ttt> CORNELL 1 svu UNIVERSITY U.S3 LIBRARY /*| HD8376.U53 ne " UniVerSi,yL " ,rary v.1 La iySi'™iii»Sill?JfS;5 eports ,rom the consuls 3 1924 010 062 945 Q^E DUE p > ^79 F I GAYLORD MINTEDINU.t A. The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924010062945 UNITED STATES. CONSULAR. REPORTS. LABOR IN EUROPE. EEPORTS FROM THE CONSULS OF THE UNITED STATES IN TIIE SEVERAL COUNTRIES OP EUROPE ON THE RATES OF WAGES, COST OF LIVING TO THE LABORING CLASSES, PAST AND PRESENT WAGES, &c, IN THEIR SEVERAL DISTRICTS, IN RESPONSE TO A CIRCULAR FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE REQUESTING INFORMATION ON THESE SUBJECTS; TOGETHER WITH ▲ LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF STATE TRANSMITTING THE SAME TO THE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE, tu 1885. , s -... ■"• ^ (' ''a. .^ ^^ l,,l ! m 'f'//; / ■y 1 "' l!'*»\ ■£."■ ■■'■■ ij\u >•'■ X coisrTEisrTS. VOLUME I. Page. J>tter from the Secretary of State 1-193 Germany .. .......... .............. ....................... 195-586 England 587-882 TOIiTJMB H. Wales 883-947 Scotland : 948-1000 Ireland 1001-1021 France 1022-1078 Eelgium 1079-1123 Switzerland 1124-1211 Austria-Hungary 1212-1287 Holland 1288-1326 Denmark 1327-1344 Spain 1345-1441 Russia 1442-1506 Italy 1507-1624 Malta 1624-1638 Gibraltar 1639-1643 Portugal 1644-1651 Turkey 1652-1656 Appendix 1657-1725 Index to both volumes 1727-1757 ^uuninri %/ ( ^ V l/ r? ,X (0 ■■.-jjsft* ■Ji- .1 gv ^ ■■ X COISTTENTS. VOLUME I. Page. Letter from the Secretary of State — . 1-193 Germany ...... .......... .............................. ................. 195-586 England 687-882 VOLUME n. Wales 883-947 Scotland ; 948-1000 Ireland 1001-1021 France 1022-1078 Belgium 1079-1123 Switzerland 1124-1211 Austria-Hungary 1212-1287 Holland 1288-1326 Denmark , 1327-1344 Spain 1345-1441 Russia 1442-1506 Italy 1507-1624 Malta 1624-1638 Gibraltar 1639-1643 Portugal . : 1644-1651 Turkey 1652-1656 Appendix 1657-1725 ludex to both volumes 1727-1757 LABOR IN PJUROPE. LE T TEE FKOM THE SECRETARY OF STATE, KB VIEWING Reports from the consuls of the United States in relation to the state of labor in Europe. Department op State, Washington, December 12, 1884. Hon. John Or. Carlisle, Speaker of the House of Representatives : Sib: By the requirements of section 208 of the Revised Statutes, the Secretary of State is to lay before Congress, each year, "a synopsis of so much of the information which may have been communicated to him by diplomatic and consular officers during fhe preceding year as he may deem valuable for public information." The standing instructions of the Department of S u ate to its agents in foreign countries call for periodical information on all matters of public and commercial interest, which is furnished by them with commend- able promptness and fullness. Apart from the general heads under which the diplomatic and consular officers abroad are required to seek and transmit information, it has been deemed advisable to specially in- struct them from time to time touching matters of distinct interest which may be brought into prominence by the social and economical needs of the country, or by the pressure of public opiiiion. Of all these special questions, that of labor and wages is doubtless most important, since an intelligent understanding of the conditions of the existing relations of labor and wages to capital and enterprise in other countries is indispensable to a correct judgment upon problems affecting the laboring and employing classes in our own country. The importance of gaining such a knowledge of the labor-conditions of foreign countries was early recognized by this Department, and the widely-reaching organization of the consular service was employed in 1878 to collect information respecting the wages paid to European labor, the cost of living in Europe, the condition of business and trade in the different districts, and the business habits and systems there preval- ent. A compilation of the replies made by the consuls of the United 92 A— lab 1 I LABOR IN EUEOPE. States to the Department's circular of April 11, 1878, calling for such information, was communicated to Congress by my predecessor, Mr. Evarts, on the 17th of May, 1879. Notwithstanding the limited range of the investigation ordered, and the experimental character of the result, this compilation was a valuable contribution to the statistical knowl- edge of this country, and the painstaking reports of the consuls, when tab- ulated and systematized, served to show that the wages paid to laboring men in the United States were higher, while at the same time the aver- age cost of living, on a better scale than is usual with the labor classes abroad, was less in the United States than -in Europe, and that the moral, physical, and intellectual status of the laborer was on the whole higher and more favorable to progress in this country than abroad. The publication of the Labor Report of 1878-'79 naturally attracted much attention, and many demands have been siq.ce made for the peri- odical collection of like statistical information. With the growing im- portance of the labor question as one of vital interest to our body poli- tic, the necessity of tollowing and noting whatever changes may take place in the labor conditions at home and abroad became evident. Moreover, the deep national concern felt in the subject has been made apparent by the discussions of the question in Congress during the last sessions, which ended in the creation of a new administrative office, the Bureau of Labor, charged with collect ; ng "information upon the subject of labor, its relation to capital, the hours of labor, and the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity." The act of Congress establishing this bure'au, and denning the scope of its opera- tions, was approved by the President June 27, 1884. A part of the design of this act had, however, been anticipated by the Department ot State, which issued, on the 15th of February, 1884, a circular instruction addressed to the consular officers of the United States in all foreign countries intended to secure the fullest attainable information concerning the condition of labor throughout the world, and especially the conditions prevailing in Europe. The circular here referred to was divided into two parts, Part I cov- ering the question of male labor, and Part II relating to female labor; the heads under which information was directed to be obtained were subdivided as follows: [LABOR CIRCULAR, FEBRUARY 15, 1884.] Part I MALE LABOR. 1. The rates of wages paid to laborers of every class — mechani- cal, mining, factory, public works and railways, domestic, agricul- tural, &c. 2. The cost of living to the laboring classes, viz : The prices paid for the necessaries of life, clothing, rent, &c. In this connection not only should the prices of the necessaries of life from an Ameri- can standpoint be given — as per accompanying form — but the prices and nature of the articles which are actually consumed by ■ the work people and their families should also be given. 3. Comparison between the present rates of wages and those which prevailed in 1878 (and since that time) when the last labor circular was issued from the Department, and between the condi- tions which then prevailed and which now prevail. LABOR JN EUROPE. O 4. The habits of the working classes — whether steady and trust- worthy or otherwise, saving or otherwise — and the causes which principally affect their habits for good or evil. 5. The feeling which prevails between employ^ and employer, and the effects of this feeling on the general and particular pros- perity of the community. 6. The organized condition of labor ; the nature of organization and its effect on the advancement and welfare of the laborers. In this connection it would be well to refer to counter organizations of capita], and on the local or general laws bearing on such organiza- tions. 7. The prevalency of strikes, and how far arbitration enters into the settlement of disagreements between the employers and em- ployes, and the manner and nature of such arbitration. The effects of strikes on the advancement, or otherwise, of labor, and the gen- eral effect thereof on the industrial interests affected thereby. 8. Are the working people free to purchase the necessaries of life wherever they choose, or do the employers impose any conditions in this regard ? How often and in what kind of currency is the laborer paid ? 9. Co-operative societies : give full information concerning their formation and practical working ; whether they are prosperous, or otherwise ; to what extent they have fulfilled the promises held out at their formation of enabling the work-people to purchase the necessities of life at less cost than through the regular and usual business channels ; whether the establishment of co-operative so- cieties has had any appreciable effect on general trade, &c. 10. The general condition of the working people: how they live; their homes ; their food ; their clothes; their chances for bettering their condition ; their ability to lay up something for old age or sickness ; their moral and physical condition, and the influences for good of evil by which they are surrounded. In this connection consuls are requested to select representative workmen and their families and secure the information direct, somewhat after the man- ner of the following questions and answers (reducing the money to dollars and cents), taken from the Department publication show- ing the state of labor in Europe in 1878: Question. How old are you ? — Answer. I am 36 years old. Q. What is your business ? — A. I am a house-carpenter. Q. Have you a family? — A. I have a wife and three children; the oldest is 11 and the youngest 3 years old. Q. What wages do you receive per day f — A. I receive 3 marks and 30 pfennigs. The average wages paid to house-carpenters is from 2 marks 80 pfennigs to 3 marks per day (68 to 73 cents). Q. How many hours per day are you required to work for such wages? — A. During the entire year we begin work at 6 o'clock in the morning and quit at 7 o'clock in the evening. In the winter season we begin our work with gas or candle light. Q. How much time are you allowed for your meals? — A. We have half an hour for breakfast, at 9 o'clock in the morning; one hour for dinner, at noon ; and half an hour at 4 o'clock vespers. We take our supper after the day's work is done. Q. Can you support your family upon such wages ?— A. What I must do I must do. Part of the time my wife earns 60 pfennigs (15 cents) a day, and with our joint earnings we manage to live. Q. What do the united earnings of yourself and wife amount to LABOR IN EUROPE. in a year ? — A . With general good health we earn about 1 ,050 marks ($252) per year. Q. Will you explain in detail the uses you make of this money? — A. Oh, yes. I pay per annum — For rent of two rooms in fourth story, 20fi marks $49 44 For clothing for self and family, 160 marks 38 40 For food and fuel per day, 1.75 marks (43£ cents), or per year, 638 marks -.-- 153 12 This makes an average for each member of my family per day of 35 pfennigs (bi cents). For residence tax, 4 marks "6 For school tax, three children, 13.50 marks 3 24 For dues to mechanics' aid society, 7.20 marks 1 73 For tax on earnings of self, 5 marks 1 20 Leaving for school- books, doctors' bills, and incidentals, 16.30 marks 3 91 Per annum, 1,050 marks 252 00 Q. Of what kind of food do your meals consist? — A. For break' fast, bread and coffee ; for dinner, soup and the meat of which the soup is made, and one kind of vegetables ; at four o'clock, beer and bread ; and for supper, white bread and potatoes. Q. Are you able to save any portion of your earnings for days of sickness or old age ? — A. Saving is only possible to a man who has no family. In case I atn myself sick, I receive one mark per day from the mechanics' aid association of which I am a member. I do not think of old age, for I expect to work until I die. 11. What are the means furnished for the safety of employes in factories, mines, mills, on railroads, &c, and what are the provis- ions made for the work-people in case of accident? What are the general considerations given by the employers to the moral and physical well-being of the employes? "What are the general rela- tions which prevail between the employer and the employed? 12. What are the political rights enjoyed by workingmen, and what are tbeir influences, through such rights, on legislation? What is the share, comparatively, borne by the working people in local and general taxation? What is the tendency of legislation in regard to labor and the working people? 13. What are the causes which lead to the emigration of the working people, and which influence their selection of their new homes ? What are the principal occupations of the emigrants, &c. ? Part II.— FEMALE LABOR. 1. State the number of women and children, or the closest possi- ble approximation thereto, employed in your district in industrial pursuits, not including ordinary household duties or domestic serv- ants, classifying the same somewhat as follows : a. Manufacturing and mechanical. b. Commercial, including transportation. c. Professional and personal, including Government officials and clerks, teachers, artists, chemists, hotel and boarding- house keepers, journalists, laundresses, musicians, invent- ors, bankers, brokers, lecturers, public speakers, &c. d. Agriculture. e. Mining. /. All other pursuits. LABOR IN EUROPE. O 2. What are the minimum, maximum, and average wages paid to female adults? 3. Their hours of labor. 4. What is the moral and physical condition of such employes ? 5. What are the means provided, and by whom, for the improve- ment of these employ 6s f C. What are the means provided, in case of fire or other dangers, for their safety ? 7. What are the provisions made by the employers in regard to sanitary measures and for the care of the sick and disabled ? 8. Has there been any increase during the past five years in the wages paid women and in the price of the necessaries of life, or otherwise? What are the effects of employment of women on the wages of men and on general social and industrial conditions ? 9. What is the state of education among the women employed and among their children ; and what are the general effects of em- ployment (in factories, mills, stores, &c.) on the family circles, espe- cially as concerns the children of such employes, and on their moral moral and physical condition?" The consuls were further instructed that they were not arbitrarily bound by the foregoing interrogatories, nor by the accompanying blank schedules, which they were expected to fill up with statistical returns showing the rates of wages for the several principal trades and indus- tries. On the contrary, they were informed that these were offered merely as suggestions, it being expected that the reports would embrace every phase of the question calculated to give a comprehensive view of the conditions surrounding and aflecting foreign labor, and so give material for a comparison of these conditions with those which prevail in the United States. Accompanying this circular were suggestions as to the manner in which consular officers should prepare the reports, viz : The method of reducing foreign to American money; the method of reaching true averages, &c, supplemented by fifteen statements, prepared for tabula- tion and designed to show the minimum, maximum, and average wages paid in the following trades and industries: ,(1) the general trades; (2) factories and mills; (3) foundries, machine-shops, and ironworks; (4) glassworks and potteries; (">) mines and mining; (G) railway em- ployes; (7) ship yards aud shipbuilding; (8) seamen's wages; (9) store and shop wages; (10) household waj;es in towns and cities; (11) agricul- tural wages; (12) corporation employes; (13) Government departments and offices; (14) trades and labor in Government employ; (15) printers and printing offices. It is to be observed that the heads of inquiry relate to facts alone, without disclosing any line of theory or argument to be fortified, the aim being to obtain the fullest and most comprehensive information concerning the state of labor throughout the world, and to insure uni- formity and simplicity in the consular treatment of the subject, so as to bring the results within popular comprehension, leaving as little as pos- sible for the statistical analyst to disentangle. A task of no little delicacy was thus intrusted to the consuls. It was not to be expected that all the reports received would be equally full and unreserved as to every condition deemed necessary for a comparison of the situation and life of the foreign laborer with those of the American wage-earner. 6 LABOR IN EUROPE. Had the letter as well as the spirit of the circular been uniformly observed, there would not be occasion for any review of the answers thereto; each report would be a review in itself, from which little need be abstracted for special comment or for purposes of comparison. ±ne fact, however, that in a majority of cases the consuls were forced, by the complicated and various conditions prevailing and by the great difficulty experienced in securing tbe necessary statistics, to adopt inde- pendent modes in the preparation of their reports, renders it necessary to make a concise review of the whole in an introductory letter, selecting the salient statistics from the reports of the several countries for com- parison with each other and with the conditions which prevail in the United States. While reports in answer to the circular are received from every coun- try, colony and island with which the United States hold commercial rela- tions and in which they have consular representation, and while all are valuable and necessary to the complete presentation of the subject to be treated, " the condition of labor throughout the world," those which cover the labor conditions of Europe most directly concern us, and hence are alone considered in this review. No trade or industry in the United States is free from the more or less direct influence of whatever conditions of labor may exist in Eu- rope. This reflex action is more directly perceptible as the progress of invention and discovery places new resources at the command of skilled labor, and a double competition, of means and of results, is keenly felt, the more so that improved means of transportation bring us nearer to rival producers. The plan of the Department of State is to present a comprehensive view, so far as practicable, of the conditions of labor and production throughout the world ; but as those conditions in Europe more nearly approximate to our own, and as they have been also, from their similar- ity to those existing in this country, more readily collected and tabula- ted, they are given the first place in this report and in its accompanying analysis, leaving to a subsequent report the presentation of the results of the investigations made in America, Asia, and Africa. It is hardly necessary to say that the conditions treated of herein are only such as afford opportunity for comparison with the piincipal condi- tions which prevail iu the United States, viz, the rates of wages, hours of labor, prices of food and articles of consumption, &c. Those seeking fuller information should read the reports iu detail. Before entering, particularly upon the subject matter of this letter, it may be well to indicate the order of treatment pursued. Each consular district is spoken of separately and briefly, the wages, habits and customs, moral and physical conditions of the working classes being touched upon, as well as the manner of living, &c, pre- vailing therein, while a general resumS for the country at large is given at the close, the whole concluding with a general recapitulation for all Europe, in which the labor elements of the several countries wages food prices, manner of living, &c. — are compared wirh each other and all these iu turn with the conditions which prevail in the United States. While the consular reports are referred to in their respective places' it is not out of place to say here that the answers to the Labor Circular have rarely been equaled in the history of the consular labors of anv country. The whole may be set down as comprehensively showing the conditions which surround and affect labor; and considering the want of systematic provision in most countries for the full collection of practical and vital labor statistics, it may justly stand as a noteworthy UEEUR IN EUROPE. i record of the industry and ability of the consular officers of this Gov- ernment. In this connection, allusion may be pertinently made to the present difficulty of securing national statistics of labor in the United States. It may be doubted whether any nation holding a commanding position in industrial home production and foreign trade is more deficient in this regard. While there are many weil-organized labor bureaus in the several States and an abundant crdlection of local and special statistics might be made, yet a comprehensive national system still remains to be effectively set on foot. The organization of the Federal Bureau of Labor is at once a recognition of a national want and a step towards meeting it. The result, however, must naturally be a question of time, and years may be expected to pass before the new bureau can give the much-needed collective view of all the elements of the labor problem in the United States, and furnish an intelligent and useful showing of the true relationship of labor and wages to effective production. In the ab- sence of such indispensable statistics an absolute and certain com- parison becomes difficult. For the purposesof comparison, only the most elementary statistics of wages and hours of labor in the United States have been accessible, and even those for but a few principal trade cen- ters. Pleasure is taken in acknowledging the courtesy of the gentlemen who so promptly and kindly furnished the same. In preparing the following synopsis of the several reports the aim has been to present the simplest facts in the most condensed form, using the words of the consuls themselves wherever practicable. SYISTOIPSIS BY COUNTEIES. GERMANY. The German laborer excels in perseverance, patience under the most trying circumstances, trustworthiness, industry and economy. These virtues enable him to maintain existence in his own land on low rates of wages, and to accomplish great results in almost every field of labor, whether in his own country or abroad, and make him, when transferred by emigration to new fields of labor, a valuable and productive citizen. For these reasons, and because of the direct, relations of labor in Germany with labor in the United States — a constantly augmenting import of German manufactures into the United States being recorded by onr customs, those for the past year amounting to no less than $57,400,000 — the reports from our consuls in Germany are more freely drawn upon for such points as are considered illustrative of the subject uuder review than the reports from those countries whose man- ufactures and workers affect us in a less degree. ALSACE-LOKKAINE. "The working-people of Alsace-Lorraine," writes Consul Ballow, of Kehl, in his very full report, "consist of two classes, those who follow the occupations of their parents before them — born to the heritage of special labor, as it were — and those who come from other portions of Germany seeking employment in busy times." The consul adds, and statistics bear him out, that the customary wages in Alsace are higher than those which obtain in any other portion of the Empire. Another advantage possessed by the work-people of Alsace over those of the remainder of the Empire is thus recorded by the consul: Alsace is still under French law (the Code Napoleon), and the political rights of the workingman are the same as those of the millionaire, or as those of the people of the Uuited States. Every Alsatian citizen is a voter and eligible. The division of voters into classes of different degrees does uot prevail in this district as in other portions of the Empire. The following statements from Mr. Ballow's report show the average rates of wages, and the manner of living of the workingmen and work- ingwomeu of Alsace Lorraine : The general trades. — Wages paid in Strasbnrg per week of G0> hours: Bricklayers, $4.15; masons, $4.15; hod carriers $3 oi . plasterers, $4.88; tenders, $2.54; slaters and roofers, $4.28- tend* ers, $2.80; plumbers, $4.13; assistants, $2.80; carpenters '$4 75 gas-titters, $5.09; blacksmiths, $ i.88; bookbinders, $4.63- "cabinet' makers, $4.91 ; confectioners, $4.20 ; cigar-makers, $5.13; coopers LABOR IN EUROPE. 9 $3.36; engravers, $5.21; laborers and porters, $4.21 ; potters, $3.64. Tanners. — Wages paid at Barr per day of 12 hours: Whiteners, 86 cents ; curriers, 71 cents ; beam hands, 66 cents ; laborers, 52 cents. Foundries and machine-shops. — Wages paid in Strasburg per week of 00 hours: Machinists, $5.85; molders, $5.10; turners, $5; brass- workers, $4.52 ; planers, $4.20. Shop wages. — Wages paid in Strasburg per mouth in dry-goods stores: Cashiers, men, $49; cashiers, women, $33; bookkeepers,, men, $38.90; bookkeepers, women, $30.20; salesmen, $27; sales- women, $22.25. Fancy stores. — Saleswomen, $21.80; girl apprentices, $7.50 per month. Agricultural laborers. — Wages paid per year and found : Laborer, man, $67.30; woman, $30; day laborer, with board, 40 cents; day laborer, in harvest time, without board, 80 cents. Printers. — Wages paid per week of 60 hours in Strasburg: proof- readers, $7.20; compositors, $6.40; feeders, $2.76; folders, $2.04, Prices of the necessaries of life in. the principal cities of Alsace. — Per pound: Wheat flour, 6 cents; wheat bread, 4£ cents; rye bread, 2£ cents; beef, sirloin, 40 cents; beef, common, 18 cents;, mutton, 23 cents; veal and pork y 18 cents; bacon, 20 cents; pota- toes, 2 cents ; rice, 10 cents ; butter, 25 cents ; sugar, 9 and 10 cents; salt, 3 cents; petroleum, 7 cents (per quart); coffee, 30- cents; candles, 17 cents; soap, 10 cents; tea, $1; beer, 6 cents (per quart). Alsatian wobkingmen's meals. — Breakfast consists gener- ally of coffee and bread; sometimes bread and a bit of cheese and no coffee. Masons and laboring men often eat bread and one or two raw onions and salt. Dinner: Soup, sometimes, but not generally or regularly. The better-situated mechanics have beef soup twice or three times a week, generally soup made of water, slices of bread, slices of 6nion, and a little butter; sometimes vegetable soup. When the meals are brought to them to the shoi> or factory, by their wives or children, soup is not easily carried, and in its place they have vegetables, such as potatoes, cabbage or carrots, boiled or stewed^ either with or without beef, according to circumstances. Married journeymen seldom eat meat more thau twice or three times a week, Laboreis eat meat (boiled beef) only on Sundays, but even on that day not regularly. Supper is taken at home at 8 o'clock, and consists either of soup^ without meat, such as potato soup, or of boiled potatoes eaten with salad, or with a sort of cheese called " white cheese," bought, on market days only, of peasants, and made of sour milk. It is sea- soned just before being served with salt and pepper, caraway seed, and chopped chives. Sometimes sausage and bread, or cheese and bread. Women and children very often take coffee and bread for supper the same as for breakfast. Working hours in Alsace. — Work begins at 6 o'clock in the morn- ing. An intermission of half an hour is allowed at 8 for breakfast. The. work is resumed at 8J o'clock and continues until noon. From noon to 1 is the regular dinner hour. From 1 o'clock the work goes on until 7, with a quarter of an hour's intermission at 4. Many workmen have the baid habit of taking a small glass of brandy, which costs 2 cents, on their way to work in the morning. 10 LABOR IN EUROPE. BARMEN. Barmen being the center of manufacture of the well-known "Barmen goods," so largely imported into the United States, the comprehen- sive and exhaustive report of Consul Schoenle is deserving of pe- rusal by all persons interested in the complex question of mixed labor in mills and factories and its social aspects and results. In the Bar- men industrial establishments the number of females employed is esti- mated at 28,000, and the picture drawn by Consul Schoenle of the evil influences of factory life upon them is not a bright one. It is pleasant, however, to record 'that the principal employers are doing their utmost to preserve and advance the physical and moral well-being of their employes. It would also appear from Mr. Schoenle's investigations that the workingmen of his district (the city of Barmen in particular) are rather irregular in their habits and customs ; comparatively regardless of their future, and not disposed to save— characteristics foreign to preconceived ideas in regard to German workmen. The consul attributes these condi- tions in part to the great increase in drinking saloons and dancing halls, wherein many of the laboring class usually spend their Sundays and Mondays. Many other subjects treated of iu the consul's report are worthy of special' attention, such as the organized condition of labor, aid-societies, prevalence of strikes, co-operative societies, and the general condition of the working people in his district. That portion of his report which deals with emigration — to the United States, principally, of course — and the causes thereof, is particularly interesting. Female labor necessarily occupies a large share of the report, the manufactures of Barmen, as before noted, being of such a nature as to bring them specially within the range of woman's work. The average wages paid to adult women workers is estimated at $2.18 per week of 69 hours, viz, from 7 to <2, and from 1J to 8 p. m. daily. Girls from 12 to 14 years of age are not permitted to be worked over 6 hours per day; girls from 14 to 16 years of age, 8 hours per day. All over 16 years of age are classed as adults. Consul Schoenle, after reviewing the condition of the working women proper — factory, mill, house, and field hands — draws attention to the preparatory schools devoted to the education of women for clerical and bookkeeping positions. The cities of Berlin, Munich, Hamburg, Leipsic, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, and Darmstadt possess schools of this descrip- tion. WAGES IN BARMEN. The following statements show the rates of wages paid to, and the manner of living of, the principal workmen in and around Barmen: General trades. — Wages paid per week of 66 hours : Bricklayers and masons, $3.64; hod-carriers and tenders, $3.20; plasterers, $3.45; tenders, $3.09; plumbers, $3.68; carpenters, $3.80; gas- fitters, $3.93; bakers, $3.81; blacksmiths, $3.93 ; strikers, $3.23 ; brickmakers (84 hours), $4.61; butchers, $3.80; cabinet-makers $3.93; cigar-makers, $4.02 ; coopers, $ i.93 ; engravers, $4.99- hat> ters, $4.17; horseshoers, $4.04; j. welers, $4.64; laborers and por- ters, $3.40; machinists, $4.99; harness-makers, $3.69; tailors (72 LABOR IN EUROPE. 11 hours), $4.29; telegraph operators (revisers), $6.50; tinsmiths, $4.17; barbers, $4 ] 7 ; painters, $4.54; printers, $5. Machine shops and iron tcorks. — Week of 63 hours: Machinists, $5; locksmith's, $4.17; blacksmiths, $4.17; turners, $4.28; planers, $3.81; drillers, $3.45 ; machine laborers, $3.45; model-makers, $5; strikers, $3.57. Printing offices. — Pressman, $4.74; compositors. $5; apprentices, $1.17. Agricultural wages. — Paid per annum, with board and lodging : Farm hands, male, $49.98; farm hands, female, $29.75; house serv- ants, $24.79. Food prices in Barmen. — Per pound : Wheat flour, 4 cents ; but- ter, 33 ceuts ; beans, 4 cents ; potatoes, £■ cent ; cheese, 11, 17, and 26 cents; sausage, 23 cents; beef, 24 cents ; veal, 15 cents; mutton, 17 cents ; pork, 16£ cents; bacon, 17 cents; coflee (green) 38 cents; roasted, 42 cents. HOW A BARMEN WORKING-MAN'S FAMILY LIVES. Approximare estimate of the expenses for the subsistence of a workivgman's family consisting of 7 persons, viz, parents and five children, prepared by Consul Schoenle. Articles. Valae. Potatoes, 56 pounds $0 47 Sausage-fac 07 Bread, 21 pounds (brown) - 45 Apple-butter, 1£ pounds 14 Coal 14 Lard or butter 10 Kerosene 10 Common sausage 12 Bacon 12 Meat 15 Flour 05 Barley 04 Beans 04 Peas '. 04 Vegetables 05 Clothing 33 Shoes 12 Rent , 42 Vinegar 01 Salad oil 02 Rapeseed oil 07 Tobacco 04 Brandy, &c 10 Soap and household ware 10 Taxes 04 Sick fuDd and incidentals 10 School fees and utensils 06 Sundries .'. 08 Total week's expenses 3 57 12 LABOR IN EUROPE. BERLIN. The verv full returns concerning labor statistics, not only for Berlin, but for the whole Empire, embraced in Consul General Brewer's report, will be availed of further on in the summary for all Germany, bucli facts only as are pertinent to the immediate district of the consulate- general are theretore referred to here. WAGES IN BERLIN. The following statement showing the rates of wages paid in the gen- eral trades in Berlin per week of 60 to 78 hours, from the consul-gen- eral's report, is taken from recent official returns published by the city authorities : Stone and marble workers. — Stone-cutter's, $5.41 ; marble-cutters $5.71; marble-grinders, $4.28; laborers, $3.80. Crockery ware. — Crockery-ware molders, $5.71; model-joiners, $5} firemen, $5.35; coadman, $4.25; laborers, $3.92. Potters, $5; laborers, $2.10. Porcelain ivorkers. — Turners, $5.35; painters, $5.71; burners $3.57; grinders, $3.57 ; apprentices, $1.42 Eouvdries of articles of art. — Molders, $3.57; workmen. $2.61. Engine works. — Mechanics, $4.45; blacksmiths, $4.76; joiners and molders, $4.53; workmen, $3.42. Bookbinders. — Journeymen, $4.04; girls, $1.90; gilders, males, $4.76; gilders, females, $2.14; leather workers, $4.28. Sewing-machine factories. — Locksmiths, $5.47; joiners, $5.23 j workmen, $4.28 ; workwomen, $3.33. General trades. — Brass-founders, $4.76; brass-turners, $4.28; ap- prentices to brass-founders, 95 cents; laborers in brass foundries, $3.35; coppersmiths, $4.28; watchmakers, $4.28; weavers, $3.21} warpers, $4.28; winders, females, $1.78; ropemakers, $3.57; tan- ners, $-1.64; harness-makers, $3 57; upholsterers, $4.76; female upholsterers, $2.38 ; coopers, $4.28 ; tailors, $2.85; female tailors, $1.42; ladies' cloak-makers, $4.22; female cloak-makers, $1.66} hatters, $4.76; female hatters, $2.38 ; shoemakers, $2.85 and $3.57 } masons, $3.91); carpenters, $4.21 ; glaziers, $4.28; painters, $4.28} type-founders, $4.28. HOW THE WORKINGMAN LIVES IN BERLIN. The following statements, showing the manner in which the working- men of Berlin live, were made up by the consul-general from personal interviews. The statement covers, first, the family of a day laborer in a coal-yard ; second, the family of a stone mason, and, third, the family of a bookbinder. A laborer's statement. How old are you 1 Forty-one years. What is your business? Day laborer in a coal-yard. What wages do you receive ? About $123 a year, but very un- certain J Can you support your family upon such wages ? My wife is com- pelled to do all sorts of work, washing, &c, and my eldest daughter fifteen years old, assists. " ' LABOR IN EUEOPE. 13 Will you explain, in detail, the uses you make of your money f Two rooms and a kitchen in the court-yard basement $77 11 Clothing 23 80 Food 51 40 Tax for city 3 57 Find 10 71 School-books 3 80 Doctor, medicine 7 14 Sundries 8 56 Total for the year 186 09 Saving is out of the question. We live mostly on potatoes we Taise ou a piece of land let by Berlin magistrates against a fee of $2.14. Meat we eat only four times a week, buying half a pound for 11 cents. A mason's statement. Has a wife and three children living in a village outside of Berlin; 30 years old; works in Berlin for 95 cents per day; works from six in the morning until six in the evening ; idle over four months per annum ; can hardly support his family ; has the use of a piece of land to grow potatoes; keeps a goat, and raises a hog for meat; own annual earnings would amount to about $238. His living expenses are: Kent, his own sleeping place in Berlin $11 42 Kent, for family iu village - 12 85 Clothing - 29 75 Food f.r self in Berlin (8 months) '-., 102 72 Food for self and family at home 94 21 Fuelandlight . 7 14 Income-tax in Berlin 1 42 School-tax 71 Tobacco '. 9 28 Sundries ..: 28 65 Aid society 2 85 Total per annum 301 00 In Berlin, eat same as other mechanics ; at their village home, eat a little meat about three times a week; live mostly on potatoes •of our own growth, with a little coffee or milk soup with rye bread in the morning, and bread or potatoes for supper. (Jan save nothing. What is saved in summer is spent in winter. If sickness comes the family have medicine and physician gratis through the workmen's aid association. A BOOKBINDER'S STATEMENT. Bookbinder, with wife and three children ; 33 years old ; earns 89 cents a day ; cannot support his family thereon ; deficiency made up by letting a room. Total income per year about $370. Ex- penses as follows : Rent, 2 rooms and kitchen $92 'Rj Food and fuel 185 64 Clothing 38 00 Rent tax 5 70 Municipal income tax 1 90 Mechanics aid society 9 00 Tobacco 8 56 Newspapers 4 28 Beer, amusements, &c 25 00 Total 370 90 Unable to save anything. 14 LABOE IN EUROPE. FOOD PRICES IN BERLIN. Wheat flour, 4£ to 5J cents per pound ; cornmeal, 5£ to 6 cents per pound ; Carolina rice, 8 to 10 cents per pound ; butter 30 to So cents per pound ; beef 17 to 20 cents per pound ; mutton, 17 to 20 cents per pound ; pork, 16 to 20 cents per pound ; ham, 25 to 30 cents per P°und ; lard, 18 cents per pound ; veal, 22 to 25 cents per pound ; wheat bread, 9 to 10 cents per pound ; rye (black), 5 to 7 cents ; sugar, 8 to 15 cents per pound ; coffee, 27 to 40 cents per pound ; teas, 70 to 130 cents per pound ; coal per ton, $3.50 to $5. COST OF LIVING. Referring to the cost of living in Berlin, Consul-General Brewer says : My own experience as a housekeeper convinces me that tea, coffee, sugar, and most of the necessaries of life, in the shape of food, are higher in Berlin than in New York. I know the question is often asked in the United States, " How can the laboring people in Germany live if they receive only such a small return for their labor?" My reply is simply, they do not live as well as the Amer- ican laboring classes. They are also, as a rule, much more econom- ical in their expenditures and in their manner of living, and every member of the family who can labor must do so in order to assist in caring for themselves and the general household. The laboring wamen here are accustomed to perform the hardest of manual la- bor, on the farm, in the shop, about the mines, &c, such labor as would only be performed by the strongest of men in the United States. BREMEN. Consul Wilson's report shows that in most respects the condition of the laboring classes in his district, which embraces the free state of Bremen, the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, the province of East Friesland, and a part of the province of Hanover, and contains over one million of inhabitants, is superior to that in perhaps any other portion of the German Empire, Alsace Lorraine excepted. Referring to wages in cities and country, the consul says that in gen- eral the rates paid in the former are greater than those paid in the lat- ter, although the laborers in the country have many adyantages not possessed by those in the cities, such as cottages rent free and gardens, and often pasturage for a cow or a sheep. Thus, although the city laborer gets the higher wages, the condition of the country laborer is the bet- ter of the two. The following extract from Consul Wilson's report shows how the better class of mechanics live in Bremen : A workman whose, weekly earnings" amount to $5.20 will pay about $45 ayearfor house rent. Outside of the city, in the surround- ing villages, a mile or two from his work, the rent will be $35 a year. His furniture is of the cheapest kind, tables and chairs often of his* own make. He seldom eats a meal at home, except supper as he goes to work at G a. in., has half an hour for breakfast at 8, and an hour for dinner at 1. His wife or child brings him dinner, which consists of soup, with potatoes or other vegetables, and a slice of bacon or meat. He stops work at 6, and has his supper, which con- LABOR IN EUROPE. 15 sists of rye bread, butter of the cheapest kind, cheese, aad tea at home. On Sunday there is meat for the whole family. He has his Sunday suit, which costs him $10, and which must last him four or five years. He belongs to a mutual benefit society, into which he pays about 25 cents a month, and out of which he draws, when sick, $2.15 per week for a period not exceeding six mouths. His heirs are entitled to $35 in case of death. The residence tax is 8 per cent, on the house, and the tax on earniugs 8 per cent, on the in- come, which entitles the payer to full political rights. The following extract from the consul's report concerning the habits of the working class shows that the working people of the Bremen district may be set down as retaining and possessing the best characteristics of the German laborer : The habits of the working class in general may be said to be good. As a rule they are steady, sober, trustworthy, and saving, always eager to lay something by for age or sickness. In this the fathers are admirably assisted by the mothers, who preside at their homes or work iu the fields with their husbands. The wife usually has charge of the cash-box, and endeavors to make her home as pleasant as possible for her husband and children. In regard to the condition of the female laborers in his district, the consul says that the effect of the employment of women in factories, mills, stores, &c, upon the family circle is such that home life and home influence, such as exist in the United States, are almost unknown. . Home, with this class, is merely a place to sleep. As before noted, the general condition of the laboring class of the Bremen district is far above the average ot that prevailing in other parts of Germany, yet, with all this advantage, the workingman can only support his family by the most rigid economy on the part of every member thereof. The following statement wdl show the average wages paid in Bre- men, according to Consul Wilson's returns : Average weekly tcages paid in the general trades in Bremen per week of sixty hours. — Bricklayers, $4.75 ; masons, $5 ; tenders, $3.65 ; plasterers, $4.50 ; tenders, $3.61 ; slaters, $4.35 ; plumbers, $ 1.57 ; assistants, $3.20; carpenters, $5; gas-fitters, $4.11; bakers, $3.55; blacksmiths, $4.28; strikers, $3.57; bookbinders, $5.15; brick- makers, $4.75; brewers, $4.61'; butchers, $3.61; brass founders, $4.28 ; cabinet-makers, $3.30 ; confectioners, $3.43 ; cigarmakers, $4.19; coopers, $4.28; cutters, $3.91; distillers, $2.86; draymen and teamsters, $3.17 ; drivers of cabs, carriages, &c, $2.46 ; drivers on street railways, $3.10; dyers, $3.53; hatters, $1.35; horse- shoers, $3; jewelers, $4.67; millwrights, $3.57; potters, $4.28; printers, $5 ; tailors, $3.95. Average weekly wages paid the glass workers in glass works in Ober- kirchner, near Bremen, per week of sixty-five hours. — Blowers, $5.41; shearers, $6 ; mixers, $3.57 ; carriers, $1.43 ; laborers, $2.14 ; bas- ket makers, $2.14. Store and shop wages in retail stores, per year. — Salesmen, $357 ; saleswomen, $286; cutters, $428; assistant cutters, $238 ; cashiers, $261; apprentices, $30 ; book-keepers, $238. Eetail houses keep, open from 7 a. m. to 10 p. m., allowing an hour for dinner and half an hour for supper. 16 LABOR IN EUROPE. Household wages in towns and cities, per year.— Head butter, $357 ; assistant, $150; coachman, first class, $83 ; second class, $00; nrst- class cook, $357; second-class, $160; stableman, $59.50; stoole- bov, $23 ; house servant, $35.70 ; female housekeeper, $95.20 ; as- sistant, $59.50; governess, $83.30; chambermaid, $59.50; wash- maid, $23.80 ; servant girl, $23.80. Printing offices in Berlin,per week of sixty hours.— Foreman, $8.50; compositor, $5; pressman, $5; proof-reader, $5; engineers, $6; wood engraver, $6: stereotyper, $6; press girl, $2; apprentice, $1 ; laborer, $3.81. DRESDEN. Owing to the temporary absence of Consul Mason from his post, his report on the trade conditions of his district was received too late for any extended review herein. As the wages in Dresden, however, differ very little from those ruling in other portions of Saxony, the figures given under Leipsic and Annaberg may be taken as a fair estimate for Dresden. There are some features in that portion of Consul Mason's report re- lating to female labor which may be of interest to American readers, as presenting a picture graphically illustrating one phase of life in Con- tinental Europe. WOMEN AND DOG TEAMS. The consul says: An important factor in the labor of Germany is not inquired of in the circular, viz, the labor of dogs. I have heard it estimated that women and dogs, harnessed together, do more hauling than the railroads and all other modes of conveyance of goods united. Hundreds of small wagons can be seen every day on all the roads leading to and from Dresden, each having a dog for the "near horse" harnessed, while the "off horse" is a woman, with her left hand grasping the wagon-tongue to give it direction, and the right hand passed through a loop in a rope which is attached to the axle, binding her shoulder ; thus harnessed, woman and dog trudge along together, pulling miraculous loads in all sorts of weather. The vitality and indomitable endurance of the German race are most forcibly illustrated by these women workers, who, adds Mr. Mason, "are the decendants of the matrons who bore the soldiers who lought under Arminius, and baffled, captured, and destroyed the Roman legions in the forests of Germany, and are themselves the mothers of the men who carried victory on their bayonets from the fields of Gravelotte, Metz, and Sedan." DUSSELDORF. Consul Warner complains that he encountered much difficulty in secur- ing the necessary statistics to complete his report, owing to the unwill- ingness of many of the manufacturers in his district to supply informa- tion in regard to wages paid, the condition of workiugmen, &c. Never- theless, enough of enlightened manufacturers and statisticians re- sponded to enable him to complete a very valuable report. L.A.BVK IN EUROPE. 17 From the consul's investigations it would seem that the working class of Dusseldorf have retained very much of the primitive simplicity of their forefathers. He reports that the working classes are content with the present wages; that work has increased somewhat during the last few years, and that although wages may not have increased proportion- ately, no one need be idle. Piecework seems to be the most satisfac- tory to the employer and employed, the latter, it is said, earning more thereby, being actuated to greater effort by increased pay for increased labor. The feeling between employer and workmen is reported as good, and strikes are consequently rare. It would seem that the Dusseldorf workingman places himself altogether in the hands of his employer, and usually submits to a reduction of wages without protest whenever the employer assures him of the necessity for such reduction in order to meet exigencies, local or foreign. It is said by the consul that in return for this the majority of Dusseldorf employers show a paternal re- gard for their artisans. The wages paid to the general trade in Dusseldorf average, per week of 60 hours, about the same as those paid in Bremen. The average wages paid in the manufactories throughout the district is estimated at from 52 cents to 60 cents per day. The manner of living which prevails among the workingmen of Dus- seldorf can be appreciated from the following estimate of the yearly expenses of a first-class artisan with a family of four members : "Bent, $47.60; food and fuel, $142.80; clothing, $35.70; kranken casse (savings fund), $3.57; taxes, $4.28; incidental expenses, $14.28; schools, $4.76 ; total, $251.56." The working classes of Dusseldorf, says the consul, very seldom enjoy the luxury of meat in any abundance, their food consisting principally of bread, vegetables and coffee. A computation of very great interest, made by Mr. Bueck, an econom- ical writer and secretary of the Industrial Association for guarding the common interest of the industries of the Bhineland and Westphalia, is communicated by the consul. This statement shows the wages earned during the year 1883 by the workmen in 69 iron and steel works, 32 mines, 21 textile factories, 5 chemical works, 4 glass works, 3 sugar re- fineries, and 20 miscellaneous industries. In the iron and steel works above mentioned there were 64,769 em- ployes, of whom 3,496 were boys and 350 were women. The yearly earnings of these employes were as follows : 1, 319 earned from $142 80 to $166 60 7,910 earned' from 166 60 190 40 4, 041 earned from 190 40 214 20 42, 049 earned from 214 20 238 00 5, 265 earned from 238 00 26180 2, 747 earned from 26180 285 60 1, 438 earned upwards of 285 60 If we take the 42,049 persons grouped in the above list as fair repre- sentatives of the average wages paid to the iron and steel workers of the districts of the Rhineland and Westphalia, it will be seen that they each earn from $4.10 to $4.60 per week. Of the 122,000 persons reported by the same authority as working in the 85 other manufacturing industries already recited, only 12,677 are set down as earning from $4.10 to $4.60 per week, the others running all the way from $1.40 to $4 ; the general average being about $2.40 ; women descending even below $1 per week. 92 A— LAB— 2 18 LABOE IN EUROPE. CREFELD. Orefeld being the chief center of the textile industry of Gerl ?j3> much of which is conducted in the homes of the artisans, on nanu- looms, we are brought face to face with the contest of hand labor against the power-loom. According to the consul's return there are about 66,000 persons em- ployed in the textile industry of Orefeld, of whom 50,000 are weavers, a small proportion of whom reside in the town. It is estimated that 90 per cent, of the fine silk, half-silk, velvet, and plush goods manufact- ured in the district is still made on hand-looms, in the homes of the weavers. This is called " house industry," and its continued existence is threatened by the gradual introduction of power-looms, and, of course, factory centralization. Although the hand-weavers of Crefeld are only enabled to maintain existence by long hours and unremitting toil, they will fight for their " house industry" to the bitter end, the decrease of wages and its attendant poverty consequent upon the encroachment of the factory system making the fight all the more bitter. Consul Potter's description of the weavers' home life, their cottages and their villages, pictures a condition of social life which is fast dis- appearing — a picture which, perhaps, can be found nowhere else in such primitive simplicity as in his district. Here we see German artisan life in all its rustic purity — the patient and intelligent husband, aided by the equally patient and industrious wife, inured to a life of toil, each house- hold the center of its little branch of industry, and endowed with the virtues of home. Whoever follows the consul into the villages of the (Jrefeld weav- ers and witnesses the poverty, only kept at bay by unremitting toil such as the indomitable German artisan will endure year in and year out, will be impressed with the belief that any change must be for the better, and that factory life, even with its associate tendencies, would be an improvement on the cottage industry. It is impossible to give here more than one or two examples from the consul's report of how the Orefeld weavers live. "An intelligent young silk weaver of Crefeld, twenty-nine years of age, who has worked at the trade since he was fourteen years of age, an expert in his business and consequently having a choice of work, informed the consul that by working from 13 to 15 hours per day at his loom he could earn $3.37 per week. Very few weav- ers, he said, could earn this wage, 8 to 10 marks — about $2 — per week being the average wages earned by the weavers of Crefeld. Being a single man, he was able to get along on his wages. " H W , a weaver in St. Huberte, near Crefeld, thirty- nine years of age, has a wife and three children, and one assist- ant; a velvet weaver; three looms; odo for himself, one for his wife, and one for his assistant. Looms set up in one room, 15 by 12. This is also the living-room, where they cook, take meals, and do the household work. The united earnings of husband and wife amount to $3.80 per week ; one-third of assistant's wages also goes to the family. This gives a total yearly income of $226.81 for the husband, wife, and three children. Has worked at his trade 24 years. Works all the time, but can save nothing. Hours of labor from 4 a. m. to 9 p. m. in summer ; from 7 a. m. to 9 p. m. in winter.'' On a weekly wage rate of $3.80 for five in family the food consists of bread and coffee, and sometimes butter, at 7 a. m'. ; coffee or beer, and ESBOR IN EUROPE. 19 bread at 10 ; soup, vegetables, and sometimes bacon, at noon ; bread and coffee at 4 p. m., and potatoes only at 8 p. m. This may be said to be the daily diet, except in dull times, of the 50,000 Crefeld weavers and their families. In regard to saving up for old age, this velvet weaver, a most intelli- gent man, said he could not save anything. " Old age!" exclaims the weaver ; " there is no use in bothering ourselves about it, for very few weavers reach old age." The following is the summary of an interview with a laborer who works on the Government highway near Crefeld : " Wages, $8.08 per month, without supplies of any kind ; hours of labor, 6 a. m. to 7 p. m., with half an hour for dinner. Self and wife, family having grown up and left him. Thinks his lot repre- sents the lot of a large portion of the laboring class of Germany. Coffee and black bread for breakfast ; vegetables and soup for din- ner; buttermilk and potatoes for supper." Special attention is invited to Mr. Potter's interviews, in detail, with the many representative workers in his district, from which the fore- going extracts are taken; also to that portion of his report which deals with the homes of the weavers, the coal and iron mines of Essen, the Prussian elementary school system, &c. MAYENCE. Consul Smith's report embraces a large amount of analytical statis- tics, and, under the circumstances detailed by him in his research for matter for its composition, bears ample testimony to his zeal and fidelity. Mr. Smith, after full and earnest investigation, estimates the aver- age weekly wages in Mayence as follows: Common day-laborers, $2.50; mechanics and skilled workmen, $4.25. The wages earned, adds the consul, according to American ideas, are exceedingly small, and barely suffice to keep the recipients on their feet. HOUSE INDUSTRY IN HESSE. The foregoing wages apply to the cities of his district ; in the country very different conditions prevail. In the mountainous portions of Hesse, says the consul, the people are employed in "house industry," in making articles at home, such as nails for shoes, and locks, diaper pins, hairpins, and other wire goods, fillet work, wooden ware, toys, &c. The whole family participates in the " house industry," whatever that may happen to be. Yet this united labor yields them a bare subsistence. Nailsmiths get from 10 to 12 cents per thousand nails turned out. Working from 5 in the morn- ing to 8 at night, with his wife and children to assist him, a man can make 20 to 28 cents per day. Large needles are paid for at a higher rate; yet a man laboring 13 hours per day can hardly earn more than 28 cents. At fillet work a practiced woman, working 13 hours a day, can seldom earn more than 15 cents. Sewing enameled pearls on lace is mostly done by girls, who receive, for each 100 pearls sewed on, 1 cent. Practiced hands, working 14 hours a day, can earn 15 cents sewing on these pearls. A good workman will turn off in 14 hours 5 dozen wooden spoons, for which he is paid 4£ cents per dozen : 22J cents for 14 hours' labor. 20 LABOR IN EUROPE. Out of this ho has to supply the wood from which *^e spoons are made. His net earnings are, therefore, about 16£ cents per u<*j. This he can run up to 23, and even 28 cents, when he has the <*****: ance of wife and children. The wages of the weavers in this a^irici run from 11£ cents up to 47 cents per day, the latter being earned Dy the best workmen for the finest kind of work. Of farm labor, writes the consul, there are different kinds, irom those engaged to do such menial work as attending to horses, who receive from $45 to $70 per year, with board and lodging— which latter means living in the stables with the cows and horses— 'to the per- manent day laborer, who is paid 27 cents per day, and is given one-fourth of an acre of ground to plant with potatoes, with occasional advantages. The temporarily employed laborer gets 33 cents per day, and during har- vest times as much as 50 and even 75 cents. Women engaged upon the lighter kinds of field labor receive 20 cents per day without board. In writing of the cost of living to the working classes, the consul says that the workingmen of Germany, where married, live in a very ordinary manner, subsisting in the main upon potatoes, rye bread, com- mon sausage, beer, and very inferior coffee. HOW A WORKINGMAN LIVES IN MATENOE. The consul visited a workingman in Mayence representing the com- mon laboring class. He lives in two fourth-story rooms, for which he pays $26.64 rent per year. The house is a dilapidated structure, in a narrow street, whose stairway is so crooked that a stranger ascends it with difficulty. He has a wife and four children, and all live in the two rooms. He earns about 50 cents per day, to which his wife adds a little by occasionally doing washing or other work. The total yearly ex- penses of this family are given as follows : Clothing for the workman : 1 pair of pantaloons, $2.38; 2 shirts, $1.42; 3 blouses, $2.13; shoes, $5.71; socks, $1.42; working coat, $2.14 ; vest, 59 cents ; hat, 95 cents; total clothing for himself, $16.(i4. Clothing for his wife, $19; and for his children, $8. Total clothing for family per year, $43.74. Necessa- ries of life : Fuel, $13.11 ; taxes, $4.09 ; dinner for family, which con- sists of soup, flesh, potatoes, and sometimes greens, 20 cents per dinner, or $73 per year; rent, $26.64 ; beer, 2 glasses per day, $15.65; sundry expenditures, $12.75. This makes a total expenditure of $189.13, or about $22 per year more than he could earn working every day in the year, Sundays excepted. It will be noted that breakfast and supper were not estimated. The money for these and the foregoing balance must be provided for by the wife, which is almost impossible, or the list of expenses must be considerably cut down. The unfinished statement shows that the workman himself did not have any distinct idea of how he made ends meet. In referring to the habits of the working classes, Mr. Smith rep- resents them as being somewhat slower in their movements and man- ner of laboring than American workingmen, and not quite so self-reli- ant, but persevering and painstaking. In Germanv less is expected of the workingman ; less is paid for and consequently less is rendered Conditions there also are more fixed and the demand for promptness of execution not so imperative. In regard to the agricultural classes of a large portion of Hesse Con sul Smith describes them as better off and more contented than the arti- sans and laborers in towns and cities. The farms are small and mainlv tilled by the proprietors. In the Odenwald district, however the ag LABOR IN EUROPE. 21 riculturists and laborers are anything but prosperous, while in the Spessart district the people are very poorly off, living in uncomfortable and overcrowded houses. In regard to the feeling between employers and employes, the consul reports his interviews with responsible and representative persons. Upon questioning a gentleman of position in a very large establishment on this point, he answered, '' Just say that employers and employes are desperate enemies." Another manufacturer said, " Employers and employes treat one another as beings of a different race or type, and the want of cordial feeling between employers and employes in Germany is the bane of all industry in the Empire." Commenting upon this, Mr. Smith submits some reflections which are equally applicable to the question of the employer or the employed, whose true interests are identical, in the United States and Germany : "The trouble in Germany as well as elsewhere is that men are not just to one another. The employer seems to look upon his employe" as a piece of machinery, out of which as much as possible for as little as possible is to be got, while on the other hand the employe" looks upon his employer as an oppressor and extorter, to whom as little as possible is to be rendered, instead of each cordially respect ing the other and working for each other's welfare." FEMALE LABOR IN HESSE-DARMSTADT. The following statement, prepared by the consul, from official sources, shows the number of females who work for wages, and their several occupations, throughout Hesse-Darmstadt in 1882: In agricultural pursuits 41,421 In forestry, hunting, and fishing 11 In mines, furnaces, and salt-pits 8 In quarrying, earthenware and glass works 96 In machine shops 36 In chemical establishments 210 In making charcoal, tar, pitch, &c 159 In textile industries 1, 405 In paper and leather industries 1,387 In wood-carving and making articles of wood 312 In tobacco factories 2,473 In bakeries and confectioneries 135 In preparing foods and drinks 262 In making and cleaning clothes — seamstresses (6, 820), washer- women, andironers (2,574), &c 10,766 Bricklayers, carpenters, glaziers, roofers, &c 85 Photographers 11 Printers in stone, metal, and colors 104 Cutters and founders of wooden and metallic types 41 Trading in goods and products 3,135 Peddlers 500 Post and telegraph offices 9 Railroad employes 29 Messengers, porters, guides, &c 88 Undertakers 18 Upon ships 14 Drayage 29 Household servants not dwelling with their employers 1, 552 In labor of a changeable character 1,530 In churches and other religions establishments 344 In libraries, art gallerie*, w4 as teachers 913 Sick nurses 1,069 Authors, writers, correspondents, &o 7 In musical and theatrical pursuits 120 Grand total fi8,478 22 LABOR IN EUROPE. The total population of Hesse-Darmstadt is given as 936,340. PTlt «_f foregoing table is instructive as showing the many e ™P^ ^JrrpT considered unwomanly in the United States— engaged in by tne women of Germany because of the labor conditions of that country. The wages earned by female workers in the Mayence district run from 25 to 50 per cent, below male wages. Those employed at ordinary labor or in the factories earn usually from 25 cents to 50 cents iperaay, the average wages being about 30 cents per day. The hours oi labor are the same for females as for males. The employment ot women in factories nas, in the opinion of Mr. Smith, a demoralizing effect upon their moral and physical character. The laws governing the employment of working women in factories, foundries, and mills, and which, to a certain extent, prohibit their em- ployment at very heavy and unwomanly labor, are highly praised by the consul. SAXONY. Mr. Du Bois, Consul in Leipsic, the "City of Books," furnishes some interesting statistics concerning the condition of labor in Saxony. Although he reports considerable improvement in the workman's condition, with a slight increase in wages since 1878, the date of the last report on the "Condition of Labor in Europe," still this improved condition affords the laborer only the necessaries of life, and the wages of the workman in Germany must be supplemented by the earnings of the wife to make both ends meet. Here are the weekly expenses of a tanner, a married man, who earned the rather high wages of $4.04 per week. He is represented as being a hale and good-natured man, who looks on the sunny side of life : House rent, 88 cents ; clothing, 70 ceats ; coffee, 15 cents ; potatoes, 46 cents ; cheese, 15 cents; butter and fat, 60 cents; beer, 35 cents ; black-bread, 34 cents; meat, twice a week, 30 cents; fuel,24; light, 8cents; total, $4.33; this being 29 cents more than he earned. He said that sometimes his wife earned something. When she failed to earn anything he had to strike out the meat, butter, &c, and rely upon black-bread, fat, and potatoes. The quantities of meat, cheese, and coffee, at best, were scanty, not more than half a pound each of coffee and cheese per week, and about 2 pounds of meat. Of female labor in Saxony, the consul says : "Woman is poorly paid, poorly fed, and poorly housed. Her star is an unlucky one. Her fate ought to have been better ; for she is good-natured, economical, industrious and willing. From 6 o'clock in the morning until 7 intbe evening she works at the loom for the sum of $1.68 per week of 66 hours, which is 28 cents per day. This necessarily means poor food, poor clothing, and a hopeless life of toil." The employment of women in the factories and general industries according to Mr. Du Bois's investigations, depresses the average price of labor ; t but, on the other hand, Saxony relies upon cheap female labor for its ability to compete with foreign nations in manufactures Another interesting report on the condition of labor in Saxony is that from Consul Bullock, of Annaberg. This officer also bears testi- mony to an improvement in the condition of the working classes in his LABOR IN EUROPE. 23 district since 1878, but notwithstanding this improvement, says "the difference between the conditions of the American and Saxon artisan remains so great that the latter would regard as an extravagant luxury what the former considers a necessity." SILESIA. An extended report, covering every phase of the labor question as set forth in the Department circular, comes from Mr. Dithmar, Consul in Breslau, for the province of Silesia, Southeast Prussia. Consul Dithmar reports that labor is generally paid less in Silesia than in any other portion of the German Empire, the average wages of unskilled labor for Silesia being estimated at $1.48 per week, against $2.19 for Prussia and $2.40 for the Empire. Living is, however, cheaper in Silesia than in other portions of the Empire. In consequence of the low wages and lack of employment a large migration of artisans and female field-hands from Silesia to East Prussia, Poland, Hungary, &c, takes place every spring. The women work in the fields of Saxony during six or seven months in each year, receiving about 36 cents per day, and return to their homes at the commencement of winter with their saved earnings. According to Mr. Dithmar's returns, agricultural laborers hired by the year are paid daily wages as follows : Male laborers, 10 to 18 cents ; female laborers, 7£ to 12 cents. In addition thereto food is supplied to the value of $18 to $25 per annum. This would give a total income per annum, food and wages combined, counting everv work day in the year, of from $53.30 to $78.34 for male laborers, and of $45.43 to $59.56 for female laborers. These field wages, remarks the consul, are 50 per cent, higher than they were fifty years ago. Mr. Dithmar's investigations among the hand-loom weavers of his district shows a worse condition of affairs even than that which marks the "house-industry" of Crefeld. The home weaver, says the consul, who works steadily for at least eleven hours, assisted by one of his children as spooler, earns about $1.43 per week. There are many households, however, where the money earnings do not average more than 45 cents per week the year round. " I was once able," said a weaver to the consul in the heart of the weaving district, "to earn 8 marks ($1.90) a week, but now my earnings never exceed 72 cents per week." The number of persons employed in furnaces, factories, and mines (coal mines not included) in Silesia is estimated at nearly 75,000 males and 36,000 females, more than one-fourth of the latter being married. These work, on an average, eleven hours per day in summer and ten in winter. THURLNGIA. The district of Thuringia falls under the consulate at Sonneberg; sit- uated in Central Germany, and embracing all the various industries by which labor obtains employment, it is perhaps second to no other district as illustrative of the habits, conditions, and remuneration of labor in Germany. Indeed, in so far as the statistics of this district are required for comparative purposes, it may be taken as the Empire in miniature. In the general trades Mr. Mosher, the consul, reports that the wages per week of 66 hours in the city of Sonneberg and vicinity range from 24 LABOE IN BUKOPE. $3 to $4, a few tradesmen, such as jewelers, lithographers, and Q m ^°°* averaging more than this maximum, and many others less, SUW VJ B bakers, butchers, confectioners, coopers, tailors, tinsmiths, weavers, <*«,., who receive only from $2.50 to $2.75 per week. In the factories and mills of Thuringia more than one-halt tne opera- tives are females, and their wages average from one-third to one-nait less than the wages of the male operatives. The hours of labor in tbe lac- tones and mills are from 66 to 72 per week— the first in the cotton mills and the last in the woolen mills. In woolen mills the following wages are paid per week of 72 hours : Female wool-sorters, $1.15; washers, $2.28 ; carders, $1.95 ; common hands, $1.60 ; spinners, $2.80 ; dress- ers, $3.48 ; watchmen, $1.60 ; day laborers, $2. In the cotton mills the following wages are paid per week of 66 hours : Pickers, $2.08 ; oilers, $2.30 ; grinders, $2.50 ; roving hands, $1.50; speeder girls, $2.13 ; fliers, $1.98 ; doffers, $1.66 ; mule spinners, $3.40; weavers, plain, $2.34; weavers, fancy, $2.84; fancy dyers, $3.90; plain dyers, $3 ; cloth-room hands, $2.84 ; spoolers, $2.23. Foundry and machine shops, per week of 66 hours, the wages earned run from $2.20 for laborers up to $3.40 and $3.75, the highest to casters and engineers. Glass-works, per week of 60 hours, from $1.80 to $3.90. While there are several important glass-works in Thuringia, the greater portion of the work is done at home, nearly every family in certain districts hav- ing its blast-pipe and other appliances. The glass workers, although better paid than any other artisans, are very poor and live in the most frugal manner. Iron and coal mines, per week of 60 hours : Miners, $2.95 ; day labor- ers in mines, $2.90 ; day laborers on surface, $2.30. Miners on contract work earn $3.10. Printing offices, per week of 66 hours : Editors, $6.71 ; publishers, $4.28; proof-readers, $5.23; compositors, $3.96; job printers, $3.98; apprentices, $1.42. Food prices, according to the consul, are about the same as they were in 1878. Toy-making is the principal industry of Sonneberg ; its toy trade was formerly widespread, but on account of the increase in the tariffs since 1879, of several countries, the trade is now almost restricted to England and to the United States. The loss in the toy trade with France, Aus- tria, Italy and Sweden, for the foregoing reason, is estimated in Sonne- berg at $1,190,000 per annum. Mr. Mosher describes the habits of the workingmen as plodding. They are honest and industrious and peaceably disposed, but not thrifty. The feeling between employ*; and employer is one of " organized neu- trality." In all cases of strikes in Thuringia the victory ultimately has been on the side of capital ; hence intelligent and organized labor does not often resort to strikes as a remedy for real or fancied grievances. The consul's report on co-operative societies, which play such an im- portant part in Germany, is worthy of the closest perusal. WURTEMBEKG. The Kingdom of Wurtemberg, writes Mr. Catlin, the consul, in his ad- mirable report, with a population ot 2,000,000, and an area about equal to that of the State of Massachusetts, may be classed as essentially a land LABOR IN EUROPE. 25 of agriculture. One-half its population is, directly or indirectly, de- pendent upon agriculture and kindred pursuits j nearly two-thirds of its area consists of farms, pasture lands, and vineyards, while it con- tains but four cities with more than 20,000 inhabitants each. With the exception of agricultural labor, therefore, the consideration of the ques- tion of capital and labor, in the sense contemplated by the circular, is practically confined to the cities and large towns of the Kingdom. The population of the cities of Wurtemberg, containing each above 20,000 inhabitants, numbers only 195,000, of which 117,000 are inhabitants of Stuttgart, the seat of the consulate for the whole Kingdom ; the other chief cities being Ulm (33,000), Heilbronn (24,000), and Esslingen (20,500), the latter, 10 miles from Stuttgart, being largely engaged in the manufacture of locomotives, machinery and textiles. The series of interviews with representative men, given by Mr. Cat- lin in the form of question and answer, are of considerable interest. Of these special reference may be made to the opinions of Karl Kloss, a joiner by trade, and a public speaker of ability on all questions con- cerning the labor question, and to the views of Herr Dietz, a member of Parliament, and the proprietor of a publishing and printing establish- ment in Stuttgart. Information derived from the president of the board of police gives the number of females employed in the factories, shops, and as servants, &c, in Stuttgart as 12,724. The same authority gives the habits of the working classes as being, in general, orderly, but not as thrifty as they might be. Much fault is found in Wurtemberg with the importation of Italian laborers whenever any large contract-work is to be executed. These laborers are "supplied" to any number by contract agents in Vienna, and they arrive on the ground with something like the mobility and precision of regular troops. The employment of female labor in Wurtemberg, says Mr. Catlin, is more general in the agricultural districts than in the cities. In the former a large proportion of the women depend upon their labor for daily bread. Many of them work in the fields, doing men's work. Many others are employed in the small shops which abound in each village, and a number of young girls work daily for ten hours in factories of all kinds, perhaps 2 or 3 miles distant from their homes. In a population of 120,000 there are registered as earning their own living by labor 15,512 women, of whom 7,144 live as servants in families. Among the many interviews with representative work-people given in Mr. Catlin's report, the following is ^elected as illustrative of female mill-lite in Germany : Question. Where do you live, and what is your employment ? — Answer. I live in Esslingen, and am employed as a jenny-hand in Merkel & Wolf's woolen-yarn factory. Q. Are you married or single? — A. I was married last Febru- ary. I am thirty years old. I have been employed seven years where I now am. Q. How many women and girls altogether are employed in your factory ? — A. About 700, the majority of them unmarried. Q. I suppose that many of the married ones have children ; what do they do with the children while they are at work? — A. They leave the children either with elderly relations or with elderly peo- ple in the houses of friends. In the latter case they pay 10 to 15 marks a month ($2.40 to $3.60) for the child's full board. 26 LABOR IN EUROPE. Q. What are the daily working hours 1— A. From 6 a. m. till 7 p. in., with twenty minutes rest in the morning, one hour at noon, etna twenty minutes in the afternoon; that is, over eleven hours. Q. If you work over that time do you get extra pay tor u .—.a. Certainly, as I am paid by the amount of work I do. Q Are all the hands paid in that way, or do some get a fixed price per day ? — A. Some receive a fixed price, as, for instance, the wool-washers, pickers, and sorters, who are paid from 1.20 to 1.50 marks (28.6 cents to 35.7 cents) per day. The majority are paid, as I am, according to the amount of work done. Q. About how much do you earn on an average per day the year round?— A. Sometimes I earn 2 marks (48 cents) a day, sometimes only 1.50 marks (36 cents). • In the year round I earn an average of 1.70 marks (39 cents) daily. Q. Are you often called on for extra work? — A. Very seldom. Formerly we were. Q. Do most of the female operatives in your mill live in Esslin- gen? — A. No; some live so far away that they have to walk 1£ hours each way going to and returning from their work. They have to leave home at half past 4 in the morning, and do not reach home again until half past 8 at night. Women from the different villages come at noon with the dinners for the operatives from their respective localities. Q. What do the younger unmarried female operatives do with their wages ? — A. Those who have parents contribute it to their support ; those who have not spend it for their own maintenance. They cannot save much unless they stint themselves in their food. Q. Can these girls save anything for marriage? — A. Very little, and that only by hard denial. Q. Did you save up anything before your marriage ? — A. Yes ; about 500 marks ($125), but that was because I was forewoman, worked over hours, and underwent great denials. Q. Are most of the girls industrious and saving? — A. Some are; some are not. Q. Are the most of them good girls ? — A. They vary, like all other people. Q. Are they generally strong and healthy ? — A. Yes, in general. Q. Do the most of them marry sooner or later ? — A. Yes, sooner or later, as soon as they are in circumstances to do so. Q. Are wages higher or lower now than they were five years ago ? — A. The fixed day- wages are about the same, but the rates of payment according to the amount of work done were 20 per cent, higher five years ago, while the cost of living remains about the same. Q. What education had you had before you began to work in the mill ? — A. I had poor parents ; I went to the public school from the time I was seven years old until I was fourteen ; then I was three years in service with a family in the country : then I went to Augsburg and worked for two years in a woolen mill ; then two years in Geislingen in another mill ; then one year in a mill near Cologne ; then two years more near Winterthur, in Switz- erland ; and finally I came to Esslingen, where I now am. Q. Suppose a fire broke out in your mill during the daytime are there means of escape provided for all of you ?— A. Yes • the new portion of the mill is one-storied, but the older portion 'of it has three floors, and there most of the operatives are. It is amply LABOR IN EUROPE. 27 provided with hose, ladders, and buckets, and there would be no danger whatever. Q. Suppose you were to fall sick, and were unable to work for a fortnight, what would you have to depend upon? — A. We have a relief tuncl, to which all of the employes in the mill contribute 40 pfennigs (about 10 cents) each per month. Single operatives are sent to the hospital, and are cared for gratis, besides receiving on their discharge from the hospital 25 pfennigs (6 cents) per day for the period of their illness. Those who have parents or husbands are allowed to remain at home, and are paid 50 pfennigs (12 cents) per day. Q. Do you keep house? — A. Yes ; I and my husband hire a part of a second floor. We have two rooms and a part of the kitchen, for which we pay 60 marks ($14.28) a year. We breakfast together at half past 5 on coffee and bread. When my husband is able to work, we get our dinner at a house near where we live, and pay 35 pfennigs (about 8 cents) apiece for it. We get soup, boiled meat, and some vegetables. We take our evening meal about 7.30 or 8 o'clock. I prepare it myself; a cup of coffee, perhaps a little beer and bread, and a sausage or so. We earn together about 100 marks ($23.80) per month, and with economy we manage to get along on that. Q. Do you think that most of the female operatives are con- tented? — A. Yes; they do not complain of their lot, because they are accustomed to it. REVIEW OF THE LABOR CONDITIONS OF GERMANY. According to a computation made by Mr. Vogeler, consul-general in Frankfort-on-the-Main, based on official returns, the number of work- ing people, male and female, in the German Empire is estimated at 10,500,000 in round numbers, of which 2,500,000 are engaged in do- mestic service. It should be remembered as a modification of this rel- atively large number of persons engaged in labor in Germany that the number of those dependent upon the employed is not relatively so great as in other countries, from the fact that in Germany everybody who can work, young and old, works either for self-support or to contribute to the support of the family. In the foregoing estimate the consul-general embraces all persons en- gaged in (1) agriculture, forestry, and fisheries; (2) mechanical indus- tries, building, and mining ; (3) commerce and traffic ; (4) domestic service ; (5) military service, in schools, and religious teaching, in hos- pitals and benevolent institutions, and in the civil service. / The total population of the Empire is estimated at 46,000,000. These figures bear strong attestation to the fact that, the Germans are a labor people in the strictest sense of the term, that they are inad- equately remunerated, and lead a frugal life. FEMALE LABOR IN GERMANY. From the portions of the several reports devoted to female labor in Germany the following extract from the report of Mr. Mosher, consul in Sonneberg, is selected as a fair illustration of the workingwoman's con- dition throughout Germany : American readers will hardly understand how it can be that the severest part of existence in this whole region falls to the lot of 28 LABOR IN EUROPE. woman. But suoh is the fact. She is the servant and the bardea- bearer. # * " * * * n h Her sex is liberally represented in most of the manual-iaoor oc- cupations of the district, even to mining and foundry work, out tar less liberally in any branch of clerical or professional lite. In a portion of this consulate, containing a population ol lU0,dt>9 males and 106,042 females, I find by the latest official statistics that for each woman who supports herself in civil and church service and the so-called professions there are five and a fraction who sup- port themselves by trade and commerce, nine and a fraction by housework, twenty-four and a fraction by mining, foundry and building work, and sixty-three and a fraction by agriculture, cattle- raising, forestry and fishing. I find, moreover, by the same statistics, 169 women making their living in the same district by working in quarries, 372 by various branches of glass-blowing, 71 by making knives, 1 by making math- ematical instruments, 1 by making musical instruments, 1 as a chemist, 44 by making explosives, 1,907 as paper-makers, 15 as tan- ners, 54 as book-binders and box-makers, 2 as coopers, 355 as turn- ers, 753 by sewing, 3 as notaries' clerks, 76 as teachers of all kinds and grades, including' those engaged in libraries and as musicians, 67 as authors and writers of all kinds, including copyists and cor- respondents, and 16,109 who make their living by "agriculture, cattle-raising, forestry, hunting, and fishing." But this includes only those described as self-supporting in the branches mentioned. The whole number of women and children (girls) employed in agricultural pursuits is 39,218; the correspond- ing number of males is 32,714. Thus it is seen that the chief pursuits of women in this district are not of a gentle or refining character. They perform by far the greater part of all the outdoor manual service. The planting and the sowing, including the preparation of the soil therefor, is done by them. I have seen many a woman in the last few weeks holding the plow drawn by a pair of cows, and still more of them carrying manure into the fields in baskets strapped to their backs. They also do much of the haying, including the mowing and the pitch- ing ; likewise the harvesting, after which they thrash much of the grain with the old-fashioned hand-flail. They accompany the coal carts through the city and put the coal in the cellars while the male driver sits upon his seat. They carry on nearly all the dairy business, and draw the milk into town in a hand-cart — a woman and a dog usually constituting the team. * * * In a half day's walk through the country recently I counted 130 women hoeing in the fields, and only 5 men. "What pay do you receive for this labor?" 1 asked. " From 50 to 70 pfennigs [12 to 17 cents] a day," she answered, " with schnapps at 9, potatoes and coffee at noon, and black bread and beer at 4." " How long is your day's work V " From 6 to 6 ; but we often work till 9 or 10 at 10 pfennigs an hour for extra time"— and she then went to rearrange the bottle of goat's milk for her baby, which had awakened from its nap in the grass at the edge of the field Many of the younger women are employed in the doll and toy factories, at about 15 cents a day, or else in doing piecework of the same kind in their own rooms, at which they earn, perhaps 20 uer cent, more weekly, but it involves more hours of labor. ' JL.ABOB IN EUROPE. 29 As to their moral and physical condition, they are both hardy and phlegmatic; in other words, they are physically strong, and do not seem to be so much exposed to temptation as women of a more nervous temperament are. The general effects of such a life as I have described are not favorable to the development of the best domestic qualities. The housekeeping of the laboring classes is of the most primitive sort. The cooking is wretched. There is but little display of family affection, but the home feeling is very strong. Educationally the women are not, as a rule, equal to the men ; but, except in the case of the technical schools, to which they are not admitted, they enjoy equal educational privileges. The. wages of women average about one-half those of men. At the present time there are about 6,000 more women than men in the Dukedom of Saxe-Meiningen, with a population of 207,075, and in the whole consular district, with a population of 1,216,815, there is a surplus of 30,609 women. Emigration accounts largely for this difference, since the men can more easily collect the means for a change of location than the women can. To give a comprehensive view of the condition of labor throughout the Empire the statistics given are herewith recapitulated by consulates, showing the wages paid and the manner of living, with a column show- ing the average wages for the Empire. 30 LABOR IlST EUftOPE. g a S ■(Bitioq 99) •(BJtioq99) Sjeqenaos ■(siuoq 99) •(eiaoq 09) 1^2 •(emoqo9) jiopiassna (sjnoqsio^o PPJ9.I0 •(sjnoqog) •(ejnoqo9) nataojg; (sanoqgio;o9) *(sjnoq99) •(sjnoqgi) 3i9q , Baay ■*01-'*ieY3Tf* IN "* CM CO ""# co eo ^ m « oo cm -v t-> ao c i ■ © OOOOOO . 3 „. ao tj- o o 5 In^nco w*#eo 9oHt-l0t>9OOCQOnin O © © W C- © t- IQ t* 00 CO «-1 [NN mincoHiXH'^'^MnnfflM w co m co eo ■* ©a »«««» © I"* "*m "ncoioeoioco'^icco-^jtcomm IOWW^Hp C» CMi-H ■*(NC0"*lO giOOCO W D- ift W O CM CO <0 t- CO CO © CM CM O -^ CM. © CM « jjTfiiniO©"*Tt<'<*eO^ wi th intermissions for meals; earns $312.49 per annum, out of which he lives and saves $21.66 per vear. Breakfast : Eye and white bread, butter, and coffee. Dinner : Meat, vegetables, and potatoes. Supper: Bread, butter, tea, and cheese! HOW A BRICKLAYER'S FAMILY LIVES IN HAMBURG.* Question. How old are you ?— Answer. Thirtv-two vears Q. What is your business?— A. I am a bricklaver Q. Have you a family ?-A. I have a wife and two chidren- the oldest hi four and the youngest two years old ^umren, tne a^z^s LABOR IN EUROPE. 33 Q. What wages do you receive per day? — A. On an average I receive 4 marks 10 pfennigs (95 cents) per day. Q. How many hours per day are you required to work for such wages? — A. Ten hours per day. Q. How much time are you allowed for your meals'? — A. Half au hour for breakfast, one hour for dinner, and half an hour for ves- pers in the afternoon. The time allowed for meals is not included in the ten hours' work. Q. Can you support a family upon such wages? — A. O, yes. My wife frequently earns from 3 to 4 marks per week by washing and scouring for other people. The children are then sent to the "Warteschule," a kind of "kindergarten" for poor people, where the children are taken care of during the day free of expense. It is a charitable institute, of which there are a good many in Ham- burg. Q. What do the united earnings of yourself and wife amount to in a year? — A. With general good health we earn about 1,462 marks ($347.95) per year. Q. Will you explain in detail the uses you make of this money? — A. Yes; I pay per annum — Forrent of two rooms and kitchen in third story (200 marks) . . $47 60 For clothing for self and family (200 marks) 47 60 For food and fuel (803 marks) 191 11 For taxes (15 marks) 3 57 For hospital dues (20 marks) 4 76 Leaving for doctor's bills, medicine, incidentals, and savings (224 marks) 53 31 Per annum (1,462 marks) " 347 95 Q. Of what kind of food do your daily meals consist? — A. For breakfast, bread, coffee, and a little bacon ; for dinner, meat and potatoes ; at four o'clock, coffee and bread ; and for supper, bread, bacon, and sometimes fried potatoes and tea or beer. Q. Are you able to save any portion of your earnings for days of sickness or old age ? — A. At present I manage to save about 100 marks ($23.80) per year ; whether I will be able to save so much, or anything at all, when my family becomes larger or my children grow older, I do not know. In case of sickness (of myself) I re- ceive 1 mark 50 pfennigs (36 cents) per day from the mechanics' hospital fund. HOW A "WOKKINGMAN LIVES IN SILESIA. A workingman's family of four or five persons, according to offi- cial estimates, lives on the following amount of provisions for a month in Silesia : Eye flour, 78 pounds ; wheat flour, 52 pounds ; beef, 2f pounds; pork, 2§ pounds; bacon, l-\ pounds; butter, 2f pouuds; potatoes, 3£ bushels; milk, 10 quarts; total value of monthly consumption of food, $8.29. HOUSE-LABOR. In one of the leading cities in Germany (the name of which is withheld, by request of the consul, out of respect for the two trades- men from whom he received the information) a shoemaker and his three journeymen were found at work in one corner of the kitchen, while the wife was doing the washing in another corner, while the daughter was cooking the dinner of sausage and potatoes at the stove. A carpenter had his workbench in the family living-room ; 92 a— LAB 3 34 LABOR IN EUROPE. the wife was filing a saw at the same bench where the husband was planing, and in the afternoon the consul saw her sawing wood in the door-yard. These cases, the consul says, represent the average home-life and manners of the working people of his district. II. — Factories, mills, etc. Average wages paid per week of 06 to 78 hours in cotton, mills in Alsace-Lorraine. Description of employment. COTTON- WEAVEEB. Overseer Foreman Dresser, man Heeler, woman Warper, "woman Weaver : Man Woman Bobbin-winder, child . COTTON-SPINNING. Foreman Overseer Tender of steam-engine Packer of spindles Fireman Watchman Greaser Conductor of self-acting looms . Sharpener of cards Beater Carder Tender of spindle frames Driver Cleanser of cards Laborer Shipper Tier Draw-frame tender, girl Comber, girl Tender of beaters Beater, woman Tender of cords Bobbin-winder, child Average j wages. $6 48 5 94 5 B3 3 30 3 51 3 09 2 76 1 12 6 60 6 40 6 25 5 40 4 95 4 95 4 70 4 50 4 45 4 43 3 90 3 39 3 30 3 30 2 65 2 58 2 46 2 37 2 34 2 00 1 98 1 95 Description of employment. COTTON-PEINTING. Engraver Printer on rollers Color-mixer Printer on wood Printer's assistant Apprentice WOOLEN-MILL. Wool and cloth dyer, overseer Second hand Overlooker Common hand Wool-carder Second hand Spinning overseer Spinner Weaving overseer Second hand Weaver Shearer Dresser WOOL. Engineer Fireman Laborer Wool-sorting overseer, woman Sorter, woman Wool-picker, woman Tender, child Mule-fixer, child Heeler Average wageB. $ti 90 4 68 4 G8 4 08 2 54 2 00 8 50 3 50 3 80 2 34 8 60 4 00 720 4 60 4 76 3 80 4 50 5 30 4 10 3 00 4 60 2 80 3 10 2 00 2 00 1 90 Averctr? wages per week of 66 to 72 hours in spinning and weaving mill in Loiver Silesia. Description of employment. Hacklers Foreman carder. . . Spinners Heelers (females) . Foremen weavers. Weavers Spinners (females) Laborers Heelers Average wages. $2 28 2 52 2 52 1 43 3 45 1 55 1 55 1 43 1 31 Description of employment. Finishers' assistants "Warpers Dyers Finishers Manglers Dyers' assistants Firemen Cleaners Average wages. $1 79 2 26 2 38 2 20 2 48 2 03 2 50 2 2G Average wages paid per week of 66 hours in factory and mill work in Barmen. Description of employment. "Weavers of braids "Weavers of laces "Weavers of trimmings "Weavers of fancy articles LuBter yarn makers Dyers of Turkey red and piece yarn Bleachers of cotton yarn (72 hours) . Average wages. $4 75 4 64 4 75 4 62 4 17 4 50 5 71 Description of employment. Apprentices Dyers of black cotton yarn .. Dyers of colored cotton yarn. Dyers of silk goods Apprentices Fororaen Average wages. $196 3 93 4 64 5 00 1 57 7 50-8 60 LABOR IN EUROPE. 35 FACTORY AND MILL LIFE IN GERMANY. To the foregoing tables showing the wages paid iu the cotton and woolen mills in Alsace-Lorraine (where the wages in this regard rule the highest in Germany), Breslau and Barmen, should be added the wage-rate prevailing in the district of Crefeld. Owing to the fact, how- ever, that the industry in this district is carried on in the houses of the operatives, no .extended list of occupations can be made, one repre- sentative artisan standing for all, as far as comparative purposes are concerned. FACTORY AND MILL LIFE IN BARMEN. The mode of living of a large percentage of the working people of Bar- men and vicinity is rather irregular and unsettled on account of the fre- quent stoppages and interruptions. They are comparatively regardless of their future, and not disposed to save any of their earnings. The male laborers consume an unusual amount of their wages in beer, brandy and tobacco. The constant increase of drinking-saloons and dancing-halls has an evil influence on labor. It should, however, be remarked that whenever the workingmen are regularly employed the old German characteristics — patience, faithful- ness and industry — resume their sway. FACTORY AND MILL LIFE IN SILESIA. Nearly all large factories, iron mills, &c, have connected with them institutions for the improvement of the condition of their work people, among which may be mentioned invalid funds and savings banks, hospitals, Sunday schools, libraries, cheap and comfortable dwellings, co-operative stores, loan associations, co-operative kitchens, and free medical attendance. The employers generally have a paternal regard for the moral and material welfare of their work people. FACTORY AND MILL LIFE IN SAXONY. The majority of employers concern themselves but, little about the moral or physical well-being of their employes. There are, however, employers in Saxony who spend a fair percentage of their net earnings in ameliorating the condition of their work people by building well- ventilated tenement houses, which are rented so as to realize 3£ per cent, on the outlay. In these exceptional cases there is an air of con- tent, cleanliness and prosperity about the homes of the workers. III. — Foundries, machine-shops and iron-works. Average wages paid per week of 72 hours in iron-works in Upper Silesia. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $5 40 4 50 3 78 ShearmeD, smiths, and firemen Unskilled workmen and minors $3 0G 2 m Puddlers, shearers, and engine tenders. 1 02 36 LABOR IN EUROPE. Average wages paid in machine-shops and iron -works in Barmen, per week of 63 hours. Description of employment. Machinists Locksmiths Blacksmiths Turners Planers Drillers Other machine laborers Average wages. $5 00 4 17 4 17 4 28 3 81 3 45 3 45 Description of employment. Model maters Strikers Mechanics — Foremen Clerks Drawers Porters Average wages. $5 00 3 57 6 07 7 14 9 28 7 14 3 21 Average wages paid per iveek of 60 hours in foundries, machine- shops and iron-works in Bremen. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $8 33 4 28 4 28 6 66 4 28 $4 28 Turners Iron-works in Brake, Oldenburg. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $8 00 5 00 4 25 5 00 4 25 • $4 00 Draughtsman Draughtsman's assistant 1 50 5 75 5 00 Average wages per week of 66 hours in foundries, machine-shops and iron-works in Thuringia. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wageB. Foundries : $3 40 3 00 2 25 3 27 3 15 3 00 2 96 Machine-shops— Cont'd : 3 00 3 30 2 85 3 70 Machine-shops: Turners and locksmiths 3 20 2 20 1 98 IRON AND STEEL WORKS IN RHINELAND AND "WESTPHALIA. The 69 iron and steel works of the above districts employ 64,769 workmen. The average wages paid in these works are as follows, per week, working hours not given : Number of employ6s. 1,319 7,910 4,041 42,049 5,265 2,747 1,438 '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. * And upwards. Average rate of wages per week. $2 75 to $3 20 3 20 3 G6 4 12 4 54 5 03 5 50* 3 6C 4 12 4 54 5 03 5 50 EABOK IN EUROPE. 37 A fair average for the employes in the first four classifications, viz, 55,319 workmen, would give each an earning of about $4.13 per week, which may be taken as the general wages in the iron and steel works in those important districts. WAGES IN THE KEUPP WOEKS AT ESSEN. In his great establishment at Essen, Mr. Krupp, who employs in his machine-shops and manufacturing departments about 10,000 men, re- ports that the average wages paid per day to his mechanics was 81 cents in 1878, and 84 cents in 1883. But the cost of living has increased to such an extent that no gain in favor of the workman can be recorded. IV.— Glass-wobkees. Average wages paid per week of 65 hours to glass-workers in Oberkirchen, near Berlin. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. 1 A ™fref 6 $5 41 6 00 3 57 Average annual wages paid glass-workers in Silesia. [Hours of labor 66 to 72 per week.] Description of employment. Annual wages. Description of employment. Annual wages. $357 286 286 357 275 167 52 $155 219 108 96 86 48 Average wages per week of GO hours paid to glass-workers in Stuttgart district. IN ZL'l'PENHAUBEH. $5 36 4 05 2 98 IN BUHLEBACK. 17 14 2 86 Average wages per week of GO hours to glass and porcelain workers in Lanscha, Steinach 7 Huttenbach, and vicinity. Description of employment. GLA6S-WORKEK8. Grinders : Males Females Tubes for thermometers . . Marbles: Per 1,000, plain .. Per 1,000, figured Bead makers . .". Toy makers Eye makers : For dolls and animals. For human beings $3 90 1 80 4 20 2 39 4 60 2 50 3 40 3 00 Description of employment. PORCELAIN-WORKERS,. Modelers Decorators Formers and turners : Males Females i Firemen Packers Laborers Average wages. $8 00 6 00 4 55 2 50 4 00 3 25 2 90 38 LABOR IN EUROPE. Average wages per week to glassmakers in Berlin. Description of employment. Blowers Shearers Mixers .. Average $5 41 6 00 3 57 Description of employment. Carriers Laborers Basket makers Average wages. $143 2 14 2 14 Average wages per week to glassmakers in Bremen. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $6 10 5 70 5 70 7 20 5 50 3 30 $1 00 3 10 4 40 2 20 1 92 1 72 96 Average wages paid par-week to porcelain workers in Breslau. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. Head painters and foremen $6 43 4 16 3 15 2 28 $1 31 1 20 1 05 Painters and turners Soggar-tnrners and decorators Kilnhouse workers ... V. — Mines and mining. Average wages paid per week of 66 to 72 hours in and in connection with mines in Silesia. Description of employment. COAL MINES." Mine laborers . . . Outside laborers . Women Minors IKON MINES.t MiDers Engineers and smiths. . . Masons and carpenters . Laborers "Women and minors Average wages. $2 07 2 10 1 10 03 2 50 2 88 2 88 1 84 97 Description of employment. ZINC AND LEAD MINES.} Miners Laborers in mines .. Laborers assistants. Outside laborers Women Overlookers Minors Average wages. $2 40 1 98 1 82 1 92 1 08 2 79 1 08 , of which 3,270 are women, and *?™ bf » of persons employed in and about these coal mines, 49 3 otl boys. ' ' . — -, . t Number of persons employed in and about these iron mines, 4,614 of which 1 fiS"; n-„ f™ i wo^eT^d 5fe 8 rysTn P a°|t. in "* *"* *""" ™ "* ^° «^Sift are LABOR IN EUROPE. 39 Average wages paid per month in mines and mining in the Barmen distriet. Colliers: Under-ground* $30 35 Smelt workB* 30 35 Hewer: Firstclass* 24 99 Second class* 19 64 Fillers* 16 07 Day laborerst 13 57 BoysJ.... 7 02 Gas and water flttorst 19 21 Foremen! 25 71 Carpenterst $19 20 Locksmithst 18 92 Blacksmilhst 18 92 Tinsmitbst 19 20 Coal overseers^ - 32 13 Coal overseers, assistants J 19 64 Wagonerst 28 90 "Women (in lead and silver minesf) 9 64 Bookkeepers* 42 85 Clerks* 32 13 » Bight boars per day. t Twelve hours per day. t Ten hoars per day. VI Railway employes. Average wages paid per week to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers , #c.) in Germany. Description of employment. Bremen. Breslau. Kehl. $5 50 7 70 5 00 4 40 10 00 $6 00 5 70 $8 25 4 61 5 72 3 CO 2 40 5 20 5 20 4 40 3 50 5 36 4 28 4 81 4 30 4 30 2 52 2 52 4 81 3 30 3 48 Average wages paid per annum to railway employe's in Barmen. Description of employment. Honrs of labor per day. Annual earnings. Description of employment. Hours oflabor per day. Annual earnings. 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 9 9 9 10 12 $642 00 416 00 •J 28 50 285 CO 535 50 293 45 196 35 196 35 642 50 416 50 321 00 303 45 303 45 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 $499 80 Station inspectors' assistants*. . Track inspectors* Track inspectors' assistants* . . . 178 50 261 80 Telegraph operators Telegraph operators' assistant Clerks 160 15 226 10 Superintendents of transporta- 160 65 196 35 Superintendents of transporta- 160 65 160 65 CleTks 160 66 160 65 160 65 * Kent, fuel, and light free. t In addition to their regular wages, train leaders and engine drivers receive at the end of each month 2 J cents perG-crman mile made; conductors and baggage masters 2 cents, and stokers and brakemen 1£ cents. 40 LABOR IN EUROPE. Average weekly wages* paid in railroad^liops in Barmen. Description of employment. Foremen Machinists Locksmiths Turners Cabinet makers Carpenters Wheelwrights Blacksmiths Strikers Carvers and gilders Drillers Tinsmiths Saddlers and upholsterers Tailors Coppersmiths "Weekly wages. $7 00 3 50 3 30 3 50 3 55 3 50 3 50 3 55 ~3 00 3 74 3 50 3 50 3 50 3 22 3 29 Description of employment. Gas and water fitters Clerks Tenders Tenders' overseers - - Planers Painters Varnisbers Haaimer drivers Stokers (66 hours).... Engravers Riveters Mechanicians Machine-workers Grinders Steam-crane drivers . Weekly wages. * Foremen employed 60 hours ; other employes 63 hours. VII.— Ship-yards and ship-building. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in ship-yards — distinguishing between iron and wood ship- building in Germany. Description of employment. Iron-ship "building : Shipwrights Joiners Foremen Iron finishers. .. Turners Planers Riveters Blacksmiths Strikers Brass-fitters Tinsmiths Caulkers Painters Pattern-makers - Laborers Riggers Tool-makers "Wooden-ship building : Shipwrights ."". Foremen Carpenters Painters Joiners Mast and spar makers - Plumbers Blacksmiths Riggers . - Sawyers Saw-mill machine men - Laborers Repaiiing docks: Fitters First riveters Second riveters Upholder Boys Ship-smiths Carpenters and joiners. Painters Engineers Sawyers Sail-makers Riggers - Laborers Bremen. $5 40' 4 28 6 90 5 95 4 28 5 40 4 28 2 85 3 85 5 40 13 80 4 28 3 57 4 28 6 90 3 57 4 28 5 40 5 40 5 40 3 57 4 56 5 40 4 56 3 92 2 04 4 56 5 40 4 20 4 74 5 40 4 98 4 98 4 20 Stettin. $4 55 3 97 3 45 3 45 3 70 4 44 I 97 3 45 3 10 2 92 4 21 3 35 4 37 3 35 4 02 3 92 4 21 4 02 3 44 2 78 LABOK IN EUROPE. VIII.— Seamen's wages. 41 Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men) — distinguishing between ocean, coast and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in Germany. "WAGES PAID PEE MONTH IN BREMEN. Ocean steamships: $40 00 29 75 19 00 15 50 19 00 19 00 11 30 52 50 35 75 35 75 17 00 12 50 29 75 26 18 16 40 20 15 20 00 Ocean sailing ships — Continued: $16 66 Coast steamers: River steamers: Ocean sailing ships: 12 85 SEAMEN'S MONTHLY WAGES IN STETTIN. Description of vessel. Sailors. Sailing vessels Steam snips River steamers River sailing craft Coasting vessels, sail Coasting vessels, steam . $21 42 26 18 19 63 15 47 19 63 $11 42 10 00 14 87 9' 04 13 56 13 56 IX. — Shop wages. Wages paid per month in banks, stores, wholesale or retail, cents per day. SILESIAN FARM-LABORERS. Every spring, from the middle of March to the beginning of May, large numbers of women and girls, recognizable by their field-labor costumes, 44 LABOE IN EUROPE. pass daily through the streets of Breslau on their way to Sa ^^^J they obtain employment in the sugar-beet fields. At the end ot six or seven months, when the last beet has been dug and *°™f>fW?* turn to their homes with their earnings, most of wh «* t h .^^ v X?,7 their food, when not furnished by their employers costing wy httte Thev earn during their absence on an average 35 cents per day. luey getfin addition to their pay, passage in fourth-class cars, their tramp through Breslau being only from one station to another From the neighborhood of Wartenberg, Middle Silesia, 1,200 female field workers have this year gone to Saxony. An Upper Silesian newspaper, m view of this yearly increasing migration, urges Silesian land-owners to give their work people better pay, and to see that they are better fed with nutritious food, instead of the present meager fare, " which in most cases is supplemented with diluted alcohol." "The 10 to 12 cents per day that our field-women get," continues the editor, "is all that their work is worth, and a change for the better cannot be expected until the employer offers better wages and better treatment." AGRICULTURAL DAY LABORERS OF SAXONY. The day laborers are not bound by contract. Either master or laborer can terminate the employment at any time. The day laborers mostly live in villages, and are often owners of the bouses they inhabit, and sometimes possess small pieces of land. In such cases they are called cottagers, and are generally thrifty and intelligent. The wives and children till the small pieces of land, while the husbands work for large landed proprietors in the neighborhood. These male laborers earn 40 cents per day in summer and 28 cents in winter. Female day laborers earn 20 cents per day in summer and 12 cents in winter. The agricul- tural emigrants to the United States are mostly of this class. AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN WURTEMBERG. There are no large farms in the Kingdom of Wurternberg ; the owner of each piece of land tills it in person. Farm bands are practically unknown. The land-owner and his wife plow, sow and gather side by side in the field, or together trim their vines and garner their grapes, content if the close of the harvest finds their land unmortgaged and themselves in health and out of debt. The question of wages, so far as such a population goes, is simply a question of the crops. AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN THE DANTZIC DISTRICT. Farm servants (cottagers) are engaged by the half year or year ; they have a cottage with a room-closet and fire-hearth, besides a piece of land for potatoes and other vegetables. They receive 9 J cents per day in winter and lOf cents in summer. The cottager has to provide for a laborer dur- ing harvest time, and his wife is obliged to work during a part of the afternoon. His .children may assist, for which extra pay is given. The day laborer he employs receives lOf cents per day and food ; he sleeps in the stable or barn. LABOR IN EUROPE. XIV.— Trades and labor— government employ. 45 Wages paid by the week of sixty hours to the trades and laborers in the printing office of the German Empire. Description of employment. Average ■wages. Bookbinders j $5 30 Type-founders j 6 85 Setteis | 6 75 Copper- plate printers I 6 28 Joiiieis [ 5 71 Lithographers ! 6 02 Description of employment. Day laborers Day laborers, minora "Women Photographers Engravers Apprentices Average ■wages. $3 59 1 71 2 35 7 59 6 87 2 57 XV. — Printers and printing offices. Statement showing the wages paid per week to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, #c.) in Germany. Description of employment. i to m i a B 3 1 a o CO a 1 CO •6 1 8 o 1 175 Board and lodging .. cUnS! Spirituous drinks 65,052 Food 448,664 Textile fabrics (1,453,648) : Wool and worsted 233,256 Silk 63,577 Cotton and flax 584,470 Unspecified 170,345 Dress..! 981,105 Animal substances 68,202 Vegetable substances 166, 745 Mineral substances (1,277,592) : Miners 441,272 Stone, clay, and road making 193, 083 Earthen and glass ware ' 74, 407 Iron and steel 361, 343 General and unspecified commodities 816, 243 Refuse matters 14, 339 Before proceeding to a review of the reports by consulates, it should be stated that, except where otherwise noted, the wages are based on full time, and that the net earnings, even under the most favorable condi- tions, run at least 20 per cent, below the figures given, so that, as Con- sul-General Merritt remarks, the official figures give more flattering returns than the reality. Again, there are trades which from their nature can only be pursued at certain seasons of the year; but as con- ditions like these prevail in almost every country, the results are more or less applicable to all. The only condition, therefore, which must be specially borne in mind is that the wage rates are based on /mZZ not real time; and, as the British workman prefers to run on short time, say four days per week, and preserve his daily pay-rate, rather than run on full time and submit to a small pay reduction, this phase of English labor is worth considering. BIEMINGHAM. Consul King reports that living is slightly cheaper and wages slightly higher in Birmingham than in 1878, "when the last report on the labor conditions of his district was forwarded to the Department. The gen- eral result, however, shows an average decrease in wages throughout England since 1878. Notwithstanding these seemingly favorable con- ditions, the consul says that the number of unemployed is greater now than then, and the actual distress which exists is almost alarming in its extent. The labor unions keep up the wages, but they cannot find work for the constantly increasing number of idle hands. Speaking of local distress, he refers to the hand-made nail region, where acute suffering exists. Many workmen are idle, while those who are employed can earn but little. This once prosperous trade is now LABOR IN EUEOPE. 4< superseded by machinery, and the consul sees no escape for the people of the district but by aided emigration. All evidence is favorable to the moral and physical character of these people. They are sober, indus- trious and intelligent. The women are specially representative of the very highest order of English workingwomen. The working people of Birmingham and vicinity are regarded by the consul as thrifty. Crimes arising from drunkenness show a very satis- factory decrease, which is attributed principally to the spread of educa- tion and the establishment of reading-rooms and coffee-houses for the people. With the exception of the nail-making districts, where strikes appear to be chronic, arbitration is generally resorted to in disputes between workmen and employers. On the whole, the feeling between the employers and the employed is more kindly than of old, and this is mainly brought about by the interest which the former have recently takeu in the social welfare of their workmen. The employes are generally paid weekly in sterling money, and are free to purchase their necessary supplies wherever they choose. The general condition of the working people of Birmingham who are steadily employed is rated by the consul as good. Great atten- tion is being given to the construction of artisans' dwellings, and the portion of the report treating thereof is highly interesting. The interviews with representative workiugmen, as given by Mr. King, show at once the wages earned and the manner of living. A BRTJSHMAKER. Is 45 years old ; has a wife and four children, the eldest 21 and the youngest 12 ; a good workman, having steady employment ; can earn from $7.20 to $8.40 per week of 60 hours ; could not sup' port his family without the aid of his wife ; his children also work ; the total income from all their labor — husband, wife, and children — is estimated at $583 per annum. Outlay per year : Bent of house, three rooms, $44.22; clothing for family, $97.20; food, $328.53; school-tax for one child, $3.15 ; trades-union, $20.40 ; doctor's bill, $24.30; total, $517.80. Breakfast, bread and tea and buttrr or bread and bacon; dinner, fish or meat, vegetables and beer, tea, bread and butter ; supper, bread and cheese and beer. S;ives no money; falls back on his club or trades-union in emergencies. A FEMALE TACKMAKER. A woman making tacks at St. Quintain said : "I get paid by the thousand ; the card price is 17 cents per thousand, but I am glad to take the work at 14£ cents, it is so hard to get. I work four days per week and make $1.16. My husband is a gardener at the col- lege hard by, and earns 17 shillings per week, but works very long hours; our total income is $275.89 per year. Mostly all the forges in St. Quintain are closed, and women nailmakers go to Birmingham to do scrubbing or other work, walking 4 miles to and 4 from the work. Has a brother a nailmaker ; himself and his wife both work at tbe trade, and earn about 14 shillings per week, or 8171.88 per annum; after paying rent and fuel for tbe forge they have $2.43 per week for food and fuel ; their food consists of what they call bread and butter, but I call it 'bread and sciape,' with a bit of bacon at times; they hardly ever see fresh meat; 1 do not think the children get enough to eat. I never knew so much suffering among the people, many of them are starviug." W01 48 LABOR IN EUROPE. The foregoing illustrations may be said to represent the best arid orafc conditions of labor in Birmingham so far as living « concerned. Mr King bears high testimony to the public spirit of the people 01 Birmingham in all matters affecting the protection and well-being of the working classes. Were it not for this admirable feeling much more suffering could be recorded. Practically, the consul says, all the workingmen have votes and are a power in politics. In regard to emigration and its causes, the following illustration by the consul not only applies to Birmingham but in a large degree to all England : I once knew a sawmaker who emigrated to the United States, and after twelve years returned to England. In another year they were about re-emigrating to the United States, and the man came to me for advice. In reply to my question as to the cause of his return to England he said, " Well, my wife thought there was no place like England until she returned, but now she does not like it. She finds the old ways and old friends are not so good as she ex- pected them to be. The food is not so varied or so plentiful, and she wants to go back to the United States. As for myself,. I always liked Indiana better than England. I get higher wages there. To be sure clothing and rent are cheaper in England, and food almost the same, only we do not have so much in England. In the United States we have much more varied food and more luxuries, and after twelve years I owned the house in which I lived. Here in England I could not have saved a penny." BEADFOED. The tabulated statements in the consul's report are very full and ex- plicit, but he simply refers to the habits of the working people in a gen- eral manner, and gives no illustrations as to the manner in which they live, their moral and physical conditions, and the relations existing be- tween employers and employes, female labor, and its effect on the physi- cal and moral conditions of the operatives and their children, &c. There is scarcely a mart in the world where the products of the Brad- ford looms do not- fill a leading place ; the exports to the United States alone amount to over $10,000,000 per annum, and come into direct com- petition with the product of our mills. In regard to labor in Bradford, the consul says that a perusal of offi- cial statements leads him to report the condition of the working classes as highly prosperous, the wages received by the average family being more than sufficient for its wants and necessary recreation. Were thrifty and economical habits as inherent in the English char- acter as in the French and German, adds the consul, sufficient money might easily be saved by the working classes to tide them safely over periodical trade depressions, which under existing conditions weigh so heavily upon them. Consul Grinnell transmits two very interesting communications from Bradford manufacturers on the changes which have taken place in the labor conditions of the district since 1878. While these communica- tions lean somewhat toward the side of the employers as against the recent labor legislation and usages, they are written honestly evince a DIBUKTN EUROPE. 49 generous spirit, and contain mnch valuable informaton. An extract from one of these communications shows in a graphic manner the inde- pendent spirit of the workingmen of Bradford: "Politically," writes this employer, "Jack is as good as his mas- ter, and while I am pretty sure that none of my workingmen, being Radicals, would vote on my side, being a Conservative, on the other hand, I am equally certain that if 1 had a Conservative voter in my employment he would vote against me if 1 were a Liberal, and I should consider him worthless if he didn't." The wages paid to the general trades of Bradford will be found in the resumt for England. BRISTOL. Consul Lathrop, in his admirable report, says that no material change has taken place in the labor conditions of Bristol during the last ten years. There have been no strikes, no panics, no crises, no great dif- ficulties, though of late there have been stagnation and slack work. It can be said, however, adds the consul, that compared with ten years ago the laborer of today knows more, has more, and drinks less. It does not appear, however, that their wages have increased during that time. Their having more is due to the fact that the wages of to- day, owing to the cheapness of food imported from the United States, can purchase more and more varied supplies than ten years ago. In addition to better food supplies, the proposal to give the work- ing classes of Bristol a share in the general profits of the industries in which they are employed is now widely agitated. The plan which, according to Consul Lathrop, seems to be well matured, is, in addi- tion to regular wage rates, to give at the end of each business year to the employes a percentage of the profits realized. While thus sharing in the profits they are to be exempt from any share in the losses. This system, which has been in successful operation in many large industries in France, as well as in the cotton-manufacturing district of Oldham, will, it is hoped, create a boud of unity and mutual benefit between the employes and employers which will add vigor and power to British industrial commerce. Mr. Lathrop, however, fears that the temper and improvidence of the British workman will not permit this system to become a success in England. The apprenticeship system of England occupies a large place in Mr. Lathrop's report. It seems quite inexplicable to Americans, who are not shackled by traditions or " ancient usage," and it shows the influence of habit upon even so advanced and practical a people as the English, that a girl must pay a premium of about $200 to a shopkeeper for the privilege of learning to be a saleswoman in a dry-goods shop, the girl receiving no wages for the first two or three years of her ap- prenticeship. And yet this is a universal rule for men and women in shop-life in the United Kingdom. The demand for these places is such that a leading employer of Bristol assured the consul that he could run both his wholesale and retail shops with such apprentices altogether, who would each pay him $200 for the privilege of working five years. 92 A— lab i 50 LABOR IN EUROPE. FACTORY LABOR IN THE WEST OP ENGLAND. Consul Lathrop selects Trowbridge, a factory town of 12,000 inhabit- ants in his district, as a place which shows factory life in England m its most favorable light. It is entirely a manufacturing town, in the middle of a fertile, agricultural country. It has given many operatives to American mills, and in all its labor conditions may be considered rep- resentative of the best phases of English factory life. The average wages of the men in the Trowbridge woolen factories are estimated at $5.44 per week. The average wages paid to 418 women in one leading factory are given as $2.66 per week, and in another at $3.02 per week. These wages, adds the consul, would not support life unaided; but, generally, these women are the wives or daughters of the male operatives ; neither could the male wages alone sustain the aver- age English families, and so the children in their turn contribute to the general fund by also working in the factories. Boys and girls, when employed, earn from $2.25 to $2.40 per week. Thus, to enable a Trow- bridge family to live, every member— husband, wife, and children — works in the mills. It will, therefore, be seen that the conditions which surround labor in this representative factory town are not much differ- ent from the conditions which prevail in similar towns in France and Germany. "Notwithstanding the favorable agricultural conditions which surround Trowbridge," adds the consul, "giving the working- people cheap and wholesome food products, aided by flourishing co- operative stores, the combined earnings of the family are barely' suf- cient for its support." The operatives are steady and law-abiding, and drunkenness is rare. In reporting thirteen interviews with Trowbridge operatives, pur- posely selected for their steadiness and trustworthiness, representing the best element of factory life, Consul Lathrop says that only two were able to save anything. One of these has a weekly income, earned by himself and three children, of $8.03 per week, the other a weekly in- come, earned by himself and wife, of $7.29. Without the labor of the wife the family resources are insufficient, and when the husband and wife both work, the home suffers and the children aie neglected. Consul Lathrop concludes his report with the following comparisons between labor in his district and in the United States : 1. No class of laborer is as intelligent as the corresponding class in the United States. 2. In consequence of this the laborer here is not so valuable to his employer as in the United States. He is less receptive and re- tentive of ideas, requires more oversight and direction, and accom- plishes less in a day. 3. His wages are less than in the United States. 4. There is not a corresponding cheapness in the price of com- modities. Eent is cheaper, but if the laborer spends less here in other directions it is because he does without or buys inferior articles, and not because the general necessaries of life are cheaper here than in the United States. 5. The employment of women is more general than in the United States. There is some female member contributing towards the sup- port of almost every laborer's family. 6. The laboring cla.sses are not so self-respecting or respected here as in the United States. LABOE IN EUEOPE. 51 COKNWALL. Owing to the absence of factories, mills and other large industrial interests, the labor conditions of Cornwall do not so directly concern or interest the statistician or general reader as those of the great manu- facturing centers of England, and the report from the consul at Fal- mouth is proportionally meager in interesting details. The habits of the working classes are good, owing to the spread of temperance principles, but very few can save anything oai, of their low wages. Women are largely employed as field laborers in Cornwall, about two adult females being engaged on each farm. The average wages of females is given as being 30 cents per day of nine to ten hours in industrial employment. The moral and physical condition of female laborers throughout Corn- wall is considered to be improving. . The journe.\ men millers in Falmouth earn $4.86 per week ; the wages in other mills could not be ascertained. The wages in foundries, machiue shops, and iron works run from 84.07 to $0.13 per week. The wages earned by miners in Cornwall, per week of 54 hours, is given as follows: Underground men, $4.70; shaft-men, $6.05; ore dressers, $4.05. Agricultural wages. — Household servants, $25.54 per year, with board and lodging; agricultural laborers^ without board «and lodging, but generally with a plat of ground, $3.52 per week. Printing offices. — Printers, compositors, pressmen and proof-readers, $5.04 per week of 54 hours. LEEDS. It is intimated by Consul Doekery that the wages in many branches of trade are somewhat lower in Leeds than in districts where industries of like character are predominant, for the reason that the variety of industries here permits all the able members of a family to find "em- ployment. The rates of wages given by the consul, however^do not apparently coufirni these intimations. Agricultural wages in Yorkshire are estimated as follows : Laborers, without board and lodging, $3.75 per week ; hired men from $75 to $92 per year, with board and lodging ; herdsmen, $4.20 per week, with a cot- tage; servant girls, $70 per year with board and lodging; scullery mauls, $45 per year, with board and lodging; women field-laborers, 28 cents per day, without board or lodging. In the general trades the wages are paid by the hour, running from 15 cents per hour to bricklayers, up to 19 cents per hour to plumbers, or per week of 54 hours, the average working hours of the trades in England, from $8.10 to bricklayers up to $10.26 to plumbers. Wages in worsted mills, per week of 56 hours. — Sorters, $5.82 ; fet- lers, $5.82; wooliers, $5.82; girl combers, $2.88; girl drawers, $2.88; primers (girls andboys)* $1.24; dressers, $5.82. Weaving: tuners, $10; assistants, $5.82 ; knollers, $2.88 ; perchers, $2.88 ? carriers, $5.04. Wages in foundries and machine-shops, per week of 54 hours. — Model- makers and smiths, $7.40; joiners, $0.72; strikers, $4.56; fitters, $0.96; turners, $5.94; molders, $7.56; laborers, $4.40; brass-fitters, $4.80; foundry engine-men, $5.04; blast-furnaee men, $6.72; core- makers, $6.96 ; fetlers, $4.80 ; painters, $7.20; apprentices, $2.10. 52 LABOR IN EUROPE. Wages in glass-worlcs.— Consul Dockery gives the following statistics concerning the wages earned iu a glass-bottle tactory in Leeds, the informant stating that they were the highest wages paid in all England : In glass-works in Leeds labor is divided into "shifts,? six hours per shift, as to time, and into chairs as to division of labor. The " chair " consists of only four persons, viz, bottle-maker, blower, ap- prentice, and boy. The average earnings per chair per week are given as follows: Bottle-maker, $11; blower, $9.60; apprentice, $1.20; boy, $1.20. In the United States, so the consul was in- formed, ten boys are in each chair under the bottle-maker and blower, or twelve persons to the chair, and his informant also said that the output per chair is twice as much as in England and of superior quality. Men packers get $5.80 per week ; laborers, $4.50; female employes, $1.92; furnace-men, $6.58 ; mold makers, $6.04— all per week. The following statement, given to Mr. Dockery by a first class iron refiner, will give a general idea of the manner in which this class of ar- tisans lives: An iron refiner, forty-nine years old, has a wife and four children, the eldest a boy of eighteen, the youngest a girl of eight ; earns $8 per week; his.eldest son earns $1.68, and his eldest daughter $1.02 per week, making a total earning of $10.70 per week ; the boy is an apprentice at the file trade, and the girl runs a machine in a cloth- ing house. Pood. — Breakfast: Bread and coffee or tea. Dinner: Potatoes and meat or bacon. Supper : Same as breakfast. Occa- sionally the children go without supper. Only manages "to keep body and soul together." Miners' wages. — Tlie following average rates of wages paid per day of 9 hours in and about the coal and ironstone mines of South and West Yorkshire will prove interesting to American miners : Coal miners, $1.18; trammers and fillers, $1.08; ordinary trammers, 54 cents ; bye- workmen, 96 cents; oft' hands, 96 cents ; jiggers, 60 cents; hangers-on, 96 cents; fire-triers, $1.20; deputies, $1.32. Top hands: Joineis, 96 cents ; bankmen and screeners, 96 cents ; boys, 36 cents ; engine tend- ers, $1.26; off hands, 84 cents. Mr. Dockery considers the condition of labor in Leeds as having im- proved during the last six years, and that this improvement is wholly due to the education of the working people, as the rates of wages and prices of food have shown no appreciable change during that time. LIVERPOOL. Great improvements have taken place in the drinking habits of the working classes of Liverpool, which gave that city the name of "the black spot on the Mersey," although, as might be' expected from the bad exampje of dissolute seamen, intemperance is too often attendant upon labor in all large sea-port cities. Iu regard to the improvement of the sanitary conditions of the working-peoples' homes in Liverpool, Consul Packard reports that the municipal government, availing itself of powers conferred by recent legislation, seeks to remedy the evils com- plained of in this regard by the destruction of unwholesome dwellings LABOR IN EUROPE. 55 without making provisiou elsewhere for their occupants before their shelter is pulled down. The improvement in the habits of the working classes has resulted in a better feeling between employer and employ^, as is forcibly illustrated in the long immunity from strikes which Liverpool has enjoyed. Arbi- tration and common sense have taken the place of violence and passion, to the great benefit of both capital and labor. Due allowance being made for that large improvident and intemperate class which inhabits all great sea- ports, the working-people of Liverpool are, as a general rule, industrious and thrifty, and rapidly acquiring all necessary education. Doclc labor. — According to the consul's returns, this important divis- ion of labor is remunerated as follows: Laborers, $1.22 per day; por- ters, $1.09 per day ; weighers, $1.22 per day; stevedores, $1.70 per day; coal heavers, 2£ cents per ton each man, and $1.22 each man additional for a night's work. LONDON. The cost of food in Loudon is about the same as in Liverpool, the im ports of food products from the United States having greatly reduced the living expenses of the working classes, while enabling them to pur- chase greater variety than \\ as within the reach of the workers of fifteen and twenty years ago, especially in the matter of animal food. With bread at 3 cents a pound, tea and sugar lower than ever before, and with a downward tendency in nearly every other commodity, the con- dition of the London workman, says the consul-general, "ought not to be uncomfortable had he the prudence of the Scotch or continental workman." A large majority of the London workmen, according to Consul-Gen- eral Merritt's report, can be ranked as skillful artisans, and steady and industrious citizens. This is as much as can be said for any class of workmen in Europe. They work slow, adds the consul-general, far slower than American artisans, but rather from custom than laziness. It is what the consulrgeneral calls the national working pace. As every country has its national working pace, as well defined as any other char- acteristic, this London slowness is only noteworthy as permitting a com- parison which is favorable to the United States. In regard to the ability of the London working classes to save, the consul-general admits that the range of wages is such that only those who practice the greatest prudence and self-denial have a chance of ending the year with money in hand. In London, miseries of working life are so directly brought before the public eye as to produce the impression that there is more suffering, improvidence, and intemperance among the working classes in large cities than in towns and rural districts. Making due allowance for the human wrecks which drift into London, it may be questioned whether there is more suffering among the working people of London than among an equal number of laborers in any other portion of England. That portion of the consul-general's report which deals with labor unions in Loudon is interesting. Arbitration has to a large degree, fortunately, taken the place of strikes in the settlement of labor differ- ences, the evil effect of former strikes in London being remembered by both the workingmen and employers with anything but gratification. The effect of co-operative stores in London has been to compel the 54 LABOR IN EUROPE. general retailers to reduce the prices of the necessaries of life, and the present competitive warfare tends to benefit the condition of the labor- ing classes by cheapening their supplies. ,,„,,. * <.u Great interest in the furnishing of cheap and healthful homes to the working classes is being manifested by capitalists in London. As an ex- ample, the consul-general refers to a district near Paddmgton. where the system of cottage tenements is in successful operation. In this dis- trict are about 3,000 houses, containing a population of 15,000. The buildings are of brick, two stories high, the whole having a neat and tasteful appearance. These cottages rent for from $2 to $2.50 per week. Churches, schools and stores, in connection with this artisan city, fill out the general design and supply every want. HOW LONDON MECHANICS LIVE. Consul-General Merritt gives the results of an interview with a rep- resentative of the better class of workmen, which illustrates the mode of life of a sober and industrious mechanic : Is an engine-driver in electric works; 52 years of age; has a wife and 3 children ; the eldest boy earns §2.44 per week ; his own earn- ings are $9.72 ; in 1882 his wages were $12.12 ; hours of labor 70J per week; steady; does not drink; tries to be as contented as possible ; total annual income of self and son, $624. Expenses: House rent, $106 per annum; society dues, $S.90; insurance on lives of self and family, $44.32; food, $280; this leaves about $186 for miscel- laneous expenses, clothes, schooling, medicine, omnibus-fare, &c. Were it not for the earnings of his son he could not support his family ; has enough, but none to spare. FEMALE LABOR IN LONDON. The consul-general treats of female labor in England at some length and in a very interesting manner, clearly showing that throughout the Kingdom woman is becoming a prominent factor in many branches of commerce and industrial occupations. This phase of the question is referred to, however, in the r6sum6 for England, and only that part of the report which deals with female labor in London is introduced here. The consul-general estimates the wages earned by female laborers in London as ruling at about half of those earned by male laborers in similar employments; rarely do they get two-thirds of the rates paid to men, while very frequently they are cut down to even lower figures. Female laborers in certain trades in the East End count their wages by pennies instead of shillings, although a fair minimum may be estimated at $1.50 per week without board, while the hours of labor range from 9£ to 16 hours per day, the poorest paid working the longest hours, as usual. The tendency, however, is toward shorter hours, and an effort is being made to extend the ten-hour law to shops as well as to factories. The physical condition of the female laborers of London is described by the consul-general as very good. London being one of the most healthful cities in the world, nowhere is the sturdy vigor of the English constitution more apparent than among the women employes of that city. Indeed, since the factory law has gone into operation the physi- cal and moral well-being of the women workers of England has shown marked improvement. LABOR IN EUROPE. 55 MANCHESTER. The general trade and other wages paid in Manchester and vicinity will be fully set forth in the resumS for England and again in the gen- eral recapitulation showing the comparative rates of wages between those which rule in that country and those in the United States. It is therefore only necessary to refer here to such particular conditions as cannot be expressed in figures, but which in many ways are of moment in illustrating the real conditions of labor. In regard to the manner of living in Manchester, Consul Shaw writes as follows : American work-people, as a whole, would not live under the con- ditions in force here among operatives, nor could they be induced to adopt the English system. Here whole families live in the mills and are satisfied to do so. Here the children are compelled to help p2 5 88 6 72 5 04 6 UO 5 40 5 m 4 68 4 50 5 04 5 64 4 80 3 96 5 04 5 28 5 04 5 52 5 16 3 06 fi 72 5 84 4 32 1884. $6 72 6 60 5 88 5 70 5 76 5 84 6 24 4 08 5 84 4 02 3 84 5 86 4 56 5 24 4 20 5 28 5 28 5 28 5 52 5 28 4 08 6 84 5 76 4 44 The majority of the foregoing laborers, that is, all the married men, with the exception of putters and cokemen, are given houses rent free, and coal, each paying 12 cents per fortnight for loading the coal. It will be noted by the foregoing list that, with few exceptions, there has been considerable decrease in wages since 1878. Wages in the ironworks. — The iron industry is one of the leading trades in the north of England. Consul Locke reports a general depres- sion in this industry, although not nearly so serious as that which is seen in ship-building and some other trades. Many of the large iron- works are running on three quarters time with greatly reduced staffs, while others have suspended altogether. The weekly wages paid in the blast furnaces, forges and plate-mills in the north of England will be found in the general recapitulation showing the wages paid in the industries of the various countries in Europe, STewcastle-on-Tyne being- taken as representing the ship-building, coal-mining, and iron-work and foundry industries of England. Consul Locke reports the present prices of the necessaries of life as in no material degree differing from those which ruled in 1878, although during the "good times" of 1882 and 1883 the prices were higher. This shows that food prices are very sensitive to the prevalent rates of wages, and that the working pefople eat more and spend more freely when trade is brisk and wages good than in times of depression. Notwithstanding the great proportion of miners in the district whose hours of labor, as well as the labor itself, are considered as having a tendency to drive operatives to the public houses, all things considered, Consul Locke considers the working classes of the district as steady and trustworthy, although little inclined to be saving. He gives an illustra- tion of this improvidence in the strike of the engineers in Sunderland, who, after the exhaustion of their society funds, iiad become reduced to such straits, that at the time his report was written committees were be- ing formed to canvass the town for funds to support the families of the strikers. The number of families in want, including those of other 58 LABOE IN EUROPE. trades shut out by the strike of the engineers, was about 5,000. The strike had lasted two months at the date when the report was mailed, and the consul reported both strikers and employers as being deter- mined to keep up the fight. . The consul states that the public house is the principal bank where the workingmeu of his district deposit their savings. The labor organizations in the north of England are both numerous and powerful ; indeed there is no trade without its union and no work- iugman who does not belong to one or more protective and beneficent societies. The union proper regulates all the trade conditions, such as hours of labor, wages, &c, and these rules are equally binding on mem- bers and non-members. Happily these unions have substituted arbi- tration for strikes, when differences arise between the employers and employed, and the result is that this portion of England is particularly free from those "lockouts" which entail great pecuniary loss on one side and misery and suffering on the other. Consul Locke's treatment of these two questions, labor organization and strikes in the north of England, can be studied with much profit by the workingmen and em- ployers of the United States; his history of co-operation, from its incep- tion at Itochdale in 1844 to the present, is a valuable contribution to labor statistics. The returns of the co-operative union for the northern section of England, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmore- land and York for 1883 show a membership of 97,943, with a share cap- ital of $3,475,000 and a loan capital of $2,235,000. The value of land, buildings and fixed stock amounts to $1,405,000. The sale of goods during the year amounted to $16,3S3,000; the net profits to $1,739,0(10, of which $7,200 were applied to educational and $2,700 to charitable purposes. Consul Locke reports the co-operative system as steadily growing in his district. \ FEMALE LABOE. From the peculiarly masculine character of employment in the dis- trict of Newcastle, female labor does not fill so large a space in its in- dustrial conditions as in other portions of England. The wages paid to females are invariably lower than those paid to men doing similar work, and on an average they are 5 to 10 per cent, lower than in 1878. The conditiou, morally and physically, of female employes in the district is said to be good,' and the prejudice which existed against their em- ployment outside of shops and factories is rapidly disappearing. NOTTINGHAM. The making of lace goods and hosiery forms the principal industry at this manufacturing center, by which a large portion of the foreign wants of nearly every country on the globe is supplied, the United States being regarded as one of the principal consumers. During the year 1883 the exports of lace goods declared at the consulate alone— for much of the product of the district must be shipped to the United States from other portions of England— amounted to about $5,200,000, and of hosiery to $1,700,000. An apparent decline in recent demands from the United States causes much anxiety in Nottingham, foV the shutting out from our market of these products in any serious quantity would mean short time if not total idleness and consequent suffering to a large numbei of the mill-hands of the district. LABOR IN EUROPE. 59 The consul cannot note any change in the conditions of to-day com- pared with those which prevailed in 1878, as far as wage-rates and food-prices are concerned ; 1878 was the end of a long depression, and 1884 would seem to be the beginning of another. Prom 1878 to 1882 there was a steady improvement iu the foreign demand for Nottingham goods, especially from the United States; but the past year has wit- nessed a perceptible falling off in both foreign and home demand. A coutinuance of this state of affairs must result in great suffering, and the uext winter is looked forward to with much concern. The consul does not consider the general condition of the working people of this district as unfavorable ; their wages are sufficient, ordi- narily, for the purchase of the necessaries of life; the grown-up mem- bers of families can secure employment in the mills, and household servants are always in demand. FEMALE LABOR IN NOTTINGHAM. The district of Nottingham embraces besides the city of Nottingham, with a population of 200,000, the cities of Leicester and Derby, with populations of 135,000 and 85,000, respectively, besides many flourish- ing towns, such as Grantham, Belper, Long Eaton, &c, all containing factories and knitting mills — not taking into account the hand knit- ting-machines run throughout all the valleys. It would be almost im- possible to estimate the number of females engaged in the various labors connected with the lace, hosiery, and associated industries. There is much of what the Germans call "house industry" carried on in the district. The female members of families are employed at their houses in lace-clipping, stocking seaming, making family underwear, and running hand knitting-machines. This interesting blending of fac- tory and house labor embraces four counties. It can therefore be easily imagined how sensitive this district must be to foreign demand, upon which the prosperity and happiness of nearly every household depend. On the whole the physical and moral condition of the female opera- tives of Nottingham is fully as satisfactory as in other manufacturing districts; and as they prefer factory to domestic life — although the latter has many advantages in the district — it may be assumed that they are satisfied with their lot. The wages paid iu the lace and hosiery industry, being taken as an illustration of this class of labor for all England, will be found in the recapitulation. SHEFFIELD.' Consul Webster reports the wage-rates prevailing at present in his district as from 5 to 10 per cent, lower than in 1878. Not only is this the case, but on account of the great depression which at present pre- vails, few manufactories in the district are running on full time; con- sequently the rates given are higher than the real wages earned. The principal causes assigned for this slack labor condition are the introduc- tion of labor-saving machinery and the sharp competition of other na- tions, especially Germany. Labor is well organized in Sheffield, and the consul thinks that the trades-unions, under good direction, are equally beneficial to labor and capital. Strikes are infrequent in the district, arbitration being the mode of settling disputes between the employer and the employed. 60 LABOR IN EUROPE. Mr. Webster has selected, for illustration of the maimer in which the working people of Sheffield live, the case of an artisan, whose family consists of himself, wife and three children, whose weekly earn- ings amount to $6.07, which may be considered a good average illus- tration. Weekly expenses. Cents. Rent, including taxes and water-supply $ u 97 Fneland light *> Groceries : sugar, tea, coffee, &c - °2 Butcher's meat 97 Clothing, boots, and shoes °«J Potatoes and vegetables - : '6 Bread 97 Beer 3 »" Tobacco 12 School pence - 12 Trade society 24 Friendly society 12 Total ' 6 04 The meat is consumed, chiefly, by the head of the family ; the women and children living mostly upon bread, or bread and butter or drip- ping, with cheap tea, supplemented by penny worths' of cheese or scraps of bacon. This, however, is the dinner bill of fare. In the straitened condition of the laboring classes, one of the causes of the greatest hard- ship — for it greatly increases the price of their necessaries — is the pur- chasing of cheese, bacon, canned meats, &c, by the pennyworth and coal by the pailful. Their very poverty is a hindrance to economy, and their drinking habits are largely the cause of their extreme poverty, for the amounts spent weekly in beer would suffice to give them better food. In Sheffield, adds Consul Webster, there is one licensed house for the sale of beer, or beer and spirits, to every 200 of the population. The great majority of these are mainly supported by the wo: king classes, and a very large portion of their hard-earned wages is deposited in these "banks." The consul desires it to be understood that, all workingmen are not of this type, for in Sheffield, as in all other labor districts, there are very many exceptions to the foregoing conditions. Some trades are well paid, and the workingmen's families are comparatively comforta- ble where thrift and steadiness prevail. What is known as " Sheffield ware" being selected as representing the highest conditions of its class, the rates of wages, hours of labor, &c, in connection therewith will be found in the recapitulation for all Eng- land. TUNSTALL. THE POTTERS OF TUNSTALL. Although Consul Lane's report covers nearly every division and sub- division of labor, as denned in the Department circular, it deals spe- cifically with the leading industry of his district— which is the most im- portant district in this particular branch in the United Kingdom the manufacture of earthenware. In the preparation of his report he en- countered opposition from some of the Tunstall factors, who refused all information. LABOR IN EUROPE. 61 In answer to Consul Lane's request for the necessary statistics to com- pile his report, seventeen firms, out of a total of about fifty to whom the application was submitted, responded favorably, twenty two promised but failed to supply statistics, and the others refused. It is due to many of those who failed to redeem their promises to state that the con- sul believes their silence to be occasioned by a mistaken corporative closeness, and, perhaps, by the fear that publicity might injure their interests if an exhibit of their wage list did not compare favorably with the establishments which so courteously gave CousulLaue the requested statistics. Mr. Lane, to leave no room for criticism, gives the wage-tables of the Tunstall potters from four different sources, viz, from the chairman of the Manufacturers' Association, from sixteen manufactories taken at large, from the secretary of the Manufacturers' Association, and from the workmen's average. The latter is here given as the best average full-time weekly rate of wages, although the difference between all the returns is slight. Statement showing the weekly wages paid to the Tunstall potters. Description of employment. Percent- age of workers em- ployed. Hours. Wages. Fiatpressers Dishuiakers Capmakers Sancer-makcrs Hand-basin makers Hollowware pressors Hollowwaro pressor jlggerers Prin ters ■- Overmen Saggar makers Moldmakers Tamers 'Handlers Firemen Throwers Warehousemen Total $7 S3 8 04 7 32 7 32 8 76 7 32 9 49 6 6C i; or. 6 06 8 04 7 32 8 40 11 55 9 72 G 28 The wide difference between the potters' nominal and real earnings is discussed at more length in the recapitulation of British trade con ditions under the head of glass and pottery works in England. FEMALE LABOR IN THE STAFFORDSHIRE POTTERIES. The total number of persons, male and female, engaged in the vari- ous employments in connection with the pottery industry of Stafford- shire is estimated at 50,000, or about one-fourth of the whole popula- tion of the district. The consul considers that of this whole number employed in the potteries 25,000 are females. It will thus be seen that the female potters form a very important element in the standard in- dustry of the district, comprising as they do one-eighth of the whole population. v A large percentage of these female potters are young and vigorous women between the ages of 18 and 30, and strike the looker-on, as they go to and return from their work, bare-armed and bare-headed, as the embodiments of cheerfulness and good health. The girls and women 62 LABOR IN EUROPE. are employed in various departments in the potteries, their wages rang- ing all the way from 60 cents to $4.87 per week. The consul furnishes the following table showing the female potters'' employments aud earn- ings: Description of employment Weekly wages. $2 02 2 68 4 38 ,1 05 1 95 $0 97 to 1 82 2 92 2 92 1 95 2 43 Houis of labor. Throwers' attendants Turners' attendants Handlers Jigperers' attendants ... Flat-pressers' attendants Transferers (girls) Transferers (women) EnamelerB Burnishers Warehousewomen 48 61 51 48 54 51 51 48 42 Consul Lane further states that women are the chief employees in the ordinary painting departments, where they give entire satisfaction. Technical schools are established in connection with the pottery for the artistic education of females, a very interesting accountof these schools, their systems, and results being given in the consul's report under the general head of " apprenticeship." In regard to the effect of female employment on the wages of males, the consul reports that wherever the former can compete successfully in the quality and quantity of work accomplished, which they can do in many departments of potters' work, the effect is to lower the wages of the men, instead of raising those of the women. In the painting and decorating departments, in the work performed by " handlers," and in the warehouses, female labor is equally as effective as male labor, while the wages are disproportionately small. On the other hand, the work is peculiarly suitable for females, and its effect on their physical and moral condition is elevating. Consul Lane's entire report will be found of the greatest interest to the potters of the United States, male and female, and is confidently recommended to them as a picture, with all its lights and shadows, of English pottery life, from which much may be learned by those here engaged in the same inustry. WALES. Valuable reports on the labor conditions of "Wales, prepared by Con- sul Jones, of Cardiff, and Consular Agent Heard, of Newport, which will be found in their proper places in this volume, were received- too late to be drawn upon for comparative statistics in this review While many conditions peculiar to Wales are shown therein, and while the re- port of Consul Jones is replete with facts and ligures illustrative of labor- life in that portion of the United Kingdom, there is nothing in either which would have materially changed the English conditions herein V C J) I C S G 11 t(i C I • The following extracts from the report of Mr. Jones concerning labor, wages and emigration, will be read with much interest : In the preceding pages I have supplied particulars of interviews with printers, masons, stevedores, laborers and others, showing L.ABOR IN EUROPE. 63 their earnings and the disposition they make of their wages. It geems to me next to impossible for the men to do more than to keep themselves and their families in sufficient food and clothing by tbeir earnings. That they do occasionally save, through industry and thrift, something for a rainy day, or enough to carry them to the West, where they may improve their fortunes, speaks volumes in their praise. And these are the class of men who constitute the bulk of American immigrants. Thriftless and worthless people are not in the habit of sav- ing £10 ($48.G0->, or more, necessary to defray the expenses of the transportation of themselves and their families from the old country to any of the Atlantic ports. Moreover, a certain amount of courage, independence of thought and action, as well as physi- cal strength, are almost necessary conditions to emigration; and from a somewhat intimate acquaintance with this question I ven- ture to state that European immigrants to the United States are composed of the best members of the working classes. Mr. John Bryson, ex- president of the Northumberland Miners' Association, writing to me, says : " I have no hesitation in saying that an energetic and thrifty miner with a family has nine chances to one of rearing them in decent comfort in America to what he has here. Healthy men of average skill, who keep from drink and set- tle down in one place, must and will do well in America, and mucn better than they can do here. There one has a chance of buying a plot of land on easy terms, and he and his family can cultivate it at their leisure. The average wages at Northumberland at present is 5s. 6L-'*i>^ , t-t> 'inioocoaoooioaDco i- t i> f x -r <- i- t t- CU- c- t O -t ffln co ia CO in •t^nora^ oo O rl co m oo OliH t-io to o ■fl"C1t-l>00 co m co o to to co •arRq3ntj'}0Nj '0^BU3A19j^ •jo^soqarrajn; ■nopaoi •[oocTjoaji co BDOi scii-sxas-oxaocoso ■ iOt* o o o -tf "M cm r- — »o t-i to i> t- 1 co to coo x to r en to oo to co » co cmi— toccooc-c- cdc-c-co-** COOCOOO - _ OIOOOO ■O — O •CO^CPCOCO ©.-.© COWXOifl C^^OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOO !an^mi-i^««_i *»voioawoioHaoooaocJoonHMo»oo looSgSg ! .^ co-<* eo -# t- •* t- t- t» eo-*cococDt-eot-cot>TjicococDeDoooo ' to w t> t- co co to *>. COlOCOlOGOCOCCOOlMaO 'cooomooocct* •Bpoai 'U«H ■J9^S90n0ir) 'HinoarpM •lo^sijg - w ccwcccdcoxcdcsiocqco > <* co -a o o « • "Hi CD ^H ^< X t-I ' t- t- CO CO "* CD co -* oo -* oo -F i> t r x W e- ao x t> O co OJ CDC- CO co ^g_co •^•cQ-*fo-*-*oaiOT»(tncO'*'^«c«'!rTji«-^iiocDc: ;3 2 ;3 2 P 3 ?! ;3 5 tt ■"* ■** ■•♦' =° ® ^! o co co 'eoeoco CD ■-* CO •«*• CO -* CO CD -<* OCOCDCD^icaeOCDCM^ 'coco-* OCM CM r-( CO CO "* CM N • cq CM I o t- oa co c- •pjtojpBjg & •nnjqStnuuia: CMO^fCOCMOCOCO CTSCMCOCJWCM?3« co to co co co w es os s £ (-. ~ J CO CO CD _ 9S?s o a g KHft ''-5 is ■* a . a Eras loefti 1 t- t> CD lO CO CD • w -* t- a< • x Hi §-cg E .§5 SB . g a,, ; : : Si $ i i ■S| :E 4* oo CD -..» t> m d « m iIl!l||iPl!6i LABOR IN EUEOPE. 65 © ©c-t- o o t- 33W«^ICOO>ftOH t-t^OOO ;i i— i © t- CO O TH CO ••a- OlOCQ oc t t- ■» in c t- :n- i t- x •; ^ t- 3 » t=* w~^*> o • o lio o© • o • o o • o it- oo co ■ t- • CO o c- 't- OI> ■ t> O CO OS r-i OS ;,_, © i> (M BO C-l 00 00 • a O o c» T*t>»ec !© CO ^ ■ o • W ■ o • 1-1 o o • o o o o o ■ o ' o IQ © . a o oc o • \a *,.° ■<* lO i t- oc c-c- X ! ^ '• c- COO • o '- ■ a '• m COr-f ■ a CM • ia ■ CM •*» • c- CO !cD '•to omo CM c © c CMC • OCM n«o eo © o ?oco CS CO t» lO IT t- a t-C- It- m O) •' © a o ©© ■ o (Ncq CM IT CC X t-^. r> T w (Ot- iiO o«oo oc o G OC oo ooono If CO C O IT oo oo-<*oood -* [> t- a c- t> Mt> cot- '• f- C COlf ie ' 1- ' oo cm . .£> C t> t- tr ■ -a ■CN toco ' lac if t-G£ oc 't- !°° c <* ■d n j ■ 'c c > ooc c •**a oec CONOO) ■ --J tj ^"P o ©a COt- vs i« to t- ■ a a coc- ■ c- • tot- Tf O Cl ?J 71 © i- 4 CO c c oa er o c !£ a t-c CM ©C- « Ob 00 ca-*j CM — 00 c I t- m^oco ©c COCC co ir • C- OCOCD-^ ■*i»*c T* IT ■^jiir 'lO ocooo © — c m c COCO mcococo CO oc c IOCS lO-^ t-^at- c-ce e* ■ ■ oc L- O CM© a> •<= •CO oco CM 1 CN ■ E- Q0"V t> ■ tc ■ to o CM lO (O ft* © % 'c « ID IS s g 5 O e i : : . 1 • 33 CD | to 55.: e .a ■§4 II II HE- B D 1 I 1 c « ►- ! I ■*■ -- t 1 1 1 • i ■ a 3 - ■3=5 a I 1 I HE- = 1 I 1 ' s 92 A— LAB- 66 LABOR IN EUROPE. II. — Factories and mills. WOOLEN MILLS IN BRADFORD. The average wages, per week of 56£ hours, paid in the Bradford woolen mills are given as follows in Consul G-rinnell's tabulated state- ment: Description of labor. Weekly WOOL COMBING. Wool-sorters Wool-sorters, boys Foremen washers Assistant washers Dryers Foremen, overlookers Carding, overlookers Counting, overlookers Carders, males Carders, females Carders, boys Backwaste winders Card jobbers Card grinders Combers Box minders Preparers Finishers, females SPINNING AND MANUFACTUBINQ. Drawing overlookers Spinning overlookers Drawers, females Spinners Bovers, boys Doffers, spinning, females, girls Doffers, twisting, females, girls $7 17 3 04 4 86 4 38 3 71 11 20 8 14 7 30 4 01 2 43 2 49 4 62 4 62 5 34 3 65 3 28 3 40 2 49 7 90 7 53 2 25 2 43 2 37 2 19 2 00 Description of labor. Weekly wages. SPINNING AND MANUFACTURING— Cont'd Doffers, half- timers, females, girls Jobbers, spinning, boys Jobbers, twisting, boys Finishers, females, girls DouWers, females, girls Foremen twisters Twisters, females - ■ Warpers Warpers, women Winders, women - — Heelers, women Warp dressers Twisters-in Weaving overlookers Weavers, coatings, females Weavers, dress goods, males Weavers, dress goods, females Packers : Hoald and slay makers Warehousemen Sliverers, boys Engine tenders Stokers , Mechanics - Smiths Joiners Masons Laborers $0 75 2 37 2 12 2 19 2 43 8 38 2 31 3 97 3 16 2 92 3 52 7 53 7 17 7 53 4 38 3 40 3 52 5 71 6 00 4 62 2 43 8 76 5 60 7 30 6 80 6 92 7 30 4 86 WOOLEN CLOTH FACTORIES IN WILTSHIRE. The following statement, compiled by Consul Lathrop, of Bristol, shows the average weekly wages paid to operatives in two representative - woolen cloth factories, the first factory employing 133 women, 59 men and 33 boys; the second, 418 women, 150 men and 70 boys. Average wages in factory No. 1 : women, $3.02 per week ; men, $5.64 per week ; boys, $2.25 per week. Average wages in factory Ho. 2: per week ; men, $5.44 ; boys, $2.39. women, $2.66 Workers. Factory No. 1. No. of hands. Weekly Factory No. 2. No. of hands. Weekly Sconrers Dyers Tuckers Mule spinners Warpers Weavers Brayers Millers Foreman Dressers Tenterers Cutters and brushers . 24 $4 62 4 62 3 89 7 30 4 86 4 38 4 86 6 07 7 30 7 30 $5 10 5 10 3 65 5 83 6 32 5 10 4 13 4 37 4 37 4 37 4 13 LAtSOR IN EUROPE. Woolen cloth factories in Wiltshire — Continued. 67 Factory No. 1. Factory No. 2. W orkers. No. of bands. Weekly wages. No. of hands. Weekly •wages. Men— C on tinned. 2 $5 34 8 2 12 $4 86 4 86 2 3 1 I 8 7 30 7 30 8 51 8 51 8 51 4 86 6 07 5 8 50 5 64 5 44 WOMEN. 2 10 5 16 60 40 2 43 2 07 3 40 2 43 3 40 2 92 3 30 11 24 280 70 1 94 1 70 2 43 1 82 2 91 2 43 3 02 2 66 BOYS. 4 4 7 6 1 10 1 1 58 2 43 1 94 1 91 2 43 2 92 1 46 6 5 16 12 1 21 2 92 2 43 2 43 12 - 1 2 1 4 6 3 2 4 2 2 92 2 19 2 19 2 19 1 82 1 21 2 43 2 43 2 43 2 43 2 25 2 39 COTTON MILLS IN THE MANCHESTER DISTRICT. [Statement prepared by Consul Shaw.] Average list of wages taken from a cotton-spinning mill at Oldham, employing about 300 operators. Subdivisions of employment in each department. Men, average weekly wages. Women, av- erage weekly wages. Young per- sons, aver- age weekly wages. Children, average weekly wages. $10 22 5 10 9 24 5 59 5 22 1 $4 32 4 26 3 89 S $0 63 10 22 8 02 $2 74 5 83 9 0% 1 30 4 01 4 32 1 68 LABOR IN EUROPE. Average wages in a large cotton-spinning mill at Oldham. Subdivisionsof employment in each department. Men, average weekly wages. "Women, av- erage weekly wages. Young per- sons, aver- age weekly wages. Children, average weekly wages. . $11 19 5 10 10 22 5 41 5 10 $4 62 4 50 4 01 > $0 63 10 95 7 54 $2 55 5 35 9 24 1 30 3 80 4 38 Average wages per week in a large cotton mill at Bolton, England, [Taken from the books of the company.] Subdivisions of employment in each department. Men, average weekly wages. Women, av- erage weekly wages. Young per- sons, aver- age weekly wages. Children, average weekly wages. $7 78 9 73 4 38 $2 43 to 2 92 $0 61 5 69 9 73 7 54 8 75 $1 88 4 14 5 35 3 04 to 3 28 2 61 3 53 2 61 4 01 8 51 7 66 8 51 3 89 4 38 10 95 9 24 4 62 3 93 10 22 4 86 to 5 22 4 86 to 5 10 3 16 to 3 41 Apprentice boys, some of whom are bound, from $0.61 up. The above mills employ 2,084 operatives, with 308 working days in a year, and averaging 56 hours per week. LABOE IN EUEOPE. 69 Copy of the weekly pay-roll of a spinning mill at Bollington, Cheshire, England. Subdivisions of em- ployment in each department. Men, weekly wages. Women, weekly wages. Young persons, weekly wages. Children, • weekly wageB. © ■a a p © © 1 s o © © © 8 •a 4S 10 © © 3 i a B © 5 GO © © Hi, © 1 i 1 ■4^ © © ■a s © o Hi © SP H- P Scutching 10 21 4 85 1 6 4 4 12 $4 86 $2 68$3 77 6 81 3 65 5 22 5 83 ! 3 65 4 74 7 78 4 14 5 95 1 $f>. fiS .*2 68 $2 68 3 45 2 31 65 41 3 89' 3 00 2 43 2 19 | 9 20 16 24 3 $2 19 *1 86 *2 03 Throstle spinning. Mule spinning 2 43 3 68 3 28 3 65 1 45 2 55 1 82 2 92 1 95 2 61 2 55 3 28 32 $0 85 $0 73 $0 79 7 78' 7 78 7 78 M 3 28 1 R5> 2 55 6 4 1 01 1 09 57 85 79 Bundling and pack- 10 95; 2 43 8 02 5 in 6 68 7 54 7 54 71 Engineers and fire- 9 97 5 83 5 10 3 65: 4 74 ' Total 97 171 72 42 1 1 Mule spindles Throstle spindles Rulers ■working Whole number of employes in establishment for week ending November 8, 1883 Pay-roll (whole establishment) for week ending November 8, 1883 ; Number of working days in year 1 Hours of labor per week Men "Women Young persons.. Children AGES. 37, 056 20, 724 94 382 ,211 27 307 56i 21 to 60 19 to 56 13 to 21 8 to 13 Average earnings per week in spinning and'weaving mills at Bolton. [Taken from the hooks of one of the largest mills in the district.] Each loom fl 54 3 looms, at $1.54 4 62 2 half-timers, at 62J cents 1 25 Net earnings of weaver 3 37 4 looms at $1.54 per loom 6 16 2 half-timers, at 62$ cents 1 25 Net earnings of weaver 4 91 Overlookers have charge of 72 looms, and receive on an average $10 per week. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. Average wages. $4 25 $4 50 $4 37 4 25 10 00 10 00 12 50 10 00 70 LABOR IN EUROPE. WORSTED MILLS IN LEEDS. Average wages per weelc of 56 hours. Description of employment. Sorters Fetlers Wooliers Girl combers Girl drawers Girl primers. Boy primers wages. $5 82 5 88 5 82 2 88 2 88 1 24 1 24 Description of employment. Dressers. - Weavers . Tuners — Assistants Knollers . - P6rchers . Carriers .. $5 82 10 00 10 00 5 82 2 88 2 88 5 04 LACE AND HOSIERY MILLS OF NOTTINGHAM. Wages per week in hosiery mills. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest Average wages. HOSIERY MANUFACTURE (50 TO 56 HOURS). Hand frame knitters, men Rotary power frame, men Circular power frame, men Circular power frame, women. Cottons patent : Men . Attendant boys Attendant girls Hand stitcher and seamer, women . Power stitcher and seamer, women. Power wilters and turners off "Winders Cutters : Men. Women Menders, women Folders : Men (piece) Women (piece) Girls (piece) Men (time) Lads (time) Women (time) Menders : Women (piece) Women (time) Girls (time) Makers.up : By hand, women . . By power, women . COTTON DOUBLING (56 HOURS).* Doublers : Women . . Girls Reelers : Women .. Girls Doffers, girls . $3 41 8 63 1 95 2 92 3 65 2 92 5 08 3 41 1 70 6 81 2 20 2 68 2 43 2 43 1 22 1 95 2 92 2 20 1 70 1 70 1 46 1 00 $4 14 9 73 9 73 4 86 12 16 4 14 2 43 1 95 3 65 4 86 3 16 3 65 3 90 10 95 4 15 1 95 7 78 2 92 2 92 3 65 2 92 1 95 2 90 4 86 2 92 2 20 2 20 1 95 1 46 $3 75 9 00 9 00 4 86 10 00 3 50 243 1 95 3 10 4 35 2 90 3 65 3 40 7 50 3 75 1 80 7 00 2 75 2 80 3 00 2 70 1 50 2 50 3 8« 2 00 2 00 1 75 1 25 ♦Some work by time, some by piece, according to arrangement with different firms. LABOR IX EUROPE. 71 Wages paid, per week o/54 hours in lace factories or warehouses in Nottingham. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. Average. FAXCT LACE MAIJUFACTURE. Lace makers, men Winders, lads and boys .' Menders, girls Threaders, lads and boys Warpers, men Designers and draughtsmen, men Clippers and scollopers, women Makers in silk: LACE CURTAINS. Men . Lads and boys . Makers in col ton: Men Lads and boys . Menders : Women Crirls Winders : Women Girls Warpers : Men (time) Lads and boys Draughtsmen : Men Lads and boys Threaders, lads and boys Smith (time) ". . . . Men Lads and boys . Women Girls LACE DRESSING. $14 50 2 40 2 40 1 45 6 00 10 00 3 40 17 00 2 C8 1 45 2 92 1 95 2 43 10 95 2 00 2 43 7 78 $24 00 2 90 3 40 2 40 7 25 24 00 * 90 19 00 12 00 6 30 3 40 2 68 3 40 2 68 6 30 '3 90 19 50 4 86 2 92 8 63 $16 00 2 60 3 00 2 00 7 00 15 00 4 00 18 00 7 00 8 00 5 50 3 00 2 20 3 20 2 20 6 30 3 00 15 00 3 50 2 60 8 00 12 16 3 65 3 41 3 20 The majority of men receive set wages, whether fully employed or not. cording to time made. Lads paid according to time made. Women and girls paid ac- HOW ENGLISH FACTORY OPERATIVES LIVE. Beferring to the general statements in the foregoing review of factory- life and habits in the several manufacturing centers, and to the tabu- lated rates of wages paid in representative factory centers, the follow- ing series of interviews (thirteen in number) with factory operatives, from the report of Consul Lathrop, of Bristol, will give a fair idea of the conditions of English factory and mill life. 1. Age,42years; occupation, wool scourer; wages, $4.34 per week; hours of labor, 56 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat twice a week; wife and 8 children ; 2 children, aged 17 and 18, receive at self-act- , ing mules $1.58 each per week. Weekly expenses : rent, 85 cents ; fuel, 73 cents; food, $4.37; clothing, 60 cents ; club dues, incident- als, schooling, insurance for 6 children, $1.09 ; total weekly ex- penses, $7.64. 2. A spinner, 65 years old ; wages, $4.86 per week; hours of labor, 56; can save nothing; has fresh meat four times a week; wife and 7 children ; children all married. Week's expenses: rent, 60 cents; fuel, 48 cents ; food, $3.40 ; clothing, 24 cents ; club dues, 30 cents ; incidentals, 6 cents ; total weekly expenses, $5.08. 3. A broad loom weaver, 35 years old ; wages, $4.86 per week ; hours of labor, 62 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat twice a week; wife and three children ; wife receives at weaving $1.95 per week. Week's expenses : Eent, 79 cents ; fuel, 72 cents; food, $4.13; school, 6 cents ; clothing, 24 cents ; club dues, 24 cents ; incidentals, 60 cents ; insurance, 6 cents per week ; total weekly expenses, $6.84. 4. A laborer in woolen wash mill, 57 years old ; wages, $2.68 per week ; hours of labor, 58 ; saves 12 cents a week for Christmas ; has fresh meat only on Sundays; wife and nine children, four at 72 LABOR IN EUROPE. home ; two boys and one girl receive, as picker, carter, and piecer, respectively, $1.70, $2.43, $1.22 per week. Weekly expenses: Eent, 60 cents: fuel, 36 cents ; food, $5.60; clothing, 36 cents ; club dues, twenty years in a shop club, which broke up last year ; insurance for three persons, 6 cents ; incidentals, 24 cents ; schooling, 8 cents ; total weekly expenses, $7.30. 5. A tucker, 25 years old; wages, $3.90; hours of labor, 56 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat four times a week ; wife and three children; wife receives as weaver $1.25perweek. Weekly expenses: Eent, 73 cents ; fuel, 48 cents; food, $2.80; clothing, 60 cents ; club dues, 13 cents ; incidentals, 24 cents ; insurance for three children, 6 cents; total weekly expenses, $5.10. 6. Condenser attendant, 40 years old; wages, $3.40 per week; hours of labor, 60 ; can save nothing ; wifereceives $1.46 ; meals con- sist of, for breakfast and tea, bread and butter, perhaps an egg ; for dinner, vegetables and a little meat of the cheaper kind. Weekly expenses : Eent, 60 cents ; clothing, 36 cents ; a new suit only once in six years ; food, $3.16 ; fuel, 36 cents ; school fees, 18 cents ; club dues, 6 cents ; incidentals, 12 cents ; total weekly expenses, $4.86. 7. Warper, 24 years old; wages, $4.86 per week; hours of labor, , 62; has fresh meat three times a week; wife and two children ; wife receives as weaver $2.18 per week. Weekly expenses : Rent, 82 cents ; fuel, 43 cents : food, $3.65 ; clothing, 48 cents ; club dues, 40 cents ; incidentals, 37 cents ; insurance, 4 cents ; servant, 85 cents; has to hire servant to take charge of children while at work ; total weekly expenses, $7. 8. Carder, 42 years old ; wages, $3.90 per week ; hours of labor, 55; can save nothing ; has fresh meat three times a week ; wife and five children ; wife receives as weaver $1.46 per week ; two children work, ages 19 and 17, weaver and grocer; weaver, $1.46 per week; grocer, food and $1.21 per week. Weekly expenses : Eent, 80 cents; fuel, 60 cents; food, $4.38; clothing, $1.34; club dues, 24 cents; incidentals, 60 cents ; schooling, 6 cents ; insurance, 14 cents, per week for seven people ; total weekly expenses, $8.16." 9. Weaver, 37 years old ; wages, $4.86; hours of labor, 62; saves about $2.43 per quarter ; has fresh meat three times a week ; wife and five children. Weekly expenses : Eent, 60 cents ; fuel, 37 cents; food, $4.38; clothing, 60 cents ; club dues, 37 cents ; incidentals, 97 cents ; schooling, 20 cents ; total weekly expenses, $7.49." 10. Pressman, 25 years old; wages, $4.38 per week; hours of labor, 57; can save nothing; has fresh meat twice a week; wife and two children ; wife receives $1.50 per week as weaver. Weekly expenses: Eent, 73 cents; fuel, 30 cents; food, $3.65; clothing, 48 cents ; club dues, 14 cents ; incidentals, 48 cents ; insurance, 2 cents per week for one child ; total weekly expenses, $5.80." 11. Puller, 32 years old; wages, $4.86 per week; hours of labor, 60 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat twice a week ; wife and five children. Weekly expenses: Eent, 61 cents; fuel, 36 cents; food, $2.92; clothing, 24 cents; club dues, 30 cents; incidentals, 24 cents; schooling, 18 cents; total weekly expenses, $4.85." 12. Dyer, 35 years old; wages, $4.88 per week ; hours of labor, 55: can aave nothing; has fresh meat twice a week; wife and four children; wife receives at weaving 98 cents per week. Weekly expenses: Eent, 73 cents; fuel, 37 cents; food, $3.90; clothing, very little; club dues, 14 cents; incidentals, 24 cents; insurance for two children, 44 cents ; schooling, 20 cents ; total weeklv ex- penses, $5.62. EUROPE. 73 13. Broad-loom weaver, 26 years old; wages, $4.13 per week; hours of labor, 62 ; can save nothing ; fresh meat three times a week; wife and child. Weekly expenses: Bent, 43 cents; fuel, 24 cents; food, $2.92; club dues, 24 cents; incidentals, 37 cents; insurance, 4 cents ; total weekly expenses, $4.24. III. — Foundries, machine-shops and iron-works in England. MANUFACTURE OF MACHINERY IN BRADFORD. The manufacture of machinery employed in the various processes of treating wool is a famous Bradford industry. The following wage-list of Bradford machine-shops, and various works in Birmingham, Hull, Holyhead and Newcastle-on-Tyne is, therefore, of representative in- terest: Description of employment. MACHIXE-SHOPS IN BRADFORD. Cupola-men Molders Laborers Loam-molders Laborers Fettters Pattern-makers Turners .- Fitters Carters IKON-WORKS IN BIRMINGHAM.* M old ei s Holders-up Boiler-makers Riveters Planers and Blotters Drillers Pressors Pattern-makers Tamers Stokers Anvil and vise makers BIRMINGHAM TIN-PLATE AND IRON- WORKS.! Iron-plate makers Iron braziers Tin-plate workers Blacksmiths, or mounting forgers Tinners Japanners, ornamenters Stampers Colore is (women, 44 hours) . Tin cleaners (women, 44 hours) FOUNDRIES, MACHINE-SHOPS, AND IRON- WORKS IN HULL'.} Fitters .* Turners Borers Machine-men Laborers Smiths Strikers Molders Laborers Brass-finishers Pattern-makers FOUNDRIES, MACHIXE-SHOPS, AND IRON- WORKS IN HOLYHEABl§ Molders Pattern-makers Fitters Weekly- wages. $7 30 8 26 4 38 8 78 4 86 5 83 7 54 7 54 7 54 5 10 11 50 8 00 10 50 9 60 9 60 7 00 7 75 11 50 10 50 6 25 10 00 7 25 7 75 6 25 8 00 9 75 8 50 7 25 2 90 2 90 7 20 7 20 7 20 5 50 4 56 7 20 4 90 8 16 5 50 7 20 7 92 8 47 8 25 Description of employment. Foundries, machike-shops, and iron- works in holthead— Continued. Laborers Engineers BLAST-FURNACES IN NEWCASTLE-ON- TYNE. Barrowmen Oversetters Chargers Slaggers Laborers : Men Boys S tovemen Metal carriers, pig-iron men Drawing metal nag locomotives Firing metal flag locomotives Blast-engines Hoist-engines Mending gas-boilers Blast-engine cleaners Sand-boy Limestone breakers NEWCA6TLE FORGES. || Puddlers Underhand puddlers Hammermen Assistant hammermen Boilers Assistant rollers Boguing, shearing, and stocking hot pudderbars Breaking and wheeling pig-iron Dragging and fileing taps Cleaning hammers : Men Boys Grinding and wheeling fettling : Men Boys ■ Burning tap-cinders Wheeling tap-cinders Wheeling scraps to furnace, boys Wheeling coals and ashes Charging and drawing bull-dog kilns- . Sundry laborers : Men Boys Sundry account keepers: Men Boys Forge enginemen Forge hammer attendants Forge boilermen ; Mien ■-.. Boys Weekly wages. $4 97 8 70 6 72 7 08 8 16 7 68 4 64 3 00 5 04 5 64 6 12 4 80 7 32 5 04 5 52 4 20 3 12 5 04 10 14 5 52 19 2ft 8 10 17 74 5 86 7 56 8 52 4 98 4 56 1 56 4 98 2 46 7 20 5 76 2 40 5 42 5 88 4 32 1 98 5 94 2 52 6 24 4 86 5 64 2 16 * 54 hoars per week. 1 Average wages per week of 53 hours. || Average wages per week of 66 hours. t "Wages per week of 56 hours. § Average wages per week of 60 hours. 74 LABOR IN EUROPE. In relation to the workers in foundries, machine-shops and iron mills in the north of England— and the statement may be taken as applying equally to other portions of the country— Consul Locke, of Newcastle- on-Tyne says that the condition of this important class of laborers is and has 'been for some time past the reverse of prosperous. The dull- ness in the shipping trade has had its effect on the iron works, necessi- tating the restriction of the output, the discharge of men and reduc- tion in wages, though it may be said that, as a rule, the iron works of the district have not as-yet felt the depression to such an extent as other branches of trade. There has not been that general cessation of busi- ness which is noticeable in the ship-building trade, and there are com- paratively fewer laborers out of employment; but there is a slackness in the trade, as is shown by the fact that many works which last year at this time were running full force on full time are now working a much smaller staff three-quarters to half time, while in a few instances firms have been obliged to suspend work altogether. This state of affairs has of course had 'its effect on wages, which have been gradually reduced (usually by means of arbitration) from 1878 to the present time. IV. — Glass and pottery workers in England. south shields plate-glass works. Average wages per week o/59£ hoars. Pot makers $8 24 Furnacemen Casters . 8 48 9 00 Grinders 7 00 Smoothers - 7 00 Smoothers, women '. 2 42 Polishers 7 24 Cutters and packers 6 08 TTJNSTALL POTTERS' WAGES. Potters' average weekly wages, according to statement of secretary of Potters' Manufactur- ing Association, statements made by workmen, and statements furnished by sixteen manu- facturers, with the general average of the three statements thus obtained. [Statement compiled by Consul Lane.] Description of occupation. g o g a o o © ?3 s . JfS g g %$ § > O ft © ■- !i © 3 o ® 2 sell S s a -2 •Sis Flat pressors Dish makers Cup makers Saucer makers Hand -basin makers Hollow-ware pressors Hollow-ware pressor jiggerers . Printers Ovenmen Saggar makers Hold makers Turners Handlers Firemen 'Throwers Warehousemen *. $6 57 48 8 40 7 48 9 12 7 32 10 20 6 67 6 66 8 04 9 48 8 04 7 32 10 20 10 20 57 $7 32 8 04 7 32 7 32 8 70 7 32 9 49 6 06 G 00 6 66 8 04 7 32 8 40 11 55 9 72 B 28 $7 67 8 78 9 48 7 64 9 49 7 57 9 90 7 39 6 64 7 43 10 20 7 38 8 05 11 81 11 31 6 43 $7 19 877 5 40 7 48 9 12 7 40 9 53 6 84 6 65 7 38 924 7 58 7 93 11 19 10 41 6 43 General average of earnings per man per week, $7.40. LABOR IN EUROPE. 75 BRITISH POTTERS' NET WAGES. The foregoing statement is given on the assumption that the potters are employed fall time, but the fact is, says Consul Lane, many of them are not running on full time. Taking the Staffordshire potters' actual earnings the year round, Mr. Lane considers a weekly average of $5.92 per man as a liberal estimate. Upon this estimate the net earnings of the 100 potters given in the fore- going statement would be as follows : Statement showing the full time and net weekly earnings of 100 Staffordshire potters. Description of work. ft Weekly wages. Fulltime. Net. Flat pressors Dish makers Capmakers Saucer makers Hand-basin makers Hollow -ware pressors . '. Hollow-waro pressor jiggerers Printers .--.. Overmen Saggarmen Mold makers Turners-..: ■. Handlers Firemen Throwers Warehonsemen Average 100 $7 32 8 04 7 32 7 32 8 76 7 32 9 49 6 66 6 66 6 66 8 04 7 32 8 40 11 55 9 72 6 28 7 40 $5 72 7 02 6 72 6 03 7 30 5 90 7 88 5 47 5 30 5 90 7 39 6 06 6 35 8 95 8 33 5 03 5 92 It is to be regretted that the consuls elsewhere did not deal more in net averages after the manner of Mr. Lane's analyses and the direc- tions of the Department circular. Basing conditions upon full time when full time does not prevail, and calling an average the simple multiplication and division of lowest and highest rates of wages, is not the true way to arrive at actual conditions. Upon general principles the Tunstall potters would be credited with an average full-time earn- ing of $7.40 per week, while the true average earning, as shown by Consul Lane, is only $5.92 per week. Estimating an average British workingman's family as composed of husband, wife and three children, Consul Lane computes the minimum weekly wages necessary to their plain comfort at £1 5*., or $6.08, and gives the following statement as to a mechanic with this family : Weekly expenses of a Tunstall carpenter's family — wages of husoand, wife three children, $6. Rent $4 72 Club 16 Taxes 9 Coal 48 Bread 1 00 Bacon, 2 pounds 32 Cheese, 2 pounds 32 Butter, 1 pound 32 Potatoes, one-half peck 16 Fresh meat, 4f pounds 71 76 LABOR IN EUROPE. Weekly expenses of a Tunstall carpenter's family, $c— Continued. Tea, three-fourths pound $0 36 Sugar, 4 pounds 2 ° Soap, 2 pounds 1* Flour, 3 pounds 1* Milk.l quart 6 Candles, one-half pound 6 Tobacco, 2 ounces 12 Beer 12 Clothes 48 Total S6 00 Taking the foregoing as the minimum living rate of a workingman's family, Mr. Lane shows by the following statement that out of every 100 potters employed only 17 earn wages above $6 per week, while 83 earn less than $6, and must therefore cut their expenses below that of the Tunstall carpenter, or supplement their wages in some manner. Statement showing the percentage of Tunstall potters earning above and below £1 58. ($6.08) per tveek. Branch of labor. No. of workers. Weekly net earnings. Surplus. Deficiency. + - 5 4 25 20 20 3 4 2 $5 72 7 01 6 72 6 02 7 30 5 92 7 89 5 47 5 32 5 90 7 40 6 06 6 35 8 95 8 30 5 02 $0 36 4 3 $0 93 64 06 1 1 22 16 2 1 81 61 3 1 32 02 2 1 1 24 2 87 2 25 Total 17 83 Continuing his interesting analyses of averages, the consul shows in a subsequent table that if the foregoing 100 potters were to pool their earnings there would be a weekly total deficiency for the minimum amount necessary to the support of the average family of $16.10 per week. The conclusion suggested by these tables is that the wages which make saving possible among the Tunstall potters are limited to a small number. . LABOR IN EUROPE. V. — Mines' and mining in England. Average wages per week paid in mines and mining. 77 Description of employment. CORNWALL. Underground men. Shaftmen Ore dressers Honrs. NEWCASTLE. HewerB...^ Deputies Engineers : Winding Hauling. Pumping Fan Locomotive . Shifters Stonemen Weekly wages. $3 12 4 05 3 02 6 72 6 60 5 88 5 88 5 70 5 64 6 24 4 68 5 64 Description of employment. Newcastle— Continued, Firemen Furnacemeu , Hand putters Pony putters Keepers Screeners Ordinary smiths . Boiler smiths Joiners Masons Fitters Laborers Coke drawers ... Coke fillers i Coke laborers . . . Hours. Weekly wages. $4 02 3 84 5 76 4 56 5 04 4 20 5 28 5 28 5 28 5 52 5 28 4 08 6 84 5 76 4 44 Note.— The majority of the Newcastle miners— that is, the married men— with the exception of putters and cokemen, are supplied with free coal, paying 12 cents per fortnight for its loading. VI.— Eailwat employes in England. Wages paid weekly to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and ears, linemen, railroad laborers, Sfe.") in England. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average LTVEBPOOL AND LONDON.* Station masters. . . Inspectors Porters Engine drivers — Firemen Cleaners Railroad laborers . Guards Porters Signalmen Lampmen Engine drivers. Firemen Cleaners Fitters Laborers SEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.t Passenger department. Station masters Station masters' assistants Hooking and passenger clerks . $9 20 50 4 00 8 60 5 25 3 00 4 45 5 94 4 20 24 4 16 8 75 5 75 3 00 6 00 3 50 12 00 8 24 8 38 Newcastle-on-tyne— Continued. Passenger department — Continued. Telegraph clerks Guards Guards' assistants Foremen porters Parcel porters Excess porters Porters Lampmen Carriage cleaners Ticket collectors Signalmen Gatemen Goods department. Inspectors Guards , Foremen Porters Timber loaders Shunters Rollymen , Horsemen , Number-takers $5 68 6 84 5 00 5 48 4 75 5 72 4 36 4 60 4 36 6 24 6 00 4 12 8 16 4 06 4 04 5 20 5 60 5 72 5 62 5 48 4 12 * As the consul-gen eral in his report refers to this table, compiled in Liverpool, as showing the rates of wages in London also, it may thus be taken as representing both Liverpool and London. tNorthern division of the Northwestern Railway Company. 78 LABOR IN EUROPE. Wages paid per week to railroad employe's in locomotive department, northern division North- eastern Railway Company, Neivcastle-on-Tyne. [Per week of 54 hours for men in repairing departments.] Description of employment. LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. Foremen Chargemen (erectors) - Fitters . Boilersmiths Boilersmiths' assistants Tin and copper smiths .. Blacksmiths Strikers - . Turners and machine men . Brass molders Brass finishers Carriage builders "Wagon builders Carriage painters Engine painters Pattern makers Sawyers . Laborers Engine drivers Firemen Mineral guards Engine cleaners Boiler cleaners Lighters-up Stationary-engine drivers. Coke and coal fillers Wagon greasers* Inspectors G-augers , Navvies (pickmen) Navvies (shovelers) Platelayers Platelayers, extra gang. . . Joiners Joiners' laborers Bricklayers , Plumbers and gas-fitters . Signal fitters Gas makers Painters Smiths i... Strikers . ... Masons Masons' laborers ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. $11 00 66 I 33 1 30 i 03 i 00 ' 13 t 51 ; 39 ' 13 ! 12 151 t 12 ' 39 >27 8 48 6 5 5 5 5 ^^^^^^^^»^is^t^a^ Boya » d apprentices ha ™ Average weekly railway wages in Manchester and Tunstall. Description of employment. MANCHESTER. Engine-drivers* Firemen* Passenger gaards* * ."." Watchmen* " Pointsmen* i*." Passenger porters* '.'. Goods porters Engine-fitters Carriage examiners Laborers Weekly- wages. $8 76 6 54 6 80 6 32 5 34 3 89 4 86 6 80 6 32 4 38 Description of employment. TUNSTALL. Station departtnent. Superintendent . . . Station-master Inspectors Booting clerks ... Parcel clerks Telegraph clerks . Foremen Collectors .!. * 12 hours per- day. "Weekly wages. $25 73 14 59 9 73 8 42 8 42 7 48 7 29 LABOR IN EUROPE. Average weekly railway wages in Manchester and Tunstall — Continued. 79 Description of employment. Tunstall— Continued. Passenger guards Porters Signal-men Shouters Horse-drivers Parcel porters Engine deparment. Firemen Under firemen Engine-drivers Engine-cleaners Firemen Fitters Weekly $6 81 4 26 6 68 4 86 6 81 4 86 14 59 9 73 9 73 3 05 5 59 8 51 Description of employment. Tunstall— Continued Inspector Clerk Examiners Boad department. Inspector Clerk Firemen Platelayers Goods department. Inspector Clerk Weekly ■wages. $9 73 7 27 7 48 7 29 4 86 15 50 5 65 VII.— Ship- yards and ship-building. • Wages paid per week of 54 hours in ship-yards in England. Description of employment. Newcastle' on-Tyne. Liverpool. Bristol. Carpenters and shipwrights - Joiners. v Painters Smiths ...T Strikers Platers Helpers Calkers Riveters Rivet-hoys Sawyers Pattern-makers Fitters Helpers Machinists Holders-np Clippers Drillers Lahorers Djon-workers Angle-iron smiths $8 51 6 80 7 78 8 03 7 54 8 03 7 78 8 51 8 15 7 42 $9 12 8 57 7 78 8 51 5 83 9 24 5 35 6 81 7 78 1 58 6 32 8 51 5 46 5 23 $8 64 7 92 7 92 6 48 7 20 8 64 6 48 5 47 8 64 Consul Locke says that the building of ships is one of the most im- portant industries in the north of England — the three north of Eng- land rivers, the Tyne, the Wear and the Tees, are lined with ship-yards wherein thousands of men are or have been employed. During the lat- ter part of 1883 overproduction developed into a glut of the market, and there was then a sudden and serious collapse. The smallest yards suc- cumbed and the largest were obliged to discharge a number of their hands and reduce the hours of labor. As the foregoing table shows the full rate of wages, the net or real earnings are of course much less. 80 LABOK* IN EUEOPE. YIII.— Seamen's wages. Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men)— distinguishing between ocean, coast and river navigation, and between sail and steam— in England. Description of employment. Liverpool. Hull. Bristol. Newcastle- on-Tyne. A verage wages for all England. OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. $63 26 50 47 36 74 15 81 $72 00 43 20 36 00 $67 33 $45 20 31 60 17 62 9 73 73 00 53 50 34 06 18 80 37 70 25 50 21 89 $36 40 28 00 12 40 43 82 33 08 15 27 9 73 83 94 66 91 50 48 18 90 33 25 28 07 13 78 64 80 43 20 26 40 33 60 24 00 14 00 57 60 38 40 28 50 22 08 72 00 48 40 28 30 12 60 28 00 20 40 12 00 77 00 45 76 32 96 28 32 73 44 53 00 37 61 19 18 OCEAN SAILING SHIPS. 33 14 24 48 15 42 COASTING TBADE. 67 00 29 16 24 32 *27 24 37 77 28 59 25 88 * And find their own food. IX.— Shop wages. Wages paid per week in shops, wholesale or retail, to males and females. Description, of employment. Hull. Leeds. Grocers : $5 00 $5 50 1 20 Drapers ; 5 50 7 00 2 00 6 25 5 75 3 20 2 44 6 60 5 30 7 00 Hosiers : 7 20 2 50 2 50 Hatters : 5 75 5 00 2 80 2 80 3 40 2 40 Stationers : 7 00 Boots and shoes: 6 00 2 50 7 00 2 50 Fancy goods : LABOR IN EUROPE. 81 Store and shop (household supply stores) wages in Birmingham. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. MALES, Porters and laborers . . . Delivery porters Salesmen Chiefs of departments . $4 8G 5 50 5 37 13 37 FEMALES. Young girls who copy orders Young girls who weigh and pack up - . Saleswomen Principal assistants Superior clerks, cashiers, and book keepers $2 18 2 10 2 90 5 10 The above amounts should be increased by the value of a good plain dinner, which is supplied free of charge to the employes at a cost to the employers of about Ave shillings per week, according to a note attached to the returns by the manager of the firm which furnished the statistics. Whether this free dinner is a general custom or a special arrangement by this particular firm, is not stated. Gloucester. — The consul at Gloucester gives his shop wages as run- ning from $2.40 to $14.40 per week, without any further detail. The foregoing are the only statistics given in regard to shop wages in England which could be tabulated. To the dissimilarity of working customs and rates of wages for shop service, together with the extent and intricacy of the held embraced, may be attributed the meagerness of the returns under this head. XI. — Agricultural wages. Wages paid per week to agricultural laborers in the west of England, with or without board and lodging. Description of employment. Average wages. GLOUCESTERSHIRE. In summer, without food and lodging In winter, without food and lodging Females, ordinary Females, harvest hands SOMERSETSHIRE. Males, food sometimes supplied at harvest "Women, field labor, cider and sometimes food WILTSHIRE AND DORSETSHIRE Males in summer Males in winter Women field laborers $3 65 2 91 1 H 2 13 3 65 1 46 2 91 2 67 1 46 Of agricultural labor in the above districts, Consul Lathrop, of Bristol, cannot speak favorably. Wages are lower in the west than in any other part of England. The following is a description of the appearance of agricultural la- borers, as seen by the consul at a "hiring fair" at Chippen Sodbury, in Gloucestershire : Worn out, their years gone, their muscles stiff, they are useless to the employer, and cannot get a place. They are literally turned out to die, and their only refuge is the workhouse; for it was impos- sible for them to save auythiug for their old age. When a pair of boots costs half a week's wages, a Sunday suit three weeks' wages, a pound of the cheapest meat two and a half hours' work, how could they save ? 92 A— lab G 82 LABOR IN EUROPE. Agricultural wages in the Hull district, county of York, and Liverpool and London districts. Description of employment. Average wageB. Description of employment. Average wages. HULL DIBTBICT. Farm laborers ' per year . Dairymaids l do. . . Housemaids 1 do... Wagoner 1 do . - COUKTT OP YORK. Laborer : First, man 2 per week . Second man 3 do .. Foreman of farm per year. Secondman 1 do... Tbird plowman 1 do. . . Plowboy 2 do. . . Sbepberd 4 per week. Blacksmith e per day. Joiner 6 do... Herdman 4 per week. Groom 1 per year. Servant girl 1 do... $29 00 to $72 00 67 00 to 86 00 58 00 to 67 00 67 00 to 96 09 $4 06 3 70 120 00 to 160 00 82 00 to 97 05 68 00 to 48 00 to 4 06 to 78 00 68 00 4 40 96 4 06 to 4 40 63 00 to 78 00 58 00 to 78 00 County of yobk — Continued. Scullery maids per year. LIVERPOOL DIBTBICT. Teamster 6 per year- Herd s do . . . Dairymaid 8 do . . . Cheese maker 6 do.. . Field boy 6 do - - Herdsmen 7 per week . Laborer 7 do. . . do ... LONDON DISTRICT. Laborers in Kent 7 - .per week- Laborers in Middlesex 7 .do. - . Laborers in Surrey 7 do.-. Laborers in Essex 7 do. .. Laborers in Hereford 7 - . . do . . . $39 00 to $40 00 73 00 68 00 53 00 121 00 29 00 3 89 4 01 1 70 4 13 4 13 4 38 3 65 1 "With board and lodging, 2 "With cottage. 3 No cottage ; no board. 4 And a cottage. 6 And two pints of beer. 6 "With board. 7 Without board. In the agricultural districts around Loudon the agricultural laborers earn on an average about $220 per annum. It is customary to give a bonus at harvest time, and during that season the laborer is supplied with beer. The general tendency in agricultural wages (notwithstand- ing the depression in agriculture) is upwards, since the farmers are obliged to pay their hands sufficient wages to overcome the natural tendency to drift into the cities to seek a living. AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN THE NEWCASTLE DISTRICT. The system of half-yearly " fair hiring " still prevails in this district. During the first week in May the consul attended a hiring at the Corn Market in Newcastle. There was a large attendance of both masters and men, women and girls. The laborers, it would seem, fixed their terms, and the employers were forced to accept them, viz : For the half year, men, $48 to $78 ; boys, $17 to $24 : females, from $31.64 to girls to $43.80 to women. It is usual on these occasions to advance money to the laborers, which the latter spend at night in the public houses. The excesses on these occasions have aroused public sentiment against the sys- tem, and it is likely that it will soon be done away with. With all its drawbacks, this system has its advantages ; it enables the la- borers to meet and consult about terms, and it also enables the masters to select the laborers most suitable to their requirements. XII. — Corporation employes. Wages paid per year to the suboi-dinate corporation employed in the city of London. [Compiled at the oonsnlate-general.l Description of employment. Oity government (London proper, Guildhall, and Mansion House) Chief clerks (Guildhall) Copying clerks ' Laborers, a week , Porters, a week Lowest | salary. $820 00 486 00 5 40 5 40 Highest salary. $3, 550 06 790 00 7 20 7 20 Average salary. $6 00 6 00 LABOR IN EUROPE. 83 As to ordinary trades — carpenters, bricklayers, &c. — employed by the city of London, it is usual for the proper officers of the vestries or par- ishes (local divisions) to give out the work by contract, and then the average rates as tabulated under " General trades " are in force. On an average, a common laborer will receive 10 cents per hour, and a skilled mechanic 17 cents per hour, for 52 hours, a week's work. Street cleaners, men, 62 to 90 cents a day; boys, 30 to 62; dustmen (carmen), $5.35 to $5.83 a week. XIII. — Government departments and offices. Wages paid per year to employee in Government departments andoffioes — exclusive of trades- men and laborers — in England. [Compiled at tlie oongulate-generfll.] Description of employment. Lowest wages.* Highest wages.* Average wages. GENERAL CIVIL SERVICE GRADES. Higher division clerkst Lower division clerkst Lo-^er division clerk, (7 hours offices)§. Boy clerks (age 15 to 17 years) Men copyists (20 cents an hour) Boy copyists (8 to 9J cents an hour) Men messengers Boy messengers SALARY LIST- OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE. Secretary of state Under secretary of state Three assistant secretaries of state Chief clerk 6 senior clerks 6 assistant clerks 20 first-class junior clerks 4 second-class junior clerks Librarian Sublibrarian . . l , 2 first-class clerks, librarian's department 2 second-class clerks, librarian's department . 4 third-class clerks, librarian's department . . . Superintendent treaty department Assistant treaty department , Clerk in treaty department CHIEF CLERK'S OFFICE. Three first-class clerks Two second-class clerks... Five third-class clerks Translator Oriental interpreter Four clerks lower division. Clerk in passport office Private secretary Precis writer Two temporary clerks Printer Proof-reader Ofncekeeper Assistant ofncekeeper Assistant ofncekeeper Coal porter Assistant coal porter Porter Porter Housekeeper $486 389 462 195 230 76 4,866 4,380 3,400 973 486 3,406 2,676 1,946 1,216 486 3,406 2,676 1,216 1,046 1,216 253 292 $1, 946 973 1,217 245 250 114 4,866 3,893 2,920 973 4,866 3,162 2,433 1,752 1,167 4,866 3,162 1,752 2,433 1,752 1,167 2,433 1,946 973 1, 216 1,460 1,460 680 729 505 973 438 427 316 215 438 389 607 681 840 220 420 210 340 95 24, 332 9,733 7,300 * The two amounts indicate the limits, the salary being dependent on length of service, t Commencing at $486 and increasing by triennial increments of $73. 1 Same triennial increment. 9 Same triennial increment. 84 LABOE IN EUROPE. Wages paid per year to employe's in Government departments, $o. — Continued. Description of employment. Lowest ■wages.* Highest Average wages. EXTRA ALLOWANCES. Permanent under secretary of state, for management of secret service fund . Two private secretaries For languages 12 Queen's foreign service messengers . 2 Queen's home messengers 5 Queen's home messengers 3 Queen's home messengers Examining medical officer POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. Postmaster-General Secretary Financial secretary Assistant secretaries Chief clerk 5 principal olerks, upper section 9 principal clerks, lower section 10 first-class clerks 19 second-class clerks 24 third-class clerks Lower division clerks, to 1 clerk 1 first-class clerk ... Second-class clerk. Third-class clerk . . . Misting letter branch. Storekeeper 1 clerk 1 supervisor 3 overseers , 5 foremen of laborers . . 52 porters and laborers. 18 porters and laborers . Messengers (boys) Storekeeper's branch. Clearinghouse branch— female clerical staff. Superintendent 3 principal clerks ' '.'..'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'".". 10 first-class clerks "'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'..'. 44 second-class clerks .J." Betumed-letter office. 1 first-class returners (male) 13 first-class returners (female) 14 second-class returners (male) ." 37 second-class returners (female) .' 5 third-class returners (female) , . ,. .... Postmasters. At northern distriot AtN. W.district AtB. C. district At S. "W. district AtW. 0. district AtE.district Paddington Galing "".'. Putney [\ Wandsworth, &c ................ 591 small letter-receiving offices in London Letter-carriers and sorters. East central district (the city proper) ■ 360 letter-carriers 97 junior letter-carriers '. 94 junior letter-carriers, second class 11 porters and laborers DivisionI Division II Division HI (estimated") '.'.'.'. Suburban letter-carriers.1 $4, 866 3,406 2,822 1,946 1,265 730 1,508 1,021 486 1,946 1,021 973 584 380 258 228 88 802 535 584 225 330 177 201 24 228 176 228 228 265 240 $1, 460 729 729 1,916 1,216 973 729 146 5,840 4,282 3,310 2,433 1,849 973 973 2,„190 1,400 973 2,433 1,460 1,460 705 444 340 316 126 1,460 730 486 365 634 302 570 216 316 265 228 342 352 342 310 $12, 166 9,733 7,300 4,770 2,433 2,433 2,433 3,400 3,285 3,940 2,433 2,480 730 584 1,703 LABOE IN EUEOPE. 85 XIV. — Trades and labor — Government employ. Wages paid by the week of average 48 hours to the trades and laborers in Government em- ploy in city of London. [Compiled at the consulate-general. J Description of employment. Laborers and porters (standard Government scale) Custom-house : "Watermen, first class Watermen, second class Extra men Admiralty : Foreman, coopers, bakers, &o Coopers, bakers, &c Policemen (privates) :* Third class, two years' service Second class, five years' service First class, seven years' service Lowest wages. $4 38 8 00 6 56 Highest wages. $8 57 9 35 7 52 Average wages. $5 48' 8 67 7 04 5 10 11 20 7 10 5 83 6 56 7 40 * Uniform, boots, &c, famished. In some branches of trade and labor under Government employment the rates fall below the prices paid by individuals or firms for the same work, but the steadiness of employment and the less number of daily hours' of labor more than account for the difference. XV. — Printers and printing offices in England. Description of employment. © 1? I* a in S'to * u o a © n .S © in Is la a o £ . s a CO in V 1 C O H <0 . M boa © H 3* Compositors : $6 50 $5 04 $6 81 7 30 9 23 •7 77 6 81 1 70 7 30 $8 76 9 73 9 73 9 00 1 90 9 50 $8 70 9 75 9 75 8 24 11 00 $7 53 8 75 8 75 8 02 8 02 1 46 $7 '29 7 29 7 29 7 29 7 29 $7 23 8 77 8 95 6 50 6 50 5 04 5 04 7 27 6 98 1 69 5 04 5 04 8 46 6 58 1Q 20 7 25 8 76 3 30 ' ' 8 76 3 30 7 53 7 53 86 LABOR IN EUROPE. SCOTLAND. As the trade conditions in Scotland do not materially differ from those in England, and as the consul-general bas prepared from the reports of the several consuls in Scotland a statement showing the rates of wages paid to the general trades in that country, a brief review here of the reports from Dundee, Dunfermline, Glasgow and Leith will suffice. DUNDEE. The food of the working classes in this manufacturing center, writes Consul Wells, is simple and homely : breakfast, porridge and milk, or , tea or coffee and bread and butter, with perhaps an egg, a small bit of bacon or a herring ; dinner is frequently Scotch broth, cooked with cabbage or other vegetables, and beef in small quantities ; supper, tea, with bread and butter. Mill and factory girls who do not reside at home are compelled to live more plainly, their wages being insufficient to procure them the full fare here specified. The working classes of Dundee are poorly provided for in the way of house accommodation. There are in the city 8,620 houses, of only one room each, occupied by 23,670 persons; 16,187 two-room houses, occu- pied by 74,374 men, women, and children. Of the 140,000 people in Dundee, 118,000 live in one, two and three room houses. Consul Wells's description of life in what he calls the single-room " hovels" shows a condition of affairs, where "five or six human beings are sheltered with nothing to lie on but the floor, and covering them- selves, when they have an opportunity, with jute burlaps which they take in to make into hand-sewed bags." As to the habits of the working classes of Dundee, while there is much dissipation and recklessness, there is, the consul says, a large number who are both prudent and economical, and manage to save considerable money. The jute mills give employment to many, and labor is drawn thither from the smaller towns and from rural districts. Boys and girls under 14 find employment as "half-timers," and earn from 60 to 70 cents per week of 28 hours' work. All above 14 enter as full-timers, and earn the average wages given below in the statement showing the general labor conditions in Scotland. The feeling between employers and employes in Dundee is reported as harmonious, which fact largely affects in a favorable manner the prosperity of the city. Trade is well organized and labor is regarded as benefited by the unions. i Strikes are not of frequent occurrence, arbitration being chiefly re- sorted to in case of differences between capital and labor ; when strikes do take place family suffering is not acute, as the union generally pays the striker about half-wage rate while funds last. The general condition of the Dundee working classes is not satisfac- tory, and the very few opportunities offered for their improvement is one of the chief causes of emigration. The consul estimates the number of women and girls emploved in the jute and linen factories of Dundee at between 50,000 and 60,000. Fe- males in the factories average $2.50 per week, and the same rate holds good in dressmaking and other shop employments. L.A.UVK IN EUROPE. 87 The moral and physical condition of the female operatives is consid- ered good, on the whole, and the consul credits much of this satisfac- tory condition to the well- ventilated factories, the simple dietary, and the active co-operation of the churches. The wages of the women workers of Dundee have increased 5 per cent, during the last five years, while the decrease in the price of the necessaries of life has amounted to from 3 to 5 per cent. GLASGOW. Ship-building is one of the principal industries of Glasgow, but, as on the Tyne, it seems to have fallen into depression. During the years 1881, 1882 and 1883 it was characterized by the greatest activity in the history of the trade, writes Consul Harte, but at present its con- dition is gloomy. During the month of December, 1883, 4,000 workmen were discharged from the Clyde ship-yards. It was estimated, the consul says, that at the date of his writing, June 17, 1884, 1,500 opera- tive ship-builder? were out of employment. The present wage rates in the Clyde ship-yards, being what are called " depressed rates," are given by Consul Harte as follows, per week of 54 hours : Description of employment. Shipwrights. Shipjointers . Blacksmiths : Engineers ... Ship-painters Plnmhers Riggers Wages. $7 66 7 11 7 00 6 60 7 60 8 78 8 85 Description of employment. Wages. Machine-men Hammer-men Laborers Riveters (piecework) Fitters (piecework) . Calkers (piecework) . $6 56 4 65 3 89 12 16* 13 38* 17 00* The workingmen of the Glasgow district, writes the consul, as a gen- eral rule, have a struggle to make both ends meet, and only by steady habits can they succeed in having a balance on the right side. The high wages paid until quite recently have had the effect, it is said, of demor- alizing a large proportion of the Clyde ship-builders. Earning good pay in comparatively short hours during the flush times, they absented themselves from work and spent their evenings in drink. The result was that when depression came the iron-workers, who gained the best wages, were the least prepared for the reaction. Mr. Harte deals at some length with the labor organizations and co- operative societies of his district, from which much can be learned of the conditions and habits of the working people of the Clyde. Legislation regulating the public and general relations between mas- ters and men seems to be more favorable to the working people in England, without bejng oppressive to honest employers, than in Scot- land; or if similar legislation is in existence in both countries, it is not enforced in Scotland. Few opportunities for the improvement of his condition are offered to the Glasgow workingman. It is almost impossible for a workingman * Highest wages. 88 LABOR IN EUEOPE. to house his family decently 011 his wages ; laying up anything for old age is the rare exception. The number of females employed in the Glasgow consular district is given as follows in Consul Harte's report : Manufacturing and mechanical 71, 5S3 Professional, clerks, teachers, laundresses, house-keepers, hotel and hoarding-house keepers, &c 4, 827 Agriculture 3,040 Total..., 79,450 According to official returns the population of Scotland numbers 3,735,573, of which 1,936,098 are females. Female workers of all classes and grades are put down for all Scotland at 498,271, so that nearly 26 per cent, of all the female population is engaged in some employment. Consul Harte estimates the weekly wages paid to females in his dis- trict as follows: Minimum, $1.46 ; maximum, $4.74; average, $2.68. The physical and moral condition of the Glasgow female operatives is good, having improved greatly during late years. This improved condition is attributed to the operation of the Factory and Workshops Act. The wages in mills and factories are about the same as they were five years ago, but the wages of milliners, dressmakers, &c, have increased considerably. Owing to the imports of food supplies, especially from the United States, the prices of the necessaries of life have decreased in the last ten years. DUNFERMLINE. This being what is called a country district, its working classes may be considered the best representatives of the proverbial Scotch thrift and economy. Consul Myers reports that as a rule they are steady, industrious, orderly and temperate; slow in their movements, and in competition with American workmen would, be left behind, both in the quantity and quality of their work. They are religiously inclined — attending church twice every Sunday— yet are fond of amusement, and spend their holidays in dancing, national games and excursions. They are economical in household expenses, but what is saved thereby is spent in amusement and dress, and few lay up anything for emergencies. The population of the Dunfermline district is almost entirely a work- ing population, engaged in the manufacture of household napery, oil- cloth for floors, coal mining, and farming. Their houses are, on the whole, comfortable, their food plain and wholesome, their clothing sub- stantial; they are mainly strong and healthy, and so well contented with their condition that very few emigrate. laboe in europe. wages throughout scotland. 1 — General trades. Wages paid per week of 51 to 77 hours. 89 Occupations. Glasgow. Dundee. Leith. Dunferm- line. Average for all Scotland. BUILDING TRADES. $8 15 5 61 7 13 4 59 6 11 5 10 7 13 7 13 5 10 7 13 5 10 7 13 7 13 7 89 6 87 4 59 6 11 6 11 9 17 5 61 6 62 7 38 6 11 6 11 6 62 7 13 6 11 6 00 6 00 6 50 5 61 7 13 6 62 5 10 6 62 7 13 7 13 4 59 7 13 6 11 $7 50 4 65 7 53 4 65 6 72 4 65 7 23 $7 13 5 11 6 62 4 86 6 62 5 10 7 13 $7 14 4 59 $7 50 4 50 7 10 5 86 6 33 5 86 *6 80 7 13 7 23 4 86 7 73 6 44 6 32 6 32 4 63 7 29 5 83 5 34 6 08 6 72 6 08 6 80 5 86 5 86 6 91 6 80 OTHER TRADES. 6 08 5 76 6 50 6 08 5 59 6 08 6 32 7 30 6 11 Drivers : 4 49 4 86 5 10 6 56 7 29 7 50 4 86 7 29 6 80 6 56 4 12 , 7 53 7 41 5 35 4 62 5 10 5 28 5 16 5 57 10 95 8 46 4 98 9 73 6 69 7 30 4 38 7 88 6 88 7 00 i 36 7 33 6 76 6 62 8 15 6 62 7 89 18 69 5 58 6 08 4 12 6 80 7 77 13 00 6 56 2 67 5 76 7 27 18 69 5 61 6 11 5 10 6 11 7 00 6 57 7 30 6 00 5 28 ' 5 76 6 50 5 07 6 46 6 81 12 16 6 81 6 00 6 90 12 58 6 62 5 10 6 67 3 88 * Keal average, $7. 90 LABOR IN EUROPE. II. — Factories and mills in Scotland. Average wages (per week of 56 hours) in the Dundee jute mills. [Compiled by Consul "Wells.] Description of employment. Jute-preparing department. Pickers of jute, men ! Strickers-up, piecework, women ! Hand at softeners, young men \ Preparers, women ' j "Boys 14 to 15 years of age, jute- workers.! Foremen or overseers over all these j workers, men ' i Average \ j wages. | Jute-spinning department Coarse spinners of jute, women Fine spinners of jute, women Piecers, girls 14 to 15 years of age, jute- workers, girls t Shifters, girls 14 to 15 years of age, jute- workers, girls Half-timers, boys and girls, 10 to 14 years of age, jute-workers, boys and girls Keelers, piecework, women Bobbin winders, piecework, women Cop winders, piecework, women "Warpers, piecework, women Foremen or overseers over all these workers, men Jute-weaving department. Single-loom weavers, piecework, wo- men $4 18 3 28 3 40 2 24 2 13 6 44 2 30 2 18 1 74 1 45 70 2 91 3 75 3 G5 3 65 2 57 Description of employment. Jute-weaving department — Continued. Double-loom weavers, piecework, wo- men Tenters, meu Dressers, men Foremen or overseers over all these workers, men Finishing department. Croppers, men Calenderers, men Measurers, men Lappers, men Packers, men Foremen or overseers over all these workmen, men. Mechanical department. Mechanics (iron fitters and turners), men Millwrights, men Joiners, men Other tradesmen employed in these works, men Foremen or overseers over all these tradesmen, men Average wages. $4 06 6 20 6 44 3 88 4 80 444 4 24 5 04 7 04 7 41 6 80 7 04 8 51 Note. — Above noted wages are also a fair average of what is paid in the linen factories or mills within this consular district. Wages paid per week of 56 hours in factories or mills in Glasgow. [Copied by Consul Harte.] Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. FEMALES.* "Woolen and wincey factory weavers $3 04 2 55 2 19 3 40 3 04 1 94 1 70 MALES.* Tapers in woolen and winoey factories. Tenters in woolen and wincey factories. Mechanics in woolen and wincey fac- 1 $9 78 10 21 "Woolen and wincey pirn winders Drawers in woolen and wincey factories . Twisters in woolen and wincey factories Beamers in woolen and wincey factories . 032 6 07 8 02 Tenders and young .girls [general] * With veiy few exceptions, all the above classes are on piecework, and the average earninits in a Glasgow mill are given. " ° LABOR IN EUROPE. 91 Wages paid per week in factories or mills in the consular district of Leith. [Compiled by Consul Malmros.] Description of employment. Paper mills.* Paper makers : Men Boys Glazers : Women Girls Finishers, women Rag-sorters, women Esparto sorters : "Women Men Firemen Mechanics, &c Laborers Envelope manufacturers. Cnttermen, time workers, men Mechanics, time workers, men Unskilled, time workers, men - Hand folders, piece workers, girls Machinists, piece workers, girls Glimmers, pieceworkers, girls Forewomen, time workers Average 72 $5 11 72 1 46 51 2 67 51 1 70 51 2 92 51 2 55 51 2 67 57 4 38 72 5 84 57 6 32 57 3 89 54 6 32 54 7 30 54 4 13 54 2 43 54 2 79 54 2 19 54 4 13 Description of employment. Fishing-net manufacturers. Female: Mill workers, on time. . . Net workers.on piece work Male net workers, on piece work Mechanics Vulcanite manufacturers. "Vulcanite makers. Polishers, girls Cutters, boys Sawers, girls Buffers Grinders Tobacco manufacturers.^ Female workers, first class, piece work Female workers, second class, piece work , Male workers, time work Flour mills. Men, per week Hours. 56 wages. $2 55 4 13 5 23 6 32 4 8S 2 43 3 05 2 43 8 03 2 92 1 46 5 84 * In the Valleyfield paper mills, near the town of Penicuik, about 10 miles south of Edinburgh, fully 900 people are employed, of Whom about one half are women and girls. t There are no oigar manufacturers in this district, or perhaps in Scotland. III.— Foundries, machine-shops and ikon-works in Scotland. Wages paid per week of 54 hours in foundries , machine-shops and iron-works in the district of Dundee. [Compiled by Consul "Wells.] Description of employment. Average wage's. $7 41 6 68 8 26 8 34 4 86 4 66 7 29 4 88 7 29 6 38 5 18 5 54 4 66 7 14 3 96 7 83 3 76 Boiler-makers : 8 57 8 01 4 71 The Glasgow and Leith tables are not in form for exhibit under this head, the first giving the wages by the hour only, and the latter in- cluding ship-yards. 92 LABOR IN EUROPE. IV. — Glass-workers in Scotland. Wages paid per week of 56 hours to glass-workers in United States consular district of Dun* dee, Scotland. [Compiled by Consul "Wells.] Description of employment. GAUGE GLASSES. Men, piecework Boys, time wages BOTTLES. Hen, piecework Apprentices, piecework Boys, time wages Firemen for above Average wages. 8 51 5 42 121 Wages paid per week to glass-workers (rough plate) in Glasgow. [Compiled by Consul Harte.] Description of employment. Hours per week, !Ladlers Kilnmen Kiln assistants. Pullera-off Roller-men Boggie-boys. — Founder Teasers Caremen Potmakers Joiners Crate-makers .. Average $9 24 8 75 6 56 6 81 5 83 3 65 9 73 7 29 6 56 8 51 6 08 4 38 Description of employment. Hours per week. Blacksmiths Misers Glass-cutters Packers "Warehouse-boys Furnace-builder Laborers Carters "Watchmen Glass -pickers (women). Manager Average wages. $5 83 5 83 8 01 4 86 2 07 9 73 4 38 6 08 5 10 2 43 24 33 !N"ote. — Only rough plate-glass is manufactured in Glasgow. Y. — Mines and minings in Scotland. paid per day of 8 hours in and in connection with coal minesin Glasgow and district. Description of employment. Average wages. Under-ground men. Firemen * Roadsmen Drivers Bottomers Miners Above-ground men (per day of 12 hours). Engine-man -- Pithead-man Boiler fireman Eunners Screenmen *. Platelayers "Wagoners and brakesmen I . Blacksmiths Joiners $0 91 85 04 81 97 83 81 64 08 81 85 ici 101 LABOR IN EUROPE. 93 Wages paid per day of 8 hours in and in connection with coal mines in the consular district of Leith. [Compiled by Consul Malmros.] Description of employment. Average wages. Miners Engine-men Banksmen . . Engineers .. Joiners Smiths Laborers ... Consul Malmros says: Wages for miners are much the same now as they were in 1878, when last reported on. The.y fell slightly in 1879 during a period of general depression, but rose again in 1880 when times improved, and have fluctuated variously since then. Previous to the year 1850, when the movement for bettering his condition was only in its infancy, the pay of the miner was 61 cents per day, and, counting off his usual deductions, he was left with a sum even less than was paid to the poorest agricultural laborer. Wages per day have varied very considerably since 1850, as the following brief note will show: Year 1854, $*1.21; 1859, 79 cents; 1864, 97 cents; 1869,91 cents; 1872 to 1874, $1.46 to $2.43; -1879, 73 cents to $1.09. The miners generally did not save much out of the high wages obtained during the period 1872 to 1874. Such a time is not likely to occur again, as the high prices then got for coal stimulated other nations to search for it, with the result that several countries to which coal used to be exported in large quantities from Great Britain have now coal mines of their own. With reference to the cost of living, it may be stated that miners, as a rule, make the cost of living exactly the same as the wages they earn. The rents they pay are generally about 24 to 36 cents per week, and deductions are made from their wages of 6 cents per man per week for doctor's fees, 4 cents for sharpening their work- ing tools, and 4 cents for school. This last is a great advantage to a man with a large family, which nearly every married miner has. Strikes are frequent, and the feeling between the miners and their employers for a long time has not been of an amicable nature. Almost every colliery has a benefit society for itself, the men paying each fortuight a sum into the funds, and in the event of sickness, personal or otherwise, getting help. In many collieries they have co-operative stores, which are con- sidered of great benefit to the men. 94 LABOR IN EUROPE. VL — Bailway employes in Scotland. Wages paid per week to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, $c.) in the consular district of Dundee, [Compiled by Consul Wells.] Description of employment. Station-masters Goods agents Inspectors Engine-drivers Engine-stokers Book agents and clerks Guards or conductors Goods cashiers and clerks Parcels clerkB Ticket examiners and collectors Signalmen Gatekeepers Average -wages per week of «0 tours. 10 20 8 30 8 30 5 58 3 40 6 08 4 00 4 02 4 49 4 98 4 02 Description of employment. Yardsmen Goods checkers . - Goods porters — Masons Joiners Plumbers Painters Blacksmiths Signal-fitters Platelayers Laborers Passenger porters Average wages per week of 60 hours. JRates of wages paid to the various classes of workmen employed upon railways in Scotland in 1873, 1878 and 1884. Description of employment. 1884, per week. Passenger department. Passenger guards Goods guards Block signalmen Pointsmen Ordinary station porters Porters in Edinburgh Goods porters Goods porters in Edinburgh. Foremen in goods department Engineer's department. Chief foreman Squad foreman Ordinary surfacemen Special h quads * All these classes are paid extra for Sunday or extra night shift. The rates are for six days of twelve hours at the utmost, but around Edinburgh eight hours shifts for signalmen, t Rising 24 cents per year. i According to class of cabin and signals. § But all over the line $4.80 is the rate. LABOR IN EUROPE. 95 VII. — Ship-yards and ship-building in Scotland. Wage* paid per week of 54 hours in ship-yards — distinguishing between iron and wood ship- building — in United States consular district of Dundee. [Compiled by Consul Wells.) Description of employment. Iron ships. Carpenters Joiners Laborers in snip-yard Blacksmiths Blacksmith's hammermen Platers and fitters , Platers and fitters' laborers Painters : G-rainers Ordinary , Laborers Blveters Heaters Holoers-up Hole-borers Caulkers Fitters, ben chmen, and Yertical drillers - Wood ships. Carpenters - Joiners Blaoksmiths Laborers to blacksmiths— hammermen. - Laborers in ship-yard at $7 65 7 37 4 00 6 56 4 62 7 41 3 88 7 65 7 10 4 86 7 04 2 18 5 00 5 00 7 04 5 58 7 65 5 58 4 86 3 15 4 12 bo s $8 13 7 65 4 50 8 01 4 86 28 54 6 08 7 65 7 10 5 70 18 12 4 12 13 60 8 00 12 15 7 65 7 38 8 26 4 86 4 12 $8 00 7 61 4 24 7 29 4 84 17 98 5 04 7 65 7 10 5 28 12 63 3 15 9 41 6 44 9 60 5 95 7 65 7 00 6 87 4 56 4 12 Statement showing the present rates of wages earned per week in the Clyde ship-yards. [Prepared by Consul Harte.] Description of employment. Shipwrights . Shipioiners. . Blacksmiths . Engineers ... Ship painters "Weekly $7 66 7 11 7 00 6 60 7 66 Description of employment. Plumbers Riggers Machine men Hammermen* Laborers Weekly ■wages. $8 78 8 85 6 56 4 65 VIII. — Seamen's wages in Scotland. Wages paid per month to seamen {officers and men), distinguishing between ocean, coast and river navigation, and between sail and steam, in the United States consular district of Dun- dee, Scotland. [Compiled by Consul Wells.] Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. Sail. Captain Hate Second mate ' Carpenter Sail maker Boatswain Steward Cook Able-bodied seaman . . Steam. Captain $97 20 38 88 30 71 29 16 25 50 20 60 23 04 20 61 14 58 Steam — Continued Mate Second mate Carpenter Boatswain Steward Cook Able-bodied seaman First engineer Second engineer Third engineer Donkeyman Fireman $41 31 29 16 30 71 18 82 24 30 21 83 17 01 72 76 43 74 29 10 18 22 17 01 96 LABOR IN EUROPE. Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and me»), distinguishing between ocean, coast and river navigation and between sail and steam m Glasgow. [Compiled by Consul Harte.] Description of employment. Occam, passenger steamers. Captain J First officer Second officer Third officer Fourth officer Boatswain Able-bodied seaman . Engineer Second engineer Third engineer Fourth engineer . . .'. , Trimmers Firemen Cook Steward Ocean cargo steamers. Captain First officer Second officer Boatswain Carpenter Able-bodied seaman . Ordinary seaman First engineer Second engineer Third engineer Firemen Cook and steward . . . Ocean sailing vessels. Captain First officer. Average wages, $155 72 82 73 68 13 58 39 41 36 24 33 20 67 87 59 77 86 60 82 51 08 25 54 15 80 48 65 29 19 72 99 37 71 27 98 21 89 24 33 17 02 9 73 08 13 41 36 29 19 19 46 26 76 87 59 38 93 Description of employment. Ocean sailing vessels— Continued. Second officer Third officer Fourth officer Boatswain Carpenter Able-bodied seaman . Cook Steward Coasting trade steamers. Captain First mate Able-bodied seaman Carpenter First engineer Second engineer Firemen and trimmers . Coasting trade sailing vessels. Captain First mate Able-bodied seaman . Steam river navigation. Captain , First mate Able-bodied seaman. Caipenter First engineer Second engineer Average $21 89 19 46 20 67 27 98 17 02 24 33 19 46 51 08 26 76 15 89 20 67 31 62 43 79 26 27 18 24 14 59 72 99 31 62 26 76 31 62 51 08 38 93 IX. — Shop wages in Scotland. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in grocery, dry goods and other general stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females s in Dundee. Description of employment. Grocery stores. Clerks or shopmen : Males Females \ Dry goods stores. Clerks or shopmen : Males Females " .* Other general stores. Clerks or shopmen : Males Females Lowest wages. Highest wages: $5 31 2 18 $7 77 3 65 6 08 2 18 16 94 3 65 6 08 2 18 8 51 3 65 Average $6 08 2 91 727 2 91 7 29 2 91 LABOR IN EUROPE. Wages paid per week or year in stores or shops in Leith. [Compiled by Consul Malmros.] 97 Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. Average wages. Stationers, booksellers, &c. Ken not in charge of departments, per week of 56 hours . Men in charge of departments, per year} Drapers, silk mercers {dry goods stores), <6c. Female assistants : Seamstresses, per week of 56 hours- Sales girls, per week of 56 hours Sales women, per year Boys, per year Young men, per year Managers of establishments, per year . . . Milliners and dressmakers, per week . . . Iron-mongers, t£c. Apprentices, per year- Young men, per year. - Grocers. Apprentices, per year § Salesmen, per week of 60 hours . $6 08 729 97 1 70 1 70 243 32 48 66 194 66 973 30 97 48 66 146 00 48 66 3 40 $12 16 1, 459 95 4 38 4 38 632 64 $7 39 2 43 2 43 389 32 *973 30 :, 406 55 3 89 tl21 66 ♦729 97 102 20 7 30 243 32 1, 459 95 2 43 * The salary of $973.30, or anything near it. is that of buyers, who are usually heads of departments, t First and second year, $48.66; firth year, $121.66. I $729.97, or something near it, to managers. \ Apprentices usually receive $48.66 the first year, $58.40 the second, $73 the third, and $87.60 the fourth year. When a fifth year's services are given the pay is generally $102.20. X. — Household wages in towns and cities in Scotland. Wages paid per year to household servants (towns and cities) in Dundee. [Compiled by Consul Wells.] Description of employment. Lowest Highest wages. wages. $48 60 $68 04 68 04 87 48 116 64 145 80 68 04 77 76 58 32 77 76 145 80 437 40 68 04 77 76 145 80 340 20 145 80 486 00 Average wages. Kitchen or general servant (that can cook or wash) Cook (to do a little housework)* Cook, high class* House and table maid * Nursery maids* Butlers* Butler's assistants, boys* Coachman t Gardeners 1 $58 32 77 76 126 36 72 90 68 00 194 40 72 90 243 00 243 00 * Found, i. e., including board and lodging. 92 A— LAB 7 t With house, small garden, light, and coal. 98 LABOR IN EUROPE. Wages paid per near to household servants in Glasgow. [Compiled by Consul Harte.] Description of employment. JTEMALEB. Cook, plain* Cook, with washing* Cook and housekeeper * Cook, haviug kitchen and scullery maids under * General servant * General servant (young girl) * Housekeeper * Housemaid * Kitchen-maid * Laundry-maid * Lady's-maid* Scullery-maid * * With board. Average ■wages. $77 86 97 33 199 52 145 99 77 86 43 79 97 33 77 86 68 13 92 46 107 06 58 39 Description of employment. Females— Continued Still-room maid * Table-maid * Nurse, upper * Nurse, baby * ■ Nurse, walking * MALES. Butler * Footman * Groom* Gardener t Coachman t - - - Average wages. 87 116 92 ■■ V, 145 204 253 253 t Free house, coal, gas, &c. Wages paid per year to household servants in the consular district of Leiili. [Compiled by Consul Malmros.] Description of employment. Housemaids Cooks Table-maids Nurses (above 25 years of age) Description of employment. Nurse-girls . Butlers Footmen ; Average 1 wages. XI. — Agricultural wages in Scotland. Wagespaid to agricultural laborer* and household (country) servants in the consular district of Dundee. [Compiled by Consul "Wells.] Description of employment. Foremen (generally married) * per year.. Second and third hands (generally single) t do Ordinary hands per day t . . Ordinary hands, during harvest § per week.. Ordinary hands, if engaged || per month. . Housemaids IT per year.. Outworkers— r Female p61 . day.. Female, during harvest do Female, during potato lifting do Lowest Highest wages. wages. $155 52 I $174 96 ! 106 92 136 08 i 61 73 5 83 6 07 1 21 87 28 73 j 58 32 87 48 25 41 85 90 I 49 49 j 121 50 67 5 97 24 30 72 90 87 49 * Including free house, garden, J gallon milk, 2} pounds oatmeal, and from 6 to 7 pounds potatoes per t With mttk and meal as above, and sleeping accommodation, bedding, and fire in "bothy." V. B.— They usually sell half their allowance of meal, value $14.58. I Weekly and monthly in proportion. n S 1 ? 1 lnr i c ^ if 106 a &a I' ^ • ue abont 8 cents - K B.— This oustom is, however, dving out. II No board in the case of ordinary agricultural laborers. ' If Including board and lodging. n?' ?r" In aU oase , s lO.lionrs constitute a day's work, oommenoing at 6 a. m., two hours interval from 11 to 1 for noon, and finishing at 6 p. m. LABOR IN EUROPE. 99 Wages paid per year or per day to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in Scotland. [Compiled by Consul Malmros.] Locality, employment, &c. 1873. j 1878. 1884. Increase or decrease. Wagespaid to farm laborers for one year in the Lothians and east of Scotland. Free cottage, garden, and allowances of fire, food, &c, $105 60 112 80 $108 00 134 40 $108 00 132 00 218 40 242 40 240 00 Increase, 1873-1878 $24 00 2 40 Decrease, 1878-1884 ' 21 60 67 20 144 00 67 20 163 20 67 20 160 20 'Wages paid to farm laborers for one year in the southwest of Scotland. I. — Married men. Allowance of meal and potatoes, with, free cottage and gar- den per year.. 211 20 230 40 227 40 19 20 3 00 16 20 74 80 136 80 74 80 153 80 74 80 150 00 II.— Single men. 211 60 228 40 224 80 16 80 3 60 13 20 67 20 60 00 67 20 76 80 67 20 78 00 III. — Women. 127 20 145 00 145 20 16 80 Increase, 1878-1884 1 20 i 18 00 36 to 48 72 DAY LABORERS. Day laborers : 85 30 Wages paid to farm laborers for one year in Perthshire and other central counties of Scotland. In these counties the wages received by farm laborers are abont the same as in the southwest of Scotland. In 1878 the increase from 1873 was estimated at over 12 per cent. ; since 1878 the increase is probably about 6 per cent., and the total increase 1873-1884 may therefore be about 18 per cent. * Day laborers receive from 42 cents to 91 cents per day, according to demand for them and to their ability. t "Without food. In harvest, however, ^vomen get from 73 to 97 cents per day, but they have to do almost men's work. 100 LABOR IN EUROPE. Wages paid per year or per day to agricultural laborers, #o. — Continued. Locality, employment, &c. 1873. 1878. 1884. Increase or decrease. Wages paiA to /arm laborers for one year in the northeastern counties of Scotland {from Aberdeen to Inverness). I.— Married men. $14 40 31 20 29 12 4 80 9 60 108 00 1 $89 12 132 00 $94 72 130 00 197 12 221 12 224 92 Increase, 1873-1878 $24 00 Increase, 1878-1884 27 60 31 20 29 12 7 20 127 20 S 67 52 153 60 67 52 148 00 H.— SINGLE MEN. 194 72 2*1 12 215 62 Increase, 1873-1878 26 U 5 60 55 20 76 80 78 80 FEMALE KITCHEN SERVANTB. Money wages, in addition to board and lodging, about Inorease, 1873-1878 21 61 2 00 23 69 WOMEN WORKING OUTSIDE. $0 3C $0 48 44 $0 48 44 MALE DAT LABORERS. 68 80 90 $0 12 10 9 60 52 80 21 60 14 40 12 00 64 80 [ 110 40 76 80 120 00 78 00 Wages paid to farm laborers for oneyearbn the extreme north- ern counties of Scotland. I.— Married men.* 175 20 187 20 198 00 Increase, 1873-1878 12 0* 10 8t Increase sinoe 1873 22 88 * Single men in 1878 wore reported to have about the same value of remuneration as received bv mar- ried men, and the same may be said of their remuneration at the present tfmo J LABOR IN EUROPE. 101 Wages paid per year or per day to agricultural laborers, fyo. — Continued. Locality, employment, &c. 1873. 1878. 1884. Increase or decrease. WOMEN, POK HOUSEWORK.* $62 40 28 80 $62 40 38 40 $62 40 50 00 91 20 100 80 112 40 Increase, 1873-1878 $9 60 11 60 Increase, 1878-1 884 21 20 *In 1878 women employed by the day at field work got about 24 cents per day. The rate may now he stated as 26 cents. The figures given in the foregoing table afford a fairly complete view of the wages throughout Scotland. The average yearly wages of plowmen throughout Scotland may be stated thus : Mode of payment. 1873. 1878. 1884. Increase or decrease. $74 40 129 60 $74 40 148 80 $74 40 146 80 204 00 223 20 221 20 Increase, 1873-1878 $19 20 Decrease, 1878-1884 2 00 17 20 In the years 1879, 1880, 1881 and 1882 agricultural wages fell con- siderably in Scotland, but the improvement in trade which took place in the last-named year, together with the scarcity of laborers arising from increased emigration and a general migration to towns, had the effect of raising the wages of farm laborers in 1883 to nearly the fig- ures of 1878. Women employed in agricultural labor, indeed, receive rather higher wages now than ever before. Agricultural laborers, as a rule, take better care of their wages than city laborers, and have rela- tively better health and fully as much domestic comfort. The housing accommodation, although improving, is still defective. Not only are farm servants growing fewer year by year, but their value as workers is decreasing. In other words, many of the best men are abandoning farm work, and their places are not being filled with labor- ers of the same skill and experience. XII. — COKPOKATION EMPLOYES IN SCOTLAND. Wages paid per week of under-noted hours to the corporation employe's in the town of Dun- dee, Scotland. Description of employ- ment. Hours of labor. Average wages. Description of employment. Hours of labor. Average wages. 63 and 70 hours per week, and 1 day off every 3 weeks. 51 $5 83 7 22 51 60 60 51 51 and 60 60 $7 04 7 29 7 04 4 86 5 22 4 62 102 LABOR IN EUROPE. XV.— Printers and printing offices. Statement slwwina the wages paid per week of 51 hours to printers {compositors, pressmen, btaUme ''l J ^^ ders 6 i j*) ^ Un & ea states consular district of Dundee, ScolUnd. Description of employment. Lowest wages. PIECE-WOEK. Newspapers— daily (morning): ,„„„„. Minion to bourgeois * per 1,000 ens. Nonpareil '- do... Ruby do -- Newspapers— daily (evening): Minion to bourgeois do. - . Nonpareil J° ■ Ruby. .do. Nowspapors — weeklies : Minion to bourgeois do. Nonpareil 'to- Ruby d °- ESTABLISHED WAGES. Compositors : Daily newspapers Evening newspapers "Weekly newspapers Machine-men (daily newspapers) • Jobbing compositors Jobbing maonine or press Proof-readers Highest $9 72 7 89 6 32 9 72 6 32 6 32 6 32 Average wageB. $12 15 9 72 9 72 14 58 9 23 9 23 10 69 $0 15 16 l«i 13 14 141 $12tol2i 13 to 14 13 to 15 $10 00 . 8 59 7 28 10 00 7 20 7 00 8 00 ' In Scotland matter is oaBt up by the en quad, not by the em, as in the United States. Printers' piece-work scale. DAILT MORNING PAPERS. Minion type and upwards per 1,000 ens Emerald type and upwards do . . Nonpareil type and upwards do . . Ruby type and upwards do.. Pearl type and upwards do.. Cents. . 16 . 17 . 17 . 18 . 20 EVENING PAPERS. Minion and upwards , per 1,000 ens.. 15 Emerald and nonpareil and upwards do 16 Ruby and upwards do 17 Pearl aud upwards do 19 WEEKLY PAPERS AND JOBBING OFFICES. Minion type and upwards per 1,000 ens.. 14 Emerald and nonpareil and upwards '.do 16 Ruby and upwards do 15J Pearl and upwards do 16 Statement showing the wages paid per hour (54 and, 51 hours per week) to printers (composi- tors, pressmen, proof-readers, #-c.) in Glasgow. Description of employment. Lowest Highest Average wages. wages. wages. Per how. Per hour. Per how- $0 15 $0 15 $0 16 15 15 16 15 16 IS 11 12 11 19 19 a 19 20 i» 10 13 12 BOOK OFFICES. Compositors PreBSmen Proof-readers Copy-holders DAILY MORNING PAPERS Compositors, on time (51 hours) Proof-readers, on time Copy-holderB, on time LABOR IN EUKOPE. 103 Statement showing the wages paidperhour (54 and 51 hours per week) to printers, $-e, — Cont'd. , Description of employment. EVENING PAPERS. Compositors, on time (54 hours) Proofreaders Copy-holders WEEKLY PAPERS, UNCONNECTED WITH DAILY Compositors Proof-readers Copy-holders OTHER EMPLOYES. Maohinemen (general) Stereotypers (dailies) levelling) (general) Lowest Highest wages. ' wages. Perhour. $0 16 16 8 Perhour. $0 16 18 12 Average wages. Perhour. $0 16 16 10 15 15 i» 14 16 15 14 Statement showing the wages per week of hi hours to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof- readers, #c.) i n the consular district ofLeith. Description of employment. Lowest. Highest. Compositors Proof-readers Pressmen ; Skilled laborers Unskilled laborers Boys (layers on) Girls (pointers) Lithographic printing: Machine-men Girls (layers on) Proofers and transferers . $7 30 8 51 7 30 8 27 $8 51 10 22 8 51 $7 78 9 55 7 97 6 08 4 86 1 58 1 94 2 43 9 73 Average rate of wages paid per week of 54 hours to persons employed in bookbinding. Males. Females. Description of employment. Men. Lads and boys. "Women. Girls. Ink and gold blockers time.. $7 91 8 03 6 08 $1 46 $2 92 $1 46 3 16 1 46 5 72 2 43 2 43 2 67 2 92 2 67 1 46 1 40 1 46 85 104 LABOK IN EUROPE. IRELAND. The only manufactures in Ireland which are sufficiently developed to come into direct competition with those of other countries are the large linen industry and perhaps the productions of some few woolen mills in the southern counties. For these reasons the labor conditions which prevail in Ireland have little immediate bearing on those of other coun- tries, and so have not that competitive interest which attaches to the con- ditions of England and Scotland. The very interesting report prepared by Consul Piatt, of Cork, shows that the wages in his district are fully equal to those prevailing ia England and Scotland, mechanics employed in the building trades earning about $8 per week of 56 hours. In the factories and mills the average wages are also equal to those which are paid in the sister countries. The habits of the working classes in the Cork district are considered good when the workers are steadily employed. They give a fair day's labor for their wages. As the price of the necessaries of life has in- creased during the last five years without an increase in wages, it is not easy to see, writes the consul, how the working-people can save any- thing for emergencies. The feeling between employers and employed is good. Well organ- ized labor unions exist, but only for the purpose of protecting each trade from underworkers. Labor associations for beneficial, banking, co-op- erative and other protective purposes apparently are not found in the south of Ireland. Strikes, reports the consul, are foreign to Ireland, and, with the exception of the trades unions mentioned, no organiza- tions exist for purposes of mutual support in times of anticipated dis- agreements between labor and capital. On the whole the situation of mechanics in the south of Ireland is about equal to that of similar work-people in England. The condition of the Irish laborers is, however, worse than that of the English laborers. The number of female workers employed in the south of Ireland in industrial pursuits is given as follows: MUIb (woolen factories, &c.) 3 gOO Commercial (stores, groceries, &c. ) '.."..'.'.'.'......[. 1, 800 Teachers, artists, hotel-keepers, &c ' 900 Agriculture (dairy-maids, field-hands, &c.) *"."""....."..... 1 800 Total 8,100 The mill and factory hands earn from 73 cents paid to girls up to $3.65 S?i ^* W 25 a Q e ?« per Week ' Meld - la t>orers, dairy-maids, &c, earn from $19.47 to $ 48.66 per year, with board and lodging. The consul gives the average rate of wages of female factory hands as iF-n Pe i" I 6< i k ' and of female agricultural laborers at $29.20 per year. JSLf 7«£ y em P l0 -7 6s T rk 56 hours P er week > and agricultural laborers 72 hours per week. Notwithstanding these very low wages, Con- sul Piatt says that the moral and physical condition of these female employes is good. „ J ™ e wf T" of / emale S acto ry han <*s in the south of Ireland does ™n g * T P d reading and writing. The mothers of families gen- rtf/JS m 6 'T t0Ue ? Until the children rea <* *e workinglige of 14 or 15 years and begin to contribute to the family support when the ho°ld ^ZiT^JT^ , faCt ° r I life t0 attend altogeTer 'to house hold duties. Factory hands in the south of Ireland generally continue LABOR IN EUROPE. 105 in the factories where their parents labored before them. The employers commonly supply them with cheap and suitable cottages, which greatly adds to their comfort and well-being. The moral and physical condi- tion of these families, both parents and children, is claimed to be ex- ceptionally good. Considering the tide of emigration which has set towards the United States from Ireland during the last forty years, and which still continues, the following extract from Consul Piatt's report giving the present causes of Irish emigration is of interest : CAUSES OF EMIGRATION — SELECTION OF NEW HOMES. The farming class emigrates in consequence of the severity and irregularity of the laws appertaining to land, non-security of tenure to the tenant at will, and the facility afforded speculators in pur- chasing over the heads of others ; and again because of the non- subdivision of the land into small holdings. Seventy per cent, of the farming class who emigrate go to the United States — that country being the easiest and cheapest to reach. Then some member of the emigrant's family, relatives, neighbors or friends have, it generally happens, gone there before them. They are impressed, moreover, with the belief that there they will have a better field for their labor, and a hope that at some future time they may possess a home for themselves and families, which, to the majority of the small farmers who emigrate, seems here impossible. The periodical visits to this country of Irish- Americans, who come here to spend a few months after having been some years in the United States — per- sons who may have left Ireland originally in poor circumstances and are now evidently in good credit and prosperous (perhaps having come back to take other or all members of their families, or relatives to America) — these have a great influence upon the minds of those with whom they come in contact and lead many of them also to emigrate. The political land agitation to which this country has been subject for the past five years has resulted in various acts of Parliament toward remedying the evils complained of by the tenant farmers of Ireland, yet though there has been a general reduction in the rents paid to landlords of 30 per cent,, still the small and poor farmer will choose to emigrate. The land- lords have suffered great losses during these five years, but the country — as we learn from the addresses of judges at the different assizes, and the reports of the police officials made at those assizes — is fast returning to a condition of reasonably good feeling between the landlord and tenant. In addition to the small farmers, farm laborers, male and female, make up the majority of the emigrants to the United States; clerks and mechanics furnish a small quota. In connection with this matter it may be stated that when once the idea of emigration is entertained no abatement of rent would change the intention of the peasant. The consul at Londonderry supplements his wage-tables with a few words concerning the habits and conditions of the laboring classes in his district. In general the laboring classes in Londonderry are temper- ate, their character is good, and contentment prevails. In the country the poor are parsimonious and disposed to hoard, but their economy is not as wise as might be desired. 106 LABOR IN EUROPE. I. — General trades in Ireland. (Average weekly wages.) Occupations. Cork. London- derry. Average wages.* Bricklayers Hod-carriers . . Masons Tenders Plasterors Tenders Slaters Koofers Tenders Plumbers Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters Bakers Blacksmiths.. Strikers . . Bookbinders.. Brickraakers . Brewers - Butchers Brass founders . . Cabinet-makers . Confectioners . . . Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers . BUILDING TRADES. OTHEE TRADES. Distillers , Drivers : Draymen and teamsters . Cab, carriage, &c Street railways Dyers En yravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters . Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c . Lithographers i. Millwrights Kail-makers (hand) ... Potters . Printers Teachers, public school Saddle and harness makers . Sail-makers Stevedores Tanners Tailors . Telegraph operators. Tinsmiths $8 03 3 89 8 03 4 38 8 03 3 89 7 30 7 30 3 89 8 03 3 65 8 03 8 03 7 30 8 03 4 38 8 03 8 52 7 30 7 30 9 73 $6 40 2 92 6 20 2 92 6 20 3 16 6 40 5 83 2 92 6 90 3-10 5 90 i 6 90 I 5 75 : 6 10 I 3 20 : 6 40 4 30 7 30 6 40 6 40 12 40 4 13 4 13 4 13 4 38 7 25 3 60 6 90 6 55 3 40 5 00 6 00 3 60 6 10 8 00 6 00 $7 82 3 40 7 12 3 65 7 12 3 53 6 8i 6 57 3 40 7 47 3 38 697 7 47 6 53 7 07 3 79 722 641 7 30 6 81 7 34 7 22 9 85 6 81 8 03 6 00 4 26 4 26 4 26 486 8 27 8 03 486 7 30 6 21 8 00 4 00 7 71 7 30 487 4 38 8 52 8 52 6 15 8 03 5 40 545 6 70 887 664 Londonde^rv 1 ™tfoi?«?« wfj^ln "^ the *T*& wa « es wonM correspond with Cork rather than Ireland S k may be taken as an Illustration of the average wages for all LABOR IN EUROPE. 107 II.-^Faotories, mills, etc., in Ireland Wages paid per week o/56 hours in factories or mills in Cork. Description of employment. WOOLEN FACTORY. Average ; wages. Foreman Assistant foreman . Spinners Carders Factory hands : Male Female MATCH FACTORT. Machinist Splitter Box-tiiakers, female. Packers, female POWDER MILL. Engineer Fireman Press-house men. . Charcoal makers - Mixers Cooper Millwright FLOUE MILLS. Miller Stone-dresser . Laborer DISTILLERIES. Distillers Vatmen Loftmen Skilled hands. GLUE FACTOET. Makers . - Laborers . TOBACCO FACTOET. Spin nei'Sj male. Pickers : Male Female Pressors, male. FEATHER AND CURLED HAIR FACTOET. Fiokers, female. Driers, female ... $9 73 8 78 4 38 3 40 3 40 2 43 8 52 4 38 2 43 2 43 10 94 8 52 3 89 3 89 3 89 8 03 9 73 9 25 6 81 3 40 17 03 4 86 4 38 3 65 1 46 1 46 2 67 4 38 1 21 1 21 Description of employment. PAPEE MILLS. Skilled hands, paper-makers . Junior help : Hoys Girls BREWERIES. Malster Loftmen Cask- washers. BACON-CURING HOUSES. Bacon-cutter.. Bacon-curer .. Pork-packers . CARRIAGE FACTORY. Body -makers Trimmers Painters Smiths Smiths 1 helpers "Wheelwright FURNITURE FACTOET. Machinist Sawyer Cabinet-maker Upholsterer ORGAN FACTORY (CHUECH). Makers CUELED HAIE. Average wages. Spinners, male Curlers, male Female hands CONFECTIONEEY (MACHINE). Skilled confectioner (candies, lozenges) GAS-HOUSE. Engineer Fireman Coal trimmers Laborers Pipe layers Lamplighters SALT AND LIME WORKS. Laborers 1 46 97 14 60 8 52 5 35 7 30' 6 81 4 86 8 03 7 30 G 81 8 03 4 13 8 03 8 70 7 30 7 79 7 30 12 16 9 73 1 70 9 73 (> 33 6 08 4 13 6 31 Mnch of the work done in factories and other like establishments is piecework, the employe being paid according to the amount of work done by him. 108 LABOR IN EUROPE. III.— Foundries, machine-shops and iron- works in Ireland. Wages paid per week of 56 hours in foundries, machine-shops, and iron-works in Cork. Description of employment. Foreman molder Journeyman molder . Helper Pattern-maker Helper Machinist Fitters Helpers Average wages. $12 16 7 79 4 38 7 79 4 38 7 79 8 03 4 38 Description of employment. fodhdby— continued. Blacksmith... Striker "Wheelwright . Stove-makers.. Range setters. Averag# wages. $8*3 4 6! 7 78 8 7* The above rates will also apply to machine-shops, mannf actories of agricultural implements, &c . V. — Mines and mining in Ireland. Wages paid per week of 56 hours in and in connection with copper ore mines in Cork County. Description of employment. Average ■wages. Description of employment. Average wages- UNDER GROUND. $7 30 5 35 3 89 2 92 ABOVE GROUND. U 36 3 40 YL — Hallway employes in Ireland. Wages paid per week to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as ihow engaged on the engines and cars f linemen, railroad laborers, tyc.) in Cork. Description of employment. Railway workshop : Foreman, machinist Engine fitter Carriage builder Carriage painter Carriage trimmer Storekeeper Traffic superintendent 'Locomotive superintendent. Engine driver Average wages. $12 16 9 73 9 73 7 79 7 79 7 30 17 OS 17 03 1 13 38 Description of' employment. Average wages. Engine fireman Gleaner Guard Porter Station master , Ticket issuer , Railway police (at station) Linemen Lahorers $6 * 4 18 6 5T 4 38 9 73 8 53 4 St 5 84 3 65 VII.— Shipyards and shipbuilding in Ireland. Wages paid per week of 56 hours in ship-yards— distinguishing Between iron and wood ship- building — in Cork. Description of employment. Average IKON, Draftsman Foreman Boiler-makers Helpers Platers Helpers Joiners Blacksmith Striker $17 03 14 60 8 03 4 86 8 76 4 86 8 03 8 03 4 86 Description of employment. Average Iron— Continued, Riveters Helpers ..." „ „ WOOD. Draftsman Foreman '.'.".'.'.'. '.'.'.'. Carpenters ["' Hi ggers '.".'.['. Sail-makers Blacksmith „ " Striker " '" $8 1 4 I 17 as 13 38 S 03 8 03 8 03 8 03 4 38 LABOR IN EUROPE. VIII. — Seamen's wages in Ireland. 109 Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men) — distinguishing between ocean, coast and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in Cork. Description of employment. Average ■wages. BAIL— OCEAN.* Captain First officer Second officer Boatswain Carpenter i. Seamen STEAM — COASTING. t Captain First officer Second officer. . First engineer . $48 66 38 93 34 07 29 20 24 33 19 47 68 13 48 66 34 07 58 40 Description of employment. Steam— coasting — Continued. Second engineer . Boatswain Carpenter Seamen STEAM— BITER.} Captain Engineer ... Fireman . . . Trimmer... Steersman . Deck-hand. Average wages. $38 93 34 07 24 33 19 47 9 73 9 73 5 84 4 62 5 84 4 38 'With board. t "Without board. t Per week of 70 hours, without board. IX.— Shop wages in Ireland. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in dry goods and grocery stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in Cork. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. WHOLESALE (WITHOUT BOARD). If ales: $14 60 12 16 7 30 8 52 3 89 1 94 6 08 2 92 Wholesale (without board)— Cont'd. Females: $3 65 1 70 BETAIL (WITH BOABD). Shop assistants : 4 86 1 94 X. — Household wages in towns and cities in Ireland. Wages paid per year, with board, to household servants (towns and cities) in Cork. Description of employment. Average ■wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $77 86 38 93 97 33 $29 20 29 20 XI. — Agricultural wages in Ireland. Wages paid per year to agricultural laborers and household (country) savants in Cork County. Description of employment. Average wages. Plowman, with board and lodging Plowman, without board and lodging Laborer (male), with board and lodging. . Laborer (male), without board and lodg- ing „ $97 33 146 00 68 13 116 80 Description of employment. Average wages. Laborer (female), with board and lodging Laborer (female), without board and lodging Dairy-maids, with board and lodging. . . Dairy-maids, without board and lodging 58 66 48 66 58 40 110 LABOR IN EUROPE. XII. — Corporation employes in Ireland. Wages paid per week of 56 hours to the corporation, employe's in the city of Cork. Description of employment. Average wages. $9 73 8 52 10 94 5 60 6 08 4 38 4 38 4 38 2 43 Description of employment. Average wages. Inspectors : $8 52 973 30 389 32 291 99 4 38 The mayor receives a salary of £600 ($2,919.90) per year, £100 ($486.65) of which is understood to be for charitable and other subscriptions ; the town clerk's salary is £800 ($3,893.20) ; and the citv en- gineer's £300 ($1,459.95). XV. — Printers and printing-offices in Ireland. Statement showing the wages paid per weeJc of Ha hours to printers (compositors, pressmen,} proof-readers, #e.) in Cork. 1 Description of employment, | ^ e ™ ge Description of employment. ; -^ T6ra gfl wages. i NEWSPAPER OFFICES. $9 73 12 16 9 73 5 35 2 43 i JOB-PEIHTING OFFICES. Paper-rulers (machine) | 6 81 Binders, trimmers, &o. : i FRAJ¥CE. In the production of machinery France is becoming eminent, and in this branch of industry especially the advance in wages is marked. In reporting on the relative cost of the manufacture of machinery in Eng- land and France, the consul at Eouen says : - For the last few years labor has been at about the same price in England as in France. The cost of labor has remained stationary in England [it has rather decreased, as has been seen] while it has advanced in France 20 to 25 per cent. As an illustration of this increase of the rates of wages in France, the following trades have been selected as representing the highest wages paid in both France and England: Weekly wages in France and England in 1884. Occupations. France. Black smiths Potters Cabinet-makers . Furriers . Lithographers . Millwrightf Millwrights . Glass-makers . . Glass-blowers . Carpenters Pressmen. Engravers Paper-rulers Saddle and harness makers. England. $7 90 $7 80 11 58 9 50 7 90 8 80 8 50 8 50 9 00 8 50 9 80 8 70 9 65 848 12 75 9 00 11 00 8 76 13 00 8 24 12 45 8 50 11 87 7 25 780 L.ABOE IN EUROPE. Ill The foregoing are, of course, only special cases "where wages are higher in Prance than in England. While the advance in the former country has been evident in almost every branch of business, the wages in gen- eral, in mills, factories, &c, are still much higher in England than in France. BOBDEAUX. The consul at this very important trade center of France has fur- nished two interesting reports, one introductory and special, the other general. The first, being pertinent to this letter, .is largely drawn upon for the review of the trade conditions of the district. Consul Roosevelt asserts that all able-bodied men having no family charges can earn sufficient wages to secure the necessaries of life, while steady, skilled workmen can save modest competencies for old age. The Bordeaux workmen, when single, usually live from hand to mouth, in- dulging in dissipation while their earnings last. The deleterious habit of spending "blue Monday" in dissipation, which prevails to such a degree throughout many portions of continental Europe, is general in Bordeaux. Unlike the laborers in other portions of Prance, the work- men of Bordeaux are described by the consul as being improvident, spending without a thought of the future. After marriage they are said to lead more regular lives, the wives working equally with their husbands. Through the greatest frugality comparative comfort is attained at home and small savings find their way to the banks. When there are children, the mothers take them to the nearest asylums, these being institutions somewhat on the plan of, the German kindergartens, where the infants are cared for by competent attendants, at a cost of one cent each per diem, without food. The work-people's food consists of soup made from vegetables or bones, or the cheapest cuts from the butcher's stalls, bread, cheap veg- etables, and coarse wine. Single workmen eat their meals at cafe's, where for 15 or 20 cents they get what the consul describes as " a stew made of cheap and not always fresh meat, old vegetables, bread, and a bottle of wine, at least a horrible beverage made from a mixture of alcohol, water, and logwood, or any other coloring matter, called wine." These restaurants, adds the consul, being the resort of all the unem- ployed, are dangerous alike to health and morals. The Bordeaux workmen are generally slow in execution, unless when engaged on piece-work. Their trade systems are primitive, work being accomplished with great attention to cumbersome details, and without the combination and division of labor, or the mechanical appliances which are recognized by the trades in the United States as almost in- dispensable. Everything is accomplished on the principle of individual labor ; hence the artisans only excel in those trades which afford scope for individuality, such as stone and wood carving, house painting, orna- mental cabinet-work, and decoration. A family, however numerous, seldom rents more than two rooms, which cost on an average $3 per month. The expenses for clothing would be very reasonable were the working-people satisfied to dress ac- cording to their wages. Of female labor in the Bordeaux district Consul Roosevelt deals at some length, and in a very interesting manner. He estimates the total number of female laborers in his district at nearly 62,000, of whom 20,000 are engaged in agricultural labor, and 12,500 in manufacturing an (I mechanical. He estimates their monthly earnings as averaging 112 LABOR IN EUROPE. about $12. They are healthy and industrious. Women employed in factories and mills are for the most part uneducated, not one in five hundred being able to write her name. The following statement, prepared by Mr. Boosevelt, shows the aver- age daily wages, without board, earned by the laboring classes of Bor- deaux : Daily wages of the laboring class in Bordeaux (without board). Occupation. Men. Women. Children. $0 67to$0 97 58 97 67 97 58 77 48 1 35 80 97 80 97 29 91 39 77 48 77 Basket-makers $0 24 $0 29 to 39 $0 14 $0 24 to 3$ 29 to 34 24 48 24 39 67 to 1 15 87 97 58 97 67 77 97 58 1 15 90 1 20 6T 97 58 67 58 1 93 77 87 48 87 53 68 67 77 48 58 67 87 29 29 t© 67 29 39 39 29 to 39 39 48 29 39 48 19 to 29 29 to 48 29 39 39 48 48 80 58 to 67 67 97 96 40 to 60 77 to 97 80 97 67 97 97 1 15 97 1 15 58 1 15 62 1 15 67 77 77 97 87 96 67 1 15 24 to 29 34 39 39 48 39 39 35 to 50 30 50 48 to 87 67 1 16 48 87 97 58 87 77 97 1 15 48 87 77 97 58 1 15 67 97 39 87 77 87 67 77 97 1 00 1 20 67 87 1 15 48 77 67 77 48 77 48 87 87 97 39 34 29 to 39 29 to 39 29 to 39 19 29 19 29 to 39 19 19 to 67 19 to 20 29 to 48 19 to 24 29 to 34 39 39 14 to 19 19 29 19 2» *$19. 30 per month with board or $33 without. LABOR IN EUROPE. ' 113 Daily wages of the laboring class in Bordeaux (without board) — Continued. Oconpation. Men. ■Women. Children. Sawyers Seamstresses Sculptors Ship-builders Shirt-makers , Shoemakers Silversmiths Stone-cutters Stove-makers Sugar-refiners Tanners Tailors Tinsmiths Tool-makers Turners in metal . Turners in wood . Umbrella-makers . Upholsterers ■Watchmakers Wheelrights Weavers > 39 $0 97 1 20 to 1 50 67 97 29 58 97 90 77 77 48 58 CO 87 67 67 80 67 67 70 44 97 1 15 97 97 87 97 1 15 1 10 87 97 87 97 97 1 15 97 80 $0 39 ' 30 to 40 $0 14 $0 29 29 to 44 39 48 29 19 to 29 29 to 39 19 39 29 to 48 19 19 19 14 to 19 14 Average price of bread, flour, meat, eggs and vegetables in Bordeaux. Articles. Bread: First quality per pound . . Secondqualvty do Beans do Beef: First quality do Second quality do Butter : First quality do Second quality do Chickens per pair. . Cabbage.. per head.. Value. $0 04 03 10 30 24 40 35 $0 60tol 64 15 Articles. Coffee per pound . Eggs per dozen. Hour: First quality per pound. Second quality per pound. Milk per quart. Mutton per pound. Peas (green) do .. Pork do. . . Potatoes do... Sugar do... Teal do . . Value. 39to$0 54 24 30 06 03 04 20 to 26 10 15 14 20 06 10 11 13 26 MARSEILLES. The working people of Marseilles and Southern France are described by Consul Mason as patient, steady, plodding industrials, as a rule saving something each year from their earnings, and investing it in a little house or patch of ground. They are a blithe, light-hearted peo- ple, whose pleasures are simple and inexpensive. Among these South- ern French laborers drunkenness is almost unknown, alcoholic liquors being rarely used by the rural population. With the exception of the building trades, labor is unorganized in Southern France ; neither are there any co-operative societies such as fill so large a place in labor economy in Germany and Switzerland. Many mutual life-insurance and protective associations exist, which pay a pension after a certain number of years of membership, or after the members have reached a certain age. The question of wages and strikes is largely controlled by the 50,000 Italians who live in Marseilles. These people, who do not join the French trades unions, work for far less wages and live on simpler and cheaper food than the French working classes, and no strike can be suc- cessful while these Italians stand ready to accept work upon wages which the native workmen refuse. Women are employed in mills, factories and mines in large numbers. 92 A— LAB 8 114 LABOR IN EUROPE. In agricultural labor the wives and daughters take an active part, al- though they are not compelled to plow or carry heavy burdens as women do in other parts of Europe. There are m any female teachers, telegraph operators, musicians, clerks and saleswomen. All laundry work, as well as most of the huckstering, is done by women. It is recorded by the consul that when men and women are employed in the same establish- ment, the latter are always assigned to the lighter and more delicate kinds of labor. The women of Southern France are less educated than the men, but as primary education is now compulsory the rising genera- tion will be more favorably provided for in this regard. The rates of wages and prices of provisions prevailing in the district of Marseilles will be found in the recapitulatory statements for all France. EHEIMS. The working classes of the district of Eheims are said by Consul Fris- bie in his very interesting report to be steady, trustworthy, and will- ing to work when there is work for them to do. Saving is general wherever saving is possible, economy being the prevailing idea in every French household. The low rates of wages and the absence of poor- laws render it necessary for all the members of a laboring man's family to earn something, no matter how little. Display and extravagance are unknown among the people. The feeling between employe" and employer seems to be one of antag- onism held in abeyance. The employers have very little in common with their employes, and the latter go to their work solely from necessity and with little feeling of cordiality toward the former. There are no labor organizations in Eheims, and strikes are unusual, only one having taken place during the last twenty years. There is a co-operative society having thirty stores throughout the city. It is admirably conducted, and enables the working people to pur- chase their provisions at a saving of from 10 to 25 per cent. The loss of trade occasioned thereby is severely felt by the regular dealers. The condition of the working people of Eheims is one of hardship, and nothing but their ceaseless industry and economy enable them to make ends meet. The consul's interview with a representative working- man in one of the great woolen mills of the district will give a fair illustration of how employed labor lives in that city : A mechanic in a woolen mill; 42 years of age; has a wife and two children ; earns 77 cents per day, which is 10 to 20 per cent, more than is earned by general workmen ; works 12 hours per day; exercises the strictest economy in order to get along, although he is better fixed than most workingmen ; his wife works in the mill also, and earns 48J cents per day ; works every day in the year, Sundays included, which yields a wage of $251.78 ; his wife works 305 days in the year, which yields a wage of $147.16, a united wage earning of $428.94. Family expenses: Eent, $38.60: clothing, $63.69; food and fuel, $315.75; personal tax, 48 cents; society dues, $4.83 ; balance for incidentals, $5.59 ; total, $428.94. Meals: A cup of coffee and a piece of bread for breakfast ; soup, made from salt pork or horse flesh, or cheap beef, and vegetables and bread; supper, bread and potatoes, and what is left of the dinner LABOR IN EUROPE. 115 This is a better dietary than is common to the laborers, many of whom have only dry bread and an apple, with perhaps a piece of cheese, while many others have only bread and water. Most laborers live in this manner : In the morning (before going to work) a piece of bread and 2 cents' worth of brandy ; at breakfast, bread crumbed into a basin of coffee; for dinner, a piece of bread and cheese, or an apple, and a gill of red wine ; for supper, a piece of bread and a little sausage, or oftener only a herring and a cup of coffee. A meat and vegeta- ble meal is indulged in only on Sunday. In regard to female labor Consul Frisbie reports that mill-life seen in its best light is not a happy one. The operatives have no leisure time and very little personal enjoyment, for when, after their day's labor, they return to their homes, they must then perform their house- hold duties. Their only recreation is an occasional holiday, when the mills are closed. The family circle does not exist in the sense in which it is known and appreciated by the working people of the Enited States. The infant children of the mill employes are put out to be taken care of at small compensation; their illegitimate children, of which the consul says there is always a large number, are generally provided for by the Government. It is a matter of deep regret that the tendency to immorality among the working class is increasing, as is shown by the large percentage of illegitimate, births. While the consul attributes this partly to the so- cial condition of the operatives, which produces similar results else- where, he gives as its chief reason the fact that infidelity is taking possession of these people. EOTJEK In reporting on the industries of his district Consul Williams says that many factories had to close on account of the competition of for- eign countries. It is reported, however, that under the protecting hand of the Eepublic these works are being reopened with more favorable prospects. While some industrial establishments are closed in Bouen, others are reported as in a flourishing condition, notably those engaged in the manufacture of machinery for printing, bleaching and coloring cottons for home demand. Cotton spinning and weaving is one of the chief industries of the Bouen district, the hand-loom still being largely used. The number of work- days in cotton spinning and weaving is estimated at 300 per year, and daily wages as follows : Occupation. Spinning. Weaving. tl 16 73 48 65 97 35 32 32 $1 16 58 39 65 97 58 34 Girls 36 Cotton printing is another important industry, employing no fewer than 3,000 work-people. The wages in these print works range from a minimum rate of 58 cents to a maximum of 97 cents per day. 116 LABOR IN EUROPE. The manufacture of webbiug for belts, an industry almost peculiar to Eouen, employs from 5,000 to 6,000 men, women and children. In this consular district are situated the well-known woolen-manufac- turing centers, Elbeuf and Louviers, the former employing 24,000 work- people, and the latter 8,000. Here also are the cities of Amiens, which supplies the United States with large quantities of Utrecht velvets, used chiefly in upholstering work; Eoubaix, in and around which 170,000 work-people are engaged in the cotton and woolen manufactures; and Calais, with its vast tulle manufacture, running 1,500 looms, employ- ing in the factories 10,000 men and women, and producing $12,000,000- worth of lace annually, of which Consul "Williams says that more than one-tenth is exported to the United States. The Calais lace factories run night and day, Sundays and holidays excepted. The workmen divide the day into four watches of six hours each. There are besides these factories many machine shops, planing mills, &c. The English have large interests in these works, both as proprietors and furnishers of the raw material. Lille and D'ieppe, two busy manufacturing centers, are also within the Eouen consular district, the former employing 12,000 workmen, and the tobacco manufactories in the latter giving employment to over 1,200 hands. Taken as a whole, the consular district of Eouen may be said to be one of the busiest in all France, representing, as it does, all the ad- vanced manufactures, in which France stands pre-eminent. Consul Williams reports that the workmen of his district are indus- trious, frugal and sober, the industry and thrift of the women being proverbial, although the high prices of food and wine have caused a greater consumption of spirituous drinks. Women are employed in almost every calling, from agriculture to street cleaning. They are generally the cashiers and book-keepers in shops, caf§s, restaurants, and many wholesale establishments. Female labor and female control exert a very salutary influence upon the credit and prosperity of the district. Many of the most successful business establishments in France are under the direction of the widows of the former proprietors. Saving is one of the leading principles of the work-people, and all- men, women, boys and girls— are taught the economy of helping to swell the general family fund. The feeling between the employers and the employed is good, and grievances are usually settled by mutual concession. I. — General trades. Average wages paid per week in France. Occupations. Rouen. Mar- seilles. (60 to 84 hours.) Bordeaux. (60 hours.) Rheims. (72 hours.) All France. BUILDING TltADES Brioklayers .- Hoa-oarrlers Masons Tenders .--.. Plasterers Tenders $5 60 3 07 4 82 3 47 6 95 3 47 $6 95 5 47 6 79 3 47 6 95 3 47 $4 62 3 10 4 93 3 10 6 76 8 10 $5 79 2 89 5 79 2 89 5 79 2 89 $5 74 3 13 5 33 323 684 uarHju. ijm .EUROPE. wages paid per week im France — Continued. 117 Occupations. Rouen. Mar- seilles. (80 to 84 (hours.) Bordeaux. (60 hours.) Eheims. (72 hours.) All France. Building trades — Continued. Slaters— only tile roofs . Hoofers Tenders Plumbers Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers (per month, with food and lodging) . Blacksmiths Strikers Book-binders Brick-makers Brewers: Men Women Butchers Brass founders Cabinetmakers Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers: Cab.—. Draymen and teamsters Cab, carriage, &o Street railways Dyers . Engravers Farriers Gardeners $6 94 694 3 47 6 94 4 05 7 60 7 50 *9toll 58 6 00 5 00 6 18 6 00 6 00 *2 65 7 50 7 90 Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &o Lithographers Millwrights Kail-makers (hand) Potters Printers Teachers (public schools) . - Saddle and harness makers - Sail-makers : Men "Women Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Weavers (outside of mills) . 6 00 6 94 5 79 5 79 5 79 4 72 6 00 8 75 8 50 6 00 5 79 5 79 8 80 5 00 9 00 6 10 7 50 10 00 7 25 5 79* 4 85 6 94 6 00 8 00 6 00 $5 21 8 47 5 79 5 79 3 47 463 5 21 4 05 2 51 2 70 6 95 5 79 3 47 6 95 5 79 540 7 53 4 82 4 63 8 10 5 79 5 21 5 79 5 79 3 47 8 10 4 05 6 37 4 83 5 79 6 95 2 90 *5 79 5 79 4 63 5 21 $4 21 4 21 3 10 6 44 2 88 5 10 4 90 5 66 5 68 5 22 4 84 3 02 4 05 5 06 485 4 54 3 81 4 44 8 33 3 20 5 11 4 82 4 56 4 64 5 87 644 4 02 4 52 6 ]9 5 16 4 90 5 39 3 68 4 84 4 18 6 05 6 16 4 75 \ 5 39f 9 52 3 93 4 81 5 87 4 83 4 42 $5 79 5 79 4 34 5 79 4 05 6 38 5 79 *6 96 5 79 4 63 5 21 *4 63 t2 32 7 64 5 79 *1 45 4 63 4 63 4 05 *3 08 3 76 4 05 6 66 6 08 4 63 5 79 5 79 5 21 2 32 5 79 4 92 4 05 4 63 5 79 $5 65 5 65 3 64 6 10 3 61 6 20 6 07 5 81 4 72 5 17 5 32 4 43 6 54 6 14 4 85 4 69 5 58 5 16 7 06 4 80 5 57 4 82 4 47 4 83 7 35 7 00 5 11 5 50 5 89 6 24 3 93 7 07 6 74 4 84 4 78 6 64 7 00 5 70 6 04 2 90 6 72 5 18 5 02 6 92 5 46 3 23 * With board and lodging. t With board. 118 LABOR IN EUROPE. II.— Factories, mills, etc. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in factories or mills in Marseilles. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Men. Women. Boys. Highest wages. Men. 'Women. Boys. Average wages. Men. Women. Boys. Aerated waters Breweries - Candles, stearine Candles, tallow Cork manufacture Canvas and bag makers Coal miners* Gas machinery (manufacture) Glue makers Flonring-mills Lead works Lime-kilns Matches (manufacturing) Pasteboard (manufacturing) . Piano manufacturers Seed oil Soap factories Sugar refineries Sulphur Starch manufacturers Stone quarries Playing cards Tin-foil manufactories Vermouth factories $4 05 3 47 3 50 2 90 4 63 4 05 2 90 2 90 4 63 2 90 3 47 3 47 3 47 2 60 5 21 4 05 4 05 3 16 3 47 3 47 5 21 4 05 4 83 2 89 $2 00 2 00 1 73 1 73 1 73 1 15 1 73 1 15 $1 15 96 1 15 145 1 73 1 73 1 73 1 15 1 55 1 40 1 73 1 15 1 73 1 73 2 31 1 45 2 31 1 73 1 45 1 15 87 1 15 87 87 1 45 $5 79 5 79 5 20 4 05 5 80 5 80 8 10 6 94 5 80 6 94 4 34 6 94 6 35 5 21 14 47 8 10 7 52 6 36 6 94 5 80 6 94 5 21 $2 90 3 50 2 90 1 73 2 90 2 31 1 98 $1 15 1 45 3 47 1 45 1 73 3 47 7 52 4 05 2 90 1 62 2 89 2 89 2 31 2 89 4 05 2 31 2 89 173 2 90 3 47 4 63 1 35 1 27 2 31 1 73 2 89 4 63 1 15 3 47 $5 00 4 05 4 05 3 50 5 20 4 65 4 65 4 65 5 20 4 63 3 86 4 63 4 05 3 08 6 94 4 63 4 63 4 63 4 63 4 05 5 80 4 63 5 79 4 63 $2 58 2 58 2 55 $115 2 31 1 15 1 73 1 63 1 73 2 31 1 45 1 54 1 73 2 31 2 31 1 45 2 31 1 73 1 73 2 55 2 31 1 73 2 55 173 2 31 2 31 173 115 1 15 173 115 115 173 * Seven hours per day inside, 10 hours per day outside. Wages paid per week of 72 hours in factories and mills in Sheims. Description of employment. WOOLEN MILLS. Spinning : Overseers Section hands Assistants to sections Wool carriers Wool sorters Spinners (carded wool) Spinners (combed wool) Piecers (carded wool)... Piecers (combed wool) Bobbin setters (carded wool) Bobbin setters (combed wool) Frame winders, &c Winders (children and old women) . . Comb-minders (men and women) Minders in preparing-room Weaving: Winders (before weaving) Weavers (flannel merinos) Weavers (double merinos and fancy cashmere) Warpers Reelers Dressers, &c Wool sorting Average wages. 5 22 4 62 2 70 5 82 5 82 6 36 2 88 3 78 1 15 1 44 2 00 1 44 2 40 2 50 2 20 4 62 4 62 2 88 2 88 2 88 Description of employment. Average Woolen hills— Continued. Weaving— Continued : Overseers ". Second hands Overlookers and sorters Carding and combing : Overseers Second hands Preparers (women) Wool washers Combers (women) . . . v.. Carders (women) Finishers and bailers (men) Drawing : Overseers Second bonds Drawers (women) Assistants Mechanics : Mechanics in factories Mechanics in machine-shops. . . Laborers, greasers, &c Carpenters Pipers Engineers Firemen 5 82 462 8 10 6 96 2 40 4 08 2 40 2 03 4 08 5 22 3 78 682 5 22 5 82 5 82 4 62 Wages paid per day (week of 66 hours) in factories and mills in Rouen. Description of employment. Laborers, porters, or rough workers. . . . Laborers in regular work: Mechanics Masons, stokers, wood-turners Average wages. $0 62 72 1 08 84 Description of employment. Weavers — Continued. Foremen of spinners and weavers Children Women Average wages. $115 ,16 LABOR IN EUROPE. 119 III.— Foundries, maohine-shops and iron-works. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in foundries, maehine-shopa, and iron-works in the depart- ments of the Gironde, Rouen, and Marseilles. Description of employment. DEPARTMENT OF GIRONDE. (Foundries, machine-shops, and iron works.) Boiler-makers Blacksmiths Foremen ( machin e-shops) Foremen in foundries and iron-works. . . Holders Machinists Pattern-makers Smelters Strikers •. Tool-makers Laborers ROUEN. (Furnaces and foundries.) 980 men . 35 boys-. Average wages. $5 40 5 66 16 21 10 22 5 11 7 43 6 41 7 10 6 95 6 41 3 46 5 10 2 34 Description of employment. MARSEILLES. (Foundries, machine-shops, and iron works.) Foundries : Smelters Molders Assistant molders Finishers Laborers and tenders Boys Machine-shops : Blacksmiths Adjusters Boiler-makers Painters Carpenters Average wages. $5 79 7 52 5 80 4 63 3 47 4 85 5 07 4 63 4 82 5 60 The only iron-blast furnace company in the Marseilles district absolutely refuses to give any infor- mation concerning wages. IV. — Glass- workers. Wages paid per week of 72 hours to glass-workers in Marseilles. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. BOTTLE MANUFACTURE. One gang of workmen : $12 00 7 53 2 90 1 25 Bottle manufacture— Continued. One gang of workmen — Continued : $0 35 1 25 Foremen (one to six oreightgangs) . Smelter (one to six or eight gangs).. 7 53 7 53 While the above are given as the average wages earned, the " gang " is really paid by the piece, as follows : Per hundred bottles : blower, 28 cents ; first helper, 16 cents ; second helper, 7 cents j carrier, 3 cents ; water-carriers, 9 mills ; fixers, 3 cents ; foremen and smelters, 2 cents. In the manufacture of glassware the wage returns are given as follows: Men, $9.65; boys, $5.61, per week. Wages paid per week of 60 hours to glass-workers in Mheims and department of Gironde. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. RHETMS. $12 79 7 96 5 76 5 30 5 79 3 84 5 76 4 08 3 48 DEPARTMENT OF GIRONDE. $12 12 7 49 Blowers (white bottles and jars) Clerks Stokers 4 63 5 79 5 11 3 96 5 11 3 96 3 96 3 96 120 LABOR IN EUROPE. V. — Mines and mining. Wages paid, per week of 66 hours in and in connection with mines m Bourn. Description of employment. Average wages. Miner: Coal . Stone Iron . . $3 90 522 4 02 Wages paid per week o/66 hours in and in connection with quarries in the department of Gironde. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $3 32 6 27 3 48 $3 56 3 72 Hand-barrow and crow-bar laborers per week of 42 and 60 hours in and in connection with coal mines in the district of Marseilles. Description of employment. Average wages. In the mines (42 boars) : Miners Boys $3 85 3 47 Description of employment. Outside the mines (60 hours) : Women Boys wages. $173 1 15 VI. — Kail way employes. Wages paid per month to railway employe's in Bheims. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $24 13 24 13 24 13 20 91 24 13 21 54 19 30 19 30 16 10 24 13 19 30 21 71 24 13 28 95 $26 95 21 54 19 30 21 54 19 30 21 54 28 95 19 30 28 95 - 21 54 28 95 14 48 5 60 Wages paid per month to railway employe's ( those engaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, $c.)in department of Gironde. Description of employment. Average wages. $27 20 15 60 29 84 65 18 43 66 62 30 25 26 25 26 25 26 64 86 24 39 28 06 28 34 Description of employment. Average wages. Baggagemen Brakemen Chiefs of baggage Chiefs of bureaus Chief clerks Chiefs of stations : In cities In towns Chiefs of workmen Chjefs of the porters Chiefs of the freight and engine depots . . Clerks Conductors Controllers Engine drivers (engineers) Employes at telegraph stations Greasers : Lampists Overseers of workmen Porters and servants Signalmen , Stokers (firemen) Switchmen , Ticket agents : Male , Female , "Watchmen and trackmen Workmen $34 20 23 21 18 95 18 95 18 95 23 23 25 35 19 90 18 95 34 01 10 96 23 23 17 19 .LABOR IN EUBOPE. 121 paid per month to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those, engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, y the farmer and his family so that ontside help is rarely employed except for short periods, and is then paid by the day. Laborers at the above prices provide their own board and lodging. || By the job per square meters, according to the nature of ground. XV. — Printers and printing offices. Statement showing the wages paid per week to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-read- ers, fe.) in the department of -Gironde, Rouen, Marseilles and Bheims. Description of employment. Averagt wages. Description of employment. Average DEFAETMENT OF GIEONDE. (Per week of 60 hours). Newspapers : Compositors Pressmen Printers Laborers Job offices :- Compositors Pressmen Printers Proof-readers Laborers EOUEN. (Per week of 60 hours.) Foremen and proof-readers Compositors Printer, or machine-worker Layer-on Paperer 86 76 6 7« 6 76 3 52 6 27 9 26 5 12 5 12 3 52 5 40 6 60 7 80 4 80 4 80 MARSEILLES. (Per week of 70 hours.) Compositors Power-press foremen Power-press men Folders (women) .'..'.'. Proof-readers EHEIMS. (Per week of 66 hours.) Foremen ; Assistants '.'.'.'.'..'. Compositors, newspaper and book work Job printers Pressmen Assistants ,"""" Lithographers Engravers "~.!J"" Book-binders ...........'" Paper-rnlers ., Press-feeders Folders , 7 43 8 10 6 08 2 03 11 00 11 58 7 52 9 84 6 98 7 52 3 47 5 79- 12 45 7 24 11 87 2 03 LABOR IN EUROPE. 125 IIEMSIOI. Belgium is a most active, industrial nation. With an area no larger than Maryland and a population of some 6,000,000, its occupations are diverse, its inhabitants industrious and economical, and harmony pre- vails between the employers and the employed. As illustrative of the regard which Belgian employers entertain for their operatives the great linen factory of M. Bey, ainS, at Buysbroeck, near Brussels, may be taken as a signal example. This factory, according to Consul Wilson, from whose report these interesting abstracts are taken, employs 3,000 operatives. Three per cent, of the wages of all the workers is retained by the proprietor for an ." invalid and pension fund." This entitles every employe" to the daily attendance of a physician, free of charge, during illness. Invalids also receive one-half their wages, and when convalescing are provided with meat and wine, as the physician prescribes. Women giving birth to children receive gratuitous attendance. When a married workman dies his widow receives a pension equal to one-third of his earnings for three years, if he has been less than ten years in M. Bey's employ, and one-half his rate of wages if he has been employed over ten years. As a general thing, however, this pension is continued until the children are able to earn their own living. A pension of $5.79 per month is paid, for life, to all invalided workmen after 15 years' continuous serv- ice in the factory. M. Bey buys all food supplies at wholesale and sells the same to his employes, with an addition of 3 to 5 per cent, to cover expenses. If any fund should accrue from this transaction it is held in reserve and expended for the benefit of the work-people. There is a school and also a savings-bank in connection with the factory for the boy employes. To encourage boys in economical ways, M. Bey pays 10 per cent, interest on all sums up to 300 francs, and 1\ per cent, on all sums above that amount. At the age of 20 the boys come under the rules and regulations to which the adult work-people are subject. "Sisters of the Sacred Heart" are employed by M. Bey to teach the children of his employes. For this purpose two buildings are set apart, the average number of pupils being about 350. Every workman can deposit his savings in the "General Workmen's Bank," and receive 5 per cent, interest. This money is returned on demand. A workman having in this bank, say, a sum of $200, can obtain a sufficient loan to enable him to build his own house. M. Bey has about 80 houses, of three to six rooms, with gardens attached, which he rents at about half-price to meritorious workmen. Consul Wilson describes a woolen mill, "Soci^te anonyme de Loth," in his district, employing 1,500 working people, and conducted on even more paternal principles than that of M. Bey ; and indeed all the fac- tories visited by the consul seem to be conducted on similar generous theories. There is little antagonism, adds Consul Williams, between employer and employe" in Belgium. The employes finding the employers in- terested in their general welfare place themselves almost entirely in their hands. The trust, as will be seen, is not betrayed. It is this mutual feeling which gives the Belgian manufacturers the principal advantage which enables them to compete in cheapness and quality of 126 LABOR IN EUROPE. manufactures with other European nations of -greater power, organiza- tion and capitalized wealth. The following is an interview with a miller in Liege, reported by Con- sul Tanner: Has a wife and five children; earns $5.30 a week; two of his daughters earn a like sum; lives in a little cottage; can save no monev; if he should get sick would go to the hospital; has a son who will also be a miller, as his fathers before him have all been; don't want to become rich, for if he were rich he would still labor; loves labor; never Las any trouble save on holidays, when he is forced to be idle; all excesses committed by workingmen are com- mitted on holidays; rich people seem unhappy; cares nothing for riches; cares for nothing but health and work, and work means health; idleness is the root of all evil; laughs daily at his master's son taking exercise in his gymnasium or running like a madman in his garden, seekiug for that which the workingman finds in his work — health. Eats bread and butter in the morning, with coffee, before going to work; at noon goes home for dinner and has soup, with a little salad sometimes, and potatoes, and then supper; eats meat on family f6te days only ; the family cares very little for meat and does not feel being deprived thereof; all are content with their condition and do not bother themselves about any other. These general details concerning the labor conditions of Belgium have been here repeated, as both Consuls Wilson and Tanner seem to have been struck by the simplicity and content of the working classes. It may be said that the wages paid to Belgian labor are in general higher than the wages paid in any other country in Europe, outside of England, Prance and Denmark. Consul Tanner's report gives some graphic statistics on the important subject of female labor. Official figures showed that in 1880 the number of work-people in Belgium amounted to 2,520,000, of which 1,824,000 (65 per cent.) were females. Consul Tanner is in doubt as to whether agriculture was embraced in this computation. Out of a total employment of 23,569 persons in the mines in his con- sular district, 13,569 were women, girls and boys. This employment of women and young girls in the mines has an injurious effect on their phys- ical and moral well-being. In the celebrated John Cockrell mines, near Liege, employing 11,000 persons, where men and women do the same kind of and as much work, the women receive on an average one franc per day less than the men. Consul Tanner gives the following as a fair average of the daily wages paid to female labor throughout Belgium : Coal, iron, and other mines, 35 to 65 cents ; farm laborers, 20 to 40 cents; servants, 10 to 25 cents, and found; tailoresses, seamstresses, and milliners, 25 cents to $1; operatives in mills, factories, &c, 10 to 65 cents ; street-sweepers, 10 to 45 cents ; clerks, 10 to 65 cents ; bonnes, 25 to 75 cents ; washwomen, 25 to 35 cents ; starchers and ironers, 25 to 35 cents ; general laboring wo- men, 35 to 65 cents. Shoptending is mostly in the hands of women in Belgium, retail trade being principally carried on by the female portion of the families The consul at Antwerp reports that "it is extremely difficult 'to ob- tain much information in Antwerp upon this subject, as most emplovers guard their business very closely, and refuse to give an Y particulars regarding its details, especially for use in the United States » LABOR IN EUROPE. 127 Consul Polachek, of Ghent, in his very valuable report, makes this acknowledgment: "I may be permitted to mention the numerous kind- nesses received at the hands of the manufacturers and merchants of this district. Their generous aid has enabled me to prepare this report with such minute detail." The laborers of Ghent, according to the consul's report, work gener- ally by the hour, the hours of labor being 12 in summer and 10 in win- ter, and the daily wages range all the way from 20 cents to $1.50. The average wages for skilled mechanics, as will be seen in the tables further on, may be reckoned at about $4 and laborers at $3 per week. The general rates of wages have increased 10 per cent, since 1878, but as the expenditure of the working-people has increased in like proportions, the savings are no more than formerly. The contentment and well-being of the workingmen of Ghent are fully illustrated by the fact that there is hardly any emigration from the dis- trict. The laboring classes, writes the consul, are fond of their homes; their treatment is kind and humane; they enjoy their recreations, and possess great love for their birthplace. The number and distribution of the female laborers of Ghent is given as follows : Manufacturing and mechanical, 4,675 ; commerce andtrans- portation, 2,210 ; professional and personal, in cludi ng government clerks, teachers, artists, laundresses, musicians, &c, 856 ; agricultural, 750 ; all other pursuits, 446 ; total, 8,937. The wages paid to female laborers average from 15 cents to 95 cents per day, the average wages in factories being 38 cents. The hours of labor in industrial and mechanical employment are from 11 to 13 per day; in all other employments 9 to 10. Men and women work on an equality in employments except as to wages, in which the usual disparity prevails. The following interview with a mechanic in a paper-mill in Ghent will serve to illustrate the manner in which such laborers live in that city: A paper-maker; forty-four years old, has a wife and five children, the oldest sixteen and the youngest six years ; earns 77 cents per day, although the average earnings in the mill do not exceed 58 cents per day ; hours of labor from 6 a. m. to 7 p. m., with two hours for eating ; his wife works also, and two of his children earn some- thing every week, without which he could not get along ; his own earnings average $120 per year; his family expenses are $172.50 per year, viz, rent, $19.30; clothing, $28.95; food and fuel, $104.95; school tax and other incidentals, $19.30; thus leaving $52.50 to be paid for out of the earnings of his wife and children ; with steady work and no sickness can save from $30 to $40 per year. The following general statements, compiled from the reports of the several consuls, will show the rates of wages paid in the general trades and industries in Belgium. 128 LABOR IN EUROPE. I. General trades. Average wages paid per week. Occupations. Antwerp. Brussels. Ghent. Liege. All Bel- gium. BUILDING TRADES. $4 40 3 12 6 00 3 12 4 40 3 12 5 00 $4 82 2 89 4 82 2 89 4 82 2 89 5 79 5 79 3 47 5 79 2 89 4 82 5 79 5 21 5 89 3 86 5 79 5 79 5 21 5 21 6 95 5 79 5 21 6 75 5 21 $4 02 2 88 4 02 2 88 4 02 2 88 4 62 4 62 2 88 4 62 2 28 3 38 4 02 3 43 5 18 2 88 2 28 4 02 3 93 3 93 4 62 4 87 4 02 4 87 4 41 5 20 3 93 $5 00 4 00 6 05 3 50 5 40 3 50 444 4 50 3 50 7 05 3 50 3 55 6 05 5 80 4 95 4 00 8 70 4 00 5 50 5 20 6 50 6 00 6 25 7 00 7 50 6 00 7 50 3 95 3 95 3 95 3 95 6 00 7 50 6 90 4 50 6 00 6 95 7 00 5 00 7 00 7 00 $4 56 3 22 5 22 3 09 4 66 3 02 4 98 4 97 3 28 4 40 3 OS 4 65 4 16 2 70 5 50 2 45 4 63 3 20 3 20 2 90 5 46 2 93 4 07 500 OTHEB TRADES. 4 28 5 38 3 29 5 35 4 25 446 4 31 6 02 6 00 4 65 6 50 3 47 4 65 3 37 566 5 03 628 5 17 5 28 5 21 5 00 3 95 2 95 3 00 4 63 4 82 3 86 4 63 6 75 6 95 5 79 3 86 5 79 6 95 8 68 3 47 5 79 3 38 4 87 3 17 5 70 4 82 5 20 2 88 2 03 3 93 5 20 3 17 4 87 3 00 3 77 3 92 4 09 6 15 6 45 7 53 4 40 6 35 3 91 4 50 4 05 6 50 3 47 5 80 5 62 6 84 3 77 5 86 5 00 5 79 6 40 7 42 5 79 3 93 4 56 7 10 5 16 3 32. 5 80 7 45 5 00 5 80 7 00 9 00 6 10 5 94 7 74 ■5 51 4 56 4 82 482 5 00 3 72 5 16 5 64 5 50 3 72 5 64 4 36 5 79 5 21 7 42 4 82 5 79 650 7 00 6 00 5 60 5 00 5 81 4 50 6 50 3 47 5 58 635 4 40 3 95 LABOR IN EUROPE. II Factories, mills, etc. Vages paid per week of 72 hours in factories and mills in Verviers. 129 Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. Wool-sorting: $6 00 2 75 4 80 3 60 9 40 9 40 11 00 6 00 4 00 3 60 9 00 5 SO 4 00 Dressing: $4 75 4 00 Wool-picking: 4 00 Weaving: 10 50 Wool or cloth dyers: 6 00 6 00 5 00 Wool-carding: Finishing: 6 50 3 00 3 00 4 00 Spinning: 4 00 3 00 4 50 3 60 Wages paid per week of 60 hours in factories or mills in Brussels, Belgium. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. LINEN MILLS. $2 94 2 34 2 64 1 14 1 38 2 94 2 50 4 08 2 94 1 38 WOOLEN MILLS. $3 60 2 18 8 10 3 60 2 13 1 44 4 62 3 60 3 60 Carpenters, machinists, locksmiths, firemen, &c, attached to mills and factories receive an average of $4.62 per week of 60 honrs. III. — Foundries, machine-shops and iron-works. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in foundries, machine-shops and iron-works in Brussels district. Description of employment. BLAST FOBNACES. Fnrnace-men Assistants Boys Other workmen ROLLING MILLS. First puddlers .Second puddlers First rollers First heaters OtherwoTkmen Boys Average wages. $3 77 2 61 1 16 2 61 5 79 4 05 7 72 8 68 3 47 2 32 Description of employment. MACHINE AND BOILER SHOPS. Blacksmiths Strikers Turners Screw and nut makers. Boiler-makers Assistants Machinists FOUNDRIES. Model-makers ... Holders Other workmen. Average wages. $5 79 3 47 5 79 4 05 4 82 3 47 5 79 5 79 463 3 47 92 A— LAB- 130 LABOK IN EUROPE. IV.— Glass- workers. Wages paid per week of 72 hours to glass-workers in Vol St. Lambert, near Liege. Description of employment. Laborers Artists Mechanics' laborers Mechanics v Glass grinders. -- "Women (experienced) Polishers (boys) Casting-hall mixers Furnace and table men Pot makers "Women (girls) Description of employment. "Warehouse packers Sandmen Plaster turners Smoothers and overseers Polishers Blowers Assistants Stokers Flatteners Cutters Average $5 00 G 00 7 50 9 75 7 50 15 50 9 00 5 50 5 50 5 40 Wages paid per month of 260 hours to glass-workers in the consular district of Brussels. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $21 23 48 25 14 47 96 50 33 77 46 32 • 38 60 $32 81 33 77 24 12 17 37 19 30 Laborers per day.. 60 * Three for every furnace. V. — Mines and mining. Wages paid per day, or week of 64 hours, im and in connection with a coal mine near Liege. Description of employment. Average ■wages. $3 60 3 40 8 00 Wages in mines in the Brussels district. Description of employment. UNDER GROUND. Chief overseers per month. Assistant overseers j Q "Weighmasters ""'do Workmen in galleries.- ! ^."per'day of M hours" Laborers for removing debus J ji Girls-. d0 From 14 to 16 years . Over 16 years " jJ° Pit wagon hands for hauling coal to shaft : Kales : From 12 to 16 years , Over 16 years per day. Females: ao From 12 to 16 years , Over 16 years ". [[[ ears of service ... 12 to 15 years of service,, over 15 yeai s of service . . All Switzerland. $2, 605 50 2.316 00 2, 123 00 1, 351 00 2. 123 00 1, 930 00 $1, 158 00 to 1, 544 00 1,544 00 1, 544 00 1,544 00 1, 447 50 1, 447 50 1,447 50 1, 351 00 1, 351 00 289 50 to 1, 351 00 289 50 347 40 416 88 486 36 555 84 G.6 90 636 90 to 772 00 213 60 to 308 80 347 40 to 386 00 347 40 to 386 00 213 60 to 347 40 405 30 to 636 90 289 50 335 82 393 72 463 20 532 68 617 60 XI. — Cantonal government employ. [Per annum.] Description of employment. Eniploves in the State chancery . Otlier employes Prefects Employes in prefectures . Officials in the judiciary . . POLICE OFFICE. Chief of police Clerks Commandant of police . First lieutenant Second lieutenant Sub-officers , Policemen, each Consular district. Berne. President of the Cantonal government $1, 351 00 Eijrht councillors, each 1 254 50 '•■■'• 868 50 509 50 965 00 473 10 675 75 810 60 530 75 636 90 570 00 540 40 352 20 211 34 St. Gall. $1,0(13 60 965 00 772 00 453 55 965 00 482 50 579 00 675 50 All Switzer- . land. $1,151 55 1, 108 75 820 25 481 50. 965 00 477 80 627 35 810 60 530 75 656 20 579 00 540 40 352 20 211 84 LABOR IN EUROPE. XII.— Printing and printing offices. [Per week.l 149 Description of employment. Press-master Press- ft-edor Machinist and fireman . Compositor Bookbinder : Foreman Journeyman FoMer Consular district. Basle. $6 37 2 89 Berne. $7 24 3 86 4 34 7 24 6 27 4 63 St. Gall. Zurich. $6 75 7 24 4 05 4 05 All Switzer- land. $6 82 3 40 5 54 6 78 6 33 4 34 2 70 ITALY. Eeports from only three out of the twelve consulates in Italy were received up to the latest moment when they could be made available in the preparation of this letter; these are Catania, Florence and Turin, which may be taken as representing the labor conditions of the pro- vinces of Piedmout, Tuscany, and the west coast of Sicily. This, how- ever, leaves some of the principal labor centers of the country unrepre- sented. The reports which have been received from Italy indicate that the working classes are patient, economical, sober, industrious, tractable and trustworthy. Their wage-rates are the lowest in Europe, and that they are able to economize and are happy and contented is probably largely due to a favoring climate. As was remarked in the letter which accompanied the reports con- cerning the state of labor in Europe in 1878, an idea seems to exist in the United States, and even throughout a large portion of Europe, that the Latin races, the Italians and Spaniards, resort to agricultural labor only when forced by pressing want. Nothing can be farther from the real iabor conditions which prevail in both Italy and Spain. The waves of Italian emigration have largely flowed past our shores toward South America. The Italian colonies in many of those States — the Argentine Republic and Brazil in particular — have done much and are still doing much for the industrial and agricultural development of those countries. During the past few years, however, there has been an increase of emigration towards the United States, not less than 18,000 Italians having lauded in ports of North America during the year 1882, principally in the United States and Mexico. During the same year, however, over 41,000 went to Central and South America. It is unfortunate that some of the recent immigration from Italy has been under the contract-labor system. This subject is one of growing importance and has already attracted the attention of Congress, as well as legislative consideration in other countries where it has gained a foothold. Consul Catlin, of Stuttgart, calls attention to the workings of this con- tract system in Southern Germany, as follows : The importation of large gangs of laborers from Northern Italy into Germany and Austria, from time to time, as occasion requires, is now a recognized phase of the labor question in this section of Europe. These imported hands are available only for the rougher 150 LABOR IN EUROPE. kinds of work, ore digging and blasting, and railroad bmldinf ; but for those kinds of work none are superior to them in organization and efficiency. They do not settle down when they come— they are simply hired'for a specified time to do certain work. Eailroad travel is cheap, and when their work is done they return home to their families with their foreign wages in their pockets. The system is now so well organized that 5,000 or 10,000 Italian workmen, trained and equipped, can be thrown into any given working point in bouth Germany at a week's or ten days' notice, and from all accounts too much cannot be said of the promptitude and thoroughness with which they do their work. In his Marseilles report, Consul Mason mentions the Italian laborers of that city in the following terms: The question of labor and strikes is largely controlled by the 50,000 Italians who live in Marseilles. These people work for less wages and live on simpler and cheaper food than even the French work- ing classes, and no strike can be successful while these Italians stand ready to accept work and wages which the native workmen may refuse. PIEDMONT. Italy presents few extremes as to rates of wages. Sicily in the south and Piedmont in the north are almost equal in this respect. The fol- lowing statement, showing the weekly wages paid in Turin, may there- fore be taken as an approximation to the average wages prevailing in like trades and callings throughout the principal cities of the Kingdom: I.— General trades. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in Turin. Occupations. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers Masons Tenders .Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders Plumbers Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHEE_TEADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Book-binders Brickmakers Brewers Brass founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Cigar-makers ...: Average wages. $4 20 1 70 3 00 1 70 6 04 1 70 4 20 4 20 1 70 3 60 1 70 4 00 3 40 4 00 3 60 3 40 3 80 5 00 8 00 4 60 3 40 3 75 3 00 Occupations. ^. OTHEE TEADES — Continued Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Cab and carriage Street railway Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, Men for pattern pieces Brickmakers, male Brickmakers, female ■ Qnarrymen and workers in clay mill . Quarry women workers in clay, female Day laborers, male Day laborers, female Engine attendants Boiler men XII.- Gas works. Fitters, per week Smiths, per shift Firemen at retorts Lamp-lighters Day laborers XIII.— Building departments. Masons Hod-carriers, female Day laborers Carpenters Joiners, glaziers, painters Apprentices XIV Railway connected with works. Engine-drivers, per week Stokers and shifters, per shift Day laborers -.- Average daily wages of 79 categories of workmen Average wages. $0 76 82 48 54 46 24 47 22 1 32 20 56 46 i 00 48 50 48 32 45 18 30 50 48 14 i 50 48 28 VI. — Bailway employes. paid per year to railway employe's, those engaaed about stations as well as those en- gaged on ike engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, fyc., in Austria. Description of employment. Yearly sal- ary. Yearly rent commuta- tion. Engine-house inspectors , Station masters Train dispatchers -- Interpreters Locomotive engineers..-. Station men, bell-ringers, gas and station inspectors Conductors Signalmen Freight-station foremen, car-inspectors, lamp men, engine and reservoir at- tendants Station porters, storehouse and freight depot attendants Freight-car loaders, car-cleaners, station servants $240 to $400 340 340 340 340 260 260 260 200 200 200 200 160 120 120 220 220 180 $100 to $140 100 120 100 80 80 80 60 48 48 120 120 120 100 100 100 Vienna Street Railway Company. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average ■wages. $3 12 2 32 2 32 2 68 $2 88 2 84 3 36 1 84 LABOR IN- EUEOPE. VII. — Ship- yards and ship-building. Wages paid per week of 60 hours in ship-yards in Austria. GENERAL AUSTRIAN SHIP-BUILDING COMPANY IN LINZ. 163 Description of employment. Average wages. Smiths - Locksmiths - Joiners Carpenters Helpers SHIP-BUILDING IN TRIESTE Iron-snip hnilders ■Wood-snip bnilders $3 60 3 24 3 36 2 88 2 16 $8 40 6 90 VIII. — Seamen's wages. Wages paid to employe's of First Imperial Royal Danube Steamship Company of Vienna. Description of employment. Captains per year First officers do — Chief engineers do Assistant engineers do Inspectors do — Assistant inspectors do Pursers do Pilots do.-.- Quartermasters : First class do — Second class do — Assistants do Average wages. $520 00 240 00 424 00 192 00 320 00 192 00 344 00 264 00 252 00 180 00 168 00 Description of employment. Cockswains .'. . . per month Firemen do Ordinary seamen do Apprentices do Helmsmen on tow-hoats do Pilots do Seamen do Cooks do Stevedores do Average wages. $14 00 12 60 12 60 7 20 16 00 14 00 12 60 12 00 6 00 Seamen's wages in Trieste. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. OCEAN. Cooks and stewards do $18 00 •' 14 00 17 00 8 75 COASTING. Second mates do Cooks and stewards do $12 50 7 00 9 00 4 80 IX. — Shop wages. Wages paid in the offices, stores, and shops of Vienna and Trieste, to clerics and other Description of employment. VIENNA. * Buyers and salesmen Correspondents Book-keepers Cashiers Clerks: First cl?°= Second ciass Messengers and packers *Per week of 66 hours Average ; wages. ' $10 eo 8 00 8 00 .9 00 7 50 4 50 . 4 75 | Description of employment, VIENNA— continued. Packers, girls Office servants TRIESTE, t "Women in retail stores Men in retail stores Men in wholesale stores tPer month of 360 hours Average wages. $2 00 3 75 10 00 16 40 27 00 164 LABOR IN EUROPE. X.— Household wages in towns and cities. Wages paid ■ner month to household servants in Vienna, with hoard and lodging. Description of employment. VIENNA. Cooks : Male professional . - . Female professional Assistant Ordinary Seamstresses Chamber-maids Maids of all wort Coachmen Butlers and footmen — Gardeners Childrens' nurses Average ■wages. $25 00 18 00 9 00 6 00 6 50 5 00 7 00 17 50 15 00 10 00 6 00 Description of employment. Vienna — Continued. Governesses Teachers Day laborers TBIESTE. Governesses Chamber-maids "Women cooks Servant maids Cooks, men General servants, men Average wages. $20 00 20 00 9 00 7 60 4 80 5 26 1 92 17 80 12 55 XI. — Agricultural wages. paid per week to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in Austria, with or without board and lodging (per week of 78 hours). Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. $2 10 1 40 1 00 3 60 "Women, without board 2 50 1 92 XV. — Printers and printing offices. Statement showing the wages paid per week of 60 and 72 hours to printers (compositors, press- men, proof-readers, $~c. ) in Austria. Description of employment. Average wages. In Prague. In Vienna. In Ghent. $8 00 | 5 00 3 60 7 20 $10 00 C 9 60 } 5 60 4 80 7 20 90 3 20 1 60 2 80 4 20 Compositors : $4 56 3 00 1 60 DENMARK. In his comprehensive report on the labor conditions of Denmark Con- sul Ryder, of Copenhagen, draws attention to the facts that that country has no mining population whatever; that its factories are compara- tively of little importance, and that while one-half the population lives exclusively by agriculture, less than one-fourth lives by the various branches of general trade and commerce. Consul Eyder estimates the average annual earnings of ordinary day laborers in towns and cities at from $188 to $214, and of general me- LABOR IN EUEOPE. 165 chamcs at from $240 to $268. The higher class of artisans, whose rates ol wages are difficult to ascertain, earns more than these amounts. The hours of labor vary in the different trades and according to the season from 7J to 10 in winter and summer, respectively, for masons and car- penters; and 14 to 16 for agricultural laborers per day. Considerable work is done by the individual trades on Sundavs, although it can be said that Sunday work is not the rule in Denmark. Consul Eyder estimates the daily expense of food for an ordinary laborer's family of four— himself, wife, and two children— as follows: Breakfast and supper : Bread, 4 pounds ; lard, A pound ; cheese, | pound : sugar, i pound; coffee, ^ pound, and milk; the whole costing 19 cents. Dinner, which consists of milk porridge, fish and potatoes, or pea soup, with pork, about 15 cents; making the total daily expenses 34 cents, or about $124 per year. The better class of mechanics with families lives at the rate of about 40 cents per day, or $145 per annum. It is worthy of remark that as the country produces little coal, and that of inferior quality, kerosene is largely in use among the Danish artisans for cooking and heating as well as for illuminating purposes. While agricultural wages have not varied to any appreciable extent since 1878, those of mechanics and artisans have increased from 10 to 15 per cent. The increase in the cost of living, however, has kept pace with that of wages, and so the condition of the workmen has not been materially bettered. The general condition of the best-paid laborers in Denmark is fairly comfortable, while that of the agricultural laborers and the lower paid artisans is one of economy and self-denial. Considering the fact that labor organizations were only inaugurated in 1870, and that there are at present over forty trades unions in Copen- hagen alone, it is evident that the Danish artisans are alive to the ne- cessity of co-operation, for the aim of these societies is beneficiary as well as protective. Both workingmen and employers are beginning to resort to arbitration for the settlement of trade disputes. Co-operative societies have no existence in Denmark, unless benefi- ciary trades unions are held to come under this head. Mr. Byder gives the following estimate of the yearly incomes and expenses of four representative Danish laborers' families, which may be taken as a fair average for the workingmen of Denmark : Items of expense. First family. Second family. Third family. Fourth family. House rent Food Clothing Fuel ana light ... Tobacco ana spirits Total expenses. Total income. . . Balance 123 30 10 70 12 10 « 70 183 GO 188 00 $42 90 134 00 13 40 13 40 6 70 $49 00 134 00 16 10 17 40 10 70 210 40 214 00 227 80 240 00 12 20 $56 30 144 70 21 40 18 80 13 40 254 60 268 00 It will be noted that nothing is entered for incidental expenses, such as sickness or accidents, while the incomes are based upon steady labor and wages. The female head of the family very rarely contributes any- thing to its support, and thus, while more free to attend to her household duties, leaves the family wholly dependent on the father's earnings. 166 LABOR IN EUROPE. WAGES IN DENMARK. I. — General trades. Wages paid per iveek of 60 hours in Copenhagen. Nature of employment. BUILDIKG TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Eoofers Plumbers Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brickmakers ." Brewers Butchers Brass- founders Cabinetmakers Cigarmakera Coopers^ Cutlers Drivers Draymen and teamsters Average wages. $7 00 4 30 5 36 4 29 6 97 3 86 3 00 6 90 4 29 7 00 5 90 *2 25 4 82 4 82 4 82 5 90 3 75 4 37 4 82 4 58 5 09 4 82 6 70 3 22 3 22 Nature of employment. Other trades — Continued. Drivers of cabs, carriages, Sec ... Street railways Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Nailmakers (hand) Potters - Printers Teachers (public schools) Saddle and harness makers Sailmakers Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths "Weavers (outside of mills) House-painters Glove-makers Joiners Shoemakers "Watchmakers Average wages. U 4 4 8 5 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 4 5 t500 4 4 5 5 1275 t322 * Including board. t Per annum. Female labor employed in agricultural, industrial, commercial, and other pursuits through- out the kingdom. Classification. Numbers. Classification. Numbers. 119 3,859 272 765 399 26 68 36 39 114 183 90 89 150 68 99 234 21, 363 Industrial— Continued. 2,710 313 Divers and others not specified COMMERCIAL. Retail stores, dealers and assistants 819 INDUSTRIAL. 2,557 941 180 83 258 94 769 33 Cloth fabrics 72 Daily employment not included in fac- 8,210 Cooks on daily hire as extra help 2,203 121, 181 LABOR IN EUROPE. 167 II. — Factories, mills, etc., in Denmark. paid per week of 60 hours in factories or mills in Copenhagen. Nature of manufactures, employment, &c. Cement Chocolate Chicory Cinder Crockery, earthenware - Dyeing Tanneries Chemical preparations . Cloth Conserve Envelope Corkware Carding (wool) Machine Mineral water Flour-mills Oil Piano Average wages of $6 42 4 16 4 08 4 02 4 50 4 02 4 02 3 75 3 22 4 02 4 69 3 75 3 75 3 75 4 02 5 63 Average wages of women. $2 14 "'2"i6 2 14 2 46 1 68 Nature of manufactures, employment, &c. Porcelain Salt-refinery Playing-cards Candle Tiling Straw hat Hosiery Stucco Sugar-refinery — Hog-slaughtering . Paper hangings . . . Terra cotta "Wadding Wagon Oil-cloth Tool Match Average wages of men. $3 70 3 22 4 02 4 02 3 48 3 86 4 29 4 29 4 32 4 62 5 30 3 75 6 70 4 29 Average wages of women. $188 3 48 2 01 2 95 2 14 III. — Foundries, machine-shops and iron-works in Denmark. Wages paid per week of 60 hxturs in foundries, machine-shops and iron-works in Copenhagen. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. Tinsmiths ... Formers Blacksmiths . Boilersmiths. $4 74 5 58 4 20 3 90 Coppersmiths. Machinists ... Metal- turners. Joiners $4 74 456 4 92 4 92 IV.— Glass-workers in Denmark. Wages paid per week of 60 hours to glass-workers m Copenhagen. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. Average wages. $4 80 $6 40 $5 50 VI. — Eailway employes in Denmark. Wages paid per year to railway employe's (those engaged about stations as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, $c.) in Copenhagen. , Description of employment. OFFICE DEPARTMENT. Chiefs of each department Chief clerks Assistant clerks (besides free honse) Apprentices Chief superintendent Civil engineers Draughtsmen and building inspectors . Line inspectors (besides free house) . . . Assistants (besides free house) ENGINE DEPARTMENT. Superintendent's engineer (besides free house and fuel) ■ Chief engineers - - --- - - - • - - Engineers (besides honse and fuel) Average $1, 081 00 670 00 348 40 187 60 1, 608 00 911 20 536 00 402 00 165 80 1, 474 00 804 00 536 00 Description of employment. Engine department— Continued. Foreman Assistants "Watchman (besides house and fuel) Locomotive driver * Firemen* general department. Chief superintendent! Superintendents Station-master Station-master at Copenhagen ■ Chief conductor* Assistant conductor * Railroad laborers Average $536 00 536 00 348 40 482 40 289 84 1, 608 00 1, 072 00 670 00 948 00 482 40 289 44 240 00 * Locomotive drivers receive, besides wages, $2.01; firemen, 46.90 cents; chief conductor, $1.40; «nd assistant conductor, 30.50 cents for every 100 Danish miles traveled, ns a premium. 168 LABOR IN EUROPE. VII. Ship-yabds and shipbuilding in Denmark. Wages paid per day of 10 hours in ship-yards— distinguishing between won and wood ship- building — in Copenhagen, Denmark. Description of employment. IKON-SHIP BUILDING YARDS. Shipsmiths per day. Workmen do — Shipsmiths per "Workmen do — WOODEN-SHIP BUILDING TABDS. Ship carpenters, work in one year: 30 weeks, 11 hours daily; 4 weeks, 10 hours daily; 4 weeks, 9 hours daily; 14 weeks, 8 hours daily; and receive wages per day for a working-day of— 11 hours .■ ..per day. 10 hours do 9 hours do . . . 8 hours do.-- Lowest wages. Highest $0 87 5 22 3 72 Average wages. $0 67 56 4 02 3 36 1 03 99 94 VIII.— Seamen's wages. Wages paid per month to seamen {officers and men) — distinguishing between ocean, coast and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in Copenhagen, Denmark. Description of employment. First mates in steamers . . Second mates in steamers First engineers Second engineers Third engineers Stewards* Cooks in steamers Carpenters Boatswains — Sailors Ordinary seamen Boys Average wages. $25 00 20 00 40 00 25 00 15 00 20 00 18 00 14 00 14 00 10 00 9 00 7 00 Description of employment. Donkeymen Storekeepers Firemen C aptain s in sailing vessels t First mates in sailing vessels Second mates in sailing vessels Carpenters ^ - r Sailmakers Cook and steward in sailing vessels Able-bodied seamen Ordinary seamen Boys Average wages. $15 00 15 00 13 00 45 00 18 00 14 00 16 00 14 00 13 00 11 00 9 00 5 00 * Stewards in steamers are generally paid $12 to $14, but are allowed to sell refreshments on which a profit is made; otherwise, $20. tFive per cent, allowance on gross freight; otherwise, $45. IX. — Shop wages. Wages paid per month of 10 hours per day, in shops, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in, Copenhagen, Denmark. Description of employment. Clerks in wholesale and retail stores Female clerks Clerks in retail grocery stores* Apprentices, per year * Average $50 00 12 to 25 10 70 14 50 * Including board. LABOR IN EUROPE. 169 X. — Household wages in towns and cities in Denmark. Wages paid per month to household servants (towns and cities) in city of Copenhagen and other towns in Denmark. Description of employment. In '-he city. Coachmen Men servants Men helpers Female cooks Housemaids Wet-nurses Nurses Average wages. $8 04 6 70 5 36 5 36 3 00 6 70 2 70 Description of employment. In the towns. Coachmen Men servants Helpers Female cooks Housemaids Wet nurses Nurses Average wages. $5 36 4 28 3 22 3 75 2 70 3 75 2 14 XI. — Agricultural wages in Denmark. paid per' half year, as the case may be, to agricultural' laborers and household (country) servants in Denmark, with board and lodging. Description of employment Steward Men servants Helpers Boys wages. $48 24 32 50 16 08 8 04 Description of employment. Females : Housekeepers Butter and cheese makers Ordinary servants Average wages. $25 73 32 50 16 08 XII.— Corporation employes in Denmakk. Wages paid per week of 60 hours to the corporation employe's in the city of mark. Copenha fen, Den- Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. Average wages. $4 00 4 00 $7 50 7 50 $5 90 "Workmen at the water- works belonging to the city of Copenhagen 5 90 The city of Copenhagen has no other laborers than the above-mentioned, hut lets out its work to con- tractors, who employ the workmen at the rates given in this report. The wages paid to all other officials employed by the corporation of Copenhagen are analogous with those of the Government departments and offices. XIII. — Government departments and offices. is paid per year to employe's in Government departments and offices (exclusive of trades- men and laborers) in Copenhagen, Denmark. Description of employment. CIVIL OFF1CEES. Chief of department* Chief of office* Head clerk t Clerks . [The salaries of the above-mentioned officials vary for the lower grades of clerks between $215 and $485 ; for the higher grades, such as chief of office, be- tween $540 and $1,290 per year. The 'established rule is that the salary is increased from $25 to $125 every five years.] Supreme court judges* Other judges in Copenhagen * Judges ana justices in other towns and cities in Denmark % . Lowest , 400 00 858 00 429 00 215 00 1, 608 00 860 00 750 00 * Increase for every five years' service, $125. t Increase for every five years' service, $55. j Increase for every five years' service, $80 to Highest wages. $1, 825 00 1, 290 00 750 00 325 00 2, 150 00 1, 290 00 1, 825 00 $125. 170 LABOR IN EUROPE. XIV. — Trades and labor in government employ. Wages paid, ly the day of 10 hours to the trades and laborers in Government employ (navy- yard*) in Copenhagen, Denmark. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. $0 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 55 $0 71 71 71 1 CO 70 71 71 58 *"Workmen at the navy-yard have permanent employment, and receive, besides the above wages, tools and cheap house rent, say $37.50 per annum; also a pension and discharge when sick and too old to work. Their appointment is for life. XY. — Printers and printing offices. Statement showing the ivages paid per week of 60 hours to printers (compositors, pressmen^ proof-readers, $c.)in Copenhagen, Denmark. Description of employment. Lowest wages. Highest wages. Average wages. MALES. $5 30 5 10 4 80 7 00 2 14 $5 40 6 70 8 00 8 00 2 40 $5 40 6 05 640 7 50 2 10 FEMALES. Girls PORTUGAL. The report from Oonsul-General Francis recites the general conditions and rates of wages. Wages in Portugal are very low compared with those in the United States, and even with those in England and Erance. The hours of labor may be stated as running from sunrise to sunset, with two hours for meals and rest. The Portuguese working classes, as a rule, are temperate, industrious and economical. Women in Portugal, as in most other European countries, do their share of active labor, working as stevedores and at other outdoor work as well as in the fields. Out of a population of 4,500,000, only 185,000 are mechanics and artisans, the great bulk of the working classes being emploved in primitive labor. The wages earned in and around Lisbon are given as follows : General trades, 60 to 80 cents per day, some running up to $1.25 in exceptional cases, and others being as low as 50 cents. Women coal-carriers at the docks earn 30 cents per day, while male coal-heavers receive 80 cents; male laborers, 30 to 40 cents per dav Agricultural laborers, per day, without board : Males, 16 to 35 cents ; females, 10 to 20 cents. ' Cotton mills, 11 hours per day: Male operatives, first class 60 cents, ordinary 32 cents per day ; women operatives, by the piece, 40 to 50 cents ; children under 14 years, 14 cents. LABOR IN EUROPE. 171 Woolen mills, 11 hours per day : First-class operatives, 66 cents, and ordinary operatives, 45 cents ; women, 27 cents; and children, 12 cents. These* wages, being for Lisbon and vicinity, are higher than the wages paid elsewhere in Portugal. As a whole, says Mr. Francis, the laboring people of Portugal are in humble circumstances, but seem content with the compensation they get. It should be borne in mind, however, that, owing to the climate of Portugal, the working classes do not require clothing, fuel, and animal food in the quantities which are necessary for similar classes in the colder and damper climates of England and Germany. The prices of the necessaries of life, as will be seen in the recapitula- tory statements for all countries, are about the same as in Germany and Belgium. In connection with Portugal, an interesting report will be found on the state of labor in the Azores, and although not of consequence as affecting general results, it is necessary to the completion of this work, and Consul Dabney, for the care taken in the preparation of his sta- tistics, is entitled to much credit. EUROPEAN TURKEY. Turkey is not usually considered in a comparison of the labor condi- tions of the great commercial and manufacturing nations, but the trades and industries of the country are of consequence in a review of the gen- eral labor conditions of Europe. For many reasons — the want of official statistics heretofore, and the consequent freshness of the subject being the principal — the report by Consul- General Heap, of Constantinople, is of much interest. The great cost of internal communication in Turkey and the lack of highways, railways and waterways have had the effect of localizing industries ; hence each community has conditions of ti'ade peculiar to itself. While wages are comparatively high in Constantinople and other large cities, they are extremely low in distant villages and rural districts. The consul-general says that the working classes are steady and industrious, especially the Mussulmans and Armenians, among whom drunkenness is almost unknown. The food of the laborers is simple and frugal, such workmen as porters, farm-hands, stevedores, gardeners, &c, being satisfied with coarse bread, dried salted fish, common cheese, curdled milk, and the cheaper vegetables and fruit. Meat is very rarely indulged in, and a cup of coffee is a luxury. With the exception of guilds for the protection of trades from over- crowding, there are no labor organizations, and strikes are very rare. The trade guilds partake in some degree of the nature of co-operative societies for mutual benefit. The nature of these-trade organizations is described by the consul- general, that of the hernials (porters) being given as an illustration. Each quarter of the city and suburbs has its own porters, all being under one head or chief, who is recognized by the Government, and vcho buys his place. The chief pays to the Government the taxes of all the members. The members can only work in their assigned quarters, and the total earnings for each day are divided pro rata. In cases of 172 LABOR IN EUROPE. sickness or disability of any kind they relieve each other. The hamals are mostly all natives of distant Asiatic provinces, and the members are assisted in visiting their homes, which they do every two or three years. The hours of labor in Turkey are from daylight to one hour be- fore sunset, with an hour for dinner. The weekly wages of the general trades in Constantinople are about the same as those which prevail in the large cities of continental Europe ; higher if anything. In Turkey, where everything is accomplished by hand, manual labor is necessarily in demand to accomplish that which is done by machinery elsewhere. Turkish women are employed in certain districts in raising silkworms and weaving carpets, but the greater number are engaged in agriculture, where they take the place of the men who are doing mili- tary service, or who are acting as porters, teamsters, &c, in the towns and cities. The difference between the Turkish and other European female farm-workers is that the former work on their own farms, never living out, while the latter do both. Turkish women are also employed as domestics, and in silk and woolen factories. Their work, however, is generally done at home. Their wages are very low, about one-half those paid to men. RUSSIA. The labor conditions of Eussia may be said to be wholly peculiar to that Empire. Prom the nature of the governmental and social systems of Eussia, as well as of the heterogeneous and segregated condition of the working classes, labor unions are unknown. It must further be borne in mind that labor in Eussia should not be gauged by the standards of other countries. Although the legal abolition of serfdom tends to^ assimilate Eussian labor to continental standards, the feudal relationship of the employed to their employers still survives to an extent which makes intelligent comparison difficult through excessive contrast. Wages throughout Eussia are much lower than those which rule in continental Europe. It is not easy to arrive at average rates for the general industries, but those paid in some of the principal industries will be found in the tabulated forms. In regard to women's wages, Consul Eawicz, of Warsaw, reports that girl assistants in artificial-flower factories earn from $1.50 to $2 per month; if boarded they must work 15 to 18 hours per day. Women flower-makers earn $3 per month of 9 working hours per day, without board, but exceedingly expert workers earn from $7 to $9 per month. In bookbinding establishments women receive from $2.50 to $3 per month. In paper-box factories girls earn $1 per week; girls engaged in printing labels $5 per month, holidays deducted. Eetouchers in pho- tographing establishments earn from $15 to $17.50 per month. In toilet-soap and perfume factories girls earn from 90 cents to $1.50 per week. Chair polishers in furniture factories ' receive 37£ cents per day. Women laboring in tanneries receive 15 cents for 10 hours' labor. Women engaged in house and shop work, living in the premises, work generally from early morning until late at night, going to bed at 12 o'clock and getting up at 6 o'clock in the morning. The report from the consul-general at St. Petersburg, Mr. Stanton, LABOE IN EUROPE. 173 covering the agencies of Cronstadt, Eevel, and Eiga, is as complete as was possible under the circumstances. In the largest rope and cordage factory in St. Petersburg, this being a leading industry in Eussia, the workers earn from 29 cents to 55 cents per day of 10 hours, with lodging and fuel in the factory. In the leading glass works the laborers earn from $57.60 to $86.40 per annum, with food and lodging in the works. This system of feeding and lodging employes in the factories prevails in Eussia.. Its object is doubtless twofold, viz, to provide steady workers, and to hold men aloof from rival industries, as well as to preserve a certain amount of secrecy about the works. It naturally involves the almost complete depend- ence of the workers upon their employers. Master-workmen in these glass factories earn from $46 to $65 per month; overseers, assorters, and clerks from $16.80 to $48 per month. The foregoing are given not only as illustrations of the rates of wages and different conditions which prevail in special industries, but they also serve to show the difficulty of arriving at anything like an average. "Wages in St. Petersburg are regulated more by individual bargaining than by any fixed trade rate. At present, writes the consul-general, the building trades are very dull, and it is easy enough to hire working- men at 24 cents per day, although in brisk times their wages may be reckoned at from 48 cents to 58 cents per day. The cost of living in Eu'ssia is as difficult to average as the rates of wages. Many of the married laborers who work in St. Petersburg have their families living in villages, while they themselves live in the city. With free lodging and fuel, a manufacturer estimated that a laborer can live in St. Petersburg on 9.6 cents per day. Cotton operatives are supposed to consume food and clothing to the following amounts per month: Men, $4.80; women, $3.84; children, $2.88. In the country these operatives have rents free in " barracks": in St. Petersburg and Moscow they pay about 48 cents per month rental. The expenses of a glass-worker's family are estimated at from $16 to $24 per month. In a steam biscuit manufactory a laborer is able to live •on 72 cents per week. Eussian employers say that the working classes are intelligent, but wasteful and not to be relied upon. The general condition of the working classes, writes Mr. Stanton, is one of poverty and want, and he gives several interviews with Eussian workmen of the better class in regard to their incomes and expendi- tures. HOW A METAL TUENEE LIVES IN ST. PETEESBITEG. Aged 45; has a wife and 2 children; earns 72 cents per day of 11 hours; his wife earns $2.40 per month sewing; total income, $254 per year, estimating on full time. Expenses: Eent, $34.56; food, $190; clothing, $24; taxes, $2.40; sundries, $3.44; total annual expenses, $254. It is not probable that the average workman can make full time throughout a year, and therefore the above estimates must be regulated accordingly. Eussian workmen, generally speaking, do not save anything, most parents being supported in old age by their children. This filial de- votion is one of the noblest characteristics of the Eussian laboring ■classes. 174 LABOR IN EUROPE. The wages paid in the general trades in St. Petersburg are of such a discrepant character that they cannot be included in the general esti- mates for all Eussia. For instance, in St. Petersburg, masons, plas- terers, &c, are paid for the summer, which appears to be all there is of the working year in that latitude, $60, with board, and hodcarriers and tenders, $19.20, with board. Plumbers receive $12 per month, with board ; bakers, $9.60 per month, with board; carpenters, $43.20 for the summer, with board ; and so on in proportion through the whole list. AVERAGE WAGES IN RUSSIA. I. — General trades. Average wages paid per week of Ti hours. Occupations. •Kiga. Warsaw. All Eussia. Bricklayers Hodcarriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Hoofers ..-• Tenders Plumbers Assistants... Carpenters Gasfitters BUILDIKG TRADES. OTHBK TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brickmakers Brewers Butchers Brass founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers Cutters Distillers Drivers Draymen and teamsters . Cab and carriage Street railway Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers JMillwrignts N n i 1 in akers (hand) Potters. Printers Teachers (public schools) ... Saddle and harness makers . . Sailmakers Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Weavers (outside of mills).. $4 32 2 45 6 72 2 88 6 72 2 CO 4 80 3 75 2 60 4 32 2 30 4 80 5 28 32 $2 50 2 50 3 60 1 80 2 25 2 00 3 60 2 70 3 00 2 25 2 37 1 50 3 60 3 13 4 00 3 00 3 50 2 25 3 50 3 50 2 00 5 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 2 70 3 50 4 00 1 80 2 50 3 00 5 00 3 00 3 50 3 60 1 50 $4 32 2 45 72 2 88 4 61 2 55 4 20 3 75 2 60 4 32 2 30 3 30 3 76 2 92 3 72 2 72 3 42 2 80 4 06 2 91 4 20 5 76 3 36 5 00 3 66 3 91 4 00 3 50 3 60 3 60 2 95 3 16 4 06 3 66 3 90 5 10 3 75 4 15 2 88 4 88 3 30 3 65 5 76 5 76 9 60 4 60 2 59 2 88 4 90 3 42 5 25 3 96 2 96 * The wages in Riga substantially represent those of St. Petersburg. LABOE IN EUROPE. 175 The following tables were compiled by the consul-general at St. Pe- tersburg: II. — Factories, mills, etc. Wages paid per month for 12 to 13 hours' daily worlc in cotton factories or mills in Rmsia. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. COTTON MILLS. Narva (working 76 hours per week) : C $7 20 I to t 7 44 9 60 5 28 7 20 6 72 3 84 5 28 5 28 5 28 5 25 5 28 cotton mills— Continned. City and country mills — Continued : $5 28 "Wages in spinning department — "Wages in weaving department City and country mills : 9 12 5 28 7 20 5 76 12 96 12 96 10 56 5 28 6 24 12 48 4 80 Wages paid in various factories. Description of employment. GLUE FACTORY. (Per month, 10 to 12 hours daily.) Common hands: Male* Female Glue-boilers* Mechanics* OverseerB* BISCUIT AND CRACKER FACTOBY. Various hands per week BRONZE FACTORY. Bronze caster per day Mounters do.. Average wages. $6 72 4 80 36 00 36 10 18 00 2 40 1 53 1 29 Description of employment. bronze* factory— Continned. Cutters per day Gilders - do. - Common laborers do.- Grinders ROPE AND CORDAGE FACTORY. (Per week of 60 hours.) Spinners hy hand Spinners by machine Layers, reelers, &c Men attending forming machine Men attending bobbing machine Eornrfer Common laborers and boys Average wageB. $1 53 1 20 48 1 08 2 86 2 02 2 56 1 95 2 14 1 80 1 58 * Including lodging, light, and fire. III. — Foundries, machine-shops and iron-works. Wages paid per week of 68 hours in iron works in Russia. Description of employment. Casters and formers Apprentices Common laborers in foundry Casting-cleaners Joiners and model-makers -- LockBmiths Locksmiths' assistants Blacksmiths Strikers Painters Chiselers and mounters Average wages. $4 62 1 44 2 28 3 16 4 17 5 10 2 61 *5 33 2 88 *4 61 5 76 Description of employment. Tinsmiths Solderer Coppersmith Grinder and polisher Bronze- workers Gilders Metal-workers Metal -turners Metal-planers Laborers Average wages. *$5 20 *6 77 *8 84 *4 17 4 61 4 03 4 90 *5 47 *5 76 2 16 * Piece workers, and consequently attain so high an average. 176 LABOR IN EUROPE. IV. — Glass-workers. Wages paid per week to glass-workers in Russia. Description of employment. Firemen Melters Melters' assistants Glass-masters Glass-masters' assistants - Boys $2 40 3 60 1 92 14 40 2 40 06 Highest -wages. $3 84 4 80 2 88 21 60 3 84 1 20 Description of employment. Assorters Packers Potters Smiths Grinders Female packers . Lowest wages. $3 36 1 92 7 20 4 32 3 84 96 Highest wages. $4 80 7 20 12 00 6 00 V.— Shop wages. Wages paid per year in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in St. Petersburg. Description of employment. Manager Bookkeeper Corresponding clerks . Office clerks Clerks Lowest wages. Highest wages. $960 00 480 00 384 00 240 00 192 00 $2, 880 00 , 1, 440 00 1, 200 00 960 00 480 00 Description of employment. First saleswoman . . . Second saleswoman . Apprentice „.. Artelshick (cashier) . Artelshick (porter) .. Lowest wages. $168 00 86 40 57 60 206 40 48 00 Highest wages. $432 00 144 00 120 00 576 00 120 00 VI. — Household wages in towns and cities. Wages paid per month to household servants {towns and cities) in St. Petersburg. Description of employment. Cooks: Male Female Butlers Man servant Maid servant Average wages. $14 40 4 ?0 24 00 19 20 4 80 Description of employment. daily Coachman Laundress Scullery maid Lady's maid Average wages. $0 38 8 40 4 45 3 36 7 20 VII. — Agricultural wages. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in Russia. Description of employment. Average ■wages . Description of employment. Average wages. Laborer : $0 50 48 24 50 Laborer— Continued : Wages, for summer, from March ]5 to October 15, with board Wages, for winter from Ootober 15 to March 15, with board $86 40 14 40 LABOR IN EUROPE. VIII. — Printers and printing offices. 177 Statement showing the wages paid per month for 10 to 12 hoars' daily work to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, 4'C-) in St. Petersburg. Description of employment. Average wages. Description of employment. Average wages. Printing office : $60 00 25 20 14 40 6 00 Publishing house:* Type-setters, furnishing themselves 12 00 7 68 * These men have free lodging, hut feed themselves at a cost per month of i RECAPITULATION. LABOR IN EUROPE AND IN THE UNITED STATES COMPARED. Having reviewed the labor conditions of the several countries by con- sulates, a tabular recapitulation is herewith presented of the results by countries, by which the rates of wages in the several nations of Europe as averaged from the returns of the consuls may be compared, not only with each other, but with the rates of wages in leading cities in the United States. It is to be regretted that national labor statistics for the United States are not available ; but as vcomparisons are made be- tween representative districts in Europe and representative districts here, these tables will enable the reader to appreciate the labor condi- tions of the Old and New Worlds at their approximate value. In the remarks accompanying the following statements British results are principally selected for comparisons, as English wages are, generally speaking, the highest in Europe, and English trade conditions have more in common with American customs and usages than those of the other countries. 92 A— lab 12 178 LABOR IN EUROPE. I. — General trades. Comparison of the average weekly wages paid in the general trades in Europe with those paid in similar trades in New York and Chicago. Occupations. BUILDING TBADES. Bricklayers $7 56 Hod-carriers 4 94 Masons 7 68 Tenders 5 07 Plasterers 7 80 Tenders 5 27 Slaters 7 10 Roofers 7 35 Tenders 4 24 Plnmbers 7 90 Assistants i 4 09 Carpenters 7 66 Gas-fitters 7 66 OTHER TBADEB. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers 'Bookbinders Brickmakers Brewers Butchers Brass- founders Cabinetmakers Confectioners Cigarmakecs Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers Draymen and teamsters . . Cab and carriage Street railways Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters 6 17 7 37 5 30 6 77 *7 00 85 5 50 7 47 7 68 84 8 07 7 50 7 00 Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights _ Nailmakers (hand) Potters Printers Teachers publio schools ... 5 Saddle and harness makers . . Sailmakers Shoemakers - Stevedores Tanners Tailors . Telegraph operators - Tinsmiths Tinsmiths . Weavers (outside of mills) . Machinists , Painters Upholsterers , 5 15 6 09 6 18 8 38 t8 52 5 80 6 10 $4 21 2 92 4 07 3 15 4 43 2 91 4 20 4 28 2 81 4 26 2 72 4 11 4 08 $5 74 3 13 5 33 3 23 6 34 3 23 5 65 5 65 3 64 10 3 61 6 20 6 07 a M $4 56 3 22 5 22 3 09 4 66 3 02 4 98 4 97 3 28 5 46 2 93 4 07 5 00 4 00 1 94 4 20 3 98 Y32 4 38 4 25 3 43 3 63 3 97 3 90 3 56 1 5 81 4 72 5 17 ; 5 32 4 43 ! 6 54 1 6 14 4 85 I 4 69 2 96 3 21 3 44 3 45 5 12 4 20 3 78 4 36 5 58 5 16 7 06 4 80 5 57 4 82 ' 4 47 I 4 83 j 7 35 7 00 I 5 11 5 50 - 4 28 5 38 I 3 29 1 5 35 I 4 25 I 4 46 I 4 31 6 02 5 66 5 03 28 5 17 5 28 5 00 3 95 3 77 3 92 4 09 6 15 6 42 6 35 3 91 4 60 8 76 4 70 7 07 6 97 5 90 5 20 7 17 :12 00 1 7 70 6 63 7 02 5 21 3 11 5 59 4 18 3 12 3 60 3 69 2 85 2 95 5 70 5 4 85 \ 3 80 3 41 5 11 3 55 2 79 4 till 4 82 4 52 24 3 93 7 07 6 74 4 84 4 78 6 64 7 00 5 70 6 04 2 90 6 72 5 02 l) 92 5 46 3 23 6 32 3 61 : 5 89 5 62 $3 55 2 08 3 73 1 92 4 01 1 82 4 00 4 20 2 80 4 11 2 41 5 10 <4 55 (4 72 3 18 3 15 4 10 6 20 5 87 3 50 3 60 4 40 '3 66 3 64 3 00 3 00 2 20 4 00 3 68 3 80 4 77 3 67 6 84 3 77 5 86 5 00 4 86 5 94 7 74 5 51 4 56 4 36 5 81 5 58 6 35 4 40 3 95 3 85 1 20 3 48 3 80 3 00 5 93 3 10 3 17 4 85 8 47 3 60 3 80 7 40 4 15 4 03 6 75 3 70 3 15 $4 80 3 60 4 80 4 00 4 00 4 00 4 00 ;4 80 4 80 3 60 4 00 3 20 6 00 3 60 4 00 4 80 4 40 4 00 4 80 Too 5 00 4 40 2 50 4 40 3 60 8 00 4 00 3 60 4 00 '•4 40 3 20 .4 80 4 80 $5 21 2 99 5 27 3 50 5 03 3 40 4 35 2 99 3 18 5 18 3 3G 4 74 5 04 5 20 4 43 4 68 4 43 3 78 4 66 4 92 5 59 5 84 3 30 4 78 4 93 4 02 6 00 6 40 4 SO 4 00 4 00 5 00 5 60 4 flO 3 60 ■ 3 84 4 91 6 35 3 84 4 65 6 35 3 61 5 51 6 30 2 G4 4 17 5 93 & $4 32 2 45 6 72 2 88 4 61 2 55 4 20 3 75 2 60 4 32 2 30 3 30 3 76 $24 00 10 50 24 00 10 50 27 00 15 00 21 00 16 50 10 50 22 50 5 70 16 50 18 00 ;?2o oft ! li 00 18 00 , 10 00 I 18 00 10 00 14 00 12 00 9 00 I 16 00 I 10 00 14 00 ! 12 00 2 92 : 12 00 4 15 2 88 4 88 3 30 3 65 5 76 5 70 5 10 2 59 4 40 3 05 2 88 4 90 3 42 6 55 2 96 2 96 18 00 13 00 13 50 10 50 11 00 9 00 12 00 14 00 12 00 15 00 18 00 10 00 13 00 13 00 11 00 12 00 11 00 12 00 7-12 12 00 12 72 11 00 10 00 18 00 12 00 18 00 •About. tWith board. t Men. § Women. LABOR IN EUROPE. 179 To reduce the foregoing statements to an equitable level of compari- son the following tabulation is given, showing the rates of wages in the principal cities of Europe as compared with those in the United States : I. — General trades. Occupations. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders Plumbers Assistants ... Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brickmakers Brewers Botchers* Brasg-founders Cabinetmakers , Confootioners Cigarmakers Coopers Cutters Distiller.? Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Cab and carriage Street railways Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners f Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &o Lithographers Millwrights Nailmakers (hand) Potters Printers Teaohers: Males Females Saddle and harness makers. Saihnakers Stevedores Tanners ^. Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Weavers (outside of mills) . $8 40 4 60 8 40 4 60 7 50 4 60 7 50 7 50 4 60 8 10 4 87 8 00 8 00 6 50 7 80 6 00 7 00 6 00 7 00 4 38 8 10 8 80 6 00 6 80 8 00 8 00 6 50 5 00 7 50 7 50 8 50 8 50 5 20 5 40 7 10 8 00 4 87 8 50 8 70 4 40 7 30 15 00 7 60 7 80 7 30 8 00 7 00 7 50 8 00 7 00 $4 40 3 12 6 00 3 12 4 40 3 12 5 00 4 40 3 05 4 82 5 79 2 70 5 50 2 45 4 63 3 20 3 20 2 90 6 95 6 00 4 65 6 50 3 47 4 65 5 21 2 95 3 00 4 63 00 6 00 7 53 4 40 4 75 4 05 6 50 3 47 5 80 3 00 4 25 5 80 7 45 I 5 00 5 80 5 00 5 50 4 50 6 50 3 47 I $4 50 3 50 5 00 3 65 4 50 3 61 4 35 4 35 3 39 4 57 3 20 5 00 4 11 3 55 4 28 3 57 5 15 4 75 4 61 3 60 4 28 3 33 3 43 4 19 4 28 3 91 2 86 3 17 2 46 3 10 3 53 4 92 3 15 3 10 4 35 3 00 4 67 3 63 4 90 3 57 3 57 4 28 3 75 2 85 5 70 3 57 3 95 5 75 4 25 2 50 $7 50 2 22 6 06 3 90 3 78 3 78 3 08 4 94 ?, 36 5 20 3 78 4 32 5 40 4 62 4 80 4 92 3 78 i > $4 50 2 60 3 40 2 60 3 65 1 72 4 00 4 20 2 80 4 50 2 50 5 50 5 18 4 75 3 50 3 35 4 20 3 40 4 20 4 32 I 4 50 4 92 4 62 6 36 3 30 3 78 4 32 4 02 3 06 3 06 3 06 4 62 5 76 5 22 3 66 4 62 3 64 5 76 3 78 3 78 6 60 2 64 3 78 6 06 4 00 4 00 4 92 6 36 3 00 4 20 3 00 4 00 2 40 4 60 4 05 4 00 4 60 4 60 4 00 3 48 5 20, 3 20 5 60 3 10 ; 20 3 60 4 80 4 00 4 00 4 00 4 00 6 00 4 60 3 80 7 40 4 50 4 40 7 50 4 20 4 80 2 80 4 80 5 HO 4 80 4 80 3 60 4 00 3 20 6 00 3 60 4 00 4 80 4 40 4 00 4 80 6 00 4 40 2 50 4 40 3 60 8 00 4 00 3 60 4 00 4 40 3 20 4 80 4 80 ■a "I 4 00 5 00 5 60 i 00 3 60 $6 95 3 47 5 79 3 47 6 95 3 47 6 94 6 94 4 34 6 95 3 47 7 50 7 50 4 84 6 00 5 00 6 18 6 00 6 00 5 00 7 50 7 90 4 85 6 00 6 95 5 79 5 79 7 63 5 40 4 82 6 00 8 75 8 50 5 79 5 21 5 79 8 80 5 00 9 00 9 80 484 J6 10> ill 58$ 11 00 10 00 7 25 6 95 5 70 6 94 6 00 8 00 6 00 3 50 a 60 H j Pi i> H $7 00 $4 20 ! 4 30 1 70 5 36 3 60 4 29 1 70 6 97 5 04 3 86 1 70 4 20 8 00 4 20 4 50 1 70 6 90 3 60 4 29 1 70 7 00 4 00 5 90 3 40 4 25 1 4 00 4 82 3 60 4 82 3 40 4 82 3 80 5 90 5 00 3 75 8 00 4 37 4 82 4 60 4 58 3 40 4 25 3 75 5 09 3 00 4 82 2 60 6 10 3 80 4 50 4 20 3 22 1 50 4 80 2 50 4 29 3 60 4 29 3 20 8 00 6 60 5 36 4 60 4 00 4 00 5 00 5 20 4 82 5 20 5 36 3 80 4 29 3 60 5 50 5 87 4 82 3 20 4 22 5 20 5 36 4 60 10 00 5 00 4 82 4 82 2 80 5 00 2 00 5 09 2 20 5 50 4 00 6 50 5 20 6 70 6 60 3 00 5 20 $4 32 2 45 6 72 2 88 6 72 2 60 4 80 3 75 2 60 4 32 2 30 4 80 5 28 3 84 3 84 2 75 3 84 3 36 5 76 4 32 4 80 5 76 3 60 6 00 4 32 4 32 5 76 3 60 3 60 2 40 4 32 4 32 4 32 4 80 7 20 4 80 4 80 2 83 5 76 4 80 4 80 5 76 5 76 9 00 4 50 2 59 2 88 4 80 3 84 5 25 4 32 4 00 * With board. I With house. From the foregoing statement it appears that bricklayers and masons in Chicago are paid very nearly three times the wages; plasterers, nearly 180 LABOfi IN EUROPE. four times ; slaters, three times; plumbers, nearly three times; car- penters, twice; blacksmiths, twice; bookbinders, more than twice; brickmakers, nearly three times; brass-founders and cabinetmakers, nearly twice; confectioners, twice; cigarmakers, nearly three times; coopers, once and a half as much; draymen, teamsters, and street rail- way drivers, nearly twice; dyers, more than twice; engravers, nearly three times; furriers, twice; horseshoers, three and one-half times; jewelers, more than one and one-half times ; laborers, porters, &c, more than twice; lithographers, three times; telegraph operators, twice and one-half; sailmakers, more than twice; printers, twice and one-half times; saddlers and harness-makers, more than one and one-half times; stevedores, more than twice and one-fourth times; tailors, twice; and tinsmiths, once and three-fourths the wages paid to similar trades and callings in London. WAGES IN 1878 AND 1884. The following statement shows the rates of wages paid to the gen- eral trades in countries of Europe in 1878, when the last general reports from our consuls in Europe were compiled, as compared with the wages paid in 1884, given in the present reports. It is to be regretted that the meagerness of the statistics of 1878 does not permit of as full com- parisons as could be desired. They are sufficient, however, to mark the general changes which have taken place in eight years. Comparisons between the Chicago rates for both years are also given. LABOR IN EUROPE. 181 00 e S w §> q s ■4 =» M ^ H c s H -^ e> I I g ass ci io co to m o ci oo o oouso IfiWOOOl'O ncUNTtHAAn OO^lOIOHO ©t-t-o^a t- 1- t- 1- 1- 1- c- t0t-«OWt>E-t-t-OQ(OrflCOI>(O 00 00 00 t> C-COC- (OOOt-C-t-t-t-COOSt-Wt-tXO in io ift ■*»0'*io mOT|lTJ<^llOr('^-tr> inininnpinniOLOio^Ln-* ^ io t- r cc £ c io com O CO ■*w oo T-t-* w* ■*-*cO"*-r» = 1 3 « % <\ £ o o $5 79 , $6 7B $6 30 $7 00 $3 00 $14 M 11 50 5 79 3 80 6 00 5 36 20 M XV. — Printers and printing offices. Statement of the wages paid per week topi-inters (compositors, pressmen, proofreaders, if*.) in Europe and in the United States. Description of employment. p o § r4 a S 8 & S ■0 i ID B a c3 8 -s a a S 6 §f o a 1*8 a So •sBS $9 73 $5 00 $8 90 $7 00 $7 20 $21 00 $25 44 24 00 21 60 9 80 9 50 8 24 5 00 6 00 5 00 2 00 5 80 $8 40 $7 24 4 80 7 60 18 00 19 20 21 12 5 80 5 80 7 52 2 03 7 24 7 24 3 86 5 50 6 40 2 40 4 80 1 60 4 20 21 00 19 20 feeders on printing presses (fe- 9 00 8 76 3 30 19 2* 12 00 4 63 2 89 2 70 11 04 Feeders on ruling machines (fe- 2 80 8 00 13 50 ,1 81 3 81 6 00 9 00 3 20 12 01 4 34 19 20 7 53 6 36 5 79 a 66 24 00 21 00 18 00 It will be seen that while the wages of compositors, proof-readers and stereotypers are alike in London, the readers and stereotypers in the United States are paid much more than the compositors. A compara- tive equality is observable in the wages of this industry throughout Europe, and it may be said that in most countries they rule higher than in the other trades. The following statement of a very intelligent and representative printer, as given by Consul Potter, is of interest. J F. G , a printer in Crefeld, is 44 years of age ; has a wife and six children; foreman in a newspaper composition roomj has been 29 years in the printing business ; wages of compositors in Grefeld, from $3.57 to $5.71 per week ; in nearly all of the places in Prussia printers are paid by the piece ; the regular rate for piece- work is 17 cents per 1,000 ens, and double that rate for rule and figure work ; 1,000 German ens are equivalent to 500 English ems. Compositors can, on an average, set up from 12,000 to 15,000 em per day of 9J hours work. Proof-readers receive per week from LABOR IN EUROPE. 187 $6.42 to $7.14. Pressmen, on hand-machines, earn from $3.57 to $4.28, and pressmen who have charge of steam presses, $7.14 per week. Foremen of composition rooms are usually paid $8.56 per week. A printer's days work throughout Prussia is 9£ hours. Compositors and pressmen with families find it very difficult to live upon their wages, unless their wives can earn something by working in some other business, such as winding and warping iu silk manufactories. This is possible in Crefeld, but in other towns it is difficult for them to find employment, and, as a result, printers with families have a very hard tussle for existence. Never knew a German printer who had a family who was able to save a penny. Unmarried printers, of course, get on very well. Compositors in Germany are not of a roving character, but generally remain in one position during their lives. Compositors are the most intelli- gent of Germany's workmen. Compositors' apprentices receive 72 cents per week for the first year; second year, 96 cents; third year, $1.20 ; and fourth year, $1.43 cents per week, and find themselves. Pressmen's apprentices receive 24 cents per week more than com- positors' apprentices. PRICES OF THE NECESSARIES OP LIFE. The next obvious basis for a comparison is the purchasing power af the wages earned in the several countries. It is frequently asserted that the cheapness of living in Europe more than equalizes the lower wages there paid. 'In the volume on labor in Europe, published by this Department in 1878, it was shown that the prices of food in the United States were actually lower than in Europe, and that the working classes in the United States could purchase more and better aliment dollar for dol- lar, than the working classes of any country in Europe. The contrary impression is probably due to the fact that the working people of Europe live more cheaply than the working people of the United States, from which it is inferred that the purchasing power of their wages is greater than the purchasing power of similar wages here. It appears from the reports hereto annexed that the American workingman consumes more and better food than the mechanic or laborer abroad, and that tha cost of this food is as small in the United States as in Europe. The following statement gives the retail prices of the principal arti- cles of food consumed by the laboring classes in seven European coun- tries, and of the same articles in New York, Chester, Pa., Newark, N. J., and Chicago. The European statistics are compiled from the consular reports, and those for the United States have been kindly supplied by the same person who furnished the rates of wages in the cities named: 188 LABOR IN EUROPE. 13 I I* m is u 2 o W S coaNOOMcc O I Hooaoo O00inN»NO .-lrHTH OtJ"* cs t-co eo (M #* U2 '51)00 00 00OCD00 ^ *-< CO iH iH rH J" Ouiooaioi * §3.9 a © © S B oo o m w © ^(NtDCOW COW Is Wio ©■«#** m m iH ■* iH r~f IM tH co^ioom ea-^tui o co 1.9 OOOOintOOKDr be® Q f W3 >>C3 TfClOOO t>C»©"<* W dw-lM-f W*« CO HrlW 30000000 2 r O r O r O'O r O r » r O ••a ; >> ^iO>»-HlA« c^T-a :' '.■a-v jooo o osooododfijS ;g u w £ » !S S - 'Sj, J « £ » Si : £ « s ffflWfflSt>fm*]W8<2&HOM M a 2 ° o t wEop LABOK IN EUROPE. 189 It should be borue in mind, in making a comparison, that the better classes of food, the beef, mutton, veal, butter and rice, are not only for the most part cheaper in the great cities of the United States than in Europe, but they are here daily necessaries for the table of the better grade of skilled workmen, rarely absent from some one meal of the day, and often present at the morning and evening meal; while the concur- rent testimony is that, even to the best- paid working classes of Europe they are, in the main, luxuries which are seldom enjoyed; so that, as far as meats of all kinds are concerned, especially fresh meats and ham, they can be passed over as of little comparative value. The lower classes of Europe usually eat dark or black bread, so that even wheat flour and wheat bread may be set aside with the meats as furnishing no sufficient basis for comparison. Besides this, several articles which are staples of food in Continental Europe, the garbanzos or chick-peas of Spain, the poleata, or coarse corn- meal with bran, of Italy, the blood puddings of Germany, and the like, are not found in the markets of the United States ; so that, outside of England, where the food supplies approximate in kind and degree to those of this country, there is but little left in common whereby to make comparisons between the food-purchasing power of wages in Europe and the United States. The working classes of Europe live mainly on black or rye bread, potatoes, cheap coffee and tea, vegetable soups; and lard and olive-oil of a low grade take the place of butter. As to quality, the contrast which has been mentioned in the case of bread and breadstuffs extends to many other items of the list. The coffee of the poorer classes, for instance, is not only of a lower class, but is largely adulterated with chicory and fortified by a so-called " cof- fee-essence." Consul Smith of Mayence reports an instance of a laborer at Mayence, earning 50 cents a day on which to maintaiu himself, a wife and five children, who buys among other things " a package of ' surro- gate coffee,' which lasts about two weeks," and which costs 2J cents. The standard noonday meal of the workingmen of Mayence is thus given by Consul Smith : Potatoes and a little meat with peas or beans cooked together in the form of a thick soup, to which a little green cab- bage or lettuce is sometimes added. This dish they eat day after day with very little change in the character of its contents or in the manner of its preparation. This is the dinner eaten at his work ; the food of the wives and children at home is said to be cheaper and less nutritious. The following statement of food products exported from the United States to the United Kingdom during the year 1883 will show how much the people there depend upon this country for the necessaries of life: Articles. Quantity. Value. Live animals : Horned cattle number- Sheep do... All other live animals Total live food-animals. Breads tuff s : Wheat hushels. Wheat flour barrels . Indian corn - hushels. Bread and hisouits ' .pounds. Barley hushels. do... All other hreadstuffs . Total hreadstuffs . . . 76, 000 83, 000 65, 267, 000 5, 717, 000 30, 011, 000 453, 000 137, 000 60, 000 $7, 602, 000 678, 000 10, 000 8, 290, 000 73, 080, 000 35, 231, 000 20, 512, 000 39, 000 114, 000 46, 000 670, 000 129, 022, 000 190 LABOR IN EUROPE. Articles. Provisions : pounds. - g 30011 !..do.... Ham8 , fl „ Fresh beef ?"■•" Beef (salted or cured) •}" Butter 9°"" Cheese ao.... Condensed milk Fish of all kinds ;--• Lard pounds.. Canned meats ;"' Fresh mutton pounds.. Oysters Pork pounds.. All other provisions .-_ Total provisions Grand total of food supplies -■■ 208,533,000 Quantity. 242, 464, 000 37, 645, 000 89, 071, 000 28, 127, 000 4, 817, 000 91, 582, 000 67, 170, 000 "2,193,066 is," 682,'666 Value. $28, 845, 000 4, 671, 000 8, 161, 000 2, 605, 000 905, 000 10, 210, 000 48, 000 2, 002, 000 7, 941, 000 3, 677, 000 182, 000 371, 000 1, 533, 000 70, 000 71,221, 000 As illustrating the dietary of the British working classes, two ex- tremes may be taken, viz, an artisan in Birmingham, who earns from $7.20 to $8.40 per week at his trade, and whose wife and children also work, the total income of the family amounting to about $583 per annum, as representing the most favorable conditions of labor in England, and a female tackmaker of St. Quintain, who may be taken as a represent- ative of the minimum conditions of the English working classes. The bill of fare of the first family is given as follows : Breakfast — bread, butter, and tea, or bread and bacon ; dinner — fish or meat, vege- tables, and beer ; tea — bread and butter ; supper — bread and cheese and beer. In the second instance, at St. Quintain, the female tackmaker earns $1.16 per week of four days, this being counted full time at present in this trade. Her husband is a gardener, earning $4 per week; her brother and her brother's wife both work at nailmaking, and earn about $3.35 per week, or $172 per annum; after paying rent and fuel for the forge, they have $2.43 left for food and fuel ; their food consists of bread and butter, with a bit of bacon at times, and they hardly ever eat fresh meat. It should not be forgotten that the manipulation of the food supplies, after they reach England, is conducted on the most economic plan, under the beneficent control of the great co-operative societies. Everything is done that can be done to bring the producer and consumer as directly and closely together as possible, and the competition for custom which prevails keeps the handling-cost at the lowest possible minimum, so that the prices of the co-operative stores of England approximate to wholesale prices elsewhere. Thus, for instance, bread made out of American flour can be bought cheaper in London than in Chicago. In London bread is quoted at from 2£ cents to 4 cents per pound, while in Chicago it is quoted at from 5 cents to 7 cents per pound. In explanation of this apparent anomaly several circumstances are to be considered. In the first place, the average British bread is not white and light like American bread ; it is more solid and darker in color, and while probably more nutritious, it is less palatable and of intrinsically cheaper quality. The finer prod- ucts, the so-called French and Vienna breads, are more costly in Lon- don. Again, owing to the want of the home facilities which enable American housekeepers to do their own baking, all classes go to the baker for their bread. The question of higher-paid labor here should LABOR IN EUROPE. 191 also be remembered. It wili be noted, also, that London bread is ap- parently sold at less prices than the flour out of which it is made, for while the flour costs from 3£ cents to 5 cents per pound, bread is quoted at from 1\ cents to 4 cents per pound, which would seem to imply that the increase in weight from flour to bread makes the larger share of the profits. PRICE OF CLOTHING IN EUROPE. In general, clothing can be purchased cheaper in Europe than in the United States, especially clothing of the higher grades. As to relative quantity and quality of clothing, the bases for an iden- tical comparison do not exist. The same influence which prompts the higher-paid workingman iu the United States to purchase better and more varied food than his European comrade, extends also to his cloth- ing, for he buys more and better garments. Consul Schoenle, of Barmen, gives a schedule of the outlay of a Bar- men workingman's family of seven persons, the parents and five chil- dren, the cost of clothing for the family being set down at $17 per an- num, exclusive of shoes; and this may be taken as a fair average of the clothing expenses of workingmen's families throughout Germany. In a statement showing the weekly expenditures of two working- men's families in Tunstall, Consul Lane gives the estimate for cloth- ing, including shoes, of the first as 37 cents out of a total expenditure of $4.62, and as 48 cents for the second in a total expenditure of $6. This would give an annual expenditure for clothing for the first family — husband, wife, and four children— of $19.24, and for the second family- husband, wife, and three children — of $24.96, or about the same pro- portion as the expenses for the Mayence laborer's family. Consul Shaw, of Manchester, in his report draws particular attention to this question of the cost of workingmen's clothing in England and in the United States. He says : I believe that clothing similar to that which English operatives wear can be purchased in the United States at about the same prices. There is a great deal of misleading sentiment about this fact, for the reason that the cost of clothing worn by American work people is known to be more than that paid by operatives here, but sufficient importance is not given to the superior quality and make-up of the former. Give the same styles, make, and quality, and we can equal the English in cheapness, if not undersell them. Surprising as this will appear, a visit to a great ready-made cloth- ing house in New York will abundantly verify the statement here made. HOUSE RENTS IN EUROPE AND IN THE UNITED STATES., House rent in Europe is apparently lower than here, but the habi- tations are usually inferior to those in the United States. In Dundee, one of the most thriving industrial centers in Europe, 23,670 persons live in 8,620 houses of one room each; 74,374 persons live in 16,187 houses of two rooms each. Of workingmen's homes in Manchester Consul Shaw writes : Great numbers of houses visited by me contained only one lir- ing-room, and this served as parlor, kitchen, dining-room, sitting- room, and, in some instances, also as a bed-room. 192 LABOR IN EUROPE. The representative workman of Glasgow, writes Consul Harte, lives in a house of two rooms, known in Glasgow and all over Scotland as " room and kitchen." These houses are built together in certain locali- ties near public works or factories, and go by the name of tenements. One tenement, built to a height of four stories, generally contains as many as sixteen "dwellings," as these combined apartments are called. The lower order of workmen live in houses of one room, built in tene- ments similar to the foregoing. . The question of artisans' dwellings in Great Britain has ot late years attracted a verv large share of public and legislative attention, and in no country in the world has the general movement in the direction of their amelioration been more earnest and more successful. On the continent, where the conditions of life are not only widely different from those of England, but exhibit wide contrasts in the several countries and even in the several local districts of the same country, opportunities for identical comparison with analogous condi- tions in the United States are rarer, and tables of relative rentals do not afford trustworthy means of estimating general results. There, as here, the question is one of locality, and the amount of physical com- fort obtainable by the individual is measured as much by the ability to purchase and the extent of the demand as by the nature of the ac- commodation offered, while both are influenced and controlled by cli- matic influences and by national habits and traditions. RELATIVE COST OP MANUFACTURE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. There are certain natural and artificial conditions which so largely affect the direct conditions of wages as to be entitled to consideration in any analytical examination of the great questions of labor ; but from their abstruseness they are less evident to the general mind and more debatable than the simple relations shown in the reports of the consuls and summarized in this letter. It would be a legitimate field of inquiry to ascertain what are the conditions which enable England to manu- facture machinery and other products at less prices than similar goods can be manufactured in France, and at prices equal to those in Germany, while the rates of wages paid to the workmen engaged in those manu- factories in England are on the whole higher than those paid for similar labor in Prance and, as the foregoing table shows, more than double those paid In Germany. A very interesting contribution from Consul Williams, of Eouen, in answer to the labor circular of the Department, which will be printed in the collected reports of the consuls, deals with this question so far as regards the relative cost of production of a complex piece of machin- ery, such as a locomotive, in the great machine shops of England, France, and Germany. Mr. Williams's report is valuable as almost the only at- tempt on the part of the consuls to treat this essential phase of the question. SOCIAL AND MORAL CONDITIONS. The social and moral conditions of independent peoples are legitimate subjects of investigation by another government when they directly af- fect its national policy, but only as they may throw light on the precise point under discussion. In collecting information for a comparison of the wages and state of labor at home and abroad, while the consuls were expected to furnish only such details as might tend to establish the connections between individual habits and labor, if any existed, a review LABOR IN EUROPE. 103 of many of their reports leads to the conclusion that so far as moral con- ditions affect production and wages or are affected by them, the rela- tions, if any, are indirect, obscure, and often contradictory. Improvi- dence, intemperance, and immorality may often be found prevalent in communities side by side with successful conditions of labor. From ele- ments like these, not reducible to statistics, no effective general conclu- sions can be drawn. The physical and psychical traits of communities are most often due to natural causes, climate, race, tradition, and to vir- tuous and religious advantages and training. This subject, however, belongs rather to the domains of higher political economy and to the phi- losophy of morals than to the practical questions of labor, and of the purchasing power of labor, to which this present examination is mainly confined. CONCLUSION. This review of the consular reports has, of course, omitted much in- teresting and valuable information furnished by the different officers, and has been necessarily confined to the simpler conditions of labor ■which admitted of comparison with those here existing. The facts have been presented as they were reported, without regard to any political or economical argument which may be drawn from them. I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, FEED'K T. FKELLNGHUYSEN. 92 A— LAB 13 CONTINENT OF EUROPE. GEEMAFT. REPORT BT CONSUL-GENERAL BREWER, OF BERLIN. In accordance with directions contained in Circular Letter of February 15, 1884, T beg leave to submit the following observations with accompa- nying statistical information, touching the question of labor and the cost of living in Germany, more especially in the city of Berlin. There seems to have been no report made from this consulate general in 1878 touch- ing these questions, and I am unable to find any statistical information here upon the subject matter previous to the year 1881. I am therefore unable to make the comparison suggested, showing the difference be- tween the price of labor in 1878 and the present time. The great de- pression in trade and business in the United States, which was so felt from 1873 to 1878, extended over Germany as it did over nearly all the other European countries, but in the latter year this state of depression here had somewhat passed away, and business began to assume its nor- mal condition. At this time the Government began to hold out hopes that measures would be enacted for the relief of the laboring classes, while it at the same time enacted very stringent laws looking to the preservation of the public peace and the repression of certain organiza- tions and societies possessing socialistic tendencies. This hope of relief, together with the penal laws thus enacted, had the tendency to break up many such organizations, and drive theipdolent and riotous classes from the larger cities. PROTECTIVE TAKIFF. In the year 1879, in accordance with such previous suggestions, the Government enacted a tariff law, having in view, no doubt, a twofold object: first, the raising of revenue, and, second, the protection of the agricultural and other industries in the Empire from the competition which they met with by the importation of the productions of other countries. By this law a heavy import duty was placed on many arti- cles ; still but little regard seems to have been paid to the fact as to whether such imported articles came into competition with home produc- tions or not, for *a very heavy duty was placed on tea and coffee, as well as upon many other articles which cannot be produced in Germany. There is the usual difference of opinion among the German people as to the general effect of this measure upon the price of labor, tlie cost of living, and the general industries of the Empire, the friends of protection claim- ing the measure was wise and that the effect thereof has beenspenefi- cial, while its opponents insist to the contrary. Whatever may be the fact my observation has led me to the conclusion that protection is the settled policy of Germany for many years to come. The customs duties collected under this law during the fiscal year ending March 31, 1883, amounted to $44,378,944. ' 195 ]Q6 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. PROTECTION OF EMPLOYES IN GERMANY. Ill the year 1878 measures were taken looking towards the inspection of mines, factories, &c., in the interest of the people therein employed, and in January, 1881, a more stringent law was enacted making it tne duty of inspectors to be appointed to inspect factories, shops, mines, and* other places where laborers are employed, and making it obligatory upon such inspectors to see that such places shall be properly ventilated, and that themachinery and appliances in such shops, mines, &c, shall be properly adjusted so that the workmen shall not be endangered. It is also provided by law that young persons shall not be allowed to be put to work earlier than 5.30 a. m. or allowed to work later than 8.30 p. in. Children under twelve years of age shall not be employed, and those under fourteen shall not be allowed to work to exceed six hours per day, and those between fourteen and sixteen years of age shall not 'be allowed to work longer than ten hours a day, and women shall not be employed within three weeks immediately after child birth. These pro- visions are applicable in the principal factories and to the principal trades, and the enforcement of the law rests with the public inspectors above mentioned. By a law enacted in 1883 it is made compulsory upon principal em- ployers, in connection with their workmen, in each community to organ- ize and maintain a bank, or funds for the relief of those employed in case of.sickness or other disability, which shall prevent them from labor- ing. One-third of such fund is contributed by the employer, and two- thirds by the employes, the latter contributing according to the amount of wages received, and receiving relief accordingly. Space will not per- mit me to give at length these several measures for the protection and relief of workmen. The Government here is entitled to much commen- dation for the interest which it takes in protecting the person and rights of the laboring classes. POPULATION, AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE SAME. By the census returns for'Germany for the year 1882 the population of the Empire was shown to be 45,213,901, of which 22,146,783 were males, and 23,067,118 were females. Thirteen million three hundred and seventy -two thousand five hundred and nine males and 4,258,405 females were engaged in professions or trades, including masters, employes, as- sistants, apprentices, &c. ; besides, there were 36,529 males and 1,153,580 females classed as servants, being such persons as are usually employed in and about the house. Female persons employed in some of the principal industries and trades in Germany, house- kold servants and officials not included. Occupations. Independent. ^isUnta. Preparation of spinning staffs ■ Spinning, &.C. : At Eome^ In factories Weaving : At Home In factories Knitting : At borne • In factories Bleccbing dyeing, &c Trimming makers 174 9, ".75 318 6,668 354 7,929 1S5 783 421 3,592 61,682 21, 919 84, 212 3,501 7,088 15, 635 6,850 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 197 Female persons employed in some of the 1 principal industries and trades, $-c. — Continued. Occupation. Paper-goods workers .' Cartoon makers Tobacco workers Seamstresses Tailors Ladies' dressmakers Milliners Cravat, &c, makers Shoemakers Laundresses. &c Printers, lithographers, &c Merchants Hotel inn keepers Domestic servants Persons doing work of a changing nature . Persons in hospitals, mid-wives, &c TOTALS. Farming, horticulture Forestry, hunting, fishing Mining, foundries, industry, building Trade and commerce Work of a changing character for wages and domestic services . Professions and officers of state, church, &c Independent. 377 527 599 206, 758 45, 241 5,170 14, 713 1,331 2,720 81, 373 341 93, 301 29, 900 23, 521 276, 831 352 421, 4(12 150, 557 115, 262 Assistants, laborers. 17, 135 7,461 35, 623 53, 460 22, 358 18, 133 16, 797 5,302 4,937 16, 238 5, 557 52, 637 77, 820 116, 475 07, 260 4,993 2, 136, 000 2,931 545, 246 144, 252 183, 735 Total of female persons actively engaged in all professions, trades, &o 4, 258, 405 Servants 1,153,058 Members of family 16,249,398 Total 21,660,861 Females without occupation or unknown occupation 1,406, 257 Grand total of females in Germany 23, 067. 118 Against males 22, 146,783 Total population of the German Empire T 45,213, 991 MORAL EFFECTS OF FEMALE LABOR IN GERMANY. / Females under the German laws are permitted to carry on business in their own name, but young persons and females may be prevented from entering upon any employment which shall be dangerous to health or morals, and women in no event are to be employed in mining under ground. But little attention can be paid by very many of the laboring women of the poorer classes to their household affairs, for their labor is mostly performed in the shop, the factory, or the field, and away from their home. Their children, of course, must be much neglected, and their moral education and training dispensed with. The number of ille- gitimate children born in G-ermany is very large, reaching in some prov- inces as high as 20 and 25 per cent, of all the births. The mothers of these natural-born children are mostly found among the laboring classes mentioned. FEMALE ■WAGES. The average price paid per year for common house servants (females) in Berlin is from $27 to $40, while cooks in large families get from $60 to $75 per year. House servants of all kinds expect, and usually get, a liberal Christmas present from their employer. The size of this pres- ent depends upon the ability of the employer to pay. The "trink geld," or present, is an important matter in Germany, and too many people ex- pect the same to make it pleasant for the traveler or the employer. As I have said, every house servant, male or female, expects a Christmas 198 LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. present, so every person who assists you at the restaurant or at the 1 tel expects his "trink geld," while the droschke drivers, the streets conductors, and the schaffner or conductor on the railroads are mu more accommodating to those who place a few pfennigs in their han for their own benefit. CREDIT AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS IN GERMANY. In the year 1882 there were reported to have been 1,875 "credit a loan associations" in Germany. These associations are incorporate and formed by such artisans, workmen, and small dealers or tradesm as are able to contribute to their support. The object of their format! is to create a safe place for the deposit of the savings of its membei and such members also acquire a certain amount of credit at such ass ciation, so that they can borrow therefrom should they at any time c sire to do so. Whatever profit may accrue to the association is dividi among the members, the division beingbased upon the amount deposit; by the respective members. These associations might properly be called mutual savings banks. Whether the classes who belong these associations derive much benefit from becoming members there I am unable to say, but from the fact that so many of the associatio exist it'may be safe to conclude that they are beneficial. In 1882 there were 954 "unions" iD the several trades (not labor trade unions) ; also 621 " co-operative stores and supply unions," and ; unions for building purposes. The number of people belonging to i these associations and unions are given as 1,100,000 to 1,200,000. seems to be well understood that associations for trade — co-operati' stores have not been successful, and I think there are less now in G« many than there were three years ago. TRADE SOCIETIES. There are many sd-called "labor associations " in the large cities and i dustrial centers of Germany, quite similar to such as are found in tl United States. They are permitted under the laws, but with some lim tatiou in their scope of action. They must remain local, and they ai not permitted to extend their organization or jurisdiction over the En pire. They are forbidden to discuss political or governmental questioi at their meetings. The feeling between the employer and the employe* I think, has been quite satisfactory during the last few years until quil recently. STRIKES. During the last two months there have been several strikes- one « the " Berlin Velvet Factory," where about nine hundred women and gir are employed, and nearly as many men. About twelve hundred men engaged in sewing-machine factories hei were recently on a strike, and also several thousand joiners. I think i each case the workmen demanded an increase of wages, and some i them also a decrease in the hours of labor, which was refused bv tl employers. •>■ J The strike at the Berlin Velvet Factory was of brief duration, and tl workmen mostly returned to their work without accomplishing their ol ject, although the manager allowed some few of them a small increase i their wages. The strikers at the sewing-machine factories were con pelled to yield and return to their work at the old rates, while the stril LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 199 ing joiners were generally allowed a small increase of wages and have now returned to their labor. These striking workmen, especially the joiners, received money assistance to aid them in their contest from other similar associations in Berlin and other cities. The governing power here is much more strict than in the United States, and Berlin, with its excellent and large police force, supplemented with forty thousand sol- diers in and about the city, is at all times able to preserve order, and other workmen who seek to take the places of those out upon a strike are generally protected from harm from those whose places they seek to fill. No provision is made for the settlement of disagreements between employer and employed by means of arbitration. FOOD PURCHASES. Workmen, at least in this portion of Germany, purchase the neces- saries of life where they see fit, the employer not attempting to control that matter, and for their labor they are paid in gold, silver, and paper money, usually on each Saturday. HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASS. The habits of the working people may generally be considered good. They are usually found at work whenever they can find employment, whether wages be great or small. But very few of them are able to earn any moie than a scanty living for themselves and their families, however much economy they may exercise, and if they have families each member thereof of sufficient age must assist in doing something for their own support. The excessive amount of beer consumed by the workingmen and their families may, and undoubtedly does, tend to stupify and make them sluggish, yet it is very seldom you see one exhibit- ing symptoms of intoxication. These workmen are usually able-bodied, apparently enjoying good health. Whenever the weather is suitable and time will permit, the men, women, and children are accustomed to spending much of their time out of doors, in beer gardens, &c, sipping their beer, listening to music, and visiting. For this "purpose places are supplied on a basis suitable for the pockets of all, rich and poor, and the quality of the beer is graded accordingly. The German workmen dress comfortably well, but employers, generally speaking, give but little at- tention to the morals, well being, and happiness of their workmen. The workmen are expected to care for themselves. There are a few large establishments, like those of Krupp, at Essen, where the work*^ meu are supplied with comfortable houses at a small rental value, to- gether with church and school accommodations, but such are exceptional cases. POLITICAL, RIGHTS. All male citizens of twenty five years of age, and upwards, not includ- ing paupers, &c, are qualified to vote for members of the German Reich- stag, but under the laws of the kingdom of Prussia the right of voting and power exercised by the voter is based somewhat upon the amount of taxes paid by him. For the purpose of electing city councilmen in Berlin the voters are divided into three classes, according to the amount of taxes which they pay, communal, district, provincial, and state taxes. The first class is composed of those highest tax-payers, who pay an aggregate of one- third of the entire amount of taxes paid by the entire body of voters. 200 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. The second-class of those highest tax-payers paying the aggregate second third, and the third-class includes all the other voters not in- cluded in the two former classes. Under the laws of Prussia every male citizen twenty-four years of age and upwards, except paupers, &c, who payat least6mark&f class tax, can vote for municipal officers m Berlin or ior members of the Prussian Parliament, upon the basis above given. Each of the three classes into which the voters are divided exercise the same, or an equal power in the selection of such officers, although there hi ay be many less voters in the first and second classes than in the third class- As a general rule only a small percentage of the voters belonging to the third class take any interest in election matters or attend the poll- ing places. ARMY SERVICE AND FEMALE FIELD -WORK. A large portion of Germany, especially of Prussia, has a light soil,, and is only made to produce reasonably sized crops by being carefully tilled. Every young man able to bear arms must serve in the army from one to three years. Those who are well advanced in their studies and can clothe themselves while in the service usually serve only one year, while those who have been less fortunate in educational and financial acquire- ments serve three years. This is the case with nearly all the sons of the poorer people. Their places upon the farm, and often in the shop, are filled by their mothers and sisters. Many young men seeking to avoid this service find a home in America. This military system, to- gether with the small wages paid for labor, and the inability of the laborer to see any way to better his condition or that of his family of children growing up around him, is undoubtedly what tends to cause 200,000 and upward of German subjects to leave their fatherland annu- ally and seek a home in the United States. Undoubtedly a very large proportion of the emigrants from Germany to America comes from the classes I have mentioned, while the small tradesmen, artisans, and a few educated and professional men go to make up the large number stated. The Germans seem to be a very prolific people, for notwithstanding the large numbers which leave the empire annually the population is con- tinually on the increase. TAXATION IN GERMANY. The question of taxation is important in considering the price of labor and cost of living and, therefore, I take the liberty of here quoting a large portion of the very full and interesting report upon that subject lately presented to the Department by Mr. Smith, late consul at Mann- heim. This refers to the system of taxation in Prussia. In Prussia the tax called " Klassen-Steuer," or classed tax, is levied on every person whose income does not exceed 3,000 marks. Except — (a.) All persons whose income is less than 420 marks. (5.) All persons who are not sixteen years of age, and whose annual income does not exceed 660 marks. (c.) Members of the army. (d.) Foreigners during their first year of residence, except those who carry on a trade, •do business, or practice their professions. (e.) Owners of the iron cross and other military distinction. (/.) Those who took part in the wars of 1806 antf 1815. (g.) Minors yet under the control of their parents and supported by them. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 201 In Prussia the amount of this tax is about 42,000,000 marks; It is divided into twelve classes and paid annually, according to the annual income, as follows : ANNUAL TAX. Classes. Income. Tax. 1 Marks. 420 to 660 660 to 900 900 to 1, 050 1, 050 to 1, 200 1, 200 to 1, 350 1,360 to 1,500 1, 500 to 1, 650 1, 650 to 1, 800 1, 800 to 2, 100 2, 100 to 2,400 2, 400 to 2, 700 2, 700 to 3, 000 Marks. 2 6 3 4 5 ■* 18 6 7 8 36 42 48 60 9 10 11 12 [Note 1. — Since the preparation of Consul Smith's report provision has been made so that no class tax for State purposes is collected on incomes of less than 900 marks, but in Berlin the class tax for municipal purposes is paid on incomes precisely as given in this table. — Brbwek.] Taxes are levied according to households. Members of the household who are paid for their services, or who pay for their board, are also subject to payment of this tax. » » * Tax on annual incomes exceeding 3,000 marks is levied on all persons receiving an income greater than that sum, and foreigners who carry on trade, manufacture, and who do business, excepting the members of the royal house of the princely families of Hohenzollern, of the royal family of Hanover, of the family of the Prince-Elector of Kurhessen, of the family of the Duke of Nassau. Exempt from this tax are : (1) The military : Salary and perquisites of the members of the army. (2) That part of the income which originates in estates in a foreign country, if it can be shown that the tax is already paid in the foreign country. It is levied as follows : Classes. Income. Annual tax. Classes. Income 1 . Annual tax. 1 . Marks. 3, 000 to 3, 600 3, 600 to 4, 200 4, 200 to 4, 800 4, 800 to 5, 400 5, 400 to 6, 000 6, 000 to 7, 200 7, 200 to 8, 400 8, 400 to 9, 600 9, 600 to 10, 800 10, 800 to. 12, 000 12, 000 to 14, 400 14, 400 to 16, 800 16,800 to 19,200 19, 200 to 21, 600 21, 600 to 25, 200 25, 200 to 28, 800 2ft 800 to 32, 400 Marks. 90 108 126 144 162 180 216 252 288 324 360- 432 504 576 648 756 864 18 .'. Marks. 32, 400 to 36, 000 36, 000 to 42, 000 42, 000 to 48, 000 48, 000 to 64, 000 54, 000 to 60, 000 60, 000 to 72, 000 72, 000 to 84, 000 84, 000 to 96, 000 96, 000 to 108, 000 108, 000 to 120, 000 120, 000 to 144, 000 144, 000 to 168, 000 168, 000 to 204, 000 204, 000 to 240, 000 240, 000 to 300, 000 300, 000 to 360, 000 Marks. 2 . 19 1,080 3 20 4 21 1,440 5 22.. 6 23 ; 7 24 2, 160. 8 25 9 26 2,880 3,240 3,600 4,320 5,040 6,120 7, 210 9,000 10 27 11 28 29 , 12 13 30 14 31 16 32 16... 33 17 .. And so on, always rising 60,000 marks, and the tax 1,800 marks each. The income tax is levied on the income derived from: (1) Real estate ; (2) capital ; (3) trade, business, or from any paying profession. * # * * * * * Gewerbe-Steuer (trade-tax) is levied on : (1) Commerce; (2) hotels, restaurants, and innkeepers; (3) manufactures and trades employing a number of persons; (4) mill industry ; (5) navigation, freight establishments, livery-stables, &c. ; (6) peddlers. These are divided into three classes : A I, A II, and B. 1. A I includes large manufacfuring and commercial establishments of commission, and shipping. (Agents of insurance companies are free from this tax.) Banking, exchange, insurance companies, shipping establishments, and all establishments based 202 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. on commercial or money transactions, circulating libraries, mill, baking, bntohering, brewing establishments, and all others where the capital employed is large and the business is important. . 2. A II includes smaller establishments of the same kind as A I. 3. B includes business establishments of the least important class, including dealers in fruit, vegetables, &c, unless their business is quite important. Foreign insurance companies possessing an establishment and officers with general agent in Prussia are subject to taxation. Exempt from this tax are : (1) Die Konigliche Seehandlung and all industrial establishments belonging to the State ; (2) foreigners during their visits at fairs, &c. ; (3) foreign purchasers of do- mestic productions ; (4) agents of insurance companies; (5) authors who sell only their own publications ; (6) persons who do literary work for others; (7) dentists: (8) barbers; (9) persons who have rented bridge tolls ; (10) distillers of brandy ; (11) persons who are engaged in making discoveries of amber on their own estate ; (12) Farmers who sell self-baked broad on market days. Class IV includes small tradesmen who employ more than one assistant and an ap- prentice, and the mill industry. Only men who have technical ability are considered assistants. Mere physical strength is not accepted under the title of "tradesman.' 7 B includes freight and livery establishments and navigation. In order to ascertain the amount of taxes, four departments have been created within the Prussian Government, according to its wealth and industry, yet for the , taxes under A I only two departments exist. First, the Government districts, Aix- la-Chapelle, Arnsbe'rg, Breslau, Cologne, Danzig, Dfisseldorf, Konigsberg, Liegnitz, Magdeburg, Merseberg, Potsdam, Stettin, and the city of Berlin. The other Government districts belong to the second department. The first depart- ment includes some of the largest cities; the second includes cities of medium size; the third, all other cities of about 1,500 inhabitants and more, and one-fourth of the flat countries and all towns not belonging to one of the three previous departments. In order to estimate the amount of tax to be levied it is customary to suppose a medium tax ; thus, if there are 80 tax-payers in one class, and the medium is found to be 30 marks, the amount of the tax will be 2,400 marks. In case the tax-payer is not able to pay the medium tax, a lower rate is granted him and the sum is added to the taxes of other rate-payers. Medium taxes are levied on — (a) Commercial pursuits; (/<) hotels, restaurants, and innkeepers; (c) tradesmen. The rates are levied — . I. — Commerce. Class A 1. (a) Medium rate. — (1) First department, 288 marks annually, or 24 marks monthly; (2) second department, 216 marks annually, or 18 marks monthly. (6) Lowest rate. — The lowest rate in both departments 144 marks annually, or 12 marks monthly. By a special royal decree the medium tax can be reduced to 144 marks, and the lowest tax to 72 marks. Class A II. (a) Medium rate. — (1) First department, 72 marks annually, or 6 marks monthly:. (2) second department, 48 marks annually, or 4 marks monthly ; (3) third and fourth departments, 30 marks annually, or 2.50 marks monthly. (6) Loioest rate. — (1) First department, 36 marks annually, or 3 marks monthly ; (2) second department, 24 marks annually, or 2 marks monthly ; (3) third and fourth de- partments, 18 marks annually, or 1.50 marks monthly. The rates rise from 18 to 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 72, 84, 90, 96, 108, 126, 144, 156, 168. 180, and upwards (each time for the amount of 36 marks), according to the importance of the transactions. Class B. (o) Medium rote.— (1) First department, 24 marks annually, or 2 marks monthly; (2) second department, 18 marks annually, or 1.50 marks monthly ; (3) third depart- ment, 12 marks annually, or 1 mark monthly ; (4) fourth department, 6 marks an- nually, or .50 mark monthly. (6) Lowest rate. — (1) In the three departments, 6 marks annually, or 50 pfennigs monthly; (2) in the fourth department, 3 marks* annually, or 25 pfennigs monthly. The rates rise, according to the importance of the transactions, up to 6, 12, 15 18, 21. 24, 36, 54, 72, 90, 108, 144 marks, and upwards, eaoh time for 36 marks. ' LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 203 II. — Hotels, restaurants, and inn-keepers. CLASS C. (a) Medium rate. — (1) First department, 54 marks annually, or 4.50 marks monthly; (2) second department, 36 marks annually, or 3 marks monthly ; (3) third department, 24 marks annually, or 2 marks monthly ; (4) fourth department, 12 marks annually, or 1 mark monthly. (6) Lowest rate. — (1) First and second departments, 12 marks annually, or 1 mark monthly ; (2) third and fourth departments, 6 marks annually, or 50 pfennigs monthly. The rates above 6 marks rise in the same way as in Class B. III.— Trade. Class II. (a) Medium rate. — (1) First department, 24 marks annually, or 2 marks monthly ; (2) second department, 18 marks annually, or 1.50 marks monthly; (3) third and fourth departments, 12 marks annually, or 1 mark monthly. (6) Lowest rate. — (1) First department, 12 marks annnally, or 1 mark monthly ; (2) in the three other departments, 6 marks annually, or 50 pfennigs monthly. The rates rise in the same way as in Class B*. In certain cases exemption from the tax is granted, especially to poor trades people. IV. — Navigation, freight, and livery business. Navigation. — Ships of the following measure (1 last = 32.9769 hectoliters) pay : 3 to 6 lasten, 2 marks ; 7 to 12 lasten, 4 marks : 13 to 18 lasten, 6 marks : 19 to 24 lasten, 8 marks. Steamboats on rivers, &c, are taxed according to their machinery, 75 pfen- nigs each horse-power annually. Navigation on the coasts, oceans, &c, is taxed as commerce (A I). Freight and livery-stables. — People engaged in the freight and livery-stable business, who keep two horses and more, pay 3 murks annually for each horse. Miscellaneous. — Peddlers pay an annual tax of 48 marks. The secretary of the treas- ury has the right to commute this tax to 36, 24, 18, and 6 marks in particular cases; for instance, when the peddler is deformed. He has also the power to raise the tax to 72, 96, and 144 marks for circus companies, actors, &c. In order to control this system of taxation, each municipality has to present a list with the names and professions of the inhabitants, indicating such cases aB are subject to the tax. Those inhabitants who are subject to taxes in Classes A I, A II, and C, must be present during the allotment of the rate of tax. GRUND8TET/R — TAXE8 ON LANDED PROPERTY, REAL ESTATE, ETC. According to the law of May 21, 1861, the " Grundsteuer" is divided as followB: (1) Tax on houses and court-yards, gardens, &c, belonging to them ; this tax is gen- erally called " Gebiinde-Steuer " (house-tax). (2) The "Grundste.ier" proper, t. «., the tax on landed estates, farms, &c. Exempt from the " Grundsteuer " are : (1) property of the state; (2) property of those princes and counts who formerly were independent of the Empire (law of 1820) ; (3) property belonging to and being in general use by the provinces, districts, munici- palities, &c. ; (4) bridges, high roads, canals, and railways ; (5) property which at the time of the issue of this law was already in possession of the Protestant or the Roman Catholic Church, and property rents of which are used for schools, charity es- tablishments, &c. ; (6) real estate in possession of the Empire. GEB.'vUDE-STEUER (HOUSE-TAX.) AH houses with yards and gardens not exceeding the extension of 25 are (53 square meters) are subject to this tax. More extensive ones are subject to the '■ Grundsteur." Exempt from it are : (1) Edifices belonging to the royal family and to all princes and counts formerly independent of the Empire ; (2) edifices belonging to the state, prov- inces, &c, used for public purposes; (3) university and school buildings; (4) churches, chapels, &c. : (5) the habitations of the clergy ; (6) hospitals, orphan houses, &c. ; (7) such buildings as are necessary to farming purposes ; (8). water buildings. 204 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. The annual amount of the tax is for : (1) Houses designed for habitation, shops,, ateliers, theaters, &c., 4 per cent, of the estimated annual value ; (2) factories and al! buildings designed for the carrying on trade, breweries, distilleries, forges, mills, build- ings designed for purposes of agriculture, stables, &c, 2 per cent, of the estimated an- nual value. The amount of the tax is assessed by a committee whose members are- elected by the board of aldermen, and whose deliberations are presided over by a. special commissioner of the Government. The system of taxation is subject to a re- vision every fifteenth year. KOMMUNAL (MUNICIPAL TAXES.) The respective dispositions are contained in the municipal and town ordinances. The income from that part of the property being outside of the town limits cannot be- taken into account. The consent of the Government is necessary for— (o) All addi- tions to the income tax (see note 1) ; (Z>) all additions to the other direct taxes, if the- addition exceedB 50 per cent ; (c) all additions on indirect taxes. Special municipal taxes may be assessed, but only by consent of the Government. The laws regulating the same subject in the other provinces contain the same principles in about the same fornn The general principle of municipal taxation is as follows : According to the muni- cipal constitutional laws the municipal budget may be provided for : (1) by additions to the state taxes ; (2) by special direct or indirect municipal taxes. The first-named taxation forms the rule, and has been designated several times by the secretary of the treasury as being the best mode of municipal taxation. Additions are especially levied on : (a) Klasseu and income tax ; (6) taxes on trades, with the exception of the tax on peddlers, which trade cannot be taxed by the muni- cipalities; (c) ground and house tax. There exists no uniform legislation for municipal taxation in cities, towns, or vil- lages. Town ordinances for the provinces of Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, Silesia, Brand- en burg, and Saxony state that it is the duty of every inhabitant to contribute to the town budget. Where the municipal tax is levied in the form of an addition to the class tax it is only paid by those subject to the class tax. When the income of the town is not sufficient to pay the expenses of the munici- pality, then tho aldermen possess the right to assess municipal taxes : (1) by an addi- tion to the state tax ; (2) in case of addition to the income tax the income from prop- erty outside of the town limits cannot be assessed ; (3) the consent of the Govern- ment is necessary for all additions to tho income tax and all other direct taxes if the addition exceeds oO per cent., and for all additions on direct taxes. The increase of the municipal budget, when necessity occurs through the increase ot the state tax, forms the rule, and has been designated by the secretary of the treas- ury as the best mode of municipal taxation rather than by special direct taxation. It is generally added to Klassen or income tax. [Note 2.— In the city of Berlin a so-called rent-tax is annually levied for municipal purposes, and paid by the lessee of any shop, store, dwelling-house, or other appart- ment. The amount is a fixed per cent, based upon the amount of money annually paid by the lessee for the use of the premises. The rate is usually 6J per cent, nor annum.— Brewer.] j te r TAX ON TRADES. W°: foUow*°(^ote 1° T le t0WDS ' ^ G0Ve ™ meilt deCTee - «»• -un i-Pal tax is Annual income of — onn , Am , Annual tax in marks. 300 to 450 marks r 450to 600 ° 600to 750 ,* 750to 900 \i 900 to 1,050 \l 1,050 to 1,200 l ° 1,200 to 1,500 i* 1,500 to 1,930 :£ l,950to2,400 ?'J 2,400to2,700 22 2,700 to 3,000 '■'.'■'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '..'..'. 70 An annnual income of more than 3,000 marks is assessed by the state tax. This assess- ment is made by a committee of eight members eleote dby the board of aldermen In towns, cities, &c, where the "Mahl-und Sohlachtsteuer » (tax on butchering and grinding), abolished on January 18, 1875, existed as a municipal tax, the " Schlac "t LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 205 steuer" (tax on butchering) may yet be levied as a municipal tax as the requirements of the municipal budget demands its continuation. Exempt from municipal taxation are: (a) public endowments maintained by the state, namely, pensions of widows; (6) retired officers and officials; (o) officers, &c, of the army ; (d) clergymen and teachers of elementary schools. The salary of Government officials can only be taxed one-half of its amount. The Jilassen and income tax of Prussia do not vary much during different years. The figures referring to the " Klassensteuer " show that the mimber of tax-payers whose income is estimated at from 420 marks to 1,500 marks annually is 4,734,277 or ■89.01 per cent, of the whole number of the inhabitants subject to thiB class of taxa- tion. They pay the largest part of the tax, i. e., 27,906,393 marks. The figures of the "income tax" show that the lowest class of tax-payers (whose income varies between 3,000 marks to 6,000 marks annually) number 121,071, and, con- sequently in the majority, pay the largest part of the tax', i. e., 13,527,3^4 marks. Regarding "communal taxes" ("Kommunal Steuer") it has been already stated that the communities provide for the expense of this budget, as the income from their property does not suffice by addition to the state income tax. It has been observed, and it is the cause of bitter complaint, that this system is an unjust one. The state tax in itself is not large; but additions for municipal purposes make it in many parts of Germany burdensome. [Note 3. — It seems to be generally conceded that this system of taxation works much hardship upon the poorer classes of the'people, more especially those provisions of the law which prescribe the "rent tax" and the tax on the smaller incomes. — Brewer. 206 LABOE IN EUEOPE GEEMANY. I 9 -- * •s ■s 3 w a. £ 1 <0 1 "a t 5 8 O S° *3 s "3 ** © X s 1 e & «r •e ■s 1% .8 s a I •a 5 is e S . SB 5 H I. "CD a a * I 4 JS. - a £* PS ^3 ^ 91 as CM RnClNN-M CJCln CO IM CO CO Ci «e co :» o ?i f i ci i MOtKI CI iNnHmHMn»Hn cm co ■* to co coc-t Jo eo MONC4 tH ONNN (N tq. sa^s tea oo M © ci tr« t~ oo o o COC4 00 iH ^ 00 US CO 00 CD M* lO HHNHNNN C4iH © c* © CM CM KM»SSSooBeo«i>SKtNS(?5 3 os 36 o its ^ »h e» »o toco 55 »o CO-* rtClTMNWtJf ' coco-*-*o CO ^CHOCOt-*-* CO £N C-l 04 m r"t NONH -Jr-Cicl © — i rHOONi-H O O «H N CI 7i ■«• — • -t r< ?o si co cj cs cm co ^ »cf ■* co •* cm •*»« co "*• ■"» •* eo cmcm i-h o* £1 «o rH no;i:j CMH-N O r* i-fOOCJrH O I- H « « fcs ffl o PS fss C-i C I - ^ r- W •— Cj Ci CO CO CO O CO CI «OHO i-t OC40HN O co co -i- rj -* co -t co pa ^« co ^" ■* ^f co -**■ eo « o £S -•a PS I jo —* do— <© © Ci © — CJ © N £J N ■<# -t 00 Cft 00 CO OS 00 OS OO -4 OS rH » W»«0** ■<* ** -rt"* ■* ■*. lO -* tQ ONO—ttM © AN CO r- 00— l> T* © OS CO OS COCD K> rH CON W CNC4N01O* eo^i ■* rt n.n n JB CI CC -*■ © © CJ HHt-IAlO "■? S'i'too ■* ocoooo © eo mixnojt- *& SWiHt- ■* tH^lCSOO© CO ^ c»toos«o-# CO fi-Tao'sT -rf" tcft-rpfeo'iri" co" «" j£foo~eeref of of o" »rf of to* ■4 os eo ccw- — t- «ijl 53 OS tQCNO) :i M n h S E B 3 ^5 S3 00 fe JS C3 f- • S 3 h^ g OSiSBtti'S t ills'! * •I- - CD ^5 . co e : ^ A • 3" • • D g C* 2 * ^ i- ? C Mill I illiUl | I IS LABOB IN EUEOPE GEBMAHY. 207 SBS S SSS55 --Or-. MM —. ■>» c-* -* « <**lO »**w n corncob »* *-i iH ©** o f4 H rt nrH i-t StaS § St>toM 3 n « aot-o ■•* ■* ^* nn«« t- *-t ©— < e »> io to *iou:o II s -s is hi a S a I 208 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. m^Ncow* co HO WO rH 00 rH WW s . 9 ti ■°.0 S SS'Sa S E-o B d52.5 3BS= SOS ■= P S OB S LABOE IN EUEOPE GEBMANT. 209 8 CI CM CC- "* CQ O «34 WNISCO'* © ~- o woe CM CM - rrs-^irsco « ■* lO ■O i-H O © 00 o o c- CM 1* II M o C E » « o 111 n saa 92 a -LAB 14 210 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Table showing the average price of agricultural labor in Germany. Provinces. ■Winter. Summer. Averages $0 31 42 33 37 22 35 41 48 41 42 38 37 41 44 35 49 $0 20 26 29 25 17 27 32 31 33 33 29 28 33 35 29 39 $0 25. 35. 26- 31 20 31 3S- 39- 37 38 34 32 39> 3» 32 44 * This table is taken from a work published by S. Baring Gould in 1881, entitled " Germany, present and past," and I am informed that "but little, if any, change has occurred in the price of farm lahor since then. Total income of a day laborer and his family living on a manorial estate in the province of Pomerania. Wages in money per year _ $3f> 70 Wages in " naturalia " : Lodging $14 28 Fuel 7 14 Use of land for raising potatoes . 10 71 Use of land for raising flax » 4 28 Keeping cow : 24 09 Keeping sheep 4 28 Keeping geese ; 7 14 Grain and wages for thrashing 66 40 Carrying (fare) 2 85 Physician and medicines 2 14 ' 143 3 J Total income 179 oi In this budget there is not included the wage earned by the wife and children, nor the profit accruing from hog-raising and working up flax and wool. Inclusive of these items the grand total income is given at $265. A SIMILAR STATEMENT MADE UP IN THE PROVINCE OP EAST PRUSSIA. In this instance it is supposed that the laboring family (wife, and two- to three children) keeps a helper, that both are employed during the- whole year (Sundays and holidays excepted), and that the laborer's- wife works for the proprietor in the afternoon during summer season. WAGES IN MONEY. Hnsband for himself and helper in summer time (fixed ) *tj 56. Wife in summer (average) '.".'.'.'. 7 14 Husband and helper earn in winter for the days on which they do not thrash on an average ' 5 yj, Total 21 41 WAGES IN "NATURAUA." Lodging ...... | 14 28. Jniel, inclusive of carrying 9 9g> Potato land, manured and worked '..'.'.['.'. 8 56> LA30R IN EUROPE GERMANY. 211 Flax $1 42 Pasture and winter food for 1 cow 17 85 Pasture for 2 hogs .'..',..'.'.".'.'.'. 2 14 Pasture for 2 geese and their yonng '.'.'.'.'. 3 57 Cereals furnished during summer, on an average : 16.5 bushels rye, valued at $13 00 3 bushels barley 1 90 3 bushels oats '. 1 19 3 bushels peas 2 38 1(i re Average amonut of 81 bushels winter grain and pulse per family (for thrash- ing), every bushel estimated at $0.7137, equals, round 57 83 Waste grain in thrashing 1 42 Physician and medicines, gratis, given by employer 2 14 Total 137 76 PROFITS FROM OWN USE AND FURTHER WORKING OF "NATURALIA" RECEIVED. Additional amount derived from utilising the potato land $9 28 Additional amount derived from utilizing flax land 7 14 Wife's spinning, weaving, and making clothes in winter 7 14 Additional profits from hog-raising 10 71 Additional profits from geese and chickens 8 56 Total : 42 83 Grand total of income '. 202 06 Beferring to this last statement showing the income of a laboring family (husband, wife, and two to three children) and helper, a state- ment showing the expenditures for same is given, which is reported to have been made up by a committee after hearing the respective laborers : Food: Rye and pulse, riund $42 84 Potatoes 17 13 Pork (250 pounds), 9.5 cents per pound 23 75 Other meat (50 pounds), 7.1 cents per pound 3 57 Three-fourths of a barrel herrings, $4.28 per barrel 3 21 900 liters milk, 1.78 cents per liter 16 06 100 pounds of salt, 2.38 cents per pound 2 38 5 pounds of coffee, 28 cents per pound 1 42 13 pounds of sugar, 14 cents per pound ,. .. 1 85 26 liters whisky 2 47 Spices 30 Total $114 98 Clothing : 2 pair boots for husband 4 99 2 pair boots for wife 1 90 4 pair boots for children 1 90 Flax, wool, cotton for spinning, knitting, and weaving 10 71 Smaller wearing apparel 1 70 100 days' work, 7. 14 cents each, of wife in spinning, &c 7 14 Total 28 54 Lodging 14 28 Firing and light... 10 83 Sundries : Train oil for boots 1 14 Soap (27 pounds) 2 14 Tear and wear of furniture, beds, &c 4 28 Tools, implements 1 78 Physician, medicines 2 14 Total 11 48 212 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Taxes, wages: Wage to the helper $14 28 Taxes to state, church 1 72 And school 71 Total $16 41 Grand total of expenditures 196 52 Graud total of income 202 06 Balance 5 54 Bates of wages in Berlin. [Taken from a recent publication of the statistical bureau of the city of Berlin. 1 Wages per week. & - s © U ffl u ffl Occupations. Time-work. Piece-work. 0.3 Low- est. Aver- High ape. est. Low- est. Aver age. •High est. i Stone-cutters : $5 00 5.71 5 00 3 57 3 57 3 57 $5 42 6 42 5 71 4 28 3 80 4 28 $6 28 7 14 7 14 4 76 4 28 $3 57 $5 23 $6 42 Cents. Br>. 10 10 18 12 12 12 13 13 13 4 28 5 23 4 76 4 28 5 71 4 64 Crockery ware : 5 00 47 23 5 71 5 00 5 35 3 82 3 37 5 00 r 4 25 3 92 5 71 3 21 3 57 52 • 71 35 ! Potters: 3 57 6 71 12 12 Porcelain: 3 57 3 92 2 61 2 61 5 35 5 71 3 57 3 57 7 25 7 73 4 76 4 76 Burners 71 5 71 4 28 2 85 2 85 2 38 71 3 57 1 42 6 06 4 76 3 37 4 28 2 85 1 07 5 00 5 71 5 00 2 38 6 42 5 23 3 92 6 42 4 28 1 42 7 14 In porcelain factories : • 12 Goldsmiths : Journeymen 11 11 Female laborers In silver-goods factories : 11 ) Journeymen, silver- workers 3 57 7 14 4 76 3 57 2 14 5 71 1 90 8 56 2 38 fio 2 .14 71 2 38 4 76 i In German silver factories : 4 28 LI 90 1 ) Grinders, jvorkmen 2 85 5 71 14 28 7 14 14 28 3 80 5 71 1 14 28 4 28 »^SB r~ Piessers 5 71 j :' 14 2 14 i 2 85 ■ 11 Polishers, female 5 95 , 8 56 71 ; 1 07 3 57 4 28 3 57 | 4 28 71 !... 11 90 1 42 5 00 5 00 1 78 2 ii 1 4 04 5 7i Girdlers : J ourneymen 4 28 6 42 12 12 12 3 57 4 28 1 7 14 ' 4 28 8 56 1 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Mates of wages in Berlin — Continued. 213 Occupation. Wages per week. Time-work. Low- est. Aver, age. High est. Piece-work. Low- est. Aver- High age. est. 2 £> Hrs. 13 12 12 Braziers : Journeymen Founders Turners Apprentices "Workmen In Berlin brass works : Artisans Founders Opei atives In Berlin copper and brass works : .Artisans "Workmen Coppersmiths : .1 bui nc\ men Lnbnrers , In metal-goods factories : Tumors I Locksmiths Coppersmiths Paint ers Girdlers * Polishers Operatives, male .- - Operatives, female Apprentices Girdlers, female In foundries of articles of art : Founders, molders . "Woikmen Needle-makers, journeymen. .File cutters, journeymen Locksmiths, journeymen Blacksmiths, journeymen Toolsmiths, journeymen Cutlers, journeymen Bladesunlhs, journeymen Steel-pen workers: Jourueymen Girls Nail sn i i I hs, journeymen In engino works : Mechanics ...'...... ^ .Blacksmiths Joiners Molders « "Woikmen In sewing-machine factories : Locksmiths Joiners "Workmen, male "Workmen, female , Cartwrights, jonrnovmen Tclegraph-makors, journeymen . . - . Mechanicians, journeymen Surgical-instrument makers Wnteh'-makci s, journeymen In lamp lactones : Braziers Girdlers Tnrners 1 In a chemical factories : Foremen Laborers Lads Women and girls Workers under sixteen years . $4 76 4 76 4 28 95 3 35 5 71 6 66 4 76 5 71 4 85 $5 71 5 65 5 00 1 19 3 57 7 14 833 1 78 3 33 5 00 4 28 5 00 5 00 5 95 4 76 3 21 2 38 95 2 85 3 57 2 01 3 57 3 80 4 28 2 92 3 57 4 76 3 57 5 71 1 78 4 45 4 76 4 53 3 72 3 57 4 61 4 28 4 76 4 28 5 17 5 00 5 71 5 95 3 54 2 38 1 90 1 42 $4 76 4 04 4 04 $5 95 $7 14 5 00 6 18 5 00 6 18 Cents. 7 28 7 80 4 28 5 71 3 57 4 28 6 42 7 14 5 71 7 14 6 42 5 95 4 28 3 57 1 19 3 57 4 28 2 85 5 00 4 76 5 00 )4 28 \i 70 4 28 5 71 6 42 5 71 6 42 2 14 4 76 5 71 5 71 5 71 4 28 3 57 2 14 2 38 3 57 4 76 6 42 5 71 6 42 7 14 42 G 42 7 14 7 14 4 28 2 85 2 38 1 90 4 28 4 28 2 61 3 57 2 38 3 67 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 2 85; 6 11 7 54 6 33 8 09 5 47 5 23 4 28 3 33 4 28 6 90 4 28 4 76 7 14 5 00 5 71 6 42 6 42 10 71 3 57 4 76 6 18 5 95 5 00 7 14 6 42 7 14 7 14 214 LABOR IN EUROPE UEKMAJNY. Bates of wages in Berlin — ContiDued. Occupations. In an aniline color factory: Foremen Artisans Laborers Operatives Soap-makers Day laborers Ethereal oils factories, operatives - - - Asphalters Roof era In silk-goods factories (operatives) : Male Female In "Wool mills : Weavers Shearers Winders, female Hand-workers, female Machine-workers, female Warpers, female Ribbon-makers, journeymen Weavers : Journeymen Warpers Winders, female Carpet weavers : Operatives Workers, female V Weavers : Croth-makers, journeymen In a Berlin velveteen factory : Operatives Apprentices Women &irls In bleaching and dyeing works : Laborers Women Foremen Girls In refining works (dressing fabrics) : Masters Laborers, male Laborers, female Fullers Carders, female Silk button and trimming makers : Foremen Manager, female Journeymen . Girls . Rope-makers : Journeymen Apprentices Lads Statuary, paste-board factories : Foremen Gilders Joiners Bookbinders Laborers Gilders, females Artisans Tanners : Journeymen Apprentices Workmen Bookbinders : Journeymen Girls $5 00 5 00 3 14 3 57 4 28 3 21 Wages per week. Time-work. Low- est. ■- Aver 5 00 4 28 3 57 1 66 $5 71 5 71 3 14 3 92 4 76 3 57 4 28 5 95 5 23 3 92 2 14 1 42 1 42 2 85 2 85 2 85 1 19 3 57 1 78 2 85 2 38 1 90 3 21 1 78 5 71 1 64 5 00 2 38 1 66 3 57 3 57 6 42 2 38 3 57 to '4 28.' 1 42 3 21 1 07 1 42 4 28 4 28 3 57 3 21 1 00 3 57 1 42 2 85 1 42 Hi°h est. $6 42 6 42 3 74 4 28 5 95 5 00 2 14 1 90 3 21 4 28 1 78 4 28 1 90 3 21 2 49 2 85 3 57 Piece-work. 7 14 6 42 Low- est. Aver- High age. i est. 5 00 2 61 $2 14 2 14 4 28 2 14 1 90 1 66 3 21 2 38 4 28 4 28 3 57 5 71 2 49 1 42 5 00 ' 2 14 2 38 4 76 2 38 4 28 3 57 2 14 3 57 2 85 3 92 3 57 2 49 1 30 8 56 5 59 8 33 2 85 4 28 1 90 2 38 4 28 ! 5 71 4 28 | 5 71 7 14 8 56 2 85 3 57 5 71 (2 38) «85$ 3 57 4 1 30 1 54 1 78 2 14 7 49 5 71 5 00 3 92 4 28 2 §8 5 00 4 64 2 14 3 57 4 04 1 90 1 19 1 07 7 14 5 71 4 64 5 23 3 21 5 00 3 92 3 92 3 57 3 57 3 57 5 00 2 86 4 28 2 85 1 42 85 $3 57 3 45 5 71 2 85 2 85 2 38 2 85 7 14 2 85 4 28 3*57 5 11 2 38 2 38 1 42 5 00 5 00 5 00 5 35 4 76 7 14 3 57 4 76 4 28 4 28 J* Cents. Mrs. 3 57 I. 9 52 I. 5 71 4*28 6 42 4 28 1 78 6 42 6 42 6 42 5 71 5 71 3 57 .1 12 • I 10 10 13 11 1« • i 1* ■! l« ■ 8J-10i ■ ■»4-loi • I u • i§ -I 14 14 14 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Sates of wages in Berlin — Continued. 215 ■Wages per week. Occupations. Time-work. Low Aver-High age. est. Piece-work. Low- est. Aver age. High •2- Bookbinders — Continued. Gilders, male Gilders, female Leather-workers Harness-makers "Wagoners Cigar-case makers Military-effects makers Upholsters : Journeymen "Women Steam saw-mill workers Si earn saw : mill laborers Joiners : For buildings For furniture Coopers, journeymen Basket-makers, journeymen Makers of buffalo-horn buttons Women Makers of vegetable ivory buttons : Master Laborers, female Laborers, male Girls '. Comb-makers, journeymen .., Varaishers, journeymen Gilders, journeymen : V Male Female Steam millers , Firemen Locksmiths Laborers Bakers : First journeyman (and free board) Secondjourneynian (and free board) ....' Third journeyman (and free board) Confectioners, journeymen (and free board), per month Butchers, journeymen (and free board) Mineral- water workers Brewery : • Brewers per month. . Coopers do Laborers Cigar-makers: Male Female Linen-makers: Foremen per month-. Cutter-out Tailors : Journeymen Females Ladies' cloak makers Females ^- Hatters : Journeymen .■ . 1 Laborers, female Fur-makers : Journeymen Laborers, female Glove-makers, journeymen Shoemakers: Journeymen $3 57 1 42 2 85 2 85 3 45 3 09 3 33 3 57 1 90 4 28 3 21 4 28 3 57 2 85 2 14 2 85 1 42 5 00 1 90 $4 76 2 14 4 28 3 57 4 04 3 68 3 80 4 76 2 38 5 95 3 57 5 00 1 42 2 85 2 85 3 57 1 42 5 00 5 83 5 00 4 16 2 14 1 66 142 5 71 95 2 85 21 42 4 28 2 85 4 28 2 14 6 42 2 35 3 21 1 66 3 57 3 57 4 28 2 14 5 83 5 83 5 59 4 66 $5 71 2 85 5 71 4 28 4 76 4 28 4 52 5 71 2 85 8 33 5 00 5 71 5 71 5 71 4 28 5 00 2 85 8 56 2 85 Cents. $8 57 4 28 2 85 1 90 4 28 4 28 5 00 2 85 6 23 9 83 5 83 5 00 3 57 2 61 2 14 14 25 3 57 4 64 1 66 3 57 3 33 23 80 38 55 2 85 1 42 21 42 2 85 2 14 1 07 3 57 4 28 2 14 32 13 5 00 3 85 2 85 4 85 3 37 2 14 2 86 1 42 2 85 2 14 Journeymen . Hair-dressers, journeymen (with board) . Masons Carpenters Apprentices Laborers Glaziers, journeymen 95 3 42 3 89 1 42 2 61 2 85 3 57 6 42 2 85 4 28 2 38 4 28 V42 4 56 4 56 2 14 3 33 1 66 2 85 2 14 1 90 2 38 3 57 7 14 $4 76 4 04 4 52 4 16 4 28 $5 95 64 6 42 6 42 4 28 2 38 6 18 3 89 2 14 4 28 2 85 5 71 ; 80 Sri. 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 n 11 11 13 13 10 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 16,17 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 10,11 1 66 4 76 2 14 7 14 3 80 2 14 3 33 2 85 3 57 4 28 2 85 4 28 4 28 4 041 4 76( 4 76 5 71 47 11 11 12 12 12 12 12-14 16 H 9 » 216 LABOR IN EUROPE — GKRMANY. Rates of wages in Berlin —Continued. "Wages per week. ai be U i >> -3 u u © P. Oconpatioiifl. Time-work. Piece-work. S a Low- est. Aver age. High- est. Low- est. Aver- age. High- est. •3 , O $3 92 r> oo 4 28 3 57 5 00 4 28 28 5 71 $4 28 5 71 5 10 4 28 33 5 30 6 85 75 28 5 71 02 1 71 3 09 1 71 2 35 7 59 6 S7 2 67 3 80 35 70 35 70 17 85 4 70 19 C9 21 42 25 00 21 42 19 C3 19 03 17 85 12 13 10 71 2 85 3 21 $5 00 7 14 7 14 5 00 8 5G 7 14 7 85 9 13 7 14 8 56 Cents. Hrs. » $8 56 $9 52 10- 10 3 57 $4 28 5 71 10 PrintiD^-offico of German Empire: 10- Yii' 7 14 7 04 7' 85 7 85 7 85 '850 8 56 8 50 10 10 10 10 5 00 5 00 ID 5 71 12 4 14 10 2 74 ] 71 1 99 7 14 4 28 1 8.) 2 14 23 08 23 08 14 25 3 57 5 00 1 71 3 57 8 5G 8 66 2 85 G 06 47 60 47 6 23 81 7 14 10 10 S7 9 5 71 U* Merchants : Berlin Steamship Company, captains: . \ 1 \ 0-18 J Lad :::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Common day-laborers : Field : . 2 28 2 85 3 21 3 57 • J2 85 4 76 G 18 59-71 35^47 71-ffl 59-71 10 Sculptors: 3 57 2 85 3 £4 2 38 71 5 23 4 70 5 23 3 57 S3 8 5G 7 14 7 01 4 71 93 10 10 10 It 12 Molders: 4 28 5 71 6 42 STATEMENT SHOWING THE INCOME AND EXPEXDITUKES OF TWO I.ABOItEKS IN BEIiUN. Laborer employed in a coal-yard, with family in very poor circumstances. Fortv-ono years old ; day iaborer in a coal-yard ; a wife and four < hi klren ; earns about $123 a year, but very uncertain ; does job work, according to business; cannot support bis family upon such wages ; bis wife is compelled to do all sorts «f work — washiu" and eldest daughter, fifteen years old, assists. United earnings amount to about $18:3.73. Detailed expenditures : Two rooms, and kitchen in the court-yard, basement, $77.11 ; clothing, $23 80; food, $ol.40 ; incomo tax for city, $3.57 ; fuel, $10.71 ; school books, $3.80 ; doctor, medicines, $7.14 ; sun- dries, $8.!>6 ; total, $189.09. Saving, therefore, is out of question. Wo livo mostly on potatoes we raise on a piece of land let by Berlin magistrate against a fee of $2.14. Meat we eat only four times a week, buying half a pound, ■worth 11 cents. Cobbler and gas-lighter.— Thirty-nine years old ; a wife and two little children ; earns about $300 per annum when he has full employment j works according to business • wife does small housework for other people. .' LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 217 Total income about $3.23 Expenses: Two rooms, one kitchen in the court- yard base- ment, $77.35 ; clothing, $35.70 ; food, $171.36 ; rent, tax, $2.85 ; aid society.' 71 cents ; doctor, mediciues, $4.28; sundries, $17.85; total, $320.10. No saving, and we have to take quite meager meals ; a little piece of meat and vegetables— mostly pota- toes — for dinner. STATEMENT SHOWING INCOME AND EXPENDITURES OF TWO MASONS IN BERLIN. A mason, liaving a wife and three children, residing outside Berlin, — Thirty-nine yeara old; I am a mason ; journeyman, and work for about eight months in Berlin; the other part of the year I live with my family ; I have a wife and three children ; the oldest is ten, the youngest five years old; they res-ide in a village in the province of Brand- enburg ; I receive here in Berlin 4 inarW(95 cents) a day of'lO hours, or 40 pf. (9.5 cents) per hour. This rate of wages is now paid tbroughouc Berlin to masons of my class. As long as the daylight permits, we commence work at 6 o'clock in the morning and quit at 6 o'clock. lu the later season of the year, when the days get shorter, we work with electric light, or gas-light, in some instances. For about four months and longer I am without work in the building trade, and try to do any work I may get. We take half an hour for breakfast (8.30 to 9 o'clock) ; one hour for dinner at noon, and half an hour at 4 o'clock vespers. We take our supper after the day's work is done. Can hardly support my family on such wages; especially in winter, if I can- not tind work, and the money I saved in summer is used up. In the summer-time my wife works on a farm, for -which services we have the use of a piece of land to grow potatoes on (about 45 seheffel = 67 bushels) and to keep a goat for milk and to raise a hog for meat purposes. I can hardly tell what we earn a year. The last winter I had to contract debts to get along, as I was two months without work. In the other years we made no debts, but saved nothing. My own earnings, taking eight months' work, and the month at twenty -two days, may average 1,000 marks ($23b). Expenses : For rent — my sleeping place in Berlin for eight months, $11.42 ; outside Berlin (family) for twelve njonths, $12.85 ; clothing for self and family, $29.75; food per day, self in Berlin, 42.8 cents, for eight months, $102.72; family, outside (17.85 cents) for eight months, $42.85 ; food per day, self, family at home (42.8 cents) for four months, $51.36; fuel and light, in, all, $7.14; municipal income tax in Berlin, $1.42; school-tax ah home, 71 cents; tobacco, $9.28; sundries, $28.65; Mechanics' Aid Society. Berlin, $2.85; total, $301.00. When in Berlin I want nearly the like articles of food as the other single fellow- journeymen. When in my home village we eat only on three day of the week a little meat, mostly pote-oes of our own growth, but little coffee or milk, soup, with rye bread in the morning, and bread or potatoes for supper. Ab already stated, the portion I save during summer is mostly used up during the winter. It I get sick I have physfcian and medicines gratis, through the Mechan- ics' Aid Association. Mason (single). — Twenty-six years old; a bachelor; earn 95 cents per day. In win- ter-timo I trj* to find manual labor, of whatever nature, it may be, to earn something to live upon. Expenses : For food, $173 ; sleeping place, $17.36 ; clothing, $18.32; fuel and light, $2.38; municipal income tax, $1.42; dues to Mechanics' Aid Association, $2.85; to- bacco, $9.28; sundries, $14.85 ; total, $239.46; approximate income, $238. • For breakfast, bread and coffee ; for dinner, meat and one kind of vegetables; at 4 o'clock, beer and bread ; tor supper, bread, sausage, or cheese and beer. The last year I earned as much as I wanted ; but this was not always the case in former years. STATEMENT SHOWING THE INCOME AND EXPENDITURES OF TWO BOOKBINDERS. Bookbinder, having a wife and three children (hale and hearty in appearance) — I am thirty-three years old ;*I am an ordinary bookbinder ; I have a wife and three children; the oldest is six, the youngest three years old. I receive 89 cents a day (the average wages being from 71 to 101 cents) ; ten hours. We begin work at 7 o'clock in the morning and quit at 7 o'clock p. m. ; one-half hour for breakfast (8.30 o'clock), one hour for dinner at 1 o'clock, one-quarter hour (4.30 o'clock) for vespers. Sapper is taken after work. Cannot fully support family upon such wages ; the de- ficiency is made up by letting a room, &c. Income about $370. Expenses : For rent two rooms and kitchen, $92.82 ; food and fuel, I give my wife a weekly household money of $3.57 X 52 = $185.64; clothing, self and family, $38; rent tax, $5.71; municipal income tax, $1.90; Mechanics' Aid Society, $9; smoking, $8.56; newspapers, $4.28; beer and amusements, $25; total, $370.91. We are unable to save anything. 218 LABOR IN EUEOPE GERMANY. Bookbinder, bachelor (an orderly-looking man).— Twenty -seven years old; engaged in lettering and gilding ; has no family ; earns 89 cents per day ; ten hours wort (from 7 o'clock a. m. to 7 p. m.). Income about $278. Expenses: Rent, sleeping place, $21.42; clothing, $16.18; boots, Ac, $4.76; food, $123.84; washing, $6.80; light and fuel, $2.14; income tax, $1.42; Mechanics' Aid Society, $3.57 ; periodicals, books, $5.95 ; amusements (I am no smoker), $12.37; total, $198.45; balance of $79.55 is invested in a savings bank. Common .day -laborers get 2 marks (48 cents) per day; work-time, twelve hours, including pauses. A man who recently furnished the workmen coffee, beer, &c, describes their general manner of living as follows : Table showing income and expenditure of laborers employed in the city of Berlin for work on the sewerage. ItemB of expenditure. Breakfast about 9 a. m. usually; coffee and ordinary rolls Hyo-bread and cheese, without butter Dinner, one portion in so-called people's kitchen Lunch, coffee and ordinary roll, or beer and rye-bread Supper, after work Sleeping-place per night Total Wages per day Balance remaining for clothing and all other necessities Cost. Cents. 2.3S 7.14 7:i4 4.70 4.70 4.7* 80.73 48.00 17.27 Comparative statement of weekly average wages al Berlin in July, 1881, and February, 1884. [Taken from publioations of the statistical bureau o r f the city of Berlin.] Occupations. July, 1881. February, 1884. Occupations. July, 1881. February, 1884. $3 57 3 57 $4 28-4 99 3 57 3 92 3 09 4 28 3 67 4 28 2 25-3 57 3 57 4 28 3 67 3 57 2 15 3 57 1 60 3 92 1 78 3 67 4 28 4 io $4 99 4 28 4 28 4 76 3 57 4 28 4 99 4 28 4 28 4 47' 3 57 4 76 4 28 3 92 3 57 4 28 1 75 4 99 1 42 3 57 4 64 4 28 $4 28-4 99 4 99 3 57 3 57 3 57 < 4 28 3 33 4 28 2 38 2 38 3 57 $4 28 3 57 3 97 3 57-4 28 Brass founders Needlersand sieve- makers 4 04 3 57 3 S7 Bakers (with board and 1 78-2 85 Butchers (with board Surgical -instrument mak- !Mecbanioians and opti- Tobacco factory workers 3 S7 Ladies' cloak makers 4 28 4 28 3 57 3 57 2 85 I 3 3 \ 2 85-3 57 | 2 85-3 57 2 14 j *1 19 4 64 I 3 99 7 14 ' 5 71 3 21 3 SS 3 57 | 3 57 4 28 ; 5 a* Sil k-r il > 1 »on makers Weavers : Spoolers (female) Shoemakers (piece-work) Trimming-lace and bufc- Hosiery-makers (women Operatives in chemical factories^ Soulptors and plasterers. Bookbinders •With board. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 219 Salaries and wages paid by the Great Berlin Tr&mway Company to their officials and em- ploye's. [Without board.l Occupations. Tard managers : First-class ($428 salary, $178 for rent) Second-class ($357 salary, $107 for rent). Oontro'lers (after five years' service) Master drivers Forage masters Conductors Drivers Forage-drivers Fore-riders Stablemen Car-cleanerR Night watchmen Machinists ,. Attenders of sick horses Switchmen Bridge watchmen Blacksmiths 1 . Track watchmen L< ic ksmiths "Wheelwrights and masons Saddlers "Wcrkersin shops Da\ laborers I Hours per day Service. Yearly do Monthly... Yearly do Monthly. . . do ...do ...do ....do ... do ... do ...do ....do .. do ...do Weekly Daily ...do ...do do .. do Daily Pay. $808 09 464 0U 35 79 428 OS 357 Oil 17 70-21 4* 18 50-21 40 21 to 14 * 17 13-17 8» 17 80-18 56 18 56-21 44 17 80-21 40 18 56-21 40 17 80-18 56 17 86 4 99 54. 7-69. 5 cents. 71.4-107 " 71 4-96 " 71.4-95 " 59.5-71.4 " 57. 10 " Note.— The employes mentioned from yard managers to fore-riders, inclusive, in addition to their pay, receive free uniforms. Pensions paid when the persons employed become old or unable to work. Average salaries and wages paid per year by the Prussian Government to the officials and employes of tlie Hamburg Railroad. Class of employment. President — i Members of the board of directors : Two, each Two, each .* Two legal advisers, each Director of trainB Superintendent of trains Chief engineer , Chief of the technical bureau Chief cashier Comptrollers Chief book-keepers, recorders, &c Clerks Copyists Draftsmen Telegraph inspector Freight custodian Track engineers Track masters Track assistants Watchmen on the line Foremen on the line Station inspector Station heads Assistant inspectors Telegraphers Porters Switchmen Pay. $5, 355 3,570 2,975 1,071 2,142 1,428 1,785 1,547 1,190 761 511 375 287 380 642 833 987 368 273 $137 to 204 161 630 404 391 285 202 179 Class of employment. Car revisers Coalmeasurer Coal measurer's assistants Messengers Night watchmen Watchmen ,.. Manager, freight department Custodian: Heavy freight Light freight and baggage Assistants Baggage-master, station Weighers Ticket sellers Ticket printers Conductor, chief Baggage-master on train Conductors (first class) Conductor's assistants (secondclass) Engine cleaners Master machinists First assistant Second assistant Auditor, repair shop Porters, repair shop Locomotive engineers Locomotive firemen Pay. $273 557 345 236 1,428 $690 to 737 476 345 226 to 286 214 214 214 to 338 287 249 190 157 182 83S 528 368 511 202 238 to 428 207 Note 1. — German officials, generally, received an allowance for lodgings or rent, being a certain per cent, based on the amount of salary received by each some twelve years ago. It was enacted that aB places throughout Germany should be graded into five classes, according to the cost of living, Berlin constituting the highest class. These several classes are graded upon nearly the following ratio : 5, € 9, 12, 15, and 20 ; Berlin constituting the last class. The rate of allowance to the several grades of officials in Berlin is about as follows : Ministers, chiefs of the highest authorities, receive $119 ; chiefs of departments and the like,^$95 ; officers in the departments, See., $71 ; inferior officials, $42 ; lowest officials, $20. ,. . , „ ■■• Note 2. — Railroad companies are liable for injuries occurring to the employes only when such in- juries occurred by tho carelessness or negligence of the company or its agents. This same common law Jirinciple applies to all employers. 220 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Salaries paid to the officers and employe's of the royal police department of Berlin* [Taken from the Prussian budget bill.] President, salary, $2,713, and $856 local allowance (see note 1, ante) - $3,569 0O Blrst chief Government councilor (total) 1, POO 00 2 Governmental councilors $1,213 00 and 1,000 00- 3 chiefs of department?, a vera go salary, $1,213, and local allowance, $47 (each).. 1,260 00 20 directors of divisions, averago 8-}6 00- 78 police secretaries, averago 678 0O 42 police secretaries, assistants, average 447 00* 54polico secretaries, assistants, second class, average ---t 447 00 15 copyists , 447 00 1 chief treasurer 1,071 00 1 chief book-keeper, 1 treasurer, 7 book-keepers (average salary) ^ 078 00 1 chief of messengers, 1 house inspector, 1 house castellan (each) 321 00- 11 messengers, porters, &c $228 00 to 285 00" 1 commander-in-chief of police forco 1, 428 00 13. police captains (average) 028 00 136 police lieutenants 714 00- 10 olice sergeants (in decent department's offices) 392 00 3, 971 policemen (each) '. ; 283 GO* LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 221 s g ,3 » § -2 C£ "•-■> ft -1 ■2 "fc. S, ■* rS O * -S o> S "I i 1 a I "5 ■SI" as is M3 1S§ -a GO SI MO *-.■§ « a. O00M"*lOH«i.*A'3Xr-2OM-,OD CHCNCN ;i ci co co co cj cj ■:■ m ia m co ifl Cs co ia « o h- o » o « m « o co m o «i ?: n t cc i^ '.■".■-■ = ■*. fci>cdco'rocflomodCTSOiricocMa5cocoeoorfcoomco ^cMcviTOMCNjcraroegcoM«fOTi^^rHrHfflt0OC0C0CiaWC0CCINC0^CNtr-cc0C0O ;©^^c»e?4ewiJrHCs©irii>i>i^c6 1 e©to*NcdtN^ co t- 05Mt«D3iOOIOCCr»«COt-["<)'NPIGOCCIt-t-NNN®OMOCi>mo6 — ^ — cri^^'ai^Tft^cBOT^^D^t^c^^^co^OiHoq .£ -t m t -*■ ia t in co co no o o co ;o co no i-o ■# ice co m >co m uo un ir. w to co co i-o F fto o M O " lOooiaaoiooautocioAiQHDNci^'naioa^Nooiainn ^ajc^aicarHCcaJtococRe© — cscoaii~t^©'H©cX)cdaic»^triodaic»coe-i i ci o "1 :- CO i-H W# r-l t- ■t>»ricdi>c3J iO co" *r co od cc co co co CO W Tf CO i— i t-H O CO •* O CO l> ■* CO 222 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. « C a. 3 j P -3 S U «§ a r- t> W ci t» ■** 00 00 00 GN lO Tt" cd co' co co ■* ^* Is* p. 8Sg *S1 o 5 o 5 © o £ o © & S g » 8 & o +j H 2) a *-; Id ® .9 P-°_: "as b - © O t, c3 e o.g- 53 ■* J5 O00 03M- 00 -IMNNHNi- "23' SOW.-! HOH CMM NHhCO aiiri id id -* iricd id-* ■^ id id id id c^ ed id cd «d id cd cd co to c C-COi- olJ, CO c- t-cocotr-oo»t'-iocNO>oo WC©CO'*'*W'*COiCSt)<0 04J to *0 05$ to OS 05J to OS OB to 10 05 to 06. 30 to 38 17 to 20- 30 to 40 17 to 20 16 to 20- 25 to SO- 18 22 to 25- 22 to 25 20 to 25- 09 to 1L 05 to 0T 11 to IS 12 to 15- 08 to 10 27 to 4* 30 to 36- 22 to 2T 20 to 25- 1 30 to 2 0O 70 to 1 30- 70 to 1 30- 70 to 2 00< 70 to 1 30- 70 to 1 3* 15 to 20- 90 to 95. 55 to 60 08 to 12 36 to 40- 48 to 68 4 50 to 5 00 3 50 to 4 00 224 LABOR IN EUEOPE GEKMANY. family who cau labor must do so in order to assist in caring for them- selves and the general household. The laboring women here are ac- customed to perform the hardest of manual labor on the farm, in the shops, about the mines, &c. Such labor as would only be performed by the strongest of men in the United States. The articles which are mentioned in the last table above given are of such quality as are usually used in the families of merchants, profes- sional men, &c, and I think it safe to say, of a better quality than those used by the peasant, or laboring classes, as these latter are compelled to select the very cheapest kind of all articles. They consume but little meat or coffee, and scarcely no sugar or tea. Black or rye bread is preferred by some of the more wealthy people, and no other is used by the laboring classes, while their butter is of the very poorest kind, often mixed with lard, and sometimes seasoned lard alone is used by them as a substitute for butter. Cheap beer is largely consumed by men, women, and children, and some- of the men, especially droschkie drivers, workers upon the streets, &c, use a considerable quantity of -cheap " schnaps," the very poorest kind of gin. It is very difficult to give any intelligent or definite statement as to Tents in Berlin, as the price therefor depends entirely upon the size -and location of the apartment. Much is being done in Berlin by the more wealthy and titled classes towards relieving the wants of the poor and unfortunate. Hospitals are prepared for the sick, public kitchens for the hungry, and asylums to lodge the weary. There are fifteen so-called " public kitchens " in Berlin, which have been organized by the titled and more wealthy •classes of Berlin for the purpose of supplying the poor people with an amount of wholesome food for a very small amount of money. During the year 1883, 2,200,360 portions or meals were supplied by these public kitchens at 30 pfennings, or 7 cents each portion. The total receipts of these kitchens during the \ear was 353,417 marks, and the expenditure was 250,430 marks. The Berlin Asylum Association, formed for the purpose of giving shelter to the needy, has 2,371 members, belonging. as I have said, to the higher classes. During the year 1883, 105,241 men -and 19,917 women were given shelter by this association, while baths were supplied for 22,748 men and 2,411 women. Since the 1st of Jan- uary last arrangements have been made by this association for supply- ing the inmates .of the asylum with work. The receipts of the associa- tion for 1883 were 28,050 marks, and the expenditure was 43,599, the ■deficiency being contributed by the members and coming from chari- table entertainments, &c. In conclusion, I desire to state Mr. Eoi, one of my clerks, who has been long connected with this office, has rendered me great assistance in the procuring and preparation of the statistical information given in this report. M. S. BREWER, TT „ „ Consul General. L nixed States Consulate, Berlin, May 23, 1884. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 225' PRUSSIA. REPORT BY GONSTTLQENESAL TOGELER. DIVISIONS OP LABOR IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The terms " workingmen," or "laboring classes," although in general use, are not very exact, inasmuch as not every " man"' who " works " or all "classes" "which labor" are intended to be included within those terms. The small peasant, who lives on the income of his few acres of land, is a "workingman ;" the master mechanics or artisans, the shoe- makers, the tailors, the joiners, who work directly for their own cus- tomers, belong to the " laboring classes," yet none of these are intended to be referred to when we speak in general of the laboring classes. Narrowed down, therefore, to their technical meaning these terms refer to that vast class of people who perform physical or manual work for wages, deriving no appreciable assistance or income either from the possession of property or from the patronage of customers. This vast class of population may be subdivided into five distinct classes, viz : Those engaged in — (1.) Agriculture, cattle and hog raising, gardening, forestry, hunting, and fishing. (2.) Mechanical industry, building, and mining. (3.) Commerce and traffic. (4.) Domestic service. (5.) Military service, in school and religious teaching, in hospital and benevolent institutions, and in the civil service. Applying to these five classes the limitation hereinbefore stated, the number of working people, male and female, in the German Empire is estimated at from 10,000,000 to 11,000,000, of which not less than 2,500,- 000 are engaged in domestic service. These figures may appear exor- bitant in a population of only 46,000,000, but I believe them to be fairly correct. As a test I refer to the fact that the census of Prussia of 1880 shows that out of a population of 27,000,000 there were engaged in do- mestic service not less than 1,674,357 people; namely, 570,511 males and 1,103,846 females. It must be considered, however, that the number of persons dependent upon these 10,000,000 or 11,000,000 of laborers for their support is comparatively less than in the better situated classes, because among the laboring classes is found a vast number of young, unmarried persons. It is impossible to estimate the number of persons engaged as work- ingmen in agricultural pursuits in the German Empire. The persons so engaged, however, may be divided into three classes, viz : (a) Free la- borers, owning real estate; (b) free laborers, without real estate; (c) laborers bound by contract. Class a comprises those persons (called in German " Hausler Coloni- sten" or "Biidner") who own a little house and some land, a small garden and pasture, the income of which, however, is not sufficient to maintain themselves and family, and who are therefore compelled to work ou neighboring farms or estates for wages. The amount of land necessary to maintain a family varies with the location. In North Germany a larger area is required than in South Germany. While in the Palatinate an area of 5 to 6 acres may suffice to maintain a family, from 10 to 15 acres are required in the less productive portions of North- eastern Germany. Many of these small property owners have learned 92 A— LAB 15 226 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. and followed trades connected with agriculture, such as wagon-making, smithing, horseshoeing, coopering, or the like, and thus manage to live in comparative comfort. . , Class b comprises the great bulk of free agricultural laborers, who own no real estate, and who therefore are called tenants (Einlieger) or hirelings (Heuerlinge). These have no income whatever but their wages, and although these are very fair during harvest-time, yet the little savings made in summer are usually lost again m winter, when work is scarce and less remunerative. This class of laborers is at a great disadvantage as against either the small property owner or the contract laborer. Eent, victuals, fuel, &c, they are compelledto pur- chase out of their scanty wages, while the small property owner derives many of these necessaries from his own land, and the contract laborer, on the other hand, of whom I shall speak presently, receives board and lodging from his employer. The hireling, therefore, will work for com- paratively very little, if he be furnished food and lodging. This class of laborers form the greater part of the fluctuating agricultural popula- tion which moves in dense masses into those provinces where labor is in demand ; for example, into Brandenburg and Saxony at the time of the sugar-beet harvest. Often they are found felling timber, mending roads, quarrying, &c, but in summer they invariably return to the harvest-field, and in winter they prefer thrashing and other work con- nected with farming. Ordinarily they rent a piece of land, perhaps an acre or two, raise a hog, keep a cow or goat, and some chickens, and thus manage to make a living from one harvest to the other. Their condition is a deplorable one. In age or sickness they are dependent upon public support. Their boast, however, as against the laborer bound by contract is that they are free men ; that if an employer does not suit them they can quit him at a day's notice. Class c consists of the laborers bound by contract. These laborers contract with the farmer or estate owner, usually for a year. They live in small houses, built or owned by the estate owner. They receive from the estate owner, besides a small sum in cash per month, the use of the dwelling, fuel, feed for one cow, the use of land for potatoes and wheat or rye, and usually a very small interest in the result of the yield of grain. In some provinces the necessaries furnished comprise iseven- eighths of the wages, while in others, for example, in the Duchy of Brunswick, they hardly amount to one-fourth. If the employer re- quires it the laborer's wife must also work in the field or in the house- hold or stables at a rate of wages agreed upon. As to the wages of these three classes of agricultural laborers and the cost of living, which, after this description of their mode of life and work will be better appre- ciated and understood, I submit the following as fair examples : HOW A FAMILY LIVES. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF A FAMILY OF AGRICULTURAL LABORERS OWNING REAL ESTATE AT DIRMSTEIN, PALATINATE. The family consists of man, wife, and three children ; one of the children is out of school, the two others attend school ; the family be- longs to the better situated ones of their class ; they own a house worth about $216, mortgaged for $165.60 ; some furniture, implements, and also a cow, $38.40 ; a calf worth $7.92 ; also one hectare (about 4 acres) of land, worth $576 ; 25 ar (about one acre) of leasehold land, worth $216. The feed for the cow is found in summer in the ditches along the conn- LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 227 try roads and by gathering weeds and grass in the vineyards and in the woods, and in winter by beets cultivated on the land. RECEIPTS. Wages of tbe mail, 270 days, at 33J- cents (the balance of the time he was en- gaged about his own house) $89 86 Wages of the wife, 19 to 21£ cents (the wife is almost constantly engaged about the house) and of the daughter, 18 cents per day 69 26 Making a total wage receipt of, together 15© 12 Other receipts : Rental value of house 15 42 Milk 1 48 98 A fattened hog '. 11 92 Grain, 16 cwt., of 2 acres 35 45 Potatoes, 80 cwt., of 2 acres 32 63 Beets, various kinds, raised- on leasehold acre, 200 cwt ' 32 63 177 03 But the products of the land are not all consumed by the family ; they sell — 900 liters of milk $24 49 14^ cwt. grain 32 13 Total 56 62 The total receipts are therefore as follows : Wages $159 22 Grain and milk sold ^ 56 62 Products consumed 119 70 Total 335 54 EXPENDITURES. Food: Beef per week, 1£ pounds $10 64 Meat and fat of a hog (including purchase) 15 99 Milk, 900 liters at 11£ pfennigs 24 49 Bread, daily, 5 pounds ..: 55 83 Potatoes, 70 cwt 28 56 Coffee per week, 1 pound 14 14 Chicory, 104 packages 1 43 Salt, 78 pounds 1 86 Wine, beer, cake, &c 8 14 Total 161 08 Raiment : Clothing and linen 20 42 Shoes and mending 9 00 Total 29 42 Lodging : Rental value of house 14 71 Small repairs 78 Total 15 49 Fuel: Coal, 50 cwt., and kindling 20 42 Light 4 07 Total 24 49 228 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. $2 07- Tools, physicians, and apothecary 4 07 Taxes, assessment, and insurance g -^ Interest on mortgage gyg Rent for one acre - 2 43 Right of pasture on road - g gg Oil-cakes, 104 pieces 22 63 Beets for own use and fed ' gg Beet seed, 2} liters . 0? Seed potatoes, 10 cwt ' „ -, Seed grain for 2 acres ^2 Total » 072 RECAPITULATION. Receipts, grand total - 335 54 Expenditures "•"■ "" Surplus 34 34 HOW A LABORER'S FAMILY LIVES. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF A LABORER AND FAMILY OWNING NO REAL ESTATE. RECEIPTS. 200 working days of the man $71 40 30 days' work mowing in harvest time 14 28 60 days' work with family weeding and hoeing bests, 32 acres 60 92 200 working days of wife 38 08- Total 184 68 EXPENDITURES. Food: Purchase of a pig 4 76 Meat per week, 2 pounds, at 60 pfennigs 14 28 Butter per week, 1} pounds, at 1 mark 18 56 Bread per week, 32 pounds, at 17-J pfennigs 69 02 Other victuals 11 90 Total 118 52 Raiment 23 80 Lodging (rent) 11 90 Fuel 14 28 Sundry expenses 11 90 Grand total 180 40 RECAPITULATION. Receipts 184 68 Expenditures 180 40 Surplus 4 28 HOW A FARM LABORER'S FAMILY LIVES. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF A FARM LABORER AND FAMILY BOUND BY CON- TRACT. RECEIPTS. Wages : Summer work of the man g 57 Summer work of the wife , 7 14 Winter work of the man (exclusive of threshing) 5 71 Total .. ---„. 2142 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 229 Necessaries : Lodgings $14 28 Firewood 10 00 One acre of potato land prepared 8 57 One-sixth acre of flax land prepared 1 43 Pasture and feed for one cow...: 17 85 Pasture and feed for two hogs 2 14 Pasture and feed for two geese and goslings '. 3 57 Eleven bushels of rye 13 09 Two bushels of barley 1 90 Two bushels of oats 1 19 Two bushels of peas 2 38 Extra earnings of the family for threshing in winter 61 40 Profits: On the products of the land , 23 56 On the products of the hog 10 71 On the products of the geese and chickens 8 57 Total income 202 06 EXPENDITURES. Pood $115 78 Raiment _>. 28 56 Lodging 14 28 Fuel , 10 83 Other expenses 27 92 Total 197 37 Surplus . 4 69 I have not deemed it necessary to itemize in the last two instances the different items of expenses, because the very complete recital of them in the first instance will suffice, with proper modifications, to elucidate the other two. PERCENTAGE OF FOOD EXPENSES. As a general thing it may be observed that the percentage of earn- ings expended for food is proportionately the largest, where the earn- ings are the lowest, and decrease in proportion as the earnings increase. Thus it has been ascertained that in the families of laborers who barely succeed in providing for their wants the percentage of the earnings ex- pended tor the different necessaries is as follows ; Food, 65 per cent.; raiment, 15 ; lodging, 5 ; fuel, 6 ; sundries, 15. INDUSTRIAL AND MECHANICAL LABORERS. I now turn to that important element of population, the industrial and mechanical laborers, namely, those persons working for wages in the mining and smelting works, in factories and shops, on railroads and transportation lines. Their number far exceeds that of persons en- gaged in agricultural pursuits. In 1875 there were employed in the German Empire in the pursuits mentioned : Journeymen and workmen Apprentices Total Male. 2, 521, 477 422, 350 2, 943, 827 Female. 549, 630 32, 089 581, 719 Total 3, 071, 107 454, 439 3, 525, 546 230 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Since 1875, however, there has been a considerable accession to this ele- ment of population, for the last census shows that those parts of the empire which are distinguished for industrial activity have attracted immense masses of people. Hence it may be safely assumed that this class of workmen now numbers no less than 5,000,000. Among the man- ifold pursuits of this great army of workmen we may distinguish the fol- lowing as embracing the bulk of that army : (a) Miners, diggers, and iron- workers, (b) Factory men. (c) Mechanics and workmen engaged in their work at home (e. g. cigar-makers, weavers, &c). (a.) MINERS, DIGGERS AND IRON-WORKHRS. More than one-half of all the workmen belonging to this class are employed in coal-mines, coke-ovens, brown-coal- works, and in peetdig- ing ; the majority of the other one-half are employed in iron-mines, fur- naces, smelting-works, iron and steel works, wire and nail factories, a comparatively small number only finding employment in silver, cop- per, lead, zinc, and salt mines. The vocation of the miner is a very exacting one; the descending into and ascending out of the deep pits alone, which in the smaller mines is still accomplished by means of ladders and which in many cases oc- cupies an hour, is a hard task. Then the work under ground, at a depth of from one to three thousand feet, in a moist atmosphere, in .a stooping or lying position, surrounded by manifold dangers, is no less trying and fatiguing. Yet this is the work to which three-fourths of all the miners are devoted, the other fourth being engaged j.n haul- ing, tending, preparing, and other incidental work. A working day is eight hours, seldom more than ten, and, when the work is very hard and wet, only six. The miners work in constantly continuing reliefs. They are engaged by contract of four week's duration. They are paid by the ton and are able to earn enough to lay up small amounts from time to time. For centuries there have existed among them " relief associations," here called " Knappschaftsvereine," the membership to which is obliga- tory in Prussia, which afford to the permanent members relief in sick- ness, medical aid, 1 medicine, funeral expenses, an annuity in case of dis- ability, as well as support to their widows and orphans. The temporary members receive medical aid, medicine and relief in case of sickness, and an annuity in case of disability caused by accident in pursuit of their vocation. Of these aid societies there were in Prussia in 1875,102, representing 2,601 works and having a membership of 257,042, namely, 138,559 permanent and 118,483 temporary members. In 1880 there were in the Prussian Kingdom 183 such societies, with 320,000 members. The work of these societies is very beneficent ; they build orphan and invalid asylums, hospitals, schools, provide "Kindergarten," &c. In the district of Saarbriicken, in which the mining population seems to be most prosperous, these aid societies paid during the year 1880 — To 2,807 invalids, an average pension of $92 11 To 2,247 widows, an average pension of , 39 03 To 3,281 orphans, an average pension of 10 23 Other districts, however, cannot make so favorable a showing. The State pays one-half of all the contributions ; the other half is paid by the workmen. The average annual contribution of a workman is $10. The average earnings of a miner are $228.48 to $.285.60. The condition of the miners is not accounted, in Germany, one of indigence. Indeed LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 231 many of them mapage to buy or build a little dwelling-housa, and to ac- quire some land. Take, as an example, the miners of the district of Klausthal; the statistical report of 1881 shows that there were em- ployed in mining during the year 1880, in all the mines, 12,051 men ; of these 7,007 were married ; 2,248 were land and house owners ; 1,010 house-owners only ; 465 were land-owners only ; 8,328 had no property. These 12,051, furthermore, owned 2,894 head of cattle ; 4,821 hogs, and •6,077 goats. The number of men employed in the mining and iron industries of Germany is constantly increasing. The Prussian furnaces employed in 1879,102,729 men; in 1880, the number had increased to 113,128 men. The total number of men employed in the mining and iron in- dustries of Prussia increased during said years from 231,782 to 247,356. The report relating to 200 coal mines of the Ehenish-Westphalian dis- trict shows a working force of only 79,269 men in 1880, 81,269, in 1881 and 88,832 in 1882, an increase of more than 11 per cent. The amount of wages paid by these works is claimed to have increased 26 per cent., an actual increase of 15 per cent, for the same number of men. There are but few minors employed in these industries. The law of 1879 pro- vides that children below twelve years of age may not be employed at all and that children from twelve to fourteen years may not be employed more than six hours each day, while no more than ten hours' work shall be exacted from any person between fourteen and sixteen years of age. Women are not employed in these enterprises. " The association of iron and steel men" held a meeting a few days ago in Berlin. The annual report of the association showed a member- ship of 356 employers. The number of workmen employed by them was 240,000 ; the capital employed $259,000,000. The statistical re- searches of the association showed that since the introduction of the protective tariff (July 15, 1879), the number of workmen employed in the iron and steel industry of Germany had increased 33.2 per cent., the total wages 52.1 per cent., and the wages of the single workman 14.2 per cent. The report farther showed that in spite of the unfavor- able condition of the iron market in the latter half of the year 1883, there had been observable only a slight decrease of the number of workmen employed and the amount of wages paid. The average earn- ings of the men were shown to be about $4.20 per week, as against about $3.65 in 1879. It must be borne in mind, however, that the iron and mining industry of Germany has prospered beyond any other branch of industry since the adoption of the tariff of 1879, excepting the man- ufacture of beet sugar, the astounding growth of which industry is due to the payment of premiums on the export thereof. In many branches of industry, notably in the textile branch, there has been no progress made beyond that which is necessarily consequent upon the constant increase of population and consequent increase of consumption. (&.) WAGES IN FACTORIES. It is impossible to even mention by name all the numerous branches and subdivisions of establishments which come under the designation of factories. It is frequently difficult even to draw the line between a small factory and a large shop. The workman, too, employed in the factory to-day may have established himself as a master mechanic the next day or he may have taken work with some master mechanic. The condition and wages of the workmen also differ materially with. the region in which they live and the work in which they are engaged. 232 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Even in the same place and industrial establishment the wages of the men differ materially according to the skill and industry of the work- man It happens that the weekly wages of men, following the same employment in the same place vary from $2.88 to $12, especially in branches of industry where it is possible to work by the piece The locksmith, turner, coppersmith, &c, ordinarily earns from $3.60 to $4.30 per week, but a skillful workman, working by the piece, may earn as much as $10.80 to $11.52 in the same line of employment. Among type- setters and printers the same difference in the amount of earnings is observable, the weekly earnings ranging, according to skill, from $3.60 to $9.60. This great variation makes the fixing of average wages very difficult and precarious. The employment of youthful workmen in some branches of industry also has a tendency to depress the average wages and to make the earnings of the workmen in those branches appear lower than they are in fact. Boys are always paid lower wages than men, while this is not the case with female work, girls of fifteen to six- teen years being generally paid as well as full grown women and some- times even better; hence the average female wages are more easily ascer- tained and less liable to fluctuations; they vary from $1.20 to $2.88 per week, in rare instances only reaching $4.80. The great bulk of female laborers is employed in the different branches of the textile industry and in cigar factories. A slight advance in wages must be conceded in almost all lines of in- dustry. The Dortmund Union, for example, reports, that the average ■\\ ages paid by them during the years 1879, 1880, and 1881 were as fol- lows: 1879, $190.88 per year; 1880, $194.68 per year; 1881, $210.39 per year. The sewing-machine factory of Frister & Eossmann employed in the year 1882 six hundred and sixty workmen, and the average wages dur- ing that year amounted to $281.85. This, however, is an exceptionally favorable showing, and the average earnings per year in the different factories are about as follows : Men $142 80 to §214 20 Women 47 60 to 119 00 Youthful workmen 47 60 to 117 10 An exact general average can hardly be given. As near as it may be done, it is, for men, $178.50 ; women, $83.30. CONDITION OF FACTORY WORK-PEOPLE. In order to present a more accurate view of the life and condition of factory workmen, I shall now proceed to give such details of the ar- rangements prevailing at one of the leading chemical factories of Ger- many as may be conducive to that end. ANILINE FACTORY AND ITS WORKMEN. Tar-colors factory of the firm of Meister, Lucius <& Bruning, of SooJist {near Franlcfort-on-the-Main). The number of workmen employed at this factory is 1,296 ; of which about 60 per cent, may be considered stationary and 40 per cent, fluctu- ating. All are engaged at 14 days, mutual notice. Each workman upon his engagement, is furnished a set of rules and regulations to which strict conformity is exacted. Of these 1,296 workmen 837'are married, 438 single, and 21 widowers. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 233 The size of the families of the 858 married men and widowers is as follows : 114 workmen are childless ; 168 have 1 child ; 198 have two children ; 139 have 3 children ; 115 have 4 children ; 59 have 5 children ; 38 have 6 children ; 21 have 7 children ; 2 have 8 children ; 2 have 9 children ; 1 has 10 children ; 1 has 12 children. It should be stated, however, that no workman is engaged who is not in good health and whose age exceeds thirty-five years, although, if once engaged, he is never discharged on account of age, infirmity, or sick- ness, but if invalid or unfit for work, is cared for by the firm, as will be shown below. Work commences at 6 o'clock a. m. and ceases at 5 o'clock p. m. Half the force of workmen ceases work for lunch from 8 to 8.30 a. m. and the other half from 8.30 to 9 a. m., and the former have their dinner-hour from 12 to 1 p. m., and the other half from 1 to 2 p. m. There is no in- terruption of work for vespers, because the general work ceases at 5 p. m. The necessary night work is done in two reliefs, and an addition of 10 per cent, is paid for such work over and above the amount paid for the same duration of day work. On Sundays and holidays work ceases entirely. The workmen are allowed a reasonable time to vote at elec- tions for members of the Eeichstag and the Prussian Landtag without any deduction of wages. The daily wages run from between $0.12 and $1.24. The following table shows the wages actually paid these 1,296 work- men: WAGES PER DAY. 9 men $0 12 to $0 24 16men 24 36 47 men 36 48 401men .: 48 60 585men 60 72 177 men 72 84 40 men 84 96 20men 96 1 08 1 man 1 13 As to the subdivisions of work the average daily wages range as follows : In the mechanical workshop $0 77 In the machine rooms 74 In the builders' shop 71 In the hauling department 62 In the alizarine factory 62 In the aniline factory 62 In the acid factory 64 In the packing rooms -. 60 In the dye rooms : 67 General average per day 65 To these regular wages must be added " premiums," which the firm awards at the end of each year to such of the workmen as have shown themselves exceptionally industrious and well-behaved. Of such prem- iums the firm has paid last year $4,014.82, the payments being made as follows : More than $23.80 to 4 men ; from $11.90 to $23.80 to 46 men ; from $5.95 to $11.90, to 87 men; from $0.47 to $5.95, to 1,175 men. Including these premiums in the wages paid, it will appear that a competent workman in this establishment can earn about $238 per year. This is not a very high figure, but' it must be taken into consideration that the firm have in many other respects shown a marked and intelli- gent care for the well-being of their workmen. 234 LABOR IN; EUEOPE — GERMANY. FACTORY HOMES. Thev have erected a soup and coffee establishment, where those men, whose families live at a distance, can obtain dinner and coffee at 5 cents Der dav. They have built houses in the neighborhood of the factory, con- taining in all 72 dwellings and 51 sleeping-berths (the latter m 8 large rooms) of which they give the use to their workmen, at very low rates. The houses containing the dwellings for families are one and two story buildings, with attic. They are situated within five minutes' walk from the factory, and each of them has attached to it a garden of 250 square meters surface, divided into as many parts as there are families m the house. The houses are built of brick, and contain lodgings for four families each. I attach drafts of the two kinds of houses built. In the house E 14, the lodging for a family consists, on the ground floor, of two rooms and a kitchen (including part of cellar and attic), and in the first story of two rooms, two attic rooms and kitchen. In house E 15, each lodging consists of two rooms, three attic rooms and kitchen. The rent of a lodging on the ground floor of house E 14 is 47.6 cents per week; on the upper floor 59 J cents per week. In house E 15 each lodging rents at 71.4 cents per week. The lodgings, there- fore, average (including garden and out-house) $29.75 per year. The firm are constantly increasing the number of these dwelling houses. They have also erected a bath-house and a coffee and soup house, at which, as I have said before, the workmen can obtain coffee and soup (pea and bean soup) at 5 cents a day, the firm contributing 2 J cents per day for each workman who becomes a regular boarder at the establish- ment. At the bath-house bathing is free, and no deduction from the wages of a workman is made for the time occupied by him in .bathing. An association has been formed, mutually by the firm and the workmen, for the support of the sick workmen in this manner : Each workman who becomes a member contributes 1 per cent, of his wages and the firm pays 50 per cent, of the total amount paid by the workmen. In case of sickness the workman obtains out of the funds of the society a reasonable sum for the care and support of himself and family, and in case of death a certain amount is paid to the family for burial ex- penses. Besides this relief association there is an association for the support of invalids and the widows and orphans of deceased workmen. This association was formed by a donation of the firm of $35,700. It has been in existence only a few years, but it is believed that out of its resources the families of all invalid or deceased workmen of the firm can be effectually assisted in supporting themselves. (C.) GENERAL TRADES. MECHANICS AND WORKMEN ENGAGED IN THEIR WORK AT HOME. I include among the designation of mechanics, potters, tinners, cop- persmiths, locksmiths, watch-makers, wagoners, rope-makers, dyers, bookbinders, tanners, coopers, millers, bakers, tailors, shoemakers, car- penters, bricklayers, &c. All these pursuits are followed in Germany by master mechanics, that is to say, persons who have established a shop or business of their own, and ^ ho either work at their trade alone or have journeymen as assistants, or who, if their trade is sufficiently large, merely superintend the work of their journeymen. These jour- neymen are employed by the week or month, seldom by the day, and the employment may be terminated by either party upon' a week or two E15. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 235 weeks' previous notice. In some branches of industry these workmen work by the piece at their own houses ; in many others they receive regular wages. The practice of boarding and lodging mechanical work- men is less in vogue now than it used to be. It may be assumed that one-third of the workmen employed in these vocations are apprentices. Most of these receive no pay, but board in the family of the master. In some of the large and thrifty cities apprentices are sometimes paid wages during the latter years of their apprenticeship (which is ordinarily three years). In such cases the wages paid range from 95 cents to $2.86 per week. The great variety of occupations makes it very difficult to give an estimate of the average wages paid. Wages in a majority of branches have not risen since 1878. In the building trade, for example, the prices paid per day during the building season, range about as follows : Brick- layers, 60 to 71 cents ; joiners, 60 or 65 to 71 cents ; carpenters, 54 to 65 cents; tenders, 38 to 48 cents. The work embraces eleven hours per day, to wit, from 6 a. m. to 7 p. m., with two hours for meals and rest. In the potteries and brick- yards the men work by the piece, and can earn during the summer months from 60 to 71 cents per day ; in winter about 48 cents. cigar-makers' wages. Cigar-makers invariably work by the hundred, and a large part of the work is done by the workmen at their homes. The amount paid for the work (the workman himself paying his assistants) varies according to the quality of the tobacco worked up, as follows : (1) For cigars sold by the manufacturer at $8.33 to $8.57, that is, a cigar selling at retail at 1£ cents a piece, $1.55 to $1.67 per thousand. (2) For cigars sold by the manufacturer, at $1.07 to $1.19, $1.79 to $1.90 per thousand. (3) For better brands, $2.02, $2.14 to $2.86 per thousand, according to quality. A skillful workman, after paying his assistants, may thus make $3.57 net per week, but $2.86 may be called a week's average wages. Where the workman is assisted by his wife, and maybe one or two grown or half-grown children, which is often the case, he can, of course, increase his income to $4.76 to $5.71 per week. The inland tax on tobacco of all qualities is 5 J cents per pound, the duty on imported tobacco is 10J cents per pound. It will be observed that the tax, as well as the duty, weigh most heavily on the inferior kinds of tobacco and cigars, in consequence of which the cigar industry has been much depressed of late, and wages and profits have become very unsatis- factory. This fact will be easily understood when it is borne in mind that perhaps 90 per cent, of all cigars consumed in Germany are sold at retail at less than 2 cents, and that at that remarkably low figure the German consumer— the very army of workmen of whom this report treats demands a well-made cigar of good home tobacco. The rent of the cigar-maker if he lives in a smaller town, or at some distance from a town or city, ordinarily ranges from $21.42 to $28.56 per year; in larger cities, of course, rents are much higher. BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES IN GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES. In many respects the condition of certain branches of industry dif- fers very widely from that prevailing in the United States. Let us take an example. The great boot and shoe factories of the United States supply as I have been informed by a competent gentleman acquainted with the American as well as the German boot and shoe trade, about 236 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 90 per cent, of the entire consumption of boots and shoes in the home market In every city and town of the United States one may see numerous shoe stores filled with the products of the Boston, Lynn, New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago factories, while the old time shoemaker is almost a tradition. In Germany the reverse is the case. The shoe store is the exception, while the shoemaker's sign may be seen in every street. Indeed, the gentleman referred to informs me that of about 100,000,000 of pairs of boots and shoes consumed in Germany per year not more than 6,000,000 are factory made, 94 per cent, being still the pro- duct of the master shoemaker. Is not here a great field for American enterprise t . A master shoemaker living in one of the suburbs of this city told me that there was no perceptible difference in the wages paid in 1878 and now, and that the price of the necessaries of life had also remained about stationary. To my questions, whether there were different grades of shoemakers, as to the extent of their business, as well as to the quality of the work, he said that there were ; that the master, who had a good run of custom, usually kept a sort of shop or store with a show-window to exhibit his work," and maybe one or two workmen inside to make the current repairs, but that he gave out most of his new work to journey- men who worked at their homes by the pair ; the small master, on the other hand, usually employed but one or two hands, who worked with him in his shop. I reduce the figures given in German money to American money. SHOEMAKERS' WAGES. Question. Has the former any material advantages over the latter? — Answer. Tea ; his reputation and good location brings him the better classes of customers ; he has a fitting-room, he can buy his leather at wholesale, and he gets $6 and $7 for boots or shoes which I make j ust as durable and good for $4.50. The price of leather is some- what lower now than it was in 1878. I pay 60 to 70 cents per pound for sheep leather and 45 to 50 cents for sole leather. Question. How much can a workman earn per week who works at home by the pair ? — Answer. From $3.50 to $4.75. They are generally better workmen than those who work in the master's shop. The latter earn from $34)0 to $3.50 per week. Question. What are the necessary expenses of a single workman working in the Bhop with a master, and how much can he s,ave out of his wages ? — Answer. I think a workman who lodges at his master's house, as many do, can get along on 25 cents a day, as follows : Two small glasses of beer per day, 4J cents ; coffee and bread twice a day, 4-£ cents ; one cigar, 1 cent : dinner at master's house, 10£ cents ; sausage and bread (supper), 4 J cents; total, 25 cents. On Sundays he may spend a little more, say 30 cents. The calculation theu would stand as follows: Receipts: Wages, say $3.21 per week, fifty-two weeks, $166.92. Expenditures : Board, three hundred and thirteen days, at 25 cents, $78.25; board, fifty-two Sundays, $15.60; clothing per year, $17.37 ; incidental expenses, $2,; total, $113.22. Which shows that he may make a saving of $53.70 per year. DIKECT TAXATION IN PRUSSIA. By a recent act of the Prussian Landtag, all persons whose annual income falls below $285.60 per year have been released from the pay- ment of all direct taxes, so that in the Kingdom of Prussia almost all workmen who are not property owners, are entirely free from taxation, except so far as they may, with the balance of the population, as con- sumers, help to pay the taxes which the manufacturer and importer has advanced to the Government in the shape of manufacturers taxes and import duties. In addition to this relief recently granted to the Ger- man workman, the State is now about to insure them against accident and to provide for them in case of disability by sickness or old age. LABOR IN EUEOPE — GERMANY. 237 Both these bills are now under discussion by the Eeichstag, and will undoubtedly be passed. COMMERCE AND TRAFFIC. The condition of the persons engaged in commerce and traffic is so varied and diversified that a description of the life, employment, and earnings of those engaged in even the leading branches thereof would transcend altogether the scope of this report. It deserves to be stated, however, that in the mercantile business an apprenticeship' ranging from two to four years is still universally required, except from sons of the better families, who have acquired, as is often the case, a collegiate education ; these young men, having usually reached an age of seven- teen to twenty years, enter a mercantile house as " volunteers," demand- ing no pay and not unfrequently paying the merchant for the privilege of becoming conversant with mercantile affairs under his guidance. The regular apprentices usually receive board and lodging, but no pay, and are required to work very hard^ and from early morning until late at night, they being the first to come or commence and the last to go or quit work. WAGES ON STATE RAILROADS. Nearly all the railroads in Prussia are now owned and operated by the State. The persons engaged on the lines are all uniformed and most of them are former under-officers of the army. The mechanics employed are, of course, taken from the ranks of the skilled men of the different branches of artisanship. The former are employed by the year and entitled to a pension for themselves in case of disability and for their family in case of death ; the latter are paid by the day or week and may be discharged at the pleasure of the Government. The laborers employed in loading and unloading freight, repairing the track, &c, are paid (per day) as follows: , Freight men at station $0 52 First freight man (in charge of a gang) i •. 57 Track men • 52 First track man 60 The mechanics receive about the same wages as are current in the same profession in the neighborhood in which they are employed, which will be found in the tables hereto annexed. The salary of the " officers " of the royal railroads centering at Frankfort-on-the-Main is adjusted in the following manner: The officers receive a fixed salary, which is increased, while they oc- cupy the same rank, up to a certain maximum amount, according to the duration of the service. In addition to this they receive a small further amount as a substitute for or to equalize rents. This amount is ad- justed according to the value of rents in the different cities or towns in which the officers live. In further addition to this, and by way of a stimulus for the prompt and circumspect performance of their duty, the Government awards to those to whom the running, care, and safety of trains is intrusted, such as engineers, firemen, brakemen, conductors, &c, certain annual premiums, adjusted according to the efficiency and fidelity of each single officer. The degree of efficiency, and hence the amount of premium to be paid to each individual officer is determined by the board of directors, upon the report of the officers immediately 238 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. superior to the officer to be rewarded. These remarks will explain the following tables of salaries paid: PAT OP TRAIN OFFICERS. Salary. Rental aid. Premiums. Engineers Superintendent of train Freight officer Conductors Firemen Brakemen $285 60 to $428 40 249 90 to 381 30 235 62 to 185 64 to 214 20 to 164 22 to 249 90 235 62 285 60 235 62 $14 28 to $19 04 4 76 to 19 04 4 76 to 4 76 to 4 76 to 4 76 to PAT OF TRACK OFFICERS. 19 04 19 04 19 04 19 04 $71 40 to $119 00 71 40 to 119 00 71 40 to 95 20 47 60 to 71 40 47 60 to 71 40 47 60 to 71 40 Salary. Rental aid. Trackmaster Telegraph guard Track guard $321 30 to $464 10 339 15 to 446 25 142 80 to 178 50 $14 28 to $19 04 14 28 to 19 04 14 76 to 19 04 PAT OF STATION OFFICERS. Salary. Rental aid. Station superintendent, first-class Station superintendent, second-class Section inspectors >. ) Assistant section inspectors 5 Telegraph operators * Wagon-masters Ereight clerks and cashiers $499 80 to $761 60 428 40 to 499 80 321 30 to 428 40 249 90 to 321 30 249 90 to 285 60 571 20 to 761 00 $14 28 to $42 84 14 28 to 42 84 14 28 to 42 84 4 76 to 19 04 4 76 to 19 04 14 28 to 42 84 DOMESTIC SERVICE. I have already stated that I do not consider the estimate, according to which about 2,500,000 of people, male and female, are engaged in do- mestic service in Germany, as exorbitant. In order to comprehend this fact it must be taken into consideration that in Germany at least two, if not three, servants are employed in a family, where an American fam- ily of equal station in life employs one. This is partly due to the fact, that work is done faster in the United.States, owing in a great measure to the more practical arrangement of houses, kitchens, ranges, stoves, &c, and partly because there does not exist in Germany on the part of men and women of limited pretensions to education any aversion to " serving " or being called " servants." All these domestic servants, be they hostlers, coachmen, butlers, ta- ble-servants, house-keepers, maids, nurses, or kitchen girls, live with the family which employs them, in the middle classes in the same house, in the higher classes partly in the house and partly in outhouses. Wages vary very much, not alone according to the occupations, but also according to the places. In large cities the scale of wages is much higher than in country towns. The wages of females iu this line of work, m addition to board and lodging, range from $14.28 to $71.40, and those of males from $23.80 to $95.20 per year. Owing to the strong current of emigration from this class of people there is a constant improvement in their condition, treatment, and pay. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 239 STRIKES. It has only been in recent years that workmen have organized suf- ficiently in Germany to influence by joint action in any manner the amount of wages to be paid to them. Of late strikes, organized after the English and American methods, are not of infrequent occurrence in the larger cities, and I have found to my astonishment that even in this country, where the supply of labor is so abundant, these strikes have sometimes been successful. In pursuance of the recent circular of the Department of State I shall more fully investigate and at another time report upon the organization of workingmen's unions and guilds in Ger- many. SUMMARY. In summing up finally the results of my investigation of the condi- tions pf labor in Germany, and more particularly in the province of Hesse-Nassau, of which Frankfort is the leading commercial city, al- though Wiesbaden is the seat of the principal government, I feel jus- tified in saying that while the general improvement in the condition of the working classes during the last three or four decades, brought about by the progress of intelligence and education, by the increased facilities of travel and intercommunication, by a constant flow of emi- gration, carrying off the surplus force of the country, is undeniable, yet there is not observable any material change in their condition since 1878, except, as already stated, in the iron and coal regions of Ehenish Prus- sia, where the protection afforded to established industries by an in- creased tariff has had the effect of stimulating enterprise and of decid- edly improving the condition of both the manufacturer and the work- men. * In conclusion, I beg to call attention to the statistical tables hereto annexed, containing a statement of the wages paid in numerous branches of industry not specially referred to in this report. FEBDINAND VOGELEE, Consul- General. United States Consulate-General, FranTefort-on-the-Main, June 13, 1884. 1. General trades. Wages paid per week of sixty-six hours in Frankfort-on-the-Main. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TEADEB. $2 40 1 44 2 40 1 44 2 65 1 44 3 75 3 75 1 44 2 90 $7 20 3 74 7 20 3 74 5 85 3 74 4 75 4 75 3 74 5 20 $4 64 2 26 4 64 2 26 4 10 2 26 4 25 4 25 2 26 4 25 2 00 264 2 90 6 80 5 20 3 60 4 25 240 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Frankfort-on-the-Main— Continued. Occupations. OTHEB TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers (usually boys)-.. Bookbinders Briok-makers Brewers Butchers Brass-founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers Drivers: Draymen and teamsters.. Cab and carriage Street railway Street-railway conductors — Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters ■ Horse-shoers Laborers, porters, &o Lithographers Millwrights Kail-makers (hand) Potters Printers Saddle and harness makers .. Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Lowest. Highest Average. $2 90 2 16 1 00 2 68 1 50 4 75 2 32 2 40 2 60 2 38 2 65 2 10 2 85 4 50 3 50 2 20 2 85 2 75 2 00 4 25 3 50 2 10 2 90 4 25 3 75 3 75 2 75 t 2 50 $4 00 4 70 1 50 4 85 4 65 5 75 3 47 4 75 4 10 3 57 4 18 2 85 3 85 7 50 4 50 3 80 5 00 3 50 3 00 10 00 5 50 3 25 4 60 9 00 4 25 4 25 3 35 t 3 75 $3 50 3 49 1 25 3 65 3 55 5 25 2 85 4 25 3 49 3 15 2 86 3 25 2 50 288 3 36 3 40 600 i 00 3 00 3 90 3 12 2 50 6 50 4 50 2 62 3 84 6 00 3 90 3 90 3 05 t 3 12 * Are paid by the trip and hour. tSee Railroads. II. Factories, mills, &c. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in factories or mills in and near Frankfort-on-the-Main. I [Tar-color "Works of Meisler, Lucius &Bruning at Hochst-on-the-Main.] Employment. Average. Mechanical workshop . Machine rooms Builder's shop.^. Hauling department Alizarine factory Aniline factory Acid factory Packing rooms 1 Dye rooms General average Paper mills $4 70 4 43 3 74 3 74 3 74 3 74 3 76 3 71 3 68 3 75 3 12 III. Foundries, machine-shops and iron works. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in foundries, machine- shops, and iron works in Frank- fort-on-the-Main, Germany. Employment. Lowest. Highest. Average. $3 50 3 30 $5 75 5 40 $4 20 4 05 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. IV. Glass wobkers. 241 There are no glass works within the consular district of Frankfort-on- the-Main. From the statistics carefully collected and published by Paul Balliu, of Friedman, I learn that the average earnings of a glass- worker are $3.79 per week. V. Mines and mining. Wages paid per week of forty-eight hours in and in connection with mines in Shenish Prussia. Occupation. Lowest. Highest Average. $4 43 $8 54 $4 98 VI. Railway employes. Wages paid to railway employed {those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on th e engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, #-c), in Frankfort-on-the-Main distriot. Occupations. Lowest. Highest Average. Laborers: Freightmen at station per day.. First freightmen at station do Trackmen do First trackmen > ->. do Train officers : Engineers per year.. Superintendent of train do Freight officer do Conductors -• do Firemen do Brakemen do Traok officers : Trackoiaster per year.. Telegraph guard.... do Track guard , : do Station officers : Station superintendent first class.. Station superintendent second class.. Section inspector ) Assistant section inspector > Telegraph operator Wagon-master Freight clerks and cashiers $371 28 326 06 311 78 238 00 266 66 216 58 335 58 353 43 147 56 514 08 442 6B 335 58 254 66 254 66 585 48 $566 44 459 24 364 14 326 06 376 04 326 04 483 ii 465 29 197 54 804 44 542 74 471 24 340 34 304 64 804 44 *i 52 57 52 468 81 437 65 337 96 282 03 321 35 271 31 40B 36 409 36 172 60 659 27 492 21 403 41 . 297 56 279 65 694 96 IX. Store and shop wages. Wages paid per week in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in Frankfort-on-the- Main. Occupations. Lowest Highest Average. Df STORES. Clerks (male) Clerks (female) IN OFFICES. Book-keepers Book-keepers' assistants 92 A— LAB 16~~ $2 88 1 92 7 98 • 2 88 $7 98 4 80 15 96 7 98 $5 78 3 36 11 97 5 78 242 LABOB IN" EUKOPE GERMANY. X. HOTJSDHOLD WAGES. , Wages paid per year to household servants {towns and cities) in Frankfort-on-the-Mam.* Occupations. Coachmen Male house-servants. - Female house-Bervants $00 00 50 00 15 00 Highest. $100 00 00 00 30 00 Average. $80 00 70 00 25 00 ''Including board and lodging. XI. Agbictjltubal wages. Wages paid per day to agricultural laborers in province of Hesse-Nassmi, without board and lodging. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Laborers (field) : $0.34 20 $0.60 24 $0.47 22 ' XII. OOBPOEATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to the corporation employe's in the city of\Frankfort-on-the-Main. Occupations. Mayor Forest inspector Secretary of the city Recorder Librarian Registrar of births, marriages, and deaths . "Building inspectors City treasurer City book-keeper C ity auditors City school superintendent City gardener City chief of fire department City tax treasurer City superintendent of theaters Book-keeper of city pawn office City marketmaster City surveyor — City statistician City assistant statistician Superintendent of cemetery City weighers City overseer of the poor City tax collectors City janitors City foresters City watchmen s Lowest. $1, 056 00 $336 00 336 00 288 00 216 00 Highest. $1, 128 00 $480 00 480 00 360 00 312 00 "$2,856 00 1,200 00 1, 200 00 1, 200 00 1, 128 00 1, 128 00 1,092 00 1,104 00 1, 104 00 1, 032 00 1,032 00 864 00 864 00 960 00 720 00 744 00 648 00 720 00 744 00 64S 00 600 00 612 00 612 00 408 00 408 00 324 00 276 00 *And dwelling. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 243 XIII. Government employes. Wages paid per year to employe* in Government departments and offices, exclusive of trades- men, and laborers, in Frankfort-on-the-Main, province of Hesse-Nassau. Occupations. Lowest Highest. Average. President of province Counselors ofpresident President of district President of royal railroad board President of oberlandgericht (court) Judges of oberlandgericht (court) Secretary of oberlandgericht (court) Prosecuting attorney of oberlandgericnt (court) Assistant prosecuting attorney of oberlandgerioht (oourt) . President of landgericbt (court) Judges of landgericbt (court) Secretaries of landgericht (court) Prosecuting attorney of landgericbt (court) Assistant prosecuting attorney of landgericbt (court) Judges of amtsgericht (court) Chief of police Police direotor Police commissioners $1, 000 $1,440 1,152 600 1,581 1,056 576 500 1,440 792 576 "676 1,440 i,'ii6 *$5, 'I: *2, 3, 1, 000 220 736 880 000 636 368 576 000 600 920 000 * And suitable dwelling. XIV. Laborers in government employ. Wages paid by the week of sixty hour sto the laborers in Government employ in Frankfort-, on-the-Main. Occupations. Lowest. Highest Average. $2 99 $3 67 $3 28 XV. Printers and printing-offices. Statement showing the wages paid per week of sixty-six hours to 'printers {compositors, press- men, proof-readers, tfe.) in Frankfort-on-the-Mam. Occupations. Lowest Highest Average. »3 25 825 $5 71 460 $4 50 875 244 LABOE IN EUROPE' — GERMANY. Prices of food and lodgings in the district of Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany- Victuals. Bents per month. Cities. * . ft* M P o W ft t*«-l M Si ft(0 II Is © o r-i U . <0 m P*3 0> 9 a o S M 1 el .■* a O •e a a T. - P IS, Is $4 37 3 82 2 62 3 82 3 05 3 05 4 37 2 62 2 74 2 83 2 83 3 26 2 95 2 74 3 05 4 80 $5 45 4 37 3 26 4 80 4 37 5 02 5 45 3 72 3 72 4 37 5 66 4 37 5 66 4 37 4 58 5 45 $0 86 77 65 82 74 65 82 72 77 65 43 77 65 65 84 77 $0 15 15 14 15 14 14 13 15 16 15 15 13 13 15 14 14 .$0 15 14 16 18 16 13 17 14 17 14 15 13 14 15 14 15 $0 12 13 12 12 12 10 13 12 14 12 8 13 9 9 13 16 $0 21 17 20 •22 22 22 22 20 19 20 22 22 22 20 19 17 $2 88 1 68 $4 32 2 16 JTrankfort-on-the-Main 3 84 3 60 1 99 3 60 2 16 2 88 2 28 2 88 9 60 4 80 3 00 4 80 2 52 8 60 3 24 Nied .'. 3 00 Sal cuuBSter-on-the-Kinzig. . 2 52 3 60 3 12 Wink el-OB-the-E.il in o 4 32 3 31 4 66 72 14 15 12 21 2 83 4 04 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. bepobt by consul lincoln. 1. Bates op wages. The answers to this question will be found in the tables herewith in- closed, as far as it was possible to ascertain them here. In cases where replies are not given the request for information has been re- fused. 2. Cost oe living. Tn reply to this question I submit the following table of average re- tail prices of the articles of food commonly consumed by the class in question : Beef per pound.. $0 17J Veal , do.... 16* Mutton do 17| Pork, fresh do 19 Ham, smoked • do 421 Butter \&o.... 294 Cheese do.... 19 Milk. .....per liter.. 04 Coflee, roasted perpound.. 33i Coffee, raw do 24* Ryeflour do. 02£ Wheatflour do 031 £ eas """."."! '.'.'.'".'.. do"" 04± g^ 118 do.... 04* Parley do ._. ^ J* 1 ?. 6 do.... 05* Potatoes do 01 | LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 245 In regard to rent, the price of rooms in a large building inhabited ex- clusively by working people will perhaps give an approximate idea. Here, in the house referred to, rooms are charged for according to size, which is reckoned per window. For example, a room with two windows costs $1.43 per month ; a larger room, with three windows, $2.14 per month, and so on. These figures can be taken as indicating average prevailing prices. A weaver's statement. A weaver in one of the cloth mills here, whose wages amount to $3.57 per week, a married man with one child, pays $2.38 per month for a large-sized room, $24 per year for clothing for self and family, and the balance of his earnings for living expenses. 3. Past and present wages. Inquiry in many reliable quarters enables me to assert that within the last ten years the rate of wages has been tending toward an in- crease. The conditions prevailing at present vary very little from those existing in 1878, as far as I can learn, otherwise than owing to the oper- ation of the present protective tariff, which went into effect in 1880. It is undeniably true that as a result of the adoption of the measure re- ferred to an impulse has been given to some branches of industry, nota- bly to the iron and steel interests. The wages of labor being dependent in a measure upon the law of supply and demand, it can be easily understood that in consequence of the be- fore-mentioned fact, wages in those branches are somewhat bettered. Still, during the same period, the purchasing powt-r of money has been lessened and, according to the best obtainable information, the rise in wages has not kept pace with the increased cost of the necessities of life. 4. Habits of the working classes. Generally speaking, the workingman is industrious, frugal, content with his lot, and is able to satisfy his wants from what he earns. His wife, inured to poverty, born and bred to hard work, as well as to the exercise of the greatest economy, is a veritable helpmeet in providing the simple home. The workman is, as a rule, steady and trustworthy, though, I fear, owing in a great measure to the prevailing conditions, not saving. This is due perhaps to the small amount of his earnings and the slight opportunity afforded him of bettering his condition as well as to the character of the population in general. He is also hampered no doubt pecuniarily by the large progeny which marriage among people of his class seems invariably to entail. Although this latter qualification may be true of the same class in all other parts of the world, it certainly seems to me, and I have no doubt that official statistics would confirm my statement, that here the fecundity of the order of people in question is something marvelous. The people of this section of country are greatly inclined to pleasure- seeking, and naturally the class in question shares this disposition. The evils which directly affect his material well-being and most influ- uence his disposition to be saving are consequent upon the before-men- tioned characteristic. 246 LABOE IN EUKOPE GERMANY. The great number of holidays on which work is necessarily abstained from and the opportunity for indulgence in dissipation thereby afforded lessens not only the means of saving but the desire as well. The direct loss of wages involved thereby is also a great misfortune to many, and in the course of the year amounts to a considerable sum. However, the frequency and number of these resting spells and op- portunities for the enjoyment of the simple amusements prevailing here tend to make him content with his lot, and although in consequence thereof the "fretful ambition" which would tend to make him dissatis- fied with his condition and spur him on to greater effort is destroyed, it is equally true for the same reasons that for the purposes of the em- ployer he is a better workman, and for the state a better citizen. The circumstances above mentioned as influencing his character as to saving will apply with equal effect as to his habits for good or evil. It is a truism to state that overindulgence in intoxicating beverages is the greatest enemy of this class the world over, and that the evil is felt here is a natural consequence of the causes before mentioned. However, owing either to the nature and quality of what is consumed here, or perhaps to the law-abiding spirit of the people, the evil referred to does not lead to the perpetration of the same amount of crime as in some other lands. The greatest misfortune resulting therefrom is the squandering of earnings and the necessary loss of wages, owing to un- fitness for work consequent upoh dissipation. 5. Feeling between employer and employe. In general a friendly feeling exists between the capitalist and work- mgman, which, without being patriarchal on the one side, is seldom dis- trustful on the other. As a matter of course the influence of this state of things is conducive to the well-being of the community in general and of the classes imme- diately concerned in particular. 6. Organized condition op labor. In this section of country no trades unions, as we know them in Eng- land and America, exist, nor are there any organizations of capital. 7 lne feeling of antagonism and inborn antipathy between emplovle and employer, which in some countries appears to prevail, is unknown here. ' Why such is the case it is difficult to say; it seems hardly to be ac- counted for on the ground of superior intelligence of the classes in question here, nor can it be due to any especial advantages enjoyed by the laboring classes m this country over those in other lands It seems to me to be due rather to the law-abiding spirit of the neo D le S/ZS th6 /,T Ult ° f ' in K my ° pinion ' the general mmtarytrainiogof the people, and the somewhat paternal relations existing between the governing classes and those governed. g uetween tne it' from » ™l?r J take ° f the CXi8tiUg laWS aS t0 the luiliterv service, &c, from a politico-economic standpoint, they uudoubtedlv on erate to the welfare of the people in one sense, in that they create oTe interest in which every person feels a share and inculcate a respect for oKSSSuSfirS "JT %* man ' S life When * i« irtTabiS ^^ ^ li- es of thls Government are probably 1 are-el v de pendent upon this great military organization Idr geiy cte- In a country where every man is a soldier and whose ruler is the LABOK IN EUBOPE — GEKMANY. 247 actual head of the' army, the Government must necessarily do what it can for the welfare of the great mass constituting the same. Here the laws regulating military service work very democratically, leveling many distinctions, and create at least one interest in which employer and workman may participate on an equal footing. INSURANCE AND ACCIDENT LAWS. At the last session of the Reichstag a law was passed making the insurance of the workman against .accident obligatory upon the em- ployer. For a long number of years there has been in existence a law creat- ing a compulsory fund for the relief of sick and disabled workmen. According to the provisions of this law the capitalist is compelled to contribute one-half of the amount paid in by the workmen each week. The workman is forced to pay 5 pfennige per week upon every three marks earned (1 cent on every 71 cents). In case of sickness the work- man, for the first fortnight's time, is entitled to no pecuniary relief, but receives free medical and surgical advice, drugs, &c. Should the ill- ness be prolonged over two weeks' time the incapacitated workman is entitled to receive from this fund an amount per week equal to one- half of his weekly earnings at the time he was taken sick. This amount he continues to draw for a period not exceeding six months' time if necessary, after which date his right to assistance ceases. One might suppose this arrangement would be taken advantage of to the injury of the capitalist, but as far as I pan ascertain such is not the case here. I inclose herewith a table which explains itself, showing the prac- tical working of this " fund" in Aix-laChapelle and Burtscheid : Summary of the receipts and disbursements of the fund for the relief of factory hands and laborers at Aix-la-Chapelle. Class I. Class II. Class HI. Class IV. Class V. Class VX ClasB vn. Number of membra. 8,140 1,690 i 2,603 330 909 2,466 1,160 17, 289 Receipts : Paid by members Contributions of employers Interest and otber receipts $17, 270 14 8, 635 07 2, 658 33 $4, 826 47. $5, 829 29 2, 413 23j 2, 914 64 615 93J 845 23 $314 14 304 71 245 45 $1, 487 96 495 98 174 09 $4, 967 66 1, 655 89 562 75 {2, 149 16 1, 074 58 778 24 $36, 844 82 17, 294 W 5, 880 02 Total receipts.. 28, 563 54 7, 855 63J 9, 589 16 664 30 2, 158 03 7, 186 30 4, 001 98 60, 018 94 Disbursements : Paid for relief. ... Doctors and sur- geons' bills and otber expenses . Cost of manage- ment Invalid pensions. Total disburse- ments 13, 444 64 10, 025 54 1, 025 42 2, 128 29 1 3, 946 13 4, 155 59 2, 532 5?: 3, 515 58 289 29 368 50 1, 353 51 262 51 86 79 287 18 98 96 11 42 816 07 869 16 268 95 3.58U 97 1, 994 11 342 45 2, 915 33 1, 717 93 175 77 34 27 28, 948 82 20, 942 07 2, 569 34 3 790 00 26, 623 89 ( 8, 121 80 8. 302 18 484 35 1, 654 18 5, 920 53 4,843 30 56, 250 23 Excess of receipts oyer expenditures. . Excess of expendi- tures over receipts . 1, 939 65 1, 286 9S 179 95 203 85 1, 265 77 4,876 20 1, 107 4» 266 17 841 32 Resources : January 1, 1883.. January 1, 1884.. 55, 027 23 56,921 22 12, 649 69 12, 383 52 16, 666 72 17, 953 70 5,681 47 5,860 44 3, 889 05 4, 092 89 7, 159 63 8, 425 39 16, 723 11 15, 901 73 117, 796 90 121, 528 89 248 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Summary of the receipts and disbursements of tlte fund for ih.e relief of factory hands and laborers at Bwtscheid. Description Number of employes Number of employers Receipts : Snm paid by employ6a Sum paid by employers Interest and otber receipts. Total receipts {Disbursements : Cost of management Honey assistance rendered Physicians' charges Medicines and curatives — Total Resources : January 1, 1883 January 1, 1884 Factory hands. 3,130 47 $6, 814 58 3,404 97 8,384 63 18, 604 18 375 56 5, 886 10 1,223 80 2, 018 87 9,564 I 20, 266 21 29, 068 07 General trades. 121 76 160 84 8 90 42 00 313 57 52 84 65 16 473 57 181 13 169 10 7. Strikes and courts of arbitration. In consequence of the relation between employer and employ^, as be- fore indicated, strikes are of very seldom occurrence, and when they do occur prove of short duration. For the settlement of disputes between the parties mentioned there exists a so-called " Gewerbe-Gericht," con- sisting of twelve judges, all of whom must be employers taken from different branches of industry, and a clerk, who is learned in the law. Three of the above named sitting at one time constitute a competent tribunal for the purposes of arbitration, but where an agreement cannot be effected seven judges must decide the matter in dispute. When the amount in dispute does not exceed 100 francs the judgment of this court is final ; in other cases an appeal lies to the so-called " Handels-Gericht." Cases can be brought before this tribunal without the payment of any costs, and the parties concerned appear personally without the inter- vention of any attorney. This excellent institution is one of the founda- tions of Napoleon I, which was retained after the province became Prussian, and has proved a competent means of settling differences am- icably between the classes in question. 8. Freedom in food purchases. No restrictions of any kind are imposed by the employer as to where their employes shall spend their earnings, either as regards the neces- saries of life or anything else. The laborer is paid his wages weekly, and in the current money of the realm, subject only in this city to the discount of 5 pfennige, equal to 1 cent on every 71 cents earned, which is paid into the " relief fund " already described. 9. Co-operative societies. This question has been partly answered already in the replies given to the foregoing interrogatories. labor in europe germany. 249 10. General condition of the working classes. The general condition of the workingnian here, to a casual observer, certainly seems a wretched one, taking into consideration the long hoars of work, the low wages, the slight opportunity afforded for saving, and the small chance of bettering his condition. His moral and physical condition cannot, however, be said to be bad, and the influences which surround him on the whole are good. As has been seen already, a relief fund is established for his aid in time of sickness. Savings banks well and honestly conducted encourage him tolay aside something for future necessities. A lawrecently passed compels his employer to insure him against accident, and the compul- sory educational law has furnished him in his youth with the means of employing his mental faculties to some extent. Then, too, the family ties are strong with this class, and if children are accounted as a poor man's blessing the laboring man in this vicinity is well off indeed. At the completion of his fourteenth year one of the class referred to begins work, and marries generally between the time he is twenty- seven and thirty years of age. On the average each family counts four or five children, and it is very seldom that one finds families consisting of only one or two offspring. - In the case of a workman, married, in a needle factory here earning $4.28 a week, for seventy hours' work, $2.38 is paid per month for rent, $17 to $19 during the year for clothing, 71 cents taxes, and the rest for ordinary living purposes. A "spinner" in a cloth mill here, thirty-nine years of age, married, with three children, a daughter of eleven years, two boys of eight and six respectively, earns on the average $4.40 by piece-work weekly in sixty-nine hours. Out of his earnings, he pays $2.62 per month for rent of two rooms, $12 per month for living expenses, food, drink, fuel, lights ; $1.90 per month for clothing, and 71 cents per year for taxes. His daily fare consists of : Breakfast, coffee, with black bread and butter and a little white bread ; dinner, a good soup of meat, potatoes or some other vegetable— a small piece of meat with potatoes and occa- sionally another vegetable; in the afternoon, coffee, with bread and butter, and for supper bread and butter or potatoes. As it will be seen, he is able to save nothing. Cases similar to the foregoing might be multiplied indefinitely with like results. As a rule the workman spends all he earns in the support of himself and family, and regulates his domestic economy according to the wages paid him. 11. Safety of employes. Such regulations as are here referred to are generally matters of government or police control, and vary according to circumstances. As a means of escape in case of fire, the factories here are compelled to be furnished with iron stair-cases running on the exterior of the building from the uppermost story to the ground. In the cases of mines, government inspectors see to it that all neces- sary precautions are taken against accident. The greater proportion of the employers about here insure their 250 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. workmen against accident, on their own account, and, as before-men- tioned, the state has recently made the same compulsory. 12. Political rights enjoyed by the workingman. As a matter of fact his political rights are limited by his pecuniary means, or rather lack of means. . The privilege of voting for different public officers is dependent upon the payment of certain taxes to city or state. Inasmuch as but few workmen pay a tax to the state, they have but little voice in shaping the legislation of the country. Only those persons who are rated higher than the second division in the so-called " Classen-steuer " are compelled to pay state taxes. The great mass of the workingmen pay only a " communal" tax. 13. Causes leading to emigration. Tie emigration from this immediate vicinity is not large compared with that from the agricultural districts of the country. Here, undoubt- edly, as in all sections of the land, the compulsory military laws influ- ence some to leave their homes. The principal cause of emigration, however, at this point I should think rather to be due to lack of employment, owing to periods of over- production and consequent temporary stagnation, and to the ever-pres- ent excess of supply of labor over the demand. Many are drawn over the sea by relatives and friends who have gone before, whose place of residence influences the emigrant in his choice of one. The great mass leaving here is composed of laboring men from the agricultural districts. As to trades, &c, I cannot learn that any one branch is represented more than another. Female labor. 1. Number of women and children employed in your district in indi- vidual pursuits : In this city there are employed in — Cloth mills t 4,000 Cigar factories 1, 160 Needle factories 650 Card factories 42 Carton factories 80 Total 5,932 2. Minimum, maximum, and average wages. Minimum f 1 43 Maximum 2 86 Average 2 14 . 3. Hours op labor. In general ten and a half hours per day. labor in europe german y. 251 4. Moral and physical condition of employes. Generally speaking, good, the working-women living in the country about the city being particularly healthy and strong, and many of tbem continue their employment after marriage. 5. Means provided for improvement. For those women living at a distance from the city, and who return to their homes on Saturday night ? the employers have instituted a sort of lodging house, where they can obtain decent beds at a reasonable price, and where they can employ their spare time in obtaining a knowledge of cooking and other handiwork pertaining to the housewife. 6. Means provided for safety in case of accident. The same as provided in the case of male operatives. 7. Provisions in regard to sanitary measures. The same as in the case of men ; the provisions of the " relief fund," as before given, apply with equal effect to male and female. 8. Wages during the past five years. The tendency is rather toward an increase in the rate paid for female labor, as in the case of men. The employment of women has supplanted that of men in some branches, notably since the introduction of the " power-loom," and this has affected the wages of men. Still the money earned by the women ordinarily is turned into the support of the fam- ily, so it works no great evil. 9. Education among the women employes. Owing to the compulsory-educational law, which compels parents to send their children to school between the ages of six and fourteen, these operatives can nearly all read and write. Their moral and physical condition is in the main good. Children of female operatives, before they are old enough to attend school, are taken care of during the working hours in sort of " nurseries" for a very small sum per day. After the completion of the sixth year both boys and girls must at- tend school, which, in all cases where the parents cannot afford to pay anything, is not only free, but books as well, and everything pertaining necessary to their course of instruction. Boys are taught gymnastics and girls knitting, sewing, &c, in addi- tion to the ordinary branches of study. GEO. F. LINCOLN, Consul. United States Consulate, Aix-la-Chtvpelle, September 6, 1884. 252 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. I. General trades. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Aix-la-Chapelle. Highest Average. Occupations. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders PJumbers Assistants — Carpenters Oas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths '. Strikers Bookbinders Brick-makers Brewers Butchers Brass-founders Cabinet-makers ". Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers *. Distillers Drivers: Draymen and teamsters Cab, carriage Street railways - Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners - Hatters Horse-shoers - Jewelers Laborers, porters, &e Lithographers Millwrights - - Kail-makers (hand) Potters Printers Saddle and harness makers Tanners Tailors Tinsmiths ; "Weavers (outside of mills) Lowest. 2 86 2 86 2 86 2 86 $4 28 2 86 4 28 2 86 3 57 3 57 2 86 3 57 2 86 3 57 3 57 *2 14 4 76 2 86 3 57 2 86 *2 14 *2 14 3 57 4 28 5 00 3 57 2 86 5 00 *2 14 2 86 2 86 3 57 2 86 4 28 5 00 3 57 2 86 3 57 5 00 2 14 4 28 2 86 5 00 5 00 3 57 4 28 4 28 3 57 $2 88 2 14 2 14 3.67 ♦With board. II. Factories, mills, &o. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in woolen mills in Aix-la-Chapelle. Occupations. Head raiser... Under raiser.. "Wasber-off.... Teazle setter.. Stoker Engineer Miller Head miller.. Brusher K pad pressor . Pressor Head cutter. . Cutter . ... Cutter (lad).., Headbnrler.. Burler , Head tenterer Average. 1 43 3 09 1 90 4 64 5 00 2 38 4 28 2 14 3 93 1 11 5 00 2 14 1 10 2 88 1 43 3 33 Occupations. Tenterer Head stumper , Stumper Head dyer Dver Sizer Warper "Winder Timer Fettler "Willeyer Spinner Pieoer Feeder Foreman , Power-loom weaver Hand-loom weaver. . Average. $1 79 3 OB 2 14 S 00 262 - 38 2 14 1 43 500 3 57 1 67 3 57 119 1 67 6 43 3 93 5 00 LABOR IN EUKOPE GEKMANY. 253 HI. Foundries, machine-shops, and ikon works. Wages paid per week in foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in Aix-la-Chapelle. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Uachinist . Molder Helper $3 67 4 28 2 86 $7 J4 5 71 3 57 VI. Bailway employes. Wages paid per week to railway employes (those engaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, Urtemen, railroad laborers, 4-0.) in Aix-la-Chapelle. Occupations. Average, Occupations. Average. Engines-drivers Firemen Conductor Guard Division superintendent. Linemen. 4 76 5 71 4 28 5 24 3 33 Laborers Switchmen . . Brakemen ... Train-maker. Ticket-seller. Cashier $3 33 3 81 3 09 • 5 00 6 66 5 24 IX. Store and shop wages. Wages paid per week in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in Aix-la-Chapelle. Occupations. Lowest. Highest.. $1 43 71 $4 28 2 14 * With board and lodging. XV. Printers and printing offices. Statement showing the wages paid per week to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, #c.) in Aix-la-Chapelle.^ Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $5 00 $3 57 3 67 $5 00 6 00 ALSACE-LORRAINE. KEPORT BY CONSUL BALLOTT. NUMBER OF WORK-PEOPLE IN ALSACE. In the year 1880 employment was furnished to 90,682 people in the manufactories, workshops, &c, of Alsace, each of which gave employment to over five people, and in the same year 86,637 people found work in the smaller workshops and in various trades, industries, &c, exclqsive of those engaged in agricultural pursuits, giving a total of 177,320 work- 254 LABOR JN EUf.OPE GERMANY. ing men and women engaged in labor by the different industries and trades. Of this number 90,683 were males and 32,529 females. At present employment is given to a larger number than in 1880. ine industries of Alsace have, in the main, prospered of late, and this is particularly the case with the cotton factories. Working people consist of two classes, those who are born resi- dents and who follow the occupation of their parents before them, and those who come here in busy times seeking employment, which, when obtained, is always recompensed by better wages than can be obtained in other sections of Germany, which can readily be seen by comparing the following statements, showing the wages paid to working men and women in Alsace at the present time, with those paid working people in other sections of Germany : THE OLD AND THE MODERN WORKMEN. In former times — up to the French Eevolution of 17S9 — the division of the burghership into guilds was a powerful bulwark against the im- poverishment and the demoralization of the working classes. There was a sort of familiar bond between master, workman, and apprentice; ■ they belonged to a class ; they had common interests and a solid esprit de corps; a spirit of brotherhood exerted a wholesome restraint pro- motive of a certain respectability. Yet this system, which has regu- lated the relations between master and workingmen for so many cen- turies, has outlived its usefulness, and has been swept away by the hurricane of modern liberal ideas. It hindered the development of industry on a large scale. Better roads increased the means of com- munication, and soon steamboats and railroads shortened distances to an undreamed of degree. Steam power and machinery in a great many branches supplanted craft. Obscure villages and towns rose sometimes rapidly to renown and prosperity through the excellency of their fabrics. Yet, though many an artisan of the old school, proud of his skill and dexterity, sunk to the level of almost a laborer, it must be owned that the condition of working people of sober habits, journey- men as well as laborers, is not worse than before. But the subverting politico-social notions that are current among those classes in most parts of Central Europe, inordinate longing after enjoyment, an undue love of dress and luxury, with some want of temperance in the use of spirituous liquors, the envy of their superiors, the spirit of indiscipline, all characteristics of our epoch and not shared by the working people alone, unbalance their minds and render them unhappy, dissatisfied, and unruly. Aud, indeed, in many parts of Central Europe the harsh- ness of circumstances is such that in most cases the journeyman me- chanic, and, more still, the laborer, only lives from hand to mouth, happy even if he succeeds in that. He hardly ever can lay up sufficient of his earnings to have ever so, little a hoard for old age or for his family. When he dies he leaves, if not debts, in nearly every case want and deprivation. In Alsace, one of the most fertile regions of the vallev of the Ehine, the picture is perhaps somewhat less dark. In this district manufact- uring industry was started under good auspices and has taken a de- velopment rarely surpassed. Few countries, compared with the num- ber of inhabitants, have so many varied and flourishing industries This success is mainly due to the capable men who introduced manu- facturing industries into Alsace at the end of the last century and the LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. 255 first half of this. They established their manufactories in the very best manner and used the most perfect machinery then extant. They knew, moreover, how to conciliate their interest with that of the numerous men and women they employed, and they treated them with great kindness. Discipline, of course, there is, and must be, but the operatives have the feeling that their employers take no undue advan- tage of them, and they therefore respect them. The Alsatian working population are perfectly aware of the intel- lectual superiority of those who succeeded in starting and raising the different industries of Alsace to such a high degree of prosperity, and therefore they yield a ready and willing obedience to masters who, on their hand, show practical sympathy and kindness to their workmen and their families. That spirit of envy which throws such a dark shadow on the relations between employers and employed in other parts of Central Europe does not exist in Alsace. These satisfactory relations explain also why socialism, which un- balances the minds of the working classes, whilst it keeps the better situated classes of Europe, as it were, in a constant uncomfortable state of suspense, never took root in Alsace. The workmen know too well that their own personal interest is intimately connected and dependent on the general prosperity of industry. They know that in order to in- sure the success of industry in general, as well as their own well-being, there must be a strong scientific organization under the direction of com- petent men of intellect and manifold knowledge, and that a mere work- man, or an association of workmen, could not but fail producing the desired eifect. Thus their good sense saves them, as well as their em- ployers, much trouble and unpleasantness, as well as loss of time and money. STRIKES. In the year 1870 there was a general strike among the working classes in Alsace; this happened a few weeks before the commencement of the Franco-German war. It was aroused by the Government of Na- poleon III, and was purely political and religious. The social question was not brought into consideration. It lasted only two weeks, and re- sulted in the strikers resuming work at the former wages. Since Alsace-Lorraine has been a part of the German Empire there have been no strikes. HABITS OF THE WORKING GLASSES. As is everywhere the case, Alsace contains good and bad workmen ; some spend their earnings in the wine and beer hpuses, thinking only of the pleasure so obtained, recklessly squandering their hard-earned wages and in many instances spending the money which is sadly needed at home to support wife and children. This is, I am informed, rather increasing than decreasing, the low price of spirituous liquors being a strong inducement ; but in this respect Alsace is no better or worse than the other large manufacturing centers of Germany. Workmen who lead a quiet, sober, and industrious life, can and do get along very comfortably, as their wants are few, and in cases where husband and wife are not blessed with too many children to provide for, and when they are both able to work, they are able, by strict economy, to lay something aside for old age. Nevertheless, when compared to the condition of the working people in the United States, the balance is by far in favor of the latter, as the 256 LABOK IN EUROPE GERMANY. following figures will sufficiently render > apparent. The journeyman with family in the United States, if sober and steady, when he intelli- gently applies his earnings, is able to lay up something for old age, and without very great effort will succeed in becoming owner of a com- fortable house; while even in Alsace, the average workman finds it hard to make both ends meet, and he can barely, i. e., only with great effort, keep above water. WORKING HOURS. Work begins at 6 o'clock in the morning, an intermission of half an hour is allowed at 8 o'clock for breakfast. The work is resumed at half past 8 and continues until noon. From 12 to 1 is the regular dinner hour. Prom 1 the work goes on until 7, with a quarter of an hour's in- termission for a short meal at 4 o'clock. Many workmen have the bad habit of taking in the early morning, on their way to the shop or the factory, a small glass of brandy, which costs 2 cents. MEALS. Breakfast consists generally of coffee and bread; sometimes of bread and a bit of cheese and no coffee. Masons and laboring men often eat bread and one or two raw onions with salt. Dinner is usually composed as follows: Soup, sometimes, but not generally or regularly; better situated mechanics have beef soup twice or three times a week; gener- ally soup made of water, slices of bread, slices of onions and a little butter; sometimes vegetable soup. When the meals are brought to them in the shop or factory by their wife or a child, soup is not conven- ient and they have vegetables, such as potatoes, cabbage, or carrots, boiled or stewed, either with or without beef, according to circum- stances. Married journeymen seldom eat meat more than twice or three times a week. Laborers eat meat (boiled beef) only on Sundays, but even on that day not regularly. Farinaceous food, such as dump- lings, macaroni, &c, are much liked, and in winter rice is a staple arti- cle of consumption, also barley, peas, beans, and lentils, but these latter more seldom, the prices being higher. All Alsatians eat more bread than the other Germans and the Eng- lish-speaking nations. Bread, therefore, and mostly wheaten bread of good quality, is the principal article of food at every meal. Sometimes, in cases of need, bread and potatoes are the only sustenance of the poor. At 4 o'clock p. m. it is customary for workmen to eat a large piece of bread. Some drink also half a pint of beer, costing 2 cents, but this is not allowed in many shops. Supper is taken at home at 8 o'clock, and consists either of soup (without meat), for instance, potatoe-soup, or of boiled potatoes eaten with salad, or with a sort of cheese, called " white cheese^ought on market days only of peasants and made of sour milk. It is seasoned just before being served with salt and pep- per, caraway seeds, and chopped chives — a very palatable dish. Some- times sausages and bread, or cheese and bread. Women and children take very often coffee and bread for supper, the same as for breakfast. HOW A STRASBURG PLASTERER LIVES. The following interview held by me with a plasterer of Strasburg will, perhaps, better explain the condition of the average tradesmen of LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY; 257 Alsace. , It applies equally well to masons, stone-cutters, bricklayers, ^carpenters, &c, as the wages vary but little and the mode of living be- ing the same: ! ,-.,, * ' ^ ■ ;-*<* ' , Q. How old are you ? — A. 1 1 am thirty-nine 'years of age. ""•".' Q. What is your business ?-^-A. I am a plasterer. Q. Have you a family ?— A. Yes; a iwife and five children (the oldest thirteen and a half years, the youngest one and a quarter years of age). Q. What wages do yon get a day t — A. Eighty-three cents. Q. How many hours per day are you required to work f — A. Eleven-hours ; in sum- mer from 6 a. m. to 12 m.,,and from :i to 7 p. m. ; in winter from 7 a. m. to 12 m., and from 2 to H p. in. Q. How much time are you allowed for meals. Give number of meals a day. — A. Our first breakfast is taken before work commences; the second breakfast or luncheon between 9, and 10 o'clock; we are allowed one-fourth of an hour for that; we take ■dinner at 12 o'clock and can rest until 2 o'clock. We take supper after the day's 1 wo'rk is finished. Q. OaoajOu support your family on such wages, and does your wife earn any- thing? — A. lean support my family, although -with great difficulty; but my wife- •earns, about 28 cents per day. She is a laundress, and my oldest daughter helps her. '. Q- What do the united earnings of you and your family amount to in a year? — A. If we are healthy, about $357. 15. Q. What are your yearly expenses ? — A. Rent of four rooms in a back street fourth story, $45.25 ;«clothing, $47.62; food, $190.49; fuel, $38.10; beer, three-fourths Of which as outside the house, $11.90; schooling for two children, $9.52 ; contingent ex- penses, $9.52. Total, $352139. ■ , '•;*.' Q. Of what kind of food do your meals consist ? — A. Our breakfast consists of roDs and coffee j dinner consists of soup, vegetables, potatoes and three times meat per 'week. T Q. Are you able to save any portion of your wages ?— A. Noj the children cost too much. COST OP LIVING IN ALSACE. The prices of the necessaries of life in the principal cities of Alsace are as. follows: ^ /< Articles. Wheat bread: Hirst quality per pound. . Second quality do Mixed breacf(rye and wheat) do Brown bread do Beef: Sirloin do Ordinary do Mutton do -Veal do Pork ;.. do Bacon l.do Hour ...do ^ Cheese (skim milk) do. . . . 'Potatoes do Kice do ... Eggs ...per dozen.. / Butter (fresh) -per pound . . Milk per quart.. Sugar : ' First quality per pound. . Second quality do • Salt.. do.... Petroleum '. .-.'.. -perquart.. Price. i 04} 03| 03 02} 40 18 23 18 18 20 08 06 02 10 24 25 08 10 09 03 07 Articles. Fowls per pair. Geese '. ..per pound. Bucks... do... Cabbage ...do... Turnips do... Carrots do... Cauliflower do... Cherries.. do... Strawberries ..-.'- do... Gooseberries . . . ! do . . . Currants —do... Macaroni .do... Oatmeal do... Pearl barley . ... -do. J. Dried peas and beans do. . . Coffee do... Candles do... Soap do. . . Tea do... Common table wine : White p er quart . Eed do... Beer do... Price. $0 75 24 26 02 02 02 05 06 10 10 to 20 03 to 07 07 to 12 lfl to 14 04 to 08 05 03 to 06 30 \ 17 10 1 00 18 IS 06 The working classes get good sound beef for soup costing 10 cents a pound. There is much fat and cartilage about it and it has not such a good appearance as the- first quality of beef. Horseflesh is eaten by some and can be had for 7 or 8 cents a pound. It enters largely into the composition, together with beef and pork, of sausages. These sausages are nevertheless very popular, although every one is aware that they contain horseflesh more or less. 92 A— LAB 17 258 LABOE IN EUEOPE GERMANY. TJNMAEBIED JOURNEYMEN. ' Unmarried journeymen can get well prepared dinners cleanly serve< at "popular restaurants" (Volksktiche), established by philanthrope jsocieties for providing wholesome food at the cost price to the working classes, at the following rates per portion: Articles. Price. Articles. Frica Cmti. 1 2 3 Cenit. ...per glass. . do ... CHILDREN. Children are required to attend school from the sixth to the thirteenth year inclusive, and therefore caunot be of much help, but in cases where the parents are employed in the textile industries they are oft,en obliged to work after school is dismissed, or at times of school vacations. The school taxes are as follows: 40, 30, 20, 10 cents each month, according to the circumstances of the parents. Some parents take pride in paying the full tax of 30 or 40 cents a Boonth. Others, by applying to the municipal authorities, who, after inquiring into the circumstances of the applicants, if finding them worthy, the tax is reduced, or entirely remitted if the family be found really indigent. HOUSE EENT. This item of expense in a working man's life varies considerably in Alsace. In the city of Strasburg a family of from four to eight persons can find homes according to their means and necessities, in back streets, up three or four flights of stairs, at a rental of from $G to $8 per quarter. Back rooms can sometimes be obtained a trifle cheaper; it depends much, however, upon the location. In some streets from three to five rooms can be had on the second floor at a rental of $9 to $11 per quarter. Workmen having steady employment in a factory or workshop for con- venience sake obtaiu rooms in the inmmediate vicinity of their place of work, if possible, often paying more than they can re'allv afford on that account; while others, such as masons, bricklayers, carpenters, &c, sometimes have rooms on the outskirts of the city, where good homes caribe had at a nominal figure, say from $40 to $G0 a year, and where a small garden spot is included where vegetables can be grown. Such, however, are very seldom to be had. I have visited several of these workingmen's homes in the city of Strasburg, and although situated in narrow, not over-clean streets and generally on the third or fourth floor of a tenement house, where all surroundings were of the poorest description, I invariably found them although my visit was entirely unexpected, neat and tidy in appearance and totally at variance with what one would expect from the outside surroundings. , In the city of Mulhausen rents are about the same as in Strassbirrff- in narrow, dirty, ill-smelling streets, families, from six to a dozen peonle' are crowded into lodgings of three or four rooms including the kitchen' which is invariably poorly adapted to the purpose. For these lodsrihml they must pay from $6 to $10 per quarter. S'"S» LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY, 259 In the year 1853 a society was formed in the city of Mulhausen, its , nembers being composed Of the proprietors of the,cotton mills, one of he principal movers in the enterprise being Mr. Jean Dollfus, who de- moted a great part of his life in endeavoring 1 to better the condition, naterially and morally, of the working pepple of Alsace. Mr. Engle Dollfns, also, was very active in all enterprises calcnlaf etl , o ameliorate the condition of the Working classes, and by his death, , vhich occurred last year, the working people lost a friend indeed, and one vhose place it would be hard to fill. The object of this society, which las been perfectly realised, was to build houses for family use, only one ainily in a house, granting them longtime to pay for them, and selling hem at the actual cost price, including interest, which according to a , ule of the society must not. exceed 8 per cent, on the investment. , Ttie ales were made on these conditions : Good ord'er and cleanliness al- ways to be maintained ; houses cannot be sold by purchasers until hey have been owned by them ten years ; no part of the premises to >e rented to another family. Sales were "made by a first payment of rom $50 to $60 down, which is carried to the credit of the purchaser;^ he remainder is paid by regular installments, .at- the rate of from $4 to ' !5 per month- They generally become owners of their houses in from fourteen to sixteen years. Nine hundred and ninety-six houses tmilt by this society have, up to his time, become- the property of'workingmen. These houses consist »f fr6'm five to seven rooms, including kitchen and cellar. A small, )lot of land is always in front of the house and is utilized in various yays. rln this way many people have, been able' to provide themselves tnd families with good substantial-built houses, who under former cir- sumstances could not have done so. The following shows the average percentage of expense in a mechanic's lousehold: Food, 60 per cent. ,; clothing, 17; fuel, 3£; light, 1£; rent, 7; urniture, 1; sundries, 10; total 100i * ' For households having to dispose of from $600 to $1,200 a year, it is idmitted that they spend: For food, 50 percent.; clothing, 20; fuel, t; light, 2; rent, 11; furniture, 2; sundries, 11; total 100. , The expenses for food in a workingman's family may be averaged in b like manner: Bread and flour, 35 percent.; milk, butter, and lard, 8;_nieat, 15; vegetables and fruit, 16 ; fermented beverages, 8; spices tnd condiments, 8 ; total, 100. aid societies; There are numerous mechanics' aid societies in Alsace. The members >ay from 6 to 10 cents a week, and in case of sickness and incapacity for abor they receive from 35 to 50 cents a day, gratuitous medical assist- mce, and a reduction of 20 per cent, on the price of medicine. In case of death the widow receives about $30. There are similar, locieties for women. So-called maternal societies, which furnish linen , md necessaries to women having their third child. Nearly every factory, . n> Alsace has a fund for the relief of the operatives whp may become unable to work through disability from sickness Or other causes. In case of sickness the physician and medicine are paid out of the und. The following method in vogue in one of the large textile factories lere will illustrate the general manner in which they are conducted. A und is established, to which all workmen contribute; its purpose is to tssnre to all members: (1) In case of illness, medical and pharmaceutic iid,\free of expense 1 ; (2) daily a certain sum in case of inability to worjc, ', 260 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. caused by sickness; (3) payment of funeral expenses in case of death. The amount of the contributions is regulated by the wages earned. The operatives are divided into three cla'sses : The first-class, pays $2.85 each year; the second-class, $1.95; the third- class, 60 cents. The books are kept by one of the clerks in the office. This, method is found to be very satisfactory. The owners have access to the books of the fund, and uuderstand perfectly its condition, and in case it is ex- hausted or overdrawn always subscribe enough to make good the deficit; this however is very seldom uecessary. Owing to certain peculiar laws there are many impediments to mar- riage among the working classes ; for instance, a workman boru in one of the communities cannot without formal authorization marry a female who is not a/native of the same place, and if the laborer does not purchase the right of citizenship for his'wife and children the alliance is considered : null and void by the community. From this state of affairs result many illegal marriages and thousands of illegitimate births. The French Oode is still in use in Alsace, and does not remove these difficulties. There are, however, two charitable organizations, one Protestant aud one ' Catholic, their object being to' regulate the condition of the illicit households by furnishing them free of expense with the meansof ob- taining the documents necessary for the lawful celebration of marriages. Since these societies have been established the difficulties have greatly diminished, so much so that instead of legitimizing about five hundred children each year, prior to 1867, last year only about one hundred were legitimize by this means. CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. The working people are free to purchase the necessaries of life where they choose. There are no co-operative associations in Alsace. In the year 1876 a co operative society was organized in connection with a large cotton factory ; it w^,s, however, found impracticable, owing to the dislike among the operatives to patronize it, and it remained in exist- ence but a few months when it was abandoned. Since then there has been none established, as far as I am able to learn. , POLITICAL RIGHTS. Alsace is still under French law (the Code Napoleon), and the politi- cal rights of the workingman are the same as those of a millionaire, or as those of the citizens of the United States. Every Alsatian citizen is a voter, and eligible. The division of voters into classes of different degrees does not exist in this district. The tend' ' ency of Government is quite favorable to the interests of the working classes. The Imperial Government in Berlin and the Beichstag are dis- cussing measures for ameliorating their condition, and those measures will also be for the benefit of Alsace-Lorraine. i ACCIDENTS. Accidents are very rare indeed, the utmost precaution being taken against them. There is an association for the prevention of accidents in Mulhausen, in which twenty-five firms are represented. They have printed and_placed in a conspicuous place in the various departments rules to, be followed by the employes for the management' of the differ- ent machines, and a violation of any of these regulations is severely LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. 261 punished. Thefollowing are samplesof some of them observed in the cotton mills : ' , Self-acting Zooms.— The looms must not be set in motion by any person but the con- ductor himself. If he is absent the piece? may do it. Before moving the loom, the conductor must call out in a loud voice, "attention." While the machine- is in motion it is expressly forbidden to every workman : (1) To clean the movement, " the interior, or the carriage; (2) to take the cover of the gearing off; (3) to enter- the space between the cylinders and the carriage. The cleaning of the bobbins- must be done only when the carriage is about three-fourths outside of its case, or, s,tand. ,It is also. expressly forbidden to place a ladder against the transmitter. If ,a strap is out of its place, the piecer must take a pple furnished with a hook to replace ft: ; Transmitter.— It.is expressly forbidden to clean the transmitter, while in motion, with cloths held in the hands. The beams and pulleys must be cleaned hy means of a brush with along handle. Also, wheels, supports and cushions must only becleane£ when the machine is not in motion. During the hours of rest no workmen are'al, lowed to go near the transmitter unless authorized by the overseer. Spinelleframes. — It is expressly forbidden, while, the machine is in motion, to clean ' the beams moving the spindles and bobbins. These parts must be cleaned by brooms. In cleaning the spindles, the small boards which cover them must be lifted one after , the other. If the movement is cleaned, the wheels and straps must first be taken off. It is also forbidden to change the pinion or any part of the gearing. If the ■ foreman '• intends any change in the directum of the pinion be must first give notice to the bob- bin-winders. . Carders. — While the cards are in motion every workman is strictly forbidden to clean 1 any part of the card by means of cloths held in his hands, or to stand between the comber and breaker. In order to take the grease or dust off from pulleys, covers, &c, he must take a Iotig-handled brush. The putting into motion, the stopping of ., thecards, and the greasing 1 of the machine must be made by the sharpeners.' Work-, men "are positively forbidden to touch the straps., , , FIRES. i - Firesof any magnitude are very rare: The buildings are constructed very solidly, and 1 are seldom more than three stories in height. ^ Cot- ton, !woolen, and silk mills are generally from two to three stories, and often the different departments are in separate structures. Beservqirs ' eapable of holding a large. quantity, of water are constructed upon the top floor. The water in these reservoirs is reserved for fire purposes only. Hydrants are in each department, always connected with hose, ready for immediate use. Fire escapes are always constructed on the. outside of the building and extend nearly to the ground. During the, eight watchmen patrol the buildings.' Some extensive concerns have,., a paid corps of firemen, in connection with good fire apparatus. These Bremen have no other duties than to keep a sharp lookqut for fires and Extinguish them when discovered. All departments are connected by slectricity with the headquarters of the ( fire brigade. In these large mills fires occur at times, but they are invariably' ex- tinguished with a small amount of damage. Such a complete organi- sation is naturally quite expensive," but not as much so as it would be in the United States, as the wages paid are smaller. Extensive estab- lishments where such a system as above described is in use, prefer it to 3arrying heavy insurance, claiming that it is in the end more profitable,. FEMALE LABOR. 'Females are not given employment in the public offices of Alsace- . Lorraine, and' very seldom are they employed as clerks, copyists,, &c. n private offices. They are, however, largely engaged as cashiers and saleswomen in stores of every description. The working hours are generally from 7 in the forenoon until 12, and rom 2 in the afternoon nntil the closing of the establishment in the; 262 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. •evening. On Sundays they are generally required to work from 2 p m until 7 in the evening. A few establishments remain closed all day on Sundays. They are all large establishments under the super- vision of a -male or female superintendent. They are apparently al- lowed more liberties than the saleswomen in dry-goods' and fancy-goods 'stores in the United States. When not engaged in attending upon ■customers they are allowed to sit down, and are generally engaged in knitting stockings or with some article of sewing or fancy work. They are. however, exceedingly polite and attentive to customers. They have ,half a day free every two weeks. . Household servants are very plenty, the supply always exceeding the demand. They are kept hard at work all the time, and must do all , sorts of drudgery ; they are, in fact, maids of all work. The wives, daughters, and servants of those engaged in agriculture work very hard indeed; they sow and reap, working side by side with the males, and their row is hoed as well and quickly as a man can do it.. They toil early and late. No work appears too hard for them within the possibilities, and the men evidently think that all things are possible with them, for they are certainly allowed to do a man's work. The wages received by females in their different occupations will be found under the appropriate head. EMIGRATION. The emigration from Alsace-Lorraine to the United States has not been very large, and has been mostly confined to peasants who have suffered from a succession of bad crops. Many of these have been suc- cessful, and their example incited relatives and friends to do likewise., ACKNOWLEDGMENT. For much of the information embodied in this report I am indebted to the courtesies of Messrs. Dollfus, Mieg & Co., of Mulhausen ; De . Bary, Merian & Sons, of Gebweiler; Pinel & Urner, of Markirch, and Theodor Kriiger, esq., of Strasburg, for which I desire to return my best thanks for the many kindnesses they have extended to me in the past aud the present. FRANK. M. BALLOW, Consul. United States Consulate, Kekl, June 21, 1884. I. General trades., Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Strasburg. Occupations'. BUILDING TRACES. Bricklayers . , „ . - Hod-carriers MasouB Tenders ■ Plasterers Tenders ,. Slaters .. , Hoofers Tenders Lowest. $3 15 2 86 S 15 2 86 3 57 2 23 4 28 4 28 2 81! Highest. Averag*. $5 15 3 57 5 15 3 57 6 20 2 86 $4 16 3 21 4 15 3 21 488 2 54 LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY, Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Strasburg — Continued. 263 / ' ■■ ■ ■'-- ■■■ Occupations. Iittwest. Highest Average. building teades — Continued. $4 00 2 86 3 80 4 28 8 48 3 10 3 57 3 40 4 57 5 00 4 00 4 00 4 57 3 36 3 23 3 48 3 86 3 70 4 15 3 70 1 6 00 4 28 3 57 4 15 3 57 4 28 3 00 4 57 3 85 3 28 $4 27 $4 12 5 70 5 90 4 28 3 57 5 70 5 09 OTHER THADE8. / ' 3 88 5 34 5 83 4 40 5 70 4 10 3 62 4 20 5 13 ~3 66 ' 3 55 4 34 4 25 6 IS 6 45 . 4 90 '4 10 7 85 5 43 7 43 5 21 5 01 4 52 ' 3 83 6 06 4 21 6 00 4 00 3 64 II. Factories, mills, &o. Workmen employed in a large tannery at Barr receive per day of twelve hours the following wages : Occupations. ' v -' ', Lowest. Highest. Average. ... ^ :... $0 76 67 63 50 $0 96 76 70 55 $0 86 71 , 66 52 Workmen employed in the chemical factories at Mulhausen receive per day of eleven hours : Lowest, 45 cents ; highest, 65 cents ; average, 55 cents. The wall-paper manufactories of Turkheim and Bixheim pay the fol- lowing wages per daybf eleven hours : Foreman, $1 ; printers, 92 cents; 1 engravers, 85 cents; engineers, 80 cents ; laboring men, 50 cents. ;, The wages paid to the operatives in the cotton mills vary somewhat. Mulhausen pays the highest wages, Colmar and Miinster less, while the mills in the Vogesen Valleys pay the lowest wages, and, require the operatives to work from' thirteen to fourteen hours per day, while in Mulhausen they work onjy eleven hours, and in Oolmar and Miinster twelve hours constitute a day's labor 264 LABOK IN, EUROPE GERMANY. The following tables will show the wages paid to the operatives in the cotton, wills at the present time : Wages paid per week in factories or mills in A Uace-Lorrame. Occupations. COTTON WEAVING, ' Overseers .< ' Foremen' . - j Dressers, men < Warpers, women '•-■• Eeelers, women Weavers, men Weavers, women ' "Bobbin-winders, children COTTON BPrNNrSG. , /Foremen to spinning Overseers — - ■■■■ Tenders of steam engines Packer of spindles ■ Firemen Watchmen Greasers - - I- Conductors of self-acting looms , Sharpeners of cards Beaters, men /. 'Carders, men . Tenders of spindle frames ■ Drivers- . .. * Cleansers of cards - Laboring men Strippers, men , Tiers, men .: - Draw-frame tenders, girls Combers, girls '■Tenders of beaters Beaters, women .Tenders of cards , Bobbin-winders, children : COTTON PBrNTTNO. Engravers -' Printers on rollers Color-misers Printers tm wood Printers' assistants AppnKtfces - $6 00 5 68 5 66 3 30 3 12 2 76 2 40 1 80 6 00 6 00 6 00 4 80 4 80 4 80 4 30 3 90 4 10 4 36 3 48 2 88 3 00 2 70 2 30 2 52 2 34 2 34 2 34, 1 80 1 92 1 80 1 68 6 90 4 68 4 68 4 08; 2 54 2 00 Highest. $6 95 6 20 6 00 3 72 3 48 3 42 3 12 2 04 7 20 B 80 6 50 6 00 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 i 80 4 50 4 32 3 90 3 60 3 90 3 00 2 64 2 58 2 40 2 34 2 40 2 04 2 10 1 80 $6 48 5 94 5 83 3 51 3 30 3 09 2 76 1 92 6 60 6 40 6 25 5 40. 4 95 4 95 4 70 4 50 4 45 4 43 3 90 3 3» 3 30 3 30 2 65 2 38 2 46 2 37 2 34 '2 10 1 98 1 95 1 74 WOOLEN MILL ZDT ALSA.CE. Occupations. ' Wool and cloth dyer overseers, men Second hands, men Overlookers, men a Common hands, men Wool' carding, mon .... Second hands, men Spinning overseers, men. .-. S p inners, men ... , weaving overseers, men , Second hands, men Weavers, men ..' '. : Average. $8 50 3 50 3 80 2 30 8 60 4 00 7 20 4 60 4 76 3 80 4 50 Occupations. Shearers, men . i ' :.. Dressers, men Engineers, men '. Firemen, men Laborers, mon Wool-Borting overseers, women Sorters, worden Wool picking overseers, women Tenders, children Mule fixers, children Eeelers, children i Average.'.' $3 30 3 30 5 30 4 10 3 00 4 60 2 80 3 10 2 00 2 00 1 B0 ErBBOK FACTOBY." Overseers Weavers, men ..'. Weavers, women /Dyers.... Warpers. Folders... Preparers Smoothers Beelers . . . •Average wages paid per week in a ribbon faotpry at Gebweiler. $3 54 282 2 70 2 60 LABOR IN EUROPE— GER5IANY. '266 * III. Foundries, machine-shops, and iron works. ;.- Wages paid per week of sixty hours in foundries, maehine-shops, and iron-works in Stras- - ", , burg.. ,. '.' Occupations, t Lowest. Highest. Average. $1 SO $7 20 6 12 6 00 5 40 4 52 4 20 $5 85 ■ 4 20 *" > » IV. Glass-workers. There are two extensive manufactories of watch and spectacle glasses, also an extensive manufactory of chemical apparatus (glass) and hollow crystal ware ; they all, however, refused to give me any information in regard to the wages paid their employes. VI. Eailwat employes. Wages paid per week to railway employes (those engaged about stations, as well as those en- _ gaged on the engines andcars, linemen,, railroad laborers, $e.) in Alsace-Lorraine. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. ' Conductors t Brakemen. .Engineers -Firemen •Guards "Porters -Switchmen t Guards of street-crossings ' ' 'Track- walkers Laborers $5 40 3 70 6 90 4 67 4 12 4 26 4 26 3 15 2 70 $6 05 5 10 9 CO 6 05 5 10 5 36 5 36 4 00 3 38 4 00 $5 72 4 40 8 25 5 36 4 61 4 81 , 4 81 3 57 3 04 3 46 The earnings of the baggagemen depend upon the number of pieces of baggage they handle each ' day ; tli ey are entitled to 50 pfennigs, or 12 cents, for every piece of baggage they handle. In the smaller .', railway stations, where baggagemen do not earn much, on account of the small number of passengers, they get an additional pay of 20 cents per day. IX. Store and shop wages. Wages paid per month in stores (wholesale or retail), to males and females, in Strasburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. - BANKS. Cashiers Accountants , Secretaries Clerks DBY GOOES STORES. Cashiers, men , Book-keepers, men Overseers, women .."Cashiers, women .'. Book-keepers, women -...' ^Salesmen - Saleswomen FANCY ARTICLES. -Saleswomen • --. J? xoung girls, apprentices * -.: LADIES' FURNISHINGS, PERFUMERY, ETC, Saleswomen Young girls (48 60 43 10 23 00 21 00 37 50 ,35 70 48 60 24 00 23 00 17 40 14 50 15 00 5 00 13 50 5 00 $120 20 73 50- 62 50 38 10 60 50 42^10 60 00 42 10 37 40 38 10 30 00 28 60 10 00 ' 50 $84 40 58 30 .42 75- 29 50 , 49 00 38 90 , 64 30 33 05 30 20 27 75 22 25 21 80 7 50 19 05 7 25 266 LABOE IN EUROPE — -GERMANY. X. Household -wages. Wages paid to household servants (towns and cities) m Alsace-Lorraine. Occupations. Servant girls per quarter. 'Nurses do Chambermaids ' Jj" " ^und r esse 8 ":::::::::::::::::::::"::::-""-----"----- :::: p^ : Ironers ' < i°— Manglers ao -" Lowest. $9 50 14 30 8 35 14 30 38 33 38 Highest. $14 30 18 40 13 20 34 SO 47 43 47 Average. $11 90 16 35 10 77 24 40 43 .' 38 " 42 XI. Agricultural wages. Wages paid to agricultural laborers arid, household (country) servants in Alsace-Lor- ratne. Occupations. ■Wages. *$67 30 *30 t4« t50 i do.... 180 §50 do.... * And board and lodging. t Without board. t With board. § With board and one gallon of wine per day. XII. Corporation employes. Wages paid per weelc to Hie corporation employes in the city of Strasburg, Alsace, Occupations. ■ Clerks in the registry office , Octroi employes , ■ ; City gardeners for the publio parks 7 Their helpers Overseers o f streetcleaning .Streejb-cleaners, men ....: Street-oleauers, women -... Drivers of water-carts * 'Overseers* : -Laborers* : Men in the Strasburg water-wort department . Men who regulate the supply of water Street-lamp lighters Day laborers, such ae pavers, &o Lowest. Highest. Average. .$7 60 5 80 $12 25 11 50 4 70 3 15 5 70 3 10 2 30 3 10 G 60 4 00 4 60 4 00 2 85 3 30 $9 92 8 6S * For laying gas and water pipes. 1 i XIII. Government employes. Wages pai per month to employe's in Government departments and offices, exclusive qf tradesmen and laborers, in Alsace-Lorraine. Occupations. Clerics.. Copyists Messengers: Policemen Gendarmes, Foresters (lodging free) . Tax assessors Postmen.. T .- r .'. Custom house employes. Lowest. Highest. Average. $41 60 35 70 30 80 31 20 32 40 23 00 26 80 15 20 86 20 $63 30 45 66 40 20 33 75 85 70 80 00 36 00 20 15 42 10 (52tt 40 68 35 5» 32 47 34 OS 26 50 31 40, 17 67 39 1* Tradesmen and laborers employed by Government receive the same wages in Alsace-Lorraine aa when employed by private individuals. •" LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 267 XV. Printers and printing offices. Statement allowing tlie wages paid per week of sixty hours to printers, compositors, press- men, proof-readers, $c, in Strasburg., Occupations. Average. * .siProof-readers . Compositors.. . "Slebners ;,t Solders:.' »7 20 i 6 40 2'7» 2 04 ,v , BARMEN. . REPORT BY CONSUL SCBOENLB. INTRODUCTORY. Soon after the overthrow of the feudal institutions in the European countries, the condition of the modern state Governments, and the '.'. changed money transactions in the commercial world, led gradually to a scientific and methodical investigation of economical affairs. This iattempt disclosed a vast and interesting field for the research of the ."" most important questions concerning the commercial and trade inter-; \» , course between the different nations, the diversified industries, and the ? relation of the now free workingman to his employer, and the status of the laboring classes in general. The discussions on , these economic [ . questions have step by step shaped themselves into a regular and scien*' ' tine system, and it now ranks as the science of national economy. It soon found its way from the scientific sphere down to the workingmen's circles, whence it emerged as the great labor problem, so that to-day the almost overshadowing question in all civilized countries turns on the ' . experiment and application of an adequate adjustment of a reasonable share of remuneration to the laborer for his labor, with due regard to . . the interests of the employer. Science has not yet found a solid basis x for a general and fixed rule of the movements of wages, and by the , peculiar nature of the subject-matter such a rule will very likely never be established. All definitions of a maximum and minimum scale of wages have proved gratuitous and infeasible. Leaving, however, this interesting topic to the examination of economical writers, and turning to the professed object of the circular, I shall arrange and systematize the report in strict compliance therewith, and endeavor to present -a , compact and comprehensive view of the present state of labor in this> consular district, and, to some extent, throughout Germany. MALE LABOR. > Following the instructions and directions laid down in the circular. I shall take up the several questions in their succession and append the responses thereto. , RATES OF WAGES. As to this interrogatory the tables annexed to this report, will fur- , nish all the information attainable on this subject. The material and data for these tables have been carefully compiled, and are based on personal inquiries, in the different factories and on interviews with rep- ,268 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. ,.. resentative and trustworthy workingmen. They embrace not only *he ^ rates of waees ruling in this consular district, but also the average , wa?es pafa fn Prussif and in the whole German Empire IJJ-ettgf ■:? ' present, therefore, a special as well as general view of the several feat- : ures of the German labor market. THE COST OF LIVING TO THE LABORING CLASSES. Food.— Asa rule, the laboring classes in this district subsist on a comparatively meager and scant diet, live in small and badly ventilated ,* tenement houses,, and their clothing is-coarse and of an inferior mate- i '6n week days their breakfast generally consists of coffee of a very poor quality and of potato and brown bread, their dinner of beans or peas cooked in fat, or of potato and flour cakes, or of potatoes with a fat, and onion sauce, sometimes of barley soup and fish, or common sau- sage, or of " Panhaas," a dish prepared of buekwheat flour and sausage broth or other fattv substances. At 5 o'clock p. m. there are vespers, -consisting of coflWand bread and butter or goose-fat; and for supper coffee, and potatoes fried in rape-seed oil, are usually dished up. On "■ Sundays the bill of fare is generally of better quality and greater , variety. The breakfast on Sundays consists of coffee and white bread; at 10 o'clock a. m. sausages and bread and brandy are served for luncheon. For dinner beef soup, beef meat, and potatoes; for vespers, coffee and white bread; and for supper generally potato cakes are dished up. It will be seen that a common laborer's family enjoys the luxury of meat only once a week, generally on Sundays. On hplidays the bill of fare is generally the same as on Sundays. Clothes. — The clothing of a laborer's family is of cheap and ordinary material, and made almost without reference to taste and fashion. The clothes for the children are generally patched up from remnants of their '- , parents' clothes. On week days women and children frequently are wearing wooden shoes, and in summer they go barefooted. The cost of .', a laborer's family, consisting of man, wife, and three children, for cloth- ing of every kind, averages from $35 to $40 a year. Bents. — Workingmen's families usually live in tenement houses, and occupy two rooms and a portion of a common cellar. The number of families varies from 8 to 12. The rooms are. generally low and not very spacious. Rent is paid either monthly or trimonthly, and averages - from $28 to $34 a year. Contracts for rent are generally made for a year, with the condition that notice to quit has to be served by either party six months prior to the expiration of the contract. The household furniture is restricted to the most indispensable ar- ticles; Of comfort such as the average American workingmah's family enjoys, the German workingman's family has not the faintest idea. Table A presents a statement of the average retail prices for the nec- essaries of life and living in this district. / Table JB shows the average prices paid by laborers for rent, fuel, and light in the principal cities of this consular district. < Table C exhibits the retail prices for food and light in Prussia and the German Empire in 1882. PAST AND PRESENT WAGES AND PRICES. When the last labor report in 1878 was prepared, business was dull and a general depression was heavily weighing on all industrial branches ; LABOR IN EURQPli— GERMANY. 269 a great stringency existed in ttie money market, wages had touched bot- tom, and thousands of laborers were loitering in forced idleness. Since 1881 business had slowly recovered, money became easier, and wages rose 'gradually, and at the present time almost all workingmeh are em- ployed, if not at full time and uninterruptedly during the whole year, i at least to such an extent as to enable them to keep privation from their doors, and the price paid for most of the necessaries of life has also de- clined, so that a greater number of articles of food is now within the purchasing power of the laboring classes. The following table points out the fluctuations of wages and the price of the necessaries of life within the period of 1876-1884 : BATES OF WAGES. Occupation. . Increase. Decrease. Hours of labor. , EHENI6H PEU6SIA. Per cent. Per cent 7 8 12 22 13J 20 20 ' 11 21 6 8 Tailors.. -. ., 12 ' IPactorv operatives ; Skilled ., -- 11 12 - 11 WESTPHALIA. \ ' 11 FOOD PRICES. • -",- Articles. Increase. Decrease. Articles. Increase. Decrease. BHENI8H PEUSSIA- Per cent Per cent ]2J 8 20 WESTPHALIA— Continued. Per cent Per cent. ' 10 30 1 4 Beef 8' 20 20 30 Milk 8 g 20 Veal ... 1 Beef 8 12 S 10 "Wheat 20. 30 3i 20 25 12 16 30 Eye.-.i Pork .-..- Lodging: .«, Eve Wheat 20 Dwellings : Lodging : One-half bed" 18 16J 12 10 * Dwellings : Wages and prices that have remained stationary within the above period are not especially men- t tioned in the foregoing tables. THE HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. The mode of living of the large, class of working people in Barmen and vicinity is rather irregular and unsettled onaccount of J;he frequent 270 ' ' LABOR IN EUEOPE— -GEEMANY.- stbppages and interruptions,' and their habits and customs are not very commendable. They are comparatively regardless, of their future, and v quarrelsome and turbulent, and not much disposed to saving. The male , laborers spend an unusual amount of their wages for beer, brandy, and tobacco. The constant increase of drinking saloons and dancing halls in Germany during the last fifteen years has exercised an evil influence on the greater part of the laborers, and developed an alarming disposi- 1 tion to run into excesses and recklessness. The large number of button- makers and boss-braid weavers especially are in the habit of keeping up the so-called "blue Monday"; that is, they generally pass the sec- ' ond day in the week in beerhouses, whisky : shops, and dancing halls, and are bound to have theirfrolic, considering this day, as far as recrea- tion is concerned, a kind of supplement to the Sunday. If the wives of tbeworkingmenare good housekeepers and inclined to saving, houses hold affairs will always be straightened up and regulated again as much as possible; but whenever the wives are also greedy after enjoyment,, heedless and improvident, then everything is out of joint and goes, to naught, and privation and misery and domestic quarrels are the rule of the day, and final ruin of the family is sure to follow. When the Inain supporter of the family dies, the widow and children, as a rule, fall back on the municipal poor fund and private charitable institutions This class of people is a severe tax on all the towns aud cities in Westpha- lia and Iihenish Prussia, which are, in consequence, heavily burdened by poor rates, the municipal assessments within this consular district ranging from six to seven times the amount of the imperial Or govern- ment taxes. It should, however, not pass unnoticed that whenever the workingman is regularly employed, the old German characteristics, par tience, steadiness, faithfulness, and industry, come favorably to light, "and the employer may in almost all cases rely upon the fidelity andtrust- , worthiness of the employe. The German workingman still retains good qualities and commendable accomplishments, and may, on the whole, be , rated as a good and reliable worker. ■' , . FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYE AND EMPLOYEE. A fixed distinction of rank in Germany being interposed as a barrier - between employer and employe, their mutual relations .are somewhat strained and not of a cordial and familiar character. The employe is made to feel his inferior rank and his dependence, on almost all occasions. Workingmen rank as a class and move in a low and gloomy atmosphere. It is only of rare occurrence that a workingman or the son of a working- man is able to climb up to a higher social scale, through lucky circum- stances or through intelligence. Very seldom he can rise in his calling. He can scarcely cherish any ambition. It is therefore but natural that , : theTvorkingman is either dull, reckless, and supine, or is disposed to follow the teachings of the Socialists and throw himself into their em- braces. In this connection it is, however, proper to state that the doc- trines of Socialism and Communism do not elevate the laborer to'a higher scale of proficiency and morality; on the contrary, they are apt to dra«- him down and excite an inclination to excesses. The'laboring classes frequently resorlvto brute force, and for an American it is painful to notice that the German laborer, as a rule, possesses but a very vague idea of political tolerance. If not restrained by the police or other lire- cautionary measures, they will break up any political meeting or cause , 6uch a disorder and disturbance as to give the attendant police commis- sioner a chance to suspend the proceedings and close the meeting-room. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 271 To be sure, their political, education is still in its most elementary con- dition,*and in that respect they are much inferior to their American brethren. The absence of reciprocal feeling between employer and em- ploye does not, as a matter of course, inure either to the benefit of the employer nor to the prosperity of the community. ' v \ ORGANIZED CONDITION OF LABOR. Concerning the German labor associations it may fitly be remarked that the English "trades unions" were not only their precursors but at the same time their models. These associations, in juxtaposition to the " Labor patty," which is based on the principles of Socialism, were or- ganized in the year 1869 by Max Hirsch, Franz Dunker, and Scliujze- Delitzsch. Their principal object is to protect, through the medium of ■association, the interests of the working classes against their employers, and to aid and further the business of the small traders. Like the English trades unions, these associations are non-political in their na- ture. To be sure, a great number of the members of these associations belong to the liberal and progressive parties; the bulk, however, are . ( -followers of the Socialists. Their programme maybe summarized as ' r follows: They aid and protect each other by providing for the sick, in- valid, old, aud disabled members from their common fund'Sj and by de- fraying the funeral expenses for their dead from the same funds; by ., supporting those members who, on account of lock-outs or strikeSj are out of employment , by compiling labor statistics and establishing in- , telligence bureaus for those seeking employment; by representation, of , their members against the employers, the general public, and the of- ficial authorities; by starting and organizing so-called productive asso- ciations, and by a coalition of the several societies to a central society. The several local and district associations are subject to the control of ' the general council that manages and superintends the business of these associations, and that has t6 see to it that no strikes are to bein- * ' itiated without its consent and without a previous attempt at a settle-- '] ment of disagreements. All these different workingmens associations are represented and centralized in the $' Union of the German Work- iugnieu's Associations." The financial means come from the contribu-,. ; tions of the members. During the year 1873 the receipts amounted to 283,687 marks, and for the support of the sick and for the funeral ex- penses 227,627 marks were expended, and the funds for the invalids amounted to 129,000 marks. In 1874= the " Union " embraced 357 local associations, with 22,000 members, and the funds in the treasury for the support of the sick and for the funeral expenses amounted to 128,341, marks. MINERS' LEAGUES. In this connection the so-called "Knappschaften," a union league of miners employed on a certain mine or in a whole mining district, may be properly mentioned. These leagues, enjoyed in former years corpo- rate rights and many privileges; for instance, exemption from military duty, from personal taxes, &c. Since the passage v of the imperial trade Btatute of June 21, 1869, the miners are subject to the same regulations ; concerning the relation to their employers as the operatives in factories. These miners have their mutual aid societies, the object of which is the Security of the miners against the dangers of their calling and other de- rangements of their occupation. By the new mining laws of Prussia, Ba- varia, and Wurtemberg it is made obligatory for the miners to join these ' 272 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. aid societies, and for the mining operators to contribute an amount to ' these aid funds which averages from half to the full amount of that which the miners have to contribute. A directory, jointly elected by the mine- owners and the miners, administer these funds. The societies provide • for medical attendance and medicines to their members, nurse their sick, ' contribute to funeral expenses, secure pensions to invalids for life, and support the widows and orphans of their deceased members until these orphans have reached the fourteenth year. The number of these miners' mutual aid societies in Prussia amounted in 1874 to 87, with a member-' ship. of 264,397, and the capital stock of these 87 societies amounted- to 18,787,371 marks. The receipts reached 11,500,788 marks, of which 55 ' ' per cent, were raispd by the miners and 45 per cent, by the mine- owners, and the expenditures amounted to' 10,382,109 marks, of which 34 per cent, went to the sick-fund and 57 per cent, to the aid-fund. - Ac- cording to statistics recently compiled these miners' societies contain over 100,000 members. The most important of these societies are the " Maerkische Miners' Society," at Bothum, and the ," Miners' Society " at Essen. These two societies embrace nearly 95,00Q members. In ad- dition to these general miners' societies there are, on some mines, sepa- rate societies, and on several miues the miners are insured in private accident insurance companies. The general accident insurance bank at Leipsic is principally engaged in this special insurance business. Industries in which workingmen are entitled to shares arising from profit and loss did not strike root in Germany and there are but few of them. This mode of doing business is prevailing more in England, ! Switzerland, and France. The labor associations are renting on a le- , gitimate basis, as, by the adoption of the imperial trade statute, all exist- ' mg laws which prohibited any and all coalitions and combinations of - , laborers in the different German states have been abolished. Under the above heading it may, however, be remarked that the manufacturers in Barmen, Elberfeld, and Orefeld have recently organ- ized a mutual union in order to neutralize and prevent the frequent stealing of goods in their factories by the operatives. This pilfering had grown to such an alarming extent in the last few years that the manufacturers had to resort to such a protective society. STRIKES. It isa notable fact that in spite of comparatively low wages and the many hardships the German laborers have to undergo, strikes are of rare Occurrence, and generally not of a very serious character. For a num- ber of years no gre^t and prolonged strikes or any labor troubles have taken place. This pleasing evenness and gratifying equilibrium in the temper of the German laborers and their evident reluctance to resort to .strikes may be attributed, to a great extent, to that powerful svstem of co-operation which acts as a mediatory agency between labor and can- ital and exercises a mitigating and pacifying influence on the laborers in general, and gives them a feeling of content and easiness, being fully assured that their interests are eagerly watched and studiously taken careof by the representatives of the co-operative system, andfirmlfre lying on the solidarity of that widespread labor co operation. In Bar- men and Elberfeld, the two largest manufacturing cities in Germany no strikes have, occurred for a long time, and never assumed £3 and alar mmg proportions. / =".souei,u In the Westphalian mining region strikes take place oftener but t W ^ -are generally settled within a short time, as the tdne-owners are , Su£8y- 1 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 273 inclined to comply with the just and reasonable demands of the miners whenever brought to the notice of the former. Since the years 1870 and 1871 there has not occurred any extensive strike in the mining region. The German workingman, as a rule, is not so much disposed to resort to strikes as the English and American workingman; the former is more patieut and enduring and not so independent. FOOD PURCHASES. In accordance with the imperial trade statute, passed June 21, 1869, the working people throughout the whole German Empire are at lib- erty to purchase their necessaries of life wherever they choose. The truck system which prevailed in many German states had been abol- ished by the above enactment, and the same lawmadeitobligatoryforthe employers to pay their employes in the German imperial currency. The laborers, as a rule, are paid every week. Railroad employes and the miners in the Westphalian mining district, and the operatives in some large factories in Barmen are, however, paid every two weeks. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. These societies may be classified in Germany under the heading of " credit societies," aided and supplemented by people's and trade bank institutions, of "productive associations" and of "consumption asso- ciations." Credit associations. — The credit association's came in vogue in Ger- many since about thirty years, and have made great progress since that time. The leading purpose of these credit associations proceeds from the idea that credit may be made obtainable by association, that asso- ciations of artisans may be placed in a position to borrow the necessary capital for their mutual benefit and interests so as to enable them to become ultimately independent producers. Thus these associations ac- quire and accumulate principally the small capital of traders and the earnings of laborers in banking institutions which are based on the solidarity of their members. The capital stock of these associations consists in loans, in small shares, and the subscription fees by their members. Shares are to be proportioned to the number of members and of equal amounts, and each member is entitled to but one share, and gains and losses are distributed every year in proportion to the money paid in. These associations are governed and supervised in accordance with the imperial law of May 19, 1871. According to statistics published in 1873 there were in existence in Prussia 834 credit associations, with a membership of 399,741, and the advances granted to them had reached the sum of 1,340,199,045 marks. From tabulated statements of 1876 it will be seen that in the previous year 806 credit societies sent their balance-sheets to the "national 'union" of the different co-operative societies. From these balance sheets it appears that these 806 contained at the close of the year 1875 431,216 members, and that their advances during that year amounted to 1,525,389,219 marks. The amount of capital owned by members of these 806 societies was, including reserves, 970,608,311 marks, and of the credits 238,813,422 marks/ Loans on mortgages decreased considerably, while there was a large increase of active capital and cash deposits during that year. The losses in 1876 were less than in 1875. During that year eighteen societies closed up their affairs, fourteen of them being declared bankrupt, and the 92 A— lab 18 274 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. balance failed through speculations or the dishonesty of their managers. In the year 1877, 929 credit societies, with a membership of nearly 470 000, reported balances, showing aggregate advances for the year amounting to 1,600,000 marks. The issues on account current during ?he year to 515,988,709 marks, and the receipts to 497,693,970 marks, leaving outstanding 134,463,963 marks. The total transactions for the year el ceeded by about 25,000,000 marks those of 1876 The deposited funds amounted at the close of the year to about 3o 1,000,000 marks. Productive associations.— Productive associations, or unions tor the production and sale of finished wares. These associations are sub- divided in three classes : 1. Those that procure the raw material for the goods to be manufact- ured in common and in wholesale, and sell their fabrics in torn to their members. . .„ 2. Those that by putting up and using machines in common simplify and facilitate production. 3. A number of producers unite and rent a common magazine tor the sale of their products. Of the first-named societies there were in exist- ence in 1873, 11, with a membership of 693, and a capital stock of 157,987 marks. The second class numbered about 100 associations, and em- braced principally agriculturists; and the third class contained 32. Thirty of these productive associations exhibited a net gain, of 171,164 marks — that is, 75 marks to a member, in the year 1874. Consumption societies.— Consumption associations, or unions for the purchase and sale of the necessaries of life. Their object is to procure to their members, for the purchase of the necessaries of life, the advan- tages of a wholesale business, so as to enable them to sell all kinds of grocer- ies at a very cheap rate, and to accumulate from the proceeds a small div- idend for the benefit of their members. These associations originated in England, and were transferred to Germany about 1860 and fostered and aided by the late eminent philanthropist and economist, Schulze- Delitzsch. In 1863 there were already in existence in Berlin, Hamburg, and the Rhenish districts about 200 such societies. This number had increased in 1873 to 973. In the latter year 189 societies reported to the central committee the results of their business. They numbered 87,504 members; possessed a reserve fund of 353,064 marks. The shares or balances of the members — capital owned by themselves — amounted to 2,414,127 marks, as against 2,005,779, or about 49 per cent., of loans taken. With these means they had realized sales amounting to 21,882,408 marks, consequently the exchange of their capital stock five times repeated. These sales resulted in a net gain of 1,211,157 marks. In the year 1877, 202 societies reported their balances to the " council of administration." The number of members was 99,862 ; they had a reserve fund of 671 ,519 marks ; their balances amounted to 3,199,532 marks, against 2,564,148 marks loans taken. The sales reached the sum of 26,503,379 marks, and resulted likewise in a handsome profit. Almost all of these societies have reduced their business to a strictly cash basis. Their risks being comparatively small, they reduced the reserve funds by degrees, and in course of time experience taught the German co-operative societies to' assume gradually the shape and form of their English models. While formerly, by reason of special trade relations, the sale to non-members was almost an impossibility, most of these societies consider to-day this sale and barter as an important means of agitation and as a medium to promote the objects of the societies. While formerly the most impor- tant societies sold and exchanged their articles at the cheapest rates possible — that, is, at cost price, with the addition of the costs of admin- LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 275 istration — the conviction has gained firmer ground from day to day that the importance of these societies for the advancement of the social questions rests jnst in the accumulation of dividends, so that societies, as those in Breslau, Munich, and other cities, have likewise been con- verted to the practice of the English societies. In this connection the observation might not be out of place that these societies, in imitation of their English models, have founded lecture-rooms and libraries for the benefit of their members, and entered into close connection to such societies as are especially devoted to similar topics. As to the composi- tion of the membership of the German co-operative societies, it is to be ob- served that they have been founded almost exclusively by workingmen, and for the benefit of workingmen. To be sure, some traders, teachers, and subordinate officials belong to these societies ; but the supreme con- trol of them is in the hands of the working classes. Building societies. — Building associations could never strike deep root in Germany, and the few in existence are doing but a limited business. Many of these associations were established in flush times and could not stand the financial stringency that soon followed the years of the " French milliards," and had to go into liquidation. The greater part of these societies is composed of laborers. The number of them is di- minishing year after year. Total co-operative societies. — All these co-operative societies are concen- trated in the " General union of the German industrial and economical associations, based on self-help." The number of these societies in the German Empire in the year 1876, officially reporting to the general adr ministration of the "Union," was 3,123, of which 1,827 were credit, 622 productive, 627 consumption, and 50 building associations. Besides these there are a great many eo-operative societies which do not make any report to the central office. Adding these to the above number, the total of these societies will reach about 3,300, with a membership of 1,100,000. The aggregate transactions of these societies during the year 1876 are estimated at 200,000,000 marks, or, say, $50,000,000. At the close of the year 1880 the number of these societies in the German Em- pire amounted to over 3,500, of which 3,481 transmitted their balances to headquarters. Of the latter there were 1,889 credit, 898 productive, 660 consumption, or provision supplying, and 34 building societies. The membership is estimated at 1,200,000, their annual transactions at 2,200,000 marks, exceeding $50,000,000. The accumulated capital of these 3,481 co-operative societies, invested in shares and reserve funds, amounted to nearly 200,000,000 marks, and the amount of interest bear- ing loans was from 400,000,000 to 420,000,000 marks. For the benefit of these co-operative societies, and especially of the credit societies, the " German Association Bank," with a capital stock of 9,000,000 marks, was established at Berlin, with a branch bank at Frankfort-on-the-Main in the special interest of the South German socie- ties. By the imperial law passed July 23, 1873, they are authorized to appear in court and institute legal proceedings through the boards of their directors, and their members are liable for any and all obligations entered into by these societies, the statute of limitation taking place, however, for this liability in case of retirement of members or dissolu- tion of societies after the lapse of two years instead of thirty years, as it existed prior to the passage of the above-named law. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. The numerous laboring classes in Germany, and especially in this large manufacturing district, on account of the comparatively small wages 276 LABOK IN EUROPE GERMANY. they earn, are obliged to live on coarse and not very substantial meals, and in narrow and generally not very healthy rooms. In this connec- tion it will not be amiss to state that some industrial establishments m this district, and especially in the Westphalian mining region, have erected special dwelling-houses for the use of their workmen, which are rented to them at somewhat low rates. These houses are generally occu- pied by two families, and there is usually a separate entrance, placed m opposite directions, foreach family. Each family occupies two rooms and, besides, a small garret room and a portion of the cellar ; and a patch of land, generally used for gardening purposes, is attached to these houses. As a rule, the renting of these dwellings is made obligatory to the work- ingmen ; that is, the workingmen are required, at the penalty of dis- missal, to rent such dwellings, in case they are vacant. The term of giving notice to quit is extended to two weeks, and to do so is en- joined on both parties. Referring especially to the mode of living and the food of the miners, it is to be remarked that several important mining works have established workingmen's colonies, and erected buildings for the use of the mining population. These buildings consist generally of one or two stories, and are occupied by two to four families. In the southern and northeastern Westphalian mining districts the greater part of the miners are housed in the neighboring towns and on farms. At some mines there are established consump- tion societies which retail the necessaries of life to the mining people at cost price. There are also large sleeping-rooms-and eating-houses to be found at some mines. The rent of the above-mentioned dwellings varies from $24 to $36 a year, and is generally withheld from the weekly wages in fixed rates. Parenthetically it may be noted that board and lodging for unmarried workingmen average from $1.80 to $2.50, accord- ing to pretensions made. At the lower figure they can claim but one- half bed and besides a very frugal and simple dinner ; and for breakfast and supper they receive nothing but coffee, butter, and bread. At the higher rate they are entitled to a full bed, and a more substantial break- fast and supper are served to them. Meals for boarders consist gener- ally in husk products, bacon, sausages, and potatoes, and on Wednes- days and Sundays beef soup and soup meat are dished up. The clothing of the laboring people is of rough and poor material, and sits rather loosely and shapelessly on their bodies. They usually wear their clothes until they are shabby and ragged, and, as a rule, they are somewhat indifferent as to their suits. The neat and generally fashion- able dress of an American workingtnan would appear an article of luxury to the German workingman. The chances for bettering their condition are very slim ; the demand is generally larger than the supply, and if a workingman is employed without any interruption throughout the year he may consider that good luck. In view of the small earnings and the occasional stoppages, it is barely possible for a man with a family to lay something up for old age or sickness. These people are used to toil on and await their chances. That such a sullen and gloomy life of the laboring classes, with hardly any prospect of ever getting out of it, is no special and encouraging promoter for their moral condition is ob- vious ; and when we consider the fact that parents, children, and very frequently male and female boarders, are crowded in one or two rooms and occupying very often but one large bed, or at best two beds, it would be a miracle if the morals of the people would not be very low • and, in fact, there is a universal complaint in this district that in spite of all charitable and philanthropical efforts the morality of both LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 277 sexes amongst the laboring classes is alarming, and casts a dark shadow on society at large. It is said that 3£ per cent, of the female laborers in Blberfeld supplement their weeky earnings by prostitution. It is but a natural sequence that these people are gradually deteriorating physically, and the shallow features, the narrow chests, and the gen- erally small stature of both men and women must strike the eyes of even a superficial observer. In order to give an inside view into the household affairs of a Ger- man laborer's family, I subjoin herewith a detailed statement of the weekly expenses to be incurred by such a family, consisting of seven persons, viz, man, wife, and five children respectively of the age of t welve, ten, eight, six, and two years. EXPENSES OP A LABORER'S FAMILY. Approximate estimate of tlie weekly expenses for the subsistence of a laborer's family, con- sisting of senen persons, namely, parents and five children. Potatoes, 56 pounds, at g cent per pound . Sausage-fat Bread, 21 pounds, at 2 i cents per pound . Apple-butter, 1 J pounds, at 8 cents per pound. Coal ■- Lard or butter Petroleum Common sausage Bacon Meat Hour Barley Beans Peas Vegetables Amount. $0 47 07 45 14 14 10 10 12 12 15 05 04 ol 05 Articles. Clothing Shoes Rent ...L Vinegar Salad oil Rape-seed-oil . . . I Tobacco Brandy, &c Soap and household ware Taxes Sick-fnnd and incidentals School, fees, and utensils. Sundries Total Amount. $0 33 12 42 01 02 07 04 10 10 01 10 06 3 57 Three dollars and fifty seven cents are the average weekly earnings of the male factory operatives in this district. Careful estimates as to the monthly expenses for rye and wheat flour, potatoes, beef and pork, butter and milk of a German laborer's family, consisting of three to four persons, averaged in the year 1883 $8.95, and in the year 1882 $9.84. Thus it will be seen that owing to thegood harvests in the last few years in Germany the price of the necessaries has gradually decreased. From the above statements the inference may easily be drawn that it is almost impossible for an average workingman with a family to sup- port to accumulate any savings for days of sickness or old age, and that he has to rely on the " shop sick-funds " and other aid associations of which he may be a member. His life is a continual struggle for his and his family's subsistence, and almost without any prospect of bettering his lot in the future. When he left the school-room he had to begin to labor, and has to continue to labor to his end. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES IN MILLS AND FACTORIES. \ Imperial statutes prescribe a series of strict regulations for the safety of the work-people in factories, mines, mills, on railroads, &c, and mi- nute sanitary measures are established for their benefit. The overcrowd- 278 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. ing in factories and workshops is prohibited ; they must be well venti- lated and be kept in a cleanly state, and every precaution made so as to render all gases, vapors, and imparities generated in the eourse ol : tne manufacturing processes harmless, as far as possible, by rapid volatiliza- tion and smoke-consumers. In case of accident the imperial law ol June /, 1871, makes the owners of factories, mills, stone-quarries, and ol mines, and also the railroad corporations, responsible to their employes for any injury or for their death, if caused to them by culpable accident. And the Imperial Government has carefully prepared the so-called " accident insurance bill," and presses its adoption in the Reichstag with unusual vigor. It provides to the workingmeu an indemnification in the shape of an annuity, in case their health or life had been injured while actually engaged in their callings. This bill will undoubtedly become a law during the present session of the Reichstag, and it will very likely be so framed as to make the state contribute to the insurance funds the largest proportion, while the employers and employes have to make up the balance jointly. In fact the Government is doing its utmost to take the initiative steps in providing for the laboring man, and the imperial chancellor, von Bismarck, has only recently in the Reichstag proclaimed the Socialist principle of the right and guarantee of labor to the laborers in order to combat and set at defiance the tempting and fascinating doctrines of the Socialists. On state and imperial officials a pension is settled in conformity to the Imperial pension law of March 31, 1873. According to this law a pen- sion is granted to a Government officer after the service of at least ten years, whenever such an officer becomes unable to perform his duties in consequence of physical and mental disability ; prior to the expiration of this period pension is granted only in case of sickness, or in consequence of injuries which such an officer may have sustained in the performance of his official duties. Pension after the completed tenth year amounts to twenty-eightieths, and advances after every year of service passed one-eightieth. The highest amount is put down at sixty -eightieths of the annual income of such officer. The relation between the employed and employer is not based on friendly and good feeling. The employe" is deeply impressed with the idea that in all likelihood he has to remain in his position as employe" for the remainder of his life, and during that time be dependent on his manual labor. This state of things permeates the whole social life in Germany, and brings about the separation of ranks. Thus the work- ingmen constitute a class in the community and occupy the lowest rank in social life. Their sentiment is, therefore, gloomy, and they are very frequently embittered and generally very jealous of their better-situated fellow-men. Their life is monotonous, and they pass their days in a state of indifference and supineness, and their thoughts run commonly into sensual and sexual enjoyments, as they are precluded from the more refined amusements. In the face of these embarrassments it is but natural that the German workingman is not, on the whole, as alert and sprightly, and does not feel that keen sense of independence and self- reliance in life, as the American workingman. POLITICAL RIGHTS. Nominally the workingmen enjoy the same political rights as all other citizens in the German Empire, but the low scale of their assessment, depriving them of the right of suffrage in municipal elections, the so- LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 279 called Socialist law, and several political services for which there is no compensation, are practical and virtual barriers to their political rights. The Socialist law affects in its application almost exclusively the work- ing classes, inasmuch as nine-tenths of the Socialist party is composed of the working element. The number of Socialists in Barmen and Elber- feld is estimated at 15,000 to 16,000, and at the elections for the Eeich- stag the Socialists poll about 350,000 to 400,000 votes in the whole Empire. Said law was passed October 21, 1878, and has been but recently extended for a period of two more years. Sure enough, it is but a temporary enactment, but arbitrary and exclusive in its nature, and practically places the greater part of the German workingmen out- side of the pale of the common law, and, in fact, reduces them to politi- cal nonentities. Its principal provisions are directed against the agita- tion of the Socialists, which is branded as being in contravention and opposition to the existing Government. It puts an interdict on all so- cieties and associations whose apparent object is the overthrow of the existing Government and the undermining of social order, and it sub- jects other societies in which similar tendencies are prevailing to the control and surveillance of the police authorities, who have to watch over their press organs, meetings, contributions, &c. Immediately after the passage of this law all meetings of the Social- ists were strictly and relentlessly prohibited by the police, their news- papers, journals, and pamphlets suppressed, and all kinds of persecu- tions and vexations instigated against them, and even now frequent domiciliary visits are made by the police to the leaders and spokesmen of the Socialists, and their correspondence and papers found in their residences are seized and deposited in the police headquarters, and not unfrequently legal proceedings are instituted against such persons. By virtue of this Socialist law the so-called "small state of siege" was decreed against the cities of Berlin, Hamburg, and Leipsic, where the number of Socialists is comparatively very large, and where the foci of their agitation are located. By reasons of this decree Socialists who appear to be dangerous to, or are denounced as enemies of, the Government and of the public safety and order, may be summarily ex- pelled from these cities within twenty-four hours. In spite of this law the Socialist party succeeds at every imperial or state election to send some of their representatives to the Beichstag and the Prussian House of Deputies. The number of these Socialist deputies being limited in both legislative branches, their direct influence on legislation in impe- rial and state matters is not of great importance. Their indirect in- fluence, however, is keenly felt and taken into due account by the Gov- ernment, and the bills for the establishment of an imperial insurance company, for the special benefit of the working classes, the "accident insurance," and "invalidity" bills, and other propositions of a similar character and tendency, are to be ascribed to the underground agita- tion, so to speak, of the Socialists, and, at the last resort, to the labor element. The working people contribute a considerable share to local and Gov- ernment taxes, the assessment for both being applied to a rather low scale of income. 280 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. TAXATION. The following table shows the mode of taxation, the classification of the tax payers, their shares for Government and municipal taxes, the percentage of Government taxes, as well as the percentage of the mini- mum income of the tax-payers : CLASS TAX. Grade of taxation. Income for the state assessment. Govern- ment tax. Municipal income tax. Govern- ment tax. Minimum income.- 1 $99 96 to $157 00 157 00 214 20 214 00 249 90 249 90 285 60 285 60 321 30 321 30 357 00 357 00 392 70 392 70 428 40 428 40 499 80 499 80 571 20 571 20 642 60 642 60 714 00 $0. 714 1.428 2.142 2.856 4.284 5.712 7.140 8.568 9.996 11.424 14.280 17. 136 $0. 952 2.380 5.412 9.520 14. 280 21. 420 28. 560 34.272 39.984 45.696 57. 120 68.544 Per cent. 133i 168# 266f 333* 333J 375 400 400 400 400 400 400 Per cent. 0.95A 2 3 1-51JJ 2.66J 4 3.81 5 6 5 6.66| 7 8 8 8.73 9 9. 33J 9.14 10 11 10. 12 10. 66§ DTCOME TAX. 3 . 4. 5 . 6. 7. 8 . 9. 10 . 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19 . 20. 21 . 22. 23. 24.. 25. 26. 27.. 28.. 29. 30. 31.. 32.. $714 00 856 80 999 60 1, 142 40 1, 285 20 1, 428 00 1, 713 60 1, 999 20 2, 284 80 2, 570 40 2,856 00 3, 903 20 4, 474 40 5,045 60 5, 616 80 6, 473 60 7, 330 40 8, 187 20 fl, 044 00 10, 472 00 11,900 00 13,328 00 14, 756 00 17, 612 00 20, 468 00 23, 324 00 26,180 00 29, 036 00 34, 748 00 40, 460 00 49, 172 00 57, 884 00 72, 164 00 86, 444 00 to $856 80 999 60 1, 142 40 1, 285 20 1,428 00 1, 713 60 1, 999 20 2, 284 80 2, 570 40 2, 856 00 3, 903 20 4, 474 40 5, 046 60 5, 616 80 6, 473 60 7, 330 40 8, 187 20 9, 044 00 10, 472 00 11, 900 00 13, 328 00 14, 756 00 17, 612 00 20, 468 00 23,324 00 26, 180 00 29, 036 00 34, 748 00 40, 460 00 49, 172 00 57, 884 00 72, 164 00 86, 444 00 100, 724 00 $21. 420 $85. 680 400 25.704 102. 816 400 29. 988 119. 952 400 34. 272 137. 088 400 3a 556 154.224 400 42.840 171. 360 400 51. 408 205. 632 400 59. 976 239. 904 400 68.544 274. 176 400 77. 112 308. 210 400 85. 680 342. 720 400 102. 816 409. 360 400 119. 952 479. 808 400 137. 088 548.352 400 154. 224 616. 896 400 179. 928 719. 712 400 205. 632 822. 528 400 231. 336 925. 344 400 257. 040 1, 028. 160 400 299. 880 1, 199. 520 400 342. 720 1, 370. 880 400 885. 560 I, 542. 240 400 428. 400 1, 713. 600 400 516. 080 2, 056. 320 400 599. 760 2, 399. 040 400 685. 440 2, 541. 760 400 771. 120 3, 084. 480 400 856. 800 3, 427. 200 400 1, 028. 160 4, 112. 640 400 1, 199. 520 4, 798. 080 400 1, 456. 560 5, 826. 240 400 1.713.600 6, 854. 400 400 2, 142. 000 8, 568. 000 400 2,570.800 10,281.600 400 12 32 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 At every additional income of $14,280 the grade advances to a higher number, and the additional tax levied amounts to $428.20. It will be seen from the above table that the lowest taxable income per annum is $99.96, of which a tax of 71 cents is to be paid to the Government and of 95 cents to the community. In addition to these taxes, school and church taxes are to be paid, and owners of houses have to pay taxes on ground and buildings, and business men have to pay taxes levied on trade and industries. The first grade in the " class tax" embraces, as a rule, the servant girls, common day laborers and LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 281 apprentices, and the three next grades the great mass of factory opera- tives. Tax-payers of the first five grades in the "class tax" are de- prived of their active and passive elective franchise for municipal offices ; that is, the greater part of the working people has no voice in the local administration. The right to vote for members to the Eeichstag and to the state legislatures is, however, granted to every citizen without reference to taxation. At state elections the aggregate number of vo- ters is subdivided in three classes in proportion to the amount of taxes paid by them. Each class elects a certain number of electors and these electors vote directly for the deputies in a similar way as the election for the offices of President and Vice-President takes place in the United States. EMIGRATION AND THE CAUSES THEREOF. Apart from political considerations, which are a minor motive power for the emigration of the working people, the principal causes which lead to their emigration may be summarized as follows : Spasmodic and continual struggle for a meager subsistence, and the consequent natural desire of bettering their lot, and of better providing for themselves and their families in the future ; the constant increase of the population in Germany and the competition continually growing sharper and more crowding in all branches of business incident thereto ; the wish to swing loose from the dependent and gloomy condition; to evade the general military duty ; and, to a great extent, the influences brought to bear on those at home by friends and relatives that have crossed the ocean, and particularly the pecuniary remittances from those people that have preceded them, so as to enable the destitute at home to join their friends and countrymen. Whenever business in the United States is prosperous and times are flush, so that people are able to put up some savings, the flood of emigration will set in and swell the march of the cara- vans to the seaports. As a general matter, emigrants preferthose places and regions which have been selected by their friends and kindred and such tracts of land as can be put in tilth without much labor and ex- pense, and which promise a rich yield. They are apt to choose a climate which corresponds to some extent to that in their native coun- try. This will explain the fact that the greater part of the emigrants are settling down in the Northern United States, and but a small num- ber selects the Southern States. Most of those people that seek their new homes across the ocean come from the workshops and factories, and from the farm lands. They are, on the whole, healthy, industrious, and frugal persons, contributing their share of manual and skilled labor to the development of our varied industries, and applying their expe- rience and callous hands to the enlargement and cultivation of our ag- ricultural domain. The colonization movement which has been inaugu- rated for some years in Germany, whereby the flood of emigration was intended to be diverted from the United States and directed to coun- tries to be acquired by the colonization societies, has not met with any perceptible success, and it seems that all these colonization schemes will prove to be more or less abortive, and that the tide will continue to pour into the United States as heretofore. When the German once bids farewell to the fatherland he does not wish to remain in a sort of de- pendence upon his mother country ,which he has left for some good rea- sons, and subject himself to the interests of colonization societies. With but few exceptions, he wishes to become a free and independent man, and for this reason, as a rule, selects the United States for his future 282 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. domicile, and eagerly awaits the time when he may avail himself of the great privilege of American citizenship. FEMALE LABOR. There is scarcely any city or town in Germany, with the exception of Crefeld, which by the specialty of her industry— the leading articles of Barmen are braids, bindings, and trimmings— is in a position to em- ploy so many female operatives. We find them in almost every indus- trial branch in this city and. vicinity ; their number, including children from twelve to fourteen years, is approximately estimated at 27,000 to 28,000. Table D shows the number of male and female operatives em- ployed in the different industrial branches in Barmen and Elberfeld. The total number of females employed in the different branches of the textile industry in Germany amounts to 316,547. As a matter of course, in such occupations as require more physical strength, as braid and ribbon making and dyeing, they are replaced by males. It is a significant fact that manufacturers are apt to prefer female operatives to male operatives for many reasons ; for instance, they appreciate the quiet "and constant performance of the tasks of the females very highly, and also their docility, adaptability, and discipline, and above all do they prize the cheapness of female labor, by which they are enabled to run a successful race on the world's market with their foreign competitors. FEMALE WAGES. The wages of the female factory operatives are regulated partly by the application and capacities of the individuals, partly by the kind of their occupation and quality of their performances. For instance, the wages of girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years, whose time of labor is fixed by statutory laws at eight hours per day, vary from 73 cents to $1.20, while older girls and women, according to their performances, may earn $1.45 to $3.10 per week. Work at the so-called fancy articles and nouveautes is generally better paid at the beginning of the season. The work is always very carefully dealt out and appor- tioned to the smallest detail, and is performed by the individuals accord- ing to their capacities. Shops and trades. — Girls in millinery shops earn from $85 to $95 per annum, board and lodging in addition, exclusively, from $2.35 to $2.50 per week, and if they work for their own account their earnings gen- erally double. Female dressmakers earn from $21.40 to $28.60 per month without board; with board and lodging, $1.45 to $2.15 per week; if they work for their customers in families they earn $2.40 to $2.90 per week; board and luncheon in addition. Girls able to fit and repair costumes earn from $238 to $357 a year without board, and first-class department directrices from $400 to $570 a year. Commercial. — The employment of female clerks in counting-rooms is not in great vogue hereabouts ; the few that are employed in subordinate positions earn from $215 to $290 a year; confidential clerks and book- keepers, from $290 to $430 a year ; female clerks in stores and shops earn from $90 to $115 and in addition 2 per cent, on their sales, or from $175 to $215 without the aforesaid gratification; female apprentices in stores are paid from $2.40 to $4.80 per month. Professional and personal.— This includes Government officials and clerks, teachers, artists, chemists, hotel and boarding-house keepers LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. 28 o journalists, laundresses, &c. As far as my information reaches, as a general thing, no ladies are employed in 'Government offices i;l this city, only in the imperial telegraph office a few are engaged. These ladies are paid from $13.50 to $15.50 a month, and their hours of labor are nine per day. In the lower classes in the elementary schools there are some ladies employed. These female teachers are paid, in villages and towns, from $180 to $215 a year, and in addition they have free lodging at their disposal. In cities these female teachers begin with a salary of $215 to $240 a year, and their salaries are gradually raised to $325~ to $360, and in addition 7 J per cent, of their salary is granted to them in the shape of indemnification for rent. In ladies' high schools and female boarding schools these teachers begin with a salary from $290 to $340, which is successively raised to $430, with 7£ per cent, indemnifi- cation for rent in addition. In this connection it may be observed that male as well as female teachers are exempt from municipal taxes and their children from the payment of the tuition fees. Laundresses earn from 48 to 60 cents per day, and their number is large, especially in Elberfeld. Agriculture. — As to this class of female laborers I refer to table for the information desired. Mining. — The table furnishes all the information obtainable as to fe- males employed in mines. All other pursuits. — Under this heading there may be classified all kinds of female domestic servants; and as to their average wages I refer to the table annexed below. In addition to the regular wages these servants receive Christmas presents and douceurs on the occasion of fairs held in towns and cities, amounting to from $9 to $15, according to their respective positions, and, besides, some gratuities and "tappings" which average from $4 to $6 a year. Every fortnight they are gener- ally allowed to spend a half-day for their recreation, and on Sunday mornings or Sunday evenings they have a recess of a few hours to at- tend divine service. The employers are bound by legislative enactments, in case of sick- ness, to furnish medical attendance to these servants for the period of three months. The employers are, however, in the habit, to get rid of this obligation, of paying into the city hospital fund a contribution of $1.25 to $2 per annum. In cases of sickness female servants thus pro- vided for are admitted into the city hospital, where they receive their medical attendance. The employers are obliged to give notice to female servants six weeks prior to a calendar quarter to quit service, if no special arrangements have been made, and vice versa. As a rule, notice to quit service is given three months ahead. Whenever diffi- culties or disagreements arise between employers and servants, and cannot be settled amicably, the police authorities attempt to mediate and intercede, and if not successful, the difficulties are adjusted by regular court proceedings. A settlement effected by the police authori- ties is, by virtue of a recent decision of the highest imperial court at Leipsic, equal to our United States Supreme Court, not obligatory. Servant girls out of employment generally board with women that make it a business to hire out such servant girls, and they have to pay those women for board and lodging from $1.20 to $1.6.7 per week. When- ever such a woman finds out and secures a place for a servant the latter has to pay 72 cents to that woman for Her services. Such women are under the control of the police authorities, and have to procure a license for their calling. This is required in the interest of morality, as in former times some of these female agents not unfrequently hired 284 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. out innocent and inexperienced girls for purposes of prostitution. This practice is, however, still secretly carried on in spite of the vigilance of the police. The moral character of the German servant girls is gen- erally good, and far superior to that of the factory girls. The servant girls are usually good-natured, industrious, faithful, and much attached to the families they live with. AVERAGE WAGES PAID TO FEMALE ADULTS. It may be approximately stated that the minimum wages paid to fe- male adults are $1.45, the maximum $2.90, and the average $2.17£ per week. For further information on this subject I refer to the table below. The following table exhibits the rates of wages paid to females em- ployed in different branches in this consular district : Occupations. Hours of labor per day. Lowest. Highest. Average. Re marks. Bookkeepers Clerks .. Saleswomen .". Dressmakers First-class directresses Costume-fitters Seamstresses Milliners Milliners' apprentices Cravat-makern Principals of public schools. Teachers of public schools. ^ Teachers for handiwork Principal nurses in public children's homes. Nurses in hospitals Telegraph operators Governesses Housekeepers Cooks Chambermaids Servants for general housework Laundresses Nurse girls Juvenile servants Factory girls Factors Corset-makers [ Faotors Quill girls Reelers $285 60 214 20 85 68 100 40 357 00 238 00 95 00 85 80 28 56 85 80 285 60 190 40 142 80 191 00 57 12 142 80 71 40 71 40 57 12 49 98 35 70 57 12 28 56 23 80 71 40 166 60 119 00 166 60 95 20 95 20 $428 40 285 60 107 10 238 00 476 00 357 00 142 80 95 00 35 70 142 80 357 00 285 60 190 40 214 20 178 50 119 00 100 00 85 68 71 40 57 12 85 68 35 70 28 56 142 80 190 40 166 60 190 40 142 80 142 80 $307 00 249 90 96 39 214 20 416 50 297 50 118 90 90 40 32 13 114 30 321 30 238 00 202 10 71 40 160 65 95 20 85 70 71 40 60 69 46 41 71 40 32 13 26 18 107 10 178 50 142 80 178 50 118 00 119 00 Free board and lodging. Free board and lodging. Allowance of 7J per cent. of income for rent. Allowanoe of 7| per cent. of income for rent, or free rent. Free board and lodging. Free board and lodging. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. HOURS OF FEMALE LABOR. In compliance with the imperial statute of June 21, 1869, manufact- urers are not permitted to employ children below twelve years in their factories, and when they are about to employ children above twelve years notice must be given to the police authorities prior to their em- ployment, and employers are compelled to keep a list of all their juve- nile laborers below the fourteenth year, and all children from twelve to fourteen years are only to be engaged under the condition that the time of labor shall not exceed six hours per day, so that these juveniles are enabled to receive a school education of at least three hours a day. Girls from fourteen to sixteen years are not allowed to be worked more than eight hours a day. The girls from twelve to fourteen and also LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 285 those from fourteen to sixteen years are entitled to a recess of half an hour every forenoon and afternoon. Girls over sixteen years have to work the normal time, that is, from 7 to 12 in the forenoon, and from 1J to 8 in the afternoon. To insure the enforcement of these regulations and of other laws for the safety and protection of the factory opera- tives, Government officials and the local police are charged with the inspection, from time to time, of the various establishments. MORAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OP FEMALE EMPLOYES. I am pained to say that this side of the question forms a dark spot on female labor in this district. It is a sad spectacle to notice that young, innocent girls almost invariably will be stained and polluted by the foul and mischievous surroundings of their companions, and in a short time sink down to their level of immorality. Generally speaking, it is characteristic with bad and ill-disposed persons to corrupt their fellow-beings, and this tendency .especially appears to pervade the at- mosphere of these female employes. It is a remarkable fact, and has been observed time and again, that the older sister employes are set- ting traps for their innocent partners and attempt to drag them down to their low standard of indecency and impropriety, and do not rest until the poor victims have lost their shame and innocence and con- duct themselves as frivolously and lasciviously as the older compan- ions are in the habit of doing. If parents object to the loose manners of such girls, it happens frequently that they leave the parental roof and rent rooms in low boarding-houses for $1.20 to $1.43 per week, where they can carry on as they please. Such girls, of course, do not think 'of saving a penny. This licentious life leads them not unfre- quentlyinto the arms of prostitution. It is, however, to be observed that these free- and easy going girls are very often the best and most reliable workers, and it is a suggestive fact that there exists a certain "point d'honneur" amongst the workingmen to marry a factory girl whenever the fruit of their carnal intercourse begins to be visible, and this fact explains the comparatively early marriages between the male and female working classes, and also the small number of illegitimate births amongst these classes. By legislative acts no man is permitted to enter into the state of matrimony before he has passed the twentieth year. The minister of justice is, however, authorized to grant dispen- sation in certain cases. In addition to that the law prescribes that the man who has not passed through all the stages of military life, that is, who at times of war may be called to active military service, has to give security for the maintenance of his family while he is in active service, so that such a family may not become a burden to the community dur- ing that period. In the past year about eighty young men in Barmen, of whom two thirds were below the nineteenth year,* submitted their application for a dispensation to the minister of justice, but only four obtained the desired dispensation. MEANS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF EEMALE EMPLOYES. To the honor of a good many employers it must be stated that they make commendable efforts to counteract the evil influences arising from the daily intercourse of the male and female working people to a cer- tain degree, inasmuch as they endeavor to keep the sexes separated in the factories, have separate water-closets, and to prevent all unneces- sary conversation between the two sexes during the hours of labor'. In 286 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. most of the factories the offenders against these regnlations are subject to an immediate discharge. And the proprietors of two of the largest factories in Barmen went even farther, since they have their female em- plov<5s, gratis, educated by female teachers, after the hours of labor, in female handiwork, in reading good books, and in teaching them the elements of the household affairs, so as to prepare them for their duties when they themselves are about to establish their own household. In this connection the fact should not be concealed that the daughters of these proprietors devote their time to this laudable undertaking, and the results of this Samaritan work have been very gratifying and en- couraging. Many girls have been kept on the path of virtue, and many have become good and reliable wives and conscientious mothers, and many a fallen girl has been restored to society. At this juncture mention should also be made of the trade and indus- trial schools for young women in Berlin, Munich, Hamburg, Leipsic, Nuremburg, Stuttgart, and Darmstadt. These schools are especially devoted to the preparation of young women for clerical work and book- keeping. SAFETY OF FEMALE EMPLOYES. Manufacturers are enjoined to put up the most suitable safeguards and the most approved safety appliances in their factories, and especially to provide for an easy egress. The doors in the factories must be wide and open to the outside, and there must be some extra doors, to be used in case of fire or other dangers. Every hoist and the engine-house must be securely fenced, and the fencing must be constantly retained in good order. SANITARY MEASURES AND CARE OF SICK AND DISABLED. Factories must be kept in a clean and healthy state, the rooms must be spacious and well ventilated and hot overcrowded, and, if possible, separated from those of the male operatives. Female as well as male operatives have to join the aid society of the factory in which they are employed, if there exists one. To these funds employers as well as employes have to contribute about equal rates. In case of sickness such an employe" is entitled to an amount which is equal to a small percentage of the semi- weekly wages. If there does not exist a factory fund, the operatives are bound to make contributions either to a municipal deposit fund for sick or to a deposit fund under the control of a workingmen's union. The contributions to these funds amount to about 15 cents per month for each person. The provisions of the liability law are appli- cable likewise to female operatives. COMPETITION OF FEMALE "WITH MALE LABOR. Wages for females have but slightly declined during the last five years, while prices for the necessaries of life have perceptibly decreased. The employment of women presses rather heavily on the male labor and consequently on the wages of men. In most of the factories the male lace and braid makers have been recently replaced by women, and only themaster mechanics retained. Female labor being considerably cheaper than male labor, manufacturers find it to their interest to employ females wherever their strength is sufficient to perform a certain task, and male laborers are gradually driven away from the lighter and easier jobs and are forced to remain temporarily idle. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 287 EDUCATION, ETC. It may hardly be expected that women employed in factories should feel much inclined to improve their school education. Their children have to attend the elementary schools until they have passed the four- teenth year, when they are either given out as apprentices or have to follow their parents to the workshop. That the information of these people is rather limited and that these hard- worked and poorly-fed per- sons are not much given to studies, is not to be wondered at. As a rule, husband and wife continue their wonted employment after marriage, so that not much time can be devoted to the care of their children. As several families usually are living in the same house, the children of these laboring people very frequently are intrusted to the care of an elderly woman who keeps a kind of children's nursery and receives for her services a small remuneration. To be sure, this nursing is very primitive and rather deficient. The mortality amongst the children of the working classes is consequently very large, as under the surrounding circumstances a better nursing of these babies can hardly be provided for. This mortality list averages from 30 to 40 per cent, in Barmen. Mothers employed in factories nurse their babies but for a short time, as, by Jaw, any woman is permitted to take up her work again four weeks after her confinement. There are some mothers who nurse their babies for a few month s longer, which can, however, be done only during the dinner hour and in iiie evening upon their return from the shop. It is but a natural effect of this deficient home-training that the work- ing classes furnish an unusually large quota of boys and girls for the reform schools and houses of correction. WOLFGANG SOHOENLE, Consul. United States Consulate, Barmen, June 17, 1884. I. General Trades. Wage* paid per week in Barmen. Occupations. Hoars. Lowest. Highest Average. BUILDING THADES. S6 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 66 60 84 72 66 63 63 66 66 66 $3 00 2 60 3 08 2 85 3 92 3 00 3 32 3 57 3 33 3 57 2 96 3 57 3 57 4 76 3 33 3 57 3 57 3 09 8 57 8 57 $4 28 3 80 3 80 3 33 5 95 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28' 4 28 3 50 5 00 5 71 5 71 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 46 428 $3 64 3 20 3 45 3 09 4 94 3 63 3 80 3 93 OTHER TRADES. 3 81 3 93 3 23 4 29 4 61 5 23 3 80 3 93 3 93 3 68 4 02 3 0* 288 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages paid per week in Barmen — Continued. Occupation. OthhTB tkadeb— Continued. Cutlers Distillers Drivers, draymen, teamsters, &c Dyers Engravers Furriers G-ardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &o Lithographers Millwrights. Nailmakers Locksmiths Machinists Saddle and harness makers Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators (revisers) Tinsmiths Barbers Hair-dressers Chimney-sweeps Painters Bleachers Mechanics "Weavers (outside of mills) Printers Hours. Lowest. $3 80 4 99 3 57 3 80 4 28 3 57 3 57 3 57 3 80 4 05 3 09 4 28 3 57 3 57 3 80 4 28 3 57 5 00 3 57 3 57 3 90 4 04 3 57 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 Highest. $4 99 7 14 4 28 5 00 5 70 5 00 4 76 4 76 4 28 5 23 3 70 5 71 4 78 4 76 5 00 5 71 4 28 4 76 5 00 8 00 4 76 4 76 5 71 5 00 5 50 7 14 8 56 5 71 5 71 Average. $4 40 6 07 3 92 5 40 4 99 4 29 4 17 4 17 4 04 4 64 3 40 5 00 4 17 4 17 4 40 4 99 3 69 3 78 4 29 6 50 4 17 4 17 4 81 4 52 4 54 5 71 6 42 5 00 5 00 Bates of wages paid per week in the different provinces and states in the German Empire in 1882. Province or state, Silesia Brandenburg Poeen Thuringian states Pomerania Kingdom of Saxony "West Prussia East Prussia Province of Saxony Mecklenburg-Schwerin BmnBwick Hanover Anbalt Archdukedom Hesse . . . Bavaria Hesse-Nassau Wurtemberg Baden Rhenish province Schleswig-Holstein Westphalia Hanseatic cities Alsace-Lorraine German Empire Building trade. $3 : 3 i 3 i 3 I 3 3 4 4 Retail trade. $2 48 2 62 2 90 2 63 3 00 2 84 3 09 2 95 2 90 3 14 2 99 3 28 3 33 3 47 3 56 3 56 3 45 3 77 3 80 4 48 8 11 Manufact- uring. $2 54 2 76 2 76 2 85 2 90 2 92 2 85 2 86 3 11 3 09 3 21 3 09 3 21 3 45 3 09 3 67 3 47 3-58 3 56 3 45 3 92 3 76 4 36 3 26 Tenders and laborers. $1 45 2 16 1 99 2 95 2 24 2 46 2 07 171 2 40 2 40 2 47 2 52 2 52 2 50 2 45 2 61 2 86 2 85 2 80 2 97 2 85 3 76 3 33 2 42 Average. $2 42 2 80 2 96 3 01 3 03 3 07 3 09 3 14 3 19 3 21 3 19 3 37 3 39 3 39 3 56 3 63 3 60 3 68 8 77 4 14 4 38 3 23 LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. II. Factories, mills, &o. Wages paid per week of 66 hours in factories or mills in Barmen. 289 Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Weavers of braids Weavers of laces Weavers of trimmings , Weavers of fancy articles Foreman of these branches Lnstcr-yaru makers Foreman Dyers of turkey red and piece yarn Foreman Bleachers of cotton yarn (72 hours) . Foreman Apprentice Dyers of cotton yarn (black) Dyers of cotton yarn (colored) Dyers of silk goods , , Foreman .* Apprentice $3 80 3 57 3 80 4 00 6 42 3 57 6 42 4 00 7 20 4 28 6 50 1 42 3 57 4 28 4 28 7 20 1 00 $5 70 5 70 5 70 5 23 8 57 4 76 7 60 5 00 10 00 7 14 10 70 2 50 4 28 5 00 5 71 10 00 2 14 $4 75 4 64 4 75 4 62 7 50 4 17 7 01 4 50 8 60 5 71 8 60 1 96 3 93 464 5 00 8 60 1 57 III. Foundries, machine-shops, and iron woeks. Wages paid per week in foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in Barmen. i Occupations. Hours. LoweBt. Highest Average. 63 63 63 63 63 63 63 63 03 63 63 54 54 54 54 60 66 48 $4 28 3 57 3 57 3 80 3 33 2 90 2 90 4 28 3 10 5 00 5 71 7 14 11 42 17 85 7 14 2 85 4 28 24 00 $5 71 4 76 4 76 4 76 4 28 4 (10 4 00 5 71 4 04 7 14 8 57 11 42 24 00 40 00 11 42 3 57 5 71 60 00 $5 00 4 17 4 17 4 28 3 81 3 45 3 45 5 00 3 57 6 07 7 14 Clerk 28 17 71 28 93 7 14 3 21 5 00 42 00 V. Mines and mining. Wages paid in mines and mining in Barmen. Occopationa. Hours per day. Lowest Highest Average. 7 $1, 100 00 $1, 600 00 $1,395 00 7 800 00 1, 000 00 &U0 00 8 642 60 800 00 721 30 8 380 80 571 20 476 00 8 28 56 32 13 30 35 8 28 56 32 13 30 35 8 21 42 28 56 24 99 8 17 85 21 42 IV 64 8 14 .28 17 85 16 07 12 12 85 14 28 13 57 10 5 71 52 7 62 12 17 00 21 42 19 21 12 21 42 30 00 ' 25 71 12 17 00 21 40 19 20 12 16 66 21 18 18 92 Director* per annum Engineer* do — Principal inspector * do — Inspectors do — Coll io fa, underground per month Smelt work -• do — Hewer, first class .do .... . Eewer, second class . - do — Filers do — Bay laborers do — Boys do — Gas and -water fitters do — Foreman do — Carpenters do ... . Locksmiths.:. do ... 92 A— LAB- -19 * Free rent, fuel, and light. .290 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages paid in mines and mining in Barmen — Continued. Occupation. Blacksmiths per month. Tinsmiths °° •■- Coal measnrer (overseer) uo ... Assistants do •-- Wagoners do ... In lead, ore, and silver mines. Women d° ■-- Book -teener do --- Clerk do... day. Lowest. 17 00 28 56 17 85 11 90 8 56 35 70 28 56 Highest. $21 18 21 40 35 70 21 42 17 00 10 71 50 00 35 70 Average. $18 92 19 20 32 13 19 64 28 DO 9 64 42 85 32 13 VI. Bailway employes. Wages on street railroads in Barmen. Occupations. Hours per day. Lowest. Highest. Average. 7 10 10 10 12 14 14 14 14 $1, 285 20 40 00 40 00 95 95 72 72 59 50 $1, 285 20 $50 00 50 00 1 10 1 10 77 77 68 59 45 00 45 00 1 03 do... do.... 1 03 75 75 do... do.... 64 £5 * Rent, fuel, and light free. Wages paid to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborer's, $-c.) in Barmen. Occupations. Station inspectors* per annum . Assistants do . . . Track inspectors* do .. Assistants do . . . Cashiers do... Telegraph operators do. . . Assistants do . . . Clerks do... Superintendents of transportation do . . . Assistants - - - do . . . ■Clerks. do... , "Weigh-masters do... *■ Train-leaders do . . . Engine-drivers do... Stokers do . . . Conductors do. . . Brakemen do. . . Baggage-masters do . . . 4xang-Tnasters do... Car recorders do... Switchmen do . . . Track watchmen do . . . Porters, passenger and freight do... ShunterB .,. do . . . Station laborers ..+ do... Coal hearers do... Night watchmen do... Car cleaners do . . . Shop workmen. Pactors do . . . foremen per month . -Machinists per day. Hoars of labor. Lowest. Highest. Average. P'rday. 12 $571 00 $714 00 642 50 12 357 00 476 00 416 50 12 357 00 500 00 428 50 12 214 20 357 00 285 60 12 428 40 642 60 535 50 12 265 60 321 30 293 45 12 178 50 214 20 196 35 12 178 50 214 20 196 35 9 571 00 714 00 642 50 9 357 00 476 00 416 50 9 285 60 357 00 321 00 10 285 60 321 30 303 45 12 285 60 321 30 303 45 12 428 40 571 20 499 80 12 178 50 285 60 232 05 12 178 50 214 20 196 35 12 166 60 190 40 178 50 12 238 00 285 60 261 80 12 214 00 261 80 237 90 12 142 80 178 50 160 65 12 190 40 261 80 226 10 12 142 80 178 50 160 65 12 178 60 214 20 196 35 12 142 80 178 50 160 65 12 142 80 178 50 160 65 12 142 80 178 50 160 65 12 Hi 80 178 80 160 65 12 142 80 178 50 160 65 54 499 80 714 00 556 90 60 27 00 32 13 29 57 63 3 00 4 00 3 50 LABOE IN EUROPE GEBMANY. 291 Wages paid to railway employe's, $c. — Continued. Occupation*. Hours of labor. Lowest. Highest. Average. Shop workmen — Continued. Locksmiths .... per day. Turners do . . Cabinet-makers do... Carpenters do 63 Wheelwrights do 63 Blacksmiths do 63 Strikers do -. 63 Carvers and gilders do. Drillers do 63 Tinsmiths do 63 Saddlers and upholsters do Tailors do 63 Coppersmiths do.-- 63 Gas and water fitters do .. 63 Shop clerks do 63 Tenders do.. Tender overseer do.. Planers do 63 Painters do 63 Varnishers .* do 63 Hammer drivers do. . Smokers do.. Engravers do.. Biveters do 63 Mechanician do 63 Machine workers do — 63 Grinders do 63 Steam-crane drivers do G6 $2 60 3 00 8 10 3 00 3 00 3 10 2 60 3 20 2 38 3 00 3 00 2 85 8 00 3 00 4 28 2 38 3 00 2 38 3 00 3 00 3 80 3 57 3 67 2 85 8 57 2 38 3 00 4 00 $4 00 4 00 4 00 4 00 4 00 4 00 3 33 4 28 3 10 4 00 4 00 3 57 3 57 4 00 5 70 3 10 4 00 3 00 4 00 4 00 4 28 4 28 4 52 3 57 4 52 3 57 3 57 4 50 3 50 3 55 3 60 3 50 3 55 3 03 3 74 3 50 3 50 3 22 3 2» 3 60 4 99 2 74 3 50 2 69 3 50 3 50 4 04 3 93 4 05 4 05 3 21 3 29 4 25 "Rent, fuel, and light free. Note. — In addition to their regular salary, train-leaders and eDgine-drivers receive at the end of each month 2\ cents for each German mile made ; conductors and baggage-masters 2 cents, and stokers and brakemen 1 J oents. IX. Store and shop wages. Wages paid per annum in stores and shops in Barmen. Occupations. Wholesale and retail clothing and drees stores. Bookkeeper. . Cashier Salesmen . . . Saleswomen . Apprentice . Porters Wholesale and retail dry goods stores. Bookkeeper Cashier Salesmen Saleswomen Porter "Warehouse clerk . Grocery stores, retail. Salesmen — Saleswomen . Porters Wholesale stores. Correspondent Confidential clerk . Traveling agent... Bookkeeper Clerks Poster Hours per day. Lowest. Highest. Average. 10 $357 00 $500 00 $428 50 12 337 00 500 00 428 50 12 238 00 428 40 333 10 12 190 40 285 60 238 00 12 35 70 71 40 52 65 12 166 60 190 40 178 50 10 360 00 500 00 425 00 12 357 00 500 00 - 428 50 12 214 00 428 40 321 20 12 142 80 238 00 190 40 12 166 60 214 00 190 30 10 285 60 357 00 321 30 13 71 40 119 00 *95 20 13 57 12 85 08 68 06 *71 40 13 42 84 *55 45 9 528 16 714 00 621 08 9 571 20 856 80 714 00 9 571 20 714 00 642 60 9 428 00 571 20 499 60 9 285 60 476 00 380 80 9 190 40 238 00 214 20 * And free board and lodging. 292 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. X. Household' wages. Waqes paid per year to household servants (towns and cities) in Barmen (including board and lodging). Occupations. Cooks : Male Female Chambermaids Housekeepei s Female servants for general housework Coachmen Gardeners Washwomen (laundresses) Porters Ironing-women Lowest. $178 50 71 40 42 84 67 13 BO 94 71 40 71 40 42 84 42 84 42 81 Highest $285 CO 110 00 57 12 85 68 47 CO 100 00 119 00 85 08 107 10 85 68 Average, $232 05 05 20 49 98 71 40 39 27 85 70 95 20 64 26 74 97 64 20 Wages paid per month in hotels in Barmen. [Including board and lodging.] Occupations. Weekly hours of labor. Lowest. Highest. Average. Chief waiter Waiter Book-keeper Cashier Dooi keeper (exclusive of board and lodging) Male cook Female cook Coach-driver Porter. ' Servants (female) $23 80 11 28 17 85 20 00 20 00 17 85 12 00 7 14 10 00 3 57 $57 12 17 85 23 f0 35 70 5li 00 38 80 20 00 15 00 18 00 8 00 $40 46 16 07 20 83 27 es 35 00 28 33 1G 00 11 07 14 00 5 7» XI. Agricultural wages. Wages paid per year to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in Barmen, with board and lodging. Occupations. Lowest. Highest Average. Inspector Administrator Treaenrer Overseer Shepherd Gardener. Coachman Cook, female.. Chambermaid . Servant girls.. Farm bauds: Hale Female Bay laborers . Carpenter -Blacksmith ... $523 60 380 80 428 40 85 68 71 40 57 12 57 12 42 84 28 66 21 42 42 84 23 80 60 21 57 12 57 12 $856 80 623 60 714 00 166 60 107 10 95 20 95 20 60 00 35 70 28 56 67 12 85 70 71 40 05 20 95 20 $690 20 452 20 571 CO 126 14 89 85 70 16 76 IS 46 42 32 13 49 98 19 75 60 81 76 16 76 16 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 293 XII, XIII, XIV. Municipal and government employes. Wages per annum paid government and municipal officers in Barmen. Occupations. Hours per day. Lowest. Highest. Average, Other allowances. 1. Government officees. District court. Chief judge. Judges Ch'iks Assistants .. Copyists — Janitor Messengers . Jail. Director Principal overseer . . . OrersoeiB ■Station-bouse keeper . Jail physician Jail minister Clerks 10 12 12 3 to 4 2 to 4 10 Customs and taxes. Director Chief inspector Ti easurer Inspectors Auditors Receivers Clerks' Officers of the customs and taxes. Telegraph ojlces. Director Chief clerk Clerk Principal telegraph operators Telegraph operators •Supervisor of telegraph ap- paratus. Doputios , Laborers Post-offices, Dlreotor Inspector Chief clerk (cashier) Clerks. Assistants Luggage master Post agent Clerk Dispatch agents Postmen (letter-carriers). Postillion Deputies c e 6 to 7 8 10 2. Municipal Officees. Mayor Burgomaster City clerk Clerks Recorder Auditor Clerk's assistants . Copyists Treasurer Registrar, public . . Assistant 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 , 428 00 9."i2 00 571 00 357 00 142 80 238 00 214 00 580 00 428 40 214 20 214 20 700 00 642 60 321 30 1, 428 00 1,1110 00 1, 190 00 714 00 714 00 357 00 321 30 214 20 571 20 470 00 3f0 80 380 80 250 00 380 80 171 36 142 80 1, 190 00 1,071 00 714 00 476 00 428 40 238 00 428 40 321 30 192 78 192 78 142 80 142 80 2, 856 00 1, 785 00 856 80 523 60 428 40 428 40 357 00 238 00 714 00 714 00 330 00 $2, 000 00 1, 428 00 820 00 500 00 100 40 285 00 321 3G 952 00 500 00 300 00 2R0 00 850 00 830 00 571 00 2, 142 00 1, C66 00 2,428 CO 1. 190 00 1, 190 00 850 80 600 90 321 30 1,071 00 870 80 714 00 571 20 357 00 571 20 250 00 171 36 2,000 1, 428 952 714 499 357 500 357 357 357 190 160 3, 000 00 2, 000 00 1, 000 00 714 00 571 20 571 20 428 40 330 00 952 00 952 00 500 00 $1, 714 00 1,190 00 695 50 428 50 106 GO 201 50 207 68 904 00 464 00 257 10 247 10 778 00 749 30 446 18 1,785 00 1, 428 00 1,309 00 952 00 952 00 606 90 405 60 207 75 821 10 670 40 547 40 476 00 303 50 476 00 210 68 157 08 1,595 1,249 833 595 459 297 464 3;.!) 274 271 106 154 2, 928 00 1, 892 50 928 40 618 80 499 80 499 80 392 70 284 00 833 00 833 00 415 00 Free rent. Free rent. Do. Do. Free rent. Do. Do. For rent, $102.81. Do. Do. Do. For rent, $57.12. Free rent. For rent, $102.82 per annum. Do. Do. Do. Do. Free. Do. For rent, $85.68. Do. Do. For rent, $42.84. Do. Do. Do. Do. D». Rent, fuel, and light free. * When inspecting the lines he is allowed $1.42 per day in addition to his regular salary. 294 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages paid per annum, government and municipal offices in Barmen — Continued. Occupation. 2. Municipal Officers— Con- tinued. Department 0/ police. Superintendent — Commissioners Sergeants Clerks Statistician Clerk's assistants . Supernumeraries. . Copyi3ts Market-master Forester Field-guard Might sergeant Might watchmen- .. Reserve watchmen. Policemen Jailer City architect City assistants City surveyor Auditor of'pubHc works . Drawing clerks Bookkeeper Clerks... Oity water-works. Director Clerk Superintendent of . Pump station. Faotor Foreman Fipe-fltters . Laborers Oity gas-works. Director Overseer Foremen Pipe-fltters * Laborers Clerks Stokers Inspectors of gasometer . Laborers in public parks. Overseer Dog-catchers Oymnmnum and real schools. Directors .. Principals.. Teachers... Assistants . Janitor Sigh schools for ladies. Directors Principals ] \[ Female teachers ..'_. Female teachers of handiwork Trade school. Director ... Principal.., Teachers... Assistants . Hours per day, 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 8 to 9 8 to 9 8 to 9 10 10 10 9 6 to7 6 12 Lowest. $952 00 499 80 307 00 500 00 500 00 357 00 357 00 178 50 357 00 357 00 285 00 238 00 171 36 142 80 201 80 190 40 1, 428 00 428 40 571 20 357 00 285 60 500 00 285 60 714 00 500 00 357 00 285 60 238 00 178 50 119 00 714 00 357 00 285 60 178 50 119 00 297 00 190 40 321 30 119 00 238 00 166 60 6 to 7 6 to 7 1, 190 00 714 00 449 80 357 00 178 50 1, 071 00 714 00 285 60 142 80 1, 071 00 714 00 428 40 285 60 Highest. $1, 190 00 714 00 428 40 571 20 571 20 500 00 428 40 328 00 428 40 476 00 357 00 363 30 171 36 142 80 363 30 238 00 1, 785 00 571 20 856 80 520 00 357 00 714 00 500 00 1, 000 00 714 00 476 00 357 00 285 60 238 00 178 50 1, 000 00 476 00 357 00 238 00 178 60 476 00 285 60 476 00 166 60 285 60 238 00 1, 666 00 1, 071 00 714 00 500 00 238 00 1,498 00 952 00 428 40 202 30 1, 428 00 952 00 632 00 428 40 Average. Other allowances. $1, 071 00 556 90 392 70 535 60 535 60 428 50 392 70 208 25 392 70 416 50 321 00 300 65 171 36 142 80 312 55 214 20 1, 606 50 499 80 714 00 438 50 321 30 607 00 392 80 857 00 607 00 416 50 321 30 261 80 208 25 148 75 857 00 416 50 321 30 208 25 148 75 386 50 238 00 398 65 142 80 261 80 202 00 1, 428 00 892 50 606 90 428 50 208 25 1, 249 SO 833 00 357 00 172 55 1, 249 50 833 00 530 50 357 00 For uniform, per annum, $42.84. Do. Do. For uniform, per annum, $35.70. For Ms uniform, $28.56 per annum. Do. For his uniform, $28.56 per annum, and rent free. Free rent, fuel and light. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 295 Wages paid per annum, government and municipal officers in Barmen — Continued. Occupation. Hoars per day. Lowest. Highest. Average. Other allowances. 2. Municipal Officers— Con- tinued. Public schools. Distriotinspector . Local inspector ... Principals : Male Female .^ . . Teachers: Male . . Female Public children's home. Female principals . City vaccinators . . Pawn-house. Superintendent . Appraiser Cfoik Cashier Porter Public bath-house. Director Clerk Cashier Purser Swimming-master. Porters Servants : Male. Female Stoker Hospital. Chief physician. Ph sicians Surgeon , Superintendent . Clerk Overseer Nurse: Male Female Cook (female)... Servants 6 to 7 6 6 to 7 6 to 8 6 to 8 6 to 8 6 to 8 12 12 121 12i 3 8 8 10 12 12 12 12 , 071 00 428 40 523 60 357 00 321 30 214 00 100 40 500 00 714 00 409 80 357 00 476 00 149 00 714 00 476 00 357 00 238 00 285 00 142 80 71 40 47 60 166 60 71 40 47 60 57 12 28 56 , 600 00 632 60 714 00 428 40 500 00 321 30 214 20 500 00 952 00 499 80 476 00 500 00 190 40 952 00 520 00 520 00 357 00 321 30 190 40 95 20 71 40 952 00 1, 190 00 714 00 856 80 714 00 856 80 561 20 714 00 357 00 500 00 238 00 285 60 95 20 71 40 57 12 47 60 $1,335 50 530 50 618 80 392 70 410 65 267 40 202 30 500 00 833 00 499 80 410 50 488 00 169 70 833 00 498 00 438 50 297 50 303 15 166 60 83 30 59 50 184 45 1,071 00 785 40 785 40 637 60 428 50 261 80 83 30 59 50 57 12 38 08 For rent for married, 12 per cent, of income. For unmarried, 7 per cent, of income. ' For rent, 7 per cent, of in- come. Free rent, fuel, and light. Free rent. Do. Free hoard and lodging. Do. Free rent, fuel, and light. Free board and lodging. Do. Do. Do. XV. Printers and printing-offices. Wages paid per week to printers in Barmen. Occupations. Honrs. Lowest. Highest. Average. Editor Corrector (proof-reader) .. Pressmen Typesetters (compositors) Forem an Clerk Apprentice $17 85 8 56 4 28 4 28 8 56 9 00 1 20 $40 00 14 28 5 20 5 71 17 85 12 00 2 38 $28 93 11 42 4 74 5 00 13 21 10 50 1 7B> ,296 labor -in europe — germany. Cost op living. A.— Retail prices for the necessaries of life ruling in Barmen and vicinity in 1884. Articles. First quality. Second quality. Third quality. Fonrtk quality. per 100 pounds. . $1 80 2 40 26 04 03 04 04 02J 02* 02J 051 06J 04J o 014 33 034 06| 04 00J 17 11 26 041 02 23 095 38 42 10 24 15 17 164 17 17 14 05 15 24 $1 52 2 00 18 024 Flour : do.... Bread : do.... do do .. do ...1o... 044 05 03J 14 28 do $0 22 ..do 06 031 01 do do.... Cheese : do lUlTCll do.... do.... 02i 19 04;! 33 36 09 15 14 16 Sausajre : do.... 16 ..do Cofleo : do.... 23 30 08 12 $0 19 do... 023 do... Meat: do.... do do.... do Pork do do... do do... 04 14 22 -Average prices paid by laborers for rent, fuel, and light in the principal cities of Bar- men consular district. Barmen. Elberfeld. Hagen. Dortmund. Average. Lodging : S'or one-half bed perroonth. For ono bed do.... Dwellings : Oixe room do... Two rooms do Two rooms and a part of the cellar, per month Fuel and lisht: Coal -, per 100 kilograms. Petroleum per liter. Gas per centimeter. Inhabitants $1 19 1 42 1 07 3 32 3 50 33 05 04J 100, 000 $1 19 1 42 1 74 3 57 3 80 0«8 05 04 102,000 $1 40 1 80 1 42 2 63 2 79 24 05 04J 30, 000 $1 43 2 15 2 60 24 05 034 80, 000 $12* 1 5» 1 51 2 91 3 IT 34 OS 04 LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. 297 C — Retail prices for food and light ruling in Prussia and the German Empire in 1882. Articles. German Empire. Rye floor per pound . wheat do... Butter do... Milk per liter. Eggs „ _ per dozen . Poratoea per 100 pounds. Beef per pound. Cow meat do Pork , do... Mutton do... Veal do... Bacon do . . . Wheat per 100 pounds. Eye do... Peas do... Petroleum per liter . . Gas per cubic meter.. $0 O'ii 04 24J 04 14} 84 15J 18} 15i 13J 18 22 2 80 1 80 2 88 05J 05 Female employment in barmen and elberfeld. Xumber of male and female operatives employed in the different industrial branches in Bar- men and Elberfeld, Occupations. Female. "Bricklayers and masons Tenders and hod-carriers Plastet era Boofers and slaters Plumbers Carpenters Cabinet-makers Gas and water fittera Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders P Brick -makers Brewera Butchers Brass -founders Con fectionors Quill girls Cigar-makers Coopers - Cutlers Drivers, draymen, teamsters, &c Engravers Furriers * Gai-deners Hatters Horseshoers Loom-makers Laborers, porters, &c l . Lithographers Millwrights Nail-makers Locbamitha Macbiniata Saddle and harness makers Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths - Barbers and baW-dreasera Painters Bleachers Weavers of braids, laces, fancy articles Printers Compositors- Button-makers Weavers of Italian cloths Weavers of lastings Laundresses and ironing- women 2,300 340 4,206 298 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Number of male and female operatives employed in the different industrial branches in Bar- men and Elberfeld — Continued. Occupations. Salesmen — Saleswomen . Jewelers . Luster- yarn makers Colored paper branch Paper cornet branch Seamstresses Dyers of Turkey red and piece yarn. Dyers of black colors Waiters Corset-makers Wheelwrights Eyeletanakers * Modelers TJmbrella-makers Assorting rags Heelers Fringe-makers Distillers Clerks . Turners Cravat- makers -Embroiderers Striug-makers Laborers in chemical factories . Watch-makers Envelope factories Teachers (public schools) 317 12 900 57 840 ,900 200 45 972 126 40 72 84 30 ,294 300 130 Total j 53,469 Female. 790 400 347 1,250 95 320 360 90 300 2,830 213 45 268 130 100 312 72 18,394 BREMEN. REPORT BT CONSUL WILSON. In answer to your circular letter under date of February 15, 1884 re- gardmg the rate of wages paid to and the cost of living to the laboring classes m this consular district, which embraces the whole of the State of Bremen, the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, the province of Ostfries- Jand, and a part of the province of Hanover, in all containing a popu- lation of over 1,000,000 inhabitants, I have the honor to submit the fol- lowing report, prepared from information and statistics which have bren obtained by my consular agents, Mr. John G. Gross, of Brake, Olden- burg, Mr. Gerhard Ihlder, of Bremerhaven-Geestemunde, and myself. The report, though not so full and complete in all respects as I should wish, will however serve to give a fair idea of the cost and manner of living, the general character and condition of the laboring classes of all grades in this district, and their ability to save something for old age or MALE LABOR. RATES OP WAGES. The rates of wages paid to laborers, mechanics, and artisans of every class is given in a series of tables herewith transmitted In general the rates of wages paid in the cities and towns in this dis- trict are greater than that paid in the country. The latter class how ever, have many advantages which the laborer in the city does not aT for instance, the country laborer has his cottage free of rent and Tsin^ll garden, and often pasturage for one cow or two or three sheep and when LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 299 working for his landlord he also receives, in addition to his wages, his breakfast, dinner, and beer. Although the actual wages paid him is much smaller than that paid in towns, his condition is the better of the two. COST OF LIVING. The cost of living varies according to the condition of the laborers and wages obtained. The average price for those articles which may be classed as necessaries during the first quarter of this year in city and eountry are as follows : Articles. In town. In country. Atticles. In town. In country. Wheat — per 100 pounds.. Eye do Peas and beans do — Potatoes do ... Voal > do... Fresh' bacon do... Smoked bacon do Batter, salted do — Rye bread per pound . . Wbeatflour do Etc flour do $2,439 1.844 2.38 1.963 2. 356 .595 .165 .165 .15 .178 .142 .178 .357 .285 ..018 .038 .03 $2.38 1.725 3.32 1,094 2.618 .357 . 135 .435 .119 .119 .119 .142 .215 .119 .016 .038 .025 Pearl barley . .per ponnd. . Barley groats do Buckwheat groats - . do Milk per quart. - Sice, E. India. perpound.. Coffee, Java do ... Salt do ... Lard do Soap do Starch do Soda do Candles do — Vinggar per quart. . Cheese perpound.. Herring per piece.. $0. 061 .047 .047 .043 .059 .274 .024 .119 .095 .071 .024 .12 .036 .142 .01 .024 $0. 05* .042 .042: .036 .05* .23» .024 .107 .09* .07 .021 .12 .03 .14 .01 .02 Articles of clothing. Articles. Value. Articles. Value $4 76 to $9 52 11 90 to 21 42 49 to 2 86 1 43 to 4 06 2 14 to 5 71 5 to 14 7 to 16 16 to 30 29 to 50 95 to 6 18 12 to 60 Woolen knitting, per pound 2 to 5 14 to 84 24 to 59 Cotton sheetiugs, per yard Woolen sheetings, per yard 1 43 to 2 87 In accordance with these prices, and added thereto the cost of rent, taxes, schooling, and sundry small expenses, the cost of a household consisting of a married couple, with three to four children and servant, if it can be afforded, may be accounted at — Average expenses. In towns. In country. Yearly earning from $119 to $238 Yearly eai-ning from $>>40 to $500 Yearly earning from $500 to $1,000 . Yearly earning from $1,000 to $2,000 $142 80 285 60 595 00 1, 428 00 $119 00 204 80 357 00- 714 00- A laborer whose weekly earnings amount $5.20 a week will pay about $45 a year for house rent. Outside of town in the surrounding villages, a mile or two away from his work, the rent will be $35 a year. This 300 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. sum provides him with a house of three or four rooms, a store-room, a SD His farnitiire is of the cheapest kind, tables and chairs often of his own make. He seldom eats a meal at home, except supper as he eoes to work at 6 o'clock a. in., has half an hour for breakfast at 8 a. m., End au hour for dinner at 1 o'clock. His wife or child brings him dm, ner, which consists of soup, with potatoes or vegetables, and a slice of meat or bacon. He stops work at 6 o'clock and has his sapper at home, consisting of rye bread, butter of the cheapest kind, cheese, and tea. On Sundays, when he can have his dinner at home, there is fresh meat for all. He has his Sunday suit, which costs him $10, and which must last him four or five years. . . The laborer generally belongs to a mutual benefit society, into which he pays about 25 cents a month, and out of which he draws when ill $2 15 per week for a period not exceeding six months. His heirs are entitled to $35.70 in case of death. The residence tax is 8 per cent, on the house, and the tax on earnings 8 per cent of the income, which entitle the payer to a full political right. PAST AND PRESENT WAGES. 3- The present rate of wages and condition of the laboring classes is similar to that prevailing in 1878. Living is perhaps a little cheaper now, as house rent is not so high. Changes in condition or in established customs and rates are but seldom. / HABITS OF THE WORKINGMEN. • The habits of the working class in general may be said to be good. As a rule they are steady, sober, trustworthy, and saving, always eager to lay something by for age, or sickness. In this the father is admirably as- sisted by the mother, who presides at home, or works in the field with her husband. Usually she has the charge of the cash box, and endeavors to make her home as pleasant as possible for the husband and family. A large proportion of the people of this class belong to mutual aid societies, which are managed by persons of their own class, and upon the payment of a small amount weekly or monthly they are entitled in case of sickness to receive aid. The general plan of working of these societies will be given later. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYES. The feeling prevailing between the employe" and employer in genera is of the best and most friendly character; the employ^ giving his Ml confidence to his employer, and the latter generally manifesting a kindly interest in the welfare of those who are under his employ. ORGANIC CONDITION OF LABOR. No organized condition of labor exists. Trade unions, protective ' societies, and organization of the laboring classes against capital, similar to those existing in the United States, are here unknown ; neither does there exist organization of capital for protection against the laboring classes. LABOR IN EITEOPE — GERMANY. 301 STRIKES. Strikes are events occurring but seldom", if at all ; the laboring •lasses thinking that such events damage not only their own trades and interests, but also that of their employers. PAYMENTS AND PURCHASES. The working people are usually paid by the week, in the currency of the country, and are free to purchase their necessaries wherever they desire. The system which requires laborers to purchase their goods from their employers, or to take a half or any part of their wages in goods from him, is prohibited by law. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. In some of the large establishments the employes are commencing to form unions for the purpose of purchasing their supplies at wholesale, which are then sold without profit to the various members of the union; the management of the union being intrusted to the members alter- nately, who serve without compensation. Co-operative societies or unions are established for the benefit of the working classes and laborers for receiving deposits on a small scale, at no time to be over $71.40, pay- ing an interest of 3$ per cent., and to give advances to small traders atul working men up 10 $100 on their own personal credit, if they are members; otherwise they must fiud good sureties. At the end of the year tiie profits are divided among the members or shareholders, each shue amounting to $21.42, and of which no member can possess more tliMii one. The profits of such unions amount per year, after deduction of 25 per cent, of the same as salary for the cashier and director, to about 15 to 20 per cent, on the capital invested; wherefore these unions may be stated to lie highly prosperous, enabling ibeir members to buy for cash, which otherwise they would not be enabled to do, as the credit system, post- poning payments for work or goods delivered, some six to twelve months, prevents this cash sjstem to minor traders. Besides these unions and the c inmon savings banks, which are managed in the same manner as with us, there are unions for buying the necessaries of life at wholesale ca.-h prices and the delivery of these goods to members at a very limited profit — o~ly hirge enough to pay for the management. The profits are distributed ami.ng the members on a scale which is regulated by the sum or amount for which a member has bought goods from the union. In general the unions are very prosperous ; if they fail to be sd the fault lies with the managers. As to the effect these unions have on the gen- eral trade, it may be stated to be appreciable, as the customers are by degrees learning that it is better to buy for cash and not run up large accounts, which afterwards they find very hard to pay, and thereby in most instances create heavy losses to general traders. CONDITION OP THE WORKING PEOPLE. The condition of the working people in general is good, but not to the same degree that it is with us. Consular Agent Gross gives me the following report upon this branch of the subject as existing in Olden- burg: Work for men and women who are willing to work is at most all times to be had in towns as well as m country. Their manner of living, especially in the .country, is of the best, their breakfast consisting of coffee and bread and butter or milk soup; 302 LABOK IN EUROPE GERMANY. their dinner, which they take from 12 to 1 o'clock, consists of soup with barley, pea*, or beans therein, and either fresh meat or bacon, according to the season ; at 4 p. m. they again take coffee, with bread and butter, and at 7 o'clock p. m. their tea,, with a slice of roasted bacon or fried potatoes, and bread and butter or lard. Instead of barley* rice has lately come much in use with the working class. workingmen's homes. The homes of the common laborer consists of two to three rooms, a small bit of gar- den ground to raise the necessary vegetables. In general, their dwellings are healthy, well aired, and clean, for which cleanliness the people of this district are renowned ; exceptions, of course, occuring, but they being exceptional, I omit to state such caset liere. In larger towns, however, the working class are not so well situated, as, by reason of the high rents, whole families, consisting of 5 to 7 persons, sometimes axe lodged in a single room. CLOTHING. ; The clothing worn by the working class in most part consist of cotton goods and moleskin during the week, but of cloth on Sundays. Leather shoes in general'are in use, and very seldom wooden shoes are met wi th. As to the ability for bettering their condition one may'say every man sleeps as he makes his own bed. In general, a saving man and wife earn enough to lay up something for old age, and to give their children a good education, so that the whole world is open to them. Of the moral and physical condition of the working classes in this district and the influence of good or evil by which they are surrounded, I have to state that, with very few exceptions, the conditions are sound and good if not praiseworthy ; and not being surrounded nor exposed to any evil influence, one may state with confidence that in the wholeof the Empire of Germany there does not exist a district with healthier and better con- ditions among the workingmen than in this district. HOW MECHANICS LIYE IN BREMEN. A cooper foreman, a very reliable and trustworthy man, has given me the following information regarding himself and family : I am forty-five years of age ; a cooper foreman ; have a wife and two children, one of nine and one of three years of age. I have steady work all the year round, and earn $6.41 a week. The average wages paid to coopers are 83 cents per day. During the •Winter we begin to work at 7 o'clock a. m., and quit at 5 p. m. ; in summer we work from 6 to 6. We are allowed half an hour for breakfast at 8 a. m., and one hour for dinner at noon. We never work by gas or candle light. My earnings amount to about |334.15 per year, which is sufficient to support my family and aged father. I pay per annum : For rent, four rooms in the third story -. $53 55 Clothing, self and family 35 70 Pood and fuel, per day, 4-7 cents 173 74 Residence tax ___ 4 28 School tax (one child) 4 76 Mutual aid societies y 57 Tax on earnings > 3 33 Incidentals, doctor, medicine, &o ""' 28 56 _ , 312 59 Surplus 21 6S 334 15 Our breakfast consists of rye bread, white bread, butter, and coffeo. Dinner, which I always take at home, of meat, vegetables, and potatoes, and supper of two kinds of bread, butter, tea, cheese, and sometimes fried potatoes, or a kind of hash. As above shown, I am able to save a little for cases of sicl&ess and old age. I belong to three mutual aid societies, created and administered by the laboring classes on the follow- ing principles : They keep no funds over $47.60 for running expenses, but whenever help is required they collect what is wanted. Taking an average, I have been paving |8.57 a year, or to eacli society $2.86. In case of sickness I draw from each society ?! Ji a 1^ e V S r a P er,od of not over six months, and in case of death my wife is enti tied to $35.70 from each society. LABOR IN EUPOPE GERMANY. 303 PROTECTION OF EMPLOYES. 11. In most all factories, mills, and railroads, it is the custom of the em- ployers to insure their workmen against accidents which may occur to them by reason of their employment ; in case of accident the employer pays to them during sickness their full daily salary, or, in case of death, to their widow, a sum generally equal to from $500 to $700. In general, great care is exercised as to the moral and physical welfare of the employed POLITICAL RIGHTS. 12. The political rights enjoyed by the workingmen, and their rights, or, rather, influence on legislation: alsotothequestion, Whatis the share, comparatively, borne by workiDg people in local and general taxation with the tendency of legislation in regard to labor and the working people ? They enjoy the same rights and exert the same influence on legis- lation, as well as local taxation, as every other German subject, they enjoying free voting, together with right of election to every station ob- tained by the majority of voters. The tendency of the general legislation tends more in favor of the workingmen than to capitalists, although land-owners enjoy the great- est benefit and protection from the Government and its members. CAUSES OP EMIGRATION. Among the principal causes which lead to the emigration of the work- ing people are lack of work in the middle, north, south and east parts of Germany, and the wish of farmers to find a freehold ground for little money for their children, which is beyond their reach here; the wish to free their sons from military service, and last, not least, the heavy taxes charged to the land-owners here ; and, perhaps, more than all, the wish to advance themselves and children in the social scale of life, which here they find impossible. Most of the emigrants going from here are farmers or agricultural laborers, who, in general, are comparatively well off, and do not settle in the seaports, but go on their arrival without stopping to their friends in the West, they having selected favorable pieces of land for them, of which they take possession at once, and with all the family commencing work as soon as possible, leading the same careful, money J saving life which they led in the mother country. Emi- grants coming from middle, south, or northeastern Germany are gen- erally not so well off as those from this district, as they consist of farm laborers, journeymen carpenters, joiners, tailors, &c. Itis a well-known fact that of the large number of emigrants who have from time to time emigrated from this district, that most of them do well, and a great many of them have returned to their old homes with quite large for- tunes, the greater part, however, remaining in the land of their adoption. FEMALE LABOR. 1. The number of women and children employed in this district, ex- clusive of household and domestic servants, cannot be definitively given. From the best information I have been enabled to obtain the total number so employed may be stated to be about 16,000 in addition to those engaged in agricultural labor, and may be classified as follows : (a) Manufacturing. — Employed in mills, factories, and as dress and cloak makers, milliners, and sewers of men's clothing, 9,000. 304 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. (6) Professional and personal, such as teachers, clerks, hotel and board- inffhouse keepers, ami laundresses, 4.500. (c) AariculturaL— In this district the number of persons employed in agricultural labor may be estimated at about 450,000, and it can safely bl said that fully one-half if not two-i birds of this number is composed of women. The able-bodied men, when not in the army, generally seek the more remunerative labor obtained in the towns and cities. (d) In other pursuits, as common laborers, wash and scrub women, sav 2 500 2. Common and farm female laborers receive from 20 to 35 cents per day; laborers in mills, factories, and manufactories, from 47 to 8 j cents per (lay, according to the skill of the person ; teachers m school irom $100 to $650 per year; sewing- women and dressmakers receive from 2S to 75 cents per day. Theaverage price, however, is not more than 35 cents. When working in private families they receive their board in addition. 3. The hours of labor ip general, teachers excepi ed, are from a. m. to 8 p. m., two hours being allowed for meals. On tbe farm the hours are from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m., with an hour for dinner allowed. MORAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITION OP FEMALE LABORERS. The physical condition in general is good. The moral, however, is not up to the standard we are accustomed to find among i he laboring classes of our own country. Female virtue, especially among the lower classes, is of the free and easy sort before marriage. After marriage, however, they are generally true and faithful to their husbands. 5. No general means for the improvement of the employes are pro- vided other than the schools, churches, and home influence and training. 6. Those who work in factories, mills, and manufactories have the same provisions made for their safety as the male emplo.ve. 7. In general females employed in manufacturing establishments are insured against accidents similar to the male laboier. A small amonnt is deducted weekly from the wages of the employe, which constitutes a sick-fund, which is under the control of a committee appointed by the laborers. Prom this fund when sick they can leceive their lull pay for three days ; over three days and up to three weeks, half pay, and after this the relief is not afforded. 8. During the past five years there has not been any change of amount either in the wages paid or the cost of living. The employment of women has a tendency to cheapen the price of labor in all branches, and furnishes a supply of laborers most always in excess of the demand. FEMALE EDUCATION. 9. The state of education among the women and children of the labor- ing classes in towns and cities is usually such as to enable them to read and write, and a knowledge of figures sufficient for ordinary pur- suits. The education so obtained in general must be acquired before the age of fourteen years, as from that time on the child is expected and required to help support herself by her own labor. In the country the standard of education is of a low order and much illiteracy prevails, whole communities being unable to speak any other language than a low patois, or the lowest of low German. The effect of the employment of women in factories, mills, stores, &c, upon the family and home cir- cle is such that home life and home influence such as exists among the laboring classes of our country is almost unknown ; home with this class LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 305 is merely a place where they sleep. The physical condition of the wo- men of all classes of society in North Germany is in general good, they being mostly a strong, healthy, and hardy people. The lack of home training and home influences is plainly to be seen in the light manner in which female virtue is held, and the ease and complacency with which she in general surrenders her charms to her friend or lover, and from whom she in return is assisted in her straggle for bread. Caste or social position in general is not lost by such unions, which in many cases re- sult in marriage between the parties. G-ENERAL REMARKS. The general character and condition of the laboring classes of this dis- trict is far above the average of that prevailing in other parts of Ger- many, hence emigration from the district is light, as compared with other sections of the country. Even here, with the numerous advan- tages possessed, the most rigid economy on the part of every member of the family as to food .and clothing is required to enable them to live upon their earnings. This class of people in general have nothing to look forward to excepting a life of labor and toil from year to year for the bare necessaries of life, and those of the cheapest kind; no chance of advancement for themselves or children, being bound by tradition, custom, and law to remain in the condition of life in which they were born. A people with a higher degree of intelligence than that common among the lower qrders of the laboring classes would either feel like rebelling against such a lot or giving up the struggle for a bare exist- ence. ■. The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg being a separate principality, differ- ing in many respects from the free State of Bremen, and other parts of this consular district, I have thought it best to transmit herewith un- changed the tabular forms 1 to 15 as prepared by Consular Agent Gross, giving prices paid for the various kinds of labor in the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg. JOHN M. WILSON, Consul. United States Consulate, Bremen, June 11, 1S84 I. General trades. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Bremen. Occupations. BL'ILDING TRADES. Bricklayers $4 28 $5 24 $4 50 Masons 5 00 5 30 5 00 Tenders 3 57 3 81 3 65 Plasterers 2 38 7 14 4 50 Tenders 3 57 3 81 3 61 Slaters 4 28 5 71 4 35 Roofers 4 28 5 71 4 35 Tenders 3 33 4 28 3; Plumbers 4 28 5 24 4 57 Assistants 3 20 4 00 3 20 Carpenters 5 00 5 71 5 00 Gas-fitters 3 57 6 43 4 11 92 A -LAB 20 Lowest. Highest. $4 28 $5 24 5 00 5 30 3 57 3 81 2 38 7 14 3 57 3 81 4 28 5 71 4 28 5 71 3 33 4 28 4 28 5 24 3 20 4 00 5 00 5 71 3 57 6 43 Average. 306 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Bremen— Continued. Occupations. OTHEB TKADBS. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brick-makers Brewers Butchers . Brans founders Cabinet-makers^ Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers : Draymen and teamsters .....-.'. Cab and carriage Street railways Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters i Horse-sboers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Nail-makers (hand) Potters Printers Teachers, public schools, per year Saddle and harness makers Sailmakers Stevedores Tanners Tailors ^. Telegraph operators Tinsmiths ' Lowest. 3 3 4 4 238 3 2 5 3 2 4 4 Highest. $4 85 4 50 4 28 6 82 7 00 5 71 4 85 4 75 5 24 4 25 8 33 5 24 5 24 3 10 4 75 3 00 4 28 5 00 7 14 4 28 10 71 7 14 3 76 7 14 3 95 11 90 4 28 4 00 4 60 8 33 642 60 5 71 5 70 6 14 4 28 4 76 7 14 4 75 Average. $3 55 4 28 3 57 5 15 4 75 4 61 3 61 4 28 3 33 3 43 4 19 4 28 3 01 2 86 3 17' 2 46 3 10 3 83 4 92 3 15 3 10 4 35 3 00 4 67 3 63 4 90 3 57 3 57 4 28 5 00 357 00 3 75 2 85 5 70 3 57 3 95 5 75 4 25 II. Factories, mills, &c. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in factories or mills in Bremen, Germany. Occupations. SICE MILLS. Engineers $10 23 $13 09 $12 25 Foreman 6 43 7 14 6 43 Firemen 4 28 4 76 4 28 Blacksmiths 4 28 4 76 4 28 Carpenters 4 28 4 76 4 28 Joiners 4 28 4 76 4 28 Porter. Boysandgirls 90 2 50 100 Draymen 4 28 4 76 4 J8 Laborers 4 28 4 28 4 28 Lowest. Highest. $10 23 $13 09 6 43 7 14 4 28 4 76 4 28 4 76 4 28 4 76 4 28 4 76 3 42 5 25 90 2 50 4 28 4 76 4 28 4 28 Average. Wages from the 1st of April to the first day of December, in liriek factories. Occupations. Foreman , Fireman First molder.. Second molder Outside men . Infringers — Outbringers . . Amount. $202 30 119 00 95 20 78 54 85 68 89 25 Occupations. Setter Locomotive fireman Boys Panmakcr , Panmiller Diggers, per 7 cubic meters Amount. $89 25 103 53 57 12 108 52 78 54 21 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 307 III. Foundries, machine-shops, and iron works. Wages paid per weeJc of sixty hours in foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in Bremen. Occupations. Technical director Assistant Master foreman Engineers Molder 4 Boiler-maker (foreman) Strikers Blacksmiths... Turners Apprentices Laborers Lowest. Highest. $19 40 $40 00 6 66 16 18 7 61 12 37 4 28 5 71 4 28 6 43 5 71 7 14 4 28 4 70 4 28 4 76 4 28 4 76 1 50 2 00 3 33 4 28 Average. $25 00 10 00 8 33 4 28 4 28 6 66 4 28 4 28 4 28 1 75 3 33 IV. Glass works. Wages paid per week of sixty-five hours to glass-workers in Obernkirchen, and Rinteln (near Bremen). Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $3 81 5 95 3 57 1 43 2 14 1 09 $6 66 6 66 3 81 1 90 3 57 4 28 $5 41 6 00 3 57 1 43 2 14 2 14 VI. Bail ways and railway employes. Wages paid railway employes (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and ears, linemen, railroad laborers, 4-c. ) in the consular district of Bremen. Occupations, Lowest. Highest. Average. $1, 200 00 285 00 476 00 357 00 214 00 238 00 357 00 142 00 60 3 80 3 57 5 00 2 85 $1, 500 00 300 00 952 00 547 00 285 00 357 00 428 00 166 00 70 4 76 3 80 5 00 3 50 $290 00 do.-.. 540 00 do.... 400 00 do'.... 230 00 do.... 280 00 do.... 375 00 do.... 150 00 62 do.... do.... * Uniforms included. 308 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. VII. Ship- yards and ship-building. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in ship-yards — distinguishing "between iron and wood ship-building — in Bremen. Occupations. IRON-BHIP BUILDING. Shipwrights Draftsmen : First class — Second class.. Foremen Iron finishers Turners Planers Riveters Blacksmiths Strikers Brass fitters Tinsmiths Joineis Calkers Painters WOODEN-SHIP BUILDING. Shipwrights . Foremen Carpenters... Painters Joiners . Mast and spar makers . Plumbers Blacksmiths Riggers Sawyers. Saw-mill-machine men . Laborers WAGES PAID BY THE NORTH GERMAN LLOYD (REPAIRING DOCK). Fitters First riveters , Second riveters Upholders Boys Shipsmiths Carpenters and joiners . Painters Engineers Sawyers Sailni alters Riggers Laborers J VIII. Seamen's wages. Wages paid per month, to seamen (officers and me ^—distinguishing between ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in the consular district of Bremen. Occupations. Ocean (steam) : Captain First officer.,.. Second officers. Third officers . . Carpenter Cook Seamen Chief engineer . Second engineer Third engineer.. Assistant , Firemen... Lowest. Highest. $35 70 $47 60 28 56 30 94 1G G6 21 42 15 71 15 71 17 85 20 23 17 85 20 23 10 71 11 90 42 84 60 70 26 18 45 22 26 18 33 32 14 28 19 99 12 16 12 85 Occupations. Ocean (sail) : Captain First irate. . . Second mate . Carpenter . . . Cook Boatswain... Steward Sailraaker ..., Seamen Coast (steam) : Captain , Mate Lowest Highest. $23 80 $35 70 23 80 28 56 16 18 16 66 19 04 21 42 18 56 2142 15 47 17 85 8 33 11 90 14 04 15 47 11 90 11 90 23 80 35 70 21 42 26 IS LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 309 Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men), $c. — Continued. Occupations. Coast (steam)— Continued. Seamen Engineer Firemen Kiver (steam) : Captain ...' Carpenter Seamen (deck hands) En iueer. Firemen River (sail) : Captain Deck hands Boys WAGES PAID BY THE NORTH GERMAN LLOYD STEAMSHIP COMPANY. Captain First officer Second officer Third officer Fourth officer Lowest. $11 90 29 75 12 61 17 85 12 85 10 71 19 04 12 85 $14 28 10 00 2 38 47 60 35 70 29 75 23 80 19 04 Highest. $12 85 30 94 12 85 17 85 12 85 10 71 23 80 12 85 $14 28 10 71 4 70 85 68 40 46 32 13 23 80 19 04 Occupations. WAGES PAID BY THE NORTH GERMAN LLOYD STEAMSHIP company — continued. Physician Purser Carpenter Boatswain Helmsman Seamen First engineer — Second engineer Third engineer \ Fourth engineer Assistant Chief firemen Fireman Coal heaver '. Chief cook Cook Baker Chief steward.. Steward Stewardess Lowest. $23 80 23 80 19 04 15 47 12 85 10 71 63 17 51 17 38 08 26 18 19 99 14 76 1142 7 14 23 80 12 14 7 85 23 80 7 14 8 33 Highest. $32 13 32 13 21 42 17 85 12 85 10 71 98 77 55 93 41 65 26 18 19 99 15 71 14 28 8 33 32 13 15 95 11 19 32 13 8 33 9 52 The captains of the transatlantic steamers of the North German Lloyd have, besides their monthly wages of about $80, a certain percentage on the net proceeds of the business done by their steamers, guaranteed to be not less than $476, and not to exceed $2,380 per year in addition to their wages. IX. Store and shop wages. Wages paid per year in stores (wholesale or retail), to males and females, in Bremen, Ger- many. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. WHOLESALE. $476 357 428 428 357 214 286 238 26i 152 222 20 214 $2,546 952 952 952 952 833 428 476 523 2S6 309 50 309 $833 595 595 595 595 476 DETAIL. 357 286 428 238 261 30 238 The wholesale houses generally work from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m., allowing two hours for dinner; the retail houses from 7 a. m. to 10 p. m., allowing one hour for dinner and half an hour for supper. Ap- prentices in wholesale houses work three or four years without any remuneration. They have to hoard themselves, and are glad to receive $20 to $50 at the end of three or four years. 310 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. X. Household wages. Wages paid per year to household servants (1omns and cities) in the consular district of Bremen 1 (including board and lodging). Occupations. Head butler Second butler Coachman : First class Second class Cook: First class Second class Stableman Stableboy Servant Gardener Assistant Female bousekeeper Female cook Governess Chambermaid Washmaid Servant girl Hotel wages : Head waiter and clerk Saloon waiters Ordinary waiter Housekeeper Servantmaids Lowest. $214 00 119 00 83 00 36 00 238 00 142 00 35 70 8 33 47 00 142 00 47 60 95 20 47 60 71 40 35 70 23 80 23 80 285 60 128 82 125 50 150 55 22 75 Highest. $595 00 238 00 100 00 81 00 470 00 214 00 83 30 35 00 95 00 238 00 95 20 142 80 71 40 142 fO 83 30 47 60 47 60 428 40 214 20 195 60 214 20 54 10 Average. $357 00 150 00 83 00 60 80 357 00 166 00 59 50 23 00 35 70 166 60 71 40 95 20 59 50 83 30 59 50 23 80 23 80 305 45 175, 80 162 60 207 40 30 35 XI. Agricultural wages. Wages paid per year to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in the con- sular district of Bremen (with board and lodging). Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. First stableman Second stableman Plowmen •■ First class Second class Boy Shepherd Coachmen Agricultural inspector Carter First household servant.. Second household servant First dairywoman Second dairywoman Agricultural laborers* Harvesters* $59 50 35 70 53 55 23 80 9 52 47 60 47 60 119 00 47 60 23 80 16 66 35 70 16 66 47i 59i $130 00 59 50 57 12 35 70 11 90 47 60 59 90 142 80 59 90 35 70 23 80 35 70 23 80 95* 95J $100 00 47 60 54 74 28 56 9 52 47 60 52 36' 130 90 , 47 60 28 56- 17 85 35 70 17 85 7ii 83i * Per day and board. XII. Corporaton employes. Wages paid per year to the corporation employed in the city of Bremen. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average Director of banks* Cashier Book-keeper Clerk Junior clerk - Messenger Director of North German Lloyd Steamship Company*. Assistant* \ Cashier Book-keeper Correspondent Clerk . $1, 904 00 714 00 595 00 357 00 ■71 40 286 00 Messenger . 714 00 238 00 286 00 >2, 380 00 1,190 00 833 00 595 00 238 00 333 00 4, 760 00 1, 606 00 1, 428 00 1, 428 03 952 00 595 00 357 00 !, 142 00 833 00 642 00 428 00 119 00 286 00 714 00 357 00 286 00 *In addition to this salary they also reoeive a certain percentage of the net proceeds of the business. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. XIII. Government employes. 311 paid pm- year to employe's in Government departments and offices — exclusive of trades men and laborers — in the consular district of Bremen, Germany. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Executive : Burgomaster Senator Secretary of the senate - Clerks Messenger Archivist Janitor Porter Judicial : President Judges Secretary - Clerk Attorney-general Director of prison Turnkey (including board and lodging) . Health department: Health officer Chemist Messenger Bureau of vital statistics, clerks Police department : Inspectors Captains Clerks Policemen Surgeon Fire department : Director First and second assistant Firemen Treasury department : Chief of bureau Cashier Book-keeper Clerks Customs department : Director Cashier Clerks Collectors Land register office : Director Appraiser Surveyors Bodmen Docks and harbor : Chief architect Earbor-master Sluice-master Clerk Book-keeper Assistant harbor-master Porter Light inspector Assistant Lampmen Schools i Director (real-schule) .- Teachers (academical) Teachers (seminaristical) Director (primary school) Teachers Lady teachers Assistant teachers $2, 456 00 2, 058 00 1, 190 00 428 00 238 00 1, 190 00 595 00 238 00 2, 237 00 1, 190 00 1, 071 00 595 00 28G 00 1, 190 00 1, 486 00 238 00 286 00 652 00 286 00 428 00 952 00 524 00 428 00 286 00 202 00 952 00 524 00 286 00 1, 547 00 833 00 714 00 428 00 1, 702 00 476 00 357 00 262 00 i 1, 178 00 952 00 821 00 428 00 1, 547 00 952 00 476 00 523 60 428 40 571 20 214 20 214 20 1, 142 40 642 60 499 80 714 00 357 00 261 80 238 00 $2, 456 00 2, 166 00 1, 309 00 657 00 310 00 1, 547 00 774 00 238 00 2, 237 00 1,999 00 1, 392 00 774 00 371 00 1, 999 00 1, 571 00 476 00 286 00 1, 047 00 357 00 557 00 1, 440 00 681 00 557 00 371 00 202 00 952 00 714 00 386 00 1, 547 00 833 00 714 00 557 00 1, 702 00 928 00 514 00 562 00 1, 178 00 1, 190 00 832 00 472 00 1, 856 40 1,237 60 618 80 680 6< 556 92 571 20 278 46 214 20 166 60 , 190 00 785 40 785 40 642 60 404 60 309 40 $2, 456 00 2, 100 00 1, 250 00 500 00 275 00 1, 250 00 050 00 238 00 2, 237 00 1, 428 00 1, 200 00 654 00 300 00 ], 428 00 1, 500 00 300 00 286 00 1, 000 00 300 00 500 06 1, 100 00 600 00 500 00 286 00 202 00 852 00 600 00 300 00 1, 547 00 833 00 714 00 500 00 1, 702 00 752 00 450 00 350 00 1, 178 00 1, 022 00 821 00 428 00 1, 726 40 1, 137 60 521 75 559 45 474 82 571 20 224 10 428 40 214 20 166 16 1, 200 00 870 00 610 00 714 00 420 00 300 00 250 00 &12 LABOR IN EUEOPE GERMANY. XIV. Trades and labor in government employ. Wages paid ly the week of sixty hours, to the trades and laborers in Government employ in Bremen. Occupations. Inspector of the "trine cellar. Assistant Coopers Park inspector Assistant Laborers Street overseer Pavers Sweepers Dredging-master Engineer Fireman ■- Jetty-maker Masons Carpenters Painters Lowest. $46 00 7 14 3 80 12 00 7 14 2 85 4 28 2 38 2 85 3 72 4 76 3 22 3 33 5 00 5 00 3 57 Highest. $46 00 9 52 5 95 12 00 7 14 3 57 5 95 3 33 3 81 5 95 5 95 3 22 5 57 5 30 5 71 5 50 Average. $46 00 8 33 4 76 12 00 » 7 14 3 33 5 24 2 85 3 33 5 35 4 76 3 22 3 33 5 00 5 00 3 57 XV. Printers and printing offices. Statement showing the wages paid per week of sixty hours to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, fye. ) in Bremen. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $7 14 $9 52 4 76 5 71 4 76 5 71 4 76 5 71 5 95 7 14 5 95 7 14 5 95 7 14 1 90 2 86 95 1 43 3 81 4 28 Average. Foreman Compositor — Pressman Proof-reader ... Engineer '"Wood-engraver Stereotype!' Press-girl Apprentice Laborer $8 50 5 00 5 00 5 00 6 00 6 00 6 00 2 00 1 00 3 81 BAVARIA. REPORT ST CONSUL HORSTMANN, OF NVREMSERG. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. In accordance with instructions from the Department of State con- tained in the " Labor Circular," dated February 15, 1884, I transmit herewith the information desired, as far as it has been possible for me to procure the same. I am indebted to the presidents of the chambers of commerce and trade of Lower Bavaria and Middle Franconia for most of the items con- tained herein. COST OF LIVING. In regard to the cost of living to the laboring classes, the prices of the necessaries of life, clothing, &c, there is but little difference from that of other parts of South Germany and of Middle Germany. The great quantity of beer consumed by the laboring classes (females and children as well as males) does not necessitate the eating of as much meat as in parts where less beer is drunk. The higher price of meat, there- fore, in some parts of Bavaria is counterbalanced by the cheapness of the beer. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 313 PAST AND PRESENT WAGES. In comparison with the year 1878 there has been no change in the general rates of wages. In some few branches in articles for export there has been a trifling decline. HABITS OF THE BAVARIAN WORKING PEOPLE. The working classes, as a rule, are steady and trustworthy. They can scarcely be called saving in their habits, as the wages they receive are only sufficient to keep them, but they are able to live in a condition that they are not debarred recreation and pleasures in their simple and contented manner with their families on Sundays and holidays. They are able to clothe themselves decently, and, as a general rule, they are cleanly in their habits. Such squalidness as is seen in some parts of England among the working classes is not met with in Bavaria. STRIKES. Strikes are of rare occurrence, and have not taken threatening dimen- sions. They have in almost all cases been settled by agreement between the workingmen and the employers, and have never proved of any great advantage to the former. They have had but little influence in bring- ing forth any change either in trie rate of wages or the systems of labor. With the exception of some districts in the central and northern parts of Bavaria there are no great industrial centers. For the most part the manufacturing interests are scattered throughout the whole Kingdom. There are a great number of small concerns, employing but a few hands, and in many of the branches much of the work is done by the families in their own dwellings or shops. Bavaria, altogether, is more an agri- cultural than a manufacturing or commercial country. FOOD PURCHASES. The working people are free to purchase the necessaries of life where they choose. Payments are mostly made weekly and in coin. PROTECTION OF EMPLOYES. In regard to the means taken for the protection of life and limb of eniployls iu factories, mills, &c, I can state, generally, that there are public officers known as inspectors, whose duty it is to inspect all fac- tories, &c, from time to time, to see that the employes are not unneces- sarily exposed to danger ; to give instructions to the employers how the machines, shafting, &c, must be placed as regards their proximity to each other, or to the walls or columns of the building, or to the places of entrance and exit, what parts of the running gear and machinery must be shielded to prevent employes catching in any part of it ; to see that the apartments are properly heated, ventilated, and lighted ; that children within a certain age are not employed over the legal hours, &c. For the revision of boilers there is a special commission, and state laws regulate its operations. For every village there is a fire department, furnished with engines and other apparatus for the extinguishing of fires and the rescuing of persons, and every factory is obliged to be furnished with water-tanks, buckets, &c, and larger factories mostly have an organized fire depart- ment manned by their employes. 314 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. In cases of accident or sickness parties are paid by the insurance com- panies in which they are insured, or by the factory sick fund subscribed to bv tbe employes. Every one not paying dues in the above manner is obliged to pay monthly into the hospital fund of the community, which then cares for him in case of sickness or accident. The imperial laws of June 7, 1871, and June 5, 1883, give the nature and amount of assistance to be given by the employers in case of accident. FEMALE WAGES. The highest wages of women, including meals, is not over $2—48 cents a day— but only practiced mantua-makers, who go out in families to work, receive that much. For a week of sixty hours the lowest wages are about $1.20, the highest $3, without meals. The average may be put down at $1.70. There has been no change in the wages of female laborers smce 1878, nor have the prices of the necessaries of life changed since then. FEMALE EMPLOYMENT. Females are employed in such work only as is suitable for females to perform. The rate of wages paid to women has had no effect in lessen- ing the wages paid to men. The physical as well as the moral condi- tion of female laborers is satisfactory. The employment of women along with men has not affected the morals of either adversely. The degree of education of women and children is satisfactory. It has not been found that the employment of children in factories has inter- fered with their education. Both boys and girls are obliged by law to attend the common school until the completion of their thirteenth year, and the Sunday school (notapurely religious institution, but where the ordinary branches of the common school are taught) till the completion of the sixteenth year. During this period they are subject to school discipline, afterwards they are subject to the laws of the .country. For refactory children within the age mentioned there are houses of correction in which they are forced to work and to lead a regular life. GENERAL TRADES IN BAVARIA. Following is a table of the highest, lowest, and average wages paid to laborers of the several classes called for in the circular from the De- partment of State, as far as I have been able to procure them. The amounts are given in United States gold : General wages per week of sixty hours paid in Bavaria. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TKADBS. $2 60 1 45 2 90 1 45 2 90 2 GO 2 60 4 00 2 90 2 65 3 60 $5 05 3 05 6 00 3 05 G 00 5 85 3 45 8 70 4 10 4 65 5 30 $3 80 2 25 4 45 2 25 4 45 4 00 3 00 6 35 3 50 3 65 4 45 LABOR IN EUROPE— ^GERMANY. General wages per week of sixty hours paid in Bavaria — Continued. 315 Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. OTHER TRADES. Bakers (with board and lodging) Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brick makers Brewers - Butchers (with board and lodging) Brass-founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Cigarmakers Coopers Distillers (with board and lodging) Drivers .~- Draymen and teamsters Cab' and carriage (with board and lodging) Street railway Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters Horse-shoers Jewelers--* - Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Nail-makers (hand) Potters Printers Public school teachers Saddle and harness maker Stevedores Tanners * Telegraph operators Tinsmiths . - . '- "Weavers (outside of mills) "Wheelwrights Turners -. Basket-makers Locksmiths : "Workmen : Bronze powdries s * Pencil factories Wire factories Paper factories Tobacco factories Goldbeaters' factories Grist-mills (with board and lodging) Saw-mills Comb factories - Brush factories Mathematical instrument factories Match factories Color and varnish factories Porcelain factories Malt factories Boot and shoe factories Needle factories.--". Machine factories ■ Iron factories Glass factories Quarrymen ■ > Railroad employ 6s Depot managers Engine-drivers Firemen -- ■-- Station- masters Station-masters' assistants Switchmen .' Railroad laborers Boatmen Raftsmen Shop employes : Males v. Females "Wholesale business Retail trade . per annum. do... do.... do... do... do... do... .per annum. do... do... do... $0 70 2 00 4 90 1 45 2 65 4 45 95 4 45 2 60 3 55 4 00 4 00 1 45 4 00 2 15 4 35 2 15 5 35 3 60 2 65 4 00 4 00 4 45 1 75 5 55 2 90 2 90 4 45 4 00 194 00 2 90 4 45 240 00 2 90 75 3 55 3 35 3 35 4 00 3 35 2 65 3 35 1 45 1 45 3 95 75 3 35 4 00 4 45 4 00 3 35 1 45 3 55 3 35 2 65 4 45 4 45 1 75 2 15 288 00 288 00 288 00 240 00 288 00 192 00 192 00 2 15 2 15 2 90 120 00 84 00 120 00 84 00 $1 45 4 45 5 55 3 60 5 05 5 55 1 95 6 65 5 55 4 45 4 45 4 45 2 15 5 30 4 30 4 35 5 55 6 65 4 90 4 60 4 45 4 65 C 65 4 00 11 10 5 80 4 00 6 65 5 55 600 00 5,80 5 80 288 00 4 90 3 35 4 90 4 45 4 45 5 30 4 45 3 35 5 30 9 00 4 90 8 85 1 95 4 45 5 55 6 06 5 30 4 45 7 20 4 K 4 45 4 45 6 65 6 65 5 80 5 30 576 00 576 00 480 00 432 00 528 00 288 00 384 00 2 90 2 90 3 60 288 00 120 00 288 00 120 00 316 LABOR IN KUKOPE GERMANY. General wages per week of sixty hours paid in Bavaria — Continued. Occupations, Servants, city : Cooks, male (with board and lodging) Cooks, female per year Men servants . . do . - Chambermaids do . . . Seamstresses - "Waiters / ^Waitresses (with board and lodging) per year. Servants, country : Male hands (with board and lodging) Female hands (with board and lodging) Dairymen (with board and lodging) Shepherds (with board and lodging) Day laborers (with board and lodging) Printing offices : Type-setters , Pressmen , Proof-readers Lowest. Highest. $4 00 14 40 $7 20 72 00 48 00 72 00 28 80 36 do 2 15 4 45 75 5 75 24 00 60 00 48 72 24 48 48 96 76 96 1 45 2 15 2 90 8 90 2 90 5 55 i 80 6 65 Average. $6 00 43 10 60 00 32 40 3 30 3 25 42 00 60 36 72 84 1 80 5 90 4 20 5 70 Family servants, waiters, and persons of that class receive in the way of " tips" about the same amount as in other parts of Germany. Let- ter-carriers, railroad and telegraph officials, &c, receive more than their fixed wages and salaries from the same source. G. HENBY HOESTMANK, Consul. United States Consulate, Nuremberg, July 12, 1884. COLOGNE. REPORT BT CONSUL SPACEMAN. In reply to your circular of February 15, 1884, concerning the condi- tion of labor in Europe, 1 have the honor to report as follows: BATES OP WAGES. The rates of wages paid to laborers in this consular district will be found m the several tables herewith inclosed. Laborers upon public works receive about the same as other laborers, the Government gen- erally employing contractors for the execution of such works. COST OP LIVING. The cost of living of the laboring classes varies greatly according to their incomes. It is possible for them to subsist upon a very small amount per day. Many have but a few rolls, potatoes, herring, coffee, milk or beer, with meat, perhaps, once a week. Clothing is cheap, and as the climate is generally mild in winter, only a small supplv is re- quired. Fuel is only needed in small quantities. Seventy-five cents per day is considered good wages in most of the trades. A single room can be attained for about $2.25 per month, and daily food of the simplest kind for 30 cents, making the average daily expenses of a laborer 37- 1 - LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 317 cents, exclusive of fuel and clothing. At the present time the retail prices here of the principal articles of food, are as follows: Beef per pound. Bread do.. Butter do-... Cheese do... Coffee do... Lard do... Pork do... Rice do... Salt , do... Sugar (white) do... Sugar (brown) do... Tea do... Potatoes do... $0 15 to $0 20 25 to 40 17 to 20 20 to 38 17 to 18 17 to 18 4* to 10 2* 10 8 50 1 Wages are lower here than in the United States, but the amount of work done is correspondingly small. They do not vary much from year to year, but are somewhat higher than in 1878. HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. The working classes are generally steady and trustworthy, and not disposed to change their employment providing they can make suffi- cient to live upon. The natives especially dislike leaving Cologne and the Ehine in order to seek work elsewhere, and they therefore endeavor to remain in their positions, even when their wages are low. In many cases the wives of the laborers help to earn a livelihood by washing, ironing, cleaning offices and streets, doing housework by the half day, &c. The wages are generally too small to allow laborers to save any- thing. Everything is spent, either for actual necessaries or for pleas- ure, their amusements being of the simplest kind. Notwithstanding their small wages, they are very charitable, and always ready to help each other. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYES AND EMPLOYEE. The feeling prevailing between employ6 and employer is generally good, and there are seldom any troubles between them. As a conse- quence strikes are scarcely ever known here. i ORGANIZED CONDITION OF LABOR. With regard to the organized condition of labor, it may be mentioned that there exists a law in Germany regulating the arrangements to be made in factories and work shops for preventing accidents to workmen, and that legislation is continually employed in amending the laws for the welfare of the laboring classes. Lately the new accidental insurance law has been passed for the benefit of workmen in case of accidents. STRIKES. As already stated, strikes scarcely ever occur in this district, and therefore there is little need of arbitration. FREEDOM OF PURCHASE. Generally workmen are free to purchase the necessaries of life wher- ever they like, even if the employers — especially those whose establish- ments are situated far from town — form co-operative societies among the laborers, or keep a stock of ordinary necessary articles. No con- 318 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. ditions are imposed upon the workmen, but they buy from the co-op- erative stores because the articles are generally cheaper and better jfcan can be obtained elsewhere. The laborers are paid weekly, and the em- ployes of societies and the workmen in the Government employ are paid monthly. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. As stated above, co-operative societies are sometimes formed among the laborers in factories situated far from towns, where the ordinary sup- plies are difficult to obtain. There has recently been formed in Cologne a co-operative society called the "Beamtenvereiniguug," which has now a great many members, and which, it seems, fulfills the promises held out at the time of its formation. When this society was first started some wholesale merchants made opposition to it, and tried to prevent its success because it bought directly from the manufacturers. This objection seems to be settled now, and the society has proved to be of great benefit to its members. GENERAL CONDITION OP THE WORKING CLASSES. Working people, generally, are so situated here that, with a house- hold of from three to four persons, they can live comparatively well, unless they are extravagant and squander their money. Often the laborers have so many children that the ordinary wages are not suf- ficient to procure the necessaries of life, and then they suffer from want. Tbey generally live in one, two, or three rooms; their comfort depend- ing upon themselves. Orderly workmen, with economical wives, have neat, comfortable homes, no matter how small their incomes may be. As with their rooms so it is with their food. If the wives know how to manage they can have comparatively good food; though, as a rule, only single men can afford to have meat every day. The latter can dine very well and at low rates in the numerous boarding houses in the city. Most of the working people are well and simply clothed, and there is no evidence of the squalor and dirt generally seen in very large cities. The chances of bettering their condition are generally very small with the laborers unless they are employed in some of the great industrial factories, where the employers have an interest in educating a number of skillful workmen. In such cases they are paid according to the length of time, they have been employed. The ordinary workman has very little opportunity of laying up anything for old age or sickness. It is believed, however, that the new laws already mentioned will help to alleviate the sufferings and improve the condition of the working classes. Their moral aud physical condition is generally good ; their simple food and habits making them mostly strong and healthy. There exists lin Germany the " Haftpflichtgesetz," a law which de- cides that employers under certain conditions are responsible for acci- dents happening in their establishments, and theie are rules providing against accidents from the various kinds of machines, tools, &c. Local inspectors are appointed for each Government district, who are obliged to make examinations and report to the Government the state of the various industries, and especially the means employed to prevent acci- dents. Ordinarily employers do their best for the moral and physical well-being of their employes and laborers by erecting family lodging and boarding houses for them. In many factories there are saving- banks where workmen can make provision for sickness and old age. The general relations between the employer and the employed are good. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 319 POLITICAL EIGHTS. The political rights of the workingmen are the same as other citizens, and they are taxed according to their incomes. The tendency of legis- lation daring the last few years has been constantly towards the ame- lioration of the condition of the working classes. CAUSES OP EMIGRATION. Emigration from this district is inconsiderable, and the general causes which induce it in other places do not exist here to any great extent. FEMALE LABOR. Female labor is not so general here as in other portions of Germany. Besides the ordinary occupations of women, such as teachers in public and private schools, venders of fancy goods, &c, they are employed in spinning factories, sugar refineries, cigar manufactories, &c, where they earn, according to their ability, from 37 £ cents to 62£ cents per day, or on an average of about 50 cents per day. The unmarried women live with their parents, or in boarding-houses, and the married women with young children generally employ some- body to look after them during the hours the mothers are at work. The operation of the above-named institutions for the welfare of men, the remarks upon the condition of laborers in general, and the relation between employer and employe" apply equally to women. SAMUEL SPACKMAN, Consul. United States Consulate, Cologne, September 3, 1884. I. General trades. Wages paid in general trades per week of sixty to seventy-two hours in Cologne. Occupations. BUILDIKO TRADES. Brick-layers $4 44 $6 36 $5 00 Hod-carriers 3 28 3 71 3 57 Masons 4 44 6 36 5 00 Tenders 3 28 3 71 3 57 Plasterers 5 71 8 57 7 14 Tenders 3 28 3 71 -3 57 Slaters 4 28 5 00 N 4 76 Eoofers 4 28 6 00 4 76 Tenders 3 28 3 71 3 57 Plumbers 4 28 5 00 4 76 Assistants 3 28 3 71 3 57 Carpenters 5 00 5 71 5 24 Gas-fitters 4 28 5 71 4 76 OTHER TRADES. Bakers (with board and lodging) 107 2 14 161 Blacksmiths 5 24 6 66 6 19 Strikers 3 57 4 28 4 05 Lowest. Highest. $4 44 $6 36 3 28 3 71 4 44 6 36 3 28 3 71 5 71 8 57 3 28 3 71 4 28 5 00 4 28 6 00 3 28 3 71 4 28 5 00 3 28 3 71 5 00 5 71 4 28 5 71 1 07 2 14 5 24 6 66 3 57 4 28 Average. 320 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Wages paid in general trades per week of sixty to seventy-two hours in Co%«e-Contimiecl. Occupations. Other thades— Continued. Boot -binders Brick-maters Brewers (with board ana lodging) Butchers (with board and lodging) Cabinet-makers Confectioners Chiar.-makers Coopers Cutlers Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Cab' and carriage Street railways .Dyers Engravers Farriers Gardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Printers Saddle and harness makers Stevedores Tanners • Tailors >- Tinsmiths Barbers (with board and lodging) Brush-makers (with board and lodging) Quilt-makers Lowest. Highest. $3 57 3 57 1 71 1 71 5 71 5 71 5 00 7 14 5 00 4 28 2 86 7 14 5 71 7 14 5 7J 4 28 5 71 5 00 6 43 4 28 7 14 11 90 5 71 4 28 4 28 4 28 5 00 4 76 7 14 11 90 Average. $5 71 2 86 -1 14 1 14 5 47 4 28 3 80 5 24 3 86 2 86 6 25 4 28 5 00 4 28 4 05 3 93 4 28 5 71 3 57 5 71 5 80 4 28 3 57 3 93 3 93 4 76 2 38 2 14 3 57 II. Foundries, machine-shops, and iron works. Wages paid per week of sixty to 'seventy-two hours in foundries, machine-slwps, and iron works in Cologne. Occupations. Foundries : Sandmolders Loammolders Cleaners .„ Tenders Machine-shops : Machinists t Turners Planers, borers, shapers Blacksmiths Strikers Tenders Engine-fitters, in the shop Engine-fitters (abroad, with 60 cents for board) Boilers-makers : Eiveters Stemmers Strikers Plate-makers Turners Borers Punchers -Armature machinists Tracers Boiler-fitters * LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. i IV. Glass-workers. Wages paid per week of sixty to seventy-two hours to glass-uorkers in Cologne. 321 Occupations. Glass-makers: Of bottles, &c Of ordinary drinking glasses, goblets, , with two horses, is all the forcel need for my farm, every acre of which is under thorough cultivation. Q. What are the products of j our farm?— A. I am engaged in general farming, and produce rye, wheat, oats, barley, aud sugar-beets, vegetables, milk, butter, aud some fruits. I am, to some extent, engaged in the breeding and raising of hogs, of whiob, at present, I have but thirty ; I have also ten cows. Q. Will you please state what portions of your farm are devoted to different prod- LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 335 uct6j— A. Four acres are devoted to pasture ; 10 to clover, for hay ; 25 acres to rye, ■wheat, and barley, and 11 acres to oats, vegetables, and sugar-beets. I generally raise sugar-beets for the purpose of feeding them to my cows, as I ob- tain a more abundant milk product from them tban from any other food. When, however, the market price for sugar-beets reaches 1 mark (24 cents') or more for lOO" pounds, 1 find a better and more satisfactory profit in selling them to manufacturers of sugar. Q. What is the average amount in weight of sugar-beets you produce per acre ? — A. Taking the average of five years I produced about 300 centners ( 15 tons) per acre, and I regard that as a satisfactory yield, as it gives me, at 1 mark per centner, 300 marks per acre ($71.40). Q. How do you prepare sugar-beets forfeeding toyour cows? — A. They are crushed or cut by machinery into thin slices, and mixed with the bran of wheat or rye flour. Slicing the beets is much to be preferred to cutting them into small square pieces* For producing milk of good quality I find no food for cows which equals this. Q. How much and what kind of manures, or fertilizers, do you use per acre to pro- duce such a crop? — A. 1 spread, per acre, twenty one-horse cart loads, ten in spring and ten in autumn. I plow in this manure immediately after spreading it. Sheep and cow manure are the very best fertilizers for sugar-beets ; horse or stable manures is altogether too dry and heating. As an additional fertilizer, I sometimes spread four or five English quarters (about one ton) per acre of plaater after the manure has been plowed in. I select the dryest portion of my land for sugar-beets, and plow it at least four times, making the soil fine and loose before I plant. The land should never be plowed when it is wet. Q. Do you raise successive crops of sugar-beets upon the same land? — A. Oh, no. Three or four years at least of other crops should intervene belore planting the same land again v»ith beets. For intervening crops wheat or similar grain is to be recom- mended. Q. What kind of crops, in your 'opinion, exhausts or impoverishes the soil quick- est? — A. Oats, even more than sugar-beets. Q. Have you made the subject of the exhaustion of the soil by different crops a study, and, if so, for how long a time? — A. Yes, sir; 1 have given the subject much attention for more than twenty years. When I lease a piece of ground for a single-, year, as I sometimes do, I always plant it with oats. 1 often do this to save my own land from impoverishment when I wish to produce a crop of oats. My two horses, ten cows, and thirty hogs furnish me with all the fertilizers I need for my farm. Q. What kind of food do you prepare for your hogs? — A. Until thev are three months old I feed them sour milk and refuse from the house ; after that age I feed them potatoes mixed with buckwheat and rye flour and slops, cooked. I pour over this mixture sour milk enough to make it moist. Q. Where do you raise and keep your hoys? — A. In small pens with cement floors near the stable of the cows. This is the custom of farmers, all over Germany, as in this way we can utilize our space under the barn better than in any other way. The pens are, I think, healthy when \kept clean. Q. Does the sunshine ever reach the pens where you keep your hogs? — A. No, sir. They have some light, but never sunshine. Q. Is the price of pork at this time higher tor lower than it was a year ago ? — A. It ib considerably lower. We farmers thought that we should get a much betler price after the importation of American pork had been prohibiled. Q. What are farm lands in your vicinity worth per acre ? — A. At this time, without buildings, about 600 marks ($i43). Q. What amount of money have you invested in your farm, including buildings and improvements ? — A. About 45,000 maiks ($10,710). It would not, however, sell at tin stime lor more than 36,000 marks. Farming lands iu tur vicinity appear to be depreciating in value. Q. What amount of taxes do you pay upon your farm ? — A. I pay a municipal tax. of 150 marks ($35.70), and a, general or land tax of 150 marks, making 300 marks ($71.40). Q. What are your net savings per year from your farm ? — A. My net savings have been, per year, about COO marks ($142.80) since 1870 — 14 years. If I get my living, pay my taxes, and keep out of debt, I am satisfied. Farming is poor business. I don't ihink farmers, on an average, save more than 1 percent, on their investments. Onr land now requires so much mauure, which is very expensive, that protits are small. Q. What are the average wages paid youremployes ?— A. I pay my man 180 marks ($42.84) a year, aud my housemaid 150 marks ($35.70) a year, which is abont the av- erage paid by farmers in general. Tne working hdurs are as follows : From March to May, from 6 o'clock a.m. tp 6- o*clock p. m. From June to September, from 5 o'clock a. m. to 7 o'clock p. in. 336 LRBOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Q. Of what kind of food are farmers' tables usually supplied, and at what hours taken ?— A. For breakfast, which is taken before beginning work, we usually have milk thickened witd wheat flour, and bread and butter. For dinner, at 12 o clock, meat-soup, with vegetables and bacon. At 7 o'clock, supper of potatoes and bread, and sometimes butter. A laborer's testimony. Y. Peltzer, of St. Hubert, near Crefield, laborer on Go vernment highways, in reply to questions propounded to him, replied as follows : I am seventy- three years of age, and have been employed in repairing Government highways for along time. I receive, per month, as wages, 36 marks ($8.56), and no supplies of any kind are furnished me. I begin work at 6 o'clock in the morning and finish at 7 p. m., and am allowed half an hour for my dinner. I take my breakfast before I begin work, and my supper after I have finished. I have a wife and 7 children — 4 sons and 3 daugh- ters, who are now grown up men and women. They have all left me, and myself and my wife are living alone. Q. Are you able to support yourself and wife on the 432 marks ($102.72) which you receive per year ? — A. I am obliged to do it. I have no other resource. It is tough business, but complaints are useless where there are no remedies. Q. Are your seven children all living ? — A. They are all living, married, and have families. Q. Do you not, at your time of life, receive any assistance from your children? — A. No, sir. They have a pretty hard time of it in supporting themselves. Our chil- dren can't help us much. Mine are as good and dutiful as any of those of my neigh- bors, but I cannot say that they have ever been of any service or benefit to me, beyond the pleasure which a parent enjoys from loving his children and having them around him. We care for them and send them to school, as required by law, until they are fourteen years of age. We sometimes make an effort to send them a year or two longer than the legal period, in order to qualify them for a life of usefulness higher than that of their poor parents. But, almost immediately after leaving school, the girls marry, and as soon as our boys begin to be of actual service to us they are called into the army, where they remain three years. There they learn only the business of a soldier, and unlearn all of home life they knew before, and when they return they must begin and learn anew some trade or business that will give them a living. Before they are ready to do this they, too, marry, and with a family on their hands go on with the struggle of life as I have done. Q. Is your experience a type of that of others of your class ? — A. Yes, sir. I think it fairly represents the experience of a large portion of the laboring classes of Ger- many, with this exception, that few of them have had so many years of it as I have. With occasional exceptions, we have for breakfast coffee and black bread; for dinner, vegetables and soup ; for supper, buttermilk and potatoes. We sometimes have a piece of bread and a cup of coffee between these meals. When too old and weak to work the town must take care of us. CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATION. There are no incorporated manufacturing companies in Crefeld. The business of manufacturing is wholly conducted by firms or individuals. Differences arising between weavers and manufacturers are referred for settlement to the Rhenish " Gewerbegericht," a court of judicial au- thority, composed of manufacturers, overseers, and weavers. The " Niederrheinische Weber-Union " is an association composed of about six hundred master-weavers. It has an official existence, and was organized for the purpose of assisting its own members and others in the purchase of the necessaries of life at wholesale prices. They also own looms on which they manufacture silk goods for sale. The " Mederrheinische Weberbund" is an association organized under royal sanction for the following purposes : (1.) To establish uniform rules and regulations for the education of boys who are to become weavers, and to select, prepare, and aid those apt scholars who have exhibited qualifications that especially fit them to enter the Eoyal Textile High School. (2.) To establish " Hiilfekasse " (help-savings bank), and to aid widows, orphans, and other relatives of deceased members of the asso- ciation. (3.) To secure for the " Hiilfekasse" depositors and contri 1 LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. 337 buttons for the purpose of aiding old and infirm people who have no resources of their own. (4.) To establish uniformity in the rules and regu- lations which govern silk and velvet manufacturers, and to protect the interests of workingmen by securing equality in rates of wages ; also to arbitrate between manufacturers and their employes when differences arise between them, especially at those periods when business is very active or very dull. Also to establish rules and lay out work for its subordinate societies, of which there are many. Each of such societies must pay, half-yearly, into the treasury of the " Weberbund " 30 pfen- nigs (7 cents) for each of their members. The "Weberbund" publishes a newspaper for general circulation among employers and the working classes. Any irregularities or dis- honorable transactions occurring among manufacturers, employers, and employes is immediately described and the details given through the columns of this paper. The owners 'of manufacturing establishments in which there are steam- engines and machinery are obliged to have their employes insured against accident, so that they may be sure of a certain sum in case they are disabled. If death follows in consequence of injuries received on the premises, the widow, or next of kin, obtains an annual pension. In each Government district there is a trades union, and it is the duty of the directors to visit the different manufactories located therein, and see that children under sixteen years of age are not overworked. In Crefeld there exists a large charity society which has divided the city into seventeen districts. Each district has a sub-society, consist- ing of fourteen members and a president, and each member is as- signed to a smaller district. Their duty is to canvass their . districts once in fourteen days and see that the worthy poor are not neglected. All members must give gratuitous services and agree to be diligent in the performance of the duties assigned them. But few weavers emigrate to other countries. Those who do gener-' ally go to Paterson, in the State of New Jersey ; but nearly all express disappointment after having worked there a short time, because in fac- tory life there they do not possess the freedom which house- weavers in Germanj enjoy ; and many of them, sooner jor later, return to their na- tive country. INSURANCE AGAINST SICKNESS. The Imperial Parliament of Germany has very recently passed and promulgated a law making insurance by working people against sick- ness compulsory. There are points in this somewhat remarkable enact- ment which, I think, will be interesting to the laboring classes of the United States. I give, therefore, an epitome of the law, as follows : All laborers, mechanics, or other people who work for wages, or for a • salary, are required, under certain penalties, to be insured against sick- ness. There are different kinds of insurance institutions provided for this purpose. First, the "Gemeinde-Krankenversicherungskassen," a com- munal (or city or town) insurance society, which insures against sick- ness all working people who are not insured in some other similar institution. In this society the person insured is assisted in the follow- ing manner: (1.) By being provided with medical attendance, medi- cines, care, &c, from the commencement of illness. (2.) In case the person insured is wholly unable to work, moneyed assistance is granted amounting to one-half of the average local daily wages paid to persons in the same trade or calling. The payments are for every working day, 92 A— LAB 22 338 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. and begin the third day after sickness, and continues until recovery, or for a period not longer than thirteen weeks ; or, if deemed advisable by the managers and physicians, treatment and board in a hospital is pro- vided in lieu of moneyed assistance. In case family or relatives are dependent for maintenance upon the wages of such person, a sum equivalent to half of the money allowance is in addition paid to them. . The rate of the daily local wages is fixed by Government officials, and separate rates are established for young people, women, and adalt workmen. • ,,.,_■ The insurance premium fixed by the communal authorities cannot ex- ceed 1£ per cent, of the daily local wages, and must be fixed at that rate uuless, for special reasons, it is decided'otherwise. In case premi- ums should not cover the expenses incurred for relief, the city or town of which the insured is a resideut is required to advance the deficiency. If the yearly balance-sheet shows that the official rate of 1£ per cent, premium does not cover the expanses, the premium may be raised to -2 per cent. Any excess accruing from premiums is put into a reserve fund. Should the excess continue the premiums may be reduced or the usual allowance for relief increased by a resolution passed by the com- munal authorities. If such action is not had, the Government can, by decree, lower the rate of premiums. Several communities (towns) may unite in establishing an " insurance union." Very small communities are required by the Government to unite for such a purpose. Gommuuities, cities, and towns, are empowered to authorize the or- ganization of special associations of persons in their respective districts, of not less than one hundred persons, who may insure according to the provisions of this act. These special " unions" must consist of persons belonging to, aud employed in, one trade. Insurance unions, including ; various trades may be established, provided there are at least one hun- dred insurers in each trade represented. Associations of less than one hundred persons, may be established by presenting to the Government sat- isfactory evidence of the soundness and safety of their organizations. All working people become members of one of these insurance unions on the day they accept service as an employe" in the district where it is located. Relief or payments are granted as follows : (1.) In the basis of wages paid by the trade or calling to which the members belong, provided such wages do not exceed the sum of 3 marks (72 cents) per working day. (2.) The same rate of assistance is allowed to women in child- birth for a period of three weeks from date of sickness. (3.) In case of the death of a member, a sum equal to twenty times the amount of his local daily wages, is allowed for burial expenses, &c. "Average daily wages" are determined by the ruling rates paid in trades or callings, but in no case can they exceed 4 marks (95 cents) per day, nor be less than the average rate of wages prevailing in the locality where the member or the person insured resides. The established amount of relief and the time for which it is granted may, for good and sufficient reasons duly recorded, be extended by the authorities as follows : (1.) For a term of one year instead of thirteen weeks. (2.) Three-quarters of the average daily wages may be allowed instead of one-half. (3.) Patients in hospitals who have no families or relatives dependent upon them, may be allowed a sum in addition, equal to one-eighth of their weekly wages. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 339 (4.) To women in child-birth relief may be granted for a period of six weeks instead of three weeks. (5.) Medical treatment, care, &c, may be granted to families of mem- bers and to relatives dependent upon them. (6.) In case of death a sum equal to forty times that of one day's local wages may be granted. (7.) In case of the death of the wife or child of a member there may be allowed for the wife two-thirds and for the child one-half the amount to which a member would be entitled. The dues or contributions to be paid to these local insurance unions (Ortskraukenkassen) are to be fixed at such a percentage of the average daily wages as will cover expenses for relief, management, and a reason- able reserve fund. The rules for the management of the insurance unions must be pre- pared by the municipal authorities in conjunction with representative members of such unions. REGULATIONS FOB UNION INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS. Employers are required to send to the managers of associations the names of persons in their employ within three days after they enter or leave their service. Employers are also required to pay the premiums for their workmen weekly ; they are obliged also to pay one-third of the premiums assessed upon their employes. Employers are authorized to deduct from the weekly wages of their workiueu the amount due from them for premiums. Those who employ more than fifty persons are permitted to establish an insurance union (Fabrikkrankenkasse) for themselves, and if their busines is dangerous, or detrimental to health, they are obliged to do so. Should they neglect to organize such an union they are compelled to* pay to the communal association a sum equal to 5 per cent, of the wages earned by their workmen, such percentage being fixed by Government officials. CONDITION OF THE IRON AND COAL MINES. In the district of Essen — the agency attached to this consulate — the iron, coal, and mining industries so far surpass, in magnitude, all others that they rule the rates of wages paid workmen employed in different pur.-uits. To the latter, therefore, only a brief reference will be made. There are few localities in the world that contain, per square mi e, so many working people as the coal and iron district of which Essen is the center. There the fluctuations in the condition of the laboring classes are sudden and very great, for the reason that a slight distur- bance iu the elemeuts of trade connected with the industries peculiar to that locality affects the entire laboring community, who cannot live a tinale day without employment. In periods of "dull times" there is, therefore, umch suffering among the working classes, so much, indeed, as to attract the notice of the Government which has taken certain steps with a view to bettering their condition. But up to this date not much success has attended these efforts. Jn trades oilier than those of mining and iron and steel manufactur- ing a first-class workmen receives from 15 to 20 marks ($3.57 to $4.70) per week, and an assistant receives from 12 to 15 marks. The hours of work are frem 6 o'clock in the morning until 7 o'clock in the evening, 340 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. with intervals of half an hour for breakfast, one hour for dinner, and half an hour for 4 o'clock vespers. In these heavy industries female labor cannot be employed. With earnings so small, the head of a ,t amily without the assistance of his wife, except in household duties, finds it impossible to live without deprivations which amount to absolute suf- fering in his entire family. The women and children must tax their feeble efforts to the utter- most in earning something to procure the necessities which meager health and decencies require. The women " hire themselves out " some hours each day for domestic work. Some children obtain their food by rendering light services for neighboring families, others by gathering scraps, waste, and rubbish, and still others by begging. HOW THE MINERS LITE. The food of these people consists of bread and vegetables only. It is very seldom, indeed, they obtain for themselves a bit of meat. They dwell in one or two rooms in small lodgings located in the suburbs of the town, and pay as rent therefor from $20 to $28 per year. Unmarried men can exist without much discomfort. They board and lodge with the better situated families, have somewhat better food, and save a little for amusements. The plan of distributing among families the single men as boarders and lodgers, instead of having separate accommodations for them, has been productive of a condition of morals so bad that the police authori- ties have been forced to issue stringent ordinances regulating the manner in which lodgers shall be received and cared for by these fami- lies. It is said that a watchful police supervision is necessary in order to maintain proprieties which belong to civilized life. * Some owners of mines and large industrial establishments have arranged boarding-houses expressly for single men, and will not permit families under their control to receive boarders or lodgers. The poor people referred to above are generally clad in raiment ob- tained by alms, or by purchase from dealers in old clothes of the lowest class. It seems proper to remark that the condition of the working classes in the mining districts above mentioned, especially with regard to their habits and manner of living," are an exception to those prevailing among communities of poor people of different callings in other localities. Wages in the mining districts have advanced about 5 per cent, since 1878, but the prices of living have increased in a corresponding ratio. It cannot be said, therefore, that the wage condition of miners has im- proved. Neither does there appear to have been any improvement in the moral status of this class of laborers. The relations between employers and employes become less harmo- nious as these industries develop and draw together large communities of one class of laborers. Attachment to rules and ordinances become looser as numbers increase. Labor organizations and trades unions, though talked of, have not yet been formed among them. This fact is partly due to the restraining influences and more perfect discipline and order preserved by the great establishment of Krupp, and partly to the influence and work of the Christian social union societies, which are under the united guidance of both Evangelical and Catholic clergymen. These societies are very LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 341 active, and are doing most excellent service in behalf of the mental aDd physical welfare of the laboring classes in this locality, and their good work will probably continue if they do not allow themselves to be involved in political strifes which are so contagious and constantly threatening among these people. STRIKES. Strikes among miners very rarely occur, for the reason that they have no time to strike. Existence for a day without work is impossible. "They must pump or drown." Workingmen purchase the necessaries of life when, where, and of whom they desire. Payments of wages are made weekly, and cooperative societies under the direction of working- men are unknown in this part of Prussia. COAL AND COAL-MINING INDUSTRIES. Essen, on the Ruhr, is the chief center of the "Netherrhenish-West- falian" coal-fields, which constitute by far the greatest part of the Gov- ernment districts of Dortmund. These coal-fields are the most impor- tant on the whole continent of Europe. Their importance as a mining district can be measured by the number of miners employed and the amount of coal mined. In the year 1883 98,000 miners produced 28,000,000 tons of coal in this district alone. The extraordinary growth of this industry dates from 1852, when 2,000,000 tons were produced. The following table shows the increase of production and the number of miners employed during the preceding twenty-five years, namely, from 1858 to 1883 : Table showing the increase in coal production from 1858 to 1882, and the increase in the num- ber of miners employed during that time. Production Value in Value in No. of i Production Value in Value in No. of intone. marks. dollars. miners. © 1* in tons. marks. dollars. miners. Marks. Marks. 1858 4. 093, 427 85, 293, 627 $8, 161, 883 31, 455 1871 12, 461, 759 88, 750, 215 $21, 122, 511 62,342 1859 3, 983, 023 24, 620. 305 7, 049, 633 29, 156 1872 14, 154, 427 121, 642, 650 28, 950, 951 67,540 1800 4, 490, 066 27, 246, 480 6, 434, 662 28, 463 1873 16, 127, 096 176, 718, 297 42, 058, 955 78,214 1861 5, 212, 852 27, 625, 767 6, 574, 933 30, 609 1874 15, 251, 933 167,576,592 39, 926, 069 81,077 1862 6, 128, 791 29,118,285 6, 930, 152 32, 034 1875 16, 698, 543 120, 505, 474 28, 680, 303 81,639 1863 6, 772, 841 29, 252, 934 6, 962, 128 32, 538 1876 17, 636, 757 107, 573, 241 25, 602, 431 81,438 1864 8, 037, 705 36, 265, 504 8, 631, 190 37, 869 1877 17, 723, 091 87, 659, 746 20, 863, 020 73,725 1865 9, 165, 675 45, 758, 904 10, 890, 619 42, 280 1878 19, 208, 942 85, 540, 033 20, 358, 528 74, 718 1866 9,217, 834 47,291,653 11, 2 J5, 411 43, 104 1879 20, 380, 420 84, 661, 346 20, 149, 399 76,992 1867 10, 516, 012 54, 326, 344 12, 929, 670 47, 786 1880 22, 495, 204 102, 951, 858 24, 502, 522 80, 152 1868 11, 226, 747 56, 853, 405 13, 531, 110 48,862 1881 23, 644, 755 108, 382, 563 25, 795, 050 83,330 1869 11, 812, 530 61, 751, 769 14, 696, 921 51, 628 1882 25, 873, 428 118, 607, 736 28, 228, 641 94,554 1870 11, 570, 556 67, 069, 089 15, 962, 543 50, 457 MINERS' WAGES. The following table shows the rate of wages paid miners from 1879 to 1883. The four quarters of each year are given in order to exhibit the rapid fluctuations in the price of labor and the rates paid therefor. It should be remembered that these wages are only paid after the ex- penses for tools, powder, dynamite, oil, and certain established contri- butions to the " miners' aid societies " have been deducted. While the rate of wages enumerated appear to be very low for labor so hard, unpleasant and dangerous, it should not be forgotten that the 342 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. miner works in reality but eight hours per day, while workingmen em- ployed iu other occupations, labor on an average from eleven to twelve hours per day. Table showing daily wages of miners from 1879 to 1883. Wages of All other Workmen Young people miners of coal workmen en- employed out- side of the from ■A.ver a(m and stone, gaged in the mines. 14 to 16 years Tear and quarter of year. with tenders. mines. of age. 1 Maries. Cents. Marks. Cents. Marks. Cents. Marks. Cents. Marks. Cents. 1879. FirBt quarter Second quarter - . . 2.61 62 2.10 50 2.22 53 1.04 25 2.38 5T 2.54 60 2.05 49 2.20 52 1.00 24 2.32 5* Third quarter 2.49 59 2.02 48 2.20 51 1.00 24 2.29 55 Fourth quarter . • - 2.57 61 2.04 48 2.17 51 1.00 24 2.33 5S 1880. First quarter Second quarter . . . 2.72 65 2.06 49 2.19 52 1.02 24 2.40 57 2.69 64 2.09 50 2.21 53 1.01 24 2.42 58 Tiiird quarter - . 2.65 63 2.10 50 2.22 53 1.03 24 2.43 5* Fourth quarter -. . 2.74 65 2.10 50 2.19 52 1.02 24 2.44 51 1881. First quarter Second quarter . . . 2.74 65 2 08 49 2.22 53 1.02 24 2.44 58 2.74 65 2.09 50 2.24 53 1.02 24 2.44 58 Third quarter 2.79 66 2.10 50 2.26 54 1.02 24 2.47 59 Fourth quarter . . . 2.89 69 2.13 51 2.24 53 1.03 24 2.53 M 1882. Second quarter . . . 2.94 70 2.15 51 2.26 54 1.03 24 2.57 61 2.94 70 2.16 51 2.29 55 1.03 24 2.58 61 3.05 72 2.22 53 2.32 55 1.05 25 2.65 61 Fourth quarter . . . *3.38 80 2.26 54 2.33 55 1.07 25 2.70 64 * Miners of coal and stone earn about one-third more than their tenders and assistants, so that the former now earn about 3. 50 to 4 marks, and the latter about 2. 50 to 3 marks per day, when em- ployed under contract. RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYES. Nearly all mine owners in the Essen -Dortmund district are associated under the name of " Verein fur bergbaulichen Interessen" (union for the interests of mining). The object of this association is to improve the welfare and culture of mining people. Its founders believe that a sound and prosperous industry can only exist when the relations between employer and employe" are based upon feelings of reciprocal trust and confidence, and for this reason they exercise a powerful influence over the management of all mines in the district. When disagreements between mine-owners and miners occur, the government of this associa- tion intervenes and an amicable adjustment usually follows. The party in the wrong is notified and the decision is seldom questioned, and thus relations of mutual confidence are preserved between owners and miners, and strikes among workmen are now of rare occurrence. This association also looks after the management of schools and the education of miners' children. HABITS OP MINERS. The various charitable and " help institutions" established by mine- owners, similar to those existing among weavers, have had the tendency to promote contentment and sobriety among workmen. The recent enactment of the Imperial Parliament, which provides that every work- ingman shall be insured against sickness and accident, has been LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 343 especially salutary in making them steady and trustworthy. They know that in case of sickness, accident, or death they are provided for, and these considerations have removed many of the terrors which en- compass the life of a laboring man. CO OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. Co-operative societies do not exist under, the direction of the work- people themselves. Many institutions, however, are established by mine-owners for the benefit of workmen. Among these may be named the " Kriappschaftsverein " (miners' union) and the ." Knappschafts- kassen" (savings society). These societies are charitable in their object, and are intended to promote savings for sick days and old age. Em- ployers and employes contribute to these savings societies in nearly equal proportions, as follows: In 1882 mine-owners contributed $545,971.09; during same time miners contributed $551,416.44. In the year 1882 5,014 families lived, for a mere nominal rent, in houses which were built by the managers of fifty mines. Supply stores are founded by mine owners, and are beneficent, not only because they provide a good quality of the necessaries of life cheaply, but for the reason, also, that miners are forced to pay cash, and are thus prevented from indulging in the ruinous habit of contract- ing debts. LIVING EXPENSES OF MINERS. As an example of the condition of miners in Germany, and the way they live, I give the following information obtained from a miner, fifty- seven years of age, who is no longer able to work, and who has a wife and eight children. Three of his children, two girls and a boy, are now adult persons, and of the other five, the youngest is three\ and the oldest thirteen years of age. This man receives- from the " Knappshaft- skassen " (poor-miners' fund) a pension for himself of 270 marks and for his wife and children 90 marks per year. Schooling for the five younger children, medical attendance and medicines are also provided free of expense by the institution above named. The son, who lives with his parents, earns 900 marks per year, thus making the total income of the family 1,260 marks ($300) per year; and this sum is expended as fol- lows : Rent for two rooms in the country and half an acre of ground $35 70 Clothing per annum 57 12 Fuel per annum 13 56 Taxes per annum , 6 18 Food per annum 177 78 School-books per annum a 4 76 Miscellaneous 4 76 Total 299 88 This would give for the whole family about 2 marks (48 cents) per day for nine persons, or 5£ cents for each persou. It should be added that this miner, like most others of his class, has the use of a piece of land upon which he raises vegetables. In this case, as with the weavers, the garden appears to be the salvation of the family. The daily meals of this family, and the time of taking them, averages about as follows : For breakfast, at 6 o'clock, coffee and black bread and butter (on Sunday white bread). For lunch, at 10 o'clock, black bread and butter. For dinner, at 12 o'clock, potatoes, in which a small 344 LABOE IN EUEOPE — GERMANY. piece of bacon is boiled. For vespers, at 4 o'clock, coffee, with black bread and butter. For supper, at 7.30 o'clock, soup made of milk and the remains of the dinner. The custom among German workingmen of eating five or more times a day arises, no doubt, from the fact that their food is light and lack- ing in nourishment, and must, therefore, be taken at short intervals. SAFETY OF WOBKING PEOPLE IN MINES. The German Government has, for many years past, manifested a very deep interest in securing safety for those who labored in the coal mines. Formerly the whole administration of the mines and their management was under the control of Government officers who dictated the means of safety to be employed. In the middle of the' present century, how- ever, the general management of mines was placed in the hands of the. owners themselves, but all matters relating to the safety of the work- men were controlled by civil officers under a chief inspector appointed by the local government. When, however, the dangers arising from fire-damp increased, by reason of the greater extent and depth of the miners, the Government appointed a scientific commission, called the " Fire-damp Commission," with its headquarters at Essen, whose duty it was to study the nature and causes of danger, and to discover and test means which would be efficient in resisting and preventing it. This commission, after having patiently and with great thoroughness investigated the subject, established, in connection with the mining school at Boehum, a chemical laboratory for the purpose of making ex- periments and testing safety lamps, ventilators, and other apparatus used for purifying the air in mines. This mining school was established by aid of the Government, but in 1864 it was, by act of Parliament, transferred to the mine owners. The object of this thoroughly equipped and useful scientific institution is to cultivate all the sciences relating to mining and the safety of miners, and to constantly examine the condition of the air and the methods adopted for the ventilation of mines. Disasters from explosions, or other causes, are rarely heard of in German mines, and their exemption from dangerous elements is largely due to the watchfulness of the management of this school and the safe- guards it recommends. PAST AND PRESENT WAGE BATES. Wages in 1878 and in 1883. — A careful investigation relative to varia- tions in the rates of wages prevailing in 1878 and 1883 shows that there has been no substantial change in the mining, iron, and steel manufact- uring districts of Germany. In his great establishment at Essen, Mr. Krupp, who employs in his machine-shops and manufacturing departments, about ten thousand men, reports that the average wages paid per day to his mechanics in 1878 was 3.41 marks (81 cents), and in 1883 the average wages paid to the same class of workmen was 3.53 marks (84 cents), a difference of about 3| per cent. But the cost of living has increased to such an ex- tent that no gain in favor of the workmen can be recorded. The following table exhibits the average prices in Essen in 1878 and 1883 of certain staple articles pf food which were supplied to workmen in those years. The variations are sliglit, but it will be observed that LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 345 the average increase is large enough to neutralize any increase in the price of wages : Table shovring average price in 1878 and 1883 of certain staple articles of food and household supplies furnished to miners. Articles. Batter Coffee Hulled barley Beans Peas Lentils ■ Dutch cheese Buckwheat . . Wheat grits. - Wheat flour . . Vermicelli . . . Prunes Average Average pnice price in 1878. in 1883. $0 25 $0 27 27 20 04 03 03 03 03 04 04 06 15 17 03 03 05 05 04 04 07 07 08 07 Articles. Rice Turnips Salt American lard Hard soap Soft soap Westphalian Lacon American bacon - . . Granulated sugar . Powdered sugar. .. Rapeseed oil Petroleum oil Average price in 1878. $0 04 04 02 11 07 05 17 10 15 11 16 05 Average price - in 1883. $0 04 16 06 04 21 15 14 11 14 04 PREVAILING CUSTOMS IN KRTJPP'S ESTABLISHMENT. During the summer season firemen in the Krupp works are supplied with cold coffee and vinegar at intervals during the day, at the ex- pense of the establishment, and each of the melters, puddlers, strikers, and other workmen employed in connection with heated metals are furn- ished free with one-eighth of a quart of brandy per day. Those workmen who are employed in the open air are supplied free with water-proof overcoats. Firemen are furnished with spectacles, high boots, and coarse linen covers for arms and hands. Mr. Krupp has provided 3,208 dwellings, each with a small garden, for families of workmen employed by him. These dwellings are occu- pied by 16,200 persons. This shows an average of five families to each dwelling. The rent paid per annum by occupants is as follows : For 2 rooms and a cellar » $21 to $25 For 3 rooms and a cellar --- 28 to 38 For 4 rooms and a cellar - 43 For 5 rooms and a cellar 50 For 2. rooms In barracks 14 to 21 Working hours for firemen are from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m. For all other workmen from 6 a. m. to 7 p. m. Prussian Elementary School System. (opinions op crefeld teachers.) The regulations for the government of Prussian elementary schools are fixed by ministerial decrees. Up to the present time no school laws have been passed by the Prussian Parliament. The management and control of such schools is vested in the department of education, with full powers. All children in Prussia are obliged to attend school after they are six until they are fourteen years of age, or attain an adequate educa- tion by private teaching, or in other educational institutions. The schools contain one or more classes according to the size of the com- munity where they are located. In common schools (Volksschule) children of the first-class, between . six and fourteen years of age, are taught by the same teachers, and the number of children must not ex- ceed eighty. 346 LABOR IN EUEOPE — GERMANY. In small, poor communities, which cannot afford the salary for a sec- ond teacher, half-day schools are established, with the sanction of the Government, in which the children, divided in two sections, are taught alternately by the same teacher. Where there are several teachers in one school the lessons are given in different class-rooms. The maximum number of scholars in one class must not exceed eighty. Large schools are usually subdivided into a lower, a middle, and a principal department. The teacher of the latter is generally the head master, who has the management of the school. The other teachers, called class-teachers, are, in most cases, subordinate to the head-master, who, by order of the Government, communicates with his direct supe- riors, and keeps them au fait about everything concerning the school. Communications to the class teachers are made through the head mas- ter, who is expected to regard his relations toward them as that of an older and more experienced colleague and adviser. The subordinate position of the class teachers often lead to disagree- ments between them and the head master, a regretable circumstance for which no remedy has been as yet provided. During the last ten or fifteen years lady teachers have been employed in some communities. Now and then complaints are heard that, not- withstanding the great conscientiousness with which these ladies en- deavor to fulfill their duties, the average results do not appear to be satisfactory. It remains to be seen whether the employment of lady teachers, which is here yet an experiment, can be maintained. Concerning the separation of the sexes in schools more experience is needed before passing final judgment. Both systems of combined and separate classes are being thoroughly tested. In schools with several classes the separation of the sexes in the higher classes is found to be decidedly preferable. Schools have been recently established in which no difference is made regarding the religious beliefs of pupils. In such schools religious in- struction for different denominatious is separately given. In general instruction, however, all pupils take part. These schools are called "Simultan, or Paritatische Schulen." An opposition movement has been already organized against these schools by both Catholics and Protestants, and petitions are being presented to the minister of edu- cation in favor of separate school buildings for Catholics and Protest- ants. It may be safely said that the results expected from the establish- ment of "Simultan" schools have not been realized, so far as religious peace is concerned. The feud between Catholics and Protestants has become intensified in many quarters, and there have been frequent discus- sions and bitter feelings engendered between pupils, between teachers, between teachers and pupils, and also, between teachers and parents, lor these reasons the Government has already abolished most of such schools, and those remaining will most likely share the same fate. Ihe elementary schools in Prussia draw their pupils mostly from the laboring and artisan class. Preparatory schools. -Eegret is expressed that many of the better situated people send their children into the preparatory classes attached to the higher schools, such as the Eealschule, Eealgyinnasium, and Irymnasium, instead of to the common schools, where rich and poor would, so far as instruction is concerned, stand upon the same level. Ihe preparatory schools thus referred to seem to sharpen social dis- tinctions between classes, and even in very early youth begin to create leelma's or ca.a*-, anil wimnninn. j,-„u _i_-_i_ ■?, LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 347 They lead children to an erroneous estimate of the life, character, and purposes of people and communities, and it is believed that the distinc- tions which these preparatory schools apparently maintain 'between- rich and poor have had much to do with the growth of some of the de- plorable evils connected with the social condition of peoples in civilized states at the present time. Committees and school inspectors. — In small places communities elect committees to represent them in school matters. In large places com- mittees are chosen from members of the board of aldermen and com- mon council. The state exercises its right of superintendence through local and district school inspectors. These were formerly chosen almost exclusively from the clergy at large, but always including the local ministers and their superintendents. During the last ten years they have been supplanted by lay inspectors, who in many cases are chosen from the most highly educated teachers and professors whose culture had prepared them for an educational sphere entirely different from that in which they were called upon to act. It is not unreasonable to sup- pose these gentlemen were often wanting in a correct and practical understanding of those elementary branches which were too far below their standard of culture to be properly appreciated. It is in this part of Prussia deemed to be in the interest of schools and teachers to select inspectors from the practical and experienced teachers of elementary schools. School-buildings and northern light. — Numerous modern-built school- houses have been constructed on principles of supposed sanitary science. In many districts they are palatial, airy, and well ventilated. But it is a curious fact that it has been regarded as very important to arrange these buildings in such a way that the children have the benefit of light coming only from the north, when reason would seem to indicate that every room in a school-house should, if possible, have the advantage of the purifying influences of sunshine. Many experienced teachers do not consider this arrangement as wise, and are of opinion that the sun's rays might be softened, when desirable, by curtains or other con- veniences easily applied. Boolcs, &c. — In many communities books and other school articles for needy children are provided by the school board free, and sometimes also clothing, in order to make them appear respectable and tidy, and for the purpose, also, of removing all excuses for not attending school. According to recent decrees, each school is obliged to keep a record for inspection. Each class-room is provided with a list containing the names of the pupils, a plan of teaching, showing what is to be taught in certain times in the different branches, and what has been accomplished up to a cer- tain date. A plan of lessons is also exhibited, showing how the lessons are distributed, also a list giving the names of pupils who have been absent from school, to which is attached the date of absence and the reason therefor. If children are kept out of school by their parents, without substantial reason submitted to the teacher, they are entered in this list. For the first offense they are only admonished, but if re- peated a money fine is exacted. Course of instruction. — In elementary schools the following subjects are taught: Eeligion, German language, and reading, writing, gram- mar, composition, orthography, arithmetic, elements of geometry, draw- ing, history, geography, natural history, and gymnastic exercises for the boys and needle-work for the girls. The lower classes receive twenty lessons a week and the higher classes thirty-two lessons, as follows: Four lessons each for religion, arithme- 348 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. tic, and real science, and from eight to ten lessons in German. The re- maining time is reserved for secondary objects of instruction, which takes about two hours weekly. The instruction in the Protestant religion is confined to giving the pupils a knowledge of the Bible and the creeds of a particular faith, holy history, reading of the Bible, the catechism, hymns, and prayers. The course of instruction in the Catholic religion is the same, so far as the subjects are concerned. In most places the local minister teaches the catechism in the class-rooms. For the language lessons High Ger- man is taught, with a view of enabling children to express themselves properly and to understand more correctly the terms, pronunciation, and writing of the more cultured classes. The whole course of instruction is found in the Eeading-books in use in the schools. Instruction in arithmetic aims at giving the pupils a capacity for per- forming the business duties of a daily life, including the use of fractions quickly and correctly. The money, measure, and weight systems of various countries are taught and practiced. Instruction in geometry, calculation of surfaces, cubic measure, &c, is for the, benefit of those who intend to become artisans. Instruction in drawing is regarded as a valuable exercise for the hand and eye of the pupils, and is deemed of especial advantage to those who intend to become mechanics, builders, &c. In geography the children are made familiar with the German Empire and the principal countries of the world. In mathematical geography only the first elements are ex- plained in the higher classes. Instruction in history is confined to that of Prussia and the new German Empire. Instruction in natural his- tory and natural philosophy explains, every-day occurrences and intro- duces to children a knowledge of natural bodies that are known to be useful or injurious to mankind. In the singing lessons choral, and other songs are practiced, and pop- ular and patriotic songs are taught which are likely to be remembered by the children through life, and thus the love of " Vaterland" is kept warm in the hearts of its people. Instruction in gymnastics is given according to rules expressly pre- pared for elementary schools. In larger towns special halls are con- structed for this purpose. Lessons in ladies' handiwork are intended to teach the girls knit- ting, sewing, mending, and other industries useful in practical life. Whether the -minds of such children are able to completely master the numerous studies provided tor them in the year 1877 by the minis- ter of education is a matter of much doubt. Many teachers and p eda- gogical papers are now discussing the subject of "overburdeuiug" in connection with the plan of the minister of instruction. It is the gen- eral opinion that the course of studies prescribed is by far too extensive and complicated to be understood by the children in elementary schools. As a consequence, it has been clearly observed that, wheu compared with former periods, instruction has become less thorough ; that the pupil's knowledge of the subjects he has studied is clouded and indis- tinct, and that, while he has a smattering of much, he understands nothing clearly, and that which he has learned is soon forgotten. Many teachers complain that too much attention is given to real sci- ences in detriment to the more useful subjects of reading, writing, and arthmetic. Au eminent Prussian teacher recently said : " Our element- ary schools have ceased to be such, and are becoming elementary real schools," which he regarded as a total misapprehension of the pur- poses and uses of primary schools. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 349 Admission to schools takes place only once in each year, and in this way : The names of the children are taken from the official register of births, and are then assigned by the school board to certain schools. School terms are provided for in spring and autumn after the pupils have passed a verbal and written examination before the local inspector. Qualification of teachers. — Teachers are qualified for their position as such in a seminary, where they are obliged to remain for a period of three years. Many are prepared for the seminary course in special schools under Government inspection. The following constitutes the prescribed course of study in these seminaries: Pedogogical science, re- ligion, German language, history, mathematics, geometry, natural his- tory, natural philosophy, chemistry, geography, drawing, writing, gym- nastics, and music. Instruction in the French, English, and Latin languages is not com- pulsory. After having finished the seminary course, students are obliged to undergo an examination, which, if satisfactory, qualifies them to take provisional charge of a position in a school. Two years as the earliest and five years as the latest, after the first examination, teachers are required to pass a second examination in one of the seminaries in the Government district in which they are employed in order to obtain a certificate of qualification to hold a permanent school office. Teachers 1 salaries. — There are no established rates fixed for salaries of teachers. In cities they receive, during a term of twenty years, salaries ranging between 900 and 2,400 marks ($214 to $571), according to time of service. Teachers in the country and in the small towns receive much less. All receive pensions after twenty years' service, but the rate is not fixed. Discipline. — While the discipline in Prussian schools appears to be regarded as satisfactory, the Government is, nevertheless, opposed to corporal punishment, which is now permitted only in exceptional cases, and it contemplates its total abolishment. Teachers, however, think that the abolition of corporal punishment will tend to make the children effeminate, and discipline more difficult. They express the opinion that a teacher ought to be the representative of parents ; and, as it is their right and duty to chastise their childrenwhen necessary, teachers think they ought to enjoy the same privilege when, in their judgment, dis- cipline and the interests of education require it. Eegarding the support of schools custom varies. Many towns include the expenses for schools in their annual budgets, while in others the parish defrays the expenses. In very many cases the State grants sub- sidies. ^ TEACHERS' SALARIES. In order to give an accurate idea of the compensation received by teachers in Prussian schools I give a list of those paid in the various schools of the city of Crefeld, as follows : School offices. Salaries in marks. Salaries in dollars. Inspector of city schools 1 secretary — ■-- -- 11 head masters each. 3 head masters do... 5 head masters -■ do... 1 head master 2 head masters each. 6 head masters do... M class teachers each from 1,200 to 2,100 marks average. 5,500 $1, 309 00 2,150 511 70 2, 550 606 90 2,400 571 20 2,280 544 64 2,160 514 08 2,100 499 80 2,040 485 52 1,650 392 70 350 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. The head master of every school is furnished, in addition to his sal- ary, with a free residence, which represents a yearly value of 36© marks, equal to $85. There are fifty-two female teachers in the Cre- feld schools, who receive salaries as follows : School offices. Salaries in marks. Salaries in dollars. 1,650 1,500 1,350 1,200 $302 70 357 0# do.... do ... do ... 285 6* EXPENSES OP PRUSSIAN CITY GOVERNMENTS. For the purpose of exhibiting the actual expenses for salaries in a Prussian city of about 90,000 inhabitants I give the following list of all officials connected with the city government of Orefeld, and the amount of compensation officially attached to each position : Offices. Mayor I) eputy mayor J First secretary Allowance for lodging and fuel 3 assistant secretaries each. All wance to each for lodging and fuel Registrar 1 assistant " . * 2 assistants " .".*_".' each * Principal registering officer [ Assistant !!!!. Clerk of the chancery !!!!!!!!!! City treasurer .* ." !!!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!"!! Clerk in treasurer's office .!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Allowance for lodging and fuel YYYYYYYYYYYYYYY. POLICE DEPARTMEMT. Inspector ofpolice Allowance for lodging and fuel !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"*! 1 commissary ofpolice !.!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 commissary of police !!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 commissary of police !!.'.*!."!!!!!."!." Allowance for lodging and fuel Y.l .'!!!! !!!!!! 1 commissary of police 1 secretary '.YYYYY. !!!!!!! YYYYYYYY. ! 1 secretary !!!!!!!!! 1 secretary !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 assistant ! '_ ] \[ [ [ '_ i assistant...' ! Y.Y.. YYYYY. YYYYYY. Clerk of the chancery YYY.YYY.Y. ". Subinspector of police YYYYYYYY. YY.Y. Allowance for lodging and fuel YY.Y. YYYYY. Y." ' 3 snbinxpectors of police VnViT Allowance for lodging and fnel YYYYY. Ho 1 sergeant ofpolice ." ao... 1 sergeant of police Y.YYYYY.YYYY. ! 4 sergeants of police * V' 12 sergeants of police eacn. 29policemen 9° "" * do... „,. ... OTIIEtt OFFICERS. City architect ' 1 assistant !!!!!! 1 assistant !..!!!!! Surveyor YYYYYYYY. * 2 assistants YYYYY'. Y" Principal assistant .' each. Surveyor of highways YYYYYY. ......... Allowance for lodging YY.Y. Assistant surveyor of highways City gardener Allowance for residence..!!! City chemiNt Surveyor of public markets!!!!!!..!!!!! Salaries in marks. 10,500 7, 000 4,600 360 2,600 360 1,500 1,650 1,500 2, 500 1,650 1,050 4,200 2,200 4,500 360 3,200 3,400 2,800 360 2,700 2,400 2,000 1,800 1,600 1,500 1,300 1, 650 m> 300 1.5U0 1,350 1,275 1,200 900 6,900 2,450 2,000 4,000 1,800 2,450 1,950 .100 1,200 1,350 450 3, 000 1,950 Salaries in dollars. $2, 499 00 1, 666 00 1, 094 80 85 68 618 80 85 68 357 00 392 70 357 CO 595 00 392 70 249 90 999 60 523 60 85 68 1,071 00 85 68 761 60 809 20 666 40 85 G8 642 60 571 20 476 00 428 40 380 80 357 00 309 40 391 70 71 40 357 00 71 40 357 no 321 30 303 45 285 60 • 214 20 1, 642 20 583 10 476 00 952 00 428 40 685 10 464 10 71 40 285 (10 321 30 107 10 714 00 464 10 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. GENERAL TRADES. 351 Occupations. Hours of labor per week. Weekly wages. Remarks. Summer. ' Winter. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TRADES. 69 69 75 75 69 69 69 69 69 69 69 72 69 90 69 69 69 52 52 52 52 69 69 48 48 48 69 69 72 69 90 69 69 69 $4 28 4 00 5 00 4 28 5 71 4 25 3 57 3 57 3 00 3 57 3 00 4 00 3 57 95 3 67 2 86 2 86 3 90 2 57 1 43 70 3 57 3 57 2 38 3 10 4 28 3 57 3 57 4 66 95 2 62 4 20 3 33 3 SO 3 57 1 43 4 28 3 57 3 57 2 57 2 15 4 76 1 3 57 3 80 2 86 2 38 3 57 3 57 2 38 3 58 6 43 3 58 8 58 6 43 2 00 72 $5 00 4 00 5 95 5 71 7 14 5 00 5 00 5 00 4 00 5 00 4 00 5 25 5 00 2 14 4 00 4 28 4 28 5 60 3 57 ' 2 98 1 90 5 71 5 95 3 38 3 50 5 00 5 00- 6 00 4 66 1 07 4 28 4 20 4 76 7 00 5 71 2 64 7 14 4 28 7 14 3 76 2 15 14 28 5 00 7 60 3 57 3 57 5 00 5 50 5 24 5 71 7 14 4 30 9 10 7 14 4 00 72 $4 64 4 00 5 47 5 00 6 43 4 62 4 28 4 28 3 50 4 28 3 50 4 63 4 28 1 55 3 78 3 57 3 57 4 75 3 07 2 25 1 30 4 64 4 76 2 88 3 30 4 65 4 28 4 28 4 66 1 01 3 45 4 20 4 05 5 25 4 64 2 04 5 71 3 92 6 35 3 16 2 15 9 52 4 28 5 70 3 22 2 97 4 28 4 53 3 81 4 64 6 78 3 94 8 84 6 78 3 00 72 OTHEB TRADES. Board free. Brick-makers, daring day- light. Tenders or helpers, dur- ing daylight. Lodging free. Do. 78 84 63 69 69 69 69 69 69 119 84 84 119 69 66 63 78 69 69 63 78 84 63 69 69 69 69 69 69 119 78 78 119 69 66 63 69 69 63 With board and lodging. Board free. Board free. Street railway conductors . . Drivers : Draymen and teamsters. Including Sundays. Wiih board and lodging. "Without board. Work 7 days per week. Board free. Laborers, porters, &c, day ' ,, and night. Lodging free. 69 57 84 65 69 84 75 69 72 57 57 57 57 57 57 67 60 57 84 65 69 78 69 72 67 57 67 57 57 57 57 Highest sum is for artists with exceptional tal- ents. Telegraph operators "Weavers " house industry" Piece-work. FEIHTEBS. Occasionally expert Ja- quaid wearers earn higher wages. Compositors at piece- work receive 7 cents fur 1,000 ens, which is equal to 500 ems. Hand-pressmen. Foremen of compositors . . . Compositors' apprentices, first year. Steam-preBsmen. Second year $1 per week ; third yc.tr $1.24; fourth year $1.43. 352 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. FEMALE EMPLOYES. Occupations. Milliners < Sewing machine operatives Seamstresses < Dressmakers < Clerks in dry-goods stores 5 Clerks in offices Nurse-girls Cooks Assistants Head farm servants Assistants Chambermaids Head of sales departments in large stores. Artists in dressmaking Hours of labor per week. Summer. "Winter. 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 90 112 112 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 90 112 112 62 Weekly wages. Lowest. Highest. Average, $1 43 3 00 1 90 1 19 1 90 1 19 1 90 3 57 2 50 3 57 59 1 00 50 71 47 G2 10 00 8 00 $2 38 4 75 3 87 2 38 2 85 2 38 2 85 4 28 3 00 4 28 75 1 50. 75 * 82 56 1 00 25 00 21 00 $1 90 3 87 2 88 1 78 2 37 1 78 2 37 3 95 2 75 3 95 67 1 25 63 76 52 80 17 50 14 50 Kemarks. With board. Without board. Do. With board. Without board. With board. Without board. Do. With board. Without board. With board. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Without board. Do. AGRICTTLTUKAL WAGES. Occupations. Hours of labor per week. Weekly wages. Remarks, Summer. Winter. Lowest. Highest. Average. 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 69 69 69 69 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 84 63 63 63 63 $2 38 $2 38 $2 38 1 66 1 19 95 1 66 1 33 95 95 1 55 1 90 96 1 19 3 14 2 32 , 4 43 3 32 With board* andlodging. Do. 1 43 i 67 ten sheep. With board and lodging, Do Do Transient laborers (male).. . Transient laborers (female) . Transient laborers (male) . . . Transient laborers (female). 2 85 3 14 4 28 3 14 3 43 2 50 4 57 3 50 Board witbont lodging. Do. Without board or lodging. Do. * Daring the harvest season farm hands are allowed meat, beer, and salads'at principal meals. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY.^/ BAILKOAD EMPLOYES AND MACHINISTS. , 353 Occupations. Hoars of labor per day. Weekly wages. Kemarks".- Summer. Winter. Highest. U)west. Average. RAILROADS. 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 11 11 11 14tol8 14tol8 14 to 18 14tol8 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 14 to 18 11 11 11 $5 43 4 76 5 35 2 86 3 09 5 95 4 46 3 09 6 28 6 28 3 78 In case of siokness they receive one-third daily wages. Do. Engineers ROLLING MILLS AND CAST- STEEL WOKKS. $8 67 8 57 4 00 $4 00 4 00 3 57 Mechanics working by fire. - United States Consulate, Grefeld, April 30, 1884. J. S. POTTEE, Consul. The rates of ing forms. DANTZIC. REPORT BY OOXSULAR-A0ENT COLLAS. Part I. — Male labor. are given as nearly as possible in the accompany - COST OP LIVING. The prices for the necessaries of life are so very variable, and indi- viduals have so many ways in which they can satisfy their bodily wants, that it is almost impossible to state the prices paid for their require- ments. The lower class of laborers live chiefly on potatoes, rye bread, rice* gruel, salt herrings, and occasionally a piece of bacon, and use as beverage, coffee or chicory water. Sometimes fish or sprats are plenti- ful, and are then largely consumed. The expense is about 7£ to 12£ cents daily ; clothing comes to $7 to $9 per annum ; rent, $1 per month. The better class of workmen or laborers enjoy a piece of meat occasion- ally ; live on 16 to 24 cents per diem ; clothe themselves for $15 to $18, and pay $25 to $35 rent a year. HABITS OP THE WORKING CLASSES. The better part of the working classes are steady and trustworthy, par- ticularly when married ; but amongst the lower workmen steadiness is not over-frequent although, generally speaking, trustworthy. Saving is a rarity, the earnings not being such as to permit it, but the inducement 92 A— LAB 23 354 LABOR IN EUROPE — GKRMANY. for spending, in the shape of pot-houses, beer and spirit shops, dancing- houses, tea-gardens, &c, is very great. Drunkenness is rather preva- lent. Of course there are exceptions, but, on the whole, there are few who save money. PEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYE. The feeling between employe" and employer is satisfactory, especially with those who are permanently kept in work, their welfare depending on a regular income. , ORGANIZATION, STRIKES, FOOD PURCHASES, AND CO-OPERATIVE SO- CIETIES. The organization of labor takes place according to the demand. In times of activity all goes on well. Capital has little or nothing to do in this respect. Strikes are not knowu here. They have, it is true, taken place sev- eral times, but they did not last long, and ended in the discomfiture of the laborer. Working people are free to purchase their food where they choose; there is no restriction imposed on them in this respeet. Wages are paid daily or weekly. Co-operative societies do not exist here. There is a union here, " Con- sumption Union," where parties who are subscribers receive a ticket whereby they have a small advantage in the purchase of their necessi- ties, but it is not generally used. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. The better class of working people have decent homes, that is, sepa- rate lodgings for themselves. Their homes are, according to their pro- pensities, clean or otherwise. The food is potatoes with an occasional piece of meat, fish, bacon, gruel, pearl barley with a piece of butter or lard ; the clothes are fairly, decent, but there are not many chances of their bettering their condition as soon as children appear. There are unions or associations where they pay a certain sum weekly or monthly and from which they receive a certain allowance in case of sickness or accident. The lower grade of workman earns too little to save, besides he is improvident and spends his money at the beer-shop. The moral condition is low, there being too many inducements for seduction. In the winter soup kitchens are established, and a quart may be obtained for 1J cents, but an aversion thereto exists from false pride. MISCELLAN EOUS. A workingman who receives about 73 to 78 cents a day, can, when his wife assists him, live very decently, even with two or three children. The wife earns from 20 to 30 cents as needlewoman, charwoman, washer- woman, attendant, and the like, only the employment is not always per- manent. Rent is about $30 to 35, clothing $40, food and fuel $130 to $150, taxes, school, &c, differ greatly. Coffee is the usual beverage throughout the day, but the husband takes a glass of beer or spirits at times. Saving is rare, especially when there are children. In case of sick* LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 355 / ness 23 to 40 cents a week are received, according to the terms of the association subscribed to. There are no particular means furnished for people in case of accident, and employers do not concern themselves about their employes' affairs. Workingmen who pay a certain amount of tax are entitled to a vote for the nomination of an elector for the House of Deputies, but each native who is of age may vote direct for a member to the Diet. The share of taxation borue by the working classes is inconsiderable. People emigrate under the impression that they will better their con- dition. Mechanics and agricultural laborers form the chief portion of the emigrants. Part II. — Female labor. About 200 to 600 females are employed in the Eoyal Gun Manufactory and Artillery Workshop, according to the demand; 100 to 150 for the making of cigars, sorting tobacco, &c; 50 to 60 for the fabrication of lucifers; 30 to 40 in the glass works; 100 or so in sorting rags, and 20 to 30 are engaged in the sugar manufactories day and night, according to their size, during the campaign. In the summer, when grain supplies are large, and working of them in thet)pen air takes place, some hun- dreds of women are employed. The number of 'laundresses, shop assistants, clerks, milliners, seam- stresses, artists, musicians, &c, it is impossible to arrive at, but of late there has been an increase in the shape of book keepers, cashiers, &c, who are content with less pay than males, by which the latter are obliged to reduce their claims. Wages vary greatly — female manual labor may be taken at 20 to 26 cents per day of 10 to 12 hours. There is no par- ticular provision made in case of sickness except when an association is regularly subscribed to. In cases of perfect destitution the party is taken to the hospital, at the expense of the town. There are physicians, "poor doctors," who are obliged to give gratuitous advice to the neces- sitous, and who receive a certain annual sum for it from the authorities. In the country all females are obliged to work in the fields, barns, stables, &c, and in case of accident or sickness are provided for by the owner of the estate. Morality must not be estimated too high. Wages have not increased of late years, and at present there are many hands unemployed. There are compulsory schools, and children have to attend them for a certain number of hours per day up to a certain age. In a garrison town like Dautzie, where there are about 5,000 to 6,000 soldiers, females are exposed to great seduction. The life anil limb law now under discussion in the Diet will afford more protection to the working classes when passed. PETER COLLAS, Consular Agent. United States Consular Agency, Dantzic, May 26, 1884. 356 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week of sixty-three hours in Dantzic. Occupations. Lowest. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod carriers. Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Koofers Tenders — Plumbers Assistants . CarpenterB Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths. . . Strikers... Bookbinders . . Brick-raakers . Brewers. Butchers Brass founders.. Cabinet-makers . Confectioners. .. C igar-makers Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers . Draymen and teamsters. Cab' and carriage Street railways Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c. Lithographers Millwrights Kail-makers . (hand) . . Potters. . Printers Tea chers, public schools Saddle ana harness makers. Sailmakers Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Weavers (outside of mills) . $3 57 1 91 4 24 1 91 3 57 1 91 5 00 4 -M 1 91 5 71 3 57 4 24 4 24 4 24 4 24 2 85 4 24 5 71 4 24 4 24 4 24 5 00 4 24 2 14 3 57 3 57 3 57 2 S5 2 85 2 85 3 57 2 85 5 71 5 00 2 85 2 85 4 24 3 57 2 85 2 85 5 94 4 24 4 24 4 24 ♦120 00 3 57 3 57 2 85 3 57 3 57 5 94 3 57 2 23 Highest. $4 24 2 43 5 00 2 43 4 24 2 43 5 71 5 00 2 43 7 14 4 24 5 00 5 00 1 5 00 1 5 00 3 57 5 00 7 14 5 00 5 00 5 00 5 71 5 00 2 85 4 24 4 24 4 24 3 57 3 57 3 57 4 24 3 57 7 14 5 71 3 57 3 57 5 00 4 86 3 57 3 57 7 14 5 00 5 00 5 00 4 24 4-24 3 57 4 24 4 24 7 14 4 24 2 85 * Per annum. FOUNDRIES, MACHINE-SHOPS, &C. Wages paid per week of sixty-three hours in foundries, machine-shops, and iron-works in Dantzic. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average $4 24 3 57 2 43 $5 71 4 24 2 85 $4 97! 3 90! 2 64 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 357 GLASS-WORKS All bauds in glass-works are paid by piece-work, and earn from $19 to $28.50 per mouth, exclusive of house rent, which they get free on the premises. Working hours per week are very irregular, according to demand. Girls attending the workmen are paid 36 cents per day of ten hours. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid, to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, $-c.) in Dantzic. Occupations. V Lowest. Highest. Average. Station-master per annum. Station-master's assistant .do .. Clerk, booking office do... Guard do... Engine-driver do .. Porters do... Ticket-taker, door-opener do . . . Laborer per day . $600 00 457 00 312 00 360 00 421 00 219 00 229 00 $815 00 600 00 437 00 435 00 564 00 276 00 300 00 42 $707 00 528 00 374 00 397 00 492 00 247 00 259 00 39 SHIP- YARD WAGES. Wages paid per day of ten hours in ship-yards (distinguishing between iron and wood ship- building) in Dantzic. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Wooden vessels: Ship carpenters Ship carpenters, foremen Tenders Kiggers , Painters Joiners Calkers Iron ships : . Blacksmiths Turners Metalworkers Riveters , Engine-jitters 52 $0 83 $0 67 83 65 89 24 36 30 71 83 77 47 62 55 47 60 54 fin 60 71 65 47 60 S3 60 71 , 65 47 60 ' 53 71 95 83 SEAMEN'*! WAGES. Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men )— distinguishing between ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in Dantzic. Occunations. Lowest Highest. Average. Sailing vessels : Master \ Mate 'Boatswain Able seaman v Ordinary seaman : Cook and steward „ Boy Steamships : "" Master Mate Chief engineer Second engineer Fireman Cook and steward Able seaman Ordinary seaman Carpenter and boatswain River boats : Master Mate Assistant $28 50 21 00 14 00 10 00 7 00 9 50 4 00 28 50 21 00 42 00 24 00 7 50 9 50 9 50 7 00 10 50 23 00 20 00 6 50 $15 00 $15 50 11 00 10 50 7 50 7 25 10 50 10 00 4 50 4 25 43 00 42 50 25 00 24 50 8 00 7 75 10 50 10 00 10 50 10 00 24 00 21 00 7 50 10 75 23 50 20 50 7 00 The masters of sailing vessels are allowed 2 per cent, and those of steamers 1 per cent, of the groBS amount of freight, besides their pay and board. 358 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per month in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in Dantzic. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average Males : Sli op assistants. Apprentices Females : Shop assistants- Apprentices Milliners Head milliners. $18 01 " 0( HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid to household servants in Vantsic* Occnpations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $25 00 21 00 42 00 8 60 8 60 $37 50 28 00 56 00 11 50 11 50 $31 25 24 50 do ... 10 05 * With dinner and lodgings and a present at Christmas of $2 to $5. AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Farm servants (cotters) are engaged by the half year or year, have a cottage with a room, closet, and fire-hearth, besides a piece of land for potatoes, and one for other vegetables. They receive 9£ cents per day in the winter, and lOf cents in the summer. He has to provide for a laborer during harvest time, and his wife is obliged to work during apart of the afternoon. His children may assist, for which eftra pay is given. The farm laborer receives lOf cents and victuals supplied from the farm. He sleeps in the barns or stables. Wages and work differ greatly, according to the district and time of the year. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid to the corporation employe's in the city of Dantzic. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Head burgomaster. per annum. Burgomaster :.do. .. AliUuToi'ii do... Secretaries .' ' do... Clerks ". An..'. Director of fire police do... Inspector of fire police "do"! Chief firemen permontli. Firemen d Police inspector do _ . Do - --.."..do".'.! Drivers do... Scavengers do . ! ! Inspector of river police do. " Policemen V. ."...'.'. do "" $3, '570 00 1, 785 00 1,219 00 571 00 214 00 929 00 667 00 20 00 12 50 14 50 11 50 11 50 10 75 • 18 00 11 50 $1, 572 00 850 00 428 00 1, 070 00 710 00 22 00 14 50 16 00 12 50 12 50 1150 12 00 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 359 GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paid per month to employe's in Government departments and offices (exclusive of tradesmen and laborers) in Dantzie. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Clerks $36 00 18 00 14 00 $72 00 21 00 19 00 $54 00 19 00 16 00 TRADES IN GOVERNMENT EMPLOY. Wages paid by the day of ten hours to the trades and laborers in Government employ in Dantzie. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Laborers t Artisans who can work at the machines. $0 38J 60 $0 44 71 $0 41J 65} * At the gun manufactory and artillery workshop, females are employed for making cartridges and the polishing of arms, steel, &c, at 18 to 25 cents a day. PRINTERS' WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid per week of sixty hours to printers (compositors, press- men, proof-readers, $c.) in Dantzie. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $3 00 2 50 4 50 70 $4 50 3 00 5 00 1 20 $3 75 i 2 75 4 75 95 DRESDEN. REPORT BY CONSUL MASON. Absence from my post and the delays and great difficulties experi- enced in obtaining satisfactory and reliable information has occasioned the apparent delay in replying to " Labor Circular," issued from the De- partment of State, February 15, ultimo. RATES OP "WAGES AND COST OP LIVING. The rates paid for labor of every class have altered very little since our report in 1878. The cost of living has not materially changed, whil e the laborers continue to live in their own peculiar and frugal way, rye- bread, gruel, cheese of the province and the inevitable beer, constitut- ing their principal articles of food, while flesh of animals, when eaten, is generally in the form of sausage. HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. The habits of the working classes on the whole are good ; they are patient and laborious, though slow and tardy in their movements ; and, while not overimprovident, they seldom accumulate, as their wages are 360 LABOR IN EITROPE-^-GERMANY. low and one might say at fixed rates, enabling them only in rare in- stances to lay up for the " rainy day." Yet they seem cheerful and happy, and always ready for enjoyment, after work-hours or holidays, and indulge in the dance to a late hour of the night. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYE. The feeling among employers and their employed is generally good, and many old mills and manufactories are operated and worked by the descendents of the original proprietors and their workmen. Often a little village rises around the mill and for generations they live and delve and die there. ORGANIZATION OP LABOR. ' The labor is not organized, as with us and in England, hence capital of- fers no counter-organization. Strikes are rare, and, often unknown in whole interests and districts, have never organized against their employ- ers. The laborer is always paid in the currency of the country, and free to expend it in any way and any where he chooses for the necessaries of life. But it is not unusual, in retired inaccessible locations, for the company to furnish at cheap rates the requirements for the maintenance of their laborer's family. No co-operative societies have been formed by the operatives of this district. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE "WORKING CLASSES. The general condition of the working people of Saxony is favorable; they are suitably housed, their food is wholesome, and their clothing comfortable. The chances for bettering their condition is not great, and many of the most enterprising look for the day of emigrating to more favorable localities. I hear the moral condition of the operatives, especially of the females, is not elevated, and, owing in a great degree to- the crowded state of their villages and homss, the cases of illegitimate births among them is appalling. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES IN MILLS AND MINES. In all mills and manufactories the greatest care is taken for the safety of the operatives, while railroads are supervised .and inspected every mile after a passing train to detect accidents and insure safety to life and property. The system of mining is managed on the most ap- proved and scientific principles, and regularly inspected by government officials, fully competent to determine the condition and requirements of their daily inspections, so accidents are rare, and mining interests are very flourishing, and not regarded as speculative, as with us. POLITICAL RIGHTS. The political rights of operatives are well provided for. By the laws of Germany every citizen becomes a voter at the age of twenty-five, and tuey are alive to the preservation and extension of their rights and privi- leges, "The horny hand of labor and the hardened muscle of toil » are duly regarded and courted by those needing their votes, and their voice LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 361 for reform and extension of everything the imagination can conceive of is heard in the royal halls, through their representatives, along with the petitions of princes and field-marshals. TAXATION. The working people bear their full proportion of taxation. The tend- ency of legislation with regard to the laboring population is favorable, and generally fair to them ; indeed, their influence and importance as- serts itself, and, as has always been the case in representative govern- ments,the pressure is from below and always seeks and obtains its level far above. CAUSES OF EMIGRATION. The causes of emigration are as varied as are the dispositions and necessities of man. I should say the most enterprising of the opera- tives emigrate, seeing or hoping for a better and more profitable field for their labors, and is often determined by the success of friends who have preceded them, and are constantly urging them to join them, while their occupations represent every art and labor. FEMALE LABOR. I am unable to state, or to form an approximation of the number of wo- men and children employed inindustrial pursuits in this district. No data is furnished, but female labor enters largely into various pursuits. There has been no perceptible increase in the wages paid female labor during the last five years, neither has the cost of living been advanced. The effect of the employment of females in many occupations, which in other countries is monopolized by males, is not to the disadvantage of the latter, as the former only fill the hiatus caused by the army absorbing the time, labor, and abilities of every one not physically disabled (for there is no other exception). All have to serve, and at the period of life when the mind, in its plastic state, is forming the shapes and habits of future life. It is the boast of the Saxon that there is not a child ten years of age, of sound mind, who cannot read and write, in the whole country. The effect here, as everywhere, in the social life of the mill and factory operatives, is deleterious, while their physical condition is sensibly af- fected in many instances, though the most careful overlooking of Gov- ernment officials is afforded. Ample provision is made for them in sick- ness, and the hospitals are well furnished with every means for their careful attendance and restoration to health. WOMEN AND DOG TEAMS. ' An important factor in the labor of Germany is not inquired of in the circular— the labor of dogs. I have heard it estimated that the women and dogs, hitched together, do more hauling than the railroads and all other vehicles added. Hundreds of small wagons can be seen every day on all the roads leading to Dresden with a dog, as " near horse," harnessed, while the "offhorse" is a woman, withher left hand grasping the tongue of the ^vagon, to give it direction, with her right hand passed through a loop in a rope, which is attached to the axle of the wagon, binding her shoulder. Thus woman and dog trudge along together, pulling miraculous loads, in all seasons and in all sorts of weather. The dog is well fed and provided for. In winter, when the 362 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. ground is cold and wet, he is provided with a good warm bed, placed upon the pavement, and a shawl of some covering thrown over him . Here he will patiently lie until time to return home, when he jumps to his feet, wagging his tail, and barking with very glee and joy. He is always ready for a fight with any other " team " he meets on the high- way, and itj is always amusing to see the woman's efforts to keep their dogs apart from deadly battle. These heavy lqads pulled from the right shoulders of the women, together with the heavy loads they carry upon their backs in large panniers, render them forever hump- backed and sloping, giving them often at the age of twenty-tive years the appearance of being fifty. A majority of the farm work is accomplished by female labor, and their primitive implements, short handled hoes, which force them to work all the day in a stooping position, completes the deformity already engendered by hauling heavy loads in a similar position, aud trans- porting the heavy weights in baskets restiDg on reclining shoulders. Yet these women are descendants of the matrons who bore the soldiers who fought under Arminius, and baffled, captured, and destroyed the Koman legions in the fqrests of Germany ; aud they themselves are the mothers of the men who carried victory on their bayonets from the fields of Gravelotte, Metz, aud Sedan in the late war with France. I have often been amused at the look of indignant surprise of our own women when seeing such sights, and not astonished at their exe- crations and maledictions upon the systems which require such things. JOSEPH T. MASON, Consul. United States Consulate, Dresden, July 25, 1884. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week in Dresden. [Note— It is to be regretted that Consul Mason did not comply -with the instructions in the Depart- ment circular, and convert the marks into American money. The German mark is equivalent to 23.8 cents.] Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TRADES. Marks. 10.20 7.56 13.50 '7.00 13.50 8.40 10.80 10.80 10.90 10.80 10. 50 12.00 10.80 9.00 16.00 12.00 8.70 12.00 9.96 12.00 Marks. 24.00 12. 00 23 00 12.00 21.00 12.00 24/00 24.00 16.00 24.00 18.00 24.00 21.00 24.00 21.00 18.00 18.60 15.00 18.00 24.00 Marks. 10.25 18 00 9.50 15.60 16.33 16.50 OTHEE TRADES.' 14.85 13.50 15.60 15.16 14.50 18.00 15.00 15.05 13.50 13.50 16.50 Distillers LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Wages paid per week in Dresden — Continued. 363 Occupation. Lowest. Highest. Average. other trades— continued. Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Marks. 9.00 Marks. 24.00 Marks. 16.17 11.40 11.90 7.50 13.50 6.00 9.00 13.00 9.00 10.20 9.00 10.20 23.00 12.00 18.00 21.00 24.00 18.00 15.00 30.00 30.00 18.00 36.00 57.70 21.80 10.80 15.00 14.30 18.00 17.75 15. 00 17.82 40.75 15.00 13 50 13. 50' 12.00 9.00 30.00 30. '00 21.00 19.56 15. 00 13.50 FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per week in factories or mills in Dresden. Occupations, Lowest. Highest. Average. Factories : Marks. 6.00 4.80 4,50 3.00 12.00 8.40 Marks. 27.00 19.50 12.00 9.00 24. 00'' 12..00 Marks. 15.23 8.75 7.50 Girls 5.32 Mills: • 16. 80 10.20 FOUNDERIES, MACHINE-SHOPS, &C. Wages paid per week in foundries, machine-shops, and iron-works in Dresden, Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Iron foundry : Marks. 10.80 1.80 9.90 1.80 Marks. 24.00 9.90 36.00 10.80 Marks. 15.60 5.40 Machine factories : 16.74 5.60 GLASS-WORKERS. Wages paid per week to glass-workers. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Marks. 10.20 5.40 6.00 Marks. 27.00 12.00 7.20 Marks. 13.80 7.88 6.60 364 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. MINES AND MINING. Wages paid per annum in and in connection with mines in Dresden. Occupations. Foremen Hewers ..... Engine-men. Trammers . . . Day laborers Lowest. Marks. 940 796 892 598 606 Highest. Average. Marks. 1, 137 , 916 965 670 728 Marks. 1,035 853 930 640 650 RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, fc.) in Dresden. Occupations. Board and offices : Counselors Secretary Chief engineer Chief inspector of transport — Do Directing engineer Managing engineer Section engineer Architect Engineer assistant Chief inspector of engines Inspector of engines Administrator of engines Telegraph clerk Railroad assistants Conductors of baggage wagons . Secretary to the management. .- Office clerks Office servants Assisting clerks Porters ■. Pointsmen Signalmen IiUggage porters Goods station porters Station-master Head guard Guard of first class Guard of second class — .• Brakemen Wagonmen Artisans : Locksmiths Blacksmiths Trepanners Woodworkers -\ "Workmen Engine-drivers Engine drivers' reserve Stokers Engine-cleaners Track-pushers Line workmen Foremen Lowest. Marks. 4,500 2,700 2,650 Highest. 2,100 ,300 1,600 1,680 1,440 2,280 1,560 1,056 750 912 936 804 720 678 1,200 1,054 890 972 964 700 676 2,589 Average. 12, 000 4,200 3,600 1,824 2,076 1,896 2,720 1,920 1,314 1,130 1,200 1,080 890 840 870 1,839 1,198 1,035 1,358 1,358 1,360 1,446 840 2,819 1,810 1,640 826 876 600 840 Marks. 7,245 3,900 2,400 5,460 5,160 2,975 4,800 3,516 3,300 3,600 2,250 6,000 3,450 3,000 1,712 1,904 1,733 2, 525 1,695 1,204 891 1,115 1,016 850 804 715 1,685 1,460 1,165 960 720 1,265 1,166 1,057 916 1,056 766 2,700 1,778 1,584 817 804 581 770 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. SHIP-YABD WAGES. 365 Wages paidper year in ship-yards — distinguishing between iron and wood ship-building — in Dresden. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Marks. 900 1,038 1.021 550 Marks, 1,540 1,236 1,535 975 Marks. 1,205 1 137 824 508 344 STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paidper year in stores (wholesale or retail) to males and females, in Dresden. Occupations. / Lowest. Highest. Average. Marks. 960 624 480 Marks. 1,650 780 1,080 Marks. 1,230 676 780 HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants (towns and cities). ■ Occupations. Average. Housemaids.. Parlormaids . Female cooks Marks. 450 450 600 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in Dnsclen district with board and lodging. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Marks. Marks. 240 330 210 240 150 210 120 135 105 120 150 180 120 135 90 120 75 90 9 10 Average. HALE. Managers per annum. Head servants do... Lower servants do... Horse bovs do... Cow herds (boys) do... FEMALE. Housekeepers per annum. Head servants do... Second servants '. do... Lower servants do... Day laborers (for 11 to 12 hours daily) per week. Marks. 285. 00 225. 00 180. 00 127. 50 112. 50 165. 00 127. 50 105. 00 82.50 9.50 366 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to the corporation employe's in the city of Dresden. Occupations. Officers of the community, accountants: Chief hook-keeper, inspector of taxes . Secretary Comptroller Book-keeper Registrars, calculators, clerks Technical officers : Counselor to the board of works Chief engineer Architect Assistant engineer City agriculturist ^ City gardener Trustee of road Head masons Building comissaries Lowest. Marks. 3,300 1,000 1,500 1,620 3,300 Highest. Marks. 2,250 1,680 4,500 Average. Marks. 4,500 4,200 3,600 3,600 1,900 6,000 5,500 3,600 2,400 1,500 3,000 1,950 1,650 GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paid per annum to employes in Government departments and tradesmen and laborers. Hces, exelwive of Occupations. Lowest Highest. Marks. Marks. 6,300 9,900 4,800 6,000 3,000 4,000 2,250 3,588 1,585 2,182 2,400 3,000 1,422 1,815 Average. Privy counselors of the Government Counselors of the Government Secretaries Registrars Clerks ..' ■. Calculators Servants a. Marks. 7,920 5,280 3,530 2,390 1,950 2,650 1,500 PRINTERS' WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid per loeek to printers {compositors, pressmen, proof -readers, $-c. ) in Dresden. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Printing-office employes: Marks. 9.00 6.00 3.00 Marks. 36.00 15.00 9.00 Marks. 17.75 5.47 DUSSELDORF. REPORT BY CONSUL WAMER. In submitting my report on the condition of labor and wages in this consular district, I would state that it was quite impossible for me to obtain all the statistical information in the particular form required by the Department's labor circular of February 15, 1884. The manufact- urers, as a rule, are exceedingly careful about imparting any kind of information to outsiders relative to their business affairs, although there were some who responded very courteously to all my interrogatories. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 367 t The wages given in the table hereto annexed on the general trades having been obtained direct from the workmen, they should be a pretty fair representation of the average earnings of this class of laborers. CONDITION OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. The working classes in this district seem to be pretty well contented with the present prices paid for their labor. During the past few years the demand for lubor has been somewhat on the increase, and if wages have not advanced proportionally, there has been no complaint about scarcity of employment. Piece-work is preferred, both by the employes and employers, to day labor, and it is generally adopted whenever it is possible to be done. The German work-people are comparatively slow, and the employers flud it decidedly to their advantage, as well as to that of the laborers, to give employment in this way. I am told that they do considerably more work and consequently earn higher wages. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYES AND EMPLOYERS. The feeling which prevails between employe" and employer can be said to be tolerably good. Strikes are exceedingly rare, and if they occur are soon ended. The employes exhibit little stubbornness in being managed, which, together with the great amount of confidence they place in their employers and the happy understanding that seems to exist between the two parties, may be reckoned as one of the chief causes operating against the prevalence of discord and ultimately strikes. Whenever the workmen are told by their employers that, in consequence of hard times aud a depression of prices, their wages will have to be likewise reduced to meet the exigencies, they generally accept the situa- tion without any efforts at resistance, knowing that as soon as their employers can afford to raise their wages it will be done. I feel safe in saying from my own observation that the majority of employers in general are very liberally inclined towards the working classes, and give them aid and good advice in every possible way. SAVINGS FUNDS. It is required by the laws of Prussia that every manufactory or work shall have a Kranken-Gasse, a savings fund out of the workmen's wages for their aid in case of sickness. The employers are likewise required to contribute to this fund. Cooperative societies exist, but are not in very great favor. The work-people are left free to purchase the necessaries of life wherever they like. COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. One of the most salutary measures consists in the legal compulsion ot parents to seud their children to school from the age of six to the com- pletion of the fourteenth year, girls as well as boys. Official measures are also being taken to mitigate intoxication by pro- hibiting the sale of liquors in all hotels and bar-rooms after 11 o'clock in the night to 8 in the morning. THE WORKINGMEN IN POLITICS. In politics the work-people in this district may be said to have scarcely any opionion of their own and to be ignorant as well as indifferent, how- ever well informed they may be. In general they do not trouble them- 368 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. selves in the least about elections. At the time of elections a great many of them stick to their work and would rather forfeit their right to vote than to lose their wages. Others will ask their employers, or are told by them without asking, whom they are to vote for. Others, again, are instructed by the chaplain of their parishes whom they should elect. The socialists in these districts don't count for much. HOW THE WORKMEN LIVE. The mass of the working classes in the Rhineland and Westphalia ap- pear to care very little about laying up any savings for future necessity. It may be said that they live from hand to mouth. Families of from five to six members live in two rooms, for which rent is paid at the rate of $3.50 to $4.28 per month. Their meals consist of bread and coffee for breakfast, boiled meat, potatoes, and vegetables for dinner, coffee and bread again at 4 o'clock, and bread and potatoes for supper. Meat is a very scarce and luxurious article of food for them, which they very seldom enjoy in abundance. Whenever the wife can assist her husband by earning a little wage for herself, and which is very frequently, the case, the family may get along very nicely. AVERAGE WAGES. The average wages paid to all classes of workmen employed in the various manufacturing industries in this district varies from 52 to 60 cents per day. Through the kindness of Mr. Bueck, of Dusseldorf, an economical writer of great prominence and general secretary of the In- dustrial Association for guarding the common interest of the industries in the Rhineland and Westphalia, I have been furnished with the fol- lowing very valuable statistics of the average wages earned — to which special attention is called— duriog the business year 1882-83 by the workmen engaged in 69 iron and steel works, 32 mines, 21 textile fac- tories, 5 chemical works, 4 glass works, 3 sugar refineries, and 20 mis- cellaneous industries. In the iron and steel works there were employed during the said busi- ness year 64,769 workmen, of which 3,496 were youths and 350 women. The annual earnings were as follows: 1,319 workmen earned between $142.80 and $166.60; 7,910 between $166.60 and $190.40; 4,041 between $190.40 and $214.20 ; 42,049 between $214.20 and $238 ; 5,265 between $238 and $261.80 ; 2,747 between $261.80 and $285.60 ; 1,438 upwards of $285.60. It will be seen from the above given estimates that about 50 per cent, of these workmen earned between $214.20 and $238. In the other above- mentioned 85 manufacturing industries : Number of workmen. Range of earnings. Number of workmen. Range of earnings. $119 00 to $142 80 142 80 166 60 166 60 190 40 190 40 214 20 214 20 238 00 238 00 261 80 261 80 285 60 285 60 $214 20 $238 00 6,828 workmen 12,388 workmen 71 40 95 20 47 60 71 40 71 40 95 20 95 20 119 00 119 00 142 80 142 80 166 60 190 40 214 20 209 girls 47 60 71 40 71 40 95 20 1,214 youths 362 youths 119 00 142 80 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMIJSY. 369 FOOD PRICES. The following figures show the retail price per pound of average qnality of food in the city of Dusseldorf : Articles. Cost per pound. Articles. Cost per pound. Bread: White Cents. 4 1.84 3 15 to 17 19 17 17 14 to 18 Pork : Cents. 20 Black 20 Butter 24 Beef: 26 14 Coffee , 26 35 10 Pork: 1 Iq conclusion I will say that the great mass of workmen are indiffer- ent to the present legislation in regard to aid and insurance institutions, which seem to attract their attention only in exceptional cases. WM. D. WAMER, United States Consulate, Consul. Dusseldorf \ May 17, 1884. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Dusseldorf. Occupations. BUILDING TRADES. Brick-layers Hod-carriers Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters - '■ Koofers . . .' Tenders Plumbers Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers (board and lodgings) BlackHmiths - Sfiikers Book-binders Brick-makers . Brewers (board and lodgings) Butchers (board and lodgings) Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers ■ Drivus: Draymen and teamsters Cab and carriage Street railway Dyers Engravers Gardeners Hatters Horscshoers Jewelers - ■ Laborers, porters, &o Lithographers Potters , — Printers Tailors Xowest. Highest. $4 28 $5 71 3 14 3 92 4 28 5 71 3 14 3 92 4 28 5 71 3 14 3 92 3 92 5 00 4 28 5 71 3 14 3 92 3 92 5 00 3 14 3 92 3 57 5 71 4 28 6 00 1 19 1 60 4 28 5 71 3 57 4 28 4 28 5 71 4 28 5 00 1 42 2 14 1 07 1 78 3 57 4 28 3 57 6 42 3 92 5 71 3 57 5 71 2 57 3 57 3 57 4 76 3 57 5 00 5 00 7 14 3 57 5 00 3 57 5 71 3 57 5 71 4 28 7 14 2 38 4 52 4 28 6 42 3 57 5 00 4 28 7 14 3 57 5 00 Average. $5 00 3 57 5 00 3 50 5 00 3 50 4 28 5 00 3 50 4 28 3 50 5 00 5 00 1 42 5 00 3 71 5 00 4 50 1 78 1 42 3 92 5 00 5 00 4 28 2 75 3 57 4 28 5 71 4 28 4 28 5 00 5 71 3 33 5 00 3 92 5 71 4 28 370 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Dusseldorf— Continued. Occupation. Other trades — Continued. Paper-hangers Shoemakers Stone-cutters .- Saddle and harness makers Tanners Coppersmiths Gunsmiths Wood-carvers "Wheelwrights IFile-cutters Painters Turners Guilders Stair-builders Street-plasterers Barbers (board and lodgings) Coachmen (board and lodgings) Hope-makers Street-railway conductors Organ-makers Woodchoppers Lowest. $3 57 3 57 4 28 3 57 3 92 3 57 3 57 5 00 3 92 3 92 3 57 3 92 4 28 4 28 4 28 90 2 51 3 57 4 16 4 28 3 92 Highest. $5 00 5 00 5 71 5 00 5 71 6 40 6 42 7 14 5 35 5 00 5 00 5 00 6 42 5 71 5 71 1 19 2 87 5 00 5 13 8 50 4 28 Average. $4 28 4 28 5 00 4 28 4 25 4 28 4 28 5 71 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 5T0O 5 00 5(00 1 07 2 75 3J57 4 52 5 71 4 25 COST OP LIVING. Table showing the average annual cost of living to different classes of workmen in the district of Dusseldorf. Necessaries of life. Common journey- man (un- married). Artisan (unmar- ried) . Artisan, ■with a family of four mem- bers. Well sit- uated fore- man, with a family of four mem- bers. $50 00 $47 60 $142 80 $190 40 142 80 Food 214 20 11 90 2 38 23 80 2 85 35 70 3 57 59 50 3 57 1 19 8 33 1 90 14 28 2 85 14 28 4 76 4 28 7 14 Total 166 60 233 23 251 56 FOUNDRIES, MACHINE-SHOPS, AND IRON WORKS. Table showing the weekly wages earned by persons employed in the foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in the district of Dusseldorf. [Hours of labor, sixty to sixty-six per week.] Occupations. Sand -model formers. Mass-model formers Loam-model formers Helpers Casters Dressers Smelters Carpenters Assistants Boiler -makers Helpers Machinist, best Machinist, ordinary Machinist, inferior.. Foremen Laborers, ordinary . . Wages earned. $4 28 to 4 28 3 57 3 10 4 28 3 57 4 28 8 33 5 71 8 33 3 57 5 71 4 28 3 09 8 23 3 75 $7 14 8 56 7 14 6 50 8 56 5 71 5 71 9 87 8 56 9 87 5 00 10 00 5 71 4 28 10 00 4 50 Occupations. WIRE-ROLLIKG MILLS. Wire-rolling masters : $9 28 t( 7 14 6 42 5 71 6 42 4 53 8 56 5 71 4 28 4 00 3 75 > $14 28 10 00 Wire-rollers : 10 00 8 33 Puddlers : 8 56 6 42 Welders : 10 00 8 53 5 71 All workmen in rolling mills All workmen at blast furnace 4 50 4 00 Wages earned. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 371 FACTORIES AND MILLS. Table showing the weekly wages earned by persons employed in factories or mills in the dis- trict of Dusseldorf. [Hours of labor, sixty to sixty-six por week.] Occupations. "Wages earned. Occupations. "Wages earned. Railroad coach factory: $3 57 to $5 71 3 57 8 56 4 28 8 56 4 28 7 14 3 57 5 71 4 28 5 71 3 09 4 28 7 14 8 56 7 14 8 56 4 28 4 28 4 28 5 71 4 28 2 85 3 57 10 71 10 00 4 28 6 42 3 57 5 71 Paperhangings factory — Cont'd. Flockers $3 57 3 57 3 42 3 57 3 57 3 28 3 57 4 28 4 28 3 09 4 28 to $5 00 4 28 Blacksmiths 4 76 Sugar refining : Cotton mills: Girls .. "Woolen mills : 7 14 Boiler- masters Paperhangings factory : Spinners Spoolers, carders, fullers, and 5 71 8 56 RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per month to railway employe's in Dmsseldorf. Occupations. Average. Occupations. Average. $25 00 22 00 22 00 11 90 14 00 45 25 31 33 29 75 23 80 Railway machine-shops: Foremen $22 61 51 76 15 38 15 38 13 60 11 13 Yarnishers 13 60 11 13 HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per month to household servants in Dusseldorf. Occupations. Average. $9 00 to $7 00 3 57 3 17 7 00 17 85 SHOP AND STORE WAGES. Wages paid per month in wholesale and retail stores and shops in Dusseldorf. Occupations. Average. Clerks : \ Men Women Travelers Counting-house s — Head book-keeper*. . . Inferior book-keepers Errand boys $9 52 7 14 29 80 to $14 28 10 71 47 60 60 00 20 00 7 00 99 00 35 70 8 00 *Generally signing by procuration. 372 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. ELBERFELD. REPORT BY YICEOONSVL YON WREDE. COST OF LIVING. The following are the average prices of goods : Bread - P er pound.. $0 02£ Butter do.... 28* Cheese do 21 Potatoes do 1 Beans do.... 4* Peas : do 5} Vegetables (cabbage) do 1* Beef do.... 17* Pork do.... 14 Veal do.... 12* Mutton - do.... 12* Flour do 4 Rice do 8* Salt -. do.... 2* STATEMENT OF A DYER. Is thirty-two years old, with wife and one child ten years old; wages, $4.30 per week : Rent, two rooms, second story $32 84 Clothing 23 80 Food, per week, $2.85 148 20 Municipal taxes 71 Contribution to workmen's aid society, per week, 14 cents 7 28 Incidentals 10 77 Total 223 60 PAST AND PRESENT WAGES. Not much difference. Wages and general conditions are rather more favorable to the workmen at present. HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. JTAs a rule the workman is sober and trustworthy, also saving. Com- paratively a small proportion of the men are given to spells of intem- perance, and these occur on pay-days, and last to the second or third day after. Feeling between employe and employer is good. ORGANIZED CONDITION OF LABOR. There has been a workmen's hospital fund established, to which every man is by law obliged to contribute from 8 to 16 cents per week, according to his earnings. In case of sickness or accident he is paid out of the fund from 75 cents to $1.50, to which amount the employer, as a rule, makes a voluntary addition. Strikes are rare occurrences in this district, and generally not advan- tageous to the laborer. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 373 The working people can buy the necessaries of life where they choose. They are generally paid weekly, sometimes semi-monthly, and in silver and nickel coin. There are no co-operative societies in this district. GENERAL CONDITION OF WORKING PEOPLE. If married and the father of children, they have to live very econom- ically, and hardly have a chance of saving anything. They are gene- rally healthy, sober, and attached to their families. Unmarried work- men, if economical, might save a little. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES. The respective owners or companies are compelled by law to take all necessary precautions to insure the safety of their employes. Buildings, boilers, machinery. &c, are inspected from time to time by Government officials as to their being in good and sound condition. POLITICAL RIGHTS. They are entitled and are expected to vote for their representative in the Reichstag, the house for the whole German union. They have no right lo vote for their representative in the Landtag. In the latter are discussed only the affairs of Prussia as a country belonging to the Ger- man Empire. CAUSES OF EMIGRATION. The hope of bettering their pecuniary position, frequently also for the purpose of evading the military service. The emigrants are mostly ag- riculturists and mechanics. FEMALE LABOR. The minimum, maximum, and average wages paid to female adults per week are : Minimum, $1.50 ; maximum, $6 ; average, $2.90. The hours of labor are from 7 to 12 m., and from 1.30 to 7 p. m. On Saturday generally to 6 p. m. The moral and physical conditions of such employes are fair. No means are provided for the improvement of these employes. In case of fire there mostly is an abundance of water ; the staircases are wide and easy of access. The work-people rarely sleep in the estab- lishments in which they work, and there is comparatively little danger for their safety during the day-time in case of fire. Naturally great precautions are taken everywhere to prevent fires. For women there is, as well as for the men, a fund for the sick and disabled. Every member of the different manufactories and other es- tablishments is obliged to contribute to this fund at the rate of from 4 to 7 cents per week. In case of a member being sick or disabled a cer- tain amount is paid out of this fund for her care. Besides, it is custom- ary for the employer to pay a share of the amount necessary in such cases. There has been a slight increase during the past five years in the wages paid women and in the price of the necessaries of life. 374 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. STATE OF EDUCATION. Nearly all the women can read and write, and they are obliged by law to send their children to school, where they receive the benefit of an elementary education at the expense of the state when the parents are too poor to pay. FREDERICK VON WREDE, Vice- Consul. United States Consulate, Mberfeld, August 27, 1884. general trades. Wages paid per week of seventy-two hours in Elberfeld. Occupations. BUILDING TRADES Brick-layers Hod-carriers Masons Tenders , Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders Plumbers A ssistants Carpenters * Gas-fitters OTHEB TRADE6. Bakers Blacksmiths - Strikers Book-binders Brick-makers -. Brewers i Butchers Brass founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Cab and carriage Street railway Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Horseshoers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Printers Teachers, public schools Saddle and harness makers Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Weavers (outside of mills) Lowest. $3 80 3 20 3 90 3 20 5 40 3 20 5 35 5 40 3 20 4 50 3 10 4 10 4 00 3 50 4 20 3 00 4 00 5 00 6 10 3 60 4 50 5 10 3 50 5 00 4 10 5 00 3 90 4 50 4 40 3 00 6 50 4 00 2 90 4 20 2 80 5 00 4 00 4 30 7 00 4 10 3 80 4 00 4 10 4 00 Highest. $6 25 3 80 6 40 3 80 5 75 3 80 5 65 5 80 3 70 4 90 3 60 4 90 4 20 4 80 4 80 3 80 4 50 5 50 10 00 4 90 4 80 5 90 4 80 6 00 5 50 7 50 4 60 4 70 4 50 4 50 12 00 4 90 5 10 4 80 3 80 7 00 4 80 5 00 35 00 6 20 12 00 5 50 4 70 7 00 Average. $4 55 3 45 4 70 3 45 5 55 3 40 5 50 5 60 3 40 4 60 3 40 4 40- 4 10 4 15 4 50 3 20 4 20 5 35 7 00 4 20 4 60 5 35 4 20 5 40 4 60 4 20 4 60 4 45 3 90 8 00 4 50 4 00 4 50 3 50 6 00 4 50 4 70 15 00 5 20 6 00 4 75 4 50 5 00 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per week of seventy-ttoo hours in factories or mills in Elberfeld. 375 Occupations. \ Masters and superintendents Undermasters "Workmen Women Children over fourteen years Lowest. Highest. i $8 00 $25 00 5 00 12 00 3 00 4 50 2 00 2 75 1 50 2 75 $14 00 7 00 3 75 2 50 2 25 RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, . — Continued. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Second mates : Sailing vessels Steam-vessels Third mates : Steamers Sailing vessels Boatswains (steamers) Boatswains' mate (steamers) Quartermasters (steamers) Quartermasters' mate (steamers) - - Sailors, able-bodied : Sailing vessels Steamers Ordinary seamen : Sailing vessels Steameis Boys: Sailing vessels Steamers Cooks : Sailing vessels Steamers Cook and steward (sailing vessels) . Head steward (steamers) Second steward (steamers) Third steward (steamers) Engineers : Chiefs (steamers) Second (steamers) Third (steamers) Fourth (steamers) Assistant (steamers) ■Firemen : Foreman (steamers) Common (steamers) Coal-heavers (steamers) Sailmaker and sailor : Sailing vessels Steamers Sailmakers only (steamers) Head cook (steamers) $14 28 19 04 14 28 14 28 14 28 12 50 12 50 11 50 11 90 11 90 3 57 14 23 21 42 17 85 23 80 11 90 4 76 35 70 23 80 19 04 14 28 11 90 11 90 9 52 9 52 12 61 14 28 14 28 23 80 $15 47 23 80 19 04 16 66 21 42 15 00 15 00 14 00 11 90 11 90 8 33 8 33 21 42 35 70 20 23 47 60 23 80 11 90 95 20 47 60 23 80 21 42 14 28 14 28 11 90 11 90 14 28 19 04 14 28 47 60 $15 00 20 00 16 66 15 00 17 50 13 50 13 50 12 00 11 90 8 33 5 75 16 50 28 00 20 00 30 00 12 50 7 25 47 60 35 70 21 42 16 66 13 00 13 00 10 20 10 20 15 00 17 50 14 28 25 00 STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per year in stores, wholesale and retail, to males and females in the grand duchy of Oldenburg. Occupations. Head manager Manager's assistants Head cutters Assistants Clerks : First class Second class Third class Apprentices : First class Second class Third class Cashiers (females) Book-keepers : First class Seoond class Porter Coopers : master Assistant Apprentices Town travelers (commission) .. Country travelers (commission) Lowest. Highest. $357 00 238 00 242 80 142 80 $2, 380 00 714 00 476 00 238 00 476 00 238 00 200 00 714 00 476 00 214 20 71 40 47 60 23 80 238 00 142 80 71 40 47 60 476 00 238 00 178 50 119 00 476 00 238 00 166 60 238 00 166 60 119 00 *5 476 00 476 00 238 00 119 00 *10 2, 380 00 Average. $714 00 400 00 320 00 175 00 480 00 285 60 205 00 95 20 59 50 25 00 275 00 285 60 200 00 150 00 200 00 180 00 119 00 *6 600 00 * Per cent. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 381 HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wagee paid to household servants (towns and cities) in the grand duchy of Oldenburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Head butler (including board, &c.) $238 00 119 00 71 40 32 13 32 13 32 13 23 80 7 14 71 40 119 00 47 60 35 70 16 66 16 66 71 40 14 28 59.5 1 42.8 95.2 $476 00 238 00 95 20 71 40 71 40 71 40 32 13 14 28 119 00 178 50 85 68 71 40 23 80 23 80 95 20 23 80 95.2 2 43.9 1 42.8 $250 00 150 00 Coachman : 40 00 40 00 25 00 Stall boy : First do Females : Cook do.... do 95 20 do.... do.... do 71 40 47 60 Males : do... do.. . 21 00 Boy .* ...do Gardener : Head do 71.4 1 50 An 1 19 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in the grand duchy of Oldenburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $71 40 $142 80 37 70 71 40 11 90 23 80 23 80 47 60 23 80 47 60 17 85 23 80 7 14 14 28 53.3 95.2 24 80 37 70 48 60 61 50 47.6 53.5 71.4 95.2 53.5 59.5 Average. First Btableman (with board) per year.. Second stableman (with board) do ... Buy (with board) do First female servant (with board) do First dairy-maid (with board) do Second dairy-maid (with board) ; do Junior servant girl (with board) do Plowman (with eating) per day.. Laborers (with board and rent free) .■ per year.. Laborers (without rent free) do — Laborers (without board and rent) per day.. Harvesters (with board) do Harvesters (with board and lodging) do — $100 00 50 00 17 70 35 40 35 40 18 75 12 00 65.4 31 25 '54 75 50 80 55 CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to the corporation employe's in the city of Brake-Oldenburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Director of savings bank Director of mercantile bank Chief clerks Second clerks Third clerks Junior clerks Director for the Union of Oonsumtibies Director for the Union of Agricultural Implements Director of building corporation Designer Assistant ■• Superintendent of works - Book-keeper and cashier $476 00 476 00 357 00 297 50 238 00 142 80 --(*) --. ..(*) ... 476 00 117 50 117 50 333 20 333 20 $950 00 2, 380 00 476 00 357 UO 297 50 238 00 142 80 142 80 1,190 00 357 00 357 00 714 00 714 00 $525 00 600 00 400 00 320 00 250 00 195 00 500 00 237 25 237 25 425 00 425 00 * Gratis. 382 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to employe's in Government departments and offices (exclusive of tradesmen and laborers) in the grand duchy of Oldenburg. Occupations. Minister of the interior Minister of finances ■ Minister of justice, churches, and schools ^Counsellor Assistants Chancellor of the ministry Government cashier Paymaster-general Assistant Guard Inspector of the Government cash account Assistant Book-keeper-general Assistant.... Secretaries in average Porter or errand boy Statistical Bureau: President Auditor Head police officer Expedient Police : Lieutenant Sergeant Corporal Common Head inspector of ways and public buildings . . . Second inspector of ways and public buildings . President of a bailiwiclc Lord chief justice Lowest. ., 904 00 !, 380 00 , 666 00 , 470 00 328 40 735 00 289 60 476 00 285 60 142 80 476 00 ■285 60 714 00 285 60 119 00 142 80 714 00 476 00 428 40 190 40 714 00 238 00 200 00 178 50 , 190 00 595 00 952 00 , 785 00 Highest. !2, 380 00 2, 500 00 2,380 00 1,666 00 714 00 880 20 1, 285 20 1, 190 00 541 20 214 20 880 60 541 20 952 00 541 20 190 40 214 20 1, 190 00 714 00 595 00 390 40 833 00 428 40 375 00 404 60 1, 666 20 1,190 00 1, 666 00 2,142 00 Average. $2, 142 09 2, 142 00 2, .023 00 1, 568 00 600 00 810 00 1, 000 00 1,000 00 400 00 180 00 600 00 400 00 850 00 400 00 142 80 180 00 900 00 650 00 450 00 225 00 750 00 375 00 300 00 260 00 1, 428 10 892 50 1,190 00 1, 950 00 TRADES IN GOVERNMENT EMPLOY'. Wages paid to the trades and laborers in Government employ in the grand duchy of Olden- burg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Commissioner of the office of public buildings per month. Commissioner of the otfice of public ways do... Commissioner of the office of bailiwick do . . . Transcribers : In supreme offices do. .. In minor offices do... Designers : First class do... Second class do... Copyist do . . . Pilotmasters do .. Pilots : First class do... Second class do... Harbor-master do... Engineer ot dredger do A-ssistant do.. . Fireman do. . . Common laborers do . . . Harbor laborers .- do... Master of dredging machine do Common custom-house officers per annum . Gardener : Head per day. Second do... Laborer do... Foresters per annum . Overseer of public way6 : per month. Overseer of Government lands do... Overseer of public waters and channels do .. Gaolers per annum. $23 75 21 42 19 75 14 28 11 90 14 88 12 00 12 00 34 28 21 42 14 88 19 75 14 88 11 90 7 90 14 28 19 75 178 50 1 66.6 .95.6 53.5 178 50 21 42 21 42 21 42 142 80 $35 70 35 70 35 70 16 66 14 28 29 75 25 00 25 00 43 80 59 50 29 75 23 80 19 75 23 80 15 88 23 80 14 28 23 75 190 40 1 90.4 1 04.8 71.4 190 40 35 70 35 70 35 70 190 60 $30 0» 28 50 25 00 15 00 12 60 18 50 17 00 17 00 42 50 39 00 25 00 22 00 19 75 18 50 14 00 19 94 14 28 21 75 185 00 1 75 1 00 60 185 00 27 00 27 00 27 00 150 00 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 383 PRINTERS' "WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid per week of sixty hours to printers, {compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, fyc), in Brake- Oldenburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $4 76 1 42.8 $9 SO 2 85.6 $6 OO 2 0» Printers receive their wages according to agreement with the owner of the press, and as there exist in his district only small printing offices, employing from two to five men, not much difference exists in their pay. J. J. GEOSS, Consular Agent. United States Consular Agency, Brahe-Nonderihamm, June 24, 1884. HAMBURG. REPORT BY CONSUL BAILEY. POOD PRICES. Bread : Black per pound.. $0 02 White do 03 Butter ' do 23 Cheese do 18 Coffee do 18 Coal per ton.. 6 00' Eggs per dozen . . 14 Meats : Beef per pound . . 14 Mutton do 12 Veal do 19 Pork do 14 Piekledpork do 16 Bacon do 17 Hams .' do 21 Lard do 19 Milk per quart . . 03 Peas and beans (dried) per pound.. 06 Potatoes per bushel.. 75 Rice per pound.. 06 Sugar : Loaf do 07 Brown do 05£ Tea do 45 Petroleum do 03£ PAST AND PRESENT WAGES. During the last six years the rate of wages has not changed mate- rially, and the condition of the laboring classes has been only very lit- tle improved in this consular district during the said period of time. >> HABITS OP THE WORKING CLASSES. As a general thing they are sober, steady, and trustworthy, and they endeavor to save as much of their earnings as possible for days of sick- ness and old age. 384 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. PEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYE AND EMPLOYER. Only the very best feeling prevails between employe and employer, manifesting itself in the interest the latter takes in the welfare of the former, and the rewards given by the employer for long faithful serv- ices, all of which has a very beneficial effect on the prosperity of the community. ORGANIZED CONDITION OF LABOR. Most of the workingraen in this district are members of the trades union. They fix and regulate in many cases the rate of wages and arrange or negotiate with employers about wages in a peaceful manner. Any difficulties, differences, or disputes arising between employers aud employes, which cannot be settled in an amicable way, are submitted to the trade-arbitration court, established in Hamburg by its Government for such purposes. This court is composed of tradesmen and master- mechanics of different trades, who are appointed for the term of one year by the Government. The decisions of this court are binding. No attorneys being needed in said court, the parties having cases io the same have scarcely any or no costs to pay. The effect of said court on the advancement and welfare of the laborers has proved excellent. PREVALENCY OF S'JRIKES. During the last six years no strikes worth mentioning have occurred in this district. FREEDOM OF PURCHASES. In this district the working people are free to purchase the necessaries of life wherever they choose. The laborer is paid once a week, on Saturdays, iu German gold or silver. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. There are several so-called "Consnm Vereine" (consumption associa- tions) in this district, which have established stores in different parts of the city, where members of such associations can purchase the neces- saries of life at less cost than through the regular and usual business channels. As the prices paid at such co-operative stores are only very little lower, and the goods sold there generally of inferior quality, than at other stores, the said co-operative-stores have had no appreciable effect on general trade. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. HOW A BRICKLAYER'S FAMILY LIVES IN HAMBURG. Q. How old are you ? — A. Thirty-two years. Q. What is your business ? — A. I am a bricklayer. Q. Have you a family ?— A. I have a wife and two children, the oldest is four and the youngest two years old. Q. What wages do you receive per day ?— A. On an average I receive 95 cents Der day. r Q. How many hours per day are you required to work for such wages ?— A Ten hours per day. Q. How much time are you allowed for your meals?— A. Half an hour for brpak- fast, one hour for dinner, and half an hour for vespers in the afternoon. The time allowed for meals is not included in the ten hours' work. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 385 Q. Can you support a family upon such wages ? — A. Oh, yes. My wife frequently earns from 3 to 4 marks per week by washing and scouring for other people. The children are then sent to the "warte schule," a kind of " Kindergarten " for poor people, where the children are taken care of during the day free of expense. It is a charitable institute, of which there are a good many in Hamburg. Q. What do the united earnings of yourself and wife amount to in a year ? — A. With general good health we earn "about $347.95 per year. Q. Will you explain in detail the uses you make of this money f — A. Yes. I pay per annum — For rent of two rooms and kitchen in third story $47 60 For clothing for self and family 47 60 For food and fuel 191 11 For taxes 3 57 For hospital dues 4 76 Leaving for doctor's bills, medicines, incidentals, and savings 53 31 Per annum 347 95 Q. Of what kind of food do your daily meals consist ? — A. For breakfast, bread, coffee, and a little bacon ; for dinner, meat and potatoes ; at 4 o'clock, coffee and bread ; and for supper, bread, bacon, and sometimes fried potatoes and tea or beer. Q. Are you able to saveany portion of yourearningsfordaysof sicknessorold age? — A. At present I manage to save about 100 marks ($23.80) per year ; whether I will be able to save so much or anything at all when my family becomes larger or my chil- dren grow older I do not know. In case of sickness of myself I receive 1 mark 50 pfennige (35 cents) per day from the mechanics' hospital fund. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES. The boilers and steam-engines in factories and mills are under surveil- lance of the Government and are inspected for their safety by a Govern- ment official at certain intervals. In case of an accident the employes of factories and mills receive from the mechanics' hospital fund 1 mark (23.8 cents) to 2 marks (47.6 cents) per day during their illness. In some cases their employers furnish their employes pecuniary assistance when the latter have become unable to work in consequence of an acci- dent in the factory or mill. Railroad employes, if meeting with an ac- cident in the discharge of their duties are provided for by the Imperial Government, the railroads in' this district having recently been pur- chased by the German Government. A general accident law (unfall-gesetz) is now under consideration in the German Eeichstag, establishing ample funds and provisions for all the working people in the German Empire in case of accident. As a general thing the employers do not trouble themselves much about the moral and physical well-being of their employes, but in some cases the employes are held to attend church and receive medical at- tendance in case of sickness at the instigation of their employers. The general relations prevailing between employer and employes are very good in this district. POLITICAL RIGHTS. Workingmen enjoy the same political rights in Germany as capital- ists, and they command a great political influence through such rights on legislation. The great majority of the workingmen in this district are Social-Democrats, and, as Hamburg is in a state of "petty siege" with special reference to Social -Democracy, the members of that organiza- tion cannot hold any meetings except by permission and under the sur- veillance of the police authorities. But, notwithstanding the close and strict control exercised by the authorities over the movements of the 92 A— LAB 25 386 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Social-Democrats, they form a very strong and formidable political party, which is best shown at the elections for the Eeichstag (German Parliament), the Social-Democrats of Hamburg at the last election hav- ing elected out of their party two of the four representatives represent- ing the district of Hamburg in the Eeichstag. The local and general taxes borne by the working people in Ham- burg are comparatively very light. People having an income of less than 600 marks ($142.80) per annum are exempt from taxes; from 600 to 800 marks pay 6 marks ($1.42) ; up to 1,200 marks ($285.60) 1 mark (23.8 cents) en every 100 marks. As stated in the answer to the preceding question, the German Eeichstag is now considering a general accident-law for the working classes, and will, in all probability, pass a law for the establishment of large relief funds for working people, all of which tends to show that the Government takes a great interest in the welfare of the working classes. CAUSES WHICH LEAD TO EMIGRATION. The principal cause of emigration of the working people is the long military service the young men are required to perform; another reason is a desire and hope to better their condition, as they can make but little more than a living in their native country. The majority of the people emigrating from this district are farmers ; they generally select the Far West of the United States for their new homes. FEMALE LABOR. Kb statistics respecting the number of women and children employed in this district in industrial pursuits being obtainable, I canDot give any number, but can only state in which branches and to what extent females are employed. A large number of girls from sixteen to twenty-two years of age, and but few married women and children, are employed in the man- ufacturing and mechanical establishments, especially on light work, which they perform better and much cheaper than male employes. A great many females are employed as clerks, saleswomen, book- keepers, and cashiers in retail stores, such as dry goods, fancy goods, stationery, confectionery and flower stores, but scarcely any females are employed in the wholesale commercial establishments in this city. No females are employed in Hamburg as Government officials and clerks, but there are at least 300 or 400 female teachers in the public and private schools of this city ; the fine arts, painting and sculpturing, are cultivated here professionally by very few females ; there are no female chemists, only a few hotel and boarding-house keepers, no journalists, a great many laundresses, a large number of music teachers, no invent- ors, no bankers, brokers, lecturers, and public speakers of the female gender in this district. In the district of this consulate, agricultural labor is mostly performed by men and boys ; during harvest time some females are employed by the farmers in Schleswig-Holstein. There is no mining done in this district. Besides the employes mentioned there is a large number of females engaged in the district as milliners, tailoresses. seamstresses, grocers, fish-mongers, news dealers, dealers in linen and' white goods, &c. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 387 The minimum, maximum, and average wages paid to female adults are as follows : In factories, mills, &c, per day Clerks, saleswomen, bookkeepers, per month Teachers (in public and private schools), per month Laundresses, per day Music teachers, per hour Lowest. Highest. $ 35 $ 59 10 71 23 80 11 90 23 80 35 47 23 71 Average. $ 47 17 25J 17 85 41 47 Their hours of labor are as follows : In factories, mills, &c, ten hours per day ; clerks, &c, from ten to twelve hours per day ; teachers, from six to eight hours per day; laundresses from ten to twelve hours per day. The employes are sober, steady, saving, and generally in good health. Most of these employes are members of a club or society, organized for the mental improvement of such employes. They have their own club localities, where they meet once a week for the purpose of discus- sions and debates, and where they have good libraries, and lectures by learned men are held, during the winter season ; in summer time they arrange picnics, &c. Every precaution is taken for the safety of the employes; scarcely any accident occurs. The great majority of the employes become members of a relief and hospital-society, by paying a small admission fee, say from $1 to $2, and an annual subscription of from $1.50 to $5. In case the members become sick or temporarily disabled, they receive free medical attendance and medicines, and during their illness from 23 to 71 cents per day. Some employers provide for their employes when the latter become unable to perform any work, but these cases are very rare. During the past five years there has been no material increase in the wages paid women, nor in the price of the necessaries of life or other- wise. The employment of women has not affected the wages of men, nor the general social and industrial conditions, as most of the work performed by women is more suitable for them than for men. The great majority of the female employes are unmarried; they have all been obliged to attend school from the sixth to their fourteenth year of age, and hence receive a good general education. The few married women who work in factories, or as laundresses, &c, usually send their small children during the day to a public kindergarten, where they are taken care of, and for which the parents pay little or nothing, as those institutions are partly supported by the Government and partly by charity. JOHN M. BAILEY, Consul* United States Consulate, Hamburg, August 21, 1884. 388 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average, BUILDINO TRADES. Brick-layers Hod-carriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders Plumbers Assistants ... Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths . . Strikers . . . Book-binders.. Brick-makers. Brewers . Bulchers Bvass-f unders . . . Cabinet-makers . Coufectionexs . . . Cigar-makers ... Coop • ►pers . Cutlers. Distillers . Drivers . Draymen and teamsters. Cab and carriage Street railways Dyers Engravers . Furriers ... G-ardeners. . Hatters . Horee-shoers Jewelers laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Kail-makers (hand) Potters Printers Teachers, public schools Saddle and harness makers . Sail-makers Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Weavers (outside of mills) . . $4 98 3 57 4 98 3 57 7 14 3 57 4 28 4 28 3 57 4 28 3 42 4 98 4 28 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 85 3 57 4 28 2 85 4 28 4 28 2 85 2 85 4 28 4 28 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 85 3 57 2 85 4 28 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 85 4 28 4 28 2 85 2 85 3 57 5 70 3 57 5 15 5 00 5 00 3 57 7 14 2 85 2 38 $7 14 5 71 7 14 5 71 7 14 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 3 42 7 14 4 28 2 85 3 57 2 85 4 28 3 57 4 28 4 28 5 00 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 3 57 3 57 5 00 3 57 3 57 3 57 3 57 3 57 3 57 5 00 4 28 4 28 4 28 4 28 11 90 4 28 5 15 6 42 5 70 4 28 8 56 3 57 2 85 4 64 6 06 4 04 7 14 4 42 4 28 4 28 4 42 4 28 3 42 6 06 4 28 2 85 3 21 2 85 3 56 3 57 428- 3 56 4 64 428 3 56 3 56 4 28 4 28 3 56 3 56 3 56 3 56 3 57 3 21 4 64 3 21 3 21 3 21 3 21 3 21 3 21 4 64 4 28 3 56 3 56 3 92 8 80 3 92 5 15 5 71 5 30 3 92 7 85 3 21 2 61 FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in factories or mills in Hamburg. Occupations. Foremen Skilled hands (men) — Common hands (men) . . Couiuton hands (women) "Watchmen Engine-drivers Stokers Lowest. $7 14 4 28 2 85 2 14 3 57 5 71 3 57 Highest $9 52 5 72 4 28 3 57 3 67 7 14 3 57 Average. $8 33 5 00 3 56 2 85 3 57 6 42 3 57 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 389 FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Wages paid per weeelc of sixty hours in foundries, machine-shops, and ironworks in Hamburg* Occupations. Foreman Skilled hands Common tands Molders Casters Engine-drivers Assistants of engine-drivers Stokers Watchmen Lowest. Highest. $7 14 $9 52 5 71 7 14 4 28 5 72 5 71 5 71 5 71 7 14 7 14 7 14 4 28 5 72 3 57 3 57 3 57 3 57 Average. $8 33 6 42 5 10 5 71 6 42 7 14 5 0I> S 57 3 57 GLASS-WOKKERS. Wages paid per week of sixty hours to glass-workers in Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $7 14 $7 14 5 71 5 71 4 28 4 28 7 14 7 14 4 28 4 28 5 71 5 71 4 28 4 28 Average. Foremen Skilled hands (blowers) . Common hands (blowers) Engine drivers Firemen Cutters Packers $7 14 5 71 4 28 7 14 4 23 5 71 4 23 SHIP-BUILDING. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in ship-yards — distinguishing between iron and wood ship-building — in Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. WOOD BHIP-BUILDIHG. $7 14 5 71 4 28 5 71 4 28 7 14 4 28 5 71 7 14 7 14 4 28 5 71 5 71 7 14 4 28 7 14 $9 52 7 14 4 28 5 71 4 28 7 14 4 28 5 71 9 52 7 14 5 72 7 14 5 71 7 14 4 28 7 14 $8 33 6 42* 4 28 5 71 4 28 7 14 4 28 5 71 IHON SHIP-BUILDING. 8 33 7 14 5 00 6 42} 5 71 7 14 4 23 7 14 390 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. SEAMEN'S "WAGES. Wages paidptr month to seamen (officers and men) in Hamburg. Occupations. OH OCEAN STEAMERS. Masters First mates SecoDd mates Third mates Carpenters Stewards Cooks First engineer . . - Second engineer. - Third engineer... Fourth engineer. . Firemen-. Stokers Seamen Ordinary seamen. ON COAST AND BIVEH STEAMERS. Masters First mates Second mates Carpenters Stewards Cooks First engineers . . . Second engineers . Firemen Seamen Ordinary seamen. . ON SAILING-VESSELS. Masters First mates Second mates Carpenters Stewards Cooks Seamen Ordinary seamen . Lowest. $47 60 23 80 19 01 14 28 16 66 14 28 14 28 66 64 57 12 28 56 21 42 13 80 11 90 11 90 7 14 35 70 19 04 14 28 14 28 13 09 13 09 57 12 28 56 11 90 9 52 4 76 29 75 16 66 11 90 11 90 11 90 10 71 7 14 4 76 Highest. $59 50 47 60 33 32 17 85 33 32 28 56 28 00 90 00 70 00 47 60 33 32 15 47 14 28 14 28 10 71 41 65 23 80 17 85 17 85 15 47 15 47 61 88 32 13 14 28 11 90 7 14 Average. 41 65 19 04 14 28 14 28 14 28 11 90 11 90 5 95 $53 55 35 7» 26 18 16 085 24 99 2142 2114 78 32 63 56 38 08 27 37 14 63J 13 01 13 09 8 92j 38 67i 21 42 16 06J 16 oej 14 28 14 28 59 50 30 34} 13 09 10 71 5 95 35 70 29 65J 13 09 13 09 13 09 11 30J 9 53 5 35* STORE AND SHOP "WAGES. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females in Ham- ourg. Occupations. Book-keepers : Males Females . . . Salesmen Clerks: Males Females . - . Cashiers : Males Females... Messengers ... Errand-boys . - - Porters Lowest. Highest. $9 52 $14 28 5 95 9 52 5 95 9 52 5 95 9 52 4 28 5 95 9 52 14 28 5 95 9 52 4 28 4 28 2 85 2 85 4 28 4 28 Averag*. $11 91 7 73J 7 731 7 731 5 Hi 11 90 7 73J 4 28 2 8S 4 ■:» LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 391 HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per month or year to household servants {towns and cities) in Hamburg* Occupations. Cooks : Males Females... Chambermaids Housemaids . - - Footmen Governesses. .. Coachmen Gardeners Porters Nurses : Wet Dry Lowest. $47 60 7 14 3 57 2 85 4 76 3 57 3 57 3 57 2 38 4 76 2 38 Highest. $59 50 11 90 5 95 4 76 7 14 7 14 4 76 4 76 3 57 5 95 4 28 Average. $53 55 9 52 4 76 3 80} 5 95 5 351 4 165 4 16} 2 97} 5 35} 3 33 * With board and lodging. AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household {country) servants in the state of Ham- burg. Occupation. Lowest. Highest. Average. Male farm hands : Adults* per month. - Boys* do Household servants* do Laborers : In summertime per day.. In winter time do $4 28 1 19 2 14 71 58 $5 72 2 38 2 96 95 71 $5 00 1 78} 2 55 6+} " "With board and lodging . CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week of sixty hours to the corporation employe's in the city of Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $14 28 9 52 5 95 4 76 4 28 4 28 2 85 4 28 4 28 7 H 4 28 $14 28 11 90 7 H 4 76 5 72 5 72 4 28 4 28 4 28 7 14 4 28 $14 28 Clerks : 10 71 6 54} 4 76 Mechanics on public works : 5 00 5 00 3 56} 4 28 4 28 7 14 4 28 392 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paid per month, of ten and twelve hours per day, to employe's in Government depart- ments and offices — exclusive of tradesmen and laborers — in Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $47 60 39 66 23 80 47 60 19 04 19 04 15 70 148 75 119 00 47 60 31 72 23 80 $59 50 Clerks: 39 66 23 80 47 60 19 04 19 04 15 70 Police department : 148 75 119 00 71 40 31 72 23 80 TRADES IN GOVERNMENT EMPLOY. Wages paid by the week of sixty hours to the trades and laborers in Government employ in Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Inspectors or overseers Street pavers : Stone-cutters Stone-setters Assistants Common laborers : Engaged on roads and promenades Engaged on gas and water- works . . $7 14 5 71 5 71 4 28 4 28 5 71 $9 52 5 71 5 71 4 28 4 28 5 71 $8 33 5 71 5 71 4 28 4 28 5 71 PRINTERS' WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid per week of sixty hours to printers (compositors, press- men, proof-readers, tfc. ), in Hamburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $11 90 8 33 6 71 5 95 7 85 7 85 4 76 2 61 1 90 $11 90 9 52 5 71 8 91 7 85 7 85 4 76 2 61 2 38 $11 90 8 92} 5 71 7 88 7 95 7 86 4 76 2 61 2 14 Boys for making proof-copies Girls engaged on printing presses LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 395 KIEL. METOBI BY CONSULAR AQENT SARTOSI. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week in Kiel. Occupations. Average. Occupations. Average. BUILDING TRADES. $5 24 4 36 5 09 Other trades— Continued. $2 9ft 4 36- 4 36 2 91 Blacksmiths 3 93 3 54 2 91 4 21 4 21 4 36" MILLS. Wages paid per week of seventy-two hours in mills in Neumuhler {near Kiel) : Baltische Muhlengesellschaft. Occupation 3. Average. Occupations. Average- $3 92 4 65 3 92 3 63 $4 14 4 07 4 58 3 56 FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Wages paid per week of sixiy hours in foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in Died- riehsdorf, near Kiel. Occupations. Average* $3 92- 4 14 4 21 ■ 4 07 SHIP-YARDS. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in ship-yards in Diedrichsdorf, near Kiel, county of" Schleswig-Holstein. Occupations. Ayerage. Ship-carpenters . Painters Iron-foanders $5 10 4 21 4 36 394 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. SEAMEN'S WAGES. Wages paid per month to seamen {officers and, men) in Kiel. Occupations. Steamer, carrying in the Baltic (250 tons, dead weight) : Captain Mate First engineer Second engineer Sailors SteameTcarrying in" the" Bfdfle", North "Sea, Wnd Mediterranean,' also Atlantic Ocean (i, 050 tons, dead weight) : Captain First engineer Second engineer First mate Second mate Cook Boatman Sailors Do Steward Fireman "" Average. $29 10 24 25 29 10 18 18 10 91 10 91 36 37 43 65 21 82 24 25 17 46 19 40 12 12 10 91 8 73 7 27 10 91 STORE AND SHOP WAGES. In stores and shops, besides the chief, there are generally (regard- ing the importance of business) two to six clerks, of whom the first gets, annually, $485 to $727, and the other ones $242 to $363. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid to household servants {towns and cities) in Kiel. Occupations. Maid-servants per year.. Man-servants per week . Average. $12 12 to $36 00 4 00 to 5 00 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid per year to agricultural laborers and household {country) servants in the vii~ lages near Kiel. Occupations. Average. $30 00 to $45 00 20 00 to 35 00 CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week to the corporation employe's in the city of Kiel. Occupations. Average. •Gas and water commission at Kiel: Foremen Firemen !._"""*"" "Workmen ."".!....".."." Cokes, raarriager " m \\ .' m ',l'_.. .„.'_ "!!""* .'.Y. Outside workmen Fitters , ..."..... ..,."..... ....]......".. Commission for surveying the fields and making and repairing roads at Kiel and near Kiel workmen — In summer In winter ."I.!"J!!!]IJH!.[" Commission for building, 7 00 278 46 GAS WORKS. 1, 285 20 714 00 471 20 250 00 226 10 285 CO 250 00 267 80 239 19 THE EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES OP LEIPSIC. No community of past or present times has been or is so blessed with, educational facilities as is the city of Leipsic to-day. A university, rich in the experience of nearly five centuries, and now foremost among the famous institutions of learning in the world, is located here. Its wealth is enormous, its professors renowned, its tendencies are liberal, and its popularity is world-wide. Over 22,000,000 marks stand credited to its account in the shape of legacies, and it owns block after block of fine business establishments in the heart of the same metropolis. It is attended this year by 3,433 students, whose mental wants are adminis- tered' to by 220 professors and assistants. Among this large number of students there are 53 from the United States who are studying : the- ology 7, jurisprudence 2, natural science 7, philosophy 10, philology 12, and mathematics 1. The famous gymnasia, the Thomaschule and Nicolaischule, come next to the university in importance, and are attended by 2,000 students. The high school for girls has on its rolls for the present year 500 scholars ; the commercial school 440 students, and the industrial school 200 pupils. Of the public schools there are two classes : the first affording a few advanced studies not permitted in the second . The first class has 7 hand- some and commodious buildings, containing 317 rooms. Eight thousand nine hundred and forty-six pupils of both sexes were in attendance last year. The second class has 8 large and well ventilated buildings, con- taining 319 rooms, which accommodated 9,571 pupils of both sexes last year. Eighteen directors are in charge of these schools, and they are assisted by 336 teachers. The conservatory Of music was attended by 450 scholars last year, 60 of whom were from the United States. Aside from these there are 18 special and private schools, which are largely attended. The table which follows gives the lowest and highest salaries received by the directors, professors, and teachers, and also an average of the various salaries. 92 A— LAB- -26 402 , LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Salaries received by the different persons employed in th-e educational department of Leipsic- Occupations. Lowest. Highest. | Average. GYMNASIUM. $1,428 00 $476 00 $1 , 142 40 428 40 1, 142 40 714 00 452 50 285 60 714 00 656 45 926 21 459 82 (School fee per annum: Home pupils, $21.42; pupils from foreign lands, $32.13.) HIGH SCHOOL. 476 00 952 00 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. 428 40 856 80 392 70 856 30 1, 071 00 785 40 (School fee, per annum : Day school, $9.52; night school, $4.76.) PUBLIC SCHOOLS. INCREASED PRODUCT IN MANUFACTUEES. Since 1878 there has been a marked improvement in the condition of the trading and industrial classes of Saxony. This amelioration may be traced, not so much to the advance in wages as to the increase in op- portunity and time of employment. Since the year above mentioned there has been an enormous increase in the production of all kinds of manufactured articles, and this enlarged production has naturally given employment to artisans and laborers in proportion to the increment. In 1878 the exports to the United States from this district amounted to only $1,568,789.43. In 1883 they amounted to $4,235,379.38, making an increase of $2,666,589.95. ' Five years ago, owing to the hard times and competition of the Amer- can imports, German capital refused to venture into industrial channels, but rather inclined towards the American securities. Many factories became slothful or silent, and the music of their machinery, in many instances, practically ceased. The manufacturers began to feel that they had completed their harvest in the United States, and eagerly sought after other commercial channels. But the past three years has . worked a significant change. Now the mills that were silent in 1878 are running, many of them on full time, some of them night and day, and many new ones have been molded into form and prodigious activity. HOW SAXON WORKMEN LIVE. This condition of things, with a slight increase of wages, has materi- .ally improved the workman's position in the struggle for existence which is really desperate throughout all Europe to-day. But this im- proved condi'/ion affords him only the absolute necessaries of life and, looking into the future, he sees for himself and his children a " hand-to- mouth" existence, with black bread and coffee for breakfast black bread, fat, and potatoes, with soup, for dinner; black bread, cheese and beer for supper, all sleeping in one room, and eleven hours of daily toil as a necessity to «*>;:ure this meager maintenance. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 403 This is a picture of the average workman. There are some who live better and there are others who fare worse. I met one of the former recently who kindly gave me an insight into his home life. He was a tanner, a robust, intelligent, good-natured man, who kept his eyes turned toward the bright side of life's picture as much as possible. During the conversation I asked him what was the condition of his fellow-workers, and he replied, "Oh, we all have to dig to make both ends meet." How are you personally situated ? — I am better situated than most of my comrades and ought not to complain ; I have only a wife, and she earns now and then something by needle-work, but some of my comrades have invalid wives and several children, little ones, too young to earn anything. They can't make botli ends meet on a Satur- day night at 15 marks per week, and it makos them sullen, and sometimes desperate. I earn 17 marks per week and my wife sometimes earns 5 or 6 marks more. Can you live on that amount comfortably ? — Yes; as long as my wife earns a little extra we get on fairly well. What if your wife's income should fail, how would you fare ?— Well, that has often occurred ; we simply drop the meat, beans, and butter, and stick to black broad, fat, and potatoes. Have you an idea of what your weekly expenses are ? — Oh, yes ; they are not so great but what we can account for them ; they cover the 17 marks without leaving any margin. Could you give me a detailed account of how you spend your weekly wages ? — I can do so very nearly, as we keep an expense account, which is balanced every week. Our local taxes amount to about 32 pfennige (8 cents) per week. The balance of the expenses average per week about as follows : House rent, 88 cents ; clothing, 70 cents ;. coffee, 15 cents ; potatoes, 4t> cents ; cheese, 15 cents ; butter and fat, 60 cents ; beer, 35 cents; black bread, 34 cents ; meat (twice a week), 30 cents ; fire, 24 cents ; light 8 cents; taxes (local), 8 cents; total, $4.33. Wages received per week, $4.04. la debt, 29 cents (1.28 marks). But by this account you are 1.28 marks in debt; how do you meet this discrep- ancy ? — As I said, before, sir, we drop meat, beans, and butter and stick to black bread,, fat, and potatoes. What kind of a house are you able to rent for 3.52 marks (88 cents) per week? — I rent two rooms in the third story ; one room is used as a kitchen, the other is our mis-- cellaneous room, used for eating, sitting, and sleeping. How many families live in the same house ? — There are eight families, including the one living in the cellar; altogether there are thirty-two persons living in the house, and the weekly rent of the entire place amounts to about 40 marks ($9.52). Are you able to save anything for old age ? — You see by my statement that unless my wife earns something I am in debt every week about 1.28 marks. If she does earn anything we spend the extra earnings in buying meat, butter, and other luxuries. No, sir; the thought of saving anything for old age is not nursed. A man with a family, who receives but 17 marks a week (and that is good pay) never has much time to think of the future ; his thoughts are fastened on the present, with a constant anxiety as to how he is to make both ends meet. Among the majority of my comrades it is a fact that their wages are not sufficient to support their families, and, conse- quently, the wife and elder children, if there are any, have to contribute their share to the daily support. This gives a fair insight, into the dailj life of the average European artisan, and-in it are wrapped up, to a large degree, the mysteries of lively emigration and socialistic tendencies. The free and independent feel- ing which characterizes the American artisan is not to be seen between the Zuyder Zee and the tip of the Italian boot, and his social position is far lower; it is almost nothing. His relation to his employer is, in many cases, very unsatisfactory. He usually displays a friendly and willing feeling in the presence of his employer, but his real sentiments, as they are revealed to his fellow workmen, are mingled with dissatis- faction and discontent. HABITS OF THE SAXON WORKMEN. The Saxon artisans, on the whole, are industrious, economical, and orderly men. Among the youthful members of the general trades there is au excess of beer drinking. Brandy, gin, and rum, however, though 404 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. they are cheap and nasty, are seldom used. Drnnkeness exists to some degree, but it is not the violent, blear-eyed, and brutal inebriety of the gin bibler, but rather the soporific intoxication of the beer consumer. The children and wife may want for as much bread under this beer- drinking system, and perhaps may want for more, but they escape many of the bruta! scenes which characterize the gin-tippling communities. HOURS OP LABOR. The work hours of the Saxon workmen usually begin at 6 o'clock in the morning and end at 7 o'clock at night. Half an hour is allowed for black bread at 9 o'clock, one hour for dinner at mid-day, and half an hour for vespers. The evening meal, of black bread, fat, and beer, is taken iu the bosom of his family. These long hours are objected to very often and strikes occur, but it is very seldom in this country that the strikers succeed. The material elements of success in the American strikes are the reserved funds. The " hand-to-mouth" existence here does not admit of robust reserved funds. Hungry stomachs make willing hands, and indigent labor be- comes lamblike and yielding. The weavers of Greiz, a neighboring town, struck some time ago, and very soon the want of bread sent them sullenly back to their looms. The masons of Leipsic are now on a strike. They demand an increase of three-fourths of a cent per hour and a de- crease of one hour per day. The present wage is 30 pfennige (7£ cents) per hour, with eleven working hours per diem. The strikers in some cases have compromised on 33 pfennige per hour, but continue to work eleven hours per diem. The strike has been universal in this district. Those who have resumed work are sullenly threatened by other strikers, but the overshadowing power of the police stays the hand of violence. The wages are usually paid every Saturday evening. Some em- ployers, however, have adopted the plan of paying the wages every Fri- day evening, in order to prevent the workmen from indulging in exces- sive leering, to which they are more inclined on Saturday night, as the following day is one of rest. This plan has proven of great benefit, inas- much, as by its adoption, the married man is more liable to deposit his entire wages in the hands of his wife for the support of the family. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. Co-operative societies conforming to the system brought into exist- ence by a receritly deceased and famous member of the Imperial Parlia- ment have proven of great benefit to tradesmen and operatives alike, and are consequently extended, not only over Germany, but the system has become very popular in German-Austria, Italy, and Belgium. The chief aim of this plan is to give the labor element access to capital by making labor itself the foundation of credit. It started with the idea that proper association will create credit, and the idea proved correct. "While an individual artisan cannot obtain credit often, at least, this plan proved that an association of artisans could do so, and that such an association, converting itself iu turn into a lender, may obtain the mini- mum of risk and maximum of security in its transactions, by confining its loans to its own members. A very great diminution of risk is ob- tained by making the members of the association liable for its entire debts, and the whole association liable for the debts of each member. This principle of mutual liability has been the mainspring of the success of this now popular and wide-spread system. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 405 One example of the success of an association founded upon these wholesome principles is all that can be given in a report such as this, and for this example the " Generbebank" of Gera is taken. Through the kindness of the United States consular agent, Mr. Charles oSteuer, of that busy town, I learn that this bank is in a most flourishing condi- tion, and has paid regularly to its members, since 18C5, a dividend of 8 per cent. While its reserve amounted, in 1865, to only $2,551, the amount in reserve has reached the handsome sum of $20,118. In 1882 the deposits amounted to $15,819.75, and in 1883 the amount deposited was $33,120.66, showing an increase in one year of $17,300.91. The whole sum of business transacted during the year 1883 was $941,848.30. The rate of interest on deposits is 3|- per cent. ; on loans, 5 per cent, per annum. Co operative stores exist throughout Saxony, and in Thuringia they are popular, and in the majority of cases prosperous. Here they are not as prosperous as they once were. There is a constant agitation going on in favor of state help, and consequently against self-help ; this policy, with the large competition that exists, enables the working classes to purchase the necessaries of life at the lowest prices from the regular business sources. General trade has not been visibly affected by the existence of the co-operative societies, but the local trade has been affected, inasmuch as it has been forced into a lively competition, which means smaller profits and reduction of demand. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES. The safety of employes in mills and factories is cared for with con- siderable zeal. Specially authorized inspectors, with full police powers, are appointed to watch over this important interest. Annual reports are made and submitted to the Federal Council and German Parliament. Indemnification id accorded in accidents when the director or manager of the factory is to blame. Injured employes receive costs for medical treatment, and are indemnified for pecuniary losses, or permanent injury by the employer. In case of death the employer pays the funeral ex- penses, and, as to additional compensation to the family, that is left to the judicial authorities, who usually take pride in securing justice. PHYSICAL AND MORAL WELL-BEING- OF EMPLOYES'. As to the physical and moral well-being of the employes the majority of employers concern themselves as little as possible. It is in reality the "great chase era," and every one seems to be hunting for the almighty mark. There are exceptions to this rule. There are employers in Saxony who spend a fair per cent, of their net earnings in ameliorating the condition of those whom they employ by building well ventilated tenement homes, which are rented at the rate of 3 per cent, on the money invested. There is an air of contentment, cleanliness, aud pros- perity about such an establishment, which says in most visible, terms, "it pays." The prevailing motto, however, seems to be, " Get the largest amount of work done at the lowest wages possible." TAXES. Taxes which burden the artisan are of two kinds, direct and indirect. The first is fixed according to the amount of the income. An annual 406 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. income of $100 pays $1.70 per year; of $150, $2.85; of $200, $8.57; of $250, $11.42 ; of $300, $14.28; of $350, $17.15. A carpenter who earns $350 per annum pays $17.15 of it in the shape of direct taxes. CAUSES OE EMIGRATION. Emigration during the past two years has considerably decreased. One cause for this rests in the improved condition of the Saxon indus- tries. While the United States is losing by this decrement in emigra- tion the Saxon people are gaining by increased exports. Last year this little kingdom, whose area would be only a speck on the surface of Texas, sent to the United States direct over $15,000,000 worth of ex- ports. Two years ago the little town of Plauen sent 227 kilograms of em- broideries to the United States. Last year this same town sent over 14,000 kilograms of embroideries to our markets, and to-day has an active demand.- This significant betterment of the industrial interests here, and the constant publication in the German journals of reports unfavor- able to the condition of labor in the United States, are the chief causes of the decrease in the number of emigrants from this district. Many of America's best artisans have been culled from the Saxon mills. A large number of the emigrants are, however, from the agricultural regions of the Kingdom. FEMALE LABOR. The workwoman of Saxony cannot be congratulated upon her lot in life. She is poorly housed, poorly fed, and poorly paid. Her star is an unlucky one; her fate ought to have been better. It ought to have been better, because she is good-natured, economical, industrious, and willing, and these are parts which constitute what is called a deserv- ing human. But the merits of the Saxon workwoman are seldom re- warded, in a material way at least. She is sometimes compelled to toil eleven hours a day for what seems an exceedingly small pittance. From 6 o'clock in the morning until the hour of 7 at night she works at. the loom, and when Saturday evening comes, after having toiled for sixty- six hours amid the heat and fumes of the mill, she brings to her attic home, as the reward of her industry, the sum of $1.68, which is 28 cents for eleven hours of labor, or 2£ cents for every hour of toil. This is a fair minimum ; a smaller minimum than 2£ cents an hour for child labor would requiie a search-warrant. This all means poor food, poor clothes, a miserable home, and a hopeless future of toil. The average wage received by the workwomen in the factories of this district is $2.38 per week, or 39f cents per day, or about 3£ cents per hour. The maximum wage is $3.57 per week, or 51£ cents per day, . or about 4 J cents per hour. Children under twelve years of age, owing to the prevalent system of compulsory education, aud for sanitary reasons, are not employed in the mills and factories. Children from twelve to fourteen years of age can only be employed six hours per diem. These are not permitted to be- gin work before 5 J o'clock a. m., or to continue work after half-past 8 p. m. The employment of women in the factories and other branches of in- dustry and trade naturally depresses the price of laborwherever the sys- tem is introduced, just the same as surplus supply reduces market values, but it is a fact that Saxony could not compete with other conn- LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 407 tries iii some of her industries if she should lose her female help in the factories, to whom are paid a very small average "compared to the wages of the workmen. The state of education among the child-laborers and women-laborers of this district compares well with the most favored of provinces in this respect, owing to the splendid school facilities and the compulsory sys- tem. The fire danger, owing to the peculiar construction of the factories, is not great. Most of the mills are constructed upon the so called " shed" system, one story high, with ample exits for escape. They are con- structed of solid and incombustible material, and are regularly sub- jected to careful inspection. In some are to be found fire extinguishers. Iu many of the industrial districts are established the KRANKENCASSE. The Krankencasse has for its aim the support of the sick and disabled operatives. It is in reality a self-help, although it is based upon the idea that the employer is bound to afford some relief to those who be- come ill, or are disabled in his service. The employer and employe' con- tribute weekly a certain per cent, of the wages received, from which the sick and disabled workmen receive the cost of medical attendance, in addition to one-half of the average weekly wage during thirteen weeks' time. SAXON ECONOMY. The saving tendency among that class of the Saxon people who can . save is marked and worthy of praise, but this class does not include many of the laboring element in the proper sense of the word. In 1850 the savings banks of the Kingdom registered one bank book for every twenty persons of the entire population. This number has increased 60 per cent, up to the present time, while the average accounts have risen from $35.46 to $88.53. With this increment is also to be noted an increase in the use of fresh meats, and a decrease in the number of paupers, which is now recorded as only 3 per cent, of the entire popu- lation. SAXON MORALITY. Of the moral condition of the people one cannot speak in such praise- worthy terms, because recently published and authenticated statistics prove that nearly 9 per cent, of the population were punished last year by the criminal courts of the Kingdom, while the average throughout the German Empire was only 6J per cent. Out of every 336 criminals 100 were females and 44 were children. This result is surprising in face of the fact that Saxony in the matter of culture and intelligence stands unquestionably pre-eminent among the Governments which con- stitute the Germanic Empire. t GENERAL RATES OE WAGES. The following tables of statistics concerning the wages and work hours of this industrious and enterprising people have been prepared with care. In Leipsic there are 11,600 males and 5,400 females em- 408 LABOR IN EUROPE — GEKMANY. ployed in the manufacturing industries alone, and from among these many of the following facts have been gleaned: GENERAL TRADES. The wages received by general trades in Leipsic. Occupations. Brewers (with board and lodging included) per month. Brewers (without board and lodging) do... (Work hours uncertain.) Butchers (including board and lodging) per week. Bakers (boaid and lodging included) ; work hours uncertain) do. . - Brass-fouilders (U hours per day) do... Bricklayers (11 hours per day) ■ - - • per hour. (They are now on a strike, demanding an increase per hour or three- fourths of a cent, and decrease of time 1 hour per day.) Blacksmiths (11 hours per day) per week. Carpenters (! 1 hours per day) per hour. Coopers (11 hours per day) per week. Cabinet-makers (11 hours per, day) do... Dyers (11 hours per day) do... Distillers (if unmarried, board and lodging included) do... Gardeners (12 hours per (lav, summer season) do... Gas-titters (11 hours per day) per week. Gas-fitter's assistants (11 hours per day) do... Gas-fitteis (job work) (11 hours per day.) do... Glaziers (11 hours per day) do... Hod-can-iers (11 hours per day) do. . . Masons (11 hours per day) do' .. Tenders (11 hours per day) do. .- Plumbers per hour. Potters (11 hours per day) per week. Pointers (11 hours per day) do Roofers and slaters per hour.' Saddlers (11 hours per dav) per week. Tinsmiths (11 hours per day) do — (In job work, the tinsmith makes about $(i.l8 a week.) Tailors (work hours uncertain) per week. (Much of the tailoring is done by piece-work.) Telegraph operators (If hours per day) do... Locomotive-drivers (hours uncertain) per month. Firemen (timo uncertain) do .- Cleaners (hours uncertaiu) per week. TRAMWAYS. Drivers (14 hours per day) per month. Conductors (14 hours per day) do. . . Engraveis (9 to 10 hours per day) per week. Lithographers (9 hours per day) do. - . (Leipsic is famous for its lithographic art work.) Lowest. $14 28 19 04 1 42 95 4 04 Highest. 4 28 4 04 3 57 2 52 1 42 3 57 3 57 2 85 4 70 4 28 2 38 4 88 3 57 5J 2 85 4 28 6J 3 57 4 04 4 28 4 00 35 70 21 42 3 80 2 85 3 57 $20 23 34 51 4 76 3 33 4 76 5 47 4 99 7 14 2 88 2 85 4 76 5 47 3 80 7 14 4 99 3 57 6 20 m 4 28 4 76 8 4 99 4 76 8 56 4 71 64 26 28 56 4 76 7 14 14 28 Average. $16 82 26 15 3 06 2 09 4 40 07$ 4 92 07J 4 51 5 24 2 76 2 14 4 16 4 35 3 32 5 96 4 64 2 98 5 43 3 54 4 52 4 28 4 35 6 28 4 30 49 98 24 99 4 28 14 28 16 66 4 96 7 14 FACTORY WAGES. Wages received per toeek by factory hands in the consular district of Leipsic. Occnpations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Hours of labor per day. Weavers: Men Women Overseer "Worsted-yarn mills Men Women Dye houses : Journeymen ... Female' hands - Apprentices ... Finishing works : Finishers Assistants Apprentices $2 88 1 76 1 80 2 81? 4 32 1 92 4 32 3 30 4 80 2 40 4 80 1 80 1 08 3 00 4 32 9 28 5 70 $2 88 3 60 5 76 1 44 48 3 36 1 60 1 08 3 K4 3 84 3 36 3 84 3 36 4 80 2 76 4 SO 1 68 2 76 3 84 1 80 3 60 1 80 2 88 4 32 1 68 42 96 ■.', 84 6 27 4 98 Hours of labor per day. 101 10i 10J 104 6 11 11 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 6 11 11 11 PRINTERS AND PRINTING-OFFICES. Printing-office wages in Leipsic. Occupations. Apprentices serve four and a half years. The first year they receive per week, 71 cents; the second year, 95 cents; the third year, $1.19; and the fourth' year. $1.42 per week.. Compositors receive from $5.11 to $7.14, according to the. work that is done 1. per week.. (Compositors employed in "setting" difficult works, such :ir Hebrew and Sanscrit, receive higher wages. The amount depends upon arrangements made with the publisher.) 1 Pressmen per week.. Proof-readers do — (Special proof-readers, engaged on difficult works, receive higher wages. The amount depends upon the matter read.) Compositors (music notes) per week.. Music-note engravers (on zinc plates) do Pressmen : Hand press do , Steam press do — Book-binders : Common workmen do — (filters (work hours, eleven per diem) Lowest. $0 71 5 11 5 11 5 95 Highest. 3 57 5 95 $1 42 7 14 7 14 8 56 4 76 8 33 Average. $1 07 6 13 6 13 7 26 6 18 5 22 3 80 5 23 4 16 6 96 410 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Wages received in a type found, ry in Leipsic. Occupations. Mold-makers (10 hours per day) per week- . Casters ( 10 hours per day) do Finishers (10 hours per day) do Rubbers, girls (10 hours per day) do Breakers, girls (10 hours pe'r day) do Setters, girls (10 hours per day) do Apprentices : First two years per week.. Last two of the four years' apprenticeship do Engravers (10 hours per day) do Titters per matrix, 1. 30 M. = (31 cents) average do $5 95 4 76 5 95 1 19 71 1 42 Highest. $7 14 7 14 8 33 2 85 1 19 1 90 Average. $6 43 5 80 7 02 2 02 93 1 66 1 07 1 42 14 28 8 33 AGRICULTURAL "WAGES. Agricultural wages in the district of Leipsic. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. The farm manager or inspector* per annum. Foreman of the field-I^ands* do... Field-hands* do. -- Principal female servant* . do... Common female servant* do . . . Gill or boy servant* do... (The common servants all expect and always receive Christmas pres- ents from their employers.) During harvest time : Male bandst per day. Female handst do... (The working hours are from sunrise to sunset.) $107 10 64 26 $238 00 71 40 48 $165 03 66 88 42 84 42 84 28 56 10 71 * Including board and lodging. tWithout board and lodging. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Household wages in Leipsic. Occupations. PKIVATE HOUSES. Female cook* per annum . . Servant* . . .* do iNurse* do "Wet-nurset per month. . Manservant* do Coachman* do HOTELS AND INKS. Male cook* .. r per month.. Female cook* do ... . Chambermaid* per week.. Waiter* „ per month.. Lowest. $47 60 21 42 14 28 7 14 7 14 14 28 42 84 7 60 95 2 38 Highest. $95 20 35 70 28 56 9 52 14 28 23 80 71 40 14 28 1 42 7 14 Average. $71 40 28 56 21 42 8 08 10 47 19 36 54 41 10 62 1 12 4 84 *Including board and lodging. tlncluding hoard, lodging, and a new dress. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 411 FOOD PRICES. Table showing the present market prices of some of the necessaries of life in the consular district of Leipsic. Articles. Lowest. Highest. Average. Bread : White $0 03 Black 024 20J 17 Beef: do .. $0 17 $0 24 do do 14 36 60 48 14 Pork 14 Teal do ... 13- Eggs 14 26 24 36 96 17 38 28 48 1 20 15J 32 Butter do do.... 26 42 Tea r ...da .. 1 08 . do .. 11 72 Flour 3i 04} 04J 05 06 Milk .'. 05 JAMES T. DU BOIS, Consul. United States Consulate, Leipsic, April 26, 1884. LUBECK. REPORT BY CONSULAR AGENT MEYER. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week of sixty hoursin Luheck. Occupations. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders Plumbers Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER THADKS. Bakers - Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brick -makers Brewers Batchers Brass founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Average ■wages. $4 26 3 50 4 26 3 50 4 26 3 50 3 95 4 00 3 60 3 90 2 02 4 26 4 30 4 20 3 91 2 80 3 95 3 85 4 30 4 90 i 80 4 30 4 80 Occupations. Other teades— Continued, Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers Distillers Drivers Dra y men and teamsters Street railways Dyers Engravers Furriers Gardeners Hatters Horse-shoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Printers Teachers, public schools Saddle and harness makers Sail-makers Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Average wages. $4 30 4 30 4 90J 4 50 4 00 3 85 3 90 3 96 4 60' 4 30 4 50 4 20 3 95 5 20 3 90 4 90 4 20 5 20 9 04 4 40 4 40 5 00 4 70 5 00 5 15 412 LABOE IN EUEOPE GERMANY. FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per week of sixty-six hours in factories and mills in Luieclc, Germany. Occupations. Adults (males), common hards Aclnlts (females), common bands Children (from 14 to 16 .years) FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Wages paid per week of sixty-six hours in foundries, machine-shops, and iron-works in Lubeck, Germany. Occupations. Manager Clerks Foreman , Mechanics (for castings) . Laborers Apprentices Lowest. $3 00 6 00 69 Highest. $5 00 8 50 Ti)5 Average. $20 00 4 00 7 15 7 25 3 57 1 02 RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per month to railway employed (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, Compositors Compositors, foremen Wages per week. 3 57 3 33 2 40 3 57 5 70 2 38 1 78 2 25 I 75 4 28 7 14 7 14 4 28 2 38 4 28 7 14 4 99 4 99 3 57 11 42 5 71 2 85 13 75 5 00 5 00 6 42 2 85 4 76 2 38 4 28 4 51 6 42 5 70 6 42 4 28 5 70 4 28 3 57 5 70 10 00 4 28 2 38 13 50 10 00 8 56 11 42 Occupations. Confectioners (per month with board) Colors, makers of: Mineral Tar employed Aniline Aniline, foremen Coopers Coppersmiths Coppersmiths, foremen Carvers in wood Cotton spinners Cotton spinners, women Distillers (only ordinary establish- ments) Draymen in the country (per day for each horse) Draymen in the city Drivers of backs (depend largely on gratuities) Dyers Dyers, women Engi avers Envelope-makers Envelope-makers, women Firemen in factories Folders of leather Fresco painters Furniture-makers : Iron Wood Gardeners G-asworks, workmen in G-ilders Glass-blowers 2 G la ziers Glove-makers : Piece-work Women $4 76 2 56 2 85 3 57 5 70 3 57 3 00 Wages per week. 4 28 2 17 1 42 1 66 3 57 3 57 2 14 2 38 2 14 1 42 2 85 4 28 7 14 2 85 3 57 2 85 3 57 4 76 3 85 4 28 2 85 2 14 $23 80 3 57 4 28 4 28 10 00. 5 0» 5 71 7 14 9 52 4 28 2 85 4 28 1 66 4 28 , 1 42 4 28 2 85 19 04 2 14 1 42 5 00 5 70- 8 56 3 57 7 14 3 57 4 28 5 95 5 00 5 71 4 28 2 85 416 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Occupations. G-oldsro iths Hair-dressers Hair-dressers, tine ladies' Harness-makers and saddlers - - - Hatters Hatters, women Horaesboers Iron and steel works : Blacknmiths Founders Machine builders Jewelers Jol) printers Job printers, foremen Joiners Knitters of hose (women) .... — Laborers {common) Lead (workers in) Lime-burners Lithographers Locksmiths Maccaroni-makers Maccaroui-iuakers (women) Machine-shops : Best turners (piece-work) - - . Bench hands Smiths Engineers Firemen Day laborers and helpers Millers (with board) Milliners Musical instruments, makers of . Oil cloth makers Packers Painters and, plasterers* Painters, fresco Paper-liaugers and upholsterers* Paper, makers of Paper, makers of (women) Pasteboard, makers of Pavers Photographers Plasterers and painters Plumbers and gas-fitters Plush-makers Plush-makers (women) Potters Pressmen (printing-offices) Pnmp-makers Roofers Hope-makers Sack-makers Saddlers and harness-makers Seamstresses (with board) Wages per week. $'l $5 71 7 14 9 50 (i 42 5 71 2 85 4 76 3 75 8 50 5 71 4 28 8 56 11 42 7 14 3 25 3 57 2 85 7 14 4 O.i 4 28 7 14 6 42 7 14 5 00 3 57 2 85 2 25 4.28 5 71 4 28 5 00 5 00 8 50 7 14 5 42 2 85 2 00 5 00 11 42 5 U0 5 71 3 28 1 71 6 42 7 14 3 20 5 71 4 76 4 99 6 42 3 50 Occupations. Sculptors Servants, domestic: Male (with board) Female (with boai d) Servants in hotels (ohambemiaids).. Shoe factories : Lasters Machinists Cutters Sewing girls Shoemakers Shoemakers, foremen Shoemakers, sewing girls Slaters Soapmakers Soapmakers, overseers Sorters - Sorters, women Spinners of cotton Spinners of cotton, women Spinners of horse-hair Spinners of horse-hair, women Spinners of wool Spinners of artificial wool Stevedores (mainly piece-work) per day Stone-masons and bricklayers . ... Stone-masons and bricklayers, fore- men Stoue-quarrymen Stoves (Fay'enee) makers of Sugar-makers Sugar-makers, women * Tailors Tanners : City Country Tanners of morocco Tanners of chamois skin (country) . . Telegraph operators Tinners Trunk-makers Turners : Wood Wood (with board) Umbrella-makers Varnishers Varnish-makers Wagon and carriage bnilders Waiters (usually about $7 per month) Watchmakers Wool-spinners ■ Wool (artificial) , makers of Wool (artificial), makers of, women. Wages per week. $4 28 1 00 34 70 3 57 2 14 3 57 7 14 2 14 3 57 2 14 4 28 2 85 2 25 2 25 1 70 1 42 2 45 i oo 3 05 5 45 3 57 1 70 1 25 2 85 3 44 2 85 2 85 2 85 8 25 3 57 3 30 2 85 1 00 2 85 4 28 3 57 3 57 85 4 28 1 42 2 43 1 71 * These two are combined here. The above are the lowest and highest wages generally paid about here, not the absolutely lowest nor the absolutely highest, for the first would require to be reckoned from zero as a basis, while the second are often- times given from good will on the part of the employer because of long service, &c. AVERAGE "WAGES IN MAYENCE. I have not made a column of averages, because I could not very well do so without knowing the exact number of men employed in any given case and the precise wages paid to each individual, which detailed in- formation employes are usually not willing to communicate. It can be safely said, however, that common day laborers receive on an average 43 cents a day, and mechanics and skilled workingmen 70; that is $2.50 per week in the one case and $4.25 in the other. In the country of course LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 417 wages are entirely different, the item of board or no board and the de- gree of remoteness of a place from cities or lines of travel making it difficult to fix them with accuracy. The wages earued are, as a rule, according to American ideas, exceed- ingly small, and barely suffice to keep the recipients on their feet. What the mechanics and laborers make it is customary to pay to them weekly,, but certain manufacturing establishments, in order to protect themselves against strikes or serious misbehavior of any kind on the part of their employed, are given to keeping their men about one week in arrears. HOUSE INDUSTRY OF HESSE. In the mountainous parts of Hesse the people are engaged at what is called house-industry; that is, in making articles at home, such as nails for shoes and locks, &c, safety needles, hairpins, and other things out of wire, filet-work, wooden-ware and toys, and many other objects. In the labor the whole family generally participates, and manages thereby to eke out unitedly only a bare subsistence, as several examples will show. Nailsmiths get from 10 to 12 cents for each 1,000 nails turned off. Working from 5 in the morning to 8 at night, with a wife and children to assist him a little, a man can make two or three thousaud nails per day, for which 20 to 28 cents will be received. For large needles 2 to 2£ cents each is paid. Laboring thirteen hours a day a man can hardly earn more than 28 cents a day. At filet- work a practiced woman, work- ing thirteen hours a day, can seldom make more than 15 cents a day. Just think of it! But littje more than 1 cent an hour. Sewing enameled pearls on lace is mostly done by girls, who receive for each one huudreA pearls, sewed on — it being even more under certain circumstances — 1. cent. Practiced women, working fourteen hours a day, can earn at this handicraft 15 cents. Of wooden spoons a good workman will turn off in a day, working from thirteen to fourteen hours, five dozen, for which he is paid 4£ a dozen, without wood, which he has to furnish himself. His income, therefore, from such a source will amount to only about 16£ cents a day; but when wife and children are at hand to assist it can be brought up to 23 or 28 cents. The lowest wages of a weaver in these same districts who weaves ordinary articles, such as rough towels, &c, are 11 J cents per day ; the highest 47 cents, which is paid for fine work. •FARM WAGES. Of farm hands there are different kinds. Those who are engaged at the most menial kind of work, attending to horses, &c, receive from $45 to $70 per year, with board and lodging, which latter means living in the stables, among the cows and horses. The permanent day laborer is paid 27 cents a day, and is granted about one- quarter of an acre of land to plant with potatoes, &c, for his own use, and, when he has the necessary implements, is loaned horses with which to plow, &c; and, moreover, is sometimes given piece-work to do, at which as much as 70 cents per day can be earned. The man who is only temporarily employed gets 33 cents a day, but in harvesting seasons 50 and even 75 cents are paid. Women do only the lighter kinds of farm work, and are commonly paid 23 cents a day, without board. Good gardeners are worth 45 to 58 cents a day. In the vineyards good wages are paid, especially when the grapes are picked. In remote parts, of course, wages are even less than here stated. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Book-keepers and correspondents are usually paid about $500 a year, and are expected, in the most of cases, to be conversant with English or French, or both. Good salesmen in stores are paid about $300 a 418 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. vear, but there is a vast army of others whose compensation is a de- scending scale, limited only by 0. Very fine salesmen are paid as high as $600 per year, but this is an exceptionally good salary. RAILROAD EMPLOYES. How railroad employed are compensated will be seen from the fallow- ing table of wages of the Hessische Ludwigs Eailroad, which is the only line passing through Mayence, and one of the very few railroads in Germany still in private hands, viz, per annum : Occupations. Depot superintendents Station-masters : First class Second class Third class : . -'. Controllers : First class Second class .' Roadmasters Freight superintendents Car-inspectors Engineers : Extra class First class ■ Second class Loading-masters (freight) Clerks Train superintendents Train conductors :* First class Second class Car registers Rolling-freight receivers Freight-messengers Baggage-masters Coupling- mast ■ i s Station assistants Engineer apprentices Firemen : First class Second class .^ Car attendants : First class Second class Third class Conductors (ticket-collectors) : First class Second class Third class Brakesmen : First class Second class Third class ,. Freightmen .'. Foremen, three classes Office servants Switchmen : First class Second class Third class Directors of stopping-placeB — Bridge-superintendents - Harbor-masters' Porters or station hands : First class Second olass Watchmen (at crossings) : First class Second class Third class Clerks (per day) Couplers (per day) Salary. Lowest. $570 00 357 00 285 00 238 00 500 00 333 00 333 00 273 00 226 00 226 00 214 00 226 00 214 00 166 00 Highest. $714 00 428 00 357 00 285 00 595 00 500 00 476 00 428 00 333 00 333 00 285 00 250 00 285 00 285 00 285 00 262 00 238 00 250 00 238 00 238 00 226 00 226 00 226 00 226 00 190 00 166 00 190 00 166 00 154 00 214 00 190 00 166 00 190 00 166 00 142 00 226 00 166 00 190 00 178 00 166 00 143 00 166 00 166 00 166 00 166 00 154 00 154 00 142 00 135 00 59 67 Deductions. For dwell- ing. For uni- forms. Perot. 10 10 * Not ticket oolle^fcy^. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 419 CORPORATION WAGES. What salaries the city of Mayence pays to its mayor, officials, teach- ers, and employes per annum are set forth in the subjoined table, viz : Occupations. Mayor Two assistants, each '. General secretary Registrar and assistant to secretary . Treasurer Book-keeper in treasurer's office Collector of taxes Bureau of public works : Chief engineer Director Engineers Assistant Occupations. Bureau of public works— Continued, Assistant engineer Geometrician Police Department : Counselor Commissioner Do Inspector..' Librarian Customs controller Salary. $571 20 571 20 880 60 7)4 00 618 80 571 20 952 00 571 20 To all of the aforesaid, excepting the mayor and his two assistants, an increase of $47.60 in salary is made at the completion of the tenth, fifteenth, and twentieth years of service, thus the general secretary during the first ten years of service gets $952 per annum, from the tenth to the fifteenth, $999.60 ; from the fifteenth to the twentieth year of service, $1,047.20; and after twenty years, $1,094.80. Occupation. Miscellaneous : Calculator, harbor collector, and harbor master, each Clerk of first class in treasurer's office Secretary in library, police secretary, clerks of first and second classes, city gardener, • each Clerks of third and fourth classes, clerk of second class in treasurer's office, police clerk of first class, superintendent of warehouse, customs receiver of first class, director of cattle-yard, building inspector, each Inspector of river shore, chief superintendent of customs, each Clerks of fifth and sixth classes, clerk of third class in treasurer's office, weigher of first class, customs receiver of second class, chief sergeant of police, officer in charge of police precinct, road inspector, each During first ten years of servioe. $523 SO 476 00 380 80 380 80 380 80 These, also, just mentioned, receive an advance of $47.60 in salary at the expiration of the tenth, fifteenth, and twentieth years of service, but there are other, still inferior, employes whose additional compensation at the end of each of these periods amounts to only $23.80, viz : Occupations. During first ten years. Clerks of seventh and eighth classes, customs receiver of third class, weigher of second class, each Clerks of ninth, tenth, and eleventh classes, harbor examiner, messenger to treasurer's office, customs receiver of fourth class, police clerks of second and third classes, super- intendent of cemetery, each Inspector of materials for streets, policemen, customs and harbor inspectors, watchmen at warehouse, each Messengers of first, second, and third classes, messenger to library, messenger to bureau of public works, each County policemen, harbor workmen, each $318 92 205 25 271 32 247 52 ■ 247 52 The police reoeive a alight extra allowance for cloth ing. 420 LABOR JN EUROPE — GERMANY. SCHOOL TEACHERS' WAGES. School superintendents and teachers are classified and paid as fol- lows: Salary. Salary. Temporary teachers : Previous to final examination After three years of good service . . . Allowance for rent : $166 60 190 40 214 20 47 60 83 30 309 40 368 90 428 40 487 90 547 40 59 50 119 00 Temporary female teachers : Previous to final examination After three years of good service.. $166 60 190 40 214 20 47 60 Female teachers : During first tenyears of service.. . After first ten years of service After fifteen years of service After twenty years of service After twenty-five years of service. 285 60 Teachers : During first ten years of service After first ten years of service Alter fifteen years of service After twenty years of service After twenty-five years of service . . Allowance for rent: 309 40 333 20 345 10 357 00 59 50 Married teachers The city has a number of dwelling-places for teachers, consisting of four or five rooms with a kitchen, which are granted to teachers in lieu of the allowance for rent, so far as they will go, and length of service determines the disposition of them. Officials and teachers are wretchedly compensated, I think. COST OF LIVING. Taken as a class, the workingmen of- Germany, where married, live in so very ordinary a manner that they can hardly be said to live ; they simply exist. They have to pay a slight rent, purchase a very few plain garments, and subsist, in the main, upon potatoes, rye-bread, common sausage, beer, and very inferior coffee. In this city and vicinity, beef^ it. appears, is partaken of every day by nearly all, but, of course, the workingmen can afford to purchase the poorest pieces of flesh only. When vegetables are very cheap they are able to enjoy them also, to a slight extent. The most common necessaries of life which are to be met with in the market are quoted at the following prices in the last published official report of the Government of Hesse- Darmstadt, which was for the month of June, the quotations being those of March last, viz : Articles. Wheat flour per pound. Rye flour do... Eye bread Butter per pound. .do. Beef Veal do . Mutton do. Pork do... Potatoes per 100 pounds. Beans .' - Milk* 1 , per liter Eggs per dozen. Coffee, roasted in the bean per pound. Petroleum - per liter. Coal '. per 220 pounds. For the Duchy. 21ft 12 124 12 «ft 3 23 3 22 4 14 32§ 5ft 43J For Mayeno $0 044 3ft 3 22; 11 15 51ft 2 81 2 83 *i 13 30J 5ft 40| , * According to tables in Morgan's Tariff, the liter equals ljg quarts. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 421 A workinginan, when a resident of the town, usually has two or three rooms, very ordinarily furnished, in some undesirable street, oftentimes in the third or fourth floor of a house, for which he pays from $23 to $59.60 per annum, generally about $45, and his entire expenses will run from about $150 to $285, which latter sum exceedingly few make. One workingman, representing the very poorest class, whom I questioned on this subject, said that he has two fourth-story rooms, for which he pays $6.66 per quarter, that is $26.64 per year. In this house I have been, a dilapidated structure, in a narrow street, whose stairway is so crooked and so dark that a stranger ascends it with difficulty. He has a wife aud four children, and in these two rooms they all dwell together, eat and sleep. He earns about 50 cents a day, to which his wife adds a little something by occasionally doing washing or other work. He requires personally in the course of a year, he says, one pair of pants, which with difficulty can be made to wear so long, for which he pays $2.38; two shirts at 71 cents each, $1.42; three blouses at 71 cents each, '$2.13; shoes to the value of $5.71; socks, $1.42; working coat, $2.14; vest, 59 cents ; hat, 95 cents. Clothing for wife, about $19 ; for chil- dren, about $8.33. Fuel, in winter, at about 35£ cents per week, and in summer at 18, costs about $13.11. Six times a year, every two months, taxes to state, 38J cents each time. $2.38 ; six times a year to the city, 28J cents each, $1.71. Dinner for himself, wife, and four chil- dren, which consists of soup, flesh, potatoes, and sometimes, something green, three hundred and sixty-five times per year, at 20 cents, $73; rent, $26.64 ; beer, two glasses per day, at 2£ cents per glass, for three hundred and thirteen days, $15.65; Sunday expenditures, at 23f cents (mark) per Sunday, $12.57. Total, $189.13. Here is a total of $189.13, without any allowance whatever being made for breakfasts and suppers and certain incidental expenses, or an excess of expenditures over income of $32.63, reckoning, excepting Sundays, three hundred and thirteen working days at 50 cents per day ($156.50), which deficit must be made up by the wife in some way. Thus it will be seen what the man with 50 cents a day, with a wife to assist him a little, is able to do. He can exist not much better than a beast in a hovel. And is it to be wondered at that there are Social Democrats in Germany ? This man with 2J cents purchases, he says, a package of surrogate coffee, which lasts about two weeks, pays 9J cents for a pound of beet sugar, 10£ cents for a large loaf of rye bread, 14 cents a pound for workingmen's beef, but is never so extravagant as to buy a pound, one-half to two-thrds of a pound being sufficient for himself and family, 6 cents a pound for horse-flesh, which he often has fried, 5 to 6 for a kumpf of potatoes (a kumpf being 9 avoirdupois pounds), drinks a glass or two of beer a day at 2£ cents per glass, and on Sundays lays out 25 cents or so for pleasure. The standard bill of fare of the workingmen at noon is a mess of potatoes, and a little meat, or peas or beans, cooked together in the form of a thick soup, to which a little green cabbage or lettuce, or some- thing of the kind, is sometimes added. This dish they eat day after day, with very little change in the character of its contents or manner of preparation. It is brought to them by their wives oftentimes, when the men work in the open air, in a tin pail or earthenware dish, and the wives sit near at hand while the men eat. The women in a great many cases bring along with them also similar food for themselves, which they eat in the company of their husbands. Day after day I see these 422 LABOR IN EUEOPE GERMANY. people thus dining together, with large pieces of rye-bread m their hands and the tin pails in their laps, in which is contained frequently a sort of potato soup only. (I mean in this description of course only common day-laborers.) . . Where $222 or $335 a year is earned, that is, from 71 cents to $1.07 per day, the expenditures will run about as follows : Articles. Kent Food -. .- Clothing... Fuel Taxes Incidentals Total Lowest. $35 70 119 00 47 60 11 90 2 83 4 97 222 00 Highest. $59 50 166 60 59 50 11 90 9 50 28 00 335 0» From $214.20 to $333.20 a year is all that the letter-carriers* of this city receive. They are consequently far less favorably situated than the same class of men in the United States, and must live in a corre- spondingly inferior way. Their clothing, however, costs them but little, for for wearing apparel from their salaries is deducted every year the very small sum of 96 cen ts, for which they receive every twelve months a cap andN a pair of pants, every eighteen mouths a coat, and every three jears an overcoat. The shoes the Government does not furnish. Their hours of ivork are from 5.30 a. m. to 8 p. m., with a restof from two to three hours during the day, which depends entirely upon the mails. Young unmarried workingmen who make 50 or 75 cents a day pay from $8.56 to $10.23 per month for board and lodging, washing also included., A young book-keeper, or clerk, or teacher, whose salary amounts to $285 per annum can, with economy, live respectably on that small sum ; ftn unmarried man, I mean ; but cannot throw any money away. For $4 or $5 a month he can rent a tolerably fair room. This will also in- clude his breakfast, which will be a cup of coffee and a roll, for it is the custom of the country, both among rich and poor, to take only a cup or two of coffee, with one or two rolls, in the morning. Quite a fair din- ner, of two or three courses, made up of soup, meat, and vegetables, tolerably well cooked, he can get in a restaurant for 15 cents, and his supper,t if simple, may be made to cost not more than that amount, that is, 30 cents a day for the two meals or $9 per month. If he boards where he rooms, which is seldom done, he may be able to do a little better, but not much. He can hardly for less than the prices I have mentioned obtained much better than prison fare. I cannot, for the life of me, comprehend how men with families man- age to live upon the meager incomes they have and keep themselves decently clad. Herrings, sausage, and cheese must form staple articles of diet with them, and, taken as a nation, the Germans must live very plainly. . From a young married book-keeper, with one child, whose salary is $371.28 per annum, T learn that his expenditures are as follows : "These are mostly old soldiers. tThis supper will usually be a glass of beer, with a piece of rye bread, without butter, and some sausage raw, or cheese. LABOK IN EUEOPE — GERMANY. 423 Food, $166.60; rent, $85.68; clothing, $59.50; fuel, $23.80; taxes, $11.90; incidental expenses, $23.80; total, $371.28. Another book-keeper, elder and also married, with a son nearly grown, has kindly prepared for me a statement from his books, which makes the following exhibit, viz : Food, $357; rent, $130.90 ; clothing, $95.20; wages of one female servant, $28.56 ; furniture and household articles, $35.70 ; fuel, $23.80 ; taxes, $23.80 ; schooling for son, $23.80 ; incidental expenses, $83.30 : total, $802.06. In this case the annual income amounts to $833, and the individual lives just about as a man with $900 or $1,000 in Washington does. So far as my experience goes 1 should say that it costs men of moderate means about the same\to live here that it would in America, but in the upper circles it is not customary to make outlays with so free a hand as in America. If families live here cheaper than American families it is frequently because they live plainer, oftentimes in a manner that an American of similar station in life would not think of enduring. In the case last instanced by me the rent paid, it will be noticed, is about $140 per anuum, but the rooms, nine in number, with a kitchen and use of the cellar of the house, while very nice, are in the fourth story of a house, in a good locality, and have low ceilings and are small in size. Bents, however, are, I should say, lower as a rule than in the United States. WAGES NOW COMPARED WITH THOSE OP 1878. Upon this point the testimony varies, some maintaining that the rates of wages paid to workingmeuare about the same to-day that they were in 1878, while others are of the opinion that on the whole slightly better wages are obtained now than six years ago. But wages ought to be higher now than then, for business in Germany, while far from being all that could be desired of it, is on a more satisfactory and prosperous basis than it was in 1878. I have read, too, that at a congress of the iron and steel manufacturers of Germany, held at Berlin inMay last, the report of the secretary showed that the iron and steel association is composed of 356 manufacturers, employing 240,000 workingmen and rep- resenting a capital of $250,000,000, and also that since the new German customs tariff went into operation, which was at about the time that is being considered, the number of workingmen employed in the iron and steel works had risen 33 per cent, and that there had been an increase of 52 per cent, in the entire amount of wages paid and an average ad- vance of 14 per cent, in the wages of the individual. Wages, I think it may be said, are about 10 per cent, better. A certain tailor has furnished me with a comparative statement of the prices paid in his branch of business for piece-work, now and about 1870, from which it will be seen what advance has been made in this line. To live it costs a workingman not more than 25 cents or so more a week now than then, he says ; so that it appears that the higher rates of wages are all in the interest of the laborer. 424 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Tailors 7 piece-work wages in 1870, or thereabouts, compared with those of 1884. Articles. MEN'S CLOTHING. Black frock-coat or double breasted Same, or ordinary coat Same, single-breasted Cloth coat of light stuff Same, without waist Winter overcoat, padded --- ---- Spring or summer overcoat, lined with silk Same, ordinary Quilted silk coats Same, house coats -- Double-breasted, of white pique" or cashmere Standing and single-breasted Transparent Pants : Black, Batin Other stuff BOYS' CLOTHES. Coats for confirmation. Confirmation overcoat. . ' "With waist "Without waist. Pants and vests . . . CHILDREN'S SUITS. Overcoat Jackets or sailor blouses - Same, ordinary Pants: With body Ordinary Havelock , Blouse with belt MISCELLANEOUS. Livery for servants Same, with tippet Frock and coat Same, for waiter ... . * , Sacks for waiters Cashmere or alpaca coats, with waist Linen or piqu$ coat : With waist Without waist Alpaca or cashmere vestings, with waists Fireman's sack Havelock : Ordinary With sleeves Sleeping coat : With trimming, but without padding Without trimming and without padding. Gaiters : Large Small Sacks for cooks Sacks for gymnasts , Drawers : Plain More difficult to make Undershirts , Vests in linen, alpaca, &c, easily made Hiding breeches, with leather . . * , Same, trimmed Wages. $4 28 2 38 2 38 2 14 1 54 59 1 90 1 42 1 19 85 72 Note.— For work by the hour, 1884, 7 to 8J cents ; 1870, 5 to 7 cents. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 425 THE HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. Their habits of life and of work may in general be characterized as bad, that is, not vicious nor slothful, but irresolute and nerveless. They lack that snap and vim which is so characteristic of the Americans, and move and work in a listless, half-hearted sort of way. How steady they are it has been difficult for me to determine. One's first impulse is to say that all classes in Germany devote one-half of their time to the beer- shops, but, while a great many pass entirely too much time in this way, such a statement would not be borne out by the actual facts. To the inquiry, " To what extent do the working classes frequent the beer- shops?" one gentleman, connected with a very large factory, replies, " Not much, for they do not have the money to spend ; the married man will drink, on the average, a glass or two of beer in a week and on Sun- days two or three, but no more." Another gentleman, a manufacturer, maintains that beer is the ruin of the German workingmen, that they drink every time they get a chance, that when it is prohibited to them they smuggle it into the workshops, and that the most of them spend two or three hours every night in the beer shops. " My experience has been steady," said he to me, " that they will work hard all week to earn big wages, but that by Tuesday all is spent. They begin drinking on Saturday night, and keep it up till their money is gone. I have tried to save their money for them, but have found it useless to do so." One intelligent workingm'an whom I questioned upon the subject said that the German workingman drinks on the average four or five glasses (one German glass beiug about two American) of beer a day. Another, a laborer, said they drink only one or two glasses a day, and very little schnaps, because they cannot afford it. The common opinion, however, is that the lower classes devote entirely too much time to the beer houses, and this, too, is more in accord with what one would naturally expect to find to be the case in Germany. Schnaps (brandy) is drank to a limited extent, and drunkenness js therefore somewhat rare. Sunday is beer day. By foot, by rail, or by steamer the people in summer on Sundays flock out of the towus to the summer gardens and pass the day drinking, bowling, turning, shooting, &c. He must be a very poor man indeed who does not spend something in pleasure on Sunday. But the Germans are rather orderly, and when at night the steamers and trains return filled to overflowing with soldiers, servant- girls, workingmen, &c, not one-half the noise will be heard that would greet one's ears from a similar party in America. In winter it is the res- taurants and theaters that are packed on Sundays, in summer the woods that are filled. The workingmen work about ten * hours a day, in an easy, sleepy way. They begin at about 6 o'clock in the morning, about half past 8 take a rest for half an hour, when some bread and cheese, or sausage, and cpffee, or beer, are partaken of; stop at 32 for an hour or an hour and a half for dinner; about half past 4 take again a little something to eat and drink, during a half hour's pause, and at 6 or 7 get through with the arduous duties of the day with very little accomplished, I should think. And this takingof one's ease is to be met with everywhere, and among all classes. At 12 o'clock business men quit their places of business for two or three hours, going home and eating a heavy dinner, and in many cases taking a nap, and then have to be at their offices until late to make up for the time lost in the middle of the day. Thus a spirit of ease and procrastination obtains possession of all, and, as a * Exclusive of resting pauses. 426 LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. result, hardly anything is ever ready for delivery at the time agreed nP This manner of wasting time is due probably simply to bad habits, which have grown up in the country, and which may not be inherent in the people, because the very men who thus act work in America as dili- gently as anybody else. Said a miller once to me : I do not know why it is that in Chicago, in a mill where I was, that twenty men used there to turn out as much flour in a given time as we can herewith forty or fifty, hut it is so. All things are equal, and yet with twenty men I cannot begin to do as much work as was accomplished in America by that number. I am certain myself that every industrious laborer and mechanic in America, let him be what he will, Irish, German, English, or American, as a rule turns off twice as much work a day there as the same species of workman here of superior quality. The man in America is better paid, housed, fed, and clothed, but he is worth more. The workingmen here too are not only slow, but are wanting in skill and judgment. They lose oftentimes almost as much time contemplating apiece of work as the man in America would require to do it in, and do not work well without direction. I do not know to what cause to attribute this shift- lessness on the part of the workingmen of Germany, whether to poor food, to beer,. to a lack of incentive from the feeling that their lot is a fixed one, or to what cause; for, as I said above, these men in America start in and work with as much energy as anybody else, but they cer- tainly do not do so at home in the Fatherland. It doubtless is that in America the workingmen, by reason of tbe free institutions of the country and of the energizing atmosphere which he breathes, becomes independ- ent, self-reliant, high spirited, and ambitious, while here he feels that his opportunities are limited and his state servile. He is, therefore, rather disposed to be patient and to accept whatever lot is imposed upon him, and to look to the state for remedial legislation, thus forget- ting, if he ever knew, that " the gods help those who help themselves." The American idea is that the people make the state, but the German seems to me to proceed upon the theory that the state makes the peo- ple. At any rate, instead of being independent, self-reliant, and going ahead, each for himself, each man seems to be afraid to move and to look to another, and so it goes up from story to story, each waiting for a superior to take the initiative. It may be said that the German workingmen are industrious if their work is laid out for them, and if under supervision, but not so if left to themselves to plan or find work. What the German is somewhat lacking in, it seems tome, is intuition. That faculty, I think, the American possesses in an eminent degree, and is his distinguishing trait of character. The German is a great student, a great memorizer, more so, I am inclined to think, than the American, for all Germany is studying itself blind, trying to know everything, as well that which is useless as that which is useful, but he studies largely with a view to making himself learned, the American more with a view to use in practical life. The German cultivates his memory, the American his wit. The consequence is that the German theorizes while the American acts, and analyzes while the American creates. He thus becomes critical and skeptical and vacillating in judgment. This remark may seem out of place, and yet it is necessary to a proper consideration of the German workingman and merchant, for in consequence of it they acquire halting and slow ways of thinking and acting and become indisposed to act promptly in any matter. Thus it is with the workingmen, they hesitate to exercise their own judgment, and are afraid of responsibility. This absence, not entirely, but in part, LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 427 of self-reliance and quick judgment, makes them unreliable in the sense of inefficient and unskillful. They are persevering and enduring, and will work rather faithfully at whatever is set before them, but they have little idea of contriving and inventing. They are less intelligent than American workingmen, because they lack Yankee comprehension and penetration, but, on the other hand, may be less disposed to look out simply for number one. They do not save much, because they cannot if they would. In America the workingman receives wages which enables him to put a little some- thing by, when he is industrious and saving, with which to obtain a home at some future day, and this home a large body of our citizens have in view as the end of life, but the German, i:: general, has not this op- portunity, and consequently does not possess the home inspiration in the degree that it is to be met with in the United States, and, besides, I also doubt whether he is, notwithstanding his many good traits, as thrifty and saving as the Puritan stock of America. It is very hard for a man of the working classes here to become well to do or influen- tial. Such cases do occur, but they are rare. Self-made men are few in number compared to the multitude of them which are to be found in America. Conditions here and in the United States are altogether different, and, as a necessary result, the two peoples are wholly uulike in genius, and will become more and more so. The Americans* and their institutions are not fully understood here and cannot be. People here, and this, of course, affects the workingmen, do not seem to me to take so enlarged a view of all things as our citizens do. The liberty of speaking and writ- ing, while prevailing to a large extent, is not yet fully enjoyed, and con- sequently the people remain somewhat short-sighted and circumscribed in their views, though becoming less and less so. The workingman is held in check by this sphere of restraint, and by the laws which impose a penalty upon free speech. An unguarded utterance made in public may subject a man to fine and imprisonment. The workingmen espe- cially, in view of their socialistic tendencies, are closely watched, and all symptoms of ebullition at once prescribed for. A great deal of liberty of speech and of the press is enjoyed, but much yet remains to be granted. The factional spirit, too, which in the past was so destructive of German unity and progress, has not yet entirely died out of the nature of the people, but is fast disappearing under the new order of things brought about by the sagacity and force of character of Prince Bismarck. It can still, nevertheless, be seen, witnessed everywhere, in the disposition of the workingmen^to quarrel among themselves, if not held in strict discipline, and to split into cliques, in the tendency of the students at the universities to form into rival clubs and to duel, and in the inability of the people at large to divide into two opposing parties politically. For this reason it is hard to form an accurate idea of the political and economical sentiments ot the people on account of the many wheels moving within wheels. Although a good many people seem to be alarmed at the socialistic movement and its growth, I do not apprehend that anything very seri- ous is going to spring from it, because the workingmen, if they should ever get so far as revolution, will never have nerve enough to carry it forward, and even if they should possess this nerve in a sufficient degree would split all to pieces the very moment they obtained power. It is * By Americans I mean all persons living permanently in the United States, who are there assuming and contributing to a distinct and new type of man, made up princi- pally of English, German, and Irish blood, influenced strongly by climatic conditions. 428 LABOR IN EUROPE— GERMANY. true that they may break out some day into violence, but it will be a policy of blindness and destruction only, and will endure but a very short time, from want of an inherent tendency to union, and by reason of the thou- , sand and one Utopian schemes that will be broached by their leaders. The Germans require very strong leaders, whose will is law. They are not monarchists by accident or by force of circumstances, but because the national character calls for such a species of government. Every form of government, I think, is an expression of the national life of the people who live under it, not, in my opinion, because the people are per- force compelled to recognize and submit to it, but because their genius has brought about just such a system of government as the character of the nature of the people at large demands, and the institutions of any country reveal the internal character of the people wbo evolve them. Following this rule, I conclude that the German, while loving a certain species of liberty, is more attentive to the law of authority than to the right of private judgment, and the workingman in all that he does must be viewed in this light. The spirit, however, is changing, and the Gov- ernment is accordingly becoming more constitutional and more parlia- mentary, for when the life of any nation changes the form of govern- ment also undergoes a transformation, but the revolution must take place in particulars, before it manifests itself in generals. The ideas which float hither from America work like so much leaven among all classes, and would probably exert a much greater influence than they do could not the more enterprising and independent of the dissatisfied members of the population emigrate to the United States. In a large measure, the high-spirited and self-reliant of the middle and lower classes, as soon as they become discontented, contrive to get away. The home country thus becomes relieved of those who might disturb the peace. The Socialistic movement is at the bottom simply an exhibition of restlessness on the part of the lower classes. The leaders of it probably cherish all sorts of Utopian and anarchical principles, but the great mass of the workingmen who take an interest in it do so, I am per- suaded, without fully understanding its purport. They feel that their state is altogether too servile and unnatural a one, and that they do not receive a fair share of what their hands produce, and take an in- terest in the movement because it holds out some promise of a relief of the burdens which they bear, but the idea of overturning all of the governmental principles of the present time, and of a division of the prop- erty of the rich and well to do is far absent, I believe, from the thought or wish the great body of them. There is too much conservatism in the German character for that, and too fine a sense of justice. What they want is a reduction of the period of military service, which bears very heavily upon the laboring classes, from three years to two or one, the abolition of all exceptional laws, free speech and a free press and the right of public assembly, an obligatory education for the children of the workingman at the public expense, absolute prohibition of child labor, limitation of female labor, cessation of military and convict labor in com- petition with private enterprise extension, of the rights of the people, protection of the workingman, and, above all, just hours of labor at fair rates of compensation. What the rabid men want amounts, in sub- stance, to anarchy. Much complaint is made over the employment in the barracks and military establishments of men who work at trades, especially by the tailors and shoemakers. As soon as a young man has served au ap- prenticeship of two or three years, and has hardly become a skilled LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. 429 workman, he is called upon by the Government to fulfill his military du- ties. In the case of the tailors and shoemakers, especially of the former, there are a great many who are not of sufficient physical development to go through the military evolutions, being oftentimes hunch-backed, crippled, or infirm, for when a boy of poor parents is good for nothing else he is put at a sedentary occupation. These the Government makes use of by setting them to work at their trades for three years. If a man is strong and well developed, and is fortunate, he marches and counter- marches, goes through all sorts of gymnastic performances and gun ex- ercises, and during the three years of his service in the army never once does any thiug in the way of his trade ; but if the physicians declare him to be physically incompetent to undergo the severities of military discipline he is used for three years in sticking uniforms together, and makes no progress at his trade, but acquires, perhaps, a slouchy way of working. At twenty-three or twenty-four he is through his military obligations, marries, and the rest of his life fights valiantly for a forlorn species of existence. Such is the lament that is made. Of the merits of the question I know nothing. The farming classes of this neighborhood are a sturdy, well-built, philo- sophical looking race of beings, who are represented to me by a number of responsible parties to be industrior.s and quite contented with their lot. The land in this duchy is, in the main, divided up into a host of small or medium sized farms,»not much encumbered by mortgages, whose proprietors are oftentimes, unaided, fully able to cultivate their little possessions. Very few men employ more than two or three field- hands except in harvest- time. Many of the men' also employed in the towns in the factories own little patches of ground which they and their wives manage to keep tilled. These latter raise mostly garden stuff, which the women carry to market and sell. The people of the Odenwald are comparatively well-built, but in the poorer districts are small and weak, owing to the influences of food and dwellings, and the undertaking too early in life of trying work. The well-to-do peasants use much salted and dried meat, and good farinaceous food, while their poorer neighbors and the laboring classes must be content with a potato bill of fare. Bread is made of grain and potato flour, and also from a species of buckwheat. The Odenwalders are a good deal shut off from intercourse with the outside world, and consequently a good many old habits and customs are to be met with among them, but they are not altogether removed from the influences of modern culture. The land is mountainous and not very productive, and what is produced is only obtained with great labor. Their products they frequently carry on their backs to the nearest town, hours distant from their fields. Nevertheless, they are often well to do, and are not to be reckoned as be- longing to the poorest portions of Germany. In that part of Hesse, known as Spessart, in the eastern quarter of the duchy, the people are a great deal worse off, and live in miserable, unhealthy, and overcrowded houses. There is not poverty and misery to be seen there only, but famine even. The old houses in the Odenwald villages are low and dark, and in winter, when shut up and much heated, very unhealthy. Frequently the cattle stables are kept cleaner than the rooms in which human beings dwell. The Odenwald is largely forest land. Northeast of Frankfort lies a district of mountainous country known as the Vogels- berg. There dwelling, barn, and stable will usually be found to be all under one roof, with no back building, for all of which one entrance suffices. On one side will be a door opening into the dwelling room, while on the other side will be one conducting the visitor to the cattle stall. 430 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. This Vogelsberg the people in the valley of the Bhine look upon as be- ing the Siberia of Hesse, being shrouded in winter three-fourths of the year and cold the other fourth. The people are engaged in agricultural pursuits and at cattle-raising. In summer many of them goto more fertile regions, where tbey hire themselves as field-hands. They are said to be good workers and pretty hardy, and to be very unfriendly to- wards new ideas and things. In winter they busy themselves spinning and working in wood. " Wo Hessen und Hollander verderben," runs an old German saying, " kann Memand "Nahrung erwerben," which reads, as near as I can render it into English, that The man is not to be found who can thrive Where the Hessians and Dutchmen can't keep alive. But I must confess that I cannot see the applicability of it in the case of either Hessian or Dutchman. The manner of living among the Vogelsbergers is extremely simple, milk and eggs taking the place, even among the well to do, of flesh. Sauerkraut and potatoes, or mil- let-pap, with dried meat, are Sunday food in winter. The butter that is made* is almost all sold, and the peasant women, it is said, out of what they make meet the household expenses and pay the taxes. Bhine-Hesse is very fertile, and a fine vineland, and its inhabitants, con- sequently, are pretty well to do. There is little cattle-raising done and hardly any sheep-raising, from lack of^pasturage. In its factories it employs a great many hands. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYES. To the question put by me to a man of position in a very large estab- lishment, " What relation subsists between employers and employe's," came the reply, " You just say that they are the most desperate ene- mies." Said another, a manufacturer, " Employers and employes treat one another as beings of another race or type, and the want of a cor- dial feeling in Germany between employers and employes is thebaneof all industry here." The trouble in Germany, as well as elsewhere in the world, is that men are not just to one another. The employer seems to Look upon his employe as a piece of machinery, out of which as much as possible for as little as possible is to be got, while, on the other hand the employe* looks upon his principal as an oppressor and extorter, to whom as little as possible should be rendered, instead of each cordi- ally respecting the other and working for the welfare of that other. While upon this point, the United States cannot be held up as a model country, where absolute justice reigns among men, still the relations between employers and employes are, I think, on a more satisfactory basis there than here, with a great deal more of equality and reciprocal interest prevailing between them. Germany just now is entirely too materialistic, and materialism is undoubtedly cold and selfish. To-day, it seems to me, there are two great factors determining the national life of Germany, by one or the other of which nearly every man is swayed — materialism and socialism, both of which are closely related to each other, and both of which at their flood-tide are death-dealing and destructive of a true order of so- ciety. So far as I have been able to observe, the men of culture and means are, as a class, materialistic, while the less instructed and poor are socialistic. The latter is but the reflected shadow of the former, for a selfish materialism on the part of the well to do canuot fail to beget a threatening socialism on the part of the poor. Here rests the life and thought of Germany, whose philosophers have weaved a spider's web, LABOK IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 431 in which the people have become entangled. In the United States, while matters in this respect are not all that one could well wish them to be, still there is a constant ferment going on, and men and women are busy in a multitude of different ways trying to reach and elevate the unfortunate and misguided and bring about a truer and more fra- ternal feeling between man and man ; but this species of life, I regret very much to say, seems to exist to but a very slight extent here. For military and scholastic purposes Germany is doing wondrous things, but to the heart-life of the people, to all that which makes a man really a man, little attention seems to be paid. If to be a tradesman is to be looked upon as a social outlaw, what must be the status of the working- man f It may be that I am wrong on this point, and I trust that I am, but so Germany appears to ray eyes. ORGANIZED CONDITION OF LABOR. Labor is restless and threatening, but not well organized. The Gov- ernment, too, is somewhat afraid of workingmen's clubs. Among masters many organizations exist, but very few among the real workingmen. So far as I have been able to ascertain, trades unions among men who work by the day, such as exist among masons, brick-layers, &c, in the United States, where the number of apprentices, &c, are dictated to em- ployers, are unknown here, and would not be tolerated. The working- men of Germany have not yet learned the principle of demanding and receiving. Chambers of commerce are the chief organizations by which manufacturers and merchants are banded together. Other organiza- tions also exist for the purpose of keeping one another posted in regard to what is going on, for fixing rates of wages, and for mutual protection against strikes. They simply pledge themselves not to employ within a specified time, two years being commonly designated, any working- man whom one of their number has discharged for good cause, or who has struck work, and attach penalties to violations of this engagement. PREVALENCY OP STRIKES. Strikes are usually sparadic, and not general. Formerly, I am told, they occurred more freq uently than now. They are not much undertaken, because they are generally unsuccessful, and besides the workingman is compelled by law to give his employer fourteen days' notice of an intention to quit work, while the employer, on the other hand, must give his employe" a like fourteen days' notice before he can discharge him. This provision of law can, of course, be qualified by written contracts, and does not apply to cases of serious misbehavior. The Government does not oppose individual striking, but the workingmen are not allowed to band together for the purpose of influencing one another in such a matter by pressure or force. The necessity of fourteen days' notice and the plan adopted among employers of agreeing not to employ any man who has struck, discourage strikes. Differences between employers and employes are settled by particular officials, when any such have been especially designated by the Govern- ment for the purpose. When there are none such, then by the communal authorities. Appeals, however, can be taken, and the matter in dispute laid before the courts. Courts of arbitration can also be erected, in which employers and employes shall be equally represented. FREEDOM OF PURCHASE. The working people are free to purchase the necessaries of life wher- ever they please, and employers are prohibited from imposing any restrio- 432 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. tions in this regard. The law obliges employers to pay their men in the currency of the Empire, and does not allow them to credit their men with all sorts of goods, but permits them to supply necessaries of life, and to charge the same against the men if furnished at cost prices; and dwell- ing-places, board, fuel, medicines, and medical attendance as well as tools and materials, can also be afforded, but further than this are all engagements and contracts void at law. Wages are usually paid weekly in imperial money, as said above. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. Concerning co-operative societies I have simply to remark that they have proved a dead failure in this region. GENERAL CONDITION OF WORKING PEOPLE. This question I have felt compelled to treat of under other heads, where similar inquiries have been made. PROTECTION IN MATTER OF ACCIDENTS, ETC. In all establishments where labor is performed all arrangements nec- essary to the health of the workers and their preservation from accident must be made, and for the purpose of more effectually carrying into effect the provisions of law on this subject there are a class of officials throughout the Empire, known as factory inspectors, whose sole business it is to visit all factories, and once a year make a report to the General Government, which is published, of the manner in which the same are conducted. It is their duty to report the number of factories and their increase or decrease, character of the same, circumstances under which they are worked, number of employes, sex, age, state of industry in general and economical condition of workingmen, their progress or retrogression in comparison with preceding years, activity of the police officials in performing their duties with respect to factories, relation of the same to the local officials, to employers, and to workingmen, giv- ing special attention to youthful laborers and to the employment of women in factories. The number of children and young people em- ployed must be stated, their distribution among the various branches of industry, increase or decrease of the number at labor, character of the work upon which they are engaged, to what extent they work in conjunction with adults, character of the rooms in which they pass their resting pauses, the kinds of factory schools for children, influence of labor upon the physical development and morals of young persons of both sexes, arid expressions of the views and wishes of employers and parents of youthful laborers are to be given. The number of cases of accident are to be reported, and how each occurred and what result it had, whether death or disability ensued ; also to what extent laborers are protected from danger. They are also to make, as far as possible, a statement of all cases of illness occurring among workingmen from factory influences unfavorable to health, mentioning whether the labor is too trying, whether the light is bad, whether the air is too hot, too dry, or too dusty, whether poisonous materials or articles are used, &c. Where defects exist in the arrangement or administration of factories they are to be reported and measures taken to remove them, and a full description is to be made of all model establishments, that they may be patterned after. They must also set forth how the workingman, is LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 433 nourished at home and in the factory, the prices of the necessaries of life, the wages received, the character of the habitations in which the workingmen dwell, and, in fact, treat of every subject whicb, in the slightest degree, can interest or affect the workingman. They are em- powered, too, whenever anything is discovered to be going od contrary to the laws and regulations of the Empire regarding workingmen to take steps to have it remedied. Notwithstanding all this, however, I doubt not that many abuses exist* The inspectors, also, are too limited in number to make thorough inspections, for, in some cases, they must visit on an average three factories a day in order to make the round of their district. There are forty-six of them for the whole realm. Their annual report forms a volume of about 1,000 pages, but is largely an enumeration of cases of accidents and their results, which are very minutely set forth. As an aid to me in preparing this report, I ob- tained and looked through the report last published, which is for 1882, but I gleaned very little therefrom, although much interesting material is contained in it. Employers are liable for accidents among their workingmen, unless it can be shown that due provision had been made for the protection of laborers, and that they had been fully apprised thereof. In this respect a paper signed by the workingman before the accident setting forth that he had been informed of and provided with the necessary means of protection against an accident, is, I believe, the only complete bar to a claim. In consequence of the socialistic agitation more attention is probably paid to the workingman and his claims than would otherwise be the case, and various measures for the protection and relief of the laboring classes are being devised, with a view to quieting somewhat the rest- lessness which prevails among them. The legislation of the past few years has been very much in their favor, notwithstanding the socialistic law, and the Government is undoubtedly earnestly endeavoring to improve their condition, but, while doing so, is seeking, I think, to be a little too paternal, and to make of the workingman a very depend- ent subject, but, perhaps this is precisely what the German charac- ter requires. During the present year the Eeichstag has accordingly adopted the second of a series of experimental laws affecting the eco- nomical condition of the workingman, which the opponents of these acts look upon as another giant stride of the Government in the direction of a communistic state. This is the accidents insurance bill. Previously, on the 15th of June, 1883, an act, part of Which went into operation on the 1st of December last and the remainder of which will take effect upon the 1st of December next, was passed by the Eeichstag, providing a compulsory system of insurance of the workingmen in the matter of sickness, by which a certain measure of income during limited periods of illness becomes assured to them. Both must prove to be, in sub- stance, beneficent measures, but they are based upon a principle which is in serious conflict with the principles of individual liberty recognized in the United States. By the first of these two enactments, the act of June 15, 1883, nearly all the laboring men of the Empire are compelled to contribute, at stated periods, insignificant sums to common funds, termed kasses, to which their employers also are obliged to add a certain percentage. Thereby they become so situated that when ill for any period of time not extend- ing beyond thirteen weeks they will receive proper medical treatment, "The laws of all states read well, but they are oftentimes more honored in the breach than in the observance. 92 A— LAB 28 434 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. medicines, and appliances, and also daily a sum sufficient in amount to keep them and their families from absolute want. The law, however, affects chiefly those persons who are permanently employed in masses, and does not exert a compulsory power over those who are engaged in independent work, except in certain instances* who, nevertheless, are not excluded from a participation in its benefits, but are at full liberty, and invited, to join the kasses created. These kasses are designated as communal, place, factory, building, guild, miners', and aid Kasses, and to them must belong all factory operatives, all miners, all workers in salt-pits, bogs, ditches, quarries, forges, furnaces, on railroads or steamship lines within the Empire, on wharves or dock, upon canals, roadways, water-courses, dikes, buildings, and all enterprises of the kind, at hand-work or other industrial employments, and in works where steam-boilers or any kind of wind, water, steam, gas, hot-air, &c, is used to drive machinery— so far as such machinery is not absolutely temporarily employed and does not belong to an industrial establish- ment—that is, when paid salaries or wages, or when employed for a longer period than one week. The communes are also authorized to extend the provisions of the act to persons employed upon farms or in forests, to any person carrying on independently a trade or craft who does work on account of another, to persons who are employed by a principal outside of an industrial establishment, to all persons em- ployed in transportation businesses, to mercantile employes and appren- tices, and to employes and apprentices in apothecaries, thus bringing almost every em ploy 6 within the scope of the act. To officials in the service of the Empire, or of a state of the Empire, or of a commune, who are paid fixed salaries, the act does not apply, and also to persons who in case of illness would, be cared for by their employers for the space of thirteen weeks, or who, during this period, would get uninterruptedly the whole of their salary or wages. The most general kind of kasses are the communal kasses. To these kasses appertain all persons who are tinder the obligation to be in- sured, and yet do not belong to one of the other kasses. They are erected and managed by the communes free of charge, and it is incum- bent upon each commune to provide one in the interest of the work- ingmen within its jurisdiction, but several communes can unite together and make the insurance a matter of common concern, or can be com- pelled to do so, when such a union is considered necessary and advan- tageous. Membership is effected by the person to be insured informing the communal authorities in writing, or by word of mouth, that he attaches himself thereto, but no claim to support is acquired if at the time of this act he was in a sick condition. The support granted is free medical attendance, medicines, and all other necessary appliances, and from and after the third day from the commencement of the illness for each day that the diseased person remains ill during a period of not more than thirteen weeks a sum of money equal to one-half of the customary wages of an ordinary laborer. When the disease is brought about by debauchery, intemperance, rowdyism, &c, this money is not at all or only in part to be paid. Persons who do not lie under any obligation to become members of this kasse, but voluntarily do so, are not entitled to aid until they have been six weeks members. The aid payments are made weekly. In place, however, of this aid the invalids can be placed in a hospital and there cared for, if, when married, or members of a family, the illness is of such a nature that they cannot be properly ministered unto at home; and those who have no family ties must in all cases be provided for in the hospitals. Are any persons LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 435 dependent upon such an invalid for support they receive, so long as the latter is a hospital patient, one-half of the amount of money which he would have been entitled to had he been cared for by his own family. Bach member of this species of kasse pays ordinarily weekly as dues an amount not exceeding 1£ per cent, of the customary wages of a common laborer of the commune, which, however, under excep- tional circumstances, may be set at 2 per cent., but can never go beyond that figure ; and the employer of the man must in every case contribute a sum equal to one-third of the laborer's dues. A workingman is thus forced to put weekly into a common treasury an insignificant sum, about 2£ cents, to which his employer adds from about one-half to one cent, and in return enjoys the assurance that if he becomes ill at any time for a period of thirteen weeks or less he will receive from the fund to which he has contributed about 20 or 25 cents a day ; that is, in the case of this kasse, which is for the most ordinary individuals. Members of the other kasses are much better situated. Two per cent, is levied as dues only when it becomes evident that 1 J per cent, will not cover the dis- bursements made. When the receipts amount to more than the dis- bursements reserve funds are to be built, and if, when that is done, the receipts permanently continue to exceed the disbursements, the rate of dues is to be lowered, or the rate of aid raised. These kasses are all to be administered by the communal authorities. PLACE KASSES. When, at any given point, there are at least one hundred persons at hand for the purpose, though it may be done under certain circum- stances when there are less, the communes are authorized and may be compelled to create place kasses. These are in the rule for workingmen who are engaged in a certain species of industry at any particular place. They allow an aid in case of illness for a period which can be set at one year, of an amouut equal to as much as three-fourths of the average wages, so far as this average does not exeeed 71 cents a day of the men composing them, as well as medical attendance, &c, and a like grant to women for a period of three weeks after confinement, which can be extended to , six, and in the case of the death of a member an amount to his next of kin equal to forty times the customary wages of a day laborer of the place. Free medical attendance, &c, can also be accorded to wives of members of the kasse, and these wives can be made entitled to receive support for three to six weeks after confine- ment, and upon the death of the wife or a child of a member, burial money can be granted. But these kasses cannot be extended to other species of disability or otherwise, than as mentioned, to wives and or- phans. When debauchery, &c, has caused disease the right to assist- ance is forfeited. The dues of the members are to be governed by the character and degree of the expenditures to be made. The commune provides a constitution and by-laws for these kasses, which must re- ceive the approval of higher officials. These kasses are empowered to. acquire privileges and make contracts, and to sue and be sued. When a person is under obligation to insure he becomes a member of this species of kasses, by going to work in the branch of industry for which it is pro- vided, from the moment he enters upon work, if not already a member of some other kasse, and when no obligation to insure exists by a verbal or written notice from the party interested that he attaches himself to the kasse. The former are entitled to assistance from the day of acquisi- tion of membership, the latter not until six weeks have expired. Mem- 436 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. bership, in the case of obligatory insurance, is, as a rule, lost when a member of a kasse leaves the branch of business for which it was organ- ized, and, when voluntarily acquired, by failing twice in succession to pay accruing dues. Members of the kasse who get out of work re- ceive, while out of employment, during a period of three weeks or less, when they have been that length of time members, aid from it. Each kasse is required to have a reserve fund, to which one-tenth of the con- tributions made shall be devoted, which fund is to be collected until it becomes equal in amount to the average annual expenditures of the kasse. As soon as a place kasse has been formed by the authorities the members thereof hold a meetiDg, with a representative of the Govern- ment inspectors as chairman, and, if few in number, elect directly a board of directors; but if the kasse is composed of five hundred or more members they choose a general committee, who in turn select a board. The directors represent the kasse judicially and extrajudi- cially, and conduct the administration thereof, under the superintend- ence, of course, of the Government inspectors, and so far as the manage- ment of the affairs of the kasse is not vested by statute and the laws of the kasse in the board of directors the consent of the general committee is requisite to all their acts. The general committee has especially the right to have the annual accounts examined by a special committee, to proceed against directors in all causes arising from bad management, and to amend the laws and rules of the kasse. Employ- ers who are under obligation to contribute to the kasse have a right to be represented among the directors, and in the general committee. The degree of representation is governed by the amounts paid into the kasse by them, but they are not entitled to more than a one-third voice. If the members of any kasse, or their representatives, decline to vote for directors, or for a general committee, the Government inspectors select them. The funds of the kasse are to be invested in the safest securities, and deposited in the most reliable banks. The kasse is obliged to make periodical reports to the Government inspectors concerning its members, cases of illness and death, amounts contributed and disbursed, &c, and the higher Government officials have the privi- lege of prescribing the manner in which the accounts of the kasse shall be kept. Directors, as well as accountants and treasurers, hold a simi- lar relation to the kasse that guardians do to wards, and can, in like manner, be proceeded against for all misdemeanors. These kasses, in places of more than 10,000 inhabitants, are super- vised by the communal authorities under the superintendence of the higher officers of the Government or by officers appointed especially for the purpose by the state. These men see that all legal and statutory provisions are complied with, examine the books and accounts of the kasse and revise them, and can cause meetings of the officers of the kasse, which they are to conduct. They can also, when the officers of the kasse do not fulfill their duties, appoint persons to take their places. All or several of the kasses in the district of one inspector can, by com- mon consent, form a union and have a common accountant and treasurer, make contracts in common with physicians, apothecaries, and hospitals, and create and conduct together establishments for the care and heal- ing of their invalid members. A kasse ceases when the number of members sinks permanently to less than fifty and when it becomes manifest that the kasse cannot be maintained. The dissolution is effected by direction of the higher Gov- ernment officials, but can be opposed. If a kasse dissolves its members LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 437 are to be turned over to other place kasses or to the communal kasse. The assets of the kasse are then to be employed in satisfying its debts and whatever claims to aid that may have arisen previous to its disso- lution. If any amount remains it is to be turned over to that place kasse or communal kasse to which the members of the dissolved kasse may be adjoined. They can also be dissolved at the request of their general committee. In the case of both communal and place kasses, employers are re- quired to inform the proper authorities of the employment by them of any person upon whom the obligation to insure rests within three days from the commencement of said employment, and also of the termina- tion of the same. They are also required to deduct from the wages of their employes the amounts due to the kasses, and must contribute to the same one-third of the amount levied by law up ju their employes. Controversies between insured parties or their employers on the one hand and the communal or place kasses on the other are to be decided by the Government inspectors, but against the decisions of the latter ap- peals to the courts can be made. FACTORY KASSES. Any manufacturer who employs fifty or more persons who are obliged to be insured is entitled to establish a factory kasse in their behalf. He can even be compelled to do so when the commune in which his factory is situated or the invalid kasse to which his men belong asks it of the Government, but before being obliged to do so he and his men are to be heard in the matter. When less than fifty persons are employed by any one manufacturer a kasse can be erected, first, when the character of work is especially injurious to health, in which case the proprietor of the factory can be forced to set up a kasse ; and, secondly, when the authorities are satisfied that the kasse will be self-sustaining. If, when called upon to establish a kasse, he does not comply, a manufacturer can be compelled to pay as a fine to a commuDal or place kasse a sum equal to 5 per cent, of the wages of his men. Membership in such a kasse is acquired by the mere act of working •in the factory, when there is an obligation to insure, and in other cases by a notification from the party interested that he attaches himself to the kasse. It is lost in the first case by the employment permanently ceasing, and in the latter by a failure to pay dues. In these kasses contributions and support, instead of being according to the average wages of members, can be based upon the amount of wages each workman receives, so far as these wages do not exceed 95 cents a day. The laws of the kasse are to be drawn up by the manufacturer or his representative and submitted to the persons composing the same for approval, and they can provide that the chairmanships of the board of directors and of the general committee shall be held by the manufact- urer or his representative ; and as the proprietor of the factory is per- sonally responsible for the funds of the kasse, the right to designate its accountant and treasurer is also vested in him, who are to be there at his expense. One third of the amount paid into the kasse is to be met by the manufacturer, and if the receipts prove not to be sufficient to meet the disbursements he must make up the deficiency from his own pocket. Disputes between employers and members of the kasses are to be set- tled by the special officials, whose duty it is to decide all questions at 438 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. issue between employers and employes, and, where there are none such, by the communal authorities, but an appeal to court is provided tor. If the factory or factories for which a kasse has been established be- comes temporarily closed, or the number of employes so limited that they become less in number than double the number of persons required to form a board of directors, the administration df the same can be as- sumed by the Government inspectors, who are to appoint a representa- tive to act in their behalf, and in such a case all the funds, books, &c, of the kasse are to be surrendered to these inspectors ; but this is not to take place if the industry is of such a character that regular period- ical cessations of work or limitations of the number of workmen occur. A kasse is to cease to exist when the factory or factories for which it was brought into being become closed or the number of members be- comes permanently less than the lowest number allowed by law, or proves incapable of,M fillin g the objects for which it was created ; and, lastly, when the head of the establishment whose employes compose it neglects to have the kasse and its affairs properly attended to, in all of which cases the kasse's membership and funds are to be turned over to a place or communal kasse. In other respects the provisions of law relating to place kasses are to be observed. BUILDING KASSES / Are for individuals employed upon railroads, canals, roadways, water- courses, dikes, fortifications, and other like works in course of construc- tion, when a comparatively large number of men are employed. The parties having the works in charge can be forced to have their men in- sured, and if they do hot will be compelled to meet from their own pock- ets all expenses attending the illness or death of their employes. The kasses cease when the particular works for which they have been erected are brought to an end, or when the parties having the work in charge neglect to hare the kasses properly administered. The provisions re- specting factory kasses apply also here. GUILD KASSES. These are kasses erected by trades unions in behalf of their members, and, while allowed more latitude and a greater degree of self-govern- ment, are subject in many respects to the provisions affecting place kasses. MINERS' "KASSES. These are for miners, and are similar in character to factory kasses. AID KASSES. By these are meant the societies voluntarily organized among men for the purpose of affording aid to one another and their families in cases of illness and death. These, of course, enjoy a large freedom of ad- ministration. Such are, as above set forth, the leading features of the law of the Empire making provisions for rendering assistance to workingmen when ill. It is a rather lengthy statute, being made up of eighty-eight sec- tions. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 439 INSURANCE AGAINST ACCIDENTS. The act providing relief in the case of accidents, passed by the Keichstag a short time ago, and adopted by the Bundesrath a few days since, is even longer than that on the subject of invalid insurance, having one hundred and eleven sections, but may be briefly described as follows : All persons employed in mines, salt-pits, in establishments for sepa- rating ores, quarries and excavations, upon wharves and in lumber- yards, in factories and foundries, including work superintendents, so far as the salaries of the latter do not exceed $476 per annum, as well as all workmen and work superintendents who are engaged at wall, room, roof, and well work, and in stonecutting, and chimney-sweeps, wherever a liability to casualty exists, are to be assured a certain meas- ure of relief in the event of accidents, and an imperial insurance office is to be established to have control of the matter. The object of the law is to afford to every workingman who becomes injured by accident while in the performance of his work, except in cases where the injury has been brought about by the willful and crim- inal act of the victim, whatever medical and surgical treatment may be necessary from the commencement of the fourteenth* week from the day on which the accident occurred, and a pecuniary support so long as the disability shall continue, amounting, in the case of total disability, when his average wages do not go beyond 95 cents a day, to 66| per cent, of his average wages, and in the case of partial disability, so much thereof as the degree of inability to labor may call for; and in the case of death, a sum, as burial expenses, equal to twenty times the amount of his wages for one day, which sum shall in no case be less than $7.14. Be a widow left she is to receive until her decease or remarriage 20 per cent, of the wages her husband was accustomed to earn, and each one of his surviving children, up to its fifteenth year, is to get a sum equal to 15 per cent, of these wages, which is to be 20 per cent, when the mother is dead ; but in the case of the widow no claim is to rest if the marriage be contracted after the accident occurred. When there are parents or grandparents left whose sole support the deceased was they will get until their death or a cessation of the requirement of assistance an amount equal to 20 per cent, of his wages. ( To effect the object of the law all employers of workingmen engaged in the above-mentioned industries are to be obliged to form themselves into relief associations, and to provide, by regular contributions to com- mon funds, the relief in behalf of their men contemplated by statute. These associations may, with permission of the Bundesrath, be volun- tarily as well as compulsorily organized, but an association will not be permitted to be built in any case unless it appears that it will be able to meet all demands made upon it. The Empire is to be divided into associational districts, and these again subdivided into what are to be termed sections, all under the supervision and direction of an imperial insurance office at Berlin, and like branches of industry brought together as much as possible. The associations and sections will be permitted to draft their own constitu- tions and regulate their own affairs, but are to be supervised by Govern- ment officials, and to be under obligation to submit all matters of im- portance in the way of government to the insurance office at Berlin for * Until the expiration of the thirteenth week, by the law of June 15, 1883, the in- valid kasses provide for him, but if not a member of any one of them the duty de- volves upon his employer. 440 LABOE IN EUROPE— GERMANY. approval. They are to elect their own officers and directors, who mast be members of the associations or sections for which they are chosen, and persons thus selected are not to be excused from service except upon such grounds as lie in the case of guardians and wards, it being provided that any man who otherwise declines an office conferred upon him can, as a penalty therefor, be compelled by the association to which he belongs to pay into its treasury for the whole period he would have filled such office double dues. The associations are to create what shall be termed "danger classes," to which the establishments belonging to them are to appertain; the de- gree of liability to accidents among its employes determining the class of, danger to which any establishment shall be attached, and to fix the scales of dues to be paid by their members ; the scales and all subse- quent alterations therein to be subject to the approval of the imperial insurance office. At the end of the first two years after their adoption the scales are all to be revised in accordance with the results experienced during this period, and at the expiration of every succeeding five years a further revision is to take place, to be governed by the number of accidents which have occurred and the degree of relief found necessary to be furnished. Every proprietor of an industrial establishment is to belong, by virtue of law,*to that association which has been erected by the Government for the district in which his business is located, or for that branch of in- dustry in which he is interested. For the purpose of determining disputed questions of factor damages which may arise under the provisions of the act, courts of arbitration are to be set up, in which the workingmen shall have a representation equal to that of their employers, every associational district or section thereof to have one such court. Each court is to be composed of a pre- siding officer and four associates, with nine substitutes, one for the presi- dent of the court, and two for each of the other four members of it. Of the five persons constituting a court, the chief one is to be a public official, appointed by governmental authorities, and of the other four, two are to be selected by the members of the insurance association or sec- tion for which the court has been established, and the other two are to be chosen through the workingmen's place, factory, guild, or miners' kasses of the district over which the court is to have jurisdiction, when of their members ten are employed in the establishments affected. Sub- stitutes are to be selected in the same way. The period of service of the four associate members of a court and their substitutes is set at four years, but is to be so regulated that the terms of one-half of them shall expire every two years. If the persons elected decline to serve, or an election does not take place, the governmental authorities are to name the individuals who are to form a court, from among employers and em- ployes. All questions before these courts are to be decided by majority votes, and they are only to transact business when there is an equal rep- resentation of employers and employes. All further rules and regula- tions affecting these courts and proceedings before them are to be fixed by imperial decree, with the consent of the Bundesrath. The costs of proceedings before them are to be borne by the insurance associations. Against the decisions of the courts a final recourse to the imperial in- surance office is permitted in certain cases. Whenever an accident occurs in any establishment by which an em- ploye" becomes disabled for a longer period than three days, or is killed, the proprietor thereof, or his manager, must inform the police of the catastrophe by a written communication within two days after he be- LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 441 comes aware of the same. If death or a disability of more than thirteen weeks' duration is the result of the accident, the police are to make an inquiry into the circumstances attending the matter, ai>d to establish the cause and character of the accident, the names of those killed or in- jured, the character of the injuries received, and the names of the mem- bers of the victims' families and of those dependent upon them. Iu this examination can take part the employer, or his representative, of those hurt, a representative of the association to which the establishment is adjoined, and a representative of the invalid kasse to which the injured parties belong; and in all cases notification that an examination is to be held must be given to these parties. As far as possible those who were witnesses of the accident and experts are also to be called. A report is to be made of the facts disclosed by the investigation, which the par- ties interested are to be allowed to read, and to have copies of, if de- sired. The association concerned is then to make the provisions of relief called for by the statute, which, if not satisfactory to the party or parties interested, are to be complained of to the insurance office at Berlin, by which the subject will be laid before the proper court of arbi- tration for consideration and settlement. For the purpose of protecting themselves against the occurrence of accidents, the insurance associations are empowered to watch the estab- lishments belonging to them, and to insist upon the adoption and main- tenance of arrangements for the avoidance of accidents, but whatever rules of action may be agreed upon in this direction must receive the sanction of the imperial insurance office. The imperial insurance office, which is to be located at Berlin, is to con- sist of a president and two permanent members, the three to be appointed for life by the Emperor, upon the recommendation of the Bundesrath, and of eight other members, for each of whom there are to be two substi- tutes in the case of those selected by the employers and employes. Their term of office is to be four years, and of the eight, four are to be designated by the members of the Bundesrath from among their num- ber, two by the insurance associations and two by the workingmen. The other officers the chancellor of the Empire is to name. This office is to have a superintendence over all the insurance associations, and to see that the provisions of law respecting them are properly observed, and it is empowered to cause examinations to be made of the manner in which the associations conduct their affairs, whose books and rec- ords may be demanded at any time for inspection. All questions of controversy which arise in the associations regarding the rights and duties of the officers thereof, the construction of their statutes, and the legality of elections are to be decided by the insurance office. When certain questions are under consideration, such as the following, the in- surance office is to be competent to transact business only when at least five of its members, including the president, are present, among whom the employers and workingmen must have at least one representative each, viz: (1) When it is to be determined whether an industrial estab- lishment is to be classed among those in which a liability to accident exists, and therefore obliged to have its men insured ; when approvals of organic changes in associations are to be made or refused ; when the propriety of dissolving any association is to be considered ; and when the erection of courts of arbitration is to be resolved upon ; (2) when decisions affecting controversies regarding the property rights of asso- ciations whose organic form has been changed are to be made; (3) when appeals from the decisions of courts of arbitration are to be con- sidered; (4) in the case of consideration of regulations respecting the 442 LABOR IN EUROPE' — GERMANY. avoidance of accidents, and (5) in the case of decisions upon complaints concerning penalties imposed by the directors of associations. In other respects, the Emperor, with the consent of the Bundesrath, is to pre- scribe the rules and regulations for the government of the office. The various independent states composing the German Empire are also authorized to establish insurance offices for the superintendence of the associations within their limits, to which the rights and powers apper- taining to the imperial insurance office are to be largely transferred. These insurance officers are to consist of three life members and four others, with substitutes, chosen for periods of four years, in a manner similar to that in which those of the imperial office are selected. These are the main features of the act, but there are many other minor points which I have not thought it necessary to mention. Now that the two foregoing measures have become laws, the Govern- ment at Berlin, it is said, has begun the preparation of a bill for the relief of workingmen and their families against the consequences of old age and of permanent disabilities due to other causes than accidents, by pensions. While upon this subject of insurance it may also not be out of place to remark that the German Government is charged with entertaining the idea of taking the entire fire and life insurance business into its own hands, and compelling everyone to pay insurance tax, on both property and life to the state instead of to private corporations. CONSIDERATION OF MORAL AND PHYSICAL WELL-BEING OF EMPLOYES BY EMPLOYERS. So far as I can see, there is no deep interest taken by employers in the moral and physical well-being of their men. Some few establish- ments provide dwelling-places and sleeping-halls for their men, and furnish them with soup during the day and warm food at noon, at cost prices, but I doubt not that so far as my district is concerned they can be almost counted on my fingers. In all of Hesse-Darmstadt there is, I believe, but one factory which has a kindergarten for the children of its employe's, some fifty of which are taught at the expense of the owner thereof. In several there are bathing-places for the use of the working- men. Most of the large factories have savings-banks, but the contribu- tions are, I understand, very meager in amount. To such a bank in a factory in this neighborhood, which employs about a thousand hands, the aggregate amount contributed weekly from among the whole thou- sand is only $7 to $9.50, 1 am told. The proprietors of this establish- ment receive all sums, from 4^ cents to $2.38 weekly, which their work- ingmen may desire to place with them, and guarantee upon all amounts not exceeding $9.50 deposited interest at the rate of 6 per cent, per annum, and upon all amounts over this sum and less than $119, interest at 5 per cent. Deposits are made by the employes directing their dis- bursing clerk to put each week a certain amount of their wages into the bank, which deposits are noted at the end of each month in a book which they hold. To withdraw the whole or any part of an investment four- teen days' notice must be given. The money thus received Messrs. ~ invest in the most solid securities in behalf of their men, and if the rate of interest promised is not thus obtained the difference is made up by the Messrs. out of their own pockets as a present to the bank. These gentlemen also foster among their men an invalid and burial association, whose provisions are as follows : All persons employed by them become, immediately on their entrance LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 443 upon work, members of this union, and the moment a person ceases to be connected with the factory this membership in the union also expires, and he is notentitled to receive back the amount he may have paid into the union. Into the treasury of the union each man whose wages do not ex- dcee 33 cents a day pays 2£ cents weekly ; those who make more than that amount 5 cents. He thus, wheu he has been three months a member of the union, acquires a claim to be supported by the, society when his inability to work is established by his physician and two of the direct- ors of the union, except in cases where his disability is the result of de- bauchery, drunkenness, or rowdyism; and any member who, while ab- sent from work and a subject of support, is seen in a restaurant, with the exception of those who, while on the way to visit their physicians, stop to drink a little something to strengthen them, immediately thereby forfeits his right to the same ; but in special cases, where, for instance an injury is sustained while at work, the directors of the union can graut support, even if the workman has not been three months a mem- ber thereof. If a person obtains a doctor's certificate through decep- tion he is compelled to return what he has received from the society and for a year thereafter to pay double dues. The amount an invalid who earned 33 cents a day receives is 12 cents per day for three months, if not a member of one year's standing, and so much for a year when he has been a member more than one year. He whose wages were more than 33 cents a day is paid 23 £ cents for each day of disability. When the illness is of more than a year's duration the society's obligation to aid ceases. By paying 4^- cents per week, however, after the expiration of this period he secures to his family his burial expenses in case of death. When a member of the union dies his widow, or children, or parents, or brothers and sisters are entitled to receive from the funds thereof $5.95 as burial expenses and $20.50 from the union and $5 from Messrs. in addition. Messrs and all their overseers and and superintendents constitute the directors of this association. To expel a member, to increase or decrease dues, or to alter the regulations of the association the consent of two-thirds of the directors and of Messrs. is necessary. Upon the funds of the association interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum is allowed. They have also a pension association for the purpose of assuring to every man employed by them an income for life. All male laborers, without any exception, by virtue of their employment, are members of this association, and the moment they leave the factory this member- ship ceases, and they are not entitled to the return of what they may have deposited. All members who are less than twenty-five years old pay 1J cents per week as dues, all between twenty-five and forty pay 2 cents, and all more than forty years old 3 cents. So soon as a member becomes fifty years of age he is entitled to a pension, if he has been ten consecutive years a member and is declared by two competent physi- cians to be unable to work, provided the incapacity has not been brought about by debauchery, drunkenness, or rowdyism. But if he becomes able to work again the pension ceases. If he becomes injured by ma- chinery while at work a pension can be accorded to him, even if not yet fifty years old, but this is to be granted for the space of one year only. The pension is $68 per year, paid weekly or monthly, which can neither be attached nor transferred to third parties. The directors consist of Messrs. , and their overseers and superintendents. Five per cent. interest is to be paid on the funds collected. The union can only be dissolved by the suspension of the firm of Messrs. . Should a dissolution occur all those drawing pensions at the time will have the 444 LABOR IN EUROPE 3ERMANy. same properly secured to them, and whatever sum remains, after satis- faction of their claims, will be equitably divided among the other mem- The workingtnen are forced to belong to these organizations, and, as regards pensioning, some of them claim that upon one pretext or an- other Messrs. emploves are dismissed before the pension age is arrived at, and that the sum for pensions continually increases in amount without any one ever deriving any benefit from it. Of course into the merits of such a controversy I cannot enter, and only state the charge as an expression of the workingmen's sentiments upon the subject.* Several years ago this same firm had some lodging-houses erected for the single men ia its employ, which were to be let to them at favor- able rents, but upon the condition that the men were all to be at home by 10 o'clock in the evening. This they declined to agree to, and the habitations remained unoccupied. The firm also, I am told, once under- took to supply its men with potatoes, at cost prices, but the great body of them would not buy them, because they said their employers wanted to make something more out of them. Thus it goes on. As an example of how the employes of railroads, when private cor- porations, are provided for, I will cite the Hessische-Ludwigs Railroad, an important railroad on this side of the Ehine, which is still in private hands. This company has a pension, widows' and orphans' fund, which is regulated as follows : Every employ^ of the road is entitled and obliged to contribute to the fund, which is raised by the dues of the employes, by fines levied on the same, by fines accruing from violations of the police regulations of the road, by sums paid for cards of permission to inspect the road and its depots, by the net profit on the sale of railroad regulations, schedules, and freight rates, by the sale of unclaimed articles left by travelers in depots or on trains, by such amounts as the company may feel called upon to give, by all grants made by last wills and testaments in favor of this fund, as well as all presents made to employes of the road, so far as a particular person or object is not expressly designated, and, lastly, by the interest derived from an investment of the above funds. Every permanent employ^ of the road who receives less than $1,070 per year pays annually to this fund 4 per cent, of his , salary ; besides this, he pays as admission fee the sixth part of his income for one year. The regular payments are made monthly, while the entrance money is paid in twelve installments when the income is less than $285, and in six when it is above that figure. Any one who has * Since writing the above I have read the following in a Frankfort journal, which probably relates to the very firm I have mentioned: Mayence. — Recently a workman made complaint before the couuty court here against the proprietors of a large factory, and demanded the payment of his wages for four- teen days, and the recognition of his rights in the pension funds of the establishment. The attorney (according to the Mayence journal) of the complainant said that his client had been almost twenty-five years in the employment of the defendants, with- out having been once punished ; that he was a good and desirable workman, as is evident from the fact that years ago the complainant made a contract with the de- fendants binding himself to remain twelve years longer with them; that having been absent from the factory for two days in succession, with permission of his fore- man, but, as the defendants allege, without such permission, he was discharged with- out receiving the required length of notice, and denied the return of the sums of money contributed by him to the pension fund of the factory for the last twenty-five years almost ; wherefore, he prayed that the defendants might be compelled to pay fourteen days' wages and to return what had been paid into their pension fund. The court fixed a time within which proof was to be adduced, but before the period had expired the defendants satisfied the demands of the complainant on their pension fund. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 445 contributed to this fund steadily for three years is then entitled, for the remainder of his life, if he becomes disabled, to receive 20 per cent, of his salary when three years in the service of the road, to 22 per cent, when four years, 24 per cent, when five, 34 per cent, when ten, 54 per cent, when twenty, and so on up to the fortieth year of service, when the employe" has a right to retire from work on a pension of 75 per cent, of his salary. The pension to a widow is one-half of the amount which her husband would have received had he become disabled while in the per- formance of his duties. But if the marriage be contracted after the man becomes a pensioner, or by an employe" who had agreed not to marry without permission of the directors of the company, the widow gets nothing, unless the salary of the deceased amounted to more than $285 a year, or the marriage had been approved by the directors. If the widow has legitimate children by the deceased employ^ less than eighteen years of age she gets further, on account of each child, one-ninth of the sum to which her husband would have been entitled as a pensioner, but the amount thus granted her cannot exceed, when there are more than three such children, two-sixth part of one-half of their fathei's rate of pension. Through crime, drunkenness, gross carelessness, or wilfull violation of the regulations of the company the right to a pension is for- feited. If a pensioned employe" accepts service in the company, or on another road, or from state or communal authorities, for which compen- sation is received, the company reserves the right to deduct from the amount of his pension a sum equal to what he thus earns ; and if after being pensioned he becomes able to render service to the company and declines to do so the pension ceases. If a widow marries she loses her pension, which is transferred to the children, if there are any. When an employe" is dismissed by the company whatever amount he has paid to the pension fund is returned to him. All differences between the company and its employes in reference to pensions are settled by three arbitrators, one being named by the company, one by the complainant, and the third by the two other arbitrators conjointly. POLITICAL RIGHTS, TAXATION, ETC. All subjects of the Empire who are twenty-five years of" age and up- wards, excepting those in the active service of the army and navy, and who have not been convicted of any criminal offense, are entitled to vote for members of the Eeichstag; and all in this neighborhood, not belonging to the army or navy, who are twenty-five years and over, and who pay any taxes, not having been convicted of crime or grave misdemeanor, have the right to vote for all elective city and state officers. As almost all the workingmen must pay taxes nearly all en- joy the right of suffrage. The taxes levied are all graduated according to the incomes had and the property possessed, and are fixed to em- brace nearly all classes of the population. A new law, however, goes into effect next April, which will exempt some who now pay taxes from doing so in the future. What the exact aggregate amount of taxes paid by each class of persons in the community is I do not know. Those whose income is from $119 to $166 per annum pay yearly to the city of Mayence $1.15, and to the state $1.54; those with an income of $166 to $214 pay one and a half times these sums, while those whose incomes are from $214 to $238, are taxed double as much as the first class men- tioned. Beyond these amounts the incomes of very few workingmen go. The tendency of legislation is in favor of the workingman. 446 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. EMIGRATION. Expectation of gain is the principal cause which leads to the emigra- tion of the people, coupled with a desire to live under a freer form of government, though, in the majority of cases, the latter incentive has probably little weight. The ones who emigrate, so far as I can learn, are those who are somewhat industrious and despair of ever being able to accumulate much at home, or who have been tolerably well to do and have become reduced, and who think that on the other side of the Atlantic, through economy and industry, they will be able to gather together a little capital. Many, too, are young neverdo-wells, whose parents send them thither to get rid of them. The emigrants are from all classes of society, but are principally from among those of the pop- ulation who are engaged at farm and hand labor. The favorite locali- ties with the people of this vicinity are, I am told, the Northwestern States, Wisconsin particularly being well regarded. The army here has very little to do with the matter, it is claimed, as most of those who leave the country do so after having performed their share of military service. FEMALE LABOR. Number of women and children wlw labor. — My consular district is so constituted, embracing portions of different states, that I cannot state with any exactness the number of women and children within it who work for a livelihood. This consular district is made up of parts of Hesse-Darmstadt, of a part of what used to be the Duchy of Nassau, now belonging to Prussia, and of a portion of Prussia proper. In Hesse-Darmstadt in 1882 there were 2,912 young persons who were from fourteen to sixteen years old, and 168, who were between twelve and fourteen, employed in the factories ; 1,826 of them being boys and 1,254 girls. Of the whole number 70 per cent, are said to be at work in match factories. In Nassau at the same time in the factories were 164 between the ages of twelve and fourteen, 97 boys and 67 girls, and 3,406 who were from fourteen to sixteen years old, 2,238 boys and 1,168 girls. . In all Hesse-Darmstadt the number of women engaged at the different occupations, according to a census taken in June 5, 1882, are as follows : In agricultural pursuits, gardening, and cattle- raising 41, 421 In forestry, hunting, and fishing 11 In mines, furnaces, and salt-pits, and at turf-digging 8 At industries where stone or earth is employed, such as quarrying, making earthenware, glass-blowing, &c 96 Working in metals 199 Making machines, implements, instruments, and apparatus 36 In chemical establishments 210 In making charcoal, tar, pitch, rosin, material for illuminating purposes, fats, oils, and varnish 159 In textile industries. , 1,405 At paper and leather industries 1, 387 At wood-carving and in making articles from wood 31£ In tobacco factories 2,473 In bakeries and confectionery establishments ... 135 In preparing foods and drinks 262 Making and cleaning clothes, among whom were 6,820 seamstresses and 2,574 washerwomen and ironers 10, 766 As bricklayers, carpenters, glaziers, painters, roofers, surveyors, &c 85 As photographers 11 As printers, in stone, metal, and colors 104 As cutters and founders of wooden and metallic types 41 Trading in goods and products 3,135 As pedlers 500 In post and telegraph offices 9 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 447 As railroad employes 29 As messengers, trunk carriers, guides, &c 88 In preparing bodies for interment 18 Upon ships J 14 In connection with drayage 29 In household service (uurses, servants who do not dwell with their employ- ers, &c.) 1,552 In labor of a changeable character 1,530 In churches and in establishments of a religious character 344 In libraries, art-galleries, and as teachers 913 Taking care of the sick • 1, 069 As authors, editors, correspondents, &c 7 In musical and theatrical pursuits 120 Total 68,478 The population of Hesse-Darmstadt is 936,340. Statistics respecting Nassau and the other parts of my district I am unable to present, but could give them for the whole of Germany, but do not, because it seems to me to be out of my province for me to do so. WAGES PAID TO WOMEN. The wages paid to women are about 25 to 50 per cent, less than those received by men. Those who work by the day or week at ordinary labor or in the factories make from 15 to 50 cents a day usually, the most of them earning about 30 cents a day. HOURS OF LABOR OF WOMEN. Women work about the same number of hours that men do, but in certain kinds of establishments, from moral considerations, they are not allowed to labor at night. MORAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. The moral tone of female factory operatives is exceedingly low, and they are regarded as being very inferior to servant girls even. As a rule, the roughest class of women only are to be found working in the factories. They are looked upon, I believe, as beings of very little ac- count. Those only go to the factories who are good for nothing else. MEANS PROVIDED FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT. A little something is being done for their preservation and elevation, but not much, and there is not much probably that can be done. The Government is prohibiting the employment of women at night in estab- lishments where there are men, also in those where the character of labor is such that not much clothing can be worn ; is insisting upon separate privies being provided for the women, so that, as has been and still is the case in many establishments, both sexes may not be com- pelled to frequent the same resorts, and upon separation of male and female laborers while at work ; is prohibiting the employment of women within three weeks after confinement; is opposed to their sleeping at night in the factories, and, through the factory inspectors, is endeavor- ing to keep them under the supervision of female superintendents who shall teach them good morals, and, after working hours, show them how to sew. 448 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. PROVISIONS AGAINST FIRE AND OTHER DANGERS. Each employer of laborers, both male and female, is required by law to take such precautions against the occurrence of accidents among them as the peculiar character of the industry in which he is engaged calls for. SANITARY MEASURES AND CARE OP SICK. The same remarks made in regard to men apply to women in this matter. INCREASE OP WAGES SINCE 1878. There seems to have been a slight increase since 1878, in the wages paid to working people. Necessaries of life are somewhat higher. The women who labor have all, with rare exceptions, enjoyed the ad- vantages afforded by the common schools of the empire. All children are required by law to be schooled from their sixth to their fourteenth year. Very few married women work in the factories, and when they do, of course their children and households take care of themselves the best way they cau, unless there is some female relative or friend to conduct things properly. In this neighborhood women are not quite as great toilers as in various other parts of Germany, and occupy a much higher plane than they do in some other states of the empire where they are oftentimes simply mere beasts of burden, and looked upon pretty much as so much cattle would be. The employment of women in factories has, I consider, a deadening and demoralizing effect upon them, prejudicial to the best interests of the state, and destructive of the family circle. MISCELLANEOUS — YOUNG PEOPLE. The German Government is very watchful of the interests of young: people employed in the factories, whether from moral or military con- siderations I do not know, and is very careful to require all employers- of young persons to pay due regard to their health and physical require- ments. Employers are expected to give due attention to the health of all young persons in their employ who are less than eighteen years o£" age, and grant to them ample time to receive needful school instruc- tion. Manufacturers are prohibited from having in their employ children who are less than twelve years old, and can only use children who are- between the ages of twelve and fourteen, when they work not more than. six hours per day. These, too, if they have not beeu to school the re- quired length of time can only go into the factories when provision is- made in their behalf for an attendance at some school three hours each day. Young persons who are more than fourteen, but less than sixteen,, yeais of age, cannot be kept busy more than ten hours per day. Their hours of labor are not to begin before 5 o'clock in the morning, nor con- tinue beyond half past eight at night, and between the hours regular pauses must be granted, which ' for those between twelve and fourteen are to be half an hour in length, and for those between fourteen and sixteen half an hour during the forenoon, an hour at midday, and half" LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 449 an hour in the afternoon. During these pauses they are not only not to work, but not even to remain in the work-rooms, unless all work in those parts of them where they labor be completely suspended. On Sundays and holidays they are not to work, and also during the hours necessary to receive religious instruction, make confession, attend com- munion, &c. When they enter upon work the employer has to inform the police of the fact, setting forth the character of the employment and the number of hours of labor, and the number and length of the pauses granted. In the establishments where young persons are employed there must be posted up in conspicuous places the regulations of the Empire concerning them, as well as a statement of their hours of labor and the periods of rest to which they are entitled, and the managers and proprietors thereof are expected to conform strictly thereto. When natural events or accidents interrupt the regular running of a factory, the authorities permit the provisions of law respecting hours of labor and pauses to be temporarily departed from. In factories which are especially injurious to health or morals, young persons, as well as women, can be prohibited from being employed, or permitted to do so only under certaiD conditions. Concerning the employment of women and young persons in rolling- mills and foundries the Government has the following regulations : Boiling-mills and foundries. — Women are not permitted to be used in the direct work of such establishments, and children less than four- teen years of age are not to be employed at all. Male minors between the age of fourteen and eighteen can be employed, but only under the following conditions : (1) When a competent physician certifies that the labor will not injuriously affect the health of the performer; (2) when they are not compelled to work more than twelve hours, including rest- ing pauses, or ten hours continuously, on a stretch, any pause of less than one quarter of an hour in duration not to be reckoned as such, nor more than sixty hours in the aggregate, exclusive of pauses, during any one week ;' (3) with a length of rest between every two periods of work of twelve hours, within which no work, of any description, is to be done; (4) no work to be performed on Sundays between the hours of 6 a. m. and 6 p. in., and in the hours previous to or subsequent to them, except when before or at the close of the period of labor an uninter- rupted interval of rest of at least twenty-four hours is granted to the young persons ; and (5) no work also to be rendered by young persons when adults are at rest. Glassworks. — In rooms in which work is done before furnaces women are not allowed to be, and wherever an extraordinarily warm tempera- ture prevails no young women are to labor or remain ; but the Bundes- rath can make exceptions in the application of this rule. Boys un- der fourteen can be employed when provision is made for their at- tendance at school at least twelve hours each week, but they are not to do any grinding, and in establishments where table-glass is manufact- ured they are not to work before the melting and stretching furnaces, or to be permitted to carry objects of more than 5 kilograms in weight. In those works which are driven night and day, with regular alterna- tions of labor and rest, the following rules are to be observed respect- ing young male laborers : (1) Boys under fourteen are not to be em- ployed more than six hours in twenty- four, including resting pauses, and not more than thirty-six in any one week; (2) young persons (fourteen to eighteen) are not to be kept at work longer than twelve hours, including pauses, or ten hours continuously, interruptions in work of less than a quarter of an hour in duration not to be counted as pauses, and are not 92a— LAB 29 450 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. to work more than sixty hours in any one week ; (3) they are not to do any work when adults are resting; (4) a period of twelve hours for rest is to occur between every two periods of work ; and (5) no work is to be done on Sundays between 6 a. m. and 6 p. m. Where the works are irregularly run, these conditions apply : (1) A period of work for boys is to be only one-half the length of an adult's period, and is not to con- tinue for more than six hours, except when pauses of an hour's length each time is granted between the hours of labor, and there are not to be more than seventy-two hours of work done in any two weeks ; (2) in the case of young persons (fourteen to eighteen) the number of hours is not to exceed sixty a week, and when they labor continuously for ten hours they must enjoy a rest of at least one hour, and when longer must be granted at least one hour and a half ; (3) between two working periods is a rest- ing interval of at least the length of an adult's period of labor to be given to boys under fourteen, and to those between fourteen and eight- een a pause* equal to the length of the last completed period of labor, during which those under fourteen are not to be put at any kind of work, while those between fourteen and eighteen can be put at light side work, when the interval which occurs is a long one, but the time that is thus used is to be reckoned in the aggregate length of time they can be employed in any one week ; (4) no work is to be done on Sundays between 6 a. m. and 6 p.m.; and (5) no labor is to be performed while adults are at rest. Spinning -mills. — Eespecting spinning-mills, the regulations are (1): That young persons are not to be allowed to work or loiter in rooms where combing is going on, or where wool is being pulled apart; and (2), that young people between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, when exclusively used as assistants in the driving of machinery, may work eleven hours a day, but no longer, when a proper physician grants a certificate that the young person will not be injured in health by such length of labor. Coal mines. — Regarding coal mines, the Government has the follow- ing exceptional regulations: That where a day's labor consists of two periods of work the first is not to commence with young persons before 5 a. m., or the second to extend beyond 10 p. m., and, in either, not more than eight hours of labor rendered ; that during each day of labor resting pauses, amounting altogether to one hour, must be granted; and that they are not to be allowed to go to work until a competent physician has declared that they can endure the strain imposed upon them. Persons under twenty-one years of age who are engaged at any kind of labor are required to be provided with what are termed labor books (Arbeitsbiicher), more properly called, I think, licenses to work, whose production an employer is always to demand before engaging minors to work. These he holds so long as the employment continues; exhibits them whenever requested to do so by a proper official, and, upon ces- sation of the employment, returns them to their owners; but children who have not attended school the full length of time required by law are not furnished with them, but with what are designated as labor cards. The books are issued, free of charge, by the police, but are not granted unless it can be shown that the minor's school duties have been fulfilled. Such a book bears the name of the holder, the place and date of his birth, and his signature, and when he enters upon work anywhere his employer notes in the book the date of commencement and charac- ter of the employment, and when it comes to a close, the date of ter- mination, subscribing his signature, but he is not permitted to make any LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 451 remarks affecting the reputation of his employe^ either favorably or unfavorably. The cards for children are issued by the police at the request of their parents or guardians, or with their consent, and bear the name of the child aud date of its birth, its religious confession, name, station, and place of residence of the parents or guardians, and set forth what ar- rangements have been made for having school instruction imparted. These cards the employers receive and hold as in the case of labor books. The penalty attached to violations of the provisions of law and regu- lations of the Empire respecting the employment of young persons and women is $500, or six months' imprisonment. JAS. HENRY SMITH. United States Oommercal Agency, Mayence, July 25, 1884. SAXONY. REPORT BY CONSUL BULLOCK. OF ANNABERQ. The statements one finds in the German newspapers and reviews about the condition of the working classes must be taken cum grano salts. They are almost always colored according to the views held by the writers towards the questions of labor and social reform which have for some time been engrossing the attention of the German law-makers. Some writers maintain, with a formidable array of statistics to back up their conclusions, that the condition of the working classes is becoming every year less endurable, and that the proletariat is steadily and alarmingly increasing. Another class of writers assert, with as great confidence and equal plausibility, supported by statistical citations, that the condition of the working classes is gradually improving, and is better than it has been at any time during the last fifty years, except during a short period following the Franco-Prussian war. The wide divergence of these views can generally be traced to some local color- ing or interest. It often happens that one industry languishes while another flourishes,and it is only in years of exceptional prosperity that every branch of industry prospers. Those who are interested in any branch of trade or industry that is depressed very naturally incline to the belief that everything is going to the bad, and they are not slow in rushing into print with their views and propositions for governmental relief. The assertion that the rich are growing richer at the expense of the poor who are growing poorer, is not verified by the facts, so far as Sax- ony is concerned, at least, and there are no apparent reasons why a dif- ferent state of affairs should exist in other rich industrial states. The able and cautious statistician, Dr. F. H. von Neumann- Spallart, has clearly shown that, in Saxony, while the rich have increased in num- bers they have individually become richer, and that the income from capital invested not manufacturing has not kept pace with the growth of the capital thus invested. On the other hand, the poor have not be- come poorer, but relatively less poor. The number of working people who are depositors in the savings banks of Saxony has shown a most favorable increase since the last five or six years, and the average amounts of the individual deposits show a like favorable result. The 452 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. savings banks of Saxony pay 3£ per cent, and 4 per cent, interest, and offer absolute security to the depositor. Their influence has been most salutary in promoting the welfare of the working classes, and on account of their wise and conservative management they have contributed greatly to the public good. It is the concurrent opinion of intelligent observers who have given the subject attention that a considerable degree of amelioration in the condition of the working classes of Saxony has taken place since 1879, especially as compared with the preceding six years. But notwith- standing this unquestionable improvement, the difference between the conditions of the American and the Saxon artisan remains so great that the latter would regard as an extravagant luxury what the former considers a necessity. A comparison of the tables of wages and prices will show that the Saxon laborer can afford only the barest necessaries of life, and in very stinted quantities at that. It will take many years of improvement in the condition of the Saxon laboring classes before they attain anything like the degree of comfort and independence en- joyed by their more favored American brethren. It is true that the work- ing people in Saxony buy their wearing apparel 30 per cent, to 40 per cent, cheaper upon an average than the same articles would cost in the United States, but this advantage is fully offset by the greater cost of provisions in Saxony, to say nothing of the great difference of wages in favor of the American laborer. The working people of Saxony gener- ally wear coarse but good and substantial clothing without any extrav- agance of ornamentation. SAXON INDUSTRIES. The industry of this consular district is almost exclusively domestic, or "house industry," a report upon which, entitled "The Saxon House- Industry," will be found in Consular Eeports No. 33, September, 1883. In this district there are no large manufactories where great numbers of working people are brought together in one establishment. It is mainly owing to this that organized, or even unorganized, strikes do not occur. It is one of the advantages of the house industry that it avoids the concentration of large numbers of working people in one place. Those engaged in the house industry enjoy an exceptional de- gree of independence as compared with those laborers who are em- ployed in factories. They live mostly in the country or small villages, where rents are cheap and the surroundings healthful, with no tempta- tions to extravagance or dissipation. It is not easy to ascertain the incomes of those employed in this branch of industry, owing to the many conditions upon which the amount of the income may depend. In ordinary years an adult male worker of average skill engaged in making trimmings, laces, embroidery, or musical instruments — the principal productions of this district — will earn about $142.80 to $154.70. GENERAL TRADES WAGES. The tables of wages and prices which accompany this, marked No. 1 and No. 2, respectively, have been compiled after most careful investi- gation. The reductions from German into United States standards of weights and measures were made according to the computations used by the United States Customs authorities. In the reduction of values the German Eeichs-mark was taken at 23.8 cents, as fixed by the Treasury Department. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 453 GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week of seventy-two hours in the consular district of Annaberg, Saxony, for good workmen who have served apprenticeships in their respective trades. Occupations. Basket- makers Blacksmiths Book-binders Girls Foremen , Building trades : Brick-layers Gas-fitters Masons Plasterers Tenders Butchers (with board) Carpenters Chair-makers Day laborers Furriers Glaziers "Wages. $2 85 3 33 4 76 2 00 5 00 4 28 3 33 4 28 3 33 2 60 1 75 3 85 3 33 2 50 4 28 3 33 Occupations. Gold and silver smiths House-painters Locksmiths Machine fitters Potters Hoofers Saddlers , Shoemakers Stuccoers Tailors Tinsmiths Turners Type-setters "Wagon-makers "Weavers Wool-spinnors "Workers (male adults), factory $5 75 5 47 2 85 2 85 2 75 4 28 3 00 2 61 8 00 2 61 3 00 3 33 4 76 3 57 2 38 3 00 2 50 Prices of the necessaries of life in the consular district of Annaberg, Saxony, May 1, 1884. Articles. Price. Articles. Price. Black bread per pound avoirdupois- Flour : "Wheat do... Eye do... Butter do .. Beef do... Fresh pork do... Bacon do... Mutton do... Peas, dried do... Potatoes per 100 lbs. avoirdupois . $0 02 04 03J 25 14 15 24 12 05 1 00 Coal per 100 lbs. avoirdupois . Egg. per dozen. Milk per quart. Beer : Bavarian do Common do. -- Petroleum do .. Gas per 1,000 cubic feet. Average rent paid per room per month by laborers $0 21 15 03i 06i 04 06 1 50 1 15 1 AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN SAXONY. Agricultural laborers in Saxony may be divided into two general classes. To the first class belong those who are bound by contract to perform certain services for a fixed term in consideration of a specified sum of money and full board. This class of laborers are called Oesin- depersonen (servants), and they must hold themselves in readiness to bbey the orders of their employer at any time, without reference to any certain hours of work, provided the nature of the duties assumed by the contract so require. These servants are therefore usually employed in the performance of such services as from their nature cannot be fixed at certain hours of the day, and which should be performed by the same person. Household servants, dairy hands, hostlers, cattle-tenders, and shepherds are embraced in this class. Their duties require that they live upon the premises, since their services may be needed at any mo- ment. The laborers of this class are generally unmarried, and the pe- riod of their employment is usually regarded as one of instruction. When married they are mostly employed in such work as demands .spe- cial knowledge and extra care, or where negligence or want of intelli- gence on the part of the servant might result in loss to the employer. Day laborers constitute the second class, and these are either bound by contract or servants at will. The latter are not bound by any con- tract for any certain time. Either master or servant can terminate the employment at any time without previous notice. The day laborers mostly live in villages, and are often owners Qf the houses they inhabit, 454 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. and sometimes possess small pieces of land. In such cases they are called cottagers, and are, with rare exceptions, thrifty and intelligent. The wife and children till the small piece of land, while the man works for some large proprietor in the neighborhood. The agricultural immi- grants to the United States are mostly of this class. _ The day laborers who are not house owners are called lodgers. Their sole means of sustenance are their wages. In winter they often feel bitter want, and of all agricultural laborers their lot is the hardest. The day laborers who are bound by written contract must appear daily, unless prevented by unavoidable causes, and do such work as the employer directs. There'is usually a provision in the contract that the laborer must furnish a second hand when required, and upon demand bring his wife as a third hand. For his own services and those of the hands he furnishes he receives a certain part of his wages in cash, gen- erally about one-third ; the rest is paid m provisions, fuel, &c, and in some" instances a small part of the grain he himself thrashes out. La- borers of this class who perform their duties faithfully can remain on the same estate for life and always receive necessary sustenance. They cannot be suddenly dismissed, and when they become wholly or partly incapable of work they have a legal right to assistance from the owner of the estate. The contract day laborer is very dependent upon his employer, and in many instances is always inhis employer's debt. When the financial condition of the proprietor is good and the estate is remu- nerative the lot of the contract laborer is seldom hard except by his own fault ; but where these conditions are reversed, as notunfrequently happens, his lot is very unenviable. There are many difficulties in the way of ascertaining the value of the compensation received by the agrcultural laborer. Where the com- pensation is wholly in money, as in the case of the common day laborer, there, is, of course, no difficulty ; but where, as is the general custom in Germany, the greater part of the compensation is paid in hind, that is, by provisions, fuel, rent, &c, the value of the compensation can only be ascertained approximately. The statements furnished herewith give the wages received by good adult laborers. Annual wages received by agricultural laborers who are employed by the year in the consular district of Annaberg, Saxony. Amount paid in money. Cost of board, or paid in kind. Total. $44 26 22 S4 $60 60 55 60 $104 86 78 44 Wages per day of agricultural day laborers. In sum- mer. In win- ter. $0 40 20 $0 2» 12 Annaberg, Saxony, May 28, 1884. GEO. E. BULLOCK, Consul. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 455 SAXON HOUSE-INDUSTRY. (Supplement to Consul Bullock's "Labor Report." Republished from Consular Reports No. 33.) The consular district of Annaberg, which embraces the greater part nf the Saxon Erzgebirge (ore mountains) and Voigtland, is one of the most important industrial districts of Germany. . The district owes its prosperity and commercial importance mainly to its well- organized house-industry. This form of industry, as distinguished from factory in- dustry, is that in which the laborers manufacture at their own homes or workshops articles for the wholesale dealers or merchant manufacturers. It is diversified in its forms and manifold in its productions. As it is met with in this district, the laborers work in their own homes or workshops, with their own tools and appliances, alone or with assistants, journeymen and apprentices, who are often all members of the same family. Those who employ assistants not members of their own families, and provide for them tools, material, and a place to work, are called masters. They are the skill- ful, industrious, and provident of their class. In the conntry, especially in fertile agricultural districts, the house-industry is generally a secondary employment, and is only followed during the winter months, or when the weather does not admit of outdoor work. Generally, a wholesale dealer or merchant manufacturer furnishes the laborer or master workman the raw material, prescribes the form and kind of production, and pays a stipulated price per piece for th« articles made and delivered. In some branches, for example, straw-plaiting and wood-carving, the laborer furnishes the material. Tools and machinery are sometimes provided by the employers, and are paid for by the laborers in small installments. The house-industry has many advantages tor the laborer over the factory industry. The work is done at home and all the members of the family capable of working are more or less employed. Children are not separated from their parents nor husbands from their wives. The women can care for their children and households and the daughters remain under the control and protection of f.he family. The hours of labor are not fixed, aod the labor itself is of a kind least injurious to health. In the coun- try during the summer months the labor can mostly be performed in the open air, or alternated by more healthful labor in the fields. All the available working force of the family, without danger to the person or detriment to the morals, can be brought into profitable employment, and t he concentration of large numbers of laborers in one place avoided. Such are some of the advantages of the house industry. It has, how- ever, its disadvantages. It can easily lead to great and lasting injury of children by stunting their bodily and mental development, since legal control and regulations are not easily applied and are difficult of enforcement. Unfavorable seasons, stagnation in trade, and commercial crises immediately affect those engaged in the house-industry, while they seldom reap their legitimate share of the benefits of the times of prosperity. Low earnings in times of long business depres- sion often lead to injurious overexertion, which in turn leads to poor work and endan- gers the source of livelihood. But notwithstanding these drawbacks, the house-in- dustry is, taken all in all, so much more favorable for the social and domestic relations of the laborers and their healthful development than any other form of productive industry, agriculture alone excepted, that it is a matter of regret that it is so limited in its applicability. Modern inventions have narrowed the field of its profitable em- ployment until few articles are left for its production. It cau only exist where it is technically impossible or impracticable to employ large and expensive machinery in cheap and manifold production, or where a division of labor will not materially re- duce the cost of production. These conditions still exist in the following branches of industry: Straw-plaiting, basket-making, wood-carving, glove-making, fine em- broidering, and lace and passtvienterie making, the manufacture of artificial flowers, millinery goods, small articles of verlu, and inlaid work. Nearly all of these branches of industry are represented in this district, and pro- vide the means of sustenance for hundreds of families. In Annaberg and its vicinity pillow or cushion laces and paeiementerie (gimps, trim- mings, &c.) are the principal articles of production. Their manufacture is well adapted to the conditions of a thickly populated and mountainous region where agri- culture is not remunerative, and where there are no large factories to give employ- ment to the people. The requirements for manufacturing pillow-lace are few and simple. The necessary implements, material, and finished goods occupy but little room, and the implements can be provided at a very small cost. The principal im- plements for making this lace is a cylinder-formed cushion or pillow, over which a strip of paper stamped with the pattern to be worked is laid. The bobbins complete the outfit. These are little pieces of wood, 4 to (> inches long, turned exactly in the shape of drum-sticks, upon which the threads are wound and over which there are wooden 456 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. shells.for keeping the threads clean. As many threads as the pattern requires are ■wound, upon as many bobbins, and their ends tied together and fastened to the cush- ion from which the bobbins hang. The number of bobbins is according to the width of the lace, and varies from 20 to 100. The pattern is fastened to the cushion by pins which mark the form of the meshes, and the number of pins depends upon the width of the pattern and fineness of the meshes. The meshes are formed by a skillful manipulation of the bobbins, and as the lace is finished the pins are moved forward. The dexterity and nimbleness of finger displayed by the lace-makers are truly as- tonishing, and can only be attained by years of practice begun in early childhood. Children frequently begin to learn lace-making at the early age of five, and when they are of school age they are admitted to the schools for lace-makers, where they spend the greater part of the time not required by their attendance at the elementary schools. In order to provide better instruction in lace-making and introduce new and dif- ferent kinds of laces and methods of making them, the Royal Saxon Government has encouraged the establishment of lace-schools by granting them an annual pecuniary aid. But the municipalities generally bear the greater part of the expense of these schools. In 1843 Herr Schreiber, a wealthy merchant of Dresden, conceived the idea of in- troducing the manufacture of Brussels lace into Saxony, and in pursuance thereof he undertook a journey to Holland, Belgium, and France, accompanied by a young man who was known for his great cleverness and skill in designing and making laces. After Herr Schreiber and his prote'ge' had obtained a thorough knowledge of the meth- ods of manufacturing laces in these countries, they returned home, and the year fol- lowing succeeded, after persistent effort, in having established at Oberwiesenthal, on the Bohemian frontier, a school of instruction in lace-making, with the special object of preparing teachers in the art of making Brussels lace. The experiment was from the beginning a decided success, and was not long in find- ing imitation in other towns and villages. In these schools, of which the one at Schneeberg is the most important, the instruction is entirely technical, and is con- fined solely to lace-making. The lace made at the schools is sold, and the proceeds, sometimes no inconsiderable sum, are applied towards payment of current expenses. The school at Schneeberg is for teachers only. It provides instruction in designing patterns and making the finer kinds of laces. Its success has been very marked, and the recent progress in the Saxon lace industry towards regaining its former importance is, in a great measure, owing to the influence of this school. The lace trade does not diifer in its organization from that of other products of the house-industry.. Formerly, lace-markets were held where the lace-makers offered their goods for sale. The most important of these markets was the one held at Annaberg; but now the lace-makers generally work for the wholesale dealers, most of whom have their places of business in Annaberg or Buchholz. The wholesale dealer furnishes the material and prescribes the pattern and quality of goods to be made, and the time of delivery of the same. Experience has shown this method to be the most advantageous for both laborers and merchants. The latter quickly discern what kinds of patterns and laces are in favor with the fashionable world, and can most readily effect a timely change in the production. PASSEMENTERIE. Another important house-industry which flourishes in this district, the products of 7ta a £ 6 lar S el y exported to the United States, is the manufacture of passementerie. Under the term passementerie are included plain and beaded gimps and trimmings, and dress and furniture ornaments, &c. This industry is said to owe its introduction into Saxony to refugees from the Netherlands, who fled from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva. Simple and inexpensive machines, which occupy but little space, and which almost always belong to the laborer, are now generally used by the passemen- =* - g tog ^ a ;±s&n' $177 79 183 26 196 59 13'i 09 133 28 114 24 113 05 101 36 $3 57 8 33 2 38 22 13 19 99 8 80 42 36 20 00 119 24| 34 75 103 03! 154 93] 14 76 $7 3R 27 61 10 71 24 04 11 19 36 18 27 85 10 00 24 75 21 42 $188 73 $0 24 219 44 I 209 68 48 178 74 3 81 168 27 159 22 11-3 26 181 36 163 99 191 44 191 59 Branch of industry. Mines and quarries Smelteries, &c Glass-works and potteries- .. Textile factories Chemical works, all ltinds . . . Breweries, distilleries, sugar and starch factories, &c. . . Grist and other mills ... Paper mills and paper facto- ries Cigar factories Other industries Average of all -. Expenses. $125 19 132 33 115 43 109 48 101 15 94 72 111 38 109 96 101 86 125 19 116 62 M $28 56 $15 47 $11 42 34 (Bl 15 23 10 00 25 70 18 33 17 14 22 37 13 80 16 18 20 71 9 77 12 38 I 25 70 31 65 21 18 16 66 20 47 25 94 10 95 11 19 17 14 14 76 18 33 14 52 10 00 13 33 13 33 14 28 11 66 13 56 $4 52 $0 72 $3 23 $4 05 $7 38 S200 54 5 00 1 43 4 28 5 71 10 23 218 24 264 91 170 96 162 58 158 65 179 83 183 75 165 45 199 22 191 11 2 61 2 99 4 52 6 19 1 43 2 86 5 47 2 61 2 14 3 33 2 86 72 10 71 5 24 8 33 3 81 2 99 1 19 1 67 1 91 1 19 2 99 72 7 38 5 71 3 57 2 99 4 52 3 81 3 57 72 90 1 67 6 19 2 86 6 90 3 57 1 43 2 99 1 67 3 57 7 38 8 33 9 52 7 85 $1 211 4 77 1 78 5 57 $11 81 2 39 1 46 4 7» The "deficit," says the gentleman who prepared the foregoing table, is in most cases covered by the sale of flowers, berries, mushrooms, &c, gathered by the younger children ; " personal wants "include, and in fact niaiuly consist of, tobacco, beer, and whisky. FOOD PRICES. The retail prices of provisions— the better as well as the cheaper kinds — are given below. It should be observed that the sale of horse- meat, an article of food to which the rural laborer has not yet become accustomed, has largely decreased withiu the iast three years. It is eaten mainly in the form of sausages, and its sale under any other than its proper designation is strictly prohibited. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 471 Articles. Bye flour per pound.. wheat do Bye bread five pounds.. Potatoes per quart.. Rice per pound.. Bailey do Lentils ...■. do Dried peas do Dried beans do Onions quart.. Dried apples do 43ngar pound.. Milk quait.- Value. | Cents. 3 1 1 to 4 12 i 1 l* ! 3* 9 4 6 3 lo ! 2* 6 U •ih 5 7 23 7 11 31 4 Articles. Butter pound. Coffee do... Tea do... Salt do. . . Lard do... Medium cuts of beef do.. . Medium cuts of pork do. .. Medium cuts of mutton do... Medium cuts of veal do. .. Bacon do . . . Calves' liver do. . . Sheep livers Horse-flesh pound. Value. Centtt. 24 to 36 9 76 36 119 2* 10 19 Hi Hi m 24 19 91 10 PAST AND PRESENT WAGE-RATES. There has been no change in the rate of wages since 1878, except a slight and not always permanent increase in some of the mining and furnace districts ; the wages there range from $10 to $20 per year higher now than in 1878. The house weavers in Silesia have also succeeded in getting a slight increase in the pay for their work, a few pfennigs per day. The increase is, however, not uniform and not general, and the condi- tion of this class of work-people is still most deplorable. On the other hand the slight increase in the price of meat since 1878 is scarcely felt in most workingmen's families, where meat is a luxury, and is in gen- eral offset by a nearly corresponding decrease in the prices of their ab- solute necessities. On the whole, however, the feeling may be said to be a more hopeful one now than it was six years ago; the return of the flush times that followed the wars with Austria and France being no longer looked for, while the needs and desires of all have in a measure adjusted themselves to their present condition. HABITS OP THE WORKING CLASSES. The laborer and mechanic in the United Spates, whether born abroad or a native, accomplishes more iu eight to ten hours than does the aver- age workman in this country in ten to twelve hours. The workman here is often accused of indulging in alcoholic stimulants, of being an eye servant, and generally ungrateful for all ameliorations of his con- dition. These charges are, perhaps, too sweeping, but the fact that wherever the organization exists he is usually found in the ranks of the Socialist party proves, at least, that he is dissatisfied with his con- dition. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYE AND EMPLOYER. That all employers are not indifferent to the moral and physical well- being of their employes is shown in the answer to No. 11 of the inter- rogatories. Too many, however, are content with getting the greatest ■amount of work at the lowest cost, regardless of the condition of their employees, how they or their families are fed, housed, and clothed. That the best feeling cannot exist between employer and employe in such cases goes without" saying, and much of the discontent which now pre- vails is no doubt owing to this indifference. ORGANIZED CONDITION OF LABOR. Labor unions of the magnitude of those in England and the United States are not to be found in this district. The printers in this city, it 472 LABOR IN EUKOPE GERMANY. is true, have a typographical union, but its authority does not extend beyond the city limits, and it partakes more of the character of a mu- tual benefit society than of a labor uuion. The scale of prices, arranged by an agreement between'the union and the employers, is generally ad- hered to in Breslau, but in the remainder of the district prices are gen- erally regulated by demand and supply, notwithstanding the local unions. Other trades have also their associations, but these seldom deal actively with the wages question. The "Local League of the Local Labor Association" has for its object "to induce the mechanics and factory employes to found societies for the purpose of a rational use of the right of coalition, and to join such benefit societies as are based on the idea of self-help and can give a guarantee of solvency." At present nine associations belong to this league, namely, the workers in wood, the machinists and metal workers, the painters and varnishers r the factory and manual laborers, the potters, the "sculptors," the cabi- net makers, the tailors, and shoemakers. Employers' guilds, recognized by law, are more effective in prescribing the trade rules than the coun- ter associations are at present. STRIKES AND THEIR EFFECT. For some years strikes have been very infrequent here, occurring only at rare intervals in the mining and furnace 'regions. Within the last three months, however, several have taken place, the most notable one, that of the cabinet-makers, at Goerlitz, followed by the same class of mechanics in Breslau. The strikers at Goerlitz mostly returned to work on the old terms; those in Breslau, where the strike was not general, left for other parts. The masons and laborers at the new government building in this city, also struck this spring for a slight advance in wages, but were induced to return at the old wages and a reduction itt the hours of labor. With the exception of the strike of a few woolen- mill operatives in Liegnitz, of short duration and no gain to the em- ploy6s, no other strikes have occurred. The disagreements between employers and work-people are commonly settled by what are known as trades-tribunals, composed of members of the board of magistrates. Their decisions are usually final. On the 18th of March, 1880, an arbitration court, for the adjustment of money differences between employers and employes, was created by an ordinance of the Breslau authorities, and approved by the provincial coun- cil of Silesia. The ordinance went into effect on the 1st of May, 1881,. and has since, with some modifications, been adopted by some other communities in the province. The number of complaints which came before the court last year was 1,080. In 15 cases complaint was made by employers, in 1,025 by journeymen mechanics and adult factory oper- atives, and in 40 by apprentices. The decision of the arbitrators is in most instances submitted to, only a few cases having been carried to a state court. The court takes cognizance of cases involving sums as low as 24 cents, and in but few is the amount in dispute over $12. The ses- sions usually occupy from three to five hours, and in each session an aver- age of 25 complaints are heard and decisions rendered. The entire court of arbitration consists of 50 employers and 50 employes, 2 of each class being in attendance at every session, one of each only sitting in each case, with a member of the board of magistrates as umpire. Although the office is an honorary one, and the workmen members of the court lose their time while attending the session, not one of them has so far LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 473 failed to appear when required. The time lost by each member is, who- ever, only two days in each year. 1 A law of the German Empire for the reorganization of the trades guilds, makes it obligatory upon all guilds already in existence to re- construct themselves in accordance with the provisions of the law be- fore the close of the year 1885 ; any guild failing to comply therewith to be dissolved by the authorities. At the time of the passage of this law there were in existence in this city fifty-one guilds, with a total membership of 2,546 employers. Nearly all the trades were represented - t the butchers, carpenters, and masons having three, four, and Ave guilds each. Only a small number of these guilds have, up to the present time, taken any steps to comply with the law. POOD PURCHASES. With the exception of farm hands and agricultural laborers generally, who receive a great portion of their pay in kind, all workmen are paid in the lawful currency of the Empire, and purchase their supplies where they choose. With a few exceptions, where fortnightly and monthly payments are made, the rule is weekly payments. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. The Breslau Consum-Verein, or cooperative store association, organ- ized less than a score of years ago by a number of business men, for the purpose of enabling workingmen and persons having small salaries to purchase the necessaries of life cheaper than the retail store prices, and at the same time to have a share in the profits, has been fully as successful and beneficial as its projectors had reason to expect. It is governed by a board of thirty-nine directors, and the entrance fee for new members is 30 cents. It has now thirty -five grocery and provision stores, one steam bakery and one coal-yard in Breslau, and three stores in neighboring towns. The number, of members is 26,000. Checks bearing a number equal to the amount of each purchase are given to the members, and at the end of the year the profits are divided, the members being paid dividends on the aggregate amounts of their checks. The dividends varied in the last five years from 9.80 to 10.90 per cent. The establishment of these stores has also tended to keep the prices of the necessaries of life within proper limits, large profits not being aimed at. Similar establishments exist in a number of other towns and cities in the province, notably among the miners and iron workers. The "Breslau People's Kitchen" has the same object as the co-oper- ative association — that of furnishing the working classes with provis- ions at low prices. The Silesian Co operative League, comprising fifteen associations in various parts of the province, has also its headquarters in Breslau, as has also the " League of Seventy-seven Silesian Associa- tions for Self- Help," organized on the plan of the Schultze-Delitsch associations for mutual improvement. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING. CLASSES. The Breslau workingmen's families generally occupy one or at most two rooms in the cellar or on the top floor of a dwelling-house, often a rear building. Of the 60,615 tenements in the city 21,479 are in rear buildings, and have an average of 3.94 inmates and 1.44 rooms each ; 10,000 persons inhabit 2,492 cellar dwellings — an average of 4.02 per- 474 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. sons to each ; 6,0i9 of the city tenements are reported by the police as ■overcrowded. The average yearly rent of rear lenements is $37.00, or $ 26.42 per room ; of cellar dwellings, $37.13, or $25.70 per room. The number of households exeeeds the number of tenements by 653; in 639 cases 2 families occupy tenementsdn tended for one; and in 7 cases rooms intended for one family are made to accommodate 3; 14,464 families take one or more lodgers or sublet part of their premises. The food of the average workman consists mainly of a soup or por- ridge, black bread, potatoes, a very little meat, cheap coffee, and per- haps some vegetables. Of a considerable number of them, however, the remark may hold good that both their lodging and their table would be more attractive if the great number of groceries resorted to only "by the working classes could be swept out of existence. Their cloth- ing is, of course, the cheapest; one man informed me that he expends only about $3 a year for clothes, but that his shoes cost him at least $5 a year. " Of course my family g > barefoot most of the time." Lay- ing up something for old age and sickness is a luxury only the better- paid workman can think of. The " sick funds," the accident insurance hitherto effected by the employer, and the many charitable institutions and homes are, in the opinion alike of the improvident and the underpaid, ample provision for the future. That their surroundings and manner of living do not influence them for their own or the community's good need scarcely be said. That all workmen, however, do not belong to this category is amply proved by the savings-bank deposits mentioned «lsewhere. SAFETY AND WELFARE OF EMPLOYES IN FACTORIES. The " Haftpflicht-Gesetz," or law making the employer responsible for injury to life and limb when it is not indisputably the direct result of the employees carelessness, has had the effect of calling into being a number of accident insurance companies for the purpose of insuring, at the employer's expense, workiugmen in furnaces, workshops, and factories. Pew employers have hesitated to secure themselves in this manner against lawsuits and penalties. Benefit funds have existed in all large establishments — combined, in the mining regions, with accident insurance — to which the employers have also been contributors. These will hereafter be compulsory institutions, regulated by a state law for all work-people except farm hands and field laborers. Besides being compelled to contribute themselves, the employers become responsible if a workman fails to pay his dues. In case of sickness the workman is to receive under this act at least one-half of the standard local wages and free medical attendance — in the absence of the latter, three- quarter wages. In case of death the fund must pay twenty times the amount of the daily wages. A bill making accident insurance for work- ing men and women compulsory is also pending in the Reichstag. A society for promoting the welfare of the laboring classes, es- tablished in the district of Waldenburg, Middle Silesia, has, among other means of securing its object, placed at the disposal of working- meu's families various plots of ground suitable for vegetable gardens ; 315 families availed themselves of this privilege last year against 217 in 1882. Nearly all raised an ample supply of vegetables for their ta- bles, while a few managed to increase their cash income by selling their surplus. The families cultivating these plots resided in 28 different villages. One hundred and six heads of these families were miners. 92 factory workmen, 40 mechanics, the remainder of various manual oc- cupations. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 475 Workinginen are most favorably situated in regard to lodgings in "Upper Silesia, and there especially the iron-workers. Not counting those living in their own homes, the average number of persons in one •dwelling in that district is five; -while thirty -three of the same class of work people occupy one dwelling in Middle Silesia, and twelve in Lower •Silesia. The glass- workers follow the iron men, while the weavers are lowest in the social scale, the average number per tenement throughout the province being thirty-two, while in certain districts they average fifty-two per tenement designed for one family. In the weaving dis- tricts are to be found great numbers of '< sleeping halls " and " sleeping berths." Nearly all the larger factories, iron mills, &c , have connected with them institutions for the improvement of the condition of the work-peo- ple; among these are sick and savings funds, hospitals, Sunday schools, libraries, cheap and comfortable dwellings, co-operative stores, loan as- sociations, co-operative kitchens, free medical attendance, &c. People's kitchens, affording wholesome meals at low prices, have been ■established at various times by mill-owners, but have never become very popular with the work-people. Of fifteen hundred operatives in one weaving-mill only two hundred and thirty were willing to pay 2-§ cents for the dinner the kitchen furnished. A paper mill in one of the moun- tain districts gives breakfast for 1 cent, dinner for 2, supper for 1 cent. •Of three hundred and eleven employ6s about one hundred and eighty .are willing to take these meals. It must be observed here, however, that the German workman is not content with three meals a day ; he must have in addition a forenoon and an afternoon luncheon. Besides, he probably does not consider the meals at the above prices filling. A glove factory in Lower Silesia has leased a suitable portion of its build- ings, with certain privileges, to a restauranttkeeper, who is pledged to give all the factory hands a generous dinner for 10 cents. A pottery furnishes all its employes a good dinner for 4 to 6 cents. In another factory the breakfast costs 2§, the dinner 7 cents. A spinnery gives ■each unmarried female employe, daily, a plate of nutritious soup gratis. A kitchen connected with an iron-mill gives every workman who desires it a cup of coffee and a roll for 2f cents, and dinner and supper at 5 ■cents for whole portions, and 3 cents for half portions. Another factory gives all its employes a free dinner daily, considering ihis a greater benefit to its people than a small advance in wages would be. These are but a few of the numerous examples of the kind. Of the paternal care taken by many employers of their work-people, looking to their moral as well as material welfare, I will give here but •one example, that of a factory at Wiistegiersdorf, the center of the Si- lesian weaving district. The proprietors describe the " ameliorations " in substance as follows : Although the workman's wages may be sufficient for the ordinary necessaries of life, yet in case of sickness he is generally unable to as- sist himself. We therefore started with the erection of a hospital, con- taining four large sick-rooms, with sixty beds, two bath-rooms, lodgings for the attendants, and other necessary house-keeping room. In this our ■employes are quartered, nursed, and furnished with medical attendance and medicine during their illness, without charge beyond their contri- bution to the sick-fan d. A physician and an attendant are al ways presen t. We keep the entire place in good condition, and pay for warming and lighting. A sick-fund was established by us many years ago, into which we pay annually $35.70. Each employe" pays weekly, according to the wages received, 2 to 3J cents, which entitles him or her to all the privi- 476 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. leges of the hospital in case of illness. In addition, the invalid's family gets from the fund 36, 60, to 72 cents per week. If it is found neces- sary to send a patient to one of the springs this expense is also paid out of the fund ; and, if finally incapacitated for work, the employe is en- titled to a pension of $2.14 to $2.86 monthly ; in case of death $10 is paid for funeral expenses. A family aid fund is supported by 25 per cent, of the contribution of the work-people to the sick fund ; every woman is entitled to $2.86 in her confinement, and free medical attend- ance; every bride receives a wedding gift of $2.86. Our orphan home contains thirty children of employes, who receive instruction, clothing, and all the necessaries of life free ; the house contains two school-rooms, one eating-room, one sitting-room, two large sleeping rooms, besides washing, bathing, and all necessary house-keeping rooms and lodgings for the. teachers. Boys on leaving the home are taught a trade, the girls are placed at service with families. The house is surrounded by a handsome garden, a play-ground, and a place for gymnastic exercises. A bakery is connected with the factory, which supplies the operatives with bread at cost price, but no one is compelled to purchase our bakery bread. To vary the diet of our employes, which is usually only bread, coffee, and potatoes, we have also established an eating house. It con- tains a large saloon, in which four hundred persons can comfortably dine at once (the married workmen carry the meals to their homes), a kitchen with facilities for cooking for eight hundred persons, and other accommodations. Our people get here a well-cooked portion of vegeta- bles and a piece of meat for 2g cents. In place of potatoes we give sometimes rice, at others millet, barley, peas, turnips, cabbage, fresh and dried fruit, sauces and salads. We have built a number of dwell- ings for our employes, and have bought some others already built near thefactory ; the rent varies. If the tenantoccupies only oneroom he pays $1.08; if a room and bed room $1.49 per month; each family has inclosed space in the cellar, room on the drying floor, and a wood and coal shed and a washing mangle is at the disposal of the occupants of the house. The houses are calculated for twelve families each, and are now occu- pied by one hundred and eighty families, numbering nearly eight hun- dred persons. As a not inconsiderable number of our employes are unmarried women, some of whom took lodgings with their fellow- workers, some with families in the vicinity, an arrangement which for obvious reasons was undesirable, a lodging-house for girls was con- structed. We now accommodate forty-eight girls, giving each a sepa- rate bed, a clothes closet, a wash-stand, with bowl, pitcher, and soap- dish. The bed linen is changed weekly, and the house is warmed and lighted at our expense, and on winter evenings the girls are given in- struction in needle-work and taught to repair their clothes. They pay for these accommodations 12 cents each per week. Simultaneously with our eating-house we established a kindergarten, where the children of our work-people, from four to six years old, have instruction given them according to FroebePs system, by two teachers. This arrange- ment has met with the hearty approval of our employes, the children being now well cared for while the lather and mother are both at work. In the autnmn a festival is got up for the little ones, and at Christmas they all receive a gift. All children of our employes, however, of what- ever age, are remembered by us at Christmas time, although useful gifts are the rule, such as frocks, shirts, shoes, stockings, jackets, trousers, &c, and some fruit and cake. Our Sunday school for the instruction of the operatives and apprentices is fairly well attended, and the free library is not neglected. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 477 To their credit be it said that many corporations and individuals owning establishments in Silesia have made provision for the benefit of their employes more or less similar to those described above. POLITICAL RIGHTS. Every Prussian twenty-five years of age is a voter. That the work- ingmen avail themselves of this privilege is proved by the fact that the two delegates from this city in the Reichstag are socialists, and this, in spite of the restrictive measures which prohibit all meetings and pub- lications of this party. In the rural districts where the opportunities for intercourse are few, the party has but little available strength. For the Reichstag, or Imperial Parliament the elections are by popular suf- frage, direct, and by secret ballot ; for the Landtag or Prussian Diet, on the contrary, indirect, restricted, and viva voce. The voters are di- vided into three classes, those having the highest income being in the first class, the next class being composed of those enjoying a more mod- erate income, while the third class is composed of men of more limited means and the poor. The electors having a majority of the classes are declared elected, and they choose the members of the Diet. The work- ingmen can therefore exert no influence on the choice of the electors. The communal income tax is levied upon all whose incomes are not less than $71.40 per annum. With an income of $128.52 per annum the state income tax is also levied. The communal tax is $1.09 per year on $71.40; on $ 100, $2.19 ; on more than $157 , $3.57 ; on more than $219, $5.24 ; on more than $250, $6.91; on more than $286, $8.33 ; on $321, $9.28; on $357, $10.71, and so on until the highest income in the city, $314,160 is reached, which pays a communal income tax of $9,425. The class or state income tax is 72 cents on $107 ; $1.43 on $185.64 ; $2.1-1 on $232.06 ; $2.86 on $2.58.76 ; $4.29 on $293.46 ; $5.72 on $339.15 ; $7.38 on $364.85 ; $8.58 on $410.55, and so on. Of the adult population of this city, numbering 139,797, 75,874 pay the communal income tax and 59,923 pay no taxes whatever, either because their incomes are really less than $71.40 per annum or because proof of the income being taxable is lacking. Many of the non-taxpayers are poor widows and single women. The sick-fund law and the accident-insurance bill are the princpal measures so far brought forward by the Government for the releif of the working classes. But in a speech delivered in the Reichstag on the 9th of May Prince Bismarck declared it to be the duty of the Government to see to it that persons who were able and willing to work were given employment. CAUSES OP EMIGRATION. The controlling cause is, no doubt, the desire of the emigrants to bet- ter their own and their children's condition, and this desire is stimulated by the glowing reports of relatives and friends who have already settled in the United States. The desire to escape military duty. It is asserted that of those who emigrate from Prussia at least 12 per cent, escape military duty thereby, and according to the report of the war minister to the Federal council not less than 14,702 persons owing military duty to the Empire left Germany without permission last year. The number of those leaving on short time passes and who fail to return is not given. The desire to acquire laud and a home of their own in a country where, 478 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. as they hear and read, freedom is enjoyed by all and prosperity by the many. , . . ,, . . , The inducements held out by ticket agents— this is the principal cause given by some of the newspapers here. _ The majority of the emigrants from this district are mechanics and agriculturists, workmen, and small farmers. Part II. — Female Labor. An "occupations census" was taken by the state authorities in 1882 r but I have been unable to obtain the figures for this province, as they have not yet been made public. The following table gives the number of persons, male and female, at different ages,, engaged in various in- dustrial pursuits in this city : Occupations. © a P <6 a a a) O a S » £ 4=" S3 s » s H .l-'a H 43 |£ O t-a a ® a 'a -~ -n o f- 9 a a i-> 5 t "5. tf o r 3 to . z. ~ c a © © -J2 % 5 a? ■ =, H 9 ~ " c a ^> © S or ■3 4a O EH Agriculture, gardening, and fishing: 29 9 119 228 103 70 172 64 136 58 78 35 15 9 491 470 473 43 967" 112 156 51fc Total 38 261 384 233 236 194 113 24 904 516 1, 4S0' Mines, niRnniactures.and me- chanical trades: Mllll'8 '- 1,059 380 6.424 3, 870 10, 695 5, 927 9,8:10 2, 650 5,870 2.100 3.262 1,433 1, 382 636 239 145 1 18,219 20,542 16,016 1,140 Females 17, 156 Total 1,445 10, 294 16,622 12, 480 .HI 4, 69.> 2,018 384 34,2352',682 55, 917" Trade and traDSportation : 230 27 2,323 480 5, 304 1,174 6,142 777 4,347 831 2,312 768 880 438 143 110 8, 913 12, 828 3, 724 887 12,63713.716 Total 257 2, eon 6. 538 6.919 5,178 3,080 1,318 253 22, 346 Domestic service and work of various kinds: 39 50 409 303 1,879 829 2,435 769 1,400 9'.'3 691 917 364 449 62 76 2.310 4,969 3, 955j 421 7,279 4,376 Females Total 89 772 2.708 3,204 2,323 1,238 290 1.608 904 191 813 425 76 138 95 14 6,265 5,390 11,655 Civil and ecclesiastical serv- ice, so called, free profes- sions, and military: 6,644 1, 663 3,776 105 10,420' 1 108 ' 630| ' 458 Total 57 513 6,195 2,190 1.52-i 1,095 501 109 8,307 3,881 12, 188 Without calling, or none given : j 149 895 198 588 1 475 623 1,028 826 1,404 1,149 1,936 85l| 4, 175 1,596 7,649 2,306 444 (3, 485 674J 609 Total 347 1,483 1,55910,605 671 5,521 2,149 1,186 25, 206 20, 819 9,390 5,398 1,651 13,650 5.245 2.230 3,085 2,44711,824 1,40540,759 1, 950 33, 477 2.750 44, 894 3, 034 14,578 In general : 8,131 4,771 4,278 3, 570 85, 653 36, 511 Total 2,230 lfi. 12B 34, 596 '>R 215 18, 895 12, 902 7,848 47, 928 122, 164- ' Of female Government clerks, boarding-house keepers, in the Ameri- : '|j can and English sense, inventois, bankers, book-keepers, brokers, lectur f» other side, again, lands divided in to such small parcels that the own- LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 499 ers cannot live off their produce ; an over-population by which wages are kept down to a minimum ; the poor people carrying on a life of in- cessant toil and privation, a continuous struggle for existence, working day by day, from morning to evening, for the barest necessities of life, knowing that when old and invalid and unable to work any more they have to depend upon charity ; after forty years of hard work to be at the same point whence they started as young men, and yet content and at times even happy! On Sundays and holidays they go out with their families, hear some music, have a dance, breathe fresh air, enjoy them- selves under the green trees, delight in nature's beauty, and spend a few pfennigs, saved by the assistance of wife and children. And then the moralist steps in and says, " they are improvident and regardless of the future and spend in drinking and dancing all they earn." Oh, the Pharisee ! That they go sometimes into excesses I admit ; but I only am astonished how seldom it happens. They drink bad whisky because they have no money for beer or something better. They certainly would prefer wine and champagne as well as our moralist does, if they could afford it. I might ask, have they really no claims to the pleasures and ioys of life, and, besides, what inducements have they to save anything, even if they could 1 They never can get a home for themselves ; noth- ing they can call their own in the world, except their poverty and their misery. Thousands and thousands more would come to the United States every year if they only could save the few marks to pay for the All that has been said holds out for the great majority of work- people ; there are exceptions on both ends of the line, a few lucky ones, who are in more fortunate conditions, with better wages, with none or only a few children, with wives who carry on a business as dressmaker, or keep a little shop, and so on ; these few get along and save a few marks a year. One of this class told me that he saved 50 marks within four years, and bought furniture for two rooms worth 100 marks — alto- gether $35.70 — but only, by the strictest economy. Thirty-five dollars and seventy cents within four years, think of it, American fellow-labor- ers ! The savings of man and wife after four years' constant, hard work ! On the other end of the line, we find the good-for-nothing fellows, the scamps, the idlers and tramps ; they pass away their time in idleness, and spend what they earn (if they ever do earn) in drinking and dancing ; but they also are exceptions, fortunately not many; they may once have been good, honest, workingmen, but they don't belong any more to this noble and respectable class. Bad company and bad whisky have ruined them ; misfortune, poverty, and misery may have helped to do the work ; these are the causes which surround them and influence them for evil. As soon as the workingma'n is getting a regular whisky drinker he goes down ; whisky was in Northern Germany the common beverage, and it is yet in a smaller degree, but good, wholesome lager beer, is now taking its place more and more, and shows already a very beneficial influence; religion, and the consideration given by employers and the Government to the welfare of the laborers, do not fail to exert also an influence for their good. The physical and moral condition is the result of all the conditions written upon in the foregoing pages. "With potatoes and chicory water as main food, a little bad whisky, and, above all, miserable water as a drink, with small, dark, ill- ventilated rooms, crowded to their utmost to live in; no sunshine ever sending in its golden beam ; the atmosphere contaminated with foul air arising from cellars and yards; the original race mixed up badly with foreign elements ; want, scantiness, poverty, and misery around them, we can- 500 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. not expect to find among those classes the powerful athletes of olden times as Tacitus describes them, with their fair, golden-reddish hair, the blue eyes, the glance even which the unconquered Romans could not stand; we miss that well-known "furor teutonicus " which made old Home tremble and succumb to those barbarians. Scrophulosis, with all its consequences, sore eyes, sore heads, swollen limbs and abdomens, rhachitis, with its curvatures of the spine, and so on, and the whole legion of diseases resulting from poor food and bad air, insufficient nutrition in general, are only too frequent and fill the hospitals anil asylums with their victims, cripples, idiots, epileptics, &c. Also these conditions will produce in moral respects no saints ; the purity of morals is stained with dark spots, but according to all in- formation obtained not worse than in countries better situated. Pros- titution, illegitimate ^rths, syphilis not more spread than elsewhere, the crime of abortion nearly unknown. Man is the product of the con- ditions surrounding him. Food aud drink, air and light, society and education make him what he is. I tried to get official numbers about all these points to show in tabular form the percentage of suffering in physical or moral respects, but in vain. Those who have evaded all the perils surrounding their childhood and youth grow up still as compar- atively strong aud healthy if not tall men ; and the three years' mili- tary service, with repeated exercises through nine years further, make them tough, enduring, steady, and adroit. They have inherited a mar- velous tenacity, everlasting energy, and the powerful vigor of their ancestors, which carry them through the most unfortunate conditions. I always am surprised when looking over the pages of history that the German people is alive yet, that a German nation yet exists. After all the combats with the Romans, the invasion of the Huns, the con- stant struggles through the dark middle ages, with all their civil wars, the terrible ordeal of the thirty years' war, reducing the population 75 per cent, aud making a desert out of the whole of Germany, the devas- tations again under the " Great Monarch," the bloody wars against Napoleon I— conquered and downtrodden— and to-day the leading power in this hemisphere in the council of nations. And this energy, this tenacity, this vigor is only asleep within these poor classes ; it exists among them and awakens under more propitious circumstances. Give them fresh air and sunlight, wholesome food; give them free speech, free soil, and free labor; let them have freedom of thought and lib- erty of action, and they will recuperate, regain their physical strength, recover their moral health, and justify the truth of the words of the honorable Secretary of State in his letter to Oongress dated May 17, 1879 : " Such are the characteristics of the German working classes, characteristics which, under more favorable circumstances in the United States, have helped so materially in the development of our vast re- sources, which have made the name of German- American synonymous with industry and good citizenship, and which have given to the agri- cultural and manufacturing mind of our country much of its solidity and perseverance." SAFETY AND COMPORT OF FACTORY OPERATIVES. "What are the means furnished for the safety of employes &c?" To answer the question as its importance requires it would' be neces- sary to look at all the various charitable societies, benevolent associa- tions, aid societies, &c; to count the sums contributed by private charity, to consider the means furnished by the employers themselves for the LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 501 safety and the welfare of the employes, to mention the many ways by which the local authorities of towns and districts provide for the wants of the poor and indigent laborer, and, above all, to study the laws passed since 1872 by the German Diet, and the ordinances of the Government referring to those laws enacted for the safety, the improvement, the welfare, and the assistance in case of sickness or accident. That this is impossible with the limited means and the limited time at command of the officers abroad the Department kuows best. May it suffice, then, to say that from all sides help and support is given: a few single names may illustrate the idea leading the employers, and a glance to legisla- tion about this matter show the way by which the Government intends to make the life and existence of the working classes easier and to strike at the root of the direst misery, viz, sickness and accidents. Among the many benevolent institutions I mention — Charitable associations. — Society for Procuring Fuel for the Poor r Brothers' Association for Aiding in Sickness and for Moral and Mental Improvement, Association for the Care of the Epileptic at Tabor, La- dies' Association for Idiotic Children at Kuekenmiihle. Whoever has witnessed the immense pains and labor taken to educate and instruct these poor wretches in the elementary principle's of religion, spelling,, reading, arithmetic, singing, and has listened how willingly and 'joy- fully they answer the different questions, must admire as well the re- sults achieved as the services rendered to humanity. I had the pleas- ure to be shown over the institutions by the superintendent, Pastor Bernhardt, and think it only my duty to acknowledge the great merits this noble man has won in his self-sacrificing work. All these institutions are founded and maintained by donations and voluntary contributions ; a so-called people's kitchen, providing a good dinner of soup, vegetables, and meat for 3J cents, was started about five years ago by a subscription of $2,618. It distributes about three hundred and fifty portions each day. For feeding poor, hungry, little children visiting the schools $584.76 were collected during last winter. Religious associations, Sunday-school societies, are also engaged in the good work. I may mention yet the laborers' colony at Schievelbein, giving work to unemployed workmen, and the health resorts on the German sea-coasts for poor, sick children under the protectorate of their royal and imperial highnesses the crown prince and crown princess of the German Empire. Charitable institutions. — Hospital Bethanien, also for training of nurses ; price, including board, medical and surgical treatment, 5, 3, and 1 \ marks, according to rooms and attendance ; for children 1 mark per day. The institution is beautifully located in the finest part of the city in the middle of a large garden, and is the present of a liberal- minded citizen. By its medical director, Dr. Maske, a perfect gentle- man, highly educated physician, and skillful and eminent surgeon, it has won a well-merited, widespread reputation. Poor patients are paid for by the towns where they have lived during the last two years. The City Hospital, where poor people are admitted without pay. Deaconesses' and children's home at Salem for education of poor girls and for training of nurses; children's hospital; hospital for nervous diseases and insane persons ; Ernestinenhof for female servants out of employment ; home of journeymen ; asylum for ruined girls ; home for saving and educating stray and wicked boys ; five kindergartens (Krip- pen) for taking care of and instructing smaller children, and a number of other institutions, too many to be enumerated. All these are main- 502 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. tained by the aid of the city and county. The idea leading the employ- ers is represented by the following facts : The Vulcan declares: For the safety of our workingmen all the means have been provided prescribed by law, contiuually brought to greater perfection by new inventions ; a " dressing station" is established ac- cording to Professor Bsmarch's recommendations for cases of accidents. We promote the physical and moral well-being of our employes by con- siderable contributions for churches, and maintain a regular school on Sundays for instruction of juvenile laborers. Professor Bsmarch is professor of surgery in the University of Kiel, and one of the most renowned surgeons living. The directors of the " Stettiner Kerzen and Seifenfabrik " (Stettin soap and candle factory) write : " All the appliances pertaining to machinery for protection of laborers are made use of, aud accidents in fact very sel- dom happen with us, and only when great want of caution has been exist- ing. Our buildings are fire-proof, constructed mostly from stone and iron ; besides hydrants are connected as well with the water-works of the city andwith our own. The manager of the Portland cement fac- tory, "Stern," an institution which I took occasion to mention in article No. 7, says : We have an aid society for assisting as well the employe's as their families in cases of sickness. Every employ^ pays 2.4 cents per week, and the company pays the same amount for each of its men ; in case of sickness physician and medicines are furnished gratis ; 23.8 is paid in cash per diem. The fund for assisting the family members is a separate one, and raised by the employe's themselves, but medical treatment and medicines are also furnished gratis. Schindler & Muetzell's soap factory has an own stationary steam fire- engine, which takes its water directly from the Oder, besides an elec- tric fire alarm in the office connected with the fire department of the city. An aid association for assistance in case of sickness is in opera- tion since twelve years, to which the adult laborers pay 2.4 cents each ■ per week, the employers the same sum for each employe^ and the asso- ciation pays, pursuant to a certificate of the physician appointed, three- quarters of the wages as assistance. The physician's salary is paid by the owners. The directors of the Pomeranian provincial sugar refinery state the following : Connected with our establishment is an aid association, which pays, besides medical treatment and medicines, 19 cents per day to each one taken down with sickness ; all employes are also insured against acci- dents, if becoming invalids, and in case of death. Sufficient fire-engines are in existence to prevent any danger from fire. Kolilau & Silling, tobacconists, have an aid associatiou, which assists iu cases of sickness, and pays funeral expenses in case of death. It would take too much time and space to go on further with details; but justice requires me to say that those enumerated stand not alone with their human efforts. The attention, care, and provision to the wants of the laboring classes, which has occupied the mind of the German Gov- ernment and the German Diet since the last few years, and the laws passed finally in this respect, are well worth while to be earnestly looked at aud examined into. Since the year 1869 already a number of laws and ordinances are in force with the purpose common to all of them — protection of health and life of the laborer. They cover the arrange- ment of shops, factories — the light necessary, the heating, the quantity of air needed, the ventilation, the supply of drink, water, wasliing-stauds, water-closets, sewerage, protection against fire, means of rescue in case LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 503 of fire by way of stairs, doors, windows, fire-escapes, &c, in short, every- thing imaginable in this connection. Also ordinances regarding the pre- cautious to be taken with all different kiuds of machinery, the appliances to be made use of for this purpose; the way in which explosive, corroding, or poisonous materials are to be handled, the means by which the working- man can protect himself. An inspector is appointed by the Govern- ment for each province (Gewerbe-Rath) to look after the enforcement of these laws, and to make annual reports. I beg leave to call the at- tention of the Department for further information to " Einrichtuugen fur die Wohlfahrt der Arbeiter der grossereu gewerblicheu Anlagen im preussischen Staate im Auftrage des Ministeriums fur Handel, Ge- werbe, und offentliche Arbeiteu, Berlin 1876. Konigl. statistisches Bureau und K. Morgensteru, Einrichtungen und Sehutz-Vorkehrungen zur Sicherung der Arbeiter, Leipzig 1883. I. M. Gebhardt. (Arrange- ments for the protection and the safety of the laboring classes.) But it is only since two years, and we may say during the last session of the German Diet, closing now, that a new system has been inaugurated by the Government, and agreed to by a majority of the Eeichstag, a system known as " Staats Socialismus." Its priucipal features are that the " state" itself takes hold of institutions, until now in the hands of compa- nies and individuals, that it forces those concerned to belong to one or the other of these institutions, and guarantees the fulfillment of the promises made. The first law passed June 13, 1883, relates to the " Krankenkasse," funds to be collected and used for aid and assistance in cases of sick- ness; the other, passed just a few days ago, is the law relating to cases of accident called "Unfall-Versicherungs-Gesetz " Eeferring to the first one, Title VII of " trade regulations," article " aid societies," reads : "Section 141a. Journeymen, helpers, and laborers in factories, if six- teen years of age, can be compelled by local laws to join an aid society, organized by order of the local authorities. Those are exempt from being obliged to join the town societies who can prove that they are members of another incorporated aid society aiming at the same end ; those who are not and neglect to do so, can be compelled to pay all monies due from the time when they ought to have entered. " Section 1416. Journeymen, helpers, and laborers in factories who pay their regular assessments to an aid association incorporated under the laws of the land cannot be compelled by local laws to join the town societies above mentioned." To understand fully the foregoing sentences it must be known that two sets of " Krankenkassen " are in existence, which may be called parallel societies; one set comprising the employes of one factory (Fabrikkrankenkasseu), the other (the societies of a town) those of each guild, the journeymen societies, and the incorporated free societies, but all are subject to the laws of the country. As mentioned above, these "Krankenkassen" will go into operation with the 1st of December, 1884, through the whole German Empire, including all persons working for wages or for a salary not exceeding a certain sum. The leading idea of the law is as follows : All legislative measures,' if of any value at all for the improvement of the working classes, must see to prevent the want and distress caused by sickness and its consequence ; inability to make a living during the time. If no provision has been made, the laborer will abstain by fault of the neces- sary means from calling a physician at the proper time, his case will grow worse, the small savings, if there are any, soon be exhausted, all 504 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. his little property sold, and, ruined financially, he will have to apply to the poor-master and suffer all the degrading forms and consequences of such a situation ; only very seldom the laborer recovers again trom the financial ruin. A provision, proportionate and at the same time generous enough to fulfill the demands stated above, and able to pre- vent such a doleful state of things, can only be had by insurance of the laboring classes under the authority of the Government, and with participation of the employers; the necessity of this insurance must result in the enforcing of it, wherever it is needed and can be done. Per- sons who are not obliged to become members can also do so by their own free will ; those who are obliged to do so are allowed to enter an- other society; if, for instance, they don't like the guild society they belong to, they may enter an incorporated free association, provided the one preferred pays the minimum amount prescribed by law; also they can leave one and join another, &c; but they must be members of one society. The contributions by the workingman are 2 per cent, of his wages ; the employer has to add 1 per cent, out of his own pocket ; for each one of his laborers the assistance given comprises medical treat- ment and medicines free of costs and 50 per cent, of the average wages for thirteen weeks. I have the honor to submit, as inclosure No. 16 (in duplicate), a copy of the statutes for an aid society of one factory (Fabrikkrankenkassen). The rules marked | on the left margin are obligatory, as will be no- ticed. The law passed just now, known as " TJnfall-Versicherungs-Ge- setz," takes care of the workingman in case of accident, and when the first thirteen weeks have elapsed without recovery. It does not comprise all classes of employes, as far as I was enabled to learn; its funds are raised by assessment of the employers and corporations. It is generally conceded that this law is far better than the one in operation since 1871, which made the employer responsible in case of accident, if it could be proven that the latter was caused by neglect on his side. Numbers of costly lawsuits were the results of the law, and the workingman often could not get his rights, because he had not the means to go before court. Now every workingman recovers damages in case of accident, which, if not large, are at least sufficient to protect him from want without being obliged to prove at first the fault and negligence of the employer. But it is objected that the benefit only begins after thirteen weeks; that not all industrial classes are within the reach of the law; that the funds are raised by assessment, and that insurance by private companies is made impossible. Future only will show how it works; certainly the fend aimed at is a noble and praise- worthy one. The time when this law will go into operation is not yet fixed, as the mechanism to put it into working order will be a very com- plicated one; even a new central office, to be called " Reich sversiche- rungs-Amt" (Central Insurance Office of the Empire), has to be estab- lished in Berlin. The next proposition regarding the welfare of the working classes to be made by the Government to the Diet will be a general pension and invalids law for the support of old and crippled laborers. Also in other ways the Government does everythingpossible to promote the moral and physical well-being of the laboring classes ; among the measures concerning the moral interests compulsory education ranks first ; the Government holding that education alone can bring forth good, intellectual, and moral citizens; among those applying to the physical interests I only mention that useful inventions and such ones which promote the health of the workingrnen are published, the latter LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 505 often after having been bought at high prices from the inventors and patentees. So not long ago the Government paid 200,000 marks for a new invention, preventing the terrible disease, periostitis and necrosis of the lower jaw, caused by the emanations of phosphor in manufactur- ing lucifer matches and ordered its introduction in the match factories. POLITICAL RIGHTS. Speaking about political rights of the workingmen we must discrimi- nate between those rights exercised in behalf of the German Empire and those granted by the different German states within their own boundaries. The legislative body of the German Empire comprises the Bundes- rath, composed of delegates of the German sovereigns, and the Reich- stag, composed of delegates of the people, one delegate for each 100,000 inhabitants. Every German male adult, if twenty-one years of age, is entitled to a vote in these elections, which take place every three years ; the vote is a secret one, by ballot. Quite different are the laws in the different German states regarding their own legislature; in Prussia, in which this consular district is situated, the legislature comprises the Herreuhaus, in which the representatives of the privileged classes are seated, and the Landtag, the representative body of the people. But the right to vote for delegates of the Landtag depends on a certain tax to be paid ; those paying no taxes or being dependent upon public char- ity are not entitled to vote; besides, the vote is not a secret, but an open one. by mentioning the name of the candidate preferred to the inspector of election. It is self-evident that by this mode the workingman whose existence often depends upon the good will of one or the other influen- tial person is not at liberty to do as he likes, even if he is entitled to vote. More complicated yet is the matter in the so-called communal elections for city and county officers. The same ratio of taxes must be paid as in elections for Landtag to become a voter ; then the whole amount of taxes to be collected in a certain district is divided into three equal parts, and perhaps a small number of voters able to pay the first part of it elect as many represent- atives as the three or four fold number of persons paying the second part, &c. ; the vote is also an open one. For instance : A town ought to collect for the fiscal year 900,000 marks of taxes ; the voters are di- vided in three classes, each class paying 300,000 marks ; say there were 6,000 voters in the place, of which 50 would compose the first class, be- ing assessed together for 300,000 marks, 1,500 would pay the second 300,000 marks, and the rest, of 4,450, the third ones ; the 50 of the first class sent as many representatives into the " Collegium of Stadtveror- ducten" (common council) as the 1,500 of the second and the 4,500 of the third class. . The " Stadtverorducten " here in Stettin, 62 in number, receive no pay; they elect the "magistrate" (executive body), com- posed of eighteen persons, presided over by the mayor, who draw a good salary and are elected for a number of years, usually being elected again when the time is over; if not elected again, or getting old in the service, they are put on the pension list. The mayor of this city (Ober- biirgermeister) receives a salary of 13,500 marks, besides residence, and is elected for twelve years. The magistrate appoints its officers in case of vacancy, who also draw salary and pension and are appointed for life. It will be seen that the interest taken in these elections by the laboring classes cannot be a very lively one ; the poorer ones are totally 506 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. excluded from voting ; others prohibited from doing so by their depend- ence, and the influence exercised at all a very limited one. The number of members of the different fractions in the Eeichstag shows best what influence they can have upon the legislation of the German Empire : Conservatives - - J® Centrum 106 National liberals 45 Liberals 100 People's party 9 Poles 18 Social democrats - 13 Independents 27 Vacant seats - 2 Taxes are of a very different kind, as real-estate tax, trade tax, in- come tax, and class tax, and they are levied as well by the state as by the cities and towns. It is only the last mentioned, " class tax," a kind of income tax which affects the workingman. It begins with an income of 420 marks, and is divided in twelve classes up to 3,000 marks, when the income tax proper sets in. The following schedule gives the re- spective amounts : Income from — Tax. State. City. TotaL Marks. 420 to 660 660 900 900 1, 050 1, 050 1, 200 1, 200 1, 350 1, 350 1, 500 1, 500 1, 650 1, 650 1, 800 1, SOO 2, 100 2, 100 2, 400 2, 400 2, 700 2, 700 3, 000 Marks. 3 6 9 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 60 72 Marks. \ Marks. 4 | 7 8 > 14 12 1 21 Vifth class 24 32 40 48 56 64 80 96 42 56 70 84 98 112 140 ITS The two lowest classes will cease with April 1, 1885, and incomes below $214 become exempt from taxation, so the majority of working- men will be relieved. By a separate law the state taxes for July, Au- gust, and September are also remitted since a few years. It appears that the city taxes are a good deal higher than the state taxes, the amount here in Stettin to 75 per cent, of the real-estate tax, 30 per cent, of the trade tax, 125 per cent, of the class and income tax, paid to the state. The tendency of legislation goes to lessen the burdens of the working people ; also to protect labor by a protective tariff, which was first inaugurated in 1879, and to improve the physical and moral welfare of the working classes by enacting and enforcing laws referring thereto as I have tried to illustrate in the foregoing pages. There remains to say a few words about CAUSES OF EMIGRATION. A number of causes combine to swell the flood of emigration. Among them I will enumerate : 1. The overpopulation of the most parts of Germany; counting two hundred and sixteen persons per square mile, as against only fourteen LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 507 in the United States ; the population increased from 41,228,000 in 1872 to 45,620,000 in 1882, which makes 4,392,000 within ten years, or nearly half a million every year, uotwithstandiug emigration. 2. In other parts where the population is less dense large estates are in the hands of a few ; the people living either as tenants or laborers within these so-called "latifundia", entirely depending upon the owners thereof, without any prospect for a change for the better, neither to themselves nor to their children. 3. The smallness of wages, with all its consequences, as described in articles 1, 2, and 10, which drives them to "the last ditch," the Atlantic Ocean and across, with the common device "it cannot get worse." 4. The relatives and friends living already in "America," scarcely a family among the lower classes here is without such. Bach of the former acts involuntarily as an emigration agent; news from America is waited for with eagerness. If a letter arrives the people congregate in groups; the letter is read to all by the lucky fellow who received it; the dull faces lighten up, the eyes glisten, and one wish only is common to all, "Oh! that we could go to America!" 5. The money advanced by their American friends, either in cash or in form of passage tickets. Without this help hundreds and thousands never would have seen the hospitable shores of the "free land"; hun- dreds and thousands more would leave every year if they only had the means. 6. The words " ora and labora," once comprising the substance of all their rights, is not believed in any more in this sense of the word ; and a hundred Stocker and Windthorst cannot restore the lost faith ; the poor fellows begin to understand that they also have some claims besides, and some more rights in this beautiful world. 7. As other causes might be mentioned, among many the game law, the law against the socialists, the obligation to do military duty, and some more ; but all these are of minor importance — the main, principal cause, the leading idea, is to better their condition, to get independent, to become free citizens of a free country, with equal rights to all ; a country which affords the opportunity to rise higher in material, phys- ical, and moral welfare, aud the wish to see their. children happy, free, and content before they themselves pass away. The great bulk of the emigrants are laborers, agriculturists, and mechanics of every sort and ability. The other classes here are mostly well doing, and as a class do not emigrate; a few dozens, perhaps, of studied and professional men who, either led by the idea of finding a better field for their work, or driven by the desire to see foreign countries and to increase their knowl- edge; some young merchants who want to enrich themselves by estab- lishing branch houses, agencies, and so on, to import European goods, and a few " lost existences," who have nothing to lose and everything to gain, make the rest. The selection of their new homes is influenced by occupation, friends, and climate; they will go where they are told they will do the best; and it is to be hoped that all these men and women, who have given up home, friends, and " fatherland," knowing that they never will see them again, find their wishes fulfilled, their expectations realized, and become good, industrious, honest, and true citizens of our great Republic. Part II. — Female Labor. The number of women and children employed in mechanical and manufacturing pursuits in the province of Pomerania is given in the following tables, submitted as inclosures Nos. 17 and 18, their number 508 LABOE IN EUROPE — -GERMANY. being about 13 per cent, of all employed therein. In Eastern and Western Prussia about 3,600 females are employed; the number of iuveniles I could not make out. Of the former about one-third (1,200) are busy iu cigar and tobacco factories (700 in Eastern, 500 in Western Prussia) ; a considerable number also are engaged in sugar factories, where they clean and trim the beet roots, and also by rag dealers in assorting rags. It is impossible to get at the numbers of those com- prised under 1 6 and c, but an increase has taken place of late, and many females occupy at present positions as clerks, saleswomen, accountants, private teachers in languages and music, positions formerly only occu- pied by men ; female bankers, lecturers, public speakers don't exist, no Susan Anthony nor Lucy Stone yet having been born in Germany; but on the other side no male washerwoman competes here with the unde- nied privilege of the tender sex to act as laundresses. Agriculture, garden and farm labor is common to all, and the female inhabitants of the rural districts are attending the fields without ex- emption, e and /. Mining and other pursuits are contained in tables 17 and 18. FEMALE WAGES. The wages differ from 12 to 24 to 35 cents per diem ; the latter price is an exceptional one ; as a rule they are about one third to one-half of those paid to men. (See, also, inclosures 1 and 2.) HOURS OF LABOR. The hours of labor are the same as for male laborers, but are differ ent in different industrial pursuits, varying from ten to fourteen hours* MORAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. The moral and physical condition is all that can be expected, and at least not worse as in other countries with the same class. In all larger factories male and female laborers are separated; extra rooms for changing their clothes are provided for ; they live mostly with their parents or relatives; those without such, rent a sleeping place — in common with others — from a family for 71.4 to 96 cents per month ; they do not allow immorality among themselves, watch one another, and drive those out of their ranks who are found guilty of a lewd life. After a ten to twelve hours day's work the shop girl wants to enjoy herself; a walk, a dance, some music must make up for all the hard work, the troubles and privations she endured without lamentations during the day. MEANS PROVIDED FOR SAFETY AND IMPROVEMENT. The means provided for the improvement and safety, as also the pro- visions made in regard to sanitary measures of the female employes, are all the same as for males, and are dwelt on in detail in Part I, article 11. As peculiar to their sex may be remarked, that pregnancy and child- bed are not looked at as sickness, but that a benefit is paid, by the aid societies in such cases. Daring the work hours the female laborers are particularly looked after; some occupations are not allowed to them, and none at all at night-time. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY.- 509 WAGES AND FOOD PRICES. Wages paid and prices of necessaries of life have neither increased nor changed materially, otherwise during the past five years. The effect of employment of women on the wages of men has been in many instances a reduction of the wages of the latter, as particularly in the manufact- uring of cigars, but no effect is perceptible yet on the general, social, and industrial couditions of the country. EDUCATION OF FEMALE LABORERS. It will scarcely be possible to answer the last and, for the future of the land, the most important question with the care and exactness that it requires. It may be assumed a priori that ten to twelve hours work of the mother and of the other adult females of a family in a fac- tory, or fourteen to eighteen hours in the field, will neither prove very pleasant for the family circles nor very beneficial for the education of the children, but how and what the effects are, especially as concerns the children of such employes, and on their moral and physical condi- tion, I am at a total loss to say, from want of experience and knowl- edge. That the state of education of women employed is a very dif- ferent one, if comparing those employed as teachers, accountants, book- keepers, &c, with those working in the fields or as scavengers in the streets of the cities, is self-evident ; the former having at least an edu- cation as good as a graduate of our high schools; the latter, perhaps, like those that have passed the primary grades. JUVENILE' LABORERS. Eeferring to juvenile laborers, all that is known to me has already been told in Part I of this report, and in the iuclosures accompanying it ; wages paid, numbers employed, laws and regulations concerning them, &c. It only remains to say that an increase of juvenile laborers in the Province of Pomerania has taken place during the last year, as proven by the comparative table, inclosure No. 19, caused by the com- mendable fact that a number of larger machine shops, as also the railroad repair-shops under control of the Government, have taken greater numbers of apprentices, aud that more attention has been paid to this class of laborers as before, because a scarcity of young skilled mechanics became apparent. WOMAN'S LABOR IN GERMANY. I cannot close these remarks about female labor without saying a few words about "the degradation of the women of the lower classes." It is perfectly true what the Hon. Mr. Euggles, late consul at the Island of Malta and at Barcelona, says about the German peasant woman in his book ''Germany seen without Spectacles": " She prepares the field for planting ; she drives the oxen and holds the plow, and not unfrequently she takes the place of the ox before the plow. She sows the seed and tills the soil, she shovels, she hoes, she reaps, she gathers the harvest, she thrashes the grain and carries it to the mill, she markets the products of her small strip of land, to buy bread for her children and beer for her lord and master. She does the work aud the drudgery in the factories, she is the scavanger for cleaning the streets and for gathering offal in the cities and highways 510 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. for enriching the land," &c. All this is labor, labor done every day by the free, independent citizen of the United States, and if we hold up the dignity of labor, and proclaim that no labor is degrading, this out- burst of indignation seems somewhat strange. The women of the better situated classes are treated the same way as women are treated in America, live in the same manner, and many of them are even taking less care for their households, as a true American lady does. But the Germans have also their ideas about degradation. For instance, it is degrading even for a man of the better situated classes to carry any- thing in his hands, a book, a satchel, any little package. One day I took a pair of shoes wrapped in a newspaper to a shoemaker keeping a little shop, about as large as a small bedroom. Imagine my astonish- ment when the fellow brought them back, he walking in front, six feet behind him a servant boy with the shoes. Upon my question why this boy was coming, he told me, rather indignantly, that it was degrading for a man of his position to carry shoes in his hands. I saw school-girls ten to twelve years old, a servant following and carrying a music map. Now, the difference is that the American draws the line regarding degrading labor and not degrading labor between the sexes, the Ger- man between social castes and classes, both of them according to the rules that good manners, custom, and education have taught them. We Americans cannot understand the Germans in many things, and the Germans do not understand our ways. I think the difficulty is that we forget that man is not a being put into the world perfect and devel- oped at once, but that he is the result of an evolution going on since untold times. If we remember that only with the end of the last cen- tury feudal servitude in Germany began to get abolished, that only with the year 1832 it disappeared forever in the Saxonian province of CTpper Lusatia, in Austria not before the memorable year 1848, and that this "degradation of the women of the lower classes" is only a relict of the thraldom in which these very same classes were born and brought up. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. It is with great pleasure and sincere thanks that I acknowledge, be- fore closing this report, the liberality and courtesy as well of those gen- tlemen mentioned above as also of Messrs. Hertel, royal inspector of trades; Dr. Scharlau, president of the common council; Director R. Meyer, member of the Stadtverordneten-Oollegium ; I. Schultz, man- ager of the co-operative consume association in Stettin ; A. F. Voss, and many others, who all gave very willingly the information I sought. The many contradictions that appear in the price of wages, in the time of work hours, in prices of food and rent, result from the variety of informants and the diversity of their individual opinions' concerning demands to be made and work to be done; from the capacity of the employed as well as from the liberality of the employer, not two of the latter paying exactly the same wages ; from the manner the working- men are paid, if by hours or by piece-work, and so on. The discrep- ancies in character may be explained by the fact that the inhabitants of a country are composed of a multitude of persons different in man- ners, custom, passion, and education. CHARACTER OF THE GERMAN LABORERS. The German laborer is poor but honest, suffering and straggling for his daily existence, but content, fond of pleasure, bnt industrious and economical, loving the place of his birth, the play-grounds of his childhood, the fields that have witnessed the labor and the bravery LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 511 \ of his youth and manhood ; but despairing to ever better the condi- tions he lives in, he gives up everything to find a new home, a brighter future for himself and his beloved children in a far away land, that land which is the hope of all the unfortunate, of all the oppressed and down- trodden of the world. May his hope forever remain. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid the general trades in Stettin. [Per week of 60 hoars. J Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers.- do... do.... $3 57 1 78 7 14 1 78 7 14 3 57 4 28. 4 28 1 78 4 28 1 78 5 00 4 28 95 5 71 3 33 833 00 17 85 21 42 . 17 85 14 28 71 3 57 3 57 95 §48 3 57 3 33 2 86 83 2 86 2 86 4 28 3 57 4 28 4 28 4 28 2 86 2 38 4 28 5 00 2 38 4 28 2 86 2 86 114 28 2 86 4 28 285 60 3 57 2 38 $5 00 2 50 10 71 3 92 10 71 6 43 7 14 6 43 3 92 7 14 3 92 6 43 7 14 1 90 7 14 4 76 952 00 23 80 $4 28 2 14 8 92 2 86 do.... 8 92 do.... 5 00 do.... 5 71 do.... 5 35 do.... 2 86 do.... 5 71 do.... do.... 2 86 5 71 do.... 5 71 OTHER TRADES. 1 43 .....do.... 6 43 do.... 4 05 Brewers, including lodging: do 19 04 17 85 1 67 5 95 5 00 3 81 §83 5 00 4 28 3 81 1 67 5 71 5 71 5 95 4 28 5 71 7 14 5 71 9 52 4 76 5 71 6 43 4 76 5 71 4 76 5 71 1T7 14 5 71 5 71 571 20 4 28 4 76 do.... do.... 1 19 4 76 4 28 2 38 §65 4 28 3 81 Drivers : do.... do.... do.... do.... 3 33 1 31 4 28 4 28 do... do.... 5 12 3 92 do.... 5 00 do.... 5 71 do.... 5 24 do.... 6 19 do.... 3 57 do.... 5 00 5 Tl do... do.... 3 57 5 00 do.... 3 81 do... 4 28 do.... 175 71 do.... 4 28 do:.-. 5 00 428 40 do v ... 3 92 3 57 * Including board and lodging. t Include board and lodging and perquisites in form of bones, bristles, &c. t Striking at present. 5 Extra hours, 12 cents per hour. f| One single man in existence. H Per ton, 9£ to 14J cents. 512 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in factories or mills in Stettin. Occupations. Male hands in Chamotte factory Male hands in Portland cement works. Mechanics Male hands in soap works Female bands in soap works Male hands in cigar factory Female hands in cigar factory Piece-workers, per 1,000 cigars Schindler & Meritzell's Soap Works : Youthst Men* Sugar refinery : Male hands Female hands Chemical works Paper-mills Steam-mills Sugar factories Oil-mills Distill eries Oil refinery - Lowest. $3. 332 4.28 *.428 2. 856 1.071 1.309 1.25 2.856 Highest. Average. $5.95 4.76 *.655 3.57 1.428 3.57 2.50 3.57 $4,284 3.57 4.52 *.536 3.49 3.21 1.25 2.44 1.535 3.218 4.00 1.80 4.00 3.71 3.57 3.00 * Per day. 1 3.6 cents extra per hour for overwork. 1 6 cents extra per hour for overwork. MACHINE-SHOPS. Average wages per week of sixty hours in machine-shop of the Vulcan ship-building yard. Occupations. Blacksmiths Locksmiths Apprentices Turners Apprentices Coppersmiths . . Apprentices Transport-men . Saddlers Cabinet-makers . Varnishers Joiners Apprentices Drillers Brass- founders . Apprentices Molders Apprentices Wages. $4 10 4 25 1 94 4 78 1 80 5 47 1 13 2 83 3 22 4 12 3 49 4 12 1 00 3 48 3 26 1 56 5 02 2 03 Occupations. Foundry men Metal refiners Fitters A . Grinders Carpenters •. Masons Helpers Hammersmiths . Messengers Teamsters Watchmen Boiler-makers - - Laborers Drillers Boys Gas-factory men Wages. $3 08 4 21 3 62 1 06 3 43 4 11 4 81 2 26 4 23 2 95 4 08 3 72 3 95 3 17 3 69 1 52 3 00 GLASS WORKERS. Glass- workers in Pomerania (Stettin) receive for twelve hours' work 95.2 cents to $1.07, and twenty days a month employment. Sulphuric- acid glass bottles, 3.5 cents each ; 26 wine bottles, 9.5 cents. MINES AND MINING. Wages paid per day or week of sixty hours in and in connection with mines in Pomerania (Stettin). Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $3.57 2.856 2.142 $4,284 3.57 2.112 $3,808 3.091 2.112 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 513 SHIP-YARDS. Wages paid per week of sixty hours in ship-yards — distinguishing oetween iron and wood ship- building — in Stettin. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $3,713 $4. 332 3.951 4.808 3.046 3.689 3.641 4.808 2.856 3.856 3.57 4.284 2.856 3.142 4.284 5.831 3.57 4.57 2.428 3.142 Average. Joiners •Carpenters Riveters Pattern-makers Painters Smiths Hammermen ... Coppersmiths .. Brass-molder . . . Laborers $4,022 4.379 3.368 4.225 3.356 3.92T 2.999 5.57 4.07 2. 785 Wages paid in the Vulcan ship-yard (iron). Occupations. Average. Blacksmiths Sawyers Ship-carpenters Painters." Riggers Yard-men Laborers in saw-mill Joiners Tool-makers $4,046 4.024 4.553 3.101 4.212 2.677 3.441 3.865 3.358 Occupations. Plate-fitters Machine smiths Riveters Calkers Turners and drillers Laborers Boys "Watchmen Average. $3. 972 3.905 3.708 3.434 3.451 2.925 1.925 3.57 SEAMEN'S WAGES. Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men) — distingnishing oetween ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in Stettin. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Sailing vessel : $14 28 7 14 $28 56 14 28 $21 42 11 42 Steamer : 26 18 10 00 River steamer : 17 85 13 09 21 42 16 66 19 63 ^ftil 14 87 River sailing craft: 8 57 14 28 12 85 17 85 12 85 9 52 16 66 14 28 21 42 14 28 9 04 Coasting sailing vessel : 15 47 13 56 Coasting steam vessel: 19 63 a 'i 13 56 * Sailors belonging to steamers receive 4A cents extra wages per hour if their services are required beyond ten hours a day ; mates reoeive nothing extra, t Two -thirds of the freight, out of which he has to pay his men. 92 A— LAB 33 514 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid in store; wholesale and retail, to males and females, in Steitin. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average, $57 12 107 10 14 28 178 50 214 20 357 on 952 00 714 00 571 20 85 68 42 84 57 12 3 92 2 85 $71 40 142 80 28 56 297 50 428 40 571 00 1, 428 00 952 00 1, 428 00 128 52 71 40 107 10 4 76 4 28 $64 26. 130 90 4 do.... 21 3ft Clerkt do .... do.... 238 0ft 321 30 Bookkeeper: do... do.... do... do.... 450 00- 1, 190 00 833 Ott 999 0l> Shop worn an : ' do... 107 10 do... 57 12 do.... 85 68 4 28 3 57 ' With board and lodging. t Without board and lodging. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages per month or year to household servants in Stettin. Occupations. Cook, female* per year. Farm servant, female* do... Kitchen maid* do .. Houbo maid* do... Nursemaid* do... Housekeeper* do "Waiter* per month. Lanndresst per day. Cook, male? per month. Farm laborer* per annum. Coachman^ per month. Footman* do .. Lowest. $28. 56 17.14 17.14 17.14 14. 28 35.70 3.57 .357 17.85 35.70 14.28 5.71 Highest. $57. 12 21.42 25. 70 35.70 21.42 71.40 7.14 .476 24.99 42.84 21.42 8.57 Average. $42 84 19 28 21 42 26 42 17 85 53 55 5 36 2142 39 27 17 85 7 14 > With board and lodging. t With board. J Without board and lodging. Wages paid other female occupations per week of sixty hours at Stettin. Occupations. Pasteboard factory per week. Cartridge factory* do... Dairies (females), including Sundays do. '. '. Nurses (twelve hours per day) , without board per month ! Lowest. $0. 714 1.713 Highest. $2,142 2.213 Average. ^ $1,428 1.96S 1.66 14.00 ,.* ?™ some there is 8i , x w< i ek8 '> and for other8 there is three months' employment durine the year- in all, 380 women are employed. * J ' Dressmaker, when in house of customer, for ten honrs' work, 5B.5 to 71.4 cents, including board ■ for making a dress at home, according to material, $3.10 to $4.76; buttons, silks, 1 nines, &c arete be furnished by the customer. ' ' 6 ' " ' *'" ™ " Female teachera private lessons, langnages 47.6 cents per hour; singing, 71.4 cents per one-half LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 515 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid per day to agricultural laborers in the district of Stettin, without board and lodging. Occupations. Average. * $1 57 r 1 42 CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per annum to the corporation employe's in the city of Stettin. ADMINISTRATION OF THE CITY. Magistrate. — First mayor, $3,213. Second mayor, salary, $1,904; for administration of savings bank, $107.10; total, $2,011.10. City attorney and alderman, $1,499.40; superintendent of file department and alderman, $1,570.80; city treasurer and alder-, man, $1,428; commissioner of public buildings, $2,142 ; aldermen, $1,285.20;' school inspectors, $1,428. Salaried officers appointed by the magistrate. — Two city architects, each $1,142.40 ; city engineer, $856.80 ; city auditor, $928.20 ; city clerk, $928.20 ; commissioner of public buildings, $856.t0 ; city secretary, $856.80 ; city register, $714; city hofineistor and secretary, $749.70 ; four bookkeepers, 1 at $642.60, 2. at $553.35=$1,106.70 ; ] at 1517.65; total, $2,266.95. Three secretaries, 2 at $606.90=$1,213.80; lat$517.65; total, $1,731.45. Seven assistants, with $553.35 to $357 each, total, $2,998.80. A number of messengers, janitors, firemen, &c, from $333.20 to $221.34. Extras and remunera- tion allowed .■ aking a grand total of $21,012.18. Employes in the city gas and water works, from $476 to $1,428. Workingmeu, 47.6 to 59.5 cents. Policemen, $15.75 to $16.66 to commence with, rising to $35.70 per month, uniform provided for. FIRE DEPARTMENT. Superintendent, $785.40; chief of department, $571.20; first-clasB fireman, $265.60 to $282.74 ; second-class fireman, $214.20 to $257.04 ; hose-cart man, 18 cents a night, besides relief and regular pensions to members' widows and children. SCHOOL DEPARTMENT. Stadt gymnasium. — Director, $410.55 more than the next highest salary. Twenty- six teachers, from $1,642.20 to $333.20 ; average, $761.81. Special salaries for singing, drawing, &c, according to hours given: Drawing, $514.08 ; singing, $214.20; gym- nastics, $285.60 ; average, $337.96. Two janitors, from $202.62 to $96.24 ; average, $149.43. Seal gymnasium (a school in which languages, as well as arts and sciences, are tanght). — Director, $328.44 (in gold) more than the next highest salary.' Twenty- four teachers, from $1,560.09 to $333.20 ; average, $631.31. Janitor, $226.43. Superior girls' scAooZ. — Director, ,$574.77 more than the next highest salary. Eight teachers from $1,560.09 to $440.30 ; average, $867.05. Six female teachers from $487.90 to $332.20 ■ average, $382.78. Gymnastics, $214.20 ; drawiDg, $157.08 ; janitor, $164.78. Elevated yirls' school. — Rector, $353.43 more than the next highest salary. Six teachers from $999.60 to $428.40 ; average, $591.62. Two female teachers from $285.60 to $257.04 ; average, $271.32. Lessons in needle- work, $257.04 ; gymnastics, $124.95; drawing, $238 ; janitor, $146.37. Girls' school. Principal, $142.80 more than the next highest salary. Eight teachers from $714 to $476; average, $544.42. Two female teachers, $285.60 each; two female teachers for needle-work, $228.48 ; gymnastics, $71.40; janitor, $116.48. Boys' school. — Principal, $142.80 more than the next highest salary. Fifteen teach- ers from $714 to $249.90 ; average, $410.15. Gymnastics, $53.55 ; janitor, $184.06, Average salary of all teachers, $634.39. Average salary of all female teachers, $313.23, except specials— needle-work average, $242.76. 516 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. PRINTERS' WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid per week of sixty hours to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, fya. ) in Stettin. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $3 81 4 05 6 43 71 2 86 $7 14 7 14 6 66 95 4 28 $5 47 5 59 6 55 - 83 3 57 AVERAGE WAGES IN POMERANIAN CITIES. Average wages paid to worlcingmen in the following cities of Pomerania, per diem. Name of city. City of Stettin Alt Damm Gartz on the Oder Grabow on the Oder Pencun Poelitz Greifenhagen Balm .'. Fiddichow Pyritz - Stargard in Prussia Freienwalde in Prussia . Noerenberg Jaoobshagen Zachau Naugard Daber Maasow Gollnow Eegenwalde Cabee Plathe ^ "Wangerin Greifenberg in Prussia. . Treptlow on the Rega . . . Cammin Swinemiinde TJsedom Wollin TTeckermunde Pasewalfc Neuwarp Anclam Demmin Jarmen Treptlow on the Tollense Laborers over six- Laborers under six- Number teen years of age. teen years of age. of inhab- itants. i Hales. Females. Hales. Females. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. 91, 756 47.60 23.80 23.80 14 21 4,987 41.65 21.42 23.80 13.09 5,182 41.65 29.75 17.85 14.28 13, 672 47.60 21.42 23.80 21.42 2,060 35.70 23.80 17.85 17.86 4,146 29.75 17.85 17.85 11.90 6,906 28.56 19.04 11.90 9.51 3,146 23.80 11.90 11.90 9.53 2,931 23.80 14.28 9.52 9.58 8,123 30.94 14.28 11.90 11.90 21, 828 35.70 19.04 11.90 9.52 2,384 35.70 ' 23.80 11.90 5.95 2,956 23.80 9.52 9.52 4.76 1,945 23.80 14.28 9.52 9.52 1,509 35.70 17.85 7.14 5.95 4,949 35.70 23.80 11.90 9.52 2,271 23. SO 11.90 9.52 7.14 2,815 29.75 17.85 11.90 9.53 9,000 35.70 17.85 17.85 11.90 5,442 35.70 23.80 11.90 11.90 5,612 23.80 14.28 11.90 11.90 2,225 29.75 16.66 9.52 7.14 2,709 32.13 21.42 14.28 14.28 5,860 35.70 23.80 17.85 11.90 7,052 29.75 14.28 9.52 9.52 5,856 35.70 23.80 14.28 11.90 8,478 29.75 19.04 19.04 9.52 1,810 35.70 23.80 17.85 17.85 5,506 29.75 17.85 9.52 9.52 5,516 35.70 23.80 21.42 . 21.42 9,469 23.80 23.80 14.28 9.52 2,280 35.70 29.75 29.76 23.80 13, 000 42.84 23.80 23.80 14.28 10, 507 35.70 23.80 23.80 17.85 1,642 29.75 17.85 11.90 11.90 4,165 35.70 23. 80 17.85 11.90 . N 5™:T-^ t . a meeting of the authorities of the district, held Hay 5, 1884, the waees have been fixed Places in the district of Stettin > Hen, 23.8; womraVieT^f 'toyVll.9 .' g££; g^ "|en worSTg-lSars Lj and x to 6 p. m. the day, from 7 to 12 a. m., LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. LIVING EXPENSES IN STETTIN. 51T Statement of earnings and living expenses of fourteen individual employe's in different occu- pations. Occupation a. Number of the members of families. go .CUM a ID M o la Income. § a s a 'In cement factory In machine-shop In'chemical factory In paper-mill In flour-mill (by steam) In oil factory In soap factory In railroad service Cabinet-maker Locksmith Shoemaker Tailor Navvy Field-laborer $128 52 185 64 190 40 167 79 220 15 185 84 173 74 157 08 160 65 142 80 130 90 136 85 154 70 78 54 $42 84 $17 85 71 40 28 56 21 42 65 45 35 70 ■ 28 56> 21 42J 61 88 28 56 47 60 17 85 21 42 : 19 04< 28 561 9 52 23 80 $171 36 185 64 261 80 214 20 220 15 221 34 247 52 18* 68 226 10 142 80 159 46 232 05 182 07 123 76 Expense by percentages. Occupations. o .9 1 5 1 % i i l. || O o H 13 a o go « M c3 09 .2 o 3 i to ^ . a *> ■ 45 60 60 55 65 42 65 59 56 53 64 56 63 71 17 8 13 22 15 34 12 9 10 10 7 16 13 7 14 12 10 7 6 8 12 14 16 14 13 16 5 4 2 1 8 13 11 12 9 6 3 4 3 2 3 3i 3 4 1 1 3 2 3 2 A 4 i 24 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 4 4 4 i l 14 l 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 i 1 14 i l 14 3 1 2 •. 2 2 14 2 1 3 54 ,,» 4 8 2 1 2 1 4 3 Tailor i POOD PRICES IN STETTIN. Articles. ■Wheat flour per pound. Rye flour do... Beef: Fore quarter do — Hind quarter do... Teal: Forequarter do... Hind quarter do... $0. 036 0.024 0.119 0.143 0.095 0.119 Articles. Mutton : Forequarter per pound. Hind quarter do... Pork: Fresh do... Salted do... Ham do... do... Price. $0. 119 .0.143 0. 119to-0.155 0.143 to 0.190 0.214 0.238 518 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMAIN I. Foodpriee8 in Stettin — Continued. Articles. Bacon per pound. Lard do... Butter do... Cheese do . - . Codfish do... Eice do .. Oatmeal do... Pearl barley do. - . Beans do ... Lentils do... Peas do... Potatoes per 50 kilograms Salt per pound. Milk per liter Sanerkraut per pound Poppy-oil do.. Sweet oil do.. Petroleum do . . Vinegar per liter Alcohol do . Whisky do.- Tobacco per pound Coffee: Eio do.. Java do... Chicory do.- Sugar : Kenned do.. Common do.- Sirup do.. Eggs peregg Candles : Stearine per pound. Tallow : do.. Soap, common do... Coals percwt. $0. 190 0.190 0. 285 0.119 0.095 0.060 0.024 0.048 0.048 0.036 0.036 0.476 0.024 0.036 0.024 0.190 0.285 0.033 0.048 0.143 0.060 0.238 0.190 0.262 0.043 0.095 0. 083 0.060 0.012 0.167 0.190 0.060 0.238 Articles. Hardwood per 4 test meter. . Softwood do.-.. Bread, rye per pound. . Shirting: Not bleached per meter.. Bleached do — Sheeting : Not bleached, 65 to 75 centi- meters wide per meter.. Bleached, 75 to 82 centimeters wide per meter. . Bleached, 160 centimeters wide, per meter ■ Flannel, about70centimeterswide, per meter Calico per meter. Ticking, 67 to 75 centimeters wide, per meter ■ Woolen cloth for mechanics, 120 centimeters wide per meter. . Boots, for mechanics Boots, for mechanics, horse leather. Shoes, foT mechanics Kent for 2 rooms and kitchen, per month Kent for 3 rooms and kitchen, per month Rent for 4 rooms and kitchen, per month Board and lodging for single men, per week Board and lodging for single women, per week Soup kitchen for the poor, per meal Price. $8. 001 4.000 0.021 0.084 to 0.144 0. 096 to 0. 144 0.096 to 0.144 0. 108 to 0. 141 0.264 to 0.313 0. 108 to 0. 144 0. 084 to 0. 144 0.120 to 0.180 0. 950 to 1. 190 1.600 to 1.900 2. 020 to 2. 380 0.890 to 1.190 1. 900 to 2. 850 3. 570 to 4. 760 4. 760 to 5. 950 1.900 to 2. 380 1.430 0.036 INDUSTRIES AND EMPLOYES OF POMERANIA. Table showing industries and number of persons occupied within the province of Pomerania. Occupations. Establishments. Laborers. Over 16 years of age. 14 to 16 years ofage. 12 to 14 years ofage. Grand total. s Mining, smelting and salt. Stones and earth Metals Machines, tools, instru- , ments, &c Chemicals 1 Heating and lighting Textile fabrics Paper and leather Wood and carving Eood and provisions ...... Clothing and cleaning Polygraphical Other branches Totals 3 87 59 84 14 32 28 11 185 5C9 12 16 10 130 619 12 952 74 107 18 99 73 38 327 ,454 4 83 22 127 6,953 1,061 6,825 1,254 1,465 457 674 2,288 7,173 17 688 128 4 771317 40 56 28 110 322 301 21 328 20 172 45 131 8,109 1,157 131 7,724 1,101 2 29, 22 12 1 1, 474 700 3, 263 28, 810 2, 162 918 247 57 ' 56 32, 250 I ' I ' 7,056 6,825 1,380 1,282 1,310 1,270 870 779 1,068 975 2,373 2,308 7,595 7,501 48 37 923 860 230 173 385 56 231 127 7,286 1,117 7,056 1,307 1,188 485 716 2,352 7,237 26 730 158 4 82S 46 7S 123 385 353 21 358 23 193 72 30, 972 1, 278 29, 785 2,465 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 519 TRADE REGULATIONS OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. ' [Translated from the German. J Title VII. — Working-men (journeymen, helpers, apprentices, workmen in factories). I. General relations. Sec. 105. The regulation of the relations between masters and their employe's is left to themselves, within the restrictions of the law of the German Empire. The masters cannot compel their workmen to work on Sundays or holidays. Such ■work which cannot be postponed, or does not allow an intermission without loss, is not comprised in the foregoing regulation. The holidays are designated by the Government. Sec. 106. Masters who have lost their civil rights are not allowed, as long as these Tights are withheld from them, to instruct persons under eighteen years. The police authorities can enforce the dismission of such persons, if employed con- trary to the above regulation. . Sec. 107. Persons under twenty-one years of age can only be employed as working- men, if they have a book of employment (Arbeitsbuch), unless otherwise provided for by law. When such workingmen are engaged, the master has to ask for the book, Tseep the same in security and show it, if asked for by legal authorities, and return it to the employe" at his dismissal. These regulations do not apply to children, who are bound to visit the public schools. Sec. 110. The book of employment must contain the name of the workingman, the town or village where and the year and day when he was born, as also his signature. These books have to show the seal and signature of the authorities. The latter shall keep a register of the books of employment issued by them. The arrangement of •said books will be ordered by the chancellor of the Empire. Sec. 111. When the workingman enters the master's service, the latter shall record in the book the date of beginning, as also the kind of work given him, also at the dis- missal the date of leaving ; and if the work was changed during the time, the kind of work last employed at is to be recorded. Sue. 112. If the master should not return the book as prescribed by law, or should neglect to enter the items above mentioned, or should have inscribed improper re- marks, the workman can sue him for damages within four weeks. Sec. 113. The workman can at his dismissal demand a certificate stating the length of time he worked, and what kind of work he was employed at. Sec. 115. The masters are obliged to pay the wages in cash money. They cannot jay the wages in goods. Exceptions to this regulatipn are, provisi6ns, fuel, erson particularly for that pur- He shall not use the apprentice for other services not pertaining to the trade, or set him at work duriug church hours on Sundays and holidays, It is his duty to teach the apprentice diligence and good morals, and to guard him against excesses. Sec. 127. The apprentice is under the discipline of the master, and has also to obey the orders of his substitute. Sec. 128. The apprenticeship can, before the expiration of the first four weeks, be dissolved on request of either party. An agreement taking the apprentice on trial for more than three months is null and void. After expiration of probation time he- may be discharged before the end of the apprenticeship in particular case's, such aB, for instance, dishonesty, disobedience, &c. The apprentice himself can dissolve the apprenticeship after the expiration of the probation time in the following cases : 1. In case of sickness, inability to work, or if the master commits an act of violence against him, or insults him in a brutal manner, or in case the master does not pay him his wages, or encourages him to dishonest or immoral acts. 2. If the master neglects his duties in regard to the health and moral education of the apprentice, or neglects to fulfill the duties mentioned in the contract of the appren- ticeship, or misuses the rights of discipline intrusted to him. The death of the ap- prentice dissolves the contract of apprenticeship ; the death of the master dissolves- the contract if notice is given of the dissolution within four weeks. Sec 129. At expiration of the apprenticeship the master is bound to give the ap- prentice a certificate, mentioning the trade learned, the duration of apprenticeship, and the knowledge and skill obtained, as also the behavior of the apprentice during: this time; this certificate has to be certified by the local authorities free of cost. Where guilds or other societies of the trade exist, they can issue certificates. Sec. 130. If the apprentice leaves his place unlawfully without the consent of the master, the master cannot claim him again unless he has a written contract. In the- latter case the police authorities may compel the apprentice, if desired so by the mas- ter, to stay so long, until the apprenticeship has been dissolved by lawful decision. Sec. 131. If the master is informed by a written declaration from the father or guardian, or if the apprentice is of age by the latter himself, that the apprentice in- tends to learn a different trade, then the apprenticeship is dissolved after expiration, of four weeks, if the apprentice is not discharged before. The reason of dissolution must be mentioned by the master in the book of employment. Within nine months after the dissolution, the apprentice cannot be employed in the same trade by another master without the consent of the former. Sec. 132. If the apprenticeship comes to an end before the time fixed in the con- tract, damages can only be claimed by the master or apprentice if a written contract exists. IV. Relations op laborers in factories. Sec. 134. Paragraphs 121 to 125 may be referred to, regarding factory lSborers ; if the laborers are regarded as apprentices, paragraphs 126 to 133 are to be referred to. Sec. 135. Children under twelve years of age shall not be employed in factories. Children under 14 years of age are not allowed to work more than 6 hours per day. Children that are obliged to visit public schools are not allowed to work in factories- unless they attend a regular course of study of at leaRt 3 hours per day. Persons between fourteen and sixteen years of age shall not work more than 10 hours, per day. The engagement of women, after having given birth to a child, is not al- lowed before three weeks have elapsed. Skc. 136. The working hours of juvenile laborers shall not begin before 5.30 o'clock in the morning, nor last longer than 8.30 o'clock in the evening. Between the work- ing hours of every working day regular intermissions must be allowed. The time of rest must be of ha]f an hour's length for children ; for young people between fourteen and sixteen years of age, an hour for dinner, as also half an hour in the forenoon and half an hour in the afternoon. During the pauses the young laborers shall not be employed at any work, nor their presence allowed in the rooms where they are em- ployed, unless all work is stopped therein during this time. Juvenile laborers shall* not be employed on Sundays or holidays, nor during the hours designated by the min- ister of the gospel for the instruction in catechism, for confirmation, confession anct communion. Sec. 137. The employment of children in a factory is not allowed if a card for employ- < ment has not been tendered before to the employer. This also applies to young peo- LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. 521 pie between fourteen and sixteen years, who are yet obliged to visit the public schools. A book of employment is not necessary in this case. Sec. 138. If juvenile laborers are to be employed in factories, the employer shall inform by letter the police department before the beginning of employment. In this notice the following is to be stated : The factory where employed, on what days of the week employment is to take place, the commencement and'end of the working hours and pauses, as also the kind of work employed at. A change herein is not allowed before being reported to the authorities. It is the duty of the employer to exhibit a list of the juvenile laborers in the rooms of each factory on a place easily ■visible, stating the working days, as also the commencement and ending of the work- ing hours and time of rest ; also shall be exhibited, in the premises mentioned above, a card containing the regulations for employment of juvenile laborers. Sec. 139 a. By resolutions of the federal council it can be forbidden or only condi- tionally allowed to employ juvenile and female laborers in branches of industry by which their health or morals are getting endangered. Particularly can it be forbid- den that women be employed at certain branches of industry during^night time. The resolutions of the federal council have to be laid before the next meeting of the Ger- man Reichstag. They are null and void if declared so by this body. Sec. 139 6. It is the duty of the police authorities, or of officers appointed ex- pressly by the Government, to control the execution of the regulations mentioned in paragraphs 135 to 139 a, as also in 120, section 3. It is the duty of the above mentioned officers to make yearly reports of their official doings. These reports, or abstracts of the same, are placed before the federal council and German Reichstag. The inspection of the factories, if in operation, by the above- named officers must be allowed by the proprietors at any time, especially at night. Ilnclosure No. 7.1 Results of the loan and credit co-operative societies from 1876 to 1882, inclusive. ■Si .3 o Number De wuls granted. u .s a of mein- Tear. %4 IS' u a the so- cieties. Total amount. Average Bum for each so- ciety. Shares of the members. Reserve. Total amount of both. Total amount of sales during the year no cn .. 7Q o 4 Computation of the net profits: aj.oim./sw | Business income of the stores . , A 1C i oq j Other sales, &c '" iSfiW M Business expenses : !«>,*» | Interest to creditors afi fffij Salaries and costs of administration '.'■'.'.'.""'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'. i 773735 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 525 Computation of net profits — Continued. Number. Extraordinary losses 7,104 Net profits : Grand total 2,514,017 Turned over to members : Interests :... ; 132,453 Dividends 2,050,881 Reserve fund 134,672 Fund at disposition _i> . 28, 422 Balance at end of year. ASSETS. Marks. Cash on hand 692,103 Inventory of goods on hand 3,974,136- Due for goods sold to members on credit 106,719 Other claims of the society 1,922,263 Inventory of business and fixtures . 414, 714 Value of property •.... 3,110,138 Total amount of assets 10,220,073 DEBTS. Marks. Business share of members 3,352,568 Resorvefund 1,323,434 Fund at disposal for educational matters 40,754 Moneys borrowed 1,585, 156 Debts or mortgages 1, 264, 640 Checks in circulation 195,236 Debts of the society for goods bought on credit 449,493 Unpaid business expenses and undistributed profits 1,994,708 Total amount of debts 10 205,989 [Inolosure JTo. 13.] List showing members of 166 co-operative consume, 13 co-operative productive, and 1 co-opera- tive building society m the German Empire for 1882. MEMBERSHIP. Number of members opening of year 1882 99,655 Number of members entered during the year 18,890 Withdrawn during the year : By free will 14,154 By death 836 By dismission 1,647 Total.... 16,637 Increase of members during year 1882 2,253 Number of members at close of year 1882 101,908 BTJlSDIHG IN LIFE OF MEMBERS. Independent farmers, gardeners, fishers, and foresters : Male 3,513 Female 269 Helpers and laborers with farmers, gardeners, fisherp, and foresters : Male 3,517 Female ,---, 441 Manufacturers, proprietors of mines, and contractors : .Male 1,488 'Female 88 526 s LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Independent raeolianics : Male : 14 "°™ Female : sbt> Trade journeymen and laborers in factories and mines : Male ».*» Female 1 > 80& Independent merchants and dealers: Male 3 >£>1 Female 554 Clerks and others employed by merchants: Male if JO* Female 102 Carters, ship proprietors, hotel and saloon keepers : Male 2 .371 Female -• V"i" Letter-carriers, subaltern railroad, telegraph, and post-office employes, railroad laborers, and not independent waiters and mariners : Male - , - 7, 70S Female 1 118 Servants and expressmen : Male M16 Female ,--- 356 Physicians, druggists, teachers, artists, journalists, church, state, and city officers : Male •: - 9,85a Female .: : 926 Capitalists, pensioners, and other persons without occupation: Male 3,116 Female 4,134 Total of all members : Male 92,040 Female 9,868 [Inclosure No. 14.1 -Salaries and costs of administrative of 126 co-operative consume societies in the German Empire for 1882. SALARIES, REMUNERATIONS, AND SHARES OP PROFITS (TANTIEMBN). Salaried directors of the society : Number 326 Fixed salary marks.. 77,483 Share of profits do 116,161 Storekeepers : Number do.... 313 Fixed salary do.... 152,597 Share of profits do 309, 889 Other payments made do 16,13& Salaries of other society officers, clerks, hired men, &c do 202,597 Salary of the superintendent do 31,982 Expenses for a foreign reviser do 1,001 Other personal expenses do 8,692 Total amount do 894,551 Costs of administration and other expenses : Rent for own.stores do 62,434 Rent for other stores do 127, 357 Costs of inventory .-. do 51,605 Costs for repairs and real estate do 82, 888 Books, printing, insurance, and other administrative costs do 190, 869 Total do 501,337 LABOE IN EUROPE GEBMANY. [Inclosnre No. 15.] Table showing the hind of homes of workingmen and rents paid. 527 Booms. Situation and con- dition of the rooms. Yearly rent. Let to others.. * a ffB SI Is e .3 O a inon.t >V Dot Parterre perfectly damp and very unhealthy. 1 bed to a girl for $8.57. ■ 1 bed for $11.42 . . . 25 70' 34 27" 27 IS ....do , 28 56 do 22 85 do 25 70 1 room, 1 fire-place ; 4 fire-places on one floor, to each one room.t Dot First story * 22 85 22 85 1 room and 1 open fire-place in hall in common, t 'Inhabitants of these rooms are mechanics, locksmiths, carpenters, &c, employed in factories. t Inhabitants of these rooms are helpers and laborers employed in factories. Number of females engaged in industry in the province of Pomerania in 1882. Occupations. 12 to 14 years. 14 to 16 years. Over 16 years. Total. Stone and earth Metal Machines and instruments. Chemical Heating and lighting Textile Paper and leather Wood and carving Groceries and provisions . . . Clothing and cleaning • Polygrapbical Other branches Grand totals . 56 30 771 40 28 110 322 301 21 328 20 172 45 2,158 823 40 7S 122 385 352 21 358 22 103 72 3,461 528 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Number of juveniles engaged in industry in the province of Pomerania in 1882. Occupations. Twelve to fourteen years. Fourteen to sixteen years. Totals. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Stone and earth industry 16 3 19 317 56 229 31 23 28 42 64 49 9 42 28 49 366 56 229 60 35 66 90 64 79 11 63 46 '333 56 221 53 23 28 42 64 64 9 42 30 52 385 2 22 2 38 231 16 29 12 38 48 45 12 63 51 35 91 93 64 94 11 63 52 25 3 25 3 Groceries and provisions 15 IE 30 2 21 18 30 2 21 27 2 9 11 57 56 113 918 247 1,165 975 303 1,278 List of juvenile laborers in the province of Pomerania from 1879 to 1882, inclusive. Tear. ■si Fourteen to six- teen years. Twelve to four- teen years. Total. i s Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. 1 1879 153 169 214 201 739 713 816 918 309 273 277 247 70 48. 38 57 37 28 37 56 809 761 854 975 346 301 314 303 1880 1,155 1881 1,062 1882 1,168 1 1,278 United States Consulate, HEEMAl* KIEFEE, Consul. Stettin, July, 1884. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 529 THTJEINGIA. REPORT BY CONSUL MOSHER, 01 SONNEBER0. Part I.— Male Labor. THE RATES OF WAGES. The following tables, which have been prepared with reference to ac- curacy and completeness, will show the present rates of wages in the Thuringian states : Wages paid per weelc of sixty-six working hours in Sonneberg (Tkuringia) and vicinity. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofer 9 Tenders Plumbers Assistants . . Carpenters Gas- titters OTHEE TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Brick makers - Brewers B u tc e i s Brass founders Cabinet-makers - ■ Confectioners k Cigar-makers A Coopers -Cutlers ■ ltistill ers Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Cab, carriage, and street railways Dyers Engravers Pu' riers Gardeners Hattei a Horse-sheers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers - Millwrights - Kail-makers (hand) - Potters Printers Teachers, public schools Saddle and harness makers Sail-makers Stevedores Tanneis Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths : Weavers (outside of mills) $3 33 "h'ii 3 75 3 75 3 60 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 85 2 38 1 43 3 75 2 14 2 85 2 38 2 50 2 26 2 85 2 14 2 85 2 85 4 28 3 75 2 38 2 85 2 85 4 70 2 14 4 28 3 75 2 85 2 85 4 28 4 28 3 75 2 85 2 38 2 85 2 38 2 38 $3 57 "i'li 5 71 4 76 4 85 3 75 4 28 3 09 3 33 4 28 8 09 4 76 3 33 5 71 3 75 3 00 2 62 3 75 2 62 3 75 3 75 7 14 4 28 3 75 4 28 3 33 9 52 3 00 9 52 5 71 4 28 3 75 7 14 9 52 4 28 4 28 2 85 4 28 3 75 $3 40 2 00 6 18 1 75 4 50 1 75 4 08 4 00 2 00 3 32 2 00 3 15 3 56 2 90 3 00 2 00 3 50 3 75 4 08 2 75 3 56 2 70 2 80 2 35 3 15 2 25 3 25 3 30 5 5» 3 90 2 75 3 20 3 V* 6 00 2 75 5 80 4 40 3 32 3 25 5 00 4 50 3 90 3 25 2 54 3 8* 2 8* 2 5* 92 A— LAB 34 530 LABOE IN EUEOPE GERMANY. FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wades paid per week of sixty-six to seventy-two working hours in factories and mills in Thu- ringia." Occupations. WOOLEN MILLS.t Wool sorters (female) Carding : Overseers (male) Washers Carders Common hands Drawing : Overseers Drawers Spinii i n 'I : Overseers Spinners Dressing: Overseers Dressers Labor: Overseers Engineers Mach iniats Watchmen Day laborers COTTON MILLS. \ Head pickers Pickers Oilers Grinders Card shippers Roving hands Speeder girls Flyers Jack-framers Doffers Mule-spinners Pack-boys § Weavers : Plain ---- Fancy Dyers : Plain Fancy Cloth-room hands Spoolers Lowest. $1 00 2 90 1 90 1 60 1 30 2 10 2 75 2 30 3 10 2 60 2 90 3 00 2 00 1 50 1 75 2 50 1 60 2 00 2 20 1 65 1 20 1 90 1 56 1 60 1 40 3 00 1 00 2 00 2 50 2 30 3 20 2 50 1 98 Highest. $1 35 5 00 2 75 2 10 2 00 4 90 3 40 4 85 3 50 5 20 4 85 5 00 5 50 3 50 2 00 2 60 3 90 2 70 3 00 2 80 2 75 2 00 2 98 2 68 2 66 2 07 4 30 1 40 3 10 3 60 3 90 4 80 3 60 3 08 Average. $115 4 10 2 28 1 95 1 60 3 85 2 75 3 70 2 80 4 40 3 48 4 00 4 25 2 62 ' 1 60 2 00 3 10 2 08 2 30 2 50 2 09 1 50 2 13 1 98 2 05 1 66 3 40 1 05 2 34 284 2 84 2 23 * The wages are for males. A fraction over one-half of the operatives are females, and their wages are from one-third to one-half less than those of males, t Seventy-two hours per week. ISixty-six hours per week. § Ten are under 14 years of age. FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Wages paid per week of sixty-six working hours in foundries, machine shops, and iron works in Tharingia. Occupations. FOUNDKIES. Casters Holders Day laborers MACHINE-SHOPS. Turners and locksmiths Boileramiths Blacksmiths Welders Apprentices Machine builders Hosiery loom builders Joiners Engineers Firemen Day laborers '. Lowest. Highest. $2 90 $4 00 2 86 3 94 2 20 2 30 2 50 3 50 2 40 3 45 2 85 3 33 2 85 3 21 1 78 2 50 2 90 3 25 2 60 3 80 2 25 3 50 3 20 4 00 3 00 3' 50 2 10 2 25 $3 40 3 00 2 25 3 27 3 15 3 00 2 96 1 98 3 00 3 30 2 85 3 70 3 20 2 20 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 531 GLASS-WORKERS. The condition of the glass-workers is an anomalous one. There are several important factories in the district, particularly those at Lau- scha and Steinach, but the greater part of the work is done in private houses. Nearly every family has its gas generator and blow-pipe, and having purchased the raw material, or else received it from their em- ployers, they manufacture it into all kinds of articles, such as beads, marbles, toys, fruit and flowers, animals, Christmas-tree decorations, human and animal eyes, spun glass, and that form of glass by which a snow-storm is represented on the theatrical stage. Lausoha has the reputation of producing the finest imitation of the human eye of any place in Germany. The most of the work is piece-work, so that it is very difficult to tabu- late the wages or the earnings. As a rule these are small, and the glass- workers, who are generally poor, live in the plainest and severest man- ner. Wages paid per week of sixty working hours to glass and porcelain workers in Lauscha, Steinach, Hiittensteinach, and vicinity. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. GLASS-WORKERS. Grinders Grinders (female) Tubes (for thermometers, &c.) Marl lies, plain I. Marbles, with figures , Beads .per M.. . . . do Toys. Eves (for dolls and animals) . Byes (human) PORCELAIN-WORKERS. Modelers Decorators Formers and turners Formers and turners (female) . Firemen Packers Bay laborers SLATE- WORKERS. Slate-pencil makers and slate- workers $2 50 1 25 3 00 1 25 2 38 2 14 2 86 2 38 7 14 5 00 4 50 3 50 1 8(1 3 75 3 00 2 25 2 00 $5 64 2 35 5 95 4 76 11 90 3 57 4 76 4 76 9 52 13 73 9 00 6 00 3 20 4 50 3 75 6 00 $3 90 1 80 4 20 2 39 4 60 2 50 3 40 3 00 7 96 8 00 6 00 4 55 2 50 4 00 3 25 2 90 THE PORCELAIN INDUSTRY. The manufacture of porcelain and china ware is an important industry in this district. One of the most important of the manufactories in the immediate vicinity of Sonneberg is that of the Schoenau Brothers (Gebriider Schoenau) in Hiittensteinach; 400 are employed here, of which 280 are males and 120 are females. They are divided as follows : 2 modelers, 6 molders, 70 turners (including apprentices), 40 formers (all female), 30 glazers (all female), 24 burners, 155 decorators (includ- ing females and apprentices), 6 printers (all female), 6 enamelers, 4 grinders, 10 sorters, 17 packers (principally girls), 8 mixers, 6 wood- men, and 16 day laborers. The turners, molders, and decorators are paid by the pie< e, and earn from $4.28 to $5.95 per week. Day laborers receive $2.28 per week, working 10 hours a day. 532 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. This factory was established in 1865, and is unsurpassed for the ex- cellence and beauty of its ware, which includes all kinds of table-serv- ice, toilet articles, ornamental plaques and vases, and artistic vessels. Its imitation of delft ware is perfect. The Schoenau ware is in demand in America and England, where it is by many preferred to the genuine Meissen. It is certainly clearer and more purely white than this ware. Most of the articles are made by the hand and the wheel, instead of being pressed by machinery, it being believed that the former process produces superior results. MINES AND MINING. Wages paid per week of sixty working hours in, and in connection with, iron and coal mine in Thuringia. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. 'Overseers Miners (coal andiron) Smelters Cai t.t-rs Enjriue workers (winders) . . Stokers I>ay laborers (in mines) Day laborers (about surface) Contract work (mines) $3 50 1 25 1 30 1 20 2 00 1 40 1 75 1 50 2 00 $4 50 3 50 3 40 3 10 3 95 3 40 3 80 3 40 3 95 $4 10 2 95 2 95 2 00 3 00 2 51) 2 10 2 30 3 10 RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as toell as thou engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, $c.) in Thuringia (the Werra Railway). Occupations. "Whole number. Lowest. Highest. Average. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. 8 $375 00 1, 716 00 Office .of directors: Office of general administration: 2 2 2 $645 00 $693 00 669 00 222 00 270 00 Office of traffic: 1, 125 00 559 50 2 450 00 669 00 Office of treasurer: 13 3 300 00 198 00 525 00 222 00 210 00 Teller J 275 00 1, 275 08 Movements inspection : 2 4 375 00 182 50 429 00 228 12 J 4i>2 00 205 31 450 00 467 00 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMAKY. Wages paid per year to railway employe's, £c. — Continued. 533 Occupations. Whole number. Lowest. Highest. Average. CONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT. Division engineers (civil)* Office clerks Section-masters t Flagment TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT. Depot-maaterslT - Depot assistants X .... Signalmen; Pollers } Watt'hmen (each)f Telegraphers (each) X Car-revisers (each) X Goods-reoeiversIT Goods-dispatehersTT Baggage-handlers} Baggage-musters t Goods-controllers J Weighers J ComTuctois (superior) t Conductors (interior, or ticket collectors) t . Brakeiuen (eachj|| Engineers (locomotive) I Firemen [| Day laborers, at 70 to 75 cents 2 2 14 129 $375 00 300 00 144 00 375 00 330 00 153 00 165 00 $'190 00 441 00 198 00 600 00 390 00 294 00 189 00 300 00 360 00 246 00 234 00 255 00 228 00 270 00 183 00 525 00 600 00 405 00 261 00 330 '00 294 00 318 00 195 00 294 00 234 00 210 00 414 00 264 00 225 00 MACHINERY DEPARTMENT. Master machinist!! ■ Workmasterff Engineer IT Registrar Bookkeeper Storekeeper $816 00 382 50 370 00 162 CO 450 00 350 87J 200 00 185 00 150 00 315 00 264 00 375 00 425 00 300 00 243 00 2K0 00 250 00 280 00 187 50 180 00 334 00 244 00 215 00 825 00 630 00 412 50 355 00 655 00 630 00 * Free rent and fuel. t Free uniform and mileage (average not over $50). t Free uniform. § Has free rent. || Mileage and premium on saving of coal and oil (average not over $50). IT Free rent, fuel, and. uniform. RAILWAYS. The Werra Railway, of which the pay-roll is given in the foregoing table, belongs to a pi-ivatecoinpany. It is a single track, extending from Eisenach southeasterly to Goburg and Lichtenfels, with a branch track from Goburg to Sonueberg. Its whole length is 110 miles. The population of all the station towns along the line is 80,000. At Eisenach it connects with the Berlin, Leipsic and Frankforton-the-Main system Of railways, and at Lichtenfels with the Bavarian and Saxon State Railways. It is the principal means of communication between the Saxon Duchies, with a population of 1,216,815, and the world outside of them. During the last year the company sold 589,090 civilian tickets, of which more than three-fourths were third class, the receipts being $220,711.47^ ; also 30,827 military tickets,* the receipts being $5,793.75 ; and carried 2,923 tons of luggaget (receipts, $10,467), and 29 tons of dogs (dogs go by luggage weight), the receipts being $255. Including extra * Private soldiers, subofficers, and the land wehr are carried for one-third of a third- class fare, and are not allowed in first or second class compartments, t All luggage over 50 pounds is paid for. 534 LABOE IN EUROPE — GERMANY. trains, the total receipts in the passenger department were $238,869.58 for 619,917 tickets. *.„„**. e In the freight department, the receipts were, for 4,265 tons ot express goods, $17,490.67* ; for 459,075 tons of ordinary freight, $450,079.25; for postal packages, $1,940.15; for 244 tons military horses,$701.75 ; for 18,830 tons of cattle, $20,412.95; for 58 tons of human corpses,* $262.15; other receipts, $8,517.50; making total freight receipts, $499,403.66 for about 485,000 tons. Total in both departments, $738 273.24. On an average each passenger was carried 20 miles, and each ton of freight 42 miles. . The total receipts have increased about $50,000 yearly since 1878. The dividends have run as follows: 1869, 1*, per cent.; 1870, 1 per cent.; 1871, 3 per cent.; 1872, 2| per cent.; 1873, 1 per cent.; 1874, percent.; 1875, 1 per cent. ; 1876, f per cent. ; 1877, 1£ per cent.; 1878, If per cent.; 1879, 2 per cent.; 1S80, 3 per cent.; 1881, 3*, per cent.; 1882, 4£ per cent. For the year closing in June (1884), a dividend of 5 per cent, is anticipated. To run a locomotive 1 mile on this road it is estimated to cost, in- cluding service, coal, oil, water, arid ordinary repairs, 5*, mills, and each locomotive has drawn, on an estimate, during the year, 36.16 axles with 50.17 tons net load f of a mile. The station laborers are required to be on duty from 5.30 a. m. Xa 10.30 p. m., seven days in a week. A system of electric-bell signals is used, by which the departure of every train is announced at the succeeding station, and also at all the intermediate crossings, which are barred during the passing of trains. This is true of nearly all railways in the Empire. Private as well as state lines are under the supervision of the national police, who concern themselves especially with the general security of traffic. The waiting-rooms in nearly all stations, private and national, are rented to be used as restaurauts. Hence almost without exception the waiting-room is a place of beer-drinking and smoking. Consequently, the waiting rooms here, unlike those iu the United States, are a source of income to the companies. The Werra Railway received from this source the last year a clear profit of $3,288.25, and the Saxon State Eailway a profit of $55,000. On an average on German railways for every first-class passenger there are 20 second class and 70 third class. In the principal centers regular barracks are provided for the em- ployes of the State railways, and these are comfortable and kept in good order. The service on all railways in the Empire is rather severe, and is not especially well paid, but systems of rewards and promotions tend to faithfulness in service. Strikes among the employes are very rarely known. Officers of the roads and members of the Eeichstag travel on free passes. The case of these latter causes some public criticism. As a rule, the free-pass system is not so common as in the United States. Most of the country stations are rather cheerless places. The most noticeable industries practiced by their keepers to eke out their salaries are gardening (limited) and bee-keeping, the latter being on some roads, especially in Saxony, a source of some income. Great economy is practiced iu warming the cars. Third-class com- * Corpses can lie carried only in special freight cars, in which there are no good*. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 535 partments are usually warmed by coal stoves, and first and second class by steam. On many roads no carriage is warmed after April 15, how- ever cold the weather may be. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per year in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in Sonneberg and vicinity. Occupations- Lowest. Highest. Average. Dry gooods : Head clerk (male) Clerks (male) Clerks (female) Fancy goods : Clerks (male) Clerks (female) Bookkeeper Correspondent Procurist (runner) Book stoies: Clerks (male) Clerks (female) Groceries : Apprentice (male) : Mrst year Second year Third year Clerks (male) Clerks (female) Hardware (same as in Groceries) . Apothecaries r $375 00 100 00 74 25 214 20 $428 40 142 80 99 00 357 00 357 00 428 40 714 00 214 20 95 20 499 80 714 00 952 00 476 00 142 80 142 80 28566 571 20 '571*20 $400 Ot 121 2» ♦80 01 275 0» 142 80 428 4* 571 2» 750 01 300 0* 111 08 85 61 142 80 357 0» *123 7« 380 8* * With food and lodging. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wag^s paid per year to household servants (towns and cities) in Sonneberg and Coburg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $42 84 28 56 14 28 90 00 $59 50 35 70 28 56 125 00 *$30 0» Cook ♦30 0» *20 00 tlOO 0* * Gratuity of $4.76 to $11.90 at Christmas. t With breakfast and dinner. AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in the vicinity of Son- neberg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $35. 70 23.80 11.90 .166 .119 .238 .166 $42. 84 28. 56. 19. 04' .238 .166 .357 .238 *$37. 00 *25. 00 do.... *14. 00 Laborers : t.2» t.l4» do.... .25 .20 * With food and lodging and a trifle at Christmas. t And two meals per day, eaten in the field. Hours of labor, 12. In winter they are paid from 1J t» 2J cents per hour, and work eight hours. Wages do not vary for planting, haying, or harvest. 536 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to the corporation employe's in the city of Sonneberg (9,500 inhabitants)* Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Mnyor Assistant mayor City treasurer. City clerk Chief of police Policemen Gendarmes (for country towns) . Laborers (per day) $166 60 285 60 $193 35 428 40 428. 40 571. 20 214. 20 *20S. 25 tl76. 00 300. 00 .357 * And free dwelling. t And uniform. Policemen in Coburg, Meiningen, &c, receive nearly double these rates. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to employe's in Government departments and offices, exclusive of trades- men and laborers, in city of Sonneberg and Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. NATIONAL OFFICERS.* #952 00 §571 20 §325 26 2, 737 00 2, 023 00 1, 904 00 $309 40 $357 00 STATE OFFICERS. || Minister of worship and public instruction Minister of the interior Minister of justice, secretary of the treasury, and attoraey-gen- Minister of forests Four members Reichstag 1, 100 00 1, 300 00 1, 150 00 952 00 Commissioner of agriculture President ducal court of justice Two vice-presidents ducal court of justice each IN'ine judges ducal court of justice 952 00 1, 071 00 1, 000 00 Clerk of nucal court of -justice.. 571 20 1, 300 00 Fifteen diocesan superintendents (pastors)^ each.. 785 40 800 00 714 00 952 00 856 00 875 00 775 00 Thirteen bailiffs 800 00 875 00 Seven deputy appraisers (for taxing) 500 00 1, 000 00 600 00 1, 142 00 Four forestry directors * Only post and military service is paid by nation. t Sonneberg. 9,500 inhabitants. t And free dwelling. § And allowance of $53.45 for uniform, &c. f| Saxe-Meiningen, 207,075 inhabitants. IFPastors are appointed by the state, and are in effect state officers. GOVERNMENT OFFICERS AND SALARIES. Postmasters usually have a dwelling free of cost in connection with their offices, and are retained in office during life, except for cause. Clerks are promoted through the several grades to postmasterships, so that the postmaster of to-day was perhaps an apprentice in the same office twenty years ago. Country postmasters are poorly paid. The services of the local German legislator are not always held in high •steem. A few months ago the assembly of one of the Eeuss principal- LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 537 ities in Thuringia voted to dispense with the employment of stenogra- phers, deeming a simple record of the session sufficient. An orator of the opposition remarking that the expense in question was " hardly- worth talking about," a member of tlie Government replied that "the speeches are not worth the money spent in stenographing them." There are twenty-five different German state parliaments, and the pay of the delegates differs widely. Prussia heads the list by allowing her delegates $3.57 a day. Next come Saxony, Baden, and Anhalt, with $2.85 per day, followed by Bavaria, Brunswick, Coburg-Gotha. and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, with only $2.38 a day. The members of the parliaments of Schwarzbnrg-Rudolstadt, Hesse, Saxe-Meiningen, and Waldeck receive $2.14; Oldenburg and the two Beuss principali- ties allow theirs but $1.78£, and rich little Altenburgand Schaumburg- Lippe pay theirs but $1.4:4 a day. Wurteinberg, Alsace-Lorraine, and Mecklenburg have a great variety of rates. The Hanse towns (Ham- burg, Bremen, Lubeck) follow the example set them by the Empire in allowing their representatives absolutely nothing, with the difference in favor of the former that they have free passes over the railroads, which advantage is, of course, offset by the high cost of living in Berlin. BANK CLEEKS. In Thuringian banks, to diverge slightly, apprentices must serve three and four years without pay, providing for their own living mean- while. The third or fourth year they receive $142.80. Clerks, after serving such an apprenticeship, receive from $285.60 to $714 a year, and cashiers from $571.20 to $1,190. Business hours are from 8 a. m. to 7 p. in., excepting one hour at noon. TRADES IN GOVERNMENT EMPLOY. Wages paid by the week of sixty to ninety hours to the trades and laborers in Government employ in Saxe-Meiningen. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Averag Conductor of post-diligence . Driver of post-diligence Letter-carriers Stable-keeper and hostler - - . Laborers Miners Iron-workers : Pig-iron Bridge-iron Stoveicukcrs $L 42. 8 1 25 2 50 2 85 2 40 $2 14 3 50 3 60 3 70 3 45 $5 77 5 77 4 80 1 83 1 50 2 95 3 0» 3 10 2 9ft PRINTER'S WAGES. italement showing the wages paid per week of sixty-six hours to printers (compositors, press, men, proof-readers, $c.) in Sonnebtrg. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $5 47 3 50 i 28 3 57 3 33 1 19 $9 20 5 80 7 14 4 70 4 28 1 90 $6 71 4 28 5 22 3 96 2 98 1 42 538 LABOR IX EUROPE — GERMANY. COST OF LIVING TO THE LABORING CLASSES AND COMPARISON 0? WAGES. The following table shows the price of articles of daily consumption in Sonneberg and vicinity; but, as a matter of fact, only compara- tively few of the articles enumerated are ever found upon the laborer's table. What these classes really live upon and how they live will be described under section 9. Tails showing the retail prices which ruled for the articles mentioned in Sonneberg and vicinity in 1878 (so far as known) and in 1884. Articles. Apples : . Green (poor) per peck.. Dried .* per pound.. Bread : , White (plain) do.... White (fancy) do.... Black (rye) do.... Butter i do.... Cheese : Swiss do — Kative per piece.. Braidy, 45 per cent, tealles per quart.. Beer..' do.... Coffee : Rio per pound.. Java do Mocha do Chicory (substitute for coffee) do Grains : Oats per 100 pounds. . Barley do — Kve do... Wheat do.... Rice per pound.. Flour do Meal: Rye . Oat. do. Potato do Vermicelli do .. Peas per quart.. Beans do Lentils do Fish: Herring, Scotch each . . Carp per pound.. Eel do.... Trout do Flesh : Beef do.... Veal do Pork do Mutton do Fowl: Geese do Pigeons per pair . . Eggs each.. Milk. Oil: -per quart. Salad (poppy) ...per pound.. Salad (olive) • do Rape-seed do ... Petroleum do Potatoes per peck.. Sugar: Loaf per pound Powdered do Brown do... Salt: Coarse do... Fine do... Starch do... £oda, washing do... Prices. 1878. 1884, $0 14 09 06 1 IS 2 15 3 00 06 07 03 08 07 09 05 04 05 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 539 Table showing retail price lohich ruled for the articles mentioned, tyc. — Continued. Articles. Prices. 1878. 1884. $0 10 03 25 14 05 6 75 $0 01 02 Candles :■ 04 Coal 5 71 5 71 "Wood: Hard 8 17 6 17 Soft By the table above it appears that the cost of the articles enumerated does not differ greatly from that of 1878, when the last labor report was made from this consulate. At that time food prices had begun to ad- vance, owing to bad seasons and distrust in political and commercial affairs, and the advance continued until 1881, when prices had become from 30 to 50 per cent, higher than tliey are at present. During tbat time, also, the rates of wages fell, so that the day laborer in 1880 and 1881, earning on an average 20 per cent, less than usual and paying 40 per cent, more for provisions, found his usually hard life unusually severe. But during the last three years, thanks to better harvests and a feel- ing of greater security in politics and trade, food prices and wages have about resumed their former condition. But in 1878 all meat prices had become fabulously high, for this region, and still remain so. An economist in Sonneberg states the present annual cost of living to the laboring classes for a family of five persons (two adults and three children) as follows: Bent, $14.28; food, $71.40; clothing, $14.28; to- tal, $99.96. This estimate makes no allowance for fuel, taxes, doctors' bills and the unavoidable incidentals. The conditions of labor are very nearly the same that they were six years ago, excepting as the toy industry is affected by the altered tar- iffs. Until the raising of the duties in Germany in 1879, the tariffs on toys in nearly all the foreign countries were low. Following that, France was the first to increase the duty thereon from 10 per cent, ad valorem to $11.58 per 100 kilograms (200 lbs.), which, on the inferior class of these goods, was equal to about 100 per cent. Austria soon followed with a tariff of 100 florins ($40.70) per 100 kilograms, equal, as far as the cheaper toys are concerned, to quite 200 per cent. Italy introduced a rate of duty similar to that of France; Sweden tripled her tariff, and the course of tarifflegislation in the United States is watched with great anxiety. The' consequence has been that Sonneberg sends almost nothing to Austria, Italy, and Sweden, and less than half of its former exports to France. The loss is estimated at rising $1,190,000, and many skilled workmen are either without employmeut or else have sought occupa- tion abroad. The trade, however, with England and the United States seems to be but little affected. It may be said in passing that the manufacturers in this vicinity gen- erally disapprove of the exclusion of the American pig. 540 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. THE BEET- SUGAR INDUSTRY. Meanwhile a new industry, that of beet-sugar making, has sprung up in Tburingia, and has assumed remarkable proportions within the last two or three years. Last autumn no less than twenty-one refiuenes were started, principally in the vicinity of Erfurt, and at the present time thirty-two more are in process of erection. This is admitted to be- au abnormal state of things, and competition has reached so high a point that a crisis is almost inevitable. In these factories males receive about 40 cents a day, females 20 cents, mechanics 50 cents, and boys from 14 to 16 years of age 23.8 cents, all for 11 hours' work. COMPOSITION OP THE POPULATION. At this point it may be serviceable to glance at the composition of the population in the district, and for this purpose we will take the Dukedom of Saxe-Meiuingeii, since official statistics can be consulted. The dukedom embraces about one-sixth of the inhabitants of the con- sular districts. Statement shoioing the population, according to calling and condition, in the Dukedom of ^ Saxe- Meiningen for the years 1871, 1875, 1880, and 1883; also, the gain or lose per cent, in the condition of the several callings in 1883 as compared with that of 1880. Calling. Population as to calling and condition. 1883 and 1880 com- pared. 1883. 1880. 1875. 1871. Gain. Loss. Agriculture, cattle-raising: 37, 014 352 34, 566 36, 476 ' 1,198 55, 183 5,288 929 8,929 4,434 5 5,515 4,009 496 4,777 5,293 327 1,610 17, 616 6,159 31,554 33,915 1,585 55, 949 5,451 1,359 10, 838 8,944 105 14, 090 4,032 620 5,276 4,984 284 4,314 15, 870 4,252 29, 963 31, 350 1,509 53, 948 4,696 1,241 9,065 9,366 84 14,854 3,698 594 5,030 5, 935 293 2,746 14,046 5,011 28, 714 31,019 1,743 50, 014 4,409 1,221 8,611 11, 061 121 15, 329 3,981 660 5,084 4,733 255 1,944 Per cent Per cent. G-arilening, forestry, hunting, and fish- ing: 110. 11 Mining, foundries, productive industries, and uuildiug trades : 7.55 Trade and commerce : 3.8 Domestic service and day labor: 101. 71 Military, court, civil service, and the professions : 0.57 Without calling: Self-supporting and members of in- 6.19 92, 514 3,307 110,530 74,912 10,112 122, 021 70,915 7, 973 115, 506 69, 250 9,011 109, 696 23.44 206, 351 207, 075 194, 494 187,957 This table shows, first, a rapid gain in population from 1875 to 1880, which had begun to fall off in 1883. The character of their occupation (which does not confine the people to any one location) and emigration account principally for these changes. LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 541 Secondly, as between 1883 and 1880, there was a falling off in the con- dition of trade and commerce of 3.8 per cent., and in the condition of domestic and day labor of 101.71 per cent. Sonneberg was the only exception to the decline in trade, which showed a gain of 5.02 per cent. Taking the dukedom together there was a gain in the condi- tion of productive industry represented by 23.44 per cent. This allows for those without calling or profession, so far as they consist of pris- oners, inmates of asylums and hospitals, and confirmed invalids. Of these classes there are 21 males and 39 females who are invalids; 110 males and 103 females in poor-houses, of whom 20 are boys and 10 are girls under fourteen years of age; 170 males and 144 females in infirma- ries and insane asylums, and 252 males and 3 females in houses of cor- rection. Of the population in 1883 (206.351), 35,030 males and 35,417 females were under fourteen years of age. HABITS OP THE WORKING CLASSES. i The habits of the working classes may be described as plodding. They do not work briskly, but they are, as a rule, industrious, and do , not require watching to prevent idling. They are peaceably disposed, but they are neither thrifty nor enterprising. Their indulgence in beer and tobacco is a source of both physical and financial weakuess to them, and hinders the prosperity of most of them. In politics they are mostly Social Democrats, but they lack both the fire and zeal to make their opinions either effective or dangerous. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYE AND EMPLOYER, AND THE ORGANIZED CONDITION OP LABOR. The feeling which prevails between the employe's and the employers is pretty well indicated by the organized condition of labor. This or- ganization seems to be based on the theory that the employeis are leagued against the working people, and that consequently the latter must be united against the former. So far as the employers are con- cerned I do not think that this theory is wholly just. The prominent characteristic of business in this district is that of intense competition. The working people feel this first of all in reduced pay. The result is the formation of laborers' clubs for self protection, in which nearly every occupation is represented, but in which rarely more than one occupation unites in the same club. These clubs are for the present largely social, in which much beer is consumed, and from which more mischief is there- fore likely to proceed. But contrary to natural inference the status of the working people is outwardly quiet. It is very rarely that any open demonstration for the improvement of their condition is made. I assign this partly to their temperament, and partly to a feeling of hopelessness of accom- plishing anything against united capital. It cannot be denied, however, that the situation is growing yearly more imminent. The working people are becoming better educated. Through intercourse with representatives of their own class who have improved their condition abroad they are enabled to reason more intel- ligently upon their comparative circumstances and the causes of them. They see that the very wealth which they claim is united against them is largely the product of their own labor. They claim, also, that the iarmy, while it is their pride and the acknowledged bulwark of the na- 542 LA BOB IN EUROPE — GERMANY. tion, is a serious obstacle to their own prosperity. However fallacious their reasoning may be, they do not admit the fallacy nor submit cheer- fully to the situation. . Both local and general laws are against unrestrained action on the part of these organizations, and they are subject to police surveillance if their speech becomes too radical. STRIKES AND THEIR EFFECTS. Strikes are not frequent in this region. The only one of any conse- quence the past year has been that of the GOOemployfe in the hosiery fac- tory of Heiuricli Schopper, in Zeulenroda. The cause was a reduction of wages. The proprietor was uncompromising and carried his point. Arbitration, as a means of settlement, is not often resorted to. The employer usually bides his time, knowing that his policy in the past has not enabled them to accumulate the means of indulging in idleness. The reserve even of black bread and potatoes is not large, and if there is not a summary lockout, as in so many cases in Saxony the past winter, the operatives are made in various ways to feel that they must return to work at the old rates or starve. The effects of strikes on labor in Thuringia have not been favorable t to their repetition, either as regards the employer or the employed. As ' a rule these latter have remained a longer or shorter time in idleness, have spent their reserve, if they had any, have entailed still greater poverty and wretchedness on their families, and finally, most likely, re- turned to labor at the employer's terms, but with such an embittered feeling that more than one proprietor wishes that he could consistently have made a concession and kept the former good will of his workmen. CONDITIONS OF PUECHASFS AND PAYMENT OF WAGES. Many employers keep stocks of goods on hand, principally the neces- saries of life, and accounts are opened with employes, which are not allowed to exceed the wages due, and which are settled every pay-day. - Employes complain that the seller thus makes them pay a double profit, one on the price of the goods and another on the wages at which they are employed. Theoretically the workman is free to purchase the nec- essaries of life where he chooses, but practically, owing to the practice mentioned above, the choice is a singularly constrained one. Day laborers are paid weekly and piece workmen fortnightly, as a rule, and in the currency of the Empire. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. There are in Germany various kinds of co-operative and economical societies, but those which are founded upon the well-known Schulze- Delitzsch system have best commended themselves to the wants of the people. There are about 3,550 of these societies in the Empire, which report regularly to the central office, with a membership of 1,200,000. Their business transactions, so far as they are made public, amount now to about $500,000,000 yearly, and their stock in trade, with which the business is carried on, amounts to $155,000,000, of which $50,000,000 may be classed as reserve funds, and $105,000,000 as loaned capital. Of these co-operative societies the two most patronized by the peo- ple are the Varschussvereine (cash-advance associations, or co-operative , credit unions), for banking purposes, and the Consumvereine (provisions' LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 543 anions), engaged in furnishing the necessaries of life. Of the former there are 905 in Germany, with a membership of 461,153 (420,140 males and 41,013 females), and of the latter there are 625, with a membership of about 300,000, of whom about one-seventh are women. Both of these societies are popular in Thuringia, where there are 74 of the credit associations and 75 provisions unions. Membership is acquired in each by the payment of a fee, which varies for different localities. On security furnished by the members capital is borrowed, or supplies purchased, and with this capital or supplies the business is carried on. Members share pro rata in the dividends, and are also often the lenders of the capital to the unions. Credit unions. — The following table presents a comparative view of these unions ( Varschussvereine) in Germany from 1870 to 1882. In 1859 there were 80 of the nuions, with a membership of 18,676, and their funds, loaned and renewed, amounted to $3,098,577. Since 1859 the dividends have varied from 3 per cent, to 28 per cent., averaging 6J per cent : Table showing the condition of co-operative credit unions ( Varschussvereine) in Germany from 1876 to 18*2. Year. Number of unions. Mem- bers. Loaned funds. Own funds, in- cluding re- serves. Deposits. Per cent. of owned to other funds. Divi- dends. 1876 806 929 9J8 MO 906 431, 216 468, «52 480, 507 $3«1, 347, 304 75 387, 600, 620 75 364, 000, 933 25 349 530 907 50 $24, 722, 791 50 27, 675, 248 25 29, 183, 842 25 29,028,512 50 29. 606, 857 00 29, 942, 541 75 30, 367, 229 75 $83, 618, 145 25 87, 754, 775 75 86. 648, 853 25 86,791,368 75 91,112,486 25 93, 574, 603 50 94, 844, 823 00 29.57 31.54 33.68 33.44 32. 49 31.99 32.01 Per cent « 1877 1878 1879 1880 4fin 656 i ar.i SRI 579 25 7 1881 902 462,212 905 461 153 368, 001, 243 50 375, 591, 858 75 1882 Provisions unions. — The make-up and condition of the Sonneberg ! Provisions Union (Gonsumvereiri) at the end of 1883 may be taken as a sample of these societies. Its membership consisted of 302 males and 40 females, divided as follows: Farmers, gardeners, and foresters, 8; manufacturers and builders, 16; handworkers, 135 males and 4 females; operatives, 40 ; merchants, 13 males and 6 females; clerks, 17; inn- keepers, 5 males and 2 females ; railway, post, and telegraph officers and railway laborers, 16 males and 1 female; servants, 3 males and 5 females : physicians, teachers, artists, state, church, and municipal of- ficers, 47 males and 7 females ; renters, 2 males and 15 females. During the year mentioned 20 new members were received and 18 lost, by death, removals, &c. During the last three years the dividends have aver- aged 20 per cent., and during the ten years of the union's existence they have averaged 15.4 per cent. At present goods are sold only to members, and the rule is found to work favorably in increasing the membership. Comparatively few losses are sustained by these organizations, and it may be safely said that they have realized the object of their founder, particularly the provisions unions, in enabling working people to pur- chase the necessaries of life at less cost than through the regular busi- ness channels. Since they are patronized by the more prudent and cash-paying classes of people, it follows that their effect has been rather against general trade, but this effect is mainly theoretical, and is not such as 544 LABOE IN EUROPE GERMANY. can be formulated. In Meiningen at the present time there is a contest between the merchants and the provisions union on the ground that the success of the latter makes 4 competition among the former too great for fair profits. . Besides the societies mentioned, there are numerous labor unions and working-people's clubs, whose principles are professedly co-operative, but whose general theories are too radical and their influence too de- structive to have materially benefited either themselves or the state. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. The working people are tenacious of land and usually try to control a small piece for raising potatoes. They buy it if they are able to do so, but oftener they rent it, at from $1.19 to $14.28 per acre, the average price being about $5.52. Their houses are oftener of brick than of wood, and contain on an average three rooms : kitchen, sleeping room, and spare room. In many cases the cow is kept in an end ot the same building, and the manure pile is in the door-yard. Such a house costs from $300 to $500. HOW AGRICULTURAL LABORERS LITE. I asked a member of the local board of agriculture what the laboring people lived upon in this vicinity. His reply was "Potatoes, peas, len- tils, and bacon, with coffee and beer." The coffee, I should add, is chic- ory, and the beer is of an inferior quality. I think he should have in- cluded black bread (rye), although it is a fact that they eat but very ittle of it in comparison with the quantity of potatoes. THE CASE OP A WOMAN PIELD LABORER. "May I ask you some questions about your work?" I inquired of a ■woman whom I found hoeing in the field a few days ago in company with several others. "Certainly," she replied, and the following con- versation was held, which I report as faithfully as I can : Question. How old are you? — Answer. Five and sixty. Q. And how long have you done ihis kind of work? — A. Sixty years; onlylbegan with pulling weeds in the potato field. Q. Have you a family ? — A. Yes; a husband and three children. Q. And where are they? — A. My man is sick with rheumatism, my girl is in the mill, and my two boys are in -the army. Q. 'What pay do you get for this work?— A. For eleven hours' work 19 cents, and one meal of bread and meat. We begin work at six in the morning, and often have schnapps or coffee at nine. Q How many days in the year do you work? — A. Every day. When not em- ployed for pay, I gather wood in the forest for my kitchen, or grass, wherever I can find it, for my cow.* Q. And now will you tell me what your necessary expenses are ? — A. That is my private affair. Q. Pardon me, ard so are most of the questions that you have already answered. — A. Well, then, I pay for rent 60 marks [$14. 28]. For food I reckon Q. Please imagine that yonr children are all at home. — A. Then let Ahnah [hei companion in the firld] answer. Her children are all at home. A. (Ahnah.) Yes, but I have four. * The forests here belong to the ducal domain, and the poor people have the priv- ilege of gathering the dead wood, which they bear home in baskets on their backs. With a sickle very many of tbem also gather hay enough to keep a cow through the winter, which is borne home in the same way. Ninety-nine hundredths of this work it done by women. LABOR IN KUROPE — GERMANY. 545 Q. And what does it cost you to live? — A. For food for six persons, four of them children, we reckon 350 marks [$83.30]. Clothing for the family, 70 marks [$16.66]. Honse rent, three rooms, 60 marks [$14 28]." Q. That makes 480 marks [$114.21], but if you should work every working day at these wages [ 19 cents] you would receive only 240 marks [$57].— A. But that is not all. Our taxes [rent on a half acre of land, on our earnings, on one cow, and for the two children in school, are more than 30 marks [$7.14]. Q. But the balance in your statement is all on the wrong side. Then there is sickness to be provided for, and fuel, and many necessary incidental expenses. How do you do it? — A. We don't indulge in incidentals, and rarely call a doctor. We people must hoe oor row if it leads through tire. As for fuel, I and the children ' gather it in the forest, same as all of my class do. But, thank God, my man is handy with tools, and he usually earns in a year a third more money than I do. Then the children do piece-work out of school hours for the toy-makers, enough to buy their books at least, and all together we are able to have meat once a week, beer daily, and cake at Christinas. (Another woman, interrupting :) "Yes, and she has a cow and can have butter on her bread, but the most of us have neither butter nor milk, and live on nothing but potatoes and chicory, with beer and sausage may be on holidays. Our families are as large as hers, or larger, and our men [husbands] are not handy with tools, either." I thanked them for the information they had given me. "You go to church on Sundays?" I said, as I was moving away. "If it storms, and there is no work to be done," was the reply. CONDITION OF MECHANICS. Workmen at trades, including those working for the toy and other manufacturers, earn, on an average, under $200 a year, and their ex- penses, including taxes, &c, are a little larger than those mentioned above. Largo families are the rule, and each member must contribute its quota towards the expenses of living. One family in Sonneberg con- tains twenty-one children, all by the same parents The population of Germany increases, notwithstanding its immense emigration. I see but little prospect of these people bettering their condition in this country. Emigration would be much larger but for a lack of means. The men dress in home-made clothing, usually black and coarse; the women in waist and petticoat (in summer neither shoes, stockings, nor underclothing), and the children in jacket and trowsers of coarse stuff. The holiday dress for the women is full, short skirts, with a gay ker- chief over the head and shoulders. HABITS OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. Morally, they are honest people, but they are superstitious, and at the same time not over- religious. If they fail to say " Gesundheit .'" (Health!) when a person sneezes, they confidently count on dying within the year. Physically, they are hardy, but they are not so robust as the ideal Teuton, and are accustomed to exposure. Both morally and physically I think they are injured by the amount of beer, tobacco, and snuff that they consume, and I think these may be saiely mentioned as enemies to their progress. The beer habit is accom- panied by but little intoxication, but it is attended by quite as much poverty and general wretchedness as is the whisky habit in other coun- tries. In Sonneberg, with a population of 9,500, there is an annual con- sumption of over 2,500,000 quarts of beer, or more than 2 quarts per day for each male person, including children. Snuff taking is a very common habit, but it is confined principally to the men. Six thousand million cigars were consumed in Germany in 1883, weigh- ing 37,565 tons. The total weight of tobacco consumed was 74,160 tons. 92 A— lab 35 546 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Thuringia consumed her share. The average cost of these cigars was 4+ pfennige (9.9 mills), or less thau one cent apiece. In beer saloons, hotels, railway-station waiting-rooms, and other public places, boxes are exposed into which smokers are requested to throw their cigar-stubs "in aid of the poor." An intelligent German assures me that these are then collected and converted into snuff' and cigarettes, but it does not appear what share of the profits fall to the poor. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES— IN CASE OF ACCIDENT OR DISABILITY— THEIR MORAL AND PHYSICAL WELF ARE— RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYEE AND EMPLOYED. Safety of employes.— As a rule, the safety of the employe" is secondary, and depends mainly upon the means and precautions used for the safety of the employer's property. In nearly all factories and mills the usual watchmen are employed, and meauis more or less efficient are generally provided for the extinction of fire. Haml extinguishers are quite com- mon. In the larger factories outside escapes are sometimes provided, but these are not common. Mining is conducted on a limited scale in Thuringia, and in so primitive a manner that it cannot be said that any special means are employed for the safety of the miner. On rail- ways the means of safety relate almost entirely to the passenger, and with this the employe" is constantly exercised. In the Schoenau Porcelain Works, at Hiittensteinach, each room has a double egress, and the inte- riors are all lighted by electricity from the outside. Each room has also its special overseer, charged not only with the conduct of the work in it, but also with the oversight of all workmen who may be engaged in work that involves any special risk or danger. In case of accident or disability. — No systematic or general provisions are made by the employers in this district for the aid of their sick or dis- abled employes. It is only in rare instances that asylums or hospitals are provided — never, in fact, except it may be in connection with the local public almshouse or hospital. But there is a method of insurance now coming into use by which the workman may insure himself, or the employer his employes, de- ducting the premiums from their daily wages. It is called the Zurich Accident Assurance Society, and is strikingly like the system which Prince Bismarck has striven to make obligatory upon all manufact- urers. The persons that are insurable in this society are divided into twelve classes, and the premiums vary according to the supposed risks to which the individuals of the class are exposed. There are also three eventualities on which insurance is effected, namely, death, permanent invalidity, and temporary disability, and the premiums vary again in each of these cases. Policies are also issued on the basis of a stipulated sum, or upon that of the laborer's daily wages, and in this latter case his wages go on in case of illness or disability. Persons under 15 years of age and over 65; persons suffering from chronic or incurable diseases; workmen in coal mines, and equestrian performers, acrobats, aeronauts, tight-rope walkers, animal tamers, and the like, are not admitted to its privileges. The most interesting feature of this insurance, for present purposes,, J is that which is based upon the laborer's daily wages. He may be in- ,| sured for from one to five times his daily pay, the calculations being , made upon the basis of three hundred working days in the year. LABOR IN EUEOPE GERMANY. 547 Suppose a woi'kmau to receive 62£ cents a day. For a year of three hundred working days he would receive $187.50. By paying a yearly premium his heirs may receive that amount in case of his death, or^e himself may receive his daily wages in case of a disabling accident dar- ing the disability. He may be insured for one and a half, twice, thrice, or five times his wages, and be paid accordingly. If he is a tanner, for example, he will pay a yearly premium of $4.50for each $1,000 of single- rate insurance. If he is insured for double his daily wages the premium is $6, and for three times his wages the premium is $7. The following table illustrates the manner in which workmen are divided into " danger classes," and the yearly premiums which they must pay on every $1,000 to be insured against all three eventualities, on the basis of their daily wages and the double and treble thereof: Laborers' wage insurance. Subjects, such as — Danger class. Single premium. $3 50 4 50 6 00 7 00 8 50 10 50 12 50 15 00 17 50 19 50 22 00 25 50 Double wage premium. Treble wage premium. I ir $4 50 6 00 7 50 9 00 11 50 14 00 17 00 20 00 23 00 26 00 29 00 34 50 $5 59 7 00 in 8 70 iv : ■ v .. . 10 50 13 50 17 00 VII 20 70 VIII 24 01) IX X XI 27 CO 31 00 34 80 XTT 41 1)0 Insurance is effected on the three eventualities of death, permanent invalidity, and temporary dis- ability. Insurance against temporary disability alone is not allowed. By the elimination of either one of these eventualities the premiums are diminished from 30 to 50 per cent. The premiums in the table are for individual policies. If the employer insures all his employes col- lectively, the premiums average about two classes lower. Furthermore, on most of the railways a system of bounties prevails which affords some aid to certain officials beyond a specified age. A certain percentage is also deducted from the wages of employes, to be held in trust to help form a fund from which widows and orphans of employes are aided. On the Werra Railway this fund is formed from such sources as percentage on wages, fees charged for admission to th^ pension class, by fines' imposed for breach of conduct, &c. It now amounts to about $25,000. Last year the pensions paid to retired officers amounted to $5,000; to widows, $3,000, and to children $50; but they were not all drawn from this fund. The Schoenau Brothers (porcelain manufacturers) have established a fund which insures each workman free medical care in case of sickness and a decent burial in case of death. t Moral and physical welfare of employ 6s. — This firm (Schoenau Brothers) also gives special attention to the moral and physical as well as profes- sional welfare of their employes. Their work rooms are well lighted and ventilated, provided with facilities for bathing, and special instruc- tion in drawing, modeling, and decorating are given to apprentices two days in each week, their wages continuing as usual. A strike has never occurred in this establishment. Relations between employer and employed. — Taking the district as a whole these relations are those of master and servant in the full sense of the terms, and in a few cases they are especially strained, as in that of the hosiery operatives in Zeulenroda, already referred to. Generally speaking, there is but little intercourse between master and workman, 548 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. except that which is involved in the payment of the lowest possible wages, and insisting on the fullest possible results during the ten or thrive hours of daily toil. The average German workman in this re- gicm is a remarkably^submissive person. POLITICAL RIGHTS — TAXES — TENDENCY OP LEGISLATION. Political rights. — There is, perhaps, no discrimination against work- ing people as such. All males above the age of 25 can vote for members of the natioual Parliament, but in order to vote on municipal and local affairs one must become a burgher, which involves the payment of $7.07* and other conditions which poor people could not meet, even if they could that of the citizenship fee. The acquisition of citizenship by the poorer classes is discouraged by the authorities, for the reason, among others, that they would then be entitled to admission to the community poor-houses and hospitals in cases of poverty and illness. Notwithstanding their voting power, the working people do not exert a corresponding influence on legislation. This is due partly to the fact that so few of them are qualified for seats in the legislative bodies, and partly to the fact that many questions that seriously affect their wel- fare are not made subjects of legislation. But a still stronger reason is, I think, that they have learned to appreciate the full power of the ballot. They are also often too much under the influence of their em- ployers to vote boldly and unitedly in their own interests. Taxes. — The share, comparatively, borne by the working people in local and general taxation varies with the locality. The workman's share in taxation will be best understood by glancing at the system on which taxes are collected. (a) Income taxes. — Income taxes in Sonneberg are collected on na- tional, city, and church account. Each person, as below, must pay the national tax 12 times a year (12 termine), the city tax 14 times a year (14= termine), and the church tax once a year (1 termin), making together 27 times (27 termine) that income taxes are collected. The same are col- lected 32 times in a town three miles from Sonneberg, and in other towns a still greater, and in others a less, number of times. The basis of this taxation is as follows: Touug servant girls, ap- prentices, and laborers, who earn less than $28.56 a year, must pay 2.8 cents per termin— that is, 27x2.8 cents, which equals 75.G cents a year. Older servants, and companions, and laborers, who earn more than $28.56 a year, must pay 6 cents per termin, or 27x.06=$1.62 a year. Workmen in manufactories must pay from 8.8 to 29.7 cents per termin =$2.37f to $8.01 per year. Sub-overseers without private means must pay 11.9 cents per termin, and overseers from 17.8 to 29.7 cents per termin per year. The income tax is, further, as follows : Income tax per termin on an income of— Cents. 171. 36 199. 92 242.76 47.6 285. 60 357. 00 71.4 428 40 499. 80 599.76.... $119 142.8 599.76 , * This is the present fee in Sonneberg. It was formerly much higher, and is still «o in many towns. The proportion of burghers to inhabitants is comparatively small. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 549 For example, a person whose annual salary or income is between $599.76 and $714 pays a tax of $1.42.8 per terLuin=$L.42.8x27=$38.55-|. All incomes over $714 pay \ per cent, of the income per termin. Thus an income of $1,000 pays a yearly tax of $67.50. (6) Land taxes. — Taxes are levied on land according to its kind, vary- ing slightly between arable, garden, meadow, pasture, forest, water- course, and waste land. These various kinds of land are divided into grades, so that first or second quality arable land, for example, pays a higher tax than third or fourth quality. In waste laud six grades are recognized, in watercourse or swamp laud five grades, and in each of the others eight grades. The taxes are now levied at 1 percent, and upwards of the estimated income (not the worth) of the land per termin, there being from 4£ to 8 land termine, and the aggregate taxes being collected twice, once for city and once for national purposes. In Sonneberg this tax is now 1 per cent, per terrain, there being 5J land termine. For example, the es- timated yearly income of an acre of land is $20. One per cent, of this would be 20 cents, which would be collected eleven times a year (five and a half city and five and a half state), making the tax $2.20. The land taxes may be stated as averaging between 9 and 11 per cent, an- nually. (c) Building taxes. — On buildings the tax is about 2 per cent, of the valuation of those used for business purposes, aud 4 per cent, on dwell- ings. (d) School taxes. — In tfye public schools there must be paid for each child a yearly tax of $1.43 ; for two children from the same family, $1.90, and for three or more children from the same family, $2.38. (e) Other direct taxes — All other property, as cattle, horses, sheep, tools, &c, are taxed at from 1 to 5 per cent, of their valuation. (/) Indirect tuxes. — The people must, in effect, pay a tax onHheir beer, for each brewer must pay a national tax of 47.6 cents on each hundred- weight of barley-malt used, and a local tax of 24.2 cents on each 100 quarts of beer brewed. Travelers on the highways (except foot people) pay a toll of about 1 cent a mile, and a tax is levied on salt, meat, fowl, and similar articles that are brought from out of the dukedom. But the meat and fowl tax is a local matter, and is not collected in every town. Thus it is seen that the working people pay quite their proportion of the taxes, both local aud general. No discretion is allowed the tax-gatherer, and often the very bed of the peasant is taken in satisfaction of a levy. Tendency of legislation. — Ostensibly the tendency of legislation in re- gard to labor and the working people is to benefit the laborer, but in the opinion of many it is really to build up and strengthen the military system of the Empire at the laborer's expense. Many working people hold this opinion and cite in support of it the burdensome taxes which the military system imposes upon them, and the fact that their sons are seriously hindered irom learning useful trades by being obliged to give the best years of their life to the army. But I believe that the tendency of legislation is really, although al- most imperceptibly, in favor of the working people; not so much be- cause their welfare is sought as a paramount end, as because they them- selves are yearly learning to exert better and stronger influences in their own favor. Even the military discipline has its advantages. Taking these young men and putting them three years in the army, where they are obliged 5f)0 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. to keep both their persons and their clothing clean, their boots polished, and themselves erect and civil, is a positive benefit to them, whatever may be its drawbacks. EMIGRATION AND ITS CAUSES. Less than 3,000 persons are known to have emigrated from this dis- trict during the last five years. About three-fourths of these were agri- culturists and day laborers with small means, and one-fourth artisans and skilled workmen of various sorts. The main causes assigned both by those who emigrate and by those who wish to do so are dissatisfaction with the military service and a desire for higher wages. But simple ambition, and a desire to better their condition, and a wish to see the world and to test other forms of government, the demand for more room and less competition, are also strong reasons with many who make no public expression of dissatisfac- tion with any institution in the Fatherland. Part II. — Female Labor. This is the second sad chapter in this report. American readers will hardly understand how it can be that the severest part of existence in this whole region falls to the lot of woman. But such is the fact. She is the servant and the burden-bearer. The sentiment of chivalry seems to be entirely wanting, not only in the treatment which she receives, but also in the feelings with which she is regarded. The position of wife and mother appears to shield her from no hardship, nor the fact of her sex to entitle her to any noble consid- eration. Thus, domestic life, as a rule, among the laboring classes, is based on ttee idea of mere utility, in which the affections seem to play altnost as little part as they do in the different portions of a labor-sav- ing machine. Her sex is liberally represented in most of the manual-labor occupa- tions of the district, even to mining and foundry work, but far less lib- erally in any branch of clerical or professional life. In a portion of this consulate containing a population of 100,309 males and 106,042 females, I find by the latest official statistics that for each woman who supports herself in civil and church service and the so-called professions, there" are five and a fraction who support themselves by trade and commerce, nine and a fraction by housework, twenty-four and a fraction by mining, foundry, and building work, and sixty-three and a fraction by agricult- ure, cattle-raising, forestry, huuting, and fishing — proportions that only faintly indicate the hard lot of the Thuringian woman, and, I might truthfully say, of most country women throughout Germany. I find, moreover, by the same statistics, 169 women making their liv- ing in the same district by working in quarries, 372 by various branches of glass-blowing, 71 by making knives, 1 by making mathematical in- struments, 1 by making musical instruments, 1 as a chemist, 44 by mak- ing exjdosives, 1,907 as paper-makers, 15 as tanners, 54 as bookbinders and box-makers, 2 as coopers, 355 as turners, 753 by sewing, 3 as nota- ries' clerks, 76 as teachers of all kinds and grades (including those en- gaged in libraries and as musicians), 67 as authors and writers of all kinds (including copyists and correspondents), and along with them the inevitable sixteen thousand one hundred and nine who make their living by " agriculture, cattle-raising, forestry, hunting, and fishing." But this includes only those described as self-supporting in the branches mentioned. The whole number of women and children (girls) LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. 551 employed in agricultural pursuits is 39,218. The corresponding num- ber of males is 32,714. Thus it is seen that the chief pursuits of women iu this district are not of a gentle or refining character. They perform by far the greater part of all the outdoor manual service. The planting and the sowing, in- cluding the preparation of the soil therefor, is done by them. I have seen many a woman in the last few weeks holding the plow drawn by a pair of cows, and still more of them " toting" manure into the fields in baskets strapped to their backs. They also do the haying, includ- ing the mowing and the pitching ; likewise the harvesting ;' after which they thresh much of the grain with the old-fashioned hand flail. They accompany the coal carts through the city and put the coal in the cel- lars, while the male driver sits upon his seat. They carry on nearly all the dairy business, and draw the milk into town in a hand cart — a woman and a dog usually constituting the team. " I have just written to my wife," said a professional American gentleman to me a few days ago, who was traveling through this district, " that it is a very serious thing to be a dog in Germany, or a cow, or a woman." In half a day's ~walk through the country recently I counted 130 women hoeing in the fields and only five men. "Why is it," I asked one of these women, " that I see so many of your sex here and so few of the other?" " Ach, G-ott!" said she, "the military must have gold lace and corsets." She meant, I suppose, that the military system takes away many men from industrial pursuits, and it is a favorite jest with the women here that the officers wear tournures to improf e their forms. "What pay do you receive for this labor?" I asked. "From 50 to 70 pfennige [11.9 to 16.6 cents] a day," she answered, "with schnapps at 9, potatoes and coffee at noon, and black bread and beer at 4." "How long is your day's work?" "From 6 to 6, but we often work till 9 or 10 at 10 pfennige an hour for extra time" — and she left me, to rearrange the bottle of goat's milk for her baby, which had awakened from its nap in the grass at the edge of the field. Such are the prominent and most striking characteristics of woman's work in this section. Many of the younger women are employed in the doll and toy factories at about 15 cents a day, or else in doing piece work of the same kind in their own rooms, at which they earn perhaps 20 per cent, more weekly, but it involves more hours of labor. The women of this class are not comely. One sees but few fresh and merry girls. Stooping forms, worn and weary faces, browned and wrinkled skin, and a kind of sad and spiritless movement characterize the most of them. One can trace, too, but little improvement in their lot. From generation to generation the peasant girl carries her basket on her back, till she drops it from old age, and her children follow in her footsteps. As to their moral and physical condition, they are both hardy and phlegmatic; in other words, they are physically strong, and do not seem to be so much exposed to temptation as women of a more nervous tem- perament are. On the other hand, German newspapers occasionally warn their read- ers that the ranks of the licentious in Cincinnati and other cities of the United States are swelled by German girls. The Dresdener Nachrich- ten last winter sounded the same alarm with reference to London, and later I found a letter in the same paper from the pastor of the German Lutheran church in Geneva, who says : Since I have been pastor here I have, frequently had to act in behalf of unfortunate German girls who had coiue here to seek positions as servants, but who, through inex- perience, indiscretion, or enticement, have fallen into the hands of bad men, and have 552 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. ended in houses of ill-repute. Geneva is unfortunately overrich in such houses, and it is notOMOUstbattbegreaterpartof their occupantsare German girls from Bavaria, Wur- teroberg, Baden, aucl other parts of the Fatherland. To such an extent had the evil grown that several years ago the Church founded a house of refuge for homeless Ger- man girls who come to the city, &c. The gene rat effects of such a life as I have described are not favora- ble to the development of the best domestic qualities. The housekeep- ing of the laboring classes is of the most primitive sort. The cooking is wretched. There is but little display of family affection, but the home feeling is very strong. Educationally, the women are not, as a rule, equal to the men, but, except in the case of the technical schools, to which they are not admit- ted, they enjoy equal educational privileges. The wages of women average about half those of men. At the present time there are about 6,000 more women than men in the Dukedom of Saxe-Meiningen, with a population of 207.075, and in the whole consular district, with a population of 1,216,815, there is a surplus of 30,609 women. Emigration accounts largely for this differ- ence, since the men can more easily collect the means for a change of location than the women can. GEORGE F. MOSHER, Consul. United States Consulate, Sonneberg, June 7, 1884. WUETEMBEEG. REPORT ST CONSUL CATLIN. The Kingdom of Wurtemberg, with a population of 2,000,000, and an area about equal to that of the State of Massachusetts, maybe classed as essentially an agricultural land. Half its population are directly or indirectly dependent upon agricultural and kindred pursuits (see Table I). Nearly two-thirds of its area consists of farms, pasture-land, and vineyards, and it contains but four cities with more than 20,000 inhabitants. The distribution of so large a proportion of the territory among so great a number of proprietors, and the consequent existence of so many petty land-owners, each working his own small farm and gaining there- from a livelihood, such as it is, for himself and his family, greatly simpli- fies the consideration of the great question of the relations of labor to capital, and practically limits it, so far as Wurtemberg is concerned, to the population residing in the cities and larger towns. There is, however, in the condition of the numerous agricultural pop- ulation of the Kingdom^ much food for study and observation, and much that is pertinent to the subject of this report. It is not in this cage the question of capitalist and laborer, of employer and employ^. There are no large farms such as are to be found in our great West or plantations such as cover the South, where the capital, euergy, and genius of one man directs the labor of hundreds. Here the owner of each bit of soil is its tiller, and upon its product evolved by his own patient labor depend his hopes of support for him- self and his household. Farm hands are practically unkuown. The land-owner and his wife plow, sow, and gather side by side in the field, or together trim their vines and garner the grapes, content if the close of the harvest find their land unmortgaged, and themselves in health LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 553 • and clear of the books at the baker's and grocer's. It will be easily seen, therefore, that the question of wages, so far as such a population goes, issimply a question of the crops. Their paymaster is the soil which they till. If the season prove unfavorable their .wages are lower in pro- portion, but they cannot strike; if the season prove, on the other hand, propitious, they hail it with the same joy that the mechanic or opera- tive experiences in obtaining better terms from his employer. This is the situation in regard to labor and wages as pertaining to one-half of the population of the Kingdom. Now, there is a natural limit to the productiveness of the soil, a largest possible crop beyond which the cultivator's hopes cannot go. Granting that under the most favorable circumstances this largest possible crop cannot be looked for, save in very exceptional years and at long inter- vals, granting also that on an average crop the cultivator and those dependent on him are barely able to eke out a comfortable subsistence, the deduction is easy, that any successive failures of crops involving a yield perceptibly less than that average must be attended with distress and naturally, in consequence, with movements of some kind for relief. To this should be added the important fact that, while there is no in- crease iu cultivable area, there is all the time going on a steady increase of more than 1 per cent, per annum (see Table II) in the population dwelling on it, and dependent upon it for the means of living, a fact which would render the problem a difficult one, even could a fixed av- erage crop be annually relied on. But when, as I find to be the ease, for five years past the grain and wine crop shows a large falling off from the average yield, even of the last ten years, the simple deduction is, that the farms and vineyards have ceased to furnish means of living for their inhabitants, and that therefore a certain surplus of the latter must either starve or seek their living elsewhere. Hence, the heavy emigration of late years to America and the tendency to crowd into the cities and towns in search of employment, which comparatively few obtain. The grain and wine crops of the Kingdom, which have aver- aged about $3,750,000 for the last ten years, only averaged during the last five years a little over $2,500,000, making a falling off of $0,000,000 and upwards,in the " wages" paid since 1878 by the soil of Wurtemberg to its tillers. Good years, better crops, and a higher average may per- haps recur, but the deficit of five years, so essential to the maintenance of the agricultural population, is there, cannot be wiped out, and must have its effects. Those effects are, not only emigration and a ten- dency townward, as stated, but a proportional diminution of the vol- ume of trade in all its branches. I state these facts as the misfortune of the Wurtemberg peasant, and not as his fault. He is laborious, patient, and thrifty. He might even be called penurious, had not generations of needy toil shown him that the strictest economy is for him a matter of dire necessity. Sturdy and strong of limb, reared to respect the law, religion, and the domestic tie, simple in his wants and moderate in his habits, he is content to work uncomplainingly, or, rising before daylight and working till sundown, asking no more than that he may derive a living from his humble acre, as probably his father and grandfather have done before him, and sup- port and bring up the children, who in turn will care for him in his old age. Devoid of great ambition, he also lacks great cares. His industry is his life, and only ends with life. In the great fusion of races now go- ing on to make up the future population of the North-American conti- nent, and out of which is to spring that new and clearly defined type of humanity, the American race of the future, it is fortunate that we are acquiring so large .an admixture of this honest, industrious race pf 554 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. peasantry from the Black Forest, from the Suabian hills, and from the valleys of the Upper Danube and the Neckar. LAB Esslingen and am employed as a jenny-hand in Markel & Wolf's woolen-yarn factory. Q. Are you married or Bingle ? — A. I was married last February. I am thirty years old. I have been employed seven years where I uow am. Q. How niauy women and girls altogether are employed in your factory ?— A. About TOO, the majority of them, unmarried. Q. I suppose that many of the married ones have children. What do they do with the children while they are at work?— A. They leave the children either with elderly relations or with elderly people in the houses of friends ; in the latter case they pay 10 to 15 marks a month for the child's full board. Q. What are the daily working hours? — A. From 6 a. m. till 7 p. m., with twenty minutes rest in the morning, one hour at noon, and twenty minutes in the afternoon ;. that is over eleven hours. Q. If you work over that time do you get extra pay for it ? — A. Certainly, as I am paid by the amount of work I do. Q. Are all the hands paid in that way, or do some get a fixed price per day ? — A.. Some receive a fixed price, as, for instance, the wool washers, pickers, and sorters, who are paid from 1.20 to 1.50 marks per day. The majority are paid, as I am, accord- ing to the amount of work done. Q. About how much do you earn on an average per day the year round ? — A. Some- times I earn 2 marks a day, sometimes only 1.50 marks. On the year round I earn an average of 1.70 marks daily. Q. Are you often called on for extra work ? — A. Very seldom. Formerly we were. Q. Do most of the female operatives in your mill live in Esslingen ?— A. No ; some live so far away that they have to walk one and a half hours each way going to and returning from their work. They have to leave home* at half past four in the morn- ing, and do not reach home again* until half past eight at night. Women from the different villages come at noon with the dinners for the operatives from their respec- tive localities. Q. What do the younger unmarried female operatives do with their wages? — A. Those who have parents contribute it to their support, those who have not spend it for their own maintenance. They cannot save much unless they stint themselves in. their food. Q. Can these girls save anything for marriage? — A. Very little, and that only by hard denial. Q. Did you save up anything before your marriage? — A. Yes, about 500 marks- ($125), but that was because I was forewoman, worked over-hours, and underwent great denials. Q. Are most of the girls industrious and saving ? — A. Some are, some are not. Q. Are the most of them good girls ? — A. They vary, like all other people. Q. Are they generally strong and healthy ?^-A. Yes, in general. Q. Do-the most of them marry sooner or later ? — A. Yes, sooner or later; as soon as they are in circumstances to do so, Q. Are wages higher or lower now than they were five years ago? — A. The fixed day- wages were about the same, but the rates of payment according to the amount of work done were 20 per cent, higher five years ago, while the cost of living remain* about the same. Q. What education had you had before you began to work in the mill ? — A. I had poor parents ; I went to the public school from the time I was seven years old until I was fourteen. Then I was three years in service, with a family in the country; then I went to Augsburg and worked for two years in a woolen-mill ; then two years, in Geislingenlin another mill ; then one year in a mill near Cologne ; then two years more near Winterthur, in Switzerland ; and finally I came to Esslingen, where I now am. 576 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY, Q Suppose a fire broke out in your mill during the daytime, are there means of escape provided for all of vou ?— A. Yes; the new portion of the mill is one-storied, hut the older portion of it has three floors, and there most of the operatives are. It is amply provided with hose, ladders, and buckets, and there would be no danger whatever. . . Q. Suppose you were to fall sick, and were unable to work for a fortnight, what would you have to depend upon ? — A. We have a relief fund to which all of the em- ployed in the mill contribute 40pfennige each per month. Single operatives are sent to the hospital, and are cared for gratis, besides receiving on their discharge from i the hospital, 25 pfennige per day for the period of their illness. Those who have parents or husbands are allowed to remain at home, and are paid 50 pfennige per day. Q. Do you keep house?— A. Yes; I and my husband hire a part of a second floor. We have" two rooms and apart of a kitchen, for which we pay 60 marks a year. We breakfast together at half past five on coffee and bread. When my husband is able to work we get our dinner at a house near where live, and pay 35 pfennige (about 8 cents) apiece for it. We get soup, boiled meat, and some vegetable. We take our evening meal about 7.30 or 8 o'clock. I prepare it myself— a cup of coffee, perhaps a little beer and bread, and a sausage or so. We earn together about 100 marks [$23.80] per month, and with economy we manage to get along on that. Q. Do you think that most of the female operatives are contented? — A. Yes; they do not complain of their lot, because they are accustomed to it. A FEW WORDS MORE FROM MR. KARL KLOSS. In regard to the subject of female labor, Mr. Rloss favors me with a few additional observations. He says that women weavers are paid from 1.10 to 3.30 marks per day; bookbinders, 1.20 to 3.60; compositors, 1.60 to 4.80; wood- workers, 1.90 to 2.70; and then he goes on to inquire how the deficit in these women's means of livelihood is to be made good. He answers the question himself, and thus: (1.) At a sacrifice of health and longevity, owing to iici'Viuate sustenance, un- healthy lodgings, and excessive work, i. e., on Sundays and ov r-' ours. (2.) At a sacrifice of domestic happiness, and of the education of their children; while the mothers are compelled to go to the factories, the children are left to them- selves, and they, as well as the household, are neglected. (3.) At the sacrifice of morality; single women are obliged to look out for other sources of income. (4.) At a sacrifice of the valne of male labor, which becomes depreciated by com- petition with that of women aVid children. THE CONDITION OF WOMEN IN THE FACTORIES. Referring again to the interesting reports of the two inspectors of fac- tories, previously quoted from, I make the further following extracts, viz: Inspector v. Diefenbach says: In a cigar factory in the country I found over 200 persons and work-women in one room, which, it is true, was large, but the operatives were so crowded together that they hardly had room to move. The clothing* of all these people was hung on the pillars about the room. In rainy weather this clothing was wet through, and it can oe imagined what an atmosphere there was in the room, lacking, as it did, proper means of ventilation. The putting up of a ventilating apparatus and enlargement of the work-room, and the establishment of a separate room as a wardrobe were prom- ised me. In cases where there is nothing to be done in the way of improvements in the factory, and where it is only a question of shortening the hours of labor, I have found in many cases that an arrangement exists whereby tbe women leave work an hour before noon-time to cook the midday meal for their families. I was assured that only such women were employed in the factory as were childless, or had an aged mother to look after their children and take care of their houses. Further restrictions upon female labor do not seem to me desirable ; in maiiy families blessed with numer- ous children, and in thickly settled neighborhoods, circumstances are such that the wife— and this seems so generally a subject for regret— must contribute an essential part of the support of the entire family, which at least renders possible better nourish- ment for the children. In many cases it is impossible to find remunerative work to do at home, while there is a chance to earn something in the factories. In many quart-. ers it is stated that girls are rendered thoughtless and pleasure-loving by workino- in LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 577 the factories, and that ao they become unfit for household duties; in the case of fe male operatives not living wilh their families, this may be, in many cases, true, but, it is less probable where a girl lives with her family, has their shelter and care, partici- pates in the household duties, and so contributes to increase the family receipts, or, herself, endeavors to save up a sum of money to start a home of her own. Inspector Gartner says : In a certain spinning-mill I found that the comfortable three-story building, which, is set aside as a dwelling for fifty female operatives, was scarcely half occupied, not- withstanding the cleanliness of the premises and the cheapness of the accommodations offered, viz: S) pfeunige for a bed; coffee and bread, 6 pfenuige; dinner, 17 pfenuige; enpper, 11 pfenuige, or a total of 43 pfenuige per day. On inquiring the cause, the manager answered me that the girls felt themselves placed under restraint in conse- quence of the house regulations, and especially of the provision that all living in the house should be at home by 9£ o'clock in the evening, and would not be admitted later. It consequently happens that some of the female inmates do not come home at night at all, and, when they are reproached with the fact, they give notice that they ■will remove elsewhere. In the neighboring town there are houses where they say tht-y can obiain all necessary accommodations, even though it costs a little more ; but in such a casn the price is no object. Each loom is arranged for two girls, and, in ad- dition to the beds, contains also a chest with locks and a table. The almost entire lack of any reading matter in their rooms was strikingly noticeable. In one case a " Country Almanaeh," in another the " Story of Hiesel, of Bavaria," were the only pieces of printed matter to be found in all the rooms in the whole of ihat large house. In one of the larger districts, with extensive manufacturing interests, the small number of older female opeiatives was again remarked. It is a custom among the fe- male working population for the gir's, after they have worked in the factory from the age of 14 up to 18 or 20, and have saved up a little money, to go away to the cities to obtain situations as servant girls, and so acquire the necessary experience for their future duties as wives. JUVENILE LABOR. At the close of the year 1882* tliere were employed in Wurtemberg, in 717 factories, 5,6S() children under 16* years of age, the number being about equally divided as regards the sexes. The following table, taken from Inspector Gartner's report, shows the steady increase during the last 4 years in the employment of children in factories, viz : CD let. thi-ir juvenile hands — 3 male!-, 24 femal s, or -11 in all — work from 5 instead of 5.30 in the nioniing tin li) 6 in the cvtn- i — . — ^ — ■ — __ * Statistics lor 18H3 not jet published. 92 A— LAB 37 578 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. ing, for a period of 4 weeks, with, of course, the customary hoars of recess. The re- quest was based upon the fact that the water was so low at that time that only the half of the factory could he kept going ; the older workmen, therefore,, worked at night, and, in order to spare these, and enable them to leave sooner, it was thought to have the day-work begin half an hour earlier. It involved simply a question, there- fore, of a deviation from the provisions of section 136 of the industrial law with refer- ence to the hours of beginning labor. The daily working period for the juvenile hands remained, as before, 11 hours long, and the children were all provided with medical certificates. (2.) The county authorities at Horb allowed the mechanical twist-mill at Miihlen on the Neckar, in consequence of the interruption caused to their work by inunda- tion, to employ 14 young people — 2 males and 12 females — for 12 hours daily during the hours of daylight for 4 weeks, with of course the customary hours of recess. Inspector v. Diefenbach remarks on this subject: The work-cards and work-books, the placards containing the regulations in regard to juvenile laborers, and the tables bearing their names are, I find, being constantly hetter kept. I have not discovered any violations of the law prohibiting the em- ployment of children under 12 years of age i i the factories, although some cases of employment of children at night, or for a longer period than is lawful, and of a cur- tailing of the hours of recess have occurred, and have been fined by the courts. Juvenile hands between 14 and 16 years old are specially numerous in the rag- assorting rooms of wool factories, in cigar factories, in the woolen and cotton mills, and in the Bilk-twisting establishments. Repeated complaints have reached my ears, as well from parents as from employers, that tbe young cannot receive a work-book and go to work in a factory at once on leaving school, which, in many cases, occurs when they are 13^ years old, but that they must wait until they have completed their fourteenth year. Experience teaches that such children, who are only lawfully entitled to work for 6 hours a day, find difficulty in obtaining employment anyhow, and so are neglected and left to look after themselves. CONCLUSION. This labor question, with all its varied phases, is the great problem now undergoing solution throughout the German Empire. Conserva- tism and Socialism are preparing for their death grapple ; the one, deep- rooted in the traditions of the past and encumbered with difficulties from which it cannot free itself even if it will ; the other, rearing the standard of a universal disenthralhnent from all existing social ties, and the construction of a new and chimerical fabric upon their ruins. Could but the middle ground be found between the two, could those so tenacious of the titles and traditions which have come down from feu- dal times but be brought to see that an enlarged freedom for all men is the lesson of the time; could, on the other hand, those who are clamor- ing so madly for that enlarged freedom be brought to realize that they must first be educated to a proper use of that which they demand, it might then be hoped that the struggle would find a prompt and peaceful solution. But where concessions, claimed as such, by the one are received by scorn and ridicule by the other, and where, in turn, the persistent demands for increased political rights and a broader recogni- tion of the dignity of labor are construed as presumptuous or even per- haps as seditious, no man can tell what the outcome will be. It is a struggle which commands the attention and study of all thinking men, and upon the solution of which depends the future of society. GEOEGE L. CATLIN, _ _, „ Consul. United States Consulate, Stuttgart, May 14, 1884. LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. 579 Table I. — Distribution of the population, of the Kingdom of Wurtemberg according to the pursuits or avocations upon which they are directly or indirectly dependent. J?. 21 O -3 J.S M a ° s'l ■a « I" S.S 3 = 3 i g •D •a 2 EH ri H u to P. £.s t& to #-i 00 to OS M • S^ M - - OSS . « & > 1 a &•» o s| M O M o£ 1 Persons directly engaged: 279, 182 114, 276 393, 458 179 15, 037 15, 216 162, 691 167, 651 330, 342 7,011 196, 897 203, 908 169, 702 364, 548 534, 250 218, 167 44, 891 263, 058 , 160 15, 207 15, 367 121, 465 125. 723 247, 188 3,179 145, 288 148, 467 124. 644 271, 011 395, 655 36, 339 13, 344 49, 683 190 9,832 10, 022 24, 462 26, 167 50, 629 1,109 31, 815 32, 924 25, 571 57, 982 83, 553 2,376 3,516 5,892 38, 417 4,381 42, 798 125 7,087 7,212 12, 827 12, 915 25, 742 859 19, 103 19, 962 13, 686 32,018 45, 704 26,643 33, 677 60, 320 239 5,678 5,917 4,104 4,630 8,734 602 14, 666 15, 268 4,706 19, 296 ' 24,002 601,124 214, 085 Total 815, 20» 893 Household servants attached to those directly engaged : 16 16 1,739 1,816 3,555 29 1, 762- 1,791 1,768 3,578 5,346 52, 857 Total 53, 750 327, 288 Dependent members of the families of those directly engaged : Under 14 years of age : 338, 902 666, 190 Over 14 years of age : 12, 789 409, 531 422, 320 Total: 340, 07T 748, 438 Total 1, 088, 510 Grand total: 449, 063 493, 861 342, 97) 331, 109 62, 100 81, 158 4,144 7,110 52, 228 43, 486 31, 588 58, 651 942, 094 1, 015, 375 942, 924 674, 080 143, 258 11,254 95, 714 90, 239 1, 957, 460 Table II. — Table showing vital and natal statistics of the German Empire and of the King- dom of Wurtemberg, in the year 1882. VITAL STATISTICS. German Em- pire (including Wurtemberg). Wurtemberg Marriages , Births: Males Females Total Deaths (including stillborn) : Males Females Total Excess of births over deaths: Males Females Total Total population December 1, 1880 350, 457 911, 372 858, 128 1,769,501 648, 296 595, 708 1, 244, 006 263, 076 262, 420 525, 495 ~45, 149, 172 12, 523 40, 471 37, 956 78, 42T 29,053 27, 480 56, 542 11, 418 10,467 21, 885 1, 970, 132 580 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. Vital and natal statistics of the German Empire, $c. — Continued. NATAL STATISTICS. German Em- pire (including wuiteniberg). "Wurtemberg. Legitimate births: 826, 646 778, 397 36, 931 34, 508 1, 605, 043 71,441 Illegitimate births : 84, 726 79, 731 3,539 Total 164, 457 0,986 Total: 911, 372 858, 128 40,471 -37, o;« Total 1, 769, 500 78,427 Table III. — Table of vital statistics of the German Empire, by years, from 1873 to 1882. Tear. Estimated population. Marriages. Births. Deaths. Excess of births over deaths. Dleeiti- mate births. Stillborn. 1873 41, 532, 000 41, 983, 000 42, 510, U0» 43, 057, 000 43, 608, 000 44, 127. 000 44, 639, 000 43, 039, 000 45, 442, 01 45,767,0^0 416,049 400, 282 386, 746 366,912 347,810 340, 016 335, 113 337, 342 338, 909 350, 457 1, 715, 283 1, 752, 976 1, 798, 591 1.831,218 1,818,550 1, 785, 080 1,806,741 1, 764, 096 1, 748, 686 1, 769, 50] 1,241,459 1,191,932 1, 246, 572 1, 207, 144 1, 223, 692 1, 228, 607 1,214,643 1,241, 126 I, 222, 928 1, 244, 006 473, 824 561,044 552,019 624, 074 594, 858 556. 473 592, 098 522, 970 525, 758 525, 495 158, 268 152, 015 155, 573 158, 360 157, 369 154. 629 159, 821 158, 709 158, 454 164, 457 67,161 69,536 74,179 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 71, 157 1879 J.. 1880 1881 1882 66, 537 67,153 GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week (of various hours) in Stuttgart. Occupations. BUILDING TRADKS. Bricklayers Hod carriers Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Plate) s Ro.fi-rs Tenders Plumbers , Assistants. Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers , Bookbinders Brickruakers Brewers Butchers Brass- founders Cabinet-makers Con ffctioners Cigar-makes Coopers (per month) Cutlers (per month) Distillers (per mouth) Hours per day. Lowest. Highest Average. 11 $4 57 $5 43 $4 67 11 3 14 3 71 3 57 11 4 85 5 43 5 14 11 3 14 4 00 3 71 11 5 43 7 14 6 43 11 3 57 3 86 3 71 11 6 00 7 14 6 85 11 5 71 7 )4 6 57 11 4 00 4 57 4 28 11 6 43 7 85 7 42 11 4 28 4 85 4 57 11 4 28 5 71 5 14 11 5 71 8 57 7 99 Jiil 71 3 57 2 14 12 2 38 3 57 2 86 12 1 90 2 86 2 38 11 3 57 5 71 4 28 12 2 14 3 33 2 62 VM 2 38 3 57 2 86 iiSI 1 64 3 57 3 36 10J 4 26 2 88 8 58 7 14 5 70 4 26 10 4 26 5 70 4 98 It 3 72 4 86 4 26 12 5 70 11 40 8 58 11 1 44 2 40 1 98 11 5 70 8 58 7 14 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. Wages paid per week (of various hours) in Stuttgart — Continued. 581 Occupations. Hours per day. Lowest. Highest Average. Othek tkadks — Continued. Drivers: Draymen and teamsters Cab, carriage, &c Street railways „ Dyers Engravers Funiers Gardeners Hatters Borseshoera Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Hillwrights Kail-makers, band Potters Printers Teachers, public eebools Baddle and harness makers.. TaunerB Tailors ; Telegraph operators Tinsmiths "Weavers (outside of mills) 12 12 13 11 9 11 12 11 12 11 11 11 5 11 10 11 8i 10 12 $5 70 8 33 4 20 1 98 5 70 3 00 3 60 1 68 2 86 5 70 3 36 8 58 5 70' 1 44 1 14 6 64 7 78 6 70 1 14 3 60 4 97 1 44 60 $8 58 10 01 4 20 2 88 14 28 7 14 4 26 3 12 3 57 11 40 5 53 11 40 17 16 1 74 1 44 8 58 19 22 14 28 1 74 5 70 10 99 1 98 84 $7 14 9 17 4 20 2 58 8 58 7 86 3 72 2 40 3 09 8 58 4 69 10 02 11 40 1 56 1 26 7 14 12 56 7 14 1 44 4 26 7 98 1 74 72 FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per day in factories or mills in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. Working hours. Lowest. Highest. Average. Furniture factories : 11 11' 12 12 12 \ J ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii 10 10 10 $0 48 Tl 95 24 24 I 24 36 48 29 62 83 29 67 62 1 43 71 36 $1 19 1 43 2 86 60 48 48 48 71 '48 81 1 00 60 83 76 1 90 1 19 52 $0 83 95 1 90 29 26 33 Soap factories : 43 60 Cigar factories: 38 71 Sugar factories : 88 38 Engine factories: 76 71 Jewelry factories: 1 67 95 43 FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Wages paid per day in foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. Troii foundries : Chiselers (ten hours) Founders (eleven hours) . Lowest. $0 95 57 Highest. $1 31 95 Average. $1 19 71 For further information, see Table V. 582 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. GLASS WORKS. Wages paid per week of sixty hours to glass-workers in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. L -west. Highest. Average. In Zuffenb ausen : $3 57 2 86 1 67 5 95 2 43 $7 14 5 24 4 28 10 71 3 57 $5 38 2 98 In Bublback : 7 14 2 86 MINES AND MINING. Wages paid per day* week, or year, in and in connection with iron and salt mines in the con- sular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. In mines and foundries : / Foundry superintendents peryear.. $809 20 $904 40 $856 80 Foundry treasurers do 714 00 904 40 785 40 Foundry assistant superintendents do 428 40 57120 535 50 Foundry bookkeepers do 523 60 52:! 60 523 60 Machine inspectors ....do 856 80 856 80 856 80 Clerks do.... 428 40 428 40 428 40 Assistant raining engineers do 428 40 428 40 428 40 Traveling salesmen do... 57120 57120 57120 Foundryinen perday.. 48 119 70 Turners do... 59 83 65 Locksmiths do 57 83 58 Smiths do.... 52 76 57 Carpenters do 52 83 50 5 ol J e ™ ..do.... 57 71 55 Puddlers do.... 48 79 65 Melters do.... 38 95 71 Miners do... 31 71 43 Common laborers do 31 48 43 In salt works : Superintendents peryear.. 809 20 904 40 856 81 Treasurers do... 904 40 904 40 904 40 Assistant superintendents do 428 40 57120 456 96 Bookkeepers do... 523 60 523 60 523 60 Overseer do.... 342 72 342 72 342 72 Storekeeper do... 499 80 499 80 499 80 Inspectors of mines do.. 714 00 714 00 714 00 Inspectors of salt works do... 618 80 618 80 618 80 •Chief surveyors perweek.. 6 66 7 14 6 90 Surveyors do... 4 76 5 71 5 24 Foremen of boilers do 428 4 76 4 28 J"" ers do... 3 33 3 81 3 57 Millers do.... 2 86 2 86 286 ° mlth8 4 do.... 4 05 4 05 4 05 Carpenters do... 3 00 3 09 3 00 Masous do.... 3 09 g 21 3 09 Day laborers a0 .. 2 62 3 09 2 86 Average. *In office work eight hours, and in the mines twelve hours constitute a day's work. LEBOR IN EUROPE GERMANY; 583 RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid to railway employes {Ihose engaged about stations, as well as those engaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, if-c.) in the eoniular district of Stutt- gart. Occupations. Chief conductors Koad-mastors Cnards : Line . Tunnels and bridges Station directors Chiefs of station Ticket clerks , Station superintendents Porters and saloon attendants Switchmen Freight and baggage officials, cashiers, sapply-clerks, and storekeepers' Assistant Train-masters Conductors Car attendants Freight handlers Brakemen Locomotive engineers Firemen : First-class Second-class Linemen Lowest. $333 20 428 40 154 70 178 50 428 40 309 40 309 40 261 80 214 20 166 60 380 80 26l 80 261 80 214 20 214 20 190 40 | 166 60 309 40 226 10 202 30 *43 Highest. $357 00 523 60 178 50 178 50 761 60 380 80 380 80 333 20 238 00 190 40 666 40 285 60 285 60 238 00 238 00 202 30 178 50 428 40 261 80 226 10 *50 Average. $345 10 476 00 166 60 178 50 547 40 345 10 345 10 297 50 226 10 178 50 514 08 273 70 273 70 226 10 226 10 196 35 172 55 368 90 243 95 214 20 *45 k Per day. SHIP-YARDS. Wages paid per year or day in skip-yards,* distinguishing between iron and wood ship-build- ing, in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. <* Masters of shops per year. Masters of yards do . - - Wood carvers per day. Locksmiths and forgemen do Boiler-makers do... Lowest. Highest. $714 00 $904 40 428 40 571 20 57 95 52 95 52 1 05 Average. $809 20 523 60 7« 71 79 * Ship-yards at Friedrichshafen, on the lake of Constance, and at Neckarsulm, on the Keckar. SEAMEN'S WAGES. Wages paid per year to seamen (offiners and men), dlstinquishing between ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam.* Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $904 40 $904 40 523 60 523 60 333 20 452 20 309 40 309 40 202 30 202 30 261 80 357 00 251 80 251 80 234 55 234 55 Average. Oeneral manager Bookkeepers Captains Stfersmon , Tow bout hands. Engineers Firemen , Seamen $904 40 523 60 380 80 309 40 202 30 293 93 251 80 234 55 *These prices apply to the line of passenger and freight steamers run on Lake Constance by the Wurtemberg government. 584 LABOR IN EUROPE — GERMANY. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per year in dry goods and variety stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupatious. Bookkeepers Stnek-overseer Clerks Porters Janitors Shop girls : With hoard ... "Without board Directresses Lowest. $285 60 119 00 lilO 40 160 00 100 40 35 70 142 80 238 00 Highest. Average. , 42S 00 7U 00 595 00 238 00 238 00 47 60 470 00 476 00 $571 20 357 00 357 00 214 20 214 20 42 84 285 60 357 00 HOUSEHOLD "WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants {toions and cities) in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. Man-servants Coachmen Gardeners Cooka: Male Female (in hotels) . 'Female (in families) Ladies' cocupauions Governesses Housekeepers Cham bi-rmaids !K"nrse gills "Waiting maidB Housemaids "Waiters "Waitresses Lowest. Highest. $142 80 $171 36 71 40 142 80 71 40 128 52 166 60 856 80 28 56 226 10 57 12 142 80 • 142 80 476 00 119 00 285 00- 35 70 95 20 28 56 57 12 42 84 85 08 57 12 85 68 30 94 35 70 59 5il 285 60 28 56 47 60 Average. $154 70 1«7 10 95 20 285 60 71 40 95 20 357 00 238 00 71 40 4 J 84 7140 71 40 33 32 142 80 35 70 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household {country) servants in the consular district of Stuttgart, with or without board and lodging. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $142 80 35 70 $476 00 95 20 1 43 1 19 1 43 23 80 2 14 1 90 2 38 38 08 Average. Overseers per year. Staid" hands do . . - Day lahorers : Main per week. Female do .. Dairymen do . - - Maitts per year. $357 Oft 57 12 1 90 1 43 1 90 30 94 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to the corporation employe's in the city of Stuttgart. 585 Occupations. Mayor Mayor's secretary Engineering advisers City warden - Chief engineer Street inspector Clerksatcit\ ball President of city court Registrars ■ City warden's crush i er Surveyors Superintendent of public buildings Comptroller's of building , Assessors ' Bookkeepers Actuaries Superintendent of markets Comptroller of accounts Comptroller of taxes - Assistant city warden Superintendent of octroi City recorders "Wardens of forestry Chief of police Commissaries of police Clerks of police Inspectors of police Chief of bureau, dwellings, and strangers . . Qnartermaster of police Fire-alarm operators Superintendent of gas-lights Inspectors ot canals and water-works Constructors of water-works veterinary surgeons Poor-house officials Superintendent of public hospital Assistant superintendent of public hospital Captain of gaurd (net i oil Guards (octroi) Inspector of cemeteries Grave-diggers . Coporals of police Policemen Keeper of citv hall Attendants at city hall Tower- watchers (for fires) Suburban policemen Overseers of streets and canals Overseers of markets Janitors in public schools Inspectors of meats Sextons of churches Phvsioians for the poor 8urgeons for the poor Chaplain of poor-house Schoolmaster of poor-house Overseer s of poor Warden of poor house Chief medical director, city hospital Assistant physicians at city hospital Oculist at city hospital ...1 380 00 856 80 380 40 380 40 9U4 411 004 40 523 00 910 30 600 20 999 60 761 60 833 00 701 60 6H0 20 571 20 748 70 571 20 571 20 511 70 476 00 833 00 571 29 999 60 332 80 630 70 571 20 618 80 333 20 511 70 535 50 904 40 809 20 511 70 511 70 476 00 ,094 80 547 40 476 00 315 35 476 00 357 00 314 It) 280 84 571 20 242 76 183 26 273 70 368 90 309 40 218 96 190 40 142 80 83 30 35 70 52 36 59 50 571 20 499 80 785 40 204 68 119 00 Highest. $2, 380 00 856 MJ 1,642 20 1,380 40 904 40 904 40 999 00 916 30 833 00 999 00 904 40 833 00 761 60 749 70 749 70 749 70 571 20 571 20 511 70 476 00 833 00 999 60 999 60 1, 332 80 833 00 571 20 773 50 511 70 511 70 5i5 50 904 40 999 00 690 20 1, 094 80 90+ 40 1, 094 00 618 80 471 00 315 35 476 00 452 20 314 16 280 84 571 20 290 30 192 78 357 00 434 35 300 40 487 90 190 40 297 50 95 20 35 70 52 36 123 76 571 20 499 80 785 40 204 68 119 00 Average. $2, 380 00 8J6 00 1,511 30 1, 380 40 904 40 904 40 725 90 916 30 761 60 999 60 809 20 333 00 761 60 719 95 647 36 749 70 571 20 571 20 511 70 476 00 833 00 737 80 999 60 1, 332 80 706 86 571 20 671 16 422 45 5il 70 535 50 904 40 904 40 595 00 803 25 662 83 1, 094 80 583 10 476 00 315 35 476 00 '404 60 314 16 280 84 571 20 266 56 1X5 64 297 50 392 70 309 40 428 40 190 40 238 00 88 06 35 70 52 36 91 63 571 20 499 80 7S5 40 204 08 119 00 585 LABOR IN EUROPE GERMANY. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paidper year to employe's in Government departments and offices — exclusive of trades- men and, laborers — in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $1, 284 00 $4, 28 1 00 2, 284 80 2, 284 80 1, 666 00 1,761 20 1, 332 80 1, 523 20 1, 047 20 1, 237 70 666 40 856 80 1,523 20 1, 618 40 1, 332 80 1, 428 00 1, 047 20 1, 237 60 1, 899 20 1,999 20 1, 523 20 1, 618 40 1, 332 80 1, 428 00 1, 047 20 1, 237 60 666 40 856 80 571 20 809 20 1, 237 60 1, 237 60 809 20 809 20 404 60 499 80 357 00 380 00 333 20 333 20 | Average. Ministers of state President superior connty court Presidents of county courts, of senate of superior county court, and chief attorneys- general Councillors at ministry of justice, and at superior county court; also directors of county courts County conrt councillors and county j udges, and attorneys-general . . . Countyjudges ' Directors of county and circuit boards in interior department Chief councilors of the Government and chief councilors of engineer- ing Coadvisers at interior department President of Protestant consistory , Directors at treasury department... Chief councilors, finance or engineering Coadvisers at treasury department Assessors in various departments Secretaries, registrars, revisors , Cashiers Comptrollers Office clerks Copying clerks Office servants , $4, 284 00 2, 284 81 1, 713 60 1, 428 00 1, U2 40 761 60 1, 570 80 1, 380 40 1, 142 40 1, 999 20 1, 570 80 1, 380 40 1, 142 40 761 60 6C0 20 1, 237 60 809 20 452 20 36K 90 333 20 The Wurtemberg Government has under its management and control no other industrial establish- ments than those included and given herewith. PRINTERS' WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, $c.) in the consular district of Stuttgart. Occupations. Printing offices : Foremen per vear . . Compositors and proof-readers per day.. Press foremen do Firemen ...........do.. Male and female hands do ^ Porter ;. do ] J' oundries : Foremen do. . Sterpotypers, &c .' """do!! "Workmen .do!! Lowest. $595 00 1 09 1 09 71 35 71 1 43 95 Highest. ! Average. $714 00 1 43 1 43 83 48 83 1 67 1 09 1 43 142 6* 1 19 1 10 77 43 77 1 55 1 03 1 1» THE UNITED KINGDOM. ENGLAND. BIRMINGHAM. REPORT BY CONSUL EJlfO. DIFFICULTY OF SECURING STATISTICS. Iu seeking information to enable me to reply to this question I have met with many refusals, some of which were courteous and some of which were not. On the other hand, I have met with much kind and considerate assistance. In the glass trade I have found no firm willing to give me the slightest information, and in all trades, in the case of the workingmen themselves, I have met with many refusals and a good deal of suspicion, even after I explained my object, although to me it seems that an honest and trustworthy comparative report upon the wages and condition of the working people throughout the world must be of real value and un- mixed good to all the working classes. In most cases it has been impossible to get the highest, lowest, and average wages, and I have been forced to be content with what I could get. The prevalence of the system of piecework, and the fixed card-rates of the various trades-unions, must partly' account for this failure on my part. Times are so hard in most trades that, as a rule, most who are not capable hands are out of employment. At least I have been told that such is the case by several masters and one or two foremen, who have given this as a reason for only being able to supply average statistics. From Mr. Browning, consular agent at Redditch, I have received a paper which I inclose, giving the cost of producing 40,000 needles. This was the nearest approach he could get to a report of the wages paid in that, the staple trade of Eedditch, as all the work is piece-work, often given out and done in the artisan's own houses. Some time ago the Messrs. Milward took me through their vast factory at Eedditch and explained the whole process of needle making to me ; but the details are so intricate that even had my memory faithfully retained what I then saw this would hardly be a proper place to describe it. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. In Birmingham I have been greatly aided by the following gentle- men, who have given me every facility for obtaining information, viz : Messrs. Thomas Pemberton & Co., brass founders; Messrs. Morewood & Co., iron rollers; Messrs. W. Tonks & Sons, brass founders ; Mr. Silk, of the household supply stores; Messrs. Tangye Bros., machine- makers ; Messrs. Peter Wright & Sons, anvil-makers at Dudley; Mr. Barnsley, builder, and Messrs. Eandle & Co., tin-plate makers. 587 588 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. BIRMINGHAM BRASSWARE AND JEWELRY. For more tban a century Birmingham has had a world-wide reputa- tion for its ornamental brass goods, ami for about the same time it has been one of the chief centers of the jewelry trade. In fact so many men are employed in those two trades that they may be said to be almost the most important trades in this great town of nearly half a million workers. For this reason I have secured a return of wages from a manufacturing jeweler and two from leading brass founders. The report, regarding coopers' wages was sent in in an unusual form, but may be of interest, since I have been unable to procure any other. In connection with this inquiry I beg to inclose wage lists of the general trades, foundries, &c, store and shop, tin-plate works, gold and silver smiths, agricultural laborers, needle-makers, and coopers. COST OF LIVING TO THE LABORING CLASSES. It is difficult to give an exact answer to this question. Eents vary from about 50 cents to about $2.50 a week, according to situation and amount of accommodation. In Quiutain, where many of the former nail-workers have obtained other work, a comfortable cottage of four rooms, with for^e attached, can be had for about 75 cents, while in Cradley and Lye, where the nail-makers are almost wholly dependeut upon their moribund trade for existence, the same class of cottage costs about 60 cents. Clothing is cheaper than it is in America. It is, how- ever, little if any cheaper than it was five years ago here. Cheap tailor goods are about the same price that they then were. Boots that in 1877 cost $2.50 can now be had as good for about $2.25. Print goods quoted at 11 cents in 1877 can now be had for 7 cents. Canton flannel, now 12 cents per yard, was but 9 cents iu 1877. Coal, which cost $4.50 in 1877, can now be had for about $3.12, but coal is an article that con- stantly changes in value. Sugar and coffee have not changed in price, but tea has come down from 70 cents in 1877 to 40 cents now. Potatoes, milk, eggs, bread, and bacon, have remained about stationary. Fresh meat is somewhat cheaper. Thus, on the whole, I may say that living is slightly cheaper and wages slightly higher than they were in 1877. Yet the number of the unemployed is greater, and the actual distress now existing is almost alarming in its extent. The labor unions keep up the wages, but they cannot find work for the constantly increasing numbers of idle hands. THE HAND NAIL-MAKERS. In the hand-made-nail region, Lye, Cradley, Halesowen, &c, there is much suffering. Many are without work, and the more fortunate can only earn a miserable pittance. There seems to be no 'possibility of improvement by ordinary measures, and it would appear as if here, at any rate, Government might intervene, and, by giving them the means to emigrate, rescue these poor people, who are fairly honest, and willing tj be industrious, from the ruins of a once prosperous trade. THE LEAD MINES OP SHROPSHIRE. Another part ot this consular district is just now the scene of acute suffering. The lead mines in Shropshire have been compelled to cease work, and more than three hundred men in a remote section of country LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 589 are thrown out of employment, with wages due but unpaid. The women and children and many of the men are nearly starving, and have only been rescued by gifts of food from the people of Shrewsbury. This dis- tress may, however, be regarded as temporary. HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. I think the people in this vicinity are fairly thrifty, and perhaps as sober as the average British working people. The amount of drunken- ness, and of crime arising from drunkenness, shows a very satisfactory decrease, if the figures of the chief constable are to be relied upon. The total number of such cases coming under the notice of the police in the borough of Birmingham was 29,780 in the five years, 1874-'78, against 25,716 in the five years 1879-83. This showing is even more favorable than appears at first sight, because the estimated population of Birmingham was 366,325 in 1875, and 414,846 in 1883. This decrease may be partly owing to the spread of education, and the opening of free reading-rooms and lectures throughout the town. These, with the very successful coffee-houses, have given the working people comparatively pleasant places of resort without the necessity of drinking strong liquors. Before such places existed men and women who sought public recreation or social pleasures were almost compelled to go to the bar-rooms and gin shops. The fact that so soon as an al- ternative was offered to the working-man a very appreciable reduction took place in the amount of drunkenness seems to tell its own tale. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYED. Strikes are not unfrequent here, but the number and variety of trades is very large. In the nail and chain making districts strikes may be said to be chronic, as there is generally one in progress in one part or other of the black country. In many of the chief trades, however, arbi- tration has been adopted and has worked fairly well. Last year a por- tion of the iron trade for a time refused to accept the arbitrator's decision against the men. A strike resulted, accompanied by some rioting, which was not of long duration. More recently in Kiderminster, as Mr. Mor- ton states in his memorandum, there have been disagreements and serious riotings, so that, in spite of a largely augmented police force, it was thought necessary to call upon the military for aid in order to restore order. On the whole, however, I should say that the feeling betw< en em- ployers and employed is not unkindly. Many of the greater employers, by the establishment of eating-rooms at their works, where cheap, good food is provided, reading-rooms, courses of lectures, night schools, and systems of social entertainment, day nurseries for the children of work- ing women, &c, have done much to add to the comfort of their men and to promote good feeling. In a number of the factories which I have visited I have heard the men speak very kindly of their employ- ers. In some I found men who had been all their lives in the one fac- tory. In Mr. Pembertou's copper factory there is an old man who has been nearly sixty years there, and who tells with pleasure and pride that he has known five generations of the Pemberton family. Are the working people free to purchase the uecessaiit-s of life wher- ever they choose, or do the employers impose any conditions in this regard? * How often and in what kind of currency is labor paid '? As a rule, working people are paid in sterling money once a week, and are 590 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. free to do what tbey will with it. In the nail and chain districts there was a great deal of paying for labor with orders for goods upon shops belonging to the employers. This so-called truck system is now illegal. It is said still to prevail in some places, but I have asked a number of the working people themselves, all of whom denied having any knowl- edge of the existence now of this system. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. I have not been able as yet to procure any details concerning the workings of any of the unions, most of which, I believe, combine much co-operative work with their other business. Most of them have sick and burial funds connected with them. At the Messrs. Pemberton's works, where about four hundred hands are employed, the men all belong to the brass- workers' union. In addition to which they each pay a shilling a week to a sick fund confined to that factory, which insures 8 shill- ings a week in case of disability to work. The remainder of the fund is usually divided among the contributors at Christmas, and generally gives each man enough to enable him comfortably to tide over the week's holiday at that season. In addition to this each man pays a penny and each boy a halfpenny each week to what is called the hospital Saturday fund. Similar con- tributions are made in most of the works throughout the town, and the amount thus collected is, on a fixed Saturday each year, handed over to the various hospitals. This year this fund, contributed by the work- ing men and women, amounted to about $30,000. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. I think, on the whole, it is pretty good. House rent in Birmingham is moderate, costing from 36 cents to $1.90 per week for such houses as the working men live in. The question of artisans' dwellings has been hotly discussed here re- cently in the newspapers and in the town council. An influential com- mittee was appointed and a searching and, I think, thorough inquiry was made. The report jhows that 5,273 houses, out of a total of 65,969, are empty, and that these empty houses are fairly distributed through all parts of the town, showing that any overcrowding that exists does not result from any lack of accommodation. The sanitary condition of the houses was found to be fairly good. The number of cases of dangerous overcrowding was very small as com- pared with many other large towns, and such overcrowding when found was generally proved to be the result of intemperance rather than of poverty. The committee reported that the intemperance and improvi- dence existing are largely the result of the present depression of trade. In this they differ radically from my individual opinion, founded as I believe on statistics, that both drunkenness and improvidence increase rapidly when times are good. However, the committee came to the conclusion that: "The dwelling-house accommodation for the artisan and laboring class within the borough is, generally speaking, in a fairly sanitary condition, and that overcrowding does not exist to any great 6Xt6Ilt« The committee also urged upon councils — First. That all new houses should be certified by a competent official before they are allowed to be occupied. Second. That extreme care should be used by the building surveyor in the supervision of the materials used in the construction of houses. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. f>91 Third. That the staircases of new houses should be better constructed. Fourth. That the corporation should employ scavengers and white- washers to cleanse the worst courts occasionally. Fifth. That it is very desirable that all courts should be lighted. Sixth. That more suitable closet accommodations should be provided for children. Seventh. That single houses should be thoroughly stripped, papered, and lime-washed at least once in two years, and others once in three years. (A single house, I am told, is a house with one room on the ground floor and two above.) Eighth. That cheap trains and tram-cars should be run to and from the suburbs. Ninth. That it is desirable that some model dwellings should be erected by private enterprise for the working classes. INTERVIEWS WITH WORK-PEOPLE. My inquiries lead me to believe that the people are moderately thrifty. A number of foremen with whom I have spoken have all agreed in tell- ing me that the majority of their men save something. I have spoken to a number of working people of various trades with varying results. Some seemed to suspect me of mysterious designs of an unholy nature, and declined to have anything to do with me. Some pretty plainly told me to go about my business and let theirs alone. The answers of others I have endeavored to report faithfully below. HOW A BIRMINGHAM BAKER LIVES. A baker said : I work from 3 o'clock in the morning until 2 in the afternoon, six days a week. I get 17 shillings a week and my meals. Fifteen shillings a week with meals is what I used to get, and 30 shillings a week with meals is the top wages for a baker. Con- fectioners can get abont 3 pounds ($14.58) per week. I live in the master's house. HOW A BIRMINGHAM IRON-WORKER LIVES. * An iron-worker said : My business is mechanical. I am thirty years old. I have a wife. I earn about 34 shillings ($8.16) a week. The habits of the men here are pretty steady, but they get very irregular when they take to drink. The feeling between us and the gov- ernors is good, as has often been shown. I do not believe in strikes, and of late they have gone out of fashion and been thrown aside for arbitration, which seems to be the best for both masters and men. We generally get our wages paid weekly in cash, and we do what we please with it. Co-operative societies have made rapid strides these last few years, and seem to be- come mure popular every year. [This man firmly refused to give any particulars as to his family expenditure. ] HOW A BIRMINGHAM BRUSH-MAKER LIVES. A brush-maker said : I am forty-five years old. I have a wife and four children ; the eldest is twenty- one and the youngest twelve. In my trade wages vary very much, bnt a general workman of ordinary ability, working full time, can earn from $7.20 to $8.40. We work ten hours a day, beginning at 8 o'clock and working until 6, but we have an hour for dinner and fifteen minutes for lunch. We take our supper after work is over. I could support my family without my wife working; but my children contribute on an average $3.39 per week. We reckon to get about £120 per annum, equal to $583.20. 592 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. A house containing two bed-rooms and kitchen costs 3s. 6d. per week, equal about $44 22 Clothing for self and family, £20 97 20 Food about 26*. per week, or £67 12s. per annum 328 53 We pay no taxes. Schooling, now that only one child attends, 3rf. per week, 13s. per annum 3 15 Trades union, £4 4s. per annum 20 40 Total expenditure 493 50 The uuion contribution includes one to a sick club, out of which I would draw 10 shillings ($i43) per week if I were either sick or out of work. I pay no tax on in- come. The cost of school books is very small, as most of thein are found by the school board. My doctor's bill for the past year has been more than usually high, as it was about £5 ($24.30). As a rule we have a mere nothing to pay, as we are a healthy family. For bre akfast we have tea or cocoa and bread and butter, or bread and bacon. For dinner, fish or beef, or some other kind of meat, vegetables, and beer, sometimes pud- ding. For tea we have tea and bread and butter, and for supper we have bread and • cheese and beer, and sometime-, but very rarely, a bit of meat. I have no money saved. I have no help to fall back upon except my sick club, and that is only available for myself and not for my wife and family. In case of my death my wife would be paid £7 ($34.02). If my wife dies before me I should get £4 ($19.44) to cover funeral expenses. In case of a quarrel with my employer I should get 15 shillings ($3.65) for mo and Is. 6rf. (37 cents) for each child, in addition to a small sum for the wife, making in all fully £ 1 per week ($4.rt6). One good reason why our men don't bother to save is, that union membership in- sures superannuation allowances of 4s. dd. per week after fourteen years' membership, or 6 shillings per week after twenty-one years' membership, and we consider that is enough to save a man from the pauper's uuion. HOW A QUINTAIN FEMALE TACK-MAKER LIVES. A young woman making tacks at Quintain said: I work for a master at Bromsgrove, and there they pay different from what they do about Halesowen. I get paid by the thousand. The canl price is Sid. (17 cents) per thousand. I can make a thousand ill four hours' constant work. I do not have to work, as my husbaud is a gardener, earning 17 shillings a week, at the Methodist Col- lege hard by. He has to work very late for that. He used to get only 15 shillings per week. I have no children and I work about eight hours a day four days in tSe week. Work is very hard U get. and I am glad to take it under the card rate. I only get lid. (14£ cents) per Jjhousand. In this way I make 4s. lOd. ($1.16) per week. Thus we have £1 Is. lOrf. per week or 56£ 15s. id., equal to $i7.">.89 a year. Our rent is 3 shillings a week, or £7 16s. equal to $37.90 a year. Our house has four good, rooms, two below and two above (she showed me the house, which looked com- fortable and was exquisitely clean). I think it better to be poor, with this good air out here at Quintain, than to make several shillings a week more and live in a crowded court and pay doctor's bills. I always enjoyed very poor health until I came to Quintain, but since then I have been well. The reason'so many nail makers, forges are shut up in Quintain is that the trade has got so bad that most of the women go all the way to Birmingham— about 4 miles— to get scrubbing or washing to do, and many of the men have got work iu the chemical and other works at Old" bury, 2 miles off I have a brother and his wife, who are nail-makers, and betweea tbein they make about 14 shillings a week— £36. 8s. per annum, equal to $176.88. They pay 3 shillings a week for rent and 1 shilling for fuel— which we call breezes— for the forges, and casting and weighing. That leaves 10 shillings a week for food and cloth- ing for the family. Their food consists of what they call bread and butter but I call it bread and scrape, for linaklast, dinner, and supper; sometimes, perhaps several times a week, a bit, of bacon. They hardly ever see fresh meat, it is so dear in this neigh- borhood ; Wd. a pound for good beef or mutton. For my part, I do not think the chil- dren &et enough to eat for growing children like thein. Light years ago times were good. As high as Is. 1£ :::::::::: do.:;::; do do d0 do • -•■do do Female money takers do::: Female bath attendants ;" do*;::~" Female bath scrubbers (one day per week) :::::: :...;: Average. $1, 215 00 5 97 7 77 5 00 5 83 5 59 5 35 5 10 4 86 4 00 2 43 96 Hours per day. 10 10 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 599 Wagis paid to the corporation employe's in the city of Birmingham — Continued. MARKETS AND FAIRS DEPARTMENT, ETC. No. ^ Occupations. Lowest. Highest. GENEKAL MAKKET. Gas fitter $1, 700 00 2 1 $12 15 13 60 9 72 1 ... do 7 60 1 do 6 31 ?, do 6 06 6 31 1 do 5 35 1 Clerk do 3 15 •> SMITHFIELD MAKKET. Clerks 7 29 1 7 29 1 Clerk do 5 05 1 do 4 86 1 do 4 86 1 Clerk do 2 43 1 do 7 29 •>, CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (ANIMALS) ACT DEPARTMENT. 13 60 1 12 63 1 7 29 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. No. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Hours per day. 1 do $631 80 243 00 97 20 194 40 145 80 204 12 218 70 (*) 1 (*) 1 do (*) 1 . ...do 9 1 do 9 1 do 12 1 do 10 1 do do do do $7 29 5 58 4 38 1 21 1 45 4 38 9 1 12 1 12 6 10 10 * All the time. WATER DEPARTMENT. ClerkB and inspectors per week- Artisans do Laborers do $5 05 5 46 4 38 $8 50 9 72 4 50 10 10 10 HEALTH DEPARTMENT. M Clerks $3 40 6 80 6 07 5 83 5 10 $8 50 8 50 7 77 8 50 5 83 Si ?4 8J 10 156 17 10 157 10 PARKS DEPARTMENT. General superintendent . Park keepers Attendants in museum. . Gardeners .per annum. ...per week. do do $5 34 *i 86 5 10 $1, 215 00 7 39 10 10 10 ' "With residence. 600 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND; Wages'vaid to the corporation employed in the city of Birmingham — Continued-. ENGINEERING. :no. Occupations. JLowest. Highest. Average. $505 44 $1,1 42 10 $816 48 t These men also occupy houses, rent and Are, light and rate free. CLERKS, COUNTER CASHIERS, &C. Salaries. do.. do.. .per annum - do do COLLECTORS. Salaries - per annum . Salaries. do.. INSPECTORS. .per annum. do 486 00 486 00 972 00 365 25 712 50 1,215 00 742 90 319 13 653 67 ESTATES COMMITTEE. Occupations. TOWN HALL. Curator per week- Cleaners do Porters do COUNCIL HOUSE. Artisans per week. Doorkeepers do Porters do CleaDers do Curator per annum. WILTON CEMETERY. Superintendent per annum. Assistant superintendent do Clerks per week. .Foreman * do Carter do Gardener do Grave-diggers do Lowest. 8 50 5 34 5 10 Highest. $14 58 2 91 5 82 10 20 6 07 5 83 3 15 583 00 1,215 00 379 03 4 86 8 50 5 83 5 83 5 35 Hours per day. 9 10 9 11 10 10 10 10 EUBERY HILL ASYLUMS. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Remarks. Superintendent per annum. Assistant medical officer do Clinical assistant do Chaplain do Clerk to writers and purveyors do Clerk to asylum do Head attendant, male do Charge attendants, male do Under attendants, male do Night attendants, male do Married couple for male side do Hall porter do Head nurse, female do Charge nurses, female do Under nurses, female do Night nurses do Engineer per week . Stoker do Baker do Painters do Tailors do Carpenters do Shoemaker do Gardener do Laborers do $155 50 136 08 155 50 102 06 82 62 97 20 5 83 6 32 61, 944 00 558 90 558 90 607 50 749 75 729 00 437 40 199 25 165 24 199 25 286 74 1(>5 24 218 70 136 08 111 78 136 08 8 51 4 86 6 32 6 08 6 08 6 81 5 83 4 86 4 38 And residence. And residence with board. Do. Non-resident. Do. And residence. Do. And residence and uniform. Do. Do. And residence and board. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. "With residence. Do. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 601 Wages paid to the corporation employe's in the city of Birmingham — Continued. WINS0ST GREEN ASYLUMS. No. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Remarks. Superintendent per annum. Assistant medical officer do Clinical assistant do Chaplain .do Clerk to visitors and purveyors ... do Clerk to asylum do Storekeeper do Head attendant do Charge attendants, male do Under attendants, male do Married couples for male side do Hall porter do Head nurse, female do Charge nurses, female do Under nurses, female do Night nurses, female do Engineer per week . Stoker do Baker do Tailors .- do Shoemaker do Carpenters do Painter do $160 38 120 08 228 42 106 92 82 62 106 92 6 31 "s"6i , 430 00 583 20 583 20 583 20 782 75 583 20 243 00 315 90 199 26 165 25 286 74 185 80 194 40 136 08 111 75 136 08 9 72 6 07 6 31 7 29 6 55 8 25 7 29 "With residence. Residence and board. Do. "Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. BRADFORD. REPORT BY GONSVL GR1NNBLL. In compliance with the instructions of the Department, conveyed in the labor circular dated February 15, 1884, 1 have devoted myself during the past two months to a studious examination and comprehensive inves- tigation of the conditions of labor in its various branches, and more espe- cially in its relation to the welfare of the working classes. This has con- sumed more time than I had anticipated, owing to the variety and char- acter of industries represented in the consular district of Bradford, the reluctance of both master and workmen to impart to a stranger de- tailed information as to their personal and private interests, manners of living, and mutual relations, while, added to this, was the necessity of comparing, sifting, and verifying the various and often conflicting state- ments and facts elicited under the unfavorable circumstances above re- ferred to. I might have collated sufficient facts and data to form a tolerably accurate report exclusively from the returns of the Board of Trade,, the reports of committees, and other printed sources, but I have pre- ferred to obtain the information desired from personal interviews with representative individuals of the classes standing for capital and labor. THE WOOL INDUSTRY OP BRADFORD. The Department is aware by previous dispatches from this consulate that the chief industries of Bradford consist in wool-combing, spinning, weaving, dyeing, and finishing both yarns and goods; the extraction and working of iron ore, the manufacturing of such machinery as is necessitated in the various processes in treating wool, in conjunction with the neighboring town of Leeds ; the quarrying of stone, with which this district abounds and which is suitable for building and paving 602 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. purposes, together with such minor industries and trades as are con- comitant to and necessitated by these. It is scarcely necessary to say that the wool industry is by far the largest aud most important, and it is owing to this that Bradford has attained its present commercial prosperity and wealth. This industry may be conveniently divided into four branches : (1) combing, (2) spinning, (3) weaving, (4) dyeing and finishing. The wool, which is brought from the neighboring counties of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and imported from various parts of the world- Australia, Russia, &c, undergoes here the various treatments above re- ferred to, and is exported from Bradford in every stage of the process, from the raw material to the most highly-finished cloths. These indus- tries, which are usually kept distinct and separate, give employment to vast numbers of workingmen, women, and children. CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. The condition of the working classes in Bradford, as in other parts of England, has formed the subject of a vast amount of deliberative dis- cussion and legislative enactments during the past twenty or thirty years, and has undoubtedly been greatly improved and ameliorated. The general tendency in conservative and monarchical countries, a tendency markedly developed in Prance, Germany, and also in England, to invoke the aid of the central government in all cases of difficulty, dis- tress, or want, has led to the passing of a long series of acts and laws regulating the relations of master aud workmen, the condition, manner of life, hours of labor, ages, &c. In addition to these laws and enactments, trades unions and work- ingmens' societies are now almost as prevalent as in the middle ages, while the necessity which called them into being at that time — that is, the entire absence of any legislation upon the subject — no longer exists, so that the workingman in the manufacturing districts of England, and in another sense, aud almost in an equal degree, the master, has ceased to become a free agent, and is so hampered by general laws aud the un- written codes of the trades, unions and societies that individual free- dom of thought and action, and a self-reliance, which has formed so prominent a feature in the English character, are virtually suppressed. WORKINGS OF THE ENGLISH FACTORY ACT. It is obviously not within the province of a consular officer to obtrude any criticisms upon the laws of the country to which he is accredited, but I may be permitted to proffer some observations which have sug- gested themselves to me after conversations with masters and work- men in reference more especially to two recent enactments of the British Parliament. I refer to the laws commonly known as the factory act, 1878, and the employers' liability act, 1880.* The former, with the view to preventing the overworking of the operatives in manufacturing mills, &c, and to obviate a tendeucy which was supposed to be manifest to overwork women andchildren, and thus impair and undermine the health of future generations of British subjects, prescribe the hours during which women and children should work, limiting the former to fifty-six hours per week, and the latter to a number proportionately smaller in accordance with their age. Whilst the policy of the act in regard to * Published in appendix. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 603 children is undoubtedly far-seeing and beneficial (although discretion on such matters might have been left to the parents) , it is at least doubt- ful in the case of women who form a large majority in the manufactur- ing miJis of England. The obvious results of this act are : First, that the wages are reduced proportionately to the uuinber of hours which have been shortened and that the income of the family is materially lessened. This may be esti- mated at 10 per cent. The second, and equally if not more, important result is, that in the excessive competition with the manufactures of Prance and Germany, in which countries the number of hours devoted to work is left to the discretion of the masters and operatives, England is at an immense disadvantage, and may not improbably be superseded in the markets of the world by the products of manufacture which these countries are able to produce more cheaply and consequently to sell more cheaply. The other law, which is of a less general nature and minor importance, provides that the employer shall be liable for damages to workmen in- jured or killed in his employ, whether or not the injury or death was the result of their own carelessness or that of a fellow- workman. It would seem that this should have been left, as in our country, to the judgment of the courts, who under the doctrine of contributory negli- gence would decide whether the employer was or was not liable. The result of this law would seem to engender carelessness among the work- ing people, individually and collectively, and to probably increase the number of accidents, whilst the manufacturer has recourse to insurance companies, which, upon payment of an annual preminm, assume all lia- bility he may incur through accidents to his workmen. 1 merelv submit these considerations, which are the result of some re- flections on the matter, and which offer themselves to my mind as se- rious objections to laws which were enacted with a purely humanitarian view and with the zealous, solicitude for the welfare of its subjects which has always actuated the British Government. WAGES, PAST AND PRESENT. The depression of trade which has existed in the manufacturing dis- tricts of England since 1876-77, and which was due to a variety of con- tributory causes, chiefly in the United States and France* and which reached its lowest ebb in 1878-79, has gradually given place to a grow- ing prosperity, which has now reached a point only exceeded by the fic- titious and unnatural commercial and industrial prosperity consequent on, and subsequent to, the American civil war and Franco-German war. The working classes were obliged during the years of depression to leave in great numbers Bradford and neighboring manufacturing towns and seek employment elsewhere. Mills and factories were either worked on a very reduced scale, or in some instances were obliged en- tirely to suspend work. At the present time all factories and mills in this vicinity are in active work, with a full complement of operatives, who have been enabled to exact and receive the same wages which they obtained in 1876. Indeed the reviving prosperity is so marked that there is an increasing demand for more working men and women. I inclose herewith carefully prepared tabular statements, twelve in number, showing in great detail the wages now received by the work- ing classes in Bradford and district, together with brief statement show- ing in part the wages received by them in 1876-'79. Also tabular state- ment showing the cost of living amongst the working classes. The 604 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. facts and data therein given have been collected from many different- sources, and have been compared together, and more especially with the labor returns furnished from the Bradford district to the British Gov- ernment, and kindly submitted to me in advance of their communication to the British Government by Mr. Henry Mitchell, J. P., so that I am convinced that they give an entirely reliable and accurate view of the condition and results of labor in this district. GKENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. The evident deduction from a careful perusal of these statements and returns is, that the working classes enjoy a high degree of well beiug and prosperity. The wages received by an average family of the work- ing classes are more than sufficient for their wants, and allows them to indulge in such amusements as are most congenial to Yorkshiremen. It is to be regretted that these amusements too often take the form of low dissipation, not only of the men, but even of the women and younger persons. Drinking to excess is most common (although strenuous efforts have been lately made by introducing what are called coffee tav- erns to overcome this vice) and immorality prevails to a great extent, but the more healthy out-door amusements such as foot- ball and cricket are very popular and largely attended by the working classes. I was forcibly impressed with this a short time since upon learning that the receipts for admission to afoot-ball match amounted to £287 ($1,396.72). The attendance at these matches and games, which have a merely slight local interest, is largely composed of the working classes. Were thrifty and economical habits as inherent in the English char- acter as in the French and German, sufficient money might easily be economized by the working classes to enable them to regard with equa- nimity and to endure without suffering the evils of the periodical de- pressions in trade which now weigh so heavily upon them. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYE. In regard to the mutual feeling and relation between employer and employed, I would say that the old spirit of loyalty and fealty to the master which formerly existed, in a stroDg degree, and which now exists in some country communities, has entirely died out in large manufact- uring towns, and the relations between masters and workmen are con- fined now simply to the exigencies and requirements of business, the master knowing few or none of the workmen under his employ and the workingman remaining with or deserting the master in proportion as the wages offered are equally great or less than his competitors. In this connection, i. e , the relations between master and workman, I may allude to strikes upon which the Government ask information. There have been no strikes of a serious nature in Bradford for a number of years. The demand for higher wages which has been lately made has been acceded to by the dyers and spinners, who realized the justice of the demand but who exhibited a reluctance, sometimes even allowing the workmen to leave work two or three days for the sake of enhancing in the eyes of the workmen the value of the concession granted. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Iii terminating this dispatch I wish to express my acknowledgments and thanks to Maj. W. H. Shepherd, of the firm of Messrs. Mitchell & Shepherd, in whose immense mills Turkey, Van, and Cape mohair is LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 605 sorted, washed, scoured, spun, and woven. Major Shepherd is a member of the council of the Bradford chamber of commerce, examiner in the weaving and pattern designing of the city and guilds of London Institute, &c. • He has given me valuable information on labor and wages, and I have the pleasure also to inclose copy of a letter from him addressed to me on the subject. I also inclose herein with considerable satisfaction copy of a letter ad- dressed to me on the general subject of the dispatch by Mr. Henry Mitchell, J. P., vice-president of the group of jurors of wool and silk fabrics at the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876 and Paris Exposi- tion of 1878 ; president of the chamber of commerce ; president and al- most creator of the now celebrated Bradford Technical College ; formerly mayor of Bradford, and head of the widely-known house of A. & S. Henry & Co. Mr. Mitchell, who has made a profound and elaborate study of economic and industrial questions, and who is prominently and favorably known throughout the United Kingdom, has given me the results of his long and careful observation, and I am desirous of ex- pressing my obligations to him on behalf of the Department for his courtesy in furnishing me with a great deal of information upon the subject-matter of this dispatch, as well as the returns for the British Government above referred to. I trust that this report, together with Mr. Mitchell's comprehensive letter, and that of Major Shepherd before referred to, will fully and com- pletely respond to the questions propounded by the Department and enable it to judge accurately the various phases of the labor problem in the north of England, with the industrial and economic conditions con- nected therewith. WILLIAM F. GEINNELL, United States Consulate, Bradford, June 28, 1884. Consul. APPENDIX TO CONSUL GB1NNELVS REPORT. CONDITION OF BRADFORD INDUSTRIES. Mr. W. B. Shepherd to Consul Grlnnell. Bradford, June 30, 1884. My Dear Sir : Acting on the suggestion yon gave me a few days ago, I have now the pleasure to hand yon a few comparisons I have made between the state, of trade in Bradford at the present time and that which existed in 1878, together with some eeneral remarks on the conditions of our industry and the relations which prevail b-jfcweea employers and work-people. In instituting a comparison between the present rate of wages in the Bradford trade and those which prevailed in 1878, and between the conditions which then prevailed and which now prevail, it will be necessary to go back a little further than 187b the more clearly to understand the situation. Up to 1875 the Bradford trade had been flourishing and manufacturers could hardly believe that the time would ever come when ordinary Bradford dress goods would be practically unsalable. The first reduction in wages took place about June, 187(j, and that may therefore be regarded as the time when the work-people first began to feel the pinch which their employers had felt for a year or more. In 1878 luster goods had gone out, yet manufacturers persisted in making bright goods, and declined to change their machinery or style of manufacture, because "Bradford goods had always been wanted, and would doubtless be wanted again," whilst a few were shrewd enough to go in for the manufacture of soft wool dress goods, and were already com- peting more or less successfully with the manufacturers of Rheiins or Roubaix. 606 LABOR IN EUEOPE ENGLAND. In this country, too, very laudable efforts were made by many of the leaders of fashion amongst the aristocracy to change the prevailing taste into home manufact- ures, but with the result only that until the tight, close-fitting garments then worn went out of fashion, Bradford must either make soft wool goods or Roubaix must do the business. Radical changes of this character must necessarily be a work of considerable time, and (to use an old adage) "whilst the grass was growing the horse was starving." So we find a significant indication nf the Bradford trade barometer when in 1879 a second reductionof 10 per cent, in wages took place, whilst several large firms, both of merchants, spinners, and manufacturers, went out of busi- ness voluntarily or otherwise. A good deal of long wool combing and spinning machinery was in consequence thrown out of work, and a large number of looms either broken up or exported ; yet there was very little suffering amongst the working classes, and (considering the very great depression in trade) comparatively few operatives out of work. Whilst it is only fair to infer that some of those who were attracted to the district by previous good times had either returned to their old homes and occupations or emigrated to other countries, yet many remained, and nearly all were employed. This may be accounted for by the very considerable demand which had grown up for cashmeres and dress goods, for which France had hitherto had a complete mo- nopoly, and, in a greater and ever-increasing degree by the manufacture of worsted coatings, most of which were woven, and the whole of the yarn for which was spun in Bradford and the district, thns causing the fine-wool spinners to be well employed at satisfactory rates. Fine-wool combers were also exceedingly busy, many of the establishments working both night and day. A large quantity of new machinery was put down, and very considerable extensions were made in this particular branch. One well-known firm of commission wool-combers, Messrs. Isaac Holden & Sons, whose colossal establishments in France, at Croix and elsewhere, are amongst the wonders of French manufacturing industries, commenced the erection of additional premises, twice the size of their already enormous establishment, in Bradford. For these reasons we find that the rate of wages established in 1879 has been maintained until the month of May this year, when a very marked improvement in the demand for luster and mohair yarns, with a more pronounced indication of the return of luster goods to favor, has been the means of a concession, by most of the leading spinners, of the 10 per cent, which was taken off in 1879, thus leaving wages pretty much as they were in that year. The conditions of the trade are, however, some- what altered, for whilst the number of looms and their producing power must be considerably less, the increase of speed and other improvements in spinning whilst requiring fewer hands to attend to the work, must be producing at the present time more yarn than at any previous period. Certainlythemostdistinct features of the past seven years are: 1st. Themarked im- provement in taste and skill shown by manufacturers in producing all-wool goods which were previously imported from France ; and 2d. The enormous growth and expansion of the manufacture of worsted coatings, which may be said to mark a new era iu the history of the Bradford trade. While the operatives have thus scarcely felt the pinch of bad times, there is no doubt that the employers have suffered seriously and it will be fortunate if the present re- turn of prosperity enables them to recoup themselves for their losses ; certainly the diminished power of production ought to give them a much larger margin of profit than heretofore, adversity has not been altogether au unmixed evil, for while, on the one hand, it has taught both employers and employe's the necessity for greater economy and thrift, on the other hand, it has proved, beyond dispute, that greater taste and skill must be exercised, both in design and combination of color, if Bradford is to hold its own in the markets of the world. Yorkshire men generally have the credit of being shrewd enough in most things, but especially where their own interests are concerned, and the establishment of the Bradford Technical College, with its staff of art and science teachers, its professors, of chemistry aud dyeing, and its schools of mechanical science, weaving and pattern designing, indicate plainly the determination of Bradford that her young men, both artisans and those in a higher position, shall lack no opportunity of gaining that theoretical and practical training which shall again place and keep her at the head of the manufacturing world. Iu one thing Bradford must be congratulated, and that is the good feeliDg which has always prevailed between employer and employed. It is quite true that in large towns there is not that personal interest which exists in villages between the employer and his work-people, where all are dependent on one particular establishment. Yet, Bradford with the exception of an occasional ex- citement amongst the dyers, has been particularly free from strikes and turn-outs. On the part of the masters there has always been a disposition to give a reasonable advance in wages, when circumstances permitted (and in many cases before), while the hands do not fail to recognize the fact that, masters, for some years, have been willing to work without profit, simply to keep their work-people employed. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 607 It may, perhaps, be considered fortunate for botli sides that there is nothiDg which can be called an organized condition either of capital or labor; of clubs and societies, there are plenty ; for instance, the engineers, overlookers, warp-dressers, mechanics, &c, all have their societies, bnt they partake more of the character of "sick clubs," and although these societies have now and then been used to prevent men from ap- plying for work where there might be a dispute between the men and their employers, yet their influence is more frequently and wisely employed in finding work for those who may be in want of situations. The only strikes worth mentioning have been in the case of dyers and masons; in the former case both sides have displayed a laudable willingness after a little while to meet each other and to submit to arbitration, whilst the masons have generally been able to agree with their employers after a very short term of idleness. Politically "Jack is as good as his master," and whilst I am pretty sure that none of my workmen, being Radicals, would vote on my side, being a Conservative, on the other hand I am equally certain that if I had a Conservative voter in my employment he would vote against me if I were a Liberal, and I should consider him worthless if he didn't. No doubt the establishment of political clubs where workingmen voters are made much i if, and where workingiuen's questions, under the influence of the caucus, are continually brought to the front, have made politics more attractive to the workmen ; they do not, however, always find that those are most liberal as employers who are the most demonstrative politically as Liberals. With respect to the tendency of legislation in regard to labor and the working people, my feeling is that too much legislation has been done, certainly not always to the advantage of the workman but in some instances to the detriment of both master and man. There was surely no harm in working sixty hours per week, and the flfty-six hours' -bill was only passed because the Tories found th at the Liberals intended making that a strong point and so adopted it into their programme; the humanitarian cry about the hard- ship of compelling little children to go to work so early as 6 o'clock in the morning was proved to be nonsense, because as soon as the act came into force and the work- people were offered the alternative of beginning work at 6 or 6.30 — leaving off at 5.15 or 5.45 at night, they practically all voted for beginning work at 6 o'clock, and again most of them would have been only too glad to have worked sixty hours per week ever since the act was passed had the state of trade required them to do so. The "employers liability act," whereby masters are made responsible for an accident to a workman, even by the carelessness of a fellow-workman, has simply resulted in a state of things the very opposite of what was intended. Men are more careless because whatever happens the master is responsible, and on the other hand a master, by an annual payment to one of the Employers Liability In- surance Associations, may protect himself from any action at law or from the conse- quences of any accident which may happen to those in his employment, and so having paid the money he naturally thinks less of an accident than before. Would it not have been better to leave things as they were, and to have allowed those who have their labor to sell to get the best price and the most favorable con- ditions circumstances permitted, instead of driving industries out of the country by imposing burdens which are proving a grievous addition to those already borne by the heavily handicapped manufacturers of this country. Trusting that this may be of interest to you. I remain yours, very faithfully, W. H. SHEPHERD. W. P. Gkinnell, Esq., United States Consul, Bradford. THE WORSTED INDUSTRIES OP BRADFORD. Mr. Henry Mitchell to Consul Grinnell. Bradford, June 27, 1884. My Dear Sir: Referring to my conversation with you yesterday, I have much pleasure in giving you some account of the past and present position of the worsted industry of th's district. My recollection of the condition of our trade extends over nearly a half a century, as so far back as the year 1836 I was employed in a spinning and weaving factory a few miles from this town. At that time the wool was entirely combed by hand, and the work was done to a large extent in the cottages of the work- people, and as charcoal was largely used for heating the combs the occupation was very detrimental to health, and this, combined with bad Banitary conditions, caused the average mortality to be greatly in excess of the present time. Weaving was also 608 LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. mostly done by band, and was also carried on in the bouses of tbe operatives; power- looms were then just being introduced, but weaving by hand continued to some ex- tent for about ten years ; now it is almost entirely superseded by power-looms, and combing by band has been entirely abolished for about twenty-five years ; combing machines came into pretty general use from 1848 to 1860, and no hand-work is now The introduction of machine combing has had a most important bearing upon the orowth and development of our trade; it has reduced the cost of combing 75 per cent, on long wools, and in some instances, especially in fine wools, the cost is reduced to about one eighth of the price paid to hand-combers in 1836. There have also been very marked improvements in spinning machinery, such as the introduction of cap- frames, &c, this, with increased speed and length of frames, has reduced the cost of spinning nearly one-half, and has more than doubled the product of tbe same number of hands. In weaving the changes have been still more remarkable, a hand-loom weaver, in 1836, seldom produced more than 30 or 40 yards of cloth per week, now a single weaver, minding two looms, will frequently turn out 200 to 250 yards of cloth in the same time. In dyeing also there has been very remarkable progress. Formerly and for some years after the introduction of cotton-warps, wool and cotton could not be dyed to- ge her, and it was necessary to dye the cotton-warps before weaving, either for black or colors ; now our dyers are able to dye cotton and wool fabrics to any shade re- quired and at little more than half the cost of forty years ago. The growth of our trade has been enormous. In 1836 the total amount was estimated at not over £5,000,000, now it is supposed to reach at least £35,000,000; at the former period there were not more than five or six leading staple articles produced, now there are at least fifty. In 1836 our goods weie almost entirely made of English wool, with a small pro- portion of Australian, so with American and German, now we use wool from all parts of the world, and the foreign supply is greatly in excess of the home, besides which we use enormous quantities of mohair, alpaca, silk, and other fibers which were then unknown. The introduction of cotton-warps in 1838 and 1S39, as well as the introduction of mohair and alpaca about tbe same time, led to an enormous development of our trade, and to the production of a large variety of cheap and beautiful fabrics, which had not previously been made. This was also greatly stimulated by the introduction and development of railways, and the abolition of the corn laws. These undoubtedly en- abled foreign countries to greatly increase their purchases of our goods, and also tended to improve the condition of our people. Since that time the wages of spinners have increased nearly 40 per cent, ami of weavers at least 25 per cent. At the present time the earnings of our operatives are about 10 per cent, less than at the highest point, which was probably reached in 1871 or 1872. There has recently been an advance of from ■"> to 10 per ceut. in the wages of spinners, weavers, and dyers. They are now well employed, andare produeinga larger variety of articles than at any former period. Bradford has made more rapid strides during the past two or three years in the va- riety aud excellence of its products than at any former period, and although many other branches of industry are considerably depressed, all our best manufacturers in this district are well employed and are full of orders for some mouths to come. This improvement may be attributed to the rapid progress of education, to the fact that operatives are both intelligent, sober, aud industrious. We have excellent elementary schools all over the borough, and have recently es- tablished a technical college, in which our overlookers and managers are receiving a first-rate education in all those branches of art and science which have a direct bear- ing upon our industries The institution has cost about £40,000, and is atteuded by over eight hundred students, and the number is steadily increasing. Forty years ago the hours of labor in our factories were seventy-two per week, and a very small number of our operatives received any education except those working half-time. Now the hours are reduced to fifty-six and one-half per week, aud all are compelled to go to school until thirteen or fourteen years of age. The annexed table will show the progress of education since 1871. Although the hours of labor have been so much reduced, there has been no percep- tible falling oil' in the production of goods, as the speed of machinery has been in- creased, and the hands are able to give more attention to their work aud to turu out as much as at any former period. There has also been a very marked decrease in the mortality of both children and adults, as is shown in the annexed table, and Bradford is now considered the healthiest manufacturing town in the Kingd mu. Our district is also favored with an abuudant supply of coal and ir.m, as well as of raw material for manufacturing, being in the center of the great wool-produciug counties of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, from which our best luster wools are sup- plied. LABOR IN EUEOPE — ENGLAND. 609 The rate of wages to-day does not materially vary from that of 1878. There has been some reduction in wages of masons, carpenters, builders, and also in the spin- ning and manufacturing business during the depressed period of 1879 to 1883, but recently an advance has taken place about equal to the reduction then made. The habits of the working classes are generally steady and trustworthy, and a con- siderable proportion of them save money, and a few own their own cottages. Apart from the building and machinery trades, very few trades unions exist. The work in connection with our staple industry is so diversified that it is almost impos- sible to fix a uniform rate of wages. Generally speaking, a very good feeling exists between the employers and their work-people ; and we have very few strikes, when these occur; they are usually set- tled very quickly, either by direct negotiation or by reference to an arbitrator. The working people are free to purchase the necessaries of life wherever they choose ; employers impose no condition in this regard. They are generally paid weekly in ordinary currency. Several prosperous co-operative societies exist for distributing articles of food and clothing, and some have accumulated considerable capital, and have fulfilled the promises held out at their formation ; but I don't know of any such societies which have succeeded as manufacturers or producers. The general condition of the working classes has greatly improved during the last twenty or thirty years; as a rule they are sober, frugal, and industrious, and many of them have fairly comfortable homes, and are well clothed. In many cases they are able to lay up something for old age and sickness, and many club« and societies are established for this purpose. There are some exceptions, but they are chiefly the idle and intemperate, or those who have weakly constitutions. Every precaution is taken to protect employes from accident by guarding all ma- chinery of a dangerous character, and masters are liable for any damages arising from neglect of these precautions. All male householders now possess the franchise, and can vote for both members of Parliament and municipal officers, and as the working classes are usually in a large majority they exercise considerable influence at elections. They pay a very small por- tion of the taxation of the country, the only articles subject to duty being tea, coffee, tobacco, wine, and spirits. The tendency of legislation is to shorten the hours of labor, and to give every pos- sible protection to workers. The chief causes of emigration are the rapid increase of population, the difficulty of finding suitable occupation, and the desire to improve the position in life. I am unable to answer your specific questions in regard to female labor, as we have no reliable statistics to guide us ; a very large proportion, however, of both our spin- ners and weavers are females, and they are generally preferred to men; they earn quite as good wages, which range from 10 shillings to 5J5 shillings a week for adult women. Some of them are married and have families, and in such cases I fear the health of their children suffers somewhat from the absence of the mothers, but the shortened hours of labor has greatly modified this evil, and infant mortality has greatly decreased during the past few years. I am, my dear sir, yours very truly, HENRY MITCHELL. W. F. Gbinnell, Esq., United States Consul, Bradford. Children at schools in Bradford. March. November. Increase. Increase per cent. Population Number of children in public elementary schools Average attendance Number'of half-timers 1871. 146,000 14, 204 9,064 1875. 9,732 200, 000 36, 487 27, 031 6,157 54, 000 22, 283 17, 967 36.3 156.8 198.2 * Decrease. Before the passing of Lord Sandon's act, in 1876, children under ten years of age were taken into employment independent of standard passed. They must now be ten years of age and have passed in reading, writing, and arithmetic of standard 2. 92 A— LAB 39 610 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Returns relative to the population of Bradford. Tear. Death-rate per 1,000, all ages. Deaths of in- fants under 1 year, per 1,000 births. Death-rate of children un- der 5 years, per 100' deaths at all ages. 25.0 24.9 26.4 25.4 30.6 27.0 27.3 24.5 26.6 25.6 27.6 25 7 26.7 25.2 27.9 28.3 25.2 23.3 24.1 22.9 22.9 19.7 21.2 ■18.3 1870 208 209 197 206 189 200 174 155 177 150 174 153 178 146 1874 1875 ... 50.3 1876 47.5 1877 44.9 1878 , 36.9 1879 32.3 1880 48.0 1881 40.6 1882 , 45.9 1883 . Town Hall, Bradford, June 28, 1884. THOS. "WHITESIDE HIME, B.A., M. S. L., Medical Officer of Health. STATEMENTS SHOWING THE WAGES PAID IN THE GENERAL TRADES AND IND USTRIES OF BRADFORD. Wages paid per week in Bradfora. Occupations. Hours per week. Lowest. Highest. Average. Assistants : Chemists (per annum) Coffee taverns : Male Female Drapers : Male (per annum) Female (residing on the premises) Grocers : Countermen "Warehousemen Local travelers Building : Bricklayers Masons - v .. Plasterers Slaters Plumbers and glaziers Gas-fitters Joiners Laborers .' Blacksmiths * Strikers Basket-makers (piece-work) Brush-makers (pieoe-work) Brewers' laborers - Brass founders and finishers Bill-posters Boot and shoe making : Ladies' boot-making per pair. Gent's shoe-making * do Gent's boot-making do . . . Gent's long work do... 65 to 70 60 60 57 to 60 57 to 60 57 to 60 49i 49j 494 494 494 494 494 494 54 64 52 58 54 $316 32 4 38 2 43 97 33 97 33 4 86 3 65 9 73 7 05 5 83 3 89 7 29 6 07 4 I 6 6 57 5 83 12 16 3 65 608 31 291 99 9 73 5 83 12 16 8 75 5 83 9 73 5 51 6 32 8 26 6 32 $389 32 291 99 170 32 7 05 4 86 10 94 7 05 7 29 7 53 7 53 7 53 7 53 6 80 4 86 7 53 4 86 8 51 7 29 5 83 7 29 6 07 1 27 1 27 141 158tol 82 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Wages paid per week in Bradford — Continued. 611 Occupations. Hours per ■week. Lowest. Highest. Averages Boot and shoe making — Continued. Extra toe Stitches pricked Patent Brick and tile making (piece) : Clay-getters, panmen, setters, discharging kiln, 6 cents per 1. 000 Maubinemen Machine boys Firing kilns Euginemen Joiners and laborers Foremen Coach-building: "Wheeler s Trimmers Vicemen Smiths Painters Carpet and linoleum planners Carpet-makers or stitchers, female Cabinet-makers Confectioners • — Cigar-makers, le. id. to 2«. M. per 100 Coopers Cutlers Carvers and gilders Carvers (masons) Drivers : Bus Guards (boys) Cab Tram-car Guards Draymen and carters Dressmakers (meals provided) Gardeners Hatters : Foremen A ssistants Horseshoers : Firemen Doormen Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Milliners (meals provided) Mantua-makers (meals provided) Malsters Millers Laborers* Polishers (French) Painters Paper-hangers Photographers Packing-case makers Saddle and harness makers Servants (female) : General (per annum) House maids (per annum) Nursemaids (per annum) "Waiting maids (per annum) Cooks (per annum) Timber yards : Circular sawyers Planing-machinemen _. *, Laborers ' Telephone-constrnctionmen Telephone operators Telephone inspectors Tallow chandlers - Tool handle turners ' — .. Tailors : Beady-made Bespoke - Tinsmiths Upholsterers "Watch examiners "Watch finishers "Watch jobbers A 56$ 564 564 564 504 52* 49J 72 72 72 54 54 58 574 57J 52 52 54 54 54 494 46J 50 54 524 $5 83 5 83 6 32 7 29 6 32 5 83 2 92 6 81) 6 07 4 86 6 07 6 56 4 86 1 21 4 86 7 29 5 34 6 80 5 34 7 29 4 38 1 21 1 21 6 32 4 86 7 29 6 78 7 29 7 29 5 34 6 32 68 13 68 13 53 53 87 59 87 59 5 83 5 59 1 46 4 86 5 10 4 13 6 78 4 86 6 78 7 29 7 78 $8 75 8 75 80 8 75 8 26 7 29 3 16 8 51 8 26 6 80 7 78 8 75 9 73 9 73 6 07 8 26 6 32 8 75 5 83 3 80 3 89 8 02 5 83 8 51 8 75 7 78 19 46 7 05 7 78 87 59 87 59 87 59 97 33 170 32 6 78 3 65 7 29 7 29 .7 78 6 07 8 51 7 29 8 51 9 73 9 73 $0 06 06 OlStoO 24 612 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. II. Factories, mills, etc. Average wage, paid per week oj ' M*«*£g™** aV hoW8 ** f^™' mUU ' ^' ** Males. Females. Occupations. Men. Boys. "Women. Girls. WOOL COMBING. $7 17 4 86 4 38 8 71 11 20 8 14 7 30 4 01 $3 04 2 49 Washers : $2 43 SPINNING AND MANUFACTURING. 4 62 5 34 3 65 3 28 3 40 7 90 7 53 2 79 2 31 2 67 2 49 2 31 2 37 2 25 2 31 2 43 2 92 243 J I 2 ei 2 37 2 19 2 00 60 2 37 2 12 $2 19 Doifers : 2 19 2 00 97 Jobbers : 2 19 243 8 38 2 31 3 97 3 16 2 92 3 52 2 06 7 53 7 17 7 53 "Weavers: 4 38 3 52 3 40 5 71 5 10 7 05 4 62 3 40 2 43 8 76 5 60 7 30 6 80 6 92 7 30 4 86 The machinery only runs fifty-six honrs ; the remaining half honr is allowed for oleaning. LABOE IN EUEOPE ENGLAND. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours in dye-works in Bradford. 613 Occupations Lowest. Highest. Average. Foremen : $7 66 $28 10 $19 46 15 33 Crabb house : 5 28 7 30 5 28 5 52 14 60 5 76 5 40 10 94 5 52 G-ray Toom : 7 66 4 86 5 83 5 34 4 13 Serge room : 9 73 S 28 5 76 5 52 Dolly room : 8 69 4 98 Tentering room : 9 24 3 40 Drying room : 5 59 7 42 5 10 5 34 Measurers : 8 14 5 10 Pressers : 24 33 10 70 4 38 6 07 9 48 7 77 5 77 7 05 7 30 7 30 7 90 8 52 7 66 7 48 7 90 7 48 5 34 5 34 7 30 7 78 7 30 5 28 5 35 III. Foundries, machine-shops, and iron works. Brief statement showing average wages paid in factories, mills, fyc, in Bradford between 1876-'79, compared with the present time. Occupations. .Tune 9, Febrnary To June 1876 to 7, 1879, 9, 1876. February to May, 7, 1879. 1884. $4 86 $4 38 $4 13 3 89 3 65 3 40 3 65 3 52 3 40 5 83 5 34 4 38 8 26 7 54 6 80 1 09 97 85 2 31 2 06 1 82 2 92 2 67 2 43 2 67 2 43 2 19 8 02 7 30 6 80 4 62 3 65 3 16 7 78 6 80 6 32 7 78 7 30 6 80 June, 1884. WOOL COMBING, SPINNING, AND MANUFACTUBING. Comb minders Makers-up Heelers Scourers Spinning overlookers Spinners : Half-timers * Full-timers Drawers Rovers "Weaving overlookers "Weavers Wool-sorters : Piece Day men $4 38 3 65 3 52 4 62 7 54 97 2 06 2 67 2 43 7 54 3 52 6 56 7 30 614 LABOE IN EUEOPE — ENGLAND. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours in iron foundries and engineering works in Bradford. Occupations. Lowest. HigheBt. Average. $5 34 7 78 $8 76 8 76 $7 30 8 26 4 38 7 78 11 67 8 76 4 86 5 34 7 30 7 30 7 30 4 86 6 80 7 78 7 78 7 78 5 83 5 83 7 54 7 54 7 64 5 10 The following is a. specimen of rules as to time and allowance for lodgings when working out : 1. Ordinary time, all days except Saturdays, 6.15 to 5.30 (one and a half hours for meals). Satur- day, 6.15 to 12 o'clock (half hour for breakfast). 2. Allowance out of town (lodgings from home), Is. Qd. per day for each day, and if detained from home over Sunday Is. 6cJ. additional. 3. Allowance in town (not lodging from home), 9d. per day; 6d. additional allowed for night. "When lodging from home full hours must be worked, but when lodging at home time is allowed for going to work in a morning and returning at night. Overtime is reckoned aa follows : Time and a quarter from ordinary time for first four hours, and tame and a half afterwards to 6 p. in. Wages paid pet' week of fifty -four hours in large ironmongery, fyc, establishments in Brad- ford. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $7 29 $8 50 $7 78 5 34 6 56 7 78 7 29 7 29 6 92 Titters <3rirders : 4 38 7 53 7 90 6 56 6 56 8 50 6 08 6 80 7 29 5 46 9 73 7 29 7 78 Marble masons 7 29 9 73 Tile-layers Locksmiths Shop assistants 6 08 17 03 One shilling and sixpence per day expenses allowed to smiths and bell-hangers when working in XV. Printers and printing offices. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours in printing, lithographing, and in another, $2,396 per week. Wages have decreased a little in the past few years ; on the other hand Trowbridge has, in common with the rest of the world, seen a gradual reduction in the price of commodities. The wages therefore represent an equal, if not a slightly increased, pur- chasing power. The people, however, are not so well off, as the desires have grown faster than the means of gratifying them ; a natural result of education, however imperfect, of the daily paper, of the railway, of all movements which widen the horizon and enlarge the scope of human life. The employment of women, especially as weavers, has, of course, lowered men's wages. Most of the narrow looms are run by women, and the broad looms, too, were in their hands until their evil effects on the system became patent to everybody. The combined earnings of the family, then, just support it, notwith- standing the conditions are favorable in cheapness of agricultural pro- ducts and in inexpensive distribution, for co-operation flourishes. It is conducted on the Rochdale plan (of which I gave some account in a re- port on " credits," forwarded July 30, 1883), and brings life's necessaries LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 621 to the consumer at a minimum cost, besides forcing competitors to do the same. The co-operative store has an annual turn-over of $80,000, and is managed entirely by factory hands. It has proved a boon to Trowbridge. The operatives are steady and law-abiding. Theft and drunkenness are rare. Some of the women are immoral, but by no means more than a very small proportion. Factory life anywhere is not wholesome for women, and language and general tone of talk here, as elsewhere, is degrading and makes the girls bold and impudent. A battery of ar- tillery is generally quartered in the town, and the blue-coats have a fatal attraction for the less sedate among them. Places of worship are unusually numerous and well attended. There are twelve of them, be- sides a flourishing Salvation Army Corps.* There are temperance or- ganizations and various similar societies connected with the churches, and sewing circles, &c, especially for the women. The young men maintain a rifle corps, two brass bands, and two fire brigades, besides half a dozen cricket clubs. There is, however, no public library, no mechanics' institute, no museum, no theater, and evening amusement is limited to occasional temperance entertainments, lectures, and concerts. There is absolutely nothing besides but the public-house. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPOYE No systematic or general attempt is made to educate or elevate the operatives, and the relations between employer and employed are simply those of master and man. The employers, it is true, are generally magistrates, or hold some municipal office, such as guardian of the poor, or member of the local board, and in virtue of such offices they main- tain a certain oversight over the interests of the people as a whole, but I could hear of no factory owner who interests himself in his employ6s outside the factory any more than in any general member of the com- munity. This separation of interests is injurious to all concerned, and, besides, is distinctly detrimental to the trade. Both classes, how- ever, get on without friction. There has been no strike or lock-out for twenty-five years or over, nor does either capital or labor combine to accomplish an end. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. There are no trades unions, nor societies for regulating wages, hours, or prices. There is no provision made by owners for employes perma- nently disabled or superannuated, though in isolated cases old and faithful servants have been pensioned. The mutual benefit societies, to which nearly all the workmen belong, are sometimes a support for them in sickness or old age, but they are unstable, and if they fail t workhouse is frequently the only place where the man who has lived past his usefulness can go to die, for the operative can rarely save. In the accounts given of themselves by thirteen Trowbridge men (State- ments 1-13), only two, it will be seen, lay by anything, and yet these statements are made by men purposely selected for their steadiness and reliability, and who represent the best element of factory life. One of the two who saves earns weekly (Statement No. 4) $2.68 only, but he has three children, whose united earnings, added to his, makes an income "The Salvation Army has a field in England that it has not in America, and it reaches a class that can be got at in no other way. In my opinion it has done ranch good, though its methods cannot be unqualifiedly approved. 622 ' LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. of $8.03. The other (So. 9) has the help of his wife, who brings in $2.43 a week, making, with his wages, $7.29. Uf course it is evident that without this help neither could save, and indeed the former, with his $2.68, could not support his family without the aid of some mem- bers of it. Many of the foremen and some of the better paid workmen lay by something, and frequently own their dwellings, which they keep neat and in repair, taking special pride in their garden plots. But those on average wages, renting four to six roomed cottages, at an aver- age of 85 cents per week, cannot and do not have the same interest in their homes, but as a rule they keep them neat and clean, though pos- sibly they may be most indifferently furnished. Where husband and wife both work, the home suffers and the children are neglected and are much in the streets. COMPULSORY-EDUCATION ACT. The compulsory-education act provides that the children shall pass a certain age, or through certain branches, before they can leave school. What the age shall be or what the course gone through is determined by the different local boards in accordance with the requirements of their respective neighborhoods, and iu a manufacturing town the stand- ard is invariably set low, that children may assist their parents as soon as possible. The result is that in Trowbridge many of the children ac- quire but little more than the bare ability to read. The head master of the public school there informs me that "good spelling and the ability to write a few sentences intelligibly is beyond three-fourths of them. Immediately they pass the required examination, which most can do at 10 or 11, they are withdrawn- to save the school fees of 12 cents per week, or to help mind the babies, or to play about the streets until they reach 13, when they may be employed iu the factory." Small as is the modicum of education acquired by the' young, it is in many cases a larger share than is possessed by their parents, many of whom can neither read nor write. Says the head master:. I am frequently told when an excuse is lacking for absence; "Please, sir, mother can't write." He says further : I am surprised when you tell me that the operatives have said that they do not find the education act a hardship. [Statements Nos. 1 to 13.] This is entirely opposed to my experience. Parents seek to evade the act in every possible way. Irregularity of attendance is the great difficulty which meets teachers everywhere, and the moment the standard for exemption is reached three children out of four are withdrawn from school, in many cases to save the school fees. This is more marked with girls than boys. CLUBS AND CLUB EXPENSES. It will be noticed that every personal statement from Trowbridge operatives (1 to 13) contains an item for club expenses, and in most cases this charge is disproportionate to the amount of income, being 5 per cent, or over. The clubs referred to are similar in principle to those which have had such an efflorescence in the United States lately, though smaller in numbers and more conservative in management. They are not under Government surveillauce and they frequently fail. In per- sonal statement No. 4 the writer says, "Twenty years in a shop club, which broke up last year." At the average of 12 cents per week, this club represents to this man a loss of about $125, or not much less than a year's earnings. (His earnings are $2.67 per week, as per statement.) LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 623 It seems strange that the amounts thus expended for clubs are not saved instead, but it must be confessed that there is a certain improvi- dence in the British workman, and a certain bad judgment, which will let him deny himself to pay" dues to a club founded on a rotten and exploded principle, and which prevents his flndiug his way to the con- venient and ever ready postal savings bank. The clubs when flourish- ing pay about as follows for a weekly charge of fifteen cents: In sick- ness, $3.40 a week for the first six months ; half that for the next, and half the latter sum indefinitely should the sickness last. In case of death, from $75 to $100 goes to the heirs. There will be noticed, also, in these personal statements an oft-recurring item of a few cents for insurance. It is a common practice to insure the children's lives for a few dollars to cover the expense of burial in case of their death. EMIGRATION. There has been of late years considerable emigration from Trowbridge to the United States. The impulse to go has not sprung from a general and vague desire to improve the condition, but from a certain and spe- cific knowledge that experience in the factory would find a better and steadier market in certain parts of the United States than at home; better, because better paid ; steadier, because of less liability to be put on short time. When this last happens, as it sometimes does in Trow- bridge, it means want and hunger, there being no margin even on full wages. When they emigrate they go to Providence, R. I. ; to Kail Eiver, to Eockville, Conn.; to Wanskuck, near Providence, and Woonsocket. Many also go to Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago, and a few to Pull- man. Others go to the silk mills in New York State. At Wanskuck the designer, manager, and many of the hands are Trowbridge men. At Fall Eiver the only woolen mill has a Trowbridge man for manager, and has also several Trowbridge operators. Eockville is almost a colony from the Wellshire town, and celebrates each year the 6th and 7th of August, which is the yearly festival of the old home here in England. Those in America report their condition on that side to their friends on this as a great improvement, and once in a while they get back here to 6peak for themselves, but they almost invariably return to America. AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN SOUTHWESTERN ENGLAND. The southwestern counties of England pay less wages than elsewhere to agricultural laborers. This difference, in my opinion, is a survival of conditions which have disappeared, at least in part; but unfortunately wages never increase till the causes that diminished them have been so long gone as to be almost forgotten. Twenty or even ten years ago it might have been truthfully said that laborers in Somerset, Gloucester, Wilts, and Dorset got less wages than were paid elsewhere in England, because they were worth less ; in other words, being of less general in- telligence than their northern colaborers, they could not conduct even their simple daily labors with the same economy and benefit to the employer. There were several reasons for this intellectual inferi- ority ; one being the lack of the opportunity which was enjoyed by the northern counties of drawing upon the brighter and better educated Scotch people, whose parochial schools, of early establishment, gave them an inherited mental endowment far superior to their English neighbors. This point was noted by Consul Jones in his contribution to the labor reports of 1878, where he also advances another' reason for 624 LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. the inferiority of southern laborers when he speaks of the policy pur- sued by the southern landlords of forcing their workmen into adjacent towns and villages to live, instead of accommodating them upon the estate ; such crowded association in communities invariably inducing deterioration of individual character. Climatic differences and the infusion of different strains of blood from different sources in the far past will also help us to account for the men- tal inferiority of the southern laborer. But I have said that the condi- tions are now changed or partially changed, and by this I mean that there is no longer so great a. disparity in the character of the tillers of the soil in the north and south. A wider diffusion of education has wrought the change, though it is by no means to be expected that the education of a single generation can correct centuries of inherited men- tal inactivity. Nor by education do I mean so much the learning in the schools as that insensible absorption of knowledge and ideas and that quickening of the mind sure to follow intercourse with an increased number of fellow human beings. The compulsory-education act, the press, the railway, the introducf ion of machinery, have all helped to broaden the laborer's life. Canon Girdlestone, of Bristol, an admitted authority on matters pertaining to agricultural workers, says of them in a letter to the London Times : Ever since that time (1866) 1his particular class of men has been in all respects gradually improving. The gaps made in their ranks by death have been constantly filled np by young men who have received a good education in the constantly improv- ing elementary schools of the country. The result is that English agricultural labor- ers are generally quite, as well and not unirequently even better educated than their employers. The above words are intended by their writer to refer specially to the men of the southwestern connties. The effect of their elevation has been an increase of wages in the last few years of about $1 per week. The advance has been aided by a large depletion of the labor market by emigration to foreign countries and by a systematic exodus to the northern counties. Wilts and Dorset have not, however, participated in this advance, and the result is that wages are here lower than anywhere else in England. One being entirely in- land and the other without large sea-port towns, and neither having any cities of even moderate size, they are without the wholesome com- petition of maritime wages and town salaries aud their young men do not make room by seeking the sea or the city. Table N shows the wages paid in the different shires in this consular district. I have in- cluded Wilts and Dorset under one heading, but it may be that wages in Dorset in some cases are a shade less than in Wilts. The English farm laborer is about to have the franchise, and one more step is practically taken towards the inevitable ending, manhood suf- frage. But it has not been the importunate demand of the laborer that has brought him this boon and he is comparatively indifferent to it. This attitude towards his Government is peculiar. If I may be allowed in imagination to clothe mental attributes with physical properties, I should say that his mind was in swaddling clothes, just born, and una- ble to stand alone, but promising a lusty growth and a vigorous man- hood, destined in a few generations to take an energetic part in the set- tlement of numerous vexed questions. But at present he regards him- self as something beyond and outside, with a certain uncritical interest in the conduct of the Government, and without rights and privileges other than the authorities may choose to accord him as a favor. This class has no representative in Parliament, nor would he presume to LABOE IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 625 desire one. He would regard his fellow laborer who aspired to such a place as an upstart who must be sneered down for wanting to be better than his fellows. He would vote against him every time if one of the "gentry" was his opponent, and he would assert with fervor that he wanted to be ruled by his betters not by his equals. A self-educated gentleman, a man of wide culture, told me that the bitterest time of his life was when as a young laborer he determined to correct his provin- cial dialect and to speak correctly. He was ridiculed and contemned by all for wanting to "speak fine" and "imitate his betters." The fact is caste has ticketed every man in the country into a class ; stay there he must, under penalty of the envy of his own and. the contempt of the class above him. There have been twelve annual meetings held in Somersetshire to agitate for the extension of the franchise to the farm laborer, and no great interest has ever been aroused in the class directly concerned. The last meeting was held only last week, on a legal holi- day. There was no enthusiasm over the near accomplishment of the desired end, and the bulk of the audience were evidently there "to kill time." The London Times the day after pertinently said : It offered a relief from utter vacuity, and from their attendance on a fair summer day at such a joyless function we may judge how scanty are the amusements and how narrow is the faculty for being amused of the agricultural population. The faculty for being amused is indeed narrow. Their circumscribed round of unchanging duties is pursued without intermission almost, and when time and opportunity for relaxation do come, as they sometimes must, no proper advantage is taken of them. They lack entirely enthu- siasm and imagination, and while I have said a good deal about their education and general intelligence, it is, after all, only in comparison with themselves in the past that it is noticeable, and it can hardly be said to exist absolutely. Machinery has, of course, supplanted many laborers. On the other hand, emigration and enlarged disposition to flock to towns and fac- tories has maintained the balance. Work is now to some extent peri- odical where it was continuous, and there is an alternation of brisk de- mand and high wages and of slackness and depressed pay. This tends to lower the character of agricultural laborers and relaxes the old custom of hiring for a long period. Still, most are engaged for a year. AGRICULTURAL HIRING FAIRS. There is still suriviving a relic of old customs in the annual " mops " or hiring fairs held throughout the country. I attended one of these in the spring in the little village of Chipping Sodbury, in Gloucestershire, but found it radically changed from what it was described as being not many years since. It is more an excuse for a holiday than any thiug else. There was no standing of men and women in rows waiting to be hired ; no indication that a place was sought other than a piece of string around the hat, and farmers, laborers, and idlers all mixed together in the crowded main street of the little village. The younger men when en- gaged replaced the cord in their hats with gaily colored ribbons and stepped with their new employer into the nearest inn or " public" to sign a contract ; a new practice, as it is only within a few years that many could write. In the past the agreement was sealed by the accept- ance of earnest money, which was always spent during the day and made its late hours a wild orgy. But little hiring other than boys is done at these "mops" now, as a good laborer gets known by his neighbors, and if he changes employers 92 A— LAB 40 626 LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. at all is snapped up loug before the fair. Usually, however, there are some old men, almost past their usefulness, seeking employment, and the sight is pathetic indeed. Worn out, their years gone, their muscles stiff, they are useless to the employer, and cannot get a place. They are literally turned out to die, and their only refuge is the work- house, for the laborer can rarely save towards providing for his old age. When a pair of boots costs half a week's wage and more, when three weeks' work will about buy a Sunday suit, when a pound of the cheapest meat represents the price of two-hours-and-a-half 's work, it is evident there is little margin. They will manage, however, a few cents a week for their mutual-benefit club, which being founded, as I consider all such organizations to be, on an impracticable principle, sooner or later fails and leaves them in the lurch. The meeting is held weekly, generally in the inn of the nearest village, and is an excuse for consid- erable consumption of beer, ale, and stout, though it is to be said that neither on these occasions nor as a rule does the farm laborer indulge quite so freely as was once his wont. He still, however, spends far too great a proportion of his earnings for drink. It is the general custom of farmers to allow from 2 to 4 quarts of cider or malt liquor to each laborer each day, but some are adopting the plan of paying a little ex- tra with no allowances of any kind. Some farmers have told me they get more and better work by this latter plan ; others, with equal em- phasis, have claimed better results under the stimulus of an occasional tankard. Whichever way the truth may lie, it seems not improbable that all allowances will gradually cease within a few years and all pay- ments be made in money. GENERAL CONDITION OF FARM LABORERS. The farm laborer has participated in the oeneflts resulting from the newly-excited interest of the wealthier classes of England in the cir- cumstances of the poor, and a broad flood of light has been poured upon him and his surroundings, resulting in vigorous efforts by individual landlords to make him more comfortable. There is, besides, something of a reversal, upon economic grounds, of the before- mentioned policy of forcing laborers into communities instead of providing homes on the farms where they work, and we find comfortable cottages rising upon the estates, with a " bit of garden " and, may be, a place for a pig. The oc- cupant usually takes pride in his little house and garden, notwithstand- ing his tenure is precarious, for he only has the cottage so long as he works upon the farm. His wife and daughters are not regularly in the fields, but only at harvest, or when there is great pressure of work; then they get from 25 to 35 cents a day (Table N), with an allowance of ale or beer and sometimes food. His sons,* by law, must pass certain ex- aminations in the schools before they leave, but sometimes these are so elementary that boys of eight get through them, though the average age is about eleven. In times past a farm laborer with three sons aged eight, ten, and twelve, would receive for their labor 60 cents, $ 1.20, and $2.18, respectively, l^ow only his eldest son works and the two young- est are a weekly expense of a few cents for schooling ; for it is a theory in this country that the education which we in America try to make as free as the air we breathe must cost something or its benefits will not be appreciated; and it is, I think, indisputable that many parents here would be absolutely indifferent to the truancy of their children if they did not feel that they must get their money's worth. * And daughters, too. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 627 The farm laborer's mental food is supplied by a Bible, usually an old andsometimes a curious and valuable edition, Pilgrim's Progress or some other standard work of a religious tendency, and Zadkiel's Almanac, a charlatan publication much affected amongst the more ignorant in Eng- land. Earely will more books than these be fonnd in his cottage. His physical food is as limited in variety as his mental, and consists largely of bread and the vegetables from his own little plot, with an occasional piece of cheese or some bacon or a cheap and inferior piece of beef; this latter twice or thrice, maybe, a week in Gloucester and Somerset ; not so often in Wilts and Dorset. EMIGRATION OP AGRICULTURAL LABORERS. There has been a large emigration from these counties to the colonies and the United States, but there is growing up a general and wide- spread belief amongst all classes of laborers in my district, excepting those in the factory, that, though wages are higher in these new places, one must work much harder for them,; must, in fact, be " driven to death." It is true that more is accomplished in a given time in the United States than here; but the real thing, in my judgment, is that a higher degree of intelligence is expected there of all classes of labor and a certain judgment as to economy of time, arrangement of work, and such matters. Consequently a laborer emigrating finds that he can no longer be an automaton, simply doing as he is bid and no more, but that unless he "wakes up" and exercises a little judgment occa- sionally, he must go to the wall. Here he is expected to do no one thing unordered. There he must have some slight idea of the general require- ments of the situation; and this, I think, is generally what an English laborer means by the hard work across the water; for there is nothing so hard to the human machine which has never done aught but obey as to be forced by circumstances to become sentient and rest sometimes on its own judgment. LABOR IN BRISTOL AND IN THE UNITED STATES. In concluding this report I have the following general statements to make in regard to labor in the consular district of Bristol, and where I have made these statements in the form of a comparison with labor in the United States it has been done merely to render more clear and intelligible the point I seek to make : (1.) No class of laborers is as intelligent as the corresponding class in the United States. (2.) In consequence of this comparative lack of intelligence the la- borer is not so valuable to his employer as in the United States. He is less receptive of ideas, and requires more oversight and more direct- ing and accomplishes less in a day. (3.) He is improvident, and does not save. Sometimes he cannot ; but, as a rule, he spends some portion of his income with bad judgment, which portion he might lay by.* (4.) His wages are less than in the United States. (5.) There is not a corresponding cheapness in the price of all com- modities. Eent is cheaper, but if the laborer expends less in some *A notable exception to this statement will be seen in Statement No. 15, where a. laborer owns a valuable house. His family, to be sure, was small. Another mart (No. 4) says he saves 12 cents a week for Christmas. By this he means that his family " dissipate " his whole year's saving of |5 during Christmas week. 628 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. other directions than in the United States it is because he does without or buys an inferior article, Dot because the articles are cheaper.* (6.) The employment of women is more general than in the United States. There is some female member contributing towards the support of almost every laborer's family. (7.) The laboring class is not so self-respecting or respected as it is in the United States.t In conclusion, I have much pleasure in acknowledging the courtesy of many gentlemen in my district, who have in some instances gone to much trouble to aid me with statistics and information. LOEIN A2STDEEWS LATHEOP, Consul. United States Consulate, Bristol, June 30, 1884. INTERVIEWS 'WITH BRISTOL WORKMEN. Twenty-two statements, showing the wages and manner of living of Bristol mill operatives and artisans. 1. A WOOL SCOURER'S STATEMENT. Age, 42 years ; occupation, wool scourer ; wages, $4.34 per week ; hours of labor, 56 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat twice a week ; wife and 8 children ; 2 children, aged 17 and 18, receive at self-acting mules $1.58 each per week. Weekly expenses: rent, 85 cents ; fuel, 73 cents j food, $4.37 ; clothing, 60 cents ; club dues, incidentals, schooling, insurance for 6 children, $1.09; total weekly expenses, $7.64. (It will be seen that the outlay is 14 cents more than the income ; in a case like this the food supply must be cut down, for nothing else can be cut down.) 2. a spinner's statement. A spinner, 65 years old ; wages, $4.86 per week ; hours of labor, 56 ; can save noth- ing ; has fresh meat four times a week ; wife and 7 children ; children all married. Week's expenses : rent, 60 cents ; fuel, 48 cents ; food, $3.40; clothing, 24 cents ; club dues, 30 cents ; incidentals, 6 cents ; total weekly expenses, $5.08. 3. A BROAD-LOOM WEAVER'S STATEMENT. A broad-loom weaver, 35 years old ; wages, $4.86 per week ; hours of labor, 62 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat twice a week ; wife and 3 children ; wife receiv.es at weaving $1.95 per week. Week's expenses : rent, 79 cents ; fuel, 72 cents ; food, $4.13; school, 6 cents ; clothing, 24 cents ; club dues, 24 cents ; incidentals, 60 cents ; insur- ance, 6 cents per week ; total weekly expenses, $6.84. 4. STATEMENT OF A LABORER IN WOOLEN WASH MILL. A laborer in woolen wash mill, 57 years old ; wages, $2.68 per week ; hours of labor, 58 ; saves 12 cents a week for Christmas ; has fresh meat only on Sundays; wife and nine children, four at home ; two boys and one girl receive, as picker, carter, and * Cotton cloth and flannel are both cheaper in New York, Washington, or San Francisco than in Bristol. Men's clothes are somewhat cheaper here, but neither the laborer nor his wife thinks of dressing as they do in the United States. Nor do his children make the same appearance. Meat is generally higher here than in the United States, and at present is just as high. An inspection of Table U will show the names of some curious meat products of which he partakes from motives of economy. t The class distinction which prevents their association with anybody but them- selves has a tendency to m ake them , when they do come iuto contact with another class, either servile or impertinent. But I think this apparent want of self-respect is due to the conditions which obtain in this country rather than to any want of manliness at heart. LABOE IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 629 piecer, respectively, $1.70, $2.43, $1.22 per week. Weekly expenses: Kent, 60 cents; fuel, 36 cents ; food, $5.60 ; clothing, 36 cents ; club dues, twenty years in a shop club, which broke up last year; insurance for three persons, 6 cents; incidentals, 24 cents; schooling, 8 cents ; total weekly expenses, $7.30. 5. a tucker's statement. A tucker, 25 years old; wages, $3.90; hours of labor, 56; can save nothing; has fresh meat four times a week ; wife and three children ; wife receives as weaver $1.25 per week. Weekly expenses : Rent, 73 cents; fuel, 48 cents; food, $2.80; clothing, 60 cents ; club dues, 13 cents ; incidentals, 24 cents ; insurance for three children, 6 cents; total weekly expenses, $5.10. 6. A CONDENSER ATTENDANT'S STATEMENT. Condenser attendant, 40 years old; wages, $3.40 per week: hours of labor, 60 ; can save nothing ; wife receives $1.46 ; meals consist of, for breakfast and tea, bread and butter, perhaps an egg ; for dinner, vegetables and a little meat of the cheaper kind. Weekly expenses : Kent, 60 cents ; clothing, 36 cents ; a new suit only once in six years ; food, $3.16 ; fuel, 36 cents ; school fees, 18 cents ; club dues, 6 cents ; inciden- tals, 12 cents; total weekly expenses, $4.86. 7. a warper's statement. Warper, 24 years old ; wages, $4.86 per week ; hours of labor, 62 ; has fresh meat three times a week; wife and two children; wife receives as weaver $2.18 per week. Weekly expenses: Rent, 82 cents; fuel, 43 cents; food, $3.65; clothing, 48 cents; club dues, 40 cents ; incidentals, 37 cents ; insurance, 4 cents ; servant, 85 cents ; has to hire servant to take charge of children while at work ; total weekly expenses, $7. 8. a carder's statement. Carder, 42 years old ; wages, $3.90 per week ; hours of labor, 55 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat three times a week; wife and five children ; wife receives as weaver $1.46 per week; two children work, ages 19 and 17, weaver and grocer; weaver, $1.46 per week; grocer, food and $1.21 per week. Weekly expenses: Rent, 80 cents; fuel, 60 cents ; food, $4.38 ; clothing, $1.34 ; club dues, 24 cents ; incidentals, 60 cents ; schooling, 6 cents ; insurance, 14 cents per week for seven people ; total weekly ex- penses, $8.16. 9. A weaver's statement. Weaver, 37 years old; wages, $4.86; hours of labor, 62; saves about $2.43 per quarter : has fresh meat three times a week ; wife and five children. Weekly ex- penses: Rent, 60 cents; fnel, 37 cents; food, $4.38; clothing, 60 cents; club dues, 37 cents; incidentals, 97 cents; schooling, 20 cents; total weekly expenses,^$7.49. 10. a pressman's statement. Pressman, 25 years old; wages, $4.38 per week ; hours of labor, 57; can save noth- ing ; has fresh meat twice a week ; wife and two children ; wife receives $1.50 per week as weaver. Weekly expenses : Rent, 73 cents : fuel, 30 cents ; food, $3.65 ; clothing, 48 cents ; club dues, 14 cents ; incidentals, 48 cents ; insurance, 2 cents per week for one child ; total weekly expenses, $5.80. 11. a fuller's statement. Fuller, 32 years old ; wages, $4.86 per week; hours of labor, 60; can save nothing; has fresh meat twice a week; wife and rive children. Weekly expenses : Rent, 61 cents; fuel, 36 cents; food, $2.92; clothing, 24 cents; club dues, 30 cents ; incidentals, 24 cents; schooling, 18 cents; total weekly expenses, $4.85. 12. a dyer's statement. Dyer, 35 years old ; wages, $4.88 per week ; hours of labor, 55 ; can save nothing ; has fresh meat twice a week ; wife and four children ; wife receives at weaving 98 cents per week. Weekly expenses : Rent, 73 cents ; fuel, 37 cents ; food, $3.90 ; cloth- ing, very little; club dues, 14 cents; incidentals, 24 cents; insurance for two children 44 cents ; schooling, 20 cents ; total weekly expenses, $5:62. 630 LABOK IN EUKOPE ENGLAND. 13. A BEOAD-LOOM WEAVER'S STATEMENT Broad-loom weaver, 26 years old ; wages, $4.13 per week ; hours of labor, 62; can eave nothing ; fresh meat three times a week ; wife and child. Weekly expenses : Kent, 43 cents ; fuel, 24 cents ; food, $2.92 ; elub dues, 24 cents ; incidentals, 37 cents; insurance, 4 cents; total weekly expenses, $4.24. 14. a boot-finisher's statement. Q. What is your age? — A. Thirty-six years. Q. What is your occupation ? — A. Boot-finisher. Q. What are your weekly wages ? — A. They vary considerably from various causes, should average $5.83 to $6.32. Q. What are your hours of labor ? — A. Busy times all hours, slack time three or four hours, should average, say ten hours. Q. How large a family have you ? — A. Six, myself and wife and four daughters. Q. Did you have any money saved when you married, and how much? — A. No; married when I was twenty and never really regretted it. Q. Do you save any money now, and how much ? — A. No ; never felt inclined to economize by taking it out of belly nor off of back ; a dry bread diet don't suit me. Q. How much a week do you pay for your children's schooling ? — A. Twelve cents; -would gladly pay more for better education if could afford it. Q. Have you ever found the compulsory-education act a hardship to you person- ally ? — A. I have found it sometimes inconvenient, but believe the advantages will counterbalance the inconvenience. Q. At what age do you expect your children to cease all dependence on you ? — A. That depends upon what employment they enter ; some employers pay such low wages that were it not for parents girls must become prostitutes. Q. How often per week do you have fresh meat for all? — A. As often as we can; say three times on an average, may be four. Q. How much is your weekly rent ? — A. It was $1.21, but reduced lately to a few pence less. Q. How many rooms are there in your house? — A. Four, and a back kitchen. Q. How much are your taxes, including poor-rates and everything ? — A. None ; that a pay-landlord pays. Q. Does the wife work ; ifsoat what, andhow much does Bheearn? — A. Yes; boot- machining partial employment, from $1.21 to $1.95 per week, average perhaps 98 cents. Q. Do any of the girls work, if so what are their wages, nature, and hours of labor, and amount of earnings ? — A. One out to service. Q. Will you kindly state your weekly expenses, putting in every item ? — A. As near as possible: Rent, $1.21; bread, $1.21; meat, 73 cents; sugar, 30 cents; butter, 98 cents; eggs, 12 cents ; vegetables, 48 cents; tea, 24 cents; coal and light, 37 cents; clothes and boots, 85 cents; sundries, 37 cents; trade club, 12 cents; sick benefit club, 24 cents; iusurance, 8 cents ; schooling, 12 cents ; total $7.42. No beer, no tobacco, being a teetotaler; pocket money has to be obtained by taking something from necessary expenditure or out of sleep, if opportunity offers ; who ■would not be a workinginan ? 15. a wire-worker's statement. Q. What is your age? — A. Thirty-four years. Q. What is your occupation ?— A. A wire-worker ; a general hand. I make wire blinds, malt and lime screens, cages, meat safes, &c. Q. What are your weekly wages?— A. I work piece-work. My total earning last year was $360.12, weekly average, $6.91 ; I am paid 14 cents per hour when I do day ■work. Q. What are your hours of labor?— A. No fixed hours ; average 51 per week. Q. How large a family have you ? — A. Wife, and one son, aged eight. Q. Did you have any money saved when you married, and how much?— A. Forty- eight dollars and sixty-six cents, and my wife had saved $97.33. Q. Do you save any money now, and how much ?— A. I saved $146 ; paid it as a de- posit on a house, price $973.30; borrowed $876 from a building sooiely and a friend for period of twenty years, ana am paying it off at the rate of $1.32 a week. It is a question what I am now saving ; may be about $43.80 a year. Q. How much a week do you pay for your child's sohooling? — A. Twelve cents. Q. Have you ever found the compulsory-education act a hardship on vou person- ally ?— A. No. i J f Q. At what age do you expect your child to cease all dependence on you ? — A. I LABOE IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 631 cannot say for certain. I purpose apprenticing him to a trade ; then his wages will be low. He may be self-supporting at eighteen. Q. How often per week do you have fresh meat for all ? — A. I could have it every day, but I am a vegetarian ; my wife and son have meat most days. Q. What is your weekly rent ? — A. One dollar and fifteen cents ; the rent of the house is $1.95, clearing everything ; but I make a let of 79 cents ; but I am living in the house I am purchasing and paying off at $1.32 a week, and pay poor-rates, taxes, and ground-rent ; so I have put it that my rent is $1.15, just as if I rented the house. It has six rooms ; I occupy four and let two rooms for 79 cents a week. My poor-rates and taxes are $24.33, and I pay $9.73 a year as ground-rent. Q. Does the wife work ; if so, at what, and how much does she earn ? — A. Only sees to the home, which she does very well, but does not earn anything by other work. Q. Will you kindly state your weekly expenses, including everything ? — A. The fol- owing is as near as I can get at it: Building society, $1.34 ; rates and taxes, 48 cents; ground-rent, 19 cents ; life assurance, for £100, 21 cents ; sick-benefit society, 13 cents ; my aged mother, 24 cents; for literature membership to political societies, &c, 48 cents; bread, 40 cents ; flour, 14 cents ; eggs, 30 cents; groceries, 42 cents; vegetables and fruit, 48 cents; meat, 30 cents ; beer, 48 cents ; coal and lights, 28 cents ; milk, 28 cents; butter, f pounds, 28 cents; clothing, 98 cents; extras, amusements, &c, 26 cents; total, $7.67. P. S. My income is as follows: Wages, $6.90; letting rooms, 79 cents; total, $7.69. 16. A POTTERY LABORER'S STATEMENT. Q. What is your age ? — A. Forty-four. Q. What is your occupation ? — A. Laborer in a pottery in Bristol. Q. What are your weekly wages ? — A. Four dollars and thirty-eight cents, and some over time. Q. What are your hours of labor ? — A. Six a. m. to 6 p. m. ; time allowed for meals, one and one-half hours. Q. How large a family have you ? — A. Ten. Q. Did you save any money saved when you married, and how much ? — Forty-eight dollars and sixty- six cents. Q. Do you have any money now, and how much ? — A. No. Q. How much a week do you pay for your children's schooling? — A. Fourteen cents. Q. Have you ever found the compulsory-education act a hardship to you person- ally?— A. Yes. Q. At what age do you expect your children to cease all dependence on you ? — Eighteen. Q. How often per week do yon have fresh meat for all 1 — A. Once per week. Q. How much is your weekly rent ? — A. One dollar and twenty-two cents, includ- ing taxes and poor-rates. Q. How mauy rooms are there in your house ? — A. Six. Q. Does the wife work ; if so, at what, and how much'does she earn ? — A. No. Q. Do any of the children work ; if so, what are their ages, nature and hours of labor, and amount of earnings ? — A. Three at work ; ages, fifteen, fourteen, eighteen, and amount of earnings, $3.53. Q. Will you kindly state your weekly expenses, putting in every item ? — A. Seven dollars and ninety cents — rent, food, club-dues, schooling — take it all. I turn nearly all my wages over to the missus every week. 17. A STONEWARE DIPPER'S STATEMENT. Q. What is your age? — A. Thirty-eight. Q. What is your occupation? — A Dipper in a stoneware pottery. Q. What are your weekly wages ? — A. Five dollars and ten cents. Q. What are your hours of labor ? — A. Six a. m. to 6 p. m. Allowed for meals one and a half hours. Saturday close at 4. Q. How large a family have you ? — A. Six children. Q. Did you have any money saved when you married, and how much? — A. Four- teen dollars and sixty cents. Q. Do you save any money now, and how much ? — A. None. Q. How much a week do you pay for your children's schooling ? — A. Twenty-eight cents. Q. Have you ever found the compulsory-education act a hardship to you person- ally ? — A. Only occasionally. Q. At what age do you expect your children to cease all dependence on you? — A. Eighteen years. 632 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Q. How often per week do you have fresh meat for all? — A. Three or four times a week. Q. How much is your weekly rent ? — A. Seventy-three cents, including taxes and poor-rates. Q. How many rooms are there in your house ? — A. Three. Q. Does the wife work ? If so, at what, and how much does she earn ? — A. No. Q. Do any of the children work? If so, what are their ages, nature, and hours of labor, and amount of earnings? — A. One, at the age of sixteen, working in a tobacco manufactory, earns $1.70 per week. Q. Will you kindly state your weekly expenses, putting in every item? — A. Five dollars and eighty-three cents, as follows: Rent, 73 cents ; food,$3.16; coals, 37 cents ; club, 24 cents ; school, 28 cents ; clothing, 48 cents; sundry items, 57 cents. 18. A POTTERY LABORER'S STATEMENT. Q. What is your age ? — A. Forty-eight. Q. What is your occupation ? — A. Laborer in a pottery. Q. What are your weekly wages? — A. Four dollars and thirty-eight cents. Q. What are your hours of labor? — A. Six a. m. to 6 p. m. Q. How large a family have you ? — A. Eight. Q. Did you have any money saved when you married, and how much ? — A. I will not answer. Q. Do you save any money now, and how much ? — A. No. Q. How much a week do you pay for your children's schooling? — A. Twenty cents. Q. Have you ever found the compulsory-education act a hardship to you person- ally ?— A. Yes. Q. At what age do you expect your children to cease all dependence on you ? — A. Eighteen years. Q. How often per week do you have fresh meat for all ? — A. Once. Q. How much is your weekly rent ? — A. $1.46, including taxes and poor-rates. Q. How many rooms in your house ? — A. Five. Q. Does the wife work ; if so, at what, and how much does she earn ?— A. About 24 cents per week for washing. Q. Do any of the children work ; if so, what are their ages, nature, and hours of labor, and amount of earnings ? — A. Two work, one fourteen years, 73 cents per week; the other twelve, and one-half years, 48 cents per week. Q. Will you kindly state your weekly expenses, putting in every item ?— A. §5.83, expended in provisions, rent, and schooling. 19. A POTTERY KILNMAN'S STATEMENT. Q. What is your age ?— A. Thirty-one. Q. What is your occupation ? — A. Kilnman in a stoneware pottery. Q. What are your weekly wages ? — A. $5.72. Q. What are your hours of labor ?— A. 6 a. m. to 6 p. m., allowed for meals one and one-half hours. Q. How large a family have you ?— A. Three. Q. Did you have any money saved when you married, and how much ?— A. $48.66. Q. Do you save any money now, and how much ?— A. Yes, about $29.20 per year. Q. How much a week do you pay for your children's schooling ?— A. 12 cents. 11 ?_A Ve -|Sr y ° U 6V6r folm 14 15 14 14 14 > 14 14 16 18 14 16 $6 72 (*) 5 88 Cardiff 7 14 6 30 4 90 6 30 Hull 6 58 7 60 9 27 51 48} 56} 49* 55* 10 8 10 10 4 32 4 85 4 52 4 95 5 55 45 (t) 56} 47 48 10 8 10 10 4 32 4 52 4 70 4 80 51 49} (*) 49} 55} 14 16 (*) 15 15 7 14 7 92 (*) 7 42 8 25 45 (t) (*) 47 48 14 16 (*) 15 15 (*) Sheffield Staffordshire, potteries * Piece- - ' Tork. t [jignt o darl ;. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 637 Comparative statement showing the hours worked per week, )' 7 20 7 20 4 32 4 80 2 40 7 20 (I) 7 20 7 20 5 52 6 12 5 52 (J) ' 7 12 7 12 7 12 5 76 6 24 7 95 (I)' (J) 8 40 10 80 6 48 9 60 9 60 9 80 12 00 8 40 5 76 (i) 9 12 6 12 7 44 6 72 C) 7 20 6 12 C) C) (!) <:> 8 40 ! 40 (t) X None employed in Hull. FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid per week of fifty-three hours in factories or mills in Hull. Occupations. Pressmen in oil mill* Parers in oil mill Grinders in oil mill* Engine-drivers in oil mill Foreman in steam saw-mill Men in steam saw-mill Engine-driver in steam saw-mill*. Lowest. Highest. Average. $4 80 6 00 7 20 5 28 $5 28 7 20 8 40 6 12 $7 68 5 76 " Standard wages, Note.— No factories of any kind in Hull. LABOR TN EUROPE ENGLAND. 665 III. Foundries, machine-shops, etc. Wages paid per week of fifty-three hours in foundries, machine-shops, and iron works in Hull. Occupations. Shop foreman* Shop foreman (under)* — Oat-door foreman* Fitters Turners Borers Machine men Laborers Apprentices Foreman smith* Smiths Strikers Foreman molder* Molders Laborers Foreman brass-finisher* . . Brass-finishers* Pattern-makers* Foreman pattern-makers* Lowest. Highest. $7 20 7 20 7 20 4 80 4 08 (t) $8 16 8 16 7 92 Ij 72 6 12 (t) 6 72 4 56 8 40 5 52 8 16 4 80 * Standard wages. t Commence at 96 cents and rise 24 cents per week per annum to $2.40 per week. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Average. 8 88 5 76 ' $14 40 8 40 16 8a 7 2tt 7 20 7 20 5 52 4 56 (t) 10 80 7 20 4 80 16 80 8 16 5 52 8 64 7 20 7 92 14 40- Wages paid per week to railway employe's (those egaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, fyc.) in Hull. Occupations. Engine drivers, passenger. . , Firemen, passenger Guards, passenger Ticket collectors, passenger Porters, passenger Lamp-cleaners, passenger... Station-masters, passenger.. Booking-clerks Parcel's office clerks Engine-drivers, goods Firemen, goods Guards, goods Porters, goods Lurrymen, goods Clerks, goods Lowest. Highest. $12 00 $24 00 7 20 15 00 9 60 16 80 (t) ({) 4 80 6 00 4 80 6 00 9 60 28 80 4 50 9 60 (t) (t) 12 00 24 00 7 20 15 00 9 60 16 80 4 80 6 00 (D (t) 4 16 14 40 Average (*) (*) <*) $6 00 * According to journey. t Standard wages. "WAGES IN SHIP-YARDS. Wages paid per week of fifty-three hours in ship-yards — distinguishing Between iron and wood ship-building — in Hull. Occupations. Lowest. 'Highest. Average. IRON SHIP- YARDS. Platemen and riveters Laborers Apprentices WOOD SHIP-YARDS Shipwright Calkers Pitch-boilers Apprentices $7 20 I 4 16 (*> (*) (') $8 16 6 00 2 40 (*) (*) <*> 2 88 $7 20- 8 64 8 64 5 28 * Standard wncroa 666 labor in europe england. seamen's wages. Wages paid per month to seamen {officers and men) — distinguishing behoeen ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in Hull. Occupations. Average. Occupations. Average. Master of steam, ocean Per month. $72 00 43 20 36 00 36 00 28 80 22 80 64 80 43 20 28 80 26 40 48 00 33 60 24 00 24 00 28 80 Per month. $28 80 24 00 Able-bodiea seamen, sailing ship, 14 00 Ordinary seamen, sailing ship, ocean . Master, steam, coastwise 9 60 Steward and cook of steam, ocean Engineer (chief) of steam, ocean Engineer (second) of steam, ocean 57 60 38 40 Second mate and carpenter, steam, 28 80 Able-bodied seamen and firemen of 26 40 Stewaid and cook, steam, coastwise.. Engineer, chief, steam, coastwise Second engineer, steam, coastwise . . - Donkeyman, steam, coastwise Able-bodied seamen and firemen, 19 20 48 00 Second mate, sailing ship, ocean Boatswain, sailing ship, ocean Carpenter, sailing ship, ocean 38 40 26 40 22 08 STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per week of seventy hours in stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $4 32 3 84 5 28 $6 00 7 20 7 20 Hosiers : 5 76 2 40 1 68 6 00 3 84 3 84 2 40 7 20 6 72 5 76 Stationers : 4 32 1 92 1 92 2 40 5 76 3 84 Tobacconists : 3 84 Confectioners : 4 32 HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per month or year to household servants (towns and cities') in Hull and neigh- borhood. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $120 00 76 80 57 60 48 00 72 00 57 60 $168 00 do do $7 20 (*) 9 GO * Standard wages. tNone; all done by machinery. KIDDERMINSTER. REPORT BY CONSULAR AGENT MORTON. Houses occupied by artisans are of two classes : the one rented at from 4s. to 4s. 6d. a week, contain a cellar, two rooms on ground floor, and two bed-rooms, with the use of a wash-house jointly with three other houses. These houses are occupied by ordinary weavers and laborers. The other class are rented at from 5s. 6d. to 7s. a week, and contain a cellar, two rooms on ground floor, three bed- rooms, and a sepa- rate wash-house adjoining the back-room. The rule enforced here is, that there shall be at least one privy or water-closet to every three cottases. 668 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. The habits of the artisans are generally steady and trustworthy, and the existence of several land and building societies, to which weekly or monthly payments are made induces habits of saving. The tendency of the artisan class of late years has been to expend money in Saturday or Monday excursions, to the damage of the public- house interest, which of late has been much depressed. Iu Kidderminster an association denominated, " The Kidderminster Power Loom Carpet Weavers Mutual Defense and Provident Associa- tion," has existed for some years, and has now an invested capital of over £9,000. This association almost entirely controls the carpet trade of the town, with, in my opinion, a most disastrous effect. In many firms no man who is not a member of the association is allowed to be taken on under penalty of the whole of the society hands being imme- diately withdrawn. Daring a partial strike which existed in Kidder- minster, during the early part of this year, assaults upon non-members were freely committed; in some cases their houses were wrecked, and the employers at whose works the strike took place were daily mobbed. They also received threats of a most serious character, and were under special police protection for several weeks. The cause of the strike was the employment of female labor upon an entirely new woven fabric in- troduced by the offending firm, aud which is only used for curtains or ceilings, and was in no way connected with the carpet trade. Had the strike succeeded a new industry (which was much needed) would have been lost to the town. The artisans are wholly paid in sterling, and are free to purchase every description of necessaries where they choose. There is in the borough an industrial co operative society, which is mainly supported by artisans, and is in a most flourishing condition, possessed of extensive shops, a bakery and butchery establishment, also a tavern and large room for meetings and entertainments; the whole comprising a large block, having frontage to two streets. A recent bal- ance sheet accompanies this memorandum. I am informed by the retail tradesmen in the borough that their busi- ness profits have been seriously affected by the co-operative stores, and several of them have issued lists of prices for cash, competing with the stores, so that the general public are now enabled to obtain goods at lower prices. I would remark that the working classes generally in this borough, when they are fairly careful, are comfortably housed, dressed, and fed, though of course there are many exceptions. The hours of work in the carpet trade are fifty-six hours per week. The number of male weavers employed in the Kidderminster trade is about 1,400. I have no means of ascertaining the number of women and girls employed in the town, but it is very large. JAS. MORTON, Consular Agent. United States Consular Agency, Kidderminster, 27th May, 1884. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. I. General trades. ll'ages paid in Kidderminster, per iceek o/5fr£ hours." 669 Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. ■I- Bricklayers per hour Hod carriers do . Masons do. . Tenders do.. Plasterers do._ Tenders do. . Slaters do — Roofers do Tenders do . . . Plumbers do .. Assistants do . . . Carpenters . do .. Gas-fitters .'.do — Bakers do — Blacksmiths do.. Strikers do — Millwrights .do Draymen per week.. Cab-drivers and coachmen .do .. Gardeners, good do . . Horseshoers do. ...i j Laborers, porters, &c do....| Teachers, male per annum.. 486 00 ; 1,215 00 Teachers, female do i 29100 777 00 Printers perweek.. 6 25, 12 50 Tailors do'..... 6 00 8 50 ! $4 50 I $5 00 4 86 j 00 : 7 50 $0 13* 8J 14J 8 13 8» 14 14 14 8 14 14 13 8 18 4 75 o 10 6 75 6 50 4 00 * Based upon one penny, equaling two cents. Wages paid in and in connection with Messrs. Fairbanks, Lavender 4' Son, in Walsall. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Harness-makers (3 employed) Brown saddlers f 12 employed*') Saddlery trimmings (10 employed) Bit-makers (6 employed) $6 41 $9 00 $7 45 3 40 17 01 7 81 4 58 7 83 6 27 4 16 8 29 5 73 " Of the above the lowest is an idler, who will not work ; and the Inchest an exceptionally fine side- saddle maker. FACTORIES AND MILLS. H'ageu paid in factories or mills in ileum's. Wuov^ carpet factory, Kidder minuter. ["Week of fifty -six hours.] Occupations. Lowest. Highest. , Aveiajjo. Engineers per annum Dyers do.. Color makers do . . Blacksmiths and machinists per week Loom tuners do. . Foremen do.. "Weavers (full work) do . . Printers (women) do.. Setters (women ) do . . Oreelers , do . . $972 00 $729 00 $972 00 | . 729 00 972 00 j. 7 29 , 9 72 ' Tl 14 58 j 9 72 7 29 ! H 58 I 9 72 7 29 I 10 92 I 8 90 4 86 , 4 86 a 35 I 5 10 3 90 , 4 ;i7 ..:. 670 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants (towns and cities) in the borough of Kidder- minster. Occupations, Lowest. Highest. Average. $58 00 38 00 225 00 $121 50 75 00 260 00 $100 00 48 50 97 00 CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid to the co-oporaiion employes in the city of Kidderminster, per week of 56 hours. Occupations. Lowest. Highest Average. $11 75 6 75 4 37 6 75 6 25 6 25 7 25 4 12 4 62 7 25 5 12 6 00 3 75 3 75 STORE AND SHOP WAGES. $0 60 60 60 $17 00 7 25 7 25 Women at the counter W omen (dressmakers) LEEDS. REPOBT ST CONSUL DOOKEBT. In submitting herewith what I believe to be an interesting report on labor, &c, in this consular district, I have, as usual, to complain of the great difficulty in obtaining such statistics. In fact, it is impossible to get up these reports without incurring a large and serious expense. People here are not accustomed to giving away anything, and they certainly will not tell one the wages they pay in their factories, mills, &c. So the only way to get these wages is to adopt the tedious and expensive method of seeing the various laborers, and obtaining the de- sired information from them. I beg that the thanks of the Department may be given to Mr. Benjamin Pickard, secretary of the Miners' Asso- ciation, for information kindly furnished me regarding miners' wages. No thanks are due to any one else. I have found it impracticable to follow the exact lines laid down in your several circulars, but I have done my best to make the report an intelligent and a correct one. You will see it is one which has required a great deal of labor. AGRICULTURAL WAGES, COUNTY OP YORK. For observations as to the average wages I have divided this large county into four divisions— the eastern division and the southern divis- ion of the West Riding, the East Riding, and the North Ridin°- I find from personal observation in each division that there is very little real difference in the amount of money paid for the hire of farm servants at LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 671 the same time the number of working hours per day are a shade less in the North Riding. The only reason for this, so far as I am able to judge, is that the holdings are of much less acreage than in the other three Ridings, with less arable and more grass land, and consequently require less labor. Also, as a rule, the laboring man in the North Rid- ing has to pay rent for his cottage (though merely nominal). In the West Riding the laborer in many instances has his coals, bed, potatoes, and milk found, but, to take the whole county as a basis, it is the ex- ception to the rule. The extra wages paid during the harvest season are the same, or nearly so, in all the ridings, namely, 10s. per week for four weeks above the ordinary wage. Occupation. Laboring man : First per week. Second do Foreman of farm per year.. Second man do — Third plowman do Plowboy do — Shepherd per week.. Blacksmith per day. . Joiner do — Cowman per week.. ' Groom per year.. Servant-girl do... Scullery-maid do Thrashing-machine men per day.. Women (to hoe or gathering stones, &c.) do... Boys fifteen years old, to do same as women do — Girls ten to twelve years old, to do same as hoys, gather stones, &c per day.. Drivers: Draymen and teamsters per week. . *Cab and carriage do Street railways Conductors per day.. Lowest. Highest. £ 8. d. 10 15 25 17 14 10 17 4 4 17 13 12 8 2 1 1 9 32 3 6 £ a. d. 18 15 35 20 16 14 18 4 4 18 16 16 10 3 1 1 10 23 17 35 3 Remarks. With cottage ; no board. No cottage ; no board. With board and lodging. Do. Do. Do. And a cottage. With two pints of beer. Do. With a cottage. With board and lodging. Do. Do. With two pints of beer. And no board. Do. Do. No stated number of hours. Less Is. per week to har- ness men for cleaning. *Cab and carriage drivers receive the following fees, namely, for weddings 5a., for funerals 2s. 6d., and when employed by time 3*. 6d. per day. STREET RAILWAY WAGES. Conductors and drivers of the street railways work at least fifteen hour per day for six days in the week. On Sundays fewer cars are run also, beginning late and stopping early. It will be noted that in proportion to the hours of labor this is perhaps the worst paid class of labor to be found in the country. The men are not well clothed and appear poor. They are permitted by the company to publicly importune the customers of the various lines of railways just before Christmas for "tips." All the money thus collected is put into hotchpot and then divided equally among drivers and conductors. PRINTERS, BOOKBINDERS, &C. Wagse paid per week of 55-J hours. Occupations. Bookbinders . Engravers - . . Lithographers Printers Lowest. Highest. Average, 30 40 30 32 672 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week of forty -eight hours to the corporation employe's in the town of Leeds. Description of employment. Night-soil men Scavengers * Foreman of each department. Superintendent Destructor men Water-trough closet men Cartwright and blacksmith . . Road-scrapers Cartmeu Stokers (gas) <3oal wheelers Smiths J Strikers . ■Joiners Purifiers; Bricklayers § Lahorers ■Cartmen t Plumbers \ Pipe-layers t *2tf. extra Saturday night and Sunday morning. tPer annum. Lowest. 18 18 10 4 4 10 4 4 ^Per day. Highest. 1 1 1 tl30 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 4 8 10 3 8J 8J 3 8 4 8 4 4 §Per hour. TELEGRAPH OPERATIVES. Males commence with 12s. per week and are raised during the first year to 14s., when they have to pass an examination. If successful they then receive 16s. a week, which is increased weekly by Is. M. until it reaches 35s.; from this time it is increased weekly by 2s. until it reaches 50s. After this they are eligible for appointments varying from £150 to £1,200 per annum. Females commence with 10s. a week and are increased to 12s. during the first year, when they have to pass an examination ; if successful they get a weekly increase of Is. per week until it reaches 18c. per week, then an increase of 2s. per week until it reaches 26s. per week, and from this 2s. increase weekly until it reaches 32s. per week, which is the highest they get. Males work eight hours a day, Sundays included. Females work the same, but not on Sundays. Messengers receive Id. per message. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per hour to workmen in Leeds. Occupations. Lowest. „ , , BUILDING TKADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers Masons " Tenders \ Plasterers 7. 7 ' Tenders 777777 Slaters 77.7 7.77 " , Tenders Plumbers 7.777 777 Assistants 7.7 77. Carponters Gas-fitters Tenders 77. .7. 7.7.. Pence. Highest. Pence. 41 5i 7 9 5 7 8 94 7 7 Si 5 7 8 91 S 6 n H 8 9J 4 5 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 673 Potters, turners, throwers, and plate-makers receive 24s. to 42s. per ■week of 54 hours ; tinsmiths, called tin-plate workers (men), society wage, 28s. Prices charged by master-builders. Occupations. "Wages. 1 Pence. Occupations. Wages. Pence. i 10 Slater . .per hour.. 9i Laborer do... 6 Laborer do.... «i Bricklayer.. do.... 91 do .. 91 Laborer do... 6 Laborer do.... 5 Carpenter and joiner do... ! 9 Plasterer... do.... 11 Laborer do.... | 61 Laborer do.... 8 STORE AND SHOP WAG-ES. Wages per week of six days in stores (wholesale or retail) to males and females, in Leeds. Occupations. Grocers and tea dealers : Men Boys Boot and shoe dealers : Men - Women Boys Clothiers : Men Boys Hatters and hosiers : Men Women Boys Booksellers : Men "Women Boys Ironmongers, &c. : Men Boys Chemists and druggists : Men "Women Boys Stationers : Men "Women Boys Fancy goods, &c. : Men "Women Boys Lowest. s. d. 21 3 6 21 16 3 6 21 5 26 10 4 20 10 4 20 4 25 8 3 6 30 12 3 6 24 7 4 Highest. 8. d. 30 7 32 16 6 66 16 40 16 8 40 20 7 50 no 45 14 6 50 21 7 35 18 8 * To twenty years of age. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those engaged onjhe engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, cfo.) in Leeds. Occupations. Guard Porter! Signal men Clerks, booking, parcels, &c Lampmen Engine-drivers Fireman Cleaners Fitters Laborers Lowest. Highest. s. d. s. d. 22 27 6 16 19 22 30 5 9 50 15 18 30 45 18 27 6 15 21 32 18 19 92 A— LAB- -43 674 LABOR IN EUROPE KNGLAND. WORSTED MILLS. Wages paid in worsted-mills in Yorkshire per week of fifty -six hour*. Occupations. Wool-sorting: Foreman Other men Combing : Foreman Fettlers Woolliers Girls Drawing : Foreman Girls Spinning: Foreman (usually by piece) . Boys and girls Dressing: Foreman Other helps 8. d. 35 24 70 24 12 42 12 Occupations. Weaving : Tuner Assistant Weaver*" Knollers Perchers Mechanic's shop: Mechanic Engine : Engine man . Carriers : Foreman .Next man ... ' Amount. * Always by piece. FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE SHOPS. Wages paid per week of fifty -four hours in foundries and machine shops. s. d. 42 24 24 21 Occupations. Lowest, Highest. Average. Model-makers Apprentices Joiners Smiths Strikers Fitters Apprentices Turners Apprentices Molders Apprentices Molders, laborers Brass fitters Foundry engine man . . Foundry blast tender. Core-makers Fettlers Painters Laborers Note. — The averages in the third column are believed to be correct. LEEDS CIGAR-MAKERS. Journeymen receive from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per 100 cigars. They make from 1,200 to 2,000 cigars per week, therefore earning a wage of from £1 4*. to £2 per week. Journeywomen receive from lOd. to Is. 6d. per 100 cigars, earning from 10s. to 25s. per week. In cigar works they serve an apprenticeship'from four to seven years, and, to commence with, receive 6d. per 100, earning about 6s. per week, and until their apprenticeship has been served their earnings will not exceed 12s. This refers to boys. Girls receive 6d. to 9d. per 100. WAGES PAID IN IRON WORKS IN LEEDS. Drawing out hammers. — The head hammerman takes his work at a price per ton for different articles. The earnings vary considerably, LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 675 according to description of work. It may, however, be taken that this class of workman can earn for a full week's work from £8 to £12 ; his assistants are furnacemau, £4 to £3 per week; under hammerman, 8s. to 10s. per day ; staff-enders, 5s. to 6s. per day ; leverers, 4s. to 5s. per day. Ball furnaces. — The hammeriuan and furnaceman are partners and take the work by the ton. Their wages average 10s. to 12s. per day. Underhand men earn 5s. to 6s. per day. Boiler plate mill. — Boiler (contractor (paid by ton) earns £8 or £10 per week ; his assistants are, furnaceman, to whom he pays £1 per day ; under roller, £1 per day; under hands, 3s. 6d. to 7s. per day. Bar mill. — Roller (paid by ton) ; the earnings vary considerably from £4 to £8 per week. He employs, furnaceman, 8s. to 9s. per day ; other assistants (skilled), 7s. to 9s. per week ; other assistants (laborers), 4s. to 5s. per day. Puddler. — Forehand puddler, by tonnage, £2 10s. to £3 10s. per week ; forehand nobbier, by tonuage, £2 10s. to £3 10s. per week ; middle hand, 4s. per day ; boy, Is. 6d. per day. Sundries. — Steam-hammer drivers, men, 21s. to 25s., boys, 6s. to 10s. per week ; engine-men, 26s. to 30s. per week ; boiler flrers, about 20s. per week ; fitters and turners, 28s. per week ; slotters and drillers, 20s. to 24s. per week; joiners, 24s. to 28s. per week; cartmen, 19s. per week; yard laborers, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 3d. per day. DYERS. Wages paid dyers per week of fifty-four hours in Leeds. Occupations. Operative dyers Crabbers and singers : Men Boys Pressors* Firers Dyers : Men Boys Stretchers (piece-work, women) . Stitchers {piece-work, women) . .. Lowest. s. d. 20 25 14 23 23 15 Highest. s. d. 22 25 18 23 » 23 15 13 9 tl 2 * Piece-work; average, 3d. per piece: t Per 100 pieces of stuff. Pattern dyers, blue dyers, and black dyers, foremen, generally from £100 to £500 per annum. RATE OF "WAGES PAID FOR MAKING BEST YORKSHIRE IRON. Refining iron. — Is. 8d. per ton (pays 1 man 4s. per day and 1 boy 2s. Qd. per day). Puddling. — 10s. per ton (28 cwt. a day), and the puddler pays one middle hand 4s. per day, one boy 2s. per day. Drawing blooms, &c, at hammer. — 1, heated work, at 2s. 9d . ; 2, heated work, at 4s. 3d.; 3, heated work, at 4s. 9d.; 4, heated work, at 6s.; tyre blooms, 6s. lOd. Fagots for making into axles, 6s. 10-awyer8 PiiinterB..' Plumbers G-as-ntl era Millwrights, viz: Pattern-makers Turners and titters Blacksmiths Tinsmith* 92A— LAB 44 Lowest. Highest. $8 39 $8 75 8 39 8 39 8 39 8 39 8 39 8 39 7 29 8 02 8 75 8 75 8 75 8 75 8 39 8 75 7 29 8 75 7 29 8 75 8 02 8 39 $8 57 8 39 8 39 8 39 7 05 8 75 8 75 8 57 8 02 8 02 8 20 690 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours, tfc. — Continued. Occupations. Lowest. $8 75 5 83 5 34 9 24 8 27 6 56 5 34 8 75 7 78 7 05 6 56 5 10 8 75 7 65 9 00 9 00 7 78 5 10 7 05 5 58 6 07 5 58 5 83 5 10 Highest. Average. Millwrights— Continued. Coppe. i smiths Drillers and screwers Smiths' assistants Boiler-makers, viz : Anjjle iron and platers Ri voters Holdera-up Assistants Foundrymen (iron and hrass) , viz : Molders Core-makers Dressers Furnace-men Laborers Masons, viz : Stone dressers and setters Wallers Brick-layers Slaters and plasterers Paviors Paviors' laborers Engineman at stationary engine Firemen at stationary engine Seamen on dredgers, barges, and fiats Seamen on shore-gang Bock-getters and quarrymen Laborers : Navvies, wagon-fillers, &c $8 75 5 83 5 34 9 24 8 27 6 56 5 34 8 75 8 27 7 05 6 56 5 34 8 75 8 02 9 HO 9 00 7 78 5 34 7 65 6 (17 6 81 5 58 6 19 5 46 $8 75 5 83 5 34 924 8 27 6 56 5 34 8 75 8 02 7 05 6 56 5 22 8 75 7 84 9 00 9 00 7 78 5 22 7 35 5 83 6 44 5 58 6 01 Wages paid per week of 51-J hours to the corporation employe's in the city of Liverpool. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Borouah engineer department: District foremen per week. . Paviors per day.. Paviors' gaugers do Paviors' apprentices* per week.. Masons per day . . Mason6' apprentices* perweek.. Bricklayers per day.. Bricklayers' apprentices' per week . . Laborers per day.. Watob men do Carpenters do Wheelwrights do Blacksmiths do Printers ...do Engine-drivers do... Bootmakers do Pitch-boilermen do SCAVENGING STREET.-*. Divisional inspectors per week. . District inspectors do. Scavengers per day. . Boys do Trough-closet flushers do... Dry ashpitraen do Day tipmen do Steam-hopper crew per week. . Steam flatmen do Stables : Horse-keepers per week.. Stablemen : per day.. Carters do Carters' teamsmen do Foreman wheelwright perweek. Wheelwrights per day.. Blacksmiths do Strikers do.!!!!! Engine-drivers do Painters do!!!!!! Nigbtmen do Sight tipmen do..!!!! Water engineer department : Fitters..... perweek.. Testing fittings do * Increased yearly. $0 24 24 1 22 9 73 8 27 65 6 56 8 27 97 1 26 7 29 i 86 $1 30 "i 34 1 34 97 10 95 8 75 73 E9 12 16 11 19 1 05 1 42 1 01 8 27 7 78 $9 73 1 30 142 1 34 'i _ 34 85 81 1 70 1 30 1 34 1 22 122 128 1 05 10 34 8 51 69 28 79 9 36 7 29 9 73 101 97 1 09 11 19 138 134 97 1 30 130 1 05 1 05 7 78 6 32 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 691 Wages paid to the corporation employe's in the city of Liverpool — Continued. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Scaving stheets— Continued. Water engineer department— Continued. Turners per week Smiths do — Strikers do Joiners do — Plumbers do Painters do Engine repairerB - do Pipe-layers do Laborers do $7 53 6 32 5 S3 6 32 6 32 5 10 5 58 5 58 4 38 $8 02 8 27 5 83 7 78 7 29 7 78 8 51 7 29 5 34 $7 78 7 29 5 83 7 05 6 81 6 44 7 05 6 44 4 86 FOOD PRICES IN LIVERPOOL. The following is a fair average retail price of the several articles- named, and which are used by the working classes of Liverpool and vicinity : Kinds. Eggs per dozen.. Pickles, one-half-pint bottles Sugar per pound. Tea do... Coffee do... Bacon do... Butterine do . . . Butter do . . . Dripping do... Cheese do... Ham, whole do . . . Mutton, tinned do .. Beef, tinned do . . . Hice do... Macaroni do... Sago do... Tapioca do . . - Treacle do . . . Sirup do... ' Barley, pearled do..-? Lentils do Haricot beans do .- Dried peas do Split peas do Dates, dried do Figs, dried do Damson preserves do . . . Green-gage preserves . . do — Orange marmalade preserves, per pound Veal per pound.. Tripe do Pork do — Sausages do Lamb (fore-quarter). -.do Lamb (hind-quarter) - - do Fowls per pair.. 'Ducks , do Babbits do Hares do Geese do ... Herrings and bloaters eacb... Kippers per pair. . Codfish per pound. . Salmon do Brill do.... Halibut do Tnrbot do Soles do Eels, fresh- water do Conger do Flukes do.... Salmon trout do Whiting.* do Lowest. Highest. 10 16 12 16 16 20 20 1 22 1 22 1 22 1 22 2 5 8 36 49 49 49 36 12 12 4 4 $0 18 12 7 89 40 20 24 32 16 22 24 16 16 8 16 8 12 4 6 6 6 6 16 14 12 13 20 14 20 20 24 24 1 46 1 46 73 3 65 2 43 4 9 12 61 Kinds. Haddock, fresh per pound Haddock, dried and smoked, per pound Blackberries, preserved, per pound Currants, preserved . pound. Raisins do. . . Almonds, valencias .. do . Bread, brown, 4 pound loaf. Bread, white, 4 pound loaf. . Flour per 6 pounds . Oatmeal perpound. Potatoes per 10 pounds. . Cabbages each- Carrots per pouud. Turnips do . - Parsnips do... Cauliflower each . . Rhubarb dozen heads . Tomatoes per pound . Beets per dozen. Cherries per pound. Strawberries do. . . Green peas per peck.. Gooseberries... perpound. Black currants do. - - Red and white currants, per pound Apples per pound. Pears do... Oranges per half dozen . . Coal." perton. Beef per pound. . Mutton do... CLOTHING. Sunday suits from. Good Buit Working clothing : Trousers Vests ■- Coats Jackets Boots : Men's Boys' Girls' Women's Shirts Socks Drawers Undershirts Hats Caps Lowest. $0 06 12 7 6 24 12 10 20 4 8 2 2 2 2 3 25 12 2 6 8 12 4 12 12 25 3 9 2 55 14 16 Highest. ' 08- 15 10 10 32 15 15 24 9 10 5 4 6 4 8 75 25 75 16 32 16 16 12 12 18 4 01 20 20 7 29 61 2 07 36 1 46 2 92 4 86 61 1 22 1 22 2 55 49 1 58 49 I 58 61 1 58 46 1 19 12 36 61 85 61 85 24 12 692 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. LONDON. REPORT BT CONSUL-GENERAL MEBRITT. EXPLANATORY. In accordance with the instructions accompanying the labor circular dated February 15, 1884, I have the honor to submit herewith my re- port, covering the information called for in the. jurisdiction of this con- sulate-general. There is also appended a comparative statement show- ing the average wages paid in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, as tabulated from the returns of the consuls. It has been found, how- ever, impossible to tabulate in the same form the fourteen special tables, beginning with the wages of factory and mill operatives and ending with those of printers, as will be readily perceived by consulting the different consular returns under these heads. In an investigation of this scope, based upon a circular intended to be so elastic as to embrace the local peculiarities of each country and district, it is but natural that consular reports should vary greatly in stating wages under a given head, as they are influenced on the one hand by the amount and form of the in- formation obtainable, and on the other by the prominence given to a general local industry. Manchester, for example, lays stress on cotton employes, Sheffield on cutlery, andlunstall on pottery, under the topics of Factories, Mills, and Workshops, and it will pass without saying that a general average based upon such data would be misleading. A greater difficulty arises in the matter of the form in which statistics may be pre- sented. Even in such comprehensive heads as Printers and Corporation employes, upon which full information is given, the different wages of the grades or persons thereunder cannot be satisfactorily tabulated, as the consuls, necessarily acting without concert, show a great variety in the form and particularity of their statements. I therefore suggest that, if it is deemed essential to strike a general aventge in special trades, the center most identified with a single iudustry be taken as best representative, and that for all wages, special aud general, in Great Britain, Dundee appears to me to stand as the fairest example. TRADE CONDITIONS OF LONDON. Centuries ago, when London was but a fraction of its present size, it was said not to be a city but " a province covered with houses." Year by year its inherent principle of growth has moved with accelerated progress, widening its vast territory, multiplying its inhabitants, and adding to its enormous wealth until it would appear that no limit can be set to its future greatness. In J 881 the population with the metiopoli- tan area was 3,814,571; within what is known as the 15-mile radius it amounted to 4,500,000, or one sixth of the population of England aud Wales, while the space protected by the metropolitan police covers no less thau 700 square miles. " Its statistics," snys Mr. Herbert Fry, " are all upon such a gigantic scale that if they were related of some remote aud foreign place we would stand amazed at the revelation of them." Like all large cities, it presents in a marked degree the contrast of great wealth and distressing poverty; of districts second to none in health- LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 693 fulness, and slums of the vilest description ; of thousands of well-paid artisans, and thousands of half starved workmen. Its charities are vast and manifold ; it is the radiating center of benevolent systems that al- leviate the distress of the poor within its gates and throughout the world; its professional thieves would make an army, and it commits a third of the crimesof the Kingdom. Toits characteras the common mart and banking center of the world, it adds that of being a universal manu- facturer as well as a receiver of industrial products. A glance through the Trade Directory of London shows how comprehensive and varied are the manufactories, foundries, and workshops which add to the production of the great special trade centers, weaving jute as at Dundee, spinning cotton as at Manchester, and forging metals as at Birmingham. In so vast a field as this it is natural that the broad contrasts exhibited in and commercial life should make themselves manifest in the prices paid social for labor; and while it can be stated as a general proposition that wages are higher in Loudon than elsewhere in Great Britain, it will also be found that in the lower trades and districts "starvation rates" is too complimentary a term to apply to the wages paid to the unfortunate laboring victims of the greed and fierce competition of trade. Work is cheaper on the Surrey than on the Middlesex side of the Thames, and dearer in the WestJEud than in the Bast. The city proper, a small but all important district of 032 acres, pays highest, while wages, well main- tained throughout the West End, drop off as they approach the suburbs. A large manufacturer, who employs many hundred hands, and who a few years ago removed his factory from the Bast End to the West Central district, told me that although he paid by piece-work, the wages for the same work cost him 10 per cent, more than in his former location. With these considerations iu view, it will be seen how difficult a matter it is to formulate an adequate representative average, as it is not the average of one city, but twenty cities rolled into one. It is believed, however, that the wage statistics herewith presented have been com- piled with care, and are substantially correct. The investigations of the consuls have been so painstaking and elaborate that on some of the general topics of the circular I have discarded the material which I have collected, as being merely cumulative of what they so well pre- sent, and therefore unnecessary of repetition. The mass of informa- tion which they furnish is so great that I beg to make my remarks on the different heads as brief as the circumstances of each case will allow. PARTICULARS OF OCCUPATIONS OP THE PEOPLE OF BRITAIN. The 1881 census of England and Wales gives these particulars of the occupations of the inhabitants, which are important collateral facts in a study of wages : Class. Males. Females. Total. 450, 955 258, 508 960, 661 1,318,344 4, 795, 178 4, 856, 256 196, 120 1, 545, 3U2 19, 467 64,840 1,578,189 9, 930, 619 647, 045 1, 803, 810 980, 128 1,383,184 6, 873, 367 14, 786, 875 Total 12, G39, 902 13, 334, 537 25, 974, 439 694 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. The following are the principal subdivisions of the industrial class: Persons working and dealing in — Books, prints, and maps JIS'q ■ Machines and implements «Jo7, 976 Houses, furniture, and decorations 786, 660 Carriage and harness M/, 174 Ships and boats 54,080 Chemicals and compounds 43, 015 Tobacco and pipes <% 175 Board and lodging 115,655 Spirituous drinks 65,052 Food 448,664 Food and lodging (total) 629, 371 Wool and worsted 233,256 Silk 63,577 Cotton and flax 584,470 Unspeci fied material 170, 345 Textile fabrics (total) 1,053,648 Dress 981,105 Animal substances 68,202 Vegetable substances 166, 745 Mines 441,272 Stone, clay, and road-making 193, 083 Earthenware and glass 74,407 Iron and steel 361, 343 * General and unspecified commodities 816, 243 Refuse matters 14,339 RATES OF "WAGES. For the rates of wages of workers of every class, I have to refer to the appended tables. The rates given represent in general the wages paid for the full time of six days in a week, and are therefore erroneous if Ave are to judge the workingmau's position from the beginning of the year to the end, unless he has had continuous work and been blessed with his full health and strength. Shutting down of mills, working at short time, drunkenuess, and sickness are always active reducing his earnings, while the interest on his debts never sleeps, his rents run on, and his food and clothes must be obtained whether work is abundant or slack. In the consideration of this topic in the Consular Report No. 16, De- cember, 1883, 1 showed its importance by reference to the statistics kept by the Northumberland Miners' Union Association during the reign of high wages on theTyne, when the loss from drunkeness alone amounted to 9^ per cent ; while from all causes inducing loss of time it was pointed out that in the pottery districts the difference between the real and ap- parent wages was 20 per cent. Dr. Farr estimates that the loss of time per inhabitant averages 5 per cent, a year from sickness alone. Again, there are trades which from their very nature can only be pursued at certain seasons of the year. The house-painters in London estimate their working season at six or seven months from spring to autumn, after which there is little or no work for them, and if they labor at all it is in a casual way at whatever their hands find to do. I was informed by an old painter that years ago it was the custom of painters to labor at their trade in the summer season, and after that to engage in tallow- candle making, which could not well be carried on in hot weather. This now, he said, is all changed since the use of paraffine came in, as it can LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 695 be made into candles the year around, and the painters now have no complementary trade which they can follow. These illustrations present the important difference between real and apparent wages, which I wish to emphasize. Under the head of Government employ I have given the full salary list of the foreign office, which is the best paid of the Government de- partments, and also several branches of the post-office, which is said to represent the other extreme. It will be noticed that the salaries and wages paid iu the British civil service differ from those of the United States in this important particular : that the higher positions are far better compensated, and the lower far worse. Policemen and letter- carries in London are paid from $300 to $375 a year, while in large American cities the wages of the same classes average twice and three times these amounts. COST OP LIVING IN LONDON. Cost of living in London, in so far as that refers to the necessaries of life, food, clothing, &c, corresponds so exactly with the tables given by the consul at Liverpool on the subject that I beg to refer to tliem as repre- sentative of the prices here. The great imports of American and other produce in late years have materially reduced the cost of the working- man's food especially, and as the first and principal ports of landiug are Liverpool and London the effect of the cheapness of price has been particularly felt in these centers. English fish find their leading mar- ket in London, and so concentrated has been the fish monopoly that it is no UQeommon thing to see fish dearer in the maritime towns off whose shores they were caught than in London itself. One of the great objects of the late Fisheries Exhibition was to instill into the minds of workingmen the advantages of fish as a prominent article of diet, but how far the lesson has been taken to heart I am unable to say, as the Englishman is essentially carnivorous in his tastes, and prefers a chop or a steak at far higher cost, even if he can ill afford to spend the money. Among the common laborers and the lower poor, fish, next to bread and cheese, has long been the main reliance, fried fish shops being a feature of ail the low quarters of London. With bread at 3 cents a pound, tea and sugar lower than were ever known, and with a downward tendency in nearly all other commodities, the condition of the London workman ought not to be uncomfortable if he had the pru- dence of the Scotch or continental workman. Unfortunately there is no national food in general use except meat, which is expensive. In America and Italy there is corn ; in Ireland, potatoes ; in Scotland, oatmeal ; in China and India, rice ; and in France there is the consum- mate knowledge among the poorer classes of making a soup which costs almost nothing and yet is palatable and nutritious. Even Samuel Smiles, the author of "Thrift" and "Self Help," with his high opinion of the industry of the English artisan, says, "He might be more com- fortable and independent in his circumstances were he as prudent as he is laborious, but improvidence is unhappily the defect of his class." Going back to the time of Daniel Defoe, who for years employed 100 men in in his tile and brick works at Tilbury, we find him saying : Good husbandry is no English virtue. It neither loves nor is loved by us English- men. The English get fortunes and the Dutch save them ; and this observation I have made between Dutchmen and Englishmen, that where an Englishman earns 20s. a week and but just lives, as we call it, a Dutchman with the same earnings grows rich and leaves his children in a very good condition. The general cheapness of food in England, which has resulted in ruin to the English farmer, has been a great boon to all other classes of 696 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. labor, and it would have been greater were household management, cooking, and economy better understood and practiced. Mayhew, whose knowledge of the poor and the labor of London has never been rivaled, points out again and again how prone the poor are to spend a large part of their earnings in luxuries, and how in times of compara- tive prosperity they take no thought for the morrow. His observa- tions, it is true, are leveled not against the better class of artisan workers, but the lower grades of labor and the hundred and one vagabond pursuits which exist in London; but the same evil tendency, while losing some of its force as it passes through the higher grades, still retains enough power to point the moral. As I have laid stress upon this point I do not wish it to be understood thatthereare notinany thousands of hardworking families in London whose household econ- omy, sober habits, and industrious instincts are such as to leave noth- ing to complain of, and it is gratifying to know that the improvement in this respect is progressive. PAST AND PRESENT RATES OF WAGES. I have made many inquiries to ascertain the comparison between the wages of 1878 and the present, and the result has been that I find the position of affairs is about the same. 1878 and .1884 may both be termed years of depression, and the price of iron, which is said to he the index of commercial activity in England, has again receded to the basis of 1878, the lowest in thirty-two years. The latest export and import statistics show a contraction from the former year, and the coraplaintsof dull trade grow louder daily. 1880, '81, '82 brought wages up fractionally, and in some instances materially, but now we seem to have drifted back to 1878. One thing in favor of the workingman is, that food is somewhat cheaper, meat alone increasing and maintaining its high price. In the late agitation in relation to the bill against cat- tle disease, which was thought at the time to imply the destruction of the live-cattle trade, the greatest opposition was manifested against it by the workingmen's clubs in large cities, who naturally looked upon any cause tending to raise the price of meat as a calamity. I have mentioned the English fondness for meat, and to show the difference between the continental nations and the English in this respect I re- produce the figures of M. Maurice Block, giving the pounds consump- tion per bead a year: "United Kingdom, 87; France, 66; Eussia, 44; Prussia, 42; Belgium, 40; Italy and Spain, 29." HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. " The habits of the working classes, whether steady or otherwise, sav- ing or otherwise, and the causes which principally affect their habits for good or evil." A large majority of the London workmen can certainly be ranked as skillful artisans and steady and industrious citizens. Prom an Ameri- can point of view, accustomed as we are to alacrity in every branch of work, there is, however, a general slowness in action which at first might be mistaken for laziness, but which longer experience shows to be what might be denominated the national working pace, and it is the steadiness and method of this movement under low pressure which has built up the industrial supremacy of Great Britain. There is also a large class whose inclination for work is measured solely by their actual necessities, and if four days' work in a week will furnish shillings enough for food, and LABOK IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 697 especially drink, the other days, which might be used for increasing- their comfort, are idled away in dissipation. More especially is this true of the lower wage-earners. The. better-class workman is exceedingly pre- cise in his mode of doing work, and lacks that ingenuity, quickness, and plastic habit of adaptibility to circumstances which are so marked in American artisans. He has, however, a dogged perseverance and a capacity for hard work which well accounts for the substantiality of English manufactures. The foreinen in particular I have noticed are men of shrewdness, activity, and great common sense. Mr. Muudella, speaking of the efficiency of English and foreign labor, says: There is a strenuousness of effort, a rapidity and deftness of movement, which I have never seen equaled except in the United States. The American, being of the same race, 1 rank as the equal of the Englishman. I do not believe he is superior, only so far as he excels in temperance and intelligence. As regards the ability of the working classes to save, it may be said that the general range of wages is such that the comparatively few who are endowed with greater prudence and self denial than the»rest have a chance, of ending the year with money in hand. Prof. Leoni Levi, writing on the subject of British wages, divides workmen into three classes: (1) Those employed in works requiring higher skilled labor and manufacture, who receive from $7.30 to $9.73 (30s. to 40s.) a week; (2) those employed on work not so exclusive or technical, $6.08 to $8.52 (25s. to 35s.), and (3) unskilled labor, $3.89 to $5.00 (16s. to 23s.). It will be perceived that upon this basis (which I consider a most valuable de- duction from the actual facts) that the margin for saving is small in- deed, and yet, on the other hand, w r e are met by the fact that in 1861 the depoits in the savings banks amounted to £41,546,000, and in 1882 they were $83,651,000, or an increase of 101 per cent., while the popula- tion had only increased 22 per cent. Much of this increase came from the laboring classes, and it is a strong evidence that thrift is gaining ground. The Government has made every provision for encouraging the work- man to lay by whatever he may be able by establishing at every money office in the postal system a savings bank where any one may deposit not more than £,"0 in a year, with interest at 2J per cent. The lowest deposit that can be made is a shilling, but in order to stimulate smaller savings forms are issued about the size of ordinary checks, with twelve divisions, in each of which a penny postage-stamp may be placed. When the form has thus been filled with twelve stamps it will be received as a shilling deposit. In the increase in savings, the decrease in the consumption of intoxi- cating drinks, the greater spread of education, the decrease in pauper- ism, the exertions of the churches, the good done by philanthropic so- cieties, and the action of wise legislative measures we find some of the causes of the improvement of the working classes and some of the re- sults. Drunkenness, thriftlessuess, and gambling are the causes which still hamper the upward movement, but the results of the last twenty years, as seen in the higher wages, in better food, clothing, and dwell- ings, give high hopes of the successful continuance of the good work. The consul at Bristol gives an interesting table dealing with the con- sumption of beer and spirits, which puts in compact statistical form the large per capita use of intoxicating drinks, but no statistics can present the misery, crime, and poverty resulting. The strong drinking tastes of the English people, supported by centuries of tradition and encour- aged by the climate, are admitted to be the worst enemy to combat and the greatest evil of the country. Betting on horse races is, unfortu- nately, largely on the increase, and is indulged in by every class of 698 LABOK IN EUKOPE — ENGLAND. society. Bacing in different parts of England takes place nearly every day, and is followed with tbe keenest eagerness. In Loudon there are two daily papers of wide circulation devoted exclusively to sports, as -well as numerous weeklies and semi- weeklies; and the amount of space allotted to descriptions of races, quotations of betting, and prophecies, in the regular dailies, shows how deep a hold the excitement of racing has upon the public. On the result of any great race it is no exaggera- tion to say that millions of dollars depend, and the system of betting with "bookmakers" is such that the public is almost invariably the loser. The demoralization thus created and the amount of money lost is not second to the lottery systems of southern countries, and in Lon- don, between the temptations of the publican and bookmaker, the sur- plus earnings of thousands of laborers, artisans, and clerks have little chance of reaching the savings bank. Now that to the pernicious system of stock and produce gambling in America is being rapidly added to the English racing mania, we may look for increased depravity in our youths, •and a waste of money on a larger scale than before if the present results are any criterion. PEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYE. The statement of the feeling that exists in London between employer And employe' may be dismissed in a few words. Old servants in house- holds, old employes in banks, and in some stores and factories, are still treated with the former forbearauce and courtesy which was one of the lovable traits of the relationship between master and servant in English life. Butthe patriarchal system ot'personal attachment, where themaster was the father and guide to his workmen, is fast going out of date, and now lingers only in smaller manufacturing towns and in the country. The greater independence of the workingman has changed the charac- ter of the connection, and now the feeling is one of indifference, the master getting as much work out of his men as he can, and they en- deavoring to do just enough to maintain their places and earn their wages. I have even heard the feeling existing described as one of bit- terness ; but I do not believe this to be general. ORGANIZATION OF LABOR. Labor is well organized in London, every branch of trade uniting in Unions for the maintenance of their members and the defense of their rights ; and in this connection it must not be overlooked that most of the trade unions throughout the country have their head office in, and are partially directed from, London. For the general laws bearing upon the subject I have to refer to the report from Glasgow, where full de- tails are given. There are several hundred trade unions in London. I will take as an example the Operative Bricklayers' Society, now in its thirty-sixth year of organization, the particulars of which have been furnished me by Mr. Ooulson, the general secretary. The society consists of 6,075 members, divided into 128 branches. The yearly income amounts to $45,000, or an average cost of 62 cents a month to each member ; and the present worth of the society is $142,000. Since 1869 the union has paid the following benefits to members and their families : For sickness, $136,500 ; for funerals, $37,000 ; for acci- dents, $2,000; grants to other trades, $4,000; for trade privileges, $20,000; superannuation, $350 — making a total of about $200,000. Qualifioaiionof members. — Every bricklayer who furnishes satisfactory evidence that he is in good health and has worked at the trade for two, LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 699 three, or five years, and between the ages of sixteen and fifty-five years Entrance fee, $1.25. Contributions as per age. — Twelve cents a week up to thirty years of age; 13 cents up to thirty-five years; 14 cents up to forty years, and 16 cents up to forty-five years. Any member who has completed one year and paid the rates is free, and entitled to traveling, sick pay, funeral, and other benefits. Those admitted from forty-five to fifty-five ■years of age pay 6 cents, and are entitled to trade and funeral benefits. Trade benefits. — From the time a branch is opened all members are entitled to support to maintain the established wages and trade customs of the district ; also traveling benefit, 37 cents a station. (There are sixteen relieving stations in London, where bricklayers in search of work are entitled to apply.) $ick benefit. — Two dollars and ninety-three cents per week for thirteen weeks; $1.94 for the next thirteen weeks; $1.10 for the next year and a half, and 73 cents for the remainder of illness. Funeral benefit. — Seventy-three dollars. To free and overaged mem- bers, $29.20. Optional benefits. — On payment of 2 cents a week for accident, when permanently afflicted, $244; when injured at builder's works, a further sum of $244 for legal expenses to establish a just claim for compensation for injuries and loss of employment. Superannuation benefit. — For 2 cents a week ; if a, member fifteen years, 97 cents a week ; twenty years, $1.21 a week ; twenty-five years, $1.46; thirty years, $1.94. Aged and infirm members may work for any wages they can obtain. Extra side allowance. — For 2 cents a week an extra 97 cents. The rate of wages is fixed at 18 cents an hour for fifty-two and a half hours a week in summer ($9.65), and forty-eight hours in winter ($8.04), for London. At Swindon, one of the outside branches, the work is 60 hours in summer, at 13 cents an hour ($7.80). The full rate varies from $10.30 a week at Hanipstead and Richmond (fifty-six and a half hours, at 18 cents) to $6.07 at Iron Bridge, or about 11 cents for fifty-five hours, STRIKES. London has been singularly freefrom strikes, which isperhaps due to the large number of workers who can, in case of need, readily be obtained to take the place of the strikers. From interior towns we constantly hear of strikes and rumors of strikes, and yet the great center of trade unionism is scarcely ever the scene of the riotous or passive contests which are so common elsewhere. Last year the bricklayers had but one dispute in London, which was against increasing the hours of working in Lam- beth until 4 o'clock on Saturdays. They were unsuccessful, after spend- ing $350 of the society fund to maintain their point. At present the only strike in progress is that of shoemakers in the common kinds of wholesale work, who demand a uniform price-list. This was referred to arbitration, but the result was so unsatisfactory that the men have rejected the compromise list and have refused to ratify the agreement. The whole question is at this time unsettled, and the uncertainty as to future proceedings is operating very detrimentally upon the wholesale shoe trade. The general effects of strikes, except the few on record where the employers have almost immediately capitulated, is to injure both sides, the workingmen suffering more than the master. Unsuccessful strikes, which are in the majority, represent a dead loss to the workingmen, 700 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. while a successful strike is often gained at such an expense, through lost time, that the additional increment to the wage may take many months to place the workman in his former financial condition. FOOD PURCHASES. Working people are allowed to purchase whatever and wherever they choose, there being no restriction on their freedom in this respect. The former evil custom, by which employers furnished goods to their work- men on the credit of the employe's wages as security, led to so many abuses that the practice was prohibited by the passage of the truck acts, which, I believe, are seldom violated in London. Wages in gen- eral trades are paid weekly on Saturday, the half holiday, but the pay- ment on Friday is rapidly gaining ground. A late act of Parliament prohibits the payment of wages in public houses, a common custom, which usually resulted to the undue benefit of the publican. CO-OPERATIVE STORES. The power of the co-operative movement in London is very strong, both in the large trade carried on by the " stores," as they are called, and the effect they have had in a competitive way in compelling in- dividuals and firms engaged in retail business to cut down their former large profits somewhat in conformity with the profits of the co-opera- tive stores. The public have had their attention strongly directed to the difference between wholesale and retail prices, and greater care is now exercised in buying than ever before. In the general retail trade we find a tendency to multiply monster establishments, where ready- money payments are enforced (a leading principle of the co-operative system), and it is not uncommon to find such signs as this displayed in some of the smaller shops " Cash payments ! The stores defied !" show- ing the rivalry they fear, and the standard of cheapness they wish to hold forth to gain customers. The English shopkeeper has been known for his long credits. This system is now going out, and the ready- money feature of cooperation has had much to do with the change. Another point to be noticed is that the co-operative stores extend the field of their operations beyond their own doors ; as special private concerns, anxious to avail themselves of the extensive patronage of the stores, enter into combination to furnish goods to the co-operative mem- bers at a reduction of from 5 to 20 per cent, from regular rates. Armed with amember's ticket which costs from 2s. 6d. to 5s., and the extensive list of establishments in connection with the stores, one can command a sub- stantial discount on almost any article purchasable. The stores main- tain a reputation for cheapness, variety, and high quality of their stock, and are slowly but surely pushing the small trader to the wall. He can- not buy, sell, or manage as cheaply as his antagonist, and yet he must make an effort to keep his prices somewhat on a level with "store" rates. Unlike many interior cities the patronage of co-operation in London is mostly confined to the middle and higher classes, the work- ingmen getting some benefit from the cheapening prices of his local tradesmen. DWELLINGS OF THE LONDON WORK PEOPLE. Having given above some information upon the general condition of working people, their habits, food, wages, and mode of life, I will con- fine this section to the question of their dwellings. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 701 Macaulay once said that there was nothing so ridiculous as to see the English nation in a spasm of virtue: and there were not wanting critics when the last topic of interest, the better housing of the poor, was pushed to the front, to predict that it would be a shortlived benevolent excitement, and that matters would soon fall back into the old ruts. The appointment of a royal commission to investigate the subject, and the continued and practical attention which is still strongly maintained, force me to believe that the interest awakened is not ephemeral, but that great and lasting good will result to the poor from the movement, for which the public are indebted to the enterprise of the metropolitan press. When one has been through the slums of Loudon and has seen the overcrowding, the indecency and brutality of the wretched inmates, he can appreciate how vast is the misery, and how great the difficulty that faces those whose means and endeavors are enlisted in the cause of improvement. The statistics of the number of persons per inhabited house in Lon- don range from 5.72 in Croydon (one of the suburbs) to 13.14 in the parish of St. Auue, Soho, a crowded district between the great arteries of Loudon, the Strand and Oxford street. Here is a honeycomb of courts and blind alleys which is bewildering in its intricacy, and a stand- ing marvel that its limited space can contain the swarming population. But mere statistics of apparent overcrowding seem to be no criterion of the misery, as we find that, in the most wretched quarters, Shoreditch, Eatcliffe, and Whitechapel maintain the more respectable figures of 7.50 to 8.50 per house. The popular interest may do much by stimulating to greater work the agencies now in existence, and by creating new ones; and in meas- uring what can be done, the results already accomplished by the Pea- body Donation Fund, the Improved Industrial Dwellings Company, the Queen's Park Estate, the Metropolitan Association, and many similar organizations, ought to be attentively noticed. A consideration of the first three mentioned, which exhibit some difference in system, will be sufficient for the purpose. (1.) The Peabody buildings, scattered in different parts of London, are substantial, many-rooined establishments, erected with the closest care as to sanitation, and maintained and mauaged with skill and pru- dence. So that the really deserving poor may take advantage of the benefits, the characters of the applicants for rooms are inquired into, and persons earning more than '60s. ($7.50) a week are not admitted. The average earnings of the head of each family occupying rooms are now $5.75. Varying with the nature of the accommodation, and the desirability of the location, the prices charged are as follows : One room per week, 48 to 85 cents ; two rooms, 73 cents to $1.58 ; three rooms, 97 cents to $1.76; four rooms, $1.70 to $1.84. Nearly every trade is rep- resented among the tenants, the following being the leading occupa- tions : Laborers, 582 ; porters, 463 ; police constables, 267 ; needle- women, 277; carmen, 201 ; charwomen, 181 ; messengers, 125; ware- house laborers, 150 ; and printers, 124. The nineteenth annual report states that the fund was created by George Peabody, the American philanthropist, who gave £f)00,000 for the purpose. Up to the end of 1883, the interest and receipts of rent made the fund £830,000. There was borrowed from the public works commissioners and others the sum of £390,000, of which £302,000 remain unpaid, thus bringing the total capital up to £1,192,000. In 1883 £120,000 were expended for lands aud buildings, and 33 blocks were opened containing 1,828 rooms ; 26 new blocks will shortly be erected. There are now occupied 9,693 702 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. rooms, exclusive of bath-rooms, laundries, &c. These rooms comprise 4,359 dwellings— 73 of 4 rooms, 1,521 of 3 rooms, 2,073 of 2 rooms, and 602 of 1 room — occupied by 18,009 persons. The rent in all cases in- cludes the free use of water, sculleries, &c. The death-rate in these buildings was 18.60 per 1,000, which is 1.77 less thau the London aver- age. (2.) The Improved Industrial Buildings Company has now been in existence for twenty-one years, and celebrated the event a few weeks since by opening 257 additional dwellings in Soho. The principle by which this company is governed is thus stated: Although the work engaged in is philanthropic in its character and aims, this fact has been subordinate to the conviction that the independence of the tenants could not be maintained or the necessary funds secured for the work unless a fair dividend could' be paid on the capital subscribed. The wisdom of that course is best illustrated by the rapid progress of the company, for which ou the one hand philanthropy has subscribed the capital, and on the other the tenants have in no sense been the recipi- ents of charity. They simply enjoy complete, comfortable, and healthy homes, in good positions, for about the same rent they formerly paid for one or two rooms in ill- adapted and unsanitary houses. The houses are built in large blocks, but each tenement is "self-con- tained," usually comprising a kitchen, water supply, and one or two bedrooms, and the arrangement of the rooms is such as to make them almost as desirable as private houses. The height of the rooms is 8 feet 6 inches, and the superficial and cubic area 120 feet and 1,000 feet, re- spectively. The rents average for one room in the poorer districts, 51 cents a week; in the central and western districts the prices range, for one or more rooms, from 60 cents to $3.04, the latter being charged for a few 6-room dwellings ; the greater majority are 3 or 4 room tenements, averaging under $2. The company owns 4,314 tenements, occupied by 21,500 persons. In addition, there are now in course of erection 610 tenements, capable, in all, of holding 25,000 tenants, at a yearly rental of $500,000. The capital invested is $4,750,000, paying 5 per cent, a year to shareholders. (3.) Near Paddiugton is one of the best examples of the cheapness and beauty of the cottage system of tenements, as distinct from the block system just described. This is the Queen's Park Estate, which consists of about 3,000 houses, renting from $2 to $2.50 a week, and containing a population of 15,000. The buildings are of brick, two stories high, designed with such architectural skill and varied both in form and color with such fine taste as to give to the whole an appear- ance of an esthetic city, rather than what is generally associated with the idea of an artisans' locality, where so often the "architecture" is only the monotonous and naked plainness of straight lines. I was greatly struck with the rich display of flowers that appeared in every window and garden, and the evident care and pride the tenants took to beautify their surroundings. The churches, schools, and stores are all built in harmony with the cottages, making together one of the prettiest parts of London. I earnestly recommend a study of these three systems, as the question of the better and cheaper accommodation of workingmen is already a pressing necessity in many of our large cities. There are about 100,000 persons in London living in these specially provided industrial dwellings, and there is practically no limit to the need of the continuance of the system. The buildings are never in want of tenants, as the superior advantages and cheaper rates make applicants numerous. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. RENTED DWELLINGS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 703 The number and rentals of dwelling-houses in England and Wales are thus stated in the census : Rental. Number. Per cent. 2, 628, 162 721, 170 418, 003 251,789 242, 050 104, 956 66, 637 58.8. 16.1 9.3 5.6 5.4 3.1 1.7 Total 4, 468, 763 100.0. These figures represent the gross valuation of unfurnished houses.. The real rental is about 15 per cent. more. But in judging what a ten- ant must pay, it should be borne in mind that rates and taxes fall in, most cases on the tenant and not on the landlord, as in the United States. The taxes on an average amount to one-quarter of the rental.. A house estimated in the census at £ 10 ($50) gross would give an actual rental of $57.50, and, with the addition of rates and taxes, the rental in an American sense would be $71.87, or an increase of 42 per cent, on the census figures. I have here taken the moderate increment of one- quarter (5s. in the pound sterling) to represeut the average taxes. In large cities or in the suburbs where extensive improvements are in progress, it mounts to 8 and even 10 shillings in the pound, while in some country districts it is as low as 2s. 6rf., or one-eighth. HOW A LONDON ENGINEER LIVES. The following interview is with a good representative of the better class, and is valuable as illustrating the mode and means of life of a sober and industrious mechanic: I am fifty-two years of age and am employed as an engine-driver at the Elec- tric Light Works. I have a wife and three children; the eldest, a boy, earns 10s.. ($2.44) a week ; the others are too young to do anything. My wages are £2 ($9.72) a week ; in 18S2 the same position commanded £2.10. The hours of labor are from 6 a. m, to 6.30 p. m. ; on Saturdays till 2 p. m., or 70£ hours a week. My habits are steady. I do not drink, and I try to be as contented as I can. My income and ex- penses are : Shillings a year. My wages, 40s. a week 2, 080> Receive from ray son 10s. a week 520 Total income 2,(00 House rent, 8s. Gd. a week 442 Dues to Foresters Society 37£ Insurance on lives of self and family - 143. Food, about 21s. a week 1,192 Total expenses enumerated 1,814^ This leaves me about £42 ($200) for miscellaneous expenses, clothes, schooling, medicine, 'bus fare, &c. Were it not for the aid of my son I could not get along. Meat is expensive. I pay 7«. for beef on Sunday and Monday. I can save a little now and then, always have enough, but none to spare. 704 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. SAFETY OP FACTORY AND MILL EMPLOYES. This section of the circular asks for the means adopted for the safety of work people, the provisions made for them in case of accident, and the consideration given by employers to their moral and physical well- being. In nearly all the consular reports will be found reference to the operation of the factories and workshop acts of 1878, which will amply cover the requirements of this inquiry, upon which I have hitherto ad- dressed the Department. London is laid out in sanitary districts, the inspector of which, under certain restrictions, has the right of entrance into any house or shop to ascertain its sanitary condition. London is a practical and charitable city where free or nearly free hospitals abound. Many of the trades maintain schools and homes for orphan children of their craftsmen, and, in a variety of ways, means are ex- tended to the sick and destitute. I have not learned, however, that employers in general pay any attention to the physical and moral wel- fare of Their employes beyond what the law or their own individual sense of justice and charity dictates, unless we except those large Arms who board and keep their employes in their own buildings, and who by so doing have a greater responsibility placed upon them. POLITICAL INFLUENCE OF THE WORKING PEOPLE. The workman's political influence will soon become a great factor in the British franchise system. The Liberal party in bringing forward and passing through the House of Commons the representation of the people act (a copy of which I append), which it is estimated will add 2,000,000 of voters to the electorate, have forced the Conservative party in the House of Lords to admit that there is no disagreement as to the principle of the bill, thus practically insuring its ultimate passage. Consul Jones has made a specialty of reporting on the question of the franchise, and I have, therefore, to refer to his elaborate statement. Strictly speaking the workingmau pays no direct imperial taxes, as all incomes under £150 are exempt, and the classes of labor which we have been considering r.irely have incomes amounting to that sum. But he pays local taxation either directly or through his increased rent, and more than one-half of the commodities, as beer, spirits, and tobacco, &c, on which heavy duties are levied, he consumes. The gen- eral tendency of legislation is in favor of labor, independent of any strong demand from the workman himself. Several beneficial acts o'n the statute books have been the result of direct agitation by the work- iugmen, but more have been placed there in the ordinary course of legislation. CAUSES OF EMIGRATION. The emigration during 1883 of persons of British and Irish origin was 320,118, the largest ou record. For some time past agencies have been forming to promote emigration on a larger scale, and the press has favored the idea as a double means of benefiting the emigrants and the country they leave, and it was therefore a surprise to find by the statis- tics of the first six months of 18S4, as compared with the corresponding period of 1883, that there had been a falling off of about 30 per cent. The colonial office has lately caused to be printed as a parliamentary paper Mr. Boyd's scheme for a state-directed emigration of 200,000 per- sons annually to Canada, for the expenses of which the Government is asked to provide £20,000,000 of emigration stock. Mr. Boyd justifies LABOK IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 705 its necessity " in the faet that the population of the United Kingdom is excessive and increasing at a prodigious rate ; hence widely-spread dis- tress, much crime, drunkenness, and unreasonable competition, evils for which the only practical remedy will be found to be national emigra- tion." As the question is likely to come up in Parliament, I call atten- tion to it as an important point in the emigration of the future. As to the occupations of emigrants leaving for the United States the board of trade furnishes the following particulars for Great Britain and Ireland in its report for 1883 : Males, adults, general laborers (one third of the total), 50,636; occupations not stated, 12,120; gentlemen, pro- fessional men, and merchants, 6,999 ; farmers and graziers, .4,363 ; me- chanics, 3,792 ; quarrymen, 3,550 ; clerks and agents, 1,335 ; carpenters and joiners, 1,158, &c. Female adults, domestic and farm servants, 19,482 ; no occupations, 45,150. FEMALE LABOR IN LONDON. According to the census there are about 3,500,000 women who are earning wages in England and Wales, and if the present tendency is maintained of extending the field of female labor by their larger employ- ment in existing occupations, and the opening up to them of new trades and professions as prejudice dies away, the next decade will see a large increase in the number of women who have it in their power to gain their own livelihood. The work that the more ambitious women are now striving for demands some technical education, which, thanks to the multiplication of technical institutes in London during the past few years, can now be obtained without much difficulty. In speaking of this question a few days ago Miss King, who is the secretary of the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women, said : Things are friending somewhat. A great impetus has been given to female educa- tion of late years, and the time is coming when it will be regarded as much incumbent upon parents to train their daughters to earn their living as if they were boys. The great want is training — sound, practical, technical training. In a small way we have endeavored to supply this want by our class for teaching bookkeeping, which we started twenty years ago, and still keep on. Our pupils receive 15s. a week for the first year, rising afterwards to £80 and £100 a year. Since our first class was started others of all descriptions have increased and multiplied. There is the (,'ity and Guilds Art School, where girls go through a three years' course in wood engraving; Sgnor Bulletti's wood-carving class in Albert Hall; Miss Long's office, where plan-tracing is taught ; and girls learn practical printing in the Woman's Printing Society, West- minster. There is a chromo-lithographic school in Bloomsbury. Designing is taught at South Kensington, and tapestry, china painting, and other decorative work are taught in numerous places. There is a complete curriculum for women desiring to study medicine, in Henrietta street. A lady pharmaceutical chemist in Paddington takes apprentices, and after three years' training they go up for examination, and are as thoroughly competent to dispense medicines as any male chemist. I need not refer to the training colleges for teachers ; they have long been in existence. The nursing institutes are more recent. All are doing good work. Thirteen years ago, says an intelligent writer in the Pall Mall G-azette in a series of articles entitled " Women who Work," the Messrs. Doulton, the famous art-pottery makers in Lambeth, employed in artistic work only three girls, and it was with difficulty that they could be found. Now over 300 girls are at work, and the number of technically educated applicants for situations tells the story of the change. To be eligible for admittance a girl must have passed the elementary examinations of an art school and be at least thirteen years old. The payment is at first low, beginning at 75 cents to $1 a week, and rising according to merit. The weekly average earnings of a good steady worker (piece- 92 A— LAB 45 706 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. work being the rule) are from $5 to $6.25, but there are cases where the earnings amount to $20 and $25. Another branch in which women have been successful is as employes in telegraph and telephone offices, there being over 1,000 female telegra- phists in London alone, against a few score in 1870, when the Govern- ment took over the management of the telegraph system. Any girl from fourteen to eighteen years of age, after passing the civil-service exami- nation, may be entered as a free pupil in the post-office telegraph school. In three months, generally, she is enabled to undertake the simpler matters of an office, and receives at first $2.50 a week, rising 25 cents a week per annum to $4.25, and then by 36 cents a week per annum to $6.75. At the Central telegraph office there are 424 second-class clerks (women) getting from $2.50 to $6.75; 196 first class, $7 to IS- IS assistant female supervisors with yearly salaries of $404 to $505; 15 others, $505 to $680 ; 8, at $730; 6, at $880; and 2, at $1,200. The com- petition for a place in the Government telegraph service is very great; recently, when 50 hands were required, there were 500 applicants. In answer to an inquiry of mine in relation to telegraphists and school- teachers (male and female) in the Government employ, I received the following memorandum from Mr. Percy J. Cackett, of the Civil Service: The pay of telegraphists varies so much according to the size of the town at which they are employed that it is almost impossible to reduce it to a uniform scale, but the system adopted is as follows : A competitive examination in telegraphy and elemen- tary educational routine is held in London ; the successful candidates are generally sent to small country towns, at which the fixed pay is from 10s. to 22s. per week, but this by no means represents their wages, as tliey make a very great amount of over- time. A circular is sent daily to every post-office in the Kingdom announcing the situations which are vacant throughout the country and the emoluments attached to each. Any telegraphist can then apply for one of these appointments. The post- master at "the town where the vacancy occurs chooses between the candidates, and so a telegraphist is continually moving from a small town to a larger. In provincial towns and in London the pay for males is generally about 21s. to 42s. per week ($5 to $10), rising by Is. Gd. per week per year, and for females 18s. to 33s., rising at the same rate. An able and honest telegraphist may in course of time be recommended for the position of post master or mistress, which is worth in small towns from £100 to £200, and in larger £300 to £700 a year. * * * The staff of the school board is composed of pupil teachers, assistant teachers, and fully chartered teachers. Pupil teachers receive no pay, but are instructed by the master or mistress in return for their services in taking charge of the younger pupils. If after five years the pupil teacher does not satisfy the inspector that he is likely to make a satisfactory master, be is not allowed to continue ; but if he passes inspection he is sent to a training college. After two or three years he may then accept any assistant teachership which is vacaut. The pay varies considerably, according to the size and importance of the school — in villages, £30 to £60 per annum, and in towns.£50 to £120 (including lodgings, and in some cases food). After he has served as an assistant he may become a certified teacher, and obtain in villages from £60 to £200, and in towns from £120 to £400. The school board of the district have the privilege of choosing the master or mistress whom they consider the most suitable from among the different applicants from the training colleges, and the inspector decides when an assistant teacher should begranted a certificate. It may be added that according to Prof. Leone Levi's estimate, in 1870, the average salary for a certified master was $475 ; now it is $600 ; of a certified schoolmistress $285 in 1870, aud $300 in 1884. Having given above some general observations on female labor, let me briefly run over the nine points suggested by the circular : 1. The number of women included in the different classes of profes- sions and occupations in England and Wales is given in the Census Statistics, in Part I. FEMALE WAGES IN LONDON. 2. As to the minimum, average, and maximum wages, the best an- swer that may be given is by way of contrast with the wages of men in LABOE IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 707 the same employment. Eoundly it may be said that a woman gets for work one-half of what a man could command for the identical service ; rarely is she able to get two thirds,and not unfreqnently is the relation between masculine and feminine work reduced to the starvation point of a third. For women who work at some of the poorer trades, in the East End, pennies and not shillings measure their scauty day's earn- ings, but a fair minimum wage may be stated at $1.50 a week, without board. As to the maximum, in the West End there are a few skilled workers in fashionable drapery and kindred trades who make $20 a week, and I have mentioned a few instances of pottery artists and tele- graph supervisors who earn $25 a week. Most difficult of all is it to strike the average, which is probably under $3 a week, without board. HOURS OF LABOR. 3. The hours of labor vary with the different avocations, but are gen- erally wearisome enough, being from nine and a half to sixleen hours a day. Since the vigorous movement in favor of early closing has been inaugurated, shopkeepers have shown more humanity, and the number of hours has been in many instances shortened in accordance with the nature of the trades. This has not been done by lessening the number of hours a day to any extent, but by giving a half holiday on Saturdays, or in some establishments on Thursday. In factories the hours are about nine and a half, exclusive of one and a half for rest and meals. In the retail dry-goods trade it is the largest and best establishments which close earliest, as may be noted by comparing Eegent street at night with the smaller shops at the East and West Ends. In the city proper the hours are the shortest, even bars and restaurants, which in other parts of London keep open until 12.30 o'clock, closing early in the evening. The law in relation to hours affects mines, factories, and work- shops, but has no application to stores, and an effort is now on foot to extend what might be termed the ten-hour law to stores also. Proba- bly no better idea could be gained of the relation between the law and the laboring hours than by quoting an item from the police reports which lately fell under my observation : Mrs. , dressmaker, West Hammersmith, has been fined £3 in one case, £1 and costs in each of ten cases, and to pay the costs of three other summonses, for employ- ing women in h^r work-room after 4 o'clock on Saturday's, contrary to the regulations of the factory act. PHYSICAL CONDITION. 4, 5, 6, 7. The physical condition of the London working women ranks high, as the city is one of the healthiest in the world, and the sturdy vigor of the English constitution is as apparent here as elsewhere. To the full operation of the factory and workshop acts is due much of the improvement in the physical well being of employes, as on the one hand they preserve them from overwork, and on the other provide better se- curity from fire and accident, or the more insidious dangers of defective sanitary arrangements and the diseases communicated in the working of such materials as wool and white lead. I had occasion in my last annual report to review the operations of this beneficent act, and then stated that the present condition of affairs was in pleasing contrast with the utter disregard of health, strength, and mental development which once made the English factory and mine system a revolting tyranny and the condition of the employes a civilized slavery. The best evidence 708 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. of the effect of this act in London that I can give is the statement by Mr. Redgrave, the chief inspector: There has beeu a revolution during ten years in the conditions under which seam- stress work is done ; the employment of women in workshops and factories has in- creased enormously, hut I can find no employer willing to commit himself to the opinion that in their respective classes there has been any deterioration in the char- ad er and conduct of the work people. Those engaged in the higher branches of dress- making and millinery, and who chiefly board their employe's, acknowledge that since the enforcement of the factory regulations they have had less difficulty in getting ap- prentices of a superior class. The relatives and friends of these young people, know- ing their health is protected by the limitations imposed upon the hours of work, have less hesitation in allowing them to go to work, and within a few years I have observed a remarkable improvement in the accommodation and treatment provided for this class. 8. There has been little change iu the wages of women during the past live years, and certainly no reduction. Covering a period of eight- een years, from 1866, Prof. Leone Levi shows that for women under twenty years of age wages have risen 12 per cent., and over that age 24 per cent., while wages of men under twenty years of age have increased only 6| per cent., and over that age 6f per cent. The effect of the in- crease of women workers is a slight reduction in the wages of men. More often, however, a branch of work is entirely taken from the hands of men, and we have no opportunity to study the result upon the dis- placed. I know of one case where the undue insistence of union men upon the rules of their society so exasperated the manufacturer who had a certain time in which to fulfill a large order that he had a private test made of the ability of women to do the work, and finding it successful, suddenly supplanted all his men employes by women. Usually the changes go on so gradually that they are almost unnoticed, and it is rare that any manifestation of disapproval is seen like the riotous pro- ceedings some .years ago at Kidderminster, when the employment of women was violently protested against. EDUCATION. 9. The present generation of workers is far better educated than the last, and educated in a way that though elemental is substantial. They usually read and write well, and certainly converse with a fluency and purity of English that is very pleasing. The observations of the con- sul at Tunstall present much information upon this point, to which I beg to refer. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In conclusion I have to acknowledge my indebtedness in the prepara- tion of this report for the services rendered by Mr. Edmund J. Moffat, Mr. Warren, the editor of the Labour News, and Mr. L. B. Lewis, of Blackwall, as well as many others who have kindly furnished me with information. I wish also to acknowledge the many facts and suggestions I have derived from Sir Thomas Brassey's work on " English Work and Wages," and the writings of Prof. Leone Levi. EDWIN A. MEREITT, Consul- General. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid per week of forty-eighi to sixty {average fifty-four) hours in London. 709 Occupations. Bricklayers Hod-carriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Slaters Roofers Tenders Plnmbers .Assistants Carpenters Gas-fitters BUILDING TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Book-binders Brick-makers Brewers Batchers t Brass-fonnders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers Cutlers Drivers: Draymen and teamsters. Cab and carriage Street railways Dyers Engravers Fnrriers Gardeners \ Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Nail-makers (hand) Potters Printers OTHER TRADES. Teachers, public schools Saddle and harness makers. Sailmakers Stevedores, job work Tanners Tailors (not cutters, up to $E Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Lowest. Highest. $7 30 3 65 7 30 3 65 6 BO 3 65 6 80 6 80 3 05 6 08 4 38 6 08 6 56 6 08 4 86 6 33 6 86 2 80 6 80 6 80 2 43 4 38 6 08 , 6 08 7 30 4 87 4 38 4 87 4 38 4 38 4 87 $8 76 4 87 8 76 4 87 7 79 4 87 7 79 7 79 4 87 9 74 4 CO 9 24 9 24 8 03 6 80 7 74 6 33 6 08 8 51 11 00 7 50 7 30 8 51 8 76 7 00 7 79 8 51 10 24 11 00 8 51 25 00 8 51 Average. $8 40 4 60 8 40 4 60 7 50 4 60 7 50 7 50 4 60 8 10 4 87 8 00 8 00 6 50 7 80 6 00 7 00 6 0O 7 00 4 38 8 10 8 80 6 00 6 8S 8 00 8 00 6 50 5 00 7 50 7 50 8 50 8 50 5 20 5 40 7 10 8 00 4 87 8 50 8 70 4 40 7 30 ; 515 oo '. 117 60 7 80 7 30 . 8 00 7 00 7 50 8 00 7 00 * This table has been prepared by Mr. William Warren, the editor of the Labour News, London, and gives from practical experience the average rates paid per week in the metropolis and suburbs. Higher wages are paid per hour, but such engagements are liable to much lost time. The table does not com- prise foremen or the lower apprentices, but embraces the majority of good workmen. t With board. JWith house. I Male. [| Female. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. For wages of railway employe's see Liverpool, where the payments are on the same scale as London. The office of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway is preparing a statement on the subject, which I will forward as soon as received. With the large amount of material on this point presented by the consuls, I do not consider it worth while to delay the transmission of the report to await the receipt of the rail- way statistics of London. 710 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. SHIPBUILDING WAGES. Wages paid per wielt of fifty-four hours in ship-yards, distinguishing behoeen iron and wood ship-building, in London. Shipwrights Joiners Blacksmiths Calkers Boiler-makers — Riveters Engineers Fitters .-. Ship-painters Riggers Red-leaders Hammer-men General laborers Occupations. Lowest. $7 20 7 20 6 95 4 86 Highest. $11 50 11 50 7 80 5 83 Average. 8 90 9 60 890 8 90 8 10 7 40 5 30 London long since has dropped out of the list of great ship-building ports, and the trade that used to nourish here is supported by a very few yards, the supremacy having passed from the banks of the Thames to the Tyne and the Clyde. Necessarily the great commerce of the river makes ship-repairing an active trade, but if the repairs are exten- sive owners of vessels prefer to have them done elsewhere, where work and dock charges are less. seamen's wages. Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men) — distinguishing between ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in London. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Steam: $778 64 53 53 38 93 $1, 459 00 63 60 $876 00 58 26 48 66 34 06 24 33 17 05 Sailing : 38 93 Second mate 24 33 26 73 25 53 17 05 14 60 21 90 (See Liverpool and Cardiff for different voyages.) The agent of the Anchor Line informs me that wages paid on their London and Liverpool steamers are substantially the same the year around, with occasionally a difference of a few per cent, in favor of London. AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid per wceh to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in London district, ivitlwut boant and lodging. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. I Average. Laborers : Kent.. I $3 25 1 $4 86 Middlesex J 3 25 4 62 Surrey ,... 3 1(1 4 86 Essex I 2 67 ! 4 38 Hereford i 2 67 i 4 62 __» L $4 13 4 13 4 38 365 3 89 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 711 In the country districts around London the agricultural laborer gen- erally earns from $200 to $300 a year, the average being about $220. It is the usual custom to give a bonus of from $10 to $35 at harvest time, and duriug that season the laborer is supplied with beer. Depending upon the generosity of the owner or teuaut of the farm and the char- acter and permanency of the employment of the laborer, he is usually in receipt of certain perquisites, such as firewood, straw, fruit, and at time cottage rent free, which, while being part of his income, cannot be accurately averaged. In general it may be said that the tendency of agricultural wages, notwithstanding the depression in agriculture, is up- wards, as there is an unfortunate attraction of farm laborers for cities, where they swell the ranks of the now overgrown casual labor of large centers. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants ( towns and cities) in London. Occupations. Cooks : Superior Plain Assistant Kitchen maids Scullery maids Housekeepers Parlormaids Nurse maids Waitresses Barmaids (hotels and public houses) Batters Coach men Footmen Hostlers Lowest. Highest. Average, $146 00 77 86 58 3d 73 00 58 40 116 80 48 66 48 66 48 66 68 13 146 00 189 79 97 33, 97 33 $243 32 126 53 87 59 97 33 82 73 486 65 97 33 97 33 97 33 146 00 389 00 243 32 146 00 146 00 I $194 66 97 33 77 86 77 86 68 13 146 00 82 73 82 73 82 73 97 33 195 00 170 32 121 66 121 66 In hotels and boarding-houses domestic servants usually receive less wagf s than in private houses, as they are constantly in receipt of fees and gratuities from guests. In many it may be said that the wages paid in large cities in the United Kingdom are about one-half the cor- responding wages in the United States, but at the same time a larger staff of servants is usually employed here. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per year to the corporation employes in the city of London. Occupations. City government {London proper, Guildhall and Mansion House). Lord mayor Recorder Chamhei lain Town clerk Common si-rgeant Judge of city of London court Commissioner of police Comptroller Assistant judge, mayor's court Remembrancer Solicitor -Coroner , Architect and surveyor Register ~ Medical officer Chief clerks (Guildhall) Copying clerks Labours per week. Potters '. do , Lowest. Highest. Average. $820 00 $3, 550 00 $48. 665 00 17, 032 00 12,166 00 12, 166 00 9,733 00 11,680 00 9,73.1 00 7,3(10 00 7, 786 00 7, 300 00 9,733 00 4, 550 00 9, 733 00 8, 500 00 3, 893 00 486 00 5 40 5 40 790 00 7 20 7 20 6 00 6 00 712 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. As to ordinary trades, carpenters, bricklayers, &c, employed by the city of London, it is usual for the proper officers of the vestries or parishes (local divisions) to give out the work by contract, and then the average rates, as tabulated under " General trades," are in force. It may be roundly stated on an average that a common laborer will receive 10 cents per hour, and a skilled mechanic 17 cents for 52 hours a week's work. Street cleaners (men), 62 to 90 cents a day ; boys, 30 to 62; dust- men (carmen), $5.35 to $5.83 a week. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES IN ENGLAND. Wages paid per year to employe* in Government departments and offices, exclusive of trades- men and laborers, in England. Occupations. Lowest.* HigbeBt.* iKXERAL CIVIL SERVICE GRADES. Higher division clerksi Lower division cleiksj Lower division clerks (7-hour Boy clerks {age, 15 to 17 years) Men cop.> ists (20 cents an hour) Boy copyists (8 to 9J cents an hour) Men niespeDgers ■Boy messengers 389 462 195 SALARY LIST OF THE FOREIGN' OFFICE. 230 76 Secretary of state T/nder secretary of state Three assistant secretaries of state - Chief clerk. 6 senior clerks 6 assistant clerks 20 first -class junior clerks 4 second-class junior clerks Librarian Snb-librarian 2 first-class clerks, librarian's department — 2 second-class clerks, librarian's department. 4 third-class clerks, librarian's department.. Superintendent treaty department Assistant treaty department Clerk in treaty department ■ 3 first-class clerks 2 second-class clerks — 5 third-class clerks Translator Oriental interpreter 4 clerks lower division . . Clerk in passport office . Private secretary Precis writer 2 temporary clerks Printer Proof-reader Office-keeper Assistant keeper Do Coal porter Assistant Porter Do Housekeeper CHIEF CLERK. S OFFICE. EXTRA ALLOWANCES. Permanent under secretary of state for management secret-service fund 2 private secretaries For languages 12 Queen 't, foieign service messengers . 2 Queen's home messengers 5 Queen's home messengers 3 Queen's home messengers Examining.medical officer 4,866 4,380 3,406 973 486 3,406 2,676 1,946 1,210 486 3,406 2,676 1,216 1,946 1,216 486 $1, 946 973 1,217 245 250 114 6,083 4,866 3, S93 2,920 973 4, 866 3, 162 2,433 1, 752 1,167 4,866 3,162 1,752 2,433 1,752 1,167 2, 433 1,946 973 1,216 1,460 1,460 680 729 505 973 438 427 316 215 438 3S9 607 1,460 729 729 1,946 1,216 793 729 146 Average. $973 681 840 210 240 95 24,332 9,723 7,300 *The two amounts indicate the limits; the salary being dependent on length of service. tOommencing at $486 and increasing by triennial increments of $73. tSame triennial increment. § Same triennial increment. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 713 Wages paid per year to employe's in Government departments, $-c. — Continued. Occupations. POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. Secretary's office. Postmaster-general Secretary Financial secretary Assistant secretaries Chief clerk 5 principal clerks, upper section 9 principal clerks, lower section.. 10 first-class clerks 19 second-class clerks 24 third-class clerks Lower division clerks Missing-letter branch. X clerk 1 first-class clerk. - Second-class clerk . Third-class clerk. . Storekeeper's branch. Storekeeper 1 olerk 1 supervisor 3 overseers 5 foremen of laborers. . ■ 52 porters and laborers. 18 porters and laborers. Messengers (boys) Clearing-house branch, female clerical staff. Superintendent 3 principal clerks 10 first-class clerks 44 second-class clerks . Betumed-letter office. 7 first-class returners (male) 13 first-class returners (female) 14 second-class returners (male) . - . 37 second-class returners (female) . 5 third-class returners (male) Postmasters. Northern district Northwestern district East Central distiict Southwestern district "West Central district Eastern district Paddington Ealing Putney Wandsworth, &c 591 small letter-receiving offices in London. Letter carriers and sorters. East Central district (the city proper) : 360 letter-carriers 97 junior letter-carriers '. 94 junior, second-class 11 porters and laborers Suburban letter-carriers. * Division!. Division II Division III (estimated) Lowest. $4, 866 3,406 2,822 1,946 1,265 730 389 1,508 1,021 486 1,946 1,021 973 584 380 258 228 802 535 584 225 330 177 201 292 228 176 228 228 265 240 Highest. Average. $5, 840 4,282 3,310 2, 433 1,849 973 973 2, 190 1,460 073 2,433 1,460 1,460 705 444 340 316 126 ,460 730 486 365 634 302 570 216 316 265 228 342 352 342 310 * Wages regulated by varying circumstances. 714 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. TRADES IN GOVERNMENT EMPLOY. Wages paid by the week, of average forty-eight ho&rs, to the trades and laborers in Govern- ment employ in the city of London. Occupations. Laborers and porters, standard Government scale. Custoni-house: Watermen, first class "Watermen, second class Ex tra men Admiralty: Foreman coopers, bakers, &c Coopers, bakers, &c Policemen (privates) :* Third class, two years' service Second class, five* years' service First class, seven years' service Lowest. $4 38 8 00 6 56 Highest. $6 57 9 35 7 52 Average. $5 48 867 7 04 5 10 1120 7 10 6 83 5 56 740 * Uniforms, boots, &c, furnished. In some branches of trade and labor in Government employ the rates fall below the outside prices paid by individuals or firms for the same work, but the steadiness of employment and the smaller number of hours a day more than make up for the difference. printers' wages. Statement showing the wages paid per week of fifty-four hours to printers (compositort, pressmen, proof-readers, #c. ) in London. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Compositors : $3 76 Non-union wages, by agreement $6 08 6 OS 8 76 1 48 $12 16 12 16 9 74 2 43 8 76 8 76 10 94 * On book-work, 14 cents per 1,000; on newspaper work, 16 cents per 1,000; fine type, like pearl, higher. MANCHESTER. REPORT BY CONSUL SHAW. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. In conformity with the requirements of the labor circular from the Department of State dated February 15, 1884, which reached me some time later, I have the honor to herewith furnish a report covering, in the main, the various points set forth in the importaut circular in ques- tion. I have found it very difficult, in many instances, to satisfy my- self fully in presenting comparative data, for the reason that the system of paying wages here, aud the way of living, differ so widely from that in force in the United States. Moreover, the habits and tastes of oper- LABOR IN EUEOPE — ENGLAND. 715 atives in this country are widely foreign to the social and general fash- ions and surroundings with us; hence it is not only extremely perplex- ing, but also somewhat misleading, to attempt to fairly and intelligently make clear the true condition of the average operatives in this great manufacturing and industrial center. It has been my aim to present an honest picture of the wide circle of employments and associations in this consular district at this time, and in carrying out this purpose I have availed myself of the advice and assistance of several very competent authorities, to whom I desire to tender my acknowledgment for valu- able suggestions and data, viz : To Francis Amos, esq., Mr. Thomas Ashton, Mr. Thomas Hood, of the Co-operative Wholesale Society of Manchester, Mr. S. Massy and Mr. Henry Wiley, of the Manchester Corporation, and Mr. Frederick Dinham, station agent, Central Station, Manchester, I am under special obligations in connection with this re- port. In furDishing data relating to the wages paid in this district I have made use of very full and valuable tables prepared for my last annual report. As these contain reliable comparative statistics, taken from the books of a number of large mills which have been in operation for many years, and which it would be impossible to obtain from any other authentic source, 1 feel certain that their reproduction in this con- nection will be wise and timely. The greatest care has been taken to have the same perfectly trustworthy in every instance. There were a number of blank forms in the tables furnished by the Department's circular which I have not filled up, for the reason that the trades mentioned are not carried on in this district, and in others the consul-general has kindly intimated that he would supply a part of the information sought from official returns secured through official sources at London. As this will fully meet the needs of the Depart- ment, I have left out this part of the data sought. Part I. — Male Labor. "The rates of wages paid to laborers of every class — mechanical, min- ing, public works and railways, domestic, agricultural," &c. The data following will, I trust, be fairly satisfactory as an answer in some considerable detail to the information sought in the first query. WAGES IN THE CONSULAR DISTRICT OF MANCHESTER. I have endeavored to carefully ascertain the wages of cotton opera- tives and other trades in and about Manchester, and the following data is believed to be fairly full and perfectly reliable. Where piece-work is the rule it is very difficult, indeed, to arrive at an average of wages earned. I have, through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Ashton, of Old- ham, and several other practical authorities, been enabled to furnish many important facts in this connection. The "pay sheets" are taken from the books of different concerns, and represent the actual average earnings of the operatives. But difficulties arise even in this practical way of arriving at. the " wage list." The operatives in a small mill do not, as a rule, receive as much as do those in large mills. However, I trust that the varied and full details which are supplied in this report, and which have been collected with unusual care, may be found suffi- cient to enable inquirers to gain a good knowledge of the average cur- rent wages of this district. 716 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. The Oldham and district list of wages for self-aclor minders, with conditions attached agreed to by the employers' and operatives' association, January 3, 1876. The accompanying list of wages, to be earned by self-actor minders for the various sizes of mules, has been agreed upon by the representatives of both employers and employed, as the basis from which the price per 1,000 hanks is to be fixed by the mode of calculation set forth in clause No. 1. Total earn- Total earn- No. of ings should draw from Minders' Piecers' No. of ings should Minders' Piecers 1 doz. wages. wages. doz. draw from wages. wages. offices. offices. £ ». d. * s. d. £ s. d. * s. d. £ s. d. £ >. d. 36 1 17 15 6 11 6 77 2 19 4 1 12 4 17 37 1 17 2 15 8 11 6 78 2 19 6 1 12 6 17 38 1 17 4 1 5 10 11 6 79 2 19 8 1 12 8 17 39 1 17 6 16 11 6 80 2 19 10 1 12 10 17 40 1 17 8 4 6 2 11 6 81 3 1 13 17 41 • 1 17 10 16 4 11 6 82 3 2 1 13 2 17 42 1 18 16 6 11 6 83 3 4 1 13 4 17 43 1 18 2 16 8 11 6 84 3 6 1 13 6 17 44 > 1 18 4 1 6 10 11 6 85 3 18 1 13 8 18 45 2 6 17 13 6 86 3 1 10 1 13 10 18 46 2 8 17 2 13 6 87 3 2 1 14 18 47 2 10 17 4 13 6 88 3 2 2 1 14 2 18 48 3 10 17 6 13 6 89 3 3 4 1 14 4 19 49 2 2 2 17 8 14 6 90 3 3 6 1 14 6 19 50 2 2 4 1 7 10 14 6 91 3 3 8 1 14 8 19 51 2 2 6 18 14 6 92 3 3 10 1 It 10 19 52 2 2 8 18 2 14 6 93 3 5 ) 15 1 10 53 2 4 4 1 8 4 16 94 3 5 2 1 15 2 1 10 54 2 4 6 18 6 16 95 3 5 4 1 15 4 1 10 55 2 4 8 18 8 16 96 3 5 6 1 15 6 1 10 56 2 4 10 1 8 10 16 97 3 8 8 1 15 8 1 13 57 2 9 19 1 98 3 8 10 1 15 10 1 13 58 2 9 2 19 2 1 99 3 9 1 16 1 13 59 2 9 4 1 9 4 1 100 3 9 2 1 16 2 1 13 » 60 2 9 6 19 6 1 101 3 12 4 1 16 4 1 16 61 2 11 8 19 8 1 2 102 3 12 6 1 16 6 1 16 » 62 2 11 10 1 9 10 1 2 103 3 12 8 1 16 8 1 16 63 2 12 1 10 1 2 104 3 12 10 ■ 1 16 10 1 16 64 2 12 2 1 10 2 1 2 , 105 3 13 1 17 1 16 65 2 15 4 1 10 4 1 5 106 3 13 2 1 17 2 1 16 66 2 15 6 1 10 6 1 5 107 3 13 4 1 17 4 1 16 67 2 15 8 1 10 8 1 5 108 3 13 6 1 17 6 1 16 68 2 15 10 1 10 10 1 5 109 3 14 2 1 17 8 1 16 6 69 2 17 1 11 1 6 110 3 14 4 1 17 10 1 16 6 70 2 17 2 1 11 2 1 6 111 3 14 6 1 18 1 16 6 71 2 17 4 1 11 4 1 6 112 3 14 8 1 18 2 1 16 6 72 2 17 6 1 11 6 1 6 113 3 14 10 1 18 4 1 16 6 73 2 17 8 1 11 8 1 6 114 3 15 1 18 6 1 16 6 74 2 17 10 1 11 10 1 6 115 3 15 2 1 18 8 1 16 6 75 2 18 1 12 1 6 116 3 15 4 1 18 10 1 16 6 76 2 18 2 1 12 2 1 6 Notb. — Owing to the difficulty in changing this tahle into American currency, I have left it as printed in tho Oldham list of wages. Minders spinning pin cops earn Is. per week more. In cases where self-actor mules are running quicker than 3 draws in 50 seconds, with 63-inch draw for any counts of yarn, twist, or weft, one-half the advantage of tlia difference arising from quicker speeds shall be added to total earnings, as in follow- ing list : Amount to be Amount to be Amount to be Number added for Number added for Number of each second of each second of each second dozens. quicker than 3 in 50. dozens. quicker than 3 in 50. dozens. quicker than 3 in 50. d. d. d. 36 41 64 6i 92 74 40 44 68 64 96 71 44 4J 72 «i 100 8i 48 5 76 7 104 81 52 BJ 80 74 108 81 ■ 56 H 84 7i 112 9 60 6 88 74 116 9 Other lengths of draw in proportion LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 717 Clause No. 1.— The mode of calculating length of yarn spun by self-actor mules to be as follows: From 56^ hours shall be deducted — 1st. An allowance of 1^ hours per week for cleaning and accidental stoppages. 2d. An allowance for doffing times, as follows: For each pair of mules, of 60 dozen spindles and under, 5 minutes; over 60 dozen spindles and less than 90 dozen, 6 min- utes ; of 90 dozen spindles, and upwards, 7 minutes. Number of doffings reckoned off one mule only. 3d. An allowance of 2-J per cent, for breakage. Clause No. 2. — Mule indicators to be so constructed as to allow 2| per cent, for break- age. Clause No. 3. — The above list of total earnings does not apply to firms using a low quality of cotton and waste, requiring more pieces, or to firms using a superior quality of cotton, requiring fewer pieces in such cases ; if any dispute arise, arrangements must be made with the consent of the two committees. Clause No. 4. — In case of a dispute arising on account of a quick speed, or from bad work, the question shall be referred to the two secretaries ; and, in the event of their not being able to settle the same, the dispute shall be referred to the two committees for a decision. Clause No. 5.— If spinning 24's and under, Is. to be added to the list of total earnings, but in cases of mules running 3 draws in 50 seconds, or slower, Is. to be added for counts from 24's to 21's, inclusive, and 2s. for 20's, and all counts below. Clause No. 6. — The above list of total earnings does not apply to double-decked mules, odd mules, three mules, or hand mules. In all cases of dispute, arrangements are to be made by the two committees. CONDITIONS FOE EXTRA WORK. 1st. If no bobbin carrier is employed, \\d. per 100 pounds of yarn weighed in to be added to the list; but if a hoist is in use, and no bobbin carrier, Id. per 100 pounds to be allowed. 2d. If minder is employed on double-decked mules, Is. 6& per week to be added to total earnings. 3d. If minder is spinning from double rovings, Is. per week to be added to the list. This to apply where the mules are adapted with tin guiders for double rovings, though not always working double rovings. 4th. Brealcing-out rovings and turning strings. For mules up to 36 dozen, inclusive, Is. per pair of mules to be allowed ; for mules upwards of 36 dozen, id. per dozen per pair to be added. For breaking-out double rovings double the above rates to be paid. 5th. Tubing to be left for individual arrangement, and any dispute respecting pay- ment for same to be decided by the two committees; the allowance made to be fair payment to the minder for loss of time entailed by the operation. Note. — The allowances for breaking-out and turning strings are considered fair payment to the minder for loss of time entailed by those operations. 6th. For resetting or leveling up mules, minder to be paid at the following rate, if he is required and in attendance : For mules up to 56 dozen, inclusive, 5d. per hour. For mules from 57 to 76 dozen, in- clusive, 5Jd. per hour. All larger mules 6d. per hour. Piecors, if required and in attendance, to be paid their usual wages by the employer, as an equivalent for the yarn spun on one mule while the other is being reset. 7th. A month's notice of any desired alteration in the above list and conditions shall be giv-n on either side, and all cases of dispute shall be attended to within seven days of the receipt of notice, and if, on investigation, the employer be found to have caused the dispute, he shall be held responsible for the same, and vice versa the minder. JOHN RILEY, T. P., Chairman of Employers' Assoiiuiion. SAMUEL ANDREW, Secretary of Employers' Association. EDWARD MELLOR, Chairman of Operatires' Association. THOMAS ASHTON, Secretary of Operatives' Association. For the information of members we publish the above list of total earniugs, to- gether with a scale of wages for minders and piecers, and all members are hereby urgently requested not to pay more than the above scale of wages for piecing ; if they do so ou their own account they will be held responsible for the same, and have to pay the difference out of their own wages; likewise, neither will an employer, manager, mule overlooker, nor any other person acting under their authority, be jus- tified in interfering with a minder, so far as causing him, by instruction, to pay above 71» LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. the scale of wages for piecing; if they do so, the employer will be held responsible and have to pay the same. Note.— The extra allowances named for spinning pin cops, course counts, qnick speeds, bobbin-carrying double-rovings, turning strings, breaking-out rovings, and spinning upon double-decked mules are, in every case, intended solely for the minder; therefore, no portion of the same, in any ease whatsoever, must be given to the piecers. In all cases where the members are not being paid in accordance with the list and its conditions, or are laboring under grievances which tiny desire should be removed, they are strongly requested to make application without delay to their local com- mittee, who will cause action to be taken, so as to bring about an investigation such as is required by the rules of the association. 4 " THOMAS ASHTON, General Secretary. Since this list was agreed upon, the following reductions and advances have been made, viz : REDUCTIONS. October 22, 1877, 5 per cent, reduction. May 27, 1878, 5 per cent, reduction. November 25, 1878, 5 per cent, reduction. October 20, 1879, 5 per cent, reduction. ADVANCES. February 9, 1860, 5 per cent, advance. From the last making-up day in January, 1881, 5 per cent, advance. Yours, E. MELLOR, Chairman. T. ASHTON, Secretary. The following is an example of the calculations given in finding the production which the mules should turn out per week from the particular names : Spindles dozens.. 82 Twist counts.. 328. Inch draw 64 Seconds in 3 draws 3 in 45 Doffings 8 (See clause 1 on list for finding production of mules.) a p»" o p « S S 5" S* I -s a I s fa gg| gag OmOm « to a W 82 X 12 X 64 X 3 X 2 X 60 X 3, 171 „. 30,240 X 45 - W,IM " « « a * eg •-< c a .9 S ^ » £ °gS s & Dozen spindles 102 Weft counts.. 36«. Length of draw, in inches 64 Seconds in running 3 draws 3 in 44 Number of dofflngsper week off one mule 25 Hanks tun niules should spin per ■week. 102 X 12 X 64 X 3 X 2 X 60 X 3,047 30,240 X 44 ^ = 64 ' 580 After ascertaining the hanks, the amount of money which the spinner should draw from the office per week, as per list terms, is reduced to pence, to which three ciphers are added ; the result divided by the hanks, gives the piece-work price at which the spinner is paid, per 1,000 hanks. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. List of average wages in the cotton-mills of the district of Oldham. 719 Subdivisions of employment. > a §3 Cotton-mill engineers Cotton-mill first beaters Cotton-mill carders Strippers and grinder* Blowing-room nands Blowing-room hands '. Drawing-frame tenters Slabbers and tenters Roving-franie tenters Half-time tenters (girls) Little tenters (girls) Spinning mastetB Self-acting minders Bigpiecers (boys) Half-timers (boys) . Warehousemen Cotton-packers Boys in warehouses Loom jobbers Weavers, per loom, $1.40 (and look after 2 to 4 looms, and in latter case, have two lit- tle tenters, at 97 cents to $1.22, per week.) Cotton-mill winders Cotton-mill warpers Cotton-mill warpers Rulers vary from $3.04 to $4.86 per week, being young persons and women. $8 57 6 35 9 73 5 47 5 10 9 97 8 39 2 55 1 09 6 32 3 28 1 34 9 48 4 14 8 26 $3 41 4 28 4 14 4 01 91 95 Average list of wages taken from u cotton-spinning mill at Oldham, employing about 30O operators. Subdivisions of employment. £ v §3 a id p 3 8 * -H ? © p > E? * tc . ft &S t- a) $10 22 5 10 9 24 5 59 5 22 $4 32 4 26 3 89 ) > $0 63 10 22 8 02 $2 74 5 83 9 00 1 30 4 01 4 32 720 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Average ivages in a large eoltonspinning mill at Oldham. m« bo . "5 2 ® 8 £ > a fe a Subdivisions of employment. I* *fs M SM »i& £3 d° a © 2S a* ^ 31* o $11 19 5 10 10 22 5 41 5 10 $4 62 4 50 ) 4 01 > $0 68 10 95 5 7 54 $2 55 5 35 9 24 1 30 3 89 4 38 Average wages per week in a large cotton mill at Bolton, England. [Taken from the books of the company.] Subdivisions of employment. 9 aS K M «>» n ® 3* bl . a a ^ ? © bJD k a ->* a © = - g3 2 a £ is ft o es P © be - a a i-

a p 4S CO by their system of business, added at least 5 per cent, to the purchasing power of their members, by furnishiug provisions and clothing at low prices. All the profits of these stores and associations substantially go to subscribers in dividends. The management of these useful enterprises is admirable, as a rule, and the expenses are comparatively very low. S"o high salaries are paid for figure-heads, but the work is well and honestly done. The following is a fair.average retail price of the several articles named, and which are used by the working classes of Oldham and vicinity : Average price. Good flour per 12pounds.. $0 3i Good meal do 3. Good potatoes per 20 pounds.. 2 Good cabbages each Good eggs per dozen.. 30 Good pickles per small bottle.. 10 Good milk per quart. . 8 Goodlard per pound.. 16 Good butter „ do 28 Good tea do 49 Good ground coffee do 32 Good unground coffee do 40 Good sugar do 7 Good molasses do 5 Good bacon do 15 Goodham do ... 22 Good beef do.... 20 Average Good mutton per pound. Good pork do Good cbeese do... Good currants do Good raisins do... Good rice do... Good sago do Good carrots do... Good turnips do... Goodouions do... Good fruit preserves do... Good -washing soap do'. . . Good washing powder do... Good candles do... House rents per week (average) Annual borough rate price. $0 22 18 16 10 12 6 2 9 8 8 12 1 03 4 85 Retail prices of the articles named below, in Manchester retail markets. Bread (brown) 4-pound loaf.. $0 12 to $0 15 Bread (white) do ... 10 15 Sugar perpound.. 05 08 Tea do.... 44 80 Coffee do.... 28 40 Bacon do... 10 24 Butterine '..., do 14 24 Dripping do... 12 18 Butter do 20 40 Cheese do... 12 24 Pork do.... 12 20 Veal do.... 13 25 Ham do 12 28 Mutton and beef do 13. 25 Lamb do 20 28 Tripe do.... 12 10 Fowl per pair.. 75 1 05 Bucks do... 75 150 Babbits each.. 25 50 Hares do 50 98 Grouse perpair.. 60 100 Pheasants do 90 1 80 Pigeons do 20 40 Goese , perpound.. 12 18 Herrings and bloaters, per couple. . 03 08 Codfish perpound.. 05 12 Salmon do... 20 40 Brill do.... 08 14 Halibut do.... 12 20 Turbot do.... 12 20 Rice do ... 03 08 Flour 5 to 7 pounds.. 25 00 Macaroni perpound.. 12 16 Sago do 04 08 Tapioca do 04 08 Oat-meal do.... 04 09 Molasses do.... 03 04 Barley (pearled) do.... 03 06 Lentils per pound.. $< Haricot beans do Dried peas do Split peas do Green peas. peck of 20 lbs. in shell. . Bread beans do. .. New potatoes per pound . . Old potatoes do Cabbages each.. Carrots . - - per pound. . Turnips do Parsnips do- ... Cauliflower each . . Rhubarb per dozen heads.. Tomatoes per pound . . Beets per dozen.. Preserves per pound.. Eggs per dozen.. Cherries per pound.. Strawberries do Gooseberries do — Black, red, and white currants do Raisins (dried) do Currants (dried) do — Dates (dried), do Figs (dried) do P runes (dried) do Plums (various) do Damsons do Greengages do Oranges per dozen . . Pears per pound. . Apples do Almonds (Valentias, the end of the year out of debt, sir, we feel happy enough, we do. There are seven of us, you see, and seven is a large family to be supported on small hand earnings, sir. Q. Can farm laborers lay up money on present wages 1 — A. No, not a penny, if they have families. They don't expect to, for it all goes as fast as it is got for food, clothes, and expenses. If a farm laborer comes to the end of the year with a sovereign ahead, and no debts, he would feel rich, I can tell you. Q. Do you ever think of emigrating? — A. Yes, often enough ; but I have no money to go with, and how could I get away? Enough would go to America or Australia if they had money to do so, but this they lack. We are too poor to' go, and so we have to stay here and work for a bare living. Q. Do farm laborers ever purchase land and work it for themselves ? — A. Oh, dear, no ; hardly ever. Land is so dear, and no one would, or does, trust farm laborers for it. No ; those who own the land keep it, and only the rich can do this, and we labor- ers have to do the work, which we are glad to do. Q. You tell me you cau't lay np any money. What will you do when you cannot work ? — A. The parish will have to grant me relief. There is nothing else to look to, unless my children can take care of me. This is the way us laboring poor has to do. There is no other way. LANCASHIRE VS. AMERICAN FARM LABORERS. The average wages of this class appear in their order. The contrast between the average agricultural laborer in the United States and England is sharp enough and most suggestive, Here the laborer fur- nishes his own food and eats it, as a rule, in the fields. It is plain and cold, and the pot of beer washes it down. In the harvest season large numbers of laborers come over from Ireland and aid in gathering the crops. Their pay averages $4 per week, with a daily grant of a quart of beer, and frequently a dfsk of porridge added. At this pay they must " find themselves" in food and lodging. The fanner usually sets apart some room for them in an out-house, where they " bunk in " at night in the roughest fashion. They cook their own food in the grate furnished by the farmer, and few American farm laborers could be got to live as these men are compelled to, in order that they may save something to subsist on after returning to Ireland. I have seen hun- dreds of these poorly-clad and weary-looking laborers making their way 758 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. back to their homes, after the season here was over, with little bundles of clothing tied up in colored handkerchiefs slang over their scythes, and the sight made my heart sick. They were brave fellows, who man- fully did their best, under discouraging conditions, to earn a livelihood, and I could but feel that, if they found it necessary to leave their native Ireland to labor in England as they do at snch wages, their condition at home must be pitiful indeed. The contrast to this truthful picture supplied by the way farm laborers in the United States are paid, boarded, and treated is remarkable. It amounts to an entirely different system, and there is room for no fair comparison between the two phases of a farm laborer's life as presented in our country and in this. SAFETY OF FACTORY EMPLOYES. " What are the means furnished for the safety of employes in factories, mines, mills, on railroads, &c, and what are the provisions made for the work-people in case of accident ? What are the general considerations given the employers to the moral and physical well- being of the employes? What are the general relations which prevail between the employer and the employed ? " The general means furnished for the safety of operatives, so far as their surroundings when at work are concerned, are of an efficient and complete character. Fire escapes are fitted to the outside of mills, and stairways are provided in ample accommodation as a rule. The weav- ing sheds are generally placed on the ground floor, and have separate one-story buildings with a glass-covered roof. This prevents any danger from fire, as it is impossible for a fire to endanger the lives of weavers under these conditions. The usual supply of hose and chemical appa- ratus is also provided in all or nearly all cases. In mines, the rigid and efficient inspection by duly qualified and efficient inspectors is re- garded as careful and competent. In connection with the weather re- port daily sent out to all points within the Kingdom, special warning is given in the mining districts when the dangerous areas of low press- ure are indicated by the information gathered at the chief signal and ineterological office. The ventilation and care of mines within this con- sular district are best shown, perhaps, by the statement of the fact that it has been a long time since any serious loss of life has resulted from a colliery accident here. The press constantly keeps the subject of proper ventilation, &c, as regards mines before the people, and I believe the English system of inspection and ventilation admirable. Recently Mr. Ellis Lever, of Manchester, has offered a prize of $2,500 for the best electric safety lamp, and the examination of the inventions sent in is now taking place. It was his aim to encourage inventors to invent a lamp that would be perfectly safe in mines, under all conditions, a point which the celebrated Davy lamp cannot compass. It is to be hoped that Mr. Lever's enterprise and liberality may be rewarded by the dis- covery of such a life saving lamp as he seeks. The railroads in this country are verj* carefully managed, and the " block system " of siguals on all the main lines is probably the most com- plete and perfect of its kind in the world. The use of air-brakes on all trains is also very effective and general. The Westinghouse brake is as well known and generally used here as it is in our own country, and the use of a cord, by pulling which a passenger can alarm the en- gineer and so stop the train in case of any emergency, is similar in all essential respects to the custom in the United States! The provisions made for work-people in case of accident vary in different concerns and on different lines of railways. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 759 In broad and general terms it may be affirmed tbat so far as is possi- ble, both in mills and on the railways, servants who have been injured while in the line of duty are cared for as well as circumstances will per- mit by the proprietors. In mills work is often found of a light charac- ter or of a kind suitable for one who has been injured, and on the rail- ways this same general statement holds good. While there is no law ■compelling proprietors to support those who have been disabled by accidents for which the owners of mills, &c, are in no way responsi- ble, yet there is a pretty general custom among all interests which •causes care to be taken of unfortunate work people who by accidents become helpless. In case of accidents resulting from the neglect or •carelessness of proprietors in any way ample damages are always readily obtained, as the courts of law stringently enforce the rights of •operatives in all cases where they have suffered illegally. In some instances, in fact in very many, employers of labor in this consular district take a great deal of interest in the moral and physical •education and well-being of their work-people, and manifest it in a practical way. School-rooms are provided near mills where the chil- dren of operatives attend for half a day and work as "half-timers" the •other half. These schools are provided by the mill owners, and great care is taken to insure the attendance of the children of operatives, in order that intelligent and educated labor may in due time be secured for the mills. I have frequently visited schools of this class, and have -always been greatly pleased with the evidences of happiness and intel- ligence shown by the scholars at their tasks and in their appearance. In addition to schools for the smaller and younger children, there have been established "mechanics' institutes" and "technical schools" in many of the chief towns about this city, mainly intended for the use and instruction of working people of either sex. Great good is done in these higher and capital institutions. Evening classes are kept up and no one who has ambition, a taste for study, and capacity, need lack for opportunities to acquire a good practical education. The fees are very low, and the instruction is of a really useful and high class. Prizes are given by wealthy manufacturers and others, and the usefulness and value of these generous contributions are frequently surprising in num- ber and amount. The general relations which prevail between the employer and the ■employed are of a friendly character. Naturally, in large mills where many hundreds and often thousands of operatives are employed, the heads of firms see little of the social life of their employed and have ■small intercourse with them. Yet the respect and esteem shown by the •employes of great mills for their employers are evidence of the kindly and cordial relations existing between them. In many large establish- ments a great deal of interest is shown in the welfare of the work-peo- ple both by employers and by philanthropic citizens who attend during noon hours and speak to the operatives, generally in some public hall •or room set apart for the purpose. Twenty minutes or half an hour is allowed extra time for such addresses, and the influence thus exerted is most valuable. These gatherings usually are held once or twice a month, and prominent ministers and speakers are gratuitously engaged to deliver the addresses. I have been frequently invited to address meetings of this kind, and the attention shown rendered the occasion, specially pleasing, combining as they did an opportunity to see the work-people in their daily occupation, and to speak of the civilization and hopes of our own people and land to those who would fully realize the sacredness of the trust committed to our keeping. I believe this custom worthy of being tried in the United States. 760 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. POLITICAL RIGHTS OF WORKINGMEN. "What are the political rights enjoyed by workingmen, and what are their influences, through such rights, on legislation ? What is the share, comparatively, borne by the working people in local and general taxation? What is the tendency of legislation in regard to labor and the working people?" Operatives who pay for house rent £10 a year are entitled to vote* Those having votes exercise a voter's influence, and where party poli- tics are keen the workingman exerts a very potential influence in every locality. Trade organizations cultivate and to a certain extent control the action of the operatives by insisting on legislation supposed to be in their interest. This course, with pretty evenly balanced parties, enables workingmen to become important factors in every great party contest at the polls. The working people bear in the main only a comparatively small share of local and general taxation. The householders or property- holders usually pay all taxes, where houses, &c, are rented at so much per week. These cover poor rates and other taxes of a local character, leaving only a small annual tax to fall on the operatives for school purposes, &c. The tendency of legislation is always in favor of the safety, protec- tion, and freedom of the working people. There is a keen interest taken in the welfare and happiness of this class in this country, and a public sentiment responds sharply to any oppression or omission, when either is brought before the public, affecting the working people of the King- dom. This results, no doubt, in some measure from the growing power of work people in this country exerted through their influence at the polls. Those wlio toil and are fortunate in saving money have learned to make use of an independent and commanding vote, and this is rapidly placing working people on a more influential plane, so far as the Government and law-making power is concerned. An extended franchise means a powerful and fostering interest in behalf of working people. Free trade in votes, and a fair trade too, where one man shall have one vote, will level up the rights and privileges of the laboring class as nothing ever has before in the history of the domestic legislation of this country. This is perfectly understood by the statesmen of the day, and an en- larged franchise bill is at present on its way through Parliament. Its final adoption is only a question of time, as is admitted by. the thoughtful leaders of both political parties. CAUSES OP EMIGRATION. " What are the causes which lead to the emigration of the working people, and which influence their selection of their new homes t What are the principal occupations of the emigrants, &c. ? " The causes which lead the working classes in England to emigrate are, generally speaking, two, viz: (1) Lack of steady and well-paid em- ployment, owing to an over supply of labor; and (2) a desire to find a new home in a country where better and more promising prospects car* be found for their own and their children's future. It is natural for intending emigrants to look about so as to settle upon some point where they can go aud flud similar employment to that with which they are familiar in England. This, in the main, is the controlling consideration of a great majority of emigrants from this-' LABOR IN EUEOPE — ENGLAND. 761 consular district. The principal occupations of emigrants from Lan- cashire and Cheshire are those of mill operatives and machinists, in the wide range of the employments in these leading branches of manufact- ures in and about Manchester. The yearly increase in the population of England, with the rate of wages in force, renders it almost impossible for the husband and father to support a family on his own earnings, even in the most humble way. This fact renders it necessary for the wife and mother, in a vast majority of cases, to take her plane in the mill or to turn her hand to some toil in order that additions may be secured to the living fund. In doing this small children are often left inadequately cared for at home during the absence of the parents. I saw, in a recent visit to a manufacturing district, many groups of young children in the bare streets, near their homes, whose parents were away at work in the mill, leaving their little ones of tender age to shift for themselves from 7 a. m. to 1 p. m., and from 2 p. m. to 5 or 6 p. m. Such sights were very sad, and yet they are common all over this district. It is not to be expected that the social, moral, and intellectual condition of children reared under such unfavorable surroundings can be of a safe or satisfactory character. The school of the street is the graduating ground for vice, crime, and every social weakness possible to the state. Mauy parents here appreciate fully this fact, and so long to escape from a state of things so discouraging by emigrating to some country where better conditions can be found. Thousands from this district have found homes in the United States, and are contented and happy there. Many more would follow if they were able to do so, but, alas, the needed funds cannot always be had. Some go, and after a time re- turn, not so much because they could not do better, but mainly for the reason that their associations and habits of life here unfitted them for the employment of other and widely different surroundings in the United States. They could not adjust themselves to new associations, and so come back to their old haunts, and walk the weary round of the old mill as their fathers did before them. Part II. — Female Labor. In preparing this report amid a multitude of consular duties, I have availed myself of the advice and assistance of several experts, in order that the data furnished may be both full and reliable. At my request Mr. Henry W. Sales, editor of the Textile Manufacturer, of Manchester, consented to prepare replies to this portion of the report called for in Part II of the circular from the Department of State, to whom I wish to tender my best thanks for the intelligent manner in which he did the works. 1. " State the number of women and children, or the closest possible ap- proximation thereto, employed in your district in industrial pur- suits, not including ordinary household duties or domestic servants,, classifying the same somewhat as follows : (a) Manufacturing and mechanical; (b) commercial, including transportation; (c) profes- sional and personal, including Government officials and clerks, teachers, artists, chemists, hotel and boarding-house keepers, jour- nalists, laundresses, musicians, inventors, bankers, brokers, lectur- ers, public speakers, &c; {d} agriculture; (e) mining; (/) all other pursuits." In the following statistics the order of occupation given in the circular is followed as closely as possible, but there is nothing so unsatisfactory 762 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. as returns of the occupation of the inhabitants of a large area where the ramifications of employment are endless. In the table a general classi- fication has been adopted, and it may be regarded as trustworthy for all practical purposes. When dealing with the occupations of females in a statistical return it is necessary to remember that a large number are married women who assist their husbands iu their business, but are not paid specially for their services. The husband may be a clerk or warehouseman iu the city, but he has a small draper's, or tobacconist's, or some similar shop which is looked after by his wife during the day, and is virtually the shopkeeper, still the husband returns himself as the shopkeeper and his wife of no business occux>ation. FEMALE OCCUPATIONS IN MANCHESTER AND SALFORD. Total number of females in Manchester, 177,939 ; total number of fe- males in Salford, 91,625. Statistics of occupations in Manchester and Salford. Occupations. Manches- ter. Salford. (a) Manufacturing and mechanical Workers and dealers: Machinery Tools and implements Watches and philosophical instruments Tacklers for sports and games Builders, house furnishers, n Saturday work ceases at 1 p. m. The hours of labor therefore are fifty-six and one-half per week. It is impossible to give the hours of female labor in other occupations in detail. Dressmakers and such like are under the work- shops act, by which their working hours are limited. In retail shops the females are at work from 8 a. m. to 9 p. m., and in some cases later. But it may be said generally that female labor in Manchester commences at 8 a. m. and continues to 6 p. m., with an interval of one hour at mid- day. MORAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITION. 4. "What is the moral and physical condition of such employes'?" The morality of the adult female population in Manchester will bear favorable comparison with other large centers of industry. To the' facilities now afforded for country excursions and the increase of public parks may be attributed the healthier physical condition of females in this and other industrial districts. The great drawback to a fine phys- ique is early marriages which seem to be on the increase, and resulting in the production of a stunted and feeble-bodied offspring. Were it not that Manchester has a constant inflow of recruits from the agricult- ural districts who intermarry with the natives, the results of early mar- riages on the physical condition of the female population would be still more prominent than they are. 5. " What are the means provided, and by whom, for the improvement of these employes % " There are no special means provided beyond what is done for the popu- lation at large, by the city corporation, and school board. It is only in isolated cases that an employer of labor takes any personal interest in the moral and social improvement of the persons in his employ. 6. " What are the means provided in case of lire or other dangers for their safety?" All the safeguards against fire or other dangers are those insisted on by law, which does not specially recognize danger from fire. What is done in this respect is for the employer's own security, and in accord- ance with his insurance policy. The law provides for the secure fencing of upright shafts and other dangerous machinery, and the "employers liability act" makes the employer responsible for injuries to his work- people. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 765 7. " What are the provisions made by the employers inregard to sani- tary measures and for the care of the sick and disabled ? " Employers, as a rule, do not do anything for their female employes directly with respect to their sanitary welfare beyond what is required by law. Work-rooms are required to be whitewashed annually, or in case of paint be washed with soap and water. Factories are kept for the most part in a good sanitary condition. With respect to diseases, em- ployers generally subscribe to one or more of the hospitals and dispen- saries and give "recommends" to their work-people. As employers, they do nothing only what the law requires, as men or women, they are neither more nor less charitable than other people. 8. " Has there been any increase during the past five years in the wages paid women and in the price of the necessaries of life or otherwise f No. 9. " What are the effects of employment of women on the wages of men, and on general, social, and industrial conditions V This is more of an academical than practical question, and cannot be answered in a few sentences. It may be said that in this district men's wages are not affected by the employment of women. On general, social, and industrial conditions their employment increases the wealth of the community, using here the term wealth in its widest sense, and not restricting the term to mere "riches." 10. "What is the state of education among the women employed and among their children, &c.f " Compulsory attendance at school being enforced by the education act for all children, the standard of education is becoming higher every year. The remainder of the question is of a general character, and has no special reference to female employment in Manchester. 766 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. I S J3 2 P g.fcjrM'^ ■3S«i *3hM o o I* ■MS s o el O c •g£'gSP.P.P.|S-3>! LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND 767 QC CO CI H t J CO H « t)i r -C -/j rH . ,cq .t-HOCO W rH O — lt- m . «* in« cocoas 1-1 ,oj I © . .5 £ ■ 3*3© i P ■ «-g ffl ; V o *5 a s e K I ftfltJ a) .3 -5 768 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. It is believed that this report fairly covers the important queries pro- pounded by the Department of State, and while I have been more or less troubled by illness in my family during its preparation, I have endeavored to make my report worthy of the high aspirations of the Department, and the useful character of consular reports in general. ALBEET D. SHAW, Consul. United States Consulate, Manchester, June 26, 1884. NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. REPORT BY CONSUL LOCKE. I have the honor to transmit herewith a report upon the condition of labor in this consular district, in compliance with the terms of the labor circular issued by the Department February 15, 1884. The importance of the subject and the necessity for the utmost accu- racy in every detail demanded the most careful study and investiga- tion, and to the thoroughness with which this has been done, must be attributed the apparent delay in forwarding the report. WAGES NOW AND IN 1878. In mating " a comparison between the present rate of wages and those which prevailed in 187S (and since that time) when the last labor circular was issued from the Department, and between the conditions which then prevailed and which now prevail," it is necessary, for a full understanding of the matter to briefly review the condition of the gen- eral trade of the district from the time mentioned to the present. For some time previous to 1878 busiuess was greatly depressed in all branches. Shipbuilding, one of the greatest factors in Newcastle's pros- perity, was in a languishing state; the coal trade suffered by reason of strikes ; iron workers were short of orders ; chemicals were lower than they had been at any time since the foundation of the trade on the Tyne, and everywhere and in everything there was a dullness that could not be overcome. The culminating point was reached in the latter part of 1878 and the first of 1879, and then there was a slight improvement no- ticeable. This improvement was not in any way speculative, but was entirely legitimate, being the reaction that business men of energy and talent will always make follow a season of great depression. During 1879, 1880, and 1881, the trade in all branches was better than it had been for years, and 1882 and the first half of 1883 the flood of good times reached its height. Business never was so good. The hard times of 1878 were forgotten, and every one used his utmost endeavors to profit to the fullest by the unprecedented prosperity. Manufacturers of all kinds enlarged their capacity, increased their forces, and shared with the men their good fortune by raising wages in all departments. New ship-yards were established and old ones enlarged. And they all had every berth filled and long orders ahead. The chemical trade felt the influence of the revival, iron and coal trades regained their old-time standing. In short, the whole north of England was prosperous to a degree. But unfortunately, the good times had not come to stay. An era of heavy returns on short-time investments began at last to make LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 769 itself felt. There was too great an eagerness to go into all sorts of busi- ness ventures, and the inevitable result followed. Trade began to fall off, employers found they could not live and pay the wages they were doing, an occasional failure added to the feeling of uneasiness that be- came greater and greater each week. The entire business community began to see that everything had been overdone, and there was a con- sequent rush in the opposite direction. Eesult, the condition of trade on the Tyne to-day is even worse than at the same time in 1878, and there is no prospect of its immediate recovery. This great depression has naturally affected labor in all branches, and, as will be seen by the accompanying tables, the wages of laborers have fallen in proportion to the decline of business. GENERAL TRADES. Wages paid in Newcastle per week of fifty-four hours. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average BUILDING TRADES. $8 10 5 50 $5 00 $6 00 8 10 4 86 6 07 5 54 8 72 5 48 7 30 6 00 8 24 5 50 7 75 2 43 7 00 1 00 7 78 7 35 5 00 8 10 8 03 OTHBE TBADES. 7 44 7 78 4 38 7 30 5 83 5 34 7 29 6 56 6 56 6 07 7 75 4 38 5 24 5 83 •5 32 5 48 7 78 7 78 7 30 4 93 7 50 7 00 6 25 Drivers : 6 08 4 37 4 85 4 60 6 08 6 07 6 07 4 38 5 32 5 32 7 29 2 43 6 07 7 29 8 75 7 29 7 30 7 00 10 00 4 38 7 78 6 50 8 00 5 84 6 30 6 25 9 30 3 40 7 00 5 32 7 00 215 00 973 30 7 00 5 32 7 00 6 16 9 36 6 00 7 30 8 24 8 75 7 00 7 29 7 30 6 00 7 30 5 32 92 A— LAB- -49 770 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. FACTORIES AND MILLS. Wages paid in factories or mills in the chemical trade in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. [Per week of fifty-six to eighty-four hoars.] Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Chambers : Burnermen (week of fifty-six hours) Columnmen (week of eighty- four hours) Bleaching powder, (week of seventy-two hours) : Stillmen Chambermen Lime-burners - Lime-timpsers Ball furnace-house (week of seventy-two hours) : Mixers, bogies, and revolvers (per ton sulphate balled) Tanks Tramway boys Black salt (week of seventy-two hours) : Pans on revolver work Drawers on carbonate Limestone crushing (per ton sulphate balled) "White alkali (week of seventy-two hours) : Evaporating strong Mothers Driers Packers and grinding per ton Dissolvers do.. $5 58 6 00 7 30 7 30 8 48 7 30 27 5 34 2 42 7 06 5 58 5 58 5 58 7 30 19 12 $6 56 6 24 14 58 14 58 9 72 14 58 27 6 32 2 42 7 06 5 58 06 5 58 5 58 7 30 19 12 $6 08 6 10 1100 11 00 9 12 11 00 27 5 82 242 5 58 06 5 58 5 58 7 30 19 12 [Per week of seventy -two to eighty-four hours.] Gasbouse (week of eighty -four hours) : Gasmen (per 1,000 cubic feet gas produced) Soda crystals : Taking out per ton.. Packing Liquor runners - per week.. Dissolvers per ton.. $0 09 $0 09 14 14 08 08 5 00 02 5 00 02 tl4 5 00 02 * Per ton gross weight. t Per ton speoial weight. [Per week of fifty-four hours.] Boiler-smiths Briok-layers Joiners Masons Millwrights Plate-layers Plumbers ■ Smiths - Strikers Laborers Cartmen Enginemen (week of eighty-four to ninety hours) $5 48 $7 78 7 18 7 18 7 18 7 18 7 18 7 18 6 80 7 78 6 00 6 00 6 00 7 66 6 48 7 78 5 48 5 48 4 38 4 62 5 24 5 24 6 80 7 30 $6156 7 18 7 18 7 18 7 30 6 00 6 74 7 06 548 4 50 5 24 7 06 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 771 LEAD WORKS. Following is a schedule of wages paid per week of fifty-four hours, when on time, in the lead works of Messrs. Cookson & Co., of Newcas- tle-upon-Tyne : Occupations. Simple laborers (very few employed) . Potmen Pipe-maters Head millman (piece-work) Helpers to millman (piece-work) Mechanics Smelters (piece-work Red-lead men (piece-work) Enginemen and firemen „. Refiners (piece-work) Coopers (piece-work) White-lead women Lowest. $5 10 7 30 6 00 Highest. Average. $6 00 9 00 7 00 $12 00 9 36 9 12 7 30 6 56 8 12 8 48 3 00 IRON- WORKERS. The condition of this important class of laborers is and has been for some time past the reverse of prosperous. The dullness in the shipping trade has had its effect in the iron works, necessitating the restriction of the output, the discharge of men, and reduction in wages, though it may be said that, as a rule, the iron-works of the district have not as yet felt the depression to such an extent as other branches of trade. There has not been that universal closing of business noticeable in the ship-building trade, and there are comparatively fewer laborers out of employment. But there is a slackness in the trade, as is shown by the fact that many works which last year at this time were running fullforces full time, are now working a much smaller staff three-quarter to half time, while in a few instances firms have been obliged to suspend work alto- gether. This state of affairs has, of course, had its effect on wages, which have been gradually reduced (usually by means of arbitration) from 1878 to the present time. Wages paid per day to men employed at Mast furnaces in iron works in this district. Occupations. Bariowmen Onsetters (men at lift or hoist) Chargers Keepers Slaggers Laborers (men) Laborers (boys) Stovemen Metal carriers (pig-iron men) Weighing minerals on top of blast furnaces Tipping minerals : Driving metal-flag locomotive Firing metal-flag locomotive Blast engiuemen Hoist enginemen - - Minding gas- boilers Blast engine cleaners ..._- Driving mineral locomotive — Firing mineral locomotives Sand-boy, mineral locomotive Limestone breakers No. of shifts per week. Lowest. 1 20 1 04 1 66 1 16 74 90 Highest. $1 38 1 38 1 66 2 72 1 70 66 1 02 Average. $1 12 1 28 1 36 2 18 1 28 74 50 84 94 1 46 1 03 1 02 80 1 22 84 92 70 1 24 84 52 84 772 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Wages paid per day to men employed at forges in iron works m this district. Occupations. Hours Eer ift. Lowest. Men. Boys. Highest. Men. Boys. Average. ' Men. Boys. Puddlers Underhand puddlers Hammermen Assistant hammermen Hollers Assistant rollers Bogieing, shearing, and stocking hot puddled bars. Breaking and wheeling pig-iron to puddling fur- naces Bragging and filling taps Cleaning hammers Grinding and wheeling fettling to puddling fur- naces Burning tap cinder Wheeling taps "Wheeling scrap to puddling furnaces "Wheeling coals and ashes Charging and drawing hull-dog kilns Sundry lahor Sundry account-keepers Forge-enginemen Forge-hammer attendants Forge-boilernien Forge-engine cleaners 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 11 10 10 10 101 104 101 12 11 12 12 $1 58 84 2 48 90 1 80 00 1 00 1 40 $1 80 1 00 3 86 1 74 4 08 1 32 1 52 1 44 $0 26 32 96 1 00 84 1 12 $0 40 52 40 '40 Wages paid per day to men employed at plate mills in iron xwrTcs in this district. Occupations. Heaters A ssistant heaters Heaters' fire-boys Rollers Hollers' assistants Shearmen Shearmen assistants Pilers "Wheeling iron to piling benches Cold chargers Hot chargers Bogiemen Coal wheelers Scrap wheelers • Plate loaders Sundry labor Plate inspectors Stock takers Mill-enginemeu Mill-boUermen Mill-flremen Reverse crabmen Steam-crane attendants Boys attending to steam lifts and cleaning engines Hours per shift. 12 12 12 12 12 101 101 10 10 11 12 12 10 10 101 10* 101 101 12 12 12 12 101 12 Lowe9t. Men. Boys. $2 50 4 34 1 00 4 68 1 32 82 1 02 1 02 80 60 72 60 96 80 1 04 1 21 78 Highest. Men. Boys. $3 88 10 00 2 52 6 00 2 00 1 54 1 66 1 24 1 38 1 44 1 04 96 88 84 1 40 1 36 1 16 56 56 Average. 48 Men. $3 24 1 02 7 16 1 76 5 34 1 34 1 28 1 49 1 03 1 20 1 23 92 78 80 72 1 18 1 08 1 10 97 82 1 28 144 42 "42 'io 52 42 GLASS WORKS. In giving the rates of wages paid in this important branch of New- castle manufacturing trade, it is thought advisable to explain in detail the figures in the accompanying table. Pot-makers, whose wages are given at $7.30 to $8.72 per week of fifty- nine and one-half hours, are paid at the rate of $1.08 to $1.20 per pot. Furnacemen and casters are paid upstanding wages. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 773 Grinders, smoothers, polishers, cutters, and packers are paid so much per 1,000 feet, according to the situation of the department and the work to be done, the respective wages averaging, per week, $7, $7.24, $6.68. The mechanics and laborers attending the machinery are paid at the usual rate per hour. Laborers make about $4.48 to $5 a week. Me- chanics, such as fitters, engine-drivers, joiners, masons, &c, from $6.34 to $8.48 a week. Wages paid per week of fifty-nine and one-half hours to glass-workers in the Tyne Plate- Glass Works, South Shields. Occupations. LoweBt. Highest. Average. $7 30 7 30 8 00 5 58 5 00 72 5 10 6 00 $8 72 9 72 11 68 8 48 12 16 3 76 9 00 8 00 $8 24 8 48 9 00 7 00 7 00 2 42 7 24 6 68 MINES AND MINING. Coal has played a most important part in the commercial history of the north of England ever since it was first mined in a small way, dur- ing the reign of Henry III, in 1239, when that sovereign granted a license to certain Newcastle men " to dig coals and stones in the Castle- field and the Forth." It is beyond the province of this report to attempt a history of the development and growth of the industry from the small beginning, six hundred years ago, to its present enormous proportions. But there is such a vast population dependent entirely upon the produce of the miners, and there are so many phases in the question of those peoples' wages, that it may not perhaps be out of place to carefully re- view the condition of coal miners in this district during the past ten years, referring briefly to their wages at different periods during that time, their hours of work, the reductions and advances that have been made, and such other facts as will indicate the actual present condition of one of the greatest of the laboring classes of England. Up to 1874 the coal trade in Northumberland and Durham had been exceptionally prosperous. There was a great demand both at home and abroad, and both owners and miners made large profits. While the owner received 23 shillings per ton for- his coal; the hewer obtained 9 shillings per day. But the reaction came. The demand fell off; prices declined and the wages of the hewers suffered. First, there was a reduction in April, 1874, of 6| per cent., followed by another in Octo- ber of the same year, 10 per cent. During 1875 there was a further re- duction of 8 per cent., and in 1876 one of 7 per cent, and another of 8 per cent. In 1877 wages remained steady, but in the following year they were reduced 12 J per cent, in February and 10 per cent, in Novem- ber. The next year, 1879, showed an improvement. The very hard times had passed, and trade was beginning to revive. In January, 1880, there was a reduction of 2J per cent., followed by an advance of the same amount in July ; 1881 saw the same reduction and advance, and 1882 was worked throughout at the previous year's figures ; 1883 opened with an advance of 2£ per cent., followed by a reduction of 1£ per cent, in April, with advances of \^ per cent, and 2£ per cent., re- spectively in July, and October. Then came the depression in ship building, with its low rates, the falling off in the iron trade, consequent upon the empty berths in the 774 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Tyne ship yards, and, of course, a dullness in coal, which the hewers felt by a reduction of 1J per cent, in January of the present year, fol- lowed by another of 1£ per cent, in the present month (April). These great reductions have, of course, caused no little dissatisfaction among the miners, but, owing to the system of arbitration, referred to in an- other paragraph of this report, by which these matters have been settled, there has been no disturbance of the amicable relations existing be- tween masters and men ; the only strike at all serious being in Durham, in May, 1879, which lasted a little over a month, and was Anally settled by arbitration. The following table shows the number and amount of reductions in the wages of hewers in Northumberland and Durham, from April, 1874, to April, 1884: Northumberland. Durham . No. Bate. Reduction or advance. Per cent. No. Bate. Reduction or advance. Per cent. 1 Apr., 1874 Oct., 1874 Mar., 1875 Feb., 1876 Oct., 1876 Feb., 1878 Nov., 1878 Jan., 1880 July, 1880 Apr,, 1881 Sept., 1881 Mar., 1883 Apr., 1883 July, 1883 Oct., 1883 Jan., 1884 Apr., 1844 6J 10 C 8* { lot 7 8 12* ( 10 * i TV 21 2i 2i 21 2i li li 21 li li 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Apr., 1874 Nov., 1874 Apr., 1875 Feb., 1876 Sept., 1876 Apr., 1877 May, 1879 July, 1879 Bee, 1880 Apr., 1882 Aug., 1882 Nov., 1882 Feb., 1883 10 •> do do 9.1 ... do ...do 5 ... do do 4 ... do 6 ^ do do 71 8} li 6 do .. do ... do do ....do 21 3» 1J P do q 10 n ii n do 1° do 11 14 11 do lfi 17 ... do * Steam. t Manufacturing. „ The period of prosperity that followed the depression of 1878-'80 brought back to the coal-pits vast numbers of miners who left in the bad times to seek employment elsewhere. The coal trade revives rapidly when once improvement sets in, and miners who counted on bettering themselves in other branches quickly came back to their work when demand enabled employers to work the pits to the full capacity. Compared with 1873 and 1878, 1883 showed a very marked falling off in the average wages paid, though the number of hours worked per day was much larger. But these details may best be understood by a glance at the following : General view of the trade. Occupations. Number of men employed under ground. Hours worked by coal- getters m tbe face. Wages earned by coal- getters. Wages earned by off-band men. Hours worked per day by off- band men bank to bank. Bays worked per week by ooal- getters. Bays ■worked per week by off-hand men. Nortbumberland : 1873 16, 000 12, 000 19, 542 60, 585 6 64 6 to 61 6to6i $2 16 1 28 1 16 3 10 $1 68 84 $0. 60 to 96 62 to 1. 02 8 8 10 to 11 10 to 11 5 31 5 to 6 5 to 6 6 5 5 to 6 5 to 6 1878 1883 Burbam : 1883 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 775 A comparison between the figures paid coal laborers in 1878 and those now paid shows that there is not a great difference in the general average, although in almost every branch a decline is noticeable. This comparison may be easily made by referring to the following table, which shows the number of hours worked and the average wage per day over both counties of Northumberland and Durham in 1878 and 1884: Hoars worked. 1878. 1884. Occupations. English money. United States money. English money. United States money. 7 to 7$ bank to bank. . . £ «. d. 4 9J 4 5 3 10 4 1 4 8 3 6 4 2 3 9 4 1 3 3 *0 18 6 3 11 3 11 3 4 2 9 3 6 3 8 3 6 3 10 3 7 2 9 4 8 3 11 3 $1 15 1 06 92 88 1 12 84 1 00 90 98 78 4 50 94 94 80 66 84 88 84 92 86 66 1 12 94 72 £ ». d. 4 8 4 7 4 1 4 4 3 11 4 4 3 3 3 11 2 9J 2 8 4 3 2 3 « 2 11 3 8 3 8 3 8 3 10 3 8 2 10 4 9 4 3 1 $1 12 Engineers : 98 1 04 94 64 96 76 84 70 54 hours per week 88 88 do 92 88 10 to 11 hours per day. . 68 1 14 Coke fillers do .. 96 74 * Per week. The majority of all the above classes of labor, that is, all married men, with the exception of putters and cokemen, are supplied with free houses and coals, they paying 6d. per fortnight for loading the coal. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week to railway employe's (those engaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, linemen, railroad laborers, $-e.) in Northern Division, Northeastern Itailway Company. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. PASSENGER DEPARTMENT. Inspectors (yearly salary) Station masters (yearly salary) Station masters' assistants Booking and parcel clerks Telegraph clerks Guards Guards' assistants Foremen porters Parcel porters Excess porters - Porters Lampmen Carriage cleaners Ticket collectors Signal men ■ Gatemen Water closet attendants $438 00 253 00 4 00 1 38 1 38 5 48 4 40 4 64 4 00 5 24 4 00 4 24 4 24 5 00 5 00 4 00 4 00 $851 58 1, 703 28 10 00 15 44 10 00 8 12 5 48 6 24 5 72 6 24 4 64 5 00 4 48 7 30 7 00 4 24 4 48 $644 72 1, 022 00 8 24 8 38 5 68 6 84 5 00 5 48 4 76 5 72 4 36 4 60 4 36 6 24 6 00 4 12 4 24 776 LABOR IN EUROPE Wages paid per week to railway ENGLAND. , ^-c. — Continued. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average, GOODS DEPABTMEKT. Inspectors Goods agents Goods guards Foremen Porters - Timber loaders Shunters Roily m en Horsemen Number takers ENGINEEHLN'C DEPARTMENT, Inspectors Gangers '. Navies (pickmen) Navies (shovelers) Plate layers Platelayers, extra gang Joiners Joiners' laborers Brick layers Plumbers and gas-fitters Signal fitters Gas makers Painters Smiths Strikers Masons Masons' laborers $6 48 9 12 5 72 5 48 4 40 5 00 4 40 4 24 4 64 1 20 7 30 5 72 4 48 4 48 4 64 4 48 6 72 5 00 7 04 7 30 6 72 4 24 5 24 7 04 4 64 4 48 5 00 $15 44 29 20 7 30 11 00 6 00 6 24 6 90 6 24 6 00 6 00 12 16 7 78 6 48 6 48 6 24 6 48 7 78 5 72 7 04 7 78 7 78 6 48 7 30 7 78 5 72 8 00 6 00 $8 16 17 82 7 06 7 04 5 20 5 60 5 72 5 62 5 48 4 12 848 6 48 5 48 5 48 5 60 5 48 7 54 5 36 7 04 7 54 7 04 5 48 6 36 7 42 5 24 6 72 5 48 Wages paid per week to railway employe's, $c. — Continued. [Per week of fifty-four hours for men in repairing departments.] Occupations. LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. Foremen ' Chargemen (erectors) Fitters Boiler smiths Boiler smiths' assistants Tin and copper smiths Blacksmiths Strikers Turners and machinemen Brass molders Brass finishers Carriage builders Wagon builders Carriage painters Engine painters Pattern makers Sawyers Laborers Engine drivers Firemen Mineral guards Engine cleaners Boiler cleaners Lighters-up Stationary engine-drivers Coke and coaffillers Wagon greasers Lowest. Highest $9 72 $11 00 8 48 8 72 4 64 8 72 6 72 9 48 4 48 7 54 5 24 9 36 5 24 8 72 3 64 6 24 4 24 8 72 6 24 8 72 6 48 8 36 4 48 7 78 4 48 7 78 5 00 8 00 4 64 8 00 6 00 8 36 4 24 7 78 3 64 6 00 7 30 11 00 4 48 6 72 5 72 6 72 1 44 4 48 4 48 6 48 4 48 6 24 3 64 7 30 3 40 6 00 3 40 5 24 Average. $12 16 8 66 7 33 8 30 6 03 8 00 7 13 4 51 6 39 7 13 8 12 6 36 6 36 4 51 6 12 7 39 5 27 4 69 9 45 5 69 6 36 3 03 4 70 527 545- 4 76 4 39 The above rates are irrespective of pieoe-work profits, overtime, &c. been disregarded in this return, except in the oase of engine cleaners. Boys and apprentices have LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 777 SHIP-YARDS AND SHIP-BUILDING. The building of ships is. one of the most important of the many in- dustries in the North of England. The three North of England rivers, Tyne, Wear, and Tees, are lined with ship-yards wherein thousands of men are, or have been, employed. With the introduction of iron and steel in place of wood, an incredible impetus was given ship-building, and all the branches of trade accessory to it. New yards sprang into existence everywhere, and orders were looked for months ahead. High wages prevailed. Heavy prices were asked and received by builders. Large dividends were declared to share-owners, and every one was on the high road to fortune. This great tidal wave of prosperity began about two years ago, but did not reach its height till the latter part of 1883, and then it receded even more rapidly than it had come up. The whole market was over- done, and there was a sudden and serious collapse. The smaller yards went to the wall first, and then the larger ones found themselves unable to withstand the impetuous backset that threatened to overwhelm every- thing in its way. They could not obtain fresh orders. No one would order new vessels when hundreds were lying idle for want of remunera- tive freights. The dividends began to grow smaller and finally ceased altogether. Builders saw empty stocks staring them in the face, and they discharged their hands and reduced the hours of work. Laborers, skilled and unskilled, who dreamed their good times would last forever, found themselves without work, or, at the best, on short time and low w.ages. Such is the condition of affairs here at this writing (April, 1884). There are over one hundred steamships laid up on the Tyne alone. There have been numerous failures both here and at Sunder- land. The ship-yards present a very suggestive scene of idleness. Briefly, ship-building is at very low ebb. Wages now paid in the yards, where there is work, are quoted as fol- lows, noting the fact that iron workers in a ship-yard can make, on piece-work, about 2 shillings an hour. They do not work fifty -four hours per week when they are on piece-work, but they probably do twice as much work in an hour as when working on time wages. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours in ship-yards — distinguishing between iron and wood ship-building — in Newcastle. Occupations. Average. Occupations. Average. $8 51 8 03 6 80 7 78 8 03 7 54 $8 03 7 78- 8 51 Smiths* 8 15 Platers* 7 42 *A great deal of piece-work is done by these classes. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per week in dry goods and grocery stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females } in Newcastle. [Dry-goods stores, clerks in various departments, working from 8 a. m. to 11 p. m. on Saturdays, from 8 a. m. to 9 p. m. on Fridays, and from 8 a. in. to 8 p. m. on other days.] Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $4 87 4 00 4 87 $24 33 14 60 8 52 778 LABOR IN EUROPE— ENGLAND. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants (towns and cities) in Newcastle. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $97 33 97 33 58 39 58 39 $145 99 145 99 77 86 77 86 58 39 58 40 145 99 $121 66 121 66 68 13 68 13 48 66 97 33 121 66 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. There still prevails in this district the old system of half-yearly hir- ing of servants and farm laborers. In the first week of May the corn market in this city was the scene of the hiring for the ensuing half year. There was a large attendance of both masters and men, women, and girls. The latter were all decided as to the wages they were to receive, and in almost every instance their terms were accepted by those seek- ing labor. Male farm laborers were engaged for the half year at from $48.65 to $73; bovs at from $17 to $24.33; females from $31.64; girls to $43.80. This system of public hirings is gradually coming into disfavor, and will soon be done away with entirely. The recent hirings here were disgraceful to a degree, there being continual disturbance of the peace, free fights, and general disorder, that necessitated the calling iu of a large force of police, who were only able to quiet matters by locking the doors and using their staffs in the most effective manner. May hirings have degenerated into a mere pretext for unlicensed carousiug on the part of the country people and the lower classes in the city. Public sentiment is strongly against them, and they will soon become a thing of the past. CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week of fifty hours to the corporation employe's in the city of Newcastle-upon- Tyne. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Foremen Masons Brick-layers Pavers Laborers Cartmen: Day Night Roadmen Scavengers Plate-layers Cartwrights Carpenters Smiths Horse-shoera Strikers Joiners Painters Plumbers Cranemen Firemen Weighmen Roads enginemen Horse-keeper . . . Stablemen Saddlers Oardeners $7 30 6 58 7 30 7 10 3 40 5 34 6 00 5 12 5 64 7 00 8 08 8 08 8 00 7 48 4 00 8 08 6 56 8 36 6 56 5 34 6 24 7 30 6 36 5 34 6 58 5 34 $13 60 8 08 8 08 8 08 6 56 5 34 7 00 5 58 5 58 7 30 8 08 8 OS 8 00 8 24 5 34 8 08 7 34 8 36 7 48 5 34 6 24 7 30 6 36 5 34 6 58 5 34 $10 22 7 58 7 70 7 56 5 40 5 34 6 34 5 20 4 74 7 12 8 00 8 00 4 60 8 08 7 14 8 36 7 06 5 34 6 24 7 30 6 36 5 34 6 58 5 34 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 779 GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS. Iu the Newcastle post-office the postmaster receives a salary of $3,700 per annum. The chief and senior clerks are also paid by the year. Sorting clerks and telegraphists are divided into two classes. In the second the pay is at first $3 per week ; proficiency brings an in- crease by 48 cents up to $9.24 per week. Then when vacancies occur the second-class men are promoted to the first at a salary of $10 per week, which is increased from time to time to $12, thus making the pay of sorting clerks and telegraphists from $3 to $12 per week. Letter-carriers or postmen receive from $4.38 to $6.32. Postmen of good character having served fifteen years aud upwards receive 72 cents iu addition to their regular salary ; those having ten years' service get 48 cents extra per week, and the five years' men 24 cents extra. The ordinary duty of post-office employes in eight hours per day or a maximum of forty-eight hours in a week of six days. On Sundays the average of duty is two hours. Wages per week of forty-eight hours to employe's in the post-office in Neiocastle-upon-Tyne. Occupations. Postmaster per annum. Chief clerk do Sorting clerks and telegraphists per week. Letter-carriers do Telegraph clerks, females do Country postmen do Lowest. Highest. $i, iii 28 4 00 4 88 3 00 4 00 $1, 606 00 12 00 6 32 8 00 5 00 Average. $3, 700 00 PRINTERS AND PRINTING OFFICES. Statement shewing the wages paid per week of fifty-four hours to printers {compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, tyc.) in Newcasfle-vpon-Tym. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Compositors Stereotypers Employes iu press-room Employes in mailing department . Job-room compositors Engineers Firemen News-room compositors Job-room pressmen *$7 78 8 48 5 12 5 00 7 78 6 OS 6 08 8 24 7 78 $16 12 17 00 10 22 8 72 8 72 6 08 12 64 8 72 $11 00 2 28 7 00 8 24 7 28 6 08 9 72 8 24 * And 18 and 20 cents per hour overtime. COMPOSITORS. Night- work. Day- work. $0 16 17 18 19 $0 14 15 do 16 Pearl do 17 SEAMEN'S "WAGES. Seamen are beginning to feel the effects of the general dullness in all branches of trade very strongly, and they will be obliged to draw upon earnings they laid by during the more prosperous times of the past 780 LABOE IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. three years. English seamen are more provident, it seems, than their fellow-laborers in other callings, and have husbanded the high wages of 1881 and 1883, recent official statistics showing that the amount of seamen's money-orders issued has increased considerably in the past three years, and the amount received and paid at the seamen's savings banks has also largely increased in that time, so that it is safe to say that during the past three years the sailors have been in receipt of larger wages than before that time, and that they have saved more out of those wages. But with the laying up of vessels that began at the commencement of the present year, wages began to fall. Despite the low figures at which they are now quoted, there are hundreds of sailors at this port eager to accept them if they could only find a berth. But there is no demand for seamen. Where there is one berth there are dozens of applicants. A careful estimate places the number of sailors and sea-going men idle in the United Kingdom at 3,500, and it is in con- templation to increase that number by additional withdrawal of carry- ing tonnage. Following is a statement showing the wages paid per week by the Tyne Steam Shipping Company for coast navigation, as compared with the wages of 1878, together with the average wages paid per month for sail and steam, ocean and coast navigation in Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Occupations. Steam coast — navigating. 1878. 1884. Steam coast — laid up. 1878. 1884. Ocean naviga- tion, 1884. Coast navigation, 1884. Steam. Sail. Sail. Master Chief mate Second mate Carpenter Boatswain Seamen (able-bodied) Cook and steward Cook Chief engineer Second engineer Third engineer Fireman Trimmers Watchmen $12 12 11 00 8 24 8 72 7 08 7 00 7 00 5 72 15 80 9 72 8 00 7 00 6 36 5 34 $19 46 11 44 8 24 8 48 7 30 7 06 7 06 5 60 17 00 10 34 7 78 7 06 6 56 $14 58 7 54 6 36 8 24 5 72 5 72 7 00 5 72 9 72 7 30 6 36 5 72 5 72 *6 00 $14 58 754 6 32 8 24 5 60 5 60 5 60 5 60 9 72 7 30 32 5 60 5 60 5 36 $9 10 7 00 6 00 4 10 3 10 6 00 5 00 18 00 12 10 7 10 3 15 3 10 $7 00 5 10 6 00 4 05 3 00 5 00 4 10 $7 00 5 10 5 10 5 00 3 00 4 15 4 10 1 Eight nights. THE COST OF LIVING. As will be seen by the subjoined table, there is no material change in the cost of living now as compared with 1878. There have been quite wide fluctuations in that time, and during the general boom of 1882-'83 prices went up in proportion to the advance in wages. But the condi- tion of affairs now very closely resembles those of 1878, when trade was dull and prices of all kinds were low. In the provision market there is but very little change, the ruling quotations being, if anything, a trifle lower than those of a corresponding period of 1878. Groceries are steady at about the same figures. Dry goods show the most marked decrease, prices for the various grades ranging considerably lower than those quoted five years ago. Flour is lower and better now than it ever has been in the history of Newcastle. There is comparatively little made here, the greater portion of it coming from America, though no incon- siderable quantity is imported from Hungary. This is one branch of LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 781 trade to which especial attention should be called. American flour takes the highest rank in this market, on account of its purity and its cheap- ness. It is the prime favorite, and every year sees a steady increase in the amount of its importation. There is still room for a vast increase in the sales here and in this neighborhood, and a little effort on the part of our millers would drive all other manufacturers out of the market. PRICES OP THE NECESSARIES OP LIPE. The following table gives a comparative statement of the prices paid for the necessaries of life in 1878 and in 1884 : Articles. Unit of quantity. Value. 1884. Unit of quantity. Value. PEOTIBIOK8. Flour, wheat : Superfine Extra family Ordinary Flour, rye Beef: Fresh roasting pieces Fresh soup pieces Fresh rump steaks Corned Veal: Forequarters Hindquarters Cutlets Mil tt "ii : Forequarters •Leg Chops Pork: Fresh Corned or salted Bacon Hams, smoked (Wiltshire) Shoulders (American) Sansages (ham) Lard Butter Cheese Rice Beans Milk Milk (condensed, pint tins) . . - per barrel. ...do ...do ...do $7 66 8 03 perpound. .Y.'.&o '."'.'. ...do GROCERIES. Tea, colony and good black . . . Coffee : Rio, green .'. Rio, roasted Sugar: Good brown Yellow C Coffee B White A Molasses : Kew Orleans PortoRico Sirup Soap, common Starch Coal Oil, petroleum DOMESTIC DRY GOODS, ETC. Shirtings : Brown, 44-inch, standard quality ---- Bleached, 44-inoh, standard quality ' d° .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do -do .do ...do ..do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do per quart . ... do per dozen. per pound . .do . .do . .do. .do. .do. .do . $0 24 to 16 to 3 to 5 71 20 14 24 10 18 20 24 18 20 22 16 16 14 24 10 18 16 36 22 10 16 07 15 per gallon. ...do ...do perpound. per ton per gallon. per yard . 40 to 60 22 32 05 07 07 08 40 48 60 07 10 ! 91 to 3 64 48 per stone . do ..do ..do $0 50 per pound . ...do ...do ....do ....do . ....do . ....do. ...do. ...do. ....do. ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ....do ...do ...do per stone . . ...do perpound. per dozen. per pound. ...do . ....do. ..do . ..do ..do . ..do. per stone. - . ...do per gallon, perpound. per ton — per gallon. $0 42 to 22 to 14 to 22 to per yard . ...do .... 16 to 24 to 12 to 32 to 05 to 46 42 20 16 24 16 16 20 18 20 24 18 to 24 13 11 16 24 25 16 04 72 12 24 88 24 06 07 05 72 72 06 10 55 to 3 40 07 09 782 LABOE IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. Articles. 1878. 1884. Unit of quantity. Values. Unit of quantity. Values. Domestic dry goods, etc. — Continued. Sheetings : Brown, 72-inch, standard $0 18 21 16 24 60 16 10 24 72 48 2 55 $0 14 Bleached, 98-inch, standard do do $ 28to 32 Cotton flannel, good quality Ticking, good quality: ...do do do do 24 .. do do do do do do do ...do All wool cloth : ....do do 72 do do 48 House rent— 1878. Price. Board and lodgings— 1878-1884. Price. Fonr-roomed tenements .-per week.. Two-roomed tenements do Six-roomed tenements do $1 20-$l 80 84- 1 20 1 92- 2 43 For men perweek.. $2 91-$3 88 2 19- 2 91 HABITS OF THE WORKING GLASSES. In speaking of the habits of the working classes, paragraph 4, it must be understood that in this district there are a great many miners whose hours of work are necessarily irregular, and blast furnacemen, glass-workers, and iron-puddlers, whose work is done in shifts. This system throws a greater proportion of men into the temptations of the "public houses" than does the system of a continuous day's work in the strictly manufacturing districts. All things taken into consider- ation, their methods of work, the peculiar hours for relaxation and amusement, the opportunities afforded them for legitimate and harm- less entertainment, the working classes here may be safely said to be steady and trustworthy, though they are but little inclined to be sav- ing. Many of them, it is true, own their little patches of ground, and a little house, but the great majority of them are tenants, who, so long as they can satisfy the monthly demands of the landlord, and can de- cently clothe and feed themselves and families week by week, seem to be satisfied to let the future take care of itself. This is very clearly shown in the case of the engineers in Sunderland, a city near here. They went out on strike some nine months ago, and their ranks have been steadily increased by laborers thrown out of employment on ac- count of the closing of works dependent upon the works of the engi- neers, until the number of idle men in Sunderland now amounts to over 5,000. For a while the funds of their various labor unions supported them ; they could not support themselves. But as month after month rolled on those funds were reduced to such a point that they have been obliged to appoint committees to canvass the town soliciting aid. Great destitution and misery prevails, and as both strikers and employers are firm in their respective positions, there is no telling what the end will be. The " public house" is, unfortunately, the bank in which most of the LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 783 deposits of the working classes are made, and it is a bank that pays no interest. In nearly all the great corporations the workmen are paid off Friday night or Saturday noon, and are given the Saturday afternoon for a half holiday. Then it is that the public houses reap their golden harvest. There are in the city of Newcastle alone three hundred and ninety-four public houses, where wine, beer, and spirits are sold, and from 12 o'clock Satuitfay noon until 11 at night they are crowded, the counters often being four and five deep. The laborer (female, unfortunately, as well as male), has half a day on his hands with nothing to do. The public house is always free to him, and there he sits and smokes, and talks and drinks, until turned out by the closing of the place at 11 o'clock. Beer and whisky are the tipples, the former a very strong, heady stuff, totally unlike the lager beer of Germany, being nearly as conducive of drunkenness as the latter. The women drink beer and gin, oftentimes in company with the men, but more frequently in little side rooms. The amount of drinking among all conditions of the laboring classes is ap- palling. On Sundays the streets are deserted till half past 12, and then, as if by magic, with the taking down of the public-house shutters, the laborer springs into sight, only to be lost within the saloon until half past 2's closing puts him out. From 6 to 10 the saloons are open on Sunday nights, and the experience of Saturday night is repeated. There are in Newcastle one public library and small reading-room,, free to every one who is indorsed by a known citizen, one place where free concerts are given every Saturday evening during the winter, and three hundred and ninety-four public nouses. THE FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYE AND EMPLOYER. " The relations existing between employers and employe's " is of the most amicable nature. Employers do not, as a rule, simply require the regular attendance of their employes, and the faithful performance of the duties to which they are assigned — they go beyond that, and in- terest themselves in the home life of the people who work for them, not infrequently visiting their houses, and in an unobtrusive kindly way making suggestions for the improvement of their surroundings. These attentions are taken in the spirit in which they are offered, and greatly enhance the relations of mutual confidence between the two classes. The workingman feels that he is not a mere machine, of which a stated amount of work is required each day. He realizes that his industry, frugality, and correct habits will not only be known, but appreciated by his employers, and this knowledge is oftentimes the one thing that stimulates him to renewed efforts and strengthens him in a course of life, which under different circumstances he would find full of tempta- tions he could not easily withstand. The few masters who are harsh, tyrannical, and overbearing are known to have the most dissipated workmen, men who spend their spare time and money in the public houses, and whose work is never so satisfactory as that of the steady trustworthy laborer who works for his own and his master's interests, knowing that by advancing the latter he is help- ing himself. Employers are always accessible to even the humblest of their men. If any one has a grievance he may state it clearly and freely, without any fear of prejudice, and it will be investigated. All ques- tions affecting the rights of workingmen are discussed in the most friendly manner by representatives of the workmen and of the em- 784 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. ployers, and if they cannot arrive at an understanding arbitration almost invariably follows, thus doing away with the long and disastrous strikes that were formerly used to force a settlement of differences. ORGANIZED CONDITION OE LABOR. The various trades and industries in the north of England are most perfectly organized, and these several organizations are a power in the community. Their influence is very great, and it makes itself felt on every possible occasion. In the lesser societies rates of wages are fixed and maintained by the united action of the members, who not only de- termine what wages they themselves shall receive, but also what shall be paid those who are not members of their organizations. The larger associations, such as the miners, the amalgated engineers, the iron ship-builders, and boiler- makers, who number their members by tens of thousands, have very wisely abandoned the old-time policy of* striking to enforce their decrees, but almost invariably refer what- ever they may have in dispute to a board of arbitration, as is noticed in another portion of this report. But they are, nevertheless, most per- fectly organized, and have an immense capital with which to carry out any plan of action that may be decided upon. The principal object of these trades associations, next to the protec- tion of themselves in the matter of wages, is provision for members in case of sickness, disability, or want of employment, and almost every society has a large fund for this purpose, kept up by voluntary monthly payments of the members and outside donations. As showing the ex- tent to which this is done, it may be stated that in the engineers' strike at Sunderland, which has been on for forty-six weeks, the relief com- mittee reported for the week ending May 17 the total income for the week was $2,254.63. and the expenditure $2,075.68, leaving a balance on hand of $178.95. ' The societies are non-religious and non-political, though there is no denying the fact that they exercise a very considerable influence in mold- ing public sentiment about election times. THE PREVALENCY OF STRIKES. The north of England is particularly free from strikes; that is to say free from those great contests between labor and capital that entail great misery and suffering on the one and great pecuniary loss on the other. Of course, there are in some trades occasional differences of opinion between masters and men, when the men decline to work until such differences are adjusted. But for the past eighteen years there has been no great strike here. This very fortunate state of affairs has come about through the masters and men learning, after long and ex- pensive lessons, that there is as much business method to be observed in treating the labor question as in any purely commercial transaction. Hence, when there is a disagreement between the purchasers of labor and the disposers thereof, the matter is treated as similar difficulties in other branches of business would be. Instead of following the old plan of attempting to force a settlement of the trouble by long and costly strikes an entirely different method of procedure is now resorted to. Perhaps this method, which obtains in all the great industries of the north of England, especially in the coal and manufactured iron trades, where differences of opinion are constantly arising, might best be illus- trated by briefly reporting a case in the manufactured iron trade, which LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 785 has just been decided here in Newcastle. It must first be understood that these enormous industries, representing millions of capital and arm- ies of laborers, have what is known as a board of conciliation and ar- trabition, consisting of two members representing the employers, two members representing the employes, and an umpire. The employers, in the case referred toj claimed a reduction of one shil- ling per ton on puddling, and 10 per cent, on all other forge and mill wages. This claim the employed contested, and at a meeting of the board of conciliation and arbitration, it being impossible to come to an agree- ment, the whole matter was referred to Dr. Spence Watson, as arbitra- tor, his decision to regulate wages for a period of three months. Both sides appeared before Dr. Watson, and a representative of the employers stated their side of the case, arguing, among other things, the fall in the net realized price of iron of 6s. HA6d. per ton, and in the current market-price since the last arbitration in January ; the de- pression at present prevailing in the finished iron trade, as evidenced by the number of works that are standing still and the shortness of work at those that are still able to keep going ; the absence of the slid- ing scale ; the necessity that the cost of production should be lowered if works are to be kept going, which is not the case, as is shown by the fact that at the last arbitration there were 1,157 puddling furnaces in operation, whereas now there are but 852. The representative of the workmen replied by maintaining that no alteration has taken place justifying any reduction, nor have the em- ployes any right to claim a reduction in lieu of the sliding-scale, enter- ing into a full explanation of previous awards and the cause that did away with the sliding-scale. He argued that the lying idle of the fur- naces should tend to increase the price; that reduction in wages and re- duction in prices never created confidence nor brought better trade; that the reduction of 5 per cent, in November, 1882, with the addition of 7£ per cent, in October last, failed to secure orders, and the employers now complain of depressed trade ; that, owing to the low cost of man- ufacture and their unusual facilities northern manufacturers are under- selling the manufacturers in other districts, and are compelling them to close their works; endeavoring to prove (1) that comparing the past with the present the claim of the employers is unjustifiable; .(2) that reductions never stimulated nor improved trade; and (3) that the em- ployes views on the basis of the sliding-scale are in accordance with the basis' awarded and the principle laid down at the previous arbitration. Dr. Watson, after carefully considering the employers' case and the workmen's reply, awarded as follows : That for the period beginning April 12 and ending June 28, 1884, there shall be are- duction of 3 pence per ton on puddling, and 2£ per cent, on all other forge and mill wages. Although this award was not made until the 18th of April, it was ac- cepted by both sides, and the wages of the men — who had been working right along through all the meetings and discussions of their representa- tives — were paid from the 12th of April on that basis. The benefit, both to employers and workmen, of this system of arbi- tration, by which all their disputes are settled, is incalculable, and it is to this system alone that the great coal and iron industries, the base of the mighty commercial power of the north of England, are so free from the demoralization invariably attendant upon labor strikes. 92 a— lab 50 «. 786 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. The awards made during the past six years are as follows : August 2, 1877.— Employers' application for a general reduction of 10 per cent, in wages. Awarded that " the present rate of wages continue till either party give to theother notless than three months' notice for a change. January 13, 1879. — Employers' claim for a reduction in the wages of iron-workers. Awarded a reduction of 6 pence per ton in puddling, and 5 per cent, in all other wages. September 18, 1879. — Employers' claim for a special reduction of 15 per cent, in cer- tain plate mill wages. Awarded that " the tonnage rates payable to rollers, heaters, and shearmen in plate and sheet mills be from the pay commencing next after the date of this award 12$ per cent, less than the rates in effect on the 12th of April last." September 18, 1879.— Employers claim for a reduction of 6 pence per ton in puddling and 5 per cent, in other forge and mill wages. Award against any reduction. December 17, 1880.— Workmen's claim that the 7$ per cent, reduction taken off Oc- tober 6, 1879, be returned. Claim disallowed. April 29, 1882. — Workmen's claim of 7$ per cent, advance for the current three months ending April 29, 1882. No sura due the operatives. " Future rates of wages for six months commencing May 1, 1882." Award : Opera- tives entitled to no advance for the first three months, but on the final three months there shall be an advance of 3 pence per ton on puddling and 2£ per cent, on other wages up to the 16th of September, and from that date to October 28 a further sum of 3 pence per ton on puddling and 2J per cent, on other wages. November 23, 1882. — Operatives claim for an advance of 9 pence per ton on puddling and 7$ per cent, in other wages. No advance awarded. Employers claim for a reduction of 9 pence per ton on puddling and 7$ per cent, in other "wages. A reduction awarded of 6 pence per ton on puddling and 5 per cent, on other forge and mill wages. OO-OPERATION. From the year 1844, when twenty-eight men, with a capital of £28, started a co-operative grocery store in the town of Eochdale, co-operation has made most rapid strides all over England, and in the north in par- ticular. At the time of the passage of the industrial societies act, in June, 1852, there were no fewer than forty co-operative societies in exist- ence, all of them more or less prosperous, a prosperity that greatly increased under the protection of this act. As the system developed and new societies were established all over the country, it became necessary for the benefit of the system to unite the various forces and thus secure advantages which single stores could not obtain. Accordingly, in 1863, fifty different societies, representing 17,545 members, formed the Wholesale Society of Manchester, with a capital of £999. This Wholesale Society grew rapidly in members, sales, capital, and profits; Other large societies joined it, and finally the Co-operative Union was organized at a meeting of the delegates from the different large societies held in Newcastle in 1873, a large branch of the Manchester Society having been established here the year previous. From that time to this the union has been extending its field of operations in every direction, and is becoming stronger and greater every year. Within two years from its organization its membership increased to 31,030, and a buyer was sent to Ireland to furnish the society with pure Irish butter, a trade that has since increased so rapidly that they now have buyers in Kilmallock, Limerick, Armagh, Water- ford, Olonmel, and Cork, and are the largest purchasers of Irish butter in the United Kingdom. In 1876 a buyer was stationed in New York to purchase American produce for the union, and that branch has been largely extended. The growth of co-operation since the consolidation may best be shown by the following table, which is an exhibit of the number of members LABOR IN EUKOPE — ENGLAND. 787 holding shares in the wholesale society or union, the capital, net sales, net profits, and average dividends paid during the years named : Tear. 1864 1869 1874 1879 183 (three quarters) Number of mem- bers. 18, 337 74, 737 168, 985 305, 161 421, 482 Capital. £2, 455 32, 062 200, 044 442, 114 674, 458 Net sales. £51, 857 412, 240 1, 636, 950 2, 705, 625 3, 319, 108 Net profit. £267 4,862 14, 232 34, 959 32, 919 Average dividend- paid per £. li f 24 The wholesale society to which the above table refers is composed of sections, formed of the different local societies within certain bounda- ries. The local societies send delegates to the stated meetings of the sections, which are in turn represented by delegates in an annual con- The northern section comprises the counties of Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and part of the North Riding of York. It is one of the most, important sections in the union, as will be seen by the following table, which shows the growth of the co-opera- tive movement in the north during a period of six years ending De- cember 31, 1883. Summary of societies m northern section. Tear. Societies. Members. Trade. Profit. 1878 126 126 141 130 122 129 68, 552 71, 674 78, 283 83, 078 90, 166 97,943 £2, 168, 361 2, 112, 652 2, 552, 179 2, 684, 173 3, 126, 288 3, 371, 869 1879 241,644 286, 17C 314, 774 359, 783 399, 402 1880 1881 1882 1883 The returns for this section for the year 1883 have just been issued, and show that there are 97,943 members. There is a share capital of £714,568 and a loan capital of £45,805. The value of land, buildings, and fixed stock amounts to £288,752. The sum of £3,371,369 was re- ceived for goods sold, producing a net profit of £399,402, of which £1,460 were applied to educational and £546 to charitable purposes. The following table summarizes the year's business by counties: Name of society. Northumberland Durham Cumberland Westmoreland . . York Number members. 21, 696 56, 250 11, 762 2,107 6,128 Share capital. £156, 612 405, 586 116, 454 12, 430 23, 468 Value of land, build- ings, &c. £61, 890 154, 611 52, 997 4,889 14, 365 Goods sold. £820, 898 1, 965, 918 379, 055 49, 961 155, 537 Net profit. £99, 444 247, 774 36, 506 2,929 12, 749 Of all the societies in Northumberland County the one at Newcastle is by far the most important and did the largest amount of business during the past year. It has 5,850 members; a share and loan capital of £45,603. The value of its land, buildings, and fixed stock is £14,476. 788 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. During 1883 it received for goods sold the sum of £239,872 ; has no accounts owing and owes nothing for goods. The net profits for the year were £31,677. That the movement is still growing here is shown by the fact that a large addition has just been made to the society's already large build- ing, and even now they are cramped for room. There is a committee in America making arrangements for the further increase of their pur- chasing territory, and this committee will either make an arrangement with American millwrights to come to Tyneside to erect flouring-mills or will increase the facilities for the rapid shipment of American flour to this district. From the simple beginning of supplying groceries only, the field of the co-operators has gradually extended until now the wholesale soci- ety, which is really the fountain-head from which all other societies draw, can supply everything. In Manchester it has a bank, a central grocery and provision and furnishing warehouse, a large drapery, woolen cloth, and boot and shoe factory: it has very large and per- fectly equipped branches in Newcastle and London ; biscuit and sweet factory at Crumpsall ; boot and shoe works in Leicester and in Heck- mondwike ; soap works at Durham and purchasing and forwarding works at Liverpool, Leeds, Goole, and Garston in England, Cork, Lim- erick, Tipperary, Kilmallock, Waterford, Tralee, and Armagh in Ireland, and at New York, Calais, Rouen, Copenhagen, and Hamburg. These depots are in charge of representatives of the society and personally attend to the buying, packing, and shipping of the articles sent here. FEMALE LABOR. This district being given up almost entirely to those branches of manufacture in which the work is too seA r ere for women, has. not that large proportion of female laborers noticeable in the districts further south. Coal mining, iron- working, and ship building are the three great industries of this district, and in none of them can women be profitably employed. In glass works there is some female labor, and tobacco fac- tories, of which there are but few, also employ women. There are a few females employed in the Government telegraph office, but the largest field, by far, is in the dry-goods shops, where they serve as clerks, and in the establishments for making ladies' garments. There is no way of ascertaining the number of women and girls so employed. Wages paid women are invariably lower than those paid to men oc- cupying similar positions, and are frpm 5 to 10 per cent, lower now than in 1878. The hours of labor are substantially the same for men and women, both having the Saturday half holiday when employed in fac- tories. A movement is now on foot here to give all clerks in shops one afternoon of the week for recreation. The matter is being very exten- sively agitated and will eventually succeed. The moral and physical condition of the employes is good, and there is a steady decrease in the prejudice against women who are compelled to earn their living behind a counter or in a factory, a prejudice that only a few years ago was exceptionally strong in this district. This has been brought about by the employes themselves, who, by their indus- try, intelligence, and upright conduct, have shown themselves worthy of confidence and respect. In many of the larger establishments, where large numbers of women are employed, there are clubs, social and literary, whose regular meet- ings are well atteuded and conducive of much" good. Most of these LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 789 clubs have libraries, or make arrangements whereby members may en- joy the privileges of circulating libraries, and the opportunities for self- improvement thus afforded are very generally taken advantage of. The proprietors of the establishments take great interest in these socie- ties and often contribute very materially to their support, both by finan- cial aid and personal attention. The manner in which the large buildings of this city are constructed renders fire an almost unheard-of affair. They are as nearly fire-proof as possible, very little, if any, wood entering into their construction ; still all reasonable precautions are taken, and every family provided for a rapid and safe exit in case of any sudden alarm. Sanitary matters are, as a rule, well attended to, the premises in which women work being kept clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. There are numerous benefit societies for the assistance and care of sick members, and the employers' liberty act provides for the care of those disabled through accident while in the discharge of their duty. The prices of the necessaries of life, as noted in another portion of this report, show but little change now from the ruling prices at the time of the last report. Wages increased during the era of extreme prosperity, and prices went up ; but when, in sympathy with the gen- eral depression, wages decreased, the prices of the necessaries also came down, until now they show but little change from those of a correspond- ing period in 1878. With the inauguration of the school-board system, the education of female laborers has vastly improved. Under the existing law employers cannot engage females to work in factories, shops, &c, if they are un- der fourteen years of age, unless they have been passed by the school board, and if over that age they must have attended school a certain length of time. If they have not been passed the employer is obliged to send them to school so many days a week, and rather than suffer the inconvenience of such irregular hours, they are careful to engage only those who have passed the board. In this way the mental standard of female workers has been greatly raised, and with the continually grow- ing desire on their part for an advance in their position, as is shown by their eagerness to accept any means of self- improvement, there is every prospect of this change for the better in the educational status of women workers being an enduring one and of incalculable benefit to them and to the world. ROBINSON LOCKE, Consul. United States Consulate, Newcastleon-Tyne, August 20, 1884. NOTTINGHAM. REPORT BY COMMERCIAL AGENT SMITH. In compliance with the instructions in your circular of the 15th of February last, concerning the condition of labor throughout the world, especially in Europe, I have the honor to forward the annexed tables of wages in this district: (1) general trades ; (2) hosiery manufacture ; (3) cotton doubling; (4) leather manufacture; (5) fancy lace and curtain manufacture; (6) railway employed; (7) mines and mining; (8) iron work and foundry ; (9) post-office employes ; (10) board school employes ; 790 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. (11) corporation employes; (12) prices of provisions, &c; (13) agricult- ural laborers ; (14) assistants in retail shops and stores ; (15) household employes. The tables will show the wages of labor in this district as correctly as 1 have been able to obtain them. I have spent much time in col- lecting the information from which this report has been compiled. I cannot hope that it will be absolutely correct, but I feel sure that it will be found as reliable as such a report can be made. PAST AND PRESENT CONDITIONS. I do not see any great change in the cost of living or wages of labor now and five years ago, when the last circular was issued. In 1878 trade in this district was just beginning to recover from a se- vere depression. Up to 1882 there was a constant improvement in the demand for Not- tingham goods, and that improvement was especially seen in the de- mand for the American market. That increased demand made employ- ment for a larger number of hands, and as the employers were pros- perous they were able and willing to pay fair wages. But the increase of wages was not great, except that those who worked by the piece had more constant employment and therefore could earn a greater amount of money. During the last five years, with the increase of trade, there has been a very large increase of population in Nottingham. But building operations have kept pace with the increase so that rents have not advanced. During the last year there has been a perceptible fall- ing off in the staple trade of the town, not only with the United States, but with other countries and in the home market. If this depression continues, many persons must be thrown our of employment and much suffering will probably be the consequence during the next winter. There is, however, a probability that building operations have outrun demand and that rents will be likely to decline, which will favor the operatives. HABITS OP THE WORKING CLASSES. It is difficult to speak of the habits of the working classes, as those habits vary with the individual. That there is much improvidence and much intemperance is undoubtedly true. Yet there are thousands who are industrious and prudent and lead exemplary lives. But my obser- vation leads me to think that the British workmen, as a class, drink more intoxicating liquors than is good for them. In fact, intemperance prevails to a large extent, and I am sorry to say that it is not confined to men. The dark, damp, and gloomy winters, together with the ab- sence of comfort in their own houses, drive many working people to the public houses where they find good fires and boon companions, which, together with the mug of beer, helps them to forget the hardship of their lot. Of course such habits lead to improvidence and intemper- ance. PEELING BETWEEN THE EMPLOYE AND EMPLOYER. I think a fairly good feeling has prevailed between the employer and employe" during the last five years. < iccasional strikes have occurred, but they have generally been of minor importance. During prosperous times strikes are not usual, because, as the employer makes money freely he is usually able and willing to give fair remuneration to his workmen. But a strike of an unusual kind has lately occurred in this LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 791 district. A large manufacturer of lace curtains here finding that labor was cheaper in Scotland, moved some of his machinery there and was contemplating moving more when his employes threatened to leave in a body if the removal was continued. As strikes have not been fre- quent nor formidable here within the last few years, their effect has not been great on the prosperity of the community. So far as I can learn, strikes have usually resulted in little good to the operative, accompanied with heavy loss of wages while unemployed, and consequently with much distress in their families. ORGANIZATION OP LABOR. As to the organization of labor and the nature of the organizations, I propose to report fully in answer to your circular of the 18th May last. FREEDOM OP PURCHASE AND MANNER OP PAYMENT. Working people here are free to purchase the necessaries of life where- ever they please. The employes in factories and warehouses are gen- erally paid weekly in gold and silver coin. * CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. Co-operative societies are not common here, and those that have been started have not been very successful. I do not know that there are any co-operative productive societies in this district. CONDITION OF WORKING PEOPLE, ETC. From my observation for six years past, I do not regard the condition of the working people in this district as being particularly bad. Their wages are sufficient, ordinarily, for the purchase of the necessaries of life, and in many cases much more. It they have families grown up the younger members can generally secure employment. Household ser- vants are always in demand, and good and faithful ones can always com- mand good situations. The climate is much milder in winter than that of the Northern States of the Union. Coal is cheap, coal-mines being within the bounds of the corporation of Nottingham. Clothing is cheap, and as the climate is cool in summer, very little change between winter and summer clothing is necessary. Gas is sold by the corporation at 60 cents per 1.000 feet. These are advantages of no small consequence, and they alleviate the condition of the working classes very much. They almost always ap- pear to be comfortably dressed. The young women employed in the lace and hosiery factories manage, in some way, to be always comfort- ably clad, and often show much taste in dress on Sundays and holidays. Barefooted or ragged children are rarely seen in the streets of Notting- ham. On the whole I think that with industry and economy there is little need for suffering among the operative classes here. SAFETY OP EMPLOYES IN FACTORIES, ETC. Thelawsof England with regard to the safety of employes in factoi ies, mines, mills, and on railways, are very careful of their rights, and the tendency is to make them more so. I am not now prepared to make a full report upon those laws. 792 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. POLITICAL EIGHTS OF WOKKINGMEN. As to the political rights enjoyed by workingmen, it may be said generally that they are less. than in the United States. Here a certain property qualification is required to secure a vote ; that is, a voter must be a payer of rates or taxes. But in towns the qualification is liberal enough to include a large part of the working classes, and the tendency is to extend the franchise. For this reason the operatives have consid- erable political influence now, and that influence is likely to increase. The tendency of legislation is decidedly in favor of the extension of the franchise, consequently towards increasing the influence of the working classes. I am not able to say what is the share, comparatively, borne by the working people in local and general taxation. CAUSES THAT LEAD TO EMIGRATION, ETC. So far as I can learn the causes which lead to the emigration of the working people are the general ones of dissatisfaction with their condi- tion here and an idea that that condition will be better in the United States or in some of the colonies. They know that wages are higher in the States and that land is cheaper, and they hope in some way to im- prove their condition, without, as a rule, having any definite idea of how it is to be done. Perhaps I may properly mention here that the Mormons have a mission here, which holds its regular meetings and secures many emigrants to Utah. How far those emigrants are gov- erned by religious ideas or by other motives, 1 am unable to say. But I believe this district has, for some years past, been rather a successful field of operation for the Mormon missionaries. The emigrants are mostly from the operative classes. NUMBER OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN EMPLOYED, ETC. After a careful study of the matter, I have concluded that I cannot state the number of women and children employed in this district in industrial pursuits with any such approximation to truth as to be reliable. There are in this district the towns of Nottingham, Leicester, and Derby, containing, respectively, 200,000, 135,000, and 85,000 in population. Then there are many smaller towns, such as Grantham, Belper, Long Eaton, &c, in which are factories of various kinds. In almost all the villages in the district there are large numbers of female operatives working hand knitting-machines, or doing various work upon lace, hosiery, and other articles. To undertake to estimate the number of females thus employed over this large and thickly-peopled region of Central England is entirely beyond my power. I nave therefore concluded not to make the attempt. I can only say, generally, that the number of females so employed in this district is very large, being many thousands. They are employed in various occupations, but principally in the lace and hosiery factories and warehouses. But there are hundreds employed at their own houses in clipping lace, seaming stockings, putting bands upon drawers, fin- ishing undershirts, &c, besides those who are employed on hand knit- ting-machines at their homes, though under the pay of the large man- ufacturers in the towns. As this condition of matters spreads over four counties in this district, I think you will see how impossible it is for me to get at any approximate estimate of the number employed and the nature of their employment. I have given in the annexed table the wages of female employes so far as I have ascertained them and also LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 793 the hours of labor. I am aware that the figures do not cover the whole field, but they are as full as I have been able to make them. THE MORAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE EMPLOYES. Of the moral and physical condition of the female employes above referred to, it is difficult to speak. Personally I can have very little knowledge of them. I see them at their work and in the streets, and I hear what is said about them. At their work in this town they do not appear to suffer either from unwholesome atmosphere or unreasonable hours of labor. In the street they are generally well dressed, and their appearance does not indicate physical weakness. Young women seem to prefer factory work to domestic service, in which they are always in demand. As they can get good wages and good food at the houses of those who are willing to employ them, and yet prefer the factory and warehouse work, I think their lot cannot be a hard one in their chosen employment. I do not think the moral condition of women employed in factory work here is worse than it is in every place where there is a large number of that sex employed. THE MEANS EMPLOYED AND BY WHOM FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE EMPLOYES. As a rule I do not think the employers take much care for the improve- ment of their employes. Generally they are satisfied if they do their work well and appear at the opening time in the morning. But there are exceptions to this general rule. There are at least two large lace warehouses which employ chaplains and have a service of their own every morning. They also try to exercise some control over their moral conduct generally. There is the general provision for moral instruc- tion in the town which is active and fairly efficient. THE MEANS PROVIDED IN CASE OF FIRE OR OTHER DANGERS FOR ESCAPE. I am not aware that there is any special means provided for escape in such cases. But it must be remembered that the buildings are gen- erally constructed with more care than are similar ones in the United States. They are always built of brick or stone and the stair cases are generally of stone. Fires are much less frequent than they are at home. Of course they do occur, but the danger from them is comparatively small. During nearly seven years that I have resided in this place I ha% r e ever seen a house burned down and have rarely seen afire-engine in the streets. PROVISIONS MADE BY EMPLOYERS IN REGARD TO SANITARY MEASURES. I am not aware that there are any special provisions made by em- ployers here in this regard, aside from the general construction of fac- tories and warehouses being good and substantial, with ordinarily good sanitary arrangements. The town has its health officers, who are ex- pected to devote their time to their departments, and I believe they are fairly efficient. Then there are factory inspectors whose duty it is to see that all laws for the welfare of th e operatives are observed. There are hos- pital accommodations, and thsre is also a law making employers liable in case of accidents under certain circumstances. 794 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. PAST AND PRESENT WAGES. " Has there been any increase during the past five years in the wages paid women and the prices of the necessaries of life 1 What are the effects of employment of women on wages of men and on gen- eral social and industrial conditions 1 " I do not think there has been any material increase in the wages of women or in the prices of the necessaries of life during the last five years. Active trade here has kept both men and women well employed during most of that time, and they have thereby been able to earn more money. As I have before said that trade prosperity seems to have reached its height, and a time of depression is prevailing in the district, the employers are now more able than formerly to name the wages they will pay. The wages of women being lower than those of men, their employment has a tendency to depress the wages of the latter. I can- not say how the employment of women affects social conditions. Their employment affects the industrial conditions materially. Withoutfemale labor the manufacture of lace and hosiery here would be impossible. The cheaper labor of the continent, which now creates strong competi- tion, would probably drive all Nottingham lace and hosiery out of for- eign markets, and perhaps out of domestic markets to a considerable extent. A large share of the work in lace factories and warehouses can only be well and profitably done by female labor, as you will readily understand. STATE OF EDUCATION— GENERAL EFFECTS OF EMPLOYMENT IN The younger female employes are generally fairly educated, as the laws of the country compel the attendance of all children at some school. These laws are pretty strictly enforced, and the consequence is that the rising generation is better educated than any before it. Among the older employes there is less education, but, as a rule, they are able to read and write. It is difficult to say what effect the employment of women in factories, mills, stores, &c, has upon their physical condition and that of their children. Of course the confinement has its physical disadvantages, but at the same time its compensations. The air which they breathe may not be as pure and wholesome as in the open air, but they are able to earn more money and to provide betti r food and more physical com- forts for themselves and their children. Large numbers of women and children could not be employed in any other way in this country than in factories, mills, &c. They cannot all go into domestic service, nor can they be employed on the land. There is, therefore, no alternative but that they accept such employment or emigrate. Without such em- ployment the greater part of them would not have the means wherewith to leave the country. JASPER SMITH, Consular Agent. United States Commercial Agency, Nottingham, June 20, 1884. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 795 GENERAL TRADES. Weekly wages {of fifty-four hours per we the general trade in Nottingham. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TRADES. Bricklayers Hod-carriers . Masons Tenders Plasterers Tenders Plumbers Assistants . . . Gas-fitters Slaters Hoofers Tenders Carpenters OTHEE TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Bookbinders Foremen Under foremen Laborers Maltster, leading man TVorking maltster Butchers, with board Cabinet-makers Confectioners Cigar-makers Coopers : Working per day "Working piece Helper Drivers : Draymen and teamsters. Cabmen Tram drivers Gardeners Horseshoers Laborers and porters Lithographers Printers* Saddle and harness makers . . Tailors Tinsmiths $7 56 5 94 9 18 5 94 8 64 6 48 5 94 7 56 5 94 7 56 30 43 $8 64 7 02 9 72 7 02 10 80 7 56 7 02 8 64 7 00 9 18 7 30 8 50 6 56 12 15 7 30 5 34 9 73 6 08 4 86 8 51 4 00 10 20 13 35 5 34 5 82 4 86 7 50 7 30 7 29 7 29 7 30 7 30 7 30 $8 00 6 25 9 50 6 25 9 50 7 00 9 72 6 50 9 72 9 18 8 00 6 40 8 50 6 25 8 00 6 08 5 00 10 00 6 50 5 00 8 50 5 40 4 50 9 00 8 00 3 00 9 50 11 00 5 20 5 50 4 75 6 25 6 00 6 50 4 86 6 10 7 00 6 25 6 50 6 25 * Ten cents to 16 oents per M. FACTORIES, MILLS, ETC. Wages per week in hosiery mills. Occupations. HOSIEKY MANUFACTURE (fifty tofifty-Six hours.) Hand-frame knitters, men Rotary power frame, men Circular power frame, men Circular power frame, women. Cotton's patent : Men. Attendant boys . iris. Attendant girls Hand stitcher and seamer, women - Power stitcher and seamer, women. Power welters and turners off "Winders Cutters : Men "Women Lowest. $3 41 8 63 8 63 1 95 2 92 3 65 2 68 6 80 Highest. Average. $4 14 9 73 9 73 4 86 12 16 4 14 2 43 1 95 3 65 4 86 3 16 $3 75 9 00 9 00 4 86 10 00 3 50 2 43 1 95 3 10 4 35 2 90 6 80 3 65 796 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Wages per week in hosiery mills — Continued. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Hosiery manufacture— Continued. Menders, women Folders : Men (piece) Women (piece) Girls (piece) Men (time) Lads (time) "Women (time) Menders : Women (piece) Women (time) Girls (time) Makers-np : By hand, women By power, women COTTON DOUBLING (flfty-six hoOTS.)* Doublers : Women Girls Heelers : Women Girls DofFers, girls .• $2 92 5 08 3 41 1 70 6 81 2 20 2 43 2 43 1 22 1 95 2 92 2 20 1 70 1 70 1 46 1 00 $3 90 10 95 4 15 1 95 7 78 2 92 2 92 3 65 2 92 1 95 2 90 4 86 2 92 2 20 2 20 1 95 1 46 $3 40 7 50 3 75 1 80 7 00 2 75 2 80 3 00 2 70 1 50 2 50 3 80 2 60 2 00 2 00 1 75 1 25 * Some work by time, some by piece, according to arrangement with different firms. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours in lace factories or warehouses in Nottingham. Occupations. Lowest. Highest Average. FANCY LACE MANUFACTURE. Lace makers, men Winders, lads and boys Menders, girls Threaders, lads and boys Warpers, men Designers and draftsmen, men.. OlipperB and scallopers, women. Makers in silk : Men Lads and boys Makers in cotton : Men Lads and boys Menders : Women Girls Winders : Women Girls Warpers : Men, time Lads and boys Draftsmen: Men Lads and boys Threaders, lads and boys. Smiths, time LACE CURTAINS. LACE DRESSING. Men Lads and boys . Women Girls $14 50 2 40 2 40 1 45 6 00 10 00 3 40 17 00 5 08 2 68 1 45 2 92 1 95 2 43 10 95 2 00 2 43 7 78 $24 00 2 90 3 40 2 40 7 25 24 00 4 90 19 00 8 63 12 60 6 30 3 40 2 68 3 40 2 68 6 30 3 90 19 50 4 86 8 63 $16 00 2 60 3 00 2 00 7 00 15 00 4 00 18 00 7 00 8 00 5 50 3 00 2 20 6 30 3 00 15 00 3 50 2 60 8 00 $12 16 3 65 3 41 3 20 The majority of men receive set wages whether fully employed or not. cording to time made. Lads paid according to time made. Women and girls paid ao- LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. 797 Occupations. Hours em- ployed. "Wages. 10 10 $1 82 6 81 do 72 63 84 63 54 60 60 54 5 58 do do . do do 5 92 do do 4 38 MINES AND MINING. Wages paid per day of — tours in connection with coal mines in Nottingham district. . Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $0 96 96 1 14 85 1 22 1 50 $1 34 1 34 1 28 1 22 1 70 1 58 85 77 81 1 18 85 1 09 77 73 94 1 22 85 82 FOUNDRIES AND IRON WORKS. Wages per week, iron works and foundry. Occupations. Molders . Fitters. *7 75 7 25 6 06 7 75 7 00 5 80 8 20 Laborers 4 ^ Turners, planers, and drillers Pattern-makers Boiler rivetters Boiler holders Smiths $1 90 2 25 2 15 1 90 2 15 2 15 798 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Salaries paid post-office employe's. Occupations. Remarks. Postmaster Chief clerk Superintendent Eight clerks (each) Sixteen assorting clerks and telegraphers, first class. Forty-two assorting clerks and telegraphers, second class 1 female telegrapher, first class 5 female telegraphers, second class $2, 627 91 973 30 827 30 632 64 $9 73-$12 16 $3 00-$4 00 6 56 2 92 Per year. Do. Do. Do. uo. $9.73 per week, increasing to maximum of $12.16 per week. From $3 to $4 a week, increag. ing to maximum of $9.24. Increasing to $7.78. Increasing to $4.15. It must be taken into account that all the above (including telegraphers) are Government employes, and as such their position is permanent, and that they are entitled to retire on a pension after service for a certain number of years. Salaries paid in public schools. Occupations. Salary. $730 00 t 389 00 243 32 170 32 389 32 ) $1,557 00 do.... ...do .. do.... 1, 460 00 1, 703 27 do... do... An CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per annum to corporation employe's. Occupations. Salary per annum. $7, 299 75 1, 070 63 973 30 730 00 778 64 3, 221 80 $973 30 2, 920 00 973 30 4, 355 51 1, 216 62 438 00 411 00 1, 216 62 1, 012 23 *1, 095 00 teoi 57 1973 30 847 00 Occupations. Salary per annum. Town clerk's department Town clerk, clerk to the gas commit- tee, solicitor and clerk to the sewer- age committee, registrar of the bor- ough court of record, and steward of the manor Estates clerk , Conveyancing clerk , Registrar of stock , Seven clerks, ranging from £140 to £26, Borough engineer's dapartment. Consulting engineer, engineer to the gas and water and sewage farm com- mittees Borough surveyor and engineer Chief assistant Seven draftsmen, ranging from £200 to £65 Private improvements, notices, &o., clerk Clerk Do Building surveyor Two assistants,' £104 each Surveyor of highways Foreman of scavengers Clerk of works for private streets im- provement Two wharf clerks, £109 4s. and £65... * With house, coal, and gas. t With house. Borough engineer's department— Con- tinned. Clerk of works , Assistant clerk of works Subordinate employes Borough accountant's department. Borough accountant Chief clerk Six clerks, ranging from £95 to £31. . . Police court clerk Collector of private improvement works accounts , District rate and rents : Three clerks, ranging from £130 to £41 7. Kent collector Eight rate collectors, 1 at £160 and 7 at £150 Private improvement works, 7 clerks, ranging from £250 to £31 Health department. Medical officer of health , Chief inspector of nuisances Analyst Wharf superintendent '.'.'.'.'.. Meat inspector ""] Fish inspector """] 3 inspectors of nuisances, £104 each... t £80 for keep of house also. § And £50 traveling expenses. $885 70 569 38 506 11 1,946 60 1, 021 96 1, 961 19 442 85 730 00 1, 212 00 973 30 5,888 46 3, 475 00 §2, 920 00 §1, 460 00 Fees. 973 30 583 98 506 11 1, 518 34 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 799 Wages paid to corporation employes — Continued. Occupations. Health department— Continued. Manager of disinfecting station $506 11 2 office clerks 530 44 3 wharf clerks *1, 369 00 2 attendants at lavatories 379 58 2 lodging -house care-takers 301 72 I inspector of common lodging-houses- 126 52 Estates department. Estates surveyor 973 30 Assistant surveyors 442 85 Police and fire brigade. Chief constable, high constable, and billetmaster 2,190 00 Superintendent of police t973 30 12 inspectors of police 110 58 27 sergeants of police £8 02 170policemen J6 56 Superintendents of fire brigade §851 63 Surgeon to police force 438 00 Markets and fairs. Clerk of markets, inspector of weights and measures, &o -. 1,216 62 Assistants ||584 00 Toll collector and assistants 379 58 3 toll collectors (£65, £45 10s. and £44 4s.) 752 85 Assistants weights and measures TT253 05 Office assistant and gas superintendent 354 27 Castle museum. Director and curator **1, 460 00 2clerks 379 58 Foreman Stoker and fitter 506 11 II attendants, ed. It is presumed that the amount of meat given above is chiefly consumed by the head of the family, especially where a heavy trade is followed. Great num- bers of families do not live as well as the above, making less money and spending more in beer. The women and children live largely upon bread, or bread and butter or dripping, washed down with cheap tea, supplemented by pennyworth's of cheese or scraps of bacon from the corner grocery. This by way of dinner, such luxuries not being afforded at breakfast or tea. The children often take their meals alfresco, a slice of bread with dripping or treacle. At present provisions are cheaper than for many years, but the poor buy in such small quantities that they get no benefit from the lower prices. Their pennyworth of canned meat, and their pennyworth of cheese is no larger, and their few pounds of coal, wheeled home by a child in a small barrow, is purchased at a ruinous rate compared with the price per ton. The destruction of the poor is their poverty ; their poverty is largely the result of their improvidence, and their improvi- dence is the result of their drinking habits, even when they are not drunken, for the amount spent weekly in beer would give the working- man better food, better clothes, and a better home. It will surprise a stranger visiting a poor quarter to see the amount of business done in the "beer out" trade, viz, by grocers licensed to sell beer " not to be drank on the premises." These houses abound and are a great source of evil to the wives of the workiugmen. HOUSE RENTS. Bents vary according to neighborhood, respectability having to be paid for. The cheaper houses, of three or four rooms, will pay from 85 cents to $1.21 per week. This includes taxes and water. Houses 810 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. of a better class, say of six rooms, will range from $58.39 to $87.59 per annum, with taxes and water rate to be paid by the tenant. This de- scription of house will be occupied by the better paid artisans, clerks, and small manufacturers. A small step up in the social scale makes a great increase in expenditure. As to the poorer class of workmen's dwellings — such as were pictured in a late number of Harper's Magazine— oue reason for their dilapidated condition is the nature of the landlord's tenancy. The land upon which they stand belongs, as does a large portion of the town of Sheffield, to the Duke of Norfolk. The land is held upon short leases of ninety-nine years. Many of the leases are expiring or will expire in a few years. By the law all the buildings upon the land become the property of the duke, and he has the power to compel the holder to put the property into tenantable condition at the expiration of the lease. The landlord has no encouragement to improve the dwellings that are soon to pass out of his hands more than he can possibly avoid. Consequently much property is left to decay. A large part of Sheffield, covered with im- mense "works," is held under such leases. By the law, all these build- ings and their machinery, worth millions of pounds, will become the property of the duke when the leases expire, unless they are renewed, and it is for the duke to name the the terms of renewal. This subject has recently been warmly discussed in the Sheffield papers, in view of the prospect of rents being enormously increased, and the prosperity of the town seriously affected. An act is now pending in Parliament to provide for releasing in such cases on reasonable conditions. The fact must be mentioned that, in a great population like that of Sheffield, there are many exceptions to the improvident habits stated above. Some trades are well paid, and where good habits prevail the men can make themselves and families very comfortable. The physical condition of the work-people here is thought to be su- perior to that of operatives in the textile districts, and equal to that of the workers in any large manufacturing town in the Kingdom. 11. SAFETY OF EMPLOYES. The regulations for guarding the health and safety and for protect- ing the rights of employes are given in the factory and workshop act of 1878, and in the employers' liability act of 1880, which I have the honor to inclose herewith. The operation of the employers' liability act is to an extent evaded by the custom that prevails of employers contracting themselves out of the liability by an express agreement with their workmen that they shall take all the risk of accident, the men thus signing away their right to recover damages. There exists also an Employers' Accident Insurance Company, which, upon payment of an annual premium, as- sures the employer against loss. The men themselves, in some cases, contribute to pay this premium. The effort is being made by the trades- unions to have the law made compulsory upon employers. Most manufacturing firms subscribe to the public hospital and the infirmary, to which they send their men in case of accident. The men themselves also contribute to these institutions. I do not learn of any other means used by employers for the physical or the moral well-being of their workmen. 12. POLITICAL RIGHTS. All workingmen in boroughs who are householders have the ballot in both municipal and parliamentary elections. All women without LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 811 husbands, who are householders, have a vote in municipal elections alone. The new reform bill now pending in Parliament proposes to ex- tend the franchise to the counties on the same terms. The passing of the bill will add add about two millions to the present five millions of voters in Great Britain. The workingmen generally do not pay taxes directly. The class of dwellings they occupy are "free of rates," they being paid by the landlord. The tendency of legislation is to elevate the condition of the working people, to render them more independent, and to extend their influence. The action of a mass meeting of workingmen in Paradise Square, Shef- field, or in any other large town, has a decided effect upon Parliament. Eloquent speakers are rising from the ranks of the workingmen and are gaining influence in Parliament and in municipal bodies. 13. CAUSES OF EMIGRATION. There are no causes peculiar to this district that lead to emigration. It is not an agricultural district, and the conditions of the people dis- courage emigration. A large proportion of the workingmen are so ac- customed to town life, and to the round of daily labor in a single branch of work, that but few could adjust themselves to agricultural life, away from town. It is true that many do work small garden plots on the outskirts of the town, and take pride and pleasure in raising flowers and vegetables for the numerous shows that are held in the summer and autumn. But that is their pastime. The few who emigrate from this district who belong to the working class proper, go to find employment of the kind to which they have been bred. Many of them find their way back again to the old hive. A good number of Sheffield cutlers, saw-makers, and iron and steel workers are scattered through the mills of the United States. But the Sheffield workman loves Sheffield and his comparative freedom from strict rules, and his " Saint Monday " and as many other saint days as he chooses devoutly to keep. Was he ever so much inclined to emi- grate, his inability to bear the cost of moving himself and family to another country where he might better his condition, would keep him fixed in his old haunts. A GLOOMY OUTLOOK. As already stated, female labor is not employed in this district to any extent other or greater than in any large town with its surrounding country where there are no cotton, woolen, or lace factories. Therefore, and as time is pressing, I beg to omit remark upon this part of the circular. Under No. 10 I intended to say that friendly societies and sick and funeral clubs are very common among the working classes, and a large proportion of the workmen belong to one or more of them. In this way it may be said that they provide, to some extent, for sickness and death. But very many look to the poor-house as their legitimate end. In fact, they regard it as their right. Jocular remarks about going to their country mansion, and to the " Big House," are frequent. 0. B. WEBSTER, Consul. United States Consulate, Sheffield, June 1-4, 1884. 812 LABOK IN EUROPE ENGLAND. SOUTHAMPTON. REPORT BY CONSUL THOMSON. In accordance with the directions contained in the labor circular dated 15th February, 1884, I beg to inclose the accompanying statement of rates of wages paid tothe laboring classes at this port. Prom the inquiries which I have made, it would appear that the cost of living to the laboring classes is generally equal to their wages, and frequently in excess of then], they being inclined always to a liberal diet, of which meat forms an important part. The wages earned by mechanics have, of late years, had an upward tendency. In some instances, however, owing to strikes, overpro- duction, and the competition of other countries, the wages paid have been at a lower rate. Notwithstanding the general depression of trade which has existed for the past few years, the highest rate of wages has been generally maintained, although, from the necessities of the case, there has been lessened production, and the workmen have been rarely fully employed, so that, as a rule, their gross earnings do not by any means equal those made formerly. At this port there are no factories other than those connected with iron ship-building and coach-building. In the former trade, although at the present time in a state of great depression from overproduction, the highest rate of wages is paid, a condition of things enforced by the action'of the trades union. The habits of the working classes, although showing a marked im- provement of late years, can scarcely be deemed steady or trustworthy Theirexpenditures as a rule equals their income, and very often exceeds it. This is owing principally to the fact that mechanics as a rule marry early in life and generally have enormous families. This state of things is peculiarly the case at this port, where the hab- its of 1 he women are especially volatile, and their numerous children tend to a condition of chronic poverty. The feeling which prevails between employe and employer is fairly cordial, their great contentions of past years having, by means of labor unions, been placed on a good understanding. Although strikes take place occasionally, disputes between workmen and their employers are usually settled amicably by arbitration. This is generally concluded by representative workingmen and the capitalists. In all cases working people are free to purchase the necessaries of life wherever they choose, and their wages are always paid in gold or silver. As a rule co-operative societies have been prosperous and have ena- bled the work-people to purchase the necessaries of life at reduced cost, and their establishment has had a good efiect on general trade. Perhaps the general condition of the working people may be deemed fairly comfortable, as, while in full employment, they would appear to be well fed and clothed. They have, however, little chance of bettering their condition, and would appear to have no resources from which to lay up something for old age and sickness ; the latter, however, is gen- erally provided for by means of the workmen sick-clubs. Factories are under the periodical inspection of Government inspect- ors, who see that proper means are taken to prevent accidents, as well as that excessive hours of labor are not enforced. All householders are entitled to vote at elections for members of Par- liament, and the tendency of legislation is to draw closer the relations of capital and labor. LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 813 The causes which lead to emigration are overpopulation and the great depression in most branches of industry. The emigrants consist of ag- ricultural laborers and all classes of mechanics. FEMALE LABOK. There are no factories or industries at this port in which women are employed. Female labor here is principally that of drapers' assistants, governesses, and school- teachers, and is composed principally of per- sons of fair education. WM. THOMSON, Consul. United States Consulate, Southampton, August, 1884. general trades. TVwjes paid the general trades per week of fifty-six and a half hours in Southampton. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. BUILDING TRADES Brick-layers Hod-carriers Masons Tenders Plasterers SKDSTenders Slaters Boofers Tenders Plumbers TIM Assistants-. Carpenters Gas-fitters OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Book-binders Brewers Butchers Brass-founders Cabinet-makers Confectioners Coopers Cutlers Drivers : Draymen and teamsters Cab, carriage, &c Street railways Dyers Engravers Farriers Gardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Millwrights Nailmakers (hand) Printers Teachers, public schools Saddle and harness makers -Sailmakers Stevedores Tanners Tailors Telegraph operators Tinsmiths Coach-builders Painters $5 22 3 65 6 44 6 78 6 44 3 65 6 44 6 44 3 65 6 44 3 65 6 44 6 44 $8 51 5 72 8 51 8 01 8 51 5 72 8 51 8 51 5 72 8 51 5 72 8 51 8 51 7 29 8 51 8 51 7 29 24 33 6 80 8 75 10 70 6 07 7 29 9 73 5 83 5 34 6 32 7 29 14 59 12 16 5 83 14 59 7 29 17 02 5 34 12 16 7 29 6 32 6 56 19 92 7 78 7 29 24 33 9 73 14 59 14 59 7 29 9 73 7 43 $7 43 4 58 7 43 7 43 7 43 4 58 7 43 7 43 4 58 7 43 4 58 7 43 7 43 6 07 7 43 7 43 6 32 19 46 5 83 7 78 9 73 5 46 6 68 8 51' 5 59 5 10 5 83 6 68 12 16 8 51 5 34 10 94 6 07 14 59 4 86 9 73 6 68 5 59 5 83 15 57 6 56 6 56 111 46 8 51 10 94 111 94 (i 09 7 29 (i 78 814 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. RAILWAY EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week to railwa-i emphii/iSs {those engaged about stations, as well as those en- gaged on the engines and cars, linemtn, railroad laborer*, #c.) in Southampton. Driver (main) — Stoker G-uard Driver (shunter). Stoker Engine cleaner . , Porters Occupations. Lowest. I Highest. ] Average. $8 51 (i 07 7 29 4 86 3 65 4 38 4 38 $12 16 7 29 9 73 7 29 07 7 29 6 07 $10 38 6 68 8 51 6 07 1 86 5 83 5 22 SHIP-YARDS. Wages paid per day of ten hours in ship-yards— distinguishing between iron and wood ship- building—in Southampton. Occupations. WOOD. Shipwrights Joiners Laborers IRON Platers Holders-up Laborers Highest Average. $1 09 $1 29 $1 19 97 1 19 1 13 73 85 79 1 46 2 19 1 82 1 09 1 58 1 33 73 85 79 SEAMEN'S WAGES. Wages paid per month to seamen (officers and men) — distinguishing between ocean and coast — in Southampton. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Ocean : $58 39 38 93 34 06 29 19 15 80 9 73 19 46 14 59 9 73 $77 86 58 39 43 79 38 93 18 24 12 16 24 33 15 80 10 94 $68 13 48 66 38 93 34 06 17 02 10 94 Coasting : 21 89 15 19 10 33 STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid in stores, wholesale and retail, to males and females, in Southampton. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $145 99 $243 32 97 33 194 66 4 13 5 10 121 66 218 99 82 73 126 52 48 66 72 99 Average. Grocery : first counterman yearly . . Second counterman do Porters per week.. Dry-goods stores : ' 1 first counterman yearly . . Second counterman do Porters do $194 66 145 99 4 62 170 32 104 62 60 82 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants in Southampton. 815 Occupation s. Bntlers .Footmen Pages Housekeepers Ladies' maids House maids (upper) House maids (ordinary) . Cooks Kitchen maids Lowest. Highest. Average. $194 G6 $389 32 $291 9» 121 66 170 32 145 99 72 99 121 66 97 33 121 66 170 32 145 99 72 99 121 66 97 33 58 39 87 59 72 99 48 66 72 99 60 82 97 33 145 99 72 99 48 66 72 99 60 82 AGRICULTURAL WAGES. Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household (country) jervanta in the district of Southampton, Occupations. Bailiffs '. per year . Husbandmen do... Dairy maids do... Laborers per week . Plowmen do . . - Carters do . . . BoyB do... Lowest. Highest. $291 99 $389 32 194 66 291 99 72 99 97 33 2 92 3 89 3 40 4 86 2 92 4 38 1 46 2 19 Average. $340 65 243 32 85 16 3 40 4 13 3 65 1 82 PRINTERS' "WAGES. Statement showing the wages paid per week to printers in Southampton. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. $4 86 4 86 $7 29 6 07 $6 07 5 40 SUNDERLAND. REPORT BY CONSULAR-AGENT HORAN. Wages paid the general trades per loeek of fifty-four to fifty-nine hours in Sunderland. Bricklayers Hod-carriers. Masons. Tenders . Occupations. BUILDING TRADES.* Plasterers . Tenders Slaters (mostly piece-work). Tenders (mostly hoys) . . . Plumbers.. Assistants (apprentices mostly) . Carpenters Gas-fitters Lowest. Highest. ' Work fifty to fifty-four hours per week. $6 07 6 07 Average. $8 10 5 54 8 10 5 54 8 10 5 54 8 02 2 43 8 02 8 10 8 02 816 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Wages paid the general trades per week of fifty-four to fifty-nine hours in Sunderland — Cont'd. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average OTHER TRADES. Bakers Blacksmiths Strikers Book-binders , Brick-makers Brewers (work all times) Batchers BrasB-fonnders Cabinet-makers Confectioners (ten and a half hours diem) . Coopers . Drivers. . 6 32 5 83 5 34 6 80 5 83 6 56 5 10 Draymen and teamsters . Cab, carriage, &c Dyers . Engravers Gardeners Hatters Horseshoers Jewelers and watchmakers Laborers, porters, &c Lithographers Printers Teachers, public schools (per annum) . Saddle and harness makers Sail-makers .- Tailors Telegraph operators 4 38 6 07 6 07 6 07 8 51 7 29 7 29 2 43 6 07 7 29 218 70 7 29 6 07 6 80 (*) $7 79 7 29 7 29 6 56 7 78 7 78 7 29 6 07 6 56 5 10 7 29 8 75 7 29 9 73 8 26 9 73 4 38 7 78 8 52 973 30 8 52 7 78 8 75 (*) $6 8a 7 78 438 7 00 6 07 7 30 8 02 7 50 7 00 7 00 5 59 6 07 4 86 6 50 8 00 6 56 9 00 7 50 9 00 8 00 7 29 7 29 (*) " Paid by Government. FOUNDRIES AND MACHINE-SHOPS. Wages paid per week of fifty-four hours in foundries, machine-shops, and brass and iron works in Sunderland. Occupations. General foremen . Foundry foremen ^Workmen Finishers Plumbers Laborers First-class boys . Second-class boys Lowest. $14 60 10 94 8 26 8 51 8 02 89 32 Highest. Average. $24 40 14 59 8 75 8 51 8 75 1 01 60 28 $21 90 12 10 8 51 8 51 SHIP-YARDS. Wages paid per week of fifty-three hours in ship-yards — distinguishing between iron andwood ship-building — in Sunderland. Occupations. Carpenters Joiners Drillers Smiths Cutters Calkers Painters Laborers Platers Rivetters Holders-up Heaters (boys) Block and mast makers. Lowest. $5 84 5 84 4 37 8 03 Highest. $7 29 9 73 7 29 10 20 Average. $8 52 8 03 6 80 8 03 9 23 8 52 8 03 5 10 8 03 7 77 6 32 2 67 LABOK IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 817 The above is the average wages per week, though much of this work is done by the piece or job, and frequent disputes are the results which takes place between the platers and their assistants. Strikes are of fre- quent occurrence in the iron yards, which cause much mischief, fre- quently to the driving away of orders, though of late there has been more regularity. At present there is almost a total collapse in the build- ing trade, not only of this port but generally throughout the country, the low rates of freight making the carrying trade in steamers altogether unproductive. Many steamers are being laid up for want of remunera- tive employment. SEAMEN'S WAGES. Wages paid per month to teamen (officers and men) — distinguishing between ocean, coast, and river navigation, and between sail and steam — in the port of Sunderland. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. OCEAN 8TEAMES8. Masters Chief mates Second mates Boatswains Carpenters Stewards Cooks Able seamen Chief engineers . . . Second engineers. Thi rd engineers . . . Don keynien Firemen COASTING STEAMERS. Masters Mates: First per week. Second do... Engineers : First do... Second do... Donkevmen* do . . . Firemen* do... Able seamen* do. . . sailing SHIPS. Masters 1 per month. Mates t do --- Carpenters do... Seamen ■* do..- $77 86 34 07 24 33 19 46 26 76 24 33 24 33 17 03 OX 13 43 80 29 19 21 90 19 47 19 47 10 94 58 39 29 19 20 76 17 03 $107 06 58 40 34 06 29 19 31 62 34 06 29 19 19 46 77 86 58 40 38 93 24 33 20 68 7 29 12 16 7 29 6 80 6 56 87 00 38 93 31 62 19 47 * These find themselves in provisions. t According to size and trades. $97 20 43 80 29 19 24 33 29 19 29 19 25 25 18 23 72 92 51 03 34 02 23 00 20 00 SEAMEN AND THEIR WAGES. [Extract from daily press.] ^The following are the wages quoted as being returned by the super- intendent of thd mercantile marine offices in this district: Able seamen in steamers to — 1873. 1880. 1883. $18 85 to $20 68 18 25 to 19 47 $17 03 17 03 $19 47 19 47 92 A— LAB- -52 818 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. These figures would seem to show that there had been in the last de- cade an increase to the rate of pay to the able seamen of the district. The wages of sea-going engineers and firemen have considerably in- creased during the same period. As a rule, the seamen of the country have greatly improved in their habits aud are much more provident than formerly. In 1874 there were employed in the sailing ships of the United Kingdom 128,000; there were last year 95,000 only, but the number in the steamships rose from 74,000 in 1874 to 105,000 last year. There is now a great depression in shipping, and it is at present esti- mated that there are at least 3,500 seamen idle in the United Kingdom, and that these are being added to daily, owing to vessels being laid up, the low freights rendering it impossible to sail them without loss. STORE AND SHOP WAGES. Wages paid per week of various hours in grocery stores, wholesale or retail, to males and females, in Sunderland. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. SHOPS.* Foremen Assistants Boys STORES, t Foremen Laborers $7 30 6 07 1 00 7 78 4 38 $7 78 6 50 1 50 8 50 6 07 * Hours : 8 a. m. to 8 p. m. ; Fridays, 8 a. m. to 9 p. m ; Saturdays, 8 a. m. to 11 p. m. t Hours : 7 a, m. to 7 p. m. HOUSEHOLD WAGES. Wages paid per year to household servants (towns and cities) in Sunderland. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Housekeepers Cooks Housemaids Chambermaids Maid-of-all-work Nurse maids Grooms or coachmen. $97 33 97 33 58 39 58 39 48 66 97 33 $145 99 145 99 77 86 77 86 58 39 58 40 145 99 $121 66 121 66 68 13 68 13 121 66 Note — Grooms, coachmen, and pages have usually two suits of clothes provided them each year in addition to their wages. AGRICULTURAL WAGES. The practice in this part of the country is to have stated hirings of farm servants and laborers. The May hirings for the half year has just taken place. The following is the result : Wages paid to agricultural laborers and household (country) servants in the county of Dur- ham. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Men Boys Females, Day laborers (female) Gardeners $48 66 14 60 29 19 $72 99 24 33 43 80 48 1 09 $63 26 19 47 38 93 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 819 CORPORATION EMPLOYES. Wages paid per week of fifty-six hours to the corporation employes in the town of Sunder- land, county of Durham, England. Occupations. Town clerk per annum.. Borough surveyor do Borough accountant do ... Medical officers of health do Clerks do Assistant surveyors do Assistant accountants do . . . Road inspector do Inspector of stamps, hydrants, &o do Inspectors of nuisances do Collectors of rates do Magistrates' clerk (borough) do ... Inspector of weights and measures do Blacksmiths per week.. Joiners do Painters do Masons do Laborers do ... Cart men do Scavengers do Housekeeper do POLICE. Chief constable per annum.. Superintendent per week.. Inspectors do Subiuspectors do Sergeants do Constables do Lowest. $253 05 486 65 437 98 389 32 486 65 8 03 '657 4 38 9 00 8 03 5 84 Highest. $2, 919 90 1, 459 95 1, 946 60 2, 433 25 973 30 875 97 583 98 729 97 729 97 583 98 729 97 3, 163 22 583 98 8 52 8 11 8 03 8 03 5 84 5 84 4 86 8 52 1, 459 95 11 06 11 19 9 73 9 00 7 30 Average. $2, 919 90 1, 459 95 1, 946 60 2, 433 25 583 30 729 00 486 00 729 97 729 97 486 00 631 80 8 11 7 30 8 03 5 84 5 84 4 86 8 52 GOVERNMENT EMPLOYES. Wages paid to employed in Government departments and offices, exclusive of tradesmen and' laborers. SUNDERLAND POST-OFFICE. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. Average. Postmaster per annum. . Deputy postmaster do ... Chief clerk do.... Senior clerks per week.. Junior clerks do Letter-carriers do Telegraph clerks do — Females do Carriers (boys) do $7 30 4 38 4 38 3 89 3 40 2 92 $2, 433 25 1, 216 62 973 30 12 15 8 51 7 30 8 51 5 59 4 13 $2,433 25 1,216 62 973 30 9 73: 1 30 5 59> 7 30- 5 00 3 65. Clerks and carriers, in addition to the above pay, are eligible for good conduct money in addition, ranging from one shilling to three additional, to their weekly pay. Employes in this department are also eligible for pensions, varying according to service. At twenty years' service they can retire upon one-third of the pay to which they had attained; at forty years the retiring pension is two-thirds their full pay, or they may compound for a lump sum instead of a Pen8i0n - CUSTOMS. Occupations. Collector (hours, 10 to 4) Clerks (hours, 10 to 4) Surveyor (hou rs, 8 to 4) Examining officers (hours, 8 to 4) Out-door officers (24 hours on) Boatmen (24 hours on) Lowest. Highest. Average. $389 32 535 32 267 66 267 66 $2, 919 90 1, 946 60 1, 703 27 1, 459 95 413 65 413 65 Customs officers, like all Government employes, are eligible for pensions according to length of service. The inferior officers, such as tide-waiters and boatmen, are paid for attendance after customs hoars extra fees by those requiring their services. 820 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. PRINTERS' wages. Statement showing the wages paid per week of fifty-four hours to printers (compositors, pressmen, proof-readers, $c.) in Sunderland. Occupations. Lowest. Highest. $7 30 8 52 7 30 *S 03 8 03 SAFETY OF EMPLOYES. The safety of employes in factories, mines, mills, and railroads is looked after and secured by a system of Government inspection, the employers' liability act makes provision for tbe men in case of accident. Many employers pay considerable attention to the well-being, comfort, and improvement of their workpeople. Lectnre halls, temperance mis- sions, &c, are frequent. Workingmen, householders in boroughs, have the same political rights as property-holders, and the present bill before Parliament seeks to give the same privilege to householders in the counties. The taxes paid or borne by the workman is small. Toward imperial taxes they pay only on tobacco and drinks, which can be done without. As householders they pay the local taxes. They are eligible to serve as members of the corporation, as magistrates, as members of the imperial Parliament, money qualification being abandoned, as also all civil disabilities, the passport to these positions being common seuse, sobriety, good conduct, self-respect. With these there is no limit short of royalty for the workingman. COST OF LIVING. Cost of living of the laboring classes. Cost of clothing per annum |48 66 to $56 40 Cost of rent for 3 rooms per annum 58 39 68 13 Cost of beef per pound, American 12 18 Cost of beef per pound, English. 18 20 Cost of flour per 14 pounds 60 Cost of potatoes per 14 pounds , 16 GENERAL CONDITION OF THE LABORING CLASSES. The laboring classes as a rule live from hand to mouth, but the many temperance associations are making themselves felt in reclaiming drunkards, and a perceptible improvement is taking place amongst them. A great drawback to their well-being and also to the progress of trade is their proneness to strikes. The organizations of trades unions is of questionable benefit to the men themselves, while its effects upon their employers is often most ruinous. The result has been that masters are now combining in self-defense, so that strikes are longer and gen- erally more disastrous to both sides. The inauguration oi dispensaries is a great benefit to the working classes. For a small weekly or monthly payment they have medical attendance, advice, and medicines in case of sickness. There are also many charitable institutions for their benefit. Employers of labor pro- vide, in many instances, reading rooms, libraries, and amusements for their men. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 821 The employers' liability act is also a great boon to the workingmen, in providing compensation in cases of accident. The principal inducement to emigrate is the favorable reports circu- lated of the benefits awaiting thein ; and this, coupled with want of work, is the principal factor which influence their action. JAMBS HORAN, Consular Agent. United States Consular Agency, Sunderland, June 24, 1884. TUNSTALL. SEPOST ST CONSUL LANE. In pursuance of the instructions contained in the labor circular issued by the State Department under date of February 15, 1884, I have the honor to report as follows : As is well known, the chief industry of this consular district is the manufacture of earthenware, china, and all descriptions and grades of pottery except the very lowest grades, such as common stone-ware. In the various kinds of employment pertaining to this industry there are engaged, approximately, 50,000 people, or about one-fourth of the pop- ulation. Hence, while the general character of this report naturally embraces the labor and social features of those engaged in other pur- suits, it has a more specific application to the manufacture of pottery. In the matter of wages paid this industry has had my especial and care- ful research, and the details of my examinations, the manner in which my inquiries have beeu received, the numbers employed in the different branches, and other particulars have especial reference to this industry and its peculiar phases. The wages in other occupations and trades, which will doubtless be more thoroughly and definitely treated in re- ports from those localities where they are relatively of greater impor- tance, will be found given in the various forms herewith returned as accurately as the sources of information at my command will allow, but not embracing potters' wages.* There is no uniform schedule of potters' wages followed sufficiently to afford a guide in seeking a true average of weekly earnings. I have reduced my work on this subject to tabulated statements on and accom- panying Form II, the heading of which I have changed to meet the case, and have marked the same with the explanatory tables and accompa- nying statements as inclosure No. 2. Taking them in their order, the interrogatories contained in the De- partment circular, I have to remark as follows : • Part I. — Male Labor. (1) Question. The rate of wages paid to laborers of every class — me- chanical, mining, factory, public works and railways, domestic, agricul- tural, &c. — Answer. See various forms accompanying this report as in- closures No. 1 and 2. * The forms referred to are. those furnished by the Department, numbered from 1 to 15, so far as applicable to this district, and herewith transmitted together as iu- olosure No. 1. 822 LABOR IN EUEOPE ENGLAND. COST OP LIVING. (2) Q. The cost of living to the laboring class, viz, the prices paid for the necessaries of life, clothing, rent, &c. In this connection not only should the prices of the necessaries of life from an American stand-point be given, as per accompanying forms, but the prices of the articles and their nature which are actually consumed by the work-people and their families should also be given. — A. In relation to the subject-matter of this interrogatory I cannot do better than to quote from a recent com- munication made by me to the United States consul-general at London on this subject. I have made careful inquiries, and find that the state- ment there made on this branch of the subject is quite reliable. The retail prices of most of the necessaries of life may therefore be given as follows : Articles. Bread (4-pound loaf > Butter per pound. Bntterine d« . . . Bacon do... Cheese do. . Ham do.. Lard do.. Sugar : White do.. Brown do. . Flour perl4pou»ds Tea per pound Coffee do.. Preshbeef do.. Fresh beef (2d quality) do . . Fresh mutton do.. Fresh pork do Potatoes per bushel Price. $0 10 $0 24 to 40 16 24 14 18 12 16 16 20 12 16 5 6 4 36 40 50 25 35 14 25 9 18 16 25 9 17 80 2 00 Articles. Freeh fish : Salmon per pound . Sole do... Cod do... Mackerel do... Oysters: Natives perdoz. American do... Calico : "White per yard. Prints do. . . Linen do . . . Coal (delivered) per ton . Gras per 1,000 feet. Coal oil per gallon. Candles (16 to pound), per pound Price. $0 20 to $0 35 25 35 10 6 12 50 25 6 8 8 12 12 25 3 65 77 20 25 Fruit, as a rule, is beyond the reach of the workingman. Apples, when the supply from America is plentiful, are sometimes sold as low as $2 per bushel, but this is seldom. Chickens cost from 60 cents to $1 each, usually about 75 cents each. Bents. — The rent of houses occupied by the working people varies from 50 cents to $1.10 per week, according to size, location, and condi- tion of the premises. The greater number of these houses are of one pattern, and contain two rooms down-stairs,each 11 feet square, and two up-stairs of the same size, and there is usually a back kitchen 6 by 9 feet, and an open court or yard, which must be paved and not less in area than 156 square feet. These comprise the good class of workmen's houses. So far as the essentials of comfort are concerned they seem not to be materially deficient, but owing to some difference in tastes or the modes or habits of life, or through some fault or misfortune of the occu- pants, they do not have the cheerful and thrifty aspect which one sees about the houses of the corresponding class of work-people in the United States. Many of them are tasteful and inviting, but too many of them are untidy, not to say unclean, in appearance, and impress one as being the abodes of people who are indifferent to their surroundings, and not very ambitious of the morrow. The floors are almost entirely of quarry or brick down-stairs, and in the majority of cases without carpets upstairs. These houses command about 75 to 85 cents per week. There are poorer dwellings occupied by a considerable portion of the working people which bring 50 to 60 cents per week. They are sometimes occupied by people whose earnings are too small to permit of any greater expendi- LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 823 ture, even with frugal and industrious habits, and sometimes by those who are thriftless, improvident, or dissipated from choice. Many of this latter class of houses are dirty and dingy, and, taken with the scanty and poor furniture, the soiled habiliments and unkempt appearance of the occupants, they are quite in contrast with the houses of a siiniliar grade of operatives one will see in manufacturing towns in the United States of a corresponding density of population. They approach in ap- pearance much nearer the conditions of life one sees in the low quarters of the great cities both in Europe and America. The untidy appear- ance of these houses is not always the fault of the inmates, but is often due to the forced neglect caused by the female members working in the pottery or some other employment outside the domestic duties of the household. The nature of the articles which are actually consumed by a working- man's family are given more in detail in the answer to interrogatory No. 10. PAST AND PRESENT WAGES. (3) Q. Comparison between the present rates of wages and those which prevailed in 1878 (and since that time), when the last labor cir- cular was issued from the Department, and between the conditions which then prevailed and which now prevail ? — A. Potters' wages are about the same as in 1878. Colliers' wages about 15 per cent, higher. Iron-workers are slightly lower. The wages in other trades are about the same as in 1878. The conditions of the working people have not materially changed since that time, although I consider that their con- dition as a class is steadily but slowly improving. HABITS OF THE WORKING CLASSES. (4) Q. The habits of the working classes, whether steady and trust- worthy, or otherwise, saving or otherwise, and the causes which princi- pally affect their habits for good or evil. — A. The habits of the Staf- fordshire potters will compare favorably with those of any large body of operatives in similar grades of employment ; that is, earning similar wages. They are not inclined to be riotous or disorderly, but are gen- erally well-behaved, steady, and trustworthy. While the public houses flourish contemporaneously with remunerative and steady employment of the potters, much of the gain thus accruing reaches them through intermediate hands. The potters, as a body, are sober, and many of them are abstemious. Some of them, of course, are neither. These go the way of the profligates in all other trades — a surfeit of eating and drinking on Sunday ; the appetite and the larder both stale but still supplied on Monday ; the Sunday apparel to the pawnbrokers on Tuesday, where it will remain until Saturday, when the routine of riot and remorse — if the latter ever comes — will begin again. These cases are not numerous among the potters ; still it cannot be said that the working people in any of the industries of the district are very saving. In most cases, especially where there is a family and only one wage- earner, saving, in the sense of accumulation, cannot be expected, and, as a rule, it does not take place beyond a very limited amount, and, in most cases, not at all. This is evident from the fact that a cottage, such as those occupied by the majority of workmen, and renting for 80 cents to $1 per week, can be built for $450 to $500, and yet only a very few of them are owned by the occupants. A statement somewhat to this effect made by a newspaper correspondent has been much disputed, 824 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. but I feel safe in saying that less than 10 per cent, of the working peo- ple of this district are free holders. Yet, with good habits and a family to help, many of them can, and do, by the aid of clubs and similar small insurances, save enough to tide over temporary misfortunes, such as sickness, loss of employment, &c, and for funeral expenses (these are needlessly high here) in case of death. To undertake to assign the causes which affect the habits of the work- ing people for good or evil, and do it intelligently and creditably would, I think, require an essay more exhaustive than I am able to write. In my view the inevitable life-long struggle which many a workingman foresees to be his allotment aggravates the proneuess of man to evil, and, hoping nothing from the inexorable future, he seeks the wildest possible abandon in the blandishments of the present. If the chances were better for attaining emancipation from drudgery, for gratifying the social ambition of those who have it, better habits would co-operate with better hopes and be largely both the means and the end of the working- man's social and material improvement. Moreover, the increase in the chances of such improvement would multiply the numbers of those who would seek it. The desire and the effort to rise in the world would be experienced by many to whom such an impulse is now a stranger. Low wages are not conducive to good habits and mere cheapness of living is not a full compensation for their deficiencies. The " cheap loaf" is made much of in this country, and I fear its potency is overestimated. One would sometimes think from what he reads and hears here that the chief end of the workingman was to buy cheap bread. An increase of 10 per cent, in the wages of a workingman earning 30 shillings a week would buy seven additional loaves per week if he chose to spend the surplus in that way, but it is unlikely that many of them would make that use of it ; some, perhaps, a worse one, but many would add little adornments and in various ways cultivate a little more refinement about their homes, while a goodly number would doubtless make their regular deposits in the savings banks until such times as steady work and frugal living would enable them to purchase their homes. In this way good habits would be formed and afterwards adhered to for their own sake. The prospect of accumulation is the stepping-stone from stolid indiffer- ence to wholesome ambition. These remarks must not be understood as contradicting the previous statement that the potters are generally steady and well-behaved, but only to show that if the manufacturers could afford to increase wages the benefits would doubtless be turned to good account. There are now about one thousand two hundred public houses in the district. I do not believe an increase in wages would replenish their tills in the same ratio that it would improve the condition of the working people. It is impossible, however, to ignore the facilities for obtaining drink and the social charms of the tap room among the causes affecting for the bad the habits of the working classes of both sexes. On the other hand, there have not been wanting influences brought to bear, through philanthropic legislation, which have had a healthy and refin- ing influence on the workingman and his family. A full synopsis of such legislation has been prepared for this report by Mr. F. W. Tom- kinson, vice and deputy consul, and will be found in the answer to in- terrogatory 11. FEELING BETWEEN EMPLOYER AND EMPLOYE, (5) Q. The feeling which prevails between employe" and employer, and the effects of this feeling on the general and particular prosperity of the LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 825 community. — A. I should describe generally the feeling between the "mas- ters" and "men" (the terms generally used here) as friendly, but not cordial. On the part of the masters as kind and sympathetic, but re- served, and on the partof the men as respectful, but independent. The workman, no doubt, wishes the master good will, but apparently he does not desire any familiarity with him, nor expect to be patronized by him. The difference between this relationship in this country and in the United States may be more apparent than real, but there is a differ- ence in the general demeanor and bearing of the working people, very striking to the American upon bis first observations in this country. That a difference equally striking in the demeanor and bearing of the employer impresses theBnglish workman upon his first experience in the United States is doubtless also true. I have at hand an actual illus- tration of each case. An American manufacturer, who recently visited Europe for the first time, spent several days in the potteries imme- diately after landing on this side. I took occasion to ask him for his impression of the working people of the potteries, after having seen them from day to day at their work and on the street. After a moment's hes- itation, his reply was, "Well, I don't know what to think of them ; they have such a suppressed look." I was a little surprised at his reply, be- cause they are not suppressed in any general acceptation of that term, but recalling my own first impressions, five years ago, and remembering that my interlocutor had lived the most of his life in an American man- ufacturingtown, mingling with factory opratives from day to day, I saw forced to admit that he could not have chosen a better word for a direct reply to my question. But as this outward characteristic does not come from any actual oppression or arbitrary treatment, its cause must be sought elsewhere. As before substantially remarked, the great body of British workmen must remain through life what they are to-day or emigrate. To say that this unwelcome truth has grown into a constant shadow of latent and sullen discontent would probably be too strong, but that it has banished the cheerfulness of real contentment I truly believe. The view of similar matters in the United States from the stand-point of the British workman is well shown in a letter now before me, kindly handed to me by a friend to whom it was written, and from which I copy the following extract The letter was written by the hus- band on behalf of himself andhis wife. He says : We can say one thing, that this is the country for a workingman. No humbug from masters ; everybody is equal here. The biggest gentlemen in the country up to the President will bid you good morning, and stand chatting to yon as if they had not a cent. Yon do not bow'and scrape here to your superiors. You walk right into their office or house and they tell you to sit down and smoke. No taking off your hat. Whether the writer of this(who,I should state, is-nowa book-keeper) has been guilty of any exaggeration in the portrayal of his new sur- roundings or not, he has certainly excited much wonderment in the minds of his English friends, and we may pardon the exuberance of spirits which doubtless led a seemingly strong contrast to prompt such a glowing tribute to our industrial system. OEGANIZED CONDITION OP LABOE. (6) Q. The organized condition of labor, the nature of organization and its effect on the advancement and welfare of the laborers. In this connection it would be well to refer to counter organizations of capital, and on the local and general laws bearing on such organizations. — A. The potters are mostly organized for mutual benefit and protection into a society known as the Potters' Federation. This organization may be 826 LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. • said to have the effect of maintaining in some measure the rate of wages, and preventing employers from being oppressive in their dealings with the workmen, should they be so disposed. As to counter organizations of capital, there may be cited the Potters' Manufacturers Association and the Coal and Iron Masters' Association. They deal with all mat- ters affecting their respective trades. They may also be said to be sec- onded and aided and, perhaps, sometimes led by the North Staffordshire Chamber of Commerce. Together they look after, suggest, and, if it suits them, try to promote legislation affecting the staple trades of the district, make suggestions and recommendations in the matter of nego- tiating commercial treaties, collect information concerning foreign tariffs, &c. These organizations are not kept up for the purpose of resisting the demands of labor, but they afford facilities which are used with effect to that end when necessary. STRIKES. (7) Q. The prevalency of strikes, and how far arbitration enters into the settlement of disagreements between the employers and employes, and the manner and nature of such arbitration. The effect of strikes on the advancement or otherwise of labor and the general effect thereof on the industrial interests affected thereby. — A. Strikes are not par- ticularly frequent, but do occur from time to time. There was in 1881 a long strike of potters, the main body of the operatives being out about thirteen weeks, and a strike of colliers in 1882. The potters' strike was directly connected with the arbitration system, there having been two successive awards adverse to the men, one reducing wages 12 per cent. and the other refusing to restore the wages to the former standard. Up to the time of the last strike there was a board of arbitration consisting of masters and men, and when the dispute arose some disinterested party was agreed upon to hear the respective sides and adjudge between them. Some person outside the district of high social and commercial standing was usually selected as arbitrator. In both the cases men- tioned the cause of the men was ably presented and maintained by representatives from their own ranks, but the masters pleaded low sell- ing prices with such good effect that the awards were in their favor. Whether the awards were strictly in accordance with equity, as shown by the evidence, I cannot say, but the year following the second one the men gave notice for a restoration of the old rate of wages. The manu- facturers generally gave counter notice of a further reduction, where- upon the men struck and declined to go again intp arbitration, and the system of arbitration cannot be said to have been in existence in this district since that time. The system, I am inclined to think, never had the elements of popularity with the workiugmen generally. They always suspected the undue influence of the higher social rank of the masters, and were, consequently, somewhat jealous and half afraid from the out- set that justice would not be done them. I believe this feeling to. have been unfounded in both the cases tried, but to many of the men the re- sults brought conviction in place of what had before been only suspicion. I am bound to say, however, that a similar experience of adversity would very likely have produced very similar results on the part of the manu- facturers. A gentleman of experience in the industrial affairs of the district, who has advised me freely on the subject-matter of this report, says that the arbitration system could not survive the defeat of either party in two successive arbitrations. On the whole, arbitration between employers and employes in this district must be considered to have had only a doubtful success. As to the effect of strikes, any view must LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 827 be largely theoretical. The immediate effect has always been bad, but I believe in the end they have tended to advance the condition of the laborer, and this is equivalent to saying that they have advanced the industrial interests of the district. The colliers' strike mentioned was a long one, lasting nearly the entire summer season of 1882. It was only a part of a general movement that has prevailed for a year or two throughout the Kingdom. In this district in some instances the masters yielded and in some they did not. The general effect cannot well be es- timated from the standpoint of this district alone. FREEDOM OP POOD PURCHASES. (8) Q. Are the working people free to purchase the necessities of life wherever they choose, or do the employers impose any conditions in this regard 1 How often and in what kind of currency is the laborer paid % — A. So far as I am aware they are perfectly free to purchase where and what they please. I know of no case where the sale of articles of daily family consumption, such as dry-goods and grocer- ies, are sold in connection with any manufactory, nor any case in which any manufacturer is interested in such trade. There is no interference with the work-people as to how they shall spend their wages. They are paid weekly in gold and silver coin. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. (9) Q. Co operative societies: Give full information concerning their formation and practical working, whether they are prosperous or other- wise; to what extent they have fulfilled the promises held out at their formation of enabling the work-people to purchase the necessaries of life at less cost than through the regular and usual business channels ; whether the establishment of co-operative societies has had any appre- ciable effect on general trade, &c. — A. In all the co-operative societies started in this district only one or two have been successful ; both are co-operative grocery and provision stores, one at Silverdale and one at Crewe; the former for the benefit of coal and iron workers and the other chiefly for the benefit of employes of the London and Northwestern Rail- way Company. Several others have been inaugurated, but they have all failed, which means that they have not fulfilled their promises. A scheme was well on its way to establish a co-operative manufactory of earthenware, but it has thus far failed to secure enough support to get it on its feet, and it is ominously quiescent at the present time. These movements have not been sufficiently strong to have any appreciable effect on the general trade of the district, but an intelligent informant tells me that their failure has had the effect in some instances of recon- ciling the men to the methods of the masters and teaching them that capital, as well as labor has its troubles and misfortunes, and, in the language of the serviceable old platitude, that " all is not gold that glit- ters." GENERAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING CLASSES. (10) Q. The general condition of the working people ; how they live; their homes ; their food ; their clothes ; their chances for bettering their condition ; their ability to lay up something for old age or sickness ; their moral and physical condition and the influences for good or evil by which they are surrounded. In this connection consuls are requested to select representative workmen and their families and secure the in- 828 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. formation direct, somewhat after the manner of the following questions and answers (reducing the money to dollars and cents), taken from the Department publication showing the state of labor in Europe in 1878. — A. I may say here that while this consulate does not contain the publication of 1878, above quoted from, nor any papers relating thereto, I had already adopted the same method of securing information on this subject in the preparation of a report prepared under the direction of the consul-general and transmitted to him under date of November 24, 1883. The statement of income and expenditure of a workingman given in that report — although since published by the State Department — is of a date so recent as to be quite available for the present purpose, and I accord- ingly insert it with two others, all fairly representative cases. Com- mencing with the lowest grade, I give the statement of a wharfman. This is a man who loads and unloads canal boats, railway trucks, &c. I am a wharfman, am married and have four children, one thirteen, one seven, one three, and one one and a half years of age. Neither my wife nor children earn any wages. I obtain 19 shillings — $4.62 — per week and spend, it as follows : Statement 1. How expended. Amount How expended. Amount. $0 62 12 37 73 85 24 32 24 $0 24 24 Coal 24 Club IS 08 37 4 62 The next is the case of a colliery carpenter, who earns just $1 per day when he has work. His family consists of a wife and three children of four, five, and seven years of age. In this case again the man is the only wage-earner in the family. His income, allowing full time, $6 per week, is disposed of as follows : Statement 2. How expended. Kent Club Taxes (poor-rate, local, and education rate) Coal Bread, 11 cents per loaf Bacon, 16 cents per pound Cheese, 16 cents per pound Butter, 32 cents per pound Potatoes, half peck Fresh meat, 15 cents per pound Tea, 49 cents per pound Amount. $0 72 16 09 48 1 00 32 32 32 16 71 How expended. Sugar, 7 to 8 cents per pound Soap, 6 cents per pouna Flour, 4 cents per pound Milk (about a quart) Candles, 12 cents per pound, 16 to the pound _ Tobacco, 2 onnces Beer Clothes Total expenditure Amount $0 28 12 12 06 06 12 12 48 6 00 Commenting on this statement, the person who took it down from the lips of the man, says: Of course some of the items would have to be altered a little now and then, but it is as near as I can get it. Even in this there is not much luxury for the man, and none for the other members of the family. The allowance for clothes is the scantiest. I suppose if he wanted a kettle or a teapot he would have to go without meat or get in a little overtime. A doctor's bill for the wife or children would be a calamity. How the poor laborer gets on with 17 shillings a week I cannot see. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 829 As these are the comments of an Englishman, a life-long resident in the district, and himself an employer of labor, I feel that they are a more fitting an significant supplement to the workman's cash account than anything I might say on the same subject. I may, however, again call attention to some features of these statements which, for the pur- pose of reference, I have numbered Statements Nos. 1, 2, and 3, the last one being as follows : Statement 3. I am a flat-presser, and am twenty-fire years of age. Married a widow, and we have five children ; two girls aged fifteen and thirteen, and three boys aged eleven, seven, and one a baby. The second girl is out as a domestic servant. I can earn about $7.30 per week when on full time. The eldest daughter gets 5 shillings ($1.22) per week in a warehouse, and the boy 2 shillings and 3 pence (55 cents) half time. I get, therefore, £1 17s. 3 Hollow ware-pressers (*) (*) * Not separately classed in former statement. The statement with which the present average of wages is above compared is the summarized statement of Mr. E. Powell, chairman of the Potters Manufacturers' Association, printed in the Staffordshire Sentinel during the potters' strike for an increase of wages during the autumn of 1881, and which strike resulted, with slight exceptions, in the resumption of work at the old prices. In my former report the figures were altered slightly by me in a few particulars wherein later information seemed to warrant the change. But as the rate of wages has not been revised since the dispute before mentioned, and as no gen- eral alteration is believed to have taken place, it will be interesting and useful to compare the original statement of the manufacturers' as-^ sociation, as made through their chairman, in support of their resist- ance to the demands of the men, with the statement obtained by me from sixteen manufacturers, and also with the statements now obtained from workingmen and the statement now furnished by the secretary of the manufacturers' association. It must be borne in mind that this original statement was prepared to convince the- workmen that they were earning a good average of wages, and the total average of weekly earnings in thirteen branches of labor in the pottery manufacture was made to appear (by an erroneous system of calculations, it is true) at the rate of £1 15s. lOd. per man. The statement gave what purported to be the weekly net earnings in the thirteen branches at fifteen differ- ent manufactories, and the average of the whole, the latter being the statement now used for comparison, and its publication was accompa- nied by a letter from Mr. Powell, the chairman, of which the following extract formed the closing words: The fifteen manufacturers represent all markets of the potting trade, and in the case of each separate branch the figures show the average of the wages earned at each of the fifteen manufactories. I thiuk, therefore, that it was not at all mislead- ing for the thirteen branches to be averaged as appeared in Mr. Ackrill's letter* giv- ing £1 158. lOd. per man as the average of the men in all branches of the said man- ufactories It is certain, however, that wages have not fallen since that time. I think the manufacturers would sustain me in this statement. I do not * Mr. Ackrill (since deceased) was then secretary of the manufacturers' association, and the immediate predecessor of the present secretary, Mr. Llewellyn, who has fur- nished one of the statements I now inclose for comparison. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 835 know who the fifteen manufacturers were who compiled the several statements from which the averages here quoted were obtained, but as it was strictly a matter of equity in dispute it ought to be presumed that they not only " represented all markets," as stated by Mr. Powell, but that they were fairly representative themselves in the matter of wages paid ; that the information was given with perfect fairness and impartiality, and with less reluctance and fewer refusals, than, I regret to say, have met some of my efforts in the same direction. It is perhaps true that the chairman of the association, who is himself a manufact- urer, took one of the fifteen schedules from his own books, but I regret to say that the same valuable auxiliary is denied to the State Depart- ment on the present occasion. But of this later. Before proceeding to the preparation of these comparative tables, I must explain that a statement of the average earnings of all the pot- ters, taken in a lump, being quite as desirable as the average in each particular branch, I have appended such total or general average in each case, as well as in my general statement, on Form No. 1, and accompanying tables (inclosure No. 2). In preparing this average I have followed the system suggested in the Department circular (para- graph No. 2 of suggestions to consuls), and I may say that this is the rule already adopted by me in my previous communications to the con- sul-general on this subject. From figures then ascertained and since verified, the ratio of men in the different branches of work in the pot- teries, excluding common laborers, is approximately as follows: Occupations. Flat-pressers Dish-makers Cup-makers Saucer-makers Hand-basin makers Hollow-ware pressors Hollowware presser (jiggerers) Printers Average Per cent. 5 4 3 4 1 25 2 20 Occupations. Ovenmen Saggar-makers . Mold-makers... Turners '. Handlers Firemen Throwers Warehousemen Average. Per cent. 20 3 3 4 2 1 1 2 I may say also that the figures furnished me by the sixteen man- ufacturers, which I have tabulated, on this occasion were furnished in response to written requests from me, with the knowledge of each man- ufacturer of the purpose for which they were to be used, but without any knowledge on my part of the rate of wages paid by any of them. They embrace some of the largest works, and some of only moderate capacity, and represent all localities in the potteries, and I believe for such an average and comparison as I deemed it desirable to make they are as truly representative as any similar number it would be pos- sible to procure. Points of disagreement between this and the state- ment of the chairman of the manufacturers' association were unavoid- able, and the same may be said of a comparison between any two of the statements under consideration. Such differences may not readily be explained, but they will at least be suggestive and interesting as we look at them from the different standpoints from which and the differ- ent purposes for which and the different circumstances under which they were respectively made. To understand these different stand- points, purposes, and circumstances, I believe I have already said enough for the interested reader, with the exception, perhaps, that I ought to say that the statement kindly prepared for me by the secretary of the manufacturers' association is valuable on account of the care bestowed 836 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. upou it, as will be seen by reference (inclosure ~No. 2, Form "So. 2), as well as the fact that its averages embrace the whole year 1883, that it gives the wages of attendants, and the further fact that my personal knowledge of the secretary as a solicitor of high character and stand- ing enables me to say that every figure is given with the greatest im- partiality and without the slightest prejudice for or against anybody's case. And further, that owing to a somewhat different system employed by the secretary, his classification omits cup-makers, saucer-makers, and hand-basin makers. Let us then compare the average weekly net earn- ings in the different branches and in the aggregate, according to the statement published three years ago by the chairman of the association with each of the three statements now obtained by me. The following table exhibits this comparison in detail and in the aggregate : Table showing the amount of weekly net earnings in each branch of work, on the basis of one hundred men, according to the respective statements now under comparison, with the average of the total net earnings per man per week in each case. Occupations. a Statements by chairman manu- facturers' as- sociation 1881 (fifteen works represented). Statements by sixteen manu- facturers se- lected at random and averaged. Statements by secretary of manufacturers' association. Statements by workmen (average). Kate of wages. Weekly earnings. Kate of wages. Weekly earnings. Kate of wages. Weekly earnings. Kate ' of wages. "Weekly earnings. 5 4 3 4 1 25 2 20 20 3 3 4 2 1 1 2 $7 75 9 64 9 98 7 97 9 71 8 17 11 68 6 59 6 80 8 50 10 28 8 05 8 44 11 19 10 41 6 28 $38 75 38 68 29 94 31 88 9 41 204 25 23 36 131 80 136 00 25 50 30 84 32 20 16 88 11 19 10 41 12 56 $7 64 8 78 9 48 7 64 9 49 7 57 9 90 7 39 6 64 7 43 10 20 7 38 8 05 11 81 11 31 6 43 $38 35 34 12 28 44 30 56 9 49 189 25 19 80 147 80 132 80 22 29 30 60 29 52 16 10 11 81 11 31 12 86 $6 57 9 48 8 93 7 65 9 32 7 32 10 20 6 57 6 66 8 04 9 48 8 04 7 32 10 20 10 20 6 57 $32 85 37 92 26 79 30 60 9 32 188 00 20 40 131 40 133 20 24 12 28 44 32 16 14 64 10 20 10 20 13 14 $7 32 8 04 7 32 7 32 8 76 7 32 9 49 6 66 6 66 6 66 8 04 7 32 8 40 11 55 9 72 6 28 $36 60 32 16 21 96 22 28 8 76 183 0* 18 98 133 24 133 29 19 98 24 12 29 28 16 80 11 55 9 72 12 56 Saucer-niakers naml-basin makers . . . Hollow-ware pressors. Hollow-ware pressor Sagger-makers Mold-makers Warehousemen* 100 783 95 765 10 738 38 701 59 Average earnings per 7 84 7 65 7 38 7 02 * The three last-named branches of work were not included in the statement of 1881 made by the chair- man of the manufacturers' association, and to prevent the comparison of the total average with that of the other statements from being thereby unduly affected I have supplied the omission by inserting the averages of the three subsequent statements, and where otheromissirms have occurred in the differ- ent statements I have supplied them in the same utauncr, i. «., by averaging the figures in the other statements. A reference to Form No. 3 with inclosure So. 2, will show where sncii omissions have ocourred as they have not in that table been filled. I believe the foregoing table with the other statements will be found as reliable as any compilation of figures on the subject of potters wages as can be made. That the subject is somewhat complicated and diffi- cult, even if one had free access to all the sources of information I think will be readily granted. I can only say I have done the best I could with it, and the figures, gathered from sources somewhat diver- gent in interest, may, I trust, if we concede something to the infirmities of human nature, merit the confidence enjoined by the circular viz LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 837 " Full credit should be given to every person, firm, or institution who or which aids in or facilitates the preparation of these reports." I think I ou»htto direct attention to some features disclosed by the tables. It will be noticed that the statement prepared from the sched ules of fifteen mauufacturers and published by the chairman of the man ufacturers' association by way of a defense to the demands of a strike shows the highest average of weekly earnings, being $7.84 per man. The average, however, in that statement, as published by the association and, I believe, never since corrected by it, was $8.74 per man per week; the obvious error of counting as many mold-makers as hollow-ware pressers, &c, in the calculation having apparently escaped discovery. It will be further noticed that the sixteen manufacturers who have favored me with the schedules with the knowledge, as before stated, that the in- formation was solicited for the use of the State Department, have pro- vided me with the next highest average, being $7.65 per man per week. It is here that the first unwelcome recital of experiencein carrying out the instructions of the Department seems to have its place. Knowing from a residence of five years that there was a feeling of great reluctance on the part of manufacturers, somewhat prevalent in the district, towards furnishing information of a statistical or definite character to any one, aDd feeling that many unjust suspicions would be excited by any indirec- tion in such an inquiry, 1 deemed it decidedly the proper plan to go about the work in the frankest and simplest manner. I accordingly addressed a note to about sixty manufacturers, selecting such as I thought fairly representative in respect of the kind of work done and covering all the towns and localities in the potteries. 1 sent the letter to each manufact- urer by the consular clerk as messenger with careful directions as to meet- ingin the freest and fullest manner such inquiries as his visit mightprompt in any case, and enjoining him to be very gracious and circumspect in communicating with all persons concerning the subject-matter of the favors asked. These instructions I have reason to know were faithfully carried out. The following is a copy of the note I sent in each case : United States Consulate, District of Tunatall, June 2, 1884. To : To aid the State Department of the United States Government in the collection of reliable statistics, the United States consular officers throughout the world are directed to procure and compile the most complete ana accurate information attainable con- cerning the wages paid for labor of all kinds within the countries and localities where they are respectively resident. I desire such statements as I may prepare to be as full aod correct as possible, and as the means to this end I must depend mainly on the kind indulgence and assistance of employers of labor in this district. If I may safely anticipate these favors on your part I shall be extremely grateful if you will kindly impart to the bearer of this note such information as he is empowered to solicit in my behalf concerning the wages of people in your employ or under your management, and which you may deem not in conflict with your own interests nor an excessive tax upon your time and kindness. I beg t o remain, yours faithfully, E. E. LANE, United States Consul. In response to this letter seventeen statements in all have been re- ceived. Twenty-two were promised, but not given. In nine cases the proprietors were absent, and those in charge were unwilling to give the information in their absence. The few cases of direct refusal deserve definite mention, as it is important that the reasons for them should not be misapprehended, and although I think I should give names in these cases, I would suggest the withholding of their publication unless some important reason should seem to demand it. Messrs. W. & E. Corn refused the information on the ground that it might be used against 838 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. them in case of a subsequent arbitration. I have no right to say that the inference from this logic is a low scale of wages, but I do not see clearly how a high scale could be used against them. ENGLISH MANUFACTURERS REFUSE TO GIVE INFORMATION. Powell, Bishop & Stonier are large manufacturers at Hanley. The senior member was very emphatic in declining to give any information, basing his refusal "on principle." A principle so potent that he would not confer such a favor upon the United States, to use his own words, "even if the President of the United States himself were to ask him for it." This principle, whatever it is, is not well deflued to my under- standing, but I fear I must seek for it in the "lex talionis." It is charged that the fair traders propose to shape the legislation of for- eign countries to the wishes of England by enacting obnoxious laws of their own. But it is no part of my duty to undertake to resolve the present mixture of doctrines on either side of English political contro- versy. It is true and quite interesting that "retaliation," but not "pro- ■ tection," is advocated by a good many, and their position seems so unique as to deserve a digressing comment. While not denying the untarnished virtue of free trade, they proclaim that it is bankrupt of blessings. When accused by the truly faithful with seeking a return to protection, they solemnly avow themselves scandalized, and straightway propose to re- vive some decaying industry by levying a small duty on the imported article. It is quite evident that the ghost of Oobden still walks abroad in the land, and the fair traders do not venture far in the dark. They never assail the saint's memory for the error of his teachings, but for the failure of his prophecies. I should not be surprised if one of these days, when the franchise is considerably extended, some valiant knight of the field or factory should regild his shield with a brighter motto and despise the darkness and defy the ghost. The chairman of the Manufacturers' Association, however, does not carry the principle of retaliation into politics, but draws the line squarely between himself and the United States Government. He not only denies, on principle, the innocent figures asked for, but that this prin- ciple should not be obscured he volunteers the opinion that " if all the manufacturers refused to give any information it would help to show the real feeling which exists between them and the Government of the United States." That this very effective discipline is urged for the Government only, and not for the people of the United States, is mat- ter for congratulation, as the latter are by far the larger customers for crockery, and it is my pleasure to inform them through the State De- partment that a refusal to tell the rate of wages does Dot foreshadow the slightest reluctance to sell goods to any American who is prepared to offer even an extremely small margin of profit. It will be seen there is considerable reluctance to furnish information concerning wages. The gentleman referred to has taken occasion since the occurrence men- tioned to inform me personally that there was not the slightest feeling of a personal character entering into his refusal. This I should have pre- sumed if he had not taken the trouble to reassure me, as our personal re- lations have always been most friendly and cordial. I go out of my way to mention this, because I have no doubt the same is true of the other cases, whether of refusal or failures to furuish information. The gentle- man's grievance, of course, is the tariff. In the conversation alluded to he kindly stated in substance his position to be that, when the United States put a high duty on his goods, thereby injuring his trade and LAROR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 839 business, it was not his place to give them information to be further used to his detriment. I could only reply by a general disclaimer of any purpose on the part of the United States to injure his business and reminding him that neither the State Department nor myself could assume, or be supposed to know, that a true statement of the wages of his employes would be detrimental to him or his business; but recog- nizing that a possibility of such an effect might in some cases be feared, 1 had embodied a clause in the closing words of the request, intended to save all embarrassment of particulars, or otherwise, to such as wished to refuse for that reason. But this matter of reluctance to give information is receiving con- sideration in a report on the subject of prices and discounts now in ■course of preparation, and the completion of which ill health has alone prevented. This is not the proper place to pursue it. This reluctance to give information is a feeling quite prevalent amongst English manu- facturers, owing in some degree doubtless to the practice of those sys- tematic business habits which in a general way may be said to have more exclusiveuess about them than with a corresponding class in the United States. Asking details of business of any one, not for business purposes and not in a business way, produces just one of those frictions with English ideas of business propriety which meets some prejudice and protest even if they are not always frankly avowed. Such inquiries are therefore naturally liable to misconstruction and suspicion of evil intent or results, and especially when the information is sought by an official of a foreign Government. The matter is important here only as having a possible bearing on the wage statements, and in this connec- tion one can scarcely doubt that if the sixty I asked all furnished me with their lists of wages the average would have been lowered. We cannot avoid thinking that the statements furnished would embrace most of the higher earnings, while those withheld would contain a greater ratio of low wages. At any rate, in addition to what I have already said, I cannot suggest any other theory sufficient to account for the prevailing unwillingness to supply statements of wages. The average of the wages in the potting industry, according to the statement of the secretary of the manufacturers' association, is the next highest and will be found closely approximating to the figures in the general average, as given in the previous table (inclosure No. 2, Forms Nos. 1 and 4), and those figures, showing the total average per man per week to be $7.40 is no doubt as near a correct average as it is possible to get of the weekly net earnings of all the workmen in all branches of the manufacture of pottery in this district when on full time. FULL VS. REAL TIME. The figures under the head of " workmen's" statement were obtained for me by a gentleman who has himself been long an employer of work- men, thoroughly impartial and reliable in his work, and to whom I am under many obligations for assistance in this and previous similar under- takings, it will be seen that the workmen consulted make the average of potters' wages only $7.02 per week, full time-, which is 38 cents less than the average wages I have adopted as the true one. If there is any errors in my figures they will be on the side of the manufacturers, or why not say the " free traders" generally. All these figures represent full-time wages. Pull time, according to the statement of the manu- 840 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. facturers association, beyond which it is unnecessary to go, is, per week, for — Occupations. Throwers Turners Handlers Mold-makers Hollow- ware pressors ■ Hollow-ware pressor (jiggerers) Flat-pressers Full time. Sours. 48 51 51 48 48 48 54 Occupations. Dish-maters. -- Firemen Ovenmen Printers Saggar-makers . Warehousemen Full time. Hours. 48 60 54 51 54 57 There are a great many who are not making full time nor anything like it. It is impossible to get any average on this point, but if we bear in mind the present depressed condition of the trade both in the home and foreign markets, and supplement it with statements made to me by some of the best informed of the workmen's representatives, and confirmed in a great degree by observations as careful as my opportunities will permit, and loss of time that comes through both the faults and misfor- tunes of the laboring classes, the numerous holidays, &c, we must take at least 20 per cent, from the above liberal average, leaving the sum of $5.92, which we may safely say is the nearest attainable average weekly earnings of the Staffordshire potters from week to week, from month to month, and from year to year. Having now, I think, sufficiently tabu- lated and defined the potters' wages on the basis of full time, and stated what that is, I will bring this branch of the subject to a close with the following statement of the approximate actual average of their weekly earnings as compared with the same for full time : Branch of work. Flat-pressers Dish-makers Cup-makers Saucer-makers Hand-basin makers Hollow-ware pressors Hollow-ware pressor (jiggerers) . Printers Ovenmen Saggar-makers Mold-makers Turners Handlers Firemen Throwers Warehousemen Total Net average per man per week. Ratio of number em- ployed. Full-time weekly earnings. $35 75 35 08 25 20 29 92 9 12 185 00 19 72 136 80 133 00 22 14 27 72 30 32 15 86 11 19 10 41 12 56 739 79 Less 20 per cent. $7 15 7 02 5 04 5 82 1 82 37 00 3 95 27 36 26 60 4 43 5 55 6 06 3 17 2 24 2 08 2 51 147 80 Net earnings. $28 60 28 06- 20 16 24 10 7 30 148 00 15 77 109 44 106 40- 17 71 22 18 24 26 12 69 8 95 8 33 10 05 HOW TUNSTALL POTTERS LIVE. According to the above statement the average weekly net earnings of the workmen in the potteries fall short of the point where saving is pos- sible, and only the plainest of living can be indulged in. It must be borne in mind that all these figures tend to averages, and in no other way can useful statements on this subject be tabulated. These averages, so near accuracy as to be quite reliable for comparisons, at least with no- unjust advantage to those with which they may be compared, give, as it were, a clear bird's-eye view of the matter of potters' wages in this coun- LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 841 try, in which neither exceptional points nor unusual conditions, high or low, good or bad, appear in prominence on the landscape, but which reveals with truthful outlines and faithful color the general conditions and opportunities of the working people of this distiict. Of course some will make full time while others will not; some will have large families, while others will not ; some will be frugal, while others will not ; some families will contain two or three wage-earners, while others- will contain but one; so that probably in each branch there maybe some who will save a little. In some of the branches the figures tell with unanswerable logic that the proportion who accumulate must be very small. The following table shows at a glance in what branch the best chances are found for living comfortably or getting ahead. The family is supposed to represent husband and wife and three chil- dren, the husband the only wage-earner, and the minimum weekly in- come essential to the plain comfort of the family to be £1 5s., or $0.08. Blanch of labor. No. Weekly net earnings per man. Surplus at $6.08 per "Week per man. Deficiency per man at $6.08 per week. 5 "i 25 "26" 20 3 "I" ~2 $5 72 7 01 6 72 6 02 7 30 5 92 7 89 5 47 5 32 5 90 7 40 6 00 6 35 8 95 8 33 5 02 $0 36 4 3 $0 93 64 Oft 1 1 22 18- 2 1 81 63 76- 18 3 1 32 02 2 1 1 27 2 87 2 25 1 OS Total 17 83 The per cent, of men employed in those branches where the average of weekly earnings is above the saving point ($6.08) is seen to be 17, leaving 83 per cent, employed in those departments where the average weekly earnings are less than that amount. On the basis of these aver- ages, if the skilled workmen in a pottery containing one hundred men were to pool their earnings for mutual or co-operative use, the outcome would be as follows : Branch of work. No. of men. Weekly earnings per man. Total earn- ings. Sur- plus. Defi- ciency. Flat-pressers Dish-makers Cup-makers Saucer-makers Hand-baain makers Hollow- ware pressors Hollow-ware pressor (jiggerers). Printers Ovenmen Saggar-makers Mold-makers Tamers Handlers Firemen Throwers *. Warehousemen Total. 100 $5 72 7 01 6 72 6 02 7 30 5 92 7 89 5 47 5 32 5 90 7 40 6 06 6 35 8 95 8 33 5 02 $28 60 28 04 20 16 24 08 7 30 148 00 15 78 109 40 106 40 17 70 22 20 24 24 12 70 8 95 8 33 10 04 $3 72 1 92 1 22 "3 62 54 2 87 2 25 591 92 20 10 $1 80 24 400 12 20 15 20 54 08 2 12 36 18 Weekly net deficiency, $16.08; yearly net deficiency, $836.10. 842 LABOE IN EUROPE ENGLAND. So tbat if we deduct for time lost, from all causes, as much as 20 per •cent., or one-fifth, we find that the earnings of the one hundred men would not be sufficient by $836 per annum to support themselves and families according to the unpretentious standard we have adopted of $6.08 per week. These were the earnings of the colliery carpenter with his wife and three children, and these were his expenses, and I invite renewed attention to his statement to determine if it betokens any ex- travagance. But the important conclusion from these tables and analysis is, that it is a comparative small number of the working potters who accumu- late any considerable means, and that those who can do so are confined largely to those branches of work employing but a small number of hands. Another conclusion is that there must be many whose little margins are so quickly exhausted by any misfortune or calamity that many a home of hardship is wistfully masked by the lace curtains at the cottage windows, without which any home here would be " poor indeed." My figures have not attempted to deal with the artistic branch of the potting industry. It would be impossible to generalize with any brevity on this subject. Some of the most celebrated and, no doubt, the best artists who favor manufacturers with their professional work, I am told, receive an annual salary of about $6,000, and are not deprived of doing artistic work for themselves in the mean time. From this maximum the expense of the ceramic art and culture goes gradually down through designers, painters, and engravers. I have also left out the laborers who usually work about the potteries. Their wages are made to average, by the figures supplied to me, at about 70 cents per day, which will compare favorably with other labor- ers. How they live when, as is too often the case, they have large families of small children may be somewhat understood from what has already been said. I could make no further account of mine of any value without the ready pencil or the aid of the photographer. Before finally dismissing this branch of my report I wish to call at- tention to the different statements furnished me by the sixteen manu- facturers, as they are shown in detail in inclosure No. 2, Form No. 3. The total average of the sixteen statements shows weekly earnings of $7.65 per man, or 35 cents more than the average of the three state- ments adopted by me as the nearest approach to accuracy, and which very closely agrees with the figures of the secretary of the manufact- urers' association. I need only point to the tabulated statement to show the great discrepancy in the rate of wages paid in different manu- factories and in different branches of work. The lowest wages per week per man are found to be $6.62, as shown in column No. 4, while the highest wage is $9.98 per week per man, as shown in column No. 10. The lowest and highest wages to be found in these sixteen statements in the respective branches of work are as follows, with the manufacturer designated by the number of his column. It must be remembered that these figures represent the lowest and highest average of wages paid by the manufacturers designated in the respective branches of work : LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 843 Branch of work. Lowest. Highest. Manufacturer hy numher of column. Flat-pressers Dish-makers Cap-makers Saucer-makers Hand-basin makers Hollow-ware pressors Hollow -waTe presser( jiggerers) Pi inters Ovenmen Saggar-makers Muld-makers Turners Handlers. Firemen Throwers Wan-housemen $6 08 6 56 7 29 5 83 7 29 6 08 7 78 5 30 5 47 6 32 7 78 4 33 3 62 9 73 8 51 5 83 $13 62 12 16 14 59 9 24 15 81 8 99 14 11 9 73 X 27 n 12 14 59 9 73 13 38 14 59 16 29 7 29 7 2 3 and 7 8 14 3 3 2 16 13 3 2 2 1 and 4 1 and 4 16 10 15 14 15 10 10 15 10 5 12 16 12 10 15 and 16 10 7 Although the sixteen manufacturers whose statements have been used by me in this report have given me the same cheerfully and apparently without any reluctance or prejudice, I have not deemed it essential or advisable to give their names in company with their statements. Great discrepancies will be found not only between the low prices paid by one firm for a certain kiud of work aud the high prices paid for the same work by another firm, but also between the low prices paid for a certain branch of work and the high prices paid for another branch of work by the same firm. This little table is a useful text for studying the system of wages, diverse qualities of the workmen, &c, and, above all, for in- dicating the complex character of the whole subject. The figures show which firms pay the highest and which pay the lowest wages, and for what sort of work the best or cheapest labor of its kind is employed, and by what firms. The absence of figures designating any manufact- urer indicates a medium scale of wages in all the branches. Although, as before stated, I have assumed that the manufacturers who have kindly furnished me this information, do not desire publicity of their names and business, there is one firm of the sixteen whose high scale of wages serves so materially to augment the general average that I consider myself fortuuate in making available their kind and valua- ble permission to use their name in connection with this report. By looking at the preceding table it will be seen that column No. 10 takes the credit for the highest wages paid in six branches of the potting in- dustry, these six branches representing a ratio of more than one-half in the total number of workmen according to the division of work al- ready adopted. That, is to say in respect of certaiu kinds of labor fol- lowed by more than one half the potters, this firm pays higher wages than any other of the sixteen who have furnished statements. I refer to the firm of Mintons (limited), and while it is far from my purpose to disparage any statement, this is an extraordinary and highly creditable showing. This is the firm whose average of full-time weekly wages is $0.98, as shown in column No. 10 of the consolidated statement (inclos ore No. 2 Form No. 3, column 10). The world-wide celebrity of the firm in question for the excellence of their productions is well known, but they deserve equal praise for their careful and liberal treatment of their work-people, who, as the figures prove, receive au average of $3.66 more per man per week than those in the employ of No. 4, and $2.33 per man per week more than the average paid by the sixteen, estimating full time in each case. At the time of the arbitration in 1879, in which a reduc- tion of about 12 per cent, was awarded against the men, the firm of Min- tons did not avail themselves of the award, but continued to pay the 844 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. same wages as before. Hence, when two years later, a strike was made for a restoration of the old rates their employes did not join in it. The high rate of wages paid by them, the superior capabilities of their work- men, as well as the high quality of their work give them a justly high repu- tation throughout the world. Among work-people of this class and who can command such wages, of course there will be many who can save a fair share of their earnings. In this establishment there are altogether about two thousand people employed. It enjoys pre-emineuce in the high qualities of its work and maintains it by the high quality of its management, not the least important feature of which is paying the best prices for the best work, from the highest artistic talent to the drudg- ery of the packing-room. These wages are exceptionally high, but I have no doubt they are willingly paid and fairly earned, and I cheerfully give the benefit of them to the other fifteen manufacturers in making up a good average for the whole, and notwithstauding my belief that the average is considerably higher than that of any other pottery in the dis- trict. I have gone thus fully into the wages question as concerns the potting industry in considering "the general condition of the working people,' r because in this instance it seemed to me easier and quite as intelligible to treat the matter of income and the manner of living as one rather than two subjects. The wages and the living of the 50,000 people en- gaged in the manufacture of pottery in this district form the only feat- ure of this report which can have any peculiar interest over the work of other consuls, and I have, therefore, given the question of potters' wages the best of my labor and attention. The various tables can be relied upon for what they purport to show, and of course from what- ever standpoint they are viewed they show a much lower rate of wages here than is paid for similar work in the United States ; but this feature of the subject may be safely left to the statistician who may be charged with further treatment of these figures. LAWS FOR THE PROTECTION OP THE WORKING- CLASSES. (11) Q. What are the means furnished for the safety of employes in factories, mines, mills, on railroads, &c, and what are the provisions made for the work-people in case of accident ? What are the general considerations given by the employers to the moral and physical well- being of the employes? What are the general relations which prevail between employer and employed 1 — A. Legislation within a compara- tively recent period has been wisely directed to the safety and protec- tion of the working people. This has been the one compensation freely, and I sometimes think shrewdly, given to the great army of British workmen for the trying competition against which it has been forced to contend in its own as well as in other countries. The English employer can point to friendly laws and charitable associations to prove the kind- ness of Parliament and people to the workingman, although they may permit the foreigner to put down or keep down his wages by the most unequal competitions. This competition has latterly been growing so sharp and keen in England itself that it has been impossible for wages to increase in proportion to the work-people's growth in domestic tastes, public spirit, and social aspirations. The compensating conditions of cheapness generally, intended to meet the workman's necessities if they did not encourage his hopes, though pushed* forward in all the panoply of supremacy to which the economic logic of this country entitle them, have somehow failed to brighten the workman's future or check his LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 84 1 emigration. Indeed, in this last particular, free trade is no wcarried to the point of an export bounty. That is to say, that in the matter of getting the rapidly-increasing pauper population out of the country they will supplement the justice of free trade with the generosity of private (or even public) enterprise. It is "state aid and state inter- ference's—two things much deprecated here on principle. But then, perhaps, this is not exactly the point of view from which Gobden looked at the question. But whatever the malady " cheapness," in the abstract, is the safeguard, the remedy, and the antidote. It dispels all forebod- ings of a dying industry with a blessedness rivaling the discoveries of Jenner and Pasteur in mitigation of the scourge of small-pox and the horrors of hydrophobia. If a few thousand sugar refiners say we have no work and we want protection, the answer in effect is: No, perhaps you have no work, but you have cheap sugar, and that is better. The English workman still scratches his head and assents to this. Still, inasmuch as it appears that notwithstanding the cheapness of sugar and bread, &c, he and his family have nothing to eat, he reluctantly, perhaps, accepts the state and many wealthy and charitable people's aid, who are ready to help him and his belongings to Canada or the United States.! A thought, a little digressive, perhaps, may be pardoned here. If Canada and the United States had not taken so largely in the last thirty years of British industrial poor, the wages and condition of the English workman now would be much lower and poorer than they are, and the doctrinaires of England would have a still harder task in convincing the work-people that cheapness is a specific cure for destitution. Much money is annu- ally paid out in England for the relief of people in idleness and distress, because her economic system of tariffs for revenue only will not permit it to be paid for their protection in the means of industry and comfort, if, indeed, they would have to pay it, which is at least only partially true. But " cheapness " measured not by the ability to purchase, but by the arbitrary rule of pounds, shilling, and pence is, and must be, the ruling principle of the economic teachers of this country. But with cheapness not always a satisfying providence, and emigration not al- ways desired, other means must be found to minimize the measure of dis- content. These schemes very properly and humanely take the form of legislation and charitable associations for the protection and elevation of the working classes. The leaders of opinion having been irrevocably consecrated to the gospel of "cheapness," find their conversions largely increased by a liberal supplement of the gospel of charity, and next to employment with good wages, I know of nothing better for the work- ingman than friendly laws and charitable deeds. These laws he has, and numerous societies and associations may be found for conducting different charities among the poor and deserving people. Charity is largely required in such districts as this, and is largely bestowed. Ladies interest themselves largely in these missions through their respective churches f or other religious organizations, and their noble work, though inadequate to the relief needed — as such work always is — is very useful, and serves largely to keep the lower classes in good and loyal temper. * See work of this title by George Baden-Powell. t There is no scheme of a philanthropic nature that would command so much slip- port now in England as a scheme for depleting the population by emigration. t The word "church "is used ,in the English sense, and means the established church only. 846 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. Concerning the legislation in force for tlie protection of the working people, it is embraced in three separate acts : The " factory act," passed in 18G4; the "mines regulation act," passed 1872; and the "employers' liability act," passed 1880. The scope of each of these three acts is pretty well defined by its title ; but, considering that a statement of their leading principles and some details of their character a,nd appli- cation might be useful to the Department, 1 have had prepared, as be- fore mentioned, a synopsis of these laws, which is herewith transmitted as a part of the answer to this interrogatory. I must declare my in- debtedness to Mr. F. W. Tomkinson, the vice and deputy consul, for the very valuable assistance he has rendered me in this behalf. Mr. Tomkinson is tbe senior member of the firm of Tomkinson & Furuival, solicitors, and the work of carefully and correctly epitomizing these three acts has engaged the personal attention and labor of both members of the firm and the clerical staff of their office for a considerable time. These laws have been enacted, and are faithfully and impartially en- forced for the benefit of the workiugmen. Whether they have not, to some extent, charmed the vision of the masses from the true evil and rendered them indifferent in seeking the true remedy, I will not try to say bat I do not consider it wise (unless it is necessary) to keep placarded before the working classes the waiting welcome of the good Samaritan or the luxurious lodgings of the workhouse. Perhaps, when one industry after another has followed the fate of sugar and silk, that is to say, when cheapness "all along the line" has so blessed England with the cheap products of other lands that she buys everywhere and manufactures nothing, perhaps then the quality of charity will find its. tension in both Westminster and the provinces, and if, contemporan- eously, the limit of land which nature has given the world should be- gin to impress the people of other countries that immigration could not be longer encouraged without prejudice to their respective national characters, free trade itself, so far as England has it, might find its virtue fairly tested. But, as said before, the laws are benevolent to the working people and fairly administered. The magistrates, whether of legal education or not, are always men of high character and probity and almost always of good attainments, and iu my observations here for five years I have never noticed a case where I could think from the circumstances as given in evidence that there was the slightest leaning to the side of the higher against the lower litigant. Inviting, then, careful attention to the provisions of English law bear- ing upon the subject of this interrogatory, which are fully and concisely stated in the epitomes herewith transmitted, I will only add that occa- sions for their application are of frequent occurrence and always meet with a possible liberality towards the men. The printed iuclosure being a brief report of a prosecution under the factory act, taken at random from the local paper of the day on which I happened to be writing on this branch of my report, will indicate the nature of a good many of these cases and the treatment which they receive at the hands of the magistrates. There is no doubt that many manufacturers now deem these factory acts and the other similar legislation a great handicapping of their business in the interest of foreign rivals, and this belief is well founded. Not long since a prominent manufacturer and a radical free trader was complaining, in my presence, that the German potters were now taking clay from England, transporting it to Germany, manufacturing it into various sorts of ware, and selling the finished product in England be- low the cost of manufacture in this country. This, the English nianu- LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 847 facturer attributed to the long hours of labor, the greater employment of women and children, &c; in other words, to the absence of factory acts in Germany, or the existence of them in England. He did not say which. He was disposed, however, to put the blame of this unequal state of things upon the Germans, who either had no laws or much less restrictive ones upon the subject, instead of upon England, who, by- laws restrictive of production instead of importation, had handicapped herself out of the race on her own ground; But, whatever the public- attitude of manufacturers on the subject. I think 1 have abundant evi- dence for saying that the factory acts and the employers' liability act are more burdensome to the manufacturer than they were in the antici- pation of the original promoters before their adoption; but there is no disposition to modify them. I should say that the general considera- tions given by the employers to the moral and physical well-being of the employes is thorough and attentive; that, as a general rule, "the employer is sympathetic towards his work people, and generous and kind to them when in need and deserving of extra assistance. POLITICAL EIGHTS OP WORKINGMEN. (12) Q. What are the political rights enjoyed by workingmen, and what are their influences through such rights on legislation? What is the share, comparatively, borne by the working people in local and gen- eral taxation ? What is the tendency of legislation in regard to labor and the working people 1 — A. The political rights of the working people being the same throughout the parliamentary boroughs of England, this question will doubtless be more fully answered from some of th& more densely populated towns. The qualifications of electors in par- liamentary boroughs are as follows : All male householders above twenty - oae years of age, except such as are in receipt of parochial relief; also any person who occupies as a lodger apartments of the value, unfur- nished, of $48.66 per annum. Under these conditions there are now reg- istered in the borough of Stoke- upon-Trent, which may be taken as the constituency of the potteries, about 20,000 electors in a population of about 160,000. The passage eventually of the franchise bill recently rejected in the House of Lords — assuming such an event probable — will add about 2,000,000 voters to the present electorate of the United Kingdom. But this addition to the electoral strength of the country affects the county constituencies only. The boroughs are not affected by the proposed extension of the franchise. For example, the two members now repre- senting the borough of Stoke-upon-Trent will receive no more votes under the proposed new act than they receive now, but the two mem- bers representing this division of the county — North Staffordshire — wdl find their aggregate vote increased by about 7,500, or about the ratio- of one to every eighteen of the population. The present legal qualifica- tion for a county voter is that he be of lawful age and a free holder of property worth $0.73 per annum, or an occupier of property worth $58.40 per annum. A man may live in a borough and possess the qualifications for both the borough and county franchise. For example, he may have the household qualification for a voter for the borough members, and he may own besides, as freehold, a property unoccupied by himself, from which he receives an annual rental of $9.73, on which qualification he can vote for the county members. The proposed new law assimilates the county and borough franchise. It is needless to point out that this approaching extension of the franchise will be to increase the number of work-people who are to> 848 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. have a voice in the affairs of the country. In all matters except the franchise they have, so far as I can learn, the same political rights as those enjoyed by all the rest of Her Majesty's subjects. The influence of the working people through their political rights is a matter for much conjecture and theorizing, both as to its quantity and quality. I know of no way to measure it with anything like practical certainty. Of the ultimate good effect of the extension of equal political rights to the workingmen no true American can have any doubt, but many of these good effects will necessarily be gradual in developing, and some bad effects will frequently crop out in the mean time, to the great scan- dal of the British constitution and the greater provocation of laborious croakings over the degeneracy of English greatness — which seems to be something different from other greatness — and many a lamentation from the steadfast and faithful over the signs of the Americanizing of English institutions. English ideas of American political life are gath- ered largely from such books as " Democracy," or others more stupid as well as libelous, if they can be found. And, though 1 say it sor- rowfully, there is nothing which will so quickly arrest the enthusiasm •of the English liberal as the association of his progressive teachings with the alleged political methods of his transatlantic cousins. I ap- prehend a limited degree of intelligence in the immediate exercise of the franchise to those to whom it will soon probably be extended. An English radical — which practically means au English republican — said to me recently that if universal suffrage — or what is called manhood suffrage here — were granted to the English people now, it would be twenty years before those newly enfranchised would be fit to use their newly bestowed power with intelligence or advantage to themselves or to the country. Yet I must do him the credit to add that he was none the less in favor of the enfranchisement for that. He clearly recog- nized the truth that education to fit one for the proper discharge of re- sponsibility can only be thoroughly imparted by conferring the responsi- bility itself. If it is at first abused or neglected, it will be only what has been the usual fate of every new privilege since the responsibilities began, and 1 venture the opinion that the ratio of unworthy recipients will not be greater than that which spoils the record in many higher schools of life. But the agricultural laborer, although his status in many cases will be raised by the franchise, is the lowest in the scale of English work- men. His wages for such work as is designated here under the re- spective heads of plowman, shepherd, and cowman is something less than $4.50 per week, without board or lodging, except breakfast and supper on Sundays. If the men live in the house they receive from about $77 to $97 per annum and their board. Tn the harvest time the day laborers are allowed their dinner and supper daily in addition to their wages, together with beer. There are some women employed oc- casionally at harvest time, when they get about 25 to 30 cents per day. The wages of the agricultural laborer in this vicinity is much influenced by the rate paid in the potteries and collieries, for'if the wages rise in them, the farmers are obliged to advance their men in order to retain "their services. The custom which I am told exists in the north and south of giving so much wheat, potatoes, &c, in lieu of money has died out here. But the agricultural laborer is, by tradition and in truth, a loutish fellow, whom it will take much patience and perseverance to work over into a very useful subject, active and influential in the po- litical affairs of the realm. In the political agitation now gping on, in which he forms the chief figure, he has the least to say. Indeed, I have LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 849 not heard from him on the subject of the franchise bill through any di- rectly authorized representative or any farm laborers' organization. The whole system of agriculture iu this country, practical, economical, social, industrial, political, and iu every conceivable way, is so unlike the system in the United States, and so much inferior practically thereto, that comparisons of details cannot be gone into, but perhaps the dif- ference in wages, and the difference socially between the men wbo per- form manual labor on the farm in the two countries may not be an unprofitable subject to contemplate. I say without the least fear of exaggeration or dispute that the ordinary English farm laborer has not the intelligence to conduct a fairly good western farm in the United States in any of its branches. He could not properly plant and culti- vate a field of Indian corn or wheat ; he could not properly use the machinery used on such a farm, and it would take five years — as long as it would to naturalize him — to graduate him in the ordinary degrees of American farming. It was, not long ago, quite a popular scheme to send out surplus young men from the homes of professional men, trades-people, manu- facturers, &c, to "learn farming" in the United States and Canada, paying a small tuition to the philanthropic husbandman on the other side who gave the shelter of his roof and the bounty of his board to the young English student of agriculture, but who never dreamed that anybody, notwithstanding his tight-fitting clothes and white hands, could ever expect to learn farming as it should be learned without practice. But a greater surprise would await the young man who, in- stead of pursuing in a classical way the high profession of agriculture, finds himself a "farm laborer." Eemembering what farm laborers were at home, he is quickly disgusted and discouraged, and sends for money to go back with before he has learned the difference between a farm laborer in England and in the United States, or before he has learned that many a plowman and many a cowman and many a shep- herd (although we don't have those ridiculous pastoral names) is a young man as athletic, as intelligent, as generous, as manly, as chivalrous, as well educated, and often as cosmopolitan as himself. He may be a little more awkward in the drawing-room, but a little practice will pol- ish him surprisingly, and I must be pardoned for saying here that the young Western farmer is about the best type of manhood that the United States is now producing in large numbers. The share borne by working people in local and general taxation de- pends upon the rental value of the property occupied by them. That is, the share of taxation, general or local, is based on the assessed annual rental of the property occupied. The tendency of legislation in regard to labor and the working people is in the interests of labor and in favor of the working people. As has been sufficiently set out in previous parts of this report, the conditions of the working" people are tending upwards. This influence or effect I regard as largely due to the great influence of the industrial system and practical progress of the working people of the United States ; but I cannot stop to discuss this question. CAUSES OF EMIGRATION. (13) Q. What are the causes which lead to the emigration of the working people and which influence their selection of their new homes ? What are the principal occupations of the emigrants, &c. ? — A. The causes which lead to the emigration of the working people are, generally 92 A— LAB 54 850 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. speaking, that they can make more money or obtain a better social position in the country to which they emigrate. These beliefs and im- pulses of course arise from different causes, all of which would take many pages to define. Generally speaking, those who emigrate from this district go to the United States. Most of them have friends there already who encourage them to come, and the causes which largely in- fluence the selection of emigrants in choosing their adopted country are doubtless the statements and wishes of friends already there. In this respecc the United States holds a decided advantage, as well as a necided advantage on their real merits, and they will doubtless continue to receive in the future, as they have in the past, the larger share of British emigrants. The principal occupation of emigrants from this district to the United States must be denned under the head of potters, while other emigrants, both mechanical and agricultural, have recently in consider- able numbers emigrated from here to the United States. The pottery industry is the one of chief interest and most largely represented and which has therefore received my fullest attention. Part II. — Female Labor in the Potteries. (1) Q. State the number of women and children, or the closest possible approximation thereto, employed in your district in industrial pursuits, not including ordinary household duties or domestic servants, classify- ing the same somewhat as follows : (A) Manufacturing and mechanical; (B) commercial, including transportation ; (C) professional and per- sonal, including Government officers and clerks, teachers, artists, chem- ists, hotel and boarding-house keepers, journalists, inventors, bankers, brokers, lecturers, public speakers, &c; (D) agricultural ; (E) mining.; (F) all other pursuits. — A. In manufacturing and mechanical pursuits there are employed nearly 30,000 females. Classification B, commercial, including transportation, is not very clear to me, but if it includes, as I assume, all females engaged in trade of every kind, both as employers and employes, and all in any way connected with transportation from such as attendants at railway stations and women on canal-boats the number may be put down roughly at five thousand. Under Class C, I should place the number at four hundred. In class D, agriculture, it is impossible to make, without a canvass, any reliable statement, but this is not much of an agricultural district and the number of females en- gaged in that business is very small if we leave out the women and girls belonging to the farmers' families, who in some cases perform domestic service in the family and also omit ordinary domestic servants. It is very seldom in this part of the country that women are seen working in the field. In mining I think women are employed to a considerable extent in South Staffordshire, in the Birmingham consular district ; but very few are employed in that work in this district. It is apparently impossible that there should be many left for employ- ment in other pursuits and in such employments as will not come tinder either of the above heads, and, excepting domestic servants, there are certainly not many in a population of about 200,000. Of course the chief employment in this district is in class A, being pursuits of a manufacturing or mechanical character, and chiefly man- ufacturing only. The manufacture of pottery gives employment to a great many women and girls. Probably more than one-half of all the work-people employed in the potteries are females, and their number LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 851 will, I think, reach the respectable muster of 25,000. They form a very- important element in the standard industry of this district, and make up the only branch of female labor requiring especial mention in this report. It is impossible for me now to give the subject the careful and analytic treatment which I have given to the subject of potters' wages and conditions of life. A large number of the females who work in the potteries are young women, usually of a vigorous and healthful type, between the ages of eighteen and thirty. They are noticeable daily dur- ing the dinner hour in any of the pottery towns often with bare heads and arms, and more or less powdered with the dust of the works, walk- ing leisurely in groups or pairs to or from their luncheon, their mirthful manners and aggressive eyes indicating the cheerfulness of good health and the candor of undisturbed confidence in themselves. The women, including girls, employed in the potteries, the number of which I have already estimated, are engaged in various departments of the work, and their net earnings range from 60 cents to $4.87 per week, according to the kind of work and the proficiency they have ac- quired in it. The following are some of the leading branches of work, except painting, in which females are largely employed in the potteries, with a general statement of the wages earned : Occupations. Average weekly earnings. Full weekly time. Sours. 48 51 *1 48 54 Occupations. Average weekly earnings. Full weekly time. Throwers 4 attendants — $2 92 2 68 4 38 1 95 1 95 Transferers (girls) Transferers (women)... $0 97 to $ I 82 2 92 2 92 1 95 2 43 Hours. 51 51 48 Jiggerers' attendants FI at -pressors' attendants. 42 In the painting, or what should be called the ordinary painting, de- partment women are chiefly employed. They aref ound to be quite as proficient in the cheaper forms of decoration as men, if they have the benefit of proper teaching and practice. A system of apprenticeship is almost universally adopted in the technical education of paintresses in the potteries, and the net earnings under that system will range from 60 cents per week, at which they maybe said to begin, to about $5 per week, the maximum wages to which the best of them may ob- tain when the period of apprenticeship is ended, that period being ordi- narily seven years. A period of practice, however, usually of a year or more, precedes the commencement of the actual apprenticeship, the candidate often spending one-half the time at school and the other half in the rudimentary branches of painting, and receiving for her work, usually, 25 cents per week. The manufacturer with whom she then seeks apprenticeship is able to attest her adaptability to the work he wishes done, and being satisfied, she is bound by indenture to seven years' service, generally on the following terms: The work is to be done entirely by the piece at stipulated prices,, and the weekly earnings are divided equally between the master and the apprentice ; that is, the apprentice gets one-half the regular price for the work, and is called a " half-price apprentice." She should receive net, under this system, as much as 60 cents per week, and sometimes does get as much as $1.25 per week. Much depends upon the kind of work to be done; 50 or 75 cents may be earned in one day and the rest of the time con- sumed in earning as much more. Much of the work is " filling in" on ware, which has already received a printed decoration, and this can 852 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. be generally done easily and rapidly. The period of " half-price ap- prenticeship" is two years, after which they become " four-penny" ap- prentices ; that is to say, the master takes only one-third of the earn- ings, or 4d. in the shilling, the apprentice retaining, or, perhaps, more properly receiving, the other 8d., or two-thirds, and this rule of division, or compensation, as you like, continues through the remaining five years of apprenticeship. During these five years the net receipt of the ap- prentice will range from 75 cents to $2.20 per week, the earnings, of course, increasing as the period of service approaches its termination. "When the full seven years have been exhausted in learning the business, or the art — for the practice and education partake considerably of the latter quality — the journey-women paintress will find herself entitled to the regular wages for all her work, which, if she has graduated without honors, will, perhaps, not exceed $1.45 per week, but if she has shown skill} taste, and proficiency in her work, and is active, trustworthy, and industrious, she will be able toe arn an income closely approaching $5, per week in a kind of work admirably suited to the female character and well adapted to their mental and physical organizations. I hope some- time to see schools for teaching this branch of industrial art thoroughly established, at the public expense, in the United States. This matter of apprenticeship, so largely adopted in this branch of the potting manufacture, is of sufficient interest to permit a few words of particular reference. It is largely in use with male as well as female beginners in the pottery trade. Tet I speak of it here because I know that in the great haste with which I am trying to complete this report I shall find no more opportune time and place for its consideration. These contracts of apprenticeship are made for a term of years, the apprentice receiving part pay for his or her work in the manner already defined, and the manufacturer in turn undertaking to afford the nec- essary instruction in the branch of art selected. If the master finds it desirable, however, for any cause, to close his works, it seems he can- not be compelled to find work for the apprentice elsewhere, nor to pay him any wages in default ; but, although the apprentice in the mean time is at liberty to employ himself in any other manner and for any other person, he must still be ready to return to the service of his orig- inal master when required, which rule, of course, precludes him from undertaking a similar apprenticeship with any one else or engaging in any other permanent employment. This was the rule formerly in op- eration under a form of apprenticeship contract in general use until the validity of this one-sided agreement was brought in question some time ago by the defendant in the case of Meakin vs. Morris, in which the plaintiff, a master, sought to compel an apprentice to return to work under one of these indentures, the defendant — apprentice — having left the service of his master in consequence of a lock-out in the department in which he was engaged, arising from a dispute in which he — the apprentice — was not concerned. The case is of importance in this country, and I doubt not in the United States. I therefore inclose the report of it as printed in the Pottery Gazette (marked inclosure No. 5), which gives the opinion of the higher courts in a very clear and concise manner, and I cannot doubt that all friends of apprentices and other young people struggling for a start in the world will heartily in- dorse the opinion of the lord chief justice and his associates with thanks for so strongly condemning the want of mutuality which pre- viously pervaded these indentures. The foregoing tabulated statements, with this fuller one concerning paintresses and their employment, show the kinds of pottery work done LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 853 mostly by women and girls and the approximate wages. I find upon careful inquiry that the females employed outnumber the males, while the amount of their earnings seems entirely disproportionate, that is, more disproportionate than the kind and quality of the work done by each would seem to justify. BRITISH BARMAIDS. As to the "commercial" female employes, I can think of no special feature to refer to, unless it is the barmaid industry, if I may so call it. Eefreshmeuts, such as plain lunches, beer, wine, and spirits, are usually dealt over the counter or served at the tables here by young women, who mostly wear with graceful deportment the appellation of barmaid. They are universally found at refreshment rooms at railway stations, which, at important places, afford some of the best of thefr positions, and they are always found as we go downward, step by step, to the common little beer houses. Those in the best places are generally pos- sessed of more than average favors of figure and feature and pleasantry of address. Indeed, I must give my opinion, that upon those qualities largely depend the tenure of their office and the amount of salary they can command ; while I must also say that any immodesty of deportment would be swiftly fatal to their positions. Indeed, cause of complaint on that ground is very seldom heard. Those in what may be called first and second class situations are almost always refined in mauner ai d are respected quite as much as young women in any other employ- ment. Such situations are largely sought, and it is not the least note- worthy of the barmaid's position that she not unfrequently is transferred from the bar to the villa residence of some well-to-do tradesman or manufacturer, over which she presides as wife, with the same easy and genial refinement which has previously attended her more discordant surroundings. She often, through the potent, agency of matrimony, reaches a high estate in the middle-class social world, and one could not tell her, with her elegant landau and lackeys, in the rotund ripeness of departing middle age, from a veritable duchess (after du Mawrier) herself, and so in this country, as well as ours, you must not talk too much about ancestral qualities without knowing your audience. I suppose it must be admitted that this kind of attendance draws cus- tom to the house, but perhaps it is not discreditable to either party that the employer seems to know how far he can go in making beauty profitable without soiling it. The barmaids get about £10 per annum and found when they first enter the service and increase gradually in their receipt of wages till sometimes they get as much as £50 per an- num. In the latter case she must be a good one, attractive and intelli- gent, able to keep books, make out accounts with neatness and facility, &c. In many hotels the barmaid would be the clerk, if you were to Americanize the hostelry without changing the staff. She will ci-ase momentarily from making out, in a neat hand, the bill of the gentleman in No. 17 to' mix, with a dextrous hand, a ylass of gin and wormwood for a casual and perhaps an admiring caller, and all without the lightest disturbance of temper or chatty and serene equanimity of manner.^ They form a class which., you might say, are unknown in the United States, and yet it is a wonder to me that they have thus far escaped the rav- ages of the auglomania which seems to have taken such a fierce hold of many of our people. If they are not soon introduced, and as success- fully at least as the hansom cab, I shall think there is something strange about it. 854 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. FEMALE SCHOOL TEACHERS. In classification C the teachers comprise the only class of females which afford me any occasion for particular mention. There are in the district about three hundred female teachers,which is about double the number of males in the same profession. The system of educating teachers for their calling is long and tedious, and, I think, to some ex- tent, unprofitably so. The person who is to become a thoroughly qual- ified (or authorized) teacher begins as a pupil teacher, so called; She commences teaching while she is yet a pupil. For the first year she gets $48.65, and her salary rises about $12.15 per year. What would be considered in the United States " old-fashioned" or antiquated meth- ods prevail in the " board schools," which are the " public schools," or the nearest approach there is here to what is thus designated in the United Stfttes, as well as in some of the more exclusive institutions. There is always a thoroughness about their work, but the methods in some instances, I think, are obsolete in other parts of the world. The terms by which those engaged in this profession are designated are in- dicative of this. We never hear of a school-teacher here, but only a "school master or mistress." He is the "head master" or "assistant master," &c. They do not have, so far as I can learn, the illustrative ap- paratus in use in the United States. After a careful search I could not find in Manchester any school apparatus for teaching the rudiments of astronomy beyond a simple globe. There are, however, some kinder- garten in some of the large towns which, I am told, are becoming quite popular and successful. And it must be said there are some methods in the regular English system on which some of our teachers at least have not improved. I give one example. Children are taught writing as one of the very elementary branches. The pencil and pen are put into their hands as soon as they have learned the alphabet. The writ- ten characters are learned, and they are taught how to make them as soon as they know the Roman, and writing runs with their progress in every branch from that time forward. The result is that everybody who has even a limited general education is ready with the pen, and there is no more useful and satisfactory attainment for every-day use than this. All the female employes I have mentioned, and very many domestic servants, are sure to be able to write rapidly, neatly, and well. A pupil teacher after having spent five years in training, and reached, say, a salary of $100 per year, commences her two years' training for col- lege examination. To enter college she is charged a fee of $50 to $75. After then spending two years more in the training college she is enti- tled to a certificate, if upon examination she can acquit herself satis- factorily. So that, generally speaking, it takes ten years to become a full certificated teacher ; and if she successfully passes all these ordeals she has certainly sufficient attainments to enter with confidence upon the work of her profession. FEMALE LABOR ABOUT THE MINES OF GREAT BRITAIN. In the matter of female labor in mines I have selected the following information from the summaries of the statistical portions of the reports of Her Majesty's inspectors of mines for 1882, the latest summary is- sued. There are no females employed under ground in the mines of the United Kingdom. During the year 1882 there were employed about the mines of the LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. 855 United Kingdom, classed under the coal-mines regulation act, above ground, 4,652 females. The following table shows the number of females employed about the mines of Great Britain, classed as above, their ages, by a scale of limi- tation, and the mining district in which they were employed. But be- fore beginning the tabulation, I may reduce the form of the table slightly by pointing out that according to the statistics before me, Mr. Ealph Moore, of East Scotland, was then the only person in the United King- dom who employed in the coal-mine industry a female under thirteen years of age, and it appears that he employed but one. District. 13 to 16. 7 1 119 45 12 17 11 68 27 Ages. Above 16. Total. 376 248 1,261 457 417 465 495 542 72 3 4 502 429 482 510 610 99 3 4 307 4,344 4,651 During the same year, 1882, there were employed above ground a >out mines, classed under the metalliferous mines regulation act, 2,402 females, distributed and classified by age as follows : Distriot. CorDwall, Devonshire, &c Durham, Westmoreland, &c Anglesa, Breconshire, &c Glamorganshire, Pembrokeshire. ! 7 71 $7 29 8 51 8 51 8 51 '"729 8 63 6 56 6 32 9 73 7 29 7 29 9 24 10 95 •9 73 6 08 $7 90 7 29 14 59 8 51 7 29 7 29 6 56 6 68 6 98 10 34 $8 97| 12 16. 11 56 . 9 24! 12 16! . $6 16 6 16 7 64 "6 7 78 13 38 755 27 7 78 7 90 12 16 13 62 14 11 14 59 650 52 7^5 7 54 8 43 5 4 P 7 78 14 59 7 14 59 13 78 5 $122 78 122 97 104 32 114 113 91 121 22 ,81 31 99 57 104 04 142 84 73 81 104 73 89 14 141 102 05 64 35 $7 67 8 78 9 48 7 64 9 49 7 57 7 39 6 64 7 43 10 20 7 38 8 05 9 90 11 81 11 34 6 43 659 32 * See reference to this column on page — . 92 A — LAB 55 866 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. THE FACTORY ACTS AS APPLIED TO THE MANUFACTURE OF EARTH- ENWARE (EXCEPT BRICKS AND TILES NOT BEING ORNAMENTAL TILES). [ In eluding the act of 27 and 28 Victoria, chapter 48, which was passed on the 25th day of July, 1864. . INTERPRETATION OP TERMS. "Factory" is any place in which persons work for hire, in making or assisting in making, fluishing, or assisting in finishing, earthenware of any description, except bricks and tiles not being ornamental tiles ; but no building or premises used solely for the purpose of a dwelling-house shall be deemed to be a factory, or part of a fac- tory, within the meaning of this act. An ' ' apprentice " shall be deemed to be a person working for hire. " Child " : A child under the age of 13 years. '• Young person " : A person of the age of 13 years and under the age' of 18 years. "Parent": A parent, guardian, or person having the legal custody of any such child or young person." "Inspector" and "subinspector,'' respectively: An inspector and subinspector of factories. "Agent": Any person having on behalf of the occupier of any factory the care or direction thereof, or any part thereof, or of any person employed therein. " Month " : A calendar month. "Mill-gearing": Every shaft, whether upright, oblique, or horizontal, and every wheel, drum or pulley, by which the motion of the first moving power is communica- ted to any machine appertaining to the manufacturing processes. Any person who shall work in any factory (whether for wages or not, or as a learner or otherwise), either in any manufacturing process or in any labor incident to any manufacturing process, or in cleaning any part of the factory, or in cleaning or oiling any part of the machinery, or in any other kind of work whatsoever, save in the cases hereinafter excepted, shall be deemed (notwithstanding any other description, limitation, or ex- ception of employment in the factory act) to beemployed therein within the meaning of this act. Any words denoting the masculine gender shall be construed to extend to person* of either sex ; and any words denoting the singular number shall be construed to ex- tend to any number of persons or things, if the subject-matter or context shall admit of such an interpretation, unless such construction shall be in express opposition to any other enactment. APPLICATION OF ACT. 1. This act shall apply to the manufacture of earthenware, except bricks and tiles not being ornamental tiles. 2. The enactmeut of this act respecting the hours of labor shall not apply to any young person when employed solely in packing goods in any warehouse or part of a factory not used for any manufacturing process, or for any labor incident to such man- ufacturing process. i 3. Nothing in this act shall extend to any young person, being a mechanic, artisan, or laborer, working only in making or repairing any machinery on the factory. WHO MAY BE EMPLOYED. 1. No person is to employ in any factory any child who shall not have completed his eighth year of age. 2. No child shall be employed who shall not have completed his or her thirteenth year of age, without certificate as is hereinafter mentioned that the child is of the ordinary strength and appearance of a child of the age of eight years. 3. No person shall be employed between the ages of thirteen and eighteen for more than nine hours in any day, nor between nine o'clock in the evening and five o'clock in the morning, without first requiring and receiving from such person a certificate in proof that snch person is above the age of thirteen. 4. The certificates of age, herein called surgical certificates, shall be given in the form contained in the schedule to the act, and the name of the person for whom a cer- tificate of age is required, and the date of the first day of employment or re-employ- ment shall be registered in the form given in the act, before employing snch person in a factory. But no certificate is required for any young person above sixteen years of age. LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 867 5. Before employing any person requiring a certificate, the occupier of the factory must obtain such certificate save as hereinafter excepted (see next paragraph), and shall keep and be bound to produce such certificate when required by the inspector or or snbinspector ; no certificate is valid except for the manufactory for which it was originally granted. The certifying surgeon shall enter his name in register of work- ers the date of his visit. 6. Provided that no occupier shall be liable for any penalty for employing any per- son id. any manner not contrary to the other provisions of this act, without a certifi- cate for any time not exceeding seven working days, or when the certifying surgeon resides 3 miles from the factory, for any lime not exceeding thirteen working days ; this is not to dispense with the certificate of school attendance. 8. No female above the age of 18 years shall be employed save for the same time as young persons. Nothing in this section shall apply to certificates of age of females above the age of 18 years. Chapter III. IIOURS OP LABOR. 1. No young person, and no female above 18 years, shall be employed in any factory before 6 o'clock in the morning or after 6 o'clock iD the evening. 2. No young person, and no female above 18 years, shall be employed on any Satur- day after 2 o'clock in the afternoon. 3. During all or any part of the period between the 30th September in any year and the 1st April of the following year, young persons and females above the age of 18 years may be employed, except on Saturday, between the hours of 7 o'clock in the morning and 7. in the evening, instead of the hours hereinbefore limited, under the following rules and conditions (i. e.), notice signed by the occupier of any factory, or his agent, of the intention to employ young persons and females under this provision specifying the period not less than one month, during which they are to be employed in such factory, shall be given to one of the inspectors of factories, and such notice shall be such a form as shall be approved of by the inspector, and signed by such oc- cupier or his agent and such inspector, and shall be hung up, and during the period shall be kept hung up, in such factory; and during the period young persons and females above the age of 18 years may be employed in such factory after 6 o'clock and not later than 7 o'clock in the evening of the day, except Saturday, and the pro- Section 2.— Children. 4. No child shall he employed in any factory before 6 o'clock in the morning or after 6 in the evening. 5. Nor after 2 o'clock on Saturday. 6. Between the 30th September and the 1st April of the following year, children may be employed between 7 a. m. and 7 p.m., in the same way as yonng persons and females, with the like exception as to Saturday. 7. No child shall be employed more than 6 hours and 30 minutes in any one day (save as hereinafter expressed) unless the dinner-time ofthe young persons in such fac- tory shall begin at 1 o'clock, in which case children beginning to work in the morn- ing may work for 7 hours in one day. No children shall be employed in the same or any other factory after one o'clock in the afternoon on the same day, save when children may work on alternate days, as hereinafter provided. 8. In any factory where the labor of young persons is restricted to 10 hours a day, it shall be lawful to employ any child ten hours in any one day on three alternate days in one week, but not for two successive days, nor after two o'clock on any Sat- urday, provided always that the parent or person having direct benefit from the wages of such child shall cause the child to attend school for at least five hours be- tween the hours of eight o'clock in the morning and six in the afternoon ofthe same day on each week-day preceding each day of employment in the factory, unless such preceding day shall be a Saturday, when no school attendance shall be required; provided also, that once in every week after such child began to work in the factory, the occupier shall obtain a certificate from the schoolmaster that the child has at- tended school as required by this act ; but it shall not be lawful to employ any child in a factory more than 7 hours a day until the owner of the factory shall have sent a notice in writing to the inspector of his intention to restrict the hours of laborjof young persons in the factory to 10 hours a day, and to employ children ten hours a day ; and if such occupier cease to so employ children 10 hours a day, he shall not 868 LABOR IN EUROPE ENGLAND. again employ any child in his factory more than 7 hours a day, until ho shall have sent a further notice to the inspector as before provided. 9. If any child shall have been employed in any one day for less than six hours and thirty minutes or 10 hours, respectively, in one factory, it shall be lawful for any person to employ such child in any other factory on the same day for the residue ot such six hours and thirty minutes or teu hours, respectively, provided that such em- ployment in such other factory shall not increase the labor of such chili to more than six hours and thirty minutes or ten hours, respectively, in any one day. The hours of work of children, young persons, and females above the age of 18 in every factory shall be regulated by a public clock or some other clock open to public view. Chapter V. TIME EOK MEALS. 1. Every day not less than one and a half hours for meals to every child, young per- son, or female above the age of 18 shall be allowed. 2. And shall be taken between half past 7 in the morning and 6 in the evening of every day, and one hour thereof at least shall be given at one time or at different times before three in the afternoon, and no child, young person, or female above 18 years of age shall be employed more than 5 hours before one o'clock in the afternoon without an interval of at least thirty minutes, and all the young persons employed shall have the time for meals at the same period of the day, unless some special cause shall he allowed in writing by the inspector. 3. During any meal time which shall form part of the hour and a half allowed for meals no child, young person, or female above the age of 18 shall be employed or allowed to remain in any room in which manufacturing process is then carried on. 4. No child, young person, or woman shall be allowed to take his or her meals or remain during meal times in the dipping houses, dippers' drying rooms, or china scouring rooms. Chapter VI. holidays. 1. All children, young persons, and females above 18 whose hours of work are lim- ited by this act shall be entitled to the following holidays : Christmas day, Good Fri- day, the entire day, and not fewer than eight half days besides in every year, such half days to be taken at such times as are most desirable and convenient, and shall be determined on by the employer. 2. Each of the half holidays shall comprise not less than half of the day, and during the period no young person shall be employed; and four of such half holidays shall be given between 15th March and 1st October in each year ; no cessation of work shall be deemed a half holiday unless notice of such half holiday and the time of such ces- sation of work has been fixed up on the preceding day in the entrance to the factory or where the subinspector may direct, and in addition to such 8 half days no child or young person shall work on Christmas day or Good Friday. Chapter VII. sanitary condition. I. Every factory shall be kept in a cleanly state, and be ventilated in such a man- ner as to render harmless as far as possible any gases, dust, or other impurities in the process of manufacture. All inside walls, ceilings or tops of rooms, and all the passages and staircases of every factory which have not been painted with oil once at least within 7 years shall be lime-washed once within every successive period of 14 months, and all the walls, ceilings or tops of rooms where children or young persons are employed and which are painted with oil, shall be washed with hot water and soap once at least in every period of 14 months. But the last paragraph shall not extend to rooms, &c, which are used'solelyfor the storage of earthenware and in which no work is carried on except what is necessary for keeping the earthenware in a fit state for sale. Chapter VIII. education. 1. Parents or persons having direct benefit from the wages of any child shall cause such child to attend some school on the day after the first employment of such child a,itd on each working day of every week during any part which such child shall con- LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 869 tinue to work, and such child shall attend school three hours after eight of clock in the morning and before six in the evening; provided that any child attending school after one o'clock in the afternoon shall not be required to remain in school more than two and a half hours on any one day between 1st November and the last day of Feb- ruary and not attend school on Saturday. Any child shall be excused for non-attend- ance by the certificate of the schoolmaster in case of sickness, &c. 2. Where the labor of young persons is restricted to ten hours a day any child may be employed ten hours a day on three alternate days of every week, provided that such children shall not be employed in the same or in any other factory on two succes- sive days, nor after two on Saturday afternoon. But the parent or person having direct benefit from the child's wages shall cause the child to attend school at least five hours between 8 in the morning and 6 in the evening of the same day, on each preceding day of employment, unless the preceding day is Saturday, when no school attendance-is required. The occupier of every factory in which a child is employed shall, on Monday in every week after the first week in which such child begins to work, obtain a certificate from a schoolmaster that snch child has attended school as required. The occupier must keep the certificate six months and produce to the inspector when required, and shall, when required by the inspector, pay to the schoolmaster such sum as the in- spector may direct/, but not more than two pence per week towards the education of such child. The occupier shall be entitled to deduct from the wages of such child the amount he has actually paid not exceeding one-twelfth of the weekly wages of such child. Chapter IX. MACHINERY AND ACCIDENTS. 1. No child, young person, or woman shall be allowed to clean any part of mill gearing while in motion, nor work between the fixed and traversing part of any self- acting machine while in motion by the action of steam, water-wheel, or other me- chanical power. 2. Every fly-wheel directly connected with the steam-engine or water-wheel, or other mechanical power, and every part of machinery in motion near which children, young persons, or women are liable to come in contact with, either in passing or in their occupation, shall be securely fenced, and every wheel-race must be so fenced while in motion. If any person shall suffer bodily injury through neglect to fence any part of the machinery the occupier is liable to a penalty of not less than £10 nor more than £100, and the penalty is to be applied for the benefit of the injured person, or otherwise, as the secretary of state shall determine. Chapter X. MEDICAL ATTENDANCE. 1. Any inspector shall have power to appoint a sufficient number * surgeons for the purpose of examining persons brought before them to obtain certificates of age, and shall specify the district for-which such surgeon is appointed. The secretary of state may annul any appointment if he thinks fit. No surgeon being the occupier or having any interest in a factory shall be a certi- fying surgeon. 2. The surgical certificates of age shall be in the form prescribed by the act. The name of the person for whom a certificate is required, and the date of the first day of employment, must be registered in the form and according to the directions in the schedule (B) before it shall be lawful to employ any person in a factory. No surgical certificate is required for any young person above the age of sixteen years. * » # t * * * 5. Personal application is necessary before a certificate of age can be given, and such application and grant of certificate must be made at the factory where the child is to be employed. 6. The occupier of a factory may agree with the surgeon for the payment to be made to such surgeon for the examination of persons for whom surgical certificates are required. No stamp is required for such agreement. 7. The inspector, if so required, is to fix the amount of fees to be paid by the occu- pier of a factory to the surgeon, and the time for the payment of such fees and the time when the surgeon shall visit the factory. The fees are one shilling each person, with six pence for each half mile that the distance of the factory from the residence of the surgeon shall exceed one mile. 370 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. Chapter XI. INSPECTORS. 1. Four inspectors are appointed by Her Majesty. 2 Upon the application of any inspector the chief secretary may appoint subin- *pectors. 7. The inspectors and subinspectors are empowered to enter any manufactory by lay or night, and to enter any school in which children employed at factories are jducated, and to take with him the certifying surgeon or any constable of the peace, nil have the right to examine every person whom he shall find in the factory or school. Chapter XII. PENALTIES AND PUNISHMENTS. Chapter XIII MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS. 1. Every person on beginning to occupy a factory shall within one month send, ad- Iressed " To the office of Factory Inspectors, London," a written notice containing ;he name of the factory, with the place, township, parish, and county, and the post- )ffice to which letters are to be addressed, the nature of the work and the amount of moving power, and the name of the firm. 2. An abstract of this act is to be hung up at the entrance of every factory, and notices of the names and addresses of the inspector and subinspector and surgeon ippointed for the district, and of the clock by which the hours of work in the factory ire regulated, the times and the amount of time allowed for meals. 3. Registers as to the children, young persons, and females employed shall be kept in the factory to which they relate. [35 and 36 Victoria, chapter 76. Royal assent, August 10, 1872.] IN ACT TO CONSOLIDATE AND AMEND THE ACT RELATING TO THE REGULATION OF COAL MINES AND CERTAIN OTHER MINES. 1 (Supplement to Consul Lane's report.) The act applies to mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shales, and mines of fire-clay.] Part I. Section 4. No boy under 10, and no woman or girl of any age, shall be employed n any mine below the ground. 5. No boy of 10 or under 12 shall be employed in any mine below ground except where on account of the thinness of the seams the secretary of state thinks such em- ployment necessary, nor in such case : (a) for more than six days in one week; or (6) f for more than three days in one week for more than six hours in one day; or (o) n any other case for more than ten hours in one day ; or ( a " d "f '" was nothing to prevent the respondent earning the same wages that he naci 1 to the time of his absenting himself from the manufactory, and that the apprentice would have no difficulty, except in the case of a general turn-out, in getting temporary employment with any other manufacturer. An objection was taken tor the respondent that the indenture was invalid on the ground that he being an infant, certain clauses therein contained were unfair or inequitable, these clauses being as folio ws : 1 hat the said master shall not be liable or called upon to pay any wages to the said apprentice so long as his business shall or may be interrupted or impeded by or in consequence ot any turn-out, and the said apprentice is hereby expressly authorized and allowed, during any such turn-out, to employ himself iu any other manner, or with any other person, for his own benefit." It was contended, on the respondent's behalf, that any turn-out must necessarily be of uncertain duration, and might extend over a lengthened period; for the respondent would be precluded during any turn-out in which the masters business might be interrupted or impeded from undertaking any but precarious and temporary employment, aud be prevented from continuing to learn his own or learn- ing any other trade. It was contended, on behalf of the appellant, that the indent- ure was not invalid, and that the stipulations therein were fair and reasonable, and were iust to both parties, especially in the condition of trade, and that the provis- ions for the stoppage of wages to the apprentice so long as the master's business should or might be interrupted or impeded by or in consequence of any turn-out, were ren- e ordered p. 757; and Leslie v. Fitzpatriek, 3 Q. B. D., p. 329. The whole point, he Reports Sa i«, B as in- LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. 881 tended to be raised, was whether the provision to let the apprentice go elsewhere was equitable. The Lord Chief Justice said that an infant should not be bound by a contract iJr WaS P re J n . dioial to him, and that had been held to be the law. Mr. Rose said it was an advantage to the youths of the district to have an indent- ure of that sort. The masters of the district were willing to take youths on certain terms. The Lord Chief Justice. What right have the masters to alter the law 1 Mr. Rose said whether they altered the law depended upon the terms they offered. They would not take these infants if they had to pay them their wages during the The Lord Chief Justice. Then they would not obey the law. Mr. Rose. They are not bound by law to take apprentices. The Lord Chief Justice. No; bnt if they take them they are bound by the law. There is not one law for the master and another for apprentices. Mr. Rose. Is it not fair for a master to say, " If you want me to take you as an ap- prentice you must come on my terms?" The Lord Chief Justice. At a disadvantage to himself? Certainly not. He is dealing with au infant as with an adult. An adult has the right to make what ar- rangement he thinks fit ; but not so au infant. Mr. Justice Williams said that it might be beneficial to the whole of the country as a body, although in an individual case it was not beneficial. Mr. Nash thought that Mr. Rose was wrong in saying that this was the general in- denture of the district. Mr. Rose said that that was his instruction. Looking at the matter from a business point of view, the master would be very unlikely to cause a strike for the purpose of getting rid of his apprentices. He had nothing further to say on face of the indent- ure, if the court thought it was within the case of the Queen v. Lord, and that the contract was not to be upheld. They must look at the indenture as a whole. Mr. Justice Williams said that if it was treated as a whole it might be of advan- tage to the apprentices that they should be subject to a little discipline. The Lord Chief Justice said they must take it in a very general sense, because it was plain that certain stipulations were fatal to a contract, although a contract as a whole, looked at reasonably, and acted upon reasonably, might be greatly to the bene- fit of the apprentice. There might be a contract greatly to an infant's interest and a penally might make it void. Mr. Rose said that upon the present deed there was an absence of penalty, and he was engaged to support that deed. Mr. Justice Williams. But you endeavor to support it upon a very wide basis. Mr. Rose said this was a sraal 1 contract to serve for three years at very good wages — two-thirds of a, journeyman's wages. The Lord Chief Justice said the question was whether they could put into a oon- ratct with an infant something which mustneeds be to his disadvantage. Mr. Rose said that in this case the work of the infant was piecework. A turn-out happened. He was to be paid piecework according to a certain scale. Through the turn-out.he could earn no wages at piecework, and yet it was to be said that the stipu- lation which induced the master to let him go elsewhere to earn wages was manifestly to his prejudice. The indenture of apprenticeship wasruuuingon during the turn-out. The Lord Chief Justick. Yes; his time is going on, but he islearuingnothing, and receiving nothing. The only thing put against him is that he may, if he can, get em- ployment some other way in some other trade, subject to being drawn back at once to his master under the penalty of the Apprenticeship Act, the moment the master ter- minated the turn-out. Mr. Rose. It does not follow tha,t he would be obliged to go to some other trade. The Lord Chief Justice. I did not say so. I say it is certain his employment is stopped, and his wages are stopped. Mr. Justice Williams asked what would be the position of the apprentice if that clause were omitted from the apprenticeship deed altogether ? Mr. Rose supposed that the position would be that the apprentice would go to work, ami the master would have to pay him his wages. Mr. Justice Williams. If there'was a turn-out, and the work was all suspended, would he receive any wages at the end of the week ? Mr. Rose. No, my lord. The Lord Cheif Justice. Why not ? Mr. Rose. Because the provision is that the master shall pay him "during such term such wages as are hereinafter mentioned." The Lord Chief Justice. The master binds himself to find him work the whole time. The master covenants that he shall teach and instruct him, and cause him to be taught mnd instructed, and so on, and will find the apprentice fair and reasonable work, and •will pay him for his work two-thiuls of a journeyman's pay. Mr. Rose said if they struck out that clause, they to a certain extent destroyed the 882 LABOR IN EUROPE — ENGLAND. indenture, because there was a provision for not paying wages. If there were no journeymen at work, how much would he pay him ? How could they estimate what two- thirds of the meu's wages would be when there were none at work f The Lord Chief Justice. He will have two-thirds of what a journeyman would have if he were at work. Mr. Ross said he did not know that he could say anything else; but it was a ques- tion of some considerable importance, because their lordships' decision would invali- date the indentures which bound most of the apprentices there. Mr. Justice Williams. It is not good for the apprentices. The Lord Chief Justice. It cannot be. Wiihout calling upon Mr. Nash for the respondent, The Lord Chief Justice said that he was of opinion that in this case the mag- istrate was correct. The principles, as he understood it to be, applied to these contracts were simple enough. In a sense, the whole contract was true. That was to say, the effect of a particular stipulation — the true effect of the particular stipulation, as in the case of Leslie v. Fitzpatrick, was to be gathered from the whole contract. But if, notwithstanding, looking at the whole contract, the effect of any particular stipulation must needs be, if enforced, to the disadvantage of the infant, and it could not be if enforced to his advantage, the presence of that stipu- lation would invalidate the contract. That was the fact about the rule as to the penalty. If the contract had been looked at in the sense in which Mr. Rose con- tended for it, the existence of the penalty wonld not invalidate the contract, be- cause there might be a contract on the whole so advantageous to the infant as that a small penalty wonld be by no means enough to prevent the contract taking effect. But for the protection of infants it had been from early times, audit was still the law, that they might contract with infants; but a man must contract with in- fants so that the stipulations he made with them were for their benefit; and if they put anything into the contract which was for the disadvantage of the infant and could not be to his advantage, that invalidated the contract. There was the stipula- tion in the contract that in case of a turn-ont the master might refuse to find any work or pay for the infant, giving him merely as a collateral benefit or compensa- tion the power, if be could, of getting elsewhere some other work during the period of the turn-out — a period, as the magistrate had pointed out, wholly uncertain; and therefore it was impossible for the infant to enter into anything like a satis- factory or solid coutract while the turn-out was going on, because the indenture stipulated that at the conclusion of the turn-out the apprentice was to be recalled to his master's service on the old terms. The master by the indenture stipulated affirmatively to find him work, teach him his trade, and find him reasonable work during the whole time, and pay him for that reasonable work two-thirds of the sum paid to journeymen. That was an absolute stipula:ion. The true effect of this was that the master bound himself, whether turn-out or no turn-out, to find work for ap- prentices, and to pay them for that work two-thirds of the ordinary journeyman's wayes. Then he stipulated again, for his own protection, that in case of a turn-out he need not do that, that he need not find him work, and need not pay him wages. It seems to him impossible to say that that could in any circumstance be for the ad- vantage of the infant. It seemed to him, therefore, that in principle this case was rightly decided by the magistrate. It seemed to him to be clearly within the case of the Queen v. Lord. The right of the master to stop the work and the wages was making it fatal to the contract. Now, here the master had done that very thing which, in the case of Leslie*'. Fitzgerald, and especially in the Queen v. Lord, would be fatal to the coutract, because he took the right which was in his own power to take off the wages and stop the work during the whole period of the turn-out of the people he employed. It. would be enough to say that it remained to be considered whether the tests which his brother Lush laid down as general tests, that the master had a right to propose for his own benefit a hostile clause for the disadvantage of the infant working with him— if they were common in the contracts, or the state'of trade justified him to do it in self-defense — it remained to be considered by some court or another, whether these could be considered the trne principle, when the case of an infant was concerned. They were true, and light principles between men of a proper age; but that was not the question. He only ventured to say that he was not satis- fied they were true principles in infants' contracts. It was not necessary to discuss or decide that in this case, because on the ground he was going to steer entirely clear from the case of Leslie v. Fitzpatrick, which made it very clear to him that the mas- ter had not the right in question. Mr. Justice Williams said he was of the same opinion. As the law stood at present an infant had no power to bind himself by a covenant which was not for his benefit. Therefore, he thought the magistrate was right. Mr. Rose. Will you give me leave to appeal ? They are very anxious to settle the form of indenture which will mret the point of law. The Loud Chief Justice. The law is perfectly plain. Mr Nash. Will it be dismissed with cost? The' Lord Chief Justice. Yes.