such is a brief account of the Department of the Revision of Taxes as it exists to-day ; a short account of the modes of valuation of property, as revealed by the acts of Legis- lature passed since the foundation of the Commonwealth, will be of interest, as it will show the various steps that led to the organization of the department in its present form. The first law on the subject, entitled ' ' an act for raising county rates and levies," was enacted in 1700. It provided for the election of six assessors in each county, who, together with the justices of the county, were required to meet annu- ally and calculate the expenses of the county. The con- stables were required to bring in written certificates of the names of all persons within their respective districts, and deliver them to the assessors, who, having informed them- selves of the true valuation of the real and personal property of each taxable person, were authorized to lay a rate of one penny per pound. No important change was made in the system until 1724, when an act was passed providing for the election of three commissioners and six assessors in each county. These officers were to meet annually and calculate the debts and expenses of the county, to issue precepts to the constables requiring them to bring to the assessors the names of all persons residing in their respective townships, and a descrip- tion of the lands and tenements of each. The assessors were then to determine who were ratable and to make the valuations. Assessors were paid six pence on every pound of value assessed. Various supplements to this act were passed, but no material change was made until 1795, when an entirely new system was introduced, by which the people in each ward of a county were to elect one assessor and two assistant assessors, who were required to take accounts of the resi- dents of their wards and of their taxable property, and to make returns to the county commissioners every third year, the latter officers being authorized to revise, examine and correct the returns and calculate the amount of tax on each 212 Government of Philadelphia person at the rate of one cent on the dollar. The assessors were paid a fixed compensation of $i for each day's service. An act passed in 1799 shows an attempt to secure a just valuation by the provision requiring assessors to "value property for so much as they think it would bona fide sell for in ready money." The main provisions of this system remained in force until 1854, although several supple- mentary acts made verbal changes with the intent to obtain something nearer the real valuation. In 1854 the Board of Revision was composed of the three city commissioners, the city treasurer and the receiver of taxes ; each ward elected two assessors, who received an annual fixed salary of $400 each. The assessments continued to be made triennially. From this time on, low and unequal assessments and other evils in the system became so evident that a complete reorganization of the department was considered the only means of bringing about an improvement. The chief causes of the evil were the levy- ing of State and county taxes upon the same class of property and the election of assessors by the people whose property they assessed. The first attempt at reorganization was made in 1865, when it was enacted that the Board of Revision should consist of the senior city commissioner and two persons appointed by the Court of Common Pleas. This change caused little improvement, however, because the commissioners still retained control of the department, the two newly appointed members receiving no recognition. Two years later, there- fore, the commissioners were relieved of all share in the management of the department, and the present system was introduced, by which the three members of. the board are appointed by the judges of the Court of Common Pleas and annual instead of triennial assessments were ordered. The most important change, however, was made in 1866, when the State relinquished to the counties all real estate for purposes of taxation. The effect of all these changes soon became apparent ; the aggregate valuation of taxable Taxes and Finance 213 property, as returned, rose from $160,350,666 in 1867, to $445,563,317 in 1868, and this increase in the city's source of revenue caused the tax rate to fall from $4 in 1867, to $1.40 in 1868. The total valuation in 1892 was $752,763,382. The final change which brought the organization of the department to its present status was made in 1873, when the election of assessors by wards was discontinued and the Board of Revision was given power to divide the city into districts and appoint assessors for them. E. J. Dooner. 2. — Sinking Fund Commission. The city of Philadelphia occupies the anomalous position of a debtor, who is obliged to pay interest on debts that he has paid, and who, even though he buys his own notes, is unable thereby to reduce the sum total of his indebtedness. Inasmuch as the city's nominal indebtedness has reached the limit set by the constitution, further loans on a legal basis are apparently impossible, and will be in the future, except as outstanding loans mature or as the valuation of the city increases. The city's anomalous position is due to the method whereby it sought in the twenty years ending with 1876 to conform to the sinking fund requirements of the consolidation act of 1854, which provided that no debt should be incurred by any city without a cotemporaneous appropriation of a sufficient annual income or tax, exclusive of loans, to pay the interest and sink the principal in thirty years. In line with this act the constitution of 1874 provided that "every city shall create a sinking fund, which shall be inviolably pledged for the payment of its funded debt." This language prescribes definitely but two things ; first, that no city shall make a loan the life of which is over thirty years ; second, that a city, in addition to paying interest on its debt, must annually appropriate sums sufficient to wipe out the principal at maturity. The city of Philadelphia, 214 Government op Philadelphia however, through City Councils interpreted the language narrowly, and until 1876 made all of its loans identical in character in rate of interest and in sinking fund require- ments. Until 1876 all loans were made payable in thirty years, and the ordinances authorizing the loans provided that ii per cent of the loan should be appropriated annually " to a sinking fund, which fund and its accumulations are hereby specifically pledged for the redemption and payment of said certificates." An ordinance of 1855, re-establishing the sinking fund, pledged the city's real estate and other property to the payment of the funded debt, and required that the proceeds from the sale of any real estate or other property should be turned into the sinking fund. January 1, 1893, there were thirty -nine different sinking fund loans outstanding, which were issued between 1854 and 1876, under the authority of ordinances containing the provisions just quoted, all of them drawing six per cent interest and running thirty years ; and thirty-nine separate sinking funds were in existence to provide for their payment at maturity. In 1857 a Sinking Fund Commission was created by ordi- nance of City Council (June 19, 1857). The board consisted of the mayor, the city controller and one citizen elected by Councils. They were given charge of the sinking funds, and were directed to cause them to be invested without delay in certificates of the city debt, and were required to report quarterly to Councils the condition of the funds. Federal and State securities were in 1880 added to the list of per- missible investments. Thus arose the conditions that have placed Philadelphia in the position of a debtor whose assets cannot be used in any manner to offset or reduce his nominal liabilities. The funded debt of the city January 1, 1893, amounted to $53,988,045. On the same date the city's cash assets, including $27,381,790 in the sinking funds, amounted to $33,026,717, so that the net debt of the city was only $22,141,063. Of the amount held by the sinking fund Taxes and Finance 215 commissioners about $17,000,000 was in certificates of the six per cent loans of the city, and about $6,000,000 in certificates of three and four per cent loans of the city. Nevertheless, it is assumed that the city's indebtedness is actually $53,988,045, it pays interest on that amount, and inasmuch as that sum equals seven per cent of the city's assessed valuation, which the State constitution fixes as the limit of municipal indebtedness, it is held that the city can- not legally negotiate additional loans. Of the total debt $44,000,000 draw six per cent, $5,200,000 draw four per cent, and $4,600,000 draw three per cent. The three and four per cent loans are those negotiated subsequent to 1876 and are not subject to the peculiar sinking fund conditions governing those of earlier date. Thus, although the city of Philadelphia is able to borrow at three per cent, and has an actual debt of only $22,000,000, it is paying six per cent interest on $44,000,000 and three and four per cent on nearly $10,000,000. Although there are thirty-nine separate six per cent loans, maturing at different dates, negotiated at different times, and differing in amounts, all the sinking funds are in charge of the one sinking fund commission and are commonly spoken of col- lectively as the sinking fund. It should be borne in mind that each of the thirty-nine sinking funds stands separate in the law and must be treated by the commissioners as if no other sinking fund existed. The theory of the sinking fund as a means for the can- cellation of debt is excellent: Its originators assumed that the appropriations to it could be compounded at six per cent and hence that quarterly appropriation of three- tenths of one per cent of the debt, kept up for thirty years, would so fructify, that the amount in the sinking fund would equal the principal of the debt, although the actual appropriations by the city would amount to but thirty-six per cent of the debt. Time developed two serious objections to this ideal sink- ing fund arrangement. The commission, owing to the 216 Government op Philadelphia restrictions placed upon its choice of investments, every- thing being excluded except city, State and federal securi- ties, was unable to make the sinking fund fructify at the rate of six per cent per annum. It could buy the certificates of city debt only at a high premium, and the fact that the commission was in the market bidding for the certificates naturally forced their market value up, so that the return to the sinking fund on the money invested has always been considerably less than six per cent. Recent investments of the sinking fund do not yield three per cent. As the city's outstanding six per cent certificates are now worth a high premium in the open market, the purchase of them for the sinking fund is evidently a costly method of extinguishing the debt. In the eight years following 1879, the sinking fund commissioners purchased city securities of a par value of $9,271,214, the premium on which was $1,869,742. In the same period they bought State securities of a par value of $658,300, and federal securities (United States bonds) of a par value of $1,505,000, paying on them respectively pre- miums of $66,180 and $53,665. Thus in those eight years it cost the city some $13,000,000 to pay $11,000,000 of its debt.* As the situation has grown no more favorable since 1887, except as the premiums on some classes of loans near- ing maturity have declined, the purchases made for the sinking fund in the last six years have also constituted an expensive process of debt reduction. The second objection to the sinking fund arrangement grows directly out of the constitutional limitation upon municipal indebtedness. In 1854, when the present sinking fund scheme was devised, there were practically no limita- tions on a city's authority to contract indebtedness. The constitution of 1874, however, limited a city's indebtedness to seven per cent of its assessed valuation, although for the sake of cities whose debt in 1874 exceeded the seven per cent limit, there was a provision that they ' ' may be author- ized by law to increase the same three per centum, in the * See pages 250-51 of "Philadelphia : A. History of Municipal Development," by H. P. Allinson and Boies Penrose. Taxes and Finance 217 aggregate at any one time, upon such valuation." In order that Philadelphia, whose debt then exceeded seven per cent of its valuation, might have the advantage of the constitu- tional provision, the Legislature, in two separate acts (April 20 and May 23, 1874), conferred upon cities of the first class (Philadelphia) the necessary authority. Thus Philadelphia was enabled to borrow an additional three per cent of its valuation. Having, however, in the last ten years reduced its total debt to a sum within the original constitutional lim- itation of seven per cent, it is now contended that the city has no authority again to exceed that limit. The city's assessed valuation for 1893 was $752,763,382, and seven per cent of that is $52,693,437. The funded debt (January 1, 1893"), was $53,988,045, which is in excess of the seven per cent limit. The funded debt as given for January 1, 1893, includes a three per cent loan of $1,000,000, issued in 1892, and it is held by strict constructionists that the city in issuing this last loan exceeded its authority. The legality of the loan is defended, however, on the score that it falls within the three per cent additional limit allowed by the act of 1874. In 1874, the city's valuation was $575,283,968, three per cent of which is $17,258,519. Since 1874 the city, prior to the issue of the $1,000,000 in 1892, had borrowed $18,645,425. While this sum exceeds three per cent of the city's valuation in 1874, it falls under three per cent of the present valuation, to which the three per cent extension is held to apply. Three per cent of $752,763,382, the present valuation, is $22,582,901, and hence, according to this latter interpretation of the law, the $1,000,000 loan was legal and the city may yet legally borrow $2,937,476. In November, 1892, Councils authorized the issue of a three per cent loan for $3,500,000, but it has not yet been negotiated, as it would exceed by over $600,000 what is held to be the city's borrowing limit. Thus the second practical evil of the present sinking fund scheme is brought into view. The city's net debt is only $22,000,000, and it has authority to increase indebtedness up 218 Government of Philadelphia to $53,000,000, yet owing to the peculiarities of the sinking fund scheme, as expressed in the several ordinances authoriz- ing the sinking fund loans, the city's nominal debt of $53,- 000,000 is held to be its real debt and the city is allowed to claim no offset whatever on account of the $33,000,000 which it has in its sinking funds. The points involved have not been submitted to the courts for determination, yet the legal and financial representatives of the city have, as a rule, inclined to the opinion that the sums in the sinking fund cannot be considered an offset of any part of the city's total debt. Inasmuch as there is pressing need for larger expenditures for public improvements, far exceeding the income from ordinary sources, the city's inability to negotiate loans is regarded as a great misfortune and several plans have been suggested in order to free the city from the financial fetters placed upon it by its sinking fund ordinances. Two of those plans are worthy of discussion : (1) Refunding plan ; (2) Can- cellation. The refunding plan, prepared by General Louis Wagner, a member of the sinking fund commission, proposes the issue of a four per cent serial loan, payable in twenty equal annual installments, the first being due in 1903. The sink- ing fund commissioners would have charge of the work of refunding the outstanding six per cent loans and would cancel such portions of said loans " as shall be represented by the bonds surrendered in exchange for the new four per cent refunding loan and also all bonds held by them in the several sinking funds to the extent and in the proportion that the bonds canceled, because of such exchange, shall bear to the whole sum of the said bonds outstanding." According to this plan if one-fifth of the outstanding certifi- cates of any of the sinking fund loans were exchanged for the new fours, the commissioners would cancel the sixes received in exchange and also one-fifth of the certificates ot the same loan held in the sinking fund, so that the refund- ing process would be accompanied by a steady diminution Taxes and Finance 219 of the city's total indebtedness. Of course if just half the loan were outstanding, the other half being in the sinking fund, two dollars of the six per cent loan would be canceled for every dollar refunded. In fact, the greater the holdings of the sinking fund, the faster will the cancellation process proceed. This plan assumes that the city has a right to reduce the sinking fund in the proportion that the outstanding debt which it secures is reduced. Three objections are raised to the plan : (1) It ignores the fact that the sinking fund even in its present condition is not fructifying at the rate which was contemplated upon its establishment and which is necessary if the fund is to equal the principal of the debt at its maturity. If it is true, as is claimed, that the sinking fund exists for the benefit of the creditors, has the city the right to impair the fund merely because a portion of the creditors voluntarily relinquish their claim upon it ? This is a question, it is urged, that can be finally settled only by the courts. (2) The plan is an expensive one. While it may reduce, temporarily, the interest paid by the city, it prolongs the period in which interest is paid and thereby greatly increases the outlay on account of the loans refunded. No holder of a six per cent loan, it is argued, will present his certificates for exchange and cancellation unless he is to be the gainer thereby, for the option of exchange rests with him. The refunding plan must, therefore, result in loss for the city. (3) The plan lessens the accumulations in the sinking fund by two per cent, the difference between the rate of the loans canceled and that of those substituted. The ' 'cancellation' ' plan is based upon the assumption that the purchase of a certificate by the city is equivalent to its redemption. The plan, therefore, provides for the cancella- tion of all certificates of city loans held in their correspond- ing sinking funds, and of all others as fast as purchased. In order that the sinking fund may not lose the benefit of interest upon the canceled certificates, the plan provides for regular annual appropriations to the sinking funds, not merely 220 Government of Philadelphia greater than the interest upon the canceled certificates but sufficient to provide for the redemption of all the outstanding certificates at maturity. This cancellation plan, which has been advocated in Coun- cils by Mr. G. E. Schlegelmilch, a member of Common Council, is defended by its author on the ground that it fulfills in both letter and spirit the conditions of the ordi- nances under which the loans were issued. The object of a sinking fund, as indicated by the legal and ordinary defini- tion of it and by the history of sinking fund legislation, is the payment of debt, and it accomplishes that object the moment it comes into contact with the debt. The current assumption that the sinking fund of the city of Philadelphia cannot pay or cancel a debt except at maturity, is founded on neither usage nor reason. The ordinances under which the loans were issued, specifically pledge the fund and its accumulations "for the redemption and payment" of the loans ; and Mr. Schlegelmilch holds that cancellation is but the final act completing that purpose of redemption and payment. The cancellation plan is criticised on the score that it impairs the security of the outstanding loans, for if the certificates in the sinking fund are canceled, the fund may be deprived of the interest. To this objection the reply is made that the city's appropriations to the sinking fund are made mandatory by the State constitution and therefore could not be stopped, even if the sinking fund contained none of the city's certificates. The difference of opinion resulting in the two plans, refunding and cancellation, evidently hinges on the question whether the city loan certificates in the sinking fund must be deemed an outstanding liability or not. If they are not an outstanding liability, there appears to be no valid objec- tion to canceling them ; but if they are an outstanding liability of the city, they cannot be canceled, and the city, in order to reduce its nominal debt, must have recourse to refunding. In order to obtain the opinion of the courts on Taxes and Finance 221 whether the city bonds in the sinking funds must be regarded as part of its outstanding indebtedness, Councils have instructed the city solicitor to take the necessary steps to bring the matter up for judicial determination. The New York Court of Appeals has decided in a similar case relating to the sinking fund of New York city, that " city stock " held by the commissioners of the sinking fund is not an indebtedness of the city within the meaning of the consti- tutional provision, "city stock" so held not being an indebtedness which the municipality can be called upon to pay. Concerning the payment of interest into the sinking fund upon "city stock" so held, although the point was not one of the issues raised, the court declared that it proba- bly could be compelled. George W. ' Kendrick, 3d. 3.— The Budget. The aim of the budget is to "make things balance," and upon the nicety of this balancing depends the value of the budget. To meet this end the tendency of financial legisla- tion is toward inelasticity, and this tendency is strongly illustrated in the budget of Philadelphia. In order to meet the growing expenses of the government, it would seem that an estimate of the expenses for the coming year would first be made and the tax levy to bring in the income fixed accordingly. Governments, unlike individuals, can regu- late their incomes by their expenditures. But the finances of Philadelphia do not show the elasticity which such a system would give. Councils have not changed the rate of taxation for ten years, every attempt to make them increase it having failed. Aside from loans the revenue of the city is known and fixed, and no provision is made for any expan- sion in the expenditures. Instead of estimating the cost of conducting the government and raising the money to do this properly, the available income is first ascertained and the government administered as well as possible with the funds. Each department is pinched in its appropriations 222 Government op Philadelphia until the total falls within the limit. All the funds except a very small sum are thus appropriated and nothing more is available. If unexpected and necessary expense occurs in any department, there is no money in the treasury to meet it and the only way to adjust the difficulty is for Councils to transfer the sum required from the appropriations for other departments. The following lists of estimated receipts and appropria- tions for 1893 illustrate the plan used : LIMIT OF CITY EXPENSES FOR 1893. Tax rate of $1.85 on assessed valuation of $752,763,382 yields 113,441,851 is Average uncollected in 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890 and 1891, 595,124 5a Estimated amount collectible within the year under the above rates respectively $12,846,726 63 " Average income from sources other than current Tax Moneys (exclusive of Sinking Fund receipts), such average of income to be determined by ascer- taining the average income during the five years immediately preceding." Average of the years 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890 and 1891 . 10,876,419 99 $23,723,146 62 "For lawful obligations due by the city during the fiscal year : " Interest due May 1, 1893 $69,000 00 Interest due July 1, 1893 1,401,700 00 Interest due November 1, 1893 69,000 00 Interest due January 1, 1896 1,399,60000 State Tax on City Loans 106,000 00 Fourteenth Series of New Loan, Four per cent. "Series N," December 31, 1894, 400,000 00 Sinking Fund for 1893 551,440 00 Mandamuses (estimated for 1893) .... 600,000 00 4,596,740 00 For " Expenses of Municipal Government, authorized by Councils." Limit $19,126,406 62 Add estimated surplus of 1892 654,879 20 Total amount subject to appropriation for 1893 . $19,781,285 82 Total appropriations to departments 18,581,019 14 Unappropriated $1,200,266 68 Taxes and Finance 223 Estimated surplus August i, 1892, added . $654,879 20 Actual surplus found December 31, 1892 . 100,626 11 Differences deducted from unappropriated balance . . $554.25309 Amount subject to future appropriations $646,013 59 The above figures show that the unappropriated funds for 1893 to meet unexpected expenses are little more than $600,000. The revenues from all sources for the year 1892 were : Taxes (current) . $12,376,720 67 Taxes (delinquent) 1,122,491 32 Public Buildings Tax 227 02 State Tax after settlement n,i°7 91 Poll Tax 57.669 70 The Mayor 10,650 00 Bureau of Charities 13.618 33 " Correction 29,307 74 Health 51,671 28 " Building Inspectors 23,600 02 " Fire and Fire Escapes 2,723 66 " Electrical 34.° 2 6 49 ' ' City Property (Wharves, Landings, Markets, etc.) 88,792 32 *' Boiler Inspection 17,561 80 " City Ice Boats 9 °3 Gas 3,845,989 27 " Highways 81,467 97 " Surveys 158,633 16 Water 2,575,687 77 Board of Highway Supervisors 4,5°8 5° Board of Port Wardens 483 5° City Solicitor 326,767 75 City Treasurer 1,394,808 75 County Prisons 5.W 27 Clerk of (Quarter Sessions 33> OI 5 , 3 1 Fines and Penalties 38,242 72 Park Fund 6,961 77 Prothonotary 53>°°3 5° Recorder of Deeds 102,112 70 Register of Wills 93,544 23 Sheriff 56,846 11 224 Government of Philadelphia Search Fees (Tax Office) $6,453 °° Three per cent loan 1,000,000 00 Sinking Fund (transferred) 10,000 00 Interest on City Deposits 63,671 01 City Treasurer's Commissions 22,17932 City Commissioners 1 75 State Appropriations to Schools 1,071,790 70 Miscellaneous 20,355 84 Dividends S. & E. R. R. stock 45,000 00 Total receipts $24,856,839 19 The expenditures for the year were : Interest on Funded Debt $3,122,980 86 The several Sinking Funds 560,440 00 Amount of Four per cent Loan, Series "M " 400,00000 Amount paid for Mandamuses 75 2 ,5 2 9 35 Amount paid Park Fund 4,362 31 Amount paid Public Buildings 764,329 57 Nautical School of Pennsylvania 20,000 00 Amount paid Municipal Departments 16,590,101 05 Warrants of previous years 846,783 62 Total $23,061,526 76 Total receipts , $24,856,839 19 Total expenditures 23,061,526 76 Excess of receipts $ I >795)3 12 43 Total cash balance, January 1, 1892, was $3,041,209 54 Deduct Sinking Fund Cash, Jan. 1, 1892 . $90,117 86 Add to Sinking Fund Cash, balance of $184.50 amount charged to General Fund belonging to Sinking Fund . 184 50 90,302 36 $2,950,907 18 General Cash balance, January 1, 1892 . $2,950,907 18 Add Sinking Fund Cash balance De- cember 31, 1892 1,258,689 60 Add excess receipts over expenditures . 1,795,312 43 The result is a total cash balance, Jan. 1, 1893 $6,004,909 21 From which should be deducted as follows : Balance in Keystone National Bank, suspended $437,554 3 2 Taxbs and Finance 225 Balance in Spring Garden National Bank, suspended $118,721 80 $556,276 " Total cash assets 15,448,633 09 Against the above cash assets are the following liabilities : Sinking Fund $1,258,689 60 Outstanding warrants 1,062,114 90 Balance of appropriations not merging . 3,020,240 71 Park Fund 6,961 77 Total liabilities $5,348,006 98 Total assets $5i448,633 09 Total liabilities 5,348,006 98 Excess of assets over liabilities, $100,626 n The revenue placed to the credit of the city treasurer came from licenses for the sale of liquor. The item of fines and penalties is the revenue collected by the city in this way from various sources. Much of it comes from the magistrates' courts, while some is paid in from the various bureaus. Concerning the large expenditure on account of man- damuses the controller's report for 1892 says : "An item which figures largely in the estimates and which grows with each succeeding year is the amount required to meet mandamus executions. The sum set aside on January 1, 1892, per controller's report of that date, was $350,000. On August 1 the payment from the treasury had exceeded this amount and had reached $396,422.07. To meet then the requirements for the balance of the year, $150,000 was set aside, but on December 31 the payments for the five months amounted to $356,107.28, making an aggregate for 1892 of $752,529.35. The principal portion of this large amount was paid for changes of grades and for injuries received from defective highways. Over $20,000, however, being paid by the city for services of stenographers of the several courts, and $146,572 for election booths furnished the city and through judgment obtained in this manner." 15 W. M. CrowtheR. XI.— DIRECTORS OF CITY TRUSTS. 1ST the year 1790 the city of Philadelphia received from the estate of Benjamin Franklin $5000 in trust. Small portions of that sum were to be loaned, at the discretion of the city authorities, to young mechanics, who were to pay interest upon the amount borrowed at five per cent. Since 1790 the city has received thirty-eight additional bequests of the same character as Dr. Franklin's, the greatest being that received from the estate of Stephen Girard. The different provisions of these numerous bequests were carried out for many years by the mayor and aldermen of the city, no special board or boards being created for the purpose. The properties bequeathed the city, how- ever, began to accumulate so much interest and to enhance in value so rapidly that the management of the trusts became a burden upon the city officials, and in 1869 the legislature passed an act creating the Board of Directors of City Trusts, which was to be and is yet composed of fif- teen persons. The mayor of the city of Philadelphia and the presidents of both Select and Common Councils are members of the board ; the other twelve members were originally to be appointed by a board consisting of the judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, and of the District Court and Court of Common Pleas of the city and county of Philadelphia. The appointing board was changed by law, however, May 25, 1874, and the power of appoint- ment given to the judges of the Court of Common Pleas. This was done because the State constitution adopted in 1874 prohibited the judges of the Supreme Court from exer- cising any powers of appointment except those specially named in the constitution. The twelve appointed members of the board elect a presi- dent and vice-president from their own number, and a secretary Directors of City Trusts 227 who does not belong to the board and who receives a salary of $1800 a year. The city treasurer acts in the capacity of treasurer for the board. The officers hold their positions till the first day of the year following their election. The directors of city trusts meet at least once a month, a majority of the members constituting a quorum. The board has absolute control over the trusts, it makes all rules and regulations concerning them, and contracts in the name of the city for all improvements and repairs. The board has power to appoint as many agents as it may deem neces- sary for the proper discharge of the duties imposed by the trusts. All titles, records, books of account, and other doc- uments relating to the city trusts are in possession of the board, and it is accountable for their safe keeping. An annual report of all the actions of the board is required by law to be made to the Legislature, the judges of the Court of Common Pleas, who appoint the board, and to City Councils. This report is published. The members of the board hold office during good behav- ior, and cannot be removed from their position except by a vote of two-thirds of the members of the appointing board. They receive no compensation for their services and can have nothing whatever to do with any contracts awarded by the board. Since 1790 the city of Philadelphia has been left twenty- nine cash legacies, amounting to $3,024,960.12, including $2,000,000 given for the founding of Girard College. Besides this amount of cash the city has been given at various times the incomes of ten ground rents in Philadelphia, all to be used for the general relief of the city poor, or to provide soup and fuel for them. The directors of city trusts retain control of the legacies for the poor, but the expendi- ture of the income is made by the Department of Charities and Correction. The largest number of the legacies left the city are to be used for the relief of the poor, several of them being exclusively for the purchase of fuel for needy families. Under the 228 Government of Philadelphia present city fuel fund is included a gift of about $1500 made by the Free Masons in 1793, and a donation of $631 by the owner of a circus as the proceeds of two performances. During 1892 there were distributed to needy families 2662 tons of coal out of the proceeds of the fuel fund. The board received $1000 in 1872 for the purchase annu- ally of appropriate medals for the most distinguished gradu- ates of the Girls' Normal School of Philadelphia. This provision is now carried out each year, and a gold and silver medal are each year awarded to the first and second in rank of the graduating class of the Girls' Normal School. Among the funds controlled by the board is one of $4000 bequeathed to the city by John Scott, of Edinburgh, the interest to be used in the purchase of medals for ingenious inventors. The Franklin Institute reports to the board annually the names of inventors of useful articles who are deserving of medals. In 1892 the board awarded fourteen medals, made of copper, at a cost of $650, to inventors in various parts of the United States. The two most important trusts under the control of the board are the Wills' Hospital Fund and Stephen Girard's bequests for the establishment of Girard College. By the will of James Wills, approved in 1825, the city of Philadel- phia received $122,548.57 with which to erect a hospital, to be known as the ' ' Wills' Hospital for the Relief of the Indigent Blind and Lame." The hospital, according to his wishes, was built on Race street, west of Eighteenth, and is regarded as a model institution, being equipped with the best of facilities and attended by first-class physicians and specialists. The hospital has received numerous large dona- tions, the capital which the board has invested in it now amounting to over half a million dollars. Stephen Girard, on Christmas Day of 1830, made provi- sion in his will for a bequest of $2,000,000 to the city of Philadelphia, to be used for the establishment of a college for poor white male orphan children. Subsequently he bequeathed to the city almost his entire fortune. The college Directors of City Trusts 229 yas built, and stands to-day a monument to Mr. Girard's benevolence and wisdom. It has cared for thousands of fatherless dependent boys, and to-day is educating upward of 1500. Of the thirty-six trusts, valued at more than twenty-five million dollars, placed in charge of the Board of Directors of the City Trusts, the Girard College and the estates left for its maintenance are the most important. The gross income from the Girard estates in 1892 was $1,197,004.81, as follows: From real estate within the city, $440,652.70 ; real estate without the city, $616,512.75 ; interest, dividends, etc., $139,839.36; total, $1,197,004.81. The net income in 1892 from the Girard estates was $949,- 489.93. Mr. Girard's bequest of $500,000 for the improve- ment of the river front of Delaware avenue and Water street has, by judicious investment, increased to $1,018,297. James Lawton Kendrick. XII.— PARK COMMISSIONERS. fHE first acquisition of land by the city within the pres- ent limits of Fairmount Park was made in 1812, for the purpose of obtaining a supply of water free from drainage impurities, and for a reservoir site, from which the supply might be distributed by gravity to the highest buildings in the city. The bluff known as ' ' Faire-mount, ' ' then far out- side the city limits, was secured for the purpose, five acres being purchased. Additional ground was bought as it was needed, and in 1828 the whole amount owned by the city was twenty-eight acres, the aggregate cost of which was $116,834. I n l8 44 the Lemon Hill estate, formerly the country seat of Robert Morris, became the property of the city, at a cost of $75,000. An ordinance of Councils, approved September 25, 1855, "devoted and dedicated to public use, as a park, the Lemon Hill estate, to be known by the name of Fairmount Park." In 1857, subscriptions were obtained for the purpose of buying and presenting to the city the Sedge- ley estate, containing about thirty-four acres, lying next to Lemon Hill, the price of which was $125,000. After con- siderable opposition this donation was accepted by the city and dedicated "to public use and enjoyment as a part of Fairmount Park. ' ' Afterward, for $55,000, the city obtained the bit of land between the water-works and Lemon Hill. By these successive purchases, the city complied with the injunction of its charter of consolidation, "to obtain ade- quate areas of ground, and lay them out and maintain them as open public places for the health and enjoyment of the people forever." A few years later, the Lansdowne estate, on the west side of the river, was bought by four citizens and generously tendered to the city at cost. The offer was accepted, and one hundred and forty acres, at a cost of Park Commissioners 231 $85,000, were thus secured. In 1868 Jesse George and his sister, Rebecca, donated to the city their patrimonial estate of "George's Hill," comprising eighty-three acres. The present area of the park is about 2800 acres, for the acquisi- tion of which upward of $6,000,000 has been spent. The present park commission originated in the growing public sentiment in favor of the park, and in the necessity for some good system of control over the large body of ground in the possession of the city, the control of which was previously divided between the engineer of the water department and the controller of city property. By act of Legislature, approved March 26, 1867, entitled "an act appropriating ground for public purpose in the city of Phila- delphia," it was provided that "the title to and ownership of the area of ground," described therein, "shall be vested in the city of Philadelphia, to be laid out and maintained forever as an open public park, for the health and enjoy- ment of the citizens, and the preservation of the water supply of the city of Philadelphia." This act was intended to supply a long-felt want, and met with universal approval. The same act created the park commission, and later acts have defined the commission's authority and scope. The park commission consists of the mayor, presidents of Select and Common Councils, chiefs of the bureaus of city property, water and surveys, and ten citizens appointed for five years by the Court of Common Pleas. They serve without compensation, and organize by the annual election of a president. The park is under their control, and they have the supervision of the expenditures of all moneys, but no contract can be made unless an appropriation shall have been first made by Councils. They have power to vacate any street within the boundaries of the park, except Girard avenue. They appoint such officers, agents and subordi- nates as they deem necessary ; report annually to the mayor, with a statement of their expenses ; have power to lease all buildings, to govern, manage, lay out and ornament the park, to employ and equip a park-guard, to take possession 232 Government of Philadelphia of ground for park purposes, and to license passenger rail- roads in the park. The park commission employs a superintendent, a park solicitor, a secretary, an assistant secretary, and four clerks, each of whom is a paid employee. The secretary is the chief executive officer ; he certifies to resolutions, keeps the minutes of board meetings, and transacts all financial busi- ness. The superintendent hires and supervises laborers, subject always to the control of the board, and oversees and suggests improvements. The park solicitor, a lawyer in general practice, is the legal advisor of the board. The board is divided into eleven standing committees, of each of which the mayor and president of the board are ex officio members. The three following committees divide the main work of the board, the others being merely of nominal importance : (i) The committee on plans and improvements, having charge of all permanent works relat- ing to the park. (2) The committee on land purchases and damages, having charge of the purchase of land and the adjustment of claims. (3) The committee on superintendence and police, having charge of the appointment andsupervision of park-guards, and the charge and maintenance of the park. The board meets once a month, and all bills, vouchers and pay-rolls must be submitted for the board's approval by the committee authorizing the work. For amounts exceed- ing $100 a committee must apply to the board before the expenditure is made. Suppose, for example, if the com- mittee on superintendence and police wishes to expend $5000 for the purchase of stone for the road, the committee reports that this sum is necessary, and the board then appro- priates the specified amount, to be expended under the direction of the committee ; the committee then directs the superintendent to purchase the stone from the contractor who has the contract for supplying stone ; the chief engineer then submits the bill, approved by himself, by the committee authorizing the work and by the committee on audit, and signed by the president ; the secretary then makes the Park Commissioners 233 ■warrant, which is signed by himself and the president, and sent to the city controller for his signature, when the warrant practically becomes legal tender. During December of each year the board advertises for supplies of all kinds. Bids are opened in the presence of the committee having charge of that work, and the park committee of City Councils, and the contract is awarded to the lowest responsible bidder. These contracts must be approved by the board, and this routine applies to all spe- cial work, and all work or supplies involving an expenditure of over $500, special contracts being prepared, in which the contractor is obliged to furnish bonds and surety. Supplies to an amount less than $500 are purchased according to a schedule price list. For 1893 the total appropriation to the park commission is about $528,000. Of this, $14,500 is expended in salaries ; for music, $13,500, six bands being distributed throughout the park ; for the general maintenance of roads, drawbridges, etc., $110,000; for the care of Horticultural Hall and the Arboretum, $20,000 ; for the preservation of trees and wood- lands, $6000; for expenses and equipment of the park- guards, horses, ambulance, etc., $104,947; for sprinkling park drives from March to December, $23,000, forty -five double-teams being employed ; for work of a permanent kind, new drives, etc., $100,000; for the care and mainte- nance of Memorial Hall, $1 1 ,000 ; for the Zoological Society, to be expended on the grounds as part of the park, $5000. J. H. Donnelly. XIII.— BOARD OF PORT WARDENS. /jjvHE Act of March 29, 1803, repealing and supplying a Y series of previous acts, beginning with April 13, iyoi.has been recognized judicially as the foundation act of the Philadelphia port-wardens. This act empowered the Gov- ernor to appoint a Board of Wardens, composed of a master- warden and six assistants, four from Philadelphia, and one from each of the districts of Southwark and Northern Liberties. This board was to regulate the management of the port, grant pilot licenses, collect fees and pay any surplus into the State treasury, by which any deficiency was to be supplied. The act also empowered the Governor to appoint a harbor-master, who was to enforce all laws, regulations and ordinances of the State, port- wardens and city for clean- ing docks, preventing nuisances and regulating the entry and landing of vessels. The present office has practically the same duties then prescribed. By successive acts up to the Act of Consolidation in 1854, the functions of the board were further developed. The city and adjoining municipal districts fronting on the river, were given the right to elect thirteen wardens, while the Governor appointed the master- warden. The accounts of the board were to be settled like public accounts, and any surplus received by it was to be paid into the State treasury. It had the power to license pilots ; to control the mooring of vessels ; to prescribe the wharf-lines, and to keep the navigable waters of the city free from obstruction. The present organization of the board was determined by the act of 1854, whereby sixteen assistant wardens were to be elected, eight each year for two years, and the master-warden was to be appointed by the Governor for three years. In i860 a member of the board was added from Bristol and one from Board of Port Wardens 235 Chester. Captains of vessels were now to enter and clear at the master-warden's office. An act of April 15, 1869, abol- ished the compensation by fees of the harbor-master and master-warden, and fixed for each an annual salary of $2500, to be paid out of the State treasury. An ordinance of City Councils of March 26, 1870, estab- lished the Board of Port-wardens as a department of the city government. Warrants for the expenses of the depart- ment were to be drawn on the city treasury by the president of the board ; all receipts were to be paid into the city treas- ury, and the accounts of the department were to be audited by the city controller. An ordinance of December 31, 1878, and another of March 25, 1882, provided that nominations for port-wardens should be made by the Board of Trade, by the Maritime Exchange, by the Commercial Exchange, and by the Vessel Owners' and Captains' Association. This privi- lege, however, was repealed by ordinance of July 6, 1883. The board reorganizes every June by the election of a president. A secretary, to take charge of the office of the board, is elected every two years, and is allowed one clerk. The board meets monthly to receive the report of the master- warden, who is its chief executive officer, controlling, for example, the mooring of vessels, the removing of wreckage, the clearing of the channel way and the supervising of pilot licenses. Tbe board reports its expenditures monthly to Councils. The receipts of the department, consisting of fees for wharf and pilot licenses, have never exceeded $500 annually. The secretary turns the monthly receipts into the city treasury. Councils appropriate yearly $13,750 for the expenses of the department; $10,000 for dredging private docks and the vicinity of bulk-heads where city sewers empty ; $500 for the removal of wreckage, etc. ; $3250 for the maintenance of the office of the board. Since all vessels entering this port are required by State law to take on board a State pilot, the licensing of them becomes an important function of the board. On the river 236 Government of Philadelphia and bay there are three separate pilotage systems : (1) the tugboat pilot, licensed by the federal government; (2) the Pennsylvania pilot, licensed by the Board of Port Wardens ; (3) the Delaware pilots, licensed by the Delaware Pilot Commissioners. The Pennsylvania pilots, from Colonial times to the present, have plied their vocation on the river and bay by virtue of the licenses of the Phila- delphia port wardens, that board having jurisdiction over them at all times, prescribing their rates and how far they shall go to sea, and revoking licenses in case of failure to carry out the regulations. Before 1881 New Jersey and Delaware conceded to Pennsylvania the pilotage rights, but in that year Delaware created a pilot commission to grant licenses on the Delaware River. This gave rise to the Dela- ware system of pilots, and a Delaware pilot must be accepted by the wardens of this port, since the master of any vessel has the right, by reason of the act of Congress of March 20, 1837, enacted to provide for just such a contingency, to employ a pilot of any state bordering on the river. The introduction of competition is not to be regretted, for it put some life into the Pennsylvania pilots, who had been notoriously indolent. There is ground for suspecting that the administration of the board in some respects is not exceptionally efficient. The master of any vessel, however well he may know the channel, or though he may be in charge of a tug with a United States pilot on board, is compelled to take up and pay a state pilot ; yet the state pilots are claimed to be, as a rule, less competent than the tugboat pilots or the captains of most of the vessels regu- larly trading at this port. It will be seen that the Board of Port-wardens is at once a State and a municipal institution, being the former in regard to its legal existence and functions, the latter in nearly every practical respect. Though Councils have the right to elect the members of the board, this right is derived directly from the State Legislature. But this right and the fact that the city pays the expenses of the board, Board of Port Wardens 237 make it essentially a department of the municipal govern- ment. The wisdom of this policy may be questioned. Nearly all of the wardens, it is claimed, owe their appoint- ment to merely local political prestige, know next to nothing of the duties of the office, and take little interest in its administration. The members of such a board, which con- trols matters directly affecting the commerce of the city, and is often called upon to settle disputes involving questions of technical and practical seamanship, should undoubtedly possess peculiar and appropriate qualifications ; but it is claimed, as a matter of fact, that the whole policy of the board is usually determined by at most one or two of its members who chance to be, in some degree, competent. If the Governor appointed the members upon nominations made by such bodies as the Commercial and Maritime Exchanges, a more capable and efficient board would prob- ably be obtained than under the present system. J. H. Donnelly. XIV.— RECORDER OF DEEDS. fHE offices of recorder of deeds and register of wills are county offices, provided for in the State constitution and mainly governed by the State legislature. However, as the city and the county of Philadelphia have been coterminous since 1854, the offices are regarded to a certain extent as municipal. From the fees collected in the offices City Councils make the appropriations for their running expenses. The number and salaries of subordinate employees are also under the control of Councils. The office of recorder of deeds originated in 1682, when Penn and the first purchasers of land in the colony agreed that there should be an officer to keep record of all their real estate transactions. He was known as master of rolls, and was selected every year by the Provincial Council and the Governor conjointly. Until 1715 he exercised his func- tions for the entire province, but in that year the recording of real estate transactions for Philadelphia County was given over to a recorder of deeds, who was appointed by the Gov- ernor and his council, and was subordinate to the master of rolls. This state of affairs lasted until 1776, when the con- stitution adopted in that year made the recorder of deeds an officer of every county in the State. From that year until 1838 he was appointed by the General Assembly and Governor conjointly ; but the new constitution of 1838 provided that he should be chosen by popular vote in each county, and this method still prevails. The master of rolls remained a State officer until 1809, when the post was abolished. The recorder's office is the pivot on which turn all real estate titles in Philadelphia. Its object is twofold, namely ; Recorder of Deeds 239 to furnish permanent records of all titles and muniments of real estate, and many of personal estate, to which recourse may be had for certified copies of such instruments as deeds, mortgages and releases, such copies having the same force and efficacy as the originals ; and, further, to enable all persons to obtain knowledge as to the condition of real estate titles, -and also of changes and encumbrances existing on such titles in the shape of mortgages and ground rents. In short, every real estate transfer by sale, gift, bequest, or assignment ; every ground rent created or redeemed ; and every mortgage given or satisfied, is, in Philadelphia, recorded in the office of the recorder of deeds. Furthermore, the bonds of Philadelphia County officers are recorded in the recorder's office before being filed at Harrisburg. Under constitutional provision the recorder is elected the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, to serve for three years, beginning the first Monday in the January next following election. He holds office until his successor is duly sworn in, the necessary qualifications being State citizenship and residence in the city for one year next pre- ceding election. The recorder is required to -take oath that he will support the National and State constitutions, and discharge faithfully the duties of his office ; and also that he has not procured his election by illegitimate means. This oath is filed with the prothonotary of the courts. The penalty for its violation is both perpetual disqualification from holding any public office or trust in the State, arid indictment for perjury. He is further required to furnish two bonds, which are an interesting relic of by-gone days. The State bond amounts to ^1500, and the county bond to $ 26 , 666^3 . They are recorded in his office and then deposited with the secretary of internal affairs. The recorder must keep two indexes of the books contain- ing deeds and mortgages, one in which the names of grantors or mortgagors, and one in which the names of grantees or mortgagees are accessibly arranged. For failing in this particular, the recorder is subject to a fine of from ten to 240 Government of Philadelphia fifty dollars for each offence, and should discovery of his negligence come after the expiration of his term of office, his bond may be sued for the use of the city. Moreover, for five years from his induction into office he is liable for damages to both sufferer and gainer on account of any errors in searches made during his incumbency. All fees collected in the office must be turned over every month to the city treasurer, and, by city ordinance, a tran- script of these fees must at the same time be sent to the city controller. From them are drawn the appropriations made by Councils for the maintenance of the office. The fees are as follows : Five cents for each reference examined in searches ; ten cents for noting an instrument on margin of record ; fifteen cents for registering deeds, each description ; twenty-five cents for each ten years or fractional part thereof after first in mortgage searches, and for each acknowledg- ment after first name ; fifty cents for each 500 words or frac- tion thereof in an instrument recorded, for certificate and seal, satisfying a mortgage, for each ten years in mortgage search, for acknowledgment of first name in any instru- ment, and as State tax on written instruments ; seventy-five cents for exemplifying records (each 500 words, or frac- tion) ; $2.50 for recording commissions for special railroad policemen ; $5.00 for recording commissions of notaries (with bond and oath), city and county officers, and mag- istrates. The fees of the office more than pay its expenses. In 1891 the fees amounted to $102,448.95, and the expenses to $100,435.49, of which $77,750.00 was for salaries. At present it takes three or four weeks to get an instru- ment through the recorder's office, — a period considerably in excess of what is needed in other large cities. This is due, first, to the length of deeds in Pennsylvania ; and, secondly, to the fact that there are more real estate transfers in Phila- delphia than in any other city in America, the number of instruments coming into the office averaging nearly 175 a day. Moreover, the force of transcribers and compare clerks is not adequate to the demand made upon it — a Recorder op Deeds 241 condition aggravated by the lack of peculiar fitness for their tasks on the part of those in office, whose appointments are rewards for party service. The recorder of deeds is elected by the people for a term of three years at a salary of $ 10,000 a year. The present incumbent was elected in November, 1890. The office force and salaries are at present as follows : Recorder, $ 10,000 ; deputy recorder, $2500 ; chief clerk, $2000 ; chief search clerk, $2000; three search clerks (mortgages), each $1500 ; chief index clerk, $1800 ; index clerk and bookkeeper, each $1500; two search clerks (conveyances), each $1200; six special index clerks, each $1000 ; superintendent of tran- scribing room, $1250; four miscellaneous clerks, each $1100 ; four compare clerks, two at $1350, two at $1000; custodian of records, $900 ; messenger, $700 ; janitor, $600 ; typewriter, $600 ; fifty transcribing clerks, each $900 ; five clerks for recopying old records (special appropriation), each $1000. All the salaries, except the recorder's, which is fixed by the legislature, are determined by Councils. Notwithstanding its political character, and notwith- standing the flourishing condition of many title insurance companies in the city, inaccuracy can not be charged against the office of the recorder of deeds. The title insurance companies owe their existence to the fact that frauds are occasionally perpetrated in selling property, the detection of which is not within the province of the recorder's office ; and to the fact that deeds and mortgages are recorded in one office, wills in another, and liens in still others. Further- more, while in theory any one can examine the title to a property, as a matter of fact considerable special knowledge and skill are needed to make this examination successfully. Still another reason for the existence of these companies is the fact that there are in Philadelphia many old properties whose titles cannot be accurately traced, a condition for which blame cannot be imputed to the recorder's office, since it has arisen through war and other destructive agencies. Title companies are popular because they insure 16 242 Government op Philadelphia the titles of purchasers against loss from whatever cause and make all the necessary examinations. In the light of what has been said of the office of the recorder of deeds, the conclusion is certainly justified that though it is open to improvement in certain details, under existing circumstances it fulfills its functions as well as could be expected. If fitness, instead of political service, were the condition for employment in the subordinate posts, the efficiency of the office would certainly be increased. William Y. C. Anderson. XV.— REGISTER OF WILLS. ra)he register of wills is chosen at the same time and in + the same way as the recorder of deeds, the terms of office and the qualifications for election being the same in both cases. The office is as old as any in the county. From 1682 until 1776 the register for Philadelphia was a deputy of the reg- ister general of Pennsylvania for the probate of wills and granting letters of administration. Then until 1838 the register was appointed by the General Assembly and the Governor, but the constitution of that year made the office an elective one. The incumbent of this office has three sets of duties, one as register of wills, another as clerk of the Orphans' Court, and a third as agent of the commonwealth to collect the collateral inheritance tax. Before entering on his duties as register of wills, the newly elected official must file with the secretary of internal affairs at Harrisburg a bond equal in amount to half that required of the sheriff, or $20,000. His functions are the probating of wills and testaments ; the granting of letters testamentary and of administration, and the collection of the State tax of fifty cents on such letters ; the passing and filing of executors' , administrators' , and guardians' accounts; the certification of official papers such as bonds, inventories and accounts ; and the notification of corporations of be- quests made to them. By Act of Assembly he is empowered to issue commissions for the examination of witnesses in all cases that arise in the performance of his duties, and, if neces- sary, to recover the costs of official proceedings by legal action. The administrative accountability of the register is pro- vided for by the act which requires him to keep records of 244 Government of Philadelphia the papers filed in his office, the books containing these records being under the care and supervision of the judges of the Court of Common Pleas. City Councils have further enacted that the register must make monthly payments to the city treasurer of all fees collected in his office, and at the same time furnish the city controller with a transcript of these fees and of the accounts settled during the month. In accordance with the city charter the controller prescribes the form of the register's annual report, which the controller supervises and transmits to the mayor as part of the report of his department of the city government.* Not the least important of the register's function is found in his relations to the courts. At any time within three years after he has admitted a will to probate appeals from his decision may be made to the Orphans' Court, which in this way obtains a large part of its business. The legisla- ture has enacted that caveators and appellants must furnish security for costs, varying in amount from $500 to $1000 at the will of the register, within ten days after filing their caveats or appeals, f Before the Orphans' Court witnesses are examined, and their testimony is reduced to writing. If a dispute arise as to facts, either the plaintiff or the register may on motion have the case transferred to the Court of Common Pleas, where it will be subject to regular judicial procedure. Such transfers are, however, of rare occurrence. The final costs of proceedings, whether before the Orphans' Court or before himself are fixed by the register, and if they are not paid he may proceed against the bonds of plaintiffs to recover the amount. The destruction of old and valuable papers has led to the adoption of a rule that any person wishing to examine a document must first obtain, at the office, a permit, containing his name and the date of the examination. * This provision also applies to the recorder of deeds. fThis provision is intended to check purposeless and tedious litigation, caused by the "fishing excursions" of disappointed and often undeserving relatives. Register of Wius 245 The office of register of wills is the source of a con- siderable income to the city. About 170 estates and accounts are adjusted every month, the fees for which not only pay the salaries and expenses of the office, but also yield the city an annual surplus of about $50,000.* As clerk of the Orphans' Court the register of wills is required to enter with the secretary of internal affairs bonds to the amount of $30,000 for the faithful performance of his duties. These duties consist in keeping a record of all the proceedings of the court, of all accounts filed and all estates settled. Though purely clerical in its nature this function is of importance, since it concerns the position and property of a large part of the community. As register the incumbent of the office has more to do than as clerk of the Orphans' Court, and his staff of subordinates, in the latter capacity, is consequently less numerous than in the former. There are ten assistant clerks of the Orphans' Court, who are appointed by the register, subject to the court's approval. Their salaries are fixed by act of assembly, but are paid out of the fees collected in the office. The third of the register's functions is the collec- tion of the State tax on collateral inheritances. As agent of the commonwealth in this matter he must file bonds to the amount of $100,000 with the secretary of internal affairs. He is also required to keep account of the amount of these taxes and on what estates collected, and to make quarterly returns of the amount to the auditor-general of the State. A delay of a month in making such a return subjects the register to a fine of twelve per cent of the amount collected. If the amount of these taxes collected within a year is less than $200,000, the register retains five per cent of it as commission for collecting ; if it is between $200,000 and $300,000, he retains four per cent ; and if it exceeds $300,000, he retains three per cent. In 1891 the amount * In 1891 the fees amounted to $85,360.75 and the expenditures, including salaries, to $34,478 64. In 1892 fees amounting to $93,544.23 were collected, against which an appropriation of $37,500.00 was made. 246 Government of Philadelphia collected was $845,624.52, giving the register, at three per cent commission, $25,368.74, a sum, which, in addition to the $5000 salary as register, makes the office very desirable. Previous to 1891 the commission was not graded, five per cent being retained whatever the amount collected. Such an arrangement would have given the register, in 1891, a com- mission of $42,281.23. The State appraisers, who attend to this matter of collateral inheritances, are paid, by the Act of 1832, one dollar a day and expenses, and it is the opinion of the present register that the auditor-general will allow this amount to be taken from the whole amount of the tax in addition to the register' s personal compensation. The register of wills is elected by the people in Novem- ber for a term of three years, at a salary of $5000 a year. The present incumbent was chosen in 1891. The office force and salaries are as follows : Deputy register, $2000 ; two transcribing clerks, two account clerks, two recording clerks, one miscellaneous clerk, one inventory clerk, two index clerks, one stenographer and typewriter, each $1000 ; mes- senger, $500 ; janitress, $500. The register's salary is fixed by the Legislature ; all the others by Councils. As clerk of- the Orphans' Court the register has the fol- lowing corps of assistants : First assistant, $2000 ; second assistant, $1800; third assistant, $1200; seven other assistants, each $1000 ; messenger and custodian of records, $800. These salaries are determined by the Legislature, except the last, which is fixed by Councils. There are also employed a State appraiser and an assistant, but their salaries are paid by the register. In a general survey of the office of register of wills in its three functions the first striking feature is the curious inter- mixture of local and State authority. The register's bonds are filed with a State official, the secretary of internal affairs ; and the collateral inheritance tax returns, as well as an annual statement of his fees and emoluments, are made to another State official, the auditor-general. His monthly returns of the State taxes on wills probated and letters testamentary and of administration are made to the city Register of Wiw^s 247 treasurer, a county officer ; while the monthly statement of these fees is made to the city controller, also a county officer. The existence of the city as such is only recognized in the fact that Councils, with certain exceptions, determine the number and salaries of the subordinates in the office, these salaries being drawn from the fees paid to the city treasurer. If the income of the office should not suffice to pay its expenses the register would lose his salary together with the other salaries fixed by act of assembly, until Councils made an extra appropriation sufficient to supply the deficit. Such a contingency is, however, practically out of probability. The multiform responsibility of the register, the fact that he is as a rule a lawyer, and that he has also usually been a subordinate in the office before becoming its chief, combine to make the office of the register of wills, what it is uni- versally admitted to be, the most efficient public office in the city of Philadelphia in regard to accuracy and the quick dispatch of business. The only serious complaint against it arose a few years ago concerning the enormous fees accru- ing to the register for collecting the collateral inheritance tax. A political office nominally paying an annual salary of $5000, yet really yielding eight or nine times that much, especially as the present State constitution forbids county officers in counties of over 150,000 population being paid in fees, seemed decidedly incongruous with good government. It was in consequence of^pi agitation based on this com- plaint that his commissions were graded and practically reduced in 189 1. In defence of the custom of allowing him a commission it is urged that the practice long antedates the constitution of 1873, and that the register in his function as collector of State moneys has never been regarded as a county officer. In other words, it is a mere accident that the register of wills acts as agent of the State in the collec- tion of a tax ; any other person might just as well be chosen for the purpose. Nevertheless, there exists a strong feeling that the practice is contrary to the spirit of the State constitution, and that economy requires a change. William Y. C. Anderson. XVI.— COUNTY AND CITY COMMISSIONERS. fHE board of commissioners of the county of Philadel- phia was organized under an act passed by the Legislature of the State of Pennsylvania in April, 1834. This bill pro- vided for a board of three commissioners in each county of the commonwealth, one member to be elected annually for a term of three years. The commissioners were to receive for their services $1.50 a day when actually engaged in the labors attendant upon their office. The three commissioners were supposed to meet at least once a month, and were to have the care of bridges or canals located within their county, of county jails and county buildings in general. They were to pay the fees of grand and petit jurors and of witnesses. By the text of the law, it was required of the board that it publish in the county newspapers once a year, during February, a report of all work done during the preceding year, and if it happened that no newspapers were issued in the county, then the reports had to be printed on hand-bills and distributed throughout the county. Th is ^p rovision of the law the commissioners of PhiladelphkjHpinty do not seem to have carried out, as no reports -9^jtmKmd are on file or to be found in the city archives. TThe commissioners were re- quired to take oath of office and to give bond in $2000 each. Prior to 1865 at least one member of the board of county commissioners was required by law to be a member of the board of revision of taxes, but this position was not at all relished by any county commissioner, and in 1865 provision was made for a board composed entirely of private citizens, who should attend to the revision of taxes. This was the first step toward reducing the duties of the commissioners. By the original Act of 1834, the board of commissioners County Commissioners 249 was entitled to one clerk, whose salary they themselves determined. This clerk had almost the same powers as a commissioner, even to that of administering oaths. Sub- stantially he differed from a commissioner only in name. The Act of 1834 was very strict concerning the award of contracts by the commissioners to any member of the board, and made it a criminal action for a member of the board to be in any manner, directly or indirectly, connected with the construction of any public work or bridge that was under the direction of the board of commissioners, and if a commissioner was apprehended in such an offence, he was subject to a fine of $500 and removal from office. On one occasion, in the face of the law, the board awarded a con- tract to one of its members, but action was brought against the board by the commonwealth, and the Supreme Court of the State declared the contract void and illegal. The history of the board of county commissioners, its duties being well defined and not at all complex, was a very quiet one down to 1874, when it was provided in the new •constitution of the State that the board should thereafter be known as the Philadelphia Board of City Commissioners, with both municipal and county functions. In 1887, when the provisions of the Bullitt bill regarding cities of the first Tank went into effect, the entire management of county and municipal offices in Philadelph^ovas changed and scarcely any department was more affecWljjK the new regime than the board of city commissioners^^^ In the first place, the control of county jails, county buildings and real estate, was taken out of the hands of the city commissioners, and placed under the supervision and control of the newly created Department of Public Safety. This was done principally because the management of the police and fire departments was invested in the Department of Public Safety, and it was deemed advisable to let that department also control the court-houses and jails. The radical change in the management of the county jails, ■court-houses, etc., relieved the commissioners of one of the 250 Government of Philadelphia heaviest duties of their office, and left them according to- law with the following functions to perform : (1) They are required to attend to the preparations for all elections, to the minutest detail ; they must see to the print- ing and proper distribution of the ballots, furnish election officers with all necessary blanks and stationery to perform their duties, and a list of all the taxable inhabitants of the election district. The commissioners must attend to the erection of polling booths, and take proper care of these booths' when they are not in use. The names of the commissioners are also required to be printed on ballots and election notices, and by law they can purchase everything necessary for the comfort and accommodation of the persons employed in con- ducting the elections. (2) The board of commissioners, upon presentation of certi- fied bills, draws warrants upon the city treasurer for pay- ment of the fees of all jurors, viewers, and witnesses, and also of the salaries of the officers of the county and munici- pal courts. Furthermore it is required to examine and approve all road-jurors' accounts ; but the board has nothing whatever to do with the opening of streets, or the assessment of damages for opening a street, and it cannot make any contract for public works or building a highway. (3) The board must administer oath to all subordinate employees in every municipal department who are required by law to take an oath of^dffice, and before the salaries of any department can be paid the salary list must be approved by the city commissioners. (4) Arrangements are made by the board for the reception and maintenance at State institutions of indigent insane persons and convicts. They approve all bills on account of such inmates of State institutions and draw warrants upon the city treasury for their payment. Despite all these varying duties, the board of city com- missioners handles no money directly, and the only report of its proceedings to be obtained is found in the records of the city controller, which contain a report only of the warrants that the board has drawn. County Commissioners 251 The Philadelphia Councils may prescribe duties for the board of city commissioners, and duties so prescribed the board is obliged to perform, but Councils have no power to limit the duties of the office as it is now constituted. Although no law seems to regulate the political com- plexion of the board, yet by precedent and mutual under- standing, the political minority is allowed representation thereon, and the board is now composed of two republicans, and one democrat ; and when the term of the democrat is expired, a democrat will probably be elected to the office without opposition from the other party. Each commissioner receives a salary of $5000 a year, and is under bonds of $10,000, for the faithful discharge of his duties. The law provides the commissioners with a chief clerk, at a salary of $2000 a year, and under his supervision are regularly employed two permanent election clerks, two typewriters and two messengers. Previous to elections a clerical force numbering as high as sixty men is used to prepare the lists of taxable residents in the different election districts of the city. James I,awton Kendrick. XVII.— DEPARTMENT OF COUNTY PRISON. fl^OR over a hundred years the prisons of Pennsylvania 1 have been noted for the excellence of their manage- ment and discipline. The Pennsylvania, or ' ' individual treatment," system separates each prisoner from all the others, thus admitting of gradations in the discipline; while the impossibility of concerted action minimizes the danger of escape or insurrection. The system is well adapted to the reform, education and useful employment of each prisoner, since he is freed from the corrupting influence of others. Danger from the spread of contagious diseases is also reduced to a minimum. Under the associate or congre- gate system, which prevails in other states, the prisoners are associated during the day, though the night is passed in solitary confinement in a small cell. This system is cheaper than the Pennsylvania, requiring less space and fewer keepers, but economy is its only advantage. In accordance with the statutory limitations placed by England on the royal charter, a prison was to be erected in each county of the Pennsylvania colony. The penal code and principles formulated by Pennsylvania were annulled by Queen Anne, and a strict adherence to the charter and English laws enforced. Prison reform was thus checked for almost a century. The board of inspectors of the Philadelphia county prison originated in 1773, when the Legislature organized the county commissioners into a board, authorizing them to sell the inadequate gaol at Third and Market streets, and to buy land and erect a new one. The site chosen was the south- east corner of Sixth and Walnut streets. In 1803 a new prison was erected on Arch street, and in 1831 both were sold, and the proceeds used toward the erection of the present Department op County Prison 253 county prison, at the corner of Reed street and Passyunk avenue. The management of the prisons was wretched. Filth and disease permeated the over-crowded prisons of the country, and those of Philadelphia were no exceptions. That wheelbarrows marked ' ' victuals for prisoners ' ' were to be seen on the streets, collecting food from the citizens, is evi- dence of the meagre aid given by the State. When the movement for prison reform began, in 1790, the control and management of the county prison was given to a body of inspectors elected by the city and districts. With the approval of the mayor, two aldermen and two judges of the Supreme Court, they could make the necessary pro- visions and regulations for convicts ; could separate and class the prisoners and inflict solitary confinement. Subse- quently the inspectors acquired exclusive control of the prison. In 1835 the board consisted of twelve inspectors, the mayor and aldermen, the judges of the Court of Quarter Sessions and of the District Court, each appointing four. The consolidation act placed the inspectors under the super- vision of Councils, and they were elected by the voters of the wards. The law of 1856 directed the annual appointment of five inspectors by the Supreme Court ; three by the District Court, and three by the Court of Common Pleas. The con- stitution of 1874 takes the power of appointment from the Supreme Court, and in the same year the District Court was abolished, so that the board of eleven inspectors is now appointed by the Court of Common Pleas for one year, taking office on the first Monday in July. No ofiicer or clerk of this court, no councilman or practicing attorney, and none but a citizen of the county is eligible for inspector. The Bullitt bill does not affect the county prison. A president, secretary and treasurer are annually chosen from their number by the inspectors themselves, who also appoint a superintendent, a matron, a physician and a clerk, and fix their salaries and those of all other persons employed in the institution. The inspectors receive no compensation. 254 Government of Philadelphia They make the rules for the internal government of the prison, and contract for the purchase of food and clothing and for the sale of articles manufactured at the prison. The revenue-yielding work of the inmates is of two kinds, shoe- making and picking burrs from wool. In 1892 the former yielded $3,110.60, the latter $172.66. Other labor was upon articles used in the prison. The shoes are sold mostly to wholesale dealers at ninety cents to $1.25 a pair. They must bear the stamp "prison made." No contracts can be awarded to city officers. The treasurer receives all money, and disburses it according to the orders of the board. The board of inspectors submits every quarter a detailed statement of the condition of the prison to the State Board of Public Charities, giving the number of prisoners and the nature of their offences ; the age, sex, color and nativity of each ; stating whether the prisoner has been previously convicted, whether married or single, and whether he or she can read and write ; the number of escapes, deaths and cases of sickness ; the receipts and expenditures and other details concerning the prison. Each month three members of the board serve as visiting inspectors, visiting the prison no less than once a week to see that all the duties are faithfully performed. They report to the board at least once during the month. The superintendent resides in the institution and visits each prisoner no less than twice a week. He keeps a journal wherein are noted the escape and discharge of any prisoner, the complaints, the punishments inflicted for misbe- havior and the visits of inspectors and physicians. Under the direction and advice of the board, he appoints keepers and other servants, and dismisses any of them when he thinks fit, or is ordered to do so by the inspectors. He shall not sell or be connected with the sale of any article to be used in the prison, and shall receive no emolument from any prisoner, under penalty of $500. All money and prop- erty found on prisoners committed to the prison shall be retained by him until the prisoner is discharged. Department of County Prison 255 The matron sees all the female prisoners every day, -instructs them, and directs their occupation. She reports matters of importance to the superintendent. Twice a day the keepers inspect the condition of the prisoners under their -charge, delivering the meals and superintending the work of the employed. They report daily to the superintendent on the health and behavior of their prisoners. They shall receive no emolument from any prisoner, under penalty of $100, forfeiture of position and sixty days' imprisonment. The physician visits the prison daily, prescribing for the «ick, and reports monthly as to the health of all the convicts. He examines into the health of every new prisoner, and keeps a journal, reviewable by the superintendent and inspectors at will. An infirmary is fitted up for the sick, to which any prisoner is removed at the order of the physician. He may also order a change of diet or discipline subject to -confirmation or annulment by the inspectors. He makes out the death certificates, which are copied by theinspectors and then sent to the Board of Health. Any person, convicted of any crime by any criminal court •of Philadelphia, may be sentenced to separate or solitary confinement at labor, either in the State penitentiary or the •county prison, at the discretion of the court, except in cases of murder in the second degree and manslaughter, when he is sentenced to the penitentiary. With these exceptions both places receive all classes of prisoners, but the percent- age of petty criminals is greater in the county prison, as its minimum period of incarceration is three months, while at -the penitentiary it is one year. Persons confined for trial shall be kept in cells apart from the wing or story in which sentenced prisoners are confined, to prevent intercourse or conversation between them. Prisoners sentenced by United States courts may be ■quartered in the county prison. A yearly calendar, giving the names, crimes, and the expense of maintaining such prisoners is sent to the Governor of the State, and by him to the United States marshal for payment. The marshal may visit and superintend such prisoners. 256 Government of Philadelphia When a person is committed to the prison he is examined and clothed in the uniform of the institution. His name, place of nativity and trade, together with an accurate description of his person are registered in a book. He is then sent to a numbered cell, and is known only by that number. The old form of punishment by the dark cell and other tor- tures is yielding to the more humane principle of a premium on good behavior. So, too, the old symbols of degradation, such as the shaved head and the striped suits, are disappear- ing, earnest efforts now being made to reform and educate the prisoners. In 1863 the rule allowing small amounts to prisoners for overwork or extra services was established as an incentive to diligence. In 1892, $89.16 was distributed for this purpose. In 1870 commutations of the period of inprisonment were introduced as a further incentive to good behavior. At the direction of the Governor, one month is deducted from each of the first two years ; two months from each succeeding year to the fifth ; three months from each succeeding year to the tenth, and four months on each year thereafter, provided the principal keeper give a certifi- cate of good behavior, approved by the board of inspectors . The prisoner so discharged receives a certificate, stating the number of days commuted. Applications for pardons are made to the State Board of Pardons, which reports either favorably or adversely to the Governor. When a prisoner is discharged, the inspectors may furnish him with clothes, if his own are not suitable. Money, not exceeding $5.00, may also be furnished. No prisoner shall be detained on account of inability to pay the costs of prosecution ; an affidavit of the disability, scheduling the property owned, is sufficient. The " costs of prosecu- tion " amount to $16.75, and are paid to a court deputy at the Court of Quarter Sessions. If the prisoner is unable to pay these costs, he makes application to the inspectors, upon. the expiration of his sentence, to be exempted therefrom. Department of County Prison 257 The discharge does not release the prisoner from actual in- debtedness to the Commonwealth, and any property concealed or thereafter possessed by him may be proceeded against, by writ. This applies to all except United States prisoners. Excepting the attorneys of persons confined for trial, no visitors are allowed without permission from an inspector, and none but official visitors* may communicate with con- victs. Visitors are not allowed to carry letters or messages to or from the convicts ; but they may be carried to and from persons confined for trial, if permission is given by the superintendent or an inspector ; violation of this law is punishable by a fine of $100. The present county prison (Moyamensing) has been occu- pied since 1835. The male department is overcrowded, making separate confinement impossible. The female de- partment has more than enough room. On April 22, 1893, there were 561 men and 78 women confined in the prison, and this is about the usual number. The Pennsylvania Prison Society, in its report for 1891, criticised the county prison as follows: "At the county prison we found too many idle convicts. * * * On the male side we found a number of cells without bedsteads ; with no sheets or pillow-cases, the prisoners sleeping on straw beds on the floor. * * * There is an overcrowd- ing here as in our other penal institutions ; and notwith- standing the law of our State requires the separation of prisoners, this law is violated by the very persons and power that aim to correct and reform the criminal. In the county prison we found generally two and sometimes three prisoners in the male department, in cells designed for but one person. We found cells for sick and violent prisoners * " The official visitors are the Governor, the members of the Legislature, the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the Attorney-General, the deputies of the city and county of Philadelphia, the president and associate judges of the District Court of the City and County of Philadelphia, the Court of Common Pleas and Quarter Sessions, and the grand juries of the Court of Oyer and Terminer of the County «f Philadelphia, and the acting committee of the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons (now the Pennsylvania Prison Society), the mayor and the recorder of the city of Philadelphia." 17 258 Government of Philadelphia on the third tier, far removed from the office of the physician. * * * We found criminals in charge of those who are pronounced sick or dangerous, instead of having regularly appointed nurses to assist the physician. We found wit- nesses, guilty of no crime, imprisoned and treated too much like criminals. * * * We think a portion of the female department might be partitioned off, as the number of female prisoners has been greatly reduced. ' ' The county prison is entirely under the control of the State, Councils appropriating only for its maintenance. In 1892, $89,153.89 was expended in its support. This included $25,053.90 for food; $3999.91 for fuel; $4996.17 for cloth- ing and bedding ; $89.16 for overwork of prisoners ; $255.50 for discharged prisoners, and $39,595 for salaries, distributed as follows : Superintendent, $2500 ; assistant superintendent, $1500 ; clerk, $1500 ; prisonagent, $1500 ; physician, $1200 ; assistant physician and apothecary, $1000 ; superintendent of shoe department, $1200; plumber and keeper, $1100; carpenter and keeper, $1000 ; painter and keeper, $1000 ; sixteen keepers ($900), $14,400 ; baker, $800 ; cook, $800 ; messenger, $900 ; six watchmen ($800), $4800 ; physician (female), $900 ; matron, $850 ; assistant matron, $700 ; two keepers ($650), $1300; watchman, $645. In 1890, the cost per week of maintaining each prisoner was $2.52. On the New York line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, at Holmesburg, Philadelphia, a new county prison is now in process of erection. Actual work on the building was com- menced in 1886 and has been prosecuted to the full extent of the several appropriations of Councils. When completed, it will cost $1,275,000, and will be used exclusively for con- victed prisoners. The present county prison will be used for the other prisoners. The chief features of the new prison are the one-story plan and the radiating corridors from a central rotunda. Provision is made for ten wards, but only six will be built at present, capable of accommodating 480 prisoners. Benjamin W. Loeb. XVIII.— DISTRICT ATTORNEY. 1j)RIOR to 1850 the district attorney existed as the deputy •*■ attorney-general of the State, and prosecuted violations of the criminal law in the county for which he was appointed ; but in 1850 the department of district attorney was consti- tuted. Throughout the United States these departments have been characterized by their stability and similarity. The functions are based on the common law of Kngland, but are adapted to the principles of our government, so that while in England the attorney-general appears for the crown, in this country he prosecutes on behalf of the people. I/ike other county officers, the district attorney is chosen at the general election for a term of three years, beginning on the first Monday of January after the election. He shall have resided in the county for at least one year next preced- ing his election, and have been admitted to practice as an attorney in one of the county courts for at least two years. During his continuance in office he is ineligible to any other State office . The oath of office (Article VIII of the Constitu- tion) is taken in the Court of Common Pleas on the first Monday of November after the election, and entered on the record of the court by the prothonotary. All prosecutions are conducted in the Courts of Quarter Sessions and Oyer and Terminer, and if the case be carried before the Supreme Court, the district attorney continues to represent the Commonwealth. The court may appoint a special district attorney to conduct certain trials, and if the regular district attorney is absent from court, may appoint a substitute to serve until he appears. Writs of quo-warranto, mandamus, habeas corpus and other legal proceedings are issued by the district attorney. He signs all bills of indictment, and conducts, in the name 260 Government of Philadelphia of the Commonwealth, all criminal and other prosecutions arising in the county, and cases in which the State is a party, such as collecting debts due it, or proceeding against defaulting officers and their sureties. In no case has he authority to enter nolle prosequi either before or after the bill is found, or to discharge a prisoner from custody, without the written approbation of the court. In cases of requisition and extradition he prepares the notice demanding the fugi- tive, and sends it to the chief executive of the State or coun- try to which the criminal has fled. When a person is arrested and charged with having com- mitted a crime, a warrant is issued, and the accused brought before a magistrate and confronted with witnesses against him. He is not allowed to make defence, and if a prima facie case is made out against him, he is bound over, under bail, to appear at the next term of the court, and in default of bail is sent to prison. The magistrate must return, within forty-eight hours, a copy of the proceedings to the district attorney, who prepares a bill of indictment, stating the offence with which the person is charged. This is laid before the grand jury, a body of twenty four men, summoned from the community to act in that capacity for one month and paid $2.50 a day. The district attorney may appear before the grand jury, though he does so only in exceptional cases. He may, on affidavit of the facts being made, and the approval of the court, send a bill of indictment before the grand jury without there having been an arrest or hear- ing, and, in cases of great public necessity, may present a bill on mere information. The concurrence of twelve jurymen is necessary to find a "true" bill of indictment, otherwise it is returned "igno- ramus," and the case usually dropped, though the district attorney has the rarely-used privilege of presenting a new bill before the same or a subsequent jury. At the end of each day the grand jury returns to the Court of Quarter Sessions all the bills acted upon, where they are numbered and recorded by the court clerk. The district District Attorney 261 attorney then notifies all the witnesses for the Commonwealth to appear on the day of the trial, and the bail of the defend- ant to produce him in court, or if he had been imprisoned he is sent for. The trial is then conducted before the petit jury. Should the district attorney neglect to prosecute any crimi- nal charge, or at any stage of the proceedings disagree with the private counsel of the prosecutor as to the manner of conducting the trial, the prosecutor may petition the court, which may if it sustains the complaint, direct any private counsel employed by the prosecutor to conduct the entire proceeding. The district attorney receives a salary of $10,000, but no perquisites, although he is allowed to continue his private practice. Should he demand or receive other than the pre- scribed emoluments for any official act or wilfully neglect his duties, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and if convicted, be fined not more than $1000 and imprisoned not longer than one year, and his office be vacated. The fees of the department are : For drawing the bill of indictment and presenting an offence triable in the Court of Oyer and Terminer, $6 ; for drawing the bill of indictment and prosecuting an offence triable in the Court of Quarter Sessions, $5 ; for all bills returned "ignoramus," $3 ; for all cases of surety of the peace, $3 ; for nolle prosequi on a transcript, $3 ; for nolle prosequi on. a bill of indictment, $5. These fees are collected from the defendant, but if he is unable to pay them, as is usually the case, the county is charged with the amount. In 1892 the sheriff collected only $305 for the costs of prosecution. All the fees, which amounted in 1892 to $26,955, are P a ^ i Qto the c ity treasury. The fees must yield enough to pay the salaries of the depart- ment. Any deficiency is deducted from the salaries and any excess carried over to the ensuing year. The public is thus insured against excessive waste of time by the department. The district attorney has four assistants, receiving respec- tively $5000, $4000, $3000, $2500 a year; an indictment 262 Government of Philadelphia clerk, $1800 ; an office clerk, $ 1000, and a fee clerk, $500, With the approval of the Court of Quarter Sessions, the district attorney may, whenever the court deems it necessary, appoint a special detective to obtain evidence required by the Commonwealth in criminal cases, and to perform such duties as the court may direct. There are at present two detectives employed, receiving $1500 and $1200 a year re- spectively. Benjamin W. I/)Eb. XIX.— DEPARTMENT OF CORONER. 7j\HE coroner's office, as first established in England by f King Alfred the Great, was one of trust and honor. It was his duty to see the body of any person who died from a violent or unknown cause, and if such a body had been buried before seen by the coroner, it had to be exhumed. He was a judicial as well as ministerial officer, and could not have a deputy. If any person were wounded and thereby in peril of death, it was the coroner's duty to arrest the offender and hold him pending the outcome of the injury, and within a year and a day to prosecute the offender if the relatives of the injured man failed to do so. If the murderer escaped, the town was liable for the coroner's fee. Such were the early English laws relating to the coroner, and they were in effect in Pennsylvania during the colonial period. The coroner is now elected by the people at the general elections. If he refuse or neglect to perform the duties of the office for a period of three months, the office shall be declared vacant, and the Governor shall appoint some one to fill the office. Before entering upon his duties the coroner must give a bond in $60,000, with two good sureties, for the full and faithful performance of his duties. His bond must be recorded by the recorder of deeds and then transmitted to the secretary of the Commonwealth, endorsed by the recorder of deeds and approved by two judges of the Court of Com- mon Pleas. No person can be surety for both coroner and sheriff at the same time. If the coroner act before recording his sureties, the penalty is imprisonment not exceeding six months. He is liable to an action of debt on the part of any person injured by an act of his under cover of the office. 264 Government op Philadelphia If for any reason the sheriff is unable to act, the coroner shall perform his duties and be bound by the laws of his office. If both are disabled or die, the Court of Common Pleas fills both offices by appointment. It is the duty of the coroner to hold an inquest over the body of any person whose death was caused by violence or who died after an illness of less than twenty-four hours, no regular physician having attended ; or if there is suspicion that death was due to unnatural causes. No more than six jurors can be summoned. The coroner receives $4. 00 for each inquest that he holds, and twenty-five cents for each oath administered to a juryman. The jurors' fees are $ 1.50 a day, with no allowance for mileage. The coroner turns his fees into the city treasury. He can compel the attendance of witnesses by attachment, and must hold an inquest in all cases where felonious assault, although not ending imme- diately in death, is suspected. A post-mortem examination of a body may be ordered by the coroner at the expense of the county, but he cannot make a general appointment of a surgeon for that purpose. The coroner's term of office is three years, and his salary, which is fixed by act of assembly, is $5000 per annum. He has the assistance of one deputy, who receives a salary of $2500, also fixed by the legislature. His other assistants, whose salaries are fixed by Councils, are as follows : Two physicians, each $1500 ; clerk, $1300 ; assistant clerk, $ 1000 ; two messengers, each $900; wagon driver, $1800; stenog- rapher, $600. The morgue is in charge of the Bureau of City Property and the Councils' committee on city property. It is open at all hours of the day and night. The superintendent resides in the morgue building and has entire charge of it. He or his deputy must report to the coroner immediately upon the arrival of a corpse, and record a detailed account of the recovery of the body, a description of it and of the clothing and papers and money found on it, for which the superintendent is held responsible. Corpses must remain on Department of Coroner 265 exhibition for seventy-two hours. If a body is received during the night the coroner must be notified by nine a. m., and if there are indications of violent death, the mayor or the chief of police must be notified immediately. No corpse can be buried without the coroner's consent and no post-mortem examination can be held unless the coroner is present or gives his written consent. The friends of the deceased upon identifying the body, may remove it upon obtaining the coroner's consent. The superintendent reports monthly to the Bureau of City Property, stating the number of identified bodies with the dates of their reception, names, ages and residences and the hours and places of death. After having been held forty-eight hours, bodies must be photographed in the clothes they were found in. If any doctor wishes to embalm a body, he may do so upon the written consent of the coroner and of the chief of the Bureau of City Property. The superintendent of the morgue receives a salary of $700 per annum, and his deputy $470. Joseph S. Covering. XX.— DIRECTORS OF THE NAUTICAL SCHOOLSHIP. fHE Congress of the United States, by ' ' An act to en- courage the establishment of Public Marine Schools," which was approved June 2, 1874, authorized the secretary of the navy, upon the application in writing of a governor of a state, to furnish with all her apparel, charts, books, and instruments of navigation, a suitable vessel of the navy to be used for the benefit of any nautical school established at any of the ports of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Balti- more, and San Francisco. The President of the United States was by the same act authorized to detail proper officers of the navy as superintendents of such schools and instruct- ors therein. With a view to realize for the Commonwealth the benefit of the act of Congress, the legislature of Pennsylvania, April 17, 1889, passed an act establishing a "Board of Directors of Nautical Schools," to provide and maintain a nautical school for the education and training in the science and practice of navigation of pupils from the various counties of Pennsylvania. This act authorizes the Governor of Penn- sylvania and the mayor of the city of Philadelphia each to appoint three citizens of this Commonwealth, ' ' who shall constitute and be designated as the Board of Directors of Nautical Schools." The terms of these directors expire biennially, and they serve without pay. Under the act the board is authorized and directed to furnish for the school accommodations on board a proper vessel ; to make for it all needful rules and regulations ; to provide for the com- pensation of instructors and other employees ; to prescribe its government and discipline ; to determine upon what Directors of the Nautical Schoolship 267 conditions pupils shall be received, instructed and discharged, and to provide in all other respects for the good management of the school. Hence the board has also the right to purchase books, apparatus, stationery, and other things necessary for the successful conduct of the school, and may cause the pupil to go on board a vessel in the harbor of Philadelphia, and take cruises for the purpose of obtaining practical knowledge of navigation and the duties of mariners. The board is further authorized to receive from the United States Government such vessel as the secretary of the navy may detail for the use of the school. Upon application by the Governor of Pennsylvania, the navy department selected the United States Ship ' ' Saratoga, ' ' and detailed a commander to act as superintendent of the school. The course of study is two years in length. In addition to ordinary English studies, thorough instruction is given in the practical duties of a seaman, such as boxing the compass, knotting and splicing, the strapping of blocks, reefing and furling, heaving the lead, using the palm and needle, swimming, etc. , and in the art of navigation, as for example, the laying out and plotting of courses, and the use of mathematical instruments. The aim is to fit the pupil to assume the duties of officers on merchant vessels. Highly useful methods of the course of instruction are the cruises of the ship extending to the ports of Europe, South America and the West Indies. In no respect whatever is the school reformatory in purpose ; any pupil who develops a vicious character is forthwith discharged. Boys between sixteen and nineteen years of age, having the written consent of their parents or guardians, who must be citizens and residents of the State of Pennsylvania, will be received on the school ship provided they have sound physical constitutions, show some aptitude for a sea life, are of good moral character, produce in evidence certificate from at least two reputable citizens, and are fairly familiar with reading, writing, and the elements of arithmetic. Board and tuition are furnished without cost to the boys, but their parents or guardians must 268 Government of Philadelphia provide suitable clothing during the course of study on the ship. The navy department furnishes the board of directors with a list of eligible names, from which the board appoints a superintendent, first, second and third officers, and a sur- geon. These officers, whose positions correspond respectively to the naval ranks of commander, lieutenant-commander, lieutenant, ensign, and surgeon, are instructors in the school. The board meets monthly and reorganizes annually by the election of a president, treasurer and secretary. The secre- tary and his clerk are paid employees and attend to all the administrative business of the board and school. The board advertises, and in conjunction with a representative of the mayor awards contracts for supplies in the usual way pro- vided for all municipal departments. The institution derives its financial support from the fol- lowing sources : i. The United States Government provides the vessel, etc., as described in the act of Congress, and pro- vides the officers of the school, who receive while detailed on this duty the usual shore pay, two-thirds of the regular pay of their rank, (as officers of the school they are also paid fixed salaries by the board of directors). 2. The legis- lature of the State of Pennsylvania appropriates to the school every two years the sum of $26,000. The state controller, in quarterly certificates, accredits this to the private account of the treasurer of the board of directors, who is under bonds to his colleagues. 3. The Councils of the city of Philadelphia, by ordinance, annually appropriate to the school $25,000, which is placed to the account of the city treasurer, when it becomes available in the usual way. The board, as a condition of the acceptance of this appro- priation, must present a monthly report to the city controller, by whom it is scrutinized and then forwarded to the auditor- general of the State. These appropriations are sufficient for the successful maintenance of the school. The Board of Directors of the Nautical School, it will thus be seen, is subject to three distinct powers— the federal, the State, and the municipal. The actual school, i. e., the ship Directors of the Nautical Schoolship 269 and its officers, is provided by the Federal government in accordance with an act of Congress and with the consent of the State ; the board derives its corporate existence and a large part of its financial support from the State, the Governor of which appoints three of the directors ; the mayor of Philadelphia appoints the three other directors, and the board by accepting annually from the city nearly one-half of its financial support, places itself within the jurisdiction of City Councils. J. H. Donnelly. XXI.— CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINERS. N order that Philadelphia might be relieved of the evils of the spoils system and have an efficient civil service, the Bullitt Bill provided that the officers, clerks and employees of the departments should be selected from a list of appli- cants who had undergone a competitive examination. It was declared the duty of the mayor and heads of depart- ments to make the necessary rules and regulations of these examinations, "for the ascertainment of the comparative fitness of all applicants for appointment or promotion . ' ' The departments of city solicitor, city treasurer, and con- troller are exempt from these rules and regulations. One of the rules, it is declared, must be that "any personal solicitation of the officers of the board or of the appointing power in favor of any candidate, by a^ person whomsoever, unless fraudulently done in order to injure him, shall be taken and deemed to have been done at the instance of the candidate himself, and shall disqualify him from competing at any such examination or appointment for and during one year thereafter." In accordance with these provisions the mayor and heads of departments have made rules and regulations to govern the examination of applicants for office and created boards of examiners and divided into classes or schedules the differ- ent kinds of service, there being a separate examining board for each schedule. There are at present nine separate boards of examiners. Kach board is composed of three members, who are appointed by the mayor with the approval of the heads of departments. They draw no salary. Records of their proceedings are kept by a secretary and clerk, also appointed by the mayor, who receive salaries of $2000 and $500 respectively. Civil Service Examiners 271 The Civil Service Commission, i. e., the mayor and heads of departments, has adopted the rule that laborers for special purposes, professional experts, inmates of charitable or penal institutions, when placed on duty, and persons whose servi- ces are gratuitous, are exempt from the operation of the civil service regulations. The Department of Education is allowed to make its own rules. An application for a position must be made to the head of the proper department, and must be accompanied by vouch- ers as to the applicant's good character from three reputable citizens. The head of the department sends the papers to the secretary of the examining board, who records them and notifies the applicant when an examination will be held, the date being fixed arbitrarily by the board. If five applicants are on the eligible list, having passed an examination within a year, a vacancy is filled from their number without any examination. In the Bureau of Police preference must be given to applicants who have served in positions next below those to be filled, and this same rule, it is claimed by the board, is also followed in all the other departments. Ap- plicants who have served honorably in the United States army or navy are also given preference. Applicants for positions in the Bureaus of Fire and Police must undergo a physical examination, which counts forty per cent of the whole average, their experience and their rating in the men- tal examination counting thirty per cent each. The secretary notifies applicants at what time an examin- ation will be held, but no attempt is made to secure more applicants by advertising or other form of public notice. The commission does not publish any report and it is dif- ficult to ascertain the scope of its work. No statistics can be procured as to the number of offices that are to be or have been filled, nor as to the number of applicants and of examinations. Estimates, however, are made by the secre- tary that 600 or 700 positions are filled each year from about 2500 applicants, one-fourth (^) of whom are rejected on examination. The average number of applicants varies 272 Government of Philadelphia greatly ; for some offices of lower grade there may be 100 applicants while for others it is difficult to find a competent person willing to accept it. The cost of the examinations is about $300 a year. The effect of the introduction of civil service rules has been salutary, yet the system is not free from criticism. The fact that the commission which formulates the rules is com- posed of the men whom the rules are intended to govern and restrict, is held to be a fundamental weakness of the system, rendering possible the entire subversion of the purpose for which the rules exist. Objection is also made to the latitude of choice given heads of departments, who are allowed to select appointees from the five applicants having highest rating. Opportunity is believed to be afforded here for the occasional exercise of political patronage. S. Murdoch Kendrick. XXII— PROTHONOTARY. fHE prothonotary is the chief registering clerk, the "first notary, ' ' of the Court of Common Pleas. In accordance with legislative acts passed under the constitution of 1838 the prothonotary for the courts of Philadelphia was elected regularly by the people of the county, and this system con- tinued until the adoption of the present constitution in 1873. The constitution provides especially that for the city of Philadelphia there shall be one prothonotary' s office for all the Common Pleas Courts ; that the prothonotary shall be appointed by the judges of these courts for a term of three years ; and that he shall be subject to removal by a majority of the judges. The prothonotary is empowered to appoint such assistants as may be necessary, and he and his assist- ants shall receive fixed salaries, to be determined by law and paid by the city, and all fees collected in his office, except such as may be by law due to the Commonwealth, shall be paid by him into the city treasury. Excepting a common judgment docket, which contains the judgments and liens of all the courts, each court must have in his office its separate docket. Among the powers and duties of the prothonotary, as de- termined by acts of Legislature since 1834, ate the following : To fix the seal of the respective court to all -writs and pro- cesses ; to take bail in civil action, to enter judgment, at the instance of plaintiffs, upon the confession of defendants, to sign all judgments, to take acknowledgment of satisfac- tion of judgments or decrees entered on the records of the respective courts, to administer oaths and affirmations in conducting the business of these respective offices. The numberless fees accruing to the office make it one of great financial importance. 274 Government of Philadelphia The prothonotary is appointed for a term of three years by the judges of the four Courts of Common Pleas. His salary, fixed by the Legislature at $10,000 per year, is paid by the city, and the fees of the office are turned into the city treasury. The prothonotary is thus in every sense a city officer. He appoints his clerical force subject to the approval of the court. Each of the four courts has its separate clerk, whose business it is to report and record the proceedings of his court. A docket of all cases for each court is thus kept, and the judgments of all the courts are entered in a common docket. Duplicates of all the papers in each case coming before the courts are required to be filed with the prothonotary. After they are carefully tabu- lated for each term of court, these duplicate papers are placed in tin canisters, and filed away. A complete record of every case at court and its final settlement is thus preserved and is easy of access.* When the prothonotary was elected by the people, inas- much as he owed his position largely to party strategy and was responsible to no one but himself, the administration of the office was lax and corrupt. It was wont to be matter of notorious comment that the office was used to recoup the coffers of the regnant political party. In the convention which hammered out the text of the present constitution, the system of empowering the judges of the court to appoint the prothonotary was advocated and adopted, 'principally in order that he might be made responsible to a tribunal that could easily pass judgment on his efficiency and remove him from office if he. were corrupt or incompetent. J. H. Donnelly. * For the years prior to 1874 the archives were in comparative chaos. XXIII.— THE SHERIFF. fHE sheriff of Philadelphia is a county officer, receiving his commission from the Governor. His relations with the city government are less intimate than those of the other county officials, It is the principal object of this chapter to discuss those functions of the sheriff which are peculiar to the office in Philadelphia County. The sheriff is elected by popular vote at the November election, for a term of three years. He is not eligible for re-election. Before entering on the duties of his office, he must file with the recorder a bond for $80,000, approved by the Court of Common Pleas. No judge, clerk, prothonotary or attorney-at-law can be accepted as surety, nor may one person be surety for both the sheriff and prothonotary. The sheriff must file his commission from the Governor in the office of the county recorder. His salary is fixed by act of assembly at $15,000. He appoints his subordinates, their salaries being fixed by Councils. An appropriation is made by Councils each year to the sheriff for the salaries and expenses of his office, but it is provided that the salaries shall not exceed the fees received by him. Tlfe sheriff is the representative of the State executive in the county. His duties include the maintenance of peace and order, guarding juries and prisoners, the service of pro- cesses and execution of the judgments of the courts. He also presides at inquisitions and acts as administrative officer between the court and the plaintiff in case of capias bail- bond, bail piece and other processes. Certain provisions of the law concerning the powers and duties of the sheriff of Philadelphia County differ from those applicable to other county sheriffs in the State. He must, 276 Government of Philadelphia on the first Monday of each month, render to the city treasurer an account of all money received during the month and make payment thereof. This statement must be verified by the oath of the sheriff or of one of his deputies. He must also submit to the city controller a quarterly statement of his accounts. Neglect to render these accounts constitutes a misdemeanor in office. For all fees and securities paid or entered in the sheriff's office there should be rendered a bill of particulars, specify- ing the various items and amounts. The fees and charges of the sheriff have been fixed by act of assembly, and all fees exacted by him must be exactly in accordance with the provisions of such acts. Any complaint of extortionate or illegal fees shall be investigated by the Court of Common Pleas. If the sheriff should be prevented from executing his duties by reason of absence from the county, his office shall be considered vacant. On leaving office he must deliver all unexecuted writs to his successor, who shall receive and execute thein as if they had been issued to him. In taking bail-bonds the sheriff shall give notice in writing of the names and places of residence of the bails to the plaintiff in the action, or his agent or attorney. Such bonds may be accepted by the plaintiff or his representative within twenty days. The sheriff and his deputies have no independ- ent power over prisoners or other persons legally under their control. They must follow strictly the provisions of the law, under penalty of action for damages. The sheriff summons the jurors who are to serve during any term of court. They must be notified at least ten days before the time fixed for their appearance. He also appoints the county jailors and has the oversight of the jails. As administrative officer the sheriff must announce through the press or by posting bills the general elections. This proclamation must be issued at least twenty days before the election and shall : (1) enumerate the offices for which elec- tions are to be held ; (2) designate the place or places where The Sheriff 277 the election is to be held ; (3) specify the qualifications requisite for eligibility to these offices. Within six years after the expiration of his term of office the sheriff may bring suit for fees or other charges. In such suits the certificate of the prothonotary of the county shall be prima facie evidence that such charges are law- fully due. One of the principal duties of the sheriff is the sale of real estate and other property under execution of the courts. A certificate from the prothonotary of any Pennsylvania court is sufficient acknowledgment of sheriff's deeds, even though no other record was made thereof at the time of such acknowledgment. All such acknowledgments are to be recorded in the office of the recorder of deeds of the county in which the property is situated. This shall be evidence in all cases where the original deeds would be evidence. Sheriff's sales must be advertised by hand-bills for at least ten days. The office of sheriff, it is seen, is largely independent of the city government, although he is dependent upon Councils for appropriations and is required to report to the treasurer and controller. Since the times when the sheriff, as repre- sentative of the king, was the chief executive officer of the county, his powers have been greatly curtailed, particularly in large cities, where the function of preserving the peace is delegated to the police. In case of riot or other disturb- ance calling for the interference of the State authorities, the sheriff assumes his ancient function as preserver of peace and order. The employees and salaries in the sheriff's office are as follows : Sheriff, $15,000 ; real estate deputy, $6000 ; clerk to real estate deputy, $1500 ; personal estate deputy, $2000 ; execution clerk, $1200 ; appearance clerk, $1000 ; assistant appearance clerk, $900; fee clerk, $1000; six deputies, each $1000 ; six clerks to deputies, each $900 ; six writ servers, each $720 ; quarter sessions deputy, $700 ; four court deputies, each $100. The salary of the real estate 278 Government of Philadelphia deputy is fixed by act of assembly, like that of the sheriff, but the salaries of all the other employees are fixed by Councils. The salaries of the following additional employees are regarded as part of the expenses of the office and are paid out of appropriations : Solicitor, $2000 ; assistant solicitor, $1500; bill poster, $100; van and driver, $1800; auctioneer, $600; messenger, $700; janitor, $600. Stoyan Vasil Tsanoff. AVIL PRINTING CO., PHILADA. INDEX Actions — Notice served on City Solicitor, 87. Act of 1809 — Effect on schools, 49. Act of 1854— Relation to Mayor, 19. Relation to Councils, 26. Relation to Guardians of Poor, 39- Relation to education, 51. Relation to City Controller, 74. Relation to City Solicitor, 82. Relation to City Treasurer, 90. Relation to Bureau of Surveys, 139-140. Effect on City Police, 156. Effect on City Property, 190. Act of 1885— See Bullitt Bill. Administration — Corrupt under a Committee Sys- tem, 26. African Fire Association — Controversy over, 173. Alderman — Under charter of 1789, 25. Appointed by Governor, 26. Supplanted by magistrates, 26. Alfred, the Great — Established Coroner, 263. Almshouse — " Green Meadows," 38. " Society Grounds," 38. " Blockley," 38. United with House of Correction, 40. Controlled by directors, 40. . Property of inmates, 41 Provides for paupers, 42. Superintendent of, 43. Matron of, 43. House agent of, 43. Outdoor agent of, 44. Apothecaries — For the poor, 44. Appointing power — Held by Mayor, 19. Transferred to Councils, 19, 26. Under act of 1885, 21. Apprentices — Minors as, 42. Appropriations — For departments, 33. None without ordinance, 32, 75. Of State for schools, 54, 96. For Public Buildings' Commis- sion, 147-149. For Bureau of Police, 164. For Board of Revision of Taxes, 1892, 207. Estimated from Assessor's Return, 210. To Sinking Fund, 213. Assumptions concerning Sinking Fund, 215. To departments pinched, 221. Limit for 1893, 222. Amount for 1893, 222. To meet emergencies, 222. Must precede Park contractSj 231. For Park, 1893, 233. For Board of Port Wardens, 235. For Recorder of Deeds and Reg- ister of Wills drawn from fees, 238. Amount for Register of Wills, 1892, 245. For Sheriff, 277. Architect and Supervisor of School Buildings — Duties of, 56. Arnold, Thomas — On the teacher, 64. Arsenal, City — How controlled, 191. Ashes — Collection of, 131. Assessments — Taxes levied according to county, 202. 28o Government of Philadelphia Taxes a lien from date of, 202. Receiver of Taxes collects every city, 203. Low and unequal, 206. At present approximately full, 206. Defined, 206. Exclusive duty of Board of Re- vision of Taxes, 206. Free from political bias, 207. County districted for, 207. Aggregate reported to State offi- cers, 207. Districts not connected with wards, 208. Made annually in May, 208. Lower than market value, 209. Three classes of real estate, 209. Method of, 209. History of, 211. Limit of Municipal debt, 215. For 1893, 222. Assessors — Relation to school system, 49. Number of, 207. Salaries of, 207. Two for each district, 208. Not residents of districts, 208. Term of, 208. Reappointed, 208. Instructed and begin work in May, 208. Duties of, 209. Co-operation of, 209. Specific functions of, 209. Make returns to Councils, 210. In act of 1700, 211. In act of 1724, 211. In act of 1795, 211. In act of 1799, 212. Election of, discontinued, 213. Assignments — Of real estate recorded, 239. Assurances — Drafted by City Solicitor, 81. Asylum "Green Meadows," 38. Auditor General — Reports to, 95. Audits — Performed by Controller, 76. Australian .System — See Baker Ballot Law. Bachelor of Arts — Conferred by Central High School, 68. Bail Bonds — Notice concerning, 276. Baker Ballot Law — Used in municipal elections, 28. Bank, Active — Defined, 93. Bank of North America — A depository, 88. Bardsley, John — Peculates State moneys, 77. Bathhouses, Public — How controlled, 191. Bequests — Number received by city, 226. From James Wills and Stephen Girard, 228. Of real estate recorded, 239. To corporations, 243. Bertillon System, 162. Bickley, Abraham — Sells fire engine to city, 170. Bills- Councils Committee on compari- son of, 28. In Councils, 29. Sent to City Controller, 75. Births- Registry of, 187. Record of, how obtained, 188. Blockley — As an almshouse, 38. Inspectors of, 40. Superintendent of, 43. Work in 189I, 47. " Board of Buzzards " Named, 39. Boiler Inspection — Councils Committee on, 28. Boiler Inspection, Bureau of, 200- 201. History of, 200. Licenses by, 201. Bonds — Of City Commissioners, 33, 251. Drafted by City Solicitor, 81. As a sub-department of, 84. Of City Treasurer, 89-90 Of Director of Public Works, 98. Of Chief Engineer of Bureau of Water, 118. Of Commissioner of Highways, 132. Index 28 r Of Receiver of Taxes, 203. Of Deputy Receiver of Taxes, 203. Of Collector of Delinquent Taxes, 203. Permissible for Sinking Fund,2l4. Price paid for, by Sinking Fund Commission, 216. Interest due in 1893, 222. Must be furnished by Park Con- tractors, 233. Of county officers recorded, 239. Of Recorder of Deeds, 239. Fee for recording, 240. Of Register of Wills, 243, 245. Of caveators and appellants, 244. Of Coroner, 263. Of Sheriff, 275. Bread- Supplied to poor, 41. Bribery — Of Councilmen, 30. Brooks, Edward — Elected Superintendent of schools, 52- Brown, P. A. — Granted permission to lay gas pipes, 101. Budget- Aim of, 221. Inelasticity of financial legisla- tion, 221. Income regulated by expendi- tures, 221. Limit of city expenses for 1893, 222. Appropriations for 1893, 222. Unappropriated funds, 223. Revenues for 1892, 223. Expenditures for 1892, 224. Balances, 224. Liabilities, 225. Building Inspectors — As a sub-department of law, 84. Building Inspectors, Bureau of, 198- 200. Composition of, 198. Building Permits — How obtained, 199. Fee for, 200. Bush Hill- Public hospital established at, 1 80. Bullitt Bill- Enacted as a reform, 27. Removes executive functions from Councils, 27. Confirms legislative functions in Councils, 27. Intention of, concerning Councils, 33- Provisions concerning City Solici- tor, 84. Relation to Department of Public Works, 98. Relation to highways, 132. Relation to street cleaning, 137- 138- Relation to Bureau of Surveys, 140. Relation to Department of Public Safety, 151. Relation to Bureau of Fire, 175. Effect on Board of Health, 180. Effect on Department of Markets and City Property, 191. Effect on Electrical Bureau, 195. Relation to Bureau of Building Inspectors, 198. Effect on City Commissioners, 249. Does not affect County Prison, 253- Relation to Civil Service, 270. Canvassers' List — Relation to Membership in Coun- cils, 28. Cash Accounts of City Treasurer — Councils' Committee on, 28. Monthly statement of, 29. Census — For schools, 73. Central High School- Established, 51. Present building opened, 51. New building for, 52. Graduates of, as teachers, 63 . Description of, 68. Certificates — For teachers, 63. Charities and Correction — Relation of Mayor to Board of, 24. Councils Committee on, 28. History of Department, 37-40. Union of Bureaus, 39. Directors of, 40. Out-door relief, 41. Care of paupers, 41. 282 Government of Philadelphia Bureau of Charities, 43-45. " Blockley," 43. Officers of hospitals, 44. Bureau of Correction, 45-48. House of Correction, 45. Officials of, 46. Rules of, 47. Cost of Department, 47. As a sub-department of law, 84. Pays board of poor at Municipal Hospital, 181. Charter of 1691 — Relation to Mayor, 17. Charter of 1 701 — Relation to Mayor, 17. Charter of 1789 — Relation to Mayor, 18. Relation to Councils, 25. Relation to City Treasurer, 88. Chief of Police- Office created, 19. Childrens' Aid Society — Work of, 42. Churches — Influence of, on schools, 49. Cities of First Class — Bullitt Bill, a charter for, 27. City Clerk- Countersigns orders on Treasurer, 89. City Commissioners — Bond of, fixed by Councils, 33. Report fines to City Solicitor, 83. Control Police, 153. Control City Property, 189. Appoint tax collectors, 202. Levy taxes according to county assessment, 202. City Treasurer reports to, 202. No connection with assessment, 206. Board organized, 248. Salaries and duties of, 248. Relation to Board of Revision of Taxes, 248, Given municipal and county func- tions, 249. How affected by Bullitt Bill, 249. Four sets of duties, 250. Political complexion of Board, 251. Salaries and security of, 251. City Controller — Duties of, 75. Member of Sinking Fund Com- mission, 78. Assistants to, 78. Reports fines to City Solicitor, 83. Notified of treasury deposits, 91. Relation to Board of Surveys, 142. On Public Buildings Commission, 147-148. City Controller, Department of, 74-79- Development of, 74. Duties of officers, 75 . Relation to State funds, 77. Officials in, 78. Criticism of, 79. City Fund- Treasurer of, 90. City Property — Councils Committee on, 28. City Solicitor — Established, 81. Duties of, 81. Abolished, 81. Appointed by Councils, 82. Paid by fees, 82. Salary of, 83. Assistants, 84. General opinions of, 85. On Public Buildings Commission, 147-148. City Treasurer — Duties of, performed by Mayor, 1 8. Elected by Councils, 26. Holds school money, 59. Reports to City Controller, 76. Reports fines to City Solicitor, 83. Bond of, 89. Quasi-banking functions, 90. Duties of, 92. Relation to Commonwealth, 94. Salary of, 95. Assistants to, 96. Relations to Board of Health, 186. Sheriff reports to, 276. City Treasurer, Department of, 88-97. Development of, 88-90. Functions of, 90. Practice of, 91. Interest on deposits of, 92. Scope of, 93-95. Salaries of officers, 96. Criticism of, 96-97. Index 283 City Trusts — Relations of Mayor to Board or, 24. Relations of Presidents of Coun- cils to Board of, 30. Treasurer of, 90, 94. By Franklin's will, 226. Number of additional, 226. Early administration, 226. Board of, created, 226. Composition of Board of, 226. Operations of Board of, 227. Number and amount of cash legacy, 227. Used for poor reliet, 227. Money expended by Department of Charities and Correction, 227. Girard College, 227. For Normal School medals, 228. For Scott medals, 228. Wills' Hospital, 228. Girard Fund to improve water fronts, 228. Income of, from Girard estate, 228. Civil Service — Examining boards appointed by Mayor, 21. In Department of City Controller, 79- Relation to Director of Public Works, 98. In Bureau of Gas, 105. In Bureau of Water, 119. In Bureau of Surveys, 143. In Bureau of Police, 164-165. Under Bullitt Bill, 270. Exemptions from provisions of Bullitt Bill, 270. Boards of Examiners, 270. Composition of Commission of, 271. Rules of Commission, 271. Exemption from rules, 271. Fire and Police examinations, 271. Effect of, 272. Criticism of, 272. Clerks of Councils, 35-36. Election of, 35. Salaries of, 35. Duties of, 35. Coal- Supplied to poor, 41. Cobble Pavements, 134. Commerce — Councils Committee on Com- merce and Navigation, 29. " Committee of One Hundred " — Work of, 104. Committees — Of Councils, 26, 28, 29. " Common Council " — Under Charter of 1701, 25. Commonwealth — Subpoenas issued in name of, 33. Interest of, in education, 49. Its.Treasurer for Personal Property Tax and License Fees, 90. Compensation — Of Councilmen [suggested], 34. Congress — Encourages " Public Marine Schools," 266. Consolidated Schools — Defined, 66. Constable — Duties of, 152. Constitution of Pennsylvania — Adopted as a reform, 27. Constitution of United States, 28. Contracts — Signed by Mayor, 23. Void without an ordinance, 33. For schools, 59. Countersigned by Controller, 76. Drafted by City Solicitor, 81. Approved by City Solicitor, 82. As a sub-department of law, 84. Of Bureau of Lighting, no. For street cleaning, 132. For street paving, 133, 135. Of Bureau of Health, 187. For repairing trust property, 227. For Park work, 231, 232, 233. Public, cannot be awarded to City Commissioners, 249. For prison supplies, 254. Contributors — To the relief of poor, 38. Controllers, Board of — Established, 50. Elected by courts, 51. Title changed, 52. Conveyances — Drafted by City Solicitor, 81. How prepared, 86. Cooking Schools, 63. 284 Government of Philadelphia Coroner — When established, 263. Bond of, 263. Duties of, 264. Fees of Department, 264. Salary of, 264. Corporations — Relation of, to Councilmen, 34. Corporation of Philadelphia — Defined by charter of 1701, 17, 25. Defined by charter of 1789, 17. Title to school property vested in, 59- Corruption — Removal of Councilmen from, 30. Councils — Peculiar powers of, 20. Relation to veto, 22. City, 25-34. History of, 25-27. Under charter of 1 70 1, 25. Under act of 1854, 26. Under Constitution of 1874, 27. Under Bullitt Bill, 27. Present organization of, 27—34. Branches of, 27. Organization of, 28. Committees of, 28. Legislation by, 29. Rules of, 30. Powers of, 31, 32. Responsibility of, 33. Criticism of, 34. Clerks of, 35-36. Relation to Poor Guardians, 39. Relation to Managers of House of Correction, 39. Appoint City Solicitor, 82. Elect City Treasurer, 88. Power of, to open streets, 1 33. On Public Buildings Commission, 148-149. Council, Common — Membership in, 25. Composition of, 27. Committee, chairmanships of, 29. Clerk of, 35. Elects Poor Guardians, 39. Council, Select — Confirms Mayor's appointments, 21. As a court of impeachment, 24, 31. Composition of, 26 27. Committee, chairmanships of, 29. Peculiar powers of, 31. Clerk of, 35. County Commissioners — Relation to schools, 49. County Judges — Count votes, 20. Course of Study — In Kindergarten, 65. In Primary School, 66. In Secondary School, 66. In Grammar School, 66. In Senior Classes, 67. In Central High School, 68. In School of Pedagogy, 69. In Girls' Normal School, 69. In School of Practice, 69. In Girls' High School, 70. In Manual Training Schools, 70. On Nautical Schoolship, 267. Court — Of Mayor established, 17. Of magistrate, 33. Relation to Board of Revision of Taxes, 212. Relation to City Trusts, 226-227. Relation to Park Commission, 231. Relation to Register of Wills, 243- Houses in charge of City Com- missioners, 248. Witness and jury fees, 250. Officers salaries paid by City Com- mission, 250. Relation to Prison Inspectors, 253. Cost of prosecution in, 256. Court, District — Elects Poor Guardians, 39. Court of Common Pleas — Relation to impeachment of Mayor, 24. Elects Poor Guardians, 39. Elects members of Board of Pub- lic Education, 54. Receives statement from City Controller, 77. As a sub-department of law, 84. Jurisdiction of, 86. Certifies mandamuses, 94. On Public Buildings Commission, 147- Appoints members of Board of Revision of Taxes, 207. Relation to Prothonotary, 273. Index 285 Court of Inquiry — Relation to policemen, 165. Court of Quarter Sessions — Elects school directors, 50. Appoints viewers, 85. Certifies mandamuses, 94. Opens streets, 133. Court, Orphans' — Duties of, 245. Clerks of, 246. Court, Supreme — On the Board of Public Educa- tion, 55. On City Controller, 74. On Public Buildings Commission, 147-IS0. On Collectors of Delinquent Taxes, 205. Deaths — Registry of, 187. Record of, how obtained, 188. Debt— Under Gas Trust, 104. Of county, 211. Position of Philadelphia concern- ing, 213. In act of .1854, 213. Constitutional limit of, 213. Number of Sinking Fund loans, 214. Sinking Fund Commission cre- ated, 214. Amount of loans, 215. Theory of Sinking Fund, 215, 218. Refunding plan, 218. Cancellation plan, 219. Amount of interest due 1893, 222. Amount paid in 1892, 223. Deeds — Revenue from Recorder of 1892, 223. History of office of Recorder of, 238. Object of Recorder's office, 238. Qualifications of Recorder, 239. Security of Recorder, 239. Duties of Recorder, 239. Fee schedule, 240. Length of time to record, 240. Relation of Recorder's office to title companies, 241. Criticism of Recorder's office, 241. Delaware and Schuylkill Com- Dany — Charter of, 112. Departments — Report to Councils, 33. Depositories — Of city moneys, 92. Detectives, 158-159. Duties of, 162. Director of Drawing — Duties of, 57. Director of Kindergartens — Duties of, 57. Director of Public Safety — (See Public Safety, Director of.) Director of Public Works — (See Public Works, Director of.) Directors of Charities and Correc- tions — Appointed by Mayor, 21. Duties of, 40. Report to Councils, 41. Directors of Schools — How instituted, 50. How elected, 51. Deprived of election of control- lers, 51. Powers of, 61. District — Case of paupers within, 42. Removal of paupers from, 43. Physicians for municipal, 44. For schools defined, 50. District Attorney, 259-262. Department constituted, 259. Prepares notices, 260. Salary of, 261. Fees of Department of, 261 . May appoint special detectives, 262. Division — For schools defined, 50. Drainage — Controlled by Bureau of Health, 186. Druggist — In a hospital, 45. Drunkenness — Punishment for, 46. Education, Department of, 49-73. Development of, 49-53. Influence of Commonwealth on, 53-54- 286 Government of Philadelphia Board of Public Education, 54- 60. Sectional boards, 60-62. Teachers, 62-65. Textbooks, 65. Public libraries, 66. Kindergartens, 65. Primary schools, 65. Secondary schools, 66. Grammar schools, 66. Senior classes, 67. Central High School, 68. Girls' Normal School, 69. Manual Training Schools, 70. James Forten School, 71. School of Industrial Art, 72. General suggestions, 73. Exempt from Civil Service rules, 271. Educational Club — As a help to teachers, 64, 73. Edwin Forrest Home — The Mayor a member of Board of Managers, 24. Election Divisions — Councils Committee on, 28. Elections — For Councilmen, 28. By Councils, 29. Electrical Bureau, 195-198. Councils Committee on, 28. History of, 1 95. Created, 195. Present condition of, 196-198. Employees of, 196. Salaries, 196. Relation to electric wires, 196- 197. Elwyn — Training school at, 42. Equalization — Defined, 206. Exclusive duty of Board of Re- vision of Taxes, 206. In Philadelphia differs from other counties, 206. Of labor of assessment sought by districting of county, 207. Estate— Of Benjamin Franklin, 226. Income from Girard, 229. Lemon Hill, purchased, 230. Sedgeley, acquired, 230. Lansdowne, bought, 230. George, donated, 231. Titles to personal, recorded, 239. Settlements of, recorded, 245. Estimates — For charities and correction, 41. For schools, 58. Eton — Public school at, 49. Fairmount Park — Water works moved to, 1 14. History of, 230-231. Origin of commission, 231. Act of 1867 in relation to, 231. Composition, powers and duties of Commission, 235. Employees of Commission, 232. Its committees, 232. Contracts for work, 233. Appropriations for 1893, 233. Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank — City loans deposited with, 77. As a fiscal agent, 93. Fees — Of City Solicitor, 82. Of City Treasurer, 95-96. Of Surveyors, 139-141. To be collected by Port Wardens, 234- For wharf and pilot licenses, 235. Use of, in Recorder of Deeds' and Register of Wills' offices, 238. Schedule in Recorder of Deeds' office, 240. Amount of, in Recorder's office, 1 89 1, 240. In Register of Wills' office, 245. In department of District Attor- ney, 261. In department of Coroner, 264. In department of Sheriff, 276. Finances — Councils committee on, 28, 58. Relations of Charities and Cor- rections to municipal, 47. Statement of, 89. Fines — For Councilmen, 30. For corruption, 31, 41. For refusal to serve as member of Board of Charities and Correc- tions, 41. Reported to Controller, 79. Index 287 Fire- Councils Committee on Fire and Health, 28. Fire Alarms, 177-178. Fire, Bureau of, 169-179. History of, 169-175. Organization of Fire Department, 175- Organization of, 175. Chief Engineer of, 175, 177. Qualifications of members of, 175-176. Composition of, 176. Hours of duty of members of, 176. Salaries, 176. Cost of maintenance of, 179. Criticism of, 179. Fire Companies, Paid — Created, 175. Number of, 176. Men in, 176. Property of, 177. Right of way of, 177- Discipline of, 178. Fire Companies, Volunteer, 1 7 1-1 74. Criticism of, 1 74, Fire Courts — Decisions approved by Mayor, 23. Fire Hose Association — Organized, 172. First National Bank — As an active bank, 93. First School District of Penna. — Established, 50. " Frame of Government " — When proposed, 80. Franklin, BeDJamin — On civil liberty, 73. Effect of, on water supply, 112. Forms volunteer fire company, 171. Creates a trust, 226. Franklin Institute — Recommends candidates for med- als, 228. Freeholders — To elect Aldermen and Common Councilmen, 25. Fuel Fund — Composition and uses, 227. Funds — Private, used for charity, 41. Gamewell Police Signal System, 161. Gas- Councils committee on, 28. History of, in Philadelphia, 99. First use of, in United States, 100. First use of, in Philadelphia, 100. Petition for introduction into city, 100. Plan of Robinson and Long, 100. Cost of, to consumer, 102. Price of, how regulated, 106. Price of, in New York, 107. Quantity of, produced, 108. Profit from, 109. Gas, Bureau of — Report to Controller, 76. Fees of, how collected, 93. History of, 99-104. Under present charter, 104. Effect of ordinance of 1887 on, 104. Effect of Civil Service on, 105. Subordinates in, 1 05. Relations of, to Receiver of Taxes, 105. Contracts, how awarded, 106. Contract of, with private parties, 107. Effect of Ordinance of 1858 on, 108. Criticism of, 109-110. Gas-light Hotel- Uses gas, 100. Gas Mains — How laid, 106. Total length of, 108. Gas Trust — Creation of, 101. Operations of, 102. Influence of, 103. Control of primary elections by, 103. Number of employees of, 103. Causes tax and debts to rise, 104. Abolition of, 104. Audit of accounts of, 105. Gas Works — Established in Philadelphia, 101. How managed, 101. Loan authorized for, 102. Extravagance of trustees, 102. Condition of, when transferred to Department of Public Works, 105. 288 Government of Philadelphia Girard College, 229. Girard Estate — Rent and taxes of, 89. Treasurer of, 90, 94. Income of. 229. Girard, Stephen — On the police force, 154. Makes city a gift, 226. Will of, 228. Fund of, to improve river front, 229. Girls' High School- Reorganized, 52. Description ot, 70. Girls' Normal School — Established, 50. Reorganized, 52. Graduates of, as teachers, 63. Description of, 69. Governor — Aldermen appointed by, 26. Fills vacancy in City Controller- ship, 74 Commissions Sheriff, 275. Grammar Schools — Organized, 57. Description of, 66. " Green Meadows " — As an almshouse, 38. Ground Rents — Taxation of land subject to, 209. Incomes from, used for poor relief, 227. Recorded in office of Recorder ot Deeds, 239. Guardians of the Poor — Board of, 38. How elected, 39. " Board of Buzzards," 39. Board of, abolished, 39. Habeas Corpus — Writ of, how issued, 259. Health, Board of — Mayor, a member of, 23. Councils Committee on Fire and Health, 28. Control of, limited by Councils, 32. Creation of, 179. Composition of, 179-180. Powers of, 180. Duties of, 181. Health, Bureau of, 179-188. Organized, 180. Scope of, 181. Returns license fees to City Treas- urer, 186. Contracts of, 187. Criticism of, 188. Health Office- Establishment of, 179. Health Officer- Duties of, 187. Relation of, to health registers, 188. Henderson, James — Appointed public chimney- sweeper, 170. Henry, William — Uses gas, 100. Highways, Bureau of, 130-136. History of, 130-132. Department of Highways, Crea- tion of, 131. Creation of, 132. Present organization of, 132- 136. Chief Commissioner of, 132. His bond, 132. Jurisdiction of, 133. Duties of, 133-136. Relation to Board of Highway Supervisors, 136. Relation of, to Bureau of Surveys, 138-142. Highway Contractor's Trust — Treasurer of, 90. Description of, 94. Highways- Councils Committee on, 28, 131. Controlled by Councils, 32. Highway Supervisors, Board of — Relation of, to Director of Public Works, 99. Creation of, 136. Duties of, 136. Relation to underground wires, 197-198. Homes — For pauper children, 42. Hospital — In almshouse, 38. Controlled by Directors, 40. House Agent — Of almshouse, 4 }. House of Correction and Employ- ment — Established, 39. Index 289 Department of, coalesced with almshouse, 40. Controlled by Directors, 40. Inspections of, 40. Property of inmates of, 41 . Regulation of inmates, 45. Term of confinement in, 46. Officers of, 46. Discipline in, 46. Rules of, 47, Work in 1891, 47. Hucksters — How licensed, 191. Hygiene — In public schools, 58. Ice Boats — See City Ice Boats, Bureau of — Description of, 144. Ice Boats, City, Bureau of, — Duties of, 144. Expenses of, 144-145. Criticism of, 144—145. Immigrants — Maintenance of paupers, 43. Impeachment — Charges against Wm. B. Smith, 20. Of Mayor, 24. Incurables — Expenses of caring for, 42. Independence Hall — How repaired, 192. Indigent — Expense of care of, 41 . Industrial Education, 72. Industrial School — For paupers, 42. Inlets — Number of, 137. Insane — Treatment of, 45. Inspectors — Of meat and milk, 184. Of nuisances, 185. Inspectors, Building — Qualifications, 199. Salary of, 199. Duties of, 199. Inspectors of Boilers — Chief of, 200. Duties of, 201. Interest — On city moneys, 92. In 1892, 96. 19 Investments — In certificates of city debt for Sinking Fund, 214. In Federal and State securities, 214. For Sinking Fund restricted, 216. Recent yield, 3 per cent, 216. For Wills Hospital, 228. Of Girard Estate, 229. Jailers — How appointed, 276. James Forten Elementary Manual Training School — Description of, 71. Janitors (of schools) — How appointed, 62. Journal — Of Councils, available for inspec- tion, 28. Judgments — Reported to City Controller, 77. How paid, 87. Juries — Exemptions from, 40, 60. Jurors — How summoned, 276. Jury Fees — Reported to City Controller, 77. Jury, Grand — How constituted, 260. Functions of, 260. Relation of District Attorney to, 260. Returns from, how reported, 260, Jury, Petit- Trials before, 261. Justice of the Peace — Mayor as, 23. Kensington — As a school section, 50. Kindergartens — In the school system, 65. "King's Highway," 130. Lancastrian Method — Introduced into schools, 50. Abolished, 57. Latrobe, Benjamin H. — On water supply, 1 12. Plan of, carried out, 113. Latter Invents steam fire engine, 173. 290 Government op Philadelphia Law — Councils Committee on, 28. Law, Department of, 80-87. Development of, 80-84. Officers in, 84. Scope of, 84. Salaries of, 87. Growth of, 87. Lazaretto, 179-180. Use of, 182. Leases — Confirmed by Councils, 33. Drafted by City Solicitor, 81. Legal Settlement — In any district, 42. Legislation — Of Councils, 34. Legislature — Members of, ineligible as Coun- cilmen, 28. School system established by, 53- Passed acts for Public Buildings, 145. Abolishes Public Buildings Com- mission, 148-149. Library — Of Councils, 35. In school buildings, 65. Licenses — Granted by Mayor, 23. License Fees — How collected, 94. In 1892, 96. Liens — Recorded in other offices than deeds and wills, 241. Lighting, Bureau of — Formerly under Gas Trust, no. Employees of, no. Duties of, no. Contracts, how awarded, no. Loans — Ordinances concerning, 30. Raised by Councils, 32. For a workhouse, 37. Deposited with Farmers' and Me- chanics' Bank, 77. Authorized for Gas Works, 102. Authorized for water supply, 113. Money at interest taxed, 210. City, reached limit, 213. Requirements of Sinking Fund, 213- History of the Sinking Fund, 214. For Sinking Fund in charge of Commission, 214. At six per cent, 215. At four per cent, 215. At three per cent, 215. Theory of Sinking Fund and its deficiencies, 215-218. Refunding plan, 218. Objections to refunding, 219. Cancellation plan, 219. Criticism of cancellation, 220. Difference between refunding and cancellation, 221. For variable part of city's income, 221. Interest, due in 1893, 222. State tax on city, 222. Amount of Sinking Fund for 1893, 222. At three per cent for 1892, 224. Transferred, 224. Expenditures on, 1892, 224. Cash in Sinking Fund, 224. Total Sinking Fund, 225. To young mechanics, 226. Magistrate — Mayor as, 23. Elected, 26. Courts located by Councils, 33. May commit to House of Correc- tion, 46. Number of, 160. Position of, in prosecution, 260. Magistrates' Courts — As a sub-department of law, 84. Mandamuses — How paid, 94. Expenditures for, 1893, 222. Expenditures for, 1892, 224. Expenditures for, grow in excess of estimates, 225. Writs, how issued, 259. "Mandamus Receipt Book" — Its use, 87. Manual Training Schools — Established, 52. Graduates of, as teachers, 63. Description of, 70. Markets — Clerks of, 189. Merged into Department of City Property, 191. Index 291 Markets and City Property, Bureau of, 189-194. History of, 189-191. Department organized, 190. Superintendent of Department, 190. Scope of, 191-192. Appropriation for, 192. Chief of, 193. Officers of, their salaries, 194. Marriages — Registry of, 187. Record of, how obtained, 188. Marshal — Duties of, 155. Masonic Hall — Uses gas, 100. Mass Meeting — To condemn Public Buildings Commission, 147. Matron — Of Almshouse, 43. Mayor — Under charter of 1691, 17. Under charter of 1701, 17. Under charter of 1789, 18. Under act of 1854, 19. Under act of 1885, 20-24. Duties of, 20. Qualifications of, 20. Method of electing, 20. Appointments and removals by, 21. Consultations of, with heads of departments, 22. Minor duties of, 22. Examination of accounts by, 22. Veto power of, 22. Judicial powers of, 23. License-granting power of, 23. Relation to contracts and warrants, 23. Ex-officio duties of, 24. Riot duties of, 24. Salary of, 24. Office hours of, 24. Impeachment of, 24. Elected by Councils, 26. President of Select Council as, 30. May commit to House of Correc- tion, 46. Mayor's Court — Under charter of 1789, 18. McAllister, James — Elected Superintendent of Schools, 52. Meat — Inspection of, 184. Meetings — Of Councils, separate, 26. Of Councils, open to citizens, 28. Membership — In Councils reduced, 25. Merrick, Samuel V. — Studies gas, 101. Militia — School Directors exempt from duties, 60. Milk- Inspection of, 32, 184. Minors — As apprentices, 42. When vicious, 46. Model School — Created, 50. Morgue — How controlled, 191, 264. Report of Superintendent, 265. Mortgages — Prior liens to taxes, 202. Recorded, 239. Certified copies furnished, 239. Two indexes of, 239. Fee for searching, 240. Fees for acknowledging, 240. Fees for satisfying, 240. State tax on, 240. Search clerks, 241. Moyamensing — As a school section, 50. Occupied since 1835, 257. Municipal Claims — A sub-department of law, 84. Municipal Government — Councils Committee on, 29. Relations to Sheriff, 275. Nautical Schoolship — Board of Directors established,266. Composition of Board, 266, 268. Course of study, 267. How supported, 268. Accountability of Board of Direc- tors, 268-269. Navigation — Councils Committee on Com- merce and, 29. 292 Government of Philadelphia New York City — Street cleaning in, 138. Nicholas, Anthony — Completes fire engine, 170. Night Schools — Description of, 71. Nolle Prosequi — How entered, 260. Nominations — Action of Select Councils upon, 35- Northern Liberties — As a school section, 50. Nuisances — Defined, 184. How removed, 185. Nurses — In a hospital, 44. Ordinance — Of Councils, 29. Necessary for appropriation, 32. Concerning contracts, 33. How approved, 35. Organization — Of Councils, 28. Outdoor Relief — Permitted, 41. Overseers — Of the poor, 37. Park Commission — The Mayor a member of, 24. President of each branch of Coun- cils a member of, 30. Passyunk — As a school section, 50. Patrol Service, 161. Boxes, 161. Wagon, 161. Extent of, 162. Patrolmen- Appointment of, 167. Paupers — Compelled to work, 40. Care of outside of precinct, 42. Removal of, to own district, 43. Pedagogics — In Philadelphia, 50. Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art — The Mayor a member of board of managers of, 24. Scholarships in, 52. Description of, 72. As a help to teachers, 73. Pennsylvania Prison Society — Report of, 251. Penn Township — As a school section, 50. Penn, William — Grants charter of 169 1, 17. Grants charter of 1701, 25. Proposes frame of Government, 80. Penrose Bill, 149. Pensions — Councils Committee on, 28. In Bureau of Police, 166. Personal Property Tax — How collected, 94. In 1892, 96. Pestilence — How restricted, 181. Philadelphia Fire Association — Organized, 1 72. Philadelphia Gas Improvement Company — Contract of, 107. Purchase of plant, recommended, 108. Philadelphia Gas Light Company — Attempt to incorporate, 100. Physicians — For the poor, 44. Resident, in hospitals, 44. Physiology — In public schools, 53. " Pioneer" — First steam fire engine, 174. Pipes — Controlled by Councils, 32. Poles, Telegraph — Fees for, 197. How erected, 197. Police and Fire Alarm Telegraph — Established, 195. Made a city department, 195. Police Beneficiary Association, 166. Police Bureau of, 152-169. History of, 152-159. Present organization of, 159-169. Appointments in, 159, 165. Administration of, 160-164. Statistics of, 164. Appropriation for, 164. Dismissals in, 165. Relation to Bureau of Fire, 169. Criticism of, 169. Index 293 Police, Chief of — Creation of, 1 56. Police, City- Councils Committee on, 28. Lieutenants of, 156, 160. Captains of, 157, 160. Reserve corps of, 157, 161. River and harbor, 157-158, 162. Substitutes, 158, 161. Superintendent of, 159. Districts, 159-160. Sergeants of, 160. Hours of duty, 163. Equipment of, 163. Qualifications of, 164-165. Relation to census, 167. Arrests by, 167. Duties of, 168. Duties at fires, 169. Police Courts — Decisions of, approved by Mayor, 23- Police Pension Fund Association, 166. Police, Special, 167. Politics — Relation of city police to, 165. Poor Laws — General law of Pennsylvania, 37. Law of 1700, 37. Law of 1766, 38. Law of 1781, 38. Port Physician — Duties of, 183. Port Wardens — Control wharves, 191. Board of, founded, 234. Functions of, 234. Present organization of, 234. Harbor Master's fees abolished, 235- Board of, made part of city gov- ernment, 235. As affected by ordinances of 1 878- 1882 and 1883, 235. Operations of board of, 235. Receipts and expenses of, 235. License pilots, 236. Board of, a State and municipal institution, 236. Criticism of, 237. Potter's Field, 189. President of Board of Public Educa- tion — How elected, 55. Duties of, 55. Presidents of Councils — Of each branch, members of Committees, 28-29. Method of voting of, 30. President of Select Council acts as Mayor, 30. Prices — Regulation of, 32. Primary Schools — Organized, 51. Description of, 66. Principals (of schools) — How appointed, 61. Printing — Councils Committee on Printing and Supplies, 28. Prison, County — System in Pennsylvania, 252. History of, 252. Reform movement, 253. Law of 1856, 253. Provisions of Constitution of 1 874, 253- Composition of Board of Inspec- tors of, 253. Duties of Superintendent of, 254. Duties of Matron of, 255. Physician of, 255. Untried persons in, 255. Provision for United States pris- oners, 255. Good behavior in, 256. Pardons from, 256. Under State control, 258. Cost of maintenance, 258. New buildings for, 258. Property — Amount recovered by police, 164. Assessment of, 209. Classification of, 209. Tax rates, 210. Listed by Board of Revision of Taxes, 210. Mode of valuation by act of 1700, 211. by act of 1724, 211 by act of 1795, 211. by act of 1799, 212. by act of 1854, 212. Rise in values 1867-68, 213. 294 Government of Philadelphia Present valuation of, 213. In trusts leads to formation of Board of City Trusts, 226. Of untraceable title, 241 . Of prisoners, 254. Scheduled by prisoners unable to pay " costs," 256. Property, City — Title to, vested in city, 59. Controlled by City Commission- ers, 189. Commissioner of, 189-190. How rented and sold, 193. Insurance on, 194. Pledged to pay debt, 214. Prothonotary — Reports to City Controller, 77. Chief Registering Clerk of Court of Common Pleas, 273. Constitutional provisions concern- ing. 273- Powers of, 273. Term of office, 274. How appointed, 274. Public Buildings — Attempts to build, 145-146. Site of, 146. Appropriations for, 147. Cost of, 149. Public Buildings Commission, 145— 150. Mayor a member of, 24. Its abolition, 24, 149. Presidents of each branch of Councils a member of, 30. Creation of, 145-146. Composition of, 146. Condemnation of, 146. Attempts to abolish, 147. Requisitions, Councils, 147. Warrants of, 147-148. Public Education, Board of — Created, 52 How constituted, 54. Eligibility, 55. Powers of, 55. Committees of, 58. Criticism of, 59. Schools under control of, 67-70. Public Safety, Department of, 151- 201. Creation of, 151, Scope of, 151. Bureau of Police, 152-169. Bureau of Fire, 169-179. Bureau of Health, 179-188. Bureau of Markets and City Prop- erty, 189-194. Electrical Bureau, 195-198. Bureau of Building Inspectors, 198-200. Bureau of Boiler Inspection, 200- 201. Public Safety, Director of, 151. Appointed by Mayor, 21. Duties of, 151. Salary of, 151. Public Schools — Prior to 1818, 49. Open to all children, 50. Scholarships, 51. Superintendent of, 52. Suggestions on, 73. Public Works, Department of, 98- 150. How organized, 98. Relation to Bullitt Bill, 98. Bureau of Gas, 99-110. Bureau of Lighting, no-ill. Bureau of Water, 11 1- 130. Bureau of Highways, 130-136. Bureau of Street Cleaning, I37-I38- Bureau of Surveys, 138-143. Bureau of City Ice-boats, 144- 145- Public Buildings Commission, 145-150. Public Works, Director of, 98-99. Appointed by Mayor, 21. Salary of, 98. Qualifications of, 98. Bond of, 98. Relation to Civil Service, 98. Relation to Board of Highway Supervisors, 99. Assistants, 99. Relation to Receiver of Taxes, 99. Responsibility of, 99. Power of removal, 105. Pumps — Rent of, III. Controlled by Wardens, III. Quarantine — Methods of, 182. Quarantine-Master — Duties of, 183. Index 295 Quasi-Banking Functions — Of City Treasurer, 92. Quo Warranto — Writ of, how issued, 259. Railroads — Councils Committee on, 28. Relation to Councils, 32. Real Estate — Taxable, for county purposes, 209. Divided into three classes, 209. Mode of assessing, 209. Valuation of, returned to Councils, 210. Valuations examined by Board of Revision of Taxes, 210. Tax-rates, 210. Disposition of tax on, 210. Taxation under act of 1700, 211. under act of 1724, 211. under act of 1795, 211. under act of 1799, 212. Board of Revision of Taxes, 212. State relinquishes tax, 212. Valuation of, in 1867, 213. in 1868, 213. in 1892, 213. Tax-rate in 1867-68, 213. Return of, to Sinking Fund, 217. Amount of tax for 1893, 222. Bequeathed to city, 226. In trust, managed by Board oi City Trusts, 226. Bequests of, used for poor relief, 227-228. Acquired for Park, 230-231. Controlled by Park Commission, 231. Size and cost of Park, 231. Transactions recorded by Master of Rolls, 239. Transactions recorded by Recor- der of Deeds, 239. Fees for recording transactions, 240. Time for recording transactions, 240. Transfers in Philadelphia, 240. Title companies, 241. Of county, under County Com- missioners, 248. Changes made by Constitution of 1874, 248. Changes made by Bullitt Bill, 848. Real Estate, City- Value of, 194. Receiver of Taxes — Reports to City Controller, 76. Recorder — In 1 701, 80. Recorder of Deeds — See Deeds. Reform — Its relation to Constitution of 1874 and charter of 1885, 27. In position of Councilman, 34. Register of Wills — A county officer, 238. Qualifications of, History of office of, 243. Has three sets of duties, 243. Bonds of, 243, 245. Functions of, 243, 245. Administrative accountability of 243- Relations to courts, 244. Monthly adjustments, 245. Office pays more itself, 245. Numbers and salaries of subordi- nates, 246. Under local and State authority, 246. Criticism of, 247. Registry Bureau — For surveys, 140. Relatives — Support of, 43. Releases — Recorded in Recorder of Deeds' office, 239. Religion — In the hospitals, 44. In the House of Correction, 46. Reservoirs — Capacity of, 117. Criticism of, 126. Resolution — Of Councils, 29. Revenue — Of city, 221. For 1893, 222. From all sources, 1892, 223. From liquor licenses, 225. From Port Wardens, 235. From Recorder of Deeds, 240. From Register of Wills, 245. Ring- Gas Trust Ring, 103. 296 Government of Philadelphia Riots- Effect on police, 154. Sheriff in, 277. Roads — As a sub-department of law, 84. Rugby — Public school at, 49. Rules— Of Councils, 30. Salary — Of Mayor, 24. Fixed by Councils, 32. In schools, 58. Of Director of Public Works, 98. Of Chief Engineer of Bureau of Water, 118. Of employees in Bureau of Water, 129-130. Of Director of Public Safety, Of firemen, 176. Of officers of Bureau of Markets and City Property, 194. Of employees of Electrical Bureau 196. Of Building Inspectors, 1 99. Allowed to Collector of Delin- quent Taxes, 205. Of member Board of Revision of Taxes, 207, 212. Of Assessor, 207. Of Secretary Board of City Trusts, 227. Appropriation to Park Commis- sion, 1893, 233- Of Port Warden, 235. List in Recorder of Deeds' office, 241. List in Register of Wills' office, 246. Of City Commissioner, 248, 251. Of City Commissioners' chief clerk, 249, 251. For each prison authority, 253. Of District Attorney, 261. Of Coroner, 264. Of Prothonotary, 274. Of Sheriff, 275. Sanitation — In public schools, 56. Schlegelmilch, George E. — Member of Councils, 220. Advocates cancellation, 220. Scholarships — In public schools, 51. How awarded, 71. School of Design for Women — Scholarships in, 52. Appropriation to, 54- School of Pedagogy — Graduates of, as teachers, 63. Established, 64. Description of, 69. School of Practice — Graduates of, as teachers, 63. Description of, 69. Schools — Councils Committee on, 28, 58. Schuylkill River- Use of, for water supply, 127- 128. Secondary Schools — Organized, 51. Description of, 66. Secretary of Board of Public Edu- cation — When elected, 55. Duties of, 56. Section — For schools, defined, 50. Sectional School Boards — Composition of, 60. Powers of, 61. Securities, see Bonds — Senior Classes — Description of, 67. Sergeant-at-Arms — Of Councils, 36. Sewers — Controlled by Councils, 32. Construction of, 142-143. Cost of, 143. Sheriff- Reports to City Controller, 77. Relation to Coroner, 264. A county officer, 275. Commissioned by Governor, 275. Relations to city government, 275. How elected, 275. Term of office, 275. Bond of, 275. Salary of, 275. Duties of, 275-276. Relations to City Treasurer, 276. Fees of, 276. Gives notice concerning bail- bonds, 276. Index 297 Summons jurors, 276. Relation to jails, 276. An administrative officer, 276. Executes orders of courts as to sales, 277. Receives appropriations from Councils, 277. Riot — duties of, 277. Subordinates of, 277-278. Shields Fund — Its use in the hospital, 42. Sidewalks, 135-136. Controlled by Councils, 32. Sinking Fund — Warrants signed by Mayor, 23. Created by Councils, 31. Treasurer of, 90. See Loans, Debt. Sinking Fund Commission — Mayor a member of, 24. One member elected by Councils, 33- How composed, 77. See Loans, Debt. Smith, William B. — Charges against, 20. " Society Grounds " — As an almshouse, 33. Southwark — As a school section, 50. Special Police — Enrolled by Mayor, 24. Squares, Public — How controlled, 191. Superintendents of, 193. Number of, 194. State — Recognizes Mayor as legal repre- sentative of city, 23. Bears part of expense of Depart- ment of Charities and Correc- tion, 42. Influence on education, 53. Appropriation to schools, 54. State Department of Public Instruc- tion — Influence on schools, 53. " State Desk "— Use of, 95. State Superintendent of Public In- struction — Influence on schools, 54. State Treasurer — Relation to school appropriation, 54- Returns to, 95. Stations, District Police, 160. Central, 161. Value of, 164. Steam Engine Fire Companies Number of, 176. Property of, 177. Streets — Controlled by Councils, 32. How opened, 85. Control of, 130. Opening, grading, and paving of, 133. Repair of, 135. Relation to Bureau of Surveys, 142. Street Cleaning — How performed, 132. Cost of, 132. Street cleaning, Bureau of— Organization of, 137. Duties of, 137. Cremation in, 137. Criticism of, 138. Street railways — Paving by, 134. Street paving — Appropriation for, 133. Expense to city, of, 134. Amount of, 134. Cost of, 135. Criticism of, 136. Subpoenas — Issued by Councils, 33. Sunday — Sales regulated by Councils, 33. Superintendent of Almshouse, 43. Superintendent of Public Schools — Office created, 52. Duties of, 56. Criticism of, 57. Supervising Inspectors (U. S. Board of)- Relation to ice boats, 144. Supervising Principal — Office established, 52. Duties of, 63. Supplies — Councils Committee on Printing and, 28. Regulated by Councils, 33. 298 Government of Philadelphia Surveys — Councils Committee on, 28. Surveys, Bureau of, 138-143. History of, 138-140. Relation to Department of High- ways, 138-142. Creation of, 1 39. Attached to Department of Public Works, 140. Chief of, 140. Relation to railroads, 141. Records of, 141. Report to City Controller, 142. Civil Service in, 143. Employees in, 143. Surveyors — Appointment of, 139. Fees of, 139-141. Chief and district, 140. Taxes — Assessed by Councils, 31. Power to levy, 202. Collectors of, appointed, 202. Levied according to county assess- ment, 202. As liens, 202. In relation to City Treasurer, 202. Discounted for prompt payment , 202-203. Penalties for tardy payment, 203. Difference between State and county, 205-206. Assessed and equalized by Board of Revision, 206. Philadelphia Board of Revision has no other functions, 206. Composition of Board of Revi- sion, 207. Appropriation to Board of Revi- sion, 1892, 207. Salary of member of Board, 207. Salary of Assessor, 207. Appointment of members of Board of Revision, 207. Duties of Board of Revision, 207. Laid on property according to assessment, 209. Property exempt from, 209. Functions of Board of Revision, 209. At present, 210. All property listed by Board of Revision, 210. Unchanged for ten years, 221. Maximum yield for 1893, 222. Average delinquent since 1887, 222. Collectible, estimate 1893, 222. On city loans, 222. Amount yielded by 1892, 223. On recorded instruments, 240. On testamentary documents, 243. On collateral inheritance, 243, 245- Relation of City Commissioners to Board of Revision, 248. Taxes, Delinquent — Collected by distress and sale, 202. Appointment of collector, 203. Compensation for collecting, 203. Security of collector, 203. Compensation of collector, 203. Duties of collector, 203. •Investigation of collector's office, 203-204. Office of collector merged with office of Receiver, 204. Collector removed, 204. Removal upheld by Supreme Court, 205. Taxes, Receiver of — Relation to Director of Public Works, 99. Relation to Bureau of Gas, 105. Collects water rents, 118. Office created, 202. Term of office, 203. Bonds, 203. Duties and powers, 203. Deputy, 203. Qualifications, 205. Effects of recent legislation on, 205. Tax Liens — A sub-department of law, 84. Tax-rate — Fixed by Councils, 31. Rises under Gas Trust, 104. Teachers — Salaries of, 58. How appointed, 61. Qualifications of, 62. Types of, 63. Teachers' Institute — Appropriation for, 57. As help to teachers, 64, 73. Index 299 Telegraph — Erection of poles and lights, 33. Textbooks — In schools, 65. The Controller's Report — Defined, 78. Theory of Public Policy — In Department of City Controller, 79- Tobacco- Inspection of, 32. Training School — For children, 42. Tracks- Elevation of, 32. Treasury of City — Receives funds of Board of Charities and Corrections, 41. Treasury of County — To pay for schooling of indi- gent, 49. Turnpike Roads, 135. Union Fire Company — Apparatus of, 171. Creation of, 171. University Extension — As help to teachers, 64, 73. University of Pennsylvania — Scholarships in, 51, 70. As help to teachers, 64. Vaccine Physicians — How appointed, 183. Duties of, 184. Vagrants — Punishment of, 46. Arrests of, 168. Valuation — See Assesstnent. Vaux, Mayor Richard — On the telegraph, 195. Vessels — Regulated by Councils, 32. Visitors to Prison and Penitentiary — Mayor, 34. Permits to, 257. Official, 257. Vouchers — Sent to City Controller, 75. Wagner, Gen. Louis — Member Sinking Fund Commis- sion, 218. Advocates refunding, 218. Wagner Institute — Library in, 65. Walker, Chief- Invents bell attachments, 195. Warrants — Distributed by City Controller, 75- How paid, 94. Watch Districts, 154. Watchmen — Appointment of, 167. Water- Councils Committee on, 28. Rates of, before 1854, 116. Daily consumption, 117. Distribution of, 1 20. Waste of, prohibited, 123. Growth of consumption of, 125. Water, Bureau of — Report to City Controller, 76. Fees of, how collected, 92. Description of, It I, 130. Department organized, 116. How controlled, 116. Growth of, 116. Functions of Chief Engineer of, 117. Department becomes Bureau, 118. Salary of Chief Engineer of, 118. Bond of Chief Engineer of, 118. Accountability of Chief Engineer, 119. Subordinates of chief, 119. Effects of Civil Service on, 119. Duties of General Superintendent of, 120. Superintendent of Repair Shop of, 120. Pipe Inspector, 120. Duties of Purveyors of, 120. Duties of Inspectors of, 121. Pipes of, how laid, 1 21-122. Criticism of, 123. Pumping plant, 126. Employees in, 129. Water Meters — Use of, 122-125. Water Rents— On Treasurer's books, 88. Collected by Receiver of Taxes, 118. Now existing, 121, 30o Government of Philadelphia Water Supply — History of, III. Importance of, recognized, 1 1 1 . Effect of yellow fever epidemic of 1793, 112. Influence of Benjamin Franklin, 112. Relation of Delaware and Schuyl- kill Canal Company, 1 1 2. Loan authorized for, 113. First public system of, 113. Financial failure of, 1 14. Cost of, 114. Use of steam abolished in, 114. Relation to surrounding boroughs, 115. Plans for. improved, J27-129 Water Works — Completed, 113. Moved to Fairmount, 114. Capacity of, 114. How controlled, 115. Wharves — Controlled by Councils, 32. Controlled by Port-wardens, 191.. William Penn Charter School — As public school, 49. Witnesses — Called before Councils, 33. Wires, Electrical — Extent of, 196. Service rendered by, 196. Construction of, 196-197. Witness Fees — Reported to City Controller, 77. Women — In public schools, 53. Workhouse — In 1712, 37. Year — In public schools, 53. Young Men's Christian Associa- tion — Library, 65. »oo I |i|ooo nnnonm Iiistitute. COMPOUND OXYGEN GOLD CORE FOR FOR Sickness and Debility. Alcohol, Morphine, etc. For nearly a quarter of a century the firm of Drs. Starkey & Palen, of 1529 Arch Street, Philadelphia, have dispensed Compound Oxygen treatment for chronic diseases and debility, with a most brilliant record of cures. They have treated over 60,000 patients, and over 1,000 physicians have used it in their practice. The method used places the Compound Oxygen where it will do the moft good, directly in the circulation. Treatment never interferes with plea- sure. A book of 200 pages, mailed free to any address, tells all about it. Intemperance Cured. We have established a private cure for Alcoholism and kindred habits. Our method of treatment is second to none, and superior in many respects to others. During Spring and Summer we send patients to our private Institute at Atlantic City, N. J. In Winter and Autumn they are treated here. Business Offices, 1529 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. Drs. Starkey & Palen. JOSEPH ZENTMAYER, MANUFACTURER OF MICROSCOPES, SPECTAC EV Established 1853. • • • Catalogue Mailed on Application. Special Attention given to Oculists' Prescriptions. 209 SOUTH ELEVENTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. you are perhaps occasionally interested in Stocks and Bonds. We are always so, that being our business. If you wish to buy or sell at any time, we shall be glad to have your orders, whether large or small, and will give them the same careful personal attention. Our New York connections are of the very highest char- acter, and orders entrusted to us for that mar- ket are executed with the same superior facility and satisfaction. Members Philadelphia Stock Exchange. Members New York Stock Exchange. RirK W. MagiU 4» G°., 420 Eibrarjr Street, Philadelphia. WM. D. DUTTON * CO. ESTABLISHED 1821. 1115 CHESTNUT STREET, RECOMMEND THE NEW HA RDM AN PIANO With its two newest and greatest patented improvements, the NEW METAL KEY* SUPPORT, and the NEW HARP STOP— rendering it to-day the ONLY PERFECT UPRIGHT PIANO. The New Hardman Upright has achieved its unparalleled success among the best judges and most cultured people entirely through its INHERENT EXCELLENCE, combined with the HONEST PRICE at which it is sold. Every dollar of expense not required by the simplest methods of doing business goes directly into the material and construction of the instrument itself, and the purchaser of a Hardman Piano therefore not only secures the most skilfully and durably built piano made but AT A PRICE BELOW THAT OF ANY OTHER OF THE HIGHEST CLASS MANUFAC- TURED IN THE WORLD. Pianos RENTED, SOLD ON INSTALLMENTS , EXCHANGED, Write for Circular and Estimates. TUNING AND REPAIRING BY TRAINED EXPERTS. ESTABLISHED 1821. Wm. D. Dutton & Co., Hardman Warerooms, 1115 CHESTNUT STREET. JOSEPH CLAYTON, y ^Ituftertaker^ / N 22 £ South Eleventh St., PHILADELPHIA. Pictures and Mirrors. The best only, and at the most moderate prices. The best Picture Frames, and all the latest styles. Frames in quantities, for Railroads and Manufac- turers' Cards. Prices as low as the lowest. Resid- ing of Mirror and Picture frames. Cleaning, Var- nishing and Restoration of Paintings in the most artistic and satisfactory manner. Photographs mounted and arranged. JAMES S. EARLE & SONS, 816 Chestnut St. Q. A. SCHWdRZ, IMPORTER OF GER FRE ENGLISH nch ;„ Toys *«5 Fancy Goods, iLISH fancy China ware, music boxes, etc., 1006 Chestnut Street, - - • Philadelphia. IV J. T. JACKSON & CO., -Real Estate- Brokers, TELEPHONE 866. yjj WALNUT STREET- Buy and Sell Property on Commission. Collect Rents and Income, and take charge of Estates. TWO MEDALS, DIPLOMAS, AND TWO JUDGES' REPORTS AWARDED AT International Exhibition, 1876. United States Engraving (o. We would call your attention to our new process of Engraving, by which we produce superior work at a general average of half the cost of woodcuts. The material used is vulcanized rubber, which is far superior for the purpose to wood or metal. They are not affected by dampness, or any corroding agents, and will not warp or split. ,, , .. , .. , . You may print at least 100,000 impressions directly from the vulcanite plate without injury to it, or have electrotypes made from them as from wood. If you favor us with an order, send a photograph, reprint, object or sketch. We can reduce or enlarge the same in size. ,■.,... This process was the only one of the kind receiving an award at the Centennial. Send for Estimate for Engraving to UNITED STATES ENGRAVING CO., 201 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia. Have you seen Wilson's Carriages ? Broad and Battonwood Streets, 1404 and 1406 Barclay Street, PHILADELPHIA. VOLLUM, FERNLEY & VOLLUM, and JVttfcitor *t 735 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. Auditing and Adjusting Accounts. Stating Accounts in Orphans' Court. Books of Corporations, Partnership or Individual. TELEPHONE NO. 832. Organizing FERDINAND STEEL. THOS. R. HIM,, late with C. Hoepfner. STEEL & HILL, Qeneral Upholstering, Mattresses and ~"^Window Shades, Window Awnings, 220 S. Fifteenth Street, Philadelphia. ^ v > Furniture Repaired Furniture Slips Cut and Varnished. and Made. All kinds of Carpets and Mattings made, altered and laid. Lace Curtains done up. Cane Seat and all kinds of Chairs. Spring, Hair and Husk Mattresses. ■m Store Shades and Window Cornices. Mattresses made over. Feathers, Feather Beds, Bolsters and Pillows. Feathers Renovated. Drapery Curtains and Lambrequins made and put up. Orders Received for Carpet Cleaning. R. D. WOOD & CO., ENGINEERS, IRON FOUNDERS, MACHINISTS, No. 400 CHESTNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA. FOUNDRIES AND WORKS: Millville, Florence, Camden, N. J. CONSTRUCTORS OF GAS AND WATER WORKS. MANUFACTURE EVERY DESCRIPTION OF CAST IRO! PIPE. Matb's Single d Double Valve Fire Hydrants, EDDY YALYES, YALYE INDICATOR POSTS. (las Holders ani Machinery. Hydraulic Cranes, Presses, Lifts, etc. Turbines and Water Power Pumps, Sugar House Work, Loam Castings, Heavy Special Machinery, General Castings. Se^j. I^ETCHflm, Ji*., FINE St 6l30., HARDWOODS. YARDS : 3aa to 143 N. Broad Street. PHII ArtFI PHIA 1166 & 1168 N. Third Street. miUAUCUKniA. Main Office. 229 N. Broad Street. j. j. McCarthy, PRACTICAL He&tin? and Ventilating 3733 MARKET STREET. Furnaces, Stoves and Ranges, Tin, Sheet Iron and Copper Work. ■Repairs of all kinds furnished. Tin Roofing; and General Jobbing:. First-class Work a Specialty. Permanent Employment Good Wages and Expenses, ior Honest, Energetic Men. or Commission, If preferred. Agents Wanted To Solicit Orders for our Nursery Stock. ,D P PUICC Pft 1430 South. Penn Square, H. U. LHAOt & LU., Philadelphia, P.. Good men can always secure employment. Tne business easily learned. ix Wilson Brothers & Co. Givil Engineers, Hrcnitects, Consulting Engineers. Flans and Specifications furnished for Public Buildings, Institutions, Railway Stations, Dwellings, Stores and Manufacturing Establishments. Also for Bridges, Water Works, Sewerage Systems, Harbor Improvements and all classes of Engineering and Architectural Work. Surveys made for Railway Lines. Construction of work attended to. Examinations made of Rail- way, Mining, Electrical Plants and other Properties. Drexel Building, Room 1036, Philadelphia. o®©@ j. n. HOOKET, (Jgderfoker 3806 JPRINQ QdRDEN /T., PHILADELPHIA. SUPERIOR PASTRY. Ghas. W, Glooker, Jr., & Gq. Our Famous neringue Glaces are unexcelled. * FINE CAKES, ICE CREAMS, FANCV ICES. Gonfeetionei^s, 134 South Fifteenth St. (above walnut), Philadelphia. OROCHI PROMPTLY SERVED. Tooth F orceps a s p~ ial *y •••JAGOB J.TEUFEL5 BRO., ESTABLISHED 1856 MANUFACTURERS OF 114 South tenth street, Philadelphia, Pa SURGICAL, DENTAL AND VETERINARY Instruments Capital, $300,000. Surplus, $210,000. <3 & *e^ ial /?Qfe A>. B an H- 'Q/ C. H. Clare, President. H. M. IvUTZ, Vice-President. J. M. Collinowood, Cashier. Southeast Corner Thirty-second and Market Streets. Wm.Sellers&Co., (INCORPORATED,) Philadelphia, Pa. Manufacturers of MACHINE TOOLS TRAVELING CRANES AND SWING CRANES, SHAFTING, PULLEYS, COUPLINGS, HANGERS, ETC. TURN-TABLES FOR LOCOMOTIVES, CARS, ETC. INJECTORS FOR LOCOMOTIVE, STATIONARY AND MARINE BOILERS. STEAM HAMMERS, TESTING MACHINES, ETC. C. H. & H. Stanton, TELEPHONE 754. AND DEALERS IN ..CONSTRUCTION SUPPLIES.., 134 South Third Street, PHILADELPHIA. xiv John E. Eyanson Bell t B-n n o. 3 6«,. & Son, Practical 1 lumbers 207 South Tenth St., Philadelphia. WERTHEIMER & MAY, and Importers Tail 01 * 5 * "Windrim Building, 1107 walnut st., Philadelphia. WILLIAM MclNTOSH, Carpenter and Builder, 615 South Forty-second Street and 38 South Thirty-third Street, PHILADELPHIA. Established 1846. WM. D. ROGERS, SON & CO., CARRIAGE BUILDERS AND HARNESS MAKERS, gig and 921 Walnut St., Philadelphia. Heney E. Gommey. Charles F. Gommey. J. M. GUMMEY & SONS, Real Kstate Brokers, 733 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. D. T. PRATT, Real Kstate Office, 737 Walnut Street, PHILADELPHIA. FERDINAND KELLER, IMPORTER AND DEALER IN Foreign a n d "Domestic Antiques, Manufacturer of Hand-made Furniture in Antique Styles, 16TM, 17TH AND 1BTM CEH1URY WORK. Salesrooms, 216 and 220 3. Ninth St.; Factory, 314 Oriscom St., Philadelphia, Fa. ~ LEWIS H. REDNER, — Conveyancer and Real Estate Broker, 727 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. Special Attention given to Purchase and Sale of Real Estate. Valuations of Properties and Loans on Mortgage. TELEPHONE NO. 873, louis d almas, Real Estate Broker 708 WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. IIV.7.' m PHILADELPHIA RIDING CLUB STABLE. <2 <° N^ Horses Taken at Itivery. 5* ♦^»t^««5tf-. Fanny D. Sweeny, Of the School of Industrial Art of the Pennsylvania Museum, Broad and Fine Streets. "-^^X^tf-* Enamel Painting. Glass Mosaic. 3130 Chestnut Street, Opposite Drexel Institute. Mr. George Burnham. Mr. William Burnham. Hon. H. H. Bingham. REFE'RE/MeES: Mr. John Converse. Judge C. G. Garrison. Mr. Wm. Henry I«ex. xxiii Hon. A. K. McClure, Prof. Leslie W. Miller. Hon. Wm. Potter. Reserved. AiiAiiiiii iiiiiim -i.*iiliiliii UWiii liniiiniiiimip R. A. BELL, LocKsmitn and Ben Hanger, 213 SOUTH FIFTH STREET. E MTTtTTTTrTTTTTTTTT tttttS TMTTTTTTT*TTTTTTT!TMTTT M .TT M TTTTTTT M TT MM I1f?TTTT M T,TTTTT WALTER D. ALLEN, Real Estate, Mortgages and Collections, 706 WALNUT STREET, telephone 3600. PHILADELPHIA. bl o- cooz:, CO-AX, 31 12 Market Street, Philadelphia. Plumber and Gas Fitter, 3309 Chestnut St. and 4038 Lancaster Ave., Phila. All kinds of Gas Fixtures put up. Drains laid at reasonable prices »is>os.«ct. aaoa cwisiuui siaiti. F. C. MORRIS, Medical Books and Student Supplies, 3307 "Woodland Avenue, One Square from University. XXV J. EDWIN REID. SAMUEL S. REID. REID BROS., oooooooooo Family Groeers i 11 i li nn urn i i i 11 n n n n i 11 i i i 11 .mi 1 n i i i i i i i . . . i . i n n i n i n i i n. i 11 i i in n n i 11 i tttt """""""oooooooooo"""^""" 1 "^"""""" 1 ^^ A023 Market St., SPECIALTIES: Tea, Coffee, Flour. WJLAPELPHIA. HENRY VAN BEIL & CO., 1310 CHESTNUT STREET, Importers of the following brands of- Champagne* 3 7k Reimart, Vin Brut. Pommery & Greno Sec. G. H. Mumm & Co., Extra Dry. Veuve Clicquot, Dry. Veuve Clicquot, Rich. Heidsieck & Co., Monopole. Heidsieck & Co., Club. Moet & Chandon, White Seal. floet & Chandon, Brut Imperial. ; Wachter & Co., Royal Charter. ' L. Roederer, Carte Blanche. L. Roederer, Grand Vin Sec. c AND OTHER FAVORITE BRANDS. :