Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023036829 Cornell University Library DR 432.B31 Social and religious life in the Orient 3 1924 023 036 829 ■t, organized in 18^6. Mis- sionaries and assistant missionaries, 47; native helpers, 279 ; churches, 40 ; church members, 2,686 ; pupils, 6,733. Central Turkey Mission, organized in 1 847. Mis- sionaries and assistant missionaries, 28 ; native helpers, 153; churches, 33; church members, 4,188; pupils, 3,852. European Turkey Mission, organized in 1858. Missionaries and assistant missionaries, 23 ; native helpers, 56; churches, 9; church members, 682; pupils, 573. MISSIONS IN THE LEVANT. The following extracts are taken from articles concerning " Missions in the Levant," written by- Rev. Edwin M. Bliss, of Constantinople, published in the " Missionary Review :" " The work of the American churches in the Levant, commenced by the little band who sailed from Boston under the auspices of the infant American Board, is now carried on by seven or- ganized American societies — six representing the Congregational, Presbyterian, United Presbyterian, Reformed Presbyterian, Southern Presbyterian, and Methodist denominations ; and one, the Amer- ican Bible Society, representing all and helping to unite all upon the one foundation, the Word of 68 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. God. There are also two colleges, Robert College at Constantinople, and the Syrian Protestant Col- lege at Beir LIFE IN THE ORIENT. MOHAMMEDANISM A UNITING POWER. The religion of Mohammed in the middle of the seventh century gave unity to all Turkish tribes. After this the history of the Turks began to be an authentic one. After this we see the banner of their prophet carried from victory to victory. They pressed forward over the mount- ains of Kurdistan, along the banks of the Euphra- tes and Tigris, occupying the land between the Persian Gulf and the mountains of Caucasus and between Ararat and the Black Sea. FIRST SULTAN OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Othman, or Osman, the son of Ertoghrul, com- menced his reign on his father's death, in 1288 A. D. He made considerable conquests in Asia Minor, pressing northward into the neighbor- hood of Constantinople. He was an able, temper- ate, vigorous, and enterprising ruler; he encour- aged industry and agriculture. Broosa in Asia Minor was the first capital of the Ottoman Em- pire. Othman died at Broosa in 1326. His son, Orchan, added to the young empire Nicaea and Nicomedia. He married a daughter of the Greek Emperor Cantacuzene. In 1336 he took a fortified castle on the European side of the Dar- danelles, and in 1357 the city of Gallipoli. Murad, the son of Orchan and grandson of Osman, subdued all of Asia Minor ; Adrianople became a second capital of the empire. Bulgaria, Thrace, Macedonia, and Servia became its tributa- GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF THE COUNTRY. ^^ ries. His son, Bayazid, added Wallachia, a part of Bosnia, Thessaly, and Morea. Mohammed, the son of Bayazid, ruled over what his father had conquered. His son, Murad H., defeated John Hunyades, the Hungarian hero, after three wars, and Hun- gary became tributary to the sultan. Murad turned to Greece and conquered it as well as Albania. But Ottoman conquest could not be comple- ted without placing Constantinople in the list of conquered cities. The son of Murad II., Mo- hammed II., with his 200,000 men fought against the 6,000 defenders of the capital and captured it, and put an end to the Greek Empire, May 29, 1453. After this the entire Peloponnesus, Athens, Herzegovinia, Venice, Moldavia, and Crimea be- came tributaries. Bayazid II., son of Mohammed, came in contact with Persia, and for the first time with Russia, in 1495. Selim L, the younger son of Bayazid II., con- quered Egypt. He was succeeded by Suleyman I., the Magnificent. Under his reign the power of the empire reached its highest point. His reign was the longest of all the sultans of the Ottoman Empire, being forty-six years. During his long reign Transylvania, including its capital and chief fortress, Buda and Pesth, Austrian provinces, be- came tributaries. The sceptre of Suleyman swayed over the north coast of Africa, Egypt, Tunis, Trip- oli, Algiers, and Morocco. He had conquered also a large part of Persia. 78 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. " Sultan Suleyman left to his successors an em- pire to the extent of which few permanent addi- tions were ever made, except the islands of Cyprus and Candia. . . . The Turkish dominions in his time comprised all the most celebrated cities of Biblical and classical history, except Rome, Syra- cuse, and Persepolis. The sites of Carthage, Mem- phis, Tyre, Nineveh, Babylon, and Palmyra were Ottoman ground; and the cities of Alexandria, Jerusalem, Smyrna, Damascus, Nice, Prusa, Athens, Philippi, and Adrianople, besides many of later but scarce inferior celebrity, such as Al- giers, Cairo, Mecca, Medina, Basra, Baghdad, and Belgrade, obeyed the Sultan of Constantinople. The Nile, the Jordan, the Orontes, the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Tanais, the Borysthenes, the Dan- ube, the Hebrus, and the Ilyssus rolled their wa- ters 'within the shadow of the Horsetails.' The eastern recess of the Mediterranean, the Propontis, the Palus Maeotis, the Euxine, and the Red Sea were Turkish lakes. The Ottoman crescent touched the Atlas and the Caucasus ; it was su- preme over Athos, Sinai, Ararat, Mt. Carmel, Mt. Taurus, Ida, Olympus, Pelion, Haemus, the Carpa- thian and the Acroceraunian heights. An empire .... embracing many of the richest and most beautiful regions of the world had been acquired by the descendants of Ertoghrul, in three centu- ries from the time when their forefather wandered a homeless adventurer at the head of less than five hundred fighting men."* * Sir E. Creasy, 197 (Ed. 1877). GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF THE COUNTRY. 79 GENEALOGY OF OTTOMAN SULTANS. The following is the genealogical order of the Ottoman sultans after the death of Suleyman the Magnificent : Selim II. reigned 8 years. ( 1 5 66- 1 5 74 A D.; Murad III. ii 21 « .' Mohammed III. If 8 i< Ahmed I. a 14 li Mustapha I. it 2 K Osman II. it 4 (t Mustapha I. (t I " (second time.) Murad IV. it 17 n Ibrahim I. a 8 ti Mohammed IV. it 39 it Suleyman II. *' 4 it Ahmed II. it 4 it Mustapha II. tt 8 ii Ahmed III it 27 tt Mahmoud I. it 24 tt Osman III. ti 3 it Mustapha III. tt 17 it A bd-ul-Hamid I ■ it IS ti Selim III. a 18 it Mustapha IV. tt I it Mahmoud II. *' 31 it Abd-ul-MeJid a 22 it Abd-ul-Aziz (I 14 it Murad V, not crowned, only a few months. Abd-ul-Hamid II., the present sultan, was pro- claimed in 1876. 8o LIFE IN THE ORIENT. OBSTACLES. For ab.out three centuries, from the first Ot- toman sultan down to Suleyman the Magnifi- cent, the Grand Lawgiver, the Osmanlis marched from victory to victory. The reign of Sultan Su- leyman was the climax of Turkish victorious his- tory. But the pride of Russia and the alliance of Hungary, Poland, and Austria not only put great obstacles in the progressive career of the Ottoman conquerors, but those powers led to the narrowing of the Turkish boundaries ; especially by frequent wars with Russia during the present century, which have been very costly indeed to the great Turkish Empire. "Thus was Turkey gradually reduced to its present restricted dimensions. In its old extent, when the Porte ruled not merely the narrow ter- ritory now called Turkey in Europe, but Greece, Bulgaria, and Eastern Rumelia, Rumania, Servia, Bosnia, and Herzegovinia, with the Crimea and a portion of Southern Russia, Asia Minor to the borders of Persia, Egypt, Syria, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and numerous islands in the Mediterra- nean — not counting the vast but mainly desert tract of Arabia — the total population (at the pres- ent time) would be over 50,000,000, and the square mileage over 2,000,000, or nearly twice the size of Europe without Russia. One by one her prov- inces have been taken away. Algiers and Tunis have been incorporated with France, and thus 175,000 square miles and over 5,000,000 of in- GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF THE COUNTRY. 8 1 habitants have transferred their allegiance. Egypt is practically independent, and this means a loss of 500,000 miles and over 6,000,000 of inhabitants. Asiatic Turkey alone has suffered comparatively little diminution. This forms the bulk of her present dominions, and comprises about 680,000 square miles and over 16,000,000 of population. In Europe her losses have been almost as severe as in Africa, where Tripoli alone remains to her. Servia and Bosnia are ' administered ' by Austria, and thereby she lost nearly 40,000 miles and 3,500,- 000 of people have become Austrian subjects. Wallachia and Moldavia are united in the inde- pendent kingdom of Rumania, diminishing the extent of Turkey by 46,000 miles and over 5,000,- 000 of inhabitants. Bulgaria is a dependent state, and Eastern Rumelia has lately de facto become part of Bulgaria, and the two contain nearly 40,000 square miles and 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The kingdom of Greece, with its 25,000 miles and 2,000,000 of population, has long been separated from its parent. In Europe, where the Turkish territory once extended to 230,000 square miles, with a population of nearly 20,000,000, it now reaches only the total of 66,000 miles and 4,500,000 ; it has lost nearly three-fourths of its land and about the same proportion of its people."* Though the limit of the Turkish dominion is narrowed, it is not fair to conclude from this re- striction of territory that the Turkish power is destroyed. To-day the Ottoman Empire holds an * Lane-Poole, " The Story of Turkey." Life in th« Orl«nt. 6 82 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. important position among the European powers. A power which holds the place " where two seas meet" and "two continents touch " can hardly fail to retain its prestige. To-day the Turkish Em- pire, in many respects, is more systematized and strengthened than she was half a century ago. To-day the Ottoman Empire holds in her grasp a territorial area which is equal to one-fifth that of the United States, and equal to the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, Italy, Denmark, Swit- zerland, Belgium, and Japan, embracing about 700,000 square miles. THE GOVERNMENT. 83 V. THE GOVERNMENT. The present sultan is the supreme head and absolute monarch of the country. The sultans in ancient times used to lead their armies to the bat- tlefields and superintend the affairs of the land. But at the present time the general affairs are in the hands of the ministers appointed by the sul- tan, though the imperial signet is absolutely neces- sary to the enforcement of the work of the minis- ters. THE MINISTERS OF THE SUBLIME PORTE. The ministers of the Sublime Porte are : 1. Grand Vizier, or Prime Minister. 2. Sheikh-ul Islam, or Elder of Islam. 3. The Minister of Interior Affairs. 4. The Minister of Foreign Affairs. 5. The Superintendent of the Cabinet Coun- cil. 6. The Generalissimo of the Troops. 7. The Minister of the Navy. 8. The Minister of the Artillery, g. The Minister of Finance. 10. The Minister of Commerce and Public Buildings. 1 1 . The Minister of Sacred Properties. 12. The Minister of General Education. 13. The Counsellor of the Grand Vizier. 84 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. THE IMPERIAL COURT. The imperial court is composed of the follow- ing officers: 1. Grand Admiral. 2. The Chief of the Eunuchs. 3. Agent of the Imperial family expenditures. 4. The First Chamberlain. 5. The First Scribe of the Imperial Court. 6. The Minister of the Imperial Treasury. 7. The First Imperial Chaplain. 8. The First Imperial Body Guard. 9. The Grand Master of Ceremonies and Inter- preter of the Imperial Divan (Court). 10. The Chief Physician of the Sultan. 1 1. The Special Scribe of the Sultan. 12. The Commander of the Palatial Servants and of the Musicians. 13. The Chief Imperial Hostler. The country is divided into Vilayets (provin- ces), each having its own Vali (Governor), ap- pointed and deposed by the Sultan. THE IDEA OF CITIZENSHIP IS FOREIGN TO THE PEOPLE. The non-Mohammedan people are not citizens but tebaa (subjects). They are bom, live, and die subjects. I do not wish to say by this that the people have no privileges. They all have privi- leges, religious liberty, etc., but they have not the grand idea of citizenship of which every American is very proud and boastful. Such being the fact, A Tl'RKISH PASHA OR GOVERNOR. THE GOVERNMENT. 85 the people naturally have no interest in regard to the political affairs of the country; while to the contrary, in America all men seem to be politi- cians. SUPERIORITY OF THE MOHAMMEDANS. The privileges of the ruling party (Mohamme- dans) are superior to those of the common people (non-Mohammedans). All the members of the cabinet, and all the members of the imperial court save two, and all the governors, thirty-two in number, are Osmanlis. There are some inferior ofBcers among the Ubaa. There are no non-Mohammedan soldiers in the Turkish army. In case of war only the members of the ruling class will be allowed to enlist in the army. No non-Mohammedan is permitted to take any part in the battles of the country. The Gov- ernment exacts from all male subjects (including the children) a military capitation tax of $1 25 per annum, which releases them from all military duty. This tax is rigidly collected. POPULATION. The population of Turkey is about 20,000,000 and is very far from being homogeneous. They differ greatly in religion. The Mohammedan population fonn the majority. IN EUROPEAN TURKEY there are seven provinces with the following na- tionalities and religions : 86 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. 1. Armenians in religion are Gregorian, Cath- olic, and Protestant. 2. Osmanlis or Turks, Mohammedan. 3. Greeks, Orthodox Church. 4. Bulgarians, Orthodox, Catholic, and Protes- tant. 5. Albanians, Mohammedan, Orthodox, and Catholic. 6. Wallachians, Greek Orthodox Church. 7. The Jews, Mosaic. 8. Tartars, Mohammedan. 9. Circassians, Mohammedan. 10. Ordinary Gypsies, Mohammedan and Chris- tian. IN ASIATIC TURKEY there are twenty-five provinces with the following nationalities and religions : 1. Armenians in religion are Gregorian, Cath- olic, and Protestant. 2. Osmanlis, Mohammedans. 3. Greeks, Orthodox ; a few Protestants. 4. Jews, Mosaic. 5. Arabs, Mohammedans. 6. Maronites, Orthodox and Catholic. 7. Nestorians, Nestorian and Protestant. 8. Kurds, Mohammedan. 9. Druses, mixed of idolatry, Judaism, Moham. medanism, and Christianity. 10. Turkomans, Mohammedan. 11. Circassians, Mohammedan. 12. Persians, Mohammedan, THE GOVERNMENT. 87 13. Syrians, mostly Christians, Catholics, Ortho- dox, and Protestant. All these nationalities live under the domain of the Turkish Empire, and practise their national customs and follow their religions with great lib- erty. RIVALRY BETWEEN THE NATIONALITIES. The principal nationalities are Moslems, Ar- menians, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Jews. It is not improper therefore to state a few words concern- ing them. About Armenians something has al- ready been said. MOSLEMS. There are about 15,000,000 Moslems in the Turkish Empire. One of the most distinguishing characteristics of this people is their fatalism. The sentiment of kader, predestination, is so strong among them that it creates a humble obedience and surrendering to the will of Allah, a submis- sion which can never be seen among the other races of the Orient. This conception of predesti- nation is so strong that it carries them to the verge somewhat of stoicism, by which they defy and disregard every misfortune and calamity that may fall upon them. The general sorrow, mourn- ing and weeping, and many improper tokens of grief which are manifested by other nations at the loss of their loved ones, hardly can be seen among Moslems. They regard such manifestations as a great sin against the kader of Allah, without 88 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. whose knowledge "not a sparrow falleth to the ground." They believe on the one hand that the human will is the faculty of conscious self-determination, but on the other hand their fatalistic idea that a man cannot be or do anything beyond his kader gives them a stationary character which is peculiar to them. Being rulers of the country, and having more privileges and opportunities than any other nation, it is remarkable that they are not more progressive than others. On the contrary, while other nations are climbing towards the highest rung of the ladder of civilization, Moslems are lingering on the lower stages of it. While others are getting rich, they are becoming poor. Others speak different languages, they stick to the Turk- ish. Others, while in their stores, call on men and women, giving them noble titles and inviting them to come and make bargains with them. Moslems, on the contrary, sit cross-legged in their stores in- dulging in their pipes and coffee, and do not at- tempt to sell their goods, but wait that their kader may bring customers to them. Men of other na- tions when they meet each other generally talk on business matters, but Moslems on sporting, horsemanship, etc., and enjoy themselves by list- ening to the proverbs and parables of story-tellers. The numbers of the other Oriental people are in- creasing in America ; some of them have excellent positions ; some of them are in universities and col- leges where they study theology, medicine, etc. Some are trying to increase their own capital and THE GOVERNMENT. 89 business, and many are working in factories. Mos- lems, on the contrary, are satisfied with their mo- notonous life and stay at home. A young Moslem who had spent a few months in England told me one day that he was disgusted with the customs and manners of the English people, and as soon as he arrived at Constantinople he kissed the ground and thanked Allah that he was at home ! The Mos- lem people, however, are honest in their dealings, and hard laborers in ploughing their fields and reaping their harvests. The Moslem is kind and affectionate to his family. After he closes his shop he fills his hand- kerchief with fruits and sweetmeats and returns home with full hands to meet his wife and chil- dren. The Moslems are very cleanly people ; their houses in the cities are situated on healthy grounds with gardens around them, and the villages under fine and fruitful trees and beside murmuring streams. They have a splendid physique, are athletic, and make brave soldiers. Before them Europe trembled for centuries. They are good and kind neighbors, ready to help at any time without re- gard to nationality or faith. In hospitality they surpass all other nations. They show great kind- ness to everything around them. They do not worry their horses; they call them kind names, and treat their cattle as if of one family. Even those innumerable dogs, in the capital and in other cities, which lie under their feet are not kicked. 90 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. They are devoted people. Five times every day they scrupulously take their ablution, and at the hour of prayer they frequently leave their shop half closed and go to the mosque, or spread their carpet, stand with their faces towards Mecca, and offer their prayers, not giving the least attention to anything else until they have per- formed their numerous prostrations before the merciful and omnipresent Allah. GREEKS. The Greek population of Turkey is about 2,000,000. They are marked by their intelligence, versatility and activity. When they lost their proud capital, Constantinople, and became subject to the Ottoman dominion, the Greeks still proved themselves the second masters of the country, producing governors over the Greek islands, hos- podars over the Danubian principalities, and the best tradesmen and artists over all the land. Their patriarch occupies the first chair in the Sublime Porte among the national represen- tatives. The Greeks are very fond of learning. At present the finest schools of different branches belong to this nation. The sillogos of Constanti- nople is indeed the pride of the Philhellenists in the capital and in the Greek world. While other nations are hesitating in introducing foreign methods of education in their schools, the Greeks have already adopted them. In the university at Athens there are hundreds of Greek scholars from A iMOHA.MMKDAN AT FRAVHR. THE GOVERNMENT. 9I Turkey. The very rich people send their children to European colleges. This people give more money for educational purposes than any other nation. The Greeks are a very proud and ambitious people. They recall their ancient philosophers, mighty heroes, and glorious martyrs, and do not hesitate at all to express their idea that the civil- ized world owes everything to them. They are a patriotic people. The heroes of Marathon seem still to inspire the nation, which ever and anon displays its readiness to do and suf- fer in the name of liberty. They are a bigoted people. Says one of their historians, "The ancient Greeks worshipped a hundred gods, the modern Greeks also as many saints. The ancient Greeks believed in oracles and prodigies, in incantations and spells ; the mod- ern Greeks have faith in relics and miracles, in amulets and divinations. The ancient Greeks brought rich offerings and gifts to the shrines of their deities, for the purpose of obtaining success in war and preeminence in peace ; the modern Greeks hang up dirty rags round the sanctuaries of their saints to shake off an ague or propitiate a mistress." While other communities are more or less op- pressed, and their villages and fields are ransacked by their cruel neighbors, the property of the Greeks is safe. They are ready to fight and take their revenge for the injuries imposed by their enemies. While other nations are scattered thinly 92 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. throughout the country, the Greeks on the con. trary are concentrated in large cities, as in Con- stantinople, Adrianople, Smyrna, etc., and on the shores of the Black and Mediterranean Seas. BULGARIANS. Though the majority of the Bulgarian people are not directly under the Turkish Empire, they have lived for centuries under the Ottoman sub- jection and are tributaries to the Sublime Porte. I feel that it is my duty to speak a few words about this noble people, which during late years has attracted the attention of the diplomatic world more than any other people in the Orient. There are about 4,000,000 Bulgarians who live between the Danube and the Balkans. The peo- ple are distinguished by their industry, sincer- ity, and virtue, full of respect for their spirit- ual heads and of zeal for their religion. They occupy a very important position by raising cattle and in farming. It is a remarkable fact that while other nations, after they lost their inde- pendence, were scattered over the country, the Bulgarians remained settled in European Turkey, in the Balkan Peninsula, in their ancient home. They were formerly known as a very brave peo- ple, extending their conquests over Moldavia and Albania, carrying their banner to the gates of Constantinople. But in 1018 A. D. they were overwhelmed by Basil II. Bulgaria in her history never had Athens for learning nor Constantinople for civilization ; but THE GOVERNMENT. 93 in the middle ages her standing was not inferior to that of Germany, England, and France. Bulgaria, falling between Turkey and Russia (the former being master of southeastern Europe and the latter of the northern), has been the horri- ble scene of battles between those two great Pow- ers. Consequently the Bulgarian towns and villa- ges were trampled on, their fields and vineyards and their rose-gardens were destroyed. After the expulsion of the Circassians from the Russian ter- ritories they were mostly settled in European Turkey, where this savage people added calamity to the already existing calamities of the unfortu- nate Bulgarians. It may be said without any exaggeration that among the Turkish subjects none suffered so much as this noble Slavonic race, who with their patience in labor, simplicity, and economy offered an inestimable blessing to all the country. Had they a better chance they would have been perhaps the most progressive people among the Ottoman subjects. The year 1876 forms the darkest page of the Bulgarian history. Thousands of them, men, wo- men, and children, were killed in such a manner that the whole civilized world was horrified, and the columns of the papers in Europe and America were filled with it for months. The cause of this terrible massacre was that the people desired to be an independent nation. They could not obtain this but by their blood. The blood was shed, and the glorious morning of independence dawned upon the nation after one year from the date 94 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. of the massacre ; and those who were once the most stationary people of the Balkans are now the most prosperous, aggressive, and progressive. They have their own prince, capital, and gov- ernment. The threatening clouds which had darkened for centuries the horizon of the Balkans have passed away, and showers of blessings fell upon the Bulgarian homes, plains, schools, and churches. Bulgaria is comparatively independent. Thousands of Bulgarian young men now are studying at home and abroad and are preparing a more brilliant future for the nation. Robert Col- lege, on the charming heights of the Bosphorus, is giving the nation able statesmen, and its sister " Home " on the lofty landscape of Scutari is pre, paring to give the nation intelligent mothers. The American Seminary at Samakov is promising to give the land educated ministers and teachers, and the " Zornitza" or " Morning Star," at Con- stantinople, appears every week with its useful contents, enlightening thousands of minds and souls. Long live Bulgaria ! THE JEWS. The number of Jews, the remnant of the lost tribes, in Turkey,, including Egypt, is about 350,- 000. They live in large numbers in Constantino- ple, Adrianople, Smyrna, Jerusalem, and Salonica. They have the same privileges in Turkey as the other nations, more than many of their brethren in Europe. These people are remarkable for their perse- A BULGARIAN WOMAN. THE GOVERNMENT. g$ verance, patience, and endurance ; through severe calamities they have preserved their individuality •and cherished an undying hope ; and their proud confidence is that the time is not far distant when they shall be a great nation, when God will wipe out their transgressions and send the Messiah who will be their mighty and conquering king. Though the nation is scattered over every clime on earth's wide surface, they yet have every- where almost the same zeal and anticipation to- wards their national and religious future. They are in full expectation of the fulfilment of the old prophecy, " The Lord will yet have mercy upon Jacob, and will yet choose Israel and set them in their own land." It seems that every Jew's mouth- piece is, " If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, may my hand forget her cunning and my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth." Thousands from every part of the world visit Palestine, the promised land, some anxious to see the historic land of their fathers, and many to lay their bones near the graves of their ancestors. Their hope is strong as ever. Neither the per- secution raised by the Crusades, nor the Spanish Inquisition of the fifteenth century, nor their other afflictions in the past, have deprived this people of their great hope. The Turkish Jews, being exiled from Spain, speak a vile dialect of Spanish. They live, as in this country, very separate from other nations. Their homes, streets, dresses, etc., are all remark- ably distinct. They are subject to more or less 96 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. contempt from other people. There are many among the Oriental nominal Christians who be- lieve that the Jews every year kill a Christian' during their national Passover, Pesak, and mix the blood with their unleavened bread. This supersti- tion sometimes becomes so strong that many Jews are beaten and their houses are attacked. Few of them have very magnificent houses, but the majority of the people live in narrow streets and in poor houses. Sometimes two or three fam- ilies live together. They marry earlier in life than the other na- tions of Turkey. Therefore they have many chil- dren ; these swarm in the Jewish quarters like bees in their hives. The Jews leave all hard manual enterprises to others, and subsist by peddling and trade. They do not give the country either artisans or agri- culturists. Physically they are not strong. They look careworn, have sallow complexions and scanty beards. They observe the claims of their religion quite rigidly. On Saturdays the poorest of them appear in their best suit of clothes. They do not touch fire on that day, and therefore do not smoke. They do not transact any business. They are so strict in their observance of the Sabbath that they do not light their own candles on that day, but send for somebody to do it. And should a confla- gration happen, they will not try to quench it or save their property. There is no harmony or sympathy between THE GOVERNMENT. 97 these nationalities ; on the contrary it may be said there is rivah-y between tliem, and hatred towards each other is manifested in many ways. A man after crossing the great Atlantic to America and living several years, will begin to drop his national habits and adopt those of Ameri- ca ; if he does not, his children will certainly do it. It is not so in Turkey. Each nation generally speaks its own language, practises its own religion, follows the customs of its fathers, dresses in its national costume, and keeps its national traditions. There is no inter-marriage. It is not possible for a Greek to marry a Moslem girl, except he changes his faith and becomes a Mohammedan. The power of naturalization in America is so great that it attracts the attention of any man who has lived in this country even for a short time. Since I have been in America I am not able to distinguish between a Jew, German, or English- man, because all wear the same costume. But if a man goes to Turkey and spends a short time in Constantinople or any other prominent city, and gives himself to the study of the customs and cos- tumes of the people, he can discriminate who is a Turk and who is a Jew and an Armenian. Let those who accuse the Turkish Government for her mal-administration remember that she con- tains ^\'ithin her dominion these rival nationalities. A country which nurses in her bosom so many rival religions and antagonistic nationalities can- not be developed easily. How can these nationalities be brought into Life in the Orient. 7 98 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. harmony ? Here is one of the greatest and most important questions, which many European diplo- mats seem to ignore. THE MILITARY SYSTEM. The method of armament has undergone im- provement. The soldier is equipped with Euro- pean rifles, the artillery with European guns and ammunition, the cavalry is mounted on Arabian and Hungarian horses, and the whole military de- partment is put under the discipline of distin- guished German ofiicers. The military force of the empire is about 700,000 men, divided into four departments. ^ I . Nizam, or Active Army, 1 50,000 men. 2. Ihtiyat, or First Reserves, 60,000 men. 3. Redif, or Second Reserves, 120,000 men. 4. Mustahfiz, or Territorial Militia, 300,000 men. Every man is subject to military service in some one ofr these departments for twenty years. There are /persons who are not subject to military exercise. These are called Bashi-Bozooks. The army is divided into seven military dis-- tricts, the headquarters of which are situated at Constantinople, Adrianople, Monastir, Erzingian, Damascus, Baghdad, and Yemen. ' NAVAL SYSTEM. The navy is in excellent condition, having cont^l of the Black Sea, and to some extent of the Lower Danube, which gives very strong advan- tage against any military attack. The steamboats r ("iBtjA^ IRKLUl I VK U KklSH Mil I 1 1 \ {b VSHl- H(jZUUkb THE GOVERNMENT. 99 are mostly of recent build and of excellent model. The late Admiral Hobart Pasha, an Englishman, was a most brilliant naval officer, and reformed the navy as far as possible. The navy consists of twenty iron-clads, seven of them frigates, eight corvettes, and five gunboats. FINANCE. The financial condition is not good. The rev- enue was in 1889 about $90,000,000, while the ex- penditure was about $125,000,000. The national debt is not less than $500,000,000. It is believed however that the financial condition is less critical now than it was years ago. It is advancing towards a sound system. THE RESOURCES OF THE EMPIRE. I have already given a few remarks about the productions of Turkey, but I wish to give a little further information about the resources of the empire. Cotton, wool, and the fleece of the Angora goat, which are celebrated throughout the world, are ex- ports. Though the silk worm is not as much cultivated at the present time as it has been in the past, yet it is an important business in many parts of the country. Merchants come from Eu- rope to buy the cocoons, and leave a great deal of money in the country. The tobacco is very cele- brated and is exported to all parts of the world. Opium is raised and exported, but not so much as lOO LIFE IN THE ORIENT. it was a few years ago. Figs and raisins are very famous, and are found in the markets of Europe and America. The mineral resources of the land are very rich. Lead, copper, iron, silver, and coal are found in abundance throughout the country. There are many sunless caves and mines which some day will be penetrated and enrich both the Govern- ment and the people. The agriculture is not scientific. The plains are generally unfenced. Though many attempts have been made to introduce agricultural improve- ments and implements, they have failed. But I am sure that the time will come when the far- mers will abandon their patriarchal implements and will adopt cheerfully the new system of farm- ing. One of my esteemed friends, after spending several years in America, returned home to Tur- key with American agricultural implements to teach the people the agriculture of the New World. I know other gentlemen who are trying to follow the example of the gentleman above mentioned. RAILROADS. The railroad system is not fully introduced into the country. At present there are five railroads in Turkey proper, about i,8oo miles of lines, built chiefly by European capitalists. In 1888 the French capital, Paris, was connected with the Ot- toman capital, Constantinople, by rail. So that the long and tiresome journey from Paris to Constan- THE GOVERNMENT. lOI tinople is reduced from eight to two and a half days. The first railroad runs from Constantinople to Adrianople, and on to Sophia. The second runs in Cilicia, from Mersina to Tarsus, the birthplace of St. Paul, and thence to Adana. The third runs from Scutari, opposite Constan- tinople, to Nicomedia, near Nicsea, where the creed of Christendom was established by the Oriental Fathers. The fourth is called the Aiden Railroad, and runs from Smyrna towards Ephesus. The fifth is known as the Turko-Servian Junc- tion Railway. There is great enthusiasm at the present to es- tablish other roads in Turkey. Some European capitalists are trying to obtain the imperial firman for this purpose. I believe that the time will come when the people will no longer travel on such slow animals as the mule, horse, donkey, and camel, but by the fiery horse, as in America. The trains are very far from being comfort- able. There are three classes of cars and three grades of tickets. The fare is very high. The first-class cars of Turkey do not equal the regular passenger cars of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The road which runs from Constantinople to Adriano- ple is about 1 30 miles ; the fare is a little more than ten dollars, about seven cents a mile. If we take into consideration the general poverty of the people, the fare seems to be enormous. Besides, 102 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. there are no excursion tickets. There is no com- petition among the railroad companies, therefore no reduction in tickets. There are no smoking cars, neither is there any water in the cars, no closets, nor even stoves to heat the cars in winter. As one of the characteristics of the Oriental peo- ple is yavash (slowness), so the Oriental trains are slow, almost beyond the belief of American peo- ple. For instance, the train leaves Constantinople in the morning at about 7 A. M. and reaches Adri- anople in the evening at 8 P. M., thus requiring thirteen hours for travelling 130 miles. TELEGRAPH SYSTEM. There are about 18,000 miles of telegraph lines in Turkey. All the principal cities of the empire are united thus. Turkey is also in communication with other countries. POSTAL SYSTEM. Turkey is in communication with the world by means of the international postal system. We have no free delivery of mail, even in the capital. In most places the people go to get their mail themselves. If the postman brings your letter to your door you are obliged to give him five cents. On letters weighing fifteen grams the postage is five cents. On letters sent to places connected by railroads or the sea, three cents. On letters from Turkey to America, five cents. The postal system in America and in all the civilized world is under the control of the Govern THE GOVERNMENT. IO3 ment ; in Turkey it is not so. In Constantinople and other prominent cities European Powers are represented by their postal agents. My mail from Turkey comes generally by English or Austrian stamps. Nobody is permitted to carry a letter, open or sealed. If the Government finds a letter on a per- son it requires him to pay double the postage of the letter. But I know that in many places the muleteers carry a large portion of the merchants' mail without interference from the Government. PASSPORT SYSTEM. The passport system is used in Turkey to pre- vent crime, to secure criminals, and to increase the revenue of the Government. The system in itself may be good ; but as it is now conducted the evil arising therefrom far outweighs the good of the system. In America a man can travel throughout the country without a passport, while in Turkey, in a sparsely populated country, where many of the policemen do not know how to read or to discriminate a lawful from an unlawful passport, nobody is allowed to move for even a short dis- tance without a passport. The deplorable influ- ence of this system upon travelling and business life is acknowledged by all. To secure a passport demands time. Sometimes after a day of hard labor a man can obtain one by paying a consider- able sum of money. While I was writing these lines I remembered that the Rev. Mr. Riggs, of Marsovan, during his missionary tour through I04 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Asia MinoF, was confined in Samsoon, not having the inevitable tezkire (passport). PRISONS. There are no houses of correction in Turkey. No effort is made for the improvement of the con- dition of prisoners. No preacher is sent to preach to them, and no religious books are distributed among them ; so that the prisons, instead of being a benefit to the community, become centres of in- trigues and plots. It would require several John Howards at the present time to reform the prisons in Turkey. The cells are filthy and unhealthy. During the winter there is no fire ; extreme cold prevails in them. The prisoners guilty of capital crimes are loaded with chains. Generally speak- ing, all classes of prisoners are kept in the same prison house. There is no prison uniform. Nei- ther bed nor bed-clothing is furnished. The pris- oners wear the clothes in which they are arrested. They try to keep themselves warm at night on the cold, damp ground by lying together in heaps and sleeping pell-mell. There is no separate apartment for women. The women who are arrested for crime are im- prisoned in private houses. There is no com- pulsory labor in the prisons except that of water- ing and sweeping the streets. Each prisoner is allowed to work at his own trade and earn some money to buy tobacco, etc. The Government dis- tributes daily two loaves to each. This has to serve for breakfast, dinner, and supper. THE GOVERNMENT. 105 Privilege is granted to the people to see their imprisoned friends. Wives are permitted to carry meals to their husbands. While years ago capital crimes were punished by hanging or decapitation, now it is a rare case when a man is hung, this kind of punishment hav- ing given place to long imprisonments. It is ex- ceptional that a man is imprisoned for life. It is customary to set free many prisoners on festival days, on the sultan's birthday, or on the day of his ascension to the throne. There are no patrol wagons to assist the police- man in his work. The criminals are brought to the city from the towns and villages under the escort of mounted police, the prisoners being com- pelled to walk with their hands bound behind them. But the city criminals walk side by side with the policeman, often struggling and quarrel- ling on the way. If the policeman is stronger than his prisoner, he kicks and buffets him till he succeeds in dragging him to the door of the prison house. NEWSPAPERS. It is not easy to ascertain when the first paper was published in Turkey. It is said that the first was issued some fifty years ago by an Arme- nian in Constantinople. Constantinople is the mo- ther of newspapers. The papers published in the capital are more than all the others throughout the Turkish Empire. Each nation has its own national paper. In Constantinople papers are Io6 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. published in the following languages: English, French, Greek, Greco-Turkish, Armenian, Armeno- Turkish, Turkish, Bulgarian, Arabic, Hebrew, and Persian. "Tarik" (The Way) is the title of the Turkish official newspaper. Circulation. The circulation is very small. There is no paper that has more than 5,000 sub- scribers. The existence of newspapers in Turkey is not regarded as essential to the country, nor are they held as a great and important factor in the administration of the Government, as they are in America. Many people who can read do not care for newspapers. There is no home paper. My father, who could read and write, died in his seventy-third year without reading a single paper in all his life ! The poor class of people find it difficult to pay for a newspaper. The rich people are careless about reading, or are not accustomed to give money for a newspaper. There are a great many people who borrow newspapers from their friends, or go to the casinos or barber-shops to read. Extension of Newspapers. The extent of coun- try over which they are circulated is very limited. The vilayets (provinces) have their local papers, which are published under the control of the local Government. There are large cities where there is not a paper published. There are towns and villages which do not see the face of one during the whole year. Revenue Stamp. All papers published in the capital and in the vilayets bear the revenue stamp. THE GOVERNMENT. lO/ This is an extra expense upon the publishers ; but they are obliged to obey the law of the Govern- ment. The Prices of Newspapers. The price is very high. A paper equal in size to the " Philadelphia Times," sold for one cent, in Constantinople is sold for five cents. Censorship. There is no freedom of the press. The press is strictly under the censorship of the Government. The editors are obliged to send a copy of their papers to the Government, either be- fore or directly after publishing them. The pa- pers are obliged therefore to use conservative lan- guage in every respect. Not very long ago a very curious incident hap- pened in Constantinople which appeared in the columns of the " Independent " of New York : " There is a Greek benevolent society in Constan- tinople which recently had occasion to publish a pamphlet on its work, and on the title-page there was put a quotation from Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. Very soon after it appeared, a police officer came to the printing office and demanded of the editor that he should give him information as to who this Paul was who had been writing let- ters to the people of Galata (one of the suburbs of Constantinople), as he had orders to get a copy of these letters and to bring the aforesaid Paul to headquarters. The editor explained that Paul could not be brought to headquarters, he was dead ; but the functionary retorted that his orders were to bring Paul, and if he could not bring Paul, to Io8 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. bring the editor. It was of no use to protest that Paul had been in heaven for eighteen hundred years, and the editor was taken to headquarters and put in prison for several days, until finally the Greek patriarch interfered and presented the bureau of censorship with a copy of the letter of Paul, which he showed to be not to the people of Galata, but a province of the ancient Roman Em- pire. This having been at last made clear, the editor was released." Then what the press means in the civilized world must be understood to mean the contrary in Turkey. When I was in Constantinople a mes- sage came from the Censorship for the Rev. Mr. Thomson, editor of the Bulgarian missionary paper, " Zornitza." I read the message to Mr. Thomson and informed him that the paper was suppressed. What for? It was not mentioned in the message. He was very sorry — I was too. He could not recall anything written against the Government or any of its officers. The sup- pressing of the paper was a mystery for a long time. The paper was suppressed about six months against the best efforts of its friends. Do you know what was the crime of the paper? Because it published an article from a reliable correspondent respecting the brigandage about Macedonia ! I write about this at greater length, because I believe that one of the calamities of the country comes out of this, that the press is not authorized to expose criminals, who are a detriment to the THE GOVERNMENT. IO9 Government. Where there is no free press there cannot be public opinion, and where there is no public opinion there cannot be public justice. How many times the papers are issued from the press with one or two blank columns, the arti- cle being suppressed at the last moment, while there was not time, or anything ready, to supply the place ! The chief journals of Europe, the " Times," the "Standard," the " Koelnische Zeitung," the "Temps," the " Debats," have their correspond- ents in Constantinople. The Character of the Papers. The papers are political and national. There are no religious or denominational papers except those published by the missionaries. Armenian Papers and Periodicals. The oldest paper in the Armenian language was published in Calcutta, 1 795 A. D. The name of the paper was "Aztarar" (Advertiser). Since that time about one hundred papers and periodicals have been published, but most of them have now ceased to exist. At the present time about twenty national papers and periodicals are published in Constantinople, and one in Smyrna. Besides these there are papers and periodicals published in the following countries : six in Russia, one in Venice, in Vienna, in Marseilles, and London. If I am not mistaken, there are more Armenian pa- pers published in Constantinople than of any other nationality represented in the Turkish Empire. The Manner of Newspaper Selling in Constants no LIFE IN THE ORIENT. nople. Both ends of the great bridge over the Golden Horn are occupied by newspaper men, who cry all the time and try to sell their papers. One cries in the Armenian language, giving the name of the paper : "Arevelk !" " Manzum^ !" Another cries in Greek, " Neologos !" Another one cries in Turkish, " Tarik !" " Hakikat !" " Saadet !" An- other in English, " Levant Herald !" while another one in French, " Phare du Bosphore !" A babel which is rarely ever heard in any other place in the world. REFORM IN THE GOVERNMENT. The age in which we live may be regarded as the completion of a century both in Europe and America. Turkey, though surrounded with obsta- cles both from within and without, yet has not been very far from the influence of modern civili- zation. The treaty between Turkey and the Uni- ted States and other Powers, and various commer- cial treaties and other negotiations with foreign nations, the introduction of telegraphs, interna- tional postal arrangements, steam navigation, rail- roads, street-cars, at least a few lines in the capital, press, military tactics, the education of both sexes, public tribunals, the acceptance of non-Moslems' testimony in the courthouses, the promulgation of the Tanzimat, the adoption of many European cus- toms and costumes, the abolition of slavery, the formal abolition of the torture of criminals in the prisons, the repeal of many offensive taxes, the extermination of the Janissaries and the Derebeys, "^K 6 I -^ A MOSLEM LADV OF IHH INTERIOR. THE GOVERNMENT. Ill all these are remarkable changes of the present century. The Government, in order to encourage manufacturers, issued last year a proclamation stating that machinery and tools will be admitted free of any duty during a period of fifteen years. The religious liberty which is given non-Moslem people brings honor to the Government. It was not a very long time ago when in Rome Roman- catholics alone used to enjoy civil and religious privileges. Not long ago the Russian Government exiled some Protestant preachers. Last year in August a cablegram flashed from St. Petersburg over to this side of the Atlantic, stating that " the Minister of Finance intends to tax the Protestant churches in the Baltic provinces. These churches have hitherto been exempt from taxation. This is one of the series of reforms by which the Gov- ernment intends to thoroughly Russianize the old Baltic-German and to diminish the influence of the German Protestant clergy." It is true, as it is mentioned in another place, that the children of non-Moslem people are not yet recognized as equal with the Moslem population ; that the children of the former are deprived of holding any office in the military department. But of this they do not complain, because they have larger and more prosperous families than the Mos. lems. During the late Turko- Russian war, while the Moslem children shed their blood by thou- sands in the battlefield, children of the non-Mos- lems were safe at home. As soon as the Moslem young men begin to be fit for the army the Gov- 112 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. ernment takes them away and condemns their life to military servitude, while on the contrary non- Moslem young men are developed in trade and in- dustry so much as to excite the jealousy of their Moslem neighbors. There was a time when the distinction between accusation and proof was not very necessary in the courthouses. When Greece revolted against the Turkish Government in 1821, during the reign of Sultan Mahmoud, his indignation fell upon the unfortunate Greeks of Constantinople. On April 22, 1 82 1, on Easter morning, the Greek Patriarch Gregorius, of Constantinople, was seized at the altar while he was offering mass and hung at the door of the church. Other ecclesiastics and lay- men of high rank were executed in a similar way, without knowing why they were put to death. There were two principal powers at the begin- ning of this century in Turkey which were great obstacles in the way of- reform. These were the Derebeys (the lords of the valleys) and the Janis- saries (new soldiers), whose power and influence were more firmly fixed at that time than ever. Nearly the whole of Asia Minor was divided among the Derebeys. The holders of this title had under their possession military fiefs, who en- gaged from time to time in rebellious wars with the troops of the Government, from which the poor people in the vicinity suffered very much. The atrocious authority of those Derebeys weakened the Ottoman power considerably. But the Janissaries -yv^ere more formidable than THE GOVERNMENT. II3 the former. Sultan Mahmoud II., the grandfather of the present sultan, was a person who resolutely endeavored to reform his dominion. He put down the Derebeys, and thus put an end to feudalism in Asia Minor, and also crushed out the irresistible power of the Janissaries. Sultan Mahmoud knew that his throne was not safe while they existed. They were about 50,000 in all, over the country. He knew very well the fate of many of his prede- cessors — Bayazid II. in 1512, Murad III. in 1595, Osman II. in 1622, Ibrahim in 1649, Selim III. and Mustapha IV. All these Sultans were either de- throned or strangled by the Janissaries. Sultan Mahmoud even knew that he was placed on the throne by the power and influence of the Janissaries. He foresaw the danger of his king- dom as well as of his person, therefore he made up his mind to deliver his empire from them. But there were some other troubles also im- pending over the Government during this time. For example, some of the most important provin- ces had passed into the hands of Russia. The Greeks were in a state of rebellion, and not only Lord Byron by his zealous efforts, but the whole West, made the Greek cause important. The Druses also, in Lebanon, Mohammed Ali in Egypt, Ali Pasha in Albania, all threatened the empire. Sultan Mahmoud found the Government falling. But all these calamities passed away un- der his administration. He gave however more attention to the interior than to the exterior disas- ters of his throne. The Janissaries, as it is said, Lifit in tbe Orient- § 114 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. were the most dangerous element in the empire, and like the Praetorian guards in the ancient Ro- man Empire, dethroned those with whom they were not satisfied and established others in their room. Sultan Mahmoud in 1826, May 30, issued a Hatti-sherif concerning the formation of a new victorious army, and a new military uniform was distributed among the soldiers of the sultan. This proclamation highly excited the Janissaries, who were opposed to any change in their costume. As soon as the proclamation was published they went to see their chieftain and demanded the heads of the ministers who helped the promulga- tion of the firman. But the sultan's diplomatic eyes foreseeing this, he had already gained the agreement of the chieftain, who stigmatized his associates for their rebellious conduct. The unex- pected answer of their chieftain brought the Janis- saries into extreme rage. They began to bum the houses of the ministers and destroy everything before them. It is said that the sultan's firmness somewhat gave way before these violent actions of the rebels, and he was about to conciliate them, when the chief in an encouraging tone said to him, " Now or never is the time." Then the Sanjaki Sherif, the holy banner, which was last unrolled about half a century before, was displayed at the Hippodrome and summoned the rebels to appear before it, in token of submission to the sultan's decree. They refused to obey. The ulema, the expounders of the faith, called on the people to THE GOVERNMENT. Ilj support their sovereign against the revolters. A grand attack began on the rebels, who after mani- festing a heroic valor found themselves surrounded by the mob and new troops, retreated from street to street, and finally took refuge in the Hippo- drome in their barracks. Here their career ended by the masked batteries opening upon them. In a few hours the Janissaries, who for centuries were a terror to European kings and the dread of the Ottoman sultans, were annihilated. The same bloody scenes took place through the provinces of the country, wherever they attempted to show re- sistance to the Imperial Hatti-sherif. Over 10,000 Janissaries were killed throughout the land ; their famous barracks in the capital were destroyed, and the columns of smoke from the barracks ascended to the skies over the lofty minarets of Constantinople, congratulating the sultan and the horrified people on the everlasting destruction of this disturbing element of the em- pire. It may be safely said that the reign of Sul- tan Mahmoud opened a new page in the history of the Ottoman dominion. While the friends of Turkey are glad to see such remarkable changes during the present cen- tury, on the other hand they are very sorry indeed to see the wretched organization of the depart- ment of agriculture, the insufficiency of the means of transportation, the insecurity of the country dis- tricts, the vakuf system, by which when a m.an dies childless his property is possessed by the mosque in the neighborhood, the disproportion of Il6 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. salaries between the superior and inferior officers, the delay of the payment of the salaries to the poor soldiers, the appointment of incompetent men to office, the destructive policy of free trade, and the inevitable duty of two per cent, imposed upon export goods, etc., all of which demand immediate reform. MOHAMMEDANISM. ■ II^ VI. MO HA MMEDA NISM. Allah Akbar— " There is no God but God, and Mohammed in his prophet." — The Mohammedan Catechism. THE FOUNDER OF MOHAMMEDANISM. The founder of Mohammedanism was Moham- med, the great Arabian prophet from the tribe of Koreish, the noblest of Arabia, who was born in Mecca, about 570 A. D., and died in 632. Moham- med not only changed the face of the world, but still continues to exercise a powerful influence in its history. According to the Moslem traditions, as soon as Mohammed (the praised one) was born, he fell upon his knees, raised his hands and face towards heaven, and pronounced, " Allah is great ! There is no god but Allah, and I am His prophet." Upon this solemn declaration the sacred fire which for centuries had burned on the altar of Zoroaster went out, and the iilis (Satan) was cast into the depths of the sea, the river Tigris overflowed its banks, and a mighty storm, followed by an earthquake, shook the foundations of the magnificent palace of Chos- roes the Great of Persia, and Mohammed himself appeared, surrounded with a light which illumined the country round about. While Mohammed was still a child his father, Abdallah, died. He lost his mother, Emine, when Il8 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. he was six years of age, and fell to the care of his relatives. Mohammed, in his twenty-fifth year, entered the service of a rich widow, Hadij^. He was faithful in all his duties, and by his fidelity gained Hadije's sincere confidence to such a de- gree that she offered him her hand in marriage, which he accepted. Mohammed gradually abandoned his commer- cial business and devoted himself to religious con- templations. Retiring into solitude,, he brought forth a religion adapted to his countrymen, a re- ligion which finally reconciled all the rival tribes of Arabia and did much to reform, refine, and elevate their character. THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD IN ARABIA. The first article of faith of Mohammedanism is the unity of the God-head, which was held in Arabia before the appearance of Mohammed by some monotheistic sects, and especially by Judaism and Christianity. " The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus had caused a general migration of Jews from Palestine to Arabia. In the third century there were not a few who accepted the Jewish faith. As to the Christians, it was possible that the first converts made by St. Paul were of Arabic blood (Gal. 1:17). Besides this, Theophilus of Diu (an island at the entrance of the Arabian Gulf), sent by his fellow-citizens as a hostage to Constantinople, was there educated and ordained, and returning to his own country, successfully labored as a missionary in the East Indies. He MOHAMMEDANISM. II9 extended his labors also to Arabia, where, through his preaching-, the king of the Homerites in Ye- men (an Arabian city) became a convert before the fifth century." * The Abyssinian conquest also caused a form of Christianity to be the dominant religion there be- fore the Mohammedan era. THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY AT THIS TIME. The influence of Christianity at that time must be considered. The vital and principal doctrines of Christianity were obscured by the worship of martyrs and by various heresies; relics were re- garded as essential to Christian worship. Icono- clastical and other dogmatical controversies di- vided and subdivided the Christian communities, and destroyed that peace, love, and charity from among them which the gospel was given to pro- mote. Such was the condition of Christianity till another religion came and gained the ascendency. THE GREAT COMMISSION OF MOHAMMED. There are not a few persons who think the commission of Mohammed was to erase all traces of Christianity from the face of the earth. But this is presumption. He gave a place in Paradise to the followers of Moses and Christ, although in- ferior to that which will be possessed by his own. It is true he denounced the doctrine of the Trinity emphatically, declaring, "God is one God, the eternal God. He begetteth not, neither is he be- * Kurtz, " Church History," Vol. I, p. 250. I20 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. gotten, and there is not any one like him." He fought against idolatry, discarding all temptations and persecutions and plots against his life. His desire was to establish a practical religion of which God should be the foundation. He taught the children of his followers to love their parents, and the husbands to love their wives, and sanc- tioned equal rights between them. He abolished the custom of burying alive the female offspring as soon as born. He instructed his people to pray, to fast, to give alms, to make pilgrimages. He forbade the drinking of intoxicating drinks and gambling and all use of the flesh of swine as an un- clean animal. He directed his people to be faith- ful, just, and kind towards the poor and animals. He declared that all Moslems were brethren. MOHAMMED ACTS THE PART OF A PROPHET. Mohammed was about forty years of age when he began to act the part of a prophet. He claimed to have been moved to preach a new faith by a spe- cial divine communication that he had received in his solitary cave. When the professed announce- ment came, " Oh, Mohammed ! of a truth thou art the prophet of God and I am His angel Gabriel," like Isaiah he could not believe at first. " Woe is me, for I am undone, because I am a man of un- clean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips." Isa. 6:5. Mohammed, trembling, told his vision to his devoted Hadij^, who encour- aged him by saying, " Fear not, for joyful tidings dost thou bring. I will henceforth regard thee as MOHAMMEDANISM. 121 the prophet of our nation. Rejoice, Allah will not suffer thee to fall to shame. Hast thou not been loving to thy kinsfolk, kind to thy neighbors, chari- table to the poor, faithful to thy word, and ever a defender of the truth ?" HIS FLIGHT FROM MECCA. The most critical period in the life of Moham- med was when he renounced idolatry and took upon himself the office of prophet. Upon his declaration of the new faith hostility against its author became decided. He was in danger. He left Mecca for Medina for refuge 622 A. D., from which the Mohamnaedan era Hejira begins. He was accepted joyfully by the citizens as a prophet and king, with great demonstration and pomp. Mohammed proclaimed his doctrine until all the tribes of Arabia had joined in the solemn profession "La ilah ilia Allah, Mohammed Resul-icl-Allah." (There is no god but God, and Mohammed is his apostle.) THE DOCTRINES OF MOHAMMEDANISM. The greatest and most important doctrine of Mohammedanism, as has been mentioned, is the unity of the God-head. Belief in the existence of angels is absolutely required in the Koran, the Bible of Mohammedans. Satan was once one of the holy angels, but he fell for refusing to pay homage to Adam at the command of God. They believe in the general resurrection. The right- eous who fulfil the command of God and break not 122 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. their contract, wiio join what God commanded to be joined, who fear their Lord and dread an ill ac- count, and who sincerely strive to please their Lord, observe the stated times of prayer, and give alms in secret and openly, and who turn away evil with good — the reward of these shall be Paradise, where the inhabitants shall be wholly taken up with joy. They and their wives shall rest in shady groves, reclining on magnificent couches. There shall they have choice fruit, and shall ob- tain whatever they desire. Dishes of gold shall be carried to them, and cups without handles. But they who shall disbelieve and distrust the way of God, and hinder men from visiting the holy temple of Mecca, and whosoever shall seek impiously to profane it, will open their eyes in hell, where they shall dwell amid burning winds and in scalding water under the shade of a black smoke, neither cool nor grateful. They shall have garments of fire fitted unto them, boiling waters shall be poured on their heads, their bowels shall be dissolved thereby, and also their skins, and they shall be beaten with maces of iron. PRACTICAL DUTIES. The practical duties required by the Koran are as follows : Prayer. Mohammed used to call prayer the pillar of religion. Hence he obliged his fol- lowers to pray five times every twenty-four hours. The first hour is at dawn, the second at noon, the third at mid-afternoon, the fourth at sunset, the fifth at 9 o'clock p. M. The mosques are opened at THK MUEZZI.X.- L.M.I. Tu l-R.iVEK. MOHAMMEDANISM. 1 23 all hours during the day for worshippers. The call for prayer from the high as well as low mina- rets is a very remarkable one. " Most High ! There is no God but one God, Mohammed is the Apostle of God ! Come to prayer ! Come to the Temple of Life !" is the echo which comes from the hundreds of minarets in Constantinople and elsewhere five times every day. Mohammedans are very careful to offer their prayers. Neither business nor journey can keep the devout Mussul- man from praying at the appointed time. A PRAYER. The first chapter of the Koran may be regarded as a model of a Moslem prayer. " Praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures ; the most merciful, the King of the day of judgment. Thee do we worship, and of thee do we beg assistance. Direct us in the right way, in the way of those to whom thou hast been gracious ; not of those against whom thou art incensed, nor those who go astray." Circumcision is practised by Mohammedans and is attended by great demonstration and feast- ing. The circumcision takes place when the child is from eight to fifteen years of age. The giving of alms is frequently commanded by the Koran. Fasting is a day of great importance. The be- lievers are obliged by the express command of their Prophet to fast the whole month of Ramazan. Ramazan is the sacred month of commemoration, in which they claim the Koran was sent from hea- ven. 124 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. MOSQUES. Mosques are generally preceded by a court, sur- rounded by high walls, planted with trees, and refreshed by fountains of water, where Moham- medans make their ablution before they enter the mosque. The courts of the mosques are used for many occasions. They are crowded during the days of their festivals with children, tart, ice- cream, and toy sellers, and with many Oriental amusements, adapted both for children and adults. The courts contain also the seminaries, where young men get their education to become teachers and preachers. There are other establishments also, for example Emarethane, where the students get their daily meals and many poor people resort, and Timarkane^ where the insane are sent for cure. From this brief statement it may be easily under- stood that mosques are great establishments in the East. Let us enter the mosque. The external part of a mosque may be gorgeous and magnifi- cent, but internally it is plain, without any picture or any other attractive object. There are no hymn- books, music, chairs, ushers, or any object of com- fort such as may be seen in luxuriously Christian churches in this country. Here and there some texts from the Koran are written in large letters, as in our Sunday-school rooms the Biblical texts attract the attention of the children or visitors. The people usually enter the mosque after taking off their shoes at the door, and silently stay wherever they prefer to pray. If the mosque MOHAMMEDANISM. I25 is not crowded, one may stand where he pleases ; but in the contrary case each man takes his stand at the side of his fellow - believer, whether poor or rich, colored or white, friend or enemy. The preacher is at the altar. He is without any special garment. He leads the prayer, and each of his movements or prostrations is observed and imitated by hundreds and thousands of- wor- shippers in such a solemn manner as can hardly be seen in any other place of worship. On Friday, the Mohammedan Sabbath, the people hear a sermon. The preacher has no notes, and does not select any particular text from their Bible. He sometimes speaks on theology, but generally dwells on the practical duties of religion. The people are wide awake and attentive dur- ing the whole time of worship. I never saw a Moslem asleep in the mosque. They do not talk with each other. They neither give a sign of salu- tation nor of recognition. There they bow their heads before the Creator and nothing in the world can attract their attention. I believe that we Christians have something to learn from them. THE MOHAMMEDAN WORLD. There are about 200,000,000 Mohammedans in the world, and they are found chiefly in six dis- tinct sections. I. The Turkish Empire, Arabia, and Egypt. II. Persia. III. Africa. IV. Central Asia, that is Turkestan, Khiva, Bokhara, Afghanistan. V. In- dia. VI. Java, and certain portions of China, 126 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. where Mohanimedanisin has been introduced in recent times by the Mohammedan missionary efforts. THE KORAN. Koran is derived from an Arabic word which signifies to read. The Mohammedans give it other names, as for example, Kelami Kadim (Old Word), Kitabi Aziz (Holy Book), Kelami Sherif (Noble Word). The Koran is to the Mohammedan what the Bible is to the Christian — a rule of faith and prac- tice. The Koran has been translated from Arabic principally into the French, Latin, and English languages. The first translation of the Koran was into French, in 1647. The translation of Sale into English, in 1734, is very valuable. As the majority of Christian people in the East do not understand the language of the Bible, so the majority of Mohammedans in Turkey do not understand the language of the Koran. There is no prohibition to the Mohammedans to read the Koran. Even their children read it at home as well as at school. As our Bible is not a book written in a century, so the Koran was compiled by Abubeker. and re- vised by Ottoman ; the former the second, and the latter the third caliph (successor) of the prophet. While our Holy Bible is translated into many civilized and uncivilized languages, and dis- tributed among different classes of men, there exists among the Mohammedans a strong feeling MOHAMMEDANISM. I27 against the printing, translating, and distributing of the Koran. MOHAMMEDANS' BELIEF IN THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE. "Mohammed is believed by his followers to have been the last and greatest of prophets and apostles. Six of these — namely, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed — are be- lieved each to have received a revealed law, or system of religion and morality. That, however, which was revealed to Adam was abrogated by the next; and each succeeding law or code of laws abrogated the preceding ; therefore those who professed the Jewish religion from the time of Moses to that of Jesus were true believers; and those who professed the^ Christian religion until the time of Mohammed are held in like manner to have been true believers. But the copies of the Pentateuch, the Psalms of David (which the Mo- hammedans also hold to be of divine origin), and the Gospels now existing, they believe to have been so much altered as to contain very little of the true Word of God." But there are many pas- sages and narratives in the Koran which are stri- kingly similar to some in our Bible. Some of these are as follows : BIBLE. KORAN. In the beginning God It is he who hath creat- created die heaven and ed the heavens and the the earth. And God said, earth: and whenever he 128 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Let there be light, and there was light. Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return. Thou shalt give life for life, tooth for tooth, foot for foot, burning for burn- ing, wound for wound, stripe for stripe. Call ye on the name of your gods, and I will call on the name of the Lord. And they cried aloud. And it came to pass that there was neither voice nor any to answer. Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved of God among you by miracles and won- ders and signs which God did by him. Take heed that ye do not your alms before men to be seen of them ; other- wise ye have no reward of your Father which is in heaven. sayeth unto a thing. Be, it is. Out of the ground have we created you, and to the same will we cause you to return. We have therein com- manded them that they should give life for life, and eye for eye, and nose for nose, and ear for ear, and tooth for tooth, and that wounds should be punished by retaliation. And it shall be said unto the idolaters. Call now upon those whom ye have asso- ciated with God: and they shall call upon them, but they shall not answer. We gave unto Jesus, the Son of Mary, manifest signs, and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. Make not your alms of none effect by reproaching or mischief; as he that lay- eth out what he hath, to appear unto men to give alms. MOHAMMEDANISM. 129 They said therefore unto The infidels say, Unless him, What sign showest some sign be sent down un- thou then, that we may see to him firom his Lord, we and believe thee ? will not believe. But of that day and that hour knoweth no man : no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father. But, beloved, be not ig- norant of this one thing, that one day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day. For behold I create new heavens and a new earth. We look for new heavens and a new earth. I will cause you to come up out of your graves. And every man shall receive his own reward according to his own labor. They will ask thee con- cerning the last hour, at what time its coming is fixed. Answer, Verily, the knowledge thereof is with my Lord ; none shall de- clare the fixed time thereof except he. But God will not fail to perform what he hath threatened : and verily one day with the Lord is as a thousand years of those which ye compute. The day will come when the earth shall be changed into another earth, and the heavens into other heav- ens ; and men shall come forth from their graves to appear before the only, the mighty God, that God may reward every soul accord- ing to what it shall have deserved. The following passage from the Koran illus. trates the correspondence of very notable histori- Llfe In the Orient. 130 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. cal facts which are found in the first chapter of Luke's Gospel : " Zacharias called on his Lord and said, Lord, give me from thee a good offspring, for thou art the hearer of prayer. And the angels called to him while he stood praying in the chamber, say- ing. Verily, God promiseth thee a son, named John, who shall bear witness to the word which Cometh from God ; an honorable person, chaste, and one of the righteous prophets. He answered, Lord, how shall I have a son, when old age hath overtaken me, and my wife is barren ? The angel said, God doth that which he pleaseth. Zacharias answered, Lord, give me a sign. The angel said, Thy sign shall be that thou shalt speak unto no man for three days otherwise than by gesture." "And when the angels said, O Mary, verily God hath chosen thee above all the women of the world : when the angels said, O Mary, verily God sendeth thee good tidings, that thou shalt bear the Word proceeding from himself : his name shall be Christ Jesus, the Son of Mary, honorable in this world and in the world to come, and one of those who approach near to the presence of God. She answered. Lord, how shall I have a son, since a man hath not touched me ? The angel said, So God createth that which he pleaseth. When he decreeth a thing, he only saith unto it. Be, and it is. God shall teach him the Scripture and wis- dom and the law and the gospel ; and he shall appoint him his apostle to the children of Israel." The Mohammedans in Turkey are orthodox MOHAMMEDANISM. I3I and regard the Persians as schismatics. According to the former, Abubeker, Omar, and Osman were the lawful successors of Mohammed. According to the latter, Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet, was the next in succession. They show hatred to one another in many respects. For example, the Sunnt, or orthodox Moslems, honor the green color by elevating it to their turbans ; the S/a'a/is, on the contrary, dishonor the same color by putting it on their shoes and trousers. The former cries in the time of need, " O God ! O God !" the latter, " O Ali ! O Ali !" They do not persecute each other. 1^2 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. VII. CONSTANTINOPLE. " To see Rome and die is merely gratuitous suicide when the other Rome, the beautiful city of Constantine, remains to be vis- ited." — Lane- Poole. FOUNDATION. Constantinople, the first Christian capital, was founded about 660 B. C. The first immigrants were some Greek families from Megara, who built the city and called it Byzantium. Like other Greek cities in that region it submitted to the Per- sian power ; but at the defeat of Xerxes it became a member of the Athenian confederacy. The city resisted the attack of Philip of Macedon and others, but finally it was obliged to submit to the domin- ion of Rome. A christian capital. In 323 A. D. Constantine the Great became sole emperor of Rome. He embraced the Chris- tian faith. Desiring to defend the capital of his empire against the attacks of barbarous tribes, he determined to found a new capital in the east, and made choice of Byzantium as the spot. He called it New Rome, but his court and people called it after his name, the "City of Constantine," Con- stantinopolis. CONSTANTINOPLE. 1 33 A MOHAMMEDAN CAPITAL. From 330 A. D. to 1453 Constantinople was the capital of Christian kings. Before the final fall of the city it was captured by Latin conquerors, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, during the Fourth Crusade, when Innocent III. was Pope of Rome. The city was taken by storm under the leadership of the old blind Dandolo. Its destruc- tion by the Crusaders was so great that a late vis- itor to Constantinople asked himself, " What ! is this deserted waste all that remains of the Hippo- drome, which was the centre of the popular life of New Rome ? Was it really on this spot that the great events of Byzantine history were enacted? Where is the famous Forum surrounded on four sides with porticos, enriched with statues, the spoils of ancient Greece? Where is the circular Forum of Constantine, peopled with statues and divinities ? Where is the porphyry column on the summit of which Apollo, torn from his temple in Phrygian Heliopolis, his head crowned with gold- en rays, consented to be renamed and to represent the person of the Christian founder of the city? Where is that imperial palace which was a town of itself, and from whose windows the autocrat could see his fleets sailing forth to the conquest of Italy, Asia, and Africa, and the vessels of his merchants entering the Golden Horn laden with the riches of distant lands ? Where are those thousands of statues that were brought from the east and from the west, from Athens and from Sicily, from Chal- 134 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. dasa and frora Antioch, from Crete and from Rhodes, to augment the splendor of the parade of the Byzantine emperor?" The Latins ruled over the city about sixty years ; after which it again came into possession of the Greeks. But the Latins hastened the final fall of Constantinople, the city being defended by the noble and brave Emperor Constantine with his 6,000 soldiers against the 200,000 of Mohammed II. The emperor fell with his capital, after fifty, three days of siege, in 1453. On that day the Cres- cent was substituted for the Cross, and the muezzin declared that the capital, the pride of Christendom, belonged to another nation and to another creed. THE SITUATION OF THE CITY. The geographical position of Constantinople is very peculiar. If you will look at the map you will see what a remarkable position it occupies. The city is on the great highway which connects the Black Sea with the Mediterranean, and sepa- rates Europe from Asia. Thus it commands at once two seas and two continents. Its situation seems preeminently to be fitted for the seat of a universal empire. There is no other such site in the world for an imperial capital. Speaking geo- graphically, London, Berlin, Paris, Rome, Vienna are subordinate to Constantinople. No other city can be compared with this for its natural beauty. Says Lamartine about Constantinople, " It is here that God and man, nature and art, have placed or created in concert the most wonderful CONSTANTINOPLE. 1 35 view which the human eye can contemplate on earth. I uttered an exclamation of involuntary- admiration and forgot for ever the Gulf of Naples and all its enchantments. Comparing anything to this magnificent and superb prospect, taken as a whole, is to outrage the creation." NATURAL BEAUTY. The strong language of James Bryce : "l^et me try to tell you what nature has done for Con- stantinople. She has given it the bluest and clear- est sea that can be imagined, and vaulted over it the most exquisitely bright yet tender sky, full of delicious light, that would be dazzling if it were not so soft. She has drawn the contour of the shores and hills as if with an artist's hand : the sweeping reaches of the Bosphorus, the graceful curve of the Golden Horn, the soft slope of the olive-clad heights behind Scutari, the sharp, bold outline of the rocky isles that rise from the surface of the Sea of Marmora ; and far away on the south- eastern horizon she has raised into heaven the noble summit of the Mysian Olympus, whose snows blush rose-red under the morning sun. The sea seems to pervade everything ; turn which way you will, it meets you, till you get confused among its winding arms. Its glittering bosom is covered with vessels of every size and style. The nights, however, are often still and serene, and then, under the brilliant moon, the city seems to lie engirt by a flood of molten silver." The climate of the city is very healthy. With 136 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. rare exceptions there is always a soft wind blow- ing across it. The city and suburbs are furnished with wholesome water. During the summer many come from Europe, even from America, to spend a few weeks here. The antiquarians who visit Constantinople from the West are anxious to satisfy their curi- osity with the expectation of seeing many anti- quities. Indeed the city, having been for centuries the treasury of the East, and having a remarkable history, ought to have the best museums in the civilized world. But it is not so. Many Western explorors and travellers came over during the last half -century and took away quite a number of valuable antiquities, with which they decorated the museums of their own countries. This at- tracted the attention of the Government, which ordered the collection of antiquities wherever they may be found in the empire and the placing of them in the museum of Constantinople. At pres- ent, under the sagacious auspices of Hamdi Bey, there are many fragments which belong to the an- cient centuries, but these unfortunately do not satisfy the curiosity of the Western traveller. There are some ancient relics yet standing, though in a very dilapidated condition : the brazen serpent of Apollo in the Hippodrome, and some obelisks, the burnt column of Constantine, the seven towers, the walls, and the large cistern which was used as a reservoir to supply the peo- ple with water during the siege of the city. But there are many things in Constantinople which CONSTANTINOPLE. 1 37 give great satisfaction to visitors. The city is not entirely without its ancient and modern splendor: the natural beauty of its site, its trees of different kinds, its mosques with their lofty minarets and noble domes, its churches, palaces, towers, castles, and villas on both sides of the Bosphorus, its fine plantations, gardens, and fanci- ful Oriental houses and cottages, present a scene of unsurpassed attractiveness. The city consists of three main divisions. First, Constantinople proper, lying between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmora. Secondly, over against Constantinople proper, on the other side of the Golden Horn, is Galata. The third is in Asia, on the further side of the Bosphorus, op- posite both Constantinople proper and Galata, called Scutari. ST. SOPHIA. The largest and most attractive buildings of the city are the palaces of the sultans, the mosques, the houses of the ambassadors, baths, old khans. Sublime Porte, bazaars, the barracks, and the towers. The mosque of St. Sophia, which was a Christian temple for about ten centuries, is a building which is very interesting and magnifi- cent. St. Sophia is a thousand years older than St. Peter's at Rome — the oldest cathedral on the earth, and one of the oldest monuments of Chris- tianity. It has no cathedral tower, but there are four minarets rising skyward, as sentinels guarding its noble dome, which still remains the wonder and admiration of the world. Many pagan temples 138 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. were spoiled to decorate this temple of Christ. When the Emperor Justinian finished the temple, it was opened on Christmas day in the year 548. The emperor, in his great exultation, exclaimed proudly, " Solomon ! I have surpassed thee !" CONSTANTINOPLE A COSMOPOLITAN CITY. Constantinople is a cosmopolitan city, perhaps the fifth largest city on the earth, embracing nearly 1,000,000 population from every part of the country. The majority are Turks; then come the Armenians, the Greeks, etc. If you stand on the bridge which connects Constantinople proper v/ith Galata, you will see people from every part of the world, speaking different languages, wear- ing all varieties of costume, and saluting each other in various styles. The city, being admira- bly located for commercial and business life, at- tracts people from every part of the world : Euro- peans, Asiatics, Africans, as well as Americans, meet here. The city being the seat of the sultan, here may be found the ecclesiastical and national repre- sentatives of the empire. The city is the seat of the Cheich ul Islam (the Elder of Islam) of Mo- hammedans, the Badriarch (Patriarch) of the Ar- menians, the Patriarch of the Greeks, the Exarch of the Bulgarians, the Azkab^d (the Chief of the Nation) of the Protestant Armenians, the Monsi- gnore of the Catholic Armenians, and the Khaham- bashi (High-Priest) of the Jews. There are 379 mosques and 145 Christian churches in the city; CONSTANTINOPLE. 1 39 of these last, 50 belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, 39 are Armenian, 26 are Roman-catholic, 14 are Protestant chapels, 3 are Greek Catholic, and one Bulgarian church. The city is also the seat of Oriental culture and civilization. Its influence is felt throughout the country. THE sultan's public PRAYER. When I was in Washington, in 1887, there were with me one Monday morning about a hun- dred theological students from different semina- ries in the United States. We went all together to the White House to visit the President of the United States. When we entered the East Room I saw some gentlemen and ladies, even babies in the arms of their mothers, who came for the same purpose. The sight was a striking one and be- yond the imagination of an Oriental man, who had never dreamed of shaking the hand of his monarch. Oh how proud was I when I shook the hand of the President of the United States of America! There is no such reception-room in Yildiz palace, where the present sultan lives. The reception-room of the palace is not for the common people, but for their representatives, the ministers of the empire and foreign Governments. Naturally the people of Constantinople, and those who visit the city, desire to see the royal face of the sultan. There is an opportunity once a week, on Fridays, to see the sultan when he is on his way to a mosque to offer his prayers, about 140 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. two o'clock p. M. The streets through which he will pass, which are usually filthy, are watered and swept a few hours before the time of his passage, and filled with troops and by multitudes on foot, in carriages, and on horseback. A cordon of troops is drawn around the mosque to keep the multitude from approaching very near. Several thousand soldiers guard the sides of the road from the palace to the mosque, between which the sultan with his staff and body-guard pass on the way to prayer. The sultan comes generally in an . elegant open carriage, sometimes on a splendidly- caparisoned horse. The troops, accompanied by bands of music, come from all parts of the city, bearing their regimental flags. The Sultan enters the mosque. He remains about forty minutes there, then he comes out and returns to the palace. The soldiers shout, " The sultan ! let him live for ever !" Some of the titles of the sultan are as follows : " Refuge of the world," " King of kings," "Pontiff of the Mohammedans," " King of the Sovereigns of the Universe." THE BAZAAR AT CONSTANTINOPLE. The bazaar is a place which every traveller must visit. It is covered overhead and in many places arched over with stone in a substantial manner. It is an enormous building, a labyrinth, in which the dealers sit, some in their stalls, some cross-legged with their wares piled up around them so that they can reach them easily without CONSTANTINOPLE. I4I rising. You will find the riches of the Orient in this labyrinth. Here as far as the eye can reach are seen ranges of shops filled with slippers and shoes of various kinds. Here are exposed the richest of Persian carpets. At one place are sec- ond-hand books and clothes, while at another a long line of polished arms flash upon the eye. Each street is exclusively occupied by a particular branch of trade or artisans. So jewelry, furs, caps, dry-goods, blankets, and furniture are separately exposed for sale. Here the old Turkish women stand and try to sell their embroideries, a sight and custom which you cannot see out of the ba- zaar. The crowds which throng the bazaar are so dense that it is with difficulty that you can get out. There are a great many auctioneers, who run about holding up articles for sale and crying out the price at the top of their voices. The deal- ers are Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and Per- sians. The buyers are of various nationalities. Here the venders of fruits, ice-cream, bread, cheese, ice-water, lemonade, coffee, tea, etc., run about shouting violently. Here you come to a little caf^ where groups of men may be seen sitting cross-legged or on the puny stalls, with their wa- ter-pipes, long pipes, and cigarettes, chatting in half a dozen languages. There you see a Turkish barber shaving the crown of a Mussulman. Over yonder the blind beggars clad in their rags are shrieking at the top of their voices. No dealer sleeps within the walls of the ba- zaar. It is closed at sunset by more than twenty 142 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. large gates, which lead, into as many different streets. In the morning the bazaar is opened, the dealers rush in, and every person occupies his seat in his shop. FIRE IN CONSTANTINOPLE. If there is anything the people fear at Con- stantinople more than another it is fire. And in- deed the history of the city shows clearly how much damage has been done by fire. There was one at Pera, above Galata, in 1870, at which it is said, two-thirds of the town was destroyed ; nine thousand houses were burned and two thousand people were killed. There is no fire-bell rung on the occasion of a fire. The watchmen in the towers give the signal at night by hanging out a red light and indicate the direction by placing the light on the side of the tower nearest the fire. When this light is seen the alarm is given to the city by the firing of seven cannons. The street watchmen take up the alarm and strike on the rough pavement with their heavy iron-f erruled clubs several times ; then they begin to cry at the top of their voices, " Yan- gun var ! yangun var !" (Fire ! fire !) If the fire seems very dangerous, the bells of the churches begin to ring, and not only the people of the neighborhood, but the whole city is aroused by these numerous alarms. If you add to these alarms the howling and the barking of innumer- able dogs, sleep becomes quite impossible. There are no elegant fire engines or trained CONSTANTINOPLE. 143 firemen as in America. The firemen, who are chiefly porters and boatmen, are stout and strong, but tlieir instruments are small and inefficient to quench the flames. The puny pumps are carried on the shoulders of the firemen, who reach the scene of the fire exhausted and hence are unfit to work. It is very curious to see the firemen with their pumps on their shoulders, some of them without hats, others without shoes, running rapidly towards the place of the fire, violently destroying everything before them, and crying, " Make way ! Make way ! fire ! fire ! " When they reach the fire they cry, "Soo! Soo ! " (Water! Water!) but where is the water? The houses are opened and the people carry water in small buckets and fill the pump, and the firemen begin their work. The slow work seems better adapted to nourish the flames than to quench them. THE DOGS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. The dogs of the city attract the special atten- tion of every visitor. I do not believe that there is another city in the world where there is such an immense crowd of dogs. Every street and avenue of Constantinople swarms with them. A man must be careful in walking the street not to stum- ble over a dog. It is the custom in Constantino- ple for men and women to give way to dogs and not the dogs to them. The dogs have their own streets and headquarters, which they guard with perfect fidelity, and no dog is allowed to trespass beyond the limit of his quarter. If one of them 144 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. attempts to do so, all the dogs of the quarter come together, surround the stranger, and punish him, and by so doing they settle the territorial dispute. If some one happens to pass carelessly swinging a cane, or on horseback, or who is dressed in an old garb, the whole company of dogs rush furiously into the battlefield. Here is one of the greatest panoramas which is always open to European visitors. Large, small, strong, weak, broken-leg- ged, hairless, tailless, earless, toothless, and eyeless dogs all come together at the call of their canine captain. The scene is terrible. A European stran- ger can forget many things that he has seen in the city, but the fight of the dogs of Constantinople he can never forget. Rich Mussulmans leave some money before their death to support these poor creatures. One may meet in the mornings a stout Turk carrying a large basket on his back, filled with loaves of bread, to give the regular breakfast to these poor animals, who come by hundreds to satisfy them- selves. In the recent number of the " Avedaper" appeared the following extract : " Turkish newspa- pers of the capital announced that recently, near the village of Makri, three persons were bitten by a mad dog ; two of them died, and it is said that the third person is dangerously sick." There is no more favorable city for Dr. Pasteur to practise his new cure of hydrophobia than the city of Con stantinople, CONSTANTINOPLE. I45 STREETS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. The streets are very narrow and zig-zag and badly paved ; many streets are without any side- walk. The projecting rocks are dangerous ob- stacles in the path. There are few streets in Con- stantinople proper which are in good condition, but the best are found in Pera, above Galata, where the population is composed chiefly of Eu- ropeans and the wealthiest of the city. It is not strange to see men, porters, vehicles, carriages, dogs, pack-horses, mules, asses, and bullock-carts jolt and rumble along together in the middle of the road. There are a few lines of street cars, which are very uncomfortable. The car is divided in the middle by a thick curtain, to prevent the men from looking upon the faces of the Turkish women. The men enter one end of the car, and the women must enter the other. The streets be- ing zig-zag, in order to prevent any danger there are men appointed by the company whose busi- ness it is to run before the street cars and give caution to the public by the horn which they blow constantly, thus adding their noise to the babel which already exists. PORTERS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. Van/a ! (Make way ! ) is one of the most popu- lar cries in Constantinople. You hear it on the land as well as on the waters of the city. It is the porter's watchword as well as the boatman's. tlfp In the Orient. I O 146 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. The porters {Jiammals) are the most busy men in the capital. Without them Constantinople could not exist. Their number is about 20,000. They do the work done by horses and strong express wagons in the cities of America. For example, if you go to Constantinople, you will be obliged first to stop at the Custom House. After giving a little bakshish (present) to the officers, you are then ready to go to a hotel or to the house of a friend. There are no boarding-houses in Turkey. You wait for an express wagon to come to move your baggage, and when it arrives you find the wagon of Constantinople is a hammal. A large hump on his back enables him to move your trunks, no matter how large or how heavy they are. If tlie burden is very heavy and beyond the power of two or three hammals to carry, there come a dozen stout hammals wearing knee-breeches, bear- ing long and strong poles, who carry hogsheads, boxes, trunks, bales, stones, and burdens of all kinds, slung in the middle of the two poles, trot- ting along through the dense crowd of the city, crying all the way the inevitable Varda ! Varda ! DERVISHES IN CONSTANTINOPLE. Among the Mohammedans there is a sect called the Dervishes. Of these some are called Whirling and some Howling Dervishes. They are found generally in large cities and are regard- ed in the same light that monks are held in Chris- tian countries. Whirling or Dancing Dervishes take their name from their peculiar religious exer- DERVISHES. CONSTANTINOPLE. I47 cises, in which they whirl themselves around a circle. The exercise is exhibited every Friday in their halls. Many persons of every nationality go to see these wonderful dervishes. The hall or place of worship is a large circular room, with an arched roof, and galleries for the spectators extend all around on the same floor. The dervishes are clothed or enveloped in plain cloaks and wear tall, drab colored hats. The pipe and tambourine call the dervishes to worship, and with their heads bowed down they walk slowly, several times, around the hall. The chief gives a signal to be- gin the service, when all the dervishes arrange themselves around the hall in their respective places, and slowly casting off their cloaks, appear in a dancing costume, that is, a plain suit of white cotton, consisting of petticoats and a kind of round- abouts, fastened at one side by a sash. Slowly and gracefully the dervishes begin to whirl. The arms are extended, the hands thrown out, the feet together, and round and round they go with sweeping petticoats, with their long beards, pale faces, and downcast eyes. There is no noise ex- cept the noise of the pipe and tambourine which regulate their dancing movements. They con- tinue this about twenty-five minutes without ces- sation, in a manner which excites your wonder at their ability to whirl so long. At last the whirl- ing is concluded. The dervishes, after bowing before their chief, slowly retire to their own places. 148 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. HOWLING DERVISHES. The exhibitions of these dervishes are very ex- citing. Their superior or chief takes his seat on one side ; soon a few come and begin their pros- trations and prayers. The number is increased to a couple of dozen, then they begin the service. At first their motion is slow, but by-and-by they begin to scream so violently that it is difficult to recognize them as human beings. The name of God- is frequently used — "Allahoo! Allakoof" They cry so wildly that their voices lose all sem- blance of human voices. Streams of sweat roll down their faces, their hands hang from their shoulders, their eyes roll, their tongues hang out while they gasp for breath, their chins fall loosely on their breasts, and all become motionless. After a few minutes of profound silence a low sobbing is heard around the hall of worship ; gradually it swells and spreads around till the whole crowd of dervishes are sobbing, and the sobs deepen into a low cry, and the low cry into a wild burst of grief. From every eye the big tears roll down, and the faces and breasts of the sobbing crowd are wet with weeping. Reader, you can imagine no human beings under the whole heavens like these poor ignorant worshippers. TURKISH BATHS. If the Western world boasts of her grand and magnificent buildings, such as those in Washing- ton, Philadelphia, and New York, Turkey also CONSTANTINOPLE. 1 49 boasts of her baths, which are well known throughout the world. Baths are some of the greatest institutions in the Turkish Empire. In the large cities may be found from twenty to fifty public baths for both sexes. Men spend a few hours, while the women spend the whole day in the baths. Preparations are made by the women to have a good repast in the bath. Men go to the bath in their ordinary dress, while the women go in their best clothes. The Exterior Bath. Baths are divided into two parts — the cold or exterior, and the warm or in- terior. The exterior part is paved with marble, ornamented with a bubbling fountain of cold water which stands in the middle of the room, and from which the customers now and then dip up water to quench their thirst. Around this room there are elevated platforms upon which lie the beds of the customers, where they disrobe them- selves before entering the interior bath. Upon entering the interior bath, a pair of wooden clogs are put on to avoid the heat of the marble pave- ment, which is too hot to be touched with bare feet. The women take their towels with them, while towels are supplied for the men in the bath. The baths which belong to the men are more fashionable and more Oriental than those of the women. There are neither beds nor private dressing-rooms in the baths belonging to the wo- men. Those gentlemen who can give a few cents bakshish can procure private dressing-rooms, but ISO LIFE IN THE ORIENT. generally the people disrobe themselves in public. In the exterior everything is calm. Here is a Christian smoking in his bed ; there in the corner is a Mohammedan praying on the carpet, a little beyond another, with a beard reaching to his mid- dle, reading the Koran, while near by is a Jew performing his toilet ; and another puts his bath money upon the small looking-glass and gives bakshish to the half-naked servants who eagerly surround him. The Interior Bath. The interior is also paved with marble. Here there are fountains attached to the walls around. The fountains furnish cold and hot water. Under these small fountains there are stone basins or caldrons about fifteen inches wide and ten inches deep. The caldrons are filled with water, and the bather sits on the mar- ble floor and washes himself, taking water in a small vessel and pouring it on him. The floor is furrowed with little channels for carrying off the water which has been used. The clouds of steam which arise from the basins hang in the atmosphere. The walls are reeking with a warm sweat. High overhead is a concave ceiling pierced with round holes, which are the only windows of the interior. Here some scrape with a razor a bald crown ; there some rub down the arms and legs of a pros- trate bather ; some of the bathers are engaged in washing themselves, pouring water from head to foot ; and some, not being able to remain in, are carried out in a half-suffocated condition. SOCIAL LIFE. 151 VIII. SOCIAL LIFE. ENGAGEMENT AND MARRIAGE. The custom of engagement and marriage is different among the nationalities in Turkey. A custom which prevails among many of the Mo- hammedans is that the young man goes to the house of the girl, and the face of the girl is un- covered. Her father is present. She offers to the gentleman coffee and waits for the empty cup. The young man drinks his coffee and returns the cup, saying, "God reward you, beautiful child." She retires without saying a word. If she is pleased with the young man she sends a ring the next day to the father. At the end of eight days the wedding takes place. The friends, neighbors, and relatives bring their gifts, according to their circumstances, and furnish the household of the couple. During the wedding feast the men oc- cupy the ground floor and the women the floor above. Another custom which is prevalent among the Mussulmans in Turkey is that as soon as the boy attains the marriageable age, not he, but his pa- rents, take care to find for him a wife. The mo- ther is more active and earnest in the matter than the father. She is the one who visits the houses of her neighbors and relatives. When she finds a 152 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. suitable one she reports the fact to the father. If they agree among themselves about her, she pays a visit to the mother of the girl and reveals her object, in the absence of the girl. After a few hours' con- versation the mother of the girl promises to talk about the proposal to her husband. If the propo- sition is favorable in the sight of the father, then the terms of the contract and dowry are arranged and the wedding day set. It may be interesting to state here that the pa- rents may betroth their daughter to whom they please, and give her in marriage without her con- sent if she be not arrived at the legal age (seven- teen years). The bridegroom can scarcely ever obtain a glance at the features of his bride until marriage, unless she belongs to the lower classes of society, in which case it is not very difficult to see her face. When a Mohammedan woman is about to marry, she should have a deputy settle the con- tract with her proposed husband. If she is under legal age this is absolutely necessary. In this case her father, if living — if he is dead, her nearest adult male relative — performs the office of deputy. The contract between her and her proposed hus- band is her best protection. When I think how meanly many of the Moslem women are treated, this contract deserves admiration. It is a dowry (money), which is promised by her proposed hus- band to be paid in case he divorces her against her consent, or in case of her husband's death. SOCIAL LIFE. 153 A very striking feature of the marriage cere- mony is that the bride does not appear in the mosque with the bridegroom. The bride is taken from her home by the relatives and friends of the bridegroom with great pomp. The procession is composed of carriages full of women, and the car- riage of the bride, which is closed all around, and of men on their horses and the musicians on foot. The bride waits in the house of the bridegroom, while the latter goes to the mosque to offer the prayer. He returns home with the procession and leaves his friends and goes to see his bride, perhaps for the first time. He returns after a few minutes to his friends, who are anxious to know whether he is satisfied with his bride or not. The bridegroom sits for a considerable time with his friends, talking and smoking with them, and his friends pat him on the shoulder for his good luck and leave him alone. Perhaps the reader will think that it is time now for the bridegroom to take his bride and go to some place to spend their honeymoon. There is no such custom in the East. The paternal roof is the only recognized place for them to spend their honeymoon. POLYGAMY AMONG MOHAMMEDANS. Polygamy is less prevalent among the Moham- medans now than formerly. The number of wives is limited to four, but the number of concubines, not being limited, is left to the pecuniary resources of the head of the family. At present many of 154 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. the Mohammedans in Turkey have but one wife, but it is also true that many of them have more than one. A Mohammedan in the East not only looks upon polygamy as right and proper, but he considers it a religious duty. He has the records and examples of Oriental patriarchs before him as well as the passage of the Koran, " Take in mar- riage of such other women as please you two or three or four, and not more." A Mussulman can keep several wives, either under the same roof of his house or at another place. A few years ago a rich Mussulman died. It is not known how many wives he used to keep, but the papers at Constan- tinople announced that he left forty children. There are exceptional cases however, in which even poor men have more than one wife. "Years ago," says Charles MacFarland, Esq., the author of " Turkey and its Destiny," " there was an old Mur- ekebji who got his living by selling Turkish ink, which he peddled about the city of Constantinople, at Scutari, Pera, Galata, Tophana, and the large villages up the Bosphorus. He would be for three or four days in one place and three or four days in another ; and although his whole circuit was lim- ited, he was always moving about. He had a wife at Constantinople proper, another over in Asia, at Scutari, one at Tophana, and still another up the Bosphorus. One day he was asked how, with such a very little trade, he could keep so many wives. The old ink-seller replied, ' Maeshallah, I am but a poor little man, but God is great ! I am always with one wife or the other. When I go home to HAM:M.M.. ^ GENKKAl- \'1EW IK CONSTANTINOPLE SOCIAL LIFE. 155 one I take my dinner and something more with me, and some paras (cents) are not wanting ; each of my other wives is at the same time sure of her lodgings, her loaf of bread, and her candle; in each of the four quarters where my wives live I have credit with a grocer, who furnishes a loaf and a candle daily. As I go my rounds I pay the grocers in turn, so that the credit is always good. Inshallah ! I shall sleep at Tophana to-night, but every one of my three wives over the water will have her loaf of bread and her candle. As they fare better when I am with them, every one of them is always glad to see me.' " There are many who suppose that Mohamme- danism is an easy and sensual religion, because it sanctions polygamy. But it may be asked, Was slavery in America thirty years ago a part of Christianity ? Are Christian Europe and America to-day less sensual than the Mohammedan world ? Saloons, theatres, prize-fighting, gambling, duels, and suicides are found not in the bosom of the Mohammedan but of the Christian world. An eminent minister of the gospel said in his stirring appeal for temperance (referring to a late prize- fight), " No pure-minded woman has been able to read the daily papers for a week without a blush of shame." But does any fair-minded man think that these indulgences are the fruit of Christian- ity ? God forbid ! We are too prone to judge Mohammedanism by our Christian standard, for- getting that Mohammed was born in Arabia, and polygamy was rooted in its soil before he was born. 156 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Says Bishop H. Southgate, who lived many years in the Orient, concerning polygamy, " He (Mohammed) undertook its reform. He raised the Arab female from her degradation. He made dis- tinct provision for her relief from the wicked pre- judices to which she had been subjected. The evils which he could not remove he suffered to remain He tolerated but he did not create them. On the contrary, in most instances he im- pliedly condemns while he allows them Hus- bands are forbidden (in the Koran) to maltreat their wives in order to compel them to take the first step towards a divorce, and they are required to cherish them with kindness." You can find a multitude of Mohammedans who will say as one of them said, " I have one wife whom I have loved many years, and I will not take another." A distinguished Christian traveller in the Ori- ent says, " How can a man who has more than one wife love very much either wife or children?" He answers, " Of course, as their interiors are screened from observation, we cannot see whether there is love or hatred within, but those who have lived among the Turks say that no people are more fond of their children." The general tendency of Mohammedans in Turkey at the present time is rather towards mo- nogamy than polygamy. ARMENIAN ENGAGEMENTS AND WEDDINGS. Among the Protestant Armenians the ceremo- ny of engagement is as follows : The friends and SOCIAL LIFE. 157 immediate relatives of both sides assemble in a room. The minister reads a portion from the Scriptures and addresses briefly the young man and woman. After the prayer of the minister the whole congregation begin to sing. The young man presents a Bible to the girl as a token of his engagement to her, and she accepts it thankfully. After this come refreshments, which are shared by all. The congregation, after heaping congrat- ulations on the heads of the immediate relatives, depart. Among the Armenians the ceremony is very simple but impressive. A little golden cross is sent from the party of the young man to the house of the girl. There a priest hangs the cross around the neck of the girl, and from that time the young man and young woman consider themselves en- gaged to each other. Afterwards the young man has liberty from time to time to send the girl jewelry or other tokens of love. The marriage ceremonies among the Arme^ nian people are more or less brilliant according to the wealth of the parties. The wedding invita- tions are sent from both parties. The marriage ceremonies begin on Friday, when the bride's friends accompany her to the public bath, where the day is spent in bathing and feasting. The bridegroom, also accompanied by his friends, goes to another bath. On Saturday evening all the in- vited guests, in their best clothes, go to the house to which they were invited. Preparations for the supper are great. All guests sit on the floor IS8 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. (if the people are ricli, on chairs) and the wedding pilaf ^.nA. other Oriental best dishes are arranged on the large, low table. During the supper the use of wine is customary, and musicians entertain the guests throughout the repast. Next day, Sun- day, the house of each party is a scene of gayety and festivity; laughing, chatting, singing, and dancing are the order of the day. The groom is shaved before the guests in a very showy manner. About nine o'clock p. m. the priest comes to the house of the bridegroom and offers prayers over some of his garments. Then he is arrayed in them, and about ten o'clock p. M. all start off for the bride. The party, with small torches in their hands, are accompanied by the priest and musi- cians. When the music is heard in the house' where the bridal party are waiting, the cry is heard in all the rooms, " Behold, the bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to meet him," Matt. 25 : 6. The party of the bridegroom is welcomed by the sprinkling of rose-water. The reception is magnificent. Cof- fee, sweetmeats, and cigarettes are offered to the party of the groom. The bride's friends having assisted her in the arrangement of the bridal gar- ments, the bridegroom enters the reception-room and kisses the hands of all guests, beginning with his father-in-law and mother-in-law. After this the priest takes the bridegroom and says to the guests in the reception-room, "Bring forth the bride!" who stands extremely bashful at the corner of the room in her bridal garment and is covered from head to foot with scarlet silk. She seems reluc- SOCIAL LIFE. 159 tant to depart from her corner to take her stand by the bridegroom. After a few minutes the priest calls out again, " Bring forth the bride !" Then the bride, accompanied by some ladies, moves for- ward. It is now time to start for the church where the marriage will take place. The bridegroom is surrounded by men, and the bride by women with torches in their hands. The musicians, accom- panying their instruments with their lamentable and heart-rending voices, go ahead. Two boys carry large torches before the bridegroom and his party, and after him comes the bride with her party. The church is brilliantly illuminated. The bride and groom enter the church and kneel down side by side, and after a short prayer they go for- ward to the altar. The ceremony lasts more than an hour, and is performed in the old Armenian language, which, alas, is unintelligible either to the bride or to the groom. Then their heads come in contact and are tied together with a string, sho^^ang the unity of the couple. After the mar- riage ceremony most of the guests retire to their homes. The bride follows her groom. The mu- sicians precede them, accompanying their instru- ments ^^-ith their monotonous voices, and in a few minutes the bride is in her hew home. THE BRIDE AT HER NEW HOME. She is very bashful. She does not smile and talk as brides in America do. She is obliged to stand all the time. She sits down only at the command of her mother-in-law; she is obliged l6o LIFE IN THE ORIENT. to kiss the hands of the guests, of the groom, of her father-in-law and mother-in-law, even the hands of the children. The dancing of the groom with his bride is an inevitable custom. The guests form a circle, the bride and groom taking a part with them; then they begin to dance in a circle. During the dancing the bridegroom scatters small coins around the room, and the children pick them up as quickly as they can. There is no sleep that night. On Monday and the following days during the week congratulatory visits are made to the bridal couple. In some places the veil of the bride covers her face for several days, and often the bride- groom does not see the face of his bride for some days after the marriage. The last ceremony is ended on Saturday night of that week, when the bridegroom with his bride, accompanied by his friends and some of his rela- tives, goes to the house of his father-in-law and mother-in-law and kisses their hands. THE CUSTOM OF DOWRY. The custom of dowry differs in different sec- tions of the country, so that, instead of the bride and her party giving the dowry, it is given by the bridegroom or his party to his bride before his marriage. Gen. 24:53. A few years ago two Armenian girls were mar- ried in the interior. The father of one of the girls was debtor to a priest about $30. The priest de- manded the money. The man, unable to pay, said SOCIAL LIFE. l6l to the priest, " I have no money ; let me give my daughter to your son, and let us call the debt can- celled." The priest accepted the proposition and said to the man, " We have seen your daughter ; bring her and let me marry her to my son." The man brought his daughter. The priest began to make preparation for the marriage of his son, per- fectly satisfied that the dowry matter was settled. But the father of the girl said to the priest, " I want $25 dowry; then I will give my daughter to your son." The priest, not having the money, said to the man, " I have no ready money ; after the marriage I will give it to you." " No," said the man, " I do not give my daughter on credit." The priest finally found the money demanded and gave it to the girl's father and married her to his son. The other case is as follows : A young man came to a village to be married to a girl to whom he was engaged, but he was unable to pay all the money (dowry), which was about $12, to the father of the girl. The young man was unable to borrow the money in the village, and if he had gone to bring money from his village the time of marriage would have passed, it being the last week of the Carnival. (Armenians do not marry during the Fast weeks.) The young man finally secured an ox from one of his friends and gave it as a pledge to the girl's father, provided that he should bring the money after his marriage. The girl's father consented to this and gave his daughter to him in marriage. When the bride and groom left the Life In the Orient. I I 1 62, LIFE IN THE ORIENT. church the father of the bride took his daughter and son-in-law to his house and said to him, " Now you are married; go, then, bring the $12 and take my daughter." The young man said, " Did I not leave with you an ox as a pledge ? Wait ; let me take my wife home and return your money." " No," said the father-in-law, " I have kept the ox as a pledge until now, but hereafter I will keep my daughter as a pledge, until you bring my money." The poor bridegroom was obliged to leave his bride and return to his village, where he finally succeeded in borrowing the money and returned in three weeks to redeem his pledge ! BRIDAL SLAVES. One of my friends, a pastor not far from Con- stantinople, recently wrote an article in the "Aved- aper " concerning the position of the girls after they become brides. He says, " There are women in the village who have brought up children unto adult age who do not speak with their brother- in-law. Why? Because they are under com- mand. At the command of their commander their tongues are loosed. A girl may be free and hon- orable in her father's home, but when she becomes a bride she is no longer free ; she is a new servant of the house, and obliged to do promptly what she is commanded to do. She becomes the humble servant of all who are in the house. At nights, when she is sleepy, she cannot retire. She is obliged to wait till she puts to bed her father-in- law and mother-in-law and the other members of SOCIAL LIFE. 163 the house. She takes off their clothes, kisses their hands (which is to say good-night), and then she may retire, provided that she will get up earlier than any member of the family ; then she is obliged to put on their clothes, to pour water on their hands, and hand them the towels. The bride is obliged to do all these in such a slavish manner that it cannot be equalled even among the African people. Africans are sold, but their tongues are free, they can talk ; but the tongues of these bridal slaves are sold. They are obliged to make known their wants by signs." FASTS AND FESTIVALS. The three great Oriental religions, viz., Juda- ism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism have their own great national fasts and festivals. The Jews have their Purim and Pesak, Christians their Christmas and Easter, Mohammedans their Bay- ram and Ramazan, and Persians their Nev-Rooz. Besides the great festivals, the Mohammedans keep Friday, Jews Saturday, and Christians Sun- day. As the ruling party are Mohammedans, their fasts and festivals surpass those of other nations and are celebrated in a more pompous manner. Bayram, the Mohammedan festival, is preceded by Ramazan, the month of fasting. Fasting is ob- served in the daytime, that is, from four A. M. to six p. M. Before the day of Ramazan, after the noon prayer, seven cannons announce that all believers are to prepare for the fast which begins next 1 64 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. morning at daybreak. The fast is obligatory. The law prohibits eating, drinking, and smoking. The daily fast is broken at sunset, and a cannon announces its end every day during the month of Ramazan. After taking a good supper the people go to the mosques to pray, and after that they go to the coffee-houses to smoke and take their coffee. In those places where the majority of the popu- lation consists of Mohammedans, little work is done during Ramazan. The market-places are deserted, and nothing is done in the Government except during a -few hours of the night. Trav- elling is also dull. There is difficulty in finding muleteers, and even if they consent, they are very cross and move very slowly. During the day the market-places and streets are deserted, but at night they are densely crowded with people of both sexes. The story-tellers have their audiences of hundreds, the mosques show a blaze of light through their windows, the minarets are illumi- nated until midnight, when people begin to retire. After a few hours a cannon awakes the believers to take their breakfast, and about four o'clock A. m. a second cannon announces the moment after which no one may eat or drink. It is true that for the rich Moslems to fast during the long days of Ramazan is not difficult, since they can eat heartily during the night and sleep all the day, so as to change the night into day and the day into night. But for the poor class Ramazan has an entirely different meaning. They are obliged to labor for their daily bread in the scorching sun, SOCIAL LIFE. 165 ■without even a cup of fresh water, during the long hours of summer, an abnegation which hardly can be seen in any other religious creed. The month of fasting (Ramazan) begins with the new moon and lasts till the second new moon. It being the month of fasting, more attention is given to the calendar than during any other month of the year. The sooner the new moon arrives, the greater is the joy of the fasters. The proclamation by the seven cannons is a relief to the fasters. The new moon has appeared. Ramazan is over, and the three days of Bayram begin next day. During Bayram everybody visits everybody. The believers salute each other at home, as well as in the markets and coffee-houses, by embracing each other and saying, " May you be in peace all the year !" The servants kiss the hands of their masters, the children those of their parents. Everybody wears new clothes. The inarkets and bazaars are again crowded. Music pervades the street and is played at the doors of the houses, and rewarded with bakshish. The officers of the Gov- ernment wear their best clothes and the soldiers their new uniforms. Turkish flags are seen on every hand. After the public prayer of the sultan he gives a reception to the royal princes, ministers, and other high officers of the Government and to the representatives of various nationalities, to the ambassadors and ministers of different Govern ments who reside in the capital. All these, attired elegantly in their official apparel, go to the palace and congratulate the sultan. 1 66 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. DRESSES AND ORNAMENTS. The dress of Oriental people is far from being uniform. Each nation tries to show its nationality in its costume. The red fez (cap), with a black silky fringe behind it, is the inevitable sign of the Turkish men. The more the people come in contact with the Europeans in the Levant, the more the natives drop their national costume and follow European styles. During the past twenty years there has been a great change in this respect. When I was a little boy there were many Armenian ladies who used the feridje and the yashmak (the feridje is a large over-wrap, and the yashmak is a head cover- ing) to cover themselves from head to foot. At the present time there is not an Armenian lady in Adrianople who uses these. Armenians have ex- changed the large black cap for the red fez. Many Turks have abandoned their turbans and pharisaic flowing garment, and have adopted the European coat. Many Turkish ladies have left their yellow morocco slippers and adopted boots or shoes. Within twenty or thirty years it will be very diffi- cult to find a man in his old Oriental costume in the large cities of the Levant. But there is a class of people for whom any re- form is impossible. That class is Mohammedan ladies ; they cannot abandon their eternal feridje and yashmak. They can change their thick cotton yashmak into fine silky muslin, or the sacred green color of the feridje into the polite black one, but A MOSLKM BELLH OK CONSTANTINOPLE. SOCIAL LIFE. 167 they are not, and will not be able to put them aside entirely. The influence of modern civilization cannot affect their old costume. They will not be able to wear the beautiful hat of European ladies. They are under the obligation of sacred law not to show their beauty to any man save their hus- bands ! If one attempts to do so, her husband will divorce her immediately. It is not easy to form an idea of the beauty of Turkish ladies. They may be regarded as the prototype of female beauty, but under their veils and unenviable dresses their glowing complex- ions, immense black eyes, well turned chins, per- fect outline of face, slender waist, and straight fig- ure are deformed. Necklaces, bracelets, ear-rings and finger-rings, and all kinds of jewelry are used by Oriental wo- men. There are women in Asiatic Turkey who adorn their heads with small gold coins, and hang them about their necks also. HOUSES. For the most part the houses are very poor in timber, and are far from being comfortable and commodious. The houses of the poor classes are o-enerally built of dried clay bricks, which are not at all durable. The sun-dried bricks are nothing more than masses of mud intermixed with straw, pressed by hand into a wooden mould and then left to dry in the sun. Burnt bricks are unknown in many places. The better class of houses are l68 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. built of wood, and the best kind of houses, courts, or palaces are built of stone or marble. City buildings of the better class are two sto- ries high. Oriental houses have no front-yards like American houses, but they have a roofless space in the centre of the house containing frequently a flower garden. The children play in this yard, and it is used for washing and bleaching pur- poses. Haremlik and Selamlik. The houses of Moham- medans have two departments, haremlik and selamlik. The first is for women, and the second part is alloted to the men. The selamlik is an apartment where the master of the house re- ceives his friends. During that time none of his female domestics or wives are allowed to appear, but only male servants. The haremlik is gener- ally a long room communicating with some others, and is the ordinary living apartment of the wo- men and female domestics. In this room nearly all the household operations, such as sewing, spin- ning, and weaving, etc., are performed, and be- cause there is no particular dining-room they take their meals in this room. Around this room is a range of closets a couple of feet above the ground which contain domestic utensils, clothes, dishes, cups, and other articles appertaining to a household. Ladies here spend their time in singing, dan. cing and smoking ; but at the appearance of the efendi (master) all immediately keep silence. One of his wives draws off his boots, another puts on SOCIAL LIFE. 169 his slippers ; one of his concubines brings him his home clothes, and another offers him coffee and a pipe. Many in this country ask me, " Do the Moslem ladies get out of the harem?" I reply that they have perfect liberty to leave their houses and go wherever they please. You can meet in the streets more Moslem than Christian women. It is cus- tomary to see hundreds of Turkish women, veiled in their white laces, walking on the beach of the Bosphorus, chatting, laughing, and smoking, a lib- erty which is not common among the Christian women. The yashmak is the woman's protection against the jealousy of her husband and the insult of others. Parlor. If the house has a gallery, the par- lor must be there. The parlor or guest cham- ber is a square room with -sofas which run around the sides of the room, with cushions leaning against the wall and rising to the sill of the windows, so that as you lean on them you command the view all around. Chairs and tables are not inevitable articles of a genuine Oriental parlor, but a large looking-glass hanging on the wall is necessary. The windows are many and very small, and these ought to be in pairs, one on each side. The parlors of the rich are very lavishly ornamented with Turkish and Persian carpets, both on, the iioor and sofas. An Oriental gentleman cannot express higher respect for his guest or friend than to give him his -parlor for a sleeping-room. I70 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. House-cleaning. House-cleaning is entirely dif- ferent from the custom in America. The opera- tion of house-cleaning is performed by deluging the floor with water, and then the cleaners step on a brush or rag and move it forward and backward with their feet. In many places the house-clean- ing, like that above described, is necessary every Saturday. The reason of such frequent cleaning is that the rooms are not matted or carpeted dur- ing the summer, therefore they are liable to be- come dirty. How the Houses are Heated. Wood and char- coal are the heating materials in Turkey. Coal is never used. In many places stoves are put in the rooms and wood is burned in them. But generally the houses or rooms are heated by charcoal. The charcoal is put into a fire-pan, then a little piece of fire is dropped into it, the pan is taken to the door and the fire fanned into a flame; it is then brought in and placed in the centre of the room. In Asiatic Turkey the people use a tandour during the winter. This is a table about three to five feet square, under which they put a brass or earthen mangal, or fire-pan, filled with charcoal. A thick cover of cloth is laid over the table, reach- ing down to the floor. The people sit around the table, lifting up the cloth upon their laps and put- ting their feet under the table, while their backs and shoulders take care of themselves ! In some places, where charcoal and wood are scarce, the women during the summer gather horse-dung and cow-dung, dry it in the sun, and keep it for winter fuel. ORIENTAL SUPPER. SOCIAL LIFE. 171 Eating. A strictly Oriental family follows the patriarchal example and custom in eating and drinking.* Mohammedans in this respect sur- pass all other nations. The food, bread, etc., is arranged on a large copper or a round board table, set upon a wooden or iron support about two feet above the ground. This is usually covered with a coarse cloth. The family surround the table, sit- ting cross-legged. Each member of the family is provided with a napkin which is a couple of yards long. There is a wooden spoon for each person ; if the family is rich, a metal or silver spoon is used. Mohammedans do not generally use either forks or knives at the table ; the fingers do their work instead. If a chicken is placed upon the table it is sev- ered with the hands, first the legs, then the wings being parted froin the body. The meal is ar- ranged on a large tray and is placed in the centre of the table. A large cup of water is also placed on the table, all persons drinking from the same cup. The salt and pepper are taken out of the same dish with the fingers. At the end of the re- past the ewer is passed around, each member of the family washing his hands and drying them on the linen. After this come coffee and cigar- ettes. The table of a noted person is extravagantly furnished. Soup comes first, and then various * In Constantinople and other prominent cities there are a good many people who use high tables, chairs, forks and knives, etc, during the eating. 172 LIFE lisr The orient. kinds of vegetables cooked with mutton or goat. Balls of pounded mutton or rice seasoned with parsley, onions, black pepper, and salt, and en- veloped in fresh vine leaves, come next. The pilaf is an essential article of an Oriental table. Then come pastries of different kinds, and if it is summer, all kinds of fruits. Thus the Oriental table of a grandee is able to satisfy the most greedy eye and the most vigorous appetite. VISITING. Visiting is usually done on festival days, at the birth of a child, after marriage, after the death of a friend or a relative, and after the arrival of friends and neighbors. Generally only people of the same nationality visit each other. It is ex- ceptional to see Greek visitors in an Armenian home or Armenian visitors in a Mohammedan home. Visiting is regarded as one of the most important features of social life. Oriental people are very fond of it. In America people may be neighbors for years without paying a visit to one another. In Turkey this is not so. The neighbors visit each other often. It is not an exceptional thing for a family to carry their supper and eat it with their neighbors. Visiting among the Christian population is en- tirely different from that which prevails among the Mohammedans. When Christian families visit each other they sit together in the same room. Then the children and young folks come and kiss the hands of all the guests. The ladies generally SOCIAL LIFE. 173 do not sit by their husbands. The men and wo- men form separate groups or circles. The men talk among themselves, and the women among themselves, though the ladies and gentlemen occasionally talk with each other from corner to corner. But the visiting of Mohammedan people differs in this respect, that the men and women do not sit in the same room. If a man enters a Mo- hammedan home, the women and girls fly one to this and another to that room ; one catches up a veil, another covers herself with her cloak. The winter is regarded as the best season for evening visiting. Visits are usually long. Gen- erally the guests sit till long after midnight with- out regard to circumstances ; e. g., perhaps the children cry and the boys and little girls go to sleep in one corner of the room, but nobody takes them into consideration. The first duty of the master of the house is to open the street-door and welcome his guests with various gestures and salutations. The guests take off their shoes and enter the parlor. After a while cigarettes are offered to both sexes. (The offering of cigarettes does not prevail in the inte- rior of the country.) During the day no one calls but ladies. If the ladies are older than their hostess, she kisses their hands ; if younger, they kiss her hand^ But if the ladies are of equal rank, they are satisfied with putting their hands on their lips and then on their foreheads. After this first ceremony the hostess takes off the shawls of the ladies and puts them in 174 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. another room, and frequently after a few moments she will leave them without excusing herself, and run down stairs to arrange the shoes in pairs, that the guests may have no difficulty in finding them upon their departure. After the arrangement of the shoes she returns to the parlor, and if she has any servants or daughters, she orders them to bring coffee and sweetmeats ; if she has neither of these, she leaves her guests again and engages herself in boiling the coffee and arranging the sweetmeats, which consumes considerable time. If the guests are very familiar, she boils the coffee before them and prepares it in the following way : First she puts water in the coffee-pot, and allows the water to boil, then she puts in the sugar ; the water and sugar are allowed to boil a short time, when she adds the coffee ; if she has milk, she pours it into the pot ; then the water, sugar, coffee, and milk are allowed to boil a while. She then puts the prepared coffee in small cups which are placed in metal or silver holders, arranges them on the waiter, presents them to her guests, and retires to the end of the room, where she stands with her hands crossed watching the cups she has presented and has to carry away. It is customary upon the departure of the guests for them to ask their host, " May we take our leave ?" " Will you excuse us, please ?" If they are of equal or of higher rank than the host, he accompanies them to the door while his wife goes before and opens the door for their depar- ture. But if the guests are beneath him in rank, SOCIAL LIFE. 175 he follows them to the door, taking care to keep a few steps behind. The guests then say with a profound salam (salutation), " May God keep you ! May the Lord reward you !" The host replies very politely, " With good fortune, with health." This closes the ceremony of visiting. HOSPITALITY. Modern civilization has destroyed hospitality and organized asylums and hospitals for aged and sick persons. Oriental people, being behind mod- ern civilization, retain many patriarchal customs and manners. One of them is hospitality. The Mohammedans especially surpass all nations in this respect. During their travels many European people find in the East a warm hospitality. What would those Mohammedans think, who are always ready to open their doors to all strangers,, if they should come to America and be required to put up at a hotel and pay their board ! In the villages there are some men who are called Oda-Bashi (Chief of Room), whose duty or business it is to entertain the travellers without regard to their nationality or religion. The room where the guests are entertained is without chairs or tables, as are many Oriental houses. The Oda-Bashi tries to entertain his guests so as to satisfy them. He prepares a good Oriental supper. He himself lives on bread, salt, and veg- etables, but he keeps eggs, chickens, and butter and brings them before his guests. After the evening repast the village men, according to their 176 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. custom, come to the Oda-BashVs room and sur. round the guests and express great desire to hear news from them concerning their country, Govern- ment, customs, and manners. If the traveller is from Europe or America, his dragoman, if he has one, interprets all the words which proceed from the lips of his master, while the people listen to them with great satisfaction and admiration ; not infrequently, however, they show their displeasure. The peasants often relate their complaints to the stranger. One complains how he was badly cheated by the tax-gatherers, another tells his story, and still another his, till the time of de- parture arrives. The Oda-Bashi spreads a soft bed on the floor and bids good-night to his guest. The village cocks, at their first crowing, arouse the traveller early in the morning, and he takes his breakfast. At his departure the traveller puts a small bakshish in the hand of the Oda-Bashi, who receives it thankfully. If the stranger is poor and unable to give bakshish, it will not be asked. In- deed, no poverty can affect the gentlemanly de- meanor of the Oda-Bashi. If the stranger is with- out escort, the Oda-Bashi furnishes him a guide who conducts him until he puts the stranger fairly under way, when the guide receives his bakshish and returns. EDUCATION. Education is not compulsory. It is not yet re- garded as very essential to the public well-being. Tbgre aj-f no public schools. The Government SOCIAL LIFE. 177 does not give help to non-Mohammedan schools. Each nation has its own, which are called national schools. Armenian children attend the Arme- nian, and Greek children the Greek schools. The schools of all nationalities are in a better condition now than they were twenty years ago, and there are more readers and writers than before. There is no university in Turkey, and but few colleges, academies, or high schools. The best educational institutions are in Constantinople. The Greeks spend more money for educational purposes than any other nation in Turkey. The Armenian popu- lation in Constantinople is not less than 200,000. They have fifty-one schools for both sexes (some of them are equal to the high schools of America), with 6,000 pupils. The annual expenses of these schools are about $50,000. While the great cities and towns are provided with national schools, many villages and small towns are deprived of this privilege. If there are some schools in the small towns they are in a very miserable condition. The village people are generally poor and are not able to assist in the education of their children. Many children in these places do not attend school, having no lesson books and being unable to pay a few cents weekly for their education. To illustrate : A few years ago a gentleman met an Armenian boy in a small town in Asiatic Turkey. The following conversa- tion took place between them : Gentleman. — My boy, why do you not go to the school ? ;.ire in tlio Orient. I 2 178 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Boy. — I have no lesson books, sir. G. — Why does not your father buy lesson books for you ? B. — Father has no money ; if he has, he is obliged to give it to the tax-gatherer. G. — Well, let him give part of his money to the tax-gatherer, and with part buy lesson books for you. G.— But the tax-gatherer wont allow father to do so. If the tax-gatherer knew that father had money he would fasten him to a column and beat him. How mean are the privileges and opportuni- ties of Oriental boys, and how grand are the priv- ileges of American children ! Let the American children give a thousand thanks to God for living in such a great country, which is full of grand opportunities. In Constantinople there are Armenian societies of both sexes whose purpose it is to educate the poor children. Under the auspices of these soci- eties there are forty schools, 140 teachers, and 2,500 pupils. All these schools are in Asiatic Turkey. THE CEREMONY OF A TURKISH BOY'S RECEPTION AT SCHOOL. When a Mohammedan boy reaches his seventh year, his first day at school is celebrated with cer- emonies. The new pupil sits sometimes on a pony and sometimes on a donkey caparisoned for the occasion, and is met at his father's home by all SOCIAL LIFE. 179 the school, dressed in holiday clothes. The priest makes a short prayer, the child is placed on the donkey, and the pupils, boys and girls, are formed in a double line. The procession moves towards the schoolhouse, the children singing hymns loudly as they go. Another such ostentatious ceremony and pro- cession is made when the pupil graduates from the school. A Mohammedan primary school is composed of one or two large rooms, the boys and the girls being educated together. There are no benches in many of the schools, so the pupils sit cross-leg- ged, holding their books on their knees, and reci- ting all at the same time in a lotid and shrill voice. When the pupils are able to read a little they are taught grammar and the four rules of arithmetic. Then they take up writing, and as there are no writing tables or desks, the pupil holds his copy book in his left hand and writes from right to left, not moving his hand, but the paper from left to right. A TURKISH LADY AT THE FEET OF A KIATIB. There is great enthusiasm now for the edu- cation of g^rls as compared with former years, yet the education of girls is regarded as subordi- nate to that given to the boys. There are not a few who regard the education of girls as unneces- sary. This view is especially general among the Mohammedan people. There are many Christian ladies who can read and write, while among the l8o LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Mohammedan ladies there are but few. If one re- ceives a letter from her husband, she is obliged to go from door to door, or to a kiatib (scribe), and hand him the letter and ask him to read it. If she desires to reply to the letter she sits on the mat at the feet of the kiatib and tells him what she wishes to say. iThe kiatib writes the words as they fall from her lips. It is not strange to see, here and there, a Christian female teacher ; while among the Mohammedans a female teacher can hardly be found. In America a lady can buy a newspaper and read it before thousands without shame. It is not so in Turkey. I have never seen a lady. Christian or Mohammedan, buy a paper and read it. Noth- ing can be stranger than the sight of an Oriental lady reading a newspaper. VINTAGE AND WINE-PRESS IN EUROPEAN TURKEY. Adrianople is one of the most celebrated cities in European Turkey for its vineyards. The wine of Adrianople, which is made of grapes, is very ex- cellent. The people are very much interested in the cultivation of the vine. The vineyards are at a considerable distance from the city. The custom at vintage is a very interesting one. I remember how glad and happy I was in my younger years at the vintage-lime. Before the day of vintage many relatives and young girls are invited by the master of the vineyard ; and if the vineyard is a large one, men and women are hired to collect the grapes. The best dinner of A MOSLEJI KIATIB (SCRIBe). ■ SOCIAL LIFE. l8l the people of European Turkey is prepared and spread on the soil of the vineyard. The people, after spending half a day in collecting the grapes, and feeling exhausted and hungry, sit on the ground cross-legged and take their dinner with great pleasure and satisfaction, which can only be appreciated on the day of vintage. Each person is provided with a knife and little basket. The grapes are cut off by the collectors, who sing mer- rily and chat with each other diiring their work. There are large baskets near the collectors into which the little baskets are poured, and strong men carry these large baskets on their backs to large barrels which hold three thousand pints of grapes, and which are on the wagons outside the vineyard, where others meet them to take the bas- kets and pour the grapes into the barrel, which af- terward is used as the wine-press. A person who is called the wine-press-man, with his bare feet and legs descends into the barrel, where he jumps up and down and crashes the grapes and prepares a place for more grapes, which will come by-and-by on the backs of the strong basket-carriers. The season of vintage is during September and October, the most joyous and happy months of the people, when they sit under the shadowy leaves of their fruitful vines. At sunset vintage is over, and men, women, and children return home fatigued. The barrel full of grapes is carried on a wagon drawn by strong buffaloes. The juice of the grapes is used for two pur- 1 82 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. poses, viz., for making J>ekmez and various kinds of preserves and wines. Pekmez is Oriental molasses. As soon as the barrel reaches home the juice of the grapes is squeezed out and taken to be boiled in large copper caldrons, until the juice becomes so thick as to preserve it during the whole year. Then the caldron is taken down, and its contents left to cool and then put in earthen jars. The way of preparing wine is as follows: after the barrel reaches home, a man with bare feet and legs descends into it and treads on the grapes, and filling a bucket from the barrel, hands it to a man who carries it to another barrel, where it is emptied. This is repeated till all the grapes are removed to the second barrel. Each day for a month a man with bare feet descends into the barrel, where he jumps up and down until all the grapes break or burst with explosive noise, and the man goes out bespattered from head to foot with the blood-red juice. There are passages in the Scripture which are more easily understood by Orientals than by Western people. The following is a good exam- ple: "Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments like unto him that treadeth in the wine-fat ? I have trodden the wine-press alone, and of the people there was no man with me. Yea, I trod them in my anger and trampled them in my fury ; lo, and their life-blood is sprinkled upon my garments and I have stained all my raiment." Isa. 63 : 2, 3 (New Version). After the grapes are pressed as above de- SOCIAL LIFE. 183 scribed, the juice is ready to be transferred to another barrel. There it is kept till the process of fermentation is completed, when it is ready for use. SALOONS. I am frequently asked about the saloons and the kinds of liquors used in Turkey. There are two kinds of saloons, native and foreign. The native saloons sell native drinks ; the foreign sa- loons generally sell foreign liquors. Native drinks are chiefly of two kinds, sharab and raki — wine and alcohol. Wine (one quart of which costs about five cents) is made from excellent pressed grapes, and is very pure and without mixture. To drink wine mixed with water is customary in Turkey. Alcohol is very intoxicating and is full of the spirit of Satan. Fortunately there are not many who use raki, which is very dangerous to health. The liquors sold in the European saloons are more dangerous than those of the natives. Usu- ally the natives go to the native saloons and for- eigners to the European saloons. The most of the native saloon-keepers in Constantinople and Adrianople are Greeks and Armenians. In the interior parts of the country there are few saloons. In Marsovan, with 20,000 population and fifty miles from the Black Sea, there are no saloons. This is the case with many large and small towns in the interior. I do not wish to say that in those cities there is no wine and alcohol used. You can find these articles in almost every city and town. In Marsovan and elsewhere vineyards are culti 1 84 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. vated by tlie people and wine and alcohol are- made and used by them during the whole year. Saloons are licensed by the Government upon the payment of from ten to twenty dollars. If we compare America with Turkey we shall find that the latter is more temperate than the former. Mohammedans are generally regarded as the Prohibitionists of the Orient. It is unques- tionably true, as Dr. Long, of Robert College in Constantinople, says, that among the victims of the demon of drink are to be found some mechan- ics and porters, some day-laborers, some lawyers, judges, doctors, and scribes, and fast young men by the score, all claiming to be good Moslems. But it may be asked. Where do they obtain liquor, and who makes them drunk? for there is not a single Moslem saloon-keeper in Turkey. They become drunkards at the saloons of so-called Christian people. When several years ago the sultan ordered that all the European saloons in the capital should be closed, the protest against it arose from the representatives of Christian Eu- rope ! There may be found more saloons in New York State and more money spent for intoxicating drinks than in all the Turkish Empire. You may see more drunkards in the streets of the Empire city than in the streets of the Turkish capital. A man in America can open a saloon just near a church, while in Turkey the saloons must be removed at least two hundred yards from a Ma hammedan temple or a cemetery. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 1 85 IX. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. CONTRARIETIES. There are many customs in the Orient wliicli are the reverse of those in America. The follow- ing serve to illustrate what is meant : In America a refusal is expressed by shaking the head; in Turkey by throwing it backwards. With many Mohammedans the shaving of the crown of the head is generally adopted as a useful custom, while with American people it is done only as a punishment. In Turkey there cannot be a more shameful punishment to a man than to shave his beard or moustache, while in America it is not regarded so. The Oriental people are very proud of their moustaches ; in America it is not strange to see a man to-day with a big moustache and to- morrow without any. In America the people un- cover their heads and take off their gloves before a superior, and walk into his presence with their best shoes upon their feet ; while in Turkey the common people take off their shoes, cover their hands, and put on their turbans or caps. In Amer- ica women bare their necks and arms, while in Turkey the men do it. In America the shepherd drives his sheep, in Turkey he leads them. In America ladies sometimes paint their cheeks; Turkish ladies paint their nails. In Turkey many 1 86 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. ladies wear trousers and many gentlemen petti coats; but in America such an exchange of gar- ments would be considered a moral outrage. American gentlemen wait upon the ladies and offer their places to them, while Oriental ladies on the contrary wait upon the gentlemen and offer their places to them. The American people lie in bed with their feet well tucked up and their heads bare ; the Oriental people cannot sleep un- less their heads are covered, while their bare feet stick out at the other end. The American people sleep on bedsteads, which are very comfortable indeed, while the majority of the Oriental people do not use bedsteads. The lady of the house spreads a very soft bed on the floor immediately before retiring, and the folks go to sleep without hesitancy and have no fears about rolling out of bed. In the morning she wraps the bed up and puts it in the comer of the room or in its proper place ; and so on every morning and evening. It is the custom with many to carry their beds when travelling. In America after the marriage of a couple, they generally leave the house of their fathers and live by themselves ; in Turkey, gen- erally, they live under the paternal roof. It is not unusual to see several generations in one family living under the same roof. In America the time is regulated by the sun, that is, the people call it twelve o'clock A. M. when the sun is in the ze- nith ; in Turkey it is twelve o'clock at sunset. In Turkey a man saws by drawing the saw towards him, while in America the heavy stroke is made MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 1 87 by shoving the saw from him. In America people beckon to a person to come to them by drawing their hands towards themselves; in Turkey by waving their hands from them. In America the gentlemen have many pockets in their clothes for their pocket-books, watches, etc.; in Turkey many people, instead of having pockets in different parts of their clothes, have a very large girdle around their body in which they put their watches, knives, pistols, handkerchiefs, pocket-books, tobacco, and pipes. In America a girl after her marriage is called after the name of her husband ; in Turkey she keeps her former name and is called after her father. In America a gentleman and his wife go arm in arm or side by side ; in Turkey this would be considered shameful. The wife is obliged to follow her husband at a respectful distance. TAKING OFF THE SHOES. Moses, the prophet, when he saw the burning bush in which Jehovah appeared to him, was directed to take off his shoes from his feet, be- cause the ground on which he stood was holy. This mark of respect was regarded in those times as due to a superior, as the custom of removing the hat is in America. Oriental people very sel- dom enter the sacred places without taking off their shoes. Gentlemen who come from Europe and America to Constantinople, when they visit the great mosque, St. Sophia, are obliged to take off their shoes and put on their slippers, if they have them with them ; if they do not have them 1 88 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. they are supplied witli slippers by the janitor of the mosque. The Oriental people often say, " What strange people these Europeans are! Instead of taking off their shoes they remove their hats !" PROVERBS. Proverbs are' usually considered as the con- densed wisdom of a nation. The following may serve as specimens prevailing among the Turkish people : The heart is a child, it hopes for what it wishes. A little stone can upset a large cart. A foolish friend does more harm than a wise enemy. Eat and drink with your friend, but transact no business with him. A man deceives another but once. The horn of the goat is not heavy for him. You cannot carry two melons under one arm. Who gives to the poor gives to God. All that you give you will carry with you. An egg to-day is better than a hen to-morrow. Do good and throw it into the sea ; if the fishes do not know it, God will. He who fears God does not fear man. The fruitful tree is stoned by everybody. He who thinks that he knows everything is often mistaken. The candle does not give light to its bottom. He who weeps for everybody soon loses his own sight. X H < Z a u MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. l8g A good neighbor is better than a relative. Death is a black camel which kneels at every door. He who rides a borrowed horse or donkey does not ride often. The tongue has no bones ; it speaks whatever it listeth. SALUTATION. The Oriental salutation corresponds to the general character of the people. While in Amer- ica salutation is quick, in the East it is slow. The Moslems incline their heads almost to the ground and touch the lips and forehead with their right hand. To kiss the hem of the garment and put it upon their forehead is not a strange sight among the people. If a pasha or a learned and very rich person passes through the streets on foot or on horseback, most of the shopmen rise and pay their respects to him. THE MANNER OF ADVERTISING. If a man desires to sell his property, instead of going to a newspaper office, he finds a dellal (auctioneer) and describes to him minutely what kind of property it is he has to sell and also tells him its lowest price. Next day the auctioneer stands in one of the most popular places of the city and begins to cry in his deep, sonorous voice describing the property. Then he leaves that place and goes two or three squares away, where he repeats the same thing. He keeps shifting igo LIFE IN THE ORIENT. from street to street describing the property, till he arouses the attention not only of the business men in the market, but also that of women and children at home. If a man desires to purchase the property he calls the auctioneer and makes him a bid. The auctioneer continues his monoto- nous shouting for weeks and months, repeating the bids and receiving new ones from time to time, until he is satisfied with an ofifer made and effects a sale of the property. SUPERSTITIONS OF TURKISH PEOPLE. Perhaps no nation exists in the world but that has its own superstitions. But as soon as civiliza- tion is established in a country the superstitions of the people begin to vanish. I cannot forget my first impression when I saw a man on Market Street in Philadelphia, Pa., with a cage full of birds which used to pick up one of the papers in the case to foretell the future destiny of those who were willing to drop five cents in the box of its master. I said to myself, "Is it possible to see in America, one of the most civilized countries in the world, men and women so superstitious as to seek to know their destiny from a bird?" The Turkish people being behind in civiliza- tion, they consequently have many superstitions. When the people see that the rain does not come in season, instead of planting trees and un- dertaking other means which are necessary to bring about a moist atmosphere, all nationalities of the city with great religious demonstrations and MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. I9I processions, go out to a high place and pray, each according to their special religious manner. To pray to God for rain or other temporal blessings is not superstition ; but to disregard all necessary human means and rely only upon God for rain is presumptuous. There is a very curious superstition in Marso- van, Asia Minor. The Turks dress a donkey in bridal robes, tying its ears together and setting a fine headdress on them, throw a nice lady's veil over these, and hang long chains of gold coin, such as rich ladies wear, about its neck. Then they parade the donkey, dressed in this way, through the streets, calling out, "Can a donkey be a bride ? Can the earth get on without rain ?' ' As if to say, " We have done a foolish thing, but how much more foolish, O God, if you leave the earth without rain." If a little boy or a little girl is very beautiful, no woman may praise its beauty, saying, " What a fine -looking boy! What a fine -looking girl!" If a lady desires to praise the beauty of the child, she must first spit upon it slightly several times, and say, " Oh, what an ugly-looking boy !" The idea being that if she should praise the child's beauty without doing this, calamities and mis- fortunes would overtake it. In some places at the birth of a child it is necessary for a sister, a friend, or servant, to re- main several days with the mother. If the at- tendant is obliged to leave her alone for a few minutes, she puts a broom in the corner of the 1 92 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. room for her company. The mothers hang blue glasses over the caps of their new-born children, the architects puts garlics on the top of new buildings against the evil eye. Turkish women go to dervishes and scribes to procure spells against the jealousy of their- husbands, and the soldiers bear a talisman for their protection dur- ing war. BAPTIZING OF THE CROSS. " The Baptizing of the Cross " on the day of Epiphany is a religious superstition prevailing among the Greek population in Turkey. The ceremony is performed at the places where there is plenty of water, viz., at a river or sea-shore. When I was at the Dardanelles, being in the market one morning, I saw a great crowd running towards the sea-shore. I asked the reason, and was told that there would be a " Baptizing of the Cross." Mingling with the running multitude, in a few minutes I was at the shore. The bishop and a dozen pricvSts in procession were chanting, and the people talking and laughing. There was no solemnity in the ceremony. The bishop and the priests advanced to the shore. Some of the men got into boats and shoved out a few yards from the shore. Then the bishop, after saying a prayer, threw a crucifix into the sea. Instantly several of the men who were in the boats plunged into the water. It must have been a chilling im- mersion, as it was a very cold morning on the 1 8th of January. After about five minutes one of the MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. I93 divers succeeded in finding the cross, and raising it up from the bottom of the sea, was hailed with loud shouts by the people on the shore. The re- coverer of the cross was conducted to the shore, and then to the church in the neighborhood. On the way some persons gave money for the benefit of the man. The priests began to chant, the rest of the men to halloo, the women and children to scream. The recoverer of the cross was the hero of the day. There have been times, it is said, when the mariners of Constantinople, mad with the excitement, have grappled AAdth one another under the water and fought for the possession of the cross; and the man who secured it, half drowned, had come to the surface of the water with the cross in his hand, with a blackened face and with blood streaming from his body. I am very glad to say that all well-educated Greeks are now ashamed of this superstitious ceremony, but it is still performed with great ostentation at all the watering-places, to the great dishonor of Him who died on the cross. BUSINESS LIFE IN TURKEY. The business life in Turkey is very inferior to that in Europe and America. In America great and small manufactories and thousands of works of industry give employment to every man, and even to women, and keep the whole country in business; but in Turkey there are but few fac- tories. Steam power and machinery are not recog- nized as essential to humanity and civilization. 13 194 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. The girls of poor parents, as well as the girls of rich people, have nothing to do in business life. The women are strictly secluded in their homes. The best business in the Levant is in the hands of Europeans. They come to buy silk, cotton, and wool, and then take them to their own country and give work to many thousands of families in their manufactories; while many young men and wo- men in Turkey spend their lives in perfect idle- ness and uselessness. The richest capitalists and merchants are found among the European people. The. best part of Constantinople is occupied by them. About thirty or forty years ago the Turkish people were more happy concerning their business life than at the present. The people had their na- tive arts and businesses, which they used to prac- tise from generation to generation ; but since the doors of Turkey were opened to Europe their business has been destroyed. There are no high duties on imported goods and there is no idea of home protection. The Turkish market is wide open to European merchants and almost monopo- lized by thfem. The country is not able to com- pete with Europe. It is a fact that while the for- eign population is getting rich, the natives are becoming poor. The letters written to me from Constantinople and Adrianople show the degra- dation of the business life and the miserable pov- erty of the common people. There is no ambi- tion in inventions. There are no capitalists to encourage the gifted mind and the skilful hand. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. I95 There is no patent system. The patents of Eu- rope are enough ! Because of the lack of banks interest is very high, especially in small towns. It often is as high as thirty or forty per cent. Wages of working men are very low. The daily pay of a girl who works in the mill is less than twenty cents. The daily wages of a car- penter or tailor are less than one dollar. The daily wages of those who labor in the vineyards and pave the streets are about half a dollar. The living is therefore cheap. Meat, though cheaper than in America, is dearer than other articles of food, so it is limited to the rich class of people, and hence is regarded as a luxury. The people generally live on vegetables. The large cities are the centres of business life, as Constantinople, Adrianople, Smyrna, Bei- rut, etc. In these places merchants and trades- men are found as follows : architects, carpenters ; cabinet, watch, shoe, harness, and box makers; tailors, confectioners, dry-goods dealers, fruit-sel- lers, grocers, druggists, butchers, saloon-keepers, lumber and charcoal dealers, and barbers. In the towns and villages are found, farmers, shepherds, gardeners; charcoal, mat, casket, sun-dried-brick, and basket makers; fishers, potters, and wood- cutters. BARGAINS. A great deal of time is consumed in making bargains. There is more safety in some respects in making bargains with Mohammedans than with other nations. If a man wants to buy something, ig6 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. in order not to be cheated he visits half a dozen stores to ascertain the price at which he is willing to buy it. For example, if you wish to buy a carpet you ask, " What is the price per yard ?" Dealer. Half a dollar. Buyer. It is too dear. D. Then what is your offer ? B. Thirty cents. D. I lose money. B. I cannot help it. He begins now to persuade you by his Ori- ental gestures ; he calls heaven and hell, God and Satan to his assistance, but in vain. You start to' leave the store, but he follows you. He calls after you, and if he is a little shameless he takes you by the coat-collar and brings you back, and offers you coffee and a cigarette and renews his bar- gain. Dealer. Give forty-five cents. Buyer. I cannot give more than thirty -five cents. D. Be assured that it costs me more than that, but I wish to make you my regular customer. "The summer does not come by a single flower." I hope that we shall make more bargains here- after, and I hope also that you will not give me such trouble another time. The carpet is yours. The most exorbitant dealers are the Jews, who do not hesitate to ask three or four times the price of the goods. They train their children for business life in their youth, contrary to the gen- eral custom of other nationalities. The Jews, who 111 .1, 1, .k, ,l' MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 197 were years ago the poorest, now may be classed among the richest people. WOMEN GRINDING AT A MILL. The Turkish mill consists of two circular stones about two feet in diameter and half a foot thick. The upper stone has a hole through which the grain is dropped. The upper stone has also a convex lower surface, fitting the concave of the under stone. There is an upright stick fixed in the upper stone which is used as a handle in re- volving it. The grain is ground and the flour comes out at the edges between the stones. Two women sit upon a large piece of cloth facing each other. Both take hold of the handle by which the upper stone is turned round on the lower stone. They occasionally throw the grain in with one hand, and with the other they con- stantly retain their hold of the handle, pulling towards -and pushing from them until all the grain is ground. THE BIRTH OF A CHILD AND ITS BAPTISM. It is a general feeling that the birth of a son is hailed with much more interest than that of a daughter. The name of the child is not given until its baptism, when the sponsor names it. Therefore, after the birth of a child, its parents do not think of anything but of the day when the child will be christened. The baptism of infants is always observed on 198 LIFE. IN THE ORIENT. the eighth day after birth. Even those persons who are injidels do not object to the baptism of their children. Nobody kisses an unbaptized child. If a child dies before it is baptized it can- not be saved ; there is no heaven for it, and the child is buried beyond the limits of the grave- yard. The children are carried to the church for bap- tism on the lap of the midwife, and the female relatives are invited to be present at the ceremony of baptism. Baptism is generally performed on week-days, and no man is present but the sponsor. Even the father of the child is absent, and the mother is prohibited from entering the church till forty days have expired after the birth of a child. The ceremony of baptism in the Armenian Church is as follows : A large marble font is filled with water. The water is slightly warmed. The priest holds the arms and feet of the infant, which is in a state of nudity, and immerses it three times. Then the child is clothed carefully and placed in the lap of the sponsor or midwife, and the crowd proceeds to the child's home to congratulate the mother, where she, in her bed, meets and embra- ces her child with religious devotions and prostra- tions. It is customary to give a small stipend as compensation to the priest who officiates. Names. Armenian Christian names are gener- ally Scriptural. There are persons also who give the names of the national heroes, martyrs, philos- ophers, and kings. While the children in America bear the names of their fathers, in Turkey it is not MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. I99 so; but children assume the names or surnames of their fathers when they arrive at adult age. There are persons who have their proper names, but they are often called after the business or na- ture of their fathers. For example : Papaz oghlu or Papazian . . . The son of a priest. Kitabji oghlu or Kitabjian . . The son of a bookseller. Balikji oghlu or Balikjian . . . The son of a fisher. Karagoz oghlu or Karagozian . The son of blackeye. Basmaji oghlu or Basmajian . . The son of a printer. Many names, both of Christians and Mohamme- dans, are but adjectives. Antaram (female) means unfading. Aziz (male) means holy. The name of the present sultan, Hamid, means praiser. MEDICINE. The following article is the translation of a let- ter published a few years ago in Constantinople, in the "■ Avedaper" the missionary paper, written by an Armenian physician in Asia Minor : " The beginning of medicine in Turkey was 3,000 years ago, and there are here and there several medical schools ; but unfortunately those who use medicines are very few, and many per- sons cure their sick by the old method, that is, by extraordinary means. If a person gets sick, all his friends become physicians ; one says use this medi- cine and others that. Each friend of the invalid suggests several medicines, and consequently the condition of the sick becomes worse. A sick man using several medicines, according to the advice 200 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. of his friends, but without recovering from his sickness, said, ' I have used many medicines, but alas! none of them cured me. Afterwards the priest read the Bible over my head, and I was cured.' Another one said, ' I sent a string to the priest and he blessed it, so I bound it around my arm in order to be cured.' There is an old custom in many parts of our country that if a man has a fever, he takes a piece of paper written over by a priest or Turkish Hoja, and puts it in water and drinks it in order to be cured. Besides these, nu- merous persons when feeling sick call a barber to bleed them (for in our country the barbers do the bleeding) ; and many persons go to the bath and hope for recovery thereby. There are not a few persons, also, who in order to be cured go to the various brooks, lakes, and springs ; many persons in order to regain their health take pieces of sackcloth and bind them around the branches of trees and bushes, etc. " Now in regard to the recovery of the eyes, this is performed generally by old women. These women have some powders composed of several inflammatory medicines, which are very dangerous to be used. It is often said, ' My eyes were very bad; I put some salt in them and they became well.' For the recovery of the eyes one recom- mends the juice of onions, and others garlic, and others snuff. "Our people," says the doctor, "now began to learn to take the advice of the physician. There are many persons who are very ignorant as to the MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 20I way to take our pills, so that instead of swallowing them whole, they chew them first and then swal- low them. " The most of our people call the physician only when the disease has reached its crisis. Knowing this, the doctor usually asks those who call him at what time the sickness began. The answer is that it was five, ten, fifteen, or twen- ty days before. A sad case is recorded in which the doctor was not called till it was too late. When he arrived he found the patient dead. While he was going he asked the man who called him the condition of the sick man. He answered the doctor, 'Some persons say that he is nearly dead and others say that he is dead.' When the doctor heard this he said to the man, ' Brother, I think you are mistaken ; perhaps they said to you, " Go and call the undertaker," but instead of call- ing him you called me.' Finally they reached the house and the doctor saw that the sick man was already dead ! Seeing this, the doctor said to the friends of the deceased, ' Why did you not call me earlier ? ' They replied, ' We did not know that the man would die so soon.' One of them said, ' If you were a good physician, immediately after the death of the sick man you could cause him to recover.' " In Constantinople, Adrianople, Smyrna, and in other great cities of the empire there are some good physicians who were educated in America and Europe, but there are a great many towns ■ and large villages where there is not a single phy- 202 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. sician or drug-store. Men live and die without seeing the face of a physician. How the Village People Treat the Sick. The fol- lowing conversation took place in a village in Asiatic Turkey between two friends. One asked the other, whose son was sick, " I want to know what you give your sick son to eat." " The boy eats nothing." " Nothing at all ?" " He eats, but not enough to mention it. He eats daily ten apples, two or three pomegranates, a few raisins, and sometimes drinks inspissated juice and eats turnip." " I think he eats something else." "Yes, sometimes he eats bread, egg, cheese, fish, unripe and sour fruits. We give him what- ever he wants to eat. Our neighbors often bring him something, and he eats it all." " My friend, why then do you expect him to recover ? Because if a healthy man ate so many articles he would die !" "It is a gross mistake; the sick recover by eating." " That is an old idea. Men in old times did not know about the constitution of, man. They did not know that the stomach of a sickv man cannot digest the food easily." " Oh nonsense ! What is a stomach ?" " My friend, listeii to me. If you cease to give such articles of food to your sick son, he will gain his recovery soon." ICl-CKKVM VENllKR. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 203 " What do you mean ? Shall we leave him to die hungry ?" " Oh no ; give him a little soup and keep his clothes clean." " His clothes are clean. Last year on the Great Easter they were washed." This dialogue shows the prevailing custom of treating the sick by peasants and sometimes by citizens in Turkey. FUNERALS. It is a prevailing custom scrupulously to wash and cleanse the body of the deceased. The body is sewed up in a white cotton sheet, over which are put the best clothes of the deceased. Great grief is manifested over the corpse of the dead. The relatives, friends, and neighbors, all women, surround the body forming a mourning circle, and by their vehement sobs and gesticulations and by their doleful lamentations begin to eulo- gize the personal qualities, virtues, and benevolent actions of the deceased (Acts 9 : 39), which tends to move to tears and gives fresh impulse to the grief of the afiflicted family. It is the custom to bury the corpse within a few hours after death. To bury with a coffin is very exceptional. The dead body is placed upon a bier, which has four poles, and these are borne upon the shoulders of the deceased's friends and relatives. The ceremony of carrying the corpse to the grave is different among the various nationalities. If the deceased is a Mohammedan, the body is put 204 LIFE m THE ORIENT. into a closed bier or coffin ; the turban or lady's hat is placed on the top of the bier, which declares to which sex the deceased belongs. If the de- ceased is a Christian, the face is entirely exposed to view. If the deceased is a young man or wo- man, the bier is surrounded by beautiful flowers. If it is an old person, a black cashmere shawl tastefully surrounds the bier. Mohammedan or Christian ecclesiastics walk before the procession ; but while the former is in his usual costume and keeps profound silence, the latter is in his sacer- dotal robes chanting a funeral dirge. If the de- ceased belongs to the rich class and has left some money to the national church or school, the pro- cession and all the ceremony is performed in a very showy and pompous manner. The bishops in their costly robes, and many priests and school- boys in their ecclesiastical garb, chant at the top of their shrill voices while they proceed to the church or to the grave. Lighted candles and torches are displayed along the route, incense is burned, and a large crucifix is carried at the head of the procession. The Corpse at the Church. The candles are lighted and the church bell invites the people, whether friends of the deceased or not, to the funeral service. The services are performed in an unintelligible language. The ceremony at the church lasts about forty minutes. The bier is sur- rounded by old ladies, friends and relatives of the deceased. The priest reads from the Gospel of John 12:42-50, and from the Epistles; then fol- MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 205 low prayers and hymns relating to the vanity of human life. After the ceremony at the church, the bier is again taken upon the shoulders of the friends and carried to the graveyard, where, after a short burial ceremony, the clothes of the de- ceased are stripped off (though sometimes they remain and are buried also) and the body, sewed up in cotton, is let down into the grave, which is then filled up. Cemeteries. The graveyards are without chap- els. The graves are shallow as compared with those in America. The lots are without any fence. Regularity and proper arrangement cannot be seen in an Oriental cemetery. The people do not take care to keep them clean, beautiful, and attrac- tive. There is no general cemetery ; each nation has its own. Rivalry is shown as much at burials as at other times. No Jew is buried in a Mohammedan, nor a Mohammedan in an Armenian cemetery. Mo- hammedan cemeteries are generally within the city, shadowed by cypress-trees, while those of other nations are out of the city and sometimes a few miles away from it. The Armenian ceme- teries are the best recreation parks in Turkey. The Armenian cemetery at Adrianople is about three miles from the centre of the city, and is on a beautiful slope from which the city and its charming environment may be seen to better ad- vantage than from any other point. There are small trees that spread their shadows over the graves. 2o6 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. There is a very old custom which prevails in Adrianople among the Armenian people. The family of the deceased is obliged to prepare a good dinner for the friends, to be eaten at the cemetery. This custom is very disagreeable to the afflicted family ; but they obey it without mur- muring. If we consider the circumstances — for example, that the corpse has been carried for miles upon the shoulders, and a considerable time has been consumed in the funeral ceremonies at home, at the church, and at the grave, and the people who have followed are hungry and ex- hausted — the custom does not seem to be out of the bounds of reason. After the burial, mats are spread and a very long and low table is brought, and the people sit cross-legged to take the eternal pilav (rice boiled with mutton) with great appetite. Wine is an inevitable article at the table. The people who had come hungry and tired and dole- ful, now return satisfied and cheerful. Those who are wealthy put a marble slab on the grave of their beloved ones. The date of the birth and death of the deceased are engraved upon it. Sometimes the best Oriental imagery or epi- taph is found upon the gravestones. For example, if the deceased is a young man or woman, it is written, "The chilling blast of fate caused this bird to wing its course to heaven." Here is a mother's lament for her daughter: " The bird of my heart has flown from my soul to Paradise." Another epitaph : " Oh, reader, I ask of thee MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 207 a prayer ; if to-day it is needed for myself, to-mor- row it will be required for you." Mohammedan tombstones are distinguished from the Christian by a head or representation of the gilded turban carved in the stone. The Mo- hammedan cemeteries as compared with the Chris- tian are in a very desolate condition. There is no order or arrangement ; the headstones seem to be scattered over the ground at random ; the ground is full of all sorts of weeds and undergrowth. PILGRIMAGE. Among all the sacred places in the East, Jeru- salem and Mecca are two places which are most important. The first belongs to the Christians and the second to the Mohammedans. Jerusalem is the only city in the world which has attracted so many pilgrims of every nationality and creed — a city which is visited by all classes of men, by rich and by poor, by learned and by ignorant, by civilized and uncivilized, by educated Christian and gross skeptic. Though the city (population 40,000) has lost its former beauty and glory, yet there is no other city in the world at the present time which attracts such crowds of people from every part of the globe. Neither the expense nor the difficulties of long journeys prevent the people from going to pay a visit to the reputed place of the Holy Sepulchre of the risen Christ. During Easter and Christmas the streets of the city are full of people. The pilgrims, who are from every part of Turkey, Europe, India, and 2o8 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. America, swarm in the streets of the holy city dressed in their festival costumes. What a babel of tongues ! Armenian pilgrims at their departure for Jeru- salem are always accompanied by their friends and relatives and ecclesiastical corps a short dis- tance. On their return they are welcomed by the same company. The pilgrims go first to the church and then to their homes in a religious pro- cession. And they do not return empty handed. They bring with them relics from Jerusalem and its neighborhood — crosses, small looking-glasses, bracelets, soaps, rosaries, etc., to distribute among their friends. Rodosto, on the Sea of Marmora, is second to Jerusalem among the Armenians in the Levant. Thousands go there and spend a week every year. It is said that one of the nails of the cross is pre- served in the Armenian churcli. The people go to Rodosto not only to see the nail of crucifixion, but to receive a supernatural and miraculous pow- er from it upon tbeir diseased friends. MONASTERIES. To have educated ministers was desired by the church in the early ages. There were a few theo- logical seminaries in Cassarea, in Antiocli, Alex- andria, and Edessa, yet these were not sufficient to meet the requirements of the church. But when during the fifth and sixth centuries most of these schools went down during the polit- ical and ecclesiastical conflicts, then another insti- water-cakrieks. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 209 tution, the monastic community, was established. At first not only those who desired to be ministers, but common people, used to seek a religious train- ing and the peace which the world could not give. Thousands came because of persecution, and others simply to attain the highest spiritual consolation ; some also who wished to spend an idle life filled the monasteries. Monasticism was, however, considered a prepa- ration for the clerical office. At present the monasteries in the East are not crowded as they were in the past. There are about thirty Armenian monasteries under the su- pervision of bishops or high church officers. The largest number of monks is in the monastery at Jerusalem, under the auspices of Patiiarch Vehabe- dian, whose picture is on page 48 of this book. There are about forty bishops and vartabeds who are without any charge. They retire to this or other monasteries until they get a call from some congregation or church. Those who are not able to fill any office because they are old have the priv- ilege of spending their life in one of the monas- teries. So we may call the monasteries in this respect " the home of the aged ministers." Again, many of these monasteries are crowded from time to time by pilgrims, who during their visits find quite comfortable homes there. On their departure they remember the inmates of the monastery and with their liberal donations gladden their hearts. Some of these monasteries are very rich in ^jlfe in the OrJent. Ij^ 2IO LIFE IN THE ORIENT. gold, silver, silk, crosiers, costly metals, and pre- cious stones. Monasteries are comfortable transient abodes of stranger travellers. These are treated very kindly by the superintendents, who show them every apartment of the monastery, and give them exact information in regard to the roads and the character of those lands where the traveller in- tends to go. The monasteries at present have the same object as they had when first established. Not a few of the inmates spend their time in wri- ting or translating books. There is a religious and scientific periodical, by name " Ararat," which is published monthly at the monastery at Echmiad- zin, in Russia, where the Armenian gathoghigos resides. Every branch of the Eastern Church has its own monastery. But the Greek monasteries are much more numerous than all the others put to- gether. The monasteries at Mt. Athos perhaps are the most distinguished. The number of the monasteries at this mountain is about twenty, which have been the stronghold of monasticism in the Orient over ten centuries, and it is venerated by the Greek Church as a holy mountain and place of pilgrimage. Mt. Athos among the Greeks is regarded as second only to Jerusalem. On the 6th of August, the day of Transfiguration, from every part of the world, Turkey, Greece, Russia, many devotees attend the festival on this mem- orable and venerated mountain. The monasteries have been depositories of MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 211 many valuable ancient manuscripts and books. The museums and libraries of the civilized West would have been less valuable had not these mon- asteries furnished them with their precious treas- ures. These volumes and manuscripts which are the best ornaments of the Western libraries, have been brought from different monasteries, where by the fidelity of the monks they have been pre- served from generation to generation. 212 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. X. AMUSEMENTS. STORY-TELLERS IN TURKEY. When people read but little, in the absence of a general circulation of newspapers, of printed histories of war, philosophical essays, and lectures by different travellers and professional men, they must have something for their amusement and in- struction. The story-teller is a man who conies to amuse and instruct by his anecdotes the Oriental people. A story-teller is a walking newspaper, a living history, a personified book of travels. He is the humorist and lecturer of the Orient. And indeed the professed story-tellers in the East are almost everything ; they generally attract larger crowds than anybody else. Many of their tales are com- monplace, but some of them are highly interesting and instructive. The story-tellers go to the cof- fee-houses and bazaars, where they are surrounded, by an immense crowd of people of every nation and rank, some well clad, others in rags, attending with the most lively interest to tales they have heard perhaps a hundred times before. The story- teller recounts his tales with the utmost energy and much gesticulation, and with a varied tone of voice according to His subject. He attracts the close attention and high admiration of his audi- AMUSEMENTS. 21 3 ence for hours. Those who are familiar with the book " Arabian Nights " can get a good idea of the style and character of Oriental stories. Those most interested in the story-tellers are the Turks. A Turk, with his long pipe or water pipe, will listen for hours to the story-teller with wonder and deep interest without once interrupt- ing the speaker. ORIENTAL STORIES. Nousreddin Hoja, of Asia Minor, was one of the most distinguished humorists of the Turkish people. He is dead, but his stories yet live. For the translation of the following stories I am in- debted to Hon. S. S. Cox's book, " Diversions of a Diplomat in Turkey." " Hoja used to teach in the parish school. He had taught his pupils that whenever he happened to sneeze they should all stand up and clapping their hands together should cry out, ' God grant you long life, Hoja !' " This the pupils regularly did whenever Hoja sneezed. One day the bucket gets loose and falls into the well of the schoolhouse. As the pupils are afraid to go down into the well to fetch up the bucket, Hoja undertakes the task. He accordingly strips, and tying a rope around his waist, asks his pupils to lower him carefully into the well and pull him up again when he gives the signal. Hoja goes down, and having caught the bucket, shouts to his pupils to pull him up again. This they do. Hoja is nearly out of the well when he suddenly 214 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. sneezes. Upon this his pupils immediately let go the rope, begin to clap their hands together and shout down the well, ' God grant you long life, Hoja!'" " One day Hoja is too lazy to preach his usual sermon at the mosque. He simply addresses him- self to his congregation, saying, 'Of course you know, O faithful Mussulmans, what I am going to say to you.' "The congregation cries out with one voice, ' No, Hoja, we do not know.' " ' Then if you do not know I have nothing to say to you,' replies Hoja, and leaves the pul- pit. " Next time he addresses his congregation say- ing, 'Know ye, O faithful Mussulmans, what I am going to say to you ?' " Fearing that if, as on the previous time, they say No, Hoja would leave them again without a sermon, all cried, 'Yes, Hoja, we do know.' " ' Then if you know what I am going to say,' quietly said Hoja, 'of course there is no need of my saying it.' He again steps down from the pulpit. " On the third tirfie Hoja again puts his ques- tion : ' Know ye, O faithful brethren, what I am going to preach to you ?' " The congregation, determined not to be dis- appointed again, take counsel on the question. Accordingly some of them reply, ' No, Hoja, we do not know,' while others cry, ' Yes, Hoja, we do know." AMUSEMENTS. 21 5 " ' Very well then,' says Hoja, ' as there are some of you who do know and others who do not know what I am going to preach, let those who do know tell it to those who do not know,' and quick- ly leaves the pulpit again." " A friend calls on Hoja to borrow his donkey. 'Very sorry,' says Hoja, who does not want to lend the animal, 'but the donkey is not here; I have hired him out for the day.' " Unfortunately just at that moment the don- key begins to bray loudly, thus giving the direct lie to Hoja. " ' How is this, Hoja ?' says his friend. ' You say the donkey is away, and here he is braying in the stable.' " Hoja, nothing daunted, replies in a grave manner, ' My dear sir, please do not demean yourself so low as to believe the donkey rather than myself — a fellow-man and a venerable Hoja with a long gray beard.' " " Hoja borrows from a friend a large copper vessel in which to do his washing. A few days afterwards the vessel is returned cleaned, washed, and polished. Inside of it is another but much smaller copper vessel. " ' What is this, Hoja ?' asks his friend ; ' I lend you one vessel and you bring me back two !' " ' It is very curious,' says Hoja. ' It appears that your vessel while in my possession must have given birth to a baby vessel. Of course, both be- long equally to you.' " ' Oh thank you, good Hoja,' says the man, 2l6 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. laughing, and without more parley agrees to re- ceive back both vessels. " Some time after this Hoja again applies for the loan of the large vessel — the ' mother vessel,' as he describes it. The demand is readily granted. Before leaving Hoja inquires after the health of the 'baby vessel.' He expresses his pleasure at hearing that it is doing extremely, well. " A week, then a month elapses, but no Hoja appears to bring back the borrowed vessel. The proprietor, at length losing patience, goes himself to obtain it. " ' Very sorry,' says Hoja, ' but your copper vessel is dead.' " ' Dead, Hoja !' cries the other in surprise. ' What do you mean ?' " ' Just what I say,' replies Hoja, ' your vessel is dead.' " ' Nonsense, Hoja !' says the man, irritated at Hoja's quiet manner. ' How can a copper vessel die?' " ' Read up your natural history, my good friend,' answers the imperturbable, puffing quietly at his long pipe, ' and you will see that everything that gives birth to a child must inevitably suc- cumb in due course to the fate of all mortals. You were willing enough to believe that your vessel had given birth to a "baby vessel:" I do not see, therefore, why you should now doubt my word as to its being dead.' " "One night before retiring to rest Hoja said to his wife, 'If it rain to-morrow I shall go to AMUSEMENTS. 217 my field ; if it do not rain I shall go to my vine- yard.' "'Say, "If it please God," Hoja,' suggests his wife. " ' Whether it please God or not,' replies Hoja, ' I shall go to one or the other.' " ' Hoja,' says his wife, ' say " If it please God." ' " ' Nothing of the kind,' says Hoja. ' I shall go: " Next day it is not raining, and Hoja starts to go to his vineyard. He has not gone far, however, when he is stopped by the king's troopers. They compel him to work all day to repair the roads. It is quite late at night when he is set free. By the time he arrives at his house every one is fast asleep. His wife, putting her head out of the window, asks who it is. " ' Wife,' replies Hoja, 'if it please God, it is I.' " GAMES AND AMUSEMENTS. Hunting. The Osmanlis are the best horsemen as well as the best hunters in Turkey. They keep hunting dogs and horses and all necessary equip- ments for sporting. The chief game is deer, jackal, gazelle, fox, swine, and many kinds of birds. Sleighing. Sleighing on the ice is a great amusement for children as well as adult Turks in some parts of the country. It is sometimes dangerous, but this does not hinder anybody from sleighing. Kite-flying. Kite-flying is a general amusement 2l8 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. of young men as well as of children. The Turk- ish kite may be regarded as professional. Many people look up with earnest interest to see the paper kite floating and soaring gracefully towards the sky. Djireed. Djireed is Arabic, meaning stick ; it is a Turkish game, and shows that the Turks, are superior in horsemanship to the other inhabitants of the country. The game is very interesting and is played by several men on their horses. They fling up their djireeds in the air to a prodigious height, and as soon as they strike the ground the players are on the spot, hanging over in their sad- dles till their hands reach the earth, when they grasp the djireeds firmly, lift them up, whirl them over their heads, and ride on. Music. Turkish music is played upon the fol- lowing instruments : violin, guitar, pipe, big drum, kettle-drum, tambourine, lute, sackbut, bagpipe, cymbal, cornet, shepherd's pipe, trumpet. The organ and piano are not Oriental instruments. It is a great mistake to suppose that Oriental music is deficient in tones and time. It is monotonous in some respects, but it is not without harmony and melody. The musicians play in coffee-houses or casinos, as well as at weddings. They take up a collection, and some people, in order to manifest their great satisfaction, stick money upon the fore- heads of the musicians. Dancing. Dancing is one of the most fashion, able amusements. The dancers form a circle, holding each other's hands. The musicians, sit- AMUSEMENTS. 219 ting usually on their heels at the lower end of the room, regulate the dance. I have seen many times in Adrianople Greek and Bulgarian girls mingling with young men, dancing in the streets and forming a large circle, while the bag-piper at the centre of the party regulated their move- ments. Horse-racing. Horse-racing is one of the most popular games among the people. There are no special driving parks as in America. Singing. Singing is universal among the Ori- ental nations. The people sing during their busi- ness, travelling, walking, dancing, and even dur- ing their meals. The singing is monotonous, no parts being sung but the air. All songs are either national or secular. Very few sing reli- gious songs. Boat-racing. Boat-racing is a sport which be- longs to the Capital. Wrestling. Wrestling is a very barbarous game (but not brutal, like prize-fighting) which is taken from the ancient Greeks and Romans. The wrestling is generally performed on festival days. A sloping place or valley is selected for the pur- pose, and people stand on the slope, which gives a good view of the wrestlers. The wrestlers have their proper costume. The upper part of their body is stripped. They anoint themselves and begin to wrestle. The Turkish people look upon wrestling with as much interest as the Americans look upon the baseball game. There are rich Turks who have their wrestlers whom they keep 220 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. for such occasions. If one of the wrestlers can bring his rival's back to the ground or lift him up a little, he is regarded as the victor. Thousands of spectators manifest their joy and enthusiasm by their violent shouts. Then the two wrestlers come together holding each other's hand, walk among the crowd and take a collection. Karagoz. Karagoz is the name given to Orien- tal theatricals, or more properly speaking. Orien- tal pantomime. The pantomime is shown during Ramazan, the Mohammedans' fasting month. Wo- men are rigidly excluded. I do not know any- thing which so much demoralizes the character of children and young men as this game of Karagoz. Yet how many parents, of all nationalities, give their children five cents for admission and send them to such a diabolical place ! Here many chil- dren learn the first lesson of immorality. Card-playing, backgammon, draughts, and dom- inoes are the general games. Gambling is pro- hibited by the Government, but there are not a few gamblers. Sometimes gamblers play in the streets of Constantinople. Beside these games, pigeon-flying, cock-fight- ing, goose-fighting, camel-fighting, and sheep-coax- ing are prevailing amusements among the Turk- ish people. STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 221 XI. PRESENT STA TE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH.^ "Come over . . . and help us." Acts 16:9. The Eastern Church at the present time is stationary. So fixed and so lethargic is her posi- tion that she is forgotten by the more active, aggressive and progressi^'e Christian nations. Yet she is still a representative of the primitive faith and a standard bearer of Christendom. It was in the East that the divine breath fell on a virgin who gave birth to the Saviour of the world. It was the East that became the theatre of Christ's wonderful career. From the East Christianity has flowed like a mighty stream, fill- ing up many abysses of the earth. I. ORIGINAL advantages OF THE EASTERN church. The Eastern Church has lost in some respects its historical significance, but it retains and will retain its geographical importance. Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Athens, and Constantinople are associated ^^•ith the history and geography of the Eastern Church. Not only cities, but moun- tains, valleys, hills, gardens, seas, rivers, caves, and dens are associated with the period of the * For the denominations of the Eastern Church, see page 244. 222 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Theocracy as well as Eastern Christianity. The magnificent Ararat of Armenia, majestic Sinai oi Arabia, the lofty cedars of Lebanon, the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan River, and many Christian geographical antiquities may be found not in the Western but in the bosom of Eastern Christian- ity. Behold, how grand is her geographical situa^ tion ! Before the time of Christ the sceptre of Rome swayed Asia and Europe with mighty pow- er, and prepared the nations for Christianity. The pious Jews, scattered throughout the empire, prop- agated the doctrine of the unity of God and dif- fused a practical knowledge of the Old Testament among the Gentiles. As the starting-point of Christianity was Palestine, it was expected that the lands which lie about Palestine would be con- verted to Christianity. The influence of the Greek language. The Eastern Church besides had an advantage in the posses- sion of the Greek language, which was at that time popular and almost universal throughout the civilized world. The Gospels were written in Greek, a language which, by the flexibility and richness of its vocabulary, was an admirable instru- ment for conveying the thoughts of the new reli gion. Indeed in the first period of Christianity the gospel was preached in Greek, in Greek form it was apprehended, and by Greek methods it was organized and propagated. The geographical position of the Eastern Church, together with the influence of the Greek language, inspired that church to evangelize the PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 223 nations. The first Missionary Conference was held in the East. There the first revival took place and the missionaries of the cross went forth to fulfil Christ's last command, which was given on the sacred summit of an Oriental mountain. The Eastern Church the parent of Theology. The Eastern Church, though without a systematic the- ology at the present time, is yet the parent of the- ology. Christianity came in contact with Judaism, Platonism, and many "isms" of the East. There it was that many heretical teachings revealed the necessity of a systematic gospel. There it was that the science of Christian theology arose and the doctrines of the gospel were discussed and sys- tematized. The first seven general councils, with all their leading members, were Eastern. All were held in or about the walls of the capital of the first Christian Caesar. When Arius, the para- gon of Unitarianism, forced his obnoxious doc- trines on the Christian world, 3 1 8 bishops came to settle the question ; but of these 318 bishops only eight came from the west. Nevertheless, the de- crees of the council were accepted throughout Christendom. Its influence upon Reformation. Again the power of the Eastern Church was manifested in its in- fluence upon the far-distant German Reformation. It is true that there is no period of Reformation in the Eastern Church. One reason is that the Eastern Church has not become so corrupt as the Western. No patriarch in the East claimed to be the successor of Peter, or to be the head of the 224 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. universal church. No kings came to kiss the feet of an Oriental patriarch. No sale of indulgen- ces, no period of Crusades, no records of the In- quisition, no prohibition of the Scriptures, and finally, no such caricature as the employment of armed forces by popes, soiled the fair record of the Eastern Church. Constantinople had been for centuries the capital of the Eastern Empire. The city, as the seat of the most important patri- archate, had been for a long period the residence of scholars, Greek philosophy, and literature. It was the Greek gospel and Greek divines and schol- ars that, at the fall of Constantinople, stimulated that growth of learning in the West which so magnificently freed the human mind from the in- tellectual bondage of Rome. Immortal Names of the Eastern Church. When I look back to the first centuries of Eastern Chris- tianity I find immortal names which hover like a cloud over all Christendom. Justin, the philosopher and martyr; Melito, the voluminous writer ; Athenagoras, the profuse scholar ; Gregory' Nazianzen, the powerful orator ; Cyril of Alexandria, the strong apologist ; Gregory of Nyssa, the deep thinker ; John Chrysostom, the mighty preacher ; Origen, the wonderful theolo- gian ; Athanasius, the great trinitarian ; Eusebius, the father of church history, all of these and others claim and will claim the grateful respect of all Christ's followers. In regard to the present condition of the East- em Church, it may be said that her horizon is PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 225 dark and cloudy, but the time will come when her darkness and slumber shall have passed away and she will appear fairer than the moon and brighter than the sun. II. RESULTS WHICH FLOW FROM THE SEPARATION. The mere fact of the separation of the Eastern from the Western Church is foreign to my subject, yet it seems to me reasonable to say a few words in regard to the results which flowed from the dis- solution. After consecutive tyrannical persecutions raised by the Roman Government and by other united powers against Christianity, Constantine the Great embraced the Christian faith in 323 A. D. Chris- tians were perfectly safe under the first Christian Caesar. He was Emperor of the East and West. The Church was one. There were no distinctively Eastern and Western Churches. The majority of theological seminaries existed in the East, but no distinction as to territory was observed in the reception of students. The prevailing sentiment of the Church was that Christianity should become the religion of the world, should take possession of nationalities, and that the Church should be 07ie and universal. But this purpose was threatened both by heretical teachings of that time and by hierarchical tenden- cies of the clergy. Old Rome claimed supremacy over the New Rome (Constantinople) and indeed over the whole Church. By the misapplication of Matt. 16: 18, 19, Ur© in the orient. I^ 226 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Rome claimed supremacy as the metropolis of the Christian world, for it claimed that there Peter, the great apostle, had lived, taught, witnessed, and sufifered. More than this, Rome claimed that, " Peter, whom the Lord himself had made primate among the apostles, had been the first occupant of the See .of Rome, and the Roman bishops were his successors and the heirs of his privileges." On the other hand, the bishops of New Rome claimed that, " Because Constantinople, not Rome, was the capital of the Christian Emperor, the Pa- triarch of the metropolis of the East was likewise held to be on a footing of perfect equality with his colleague of Rome." These selfish sentiments of primacy and equality may be regarded as the first great rupture of church unity. In addition, there were other political, ecclesiastical, and doctrinal differences between Rome and Constantinople, which finally culminated in the division of the Church. Before the final separation, which took place in 1054, and during, these fierce controver- sies, the Pope of Rome excommunicated the Patri- arch of Constantinople, and the same Patriarch thundered edicts, of excommunication against the Pope of Rome. Separation hastened the Fall of the Eastern Chris- tian Empire. After their formal separation intense bitterness existed between the two factions. The rivalry between the Eastern and Western Churches was so great during the siege of Constantinople in the fifteenth century that in that most critical hour, when the last opportunity was offered to unite the PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 22/ two churches, the Greeks exclaimed,'" Give us the Turk's turban rather than a cardinal's hat !' The results which flowed from this antagonism had a most important bearing upon the future history of the Eastern Church. First. It hastened the downfall of Constanti- nople. This city, until weakened by the plunder- ings and misdeeds of the Crusaders and Venetians in 1204, was a comparatively strong defence to the West against the Asiatic nations. The actions of these papal emissaries however disheartened and weakened the spirits of the inhabitants of Constan- tinople. To get a clear idea of the destruction accomplished, we quote an extract from " The Fall of Constantinople," by Edwin Pears, pp. 354, 355. " Never in Europe was a work of pillage "more systematically and shamelessly carried out. Never by the army of a Christian state was there a more barbarous sack of a city than that perpetrated by these soldiers of Christ, sworn to chastity, pledged before God not to shed Christian blood, and bear- ing upon them the emblem of the Prince of Peace. . . The city was in wild confusion. Nobles, old men, women and children ran to and fro trying to save their wealth, their honor, and their lives. " Sword in hand, houses and churches were pil- laged. . . Monks and priests were selected for insult. The priests' robes were placed by the Cru- saders on their horses. . . The chalices were stripped of their precious stones and converted into drinking cups. . . The altar of St. Sophia, which had been the admiration of all men, was 228 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. broken for the sake of the material of which it was made. Horses and mules were taken to the church in order to carry off the loads of sacred ves- sels, the gold and silver plates of the throne, the pulpits, and the doors, and the beautiful ornaments of the church. The soldiers made the chief place of Christendom the scene of their profanity. A prostitute was seated in the patriarchal chair, who danced and sang a ribald song for the amusement of the soldiers." In 1453 Mohammed II. captured Constantino- ple, the city which for centuries had bestowed in- estimable blessings upon the West through its successful resistance to the onward march of the Eastern marauders. Yet, notwithstanding this, the empty sepulchre of Christ in Jerusalem was far more valuable in the sight of Western Chris- tianity than the Eastern capital full of a Christian population. While thousands of Crusaders died in the effort to obtain the Holy Sepulchre from tlie hands of Mohammedans, the capture of Constanti- nople was hailed with delight by Rome. Secondly. Through her forced isolation from the activity of the Western civilization the East- ern Church developed a religious character pecu- liar to herself. Let us for a moment contemplate this character. What is the nature of her public worship? In this respect she stands in distinct contrast to the Western Church. Before giving a brief description of the Eastern Churches, let us consider some of the more salient points of differ- ence between the Eastern and Western Churches. PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 229 The Eastern Church believes that the Holy Spirit proceeds only from the Father ; the Western Church teaches that the Spirit proceeds from the Son and from the Father. The Eastern Church adopted the title of Ortho- dox, the Western preferred the title of Catholic: both titles illustrating their peculiar character, the former enacting creeds and the latter disci- pline. The theology of the Eastern Church is specula- tive, while that of the Western Church is prac- tical. In the administration of the communion the laity as well as clergy participate in both kinds contrary to the practice of the Western Church. The Eastern Church is conservative while the Western Church is flexible and progressive. The Eastern Church is more considerate both to the laity and clergy ; the Western Church is ex- acting. In the Eastern Church the reading of the Scrip- tures by the common people has never been for- bidden ; the Western Church denied this privilege to her children. The Eastern Church discriminates between the graven image and the painted picture of a saint, and tises only the latter, while the Western Church does not regard any distinction. The Eastern Church has never claimed a direct apostolic succession, an absolute power, or infalli- bility, as claimed by the popes of Rome. In the Eastern Church the Eucharist is per- 230 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. formed secretly, wliile in the Western Cliurcli it is celebrated openly. In the Eastern Cliurcli the clergy hold an infe- rior position to the Government, while the West- ern Church claims superiority over the Govern- ment and many times has secured its assistance for the promotion of the church. In the Eastern Church many of the doctrines and usages aro not sanctioned by general councils, while in the Roman-catholic Church every doctrine is sanctioned and prescribed by the general coun- cils and made a necessary article of faith. Description of the Greek Church. The Rev. George Constantine, D. D., of Smyrna, a Greek Protestant divine, writes on this point to the " Mis- sionary Herald :" "The worship of the Greek Church consists chiefly in the use of the liturgy, with many forms and ceremonies, and with much chanting of prayers and hymns. The interior of the church edifice is divided into two sections: the Holy Place, where the altar stands, reserved for the priests, and the other portion occupied by the people. There is on the people's side a double chorus who sing and chant responsively. There are no seats and there is no instrumental music, and that because the Latin Church has both. The priest from the day of his consecration is denied the privilege of cutting his hair or his beard, while the priests of the Latin Church do both. The peo- ple during the chanting of the liturgy express their assent to the prayers of the priests and to the PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 23 1 hymns of the choristers by crossing themselves, but in a manner wholly different from that prac- tised in the Latin Church, in order that they may be seen to differ. The people, through the liturgy, are called by officiating clergymen every Sunday to come forward and partake of the communion : but no one presents himself, nor do the priests ex- pect any one. The people generally commune three times a year, at the close of the three gen- eral fasts. One ends with the Nativity, another with Easter, and a third with the commemoration of the Virgin." Description of the Armenian Church. The public worship of the Armenian Church, another branch of the Eastern Church, is worthy of our attention. These churches in the cities have generally a chapel on each side of the main building. Each of the chapels contains a small altar. The Holy Eu- charist is generally celebrated on the large altar, which is in the main building. A large curtain hanging to the iioor conceals the great altar. The altar is divided into two parts by curtains. The bishop or priest, who celebrates the Eucharist, stands inside the small curtain. The Armenian Church worship, as compared with that of the Greek Church, is simple. While in the former the pictures of the apostles and other saints are very few and hung high, so as to prevent the people from worshipping or kissing them, in the latter the churches are full of pic- tures. The Greeks enter the church kissing one or more pictures, while in the Armenian churches 232 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. many enter and depart without kissing any pic- ture. During the winter there is no fire, no pews or chairs, and no music. The church is matted or carpeted, and the people bring their small rugs for seats. As a prevailing, or rather Oriental custom, men and women do not worship together. The women's department is separate. There is a gal- lery for them. Because the services begin before sunrise and last a couple of hours on Sunday, and because the congregation come to the church with- out taking any breakfast, therefore the people come and depart at any time, without waiting for the services to close at the church. Very few re- main at the church to receive the benediction. The people do not join in singing during the wor- ship. The Nicene creed is, however, participated in by all the worshippers. The people keep their caps on in the church, but upon rising for the read- ing of the Gospels they are removed. MANNER OF PREACHING BY THE ARME'NIAN BISHOP. Generally speaking, preaching is regarded as subordinate to the church service. It is not there- fore strange to see, during the preaching, not a few of the people leave the church. Very few con- gregations have a sermon every Sabbath. There are people also in towns and small cities who do not hear any sermon during the whole year. In Constantinople there are forty Armenian churches, but half of them are without proper preachers. Though the church services are carried on in the ancient, now unintelligible language, the sermons PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 233 are delivered in modern Armenian and Turkish, and are easily understood. The bishop preaches in his sacerdotal robes. A majestic staff, an em- blem of the shepherd's staff, is in his hand. He preaches with great solemnity, and by his Oriental gesticulation attracts the close attention and admi- ration of the congregation. He does not use man- uscript or notes. His text is selected from the Scriptures, and the sermon is elaborately illustra- ted by the history and biography of the prophets, apostles, and church fathers. The sermons are long, especially on Holy Days. The bishop preach- es at the main altar, and he sits occasionally, dur- ing the sermon, in his chair. This is surrounded by a certain number of priests, ready always to serve him during his sitting down and rising up. EXTRACTS FROM AN ARMENIAN BISHOP'S SERMON. One of my friends at Rodosto sent to me the following extracts, which I translated. I hope that these will serve to show the character and style of the preaching of the Armenian bishops. The bishop upon the occasion of a national feast said, " Our Church Fathers, St. Gregory Illu- minator, his sons and grandsons, and Saints Sahag and Mesrob, were all married men. These latter translated the Bible into the Armenian language and instructed their children in the Word of God. When the celibacy of clergymen was introduced in the Armenian Church the religious life de- clined .... The Bible was translated into the Armenian language by our fathers, but the price 234 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. being five dollars, it is not accessible to the people. Why then do we not have a society to publish the Bible and sell it cheaply, so that every one may read it ?" On another occasion the bishop spoke of the superiority and the necessity of the Bible: "If I had been rich I would have brought the Gospel from Constantinople and have presented it to each one of you. If you or your friends go to Constanti- nople, bring back with you the Gospel, which can be purchased for twenty cents (the Gospel here referred to is published by the American Bible Society), and read often the Word of God, for our power and life depend upon it." THE ABYSSINIAN CHURCH, HER HISTORY, ETC. Abyssinia, known to the ancients as Ethiopia, is a rich, mountainous district of eastern Africa, its population being about five millions. The peo- ple were converted to Christianity in the fourth century, when Athanasius was Bishop of Alex- andria. The church had been for centuries in obliv- ion when discovered in the fourteenth century by John II., king of Portugal. Ignatius Loyola tried to convert the church to the Catholic faith. He sent bishops and Jesuits to Abyssinia, but without suc- cess. A second Catholic mission started near the end of the sixteenth century, but the missionaries were driven out of the country after they caused a civil war. Pope Clement XI. sent out German mis- sionaries in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury, who enjoyed the favor of the king ; but as PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 235 soon as the native priests understood, they raised a rebellion, dethroned the king, and condemned the missionaries to be stoned. So the Abyssinian Church preserved her religious tenets against the Roman-catholic Church. The church believes in infant baptism, admin- istered to their sons on the fourteenth day after birth, and to their daughters on the eighteenth day. The priests partake of the communion every day, the laity either on the Sabbath or from time to time. Five deacons (who are very young, al- most children) are to be present during the ad- ministration of the communion. They do not trust in purgatory, but believe that all go to hell, and the archangel Michael de- scends to hell and looses the chains and sends believers to heaven. Fasting is regarded as the essence of religion, therefore their fasts are very long and numerous. About nine months of the year they abstain from every species of animal food with the exception of fish, though not a few abstain from that too. The candidate for priesthood is ordained by the bishop, if he merely knows the alphabet or if he can repeat a few prayers, so ignorant are the clergy. The priests are allowed to marry previous to receiving the rite of ordination. Public preach- ing is unknown in the churches. The religion of Abyssinia, it may be said, is de- rived from the Jewish dispensation. In their form of worship Judaism seems to predominate. Some of the rites of the Mosaic law are rigidly observed. 236 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. Meats prohibited by Moses are abstained from. Brothers marry the wives of their deceased bro- thers. Saturday and Sunday both are held sacred. The first Protestant missionaries were sent to Abyssinia in 1826 by the Church Missionary So- ciety. Rev. Messrs. Gobat, Isenberg, and others were the pioneers of this mission, but were obliged to leave the field by tyrannical persecutions. It was under the persecution of King Theodorus that some of the missionaries were imprisoned several years, who were released by the expedition from England under Lord Napier in 1869. Kings The- odorus and John are dead now, and it is hoped that under the present political circumstances Abys- sinia will be more accessible to the missionaries, and that the re-opening of missions among these degenerated people of Ethiopia is not very far off. THE NESTORIAN CHURCH. The Nestorian Christians live within the in- accessible mountains and glens of the Province of Kurdistan. Nestorius, the founder of this sect, was a native of Syria and a presbyter at Antioch. " He was esteemed," says Neander, "and was cele- brated on account of his life and the impressive fervor of his preaching." He became Patriarch of Constantinople in 428. After three years his an- tagonists accused him of heresy, first in denying that Mary was the mother of God, and second in holding that there were two persons as well as two natures of Christ. Nestorius denied emphati- PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 237 cally both charges against him, but his jealous antagonists succeeded in deposing him from the patriarchate, and banished him first to Arabia and then to Lybia. He died in Egypt. He left many friends behind him who denied the fairness of his treatment and remained at- tached to him. Being subject to severe persecu- tions within the limits of the Roman Empire, their number diminished rapidly. But " after they had obtained a fixed residence in Persia in the sixth century, and had located the head of the sect at Seleucia, they were as successful as they were in- dustrious in disseminating their doctrines in the countries lying without the Roman Empire." * The Nestorians had schools in Edessa, Nisibis, Seleucia, and other places, in a very flourishing state. In the sixth century the church was more aggressive in mission work than any other church in Christendom. They diffused Christianity from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea, and with great zeal preached the gospel to the Medes, Ara- bians, Indians, and Tartars. These self-denying Christians went to give the gospel to the people of China, where many became Christians. " In the ninth century they were so numer- ous," says Dr. Neale, " it may be doubted whether Innocent III. possessed more spiritual power than the (Nestorian) Patriarch of the city of the Ca- liphs." At present the Nestorians do not number more than a hundred thousand, who are settled in the » Mosheim's " Church History." 238 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. plain of Oroomiah, in the western part of Persia. The persecution raised against them by Tamer- lane and others reduced their numbers and crushed the power of their churches. In 1842 several thousands of them, men, women, and chil- dren, were massacred by the Kurds. Their religious belief and practices are more simple and Scriptural than those of the other branches of the Eastern Church. They do not practise auricular confession nor hold to the doc- trine of purgatory. They do not call Mary " the mother of God." They have neither relics of saints nor pictures in their churches. The sign of the cross is used in baptism and in prayer. The cross which is engraved over the low en- trance of each church is kissed by the people who enter it. Their priests carry with them a small silver cross, which is kissed by the people. They have many days of fasting. The language which is used in their service is ancient Syriac, which is not intelligible to the congregation. The priests marry, but the bishops cannot. The Rev. Asahel Grant, M. D., one of the pioneer missionaries to the Nestorians, says, " God had in great mercy preserved me through many perils, and brought me among a people who had received the gospel from the apostles and imme- diate disciples of our Saviour and had preserved its doctrines with a great degree of purity; and though there was painful evidence of a great want of spiritual life, I was encouraged to hope that some almost smothered sparks of vital piety were PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 239 still burning upon those altars. I could not but regard it as a branch of the true church of God, though immersed in the darkness of gross igno- rance, superstition, and spiritual torpor, yet not of death. But there was still much in their character and circumstances of deep and lively interest. My heart was drawn towards them in warm affection, and seldom have I commemorated the dying love of Christ under circumstances more deeply inter- esting than among these primitive Christians in the wild mountains of ancient Assyria." MARONITE, JACOBITE, AND COPTIC CHURCHES. Maronites are called after one of their bishops, Maron. This people are subject to the Pope of Rome, though a good many of them regard that church with aversion and abhorrence. Their prin- cipal habitation is on Mt. Lebanon. They elect their Patriarch. Their priests marry but once. The communion is administered in both kinds. The Jacobites, whose number is about two hun- dred thousand, live in the neighborhood of the Euphrates and Tigris. They have a Patriarch. A monk named Jacobus, during the persecution of Justinian, with great zeal and activity became the leader of the Monophysites. The sect there- fore is called after his name, Jacobites. Coptics. The Coptic or Egjrptian Church is very primitive. They give the kiss of peace to one another, and practise, at conferring ordination, the act of breathing. Their Patriarch resides at Cairo, and has about fifteen bishops under his 240 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. control. The church is Monophysite. The church government is Episcopal. They reject the use of images in their churches, but are very fond of pictures. The church service is Egyptian, a lan- guage which is seldom understood by the priests and never by the congregation. They have nu- merous convents and practise long and rigid fast- ings. There are Catholic and Protestant mission- aries laboring among these sects of the Eastern Church. Thirdly. The theology and literature of the Eastern Church are influenced by her position. The first five centuries were the golden period of Eastern Christianity. It was during this time that Christian literature developed and the great theo- logians appeared whose writings are magnificent and immortal monuments of Eastern Christianity. But after that glorious period there are but few names which attract attention. It is almost im- possible to find such names as Anselm, Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, Bacon, Pascal, Descartes, or the equally honored names of the present cen- tury. Consequently the Oriental Church is not able to defend Christianity against infidelity, her theologians are so inferior. It is a sorrowful fact that the Oriental Church is too proud to accept aid from the scholarship of the West. The pride of the Greek Church especially sur- passes the other branches of the Eastern Church. The Greek Church hates the Western Church. She regards herself as the Orthodox Church ; all other churches are heretical. The Greek PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 24I Cliurch imagines, because of her wonderful lan- guage, her glorious philosophers and immortal Christian Fathers, that she is superior to the Western Church. This misconception by the Greek Church is a great obstacle to her develop- ment. As a fact it may be said that while the Western Church always delights in receiving ben- efits from the Eastern Church, the latter keeps herself aloof, disdaining all proffered aid from whatever source. An example of the former state- ment is familiar to all. Several years ago when Bryennios, the Bishop of Nicomedia, Asia Minor, found the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," it was translated and circulated both in Europe and America. (The Bishop is called " Doctor of Di- vinity " by the West.) And because of this breadth and liberality of her scholarship I do not make any mistake in sa5H.ng that to-day there are a great many scholars in the West who are better acquainted with the history and literature of East- ern Christianity than the Eastern scholars and di- vines themselves. While the immortal names of Chrysostom, Origin, Athanasius, and other Eastern Church Fathers are perfectly known among West- em scholars, on the contrary ancient names and famous modern works of the West are strange to the students in the Eastern seminaries. The pro- gressive spirit which so eminently characterizes the investigations of the theologians in the West is sadly lacking in the East. Before the final separation there was a time when all the learned men in the East might be LIfB In tlio Orient. ; 5 242 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. found among tTie clergymen ; now the people sur- pass the clergymen in intellectual power. If there are some distinguished bishops, they are the fruits of the West. The seminaries lack the depth of learning and zeal of the West. They are indeed lacking in the spirit of the times. The Eastern Church Unable to Defend Herself. On account of these various causes, the Eastern Church became unable to defend Christianity from the shower of arrows from modem skepti- cism. I recall an illustration of this. When fifteen years ago an Armenian from Smyrna, in Asia Minor, wrote an infidel book called " Method," the first of its kind written in the Armenian language, it shook the pillars of the Armenian Church to its foundation. The clergy, with rare exceptions, had never seen a skeptical work. The infidel thoughts and arguments against Christianity were new to them. Therefore the "Method" was unanswered. Hundreds and per- haps thousands read this work. Oh ! who can tell how many young men became infidels ! Thanks be to the Rev. Dr. G. W. Wood, the veteran mis- sionary of the American Board, who replied with his Christian " Method." The whole nation felt and acknowledged their indebtedness to the ven- erable missionary. Oriental nations as well as the churches about thirty or forty years ago were free from foreign influence. The door of Turkey was not so widely open to Europeans as it is now. Since that time the people of the larger and maritime cities have PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 243 come in contact with European civilization and cus- toms. Now the French language is more general among the young men than any other European language. There are thousands of young men, Greek and Armenian, whose libraries are full of infidel books. Renan's "Vie de Jesus" is read more earnestly than the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Oh ! when I think about the present condition of young men, my heart fails me. Infidelity and carelessness increase among them. Few attend the church services. Who can foretell what will be the condition of the Eastern churches after one or two generations ? The clergy are not ready to take an aggressive position. Who will ? Fourthly. Another feature of the Eastern Church is the stationary attitude of her mission work. That the Eastern Church was the first missionary power was shown at the beginning of this chapter. Now her condition is entirely dif- ferent from her former zeal and enthusiasm in the work of evangelization. The Church is strictly conservative. There is no Propaganda, Domini- can order, Jesuit missionary, or missionary board in the bosom of the Eastern Church. During the past two centuries the Roman-catholic Church, and during the present century the Protestant church- es, both in Europe and America, have sent their sons and daughters throughout the world for its evangelization. Alas! neither the zeal of the Roman-catholic Church nor the enthusiasm of the Protestant churches has aroused the Eastern Church from her lethargy. 244 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. The last commission of our Saviour in the Ar- menian and Greek churches is indeed observed literally, that is certain. I always look with great admiration upon the procession of the Armenian bishops, priests, and deacons, who, in their sacer- dotal robes, turn to the East, West, North, and South to bless the world with the gospel. I was one Easter morning in the Greek Metropolitan Church in Adrianople. Several priests stood at the different corners of the church and chanted the twenty-eighth chapter of Matthew in Greek, Armenian, Turkish, etc., thus proclaiming the resurrection of Jesus Christ through all the na- tionalities and tongues ; and this is what they un, derstand by preaching the gospel to every crea- ture. Do they not need instruction ? III. RIVAL DENOMINATIONS OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. Present Relation. The denominations of the Eastern Church, as some of them have been briefly described, may be classified as follows : The Greek, Russian, Bulgarian, Servian, Wal- lachian, and Moldavian Churches, which are called Orthodox. The Armenian or lUuminitarian, Abys- sinian, Nestorian, Maronite, Jacobite, and Coptic Churches, which are called schismatics by the Orthodox Church- Rivalry Among the Denominations. The two great denominations of the Eastern Church have over 90,000,000 membership. All baptized chil- dren are legal members of the Eastern Church. PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 245 The Russian Church has a larger membership than all the other denominations combined. There is no Christian harmony and sympathy among these denominations and nationalities ; and it may be said that rivalry and enmity exist between them. There are more divisions or denomina- tions in the bosom of the Western Protestants than in the Eastern Church; but how great is the difference in the spirit of the two churches ! Last year, in the London Missionary Conference, the representatives of different denominations, both in America and in Europe, came together to consult and to pray for the great cause. Every year about 300 seminary students of different de- nominations come as delegates to our Inter-Semi- nary Missionary Alliance for mutual inspiration and help. There were about thirty denomina- tions represented in Philadelphia at the National Convention of the Young People's Christian En- deavor Society. In America a Baptist minister exchanges with a Presbyterian minister, and a Presbyterian with a Methodist. Such denomina- tional comity does not exist between the denom- inations of the Eastern Church. There is only one place, the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where the representatives of different denominations come together to worship. The Greek, Arme- nian, and Syrian Churches have each a share in it ; but, alas ! this union of proprietorship, instead of producing a corresponding unity of Christian feel- ing and bringing them into Christian harmony and sympathy, animates and inspires every year 246 LIFE IN THE ORIENT. greater hatred and enmity between them. How great was my joy, when preaching in Adrianople, to look upon the faces of Armenian, Greek, and Bulgarian brethren who came to worship the Lord under the same roof in Christian love! I continually lament the rivalry which exists be- tween the denominations of the Eastern Church. Their animosities are a reproach to Christianity. Their enmity is old and deep-rooted. It is the enmity of centuries. What power can reconcile them ? There is but one way : through the pure doctrines of the gospel. Future Relation. Come, oh come that glorious day when all the denominations of the Eastern Church shall come under the influence of the great Reformation, when all enmity shall dis- appear and Christian harmony be established among them. Oh ! come that glorious day when not only the Eastern rival churches will be recon^ ciled, but the two great branches of Christendom will be united in Christian bonds of love, so that the East will stretch forth her hand to the West, and the West to the East, in brotherly love. Then will the united Church move forward, singing, Onward, Christian soldiers. Marching as to war, With the cross of Jesus Going- on before. Christ, the royal Master, Leads against the foe ; Forward into battle, See, his banners go. PRESENT STATE OF THE EASTERN CHURCH. 247 Like a mighty army Moves the church of God ; Brothers, we are treading Where the saints have trod; We are not divided, All one body we — One in hope and doctrine. One in charity. Crowns and thrones may perish, Kingdoms rise and wane. But the church of Jesus Constant will remain ; Gates of hell can never 'Gainst that church prevail; We have Christ's own promisCj And that cannot fail. Onward, then, ye people, Join our happy throng. Blend with ours your voices In the triumph-song; Glory, laud, and honor Unto Christ the King ; This through countless ages Men and angels sing. S. BARING-GOULD \^ \ \ \ \\\ v^^ .' A^>' \ \ \v ''^ \ \ Ni. \ \\