5fcw ?|ork Hate QloUege of AgttcuUute S GOLD AND SILVER— PRODUCT AND VALUE, . . .193 XIV. THE NON - PRECIOUS METALS {Regular Establishments), . 200 XV. COAL AND MINOR MINERALS, 209 XVI. PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS 217 XVII. STONE -QUARRIES IN THE UNITED STATES, . . . . 219 XVIII. QUARRY PRODUCTS, BY STATES 220 XIX. QUANTITY AND VALUES OF MINING PRODUCTS, . .221 XX. FISHERIES AND PRODUCTS, BY STATES: 1879, . . . 226 XXI. FISHERIES AND PRODUCTS BY DIVISIONS: 1879, ... 227 XXII. LUMBERING AND ITS PRODUCTS 257 XXIIL COMMON -SCHOOL STATISTICS: 1880, 283 XXIV. STEAM AND WATER POWER IN MANUFACTURES, . . 302 iv LIST OF TABLES. No. Page XXV. STEAM AND WATER POWER, AND OPERATIVES,. . . 304 XXVI. WORKERS AND THEIR WAGES: 1880, 310 XXVII. WAGES IN CITIES FOR TRADES ... XXVIII. MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS, CAPITAL, AND PROFIT 313-318 XXIX. DISTRIBUTION OF TRADES IN THE UNITED STATES, 336 XXX. MEAN TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL 568 APPENDIX— TABLES OF GENERAL INTEREST 585 CONTENTS, CHAPTER I., THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. Success in Life. — Where Opportunities Lie. — Inquiries Based upon Facts. — -Sum- mary of the Principal Subjects : Population ; Farming ; Fruit-culture and Gar- dening ; Live-stock and Dairy Products ; Forestry ; Manufacturing and Mechan- ical Industries; Trade and Commerce; Mines; Fisheries; Professional Occu- pations ; Applied Sciences and Inventions ; Health and Mortality ; Work for Women; Amusements . i CHAPTER H. WHO ARE SEEKING OPPORTUNITIES. Area and Population of the United States. — Ratio of Increase of Population. — Na- tivity. — Density of Population. — Ages and Probabilities of Life ... .14 CHAPTER HI. WHERE OPPORTUNITIES ARE SOUGHT. Migration of Population. — Movement from State to State. — Motives for Migration. — The Great Currents of Migration. — Probable Migration from the North to the South. — Emigration from Europe to America. — No Return Current. — Dis- tribution of Foreign Emigrants. — Residents in City and Country. — Compara- tive Growth of City and Country Population. — Distribution into Families. — Dwellings and Families . 17 CHAPTER IV. THE OCCUPATIONS WE FOLLOW. The Necessity for Labor. — Importance of Labor Statistics. — Value of the Census Reports. — Producers and Non-producers. — Who are the Non-producers. — Net Results of all Industries. — Increase of National Wealth. — Increase Pro Rata 26 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. FARMS AND FARM AREAS. Ratio of Agriculturists to Population. — Their Probable Increase. — No European Competitors in Agricultural Products.— What Constitutes a Farm. — Table of Farm Acreage and Values. — -Number and Size of Farms Page 32 CHAPTER VI. FARM PRODUCTS. Indian Corn : Its Acreage, Product, and Value.^ — Increase of Production. — Area of its Growth. — Qualities of the Grain. — Its Future. — Wheat: Qualities of the Grain. — Area of its Growth. — Where it has Advanced or Declined. — Causes of Changes. — Yield and Value per Acre. — Advantages of Better Tillage. — Oats: Area of Production, — Acreage and Value of the Crop. — Its Future. — Barley : Area of Production. — Value of the Crop, and its Future. — Rye : Area of Pro- duction. — Value of the Crop, and its Future. — Buckwheat : Acreage, Amount, and Value of Crop. — Its Future. — Rice: Area, Value, and Future of the Crop. — The Potato: Area of Production. — Acreage and Value in 1880. — Yearly Fluctu- ations in the Yield. — Its Advantages, Disadvantages, and Future. — The Sweet Potato: Area of Production.— Fluctuations in its Cultivation. — Probable Future. — Other Root Crops. — Sugar; Whence Produced. — Cane-sugar. — Main Sources of Supply. — Area and Amount of Production in the United States. — Maple- sugar.^Sorghum-sugar. — The Sorghum Plant in the United States. — Its Value for Forage. — Early Attempts at making Sugar from it. — Recent Improvements. — Large Increase to be Expected. — Beet-sugar. — Largely Produced in Europe. — Unsuccessful in the United States. — Corn-sugar, or Glucose. — How Pro- duced. — Its Character and Mst&.—Hay : Comparative Worth of the Crop. — Value and Estimated Acreage, — Amount Consumed per Head of Cattle. — Im- portance of Fodder. — Selection of Grasses. — Introduction of New Varieties. — Green Fodder. — Ensilage. — Cotton: Importance of the Plant. — Area of its Growth in the United States. — Amount and Value of the Crop from i860 to 1882. — Value per Acre. — Price Dependent upon the Foreign Market. — Uses and Value of the Seed. — Future of the Crop. — Flax : Area and Production. — De- crease from 1850 to i860. — Increase from i860 to 1870. — Subsequent Decrease. — Value of the Seed. — Future of the Flax Culture. — Hemp : Area of its Cultiva- tion.— Great Decline since i860. — Ramie : Produces a Fine Fibre. — Introduced into the United States in 1857. — Why its Cultivation was not Profitable then. — Probability of Success. — Tobacco : Acreage and Product.-^Slight Increase since i860. — Uncertainty of the Crop, and other Disadvantages. — Hops: Where Grown. — F'luctuations in the Area. — Pease and Beans. — The Pea-nut. — Its Value for Oil. — Beets, Turnips, etc 38 CHAPTER Vn. PRODUCTS OF THE GARDEN. Deficiency in Stutistics.^Horticulture : Market-gardening. — The Great Opportuni- ties which it Offers. — Requisites for Success. — New Species of Vegetables to be Sought. — Improvements by Cultivation and Hybridization. — The Blackberry. — The Cranberry. — The Currant.— The Gooseberry. — The Raspberry. The Strawberry. — The Whortleberry. — Floriculture : Cultivation of Flowers for CONTENTS. vil Sale. — Rapid Increase of the Industry. — Affords Opportunities for Women to make Money. — Cultivation of Flowers for Perfumery. — Not likely to In- crease Page 66 CHAPTER VIII. PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. Productiveness of some Tropical Fruits. — The Banana, Date, Cocoa-nut, and Bread- fruit. — Few American Fruits Indigenous. — Fruit-culture heretofore Neglected. — Value of Orchard Products, from 1850 to 1880. — Where Changes have Oc- curred. — Consumption of Fruit per Head of the People. — Naturalizing Fruits. — The Apple: Its Introduction.— Early Favorable Conditions for its Growth. — The Most Valuable Northern Fruit. — Decay of Orchards. — ^The Causes of this. — Errors in Treating ^Orchards. — Starving the Trees. — Insect Enemies. — How to Destroy them.. — The Best Soil for the Apple. — Manures and Fertilizers. — Peach-trees not to be Over-manured. — Grafting. — Special Value of the Apple. — Durability of the Fruit. — Varieties Ripen in Succession. — Varieties Recom- mended. — The Pear : A Product of Cultivation. — Standards, Budded, Grafted, and Dwarf Trees. — Area of Growth. — The Peach : Area of Growth. — Qualities of the Fruit. — Adapted for Canning. — The Cherry ; Varieties and Value of the Fruit. — Plums: Not a Leading Orchard Product. — Dried Plums or Prunes. — The Gathering of Apples and Other Fruit. — Hand -gathering. — The Fruit- plucker. — Bruising and Freezing Fatal to Fruits. — Handling Fruit. — Storing Fruit. — Canning Fruits a Growing Industry. — Fruit and Health. — Fruit-eating a Substitute for Drinking. — Southern Fruits. — The Orange : Area of Growth. — Nordhoff on Orange-culture in California. — Seedlings and Budded Trees. — Importation of Oranges. — Great Increase of Growth in California and Florida. — Statistics of Growth, Cost, and Profits of Orange - culture in California. — Prices of L&nd in California.— Necessity of Irrigation. — Advice to Emigrants. — The Apricot : Successfully Introduced into California. — Plums : Largely Grown for Canning. — The Olive: Succeeds Fairly in California. — Probabilities of its Future. — The Almond : Experiments in its Cultivation. — Probabilities of Prof- it. — The English Walnut: Reasons for its Cultivation. — The Italian Chest- nut . . ... 73 CHAPTER IX. PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. Area of Growth of the Vine in the United States. — The Soils Best Adapted to it. — Modes of Cultivation. — Future of American Vine-growing. — Diseases of the European Vines.- — Oidium and Phylloxera. — Exemption of American Vines. — Value of the Wine-product of Europe. — Vine-growing in California. — Nord- hoff's Anticipations. — Wine-making in California. — Raisins: Mode of Drying in Europe. — Raisin-making Recently Introduced into California. — Profits of a Raisin Vineyard. — Where they may be Located. — Processes of Drying and Packing the Raisins. — California as a Fruit-growing Region . . .97 CHAPTER X. LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. Importance of Live-stock. — Live-stock upon Farms. — Estimate of Animals not upon Farms. — Table of Live-stock. — Increase should be Estimated Relatively Vlll CONTENTS. to the Increase of Population.— Stock-raising a Growing Industry. — Increase in Numbers and Value of Stock. — Reasons why Stock-raising will Increase. — The United States Must to a Great Extent Supply Europe. — All Parts of an Animal may be Turned to Use.- — Neat-cattle : The Number of Working Oxen Diminishing. — Milch Cows, their Number and Value in Various Sections..— Improvements of Breeds. — Value of Animals Slaughtered. — Sheep: Their Number, and Ratio of Increase. — Value of the Wool. — Sheep Slaughtered. — Value of Sheep per Head. — Sheep-raising in Great Britain. — Profitable Results of Sheep-breeding. — Where Wool-growing Pays. — Swine : Their Number and Increase. — Where they are. Most Numerous. — Slaughter-houses, Swine, and Corn. — Horses: Their Number and Increase. — Loss Occasioned by the Civil War. — Profits in Horse-breeding. — Mules and Asses : Their Number and Value. — Profits in Breeding. — Poultry : Its Estimated Value. — Where Poultry- keeping may be Profitable. — Mr. Bement's Experience.— Management of Fowls. — Their Feeding. — Poultry-raising by Women. — Bee-keeping : Less Practised than Formerly. — Where it may be Profitable Page io6 CHAPTER XL PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. Milk: Quantity Produced and Consumed. — Its Value. — Milk Yielded by some Improved Breeds. — Varying Proportion of Milk to Butter Produced. — Pedi- gree and Breeding. — Experience of Messrs. Pratt, Boutwell, and others. — English Dairy -farming. — Housing and Feeding Cows. — Corn -stover, and other Green Fodder. — Swill-slops as Food for Cows. — Milk should be More Largely Used as Food. — Preserved and Condensed Milk. — Cheese: Changes in Mode of Manufacture. — Quantities Produced. — Factory Cheese. — Butter : In- crease in Production. — Creameries or Butter -factories. — Where Butter is Chiefly Made.^ Value of the Butter Product. — No Necessity for Bad Butter. — Opportunities in the Dairy Business . . . . 131 CHAPTER XH. REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. Proportion of Agriculturists to other Producfirs.^ — Wealth of the Farming Class. — The Mechanic Works upon Dead Substances, the Agriculturist upon Living Ones. — Agricultural Chemistry. — Water and other Elements of Plants. — How Manures and Fertilizers Act. — Rotation of Crops. — Special Requisites for the Market-gardener or Fruit-grower. — They Need Good Business Skill. — Requi- sites for the Successful Stock-raiser. — Must Understand Agricultural Chem- istry and Animal Physiology. — Value of Statistics. — Illustrations. — Opportuni- ties in Stock-breeding. — High Prices for Blooded Stock. — Advantages of some Mechanical Dexterity. — Farming Requires Capital. — Suggestions for Acquiring it. — How to Learn Farming.^ — The Emigrant Farmer. — The Farmer Bound to the Soil. — Things to be Considered. — Salubrity of Climate.^Social and Edu- cational Considerations. — Whence and Whither to Emigrate.— Accessibility to a Market of Great Importance. — Working of the Colony System of Emigra- tion. — Suggestions for Co-operative Emigration. — Best Size for Farms. — Ad- vice from a Successful Emigrant. — A Profitable Wheat Crop. — General Ad- vantages of the Colony System. — Agricultural Laborers becoming Owners of Farms. — Mental Culture of the Farmer 144 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER XIII. AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881 AND 1882. The Harvests of i88i Unfavorable.— The Winter of 1881-82.— Drought of the Next Summer. — Comparison between the Crops of 1880 and 1881. — Corn: Increase of Acreage and Decrease of Yield. — Increase of Prices, and Nominal Increase of Value. — Relation gf Exports to Prices. — Effect of Diminution upon the Price of Meat-products. — The Corn-crop of 1882 between that of the two Preceding Years. — Wheat: Comparison between the Crops of i88o and 1881. — The Ex- ports of Wheat Affect its Price here. — The Wheat-crop of 1882. — Oats : The Crop of 1 88 1 a Good One. — Statistics of the Crop. — Barley : Amount and Value of the Crop. — Probability of Increase.— 7 /fy^ and Buckwheat : Comparative Statistics. — Potatoes : Marked Fluctuations in the Product and Price. — Their Cultivation recently Extended to the Southern States. — Hay : Statistics of the Crop. — Ranks in Value above Cotton. — Probable Increase of Cultivation. — Winter-feeding of Cattle. — A Farmer's Opportunity. — Cotton: Variation in Yield for 1880, i88i, and 1882. — Prices Low. — Nominal Prices and Real Prosperity. — Lessons from Good and Bad Years. — Live-stock : Grains and Meats. — Advance in the Price of Cattle. — Causes of the Rise. — Decrease in Swine. — Large Increase in Sheep. — Large Increase in the Value of Live-stock. — Growth of Exports. — Improvement in Breeds. — Future of Live-stock. — Proportion of Agricultural and Other Ex- ports Page 162 CHAPTER XIV. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN WHEAT-GROWING. Our Small Average Crop per Acre. — Sowing Broadcast or in Drills. — Reasons in Fa- vor of Drilling. — Where Broadcast Sowing is Necessary. — Hybridizing Cultiva- tion of Seed-wheat. — Experiments by Prof. Blount in Colorado. — Summary of the Results attained by him. — Cautions to Experimenters. — Wheat-breeding as a Profession . .... 178 CHAPTER XV. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FARM-LABORERS. Farm-laborers and Farm-owners. — Wages paid to Agricultural Laborers. — Fluctua- ations from Time to Time. — Great Reduction in 1879. — Rise in 1882. — Influence of Manufacturing upon the Wages of Agricultural Laborers. — Negro Labor in the South. — Average by Sections. — Occasional Laborers during Harvest. — Op- portunities for the Laborer to become a Farmer. — How Savings may be Invest- ed. — The Annual Saving of $120, invested at 4 per cent., will produce giioo in Eight Years 185 CHAPTER XVI. THE PRECIOUS AND NON-PRECIOUS METALS. Quantity and Value of the Gold and Silver. — Condition and Prospects of the Min- ing Industry. — Gold: Its Original Condition. — The Great Australian Nugget. — Placer, or Surface, Mining. — Deep, or Vein, Mining. — Gold-bearing Rocks. — The Gold-veins. — Chutes. — Separating the Gold from the Rock. — Schools of Mines. — Opportunities for Success. — Silver : Its Wide Diffusion. — Where found X CONTENTS. in the United States. — Relative Values of Gold and Silver. — Iron: Rarely found Separate in Nature. — Value of Iron Ores. — Iron-miners, their Wages, etc. — Fluctuations in Iron-making. — Its Present Condition. — Opportunities for Skilled Labor. — Copper: Where Produced in the United States. — Metallic Copper and Copper-miners. — Quantity and Value. — Wages of Miners. — Copper- mining a Profitable Industry. — Lead: Quantity and Value. — Where Produced. — Zinc: Quantity and Value. — Statistics of Production. — A Growing Industry. — The Minor Minerals. — Value of all Metallic Products ., Page 192 CHAPTER XVII. COAL, ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS. Distinction between Anthracite and Bituminous Coal. — Quantity and Value of the Anthracite. — Where it is Mined. — Bituminous Coal, Quantity and Value. — Total Value of Coal and the Minor Minerals. — Statistics of Production.' — Wages Paid and Capital Invested. — Present Condition of the Industry 206 CHAPTER XVIII. PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. Known from Remote Times. — Boring for Oil begun in 1858. — The Quantity and Value Produced from 1859 to 1879. — Great Over-production in 1880. — Number and Cost of Wells. — Wages of Miners. — Refining Petroleum. — Value and Costs of Refined Petroleum and its Products. — Uses for Petroleum Increasing.^Pros- pects of-the Industry 212 CHAPTER XIX. STONE-QUARRYING AND SALT-MAKING. Quantity and Value of Building-stone Quarried. — Salt, the Quantity and Value Pro- duced. — General Summary of all Mining Values 219 CHAPTER XX. FISHERIES AND FISH-CULTURE. Inadequacy of Former Statistics.— The Report for 1880. — Capital and Hands Em- ployed. — Value of Products. — Rate of Remuneration. — The Grouping of the Fisheries. — The Whale Fishery : nearly Extinct. — The Seal Fishery.— Danger of its Extinction. — The Salmon Fishery. — How carried on in Oregon and Califor- nia. — Canning Establishments. — The Cod Fishery. — The Mackerel Fishery. — The Herring Fishery. — Herrings put up as Sardines. — Prospects of Deep-sea Fishing. — The Oyster Fishery.— Fish Cultivation. — Rapid Advance in this. — Artificial Breeding of Oysters. — The U. S. Fishery Commission. — What it has already Accomplished. — Further Work to be Done. — Certain Increase of Fish Culture. — Opportunities which it Presents 222 CHAPTER XXI. FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. The Wanton Destruction of Forests.— Its Effect upon, the Water Supply.— Direct Influence of Trees upon the Rainfall. — They Equalize the Distribution, and CONTENTS. XI Prevent both Floods and Droughts.— Forests Prevent the Washing Away of the Soil.— Fertile Regions which have been Ruined by Deforesting : Palestine, Northern Africa, India, Greece, Parts of Spain, France, and Italy.— The Spice Islands. — Island of Penang. — A New England Instance. — Influence of Forests upon Climate. — Hurricanes. — Necessary Proportion of Forest Land.— Estimate in 1870 for Europe and America. — Careful Estimate for the United States in 1875. — Where the Deficiency chiefly Exists. — What Should be Done.— Forest- ry as a Profession.— Report of the British Royal Association.— Forest Laws.— Organized Tree-planting. — Duty of the Government. — Schools of Forestry.— Care of the Forests of Prussia.— The Bavarian Forest-school.— Necessity of Forests for Lumber Page 238 CHAPTER XXII. LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. Rapid Extension of Lumbering since 1880.— Quantity and Value of Products.— Wages of Lumbermen.— Other Forest Products. — Wood-pulp. — Money Value of Growing Forest - trees. — Forest Reports from Various States. — The New England States.— The Middle States.— The South Atlantic and Gulf States.— The Central Western States.— Missouri.— The Half-wooded States,— The almost Treeless States. — California. — Requirements for Forest Cultivation. — Its Profits Certain, if Slow 253 CHAP.TER XXIII. CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. Sources of Future Supply of Lumber to be Found at Home. — Who must Conduct our Forest Culture. — Our Present National Forest Lands. — Present Condition in the Valley of the Mississippi and East of the Rocky Mountains. — On the Lower Mississippi. — Exhaustion of the White Pine. — The Yellow Pine of the South not Inexhaustible. — Timber in Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. — In Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. — The Treeless Plains on the Upper Missouri. — Arizona and New Mexico.— Forest Distribution in California. — The Redwood Forests.— Their Rapid Destruction. — Foreign Lum- bering Companies. — The National Redwood Forests, and how to Preserve them. — Reservation of Forest Land from Sale or Grant. — Governmental Encourage- ment to Tree-planting. — Land-grants to Railroads, etc. — Importance of For- estry. — Opportunities which it Presents 267 CHAPTER XXIV. THE PROFESSIONS. Number Engaged in the Professions. — Former Status of the Professions in Gen- eral. — The Clerical Profession. — Facilities for Entering it. — Its Advantages and Disadvantages. — Duties of Laymen. — Teaching. — Number of Teachers. — Their Wages. — Our Common-school System Defective. — Offers too few Inducements to Teachers. — Other Disadvantages. — Importance of the Profession. — Poor Economy of Underpayment. — Requisitions for the Teacher. — The Medical Profession. — Its Requirements. — The Duties which it Involves. — Its Opportu- nities. — The Legal Profession. — The Strong Inducements which it Presents. — It is Overcrowded. — Advantages and Disadvantages. — The Literary Profession. — Newspapers and Periodicals. — Their Number and Distribution. — Journalists Xli CONTENTS. and Journalism. — Editors. Contributors, and Authors. — Hints for Beginners. — What Kinds of Writing Pay.— "Preparation of Manuscript. — Rates of Payment. — Male and Female Authors Page 278 CHAPTER XXV. MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. Manufactures and Operatives.— Mechanics and Workmen. — The Number thus Em- ployed. — Steam-power and Water-power Employed in Manufactures. — Advan- tages of Water-power. — Where it is Available. — Bearing upon Manufactures in the Future, — Advantages of Steam-power. — Ratio of Power to Operatives. — Concentration of Manufactures in Large Establishments. — Large Increase in the Number of Female Operatives and of Children. — Average Wages of Operatives. — Comparative Prosperity of Operatives in 1870 and 1880. — Increase in Manu- facturing Values. — Raw Material, Wages, Capital, and Profits. — Wages and Skill. — Circumstances which Affect Numbers, of Workmen in Different Occu- pations. — Workers and their Wages. — Influence of the Labor of Women and Children upon Rates of Wages. — Skilled and Unskilled Labor. — Other Factors in the; Labor Problem. — Wages in Cities for Trades. — Laborers Employed, Cap- ital Invested, and Percentage of Profits in 330 Manufactures 299 CHAPTER XXVI. REQUISITES OF SUCCESS FOR THE ARTISAN. Comparatively little Capital Required. — Apprenticeship System. — Our Present Ap- prenticeships usually too Short. — Guilds and Trade Unions. — The Education of the Hand. — Characteristics of the Human Hand. — Man's Supremacy Arises from his Hand and his Brain. — Either Ineffective without the Other. — Man and Tools. — The Hand Supplies the Place of other Organs of Animals. — Gen- eral Education of the Senses. — The Special Education of the Hand. — It seems to Act Automatically. — Type-setting and Distributing. — Other Illustrations.^ — The Hands two Independent Organs, to be Trained Separately.— Heredity of Manual Dexterity. — Skill the Prime Requisite for Mechanical Success. — Foreign Workmen more Skilful than Americans. — The Reasons for this. — A Tendency towards Improvement 319 CHAPTER XXVn. SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND ^MANUFACTURES. The Occupation must be Judiciously Chosen.— Some Trades go out of Use. — Im- proved Supersede Old Ones. — Machinery takes the Place of Hand-work. — The Effects of this. — Example of Improvements in Printing. — The Workman must be Able to do More than One Thing. — Uncertainty of Some Occupations. — Clerk- ships under Government. — Choice of a Place of Residence. — The Local Distri- bution of Trades in the United States.— Change to be Expected, especially in the Southern States. — The Bearing upon the Future of the Trades. — Concen- tration into Large Establishments. — The Artisan as Man of Business and Master- workman.— Comparative Decrease in the Number of Employers. — Two Aspects of this Change. — General Requisites for Success : Skill and Energy, Foresight and invention.^— Cautions and Encouragements. — Honesty in Manufactures. Value of an Established Brand or Trade -mark. — Illustrative Examples. A Character Gained must be Maintained. — Examples in Various Manufactures and CONTENTS. , xiii Productions. — Silver Ware.^ — -Woollen and Cotton Goods. — Sardines. — Canned Meats, Fruits, Wines, etc. — Summation of the Main Conditions for Success in Mechanics and Manufactures : Select the Avocation wisely ; become a Thorough Master of it ; find a Favorable Location ; be Alert for all Opportunities ; always aim Higher . Page 331 CHAPTER XXVIII. TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION. How Trade and Transportation increase Values. — Number of Persons Engaged. — Railroads: Their Progress in the United States. — Their Total Cost. — Capital Stock and Debt. — Gross Income and Dividends. — Losers and Gainers. — Specu- lation in Stocks. — Prospects for Railroad Enterprise. — Employes of Railroads and their Average Earnings. — Number of Passengers and Ratio of Accidents. — Canal Navigation : Extent and Cost of Canals. — Probable Future of Canals.— Steam Navigation: Miles of Navigable Water within the United States. — Num- ber of Steamers, Capital Invested, and Gross Earnings. — Wages paid in Different Sections. — Total Mercantile Water-craft of the United States. — Telegraphs and Telephones : Statistics of Telegraph Companies. — Operators and their Salaries. Requisites for a Successful Operator. — Prospects of Operators .... 350 CHAPTER XXIX. GENERAL REQUISITES FOR MERCANTILE SUCCESS. Large Proportion of Mercantile Failures. — This Industry Overcrowded. — Reasons for this. — Large Establishments destroy Small Ones. — Prospects of Clerks and Book-keepers. — Chief Requisites for Mercantile 'Success : Good Credit, Sagacity in Buying and Selling. — Judicious Enterprise. — Fluctuations in Production and Demand. — Every Industry is Connected with Every Other. — Available Capital. — Business Capacity is Capital. — Ready for Opportunities. — Illustrative Exam- ple. — Retrospect of Ordinary Opportunities. — General Conclusions. — Special Vocations 360 CHAPTER XXX. HOUSE -BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. Necessity for Competent Architects. — Our Public and Private Buildings Defective. — We Live more In-doors than Out-of-doors. — Employing an Architect. — In- creasing Opportunities for Architects. — What is Required of them. — Adapta- tion of a Design to its Uses. — Hints for House-builders. — Modifications Ac- cording to Climate. — Painting. — Foundation, Roof, and Chimneys. — Interior Arrangements. — Light and Ventilation. — Privies and Water-closets. — Estimat- ing Cost. — Superintendence by the Architect. — Prospects for Architects in the Newer States and in the South.— In the Union Generally. — Plumbers and Gas- fitters : Science and Skill Required. — Evils from Bad Plumbing. — House-warm- ing. — Furnaces 368 CHAPTER XXXI. HOUSEHOLD DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE. Care for the Beautiful. — Pleasing Colors.— Designing Wall-papers as an Occu- pation. — Arrangement of Forms and Colors. — The Dado, Interspace, and XIV CONTENTS. Frieze. — The Ceiling:— Windows and Doors.— The Fireplace. — Marble and Wooden Mantels. — Carpets. — Where Carpets are out of Place. — Opportunities for House Decorators. — Decorative -Furniture. — Furniture and Homes.^-Utility and Beauty. — Durability.— Good and Bad Cabinet-making.— Opportunities Pre- sented Page 385 CHAPTER XXXII. DECORATIVE POTTERY, OR CERAMICS. Antiquity and Prevalence of the Art. — Uses to which it was Applied. — An African Potter of the Present Day. — Growing Taste for Ceramics. — The Ceramic "Craze." — Progress and Prospects of Ceramics in the United States. — Ce- ramic Home Decoration. — Illustrative Exemplar. — Opportunities for Ceramic Artists. — Schools of Industrial Art. — The Cooper Institute. — Drawing and Designing 395 CHAPTER XXXIII. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. The Popularizing of Works of Art. — The Public the Best Patron.— Designers for Engravers. — Engravers.^Lithography. — Copperplate - engraving. — Method of Printing. — Etching. — Uses of Copperplate - engraving. — Wood - engraving. — Comparison between this and Copperplate. — Black Lines and White Lines. — Progress of Wood - engraving. — Early Specimens. — Recent Rapid Progress in the United States. — The Causes of this. — Cost of Good Engravings. — Oppor- tunities Furnished by Wpod - engraving. — Requisites for Success. — A Pro- fession for Women 402 CHAPTER XXXIV. OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. The Sciences and the Arts Applied to Practical Ends.— Who are the Great Work- ers. — Physical Science. — Applied Sciences. — Chemistry. — Civil Engineering. — Its Work and its Rewards. — " Getting an Education." — Classical and Scientific Courses of Study.— Electricity. — What it has Accomplished and may Accom- plish. — Mineralogy. — Importance of Mineral Products. — Opportunities for the Mineralogist. — American Schools of Mines. — Glass-working. — Decorative Glass. — Glass-painting. — Affords increasing Opportunities for Artists. — ^Ornamental Glassware. — Working in the Precious Metals. — Silverware and Jewellery. — Rapid Increase in Workmen shows Increase of Opportunities 412 CHAPTER -XXXV. PATENTS, PATENT -RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. What Constitutes a Patent. — Earliest Patents in England and America. — Objections Urged against Patents. — Extent of the Patent System. — Patents in European States. — American Patents. — Mode of Obtaining a Patent. — The Invention must be Useful and New.— Completeness of the Invention. — What may be Patented. —Forfeiture of the Right to a Patent. — Caveats.— Abandonment of a Patent.^- Infringements of Patent-rights. — American Patentees and Patents. — Number of Issues.— Distribution in Different Sections.— Principal Articles for which Pat- CONTENTS. XV ents have been Taken Out.— Some Minor Subjects.— Number of Inventors.— Profits of Inventors. — How the Value of a Patent may be Affected. — Ex- amples. — The Revolving Turret. — Opportunities for Inventors. — Mechanical Progress of the United States. — Requisites for an Inventor. — The Possible and the Impossible.— Learning what has been Attempted or Accomplished.— Some Cautions.— Clear Specifications in the Claim for a Patent.— The Future of Inventors Page 425 CHAPTER XXXVI. MINOR PROFESSIONAL VOCATIONS. The Stage : Number of Performers.— Fascination of the Stage.— Its Disadvantages and Temptations.— The Opera.— Perils of Studying Abroad.— Music Teachers and Musicians : Increasing Importance of Music as a Branch of Education. — Increase in the Number of this Profession.— Women as Teachers and Private Performers.— The Platform : Public Lectures and Recitations.— Opportunities for Popular Lecturers.— Canvassers and Agents : The Commercial Traveller.— The Book-agent, or Canvasser.— Peculiarities of the Book Trade.— Requisites for Success.— Good Books and Responsible Publishers.— A Good Address. — Neither Bore nor Beggar.— An Honorable Vocation. — Choice of Location. — Opportunities as a Permanent Occupation. — Constant Increase in the Demand for Books. — Prospects of the Book Canvasser . 447 CHAPTER XXXVII. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. New Mineral Fields to be Explored : Tin, and its Probable Existence in the United States. — Aluminum and Magnesium "the Metals of the Future." — Their Qual- ities and Uses, if Cheaply Produced. — New Fields in Chemistry; Valuable Products from Old or Worthless Materials. — Electro -magnetism. — Aniline . Dyes. — Importance of the Dyeing Industry. — New Textile Plants.^-The Silk- worm. — Wools and Furs. — Paper, and New Paper Materials. — Papier-machi, and its Uses. — Acclimatization of New Plants. — Mate and Coca. — Canning of ' Meats, Fish, Fruits, and Vegetables. — Devices for the Conservation of Heat. — The Solar Engine. — Utilization of Motive Powers. — ^Electro-magnetic Motive Power. — Compressed Air. — Where it may be Economically Used as a Motive Power. — The Mont Cenis Tunnel. — Compression by Water-power or by Steam- power. — Windmills. — Sandmills 459 CHAPTER XXXVIII. BUILDING MATERIALS. Increasing Scarcity of Timber. — The Quarries must Make Up for the Forests. — Im- portance of our Quarries. — Concretes and Artificial Stone. — Beton-Coignet. — Ransom's Concrete Stone. — The Sorel Artificial Stone. — The Frear Artificial Stone. — Portland Stone. — Opportunities for Invention and Experiment. — Se- lection of Natural Building Stone. — Brick our Chief Future Building Material. — Clays Suitable for Bricks. — Moulding and Burning the Brick. — Terra-cotta. — Iron in Building. — Influence of More Durable Materials upon our Archi- tecture. — The Sand-blast. — Uses to which it is Applied. — Ornamental Work. — The Dressing of Stone. — Turning of Pilasters. — Machinery and House- building 477 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXIX. WORK FOR WOMEN." Women's Work and Wages.^-The Number of Working-women. — Women in Out- door Labor. — Some Female Farmers. — A Woman's View of the Matter. — Hor- ticulture and Floriculture. — Illustrative Instances, and Cautions.— Domestic Service. — Why Women are Paid Less than Men. — Women as Workers in Silverware. — Women as Artists. — Usually Impatient of Study. — The Metro- politan Art School. — Various Opportunities for Women as Artists. — Pupils of the Cooper Institute. — Wood-engraving. — The Free Art School. — Art Teach- ers. — Coloring Photographs. — Painting on China. — Embroidery. — Women who should not Study Art for a Living. — Art and Matrimony .... Page 486 CHAPTER XL. WORK FOR ViOWEii— Continued. Women as Clerks and Book-keepers. — Telegraphy. — Type-writing. — Type-setting : How Learned, and How Paid. — Opportunities which it Presents. — The Civil , Service : For what Positions Women are Eligible. — Mode of Obtaining them. — -Examinations. — Appointments. — Working of the Civil Service System. — Opportunities which it should Present. — Law, Divinity, and Medicine. — Teach- ing : Salaries of Male and Female Teachers. — In the New York Grammar Schools.— Nursing : Untrained Nurses. — Nursing as a Regular Profession. — The Nurse and the Physician. — Nursing a New Profession.^Training Schools for Nurses. — The New York Bellevue Hospital School. — Its Course of Study. — Results of the Experiment. — Pecuniary Value of Health. — Opportunities Pre- sented for the Profession of Nurse. — Hints for Household Nurses . . .510 CHAPTER XLI. AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. Work and Play. — The Stage. — Music. — Non-professional Musicians. — Halls for Amusements. — Amateur Bands. — Making Home Cheerful. — Amusements one Attraction in City Life. — Good Example in some Manufacturing Towns. — Pleasure and Profit. — Some wise Social Provisions for Operatives. — Corpora- tion Boarding-houses. — Amusements at Resorts for Pleasure. — Of an Out-door Character. — Music a Chief Attraction. — Music, in itself, never a Debasing Amusement. — The Free Concerts. — Importance of Amusements. — Variety in Amusements. — Family Amusements. — The Day of Rest, and Hours of Rest each Day. — Labor-saving Machinery and Amusements 531 CHAPTER XLH. LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY AND WORKING-MEN. Machinery (Joes Injure some Individuals. — The Injury not always Directly Compen- sated. — Indirect Compensations.— Nothing is Useful which is not Consumed. Increase of Production stimulates Consumption. — Increased Consumption means Increased Comfort. — Summary of the Benefits arising from Labor-saving Machinery. — Our Condition without Machinery. — Who have Opposed, and still Oppose it. — Its Further Introduction Inevitable. — Skilled and Unskilled Labor vs. Machinery. — What the Workman must Do. — He must not Content himself CONTENTS. xvii with being Able to Do One Thing. — He rnust be Ready for all Opportunities. — Education. — What this Implies Page 542 CHAPTER XLIII. HEALTH AND MORTALITY. No Perfect System of Registration of Deaths in the United States as in England.— Number of Deaths in a Thousand in i860, 1870, and 1880. — These Numbers do not Indicate any Actual Increase as Compared with the Population.— Correction of the Census of 1880. — Death-rate of England and Scotland Compared with that of the United States. — Number of Deaths from the Principal Diseases. — Death-rate as to Color. — Death-rate as to Sex. — Death-rate as to Age. — Death- rate as to Locality. — Death-rate of the Different States. — Analysis of Death- rate in Different Localities. — Effect of Climate on Death-rate. — Consideration of Death-rate by Groups of States. — Death-rate in Cities.— Inaccuracy of the Statistics of 1870 553 CHAPTER XLIV. CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND RAINFALL. The Influence of Climate on Health. — Temperature Dependent upon Several Causes. — Influence of Forests on Climate. — Difference in Climate between the Eastern and Western Continents. — Difference between the Atlantic and Pacific Shores of the Western Continent. — Temperature of the Great Central Plateau of the United States. — Extremes of Mean Annual Temperature.— Extreme Range of Temperature. — Consideration of Rainfall. — No Variation in Great Britain and the United States in Seventy Years. — Variations in Different Localities the Re- sult of Inaccuracies.— Variations Great at Different Points on the Globe. — Dif- ferences at Various Points in the United States. — Table of Mean Temperature and Rainfall in the States.— Rainfall in Relation to Agriculture. — Periodicity of Rainfall. — Irrigation 564 NOTES 573 APPENDIX 585 1* ILLUSTRATIONS. 87 Celebrated American Trotters . . . 107 Page The Promised Land Frontispiece Ploughing and Harrowing in Dakota 33 Sowing and Reaping in Dakota ... .... 43 A Harvest Scene in Scotland .61 Vintage at San Gabriel . . Irrigating an Orange Grove Almont Rarus King Rene \ Ethan Allen, Jun., Aberdeen, Happy | Celebrated American Trotters . .115 Medium, and Almont Lightning . J Iroquois ) „ „, „ „ S- Celebrated American Runners . .121 Foxhall Winning T:he Grand Prix \ Sheep Tending A Barn-yard View of Echo Farm Buildings from Pastures Jerseys A Home Lawn "A Field Bouquet" . . . 169 Returning from Work . . . . . 187 Turning a River igj Miner at Work — Old Manner of Working . . . | New Manner of Working — Coal-cutting Machine f Petroleum Pumping Well near Oil City 213 Light of the Pyrosoma 223 Salmon-fishing 229 Avenue of Hemlocks and Sprvces 239 Snaking out Logs ' 255 Rafts in the Dells 259 Main Entrance to the Cathedral, Seville 285 JG j 127 137 149 r's i XX ILLUSTRATIONS. Page The Gates of Ghiberti 295. Carved Decorative Panel J- 307 Columbus before the Council " Evening " 325 Sculpture over Door of St. Hubert'.'^ A Souvenir .'.... 345 Bay-window in W. K. Vanderbilt's House, Fifty-Second Street, New- York . -OSS Frieze: The Lady of Shalott ) }- 361 Hall and Staircase . . . . ) Modern Dwellings — Design No. r l y 369 Modern Dwellings — Design No. 2 ) Ebony Cabinet "i Chest in Carved Oak, Inlaid with Colored Wood. Norman Work, I 379 1550 ' J Parlor Decoration 389 Trenton and Its Potteries .... i > 397 Decorating-room of Trenton Pottery ) Faience Vase 405 On a Market-boat in North Holland 421 Saint Cecilia 439 Jacques Cartier Setting up a Cross at Gaspe 449 Home Decoration 461 A Sunday Morning in Surrey 473 A Library Effect 487 Embroidered Screen 497 Spring-time 507 Some Art Connoisseurs 517 Among the Weeds 525 Lost Lenore 5,7 The Sisters 547 The Ghost in "Hamlet" 553 Cloud Effect on Mount Lafayette . ; ^ 561 A Winter Rendezvous 560 For Notes on Illustrations, see pages 573-583. THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER I. THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. ALL men wish for success in life; and most men endeavor, with more or less energy and perseverance, to attain it. The universal desire to better one's condition is a natural and laudable one. The petition for " a mind always contented with our present condition " is one which few persons can offer with- out much mental reservation. Morbid discontent and querulous repining at our lot in life is indeed to be deprecated. But the invalid may rightly pray for health, and is culpable if he fails to do all he can to gain it. The hungry man rightly prays for food, the naked for clothing, the poor man for competence, the ignorant for instruction ; and that for or against which a man may and should pray, is that for or against which he may and should endeavor by all honest and honorable means. Success in life, as we all understand it, implies not merely freedom from absolute want and privation, but the possession of comforts and conveniences. All men can sincerely join in one part of the prayer of Agur, the son of Jakeh : " Give me not poverty;" but few men, we fancy, sincerely join in the other part : " Neither give me riches." For all men feel that poverty is in itself an evil. There have, indeed, been great and noble men whose lives were passed in poverty, just as there have been such men whose lives were passed in pain and sickness ; but they were great and noble in spite of their poverty and sickness — not in consequence of them. Far wiser, in our judgment, is 2 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. that other passage in this same Hebrew Book of Proverbs which exhorts men to get wisdom, because that, among other reasons, " Length of days is in her right hand, and in her left hand riches and honor." Wealth is a good thing — a thing to be desired and striven for. A man may, indeed, strive for it by dishonest and dishonorable means, and then its acquisition is a bane and a disgrace to him ; he may misuse it, just as he may misuse health or strength, learning or genius. In either case the evil is not in the acquisition or the possession, but in the misuse, or, which is essentially the same thing, the failure to make a good use of a thing good in itself. Wherever a change in one's condition is desirable it is right to effect a change. It is right, if a man's position is a bad one, that he should seek for a good one; if it is a good one, that he should seek for a better. The right position for a man to occupy is the best one to which he can honestly and honorably attain by the best exercise of all his powers and the best use of all his opportunities. Many foolish things are dinned into our ears by men who should know better. None of these are more foolish than the perpetual lamentations over the "materialistic tendencies" of the age, and more especially of the American people — of their persistent desire and effort to acquire wealth. We hold that when the Creator gave us such abundant means of becoming rich it was that we should become so, and that we are culpable if we do not endeavor to become so, and unwise if we do not succeed. Unless one of the wisest men who ever lived was greatly in error, there is no incompatibility between the strictest care for our material interests and the highest spiritual life. He exhorts us to be " in diligence not slothful " no less ear- nestly than to be " fervent in spirit," since in both alike we shall be " serving the Lord." This same great man, who has been styled " the Apostle of Faith," ranks what naturally results from carelessness in this respect as an evidence of the gravest demerit. To his most confidential friend he writes : " If any provideth not for his own, and especially his own household, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an unbeliever." With- THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. 3 but this worldly carefulness one cannot provide for his house- hold ; and unless he shows his faith by this kind of works, he is worse than if he had no faith at all ; and certainly it is no more a man's duty to provide for his household than for himself. In fact, a man's merit is to a very great degree rightly esti- mated by his success. It is the reverse of a compliment to a man to call him idle, improvident, negligent, careless, or shift- less ; it is not a compliment to call him poor. Many persons talk as though they considered it to be a kind of misdemeanor for any other man to be rich, or, at all events, to be much richer than his neighbors. But if one will look a little into the matter he will be pretty sure to find that the censor really means to inveigh only against those who are notably richer than he is. His conscience is not at all disturbed if he finds himself richer than somebody else ; the real grievance with such a man is that anybody should be richer than he himself is. Ask him to draw the line where the possession of wealth becomes wrong, and you may be perfectly sure that it will not be below his own position, whatever that may be. In truth, no man really believes any such thing; and no wise or considerate man acts or talks as though he believed it. Of course, if a man, for any reason, cannot get money honestly, it is better for him not to get it at all. If the choice lies between roguery and poverty, then poverty is to be chosen. It is better to wear a patched coat than to steal a whole one ; it may be better even to endure hunger than to appropriate a loaf of bread. But no man of ordinary sense and principle urges his son to refrain from earning wealth, and accumulating his earnings, at least up to a certain amount, which usually is left altogether undefined. If a father ever urges his son to work and save until he has accumulated a certain sum, and then to stop, it is pretty sure that the limit will be quite beyond that which he supposes the boy will ever reach. It is utter folly to attempt to draw the line beyond which any individual man cannot honestly earn money — to say that he may accumu- late one thousand dollars, or ten thousand, or a hundred thou- sand, or any other sum, and must then go out of business, what- 4 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ever his business may be. One of the ablest of our preachers once repHed to a parishioner who said that he meant to retire while in the prime of life : " You have no more right to do so than I have to give up my work of preaching while I am able to perform it." We should accept this only with many reserva- tions. When a man has acquired enough to " provide for his own household," he may, if he pleases, retire from hard work — he has accomplished the task imposed upon" him in this respect. There is, however, little danger from this side. It is not the purpose of this volume to point out what a man should do after he has attained success in life, but to indicate some of the paths by which he may hope to reach that success. No man can reasonably hope to attain that success of which we are speaking unless he shall avail himself of the opportuni- ties which lie before him, or which he may bring within his reach. These opportunities consist, in the first place, of the capacities and talents with which he may be endowed; and these are capable of quite indefinite improvement. A man is, so to speak, himself the implement with which he is to work. Hand and brain, eye and ear, should be trained to the utmost extent of their capabilities for the work which they have to do. A man must, before all things, endeavor to make the most of himself. No man, we suppose, ever did this to the utmost pos- sible extent. The most successful man will feel that he has only partially succeeded in his self-education. If he has not done many things which he ought not to have done, he ha!s cer- tainly left undone many things which he ought to have done. No man, perhaps, makes the most of himself; but no one who does not make much of himself will ever make much of any- thing else. A man's opportunities also lie greatly in the circumstances and conditions by which he is surrounded. It rests upon him to accommodate himself to these by fitting himself to them or them to himself. No man can do all things ; but many men can do more than one thing. If a man cannot find the work which he would best like to do, he must learn to like the best which he can find to do; and in the mean while be THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. 5 on the alert for something better. Good opportunities some- times come to one without his seeking them ; oftener they will not be found unsought. When a promising opportunity pre- sents itself or is found, seize upon it. More men fail of reach- ing success from hesitancy than from rashness, and more still froni lack of fitness for making good use of the opportunity when it does occur. An opportunity once lost is lost forever. Another may, indeed, come or be found; but the mill never grinds again with water which is past. The aim of this book is a purely practical one. It is pur- posed to take a comprehensive survey of the principal industries and avocations which are or may be carried on in this country, with a view to ascertain and set forth the opportunities which they severally present for the attainment of success in life. ■ The field to be surveyed is a wide one, embracing not only general principles, but minute details. There can be no trustworthy forecast for the future without a careful survey of the present and a comparison with the past. To judge whether any avoca- tion in life is likely to prove a desirable one, it is essential to ascertain all the facts bearing upon the case : how many per- sons are now engaged in it, and whether the number is greater or less, in proportion to the whole population, than formerly; what are the respective rates of remuneration, and whether they are stationary, increasing, or diminishing ; whether the products themselves will be in future demand, and whether there is likely to be any change in the methods by which they are produced ; what improvements may be made either in the products themselves or in their modes of production. These, and numerous other conditions and circumstances, enter into the investigation. Such an inquiry must be based upon actual and ascertained facts. Statistics, or the collecting and grouping together of facts, are the only reliable bases for speculation and theory. These facts must be gathered from many sources. The per- sonal experience of no one man is wide enough to inform him as to all which he needs to know upon any subject. He must supplement and correct the results of his own observation by 6 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. that of others. The merchant must study the statistics of all the markets with which he has even indirectly to do. The manu- facturer must learn from dry figures what quantity of his wares are likely to be wanted, and whether the markets anywhere are fairly supplied, overstocked, or understocked. The study of statistical tables may appear a dry one, but it is more or less essential in every avocation. A single table of figures, like those contained in a page of this volume, often contains a mass of valuable information to collect and arrange which has cost the labor of many men for many days, weeks, or months. They involve, indeed, an amount of labor and a consequent expense quite beyond the resources of individuals, and only to be executed by the Government, through the agency of the Census Bureau. The entire appropriation for taking the cen- sus of 1880 was almost four millions of dollars (^3,960,000), and still further amounts were required. This expenditure has been wisely incurred. The United States census of 1880 is, beyond doubt, more wisely planned and more thoroughly executed, than any similar work which has been attempted in any other country. Of the more than fifty millions of people living in the United States on the ist day of June, 1880, the age, sex, residence, and place of birth are given; the special employment or avocation of each of them engaged in any industrial occupation is noted, with the total value of the products of their labor;' and as nearly as possible the average amount of wages earned. The capital invested in all great in- dustries is shown, and the value of all products is stated. The domestic animals also come within the scope of the census. We are told how many cattle and horses, mules and asses, sheep and swine there are, not only in each State of the Union, but in each county. In brief, there is hardly anything which enters into the material welfare of the people which does not here find a place. The bare " Compendium of the Census Report," which consists mainly of tabulated figures, comprises two large vol- umes, and the complete Report, if printed in ordinary volumes, would contain matter enough to constitute a respectable school library. THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. 7 Few persons have at their disposal the time which would be required to read, even in the most cursory manner, such an enormous mass of matter. It has been attempted in this vol- ume to select and arrange the most important facts in the Cen- sus Report which bear most directly upon the question of the attainment of success in life. But we have by no means con- fined ourselves to this great storehouse of information. The successive reports of the Agricultural Department are hardly less important than those of the Census Bureau ; and many other public and private documents have been consulted throughout the months which have been devoted to the prep- aration of this volume. It has, moreover, been a special object to compare the present condition of each subject with the past, in order to be able to form some estimate of what may be an- ticipated in the near future. We touch in detail upon some of the main features of the book, in order to show how the infor- mation embodied bears upon the condition and welfare of the various classes of society. Population. — It is obvious that the total population of a country, and the ratio which it bears to the area of territory, lie at the very basis of all statistics. Without knowing this, we know scarcely anything of a people. But our population dif- fers from that of every other civilized country in this, that a very notable proportion of it are emigrants from other lands ; and it is of importance to know whence come these accessions to our population, and in what sections of the country they chiefly take up their residence. Besides this, and perhaps of more consequence, is the fact that there is a vast migration of native-born citizens from one section or state to another. Now, men migrate mainly in hope to improve their condition; and when there is a strong and continuous current of migration in any direction, and little or no return flow, it is prima facie evi- dence that the conditions of life have, upon the whole, been found more favorable in the direction to which the movement is directed than in that from which it tends. It by no means follows that everybody should migrate from his home, even if some other section presents some superior nat- 8 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ural advantages ; for there are few regions from which one can change his residence without some cost and inconvenience, and without giving up many advantages. But if for any reason one purposes to emigrate, it befits him to go where the advantages of a change seem to be the greatest. That many others circum- stanced Uke himself have found any particular section favorable to them is one evidence that he will also find it so. It is in this respect that the chapter on migrations will be found valu- able. The table accompanying this chapter shows from what States and sections emigration goes, and to which it comes. But there are other factors which enter into the solution of the problem of emigration. While it is true that it is safe to go where many others have gone with advantage, it by no means follows that it is not wise to go where few others have already gone. For example, the emigration from the North to the South, and vice versa, has hitherto been very limited. Some of the chief circumstances to which this is owing no longer exist; and there can be no reason to doubt that very many Southern men would now find better opportunities at the North, and very many Northern men better opportunities at the South. The question, in any case, hangs upon the special capacities and inclinations of the individual, and the answer should be given after a full examination of all the data sup- plied in this volume. Farming. — That agriculture, in its widest acceptation, will for a long time form the greatest American industry is certain, from the fact of the great area of our country as compared with its population, and the increasing demand from abroad for our food - products. We shall have to supply not only our own rapidly-increasing population, but to furnish much to large por- tions of Europe. Great Britain, France, Germany, and some other countries of Europe, must look to us for much of their food, and for it they must pay us prices at which we can afford to produce it. So long as agriculture shall be more profitable than other occupations, it will attract more and more of our industry. Much space has therefore been devoted to the agri- cultural statistics of the present time, and of the last decade. THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. 9 Each of our great crops has been taken up in order. The value of the whole crop, and the average value per acre, has been laboriously detailed ; and means have been suggested by which the amount of the crops may be greatly increased. It is shown that by a wise selection of seed-grain, and by more judicious cultivation, the product of the acreage now under cultivation might be made twice as great as it now is. In this respect the Reports of the Agricultural Departmeni have been found of high value. Fruit-culture and Gardening. — The products of the Gar- den, the Orchard, and the Vineyard, as distinguished from the great cereal crops, are just beginning to receive the attention which they deserve. Full and accurate statistics as to these are not as yet attainable ; but enough is at hand to show be- yond question that these avocations present great opportunities to very many persons in every section of the country. The information conveyed in relation to the advantages of the culti- vation of the orange and the grape in California, the orange in Florida, the peach and the pear in various sections, and the hints and suggestions as to the apple -culture in the more Northern States, should be of great value to the orchardist and the gardener. Live -STOCK and Dairy Products. — In respect to these great interests the means of information are unusually ample. Statistics evince the almost unequalled growth of these indus- tries, placing them at present, and still more so in the future, as among the foremost of the advancing industrial interests of the United States — industries connected with many others, and in which there is scarcely a possibility of rivalry. Forestry. — In nothing else have the American people been so deplorably culpable as in the manner in which they have treated, and are now treating, the native forests in every section of the Union. It has been one of the chief aims of this volume to show that this is the most vitally important problem with which this generation is concerned. A country bared of its trees is a ruined country, as is abundantly evinced by all human his- tory; and we are working this ruin at a rate to which there is 10 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. no parallel. The general relations of forests to the water-supply of a country is dwelt upon at length ; for, next to air, water is the thing essential to all animal and vegetable life. Of incal- culable importance, also, is the due supply of wood for lumber. Without this there is scarcely an industry that would not lan- guish and fall into decay. It is shown that at the present rate of wanton destruction the supply of white-pine — our most valu- able timber-tree — will be practically exhausted in less than ten years ; that the yellow-pine and cypress of the South will last only a few years more ; and that the noble red-wood of Cali- fornia is threatened with speedy extinction by native careless- ness and foreign greed. It is urged that not another acre of the forest-land still in possession of the National Government be granted to any railroad or other corporation, or be sold to any individual purchaser, but that the whole shall be conserved as timber-land for this generation and for those who shall come ' after us. The Manufacturing and Mechanical Industries of the country have received full and careful consideration. An ear- nest attempt has been made to show, by an ample array of statistics, what is the present condition and what the future- prospect, of each of the great trades and occupations. The numbers engaged in each section of the country have been collated, and the wages paid have been gathered from all au- thentic sources. The statistics of the principal cities, in this respect, are especially valuable, because they affect greater num- bers, and can be ascertained more accurately, than is possible in the country and in small villages. The effect which the introduction of machinery into mechanical and manufacturing industries has upon the condition and prospects of working-men and operatives has been made the subject of special considera- tion. The general conclusion arrived at is, that if proper train- ing and education be received by those especially interested the ultimate result will continue to be favorable, as it certainly has been hitherto. It is not, however, lost sight of that in many individual cases great hardship has been, and will be, .occasioned from the displacement of human labor by machinery, THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. 11 and suggestions have been made for the benefit of those who are likely to be involved in this competition. Trade and Commerce. — Every person, no matter what his employment, is to a certain extent a trader. The workman sells his labor, the manufacturer his wares, the professional man his science and skill ; and every one who sells anything must buy something, or else what he sells is a sheer loss to him. A survey has been attempted of the purely trading interests of the country, including those involved in the transportation of wares and goods rather than their production, with a view to ascertain wherein are to be found opportunities for success, and to point out the special qualifications requisite for its attainment. The Mines of the United States will probably in time come to be more important than those of all the rest of the world. We have iron and copper to any amount that can ever be re- quired. A third of the world's gold, and half of the silver, are now produced within our territory. There is, indeed, no impor- tant metal except tin for which we need look abroad ; and it is confidently asserted by some that there are tin mines yet to be discovered and developed. This, however, for the present, may be considered problematical. Our supply of coal is inexhaust- ible within any assignable number of centuries ; and there is no likelihood that petroleum will be largely found elsewhere, or that we shall be unable to supply all that the world will ever need. The mining statistics of the country have, therefore, been carefully elaborated, with constant reference to the induce- ments presented for persons in the practical work of mining, and more especially in those departments in which science and skill are required. The FiSHteRiES are considered as fully as the somewhat de- fective materials attainable would permit. There are, however, quite sufficient data to show that the artificial breeding and rearing of fish must come to be a very important industry, and one every way worthy of the consideration of those who are in a position to enter upon it. The United States Fishery Com- mission has done and is still doing a most valuable work in de- veloping our industrial capabilities. 12 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The Professional Occupations have been duly considered. Those especially which have a direct bearing upon the building and adornment of home are dwelt upon in detail. It has been the aim here to indicate how we should build our dwellings, and by what means we should beautify and adorn them. It is the people that here stand in need of instruction and advice. When they know what kind of houses to build, suitable for the various extremes of our climate, and how those houses may best be warmed, lighted, and decorated, there need be no fear that per- sons will be found ready to qualify themselves for these labors. Architects and artists may rest satisfied that opportunities for them will increase with the growth of the country in wealth and refinement. The Applied Sciences, and Inventions. — The opportuni- ties which already exist or may be created for the profitable ap- plication of scientific, artistic, and inventive skill and knowledge are kept steadily in view throughout nearly every chapter, and in relation to almost every subject treated of. " The more skil- ful the labor, the greater the remuneration which it will receive," is the cardinal principle of this volume. Health and Mortality. — The annual death-rate of each State is given, and the kinds of diseases specially prevalent in various sections, as nearly as they can be ascertained from the investigations of the Census Bureau. The information thus embodied will be of more special value to those who contem- plate a change of residence from one section to another, whether for health or any other reason. Work for Women. — Special care has been taken to point out what are the avocations in which women are now engaged ; in what proportion they are employed ; and what remuneration they receive as compared with that paid to men in similar work in those employments in which both sexes are to any extent engaged. An attempt has been made to show why it is that, as a rule, women receive less remuneration than men, and to indicate what may be done to remove this disparity. It is urged that like work should receive like pay, altogether irre- spective of the sex of the recipient. Various directions are THE AIM AND PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK. 13 indicated in which women may look for opportunities, together with hints and suggestions as to the requisites for success in each of them. It is hoped that the views here presented will do something towards the solution of a question of such vital importance. Amusements. — While it is assumed that labor of some kind is and must be the rule in life for all men and women,~the neces- sity for healthful recreation, not only for itself, but as one means of securing more and better work, is strenuously insisted upon. Suggestions are offered as to the kinds of amusements to be fostered, and the kinds to be discountenanced, together with some of the means by which innocent and beneficial public amusements may be provided. In fine : in the view of this book honorable success in life is attainable by most men who are not disqualified by mental or physical infirmity from availing themselves of the opportu- nities which are placed within their reach ; and this success will be, as a rule, in direct proportion to the sagacity with which they select their respective avocations, the knowledge and skill which they bring into exercise, and the honesty and integrity which they habitually maintain in all their dealings with others. 14 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER II. WHO ARE SEEKING OPPORTUNITIES. THE United States' comprise thirty-eight States and nine organized Territories, including the District of Columbia, having a land-surface of 2,970,000 square miles, or 1,900,800,000 acres, including the as yet unorganized Indian Territory of 68,991 square miles. Besides these is Alaska, having 530,000 square miles, and only about 33,500 inhabitants, of whom not more than 500 are whites. The population of the Indian Ter- ritory and Alaska is not included in the census. The population of the States and Territories on June i, 1880, was 50,155,783. In 1870 it was 38,558,371 : an increase in 1880 of 11,597,412, or 30.1 per cent. The males numbered 25,518,820, the females 24,636,963: an excess of males over females of 881,857, or 3.5 per cent. In thirty States and Ter- ritories the males outnumber the females ; in seventeen the females outnumber the males. • Of the population 43,475,840 were of native birth, and 6,679,943 — about one-eighth — of foreign birth. These immi- grants come to us from about sixty countries. From each of the following nationalities there are more than 100,000: From Germany, about 1,967,000; Ireland, 1,854,000; Great Britain, 918,000; British America, 717,000; Sweden and Norway, 378,000; France, 107,000; China, 105,000. Of the total pop- ulation, 43,402,970 are classed as whites ; 6,580,793 as col- ored; 105,465 as Chinese; 66,407 as civilized Indians; 141 as Japanese. Table I. shows for each State the area of land-surface ; the number of inhabitants per square mile; the population in 1880 and 1870, with the ratio of increase; the number of males and WHO ARE SEEKING OPPORTUNITIES. 15 females ; and the number of native-born and of foreign-born inhabitants. TABLE I.— AREA AND POPULATION. States and 1 OS c o n 1 TsBiaToiima. 3 Z Oil-' ^ = c IB n"- V O 3 V .2 > a CD CQ & £ Ph 1 1 1 s Alabama 51,540 34.5 1,362,505 996,993 26.6 633,629 639,876 1,353,771 9,734 Arizona 112,920 0.4 40,440 9,658 318.7 28,302 12,238 34,391 16,049 Arkansas 53,045 15.1 803,535 484,471 65.6 416,379 386,346 793,175 10,350 California. . . . 155,980 5.5 864,694 560,247 54.3 518,176 346,051 571,830 393,874 Colorado 103,645 1.9 194,337 39,864 387.4 .139,131 65,196 154,337 39,790 Connecticut . 4,845 138.5 623,700 537,454 15.8 305,783 316,918 492,708 129,993 Dakota 147,700 0.9 135,177 14,181 a53,8 83,396 53,881 83,382 51,795 Delaware 1,960 74.8 146,608 125,015 17.3 74,108 72,500 137,140 9,468 Dist.ofCol... 60 3960.4 177,624 131,700 34.8 83,578 94,046 160,503 17,132 Florida 54,240 5.0 269,493 187,748 43.5 136,444 133,049 359,584 9,909 Georgia 58,980 36.1 1,543,180 1,184,109 30.3 763,981 779,199 1,531,616 10,564 Idaho 84,390 0.4 33,610 14,999 117.4 31,818 10,793 33,636 9,974 Illinois 56,000 55.0 3,077,871 2,539,891 31.1 1,586,523 1,491,384 3,494,395 583,-576 Indiana 3.5,910 55.1 1,978,301 1,680,637 17.7 1,010,361 967,940 1,834,183 144,178 Iowa 55,475 39.3 1,634,615 1,194,020 364,399 36 848,136 536,667 776 479 1,362,965 886,010 361 650 Kansas 81,700 13.3 996,096 173.3 4.59;4a9 110;086 Kentucky 40,000 41.3 1,648,690 1,331,011 348 833,590 816,100 1,589,173 59,517 Louisiana 45,420 30.7 9.39,946 736,915 29.3 468,7.54 471,193 885,800 54,186 Maine ....... 29,895 31.7 648,336 636,915 3.5 334,058 324,878 590,053 58,883 Maryland 9,860 94.8 934,943 780,894 19.7 463,187 473,756 852,137 83,806 Massachus'tts 8 040 321.8 1,783,085 1,457,351 32.3 858,440 934,645 1,339,594 443,491 Michigan 57,430 28.5 1,636,937 1,184,059 38,3 863,355 774,.583 1,248,339 388,508 Minnesota . . . 79,305 9.8 780,773 439,706 77.5 419,149 361,624 515,097 367,676 Mississippi. . . 46,340 34.4 1,131,597 837,933 .36.6 567,177 564,430 1,'133,388 9,209 Missouri 68,735 31.5 3,168,880 1,721,295 35.9 1,137,187 1,041,193 1,956,803 311,578 Montana 14.5,310 0,3 39,159 30,595 90.1 38,177 10,983 37,638 11,531 Nebraska 76,185 5.9 453,403 133,993 367,8 349,341 303,161 354,988 97,414 Nevada 109,740 0.6 63,266 43,491 36.5 43,019 20,347 36,613 35,653 N. Hampshire 9,005 38.5 346,991 318,300 9.0 170,536 176,465 300,697 46,394 New Jersey.. 7,455 151.7 1,131,116 906,096 24.8 559,933 571,194 909,416 321,700 New Mexico . 133,460 1.0 119,565 91,874 30.1 64,496 55,069 111,514 8,051 New York . . . 47,630 106.7 5,082,871 4,383,7.59 15,9 3,505,332 3,577,549 3,871,492 1,311,379 N. Carolina . . 48,580 38.8 1,399,750 1,071,361 30.6 687,908 711,.843 1,396,008 3,742 Ohio 40,760 94,560 78.5 3,198,062 174,768 2,665,360 90,933 19 9 1 613,936 1,584,126 71,387 2,803 119 394,943 Oregon 1.8 92.3 '103,381 144',265 30,503 Pennsylvaniii. 44,985 95.3 4,383,891 3,521,951 21.6 2,136,655 3,146,336 3,695,062 587,839 Rhode Island 1,085 354.9 376,531 317,353 37.3 133,030 143,501 203,538 73,993 S. Carolina. . . 30,170 33.0 995,577 705,606 41.0 490,408 505,169 987,891 7,686 Tennessee . . . 41,750 36.9 1,542,359 1,358,530 33.5 769,377 773,082 1,535,657 16,703 Texas 363,390 6.1 1,591,749 818,579 94.4 837,840 753,909 1,477,133 114,616 Utah 83,190 1.7 143,963 86,786 65.8 74,509 69,454 99,969 43,994 Vermont 9,135 36.4 333,286 330,551 0.5 166,887 165,399 391,327 40,9.59 Virginia 40,135 37.7 1,512,565 1,335,163 33.4 745,589 766,976 1,497,869 14,696 Washington . 66,880 1.1 7.5,116 33,955 313.5 45,973 39,143 59,313 15,803 West Virginia 34,645 35.1 618,4.57 442,014 39.9 314,495 303,963 600,193 18,365 Wisconsin ... 54,4.50 24.3 1,315,497 1,054,670 44.7 680,069 635,428 910,073 405,435 Wyoming 97,575 0.3 20,789 9,118 137.9 14,153 6,637 14,939 5,850 Totals. . . 3,970,000 50,1.55,783 38,558,371 35,518,820 34,636,963 43,475,840 6,679,943 The respective ages of the entire population were, in round numbers, about as follows : Under ten years 13,500,000 Between ten and twenty 10,500,000 Between twenty and thirty 9,200,000 Between thirty and forty 6,400,000 Eighty and over. . Between forty and fifty 4,500,000 Between fifty and sixty 3,200,000 Between sixty and seventy 1,900,000 Between seventy and eighty 800,000 220,000 16 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. All one's plans of life and operations in business should be materially modified by his age, and especially by the probable future duration of his life. Nothing is more uncertain than the duration of the life of any particular individual, of whatever age ; but few things are more certain than the average life of a large number of individuals, of any given age, and under the ordinary conditions of human existence. Hence the business of life insurance has come to be an almost exact science. The figures in Table I. take in every individual of the fifty million residents of the United States. From them the following gen- eral conclusions may be deduced : If a person in ordinary health has reached the age of ten, the probabilities are about as lo to 13 that he will reach twenty; if he has reached twenty, it is as 9 to 10 that he will attain to thirty ; if he has reached thirty, it is as 2 to 3 that he will live till forty ; if he has' reached forty, it is also nearly 2 to 3 that he will reach fifty ; if fifty, it is nearly 3 to 4 that he will reach sixty. After sixty the probabilities of life dimin- ish with constantly increasing rapidity. A little more than one-half who had reached sixty attained to threescore and ten ; and of those who had reached seventy only a little more than one-fourth attained to fourscore. Of the fifty millions people' of the United States only about 220,000 — a little more than one in two hundred and twenty-five — are reported as having overpassed their eightieth birthday. WHERE OPPORTUNITIES ARE SOUGHT. 17 CHAPTER III. WHERE OPPORTUNITIES ARE SOUGHT. THE migration of the population — that is, the removal of people from the place of their birth, in order to find new homes in some other region — is a very important element in the problem before us. Almost every person has occasion, at one time or another, to determine whether he will remain in the place of his birth or present residence, or will remove to another. Probably less than one-half of our entire population actually reside in the city or town in which they were born. A man is quite as likely to take his wife from an adjoining town as from his own. Any one of a score of circumstances may render it advisable for a person to remove from one neighborhood to another. Where this movement is from one immediate neighborhood to another, with substantially the same surroundings, it cannot be properly styled a " migration " — by which we understand a removal from one country or state to another. There are no means of ascertaining precisely the amount of the movement from one to another part of the same State ; but the emigration from one State to another can be definitely ascertained. The birthplace of every individual is recorded ; and from the elaborate tables in the Census Report we can ascertain just how many persons then living were born in each several State, how many of them reside there, and how many have emigrated to another State, and also how many persons have immigrated to that State from each of the others. Every " migrant " is an emigrant from the State from which he re- moves, and an immigrant to that State into which he removes. 18 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The totals of the emigration and of the immigration will there- fore be equal. TABLE II.— MIGRATIONS OF NATIVE POPULATION. Staths and Terkitoeieb. Eesid^nt in State., B mining ) 7,670,493 4,074,238 1,810,256 3,837,112 7,075,983 2,712,943 1,750,893 3,205,124 594,510 1,361,395 59,364 631,988 584,867 137,565 36,078 86,677 135,863 107,830 3,547 46,930 5,888,133 3,446,963 1,672,171 3,978,845 435,920 1,215,189 54,849 577,1,57 602,983 138,416 53,643 139,603 22,738 38,376 1,968 7,901 Totals 17,392,099 14,744,943 3,647,157 835,187 393,169 12,986,111 3,383,115 933,644 70,873 In this table 32,763,684 of the inhabitants of the United States — 65.32 per cent, of the entire population — are not ac- THE OCCUPATIONS WE FOLLOW. 29 counted for as having any industrial occupation. Of these non-producers 13,394,076 — 18.01 per cent. — were below the age of ten. There still remain 36,761,607 above that age, of whom 19,369,508 (15,378,470 females, and 3,991,038 males), or 52.69 per cent., are not reckoned among those constituting the producing classes. Of those not accounted for, 5,531,127, of both sexes, are between ten and fifteen : this number approxi- mates very closely to the number of children attending school, who do not pursue any gainful occupation during any consid- erable portion of the year. Between sixteen and fifty-nine there were 13,907,444 males, of whom 991,333 are not accounted for. This number consists principally of students in colleges, of those mentally or physi- cally disabled for labor, and of criminals and paupers. Of the 13,377,002 females of this age, 11,093,887 are not set down as having any industrial occupation. A very considerable portion of these, however, do not really belong to the non-producing class. They are the wives and grown-up daughters of farmers, mechanics, traders, and other producers, and are to a very great extent busied in household and domestic labors, and are as really producers as though they received direct wages. Taking the entire data furnished in the Census Tables, it appears that nearly two-thirds (65.32 per cent.) of the popula- tion are supported by the labor of a little more (34.68 per cent.) than one-third — that is, taking the workers of every age and occupation together, each one supports, upon an average, not only himself or herself, but nearly two other persons. But there are considerable numbers the products of whose labor is barely sufficient for their own maintenance, and who do nothing towards the support of others. Of the more than a million of workers below the age of sixteen, probably a majority do not fujly support themselves. Probably, only a., minority of those under twenty earn more than enough to maintain themselves. Leaving all these out of view, it may be fairly assumed that, of the workers who do more than maintain themselves, each, upon an average, supports himself and three others. But the members of the industrial class produce more than 30 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. enough for their own support and for that of those dependent upon them, including the pauper and criminal classes. This overplus appears in the shape of the increased wealth of the general community. This increase in wealth is the result of labor, bestowed, directly or indirectly, upon the object itself. The increased value of a farm arises either from the labor bestowed upon it- or from its being made more accessible to a market by improved modes of communication, etc., or from both causes. But railroads and other means of communication are the products of labor ; for " capital " is only another form of expression for the accumulated excess of the products of labor over the consumption of those products. For the present purpose it does not matter that these accumulations, to a very great extent come into the hands of a comparatively small por- tion of the producers — mainly those who by superior enterprise or skill — perhaps gobd-fortune — have been enabled to become employers, and thus have rightly earned a share in the products of the labor of their employes. The proper adjustment of the relative shares of these two classes of producers is the great problem which civilization has to solve; and every well-con- sidered attempt to point out the directions in which, and the modes by which, labor can be more and more advantageously employed, will contribute something towards the solution of this problem. The actual amount of the increase in the values of the various products of industry in the several States is shown in the chapters which treat specially of these industries. The fol- lowing summation of the "assessed valuation" in 1870 and 1880 serves rather for the purpose of a general comparison between these two periods, than as showing the actual value of the real and personal property in the United States, since for purposes of taxation property is almost invariably assessed at much be- low its real buying and selling value. Moreover, in 1870 the assessed valuation was expressed in currency, while gold was at an average premium of 25.3 per cent. To render the com- parison accurate, the reported values for 1870 should (as sug- gested by the Superintendent of the Census) be reduced to the THE OCCUPATIONS WE FOLLOW. 31 gold standard — that is, one-fifth should be deducted from the values given in the Census of 1870. This will be done in this volume whenever such a comparison is instituted. TABLE IV.— ASSESSED VALUATION, i88o, 1870. RenI Estate. Personal Property. Total. 1880 1870 $13,036,776,925 9,914,780,825 $3,866,226,618 4,364,205,907 $16,903,993,543 14,178,986,733 Inc., $3,121,996,100 Beo., $397,979,389 Inc., $3,734,006,811 But, reducing the total valuation for 1870 to gold, the true valuation for that year would be $11,343,187,396; and the real increase from 1870 to 1880 was $5,559,606,147. If the entire wealth of the country had been equally divided in 1870 among the population eiach would have received about $295 in gold. If it had been so divided in 1880 each would have received about $340. Or, to put the matter in another shape, if the increase of wealth in 1880 were divided among the whole re- ported industrial population there would be about $320 for each of them — that is, each working man, woman, and child has earned, upon an average, $32 a year above what has been required for their own maintenance and that of those right- fully dependent upon them, and for the support of paupers and criminals. 32 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER V. FARMS AND FARM AREAS. THE Census Report of 1880 shows that forty-four per cent, of all the persons pursuing any gainful occupation were engaged in agriculture in some of its departments. The ratio for the whole population is probably about the same, since the number of children and other non-producers is nearly alike in all the industrial classes. It is impossible to institute a com- parison in this respect between the Censuses of 1880 and 1870, because a somewhat different mode of classification was adopted. There is every reason to anticipate that the proportion of agriculturists to persons engaged in other employments will in- crease in the future. New labor-saving machinery is being con- stantly introduced, by means of which one factory operative or mechanic is able to do the work which formerly required the labor of many persons ; hence a smaller proportion of hands is required to supply the demand for manufactured articles ; and, although the cheapening of such productions largely increases the demand for them, it does not proportionally increase the number of workmen. And, moreover, a much larger proportion than formerly of emigrants engage in agriculture. Labor-saving machinery is, indeed, largely and increasingly introduced into agriculture, but not to the same relative extent as into manu- factures. A few years ago the majority of emigrants from Europe remained in and about the cities ; now more than half of them make no stay at the ports where they land, but go at once to the West, and become farmers or farm laborers. Be- sides all this, in most manufactures we have to compete in our own markets with Europe. In the products of agriculture we li»r«MS-,iS«,''AlWr PLOUGHING AND HARROWING IN DAKOTA. See Note 2. FARMS AND FARM AREAS. 35 can have no rivals in our own markets, and we can outrival Europeans in their markets. Nothing can be more certain, for example, than that as England has been, and must be, dependent upon us for cotton, so she must, to a very considerable extent, be dependent upon us for breadstuffs and meat. While, therefore, we must remain a great manufacturing nation, we shall undoubtedly become more pre-eminently an agricultural people, so long as lands open to culture are abun- dant and cheap. Farming, in its various modifications, demands the foremost place in our investigations into the subject of profitable employments. The term "farm," as used in the Census Report, is thus defined : " A farm is what is owned or leased by one man and cultivated under his care. A distant wood-lot or sheep-pasture, even if in another subdivision, is treated as a part of the farm ; but whenever there is a resident overseer or manager, there a farm is reported. Farms include all considerable nurseries, orchards, and market-gardens which are owned by separate parties, which are cultivated for pecuniary profit, and employ as much as the labor of one able- bodied man during the year. Mere cabbage and potato patches, family vege- table gardens, and ornamental lawns, not constituting a portion of a farm for general agricultural purposes, are excluded." Table V. shows the number of farms in each of the States in 1880, their acreage and value, value including buildings; the per- centage of increase in value since 1870; the value of farm im- plements and machinery ; and the total value of farm products in 1879. The United States contain (exclusive of Alaska) about 1,900,000,000 acres of land- surface. How great a portion of this is capable of profitable cultivation is not- accurately deter- mined, but enough is known to show that the area of land inca- pable of cultivation is much less than was formerly supposed. None of our territory lies to the north of the zone of tillage ; and the " great deserts " marked even upon quite recent maps are at most of comparatively limited extent. Immense tracts formerly supposed to be hopelessly arid and barren are now proved to be capable of being rendered highly fertile by means of proper irrigation, which can be supplied at a cost so moderate that the outlay will be amply repaid. 3 36 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. TABLE v.— FARMS: ACREAGE AND VALUES. Land Surface Number Improved Value of Farms. Value nf Per Ct. of Value of of the U. S. of Fiirms. Land. Implements. Increase. Products, 18T9. Acres. Acres. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Ala 32,985,600 135,864 6,375,706 78,954,648 3,788,978 25.09 56,872,994 Arizona. 7,226,800 767 56,071 1; 127, 946 88,811 283.01 614,327 Ark 33,948,800 94,433 3,595,603 74,249,656 4,637,497 93.33 43,796,261 Oal 99,827,200 35,934 10,669,698 262,061,282 8,447,744 71.06 59,721,426 Col 66,268,800 4,506 616,169 25,109,223 910,085 544.06 5,035,228 Conn. . . 3,100,800 30,598 1,642,188 121,063,910 3,162,628 18,010,075 Dakota. 93,628,000 17,436 1,150,413 22,401,084 2,390,091 259.76 5,648,814 Del 1,254,400 8,794 746,958 36,789,672 1,504,5'76 6.99 6,320,345 D.ofC. 38,400 435 12,632 3,632,403 36,798 62.82 614,441 Florida . 34,713,600 23,483 947,640 20,291,835 689,666 28.72 7,439,392 Georgia. 37,747,200 138,626 8,204,720 111,910,540 5,317,416 20.09 67,028,929 Idaho . . 53,945,600 1,885 197,407 2,832,890 363,930 64.20 1,515,314 Illinois.. 35,840,000 255,741 26,115,154 1,009,594,580 33,739,691 35.10 203,980,137 Indiana. 22,982,400 194,013 13,933,738 636,236,111 20,476,988 37.89 114,707,082 Iowa . . . 35,504,000 185,351 19,866,641 667,430,227 29,371,884 111.42 136,103,473 Kansas . 62,288,000 138,561 10,739,566 235,178,936 15,662,848 444.03 62,240,301 Ky 25,600,000 166,453 10,731,683 299,298,631 9,734,634 32.42 63,850,156 La 29,068,800 48,292 2,739,972 68,989,117 5,435,526 33.94 42,883,522 Maine. . 19,132,800 64,309 3,484,908 102,367,616 4,948,048 19.43 21,946,489 Md 6,310,400 40,517 3,342,700 165,503,341 5,788,197 14.71 28,839,281 Mass.. . . 5,145,600 38,406 2,128,311 146,197,415 6,134,537 22.58 24,160,881 Mich.. . . 36,755,200 154,008 8,296,862 499,103,181 19,419,360 62.78 91,159,868 Minn. . . 50,681,200 92,386 7,246,693 193,724,260 13,089,783 212.07 49,468,951 Miss. . . . 29,657,600 101,772 5,216,937 92,844,915 4,885,636 23.94 63,701,844 Mo 43,990,400 215,575 16,746,031 376,633,307 18,103,074 84.48 95,912,660 Montana 92,978,400 1,519 262,611 3,234,604 401,186 210.14 2,024,923 Neb. . . . 46,758,400 63,387 6,504,702 106,932,541 7,820,917 750.76 31,708,914 Nevada . 70,233,600 1,404 344,423 6,408,325 378,788 271.76 2,865,449 N. H.. . . 5,763,200 32,181 2,308,112 76,834,389 3,069,240 13,474,330 N. J. . . . 4,771,200 34,307 2,096,297 190,895,833 6,921,086 '6.06 29,650,756 N. Mex.. 78,374,000 6,053 237,392 0,614,399 256,162 66. 1,897,974 N. Y.. . . 30,476,800 241,058 17,717,862 1,056,176,741 42,692,741 13.37 178,025,696 N.C.... 30,991,200 157,609 6,481,191 136,793,602 6,078,476 23.24 51,729,611 Ohio . . . 26,086,400 247,189 18,081,091 1,127,497,363 30,521,180 24.96 156,777,152 Oregon . 60,518,400 16,217 2,198,645 56,908,575 2,956,173 96.96 13.234,548 Penn. . . 28,780,400 213,542 13,423,007 975,689,410 35,473,037 16.66 129,760,476 R. I. . . . 694,400 6,216 298,486 26,882,079 902,825 3.27 3,670,136 S. 0. . . . 19,308,800 93,864 4,132,060 68,677,482 3,202,710 37.25 41,969,749 Tenn. . . 26,720,000 165,650 8,496,666 206,749,837 9,064,863 24.01 62,076,311 Texas . . 166,865,600 174,184 12,650,314 170,468,886 9,051,491 326.67 66,204,329 Utah. . . 62,601,600 9,452 416,105 14,016,178 946,763 250.38 , 3,337,410 Vt 5,846,400 35,522 3,286,461 109,346,010 4,879,285 .69 22,082,656 Virginia 25,681,000 118,517 8,510,113 216,028,107 6,49B,114 .42 45,726,221 Wash.T. 42,803,200 6,529 484,346 13,844,224 958,513 15.22 4,212,750 W. Va. . 15,772,800 62,674 3,792,327 133,147,f75 2,669,163 46.97 19,360,049 Wis. . . . 34,848,000 134,322 9,162,528 357,709,507 15,647,196 55.31 72,779,496 Wy. T. . 62,448,000 457 83,122 836,896 95,482 24,492.30 372,391 Totals 1,900,800,000 4,008,907 284,771,042 10,197,096,776 406,520,055 2,213,402,564 The number of acres of "improved land" was, in i88o, 284,771,042 — about one -seventh of the entire land- surface. This was divided into 4,008,907 farms, the average being about 71 "acres to a farm. There were 4352 farms with less than 3 acres; 134,889 with from 3 to 10 acres; 254,749 with from 10 FARMS AND FARM AREAS. 37 to 20 acres; 781,474 with from 20 to 50 acres; 1,032,910 with from 50 to 100 acres; 1,695,983 with from 100 to 500 acres; 75,972 with from 500 to 1000 acres; 28,578 with 1000 or more acres. In 1870 there were 188,921,099 acres of improved land, an increase in 1880 of 52 per cent. The ratio of increase in the several States is shown in the table. In 1880, besides the "improved land," there were 251,310,773 acres of "unimproved land in farms," making the entire farming area 536,081,835 acres. The valuation of farms, including land, buildings, and fences, in 1880, was $10,197,096,776; in 1870 it was (in gold) $7,410,243,089, an increase in 1880 of 30.7 per cent., the ratio of increase being a mere fraction above that of the increase of population. The value of farming implements and machinery in 1880 was $406,520,055; in 1870 it was (in gold) $289,502,743, an increase in 1880 of 52 per cent. The value of farms themselves has, since 1870, increased in a ratio somewhat greater than that of the increase of the popu- lation ; and the value of the implements used in agriculture has increased in a higher ratio still. The inference is obvious : agriculture in general has been found a lucrative occupation. When we come to consider more in detail the special branches of agricultural enterprise, this conclusion will be even more thoroughly established. 38 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER VI. FARM PRODUCTS. TABLE VI. shows for each State the acreage devoted to each of the principal crops, and the amount produced of each in 1880. We take up the cereals in the order of their values : The Cereals. Indian-corn. — Indian-corn, or maize, is the most important crop of the United States. The acreage devoted to it exceeds by about one-tenth that of all the other cereals — wheat, oats, barley, rye, and buckwheat; the number of bushels yielded is nearly twice that of all these other grains ; and the value of the crop exceeds that of all of them by about 30 per cent. In 1880 there were. 62,368,000 acres of corn, producing 1,754,600,000 bushels, or 28.1 bushels per acre. The value of the crop, at 40 cents per bushel, was ^701,840,000, or ^i 1.25 per acre. In 1870 the produce was 760,944,000 bushels — an apparent increase in 1880 of 130 per cent. But 1870 was an exceptionally bad year for corn, the yield for 1871, with little increase of acreage, being ' 990,000,000 bushels. For purposes of comparison it is safer "to take the average yield of the years 1871 to 1879, which was 1,194,512,000 bushels, the increase in 1880 over this average being about 560,000,000 bushels, or 46.9 per cent. Corn is grown in every State in the Union. Its production is smallest, in proportion to the population, in the New Eng- land States. Next in the reverse order of production are the extreme Southern States. Then come the group of Middle States, lying east of Ohio and Michigan and north of Virginia. The chief area of corn -growing is the Western and North- FARM PRODUCTS. 39 western States. Six States — Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and Kansas — produced in 1880 upwards of 1,200,000,000 bushels of corn : more than two-thirds of all that was grown in the United States. It will be seen from Table VI. that these are also the States which contain the largest numbers of swine. Corn, although used to a considerable extent as human food — more especially in the Southern States — finds its chief use as food for animals. Strictly speaking, it can hardly be considered one of our great bread-stuffs, although warm cakes and pud- dings made from it take to a considerable extent the place of bread. Corn, as compared with wheat, is deficient in the nitro- genous element, which is however readily supplemented by the use of meat or fats with it. It seems quite within the range of science to devise a mode of making corn " bread," in the proper sense of the term. As yet, corn does not at all rank with wheat as an article of export ; and there is little reason to anticipate that it will do so. But so valuable are its uses, and so comparatively abun- dant is its yield, except in unfavorable seasons, that there can be no doubt that it will continue to be, if not the most impor- tant, yet one of the most important of our cereal crops — one which will be found among those most profitable to the farmer, especially if he be also a stock-raiser. The corn-crop of 1881 was very deficient, the average yield being only 18.6 bushels per acre — the lowest on record. The crop of 1882, notwithstanding a considerable increase of acre- age, is estimated by the Commissioner of Agriculture at about 1,625,000,000 bushels, or 7.4 per cent, less than that of 1880. Wheat. — Wheat is not known to exist in its native wild state. As a cultivated plant it has been known from the ear- liest historical ages, and has always formed a large portion of the bread-stuff of all civilized peoples. It is the most perfect of grains, since it contains in itself all the elements required for human food, and in the right proportions. A man may subsist in health upon no other food than brown bread made from unbolted flour, or from " middlings," or " seconds," in which the bran has been removed by the first bolting. But the subse- 40 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. quent boltings by which fine and superfine flour is produced for making " white bread " remove some of the essential elements of the grain. Bread made from this flour will not alone sustain life for any considerable period. Dogs have been fed, by way of experiment, upon white bread only, and they starved to death TABLE VI.— ACREAGE AND PRODUCT OF GRAIN CROPS, 1880. States. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota .Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida.'. Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana ....... Maine Maryland Massachusetts.. . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Ter. . . . Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . New Jersey New Mexico Ter. New York North Carolina . . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania .... Rhode Island .... South Carolina . . . Tennessee Texas Utah Territory . . . Vermont Virginia Washington Ter. West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Ter. . . Acres. 2,055,939 1,818 1,398,310 71,781 22,991 55,796 90,852 202,120 1,032 360,294 2,538,733 569 9,019,381 3,678,420 6,616,144 3,417,817 .3,021,176 743,728 .30,997 664,928 53,555 919,656 438,737 1,570,550 5,588,265 197 1,630,660 487 36,613 344,555 41,449 779,272 3,305,419 3,381,923 5,646 1,373,270 11,893 1,308,404 2,904,873 2,468,587 13,207 55,349 1,768,137 2,117 565,785 1,015,393 25,451,278 34,746 24,156,417 1,993,325 455,968 1,880,421 3,000,864 8,894,264 29,750 3,174,234 33,202,018 16,408 835,792,481 115,483,300 375,014,347 105.729,335 72,853,263 9,889,689 9,60,633 15,968,533 1,797,768 32,461,453 14,831,741 31,340,800 203,414,413 5,649 65,450,135 12,891 1,350,248 11,150,705 633,786 25,690,156 28,019,839 111,877,124 126,862 45,821,531 372,967 11,767,099 62,764,429 39,065,173 163,343 2,014,374 39,119,761 30,183 14,090,609 34,230,579 Totals 62,368,5041,754,591,676 35,430,333 264,971 9,026 204,084 1,832,439 64,693 2,198 365,298 87,539 384 81 475,684 23,066 3,218,542 3,619,695 3,049,288 1,861,402 1,160,108 1,501 43,829 569,296 963 1,833,749 3,044,670 43,534 3,074,394 17,765 1,469,865 3,674 11,248 149,760 51,230 736,611 646,829 2,556,184 445i077 1,445,384 17 170,902 1,196,563 373,570 73,543 20,748 901,177 81,554 393,068 1,948,160 241 Bushels. 1,529,657 136,427 1,369,715 29,017,707 1,435,014 88,742 2,830,289 1,175,373 6,403 432 3,159,771 540,589 51,110,502 47,284.853 31,154,205 17,334,141 11,356,113 5,034 665,714 8,304,864 15,768 35,533,543 34, 601 ,-030 318,890 24,966,627 469,688 13,847,207 69,298 169,316 1,901,739 706,641 11,587,766 3,397,393 46,014,869 7,480,010 19,462,405 240 962,358 7,331,353 3,567,787 1,169,199 337,357 7,836,174 1,931,322 4,201,711 24,884,689 4,674 459,483,137 324,628 39 166,513 49,947 23,023 36,691 78,226 17,158 267 47,963 613,778 13,197 1,959,889 628,531 1,507,577 435,859 403,416 26,861 78,785 101,137 30,659 536,187 617,469 198,497 968,478 24,691 350,457 5,937 29,485 187,422 9,337 L361,171 500,415 910,388 151,634 1,237,593 5,575 261,445 468,566 238,010 19,535 99,548 568,443 37,963 126,931 955,597 822 16,144,598 Bushels. 3,039,639 564 3,319,833 1,341,371 640,900 1,309,706 2,217,182 378,508 7,440 468,113 5,548,743 463,236 63,189,200 15,599,518 50,610,591 8,180,385 4,580,738 229,840 2,265,575 1,794,872 645,159 18,190,793 23,382,158 1,959,620 30,670,958 900,915 6,555,875 186,860 1,017,620 3,710,573 156,537 37,575,506 3,838,068 28,664,504 4,385,650 33,841,439 159,389 3,715,505 4,722,190 4,893,359 418,083 3,742,282 5,333,181 1,571,706 1,908,505 82,905,330 22,512 407,858,999 FARM PRODUCTS. 41 in a month. But when white bread is eaten, as it usually is, together with other kinds of food which supply the elements abstracted by bolting, it forms the real staff of life in the United States and in Europe for all who can afford it. Wheat is grown in every State of the Union ; but its growth TABLE VI. {continued).— KC^^hGE, ETC., 1880. States. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Territory . . Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire .... New Jersey New Mexico Territory . New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania . . Ehode Island . . South Carolina. Tennessee Texas Utah Territory. Vermont Virginia Barley. Washington Territory West Virginia Wisconsin . Wyoming Territory . . 511 12,404 157 586,350 4,112 575 16,156 19 21 1,439 8,291 55,267 16,399 198,861 23,993 20,080 Bushels. 5,281 239,051 1,952 12,463,561 107,116 12,286 277,424 523 11,106 226 3,171 54,506 116,020 44 6,472 1,823 115,201 19,399 3,461 240 2,548 356,629 230 57,482 29,311 23,592 715 l,16i 2,600 5,527 11,268 10,552 859 14,680 424 204,885 210 18,662 274,750 1,229,523 382.835 4,023,588 300,273 486,826 242,185 6,097 80,138 1,204,316 2,973,965 348 123,031 39,970 1,744,6 513,470 77,877 4,091 .50,053 7,793,062 3,421 1,707,129 920,977 438,100 17,783 16,25' 30,019 72,786 217,140 267,625 14,223 566,537 9,740 5,048,118 Eye. Acres. 5,764 3,290 30,281 1,294 39,794 2,385 773 301 601 25,854 354 192,138 25,400 102,607 34,621 89,417 301 2,161 33,405 21,666 33,815 13,614 806 46,484 15 34,297 3,218 106,025 17 244,933 61,953 39,499 841 398,465 1,270 7,153 32,493 3,326 1,153 6,319 48,746 518 17,279 169,692 6 Totals 1,997,727 43,997,495 1,842,233 19,831,595':i69,458,539 35,205,712 Bushels. 28,402 22,387 181,681 19,465 870,733 24,359 5,953 3,704 2,965 101,716 4,341 3,121,785 303,105 1,518,605 413,181 668,050 1,013 26,398 2^i8,007 313,716! 394,91s 215.34.5 5,134 535,426 430 424,348 34,638 949,064' 3, 634, 690 1 2ti5,160i 389.321 13,3051 3,683,631 13,997 27,049 156,419 25,399 9,605 71,733 324,431 7,124 113,181 2,298,513 78 Potatoes. Bushels. 334,925 26,349 403,037 4,550,565 383,133 3,584,363 664,086 383,864 33,064 20,221 249,590 157,307 10,365,707' 6,232,246! 9,962,537 2,894,19S 2,269,890 18IM15 7,999,625 1,497,017 3,070,389 10,924,111 5,184,676 303,821 4,189,694 228,702 2,150,893 302,143 3,358,838 3,563,793 31,883 33,644,807 722,773 13,719,215 1,359,930 16,284,819 606,793 144,942 1,354,481 238,833 573,595 4,438,172 2,016,766 1,035,177 1,898, .539 8,509,161 30,986 Hay. Tons. 10,863 5,606 23,295 1,135,180 85,062 557,860 308,036 49,632 3,759 149 14,409 40,053 3,280,319 1,361,083 3,613,941 1,589,987 218,739 37,029 1,107,788 264,468 684,679 1,393,888 1,636,912 8,894 1,077,458 63,947 785,433 95,853 583,069 518,990 7,650 5,240,563 93,711 2,210,923 266,187 3,811,654 79,328 3,706 186,698 59,699 92,735 1,051,183 287,255 106,819 232,338 1,896,969 23,413 42 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. has since 1850 fallen off in all the New England States except Maine. These six States produced in 1880 only 1,125,000 bushels. There are single counties in all of the great wheat- growing States each of which produce more — some of them twice as much — wheat as all New England. In some of the wheat-growing States the production remains nearly stationary, or has declined relatively to the population, for several decades. In 1850 New York was a great wheat-growing State, producing 13,100,000 bushels; in- i860 the production fell to 8,700,000 bushels; in 1870 it rose to 12,200,000 bushels, and in 1880 de- clined to 11,600,000 bushels. In Pennsylvania the production in 1850 was 15,400,000 bushels; in i860, 13,000,000; in 1870, 19,700,000; in 1880, 19,500,000. In New Jers'ey the product in 1850 was 1,600,000 bushels; in i860, 1,700,000; in 1870, ,2,300,000; in 1880, 1,900,000. In Maryland the production in 1850 was 4,500,000 bushels; in i860, 6,100,000; in 1870, 5,800,000; in 1880, 8,000,000. In Virginia (including what is now West Virginia) the production in 1850 was 11,200,000 bushels; in i860, 13,100,000; in 1870, 9,900,000; in 1880, 11,800,000. In North Carolina the production in 1850 was 2,100,000; in i860, 4,700,000; in 1870, 2,900,000; in 1880, 3,400,000. Previous to 1850 these seven States constituted almost the entire wheat-growing section of the country. During the thirty succeeding years their absolute production of wheat has varied very slightly, while their population has increased about 70 per cent. In 1850 Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan were just coming into importance as wheat -growing States. In 1880 Illinois alone produced seven-eighths as much wheat as all these seven Central Atlantic States and New England together; In- diana and Ohio each about four-fifths as much ; Michigan and Minnesota each about five -eighths as much; California and Iowa each about half as much. This great falling off, in all of the Atlantic States, in the production of wheat as compared with the increase of popula- tion shows that wheat-growing in those States is not, except under special circumstances, a profitable business — at least, does SOWING AND REAPING IN DAKOTA. See Note 2. FARM PRODUCTS. 45 not furnish as profitable use for the land as is furnished by other crops. In some sections the decline is to be attributed to the soil or climate not being adapted to the growth of the grain. In others the great cause has been injudicious farming. The soil has been exhausted by repeated crops, without sup- plying the missing elements by means of fertilizers. Thus, in some parts of Central New York, where fifty years ago thirty or forty bushels per acre were expected, the crop gradually fell off to seven or eight bushels, and the cultivation of wheat was given up — the farmers taking up other crops, or moving to the West, where there were fresh lands : to be, in not a few cases, subjected to the same ruinous mode of farming. Such soils can be restored to their original fertility by judicious farming and by the use of fertilizers. If one has land in these States which has not been exhausted, or which may be restored, he may find wheat-growing a profitable business ; but hardly if he has not such land. In 1880 the area of wheat-growing was 35,430,333 acres; the yield was 459,483,137 bushels, or 13 bushels per acre. The value of the crop, at $1.05 per bushel (the average for the pre- ceding ten years), was ^482,457,293, or upon an average ^13.65 per acre. In 1870 the production was 287,745,626 bushels — an increase in 1880 of 59.7 per cent. The yield of wheat varies very greatly in different sections of the country. In 1880 the average yield in Michigan was 19.1 bushels per acre; in Indiana and Ohio, 18 bushels; in lUinois, California, and New York, 15.8 bushels; in Minnesota and Pennsylvania, 13.5 bushels; in Missouri, Iowa, West Vir- ginia, and Kentucky, 10 bushels ; in Kansas and Nebraska, 9.2 bushels; in Texas, 7 bushels; in Georgia, 6.5 bushels; in Ten- nessee, 6 bushels. The yield in the States where it is the greatest is far below what is attained in countries where the soil and climate are less favorable to the plant. The average yield in England in good seasons is 33 bushels to the acre ; in Denmark, 27 bushels. Numerous instances are given in which upon fields of considerable extent in various sections of the United States the yield was very much larger than this. These 46 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. results have been attained only by very high tillage, and per- haps a more free use of fertilizers than would at present be found profitable by the majority of farmers. But as the price of wheat-land advances, more and more costly and careful till- age must be resorted to. In the judgment of the best authori- ties the average yield per acre of wheat throughout the country might now be increased from twenty to fifty per cent., without anything like a corresponding increase in the cost to the produce. The year 1881 was an unfavorable one for wheat as well as for corn. The yield of 1882 was good, and there was a large increase of acreage. The Commissioner of Agriculture esti- mates the crop at about 503,000,000 bushels — an increase in 1882 over 1880 of 9.3 per cent. Of this it is estimated that 250,000,000 bushels would be required for home consumption, 57,000,000 for seed, leaving nearly 200,000,000 bushels for ex- portation. In several of the great wheat-growing States there was a sensible decrease of the yield from that of 1880. Kan- sas increased from 17,000,000 bushels to 33,000,000; Oregon, from 7,500,000 to 12,000,000; California, from 29,000,000 to 34,500,000; South CaroHna, from 960,000 to 1,730,000. Oats. — Next in importance after corn and wheat come oats. With us they are used as human food only to a very limited extent, their main use being as food for live-stock — more espe- cially of horses. Oats are grown in every State of the Union, and in considerable quantities in several. But the nine States of Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Ohio, Minnesota, Missouri, and Michigan produce three-fourths of all the oats grown in the United States. In 1880 there were 16,144,593 acres devoted to oats, yield- ing 407,858,899 bushels, or 24.6 bushels to the acre. The value of the crop, at 34.5 cents per bushel (the average of the preced- ing ten years), was $140,711,320, or $8.40 per acre. The pro- duction in 1870 was 282,107,157 bushels, being an increase in 1880 of 44.6 per cent. The real value of the oat, however, is considerably greater than appears from the foregoing figures, in which account is FARM PRODUCTS. 47 taken only of the grain itself, for the straw makes excellent fod- der. Moreover, it is a hardy plant, will thrive on almost any soil which is not too wet, is liable to few diseases and insect enemies, exhausts the soil less than most other crops, and so requires comparatively little manuring. Upon the whole, oats may be considered a very safe and reliable crop. Both 1 88 1 and 1882 were unusually good years for oats. The Commissioner of Agriculture estimates the crop of 1882 at about 476,000,000 bushels — an increase over that of 1880 of 17 per cent. The acreage sown was also very considerably in- creased. The great yield of oats in 1881 went far to supply the deficiency in the corn crop of that year. Barley. — Throughout the most of Northern and Central Europe barley and rye constitute the chief bread-stuffs of the peasantry. From these is made the black bread which they mostly eat, wheat bread being almost unknown to them. With us barley is scarcely used at all for food, but almost wholly for the production of malt, to be used in brewing. It is grown somewhat in every part of the Union, but is an important crop only in California, New York, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa, which produce three-fourths of the whole crop. In 1880 there were 1,997,727 acres devoted to barley, producing 43,997,495 bushels. The value of the crop, at 73 cents per bushel (the average of the preceding ten years), was ^32,118,171, or ^16.10 per acre. The production in 1870 was 29,761,305 bushels — an increase in 1880 of 47.8 per cent. Rye. — Rye, as well as barley, is largely used as a bread-stuff by the peasantry of Northern and Central Europe. It was for- merly considerably used, mixed with corn-meal, for bread in some of the United States. But its main use is for distilling. Pennsylvania, Illinois, New York, and Wisconsin produce two- thirds of all the rye grown in the United States. There were, in 1880, 1,842,233 acres devoted to rye, producing 19,831,595 bushels, or 10.8 bushels per acre. The value of the crop, at 69 cents per bushel (the average of the preceding ten years), was {^13,683,800, or $7.51 per acre. The production of 1870 was 16,918,795 bushels, an increase in 1880 of 17.2 per cent. But 48 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. the production in 1850 was nearly as great, and in i860 consid- erably greater, than in 1880; so that, relatively to the popula- tion, the cultivation of rye has steadily fallen off during the last thirty years. In respect to the value of the crop per acre, it stands lowest of all our cereals. Buckwheat is grown in small quantities in all except the Southern States ; but more than two-thirds of the whole crop is produced in New York and Pennsylvania. There were, in 1880, 848,389 acres of buckwheat, producing 11,817,327 bushels, or 14 bushels per acre. The value of the crop, at 70 cents per bushel, was ^8,272,128, or ^9.80 per acre. The production, in 1870, was 9,821,721 bushels, an increase in 1880 of 20 per cent. But the production in i860 exceeded that of 1880 by about 33 per cent. Buckwheat has never come to be at all a staple crop, its chief recommendation being that it will grow where nothing else will. Rice can hardly be reckoned among the cereal grains of I the United States, its production being practically limited to Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina, the last State produ- cing about one-half of the entire crop. Its cultivation can be carried on successfully only in low, swampy lands which can be overflowed at pleasure. In 1880 there were 174,173 acres of rice-fields, producing 110,131,373 pounds, the value of which, at five cents per pound, was ^5,506,558, or ^32 per acre. The rice -swamps are exceedingly unhealthy for white persons. In no case can the cultivation of rice be greatly extended in the United States, as the area adapted for the growth of the plant is very limited. Root Plmits. Apart from bread-stuffs the potato (improperly called the Irish potato) and the sweet-potato constitute the principal veg- etable food of the people of the United States. Table VI. shows for each State the acreage and yield of these plants. The Potato. — Although potatoes are grown to some extent in every State of the Union, their cultivation is mainly confined to Virginia and the States lying north of it. In the Southern States their, pla;ce is taken by the sweet-potato ; in Virginia itself FARM PRODUCTS. 49 the production of the two species is about equal. The acreage devoted to potatoes in 1880 is given in the Census for only the sixteen States where they form an important crop. In these States there were in 1880 about 1,170,000 acres, producing 107,800,000 bushels, or 90 bushels per acre. The entire product of 1880 was 169,458,539 bushels. The value of the crop, at 55 cents per bushel (the average of the ten preceding years), was ^93,202,196, or $49.50 per acre, being more than for any other farm crop. In 1870 the product was 143,337,473 bushels, an increase in 1880 of 18.2 per cent. Potatoes are, however, a more uncertain crop than almost any other, and, as they cannot well be kept over from one year to the next, their market value is regulated to a great extent by the amount of their production in that year. Thus in 1871 the yield was 98 bushels per acre, price per bushel $0.59; in 1872, yield 85 bushels, price $0.60; in 1873, yield 90 bushels, price $0.70; in 1874, yield 81 bushels, price $0.68; in 1875, yield no bushels, price #0.40; in 1876, yield 71 bushels, price $0.67; in 1877, yield 95 bushels, price $0.45; in 1878, yield 70 bushels, price $0.59; in 1879, yield 99 bushels, price ^0.44. The av- erage value of the crop per acre during these nine years was about 1^48. To offset this high average value per acre of the potato crop it must be borne in mind that the cultivation and harvesting of a bushel of potatoes involves more labor than for a bushel of any of the grain crops, although the quite recent introduction of the " potato-planter " and the " potato-digger," drawn by horses, greatly reduces the work upon large fields. As a product of the garden or of comparatively small fields in the vicinity of cities or large towns, where the highest culture can be profitably em- ployed, the potato is one of the most profitable crops which can be raised. The market-gardener will, of course, select the varie- ties which produce the best fruit, and will make free use of ma- nures and fertilizers. The very best tubers should be picked out for seed, since they are worth for that purpose far more than their market value. The Sweet-potato. — The sweet-potato is largely and profit- 50 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ably cultivated in New Jersey, for the supply of the great mar- kets of New York and Philadelphia. Elsewhere its production is almost wholly confined to Virginia and the more southern States, where it takes the place of the potato. Since 1850, how- ever, its cultivation has greatly decreased absolutely, and still more largely relatively, to the increase of population. In 1850 the production was 38,000,000 bushels, exceeding that of 1880 by 18 per cent. The production reached its highest point in i860, when it was 42,000,000 bushels, exceeding that of 1880 by 27 per cent. In 1870 it fell off to a little more than 21,000,000 bushels— only half as much as was produced in 1850. In 1880 the product was 33,378,693 bushels, an increase in 1880 over 1870 of 54 per cent. This large recent increase, after a period of decrease, shows that this branch of agricultural industry has grown profitable. The increase is general, and pretty nearly uniform in all of the ten States where the sweet-potato is mainly grown, Texas alone showing a decrease. There are no statistics accessible for the acreage of the sweet-potato or the value of the crop. It is mainly raised for home consumption, except in those sections which have ready access to the Northern markets. In these sections, especially in New Jersey and the seaboard of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, there can -be no doubt that this crop holds out high inducements for the cultivator. Other Root Crops. — The various species of ,turnips are largely grown in Europe as food for cattle and for the oil ex- tracted from their seeds. Beets are also largely cultivated there for the production of sugar. Both of these are with us raised to a considerable extent as food for cattle, especially for milch cows ; but they are mainly products of the garden rather than of the farm. So, also, are carrots, parsnips, radishes, onions, and other tubers. No data are given in the Census Report to enable us to estimate the acreage, quantity, or value of any of these products ; but it is certain that their cultivation is a lucra- tive industry, and is capable of being made more so wherever there is a market for garden products. A few acres near a city or large town may be made to afford more net profit than a considerable farm in the strictly agricultural regions. FARM PRODUCTS. 51 Sugar. In tropical climates much sugar is produced from the sap of various species of the palm ; with us, from the sap of the maple. In France, Germany, and other parts of Europe, very large quantities are made from the juice of the beet. But by far the greatest part of the sugar of the world comes from the juice of the sugar-cane. Some years ago it was estimated that the entire consumption of sugar in the world was 3,500,000,000 pounds — of which 66.47 PS'^ cent, was cane-sugar; beet-sugar was 27.87 per cent.; palm-sugar, 4.29 per cent.; maple-sugar, 1.28 per cent. Cane-sugar. — About one-third of the cane-sugar of the world is produced in Cuba, nearly another third in the other West India Islands and in the French colonies. In the United States its production is limited to a very small territorial area, mostly comprised in the eight southern " parishes " of Louisiana, lying west of the Mississippi and upon the Gulf of Mexico. Few of the remaining fifty parishes produce sugar to any considerable amount. There were, in all, in 1880, 227,776 acres devoted to the sugar-cane, producing 178,872 hogsheads of sugar, and 16,573,273 gallons of molasses. Of this, 181,592 acres — pro- ducing 171,706 hogsheads of sugar, and 11,696,248 gallons of molasses — were in Louisiana. The average product per acre of the sugar-cane is estimated at about ^100. But the climate even of Southern Louisiana is not among the best for the cane, and its cultivation is made profitable only by reason of the heavy duty laid upon foreign sugar and molasses. Sugar is about our only agricultural product which is "protected" by a tariff. If the duty were removed the cultivation of the cane here would cease. The production of cane-sugar cannot be suc- cessfully prosecuted anywhere except upon a large scale, and by means of costly machinery; and its area of culture in the United States cannot be much extended. The amount raised here forms but a small fraction of that required for consump- tion. The greater part of our sugar is imported " raw," and is "refined" in New York and other cities. "Sugar-refining" is a 52 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. very important industry, but it belongs to the department of Manufactures — not to that of Farming. The growing of the sugar-cane in the United States has de- clined since 1850. In that year there were produced 247,577 hogsheads of sugar and 12,700,000 gallons of molasses, the sugar product exceeding that of 1880 by 39 per cent. In i860 the product of sugar was 230,982 hogsheads, exceeding that of 1880 by 33 per cent. The civil war put an almost total stop to the production of sugar in the South. It began to revive upon the restoration of peace, but the product in 1870 was only 87,043 hogsheads — less than one-fourth of what it was in 1850, although the less important article of molasses had increased. The re- vival went on from 1870 to 1880, and just about doubled, but still falling very far below what it had reached thirty years be- fore; and there is no probability of any considerable increase hereafter. It is more than probable (as is shown below) that sugar from sorghum will at no distant date supersede that from the cane to a very great extent. Ma^le-sugar. — Up to about 1850, when means of transport were comparatively scanty and money scarce, maple-sugar was a considerable product in sections where the tree was abundant, especially in New York, Vermont, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Indiana. In 1850 the product was 34,000,000 pounds of sugar and 13,000,000 gallons of molasses; in i860 there were pro- duced 40,000,000 pounds of sugar and 1,600,000 gallons of mo- lasses; in 1870 there were 28,000,000 pounds of sugar and 1,000,000 gallons of molasses. Thus, relatively to the increase of population, the product of maple-sugar in 1870 was 44 per cent, less than in i860. This decrease is owing partly to the comparative cheapness of imported cane-sugar, and partly to the rapid cutting down of the trees for fuel and lumber. In 1880 maple-sugar did not appear in the Census Report among farm products. It has come to be among the delicacies rather than the necessities of life, its_ peculiar flavor rendering it a favorite accompaniment for certain articles of food. Its manufacture must be confined to a few weeks in the year in which the farmer has comparatively little to do, and so it really costs him little or FARM PRODUCTS. 53 nothing. The amount which can be produced must of necessity diminish with the decrease of the forests, and all that can be made will be sure of a ready sale. Any one who has a number of the trees will find maple-sugar a profitable product. Sorghum -SUGAR. — The sorghum - plant, sometimes called " Chinese sugar-cane," has long been used in China for the pro- duction of sugar. Seeds of the plant were first brought to Europe in 185 1. In 1854 small quantities of the seed were brought to the United States and distributed among cultivators in various sections. The plant was found to flourish on appro- priate soils from Maine to Texas. Its cultivation spread rap- idly, especially in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee, mainly for the sake of the molasses made from its juice, although the leaves form an excellent food for cattle — 100 pounds of the green leaves being for that purpose equal to 75 or 80 pounds of hay. Until quite recently sorghum-juice was almost wholly con- verted into molasses. The Census of 1870 reports only 24 hogsheads of sorghum-sugar, while there were 16,000,000 gal- lons of molasses — two and a half times as much as there were of cane-molasses in that year, and seven per cent, more than there were of cane-molasses in i860. The Census Report of 1880 makes no mention of sorghum, and the production appar- ently fell off between 1870 and 1880. The molasses usually had a somewhat unpleasant, earthy flavor, although that which was skilfully prepared was not inferior to the best cane-molasses. But the efforts to crystallize the sirup were only moderately successful, either in respect to the quantity or the quality of the sugar produced. But since 1880 great improvements have been introduced, by which sugar equal to any other can be produced from sorghum at a cost much less than that of producing cane- sugar in Louisiana ; and there can be no doubt that the cultiva- tion of sorghum must soon rank very high among our great agricultural industries. The area where the sugar-cane will grow in the United States is very limited, while it may be said in general terms that the area of sorghum is co-extensive with that of Indian-corn — perhaps not extending quite so far north- 4 54 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ward, but reaching a little farther southward. To produce sugar from the cane requires powerful and costly machinery to crush the tough stalks ; sorghum can be crushed much more easily. Cane-sugar can be produced at a profit only upon large planta- tions ; sorghum-sugar can be made upon a scale not beyond the reach of an ordinary farmer. Probably, however, it will ulti- mately be found more advantageous for the farmer to sell his stalks to the sorghum-mills. Beet -SUGAR. — The production of sugar upon a large scale from the more saccharine species of beets was set on foot in France about 1811, during the Napoleonic wars, when the ports of Continental Europe were so closely blockaded by the British that cane-sugar could not be had from the West Indies. The production spread into Germany, Austria, and Russia, where it is still an important industry. Various attempts have been made to introduce its manufacture into Great Britain and the United States, but none of these have met with satisfactory results. Apart from the comparatively small amount of saccha- rine matter, the juice of the beet is highly charged with impu- rities, which must be removed before the sugar is merchantable. There is no likelihood that the production of beet -sugar will ever become profitable in the United States. Corn-sugar, Starch-sugar, or Glucose. — This, though an artificial production, is chemically so much like cane-sugar that the two were long considered by chemists to be the same. Glu- cose is made by boiling starch of any kind in a weak dilution of sulphuric acid, then neutralizing the acid by means of lime. Glucose, until quite recently, was mainly used in Europe for wine-making and brewing, in order to produce, by fermentation, a larger amount of alcohol, and was known as "grape-sugar," although made mainly from potato -starch. Within a year or two glucose has come to be largely made from the starch of corn. Besides its use in brewing — a hundred pounds of it being sometimes added to three hundred pounds of malt — glucose is used in making confectionery. It was formerly produced almost wholly in the form of a thick sirup ; but means have been found to treat the sirup so that the crystallized glucose can hardly be FARM PRODUCTS. 55 distinguished from' cane-sugar, except by its deficiency in sweet- ness. It is said to be considerably used for adulterating cane- sugar, as it can be produced for about half the price per pound. There is no reason to suppose that the mixture is deleterious to health; but one pound of sugar will sweeten as much water as two, three, or four pounds of glucose; the purchaser of the mixture, therefore, pays just in that proportion for an article which for household purposes is practically useless, whatever may be its advantages to the brewer. Reputable sugar-refiners affirm — and probably truly — that they do not themselves use glucose at all. The adulteration is probably made by the re- tailer. The ordinary purchaser can detect it only by discovering that it takes much more sugar than formerly to sweeten his cup of tea or coffee. The residue of the corn, after the starch has been extracted, forms an excellent food for cattle. The manu- facture of glucose from corn can be profitably conducted only upon a large scale. Hay and Fodder. Hay. — Hay certainly ranks as the fourth — perhaps as the third — in value among the farm products of the United States. The average value of the four principal crops for the nine years 1871-1879 was: Indian-corn, $495,000,000; wheat, $336,000,000; hay, $322,000,000; cotton, $270,000,000. Hay is used almost wholly as food for cattle, horses, mules, and sheep, and especially for their winter fodder. It is, therefore, most largely required in those sections where the winters are long and severe, although it is grown more or less in every State of the Union. Table VI. shows the quantity produced in 1880 in each State. The entire product in 1880 was 35,205,712 tons; in 1870 it was 27,316,048 tons,, an increase in 1880 of 29 per cent, the ratio of increase being only i per cent, less than that of the increase of population. The acreage of hay is not given in the Census Re- port; the most authentic estimates place it approximately at about 28,000,000 acres in 1880. The average price per ton for ten years was $11.50; average yield, 1.23 tons per acre; value of crop per acre, $14.04 — considerably exceeding that of corn, wheat, or oats. 56 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. As hay is a bulky crop in comparison with its value, the greater part of the yield is consumed near where it is grown, even that required for horses in large cities not being usually brought from any great distance. The quantity of hay required for wintering stock is an important element in estimating the profitableness of raising and keeping live-stock. In the great stock-raising States of Texas, California, and Colorado, stock live through the winter almost without hay ; in the New England States each head of live-stock consumed, upon an average, 2.40 tons of hay per year ; in New York and Pennsylvania each head eats 1.78 tons; in the group of States represented by Il- linois and Ohio the average per head is 0.89 ton ; in the group represented by Virginia and Tennessee, 0.24 ton ; while in Texas each head consumed only a small fraction of a ton, and the cost of fodder for wintering a large herd is scarcely appreciable. Taken in connection with the raising of live-stock — and almost every farmer is to a greater or less extent a stock-raiser — the hay crop is of even more real importance than its own great value indicates. At the North, indeed, it has long been held to lie at the basis of all successful farming. If we take into the same view the different kinds of green fodder, this statement will be accepted as a just one. Even in those sec- tions where stock can actually forage for themselves it would, doubtless, be wise economy to provide them with fodder during the winter. Great attention has been paid by all successful farmers to selecting the kinds of grass best adapted to the varieties of soil and climate. Timothy, red-top, and blue-grass are conceded to be among the best varieties. Clovers are also of great value to the farmer for hay, and in other respects. The lucern, a species of clover, known also by its Spanish name, " alfalfa," flourishes most luxuriantly in California, wherever it can have water enough. It does not appear to be a safe crop in the more northern States, but, in the opinion of competent judges, it is the best of all its congeners for a great part of the South, whether cured as hay or given as a green fodder. Various spe- FARM PRODUCTS. 57 cies of millet are worthy the attention of the farmer as future fodder -plants. Green Fodder. — Turnips, beets, and the like are much less used as animal food among us than in Europe. It is certainly worth careful experiment to determine whether the use of them, especially for milch-cows, could not be profitably carried much farther than it is. The process known as ensilage, or " pitting," is highly recommended, as at least- a partial substitute for the drying and curing operations which constitute hay- making. The grass, as soon as possible after cutting, is packed into pits, where it is pressed down by heavy weights. The access of air being prevented by this close packing, fermentation does not ensue. The green corn-stalks, after being cut into small pieces by a machine, are treated in the same way. The advocates of this comparatively new process claim that the ensilage fodder is far better than hay. Not improbably both would be better than either. Setting aside the relative value of the two kinds of food, the relative cost of preparing it still needs to be definitely de- termined. Textile Products of the Farm. Wool is strictly a farm product ; but, as it is also an animal product, it is considered in the subsequent chapter upon " Live- stock." The quantity produced in the several States is, how- ever, embodied with other farm products in Table VI. Cotton is not only by far the most important of American textile products, but is the most important one in the world. Fully one-half of the human race are clothed almost exclusively in cotton, and cotton fabrics enter largely into the clothing of a great majority of the remainder. Cotton sufficient for the enor- mous home consumption is grown in India, but its fibre is too short to be wrought up by our present machinery, unless largely mixed with the American product ; comparatively little is ex- ported from India, and for all commercial purposes the United States are, and will probably continue to be, the chief producers of the staple. Two-thirds of our yield is exported, and the price is regulated mainly by that in foreign markets, especially by those of Great Britain. 58 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Cotton is gifown to some extent in thirteen States of the Union, and is an important product in nine of them ; but nearly two-thirds of the whole is grown' in Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama. The product of cotton is usually measured by "bales." Up to 1870 a bale was reckoned at 400 pounds. Since then the bales have been made heavier, 450 pounds being the average. In 1880 there were 14,480,619 acres devoted to cotton, pro- ducing 5,755,359 bales of 450 pounds, or about 190 pounds to the acre. In i860 the product (in bales of 450 pounds) was 4,788,000 bales. The civil war put an almdst entire stop to cot- ton-planting, and it was several years before it fairly began to revive; so that the product in 1870 was only about 2,675,000 bales (of 450 pounds), the increase of the abundant year, 1880, over the poor year, 1870, being 115 per cent, and about 20 per cent, above the great product of i860. There was, according to the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, an increase in 1881 of about 10 per cent, over the preceding year. In 1882 there was a decline of two or three per cent, from 1881, owing in part to the overflow of the Mississippi. The Report for 1882 gives the area of cotton-growing as 16,276,691 acres, and the product as 3,052,837,946 pounds (6,784,084 bales), averaging 187 pounds to the acre. In three States the product was considera- bly larger per acre. In Arkansas it was 233 pounds; in Loui- siana, 235 pounds; in Texas (which produced nearly one-fourth of the whole crop) it was 240 pounds per acre. The price for cotton has for several years been low, showing that the present production is fully up to the demand. It has not averaged more than 8 cents per pound, making the average product per acre about $15; while the cost of growing, and especially of " picking " the " wool " is greater than with most other crops. The seed, however, is of considerable value for the oil which it furnishes, and as food for cattle when ground. Still, there is, among planters — so says a very recent Texan writer — "a prevailing conviction that cotton had become com- paratively too prominent for the highest profit in the distribu- tion of crop areas. While this conviction appears to be general FARM PRODUCTS. 59 among intelligent growers, the old habit of too extensive cotton- growing has been too strong to effect much reduction." Taking all things into consideration, it does not appear that cotton-growing is likely, for some years to come, to present strong inducements for any person to enter upon it who is not already engaged in it. The entire cotton crop would probably bring as much if the production were very much reduced, while a portion of the labor and capital engaged in it would meet with a better reward if otherwise employed. These opinions apply especially to the older and more densely settled of the cotton States. In Texas the cultivation of cotton will undoubt- edly be much extended. Flax. — In 1850 the production of flax in the United States was 7,709,676 pounds. In i860 it had fallen to 4,720,000 pounds. In 1870 it rose to 27,133,034 pounds. This almost sixfold in- crease from i860 to 1870 was owing to the "cotton-famine" oc- casioned by the civil war ; and unsuccessful attempts were made to prepare the flax fibre so that it could be worked up by the ordinary cotton machinery. But when the cultivation of cotton was resumed, after peace was established, that of flax, for its fibre, was practically abandoned, and it does not appear in the Census of 1880 among farm products. There is little or no linen cloth woven in the United States, the supply being imported. Some flax is, however, grown for its fibre, for making thread and twine, since the Census of 1880 reports 1894 "flax-dressers." Flax is with us now grown principally for its seed, and espe- cially for the oil expressed from it. Linseed-oil, on account of its "drying" property, is the usual vehicle for colors in painting. The seed is also used in pharmacy for poultices, for which it is specially adapted by its long retention of heat and moisture. The residue of the seed, after the oil has been extracted, is val- uable as food for cattle. In 1870 there were produced 1,730,444 bushels of flax-seed; but the supply is insufficient for the de- mand, and large quantities are imported, especially from India. That there is such importation shows that its production here is not profitable. The cultivation of flax, either for the fibre or the seed, is, therefore, not a promising industry. 60 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Hemp is a plant belonging to the nettle family, producing a fibre similar to that of flax, but coarser and stronger, and espe- cially adapted for cordage. In 1870, 12,746 tons of hemp were produced, seven-eighths being in Kentucky. In i860 the prod- uct was 74,493 tons — nearly six times as much as in 1870. It does not appear at all in the Census of 1880. The experience of the last thirty years shows that its cultivation is not profit- able. There is a large demand for it, but it can be imported rnore cheaply than it can be grown here. Of the little that is produced, more than half is grown in Kentucky, and there is no apparent inducement to extend its cultivation. Ramie is a plant belonging to the same family as hemp, but having a finer and stronger fibre. This is contained in the inner bark, which in Eastern countries is stripped from the stems, cleansed from useless matter, dried and bleached, and then picked by the fingers into filaments of any required fine- ness. The plant is sometimes called " China-grass." The so- called " grass-cloth " of China is made from this material, and is often of extreme fineness. The fibre can be bleached perfectly white, and then takes dyes as readily and permanently as silk does. Considerable quantities are imported into France and England, to be mixed with silk. A species of the plant grows wild in the United States and in Canada, but its fibre is not very valuable. In' 1857 a plant of the Chinese ramie was sent to the Botanic Garden, in Washington, but no serious attempt was made to cultivate the plant for several years. But in 1867 -a. furore for it was excited in some quarters. Incredible stories were told of its productiveness. It was said that little labor was required for its cultivation, that it produced three crops a year, yielding in all 1500 pounds per acre of the prepared fibre. Large quan- tities of the bark were prepared and sent to market. But there were no known means of separating it into the fine filaments, except the slow hand process employed in China, where the cost of manual labor is merely nominal, but would here render the prepared fibre more expensive than silk. The cultivation of ramie was soon abandoned, but there is A HARVEST SCENE IN SCOTLAND. See Note 2. FARM PRODUCTS. 63 good reason to believe that it may be resumed under happier auspices. The great value of the fibre, and the abundance in which it can be produced, are well established. The one thing wanted is, some machine for separating the bark into its fine, ultimate filaments. It would seem that such an invention is not impossible. The man who shall invent such a machine will do for this new plant what Whitney did for cotton by the cotton- gin. Even as things are, it is suggested that the Chinese hand- process might be employed by us to some extent, as an auxiliary domestic industry for women and children. It is one that might be taken up or laid aside at any spare moment, and thus, what- ever should be the value of the fibre, it would be so much clear profit. Miscellaneous Farm Products. Tobacco is grown more or less in nearly every State and Territory, but in several of them in very small quantities. In ten States it is an important industry, each of them producing more than 10,000,000 pounds a year. In 1880 there were 638,841 acres devoted to tobacco, producing 472,661,157 pounds. Of this 36 per cent, was grown in Kentucky ; 1 7 per cent, in Virginia ; and 33 per cent, in Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Ohio. The product in 1870 was 262,735,341 pounds — an increase in 1880 of 80 per cent. But tobacco- growing was seriously diminished by the civil war, the product in i860 being 434,209,461 pounds; so that the increase in 1880 over i860 was only 9 per cent., the increase of population in that time being 61 per cent. The cultivation of tobacco is, therefore, relatively a declining industry. The average yield of tobacco in 1880 was 756 pounds per acre ; average price, 8 cents per pound ; value of the entire crop, 1^37,812,902; value of product per acre, $60.80 — considerably more than most others of our great products. But its cultiva- tion and preparation for market involves more labor than almost any other product, and it is, of all crops, the most exhausting to the soil. Everything is taken from the land, and nothing is returned to it. A very few crops of tobacco will " wear out " any field, unless there be an abundant supply of manures and 64 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. fertilizers. The yield is, moreover, uncertain. Tobacco-growing is, for these reasons, a very unpromising industry. Hops. — In i860 there were about 11,000,000 pounds of hops produced in the United States; in 1870 there were 25,456,669 pounds, the plant being grown in almost every State, the in- crease being nearly 130 per cent. In 1880 there were 46,800 acres of hops, the product being 26,546,378 pounds, an increase of only 4 per cent, over the product of 1870. The cultivation was, moreover, practically abandoned everywhere except in Wis- consin, California, and New York ; and Wisconsin produced less than half as much as in 1870. California, however, more than doubled the product of 1870, and in New York the increase was nearly 24 per cent. New York in 1880 produced fully 80 per cent, of all the hops grown ; and the cultivation was mainly con- fined to five of the sixty counties of the State. These five cen- tral counties, and two or three counties of California, are the only districts in which hop-growing has proved at all profitable for several years. Pease and Beans. — These leguminous products are very largely grown in England and some other parts of Europe, as green fodder for cattle, arid dried for human food. Their pro- duction is much less than formerly. In i860 there were 15,000,000 bushels; in 1870 only 5,750,000 bushels; and they are not enumerated in the Census of 1880. The Pea-nut, or ground-nut, may be profitably cultivated from Virginia south- ward. Its pods have the singular habit of burying themselves in the ground and ripening there, and are dug up, like potatoes. The seeds (improperly called " nuts ") yield about 20 per cent, of an oil valuable for all purposes for which oils are used, except for painting. Large quantities of the nut are imported into France from Africa for the sake of the oil, which is used for burning, for soap-making, as a lubricant, and for adulterating olive-oil. Root -Crops. — In Europe various species of the beet and turnip are very important farm products, especially for feeding cattle. The sugar-beet furnishes a very considerable part of the sugar used upon the Continent; but for this purpose it is not FARM PRODUCTS. 65 probable that it will ever be grown in the United States. In the judgment of many whose opinion is of high authority the cultivation of the beet and turnip for the feeding of cattle may be profitably extended much more widely than it is in this coun- try. But at present the beet, turnip, onion, and other bulbous plants belong rather to the garden than to the farm. They are treated of in the next chapter. 66 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER VII. PRODUCTS OF THE GARDEN. NO very definite line can be drawn to distinguish a garden from a farm. A garden is, indeed, a miniature farm; but it will be convenient to consider any comparatively small piece of land devoted to the growth of vegetables as a garden. Every farm should, of course, have a kitchen-garden attached to it for the supply of vegetables and small fruits for home consumption. The successive censuses are, unfortunately — perhaps neces- sarily — very meagre in details regarding garden products. No attempt has been made to estimate the acreage of gardens. Ac- cording to the Census Report of 1850, the value of market-garden products was_ $5,200,000; in i860 it was $16,200,000. In 1870 it was (in gold) $16,700,000 — a relative decrease of about 20 per cent, as compared with the increase of the population from i860 to 1870. This decrease occurred, however, mainly in the Southern and Border States, and was owing directly to the civil war. In the rest of the Union the ratio of increase in market- garden products was quite equal to that of the increase of popu- lation. The Census Report of 1880 puts down 51,482 persons as " gardeners, nurserymen, and vine-growers ;" but the value of the products of the garden and vineyard are not separately mentioned, being apparently included among "farm products." Gardening and its products may be conveniently divided into Horticulture (the culture of vegetables, berries, and the small fruits) and Floriculture (the culture of flowers). The cultivation of the large fruits is treated in the chapter on "Orchard Products." PRODUCTS OF THE GARDEN. 67 Horticulture. Vegetables. — In the vicinity of a city, large town, or even of a manufacturing village, the growing of vegetables may be made highly profitable, and will repay the most careful cultiva- tion. An acre or two favorably situated may be made to afford more net profit to the cultivator than a considerable farm else- where. Even if the soil be naturally unproductive, it can be brought to and maintained in a high state of fertility by the use of manures and fertilizers, by thorough' drainage, and by irriga- tion when necessary; and large towns afford an abundance of manure, and artificial fertilizers are of ready access. Successful market-gardening demands the exercise, not only of the highest agricultural skill, but also of sound judgment in many other respects. The market-gardener must not only know what kind of crops are in themselves best adapted to his soil and climate, but how to cultivate them. He must study care- fully the question as to what kinds will be demanded in his own immediate market, and at' what particular season they will bring the best prices ; and he must see to it that his products are ready at that time. Moreover, most of his crops are perishable in their nature, and so must be sold at once, or they are of no value. A few days' difference in time will often make all the difference between a great profit and a great loss. He should also so arrange a rotation in his crops that he may have one kind or another all through the season. His land will, indeed, have to do double duty, and must therefore receive double care ; but it will give him more than quadruple results. There is one leading principle which he should always keep in mind : to grow those crops which will pay best in his special location, and with a part of the money which he receives in payment purchase what else he needs or wishes. Long as is the list of garden vegetables, there can be no doubt that it may with profit be greatly extended. There are many excellent species and varieties perfectly adapted to one or another of our various climates which are wholly unknown in our markets. It is not many years since the tomato — one of 68 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. the most valuable of all — was thought to be not only useless as food, but positively poisonous. Now and then a plant might be seen in cultivation for the sake of its brilliantly- colored fruit, which were known as " love-apples ;" but children were carefully warned not to eat them. If, now, the value of all the tomatoes consumed — raw, cooked, or canned — could be stated, the amount would be sufficient to give it a high place among our garden products. But it is not merely — not even chiefly — to the introduction of new species that the attention of the horticulturist should be directed. Very few of our garden vegetables are edible in their wild or native state. All of them, as we know them, are the result of human cultivation ; and it is by no means probable that in respect to any one of them has the highest possible de- velopment been attained. Moreover, like all other partly arti- ficial vegetable productions, they have a constant tendency to " run out " when long raised from the same stock. A variety may succeed unexceptionably for a number of years in some lo- calities, and then rapidly degenerate there, while the same vari- ety will take, so to speak, a new lease of life when transferred to another locality. The " breeding " of plants is as important as the breeding of animals, although the laws which govern it are not as yet so well understood. As yet the science is mainly an experimental one — an art, indeed, rather than a science; but so numerous and well-directed have the experiments become, that we may confidently hope that the governing laws will be discov- ered, and so the art will become a science. The horticulturist who in any degree practically aids in attaining this result can hardly fail to receive a due pecuniary reward for his labor. Berries, etc. — The smaller fruits — such as currants, straw- berries, blackberries, raspberries, and the like — are garden prod- ucts, except when they are found growing wild ; and although the wild fruit is valuable, the garden fruit far exceeds it in size and productiveness, and usually in flavor. Some of the choicest varieties of the blackberry and raspberry seem to have been originally produced by "accident — that is, without man's aid. Some one discovered an unusually fine bush growing wild ; he PRODUCTS OF THE GARDEN. 69 transplanted it, and by cultivation its good qualities were s'till further developed, transmitted to other generations of the plant, and so perpetuated. . The Blackberry, as a garden fruit, is the result of such an accident. A few years ago a remarkably fine bush was discov- ered growing wild near New Rochelle, a few miles from the city of New York. The discoverer transplanted it into his garden, where it flourished; and from this chance -found plant have sprung almost all of this fruit now grown. The Cranberry is strictly a swamp-plant, but is also raised to some extent in gardens, where the soil is moist; but it re- quires that the beds into which the plant is set should have a thick coating of swamp-muck. Most of the cranberries of our markets are grown in a few swampy localities in five or six counties of New Jersey and Massachusetts. There are few acres of ground which can be made as profitable as a good cranberry- swamp. The fine flavor of this berry places it at the head of our acid berries. The Currant is a very hardy shrub, and will grow fairly in almost any soil. Perhaps it is on this very account that so little attention has been given to its cultivation. Yet so excel- lent is the fruit, and so abundant its yield, that it ranks highest among our bush-fruits. Physicians whose practice lies in hos- pitals and asylums, and among children, welcome the arrival of the currant season, for the ripe fruit is one of the best prevent- ives of what are known as "summer complaints." Moreover, the currant is less perishable than most other berries, so that the producer is less dependent upon an immediate sale, and any overplus of the yield can be profitably converted into jams and jellies. The currant season lasts longer than that of any other of our berries. This fruit is eminently worthy of the attention of the horticulturist, especially if a part of his land is not of the highest character. The plant will pay for itself anywhere, but will pay best where it is best treated. The Gooseberry has not found much favor among us, the fruit being peculiarly liable to a destructive kind of " mould." English horticulturists have a fancy for raising gooseberries of 70 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. enormous size for exhibition. To effect this they leave only a few berries on the bush, and carefully support each of them so that it does not hang by the stem. The unripe fruit is some- what used for pies and tarts ; but even for this use the rhubarb, or "pie-plant," is preferable, and is far more easily raised. Per- haps some valuable variety may be developed ; but until this is the case the culture of the gooseberry for market is not likely to prove profitable. The Raspberry is deservedly a favorite berry. There are nu- merous species, differing widely in the color and even the flavor of the fruit; but nearly all of them are hardy and prolific, and may be grown with profit both for home consumption and for market. The Strawberry. — This, the most delicious of our berries, has some peculiarities which call for a higher degree of practised skill than is required for most other garden fruits. But this skill may be attained by any observant gardener ; and the berry is among the most profitable of all when judiciously grown and marketed. The plant is frequently raised directly from the seed, and valuable varieties are numerous. Some of these varieties produce very large berries, but the flavor of these is usually in- ferior to those of a moderate size. The Whortleberry. — As far as we know, no attempt has been made to cultivate this wide-spread berry, varieties of which flour- ish in every climate, from Florida to Maine, and at every eleva- tion, from a sea-coast swamp to the very summit of Mount Wash- ington. There are various species of the plant, bearing various local names, from a dwarf vine of only an inch high to a bush of eight or ten feet. Berries of excellent flavor, and in almost unlimited quantities, can be had in many sections merely for the picking, and large quantities of these wild berries are brought to all our markets. There seems to be no reason to doubt that this berry, excellent as it is, may be improved by cultivation ; and the experiment is certainly worth trying. The fruit is among the least perishable of all our berries, and is, therefore, specially adapted for preserving or drying. It is also one of the few berries the flavor of which is not impaired by cooking. PRODUCTS OR THE GARDEN. 71 The Melon, in its various species, is a profitable garden prod- uct where the climate and soil are .adapted to it, and where a market is readily accessible. Except for home consumption. New Jersey and the southern part of New York are the north- ern limits where they will ordinarily be found profitable. Most of the melons sold in our markets are brought from the South. These are not unfrequently picked while wholly unripe, and left to ripen in the transit, and this kind of " ripening " is often o-nly another name for rotting. Floriculture. The cultivation of flowers, not merely for personal gratifica- tion, but as a gainful employment, is almost a new avocation among us. Flower-markets have, indeed, long existed in. New Orleans and other Southern cities, but anything worthy the name has not been known in the North until within a few years. But floriculture has of late grown into an important industry, although we find no notice of it in the Census Report (of 1880), except the bare mention that there were in all the States 4550 "florists," of whom 4,320 were males and 230 females, and that the number of children between ten and fifteen was only 82. One needs, however, only to walk along the streets of any of our cities to perceive that the arranging and selling of flowers, either in pots or "cut" for bouquets and for festal and funeral occasions, gives gainful employment to a much more considera- ble number of persons. Flowers are, to a very large extent, grown in greenhouses, which are merely covered gardens, in which a summer tempera, ture is maintained in the winter, thus supplying fresh flowers in the coldest weather. The cultivation of flowers for gain is con- fined mainly to the vicinity of large cities. The supply for New York — apart from the comparatively few produced in its own greenhouses — comes mainly from New Jersey. The sort of flowers profitable for cultivation depends somewhat upon the fluctuations in fashion ; a kind of rose, for example, which is a special favorite one season being not unfrequently quite neg- lected the next season. 5 72 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The cultivation of flowers for use in perfumery and cos- metics is altogether unknown in the United States, although in India, Persia, Turkey, and some parts of Europe, especially in France, it has long been carried on very largely ; and fats and oils saturated with the perfume of flowers are a not inconsidera- ble article of import into the United States. It is not improb- able that recent chemical discoveries, by which the most delicate- odors of flowers are so closely imitated as to defy detection ex- cept by an expert, will greatly check this branch of floriculture. But there is no reason to believe that the taste for flowers them- selves, and the consequent demand for them, will diminish ; and most likely it will increase very greatly. Consequently, it may be safely assumed that floriculture is among the most promising of the minor industries which can be carried on in the vicinity of large cities, In considering the benefits to be derived from the far wider extension of garden culture, whether of vegetables or flowers, a very important point is, that it would greatly enlarge the sphere of gainful labor for women. We do not desire — and certainly do not expect — that the time will ever come when women among us will be largely engaged in the common, laborious out-door work of the farm, as they are in some parts of Europe. But gar- dening furnishes much out-door gainful employment in which, even according to American ideas, women may appropriately en- gage. To plant and weed a garden -patch, and to gather its products, involves nothing more unfeminine than to tend a flower-bed or water a geranium-pot; and even the more labori- ous parts of garden -work are less severe than cooking and washing, to say nothing of scrubbing and fecouring. They in- volve less physical exertion, and that of a more healthful kind, than standing behind a counter, sitting at the sewing-machine, or working in a factory. From whatever stand-point we look at the matter, we reach the same result : that gardening opens one of the Vv'idest fields among us for profitable cultivation. Closely connected with the " Products of the Garden" are the " Products of the Orchard," which forms the subject of the next chapter. PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 73 CHAPTER VIII. PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. THE various tropical and sub -tropical fruits, such as the banana, plantain, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and date, appear to be found very nearly in their natural condition, without hav- ing undergone any great change through cultivation. Some of these are of great importance in the regions where they flourish, constituting the main food of the people. The banana, or plan- tain, furnishes more food per acre than any other plant. Ac- cording to Humboldt an area of ground which will yield looo pounds of potatoes will, in its own climate, yield 44,000 pounds of bananas ; a surface bearing wheat enough to feed one person will, when planted with bananas, feed twenty-five persons. The fruit of the date-palm constitutes the chief article of food on the northern coast of Africa, in Arabia, and Persia. Each well- grown date -tree will yield from one hundred-weight to four hun- dred-weight per year, the dried fruit containing 58 per cent, of sugar, combined with gum, pectine, etc. In Egypt each date-tree is registered, and pays a special tax, which forms a considerable part of the revenues of the Government, and is, perhaps, the most burdensome tax imposed in any country. The cocoa-nut and bread-fruit are valuable where they will grow. But none of these tropical or sub-tropical fruits will, probably, flourish any- where in the United States, with the exception, perhaps, of Southern Florida. None of the fruits grown among us — with the exception of the grape and a few wild plums — are indigenous to this conti- nent, but have been introduced from the Old World ; but many of them have here found a habitat more congenial than their 74 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. original homes. Although most of them are still found in the Old World in their wild state, they are, as we know them, the product of cultivation ; but this cultivation often goes back to a period earlier than recorded history, and pagan myths attribute it to one or another of the gods. Fruit -culture has as yet received far less attention among us than it deserves, and far less, it may be confidently predicted, than it will receive in the immediate future ; for it is affirmed by all competent authorities that fruits, either in their natural state or cooked, should form a much larger proportion of the food of our people than they have ever done. And there is every reason to believe that the growing of fruits will, in the future, become one of our most remunerative industries. Since 1850 the Census Reports have undertaken to give the value of the Orchard Products for each census year. Table VII. gives the results, in this respect, for the thirty years preceding, and including, 1880: TABLE VII.- -VALUE OF ORCHARD PRODUCTS, 1850, i860, 187 0, 1880. Statk. 18S0. 1870. 1860. 1S50. State. ISSO. 1870. 1860. 18S0. Ala.. . . Ariz. . . Ark. . . Cal..., Col.. . . Conn. . Dak. . . Del... D.C... Florida Ga. . . . Idaho . Illinois Ind.... Iowa. . Kan. . . Ky.... La. . . . Maine . Md.... Mass. . Mich. . Minn. . Dollars. 362,263 5,530 867,426 2,017,314 3,246 466,246 166 846,692 12,074 758,295 782,972 23,147 3,502,583 2,757,359 1,494,365 368,860 1,877,670 188,604 1,112,026 1,563,188 1,005,303 2,760,677 121,648 Dollars. 37,590 2,850 55,697 1,059,779 9 599,718 Dollars. 223,312 Dollars. 15,408 Miss.. . Mo.... Mont... Neb. . . Nev. . . N.H... N.J... N.Mex. N. Y.. . N. C. . . Ohio . Oregon Pa. . . . R. I. . . S. c. . . Tenn... Texas. Utah. . Vt. . . . Va.... Wash.. W.Va. Wis. . . Dollars. 378,145 1,812,873 1,530 72,244 3,619 972,291 860,090 26,706 8,409,794 903,513 ,3,576,242 583,663 4,862,826 68,751 78,934 919,844 876,844 148,493 640,942 1,609,663 127,668 934,400 639,435 Dollars. 71,018 2,617,452 Dollars. 254,718 810,976 Dollars. 50,405 514,711 56,025 754,236 40,141 17,700 9,932 900 743,552 1,296,282 13,609 8,347,417 394,749 5,843,679 719,876 4,208,094 43,036 47,960 571,520 69,172 43,938 682,241 891,231 71,863 848,773 819,268 125 508,848 175,118 637,934 429,402 19,761 3,726,780 643,688 1,929,309 478,479 1,479,937 83,691 213,989 305,003 48,047 9,281 211,693 800,650 20,619 248,563 607,268 8,231 1,761,950 34,348 695,921 1,271 723,389 63,994 85,108 52,894 12,606 ' 3V5,266 177,137 1,226,893 6,781 53,639 352,926 725 3,571,789 2,858,086 1,076,169 158,046 1,231,385 142,129 874,569 1,319,405 939,864 3,447,985 16,818 114,225 9,980 21,259 176,048 1,126,323 1,268,242 118,377 656 604,849 114,339 501,767 252,196 925,519 1,122,074 649 46,574 14,843 1,280 92,776 446,049 824,940 8,434 166,230 22,369 342,866 164,051 463,995 132,650 78,690 4,823 ca^rp over. cflwr;/ over. carry over. c'y over. 60,876,154 47,335,189 19,991,885 7,723,186 In the Census Report of 1870 (as heretofore said) the values are expressed in " currency," which, for the purpose of compar- PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 75 ison with other years, should be reduced to its gold value by a deduction of one-fifth. The real value of the orchard products of 1870, instead of being $47,855,189, was $37,868,151, in gold. The same deduction should be made in the values for 1870 in each of the States. It thus appears that the increase in the value of orchard products from 1850 to i860 was 159 per cent; from i860 to 1870 it was 89 per cent; from 1870 to 1880 it was 34 per cent. — the ratio of increase being a little more than that of the increase of population. It will be seen, also, from the ta- ble that in the vast fruit-growing regions of the Central, North- eastern, and older Western States there was a very considerable relative decrease in the value of the orchard products of 1880 as compared with those of 1870. In some of these States there was an absolute decrease. Thus, the product in Delaware, Ken- tucky, and New Jersey fell off, while Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and New York barely held their own. But this decrease was more than compensated by the extraordinary increase in Cal- ifornia and in nearly all of the Southern States. From 1870 to 1880 the orchard products of California doubled; in Georgia they increased nearly threefold ; in Mississippi, sixfold ; in Alabama, elevenfold ; in Florida, fifteenfold ; in Texas, sixteenfold ; in Ar- kansas, seventeenfold. Taking the whole Union through, and notwithstanding the bad Northern and Western fruit-year 1880, the increase in orchard products from 1870 to 1880 has more than kept up with the increase of population. And nothing can be more certain than that this increase will go on for a long course of years ; for the taste for fruit is so natural, and its grat- ification so healthful, that the demand for it must inevitably increase. The value of the orchard products in 1880 being $50,876,154, and the population numbering 50.i55. 783- there was almost exactly a dollar's worth for each individual; and, making the highest possible estimate for imported fruits, each person in the United States does not consume fruit to the amount of a dollar and a half a year — less than three cents a week. There is not, probably, a single valuable fruit grown in any part of Europe or in the temperate regions of Asia which may 76 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. not be successfully reared in some portion of the United States. We give some account of the leading fruits, noting the main sections of the country which, by reason of climate and soil, are best fitted for their successful cultivation : grouping them into two divisions, Northern and Southern. Northern Fruits^ The Apple. — The apple-tree, as we know it, has been devel- oped by cultivation from the sour and almost inedible " crab- apple " of England. It was brought over by the earliest emi- grants, who here found every condition favorable to its growth, and for some generations the apple-tree hardly needed any cul- tivation. The soil of New England and New York was com- posed of decayed trees and their foliage, thickly covered with the ashes of the primitive woods ; while the greater portion of the country was still sheltered by the primeval forests, which mitigated the keen winds of winter and early spring, afford- ing protection to the apple. The snows apparently fell more heavily than now, or at least lay longer upon the ground, pro- tecting roots of the fruit-trees from the frost, and retarding pre- mature blossoming. Other fruit-trees shared in these advan- tages ; so that it was far easier a century ago to raise fine peaches in Southern New Hampshire than it now is in South- ern New York. The apple constitutes, and must constitute, the most valuable orchard product of the more northern part of the United States ; while the orange will be the special fruit of the most southern portion, upon the Atlantic side, and of Southern California as far north as the latitude of North Carolina and Tennessee ; the peach lying intermediate between them, south of the apple zone, and north of the orange zone. That the apple -orchards of New England and New York have failed rapidly for several decades is unquestioned. But the causes of this failure have been wholly misunderstood. Upon this point, and indeed upon most others connected with the apple, we cite, with abridgments required by our space, Mr. Todd's admirable Apple Culturist. He says : PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 77 " The failure of apple-orchards is a matter of common conversation in all localities where apples are cultivated. In the majority of instances it is as- sumed that apple-trees fail to produce such crops as were once raised in certain localities because the varieties are running out. The assumption is erroneous. If the same quality of soil can be secured, with the same surroundings as to protection by forests, and if the cions from the topmost boughs of old trees that have once borne bountiful crops of fine fruit, but have now failed, could be set in young stocks, as hardy as those which were employed seventy or eighty years ago, we should see trees loaded with just as fine fruit as those old trees ever produced. There is a limit to productiveness of all kinds, vegetable or animal. Old animals cease to bear young.; forest-trees reach the limit of their growth, and decay. Durham cattle die ; but the breed, the variety, does not deteriorate. So with fruit-trees. If the old trees cease to bear, and die, the variety of the fruit does not fail, if cions of the branches be set in young stocks." Mr. Todd affirms — and proves — that the trouble in respect to the orchard lies in the treatment of the growing trees. He sets forth the chief of the errors in their treatment. We sum- marize his principal points : " I. Fourscore years ago the stocks into which the cions were set were. pro- duced from more hardy varieties than they now are. 2. Then, the fruit-trees were set in a virgin soil, which had been bountifully top-dressed with unleached ashes, an almost indispensable requisite for the production of fine fruit. Now, inferior trees are planted in an inferior soil, without wood-ashes and other nec- essary fertilizing materials. 3. Then, almost every orchard was shielded by a belt of forest-trees. Now, cold and fierce winds sweep over the country for a long distance, raking young orchards in a fearful manner. 4. A large propor- tion of the orchards have' been ruined by mismanagement. The soil having become impoverished by yielding a long succession of bountiful crops, and the trees beginning to show signs of starvation, resort was had to a stupid mode of pruning. Half, or even more, of the entire top was rudely cut off, including, limbs six or eight inches in diameter, making wounds so large that they could never heal over. Hence- the trunk began to decay at the heart, often becoming quite hollow." The section on the "starving out" of apple-trees is especially worthy of careful consideration. A young orchard is planted, and forthwith sown to a grain crop ; and year after year the tops, of the young trees rise just above the growing grain ; yet the land is expected to bear as much of other crops as though no fruit-trees were upon it. After due time, perhaps half or two- thirds of the apple-trees will be found to have survived this early 78 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. starvation, and to bear a little friiit. ' Then a little mercy is shown to the trees : the orchard is seeded down, and after one or two mowings is converted into a pasture ; but the idea of manur- ing an orchard never occurs. No attempt is made to restore the elements exhausted by the production of the crop. " The soil is robbed of its nutritive properties year after year ; no new supply is furnished : and out of nothing, nothing comes. The practical lesson is obvious : we must feed our fruit-trees, if we expect them to feed us." Fruit-trees and their fruit are, like all cultivated crops, ex- posed to the attacks of insects and other depredators. Mr. Todd devotes due space to the methods more or less success- fully employed to get rid of these destroyers, but the main result is briefly enough summed up : " New depredators have been visiting our fruit-trees every season for a num- ber of years past ; and for years to come others, now unknown, will probably appear. There may be some remedy discovered to head them off; but the most reliable one of all will be, ' Catch 'em and kill 'em.' All through the growing season every employe on the premises should be instructed, whenever he sees noxious insects at work, to drop all other employment, and ' catch 'em and kill 'em.' We have tried the 'Shoo-fly!' remedy quite too long, without any satisfactory results. If we drive them away, they are back to their work of devastation before we can return. But if we 'catch 'em and kill 'em' they never have a resurrection." Various modes of catching and killing these pests are set forth; and the fruit-grower can in no way earn more money in a few hours than by making himself master of this chapter of the Apple Culturist. The apple-tree, like every other, finds some soils specially adapted to it. The best soil is where there is a liberal supply of both clay and sand ; for without these they will not yield abundantly for any I'ong time. A good, fertile loam, which supplies both, is excellent, or a deep, alluvial soil, if of the right character. If the soil is wanting in one of these elements, the deficiency must be supplied. If one of them is in excess, the other must be added as a counteractive. If there be too much clay, add sand ; if too much sand, add clay, and so on. More- over, continues Mr. Todd, emphatically : PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 79 " Pile on also gas-house lime, old lime, and quick-lime ; leached and un- leached coal ashes ; chip-dirt, sawdust, fertile street-dirt ; scrapings of the ma- nure-yard, tan-bark, leather-shavings, refuse of woollen-mills, and all such kind of material as can be secured. It will pay to cart sawdust two miles to put around apple-trees, as such material will furnish much of the best quality of food for the hungry roots of growing trees. Good barn-yard manure is also excellent for growing trees, and there is no danger of applying too much of it. But all such articles should be worked into the soil, where the roots can feed on such portions as will promote the growth of the trees and the development of the fruit." The Apple Culturist does not content itself with dogmat- ically putting forth these and such-like directions ; it shows the reasons for them, based, not only upon actual experience, but upon scientific principles. For all the purposes of fruit-culture it is a thorough hand-book of agricultural chemistry. While, as above, the author affirms that, in the case of the apple-tree, "there is no danger of applying too much manure," he is careful to qualify the statement in so far as the peach and its kindred are concerned. These, he says, " will not bear a high fertility, because, being brought originally from warmer countries, they are liable to suffer from the frosts of winter, and are stimulated to grow too late in the season, and the frost strikes them when the wood is immature." The subjects of planting and trans- planting fruit-trees, and the proper modes of pruning, are fully treated. All choice varieties of the apple are produced from grafted trees. Given a suitable soil and proper culture, a sound stock upon whiqh to graft, and a cion from a tree capable of bearing the desired variety of fruit, and yet a skilful grafting is required to insure the desired result. The chapter devoted to this sub- ject is so clearly expressed and so fully illustrated by delin- eations of every necessary implement and appliance, and the manner of using them, that it requires only a reasonable amount -of intelligence, and a fair degree of manual dexterity, for any fruit-grower to do his own grafting and budding. By so quali- fying himself he will be able to dispense with the at best ques- tionable services of those itinerant grafters who are more likely than not to be wholly unfit for the work they undertake. 80 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The special value of the apple arises partly from the intrinsic excellence of the fruit, and partly from its permanence. Our earliest apples ripen in June or July; some "winter" sorts will keep until the following summer. So that there is no day in the year in which apples are not to be had. The real value of the apple, even in a mere pecuniary point of view, is too little appreciated. We again quote from the Apple Culturist, the writer speaking especially of Western New York, "where," as he says, " the tree is hardy and healthy, and the fruit comes nearest to perfection," although what is affirmed holds good for a much greater extent of country : " No other trees can be relied upon for a regular supply of choice fruit, with such certainty of a crop, as the apple-tree ; and there is no other kind of fruit that can be made to mature during such a long succession of months. They are excellent while in a crude state, and superb when cooked in a score of different ways. By no earthly process can so much nutriment be so cheaply extracted from four square rods of ground as by planting an apple-tree in its centre, and giving it good cultivation. Every family that is in possession of only a few roods of good ground should have a succession of apples suited to every season of the year. If a person has the land, there can be no possible excuse for not having a bountiful supply of superior fruit in from six to ten years, unless we except the pretext so often urged, of a 'want of time' to cultivate the trees. But every man fritters away every season far more time than would be required to plant an orchard and to take care of the number of trees requisite to supply his family with apples during the entire year. They are unlike the more perishable fruits, as pears, peaches, and plums, which must be consumed to-day, or they will be worthless to-morrow. The choice varieties are now so numerous that, by proper management, in our latitude, any family that will appropriate only a part of one acre to a few trees which mature in succession may begin to gather ripe apples in July, while they have still in their cellar a small supply of last year's apples." The writer enumerates nearly a score and a half of well- known varieties, " which will furnish a succession from the mid- dle of July of one year to the same period — or even later — of the following year." Among the varieties enumerated are the Early Harvest, the Tallman Sweeting, the Early Chandler, the Fall Orange, the Rhode Island Greening, the Ladies' Sweet, the Baldwin, the Summer Pearmain, the Early Strawberry, the None- such, the Summer Pippin, the Roxbury Russet. " One tree of PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 81 each of the foregoing varieties," it is added, " if properly culti- vated, would supply a small family with all the fruit they would need during the year, before the trees are half -grown. Those who desire extensive orchards can add other varieties to suit the locality or the market." Much of all the foregoing will apply, in many respects, to the peach, the pear, the plum, etc. It was written, however, before the culture of the orange in California and Florida had assumed its present great importance, and its still greater promise for the future. Not improbably the apple and the orange will share be- tween them the joint sovereignty over the realm of American fruit-culture — the apple being king in the North, and the orange being queen in the South. The Pear. — The wild pear-tree, found in the temperate parts , of Asia, is hardly more than a shrub. The fruit was known to the Romans before the beginning of the Christian era, but was not much relished unless cooked. The delicious varieties which we know as the Seckel, the Vergaloo, the Bartlett, etc., are the result of modern cultivation. The general conditions for the cultivation of the pear are very similar to those of the apple. The pear is grown as a standard tree, or is budded upon its own . seedlings, or upon the quince, etc. Some pears are best if picked before fully mature and suffered to ripen in the house. The coarser varieties are used mainly for cooking or canning. Many of the finest varieties are grown as dwarfs. The best are grown in Southern New York, New Jersey, and especially in Califor- nia, where the fruit attains a great size without losing its flavor. The Peach. — The peach-tree flourishes in the middle region of the temperate zone on both continents, although not indige- nous on this. It can be grown in England only as a wall-fruit. Its cultivation was formerly carried as far north as Central New York and Southern New England; but its boundaries have gradually receded southward. The best peaches are now pro- duced upon Long Island, in New Jersey, and especially in Del- aware and portions of Maryland. Farther South, as in Virginia, the peach is much used for the distillation of what is known as "peach -brandy." The best peaches are perhaps the most deli- - 82 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. cious of our fruits. But they are quite perishable individuallyj although different varieties ripen at different periods, so that the fruit is in market for several months in the year. Large quanti- ties are preserved by drying and canning ; and the disadvantages arising from the perishable nature of the fruit are thus partly obviated. The cultivation of the peach for the market upon a small scale is not likely to be profitable, except in few and lim- ited localities; but large peach -orchards have been found to afford a very lucrative investment for capital and labor. To secure this result, however, depends quite as much upon mar- keting the fruit as upon growing it. The Cherry. — Our cultivated cherries, of which there are many varieties, belong to species introduced from the Old World. There are numerous varieties of wild cherry-trees on both con- tinents. In the United States the chief varieties of wild-cherry are the "choke -cherry," a mere shrub, and the "black -cherry," a large tree, which produces valuable timber, much used in cab- inet-work. Some of the cultivated species are excellent fruits ; but the crop is rather uncertain. Plums. — The various species of plums do not, as yet, form any considerable part of the orchard products of the United States. Two or three species of wild-plum, which are now cul- tivated to some extent, were about the only fruit, excepting grapes, known to the aborigines of North America. In many parts of Europe plums, or " stone-fruit," are largely grown. The dried fruit of several species goes under the general name of "prunes," or "prunelles," and forms an important article of con- sumption and export from France, Germany, Spain, and Turkey. The French prunes, which are considered the best, are mainly the product of what is locally known as the St. Julian plum. The production of dried plums, or prunes, has been begun in California, with quite satisfactory results. The gathering of fruit — especially of apples — deserves more consideration than it usually receives. Care is required, in the first place, not to injure the tree itself. In case the fruit has been blown off, or has fallen of itself from the tree, it is too late for care in this respect. There is skill required for pick- PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 83 ing an apple even by hand. " Beginners," says The Apple Culturist — " Should be taught how .to pick an apple or pear, when the stem separates with difficulty, so as not to break off the fruit-spurs, or injure th^ buds which are to produce the next year's crop. There is a proper place for every stem to separate from the spur. A straight pull will often remove pieces of the twig several inches in length. When fruits are shaken off they often take long pieces of wood with them. These have to be separated from the fruit, and it is far better to take a little pains and leave the wood on the tree. When the apple is to be plucked apply the thumb-nail to the stem at the proper place for separation, and break the stem across the nail. Much damage is often done to fruit-trees in gathering the fruit. Large branches are trodden on and barked, small ones are broken, and, in violently shaking the trees, fruit -spurs are broken off." Much fruit will hang where it cannot be reached by the hand. To gather this One needs a " fruit-plucker." This can be readily constructed by bend- ing a stout wire about thir- ty-two inches long, into the shape shown at a in the cut; the two ends being brought together, drive them into a light pole, like a broom-han- dle ; then to the wire attach a sack large enough to hold six or eight apples, and you have the fruit-plucker shown in the illustration. The fruit is pulled off by the narrow loop-end of the plucker. It is well to have three or four of these, with handles of different lengths, say from five to twelve feet. The chief point, so far as the fruit is concerned, is to prevent its being bruised, either in picking or subsequently. The fruit itself possesses a kind of vitality, not only in the seed, but in the pulp and skin. Deprived of this vitality, all that is valuable is gone. A rotten apple, or one that has been frozen and thawed, has no vitality left except in the seed. But it should be borne in mind that an apple does not freeze until the temperature is from five to ten degrees below the freezing-point of water. It is well, indeed, to keep winter apples where the temperature is close down to the freezing-point of water. A CHEAP FRUIT-PLUCKER. 84 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Just as a bruise tends to destroy the vitality of the human system and induce decay' of the bruised parts, so even the apparently superficial bruising of an apple or other fruit causes it speedily to rot. The slightest abrasion of the skin, or the crushing the cells of the pulp containing the juice, induces fermentation and decomposition, and the consequent decay of the whole mass. There is every reason to apprehend that an apple which falls from the tree will be badly bruised. And therefore, says the Apple Culturist — "For this reason hand-picking should be practised in preference to any other mode, if the fruit is to be kept for spring and summer use. When picked lay those designed for long keeping carefully in the basket with the hand, instead of throwing them in. Winter apples should not be poured from one basket to another, any more than eggs should be. Nor should they be handled in full bags, for they will be bruised in these more than in any other receptacle." For the preservation of winter apples the essential thing is, that they should be kept in a cool, dry, and well-ventilated place. The best means of treating them before cold weather sets in is to place them upon a floor a few feet above the ground, with a roof overhead, and ventilating openings in the sides, sufficient to permit a free circulation of air at all times. Most cellars are too close and damp for apples until after the weather has become cold and freezing. In a cellar where apples are to be kept the temperature should never be allowed to quite reach the freezing-point of water (32° Fahr.). The preservation of fruits by canning is an important indus- try. Apples, indeed, keep so well, that though often dried they are rarely canned. But the value of the peach, pear, and plum cr^iP is greatly enhanced by this process, since by it large quan- tities of these fruits, as well as of the more perishable vegetables — such as tomatoes — are saved, which would otherwise . have been lost. Very ingenious machinery has been devised for the manufacture of the tinned cans at a small cost. But for many kinds all metallic cans are objectionable, and for some, espe- cially for pickles, they are wholly inadmissible. The great ob- jection to the ordinary tinned cans is, that the solder used is PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 85 composed mainly of lead ; and lead, when acted upon by an acid, produces a very dangerous poison. Glass cans would be in every respect preferable to tinned ones, and they are much used. The main thing to be desired in this respect is the devising of some method by which glass cans may be quickly and effectively sealed. It would seem that this is a mechanical problem presenting no serious difficulty. While the canning of fruits for market will be mainly carried on in large establishments, every family which raises any of the suitable fruits or vegetables should be able to thus preserve suf- ficient for its own consumption, and perhaps even more. This would be a not unimportant addition to our paying industries ; for any process which saves anything which would otherwise be lost, or secures a new use for an article already produced, is in so far a profitable one. One other aspect of fruit -culture is worthy of consideration from a hygienic point of view. All fruits contain a large per- centage of water. In the apple there is about 80 per cent., in the peach and grape still more. This water is perfectly pure. No matter how foul may be the water which is presented to the roots of the tree, they reject all the impurities from the sap, which consists of pure water, only sweetened, acidulated, or flavored according to the special nature of the fruit. The person, therefore, who eats ripe fruit is actually drinking ; and to drink is as essential to life as to eat. It is even more imme- diately essential ; for a person can survive nearly as many days without eating as he can survive hours without drinking. A person who on a hot summer day eats two or three apples or peaches, or a handful of grapes, actually drinks a gobletful of water; and the sensation of thirst will thereby be quite as effectually allayed. Among the most prevalent causes of dis- ease in many localities is the impurity of the drinking-water. Many persons, moreover, find, in travelling, that certain water, though not deleterious to those accustomed to it, does not " agree " with them. In such cases it is better to quench the thirst by a free use of fruit, if it is to be had, than by drinking doubtful water or fermented or distilled liquors. 86 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. From the fruits especially belonging to the Northern por-- tions of the United States we proceed to those which belong more especially to the Southern portions. Southern Fruits. The Orange. — The orange -tree is, apparently, of tropical origin. At all events it now flourishes in South America di- rectly under the equator. It was not known in Europe until the eleventh century, when it was introduced into Spain by the Moors. It was brought to this continent by the Spaniards and Portuguese. Of all the fruits brought from the Old World, the orange is perhaps the only one which grows wild in America, as it does in Florida and Brazil. The orange-tree is of slow growth. Fifteen years is the time assigned in France for an orange-tree to come into full bearing. Until quite recently it was believed that in California an orange- orchard could not be made to yield a profit under ten years. " But now" (1882), says Mr. Nordhoff, our best authority on this point, "by the method of budding, dwarf -trees are produced which begin to bear in five years from the bud, and yield paying crops in six years." But he adds that "farther experience is required to establish whether these budded trees will be as long- lived or as full-bearing as seedlings and standards ; but they seem, at any rate, to shorten the period of waiting for a prof- itable orchard." Probably both methods of propagation will be adopted, under different circumstances. In either case there is every certainty that the orange^culture in California and Flor- ida will in the future be an exceedingly profitable one. There is no reason to doubt that in Alabama, Arkansas, and the ad- jacent States, orange-culture will be profitable. Until within a very few years all the oranges consumed in the United States were imported mainly frorn the shores of the Mediterranean and the West Indies. In 1874 there were brought to New York about 130,000,000 oranges from Europe, and about 32,000,000 from the West Indies. Assuming that they brought only one cent apiece, the value of the import into this port was a million and a half of dollars. But as the fruit VINTAGE AT SAN GABRIEL. IRRIGATING AX ORANGE GROVE. See Note 3- PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 89 has to make a long voyage, it is usually picked while quite green, and it does not attain its best flavor when ripened off the tree. The Florida or California grower need labor under no such dis- advantage. He can wait until his fruit is nearly ripe before picking it; so that it will reach the market in a much better condition than the foreign fruit. The sudden growth of orange- culture in Florida is remarkable. In 1870 the value of the en- tire orchard products of the State was only about $50,000 ; in 1880 they amounted to more than $750,000 — an increase of fif- teenfold ; and by far the greater part of this product consisted of oranges. Mr. Nordhoff visited- California in 1871, when, as he says, " the question of the permanent and very great profitableness of the orange-culture was still open; but now (1882) it is settled." From his work we quote, with necessary abridgments : "The orange, lemon, and lime are now planted on a large scale in several parts of the State, and especially in Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties (which together have an area about half as large as the State of New York), where they will before long form one of the chief crops. Their culture has been prosecuted with much intelligence, with the result that the area of suitable soil has been widened, and new and earlier-bearing varieties have been introduced or created. They do not at present succeed on the San Joaquin and Sacra- mento plains, and may never be a profitable crop there. But in the foot-hills, both in the San Joaquin and the Sacramento valleys, the orange and the lemon already do well. As this great foot-hill region, now containing the best and cheapest lands in the State, becomes settled by small farmers it will be discov- ered that here is the real and best fruit country of California." The orange ■ tree is certainly a most prolific bearer, even though one particular one — mentioned by Mr.- Nordhoff — be ex- ceptional. This tree, he says, "bore, at thirteen years, 2250 or- anges, which brought the owner $74. The following year (1880) it bore 2050; but it had evidently overdone itself, for in 1881 it had less than half this number of oranges upon it." But, taking an average of good trees, the profits of orange-growing must be very large. "They plant," says Nordhoff, "from eighty to one hundred trees per acre. Eighty trees, bearing 1000 oranges each, sold at $10 per thousand, would yield a gross return of ^800. One man can cultivate, irrigate, prune, and care for 6 90 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. twenty acres of any of the citrus fruits ; and the picking and boxing costs no more than $1,50 per thousand. The trees are long-lived, where they have good care, and in proper localities are not subject to serious diseases. But they re- quire thorough and constant culture, and the man who lets weeds dispute the ground with his trees will soon find his orchard diseased." Lemons and limes are cultivated in California, and, when the best varieties are grown, they are as certain and profitable as oranges. Lemon -trees, it is said, in order to do well, should be planted in sheltered localities. It was formerly held that orange and lemon trees should, in California, be irrigated as often as once in six weeks. But the best opinion now is that four or five applications of water is not only sufficient, but that the tree will be maintained in a more healthy condition. One of the shrewdest Californian orchardists averred that, at half a cent apiece, the orange crop would be the most profitable which a man could grow. " And he was right," says Nordhoff, " for half a cent each would be five dollars per thousand, which, for mature trees, would give a gross return of ten dollars to the tree, or from ^800 to ^1000 per acre, according to the number of trees planted to the acre in different localities." He acknowl- edges that such returns seemed to him almost incredible, and adds: " I needed, to enable me to realize the practical results, some such state- ment as was made to me by one of the most careful and intelligent orange- cultivators I met — the owner of twenty acres in a choice location. He said, ' Last year my trees paid the whole of my family expenses for the year ; and that was my first crop. This year I shall make over $5000 clear. After next year I am planning to take my family for six months to Europe ; and I expect thereafter to have four or five months for travel every year, with sufficient means from my twenty acres to go where my wife and children may wish to go.' For this result he had labored, with no severe toil, for nine years in a delightful climate ; and I could not but compare his fortunes with those of a professional man or merchant — not to speak of an Eastern farmer — toiling severely for an equal number of years, with small hope of any such results." Of course, land presumed to be capable of producing such results will command a high price. If it did not we might be certain that the statements were greatly exaggerated, or that there was some serious drawback, either certain or to be PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 91 apprehended. And Mr. Nordhoff fairly states the great ap- parent drawback in CaUfornia when he says : " California is subject to droughts. Experience shows so far that there are about seven good years out of ten — that is to say, in ten years the farmer may, in almost any part of the State fit for general agriculture, expect to get seven good field crops without irrigation. Moreover, the farmer in Southern Califor- nia who should plant the orange, lemon, and other semi-tropical fruits needs water to irrigate these. For these reasons it is a very great advantage to have a water-supply on your place, or at least within reach. ' Be more careful to buy water than land,' said an experienced farmer to me — a man who, beginning with a small capital, fifteen years ago, has now an income of $15,000 a year from his farm and orchards." It is not, according to Nordhoff, that water, except in years of drought, is absolutely scarce in California, or rather that the quantity necessary is much less than is generally supposed. But still, artificial irrigation is so essential that the success of the "colony settlements" of Southern California — such as Anaheim and Riverside — is attributed greatly to this. "All these colonies began with an irrigation -ditch; and where water is thus secured the price of land at once rises from two dollars and a half to thirty or forty dollars an acre." The direct bear- ing of these considerations upon the question of the present condition and future prospects of orange -growing in California is thus summed up : " The practice of budding oranges and lemons has, in a measure, revolution- ized this culture, because budded roots bear much earlier, yielding a moderately profitable crop at five years j and the best and highest priced varieties are grown on budded stocks. And on such an assured basis is this culture now, that in localities where the orange and lemon are known to do well — as at Orange and San Gabriel, in Los Angeles County, and at Riverside, in San Bernardino County — orange land is now readily sold at two hundred dollars and more an acre — with water, of course — and is not thought dear at that price. But before its use was established the same land, subdivided for colony settlements, and with water brought to it, was tliought dear at thirty- five dollars per acre." There are, however, and probably for years will be, in Cali- fornia large tracts of land equally fitted for the culture of the orange which may be purchased at a moderate rate ; and to 92 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. these the attention of a person with only a moderate capital will necessarily be directed. Mr. Nordhoff says : "For farmers of moderate means, say from $1000 to $3000, there are in all parts of the State profitable and pleasant locations in abundance. Such persons, in my judgment, should not undertake wheat culture, because they can do better on small farms of twenty to forty acres with grapes or orchard fruits. I advise new-comers with a small capital to content themselves with small farms. By good cultivation men can make far more from twenty acres, rightly planted, than from a square mile of wheat. Moreover, California is, for small farmers, still an open and almost unexplored land. The best locations are by no means all taken up : the most profitable cultures have but just fairly begun ; and the farmer who settles himself there in the next ten years has a better chance of success than those who settled ten years ago, because he has the experience gained in the past ten years to go upon." But it must be borne in mind that California, with all its capabilities for profitable fruit-growing, is not a country in which men acquire wealth or competence suddenly, or with- out hard work. While Nordhoff believes it to afford the " best opportunities for men willing to work on land that are to be found on this continent," he says, most emphatically : " It affords no opportunities at all for young men who want to follow sedentary or in-door employments. Clerks, no matter of what kind, California is full of. Of idlers, city people, young men who want to dress nicely and do as little as possible, it has much more than its shire. To every one who belongs to this rather large class my advice is, to go anywhere except to Cali- fornia. He will starve there rather more quickly than in New York." The Apricot. — The apricot belongs rather to our Southern than to our Northern fruits. It is grown to some extent as far north as Southern New York, but there the tree attains only a very moderate size. " But," says Nordhoff — " The climate of California appears to be especially suited to the apricot. It begins to bear the third year after planting out from nursery rows. It is, so far, free from disease, bears abundantly, and grows to so great a size that I have seen single specimens which had the appearance of half-grown forest-trees. It has but recently come into general cultivation, and I do not doubt will continue, for a long time to come, to be one of the most profitable of the orchard trees of PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 93 California. Its congener the nectarine has more lately come into orchard use, and less is known of it." Plums. — The prune and other plums are also among the 'fruits more recently introduced into California; and the pros- pects for them are encouraging. These, as well as the apricot, are chiefly used for canning. Nordhoff says : " All these trees do well in almost all parts of the State, and where canning fac- tories are established a profit of from $109 to ^200 per acre can be counted upon by the farmer. The canned fruits of Califor- nia, of which the apricot is the most important, are mainly ex- ported to Europe. These fruits are also dried, to a considerable extent, but chiefly where they are grown too far from market to render profitable their shipment as fresh fruit. The Olive. — The olive is the most important fruit-tree in all parts of the OI4 World where it flourishes. The northern limit of its profitable cultivation in Europe is the southern ex- tremity of France. It is, next to bread-stuffs, pre-eminently the crop of Spain, Italy, and most of the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean. The fruit is used as food to a very limited ex- tent, and only (when pickled) as a relish. Its great value is for its oil, which in Southern Europe takes the place which butter and the animal fats hold with us ; and American lard appears to be gradually taking the place of olive -oil for cooking pur- poses in Italy. Among us the use of olive -oil is almost wholly confined to salads. The cultivation of the olive-tree has been introduced into California, where it thrives fairly with proper care, and yields excellent fruit. But, according to Nordhoff, " the olive has proved a success in only few hands, v It is a slow bearer, and it has been attacked by several enemies wherever it has been planted in Southern California. I have no doubt that the earlier maturity and greater profitableness of the citrus fruits, and of the apricot, prune, and peach, have made men shy of planting olive - orchards." Still, there seem to be different opinions in California upon this subject, for he tells us also that " the general opinion is, that olives will prove as profitable as oranges, and that a bearing orchard will yield from $500 to $700 per acre net profit, the cost of care, picking, and oil -making 94 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. being somewhat more than that of marketing oranges and lemons." The cultivation of the olive in California has been so recently- introduced that the question of its profitableness must be consid- ered as undecided. Mr. Nordhoff says : " Mr. Cooper, near Santa Barbara, has the largest and most successful bearing orchard in the State, and he has found it very profitable. He began making oil in 1880, and found an urgent demand for all his crop, at prices which he told me realized all his expectations of the great value of these trees. His olive -oil has (1882) already a fame of its own in the Eastern States, and he and others who now make olive-oil could sell much more than they produce. The pickled olives of California are the finest I have ever eaten, and will be preferred to French or Spanish olives by all who have a taste for this delicacy." To us it seems improbable that olive-growing in California will ever attain the place of a great industry, and for the reason that the American demand for its product must be quite limited. No great amount of salad-oil or pickled olives will probably be required among us. Any considerable increase above the present production would apparently glut the market, while in the case of the fruits already spoken of the demand cannot fail to be one constantly and rapidly growing. The Almond. — The culture of the almond-tree has been in- troduced into California, but apparently with only quite mod- erate success. There are now, according to Nordhoff, "almond- orchards in several parts of the State ten or twelve years old — old enough to yield full crops. The general testimony of almond -growers is, that the tree is an abundant bearer, when it bears at all, but that its habits are shy and uncertain." One almond-grower, who had about 9000 trees, had an excellent crop in i88i,but a very meagre one for the three preceding years: why he could not tell, for he had given his trees the best of care. The most successful almond-grower met by Nordhoff had sev- eral thousand trees, and the crop of 1881 was what he thought a good one, averaging fifteen pounds to a tree. The price at that time was fourteen cents a pound ; the cost of picking, hulling, bleaching, etc., about four cents per pound, leaving ten cents PRODUCTS OF THE ORCHARD. 95 a pound clear profit, which, allowing 150 trees to the acre, would give ^225 clear profit per acre. " I judge," says Mr. Nordhoff, "from all that I heard, that the almond has not become a favorite tree in the southern part of the State, but that its main success will be in sheltered localities north of Sacramento, and more probably in the foot-hills than on the plains." The English Walnut. — This noble tree belongs rather to the forest than to the orchard. Its fruit is commonly known among us as the " Madeira nut." Attempts have been made to introduce it into our Northern States, but there it rarely ripens its nuts. Not improbably it would flourish farther South, say from the Carolinas to Texas. It certainly flourishes admirably in California, where its growth is very profitable. Mr. Nordhoff says of it : " It will do well in almost all parts of the State, and is one of the trees which should be planted by farmers in their borders or in pastures, for when it matures it is like a forest-tree, and requires little care. It begins to bear at about eight years, but does not give a full crop until fifteen years old. Some orchards, twelve and thirteen years old, about Los Angeles and Santa Barbara, now bear at the rate of ^200 to ^350 per acre net profit, and this with very lit- tle care, as the tree is not subject to the attacks of insects or disease. I believe that this tree will make the most rapid growth in rather moist soil, and that where alfalfa is grown, which has to be frequently irrigated, the English walnut would succeed, if planted in the borders or along the water-ditches." Leaving quite out of view the advantage of the English wal- nut as a nut-bearer, it should be among the trees planted as forest-trees. And now that the subject of forest-planting is be- ginning to receive the attention which it deserves, it is emi- nently desirable that it should be definitely ascertained where this walnut can be grown. The Italian chestnut is another tree well worthy of experimental culture. In some parts of South- ern Europe its roasted or boiled nuts almost take the place of bread in the food of the peasantry. It is said that Jefferson tried to naturalize this tree in Virginia nearly a century ago. The chestnut is among the noblest of European forest -trees. The largest and probably the oldest tree in Europe is the great 96 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. chestnut of Mount Etna, now almost decayed, whose hollow trunk, before branching off, measures i6o feet in circumference. It was famous for its size more than five centuries ago, and is believed to be much more than a thousand years old. Apropos to fruit culture in California, or, indeed, to produc- tion in any part of the country, the wise man,' in seeking his opportunities, will always take into consideration the question of transportation. If but one railroad is likely to carry his prod- ucts to market, he can rest assured that a large part of the profits of his ventures will be absorbed in carriage. The temp- tation is always great on the part of the corporation to increase dividends. It might be better to locate where the yield was much less, and the facilities for reaching a market were much greater, especially where perishable fruits are concerned. PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. 97 CHAPTER IX. PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. GRAPES. — The vine is perhaps the most widely extended of fruit -bearing plants. It is indigenous to both conti- nents, and we cannot go back to a time when the grape, both in its natural state or dried as raisins, and the juice, fermented and unfermented, were not largely used. For home use, and as a garden product, the grape can be advantageously cultivated as far north as Massachusetts. A grape arbor or trellis should be found on every farm where the nature of the soil does not abso- lutely preclude its growth. The vine is almost the only fruit- bearing plant which can be grown in the " yards " of city residences. The grape is a rather perishable fruit, and, for market pur- poses, cannot be grown on our Atlantic slope north of the lat- itude of Pennsylvania and Southern New York. But, going westward to the region of the great lakes, we find a consider- able vine -growing region in some islands at the western extrem- ity of Lake Erie, and another on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. Leaving the great lakes, which greatly moderate the climate of their shores, we find the next vine-growing region in Southern Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri, whence it stretches, where the soil itself is favorable, to the extreme southern boundary of the United States. Besides grapes themselves, considerable quantities of wine are produced in this grape-growing region. The soil best adapted for the vine is a light or even sandy loam, provided that it is rich in certain mineral elements, espe- cially potash. Soils containing much lime and magnesia are also favorable. The vine sends its roots very deeply down, and 98 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. hence very little danger to it is to be apprehended from drought, in any part of the United States. It flourishes without irriga- tion in the comparatively rainless climate of California. An ex- cess of moisture is its great natural enemy, and hence thorough and deep underdraining is indispensable. The vine draws heav- ily upon the soil for its potash, which, in the processes of wine- making, is deposited, by fermentation, in the form of " cream-of- tartar " (bicarbonate of potassa) ; hence all the residuum, after the juice has been expressed, the lees which are not manufact- ured into cream - of - tartar, the pommage, stems, prunings, etc., should be returned to the soil. Potassic manures and fertilizers, such as wood -ashes, are, moreover, indispensable. There are, however, few regions (and these are rapidly diminishing) where wood-ashes are available ; but there are minerals, notable among which is the glauconite, found in the green-sand region of New Jersey and elsewhere, which afford an inexhaustible supply of potash for fertilizing purposes. Bones, also — especially in the form of bone-dust — form an excellent fertilizer for the vine. The vine is propagated mainly by cuttings from the last year's canes ; but seedlings are also grown, in order to obtain new varieties, and some very choice ones have been obtained by hybridization. Some of the most valuable of our American varieties appear to have resulted from mere accident. Circum- stances, perhaps, of soil and climate, for which we have as yet no explanation, not unfrequently exert a great influence upon not only the growth and productiveness of different varieties of the vine, but upon the quality of the fruit. Of two neighboring vineyards, with apparently the same soil, and stocked with the same cuttings, one will often produce the best wine, and the other that of a very inferior quality. In our present state of knowledge upon the subject the vine-grower must, to a great extent, be guided by his own experience and that of others. Science, it is to be hoped, will before long come to the aid of the practical vine -grower. But, in any case, there is no depart- ment of agricultural enterprise and industry in which sound judgment is more required, or in which larger rewards may be looked for, than in that of vine -growing. PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. 99 By a long course of artificial production and cultivation, and especially by severe pruning, the vine of Europe has in a great degree lost its character of a climbing plant. A French or German vineyard presents to the eye the appearance of a field planted with dwarfed shrubs. It seems probable that some of the chief diseases which have of late years proved so fatal to the vineyards of France and Germany are partly the result of this mode of propagating the vine, generation after generation, from the cuttings, instead of renewing the stock from the seed. It is certain that the European vine is quite unable to withstand the attacks of a new enemy. In 1853-54 the vines in Spain, Portu- gal, France, and Germany were simultaneously attacked by a minute fungous growth — the didium, which to the eye resem- bles a mildew — and which caused extensive ravages. This was essentially an epidemic, and in time subsided. Ten years later the French vines were attacked by a disease to which the name of " root-rot " was given, it being supposed to be a mere decay of the root. It was not until 1868 that it was discovered to be occasioned by the attacks of the minute, wing- less louse to which the name of phylloxera has been given. It was also found that this insect was brought into Europe from America in the cuttings of vines which had been imported for the purpose of introducing new and more hardy stock. So great were the ravages of the phylloxera that the French Gov- ernment in 1872 offered a reward of 300,000 francs for the dis- covery of any remedy. It is said that within the last eight or ten years France has lost more than a million acres of vines by this pest. But the thing of special interest is that, while this American phylloxera is so destructive to European vines, it does, as yet, little or no harm to most of our native varieties, which thus far seem to be " phylloxera-proof." Various remedies have been tried in Europe, but with hardly an appearance of success. There is now a large exportation of American cuttings, for grafting on European varieties. The bearing of this, from a wealth -pro- ducing point of view, will be appreciated when we consider the present condition and future prospects of wine -making. 100 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Wines. — Important as the vine is as the bearer of grapes to be consumed as fruit, its chief importance has hitherto arisen from the production of wine. The possible value of the wine product of Europe, and inferentially of America, must be esti- mated, not by the quantity now produced, but by what was made (or manufactured) twenty years ago, before the o'ldium and the phylloxera had cut down the area under cultivation and the yield of wine. Mr. Haraszthy, one of the earliest, and still one of the most extensive, vine-growers of California, was appointed, in 1 86 1, commissioner from that State to investigate the vine- culture of Europe. He furnishes full statistics upon the subject, the essential points of which are given in Table VIII. The acreage is from public sources; the quantity of wine produced is the average for several years, as calculated by Rewald. In estimating the value of the product it is put at 25 cents a gal- lon, that being assumed as the average sum received by the actual producers on the spot. It will be seen that at this low estimate the value of the wine crop of Europe for one year was ^776,000,000, exceeding by more than one-half the value of any crop in the United States in 1880: TABLE VIII.— WINE PRODUCT OF EUROPE. Vineyards. Product of Wine. Value of "Wines. Product per Acre. Value per Acre. France Italy Austria Spain Germany . . . Greece Switzerland. Acres. 5,013,774 3,887,970 3,685,950 955,004 350,338 77,593 76,400 Gallons. 884,000,000 1,275,000,000 714,000,000 144,500,000 53,105,000 9,384,500 2,550,000 Dollars. 331,000,000 318,750,000 178,500,000 36,125,000 13,036,350 3,346,000 637,500 Gallons. 176.3 441.5 365.8 151.7 150.0 115.0 33.5 Dollars. 44.07 110.37 66.46 37.93 37.03 38.68 8.84 Total. 13,385,780 3,107,039,000 776,759,750 It is not probable — nor, indeed, desirable — that wine-making should assume with us anything like the proportionate impor- tance which it holds in these European countries ; but in Cali- fornia, at least, grape -growing for this purpose is a rapidly- increasing industry. Except in California, the vine is grown almost entirely in small patches of ground ; there are no means of giving, even approximately, any reliable estimate of the acre- age devoted to it. With respect to California, however, Mr. PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. 101 Nordhoff furnishes us with some facts of more recent date than our last census. He says that in 1882 there were in that State 85,000 acres planted in vines, of which 20,000 acres were new, and had not borne; and that in 1880 the total vineyard product of the State — grapes for market, wine, and raisins — was valued at more than $3,000,000. He says : " It is clear that this industry is still but in its infancy in this State, and that it has a wide and lasting future. One hears on all hands, and in a dozen coun- ties, of men of wealth planting out from one hundred to one thousand acres in vines as a profitable and permanent investment. For my part, I do not believe that these great vineyards will, in the long run, be profitable. The vine needs more care than will be given to it in these large vineyards, where the owner's eye is absent, and must be replaced by careless foremen and uninterested laborers. The small vineyards will be the profitable ones, and the possessor of forty or even twenty acres will secure a handsome profit, and keep his vines strong and healthful, while the vines on the great estates will slowly perish, and never bear satisfactorily. It is the small vineyards in the foot-hills of the Sacramento Valley which will some day bear off the great prizes, and become permanently valuable properties. Fortunately for men of small means coming here, these lands are still the cheapest in the State. Land of approved quality for vineyards can be bought at various prices, from ^5- to §100 per acre. In those counties where the culture has been long established the prices are the highest ; but there is much land capable of producing the very best quality of wine which can still be obtained for from $5 to $10 per acre, and in small or great quantities." As now conducted in California, the business of wine- making is quite separate from that of grape -growing. "Win- eries" have been established, having presses which will stem and crush from eight to ten tons of grapes per hour, without the fruit being touched by human hand or foot after it has been picked. In the cellars of these establishments are vats holding three thousand gallons each, and sometimes four times as much. The grape-grower sells his grapes to these wineries in the bulk. As to the prices, Mr. Nordhoff says : " The price of grapes, as with other crops, varies from year to year. In 1879 'Mission grapes' brought at the wine-centres from $14 to $16 per ton; finer varieties, from $18 to $26 per ton. Wine-makers complain that the prices of 1879 were too high. I have no doubt that they were, and that prices will, as a rule, be considerably lower than these. Nevertheless, in this year (i88i) 102 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. prices are well maintained. In Sonoma, Napa, and Stockton, Mission grapes — the common grape of the country, now chiefly used for brandy and heavy wines — brought $25 per ton in autumn; foreign varieties, $30; Zinfandel, from which claret is made, $30 to $32; and Riesling, the grape for white wines and cham- pagnes, ^30 to $35 at the wineries. In the Los Angeles country $20 per ton was paid for Mission and $25 for foreign grapes; and similar prices in other parts of the State. It is reckoned that a vineyard should bear four tons to the acre. I should think three and a half tons a fair crop ; but in many con- siderable districts this average is largely exceeded, and from eight to ten tons per acre is not an uncommon crop where irrigation is practised." Mr. Nordhoff first visited California in 1872, and then ex- pressed himself not very favorably in regard to wine-making. His views were much modified by his second visit, in 188 1. He now says : " In the early days, and indeed until quite recently, the owner of a vineyard was obliged to have also a cellar, casks, presses, and needed, therefore, a con- siderable capital — more than a farmer usually has. And there is no doubt that while this worked badly and oppressively upon the vine-growers, it also made vine-culture a business by which many a poor farmer and his boys became sots. It is not good for anybody to spend much time in a wine-cellar ; and I then advised new settlers not to plant vineyards, because having to make wine would expose many of them to contracting habits of intemperance and tippling. The great change which has come about in the management of the business avoids this danger. The farmer who sells his grapes to a wine-maker has no more temptation to wine-bibbing than if he sold grain to the mill." But, whatever may be thought of the extended culture of the vine for wine-making, there can be no question that its ex- tension for the sake of the fruit itself, whether to be used in its natural state or dried, as raisins, is very certain. Raisins. — The raisin is not simply any dried grape, but is the product of certain varieties of the grape dried and treated in a particular manner. Hitherto the raisins of commerce have been produced almost entirely within narrow districts in Spain, Italy, Sicily, and some of the Grecian islands. What are known among us as "dried currants" are really raisins made from a variety of the grape, the fruit of which is not larger than a pea, and the clusters only about three inches long. The best raisins imported come from Spain, and are commonly known as "sun- raisins." These are dried upon the vine ; when the grape is PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. 103 ripe the stem is twisted or partly severed, and the fruit begins to shrivel from the evaporation of the water, while all the sac- charine matter and other elements are retained. The more common kinds of raisins, after being picked, are dried either in the sun or in heated rooms ; they are then dipped in a strong lye, in which a little oil is mixed, which causes an exudation of saccharine matter which concretes upon the raisins. Theoretically it has long been believed that California must be specially adapted for the production of raisins, both because the grapes best adapted for this use flourish there and because the climate is fitted for drying them. But raisin-making is an altogether new industry there, Nordhoff says : " Ten years ago California produced in limited quantities an article called ' dried grapes,' which was sold in the mining-camps and among the poor as a cheap substitute for raisins. They would not keep, would not bear transpor- tation, were not soundly cured, and, in short, were not raisins. The product was of no commercial importance. Two years ago (1879) the raisin-product of California amounted to perhaps ^200,000. Next year (1882) it will be worth $500,000 ; and, unless for some reason not yet apparent it receives a check, California will in ten years supply a large part of the raisins of commerce. It is one of the most promising and important of the industries recently intro- duced into this State." The Gordo Blanco is the raisin-grape of California, as it is also of Spain; it is also the most delicious of table -grapes. " It has," says Nordhoff, " been used as a wine-grape, and is still used in the production of brandy, but it will now and for many years to come be cultivated for raisins." From Mr. Blower, one of the earliest and still the largest raisin -maker in the State, Nordhoff received much minute and valuable in- formation, which we summarize. He practises the most careful cultivation of his vineyards, going over the ground as many as sixteen times a year with various implements, in order to keep the soil loose and mellow, and perfectly free from weeds. He also — contrary to general usage in respect to the vine — makes free use of irrigation, even keeping the vines under two feet of water for nearly four weeks during the winter. He also makes large use of bone-dust and ashes, but finds stable-manure not adapted to this vine. The 104 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. average product of his vineyard for the six years, 1876-82, was six tons of grapes to the acre, equivalent to two tons of market- able raisins. He considered, as the result of his own experience and observation of that of others', that a vineyard of raisin-grapes, carefully cultivated and irrigated, should yield in the third year enough to repay all the cost of labor for that year, including the picking ; that in the fourth year it should repay the entire cost of the land, and planting and culture up to that time. But, says Nordhoff, " it is well known that a vine is not in full bearing until the seventh or even the tenth year after planting. To plant and cultivate a raisin-vineyard should cost, to the time of bearing, not less than ^40 per acre — probably more — exclusive of picking and curing the grapes." Mr. Blower, who had made raisins where they yielded a dollar for every vine — of which there were usually 550 to the acre — thought that " good raisin-land, with water secured, would be reasonable in price at from $80 to $100 per acre." But, in Nordhoff 's judgment, "this should include such .nearness to market as his own neighborhood," which was in Yolo County, seventy-five miles from San Francisco, and on the line of the Central Pacific Railroad. But he adds : " There is a vast quan- tity of good land in the southern part of the State, obtainable and suitable for this crop, at from ^20 to ^50 per acre, with water secured; and without water -ditches, but lying in large tracts, where a body of settlers could bring water by a united effort, such lands can be got at from ^5 to ^10 per acre, in parts where both climate and soil are most favorable for the raisin -crop." Until the autumn of 1881 nearly all farmers who cultivated raisin -grapes made their own raisins. The process is by no means a complicated one. The sun being the best dryer, arti- ficial drying, whenever resorted to, produces a poorer quality of raisins. The bunches are cut from the vine, defective grapes carefully picked off, and the clusters laid to dry either upon the ground or upon wooden trays about three feet square. In the opinion of some growers it is better to lay the clusters upon the ground, the heat retained by the soil, they say, helping the dry- PRODUCTS OF THE VINEYARD. 105 ing during the cool nights. When the upper side of the bunches is tolerably dry they are turned with as little handling as possi- ble. Only one turning is required ; but in localities liable to sea-fogs or rain the grapes should be covered at night. But when sufficiently " cured " the grapes will be unequally dried. At the proper stage they are brought into the house and placed in boxes four feet square and two and a half or three feet deep. They remain in these "sweat-boxes" from one day to five, until the moisture has equally permeated the whole mass — the drier portions receiving moisture from the others, and vice versa. The grapes have now become raisins, and are packed for market. A division of labor is beginning to be introduced into raisin -making. Here and there a farmer sells his grapes on the vine to men who undertake the business of drying and packing ; others dry their grapes, and sell them in this state to professional packers. Mr. Nordhoff thinks " it is probable that as the planting of the raisin-grape becomes more general in the southern half of the State, where the climate and soil especially favor it, the farmers will be able to dispose of their raisin -grapes, either in the field or dried, to men who will make a business of drying or packing them." In this and the preceding chapter special attention has been given to California, for the reason that this State presents some characteristics distinguishing it from most other portions of the Union, and which afford special inducements to those who seek new homes for themselves. It should be borne in mind, also, that California is a very large State ; territorially, indeed, an empire. Its area exceeds by one-third that of Great Britain and Ireland or Italy. It is nearly equal to that of the king- doms of Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Den- mark combined. It is less by only one-fourth than that of France or Germany; by one-half than that of Austria and Hungary. It is undoubtedly capable of sustaining a popula- tion equal to that of either of the great Powers of Europe, with the exception of Russia, and perhaps of Germany; and gener- ations must elapse before it will become so thickly peopled as not to afford scope for enterprise, skill, and industry. 7 106 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER X. LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. THE raising of live-stock is a very important department of husbandry. A large proportion of farmers and planters are also stock -raisers to a greater or less extent, and most of those largely engaged in the raising or care of live-stock are also, directly engaged in agriculture. In the Census Report these are classed as farmers, planters, or agricultural laborers. Still, there are in the United States 44,075 persons* who are specifically designated as "stock- raisers," "stock -herders," and "stock-drovers." Of these only 2793 are under the age of six- teen; and there are only 226 women, of whom 122 are "stock- raisers;" that is, the proprietors of stock-raising farms. The Census of 1880 takes no account (except in regard to sheep) of the live-stock not upon farms. This is very consid- erable ; for, according to the Census of 1870, there were in that year 23,800,000 neat-cattle on farms, and 4,273,000 not on farms; and 7,142,000 horses on farms, and 1,547,000 not on farms. The number of neat-cattle not on farms is now comparatively small, as the public lands upon which they formerly grazed have been mostly bought up by the graziers, and the cattle transferred to farms, being so included in the Census of 1880.- But the horses- " not on farms " include, and indeed mainly consist of, those employed for draught or riding in cities and towns, and are thus not included in the Census. How impor- tant this exclusion is will appear from a few instances. The county of New York is, territorially, the same as the city of New York, and contains only a few score of farms; the number of horses in the county is put down at only 207 ; whereas, the CELEBRATED AMERICAN TROTTERS. '■S'^lpj-yRliUKi^M iJL.JBBJ4i,n J^^ RARUS See Note 4. LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 109 number actually employed for drawing the public conveyances, for trucking, driving, and riding, must be many scores of thou- sands. Kings County, on Long Island, includes the city of Brooklyn and five outlying farming townships; the number of horses in the county is given as only 1673, whereas there are probably one -third as many as in the city of New York. Phil- adelphia County, in Pennsylvania, is municipally the same as the city, but contains a considerable number of farms. The number of horses in the county is given as only 2763, whereas there are doubtless half as many as in the city of New York ; and so on, to a greater or less extent, with all other cities and towns. The Superintendent of the Census appointed a special agent to inquire into the number of sheep not on farms; it would have been of great advantage had this been done in the far more important matter of horses. In the absence of all specific data bearing upon this point, it may be assumed that the number of horses " not on farms " was certainly not less in 1880 than it was in 1870; and as there were then more than a million and a half of these, at least so many should be added to the number of horses as given in the Census Report. Table IX. gives for each State the number of heads of live- stock in 1880 and 1870. In considering, for practical purposes, the increase from one decade to another in any branch of production, respect must be had not so much to the absolute increase as to the ratio which it bears to the increase of population. If any production has increased by a percentage much less than that of the increase of population, that industry is relatively a declining one; and, as a rule, a declining industry furnishes less prospect of success than a growing one. There will, of course, be many cases in which a stated industry, though not successful in some sections of the country, may be profitably conducted in other sections. Thus, for example, the raising of peaches has been practical- ly abandoned everywhere north of Southern New York, while it has become exceedingly profitable in Maryland, Delaware, and parts of New Jersey, and probably may be so still farther south. 110 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The raising of live-stock is among the growing industries of the United States, as is shown by the fact that the ratio of increase of every kind during the last decade was considerably greater than that of the increase of population ; and there is TABLE IX.— LIVE-STOCK. States anti TBinii- TOBI£S. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware Dist. of Columbia, Florida '. . Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa fansas entucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Territory Nebraska' Nevada New Hampshire . New Jersey New Mexico Ter. New York North Carolina . . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania .... Rhode Island.. . . South Carolina . . Tennessee Texas Utah Territory . . Vermont Virginia Washington Ter. West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Ter... . Horses. 113,950 6,798 146,333 337,710 42,257 44,940 41,670 21,983 1,037 33,636 98,530 34,300 1,033,082 581,444 793,323 430,907 372,648 104,428 87,848 117,796 59,639 378,778 357,283 112,309 667,776 35,114 204,864 33,087 46,773 86,940 14,547 610,358 133,686 736,478 124,107 533,587 9,661 60,660 366,119 805,606 38,131 75,215 218,838 45,848 126,143 352,438 11,975 Horses. 80,770 335 93,013 193,373 6,446 34,935 3,514 16,770 533 11,902 81,777 3,151 853,738 497,883 433,643 117,786 317,034 59,738 71,514 89r696 41,039 328,303 93,011 90,331 493,969 5,289 30,511 7,530 39,095 79,708 5,033 536,861 103,763 609,732 51,703 480,339 7,770 44,105 247,254 434,504 11,068 65,015 153,899 11,138 90,479 352,019 584 Mules and Asses. 121,081 891 87,082 38,343 2,581 539 3,703 3,931 68 9,606 183,078 610 133,378 51,780 44,434 64,869 116,153 76,674 398 13,561 243 5,083 9,019 129,778 192,027 858 19,999 1,258 8.7 9,367 9,063 5,073 81,871 19,481 2,804 33,914 46 67,005 173,498 132,447 3,898 383 33,598 636 6,226 7,136 671 Total 10,357,488 7,145,370 1,813,808 1,135,415 993,841 1,319,371 13,448,120 Mnles aud 76,675 401 36,302 17,533 1,178 190 225 3,584 134 8,835 87,436 371 85,075 48,359 35,485 11,786 99,330 61,338 336 9,830 103 3,358 3,350 85,886 111,502 475 3,633 990 37 8,853 6,141 4,407 50,684 16,065 3,581 18,009 43 41,337 102,983 61,333 3,879 353 36,903 943 3,139 4,195 383 Work'g Oxen. 75,534 984 35,444 3,388 2,080 38,418 11,418 5,818 4 16,141 50,036 737 3,846 3,970 3,506 16,789 36,166 41,739 43,049 32,246 14,571 40,893 36,344 61,705 9,020 936 7,234 765 39,153 3,023 16,433 39,633 50,188 8,336 4,132 15,063 3,533 34,507 37,313 90,503 3,968 18,868 54,709 3,831 13,643 28,763 718 Working Oxen. 59,176 587 35,387 '5,944 5,566 39,639 3,135 6,888 6 6,392 54,833 522 19,766 14,088 22,058 20,774 69,719 33,596 60,530 33,491 34,430 36,499 43,176 58,146 65,835 1,761 5,981 2,443 40,518 3,830 19,774 64,141 45,408 33,606 3,441 30,048 5,831 17,685 63,970 132,407 3,479 37,809 45,987 3,181 18,987 53,615 932 isso. Milch Cows. 371,443 9,156 349,407 310,078 388,770 116,319 40,573 37,284 1,393 43,174 815,073 13,888 865,913 494,944 854,187 418,333 801,882 146,454 150,845 122,907 150,485 384,578 275,545 368,178 661,405 11,308 161,187 13,319 90,564 153,078 13,955 1,437,855 233,133 767,043 59,549 854,156 31,460 139,881 303,900 606,176 33,768 317,033 243,061 27,632 156,956 478,374 3,730 LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. Ill every reason to anticipate that this ratio of increase will be kept up. An analysis of the figures in Table IX. will produce the following results, among others : The increase of population TABLE IX.— LIVE - STOCK—Contimied. 1870. ISSO. 1870. 1880. 1S70. isso. 1870. States awd Tkbritokiks. Milch Cows. Other Cattle. other Cattle. Sheep. Sheep. Swine. Swine. Alabama 170.640 404,313 357,347 347,538 241,934 1,253,462 719,757 Arizona 938 34.843 3,607 76,534 803 3,819 720 Arkansas . . . 138,959 433,392 193,589 246,757 161,077 1,565,098 841,129 California. . . 164,093 451,941 461,361 4,153,349 3,768,187 603,550 444,617 Colorado 3.5,017 315,989 40,153 746,443 120,938 7,656 5,509 Connecticut. 98',889 92,149 79,485 59,431 83,884 63,699 51,983 Dakota 4,151 88,835 6,191 30,344 1,901 68,394 2,033 Delaware . . . 34,083 30,450 19,030 31,967 23,714 48,186 39,818 Dist. of Col. 657 371 188 604 1,133 577 Florida 61,933 409,055 333,701 56,'68i 26,599 387,051 158,908 Georgia 331,310 544,813 413,361 537,589 419,465 1,471,003 988,566 Idaho 4,lVl 71,393 5,763 37,336 1,021 14,178 3,316 Illinois 640,321 1,515,063 1,055,499 1,087,073 1,568,286 5,170,366 3,703,343 Indiana '393,736 864,846 618,360 1,100,511 1,612,680 3,186,418 1,873,330 Iowa 369,811 1,755,343 614,866 455,359 855,493 6,034,816 1,358,908 Kansas 133,440 1,015,935 339,753 499,671 109,088 1,787,969 303,587 Kentucky. . . 347,615 505,746 3l-:'3.993 1,000,369 936,765 3,325,235 1,838,337 Louisiana . . . 103,076 383,418 300,589 185,681 118,603 633,489 338,336 Maine 139,359 140,537 143,373 565,918 484,666 74,369 45,760 Maryland . . . 94,794 117,387 98,074 171,184 139,697 335,408 257,898 Mass 114,771 96,045 79,851 67,979 78,560 80,133 49,178 Michigan . . . 250,859 466,660 360,171 2,189,889 1,985,906 964,071 417,811 Minnesota. . . 131,467 347,161 145,736 267,598 133,343 381,415 148,473 Mississippi. 173,899 387,452 369,030 287,694 332,733 1,151,818 814,381 Missouri .... 398,515 1,410,507 689,355 1,411,298 1,352,001 4,553,128 3,306,430 Montana Ter. 13,433 160,143 32,545 184,277 3,024 10,378 3,, 599 Nebraska . . . 38,940 590,139 45,057 199,453 22,725 1,341,734 59,449 Nevada 6,174 158,137 33.899 133,695 11,018 9,080 3,395 N.H 90,583 113,689 91,705 311,835 348,760 58,437 88,137 New Jersey . 133,331 69,786 60,327 117,030 130,067 319,669 143,563 N. Max. Ter.. 16,417 137,314 31,343 3,088,831 619,488 7,857 11,367 New York . . 1,350,661 863,233 630,533 1,715,180 3,181,578 751,907 518,251 N. Carolina.. 196,731 375,105 379,033 461,638 463,435 1,458,541 1,075,315 Ohio 654,390 1,084,917 758,331 4,903,486 4,938,685 3,141,333 1,728,968 Oregon 48,335 352,561 69,481 1,083,163 818,128 156,222 119,455 Penn 706,437 861,019 608,066 1,776,598 1,794,801 1,187,968 867,548 Rhode Island 18,806 10,601 9,748 17,311 23,938 14,131 14,607 S. Carolina. . 98,693 199,331 132,925 118,889 124,594 638,198 395,999 Tennessee. . . 243,197 453,463 336,529 673,789 836,783 3,160,495 1,828,690 Texas 438,048 3,387,937 2,933,588 2,411,633 714,351 1,950,371 1,203,445 Utah Ter.... 17,563 58,680 18,138 283,131 59,673 17,198 3,150 Vermont 180,385 167,204 113,741 439,870 530,347 76,884 46,345 Virginia .... 188,471 388,414 377,385 497,389 370,145 956,451 674,670 Wash. Ter.... 16,938 103,111 38,135 393,883 44,063 46,828 17,491 W. Virginia. 104,434 388,845 178,309 674,769 553,337 510,613 368,031 Wisconsin . . 308,377 622,005 831,303 1,886,807 1,069,282 1,128,835 513,778 Wyoming T. 707 373,635 9,501 140,325 6,409 567 146 Total 8,935,333 33,488,550 13,566,005 35,193,074 28,447,951 47,681,700 25,134,569 112 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. from 1870 to 1880 was 30.1 per cent., and this is assumed as the basis of comparison. The increase during- the same period in the number of neat-cattle was 38 per cent. ; in the number of horses, 44 per cent; in the number of mules, 61 per cent.; in the number of sheep, 48 per cent. ; in the number of swine, 90 per cent. Or, taking all together, the increase in the number of live-stock was 56.2 per cent. — a ratio of increase almost twice that of the increase of population. The increase in values is even greater than the increase in numbers. The statistics embodied in the censuses of 1880 and 1870 show that not only has the number of live-stock more than doubled during that period, but that the average value of each head has also nearly doubled. The average value per head for the whole United States, in 1880, was: Mulfes, $61.26; horses, $54.75; milch cows, $23.27; oxen and other cattle, $16.10; swine, $4.28; sheep, $2.21. Multiplying these values by the number of the respec- tive kinds of live-stock, we find their total values to be, in round numbers : Horses, $647,000,000 ; oxen, $384,000,000 ; milch cows, $290,000,000; swine, $204,000,000 ; mules, $1 11,000,000; sheep, $93,000,000: total value of live-stock, $1,729,000,000.* The Census Report of 1870 gives the total value of "all live- stock" in that year (in gold) as about $1,050,000,000; but from this should be deducted about $175,000,000 for the live-stock "not on farms," which are not included in the Census of 1880; so that there. was in 1880 an increase of value of about $679,000,000, or 66 per cent. While there is no reason to suppose that the increase in the numbers of live-stock will hereafter be less in proportion to the increase of population, it is not probable that the increase in value per head will here- after be as great as it was from 1870 to 1880. But there must still be an increase in the value per head, owing to the improve- ments in the breeds of some of the animals, especially of neat- cattle. There can be no doubt that the numbers of cattle will * The Census Report puts the value of live-stock "on farms" at $1,500,464,609, thus leaving about $229,000,000 for that "not on farms." LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 113 increase more rapidly than the population increases ; for, be- sides our home consumption, Great Britain must look very largely, and France and Germany considerably, to the United States to supply their inevitable and growing deficiency in meat as well as in bread-stuffs. Great Britain may get nearly all her wool from Australia and New Zealand ; she may possi- bly, in time, draw much of her salted and canned meats from these colonies ; but there is no present probability that fresh meat can be profitably brought from them ; for such meats would have to, be carried over the whole breadth of the tropi- cal zone and over two-thirds of both temperate zones, in order to reach England — a three months' voyage at least, instead of the eight or ten days consumed between New York and Liverpool. Every part of an animal is of value for one purpose or an- other, and the utilizing of such portions as were formerly wasted is among the chief triumphs of recent science and skill. The hides of all (except the swine, which is rarely skinned) are used for leather; the hoofs and horns for various manufacturing purposes, and for making glue ; the bones, besides manufactur- ing uses, furnish gelatine, which is largely used as an ingredient of soups, although some eminent physiologists afiirm that this gelatine is of very little value as nutriment, while others, not less eminent, claim a very high value for it. When calcined in close vessels bones yield "bone-black," or animal charcoal, an indispensable article in the refining of sugars. Bones, especially when pulverized into " bone-dust," are among the most valuable of fertilizers, and are almost indispensable for some crops. The offal and excreta of animals form the most common manures. The fat of all animals is of great value for many purposes, among the most important of which are : for cooking, for the manufacture of soap and candles, and for lubricating machinery. For the last three purposes the supply of animal fats is alto- gether insufficient, and the deficiency is supplied by various vegetable oils, especially palm - oil, and by mineral oils, such as petroleum. Still, the most important uses of live-stock are, their flesh (except that of the horse and mule), for food ; dairy 114 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. products — milk, butter, and cheese — from the cow; and wool, from the sheep. These will be considered in connection with the different animals which furnish them. Neat-cattle. — In respect of value — both of the animals themselves and of their products — cattle rank highest among our live-stock, although in number they are exceeded by both sheep and swine. A considerable number of cattle are still used as " working oxen ;" but during the last twenty years their number has been constantly decreasing, not merely as com- pared with the increase of the population, but absolutely. In i860 there were in the United States 2,254,911 working oxen; in 1870 there were 1,319,271 ; in 1880 there were 993,841 — an absolute decrease from i860 to 1870 of 42 per cent; and from 1870 to 1880 there was a farther decrease of 25 per cent. In 1880 there were, indeed, 44 per cent, fewer working oxen than there were in 1850, notwithstanding an increase of 1 17 per cent, in the population. In most sections of the country horses and mules have, to a great extent, taken the place of oxen in agri- cultural and field labor. Milch cows constitute about 32 per cent, of the neat -cattle in the United States, the remainder being oxen and young ani- mals. The average value of a milch cow is somewhat greater than that of the other cattle, and the value per head of all of them, for various reasons, varies in different localities. Thus, in 1880 the average value of a milch cow in Georgia was ^13.25, of other cattle, per head, ^7.90 ; in Tennessee a cow was ^13.25, other cattle 5^7.90; in California, a cow, ^28.50, other cattle, $18.50; in Ohio, a cow, $26.50, other cattle, $22.50; in New York, a cow, $29.10, other cattle, $26.25 ; in Massachusetts and Rhode Island the value per head was about equal, $35 in the former State and $30 in the latter. In Texas the average value of a milch cow was $14, of other cattle $9, per head ; since then, however, the value of cattle in Texas has considerably in- creased, owing to better means of bringing them to market. The average value for the whole United States was about $25 for a cow and $16 per head for other cattle. One reason for the greater value of cattle in some sections CELEBRATED AMERICAN TROTTERS. KING RKiNE. ABERDEEN. ALMONT LIGHTNING. ETHAN ALLEN, JUN. HAPPY MEDIUM. See Note 4. LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 117 over others is the improvement in the breeds ; and the raising of improved stock is frequently a very lucrative business, a cow or bull of the most approved breeds often bringing several hun- dreds, and sometimes several thousands of dollars. This busi- ness requires, however, great judgment and a very considerable capital, so that comparatively few can engage in it. The Census of 1870 gives the value of all "animals slaugh- tered or sold for slaughter" as (in gold) $319,165,327. The Census of 1880 includes only the animals slaughtered in large establishments, " the statistics of retail slaughtering establish- ments not being included ;" so that no comparison between the two periods can be instituted. The whole value of all the ani- mals slaughtered in these wholesale establishments in 1880 was $256,738,905 ; that of beeves being $71,333,182, being less than half that of swine. The products of the dairy — milk, butter, and cheese — far ex- ceed in value that of the flesh of neat-cattle. These form the subject of the next chapter. Sheep and Wool. — In the United States sheep are raised for the sake of their wool rather than for the sake of their flesh. As shown in Table IX., the number of sheep " on farms " in 1880 was 35,192,074; in 1870 there were on farms 28,477,951 — an increase in 1880 of 24 per cent. There were also in 1880, according to estimate, 7,000,000 sheep on " ranches and public lands," making the whole number more than 42,000,000. As nearly as can be estimated, the proportion between those on farms and those not on farms was about the same in 1870 as in 1880. The wool product of sheep on farms in 1880 was 155,681,751 pounds; the Census Report of 1870 gives the prod- uct of that year as 100,102,387 pounds — an increase of 55 per cent. Besides the wool produced on farms, it was found, by special investigation, that in 1880 the fall clip in Texas and Cal- ifornia, not included in the statement, was 1 3,000,000 ; the wool of other " ranch" sheep was 34,000,000, the pulled wool of slaugh- tered sheep 38,000,000 pounds — making the total wool product of 1880, 240,681,751 pounds. There are no means of ascertaining even approximately the 118 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. number and value of the sheep slaughtered. The Census Re- port of 1880 gives, as with beeves, only those killed in the 823 wholesale establishments. In these the number slaughtered was 2,233,701, their average gross weight being 92 pounds; value, ^8,957,727, or ^4 each. Of these sheep 80 per cent, were slaughtered in New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and California ; and in twenty of the States there are none re- ported. But, besides these, the number of sheep slaughtered on the farm and in small slaughter-houses must be very con- siderable. The average value of sheep per head throughout the United States is $2.21 ; but it varies considerably in different sections. In Alabama and Arkansas it is as low as ^1.56; in California, $1.62; in Texas, $1.89; in Michigan, Ohio, and the adjacent States, about ^2.70 ; in Vermont, ^3.48 ; in New York and Massachusetts, ;^3.58 ; the highest rate being in New Jersey, where it is #4.07. In the sections where the value is much above the general average sheep are raised for slaughter quite as much as for their wool. In Great Britain sheep are raised for their flesh rather than for their fleece, and careful breeding and careful feeding have produced breeds of great value for this purpose. Notable among these are the Southdowns, prized not only for their size, but for the quality of their mutton. Not long since Mrs. Phoebe Earl Gibbons visited the Southdown district, and describes the mode of sheep-raising there practised. She says : " Merino sheep are not kept here, the carcass being of more value than the wool. This farm, which is not enclosed, feeds about 900 sheep, in three flocks, each flock having a shepherd and a dog. At night the sheep are folded, the fold being made of wattles, which can be moved from spot to spot each day, so that, one after another, every spot is manured. The farmers try to have some green food started by lambing-time, which begins about March 10. The ewes are brought into the yard and foaled ; but are often sent out almost immediately after upon rye-grass or young rye. All this is the care of the shepherd, who has a very anxious time of it, rising in the night to see if all is right. The sheep feed at large upon the rye-grass, but are folded upon the rye, especially at night. In June the pasture is good enough to turn them out upon the, downs. The lot of the shepherd is a severe one, for he is out every LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. / 119 day in the year, Sundays included. When the winds blow on the downs he makes a screen of his cloak, hanging it on the furze-bushes or on the wat- tles. This is his shelter for the day when the rain-storms come up from the Channel." Mrs. Gibbons gives some figures which show the results of sheep-raising in England: "A lamb fair has been lately held at which this farmer sold 300 lambs between four and five months old at an average price of 30 shillings, or about ^7.50 each. These lambs are bought by farmers who are not breeders to be fattened for the market. I heard of a recent fair to which 17,000 lambs were brought." Thus, a Southdown lamb of four or five months old is worth to the English sheep -raiser nearly twice as much as a sheep, fattened for slaughter, is with us. And these lambs are not bought for immediate slaughter, but to be fattened for the market, their value being thus greatly enhanced. With us " lamb " is the rule, mutton the exception ; in Great Britain mutton is the rule, lamb the exception. The English mode of sheep -raising for the market may not probably be profitably carried out here to its full extent, and only very partially in the great sheep -raising sections, where land is cheap. But it is well worthy of consideration whether it might not be remunerative in the older States to pay more attention to raising sheep for the market as well as for the wool. Of course the farmer who undertakes this will select breeds adapted to that purpose ; that is, those which attain a much greater weight than the ones usual among us. The simple fact that the product of wool has, upon the whole, increased in a ratio greater than that of the increase of the population, shows that it is in so far a remunerative occupation. Taking into view only the wool produced upon farms, as given in the Census Reports, we find that the increase from 1870 to 1880 was 55 per cent; being, as a whole, not quite twice that of the ratio of increase of the population. But in some wool- growing sections the percentage of increase is very much greater than that of the population ; while in others it is very much smaller, and in some there has been not merely a comparative but an absolute decrease. A few 120 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. data will show the sections in which experience teaches that wool -growing has been found to be profitable or unprofitable in comparison with other agricultural industries. In Oregon the increase from 1870 to 1880 was 470 per cent; in Texas, 400 per cent; in Missouri, 100 per cent; in Tennes- see, 54 per cent; in California, 47 per cent; in Michigan, "33 per cent; in Ohio (which in 1870 and 1880 produced more wool by half than any other State) the increase was 25 per cent; in Pennsylvania, 29 per cent; in Iowa the product of both years was about the same. In New York (which in 1870 produced more wool than any other State, except Ohio and Cahfornia) there was in 1880 a decrease of 18 per cent; in Vermont a decrease of 1 1 per cent. The general result of all is, that when land comes to have a greatly increased value the growing of wool becomes unprofitable in comparison with other products. Agriculture and dairy products take its place to a marked extent Still, there are vast regions where unoccupied land is yet abundant, and where the climate is so mild that sheep can find their own food throughout the year; and there wool-growing upon a large scale will be profitable for years to come. And there is no reason to apprehend that these regions will soon be exhausted. If wool -growing shall be gradually superseded by other industries in California and Ohio, as it has been in New York and Vermont, there will still be left for it vast regions in Texas, Colorado, Oregon, New Mexico, and Dakota. ' Swine. — Swine are useful solely for their flesh and their fat Table IX. shows their numbers in each of the States in 1880 and 1870. In 1880 there were in the United States 47,681,700 swine — probably more than there are in all Europe. In 1870 there were 25,134,569 — an increase in 1880 of 90 per cent.; their value, at #4.25 per head, being ^202.657,620. Swine are found in considerable numbers in every State of the Union, there being seventeen States in each of which are more than a million. They are numerous, compared with the population, in the group of Central, Western, and North-western States, in which Indian-corn is the great agricultural product CELEBRATED AMERICAN RUNNERS. IROQUOIS. FOXH.\LL WINNING THE GRAND PRIX. See Note 4. LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 123 Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky contain fully 50 per cent, of all the swine in the United States. They are numerous also in several of the Southern States ; Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and Texas hav- ing nearly 20 per cent, of the whole. The slaughter of swine, more than of any other live-stock, is carried on in extensive slaughter-houses. In these, in 1880, there were 17,847,409 swine killed or bought dressed, their average gross weight being 248 pounds, and their value, when slaughtered and packed, ^176,447,996, or ^9.90 each. Of the products of swine, 506,077,052 pounds of pork were sold fresh; 859,045,987 pounds were salted. There were 1,122,742,816 pounds of bacon and ham, and 501,471,698 pounds of lard. Illinois takes the lead in this business, slaughtering about 6,000,000 swine, or more than one -third of the whole num- ber. Ohio and New Jersey come next, each slaughtering about 1,500,000. Thus, more than half of the killing of swine in the Union is done in these three States, although only about one -third of the swine slaughtered in those States are raised there. There can be no doubt that the business of raisins swine must be an increasing one in all of the great corn-growing sec- tions. Without it, indeed, the production of corn would be far less than it is, for probably much more than half of this gi-ain is converted into pork, instead of being used directly as human food. Horses. — The number of horses on farms in the United States in 1880 was 10,357,488; in 1870 there were 7,145,370 — an increase in 1880 of 45 per cent. But the number in i860 was 6,249,174 — only 12 per cent, less than it was in 1870. This comparative decrease between i860 and 1870 was owing to the waste occasioned by the civil war, which must, therefore, have cost the lives of fully a million of horses. This loss was very heavy in the Southern States. In Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee there were, in 1870, 30 per cent, fewer horses than in i860; and in 1880 there were still 18 per cent, fewer than in i860. The South has not, there- 124 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. I fore, in this respect, even yet recovered from the devastation of the civil war. If to the number of horses on farms we add 1,500,000 — the estimated number not on farms — there were in 1880 in the United States 11,857,488 horses, their value, at ^55 each, being ^652,846,840. The raising of horses must be a lucrative busi- ness. That of fine breeds in particular, though requiring a large capital, having proved itself very profitable to those who have been able to engage in it. Mules and Asses. — The mule is the especial working an- imal in the South. Their number in 1880 was 1,812,808; in 1870 there were 1,125,415 — an increase in 1880 of 62 per cent. The South suffered in these animals during the civil war, al- though not to such an extent as in horses. Their number in i860 was a few thousand more than in 1870. Their great ratio of increase — more than double that of the population — and the price which they command is evidence of their being indispensa- ble in the section to which they are specially adapted. Their average price, ^61 per head, exceeds that of any other live-stock, and their total value is |5i 10,581,288. Missouri, Kentucky, and Illinois are the great mule-breeding States, and the industry is a very lucrative one. Poultry should, properly, be classed as live-stock. The raising of poultry for the flesh and the eggs is a very considera- ble branch of farming industry. There are very few farms upon which fowls are not kept, and the value of their flesh and eggs is large in the aggregate, although in each individual case it is so small that the Census takes no separate account of it, and precise statistics are unattainable. But there is no doubt that the value of the poultry and eggs consumed is greater than that of mutton. In the Census Report of 1840 the value of the poul- try of the United States was estimated at ^13,000,000. The pop- ulation has more than trebled since that time, and if the ratio be assumed to be the same, the present value of poultry will be about ;^40,ooo,ooo. It is not probable that the raising of poultry on a very large scale by a single grower will be attempted, but as an adjunct for every farmer it is worth far more attention LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 125 than it has received. Mr. Bement's American Poulterers Com- panion* was for a long time our most valuable authority on this subject. He gives the result of his own experience and that of others. That result is especially valuable, as showing, not what possibly, and under unusual conditions, might be attained, but what was actually attained under' ordinary conditions. But within a few years such improvements have been effected in the breeds of poultry that the average number of eggs from each hen may be at least fifty per cent, more than were secured by this author, who thinks that "from 80 to 100 eggs per hen for a year would be a fair estimate for a number of fowls kept together." His own experience with such breeds as were then attainable, conducted through five, years, is of decided practical value. He says : "The first year I had 100 hens, which were suffered to run at large, and I got but a little more than 1000 eggs. The second year my hens commenced laying on the 7th of February, and between that period and the 15th of August, when they commenced to moult, I obtained 2655 eggs from 60 hens. The third year they commenced laying on the 8th of January, and continued laying until the 27th of September, when they ceased entirely, but commenced again on the 13th of October, and continued to lay until the i8th of November, when they ceased, and commenced again on the ist of December; and up to the 1st of January they produced more than 4000 eggs. The fourth year I had 71 hens, which produced within the year 3509 eggs. The fifth year I kept 60 hens, and obtained 3978 eggs." Mr. Bement treats fully of the management of fowls and of the food best adapted to them. He says : " Poultry, when well managed, might be of great profit to the farmer ; but where many are kept they ought not to be allowed to go at large. In that case little or no profit can be expected, for not only will many of the eggs be lost, and many of themselves, perhaps, be destroyed by vermin, but at many seasons they do much mischief in the barn-yard and the field. It is thought that poul- try ought always to be confined; but if so, instead of a close, dark, diminutive hovel, they should have a spacious, airy place, properly constructed. But, whether confined or suffered to run at large, there should always be a poultry- house and yard where they can be regularly fed. If possible, it should be on the south or south-east side of a hill or bank, so that one side of the wall may * The American Poulterer's Companion. By C. N. Bement. 126 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. be set against the side of the hill, and, if of stone, to be laid on mortar, which will add very much to the warmth of the room. It would be well, when building the wall, to leave holes or recesses some fifteen inches square, in which shallow boxes or drawers may be placed for the nests ; these drawers can be removed when necessary, and cleaned and freed from vermin. " The poultry-house should be neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer, and should be made so attractive to the hen as to prevent her from laying her eggs in any other place. The extent of the place should be propor- tioned to the number of fowls to be kept in it ; but it will be better too small than too large, particularly in winter, for the mutual imparting of electricity and animal heat ; and it has been found when fowls are kept apart they are much less prolific. " The driest and warmest soils are best adapted to the successful rearing of domestic fowls. They endure extreme cold much better than they do moisture, and the poultry-yard should neither be wet nor exposed to cold winds. There should, if pQssible, be running water in it ; and under cover shduld be placed ashes or dry sand, where they may indulge in their natural proclivity of rolling and basking or bathing themselves. Gravel, broken shells, crushed bones, and old lime mortar should always be placed within their reach." We condense some of the more important directions given in respect to the food of fowls : " Every alimentary substance, even when buried in manure, agrees with fowls, and nothing is lost by them. The smallest seed cannot escape their piercing eye; the fly, most rapid of flight, cannot avoid the promptitude with which she darts her bill; the worm that comes up to breathe at the surface of the ground has not time to shrink back before it is caught by the head and drawn up. " It is customary to throw to fowls in a poultry-yard, once or twice a day, a quantity of grain somewhat less than they would consume if they had an abundance. But they are more easily satisfied than might be supposed from the voracity which they exhibit when fed by hand. It has been found that there is considerable economy in feeding wheat, corn, and barley well boiled, as the grain is thus increased in bulk one-fourth, and the same bulk seems to satisfy them ; but there is no saving in boiling oats, buckwheat, or rye. Pota- toes are an excellent and economical article for feeding fowls ; but if they are' fed upon them alone, without grain, they are apt to produce ' scouring.' Pota- toes should always be fed boiled, and warm, but not hot enough to burn the mouth of the fowl. They should also be broken or mashed a little, for when one is thrown to them whole they seem to mistake it for a stone, and will often leave it untouched, while they will pounce eagerly upon it if the skin is broken so that they can see the white of the interior. Any kind of boiled vegetables are excellent food for fowls, but they are not fond of raw vegetables. 5^T^i'^'^4- , SHEEP TENDING. A BARN-YARD. See Note 5. LIVE-STOCK, AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 129 " Fowls eat readily grass, and many kinds of plants and leaves. They relish the leaves of lettuce, endive, spinach, and cabbage, but reject those of the straw- berry, celery, parsnip, carrot, and potato. Fowls are fond of all sorts of the ref- use of the table and kitchen, such as crumbs of bread, fragments of pastry, bits of spoiled fruit, and apple-parings. " There is perhaps no species of insect which fowls will not eat. They are very fond of flies, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, and every sort of worm, grub, and maggot. From this, and from the eagerness with which they pounce upon any scrap of meat which they can discover, it might be supposed that they are more carnivorous than graminivorous. But the fact is, that this arises from the fact that animal food is in general the exception in their regular diet, and is, therefore, a dainty. Feed a fowl mainly upon meat, and it will show the same voracity for grain. But advantage can be taken of this omnivorous propensity to save every scrap of meat, which would otherwise be wasted. It makes little difference whether the meat is raw or cooked, salt or fresh ; and fish is equally acceptable to them as flesh. If there is any one thing of which a hen is more fond than another, it is bits of suet or fat ; but if this is given to her in any con- siderable quantity, she will soon grow too fat to continue to lay eggs." An incidental advantage in poultry-raising is, that the feed- ing of the fowls and the hunting up of the eggs can be per- formed by women just as well as by men ; by children just as well as by adults. It is a work for which children have an in- stinctive fondness. Few boys or girls who are able to run about need much urgency to feed the chickens or hunt for the eggs. While, therefore, it is not probable that poultry-raising will be adopted by many persons as an exclusive occupation, it can be made a very remunerative adjunct to the ordinary work of al- most every farmer. The high prices at which eggs are sold is proof that the supply for sale is now less than the demand ; and there is no reason why the supply cannot be made equal to any possible demand ; and, moreover, eggs are imperishable to such an extent that the producer is not forced to sell his eggs at any particular day in order that they may not spoil on his hands. Bees_ — Xhe honey-bee, as a partially domesticated creature, finds its place among live-stock. The keeping of bees was for- merly a considerable branch of industry. The Census of 1850 reported the production of 14,853,790 pounds of beeswax and honey in that year. In i860 there were 1,322,787 pounds of wax and 23,366,357 pounds of honey — an increase of 68 per 130 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. cent. Great exertions were put forth to extend the business of bee-keeping. Bees reported to be much more productive than the native species were imported from Italy, and improved hives were invented. One apiarian reported a profit in a single year of ^1800 from 130 hives; another had cleared ^35 in one year from a single colony ; and it was affirmed that from every acre favorably situated in the United States a pound of honey might be produced, if the bees could only be had. But, notwithstand- ing all this, the business declined, and in 1870 the product was 14,702,815 pounds of honey and 681,129 pounds of wax — a de- crease in 1870 of 40 per "cent. The Census Report of 1880 makes no separate mention of these products, although 1016 " apiarists " are reported, of whom only 1 7 were females. That honey in almost any quantity can be produced is un- questionable ; and a pound of honey will readily sell for two or three times as much as a pound of sugar. Quite recently it has been suggested that "bee-raising particularly commends itself to ladies, because there is so little labor involved in it; it is like having a colony of small slaves at work while the owner is oc- cupied with other things." PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 131 CHAPTER XI. PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. MILK, butter, and cheese constitute the products of the dairy. Table X., on the following page, shows for each State the quantity of these produced in 1870 and 1880. Milk. — It is estimated that an average cow, of our present breeds, will yield 450 gallons of milk per year. At this rate the twelve and a half millions of milch cows in the United States would yield more than five thousand six hundred millions (5,625,000,000) of gallons a year. Probably the actual produc- tion is considerably less than this, for very frequently the cows themselves are poor milkers and are in bad condition. The figures in the Census Report of 1880 enable us to account for the uses to which nearly 3,500,000,000 gallons were put. The quantity of milk is given therein at a little more than 530,000,000 gallons. By this must be intended the milk sold as such, not including the large quantity used on the farms, nor th6 much larger quantity manufactured into butter and cheese. But, of this milk sold, about 100,000,000 gallons were sold to butter and cheese factories, the quantity sold and con- sumed as milk being about 430,000,000 gallons. The value of all the milk sold, at 10 cents per gallon, was $53,000,000. It is estimated that upon an average three gallons of milk are required to produce a pound of butter, and two gallons for a pound of cheese. Besides that made in the factories, there were about 780,000,000 pounds of butter and 27,000,000 pounds of cheese produced upon farms, which required 2,880,000,000 gallons of milk. Thus, we have 3,416,000,000 gallons of milk sold either as such or made into butter and cheese. There are 132 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. TABLE X.— DAIRY PRODUCTS. States and Tjcrbxturies. Milk. Butter. Cheese. 18T0. 18S0. 18T0. 1880. 1870. 1860. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado .... Connecticut ..... Dakota ... Gallons. 104,657 4,800 31,350 3,693,031 19,530 6,358,259 Galhms. 267,380 42,618 316,858 13,353,178 506,706 13,389,893 415,119 1,133,434 496,789 40,967 374,645 15,637 45,419,719 6,733,840 15,965,613 1,360,235 2,513,309 356,341 3,730,783 4,733,944 39,663,953 7,898,273 1,504,407 427,492 3,173,017 41,165 625,783 149,889 5,739,138 15,473,783 10,036 331,965,533 446,798 46,801,537 327,540 36,540,540 3,831,706 357,186 1,006,795 1,396,806 155,363 6,526,550 1,334,469 226,703 750,279 35,156,977 75,343 Poimds. 3,313,753 800 3,753,931 7,969,744 393,930 6,716,007 309,735 1,171,963 4,495 100,989 4,499,573 111,480 36,083,405 32,915,385 27,513,179 5,033,758 11,874,978 333,405 11,636,483 5,014,739 6,559,161 24,400,185 9,523,010 3,613,531 14,455,835 408,080 1,539,535 110,880 5,965,080 8,366,033 13,913 107,147,536 4,397,834 50,366,373 1,418,373 60,834,644 941,199 1,461,980 9,571,069 3,712,747 310,335 17,844,396 6 979,269 Pounds. 7,997,719 61,817 7,790,013 14,084,405 860,379 8,198,995 3,000,955 1,876,375 30,390 353,156 7,424,485 310,644 53,657,943 37,377,797 55,481,958 31,671,762 18,311,904 916,089 14,103,966 7,485,871 9,655,587 38,821,890 19,161,385 7,454,657 38,573,134 403,738 9,725,198 335,188 7,247,273 9,513,835 44,827 111,922,433 7,313,507 67,634,363 2,443,735 79,336,013 1,007,103 3,196,851 17,886,369 13,899,330 1,052,903 35,240,836 11.470.923 Pounds. 2,732 14,500 3,119 3,395,074 33,626 3,031,194 1,850 315 Pounds. 14,091 18,360 26,301 2,566,618 10,867 826,195 39,437 1,712 Delaware Dist. of Columbia Florida 758,603 126.077 3,002 109,139 11,250 9,258,545 936,983 688,800 196,663 1,345,779 833,928 1,374,091 1,530,101 15,384,057 3,277,133 208,130 17,052 857,704 105,186 95,059 63,850 3,353,884 5,373,323 813 135,775,919 17,145 33,375,344 107,367 14,411,739 1,944,044 241,815 415,786 63,771 11,340 3,835,840 366,813 31,060 144,895 3,059,105 4,980 35 4,393 4,464 1,661,703 283,807 1,087,741 • 226,607 115,219 11,747 1,152,590 . 6,732 3,245,873 670,804 233,977 3,099 204,090 25,603 46,143 3,406 19,151 30,395 1,035,069 367,561 1,075,988 483,987 58,468 7,618 1,167,730 17,416 839,538 440,540 533,138 4,339 283,484 55,570 230,819 17,430 807,076 66,518 10,501 8,362,590 57,380 2,170,245 153,198 1,008,686 67,171 16,018 98,740 58,466 126,737 1,545,789 85,535 109,200 100,300 3,381,411 3,930 Georgia Idaho Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts . . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri. , Montana Ter I^ebraska Nevada New Hampshire. . New Jersey New Mexico Ter. New York North Carolina . . Ohio 849,118 38,339 27,239 33,769,964 75,185 8,169,486 79,338 1,145,209 81,976 169 143,340 34,343 69,603 4,830,700 71,743 17,465 32,439 1,591,798 Oregon Pennsylvania. . . . Rhode Island. . . . South Carolina. . . Tennessee Texas Utah Territory. . . Vermont Virginia Washington Ter. . "West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Ter Total 407,3061 i;356,103 5,044,475 9,309,517 22,473,036, 33,353,045 1,200: 105,643 335,500,599 530,139,748 514,092,683 777,349,657 53,492,153 37,373,489 no means of ascertaining even approximately the quantity which is consumed upon farms as food for calves and the like ; but at the very lowest estimate it must amount to several hundred millions of gallons. Assuming 450 gallons of milk per year to be the yield of an average milch cow, this is far less than PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 133 the quantity which is given by cows of better breeds. In Har- pers Magazine for January, 1883, Mr. Conrad Wilson gives some very important statistics upon this point, which show the possibiHties of what may be attained under the most favor- able conditions. Of nine cows in the State of New York, all of them of the Holstein breed, the highest product of any one in a year was 2250 gallons, the lowest of any of them was 1770 gallons; the average of the whole nine being 2000 gallons. Of five cows of Short-horn, Devon, Ayrshire, and Jersey breeds the average was 1450 gallons; the highest being 15 10 gallons by a Short- horn, the lowest, 1 1 90 gallons, by a Jersey. As far as quan- tity of milk is concerned, the Holstein breed holds the first place. But in regard to the production of butter — more im- portant than the mere quantity of milk — the pre-eminence be- longs to the Jersey breed. The highest record for butter for a Short-horn is 513 pounds in a year; for a Holstein, 509; for a Devon, 480; for an Ayrshire, 380; the average being 473 pounds. Of ten selected Jerseys the average was 596 pounds ; the highest for any of them being 778, the lowest 500 pounds. The quantity of milk required for a pound of butter varies greatly. Mr. Wilson finds three cases in which four quarts of milk gave a pound of butter, and three more in which a pound was produced from less than five quarts. A pound of butter from between five and six quarts, inclusive, is recorded in about twenty-five instances ; a pound from eight and a half quarts or less is reported in a still greater number of instances, including the averages of several selected herds. In all these instances the trial was, of course, made under the most favorable condi- tions. Not only were the best breeds chosen, but the best indi- viduals of each breed; and they received the strictest care and the most abundant feeding. And, moreover, the manufacture of the butter was conducted in the most skilful manner, so that the utmost possible quantity should be produced. But when we compare the 1500 .or 2000 gallons of milk and the 500, 600, and 700 and more pounds of butter a year from a single cow, which have been attained, with the 450 gallons of milk and 30 or 40 134 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. pounds of butter, the average product of our native cows, the profit which may be realized from improved breeding is appar- ent. But improvement in the breed is by no means the only thing to be attended to in enhancing the products of the dairy. Mr. Wilson well says : " It is evident that pedigree is a very essential element in the value of cows. Whenever a young cow marks the beginning of her career with an unusual floW/ of milk or yield of butter after her first calf, it is not only a proof of the gener- ous bounty of Nature, but reveals, also, a new possibility of production that is always valuable to the owner. But it is also true, and no less important to know, that grade animals in a well -managed dairy can be made quite as pro- ductive as thorough-breds, and often more so. Yet this does not at all imply that the latter can be dispensed with ; for we cannot have a good quality of grades without a good quality of blood to start with. Pedigree is one of the factors of a good cow, but it is not by any means the only one. . Maximum results in the dairy are not the outcome of any single condition. They depend not merely on the capacity and breed of the cow, but also, and equally, on the intelligence and good management of the owner ; and, what is equally true but seldom considered, even the capacity of the cow is itself, to a large extent, the product of human skill." But, leaving out of view these exceptional cases, there is no lack of inducements in the same direction drawn from the com- mon line of well-conducted dairying. It is easy to see that the larger the number of factors included in a .given trial in any line in husbandry, the more instructive and valuable such trial will be. For example, says Mr. Wilson : "The Hon. Zadok Pratt, of Greene County, New York, with his trial of fifty-nine cows, continued through nine years, showed that with a yearly milk product of less than 2500 quarts per cow, the average yield of butter was 200 pounds, worth (including the skimmed milk) ^80 ; and, further, that the cost of the butter was less than 8 cents per pound ; while the net yearly profit of the herd was in reality over $3000. Again, it appears from a trial of twenty-three cows, by the Hon. G. W. Boutwell, of Massachusetts, that the cost of the but- ter was still less than in the trial by Mr. Pratt, while the yearly rate of profit for the herd showed a wider margin." The recorded results, amply vouched for, of numerous suc- cessful trials made by other practical men, whose experience includes and represents several thousand cows, amply confirms PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 135 those which have been cited. In view of them all Mr. Wilson says: " Experience has already proved the possibility of keeping two cows on an acre under full feed throughout the year. If, according to the yield of milk per cow, as given above, it shall be made to appear that milk can be produced at the yearly rate of even 2500 or 3000 quarts per cow, and at a cost of one cent a quart, and butter at the rate of 200 to 300 pounds per cow, at a cost of six or seven cents per pound ; and, further, that these results are fairly within the reach of the average dairyman, it will then be seen that some real progress has been made by our farmers towards solving the food question of the future.'' The production of milk being the immediate object of the dairy -farmer, the farmer must so feed and otherwise manage his cows that they shall be in a condition to yield the great- est amount of milk of which they are capable. Mrs. Gibbons tells us that in the great milk -producing region of England " the cows never come out of the stable except when the weather is dry, when they are turned into the yard or into rough pasture. In the summer they are fed with green vetch- es (a kind of coarse pea), among which enough oats had been sowed to hold up these climbing plants. Besides this green fodder, each cow receives daily about a bushel of brewer's grains or malted barley. Mangel-wurzel is fed to the cows in winter, each animal getting daily one bushel of sliced man- gel, one bushel of the grains, and as much oat -straw as she wants. The cows average two and a half gallons of milk per day. But the Durhams, which are considered the best milk- ers, not less than six gallons a day." The extent to which milch cows with us should be pastured or kept under cover will depend upon various conditions. But in most parts of the country they must be housed for a part of the year; and it is indispensable that the stable be prop- erly constructed. A cow, in order to maintain health, needs pure air as' certainly as does a man. When housed she lives in an artificial condition, and provision must accordingly be made against the danger arising from this source. She must be protected from sudden and great changes of temperature. A healthy person, living habitually in the open air, may with. 136 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. impunity encounter fluctuations in temperature which would be dangerous to an equally healthy person living habitually within doors. It is precisely so with a cow or any other do- mesticated animal. As to food for cows, our range is much wider than that of the English milk -producer. With him, indeed, "brewer's grains " are more attainable than with us ; but the use of these, except in very moderate proportions, as compared with other food, is strongly questioned. We can raise the turnips and other roots quite as well as he can, if it shall be found to be profitable. As to the various sorts of green fodder and " stover," we have at hand an immense supply in our regular corn-crop. Of this Mr. Wilson, from whom we have so freely quoted, says : " In a recent letter to the Commissioner of Agriculture on the subject of ' ensilage,' which was published in the American Dairyman, I submitted some important facts relating to the corn-crop, which have an important bearing on the question of feeding, and on the products of the dairy. It was therein shown that the total annual yield of ' corn stover,' in its various forms, is not less than . 120,000,000 tons. Strangely as this stalk-crop has been ignored by the Census Bureau, it has none the less influenced, and for many years largely increased, the sum-total of milk, butter, and cheese supplied by our farmers to the mar- kets 'of the world." The sorghum -plant promises, also, to form a further addi- tion to our stock of "stover;" and if ensilage shall be proven to possess, in any good degree, the advantages claimed for it by its advocates, the grass-crop, instead of being converted into hay, will be chiefly used as green fodder. But, whatever else may be yet more or less in question as to the feeding of milch cows, it is settled beyond all question that the " swill slops " of distilleries are wholly unfit for that purpose ; and by the laws of the State of New York the milk of cows fed on this swill is declared to be unwholesome, and its sale is for- bidden. Whether it may be used in very small proportions, and in connection with other food, is, perhaps, a question not yet fully settled. Mr. C. L. Flint, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, says : VIEW OF ECHO FARM BUILDINGS FROM PASTURES. PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 139 " Properly fed, in limited quantities, in combination with more bulky food, still-swill or slops may be a valuable article for the dairyman. But if given without the addition of other kinds of food it soon affects the health of the animals fed on it ; and no pure and healthy milk can be produced by a dis- eased animal. The milk of cows fed upon swill-milk contains a subtle poison, which is as difficult to detect by any known process as the miasma of an atmos- phere tainted by yellow-fever or cholera. Its effect upon the system of young children is very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and, if contin- ued, certain death." The effects of swill -milk upon adults would undoubtedly be equally deleterious, if their food, like that of infants, consisted mainly of milk. Moreover, the flesh of a cow fed mainly upon distiller's swill is utterly unfit for food. It is really half-putrid before the animal is killed. The only safe and wise course is for the farmer or dairyman to refrain entirely from feeding his milch cows upon distiller's slops, at least until far wider knowl- edge than has yet been attained has shown that it may be prop- erly used within certain limits, and what those limits are. That milk, directly and as such, should enter more largely than it does into our food is beginning to be more and more acknowledged. But there are many circumstances in which it is not easy to obtain it, as on shipboard. To meet this want milk is boiled in a vacuum-pan, at a temperature of some 60° below the boiling-point of water, until four or five quarts are reduced to one, and a proportion of refined cane-sugar is added. This "preserved" milk, hermetically sealed in cans, will keep for years. For immediate use milk is also condensed by boil- ing, without the addition of sugar. It will keep for several days, and is by many preferred to fresh milk. In cities it is probably safer to rely upon this condensed milk, when prepared by a reputable establishment, than to trust to the chances of an irresponsible milkman. Condensed milk, when properly prepared, retains its original flavor; and its preparation has become a growing and lucrative industry — confined, however, to large companies. But the chief purpose for which milk is used is for the manufacture of butter and cheese. Cheese. — The production of cheese has undergone marked fluctuations within the last thirty years, and there has been an 140 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. almost entire change in the mode of its manufacture. In 1850 the entire production in the United States was 105,535,803 pounds; in i860 it was 103,663,927 pounds, being a sHght decrease. Up to this time cheese had been made wholly upon farms, but now factories were established for its manufacture, by which now far the greater part is produced. In 1870 the quantity was 162,927,382 pounds, being an increase over i860 of 57 per cent. Of this cheese about one-third was made in factories, and two-thirds on farms. In 1880 the production was 199,022,984 pounds, being an increase over 1870 of 22 per cent. Of this cheese nearly seven-eighths was made in factories. The value of the cheese product of 1880, at eight cents per pound, was about $16,000,000. Of the 171,750,495 pounds of factory cheese -about 63 per cent, was made in the State of New York, where there were 1652 butter and cheese factories; about 14 per cent, in Ohio and Wisconsin, where there were 864 factories ; and the re- mainder in twenty -six States. Of the 27,272,489 pounds of cheese produced upon farms about 30 per cent, was made in New York; 25 per cent, in California, Ohio, and Wisconsin; and the remainder in each of the other States. The produc- tion of cheese has, however, hardly been attempted in any of the States south of the Potomac, in all of which scarcely 500,000 pounds were made in 1880. The relative decline be- tween 1870 and 1880 in the production of cheese is greatest in the States where the largest quantities are made. Thus, in New York the increase was only 8 per cent. This indicates that cheese-making in these States, even when the manufacture is systematized in factories, is relatively unremunerative ; or, rather, that the milk can be more profitably used either by selling it as such, or by making it into butter. But there is no apparent reason why cheese - making might not be profitably carried on by farmers in certain sections of the South where the climate is especially adapted to cattle - raising, and where there is no market for milk. Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Georgia would seem to be well adapted for cheese - making. PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 141 Butter. — Butter is by far the most important of our dairy- products, and the ratio of the increase of its production has for the last thirty years exceeded that of the increase of population at each decennial period, with the exception of 1860-1870. In 1850 there were produced 313,345,306 pounds of butter; in i860 there were 459,681,372 pounds; increase, 46 per cent, that of the population being 38 per cent. In 1870 the prod- uct of butter was 514,092,683 pounds; increase, 12 per cent, that of the population being 25 per cent. The civil war di- verted much of the industry of the country away from agri- cultural pursuits. In 1880 the production of butter was- 793,721,450 pounds; increase, 55 per cent, that of the popu- lation being 30 per cent. Or, taking the whole period, 1850- 1880, together, the production of butter has increased from 313.345.893 pounds to 793,721,450 pounds, or 153 per cent; while during this period the population has increased from 19,553,068 to 50,155,783, or 156 per cent That is, taking the whole thirty years, the ratio of increase in the production of butter has been almost the same as that of the* increase of population ; while for the last ten years it has been nearly double, showing that the business of butter- making has been a lucrative one as compared with other branches of industry. Within a few years a change has been introduced in the manufacture of butter similar to that made in the manufacture of cheese. In several sections butter-factories have been estab- lished, to which the farmers sell their milk, instead of making it into butter themselves. In 1880 only about 2 per cent, of the whole product was factory butter, but the proportion has increased very considerably since. The factory butter com- manded about 24 cents per pound — considerably more than the general average of even good grades. About one quarter of all the factory butter was produced in the State of New York. As is shown in Table X., about 1 5 per cent, of all the butter of the United States is made in New York, which produced (including factory butter) 115,119,847 pounds. About 33 per cent was made in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, and Illinois, each of which produced more than 50,000,000 pounds. About 20 142 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. per cent, was made in Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Ver- mont, each of which produced more than 25,000,000 pounds. Butter is made in considerable quantities in most of the other States, but less than elsewhere in the Southern States, none of which, except Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia, produced as much as 10,000,000 pounds. The total value of the butter produced in the United States in 1880, at 20 cents per pound, was ^158,744,290. This was the general average of the whole product ; but a very considera- ble proportion brought much less than this, while a few of the very choicest grades commanded a dollar a pound, and from that all the way down to 25 cents. There is no valid reason why any poor butter should be brought* to market. The milk of some breeds of cows produces butter of much finer flavor than that of others, and very much depends also upon the kind of food ; but good butter can be made from the milk of any healthy cow which is fed upon suitable food, and is otherwise properly cared for. Bad butter is the invariable result of bad management, 'either in the manufacture or in the subsequent putting up for market — most likely of both. It costs very little more labor — although it requires much more care and skill — to produce a pound of good butter than a pound of bad ; and the expense of feeding a good milker is no greater than that of feeding a poor one. The dairy business, in its various phases, is one of the most profitable and one of the least hazardous of the departments of husbandry. The particular form to be chosen depends greatly upon the locality. If one's location is near a city or large town or manufacturing village, the most profitable mode of disposing of the milk will probably be to sell it as such directly to the consumers. If too far from such a market, making it into but- ter is the best course. There is little reason to apprehend that the home market for dairy products will be over -supplied; for the rapid increase of the population of our principal cities in- creases the demand in them, and every new town forms of itself a new market for the dairy products of its vicinity, especially for the milk, which must be produced near by. But, whatever the PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 143 particular line selected, three things demand the special atten- tion of every dairyman: i. Select the breeds of cows best adapted to your special purpose. If you propose to sell your milk, have the most copious, milkers; if you propose to make butter, choose the breed whose milk has been proved to.be the richest ; for, although the absolute quantity may be considerably less, it contains a larger proportion of what you want. 2. Hav- ing got your cows, take proper care of them, in the matter of food and housing. 3. If you propose to make butter, learn how to make the best, and how to put it up for preservation after it has been made. The reader will please note that in Table X. the figures give only the quantity of butter and cheese made upon farms. But, as noted upon page 140, much of the butter and most of the cheese produced in 1880 was made in factories, and not upon farms. This quantity has been taken into account when estimating the progress in these branches of farming industry. 144 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XII. REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. IN the summer of 1880 there were in the United States 4,008,907 " farms " of land more or less " improved." There were 4,346,515 "farmers," properly so-called (including garden- ers, stock - raisers, etc.), besides 3,323,876 "agricultural labor- ers;" so that of the 17,392,099 persons pursuing regular occu- pations, 7,670,493,* or 44 per cent, were directly engaged in agricultural labor. There being 9 per cent, more farmers than farms, a small number of farms were tilled by more than one farmer; but nearly every farmer must be the owner of the soil which he cultivates, with or without the services of hired laborers. Farmers themselves, as distinguished from agricultural la- borers, constitute hardly 25 per cent, of those engaged in gain- ful pursuits ; but a very much larger proportion of the wealth of the country is in their possession. The assessed value of all the real estate in the country, in 1880, was ^13,036,766,925; that of farms was $10,197,096,776, or 'j'j per cent, of the whole. This be- longed to farmers, leaving only 23 per cent, to all other classes. The personal property was assessed at $3,866,226,618. Of this at least — live-stock, $1,500,464,609, and farm implements and machinery, $406,520,055 — $1,906,984,655, or 49.3 per cent, was owned by agriculturists. Thus, out of a total assessed value of $16,902,993,543 of real and personal property $12,104,081,431, or 71 per cent., belonged to the farmers. There are no means * So reported in the Census, but the actual number was considerably larger ; for it is added i " In agricultural districts many enumerators have re- ported ' agricultural laborers ' simply as ' laborers.' " REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 145 of ascertaining what proportion of the $4,798,912,1 12 of assessed property, real and personal, which constitute the remainder of the realized, wealth of the nation, is in their hands ; but it is undoubtedly comparatively small. But this is certain : not less than 71 per cent, of all the wealth of the people of the United States belongs to the farmers, who form, only 2 3 per cent, of the entire active population, as reported in the Census. In considering the special qualifications required for a suc- cessful farmer, we must, in the first place, have regard to the kind of material upon which his energies are to be employed. The mechanic has, for the most part, to do with mere inorganic or dead matter, which he can work up into such shape and form as he pleases, under the limitations prescribed by the nature of that material. He cannot, indeed, melt a beam of wood and cast it into a wheel, or hammer a block of granite into sheets, as though it were iron, or draw a mass of clay into wire, as though it were gold. But he can fashion the wood or stone, the clay or metal, the cotton or the wool, into any form which they are by nature capable of assuming. The farmer, on the other hand, has to deal with substances which have life in themselves, vegetable or animal. The seed which he sows is not mere dead matter, but has life in itself, and, under proper conditions, will reproduce and multiply itself. It is his business to find out what these conditions are, to aid them when they are present, and to supply them when they are partially deficient. He must, in a word, learn what are the laws of Nature in respect to the growth of the grain or vegetables which he undertakes to cultivate. In so far as he acts in ac- cordance with these laws will he be successful ; in just so far as he violates or fails to follow these laws will he be unsuccessful. The first of these laws is, that all plants derive their support from the air and the earth. With that portion which is derived from the atmosphere he has little to do ; Nature does that for him. With that part which is drawn from the soil he has every- thing to do. If he will see to it that the plant has what its roots need, the plant itself will to a great extent look out for what it needs from air and sunshine. 146 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Agricultural Chemistry. — At the very foundation of all suc- cessful farming lies a practical knowledge of what is called " Agricultural Chemistry." This involves the study of the nat- ure and action of those substances of which the products of the farm are ultimately composed. The growing plant con- tains a large proportion of water, varying by weight from 40 to 90 per cent. ; and this in the proportions required by each sort is absolutely indispensable as the vehicle by which all the nutriment absorbed is conveyed from the roots or leaves to the other parts of the plant. Of the 10 to 60 per cent, of other matter which forms the dry substance of the plant, nearly one -half consists of carbon. This is so abundantly and uni- versally supplied from the carbonic acid, contained in the at- mosphere, that there is no need for the farmer to provide it in any shape. There may be an abundance of water present in the soil, and yet it will be unfertile if. it lacks certain other elements. Any soil will be absolutely unfertile unless it contains more or less of each of the following substances : phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron ; and these must not only be present, but they must be in a form in which the plant can take up. Every plant requires all of these constituents ; some of them more and some less of each , kind. The plant takes them up from the soil ; and if it died where it grew, and no part of it was carried away, the soil would retain, and even increase, its fertility for an unlimited period. But in agricultural crops a portion of the plant is taken away, and with it some of these essential elements ; and the equivalent of these must be restored to the soil, or it will become " worn out." The percentage of all these elements in a fertile soil is very small. Careful experiments indicate that a field in which not more than 250 pounds of these "ash elements" are present in 1,000,000 pounds of the soil — that is, one part in 4000 — may be capable of producing 33 bushels of wheat to the acre. The crop will exhaust 140 pounds of this, which must be renewed. Practically, however, the proportion of nutritive matter is much larger than this, but rarely more than one part in 400. Manures REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 147 and other fertilizers operate mainly by supplying one or more of these elements abstracted by the crop from the soil. The successful farmer must, therefore, learn not only what kinds of crops are best adapted for his soil, but also what kinds of fertilizers are needed to restore to it the elements which the crop has taken away. Rotation of Crops. — Theoretically it is possible, by proper manuring, to produce an abundant crop of any kind for an in- definite time upon the same field. The annual inundation of the Nile does this for Egypt ; and in China and Japan it is said to be done by human means. But with us the end aimed at is best attained by a rotation of crops. This rests upon the fact that some crops not only require different nutritive elements from others, but also draw them from a greater depth. More- over, some crops — clover, for example — actually fertilize the soil in an indirect but actual manner; but there is a limit to the period in which this salutary effect is produced. Market- Gardening, etc. — If the farmer's avocation takes the form of market-gardening or fruit-raising, he needs a still more thorough knowledge of agricultural chemistry, and of many other matters. The variety of his products is greatly in- creased, and each crop has peculiarities of its own. Then the cultivation of the soil is far more thorough than is re- quired for ordinary field -crops. In fact, it requires more thor- ough study to cultivate properly a market farm or garden of five acres than to manage tolerably well a grain-farm or cotton- field of five hundred acres ; but in a favorable locality and with due skill the five acres may be made to yield a greater net profit than the five hundred usually does. The products of the garden and orchard are also more deli- cate and perishable than those of the field, and therefore require more care and skill in gathering and preserving them. More business skill is, moreover, demanded in selling the crop. For wheat and corn, for cotton and hay, there are established mar- kets, where any quantity can be sold at any time, and the fluct- uations in price from week to week are within very narrow limits ; so that the producer may be pretty certain in any given 9 148 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. month as to the price which his crop will bring. The gardener has far less certainty in this respect, and he must study his mar- ket much more closely, so that he may not bring his perishable wares to a market over-supplied at the moment. The gardener and orchardist, in addition to agricultural knowledge and skill, has ample scope for the exercise of the capacities of a trader, who needs to keep an intelligent lookout for markets and cus- tomers, and not unfrequently to create both. Stock -Raising. — If the farmer is — as most farmers are — not merely a grower of crops, but a raiser of live-stock, the circle of knowledge required for success, and the sphere for profitable enterprise, become greatly enlarged. He has to deal not only with vegetable but with animal life, and to make both of them work together for his advantage. He must study, not only agricultural chemistry and vegetable physiology, but animal physiology also. He must find out, not only what kind of stock may be profitable in itself, but what kind he can make profitable just where he is. He will not, for example, embark in wool-growing where land is worth a hundred dollars an acre, for it will cost him much more to produce a pound of wool than it will in Texas or Colorado, where land costs comparatively little ; and a pound of wool produced in New York will bring no more than one produced in Texas. In such respects he will find the statistics collated from the successive Census Reports to be of the highest value, for they embody the results of the experience of many thousands of individuals, continued for a series of years. ' If in any section some branch of industry is found to have increased rapidly, or even steadily, as compared with the increase of the population, it may be assumed that it has proved relatively profitable in that settion. It may be, in- deed, that the success of any particular industry in a given sec- tion has been prevented by conditions which no longer exist there. Thus, the growth of sorghum was checked because there was no known means of cheaply crystallizing the juice into sugar. But if it shall prove that this obstacle no longer exists, it may be safely assumed that the culture of sorghum will here- after be a profitable one. A HOME LAWN. See Note 7. REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 151 And, moreover, it is not to be assumed, because any branch of industry has not as yet been introduced into a particular region that it cannot be made profitable there. Florida has abounded in wild orange-trees for two centuries ; but it is not until within half a score of years that orange culture has been fairly begun there ; and yet it is now one of the most lucrative branches of planting enterprise. So, too, with the orange and , the grape in California, which have already been treated in the chapter on " The Products of the Orchard." All these consid- erations pertain to every department of industry as well as to stock-raising. The stock -raiser needs not only wisely to choose his stock, but he must learn how to take care of it. He must learn what kinds of food are best in themselves, and which of these he can provide in sufficient quantities and most economically. He must also make himself acquainted with the habits of animals, especially as modified by domestication. He must learn to what diseases each species is especially liable ; how these dis- eases are occasioned ; by what means they may be prevented ; and how they should be treated when they do occur. Stock- raising is in very many cases not merely an important depart- ment of general farming, but the main pursuit of the raiser, the production of crops being altogether subsidiary. In sections where the conditions are favorable — say in Texas and Colorado at present, and in Dakota in the near future — this is, and is likely long to be, a very profitable business; and it is now at- tracting to this country a very large amount of capital and enterprise. It cannot, of course, be conducted without some capital ; but, if a person have the requisite personal qualifica- tions, it may be safely commenced and profitably conducted, with a moderate capital to start with. Stock -Breeding. — A special branch of the industry of stock- raising is the breeding of the various species of live-stock, not for the direct use of their products, as butter, cheese, and wool, or of their flesh as food, but for the sake of producing and per- petuating improved breeds, which can be sold for prices far ex- ceeding those of ordinary animals. This industry extends to 152 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. some extent to all live-stock, but chiefly to neat- cattle and horses. The reports of the regular yearly sales of the increase of the great breeding - farms evinces the profits which accrue from this business w^hen judiciously carried on. In horse-breed- ing the pecuniary results are the most striking. One very re- cent instance clearly shows the profits which must have actually been realized. On May 19, 1883, was held the annual auction sale of the previous year's increase of the Elmendorf stud-farm, near Lex- ington, Kentucky. There were sold 23 yearling colts, the prices obtained for each being as follows: $5100, ^3700, $3000, #2500,' ^2450, $2000 (two), $1850, $1800, ^1550, ^1150, $1100, #1000, $900, P50, $550, $450, $420, $350, ^270, ^240, ^226, ^150; the average being ^1460.87 per head. There were sold 20 year- ling fillies, at the following prices: ^2500, $2200, ^1150, ^875, #820, ^725, $580, $575, ^570, #500 (two), ^425, ^420, ^325, ^310, ^230 (two), ^195, I5190; the average being #676.50. Thus, 43 yearling colts and fillies, the product of one breeding- farm, sold in one day, brought #47,130, an average of #1095.80 per head. This, of course, must be looked upon as an ex- tremely favorable case. The capital invested in the thorough- bred sires and dams was great, and the running expenses large ; but when it is borne in mind that the average value of a horse throughout the country is less than #60, and that these yearling colts averaged almost #1 100 per head, it is clear that the actual profit of' this breeding-farm must have been very great. But in one important respect this case is not exceptional : the demand for blooded horses is constant, and the prices realized for them were never higher; and there is no probability that the busi- ness of rearing them will be less profitable than it now is. General Requisites. — The successful farmer, more than al- most any other man, must be able to turn his hands to many things. He will often have to put up his house and barn and fences, and always to maintain them in repair ; to keep his tools and implements in order. He must do for himself a thousand things which the resident of a town or city will have done for him by others. The more mechanical skill the farmer has, the REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 153 greater — other things being equal — will be his probabilities of success. Farming and Capital. — As has already been shown, a very considerable part of the wealth of the country is in the hands of farmers. Making every possible allowance for discrepancies in the modes of Valuation, the proportion in their hands cannot be less than two-thirds of the whole wealth of the country. Tak- ing into view only farms and buildings, live-stock on farms, and agricultural implements, the value of these, if equally divided among the about four and a quarter millions of farmers and planters, would give to each of them about ^2800. It is not, of course, absolutely necessary that every one who begins life as a farmer should have that much. If he has pluck and intelli- gence, industry and economy, he may safely adventure in a new region with much less. But, even if he obtains his land by pre- emption under the homestead laws, or buys it — as he may — upon a long credit and on easy terms, of the Government or of railway corporations, he must have some ready money with which to put up a hut, buy a team, implements, and seed, and food for the months that must pass before the first crop can be harvested. The man who is to make money as a farmer must have some money with which to begin to make it. If he has not a few hundred dollars to start with, he cannot start at all. If he has reached the age of eight -and- twenty, and has not been indus- trious and economical enough to lay so much by, he may make up his mind pretty certainly that, whatever else he may be fit for, he is not the man who can take up farming with any reason- able hope of even moderate pecuniary success. For a young man who has only his hands and head to de- pend upon, and who yet intends to become a farmer, the best thing — and, indeed, in most cases, the only thing — is to hire himself out to work upon a farm. He must deliberately make up his mind that he will not unnecessarily spend a dollar of his earnings. Such a man will find it easy to get work and fair wages. If he does this in the general region where he has it in mind to raise himself from a farm-hand to a farmer, so much the better. He will learn his business better there than he can do 154 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. it elsewhere. If, for example, he proposes to become an orange- grower or grape-raiser, a year in California is worth more to him than three years upon the grain-fields of Illinois or Kansas ; and the special practical knowledge which one acquires as an or- chardist in California would stand him in little stead as a stock- raiser in Colorado. No sort of knowledge is absolutely useless anywhere; but one who is to live in Louisiana cannot profitably spend much time in learning the best methods of house-warm- ing, although such knowledge would be very useful to him if his home were to be in Maine. The Emigrant Farmer. — If the farmer, or the person who means to be a farmer, has it in mind to emigrate, he needs to give to the matter of choosing his new home a more careful consideration than is required for any other person. The la- borer, the mechanic, the manufacturing operative, or the pro- fessional man moves from place to place with few impedimenta. ,They can with little inconvenience change from one place to another. When one railroad is completed, the laborer who has been employed upon it can betake himself to another, without the necessity of leaving anything behind him or taking anything with him. If Chicago is burned down, masons and carpenters from New York and St. Louis can be there to rebuild it before the smoke has ceased to rise from the ruins. If the lawyer or the physician finds his profession overcrowded in Boston or Phil- adelphia, he can set off at short notice for any other town where there seems to be an opening for him. If a new mining region is discovered in the remotest corner of Nevada or Utah, engi- neers and assayists can hie thither as fast as the modes of con- veyance will permit. None of these are of necessity bound by pecuniary ties to the place which they leave or to that to which they go. Quite otherwise is it with the farmer. From the moment he owns a farm he is adscriptus glebes — one bound to the soil, hardly less so because the bond is of his own making. He has struck his roots into the earth of his home. The soil is one of the tools with which he works, and he cannot, like the mechanic, carry his tools with him. The farmer who has once fixed him- REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 155 self should look well to the matter on all sides before deciding upon making a change at all ; and if he has decided upon doing so, then he should examine, by all the lights available, the ad- vantages and disadvantages which other localities promise, not merely for emigrants in general, but for himself in particular. And he must make up his mind beforehand that, wherever he goes, he will surely find some disadvantages for which he was not prepared. The general object of the emigrant is to better his condition in one important respect or another. It may be that health, of himself or his family, is the immediate consideration. Some regions are so unhealthy that no wise person, except under the urgency of the strongest inducements, will ever think of mak- ing a home there. These pestilential districts are few in num- ber and limited in extent in the United States. But there is a very considerable difference in the degree of healthfulness be- tween sections none of which can be properly designated as insalubrious. Moreover, a climate perfectly salubrious for a person of one constitution is often dangerous to one of another constitution or habit of body. If a person is constitutionally predisposed to any particular type of disease, he should avoid the sections in which that type is prevalent. The Census Re- port for 1880 affords data for the solution of this problem better than have been hitherto accessible. This topic is considered in a subsequent chapter. The farmer, in choosing the location of his home, is also choosing one for his children, perhaps for his children's chil- dren. For their future good it may be his duty to remove to a new country, and, for a time at least, to forego for himself many of the comforts and conveniences within his reach where he is. But, important as the mere question of dollars and cents is admitted to be, it is not the only thing to be taken into the account. Few men, accustomed to the amenities of civilized society and the advantages of education, can live happily in a region where barbarism and ignorance form the rule. In such case he must either shut himself up from society, or must as- sociate with those whose companionship is worse, perhaps, than 156 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. none at all. The statistics as to education and the like, in the chapter devoted to those topics, are eminently worthy of con- sideration. But, supposing all these points settled, then comes the final consideration of making or earning money. " Where can /, with such qualifications as I possess, and with such means as I can command, most profitably take up my residence ?" To begin with : a region comparatively sterile is not the one to which a farmer should go. Perhaps he may be located in such a region, and the certain disadvantages of removal may, in his case, outweigh the probable advantages of removal. If so, let him remain where he is, and try to improve his condition there. His New England fields may be naturally unfertile, compared with those of Kansas or California ; but, by judicious culture be- stowed upon the crops best suited to his soil and climate, not a little of this difference will practically disappear. His acre will yield only half as much wheat as an acre in Iowa; but upon it he can, perhaps, raise fruits or vegetables, the sale of which will enable him to buy the wheat grown upon two acres of the most fertile prairie land. In such case he can make more money by staying than by going. But the possible, or even certain, crop which can be raised, although of the highest importance, is not the only important thing. The farmer and his family require many things which he cannot raise upon his own acres. He must either buy these things or go without them ; and he cannot buy unless he have something which he can sell. No matter how many oranges or grapes his orchard or vineyard may produce, all of them, except the few which he and his family can consume, are practically worthless to him unless he have a market for them. It is not enough that there be a market somewhere, but there must be one which he can reach. The forecasting farmer will consider the question of the transportation of his crops no less than the raising of them. He will ask, " Is there, or will there soon be, a railroad or easy water- communication between me and the market ?" If there is none now or certain to be in the near future, the fact will be a weighty objection. Our systems of REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 157 natural and artificial intercommunication so interlace and over- lap that there is no fertile section of any considerable extent which will not in time come to be penetrated by railways; and a person who can afford to wait long enough for results, or who wishes to lay the foundation of a fortune for his heirs, cannot, perhaps, in the end make more money than by purchasing large tracts of land now cheap, but which in time, when open to easy communication, will be greatly enhanced in value. But for the far greater number whose views do not reach so far ahead — those who wish to eat the fruit of the tree which they have planted — a location now within easy reach of market, or soon to be so, is every way the most profitable. The emigrant from an older to a new country must make up his mind to make considerable changes in his mode of life. These changes need not now be as marked as they formerly were when emigrants mostly went out singly or in very small companies. The " colony system " has probably been more fairly tested in California than elsewhere. Usually a colony is a land speculation of a somewhat enlightened kind. A land- holder lays out a tract of land in twenty-acre lots, marks out streets and roads, and offers the land for sale to whoever will buy, with a water- right annexed by deed to every twenty acres. He appoints a resident manager to advise the new settlers as to planting and culture, etc., but the main object is to sell the land. " Even under this crude system," says Nordhoff, " pros- perous and happy homes have grown up with surprising rapid- ity." But he adds : " The best and pleasantest way would be for four, six, or eight families to unite together, with the design to live on adjoining farms. Such an association could send out one of their number as a pioneer to seek a suitable location. For four families a ' section' (that is, a square mile, or 640 acres) of land would be sufficient. It would give to each 160 acres of land. But if more is required, and if, for instance, it was desired to settle upon the Government or railroad land in the Sacramento or San Joaquin Valley, these lands are held in alternate sections ; and so complete is the railroad land-office in San Francisco, that a stranger would do best to go to that office, look over its maps and descriptions of railroad sections — which can be purchased on five years' credit, with one-fifth part paid down — and there, surveying the whole field at once, make up his mind 158 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. what parts of it are worth a more particular examination. Having thus deter- mined generally upon the part of the State which he thinks it best to examine, he will find it easy to make choice of some particular section or sections." There are very evident advantages in organizing into com- panies much larger than of four famihes. If, instead of four, there were eight purchasing two or four sections, they would at the very outset form a community large enough to do, at a small cost to each, many things which would be very desirable to have done in the very beginning. A common system of draining and irrigation might be established, a school -house and church built at some central spot, so that no dwelling need be more than half a mile from it. Still better if a central half- section were divided into building -lots, each large enough for house and garden plot. Most likely every farmer would prefer to build his house there, instead of upon his own farm, the re- motest corner of his i6o acres not being more than a mile away. Such a settlement would be a colony in the ancient sense of the word — an organized community transplanted into a new spot; a society springing up without passing through the phase of semi-barbarism. The family is a number of individuals bound together by ties of blood and common feeling. Such a settle- ment would be a number of families — bound together by ties of interest, indeed, but also by the stronger bond of common feelings, aims, and pursuits. The original i6o acres for each family is altogether too much for a permanency ; but it leaves scope for the natural family increase. As sons grow up from boyhood to manhood a part of the old home farm will be set off to each. There is room for the sixteen families on four square miles to double or even to quadruple themselves in a half-score of years. It is pretty genera,lly conceded that i6o acres to be cultivated by a single farmer is better than any greater number ; that 80 acres is better than 160; and not a few hold that 40 is better than 80. " People," says Nordhoff, " are gradually getting convinced, by the experience of others, that 80 acres is, in good localities and with water, a little too much, and 40 acres quite enough, for a fair start in life." If a man whom nature and his own efforts REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. 159 have qualified to become a successful farmer could go to Cali- fornia with not less than ^1500, he could hardly do better than heed the advice (cited by Nordhoff) of one who is himself a suc- cessful farmer: " He should buy 40 acres, for which, with access to water, he would pay from $20 to $40 per acre — paying a quarter down, and the rest after from five to seven years. He should have a team of horses, costing from $100 to $150; plough, harrow, etc., say $75 ; house, according to his ability, from $100 to $500. All the shelter needed for his stock he could build of poles and thatched, at a cost of Jio. He should put 30 acres in wheat, which in an average year would yield him clear money, after all his expenses, $15 per acre, or $450; this because he needs cash in hand to pay for land and improvements. The ten remaining acres he should plant thus: half an acre in kitchen -garden, which will supply his family all the year round ; two acres in vines ; two acres apri- cots, plums, peaches, etc. ; five acres in alfalfa, which will support all the cows and horses he needs, and a few sheep for mutton besides." The farmer supposed in this case does not go out in a col- ony, and devotes himself mainly to wheat - raising instead of fruits. The writer goes on to say that wherever wheat is largely grown in California "there are people at the harvest who go about with headers and threshers, and get in the crop at a rea- sonable price, so that the small farmer does not need tools for this." Another farmer furnishes a full detail of the cost of rais- ing his wheat -crop for 1880, and the actual profit upon it, per acre. Every item of cost is put down, even to four cents for twine and three cents for " bluestone, to prevent smut." The cost of the land was^25 per acre, and interest upon this at 10 per cent, is reckoned among the expenses. The entire cost of the crop per acre was as follows : Interest upon land ^2.50 Use of water and irrigation. . . 1.50 Ploughing 1. 13 Seed (56 lbs. per acre) 67 Bluestorie (to prevent smut) . . 3 Sowing broadcast 10 Harrowing (twice) 35 Heading I1.87 Threshing 2.56 Board of threshers 33 Sacks (at 10 cents) 1.47 Twine 4 Hauling 75 Total per acre $13-30 The yield was 33 bushels per acre, and the crop was sold for 87 cents per bushel, or at the rate of $28.71 per acre; from 160 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. which deduct the entire cost, ^13.30 per acre, and there remains a net profit of ^15.41 per acre. This farm was located in Tulare County, in almost the southern extremity of the State ; and the wheat, having to be conveyed a long distance to market, brought 16 per cent, less than the average price throughout the United States. Yet, owing to the large yield (no larger, however, than the average yield in England), the value of the crop per acre, and on the spot, was considerably more than double of the average for the- whole United States, while the cost of growing and harvesting could have been but little more per acre. Un- doubtedly this land was naturally of the best for wheat ; but it was no better than that of England has been brought to be by skilful cultivation, and no better by nature than that of the best parts of the central wheat-raising sections, which do not, as cul- tivated, yield more than half as much per acre. But the colony system affords so many advantages that it would appear advisable whenever it can be applied — not merely in California, but in all the newer States where sections of land are still to be had. Mr. Nordhoff gives the following sketch, which, in all essential features, is as true of Minnesota and Nebraska as of California: " It is an advantage of the settlement of small farmers in colonies that they attract the best quality of labor. In all which I have seen a part of the popu- lation consisted of men of small means — sometimes of no means at all — desir- ous to build themselves little homes, and who knew by experience that their labor and that of their teams would be in constant demand. I have come across many cases where an industrious German or Swede (ofterier than an American) was paying for a twenty-acre farm by the labor of himself and his span of horses, his wife and children taking care of a few acres of grapes or trees till they should come into bearing ; the vegetable garden, the chickens, the pig, and the cow, which fed upon an acre or two of alfalfa, supplying ample food for the family. Such men are certain to be comfortable and permanently prosperous after a few years." The ranks of the farmers are being constantly filled up from the agricultural laborers, in the same way as the number of master mechanics and manufacturers is recruited from jour- neymen and operatives. There is, indeed, far more reason why an ambitious and capable laborer should resolve upon becoming REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL FARMER. , 161 a farmer than an ambitious and skilful mechanic should become an employer. The mere laborer can never earn more than moderate wages; the skilful artisan always earns much more, the amount varying, indeed, very considerably with his skill in his special craft. Hence it is that, while the number of farm- owners exceeds that of all others engaged in farming, the num- ber of proprietors of manufacturing establishments is much less than the number of skilled mechanics, artisans, and operatives. Although it is comparatively easy for a man to start himself as a farmer, yet a success which involves anything more than a mere tolerable subsistence demands more wide, practical knowl- edge than is required in almost any other sphere of effort. The lawyer, physician, clergyman, teacher, engineer, or scientist needs, indeed, a longer and more elaborate preparatory train- ing than the farmer does before he can enter upon the exercise of his vocation. But it may be fairly questioned whether either of them can find profitable scope for so great a number of fac- ulties. 162 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XIII. AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881, 1882. THE foregoing chapters show the condition and apparent prospects of the agricultural industry of the United States down to the close of the Census year (June 30) 1880. The data have been drawn mainly from the Census Reports of 1870 and 1880. The- subsequent admirable Reports of Mr. George B. Loring, U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, enable us to pre- sent a similar resume for the years 1881 and 1882. The state- ments for these years, though in some respects less favorable, are fully as valuable, and upon the whole nearly as encouraging as those for the preceding decade. The year 1880 marked the close of a period of five years of great agricultural prosperity; the year 1881 was one of marked depression. This country has never undergone such a general failure of crops as to involve any lack of a full supply of food ; but the year 1881 would have approached very nearly to .this had there not been a large surplus left over from the two pre- ceding years of plenty. There had previously been years in which one or the other of our two great cereal crops had been deficient, while the other was good. In 1869 corn was a com- parative failure, but the yield of wheat was above the average. In 1874 there was an average wheat crop, while that of corn was the worst ever known until 1881. In 1875 the case was reversed — the wheat crop was very much below the average, while that of corn was somewhat above it. But in 1881 all the cereals, ex- cepting oats, suffered severely, as also did potatoes and cotton. The winter of 1880-81 was severe, and the ensuing spring was cold and backward. Then came an unusually hot summer, AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY EOR 1881, 1882. 163 marked by droughts of exceptional severity, extending over nearly the whole country. The records of the Signal Office at Washington present a fair representation of the weather in nearly every section of the United States. In May and June, 1880, the average mean temperature at Washington was 72.8°, and the rainfall was 6.89 inches, well distributed in three rains — May II, May 23, and June 13. In May and June, 1881, the average mean temperature was 69.4°, and the rainfall was 7.57 inches, of which 5.71 inches fell in June. In July, August, and September, 1880, the mean temperature was 73.4°, and the rain- fall was 9.37 inches. In the same months of 1881 the mean temperature was 76.9°, while the rainfall was only 4.93 inches, of which 2.19 inches, or nearly half, fell in September. Thus, in 1 88 1 the difference between the extremes of the mean tempera- ture of the five months was 7.5°; in 1880 it was only .06°. The rainfall of those months of 1880 was 16.36 inches, fairly distrib- uted throughout the growing season; in 1881 it was 12.50 inches, of which 8.90 inches, or 71.2 per cent, fell in June and Septem- ber, and only 2.74 inches, or less than 22 per cent, in July and August, which were, therefore, months of extreme drought. The general result of this unfavorable season, as compared with the preceding favorable one, was: in 1881 there were 123,388,070 acres sown in cereals, and the total yield was 2,066,029,570 bushels, or 16.6 bushels per acre; while in 1880 there were 120,926,286 acres, yielding 2,718,193,501 bushels of all grains, or 22.2 bushels per acre — a decrease in 1881 of 25.6 per cent in the average yield per acre, or of 24 per cent, in the total production. The effect of this decrease in produc- tion upon prices of all farm productions, including live-stock, will be considered hereafter. We will now consider each crop separately. Corn. — In 1880 there were 62,317,842 acres planted in corn, which yielded 1,717,434,543 bushels — an average of 27.6 bush- els per acre. In 1881 there were 64,262,025 acres, yielding 1,194,916,000 bushels, or 18.6 bushels per acre — a decrease in 1 88 1 of 522,518,543 bushels, being 27 per cent in absolute quan- tity, or 32 per cent, in the yield per acre. The price of corn 164 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. was increased in a ratio higher than was that of the decrease of quantity. In 1880 the average price, as stated by the Commis- sioner of Agriculture, was 39.6 cents per bushel ; in 1881 it was 63.6 cents — an increase of 60 per cent. ; so that the entire value of the corn crop of 1881 was put down at $759,482,170, that of 1880 being $679,714,499 — an increase in 1881 of $79,767,471, or 1 1.4 per cent. The exportation of corn is so small — being not more than 6 per cent, of the whole crop — that it has no perceptible influence upon the market value ; but an increase of price at home greatly reduces the quantity exported. A small proportion of the corn is exported in the shape of meal. Reducing this to its equiva- lent in bushels of corn, we find that of tRe crop of 1880, the home value being 39.6 cents per bushel, there were exporte.d 93,648,147 bushels; the value at the place of export being 55.5 cents per bushel, its export value was $51,972,869. The defi- ciency in the crop of 1881 raised the home price to 63.6 cents per bushel, and of this crop the export (in 1882) was 29,840,031 bushels ; and the export value being 67.5 cents per bushel, its value was $29,840,031. Of the corn crop of the United States not more than one- fourth is used for human consumption and for seed, the re- mainder being used as food for live-stock, especially for swine. An increase of price, therefore, acts immediately upon the price of animals for slaughter. The diminution in quantity in 1881, and the increase in price, raised the average price of swine sold for packing by more than 31 per cent. It also increased the price of beeves, but not in as great a ratio, since they are the growth of three or four years — not of a single season — and are the product of grass rather than of corn. This point will be farther touched upon when speaking of live-stock. (Perhaps we may get estimates for 1883 in time to append them.) The corn crop of 1882, though much better than that of 1 88 1, was still considerably below that of 1880. According to the careful estimate of the Commissioner of Agriculture it amounted to 1,624,917,800 bushels, against 1,717,434,543 bush- els in 1880, and 1,194,916,000 in 1881. The average yield per AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881, 1882. 165 acre in 1882 was about 25.5 bushels per acre, against 27.6 bush- els in 1880, and 18.6 bushels in 1881. Wheat. — The wheat crop of 1881 was very deficient, when compared with that of 1880, although not to as great an extent as that of corn. In 1880 there were 498,549,868 bushels grown upon 37,986,717 acres — an average of 13.1 bushels per acre. . In 188 1 there were 380,280,090 bushels grown upon 37,709,020 acres — an average of 10. i bushels per acre, being the lowest yield ever reported for the whole country. The decrease in 1880 was 118,269,778 bushels, or 22 per cent. The average price in 1880 was 95 cents per bushel, the total value of the crop being 1^474,201,850; the average price in 1881 was $1.19 per bushel, the total value of the crop being ^453,790,427 — a decrease in 1881 of $20,411,423, or 4.3 per cent. For several years from three to four tenths of the wheat crop of the United States has been exported to Europe, and this large foreign demand very much influences home prices. Of the crop of 1880 there were exported 186,331,514 bushels (in- cluding flour, reduced to its equivalent in grain), the export value being $212,745,742, or $1.14 per bushel, and the farm value at horne 95 cents. Of the crop of 1881 there were exported 121,892,389 bushels, the export value being $149,304,773, or $1.22 per bushel, the farm value at home being $1.19. The wheat crop of 1882 was a fair one, the yield being about , 12 bushels per acre — about midway between the unusually good yield (13.8 bushels) in 1879 and the unusually bad one (lo.i bushels) in 1881 ; the average of the ten preceding years being 12.2 bushels. There was an increase in the area of cultivation, especially in the Southern States, amounting in all to about 4,000,000 acres, the entire yield of the year being about 503,000,000 bushels — an increase in 1882 over 188 1 of 32 per cent, and a very slight increase over 1880. That the yield of wheat per acre is far less than it should be is undeniable. The Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture embodies some val- uable suggestions upon this point, which will be presented in a separate chapter. Oats. — This is the only one of our grain crops which was 10 166 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. not seriously impaired by the unfavorable season of 1881. In 1880 there were grown 417,885,380 bushels upon 16,187,977 acres, the average yield being 25.8 bushels per acre. The value of the crop was #150,243,565, at 36 cents per bushel. In 1881 there were grown 416,481,000 bushels upon 16,831,600 acres, the average yield being 24.7 bushels per acre. The value of the crop was #193,198,970, at 46.4 cents per bushel — an increase over 1880 of 28.7 per cent. This great increase in the price of oats was owing to the deficiency of the corn crop, these two grains being used interchangeably for the feeding of certain species of live-stock. The oat crop of 1882 was a remarkably good one ; the acreage was considerably increased, and the total yield was 475,655,700 bushels — an increase over the preceding year of 14 per cent. Barley. — Of this there were grown, in 1880, 45,165,346 bushels upon 1,843,329 acres, the average yield being 25.5 bushels per acre. The value of the crop was #30,090,742, at^ 66.6 cents per bushel. In 1881 there were grown 41,161,330 bushels upon 1,967,510 acres, the average yield being 20.9 bushels an acre. The value of the crop was #33,862,513, at 82.3 cents per bushel — an increase in 1881 of 12 per cent. Bar- ley is the only grain which is imported into the United States. The annual consumption for the last ten years has averaged 42,000,000 bushels, of which 6,000,000 bushels per year has been imported. The value per acre of the barley crop is greater than that of any other grain. The average value per acre for the last ten years has been: barley, #16.14; wheat, #12.82; corn, #11.20; rye, #10.03; oatS, ^9-9S- The crop of 1882 was about 45,000,000 bushels — several millions of bushels less than the consumption, the deficiency being supplied from Canada. There seems no good reason why the cultivation of this grain should not be very considerably extended. Barley and rye form the. principal bread-stuff of the peasantry of Northern and Central Europe, with whom wheaten bread is almost unknown. It is not probable that barley will, to any great extent, take the place with us of wheat as a bread-stuff; -but, apart from the increasing demand for brewing, it is worth trying how far it may AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881, 1882, ]67 profitably take the place of oats and corn for fattening live- stock. Its average yield in bushels per acre is less than that of oats, but the weight per bushel is greater. RvE. — The actual cultivation of rye is much larger than ap- pears in the statistics of the Census. In the South it is largely grown as green fodder for cattle, little more being allowed to ripen than is required for seed. Elsewhere the grain is used mainly for distilling. The average yield per acre is more than that of wheat, but the value per acre is less, the average for ten years being $10.03. ^^ 1880 there were grown 24,540,829 bush- els, upon 1,767,619 acres, or 13.9 bushels per acre, the value being $18,564,560, at 75.6 cents per bushel. In 1881 there were grown 20,704,950 bushelsj upon 1,789,100 acres, or 11.6 bushels per acre, the value being $19,327,415, at 93.3 cents per bushel, an increase in value, in 1881, of nearly 24 per cent. Buckwheat ranks lowest among our grain crops. The crop of 1880 was the largest ever grown. In that year 14,617,535 bushels were grown, upon 822,802 acres, or 17.7 bushels per acre, the value being $8,682,483, at 59.4 cents per bushel. In 1 88 1 there were grown 9,486,200 bushels, upon 828,815 acres, or 1 1.4 bushels per acre, the value being $8,205,705, at 86.5 cents per bushel — a decrease in quantity, notwithstanding a slight in- crease in acreage, of 72 per cent; and a slight decrease in total value,' although the price per bushel advanced 46 per cent. Potatoes. — The experience of 1881 furnishes a striking illus- tration of some of the peculiarities of this crop. Nothing in "agriculture is so uncertain as the yield per acre, or the price per bushel. In 1875 the yield was 166,875,000 bushels, or 110.5 bushels per acre; the value was $65,019,000, or 38.9 cents per bushel. In 1876 the yield was 124,827,000 bushels, or 67.2 bushels per acre; the value was $83,861,000, or 67.1 cents per bushel. In 1879 the yield was 181,626,000 bushels, or 98.9 bushels per acre; the value was $79,153,000, or 43.6 cents per bushel. In 1880 the yield was 167,659,000 bushels — 91 bushels per acre; the value was $81,662,000, or 48.3 cents per bushel. In 1 88 1 the yield was only 109,145,000 bushels, but the value was $99,291,000, or 90.9 cents per bushel. Thus, while the crop 168 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. of i88i was 35 per cent, less than that of 1880, its value was 22 per cent, greater, the price per bushel being 88 per cent, higher ; and, moreover, 8,800,000 bushels were imported from Scotland and Ireland, at a cost of ^4,700,000. That is, potatoes from Glasgow or Belfast could be landed at New York for 54 cents a bushel, while the home product was costing 91 cents per bushel. Of course, the possible supply from these sources was limited. But, while the quantity and price of the crop are so uncertain, there is a remarkable uniformity in tl^e average value per acre. The average for eight years was #46.93, the highest being $54.83, in 1875 ; the lowest, $41.14, in 1878. " Small as was the crop of 1 88 1," says Mr. Dodge, the statistician of the Agricultu- ral Bureau, " the average value per acre was $48.63, which has not been exceeded by any season since 1874, illustrating the fact that partial failure of a crop does not reduce the total income derived from it. But, while this is true as ,a rule, it does not mitigate, the hardship of individual losses, which are distributed among the careless and unskilful farmers, the enterprising culti- vators usually getting good crops and high prices, reaping re- wards instead of suffering damage." Quite recently a movement has begun which promises to work a great change in the pro- duction of potatoes, rendering it quite as much a Southern as a Northern crop. Mr. Dodge says : "The reduction of the supply in 1881, and the unprecedented high prices which followed such a failure, stimulated efEort, and the result was an increase of acreage of about 7 per cent. This crop is becoming more important than ever before in the South, where potatoes have formerly been grown very sparingly in gardens only, and used for a few days or weeks in the spring as a vegetable of positive rarity. Their use has increased of late, and their shipment North is increasing with the development of railroads and the tendency to ' trucking.' But it is a lesson that has been well learned, that garden vegetables, roots, and the small grains — all products which flourish in higher latitudes — must be grown in autumn, in winter, or early spring, before the heats of summer reach their greatest elevation. So potatoes are planted on the Gulf coast in December, or January ; a little farther north, at a somewhat later date, adapting the time of ripening to the close of the season's moderate temperature. " And there has sprung up a practice which renders it possible to increase immensely the consumption at the South of this valuable food-product, which cannot endure the heats of summer. This practice should give the Irish potato 'A FIELD BOUQUET." See Note 8. AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR' i88t, 1882. 171 a place by the side of the sweet-potato as a winter food for every day's con- sumption. It is by late summer planting and early fall growth, ripening before frost, that this desirable result can be attained. In high latitudes and eleva- tions there has been some difficulty in getting an autumn crop fully matured. By making two crops — one in winter and early spring, the other in autumn — it is possible to have a continuous supply, and seed -potatoes grown at home, instead of being brought from the North, as formerly." Hay. — " The grass crop, green and dry," says Mr. Dodge, " is worth more than any other in this country. The hay is worth far less than the pasturage in intrinsic value. Grass de- pastured forms an overwhelming proportion of the growth in flesh, of all animals, and bears an important part in the fattening or furnishing of beeves." The hay crop was the only one which in 1 88 1 exceeded in quantity that of 1880. In 1880 there were 31,925,233 tons, grown upon 25,864,955 acres, or 1.23 tons per acre; the value was $371,928,964, at $11.65 P^i" ton; the value of the hay per acre being $14.38. In 1881 there were 30,888,700 acres — an increase of 5,023,745 acres, or 20 per cent; the yield was 35,135,064 tons, or 1.14 tons per acre; the value was $415,131,366, at $13.43 per ton — an increase of nearly 12 per cent.; but there was a decrease of 7.5 per cent, in the yield per acre, and the value of the product was $13.43 per acre — a de- crease from 1880 of nearly 7 per cent. Leaving out of view the grass consumed as pasturage, the hay crop stands third in value of all in the United States, being exceeded only by corn and wheat. Wheat, indeed, exceeds it by less than 7 per cent; the average value of the wheat crop for the eleven years ending in 1 88 1 being $359,000,000, and that of hay $335,000,000. The value of the cotton crop of 1881 was $259,000,000; that of hay, $415,000,000; the value of the hay was $156,000,000, or 37 per cent, greater than that of the cotton. There is every reason to anticipate a very large increase in the production of hay in most sections of the country. This is prefigured by the increase of acreage in 1881 of 10 per cent The suggestions of the Agricultural Statistician in regard to the " Winter Feeding of Farm Animals," which we reproduce greatly abridged, are worthy of the utmost consideration : 172 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. " It has long been a question with thoughtful observers, whether the manu- rial remainder of hay, straw, and corn-stover fed during the winter may not be the only profitable result of the winter's feeding. This material represents some hundreds of millions of dollars in value, and it is saved with much labor and expense, and 'fed out' daily for some five months in the year in middle latitudes. Comparatively little of it does more than keep up animal heat, act- ing as fuel in the animal furnace, but not as a flesh-former. " To ascertain the results of preyailing practice, and learn whether this loss is a necessity or a blunder, an inquiry was instituted as to the average increase in the weight of stock two years old and upwards during the season of winter feeding. The returns show clearly and conclusively that — "i. A considerable percentage of stock fed actually lose in flesh and in weight. 2. Another large fraction maintain their weight, and add to bone and size of frame, but decrease in fiesh. 3. A small proportion make increase of weight — 5, 10, 20, or 30 per cent. — depending upon comfortable shelter, and amount and variety of feed. " The difference between a loss of 5 or 6 per cent, and a gain of equal pro- portion, say 100 pounds in the northern belt, in which winter feeding is a general necessity, is equivalent, at the low average rate of ^3 per hundred, to more than $50^000,000. This amount could easily be made if only a part of the difference between average neglect and skilful feeding were obviated." In New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware a gain is reported, averaging about 10 per cent.; but there the cattle usually have more or less grain fed out to them. In Ohio "the verdict is, that cattle well protected and properly fed gain in flesh and in weight in winter; if unsheltered and fed on coarse hay and straw, they will lose." In Indiana "farmers^ report a gain in cases of good and judicious feeding ; yet the majority state, as an existing fact,, that the cattle lose in ' weight." In Illinois, " the centre of cattle -feeding in the United States, it is evident from the re- turns that, with the exception of the herds of professional feeders, cattle make little actual gain in weight during four months in winter, and that in many instances there is a seri- ous loss in condition, which further impairs the capacity for gain under the best conditions of summer pasturage." In the Southern States, where the cattle are left mainly to take care of themselves through the winter, there appears to be. a gen- eral loss in weight during the winter; a loss which might not only be obviated, but turned into gain, by giving them a com- AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881, 1882. 173 paratively small quantity of hay, much as grain is given to them in more northern States. And it is here that we are to look for a marked increase in the production of hay. The Report continues : "The gain is very little in Virginia. Some counties report a loss; others say the cattle about ' hold their own ' in winter ; a fair average of the some- what indefinite returns scarcely exceeds j per cent. The gains and losses about balance each other in North Carolina ; the cattle have lived through the winter. It is not much better in Georgia. Some report a loss in flesh and weight ; oth- ers maintain a statu quo ; while a few assert a small gain. In Texas, cattle ' sometimes lose and sometimes gain,' or ' merely live / and in some cases they are not fortunate enough to live. It is rather a loss than a gain in Arkan- sas. 'If well fed they will gain 20 per cent.,' say several reporters; 'but they are not well fed, as a rule, and so the actual result is a loss of 20 per cent.' The California returns indicate a loss in winter under the treatment usually practised; at the same time the claim of possible gain is distinctly made; and in Fresno County it is asserted that, with good feeding, the gain is greater in winter than in summer. "The lesson of this branch of the investigation is, that a large portion of the farmers of the United States do not practically realize the physiological necessity for continuous growth in the production of meat of juicy, rich, even quality ; or the economic necessity of making every pound of food yield the highest possible fraction of a pound of flesh. To attain this ideal fully is not easy, even to the highest skill and ripest experience ; but an approach to it in popular practice would save many millions of dollars annually." Cotton. — The cotton crop of 1880 was the largest ever grown. The yield, upon 15,950,518 acres, was 6,589,329 bales. In 1881 there were 16,710,730 acres, an increase in acreage of 4.7 per cent. ; the yield was 5,435,845 bales, a decrease of nearly 18 per cent. The value was ^259,016,315. In 1882 there was a slight decrease of acreage. The planting season opened gloom- ily, " the temperature in April and May being low, and the mois- ture excessive, causing deficient stands, replanting, slow growth, and unthrifty appearance. With such conditions the aphis flour- ishes, and rust appears." The June report showed the lowest condition since 1874. The July report showed decided im.- provement, which continued increasing until the close of the picking, the yield being about 6,636,600 bales, slightly exceed- ing that of 1880, and the value being about ^305,000,000, prices ruling low. 174 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Prices and Prosperity. — If we had respect only to the reported values of the grain crops, the year 1881 would appear to have been a prosperous one to the farmer when compared with 1880. There was, indeed, a decrease in the amount of the crops. The yield of all the grains in 1880 was 2,718,193,501 bushels, while it was only 2,066,029,570 in 1881, a decrease of 652,163,931 bushels, or 24 per cent. But the reported values in 1881 were ^1,470,948,200 against ^1,361,497,704 m 1880, an in- crease in 1 88 1 of ^109,450,496, But there was no such actual prosperity for ,the average farmer, because he had comparatively little to sell, and in very many cases none at all. If one must consume all he raises, it matters nothing to him whether the selling price is high or low. Those few who were fortunate enough to have any considerable surplus for sale of course gained very largely by the advance in prices; but this advan- tage inured mainly to the benefit of "operators" in grain, a few of whom made immense fortunes by the misfortunes of others. As a rule, the farmers were worse off at the close of 1 88 1 than they were at the beginning. Those classes who were purchasers and not producers of bread-stuffs and other food suffered still more severely. It cost them much more to live, while there was no corresponding increase in their earnings. The year 1881 was unquestionably a very bad one for the whole country. The encouraging lesson to be learned from the review of the experiences of 1880, 1881, and 1882 is, that so vast are the agricultural resources of the United States, and so slight is the probability of a succession of bad years, that a serious deficiency in crops like that of 1881 involves no permanent loss — none which one succeeding good year will not repair. It indeed may work an ultimate benefit by stimulating the farmers to better modes of cultivation. Live - stock. — There is an intimate and necessary relation between the grain product of the country and the price of meat. Upon this point Mr. Dodge says: " The course of the prices of beeves for six years past is suggestive. The Chicago market, the centre of the trade for domestic consumption and export, can furnish a sufficient history of prices. For three years, from 1876 to 1879, AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881, 1882. 175 there was a constant decline, amounting to 20 per cent, for choice beeves: Then commenced a rise, which in three years exceeded 40 per cent., the ad- vance moving slowly in 1879 ^'^d 1880, but much more rapidly during 1881, the increase being fully $1 per hundred of live weight during the year. But after December, 1881, the advance was extraordinary, if not unprecedented, the range for 'choice' being from ^5.85 to ^6.35 in January, 1882; and from $8.65 to $8. go in June, or more than 45 per cent, advance in six months." Taking the average between the highest and the lowest prices in January of each of the years 1876-82 we find that the Chicago prices for choice beeves were: in 1877, $5.28 per hundred -weight ; in 1878, ^4.70; in 1879, ^4.22 ; in 1880,^4.68; in 1881, ^5.13; in 1882, $6.20. The changes during the first six months of 1882 were as follows: January, ^6.10; February, ^5.88; March, ^6.13; April, ^6.88; May, ^7.40; June, $8.yj. Mr. Dodge says : "There are several causes of this great advance, which occasioned some surprise am6ng producers, and great consternation among consumers. The exportation of extra beeves, which commenced in 1877, and increased year by year, both as live and dead meat, is an element, but does not account for the spasmodic jumps, in the rates of the later months. Another element of equal or superior strength is the great destruction of cattle on tlie plains, and in the parks and valleys of the Rocky Mountains, in the winter of 1880-81, by cold and starvation, amid the drifts and severities of the unusual season. While this cause tended to stiffen prices in 1 881, it is not continuously operative, as the winter of 1881-82 was very favorable, and the numbers are now [at the close of 1882] increasing rather than diminishing. The third cause, acting in conjunction with the two preceding ones, and with a cumulative effect, is the failure of the corn crop of 1881, and the high prices of feeding material : all together producing an excitement in the market that partook of the nature of a panic.'' This " panic " was doubtless largely caused by speculators, who certainly took the utmost advantage of it, as is shown by the decline which set in after June, 188 r. There was, how- ever, a marked diminution in the numbers of swine, as is shown by the decrease, both in numbers and weight, of those slaugh- tered in the great pork -packing establishments. The number slaughtered in these establishments in 1880-81 was 16,553,662;- in 1881-82 it was 14,825,810; a decrease in 1881-82 of 1,727,852, or 10.5 per cent. The percentage of loss in weight 176 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. was a trifle less, being about' 9.1 per cent. "These figures, however," says the Agricultural Statistician, " represent only the organized pork -packing of the country. In addition to this the farmers of the packing regions, and of the non- packing States, East and South, kill for home supply and limited neigh- borhood sale about two -thirds as much more in absolute weight, and in numbers slaughtered a still larger proportion," since, as a rule, the best animals are sold to the packing establishments. The entire ratio of diminution was very nearly uniform ; for the Census Report puts the number of swine, June 30, 1880, as 47,681,700, and the Agricultural Statistician estimates the number in January, 1882, at 44,122,200, a decrease of 3,559,500, or 7.4 per cent. Between June, 1880, and January, 1882, there was a scarcely perceptible increase in the number of horses, mules, and milch cows ; but there was a considerable increase in the number of sheep, there being 45,016,224 in 1882, against 42,192,074 in 1880, an increase in 1882 of 2,824,150, or 6.7 per cent., the ratio of increase being less than that of the increase of population. But there has been a very marked increase in the values of live- stock. The value of all kinds, in 1880, according to the Cen- sus Report, was ^1,500,464,609; in 1882, as estimated by the Agricultural Statistician, it was $1,906,467,975; an increase of $406,003,366, or 27.3 per cent, in two and a half years. The in- crease in the values was greatest in cattle and swine. Of the causes of this increase in cattle, Mr. Dodge says : " Prior to 1877 the exports of stock were small, and comparatively uniform. In October of that year commenced the export of beeves of the Short-horn and other grades from Northern seaports. The cattle hitherto shipped were sent from Texas and Florida, and went mostly to the West Indies. These cattle averaged from $16 to $17 per head, and the value of the aggregated cattle ex- ported never went much above $20 until the era of fat beeves commenced. The table of averages discloses the fact that the shipments for three months of Western cattle brought the average for 1877 up to ^31.86 ; the next year the average was 5^48.69 ; and as the proportion of Short^horn blood increased, the average was advanced, and it stood at $77.03 in 1881. While the I,ong- horns of Texas averaged JS16.84 in that year, Northern beeves exported from Boston averaged $99.68, or one Short-horn equal to six Texans." AGRICULTURAL SUMMARY FOR 1881, 1882. 177 The increase of values is therefore a substantial one, arising to a great extent from increase of quality; and may be looked upon as permanent, especially in the case of beeves. It shows that much has been done since 1880 in the way of improving the breeds, and confirms the conclusions which we have already drawn from the Census of 1880, to the effect that cattle-breeding is one of the most promising branches of agricultural industry. In answer to the question, " What of the future of the prices of the products of the meat-producing industry .?" the Agricultural Statistician, in his report for 1882, replies: " There has already been a decline since the commencement of the im- provement of the corn prospects of 1882. While prices cannot continue to in- crease, and cannot be permanently maintained under full harvests, it is prob- able that the low rates of a few years ago will not soon prevail, if ever. The general tendency throughout the world is towards a high rate for meat, com- pared with other animal products, and with grain." Agricultural and other Exports. — For the last ten years, , at least, fully three-fourths of the exports from the United States have been the direct products of agriculture — mining and man- ufactures furnishing less than one-fourth. la 1874 the percent- age of agricultural exports was 74 per cent. ; it was 76 per cent, in 1874; 74 per cent, in 1875; 79 per cent, in 1876; 76 per cent, in 1877; 82 per cent, in 1878; 84 per cent, in 1879; 89.5 per cent, in 1880; 89.2 per cent, in 1881. The following are the specific values in 1879, 1880, and 1881 : TABLE XL— AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER EXPORTS. Pr0T)D0T8. 1879. 1880. ISSl. Animals and animal matter Dollars. 146,640,233 210,391,096 173,158,200 20,122,967 53,843,026 Dollars. 161,133,376 288,050,201 221,517,323 21,143,142 46,018,575 Dollars. 186,258,691 270,342,591 261,267,138 23,915,724 46,407,608 Bread-stuffs etc Cotton etc Total agricultural exports 604,155,522 737,862,617 788,191,752 Total exports 717,093,777 823,946,353 883,925,947 Per cent, of agricultural exports 84 89.5+ 89.2- 178 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XIV. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN WHEAT -GROWING. THE average yield of wheat throughout the United States for the eleven years 1871-81 has been only 12.2 bushels per acre, never rising to 14 bushels in any year; and the aver- age value of the crop being only $12.82 per acre, the highest being in 1877, when it was $15.27, the price being good ($1.08 per bushel), and the yield also above the average. This small average yield, \vhen compared with that of some other countries, and with that of a few sections of our own, is sufficient proof that our wheat-growing is very defectively carried on. The Report of the Agricultural Statistician, embodied in that of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1881-82, con- tains suggestions upon some points which are worthy of the most careful consideration. We give the substance of these, preserving, as far as possible, the language of the author, but with much abridgment and condensation : Wheat is sown either broadcast or in drills. On the Pacific Coast the drill has only a limited use. In the twenty-four States which produce nearly all the wheat grown east of the Rocky Mountains about 57 per cent. (14,000,000 acres) are seeded with the drill, and 43 per cent. (10,000,000 acres) are sown broadcast, mainly by hand. Of nearly 700 counties from which reports were received, says Mr. Dodge, " five out of six favored the use of the drill ; and, as a rule, those who preferred broadcasting gave no reasons for it, simply acquiescing in the prevailing cus- tom of the region." He thus summarizes the essential argu- ments for drilling, as set forth by those correspondents who favored it: IMPROVEMENTS IN WHEAT -GROWING. 179 " It is claimed for the drill : i. That it tends to clear the surface of obstruc- tions and irregularities, turns the weeds and the refuse of the preceding harvest under, and makes a suitable preparation of the soil. 2. It enables the grower to place fertilizers in close proximity to the seed, thus stimulating a vigorous, early growth, till the roots reach out for nutriment to sustain the processes of the later development, tillering and perfecting the grain. 3. Less seed is re- quired, saving half a bushel per acre, which would amount to nearly 20,000,000 bushels were the entire area of wheat drilled. 4. The grain is put in more evenly ; its depth is regulated to reach a requisite degree of moisture, promo- tive of prompt germination, and to secure ample growth and firm footing of the roots, and better winter protection. 5. The plant starts more uniformly, makes a more even growth and regular stand. In a drought, if deeply planted, it comes up more quickly than the surface-planting, which requires rain before germination, and stands better in after-growth during a dry season. 6. Drilled land is better drained in winter ; the disintegration of the furrow-sides furnishes food and protection to the plants ; the depression catches and holds the winter snows ; while the ridge protects against the wintry winds. 8. Drilled wheat usually yields more to the acre." ' The last is the essential matter, involving substantially all the rest, and concerning it Mr. Dodge says : " There are few- exceptions to this statement, occurring only where conditions are favorable to the growth of grain sown broadcast. The Cen- sus for 1880 shows about 50 per cent, higher rate of production in the winter-wheat districts of the Ohio Valley, where the use of the drill is general, than in the spring-wheat region, where its use is limited." He, however, adds this proviso : " How much of this difference is due to the prevalence of drilling may not be exactly determined." His own summation of the whole matter is as follows : " The question of drilling or broadcasting is virtually one of good or bad husbandry. Where the soil is in good tilth, high fertility, and free from such obstructions as rocks or stumps, the preference expressed is almost invariably for drilling. In those districts in which custom follows corn with wheat, the corn is cut and stocked early ; the shaded soil is moist, and, after stirring the surface and breaking the weeds with the harrow or the cultivator, the seed is sown, and usually comes up and produces a fair growth. With preparation so hasty and superficial, drilling is impracticable, and broadcasting a necessity. So in the weedy wheat-fields of primitive soils, given year after year to wheat: growing, the land is cheap and the labor dear, and the surface yearly becomes more and more weedy, making drilling inconvenient and expensive. Then there are wooded districts, where stumps for some years prevent the use of the 180 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. drill ; and in the Eastern fields rocks are sometimes tr6ublesome ; while on steep mountain slopes, as in the Alleghanies, drilling is inconvenient and little practised. The most plausible reason for broadcast sowing is given in some flat prairie districts, where surface-water will not drain off, filling the drill-fur- rows, freezing and destroying the plants. One correspondent strikes the key- note of primitive Western wheat-growing in recommending 'drilling when land is clean, and broadcasting when land is foul.' " We have elsewhere called attention to the subject of select- ing the wheat used for seeding. But there is much more which may be done than the mefe selection of some " accidental " vari- ety and perpetuating it. It has now come to be a recognized fact that the " breeds " of wheat may be improved by judicious "hybridization" — or, rather, crossing — with just as much cer- tainty as the breeds of live-stock can be thus improved. During the winter of 1880-81 a meeting of agriculturists was held at the Department of Agricukure, in Washington. Before this meeting a paper upon cereals was read by Professor A. E. Blount, of the Colorado Agricultural College. He gave a detailed account of his experiments with wheat, and his suc- cess in improving by selection, and in producing new varieties by crossing, illustrating the same by forty samples of wheat which he had grown. A portion of this paper appears in the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture. The objects aimed at by " hybridization " are to " make the offspring better in qual- ity and quantity, both for the farmer and the miller;" and the results attained are thus set forth : " I. It improves the plant in various ways. It makes it more vigorous, and less liable to the attacks of vegetable parasites ; the straw is stiller, better glazed, and more healthy ; the leaves, as well as the roots, are better feeders ; the glumes are more compact and better filled ; the heads longer ; and fertiliza- tion takes place much more surely and successfully. "2. It improves the grain; makes it more plump, heavier, harder, conse- quently better suited for milling purposes ; the bran is thinner, more free from fluff and cellulose, the two obstacles that interfere so materially with milling ; the grain is entirely transformed, being made to contain more or less gluten, starch, and other elements that make good flour." We give the substance of the remarks of Professor Blount respecting some of the species of which he speaks with special IMPROVEMENTS IN WHEAT - GROWING. 181 favor. Wheat is said to have poor milling qualities if the per- centage of gluten is small. " The Black-bearded Centennial came originally from New South Wales. It is an enormous feeder and an enormous yielder, 2 ounces producing last year 25 pounds 6 ounces — 202 for i. It has the finest head and kernel of any I have ever handled. It took the premium last August, in New York, over two or three thousand competitors, for being the heaviest, an average head weighing 107 grains troy, while the next heaviest weighed 92. But, from the analysis of its composition, it cannot be said to be a good milling wheat. "The Eldorado is an improvement on the old Egyptian wheat, otherwise called Pharaoh's wheat, Seven-headed wheat. Mummy wheat, etc. In Lorimer County, Colorado, it has produced 90 bushels per acre. " The yudkin is a Pennsylvania wheat, and comes to us as one of the best winter varieties. I turned it into a spring wheat three years .ago, since which time it has proved to be among the best. It produces, in weight, a little more grain than straw, and yields more than 320 from i. Its color is red, and re- markably uniform. It has a strong, stiff straw, a little too long, and has good milling properties. " While the Australian Club exhibits in the analysis poor milling quali- ties, it is one of the most prolific and successful varieties for the farmer. It produced, last year, 416 from i, and has straw, color, and grain that can hardly be excelled. It came from Australia. It is hard, and has a large amber kernel. " The White Mountain comes to me from Montana. I have raised it but one year. It has a stiff, strong straw, does not rust, and ripens evenly. It yields abundantly. I received loi pounds from 4 ounces' sowing — 404 from i. The analysis shows its milling properties to Idc good. It is a smooth, white wheat, of great value. " The Perfection was received from Palestine last year under a variety of names. Half an ounce produced 7 pounds of straw and 6 of grain — 192 from 1. The straw is coarse, strong, and stiff; the grain is large, white, and uniform in color. It does not appear to be subject to rust or smut in this climate. Its milling properties are fair. On the whole, it is a good wheat for the farmer and miller. " The Russian came to me from Moscow three years ago. Three years' test makes it one of the best wheats I have. It has one failing — shelling too easily when cut too ripe. Aside from this fault, it commends itself to every farmer, and especially to every miller, as its flour is of the best. It produced 76 from I, the first year; 172 from i, the second year; and 448 from i, the third year. " The Rio Grande is the best for milling of all the varieties I have. Like the Russian, it shells badly, being clad with but a single glume. Sometimes the grain grows without any natural covering at all. I have crossed it upon 182 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. .the Champlain, the effect of which has given every kernel in the offspring its , proper amount of clothing — two glumes, two palets, and two lodicules. " The Touzelle was obtained from France. It is the finest-looking of all the French bearded wheats, and improves rapidly by selection and cultivation. It produced 56 from i, the first year; 128 from i, the'second year; 480 from i, the third year. The analysis shows that it is not yet a good milling wheat, being destitute of the proper percentage of gluten. " The Sonora came from Mexico, below the Gulf of California. Some millers do not like it, and some farmers will not raise it. I have raised it for three years; the first year it produced 56 from i; the second year, 126 from i; the third year, 416 from i. It is a good wheat if cultivated with some care, and milled properly. "The Improved Fife is an improvement on the Saxon Life, and commends itself to every one who has seen and raised it. It has for three years showed no failing whatever; and the analysis shows it to have the best milling proper- ties. The first year I raised 56 from i, on the College grounds; the second year, 126 from 1; the third year, 416 from i. "The Lost Nation is an old 'stand-by' in the Eastern States. Seed was sent to me three years ago from Chester County, Pennsylvania, and the three tests I have given it show it to be an excellent variety for the farmer, and the analysis shows it to be a pretty fair milling wheat. The first year it produced 76 from 1; the second year, 96 from i; the third year, 352 from i. " The Clawson, from Pennsylvania, is a winter variety, and almost refuses to be transformed into a spring wheat. It has done well, and commends itself to the farmer, being very prolific, and free from almost all diseases and ac- cidents. It does not ' kill out ' in the winter, but grows well, and is green all the time, no matter how cold it is. The straw is strong, well glazed, and never fails ; the heads are remarkably long, and always well filled. The first year it produced 68 from i; the second, 136 from i; the third, 544 from i." Prof. Blount exhibited several specimens of his own hybrids, of some of which he says : "^They are but two years old, and hence have not become ' fixed.' I crossed them in order to make the offspring better in quality and quantity, both for farmer and miller." Of some of his hybrids he makes par- ticular mention : " My Number Ten — a cross of the New York Diehl upon the Virginia Golden Straw — now three years old, is ' fixed,' and so far claims the attention of all wha see the grain or straw. Its milling properties, as shown by the analysis, speak for themselves. It has a stiff, strong straw, has not rusted at all, and the head is one of the finest and largest known; more than 100 kernels are found in a large proportion of them. The wheat came from but one kernel planted in 1880; that one kernel produced the first year five good heads con- IMPROVEMENTS IN WHEAT - GROWING. 183 taining in all 474 kernels ; these I planted again in 1881 ; and I have now 30 pounds or more, which will produce at least 50 or 100 bushels by careful sowing and cultivation." Prof. Blount has some timely words of caution in regard to experiments in the crossing of wheats : " The whole operation is very similar to the breeding of stock. The ex- perimenter must thoroughly understand the entire vegetable and physiological structure of both wheats before he can make a cross or an improvement upon either parent. A success cannot always be made the first trial, or the second. The experimenter is compelled sometimes to cross and recross again, in order to make a wheat that will suit both farmer and miller. Many wheats are splendid in the field, and are of no manner of account in the mill, and vice versa." He illustrates this in the case of some of his own hybrids, of which the chemical analysis is given : " Take Blount's hybrid Number Eighteen, for instance. It is a failure, so far as being fit for the mill is concerned. Why ? Because the percentage of gluten (10.74) is very much less than that of its mother, the Improved Fife (14.23), and very little better than that of its father, the Australian Club (8.91). Had it been the average of both (11.57), o'' more, there might have been a chance of making it a success. One more trial — the third — will settle the question whether or not it is worthy to be placed among the standards. How far it is a success for the farmer remains yet to be determined. Compare Blount's hybrid Number Nineteen. The father -wheat, Improved Fife, contains 14.23 per cent, of gluten; the mother, Oregon Club, has 10.06 per cent.; the average (12.14 P^r cent.) is just \i\\2A. Number Nineteen contains. Now, both these parent wheats are good for both farmer and miller ; and I have reason to conclude that this offspring will be better than either parent when it becomes 'fixed.' It is now only two years old, and will not become 'fixed,' or a stand- ard, until next year (1882)." It must be borne in mind that all these experiments were made in Colorado, where the climate and soil appear to be es- pecially adapted to the growth of wheat, the yield in 1881 being 19.8 bushels per acre, while the average for the entire United States was only 10.2 bushels. And, moreover, the cultivation in these experiments was most carefully conducted in every re- spect. Prof. Blount says : " All these remarks and statistics are made with respect to the climate and locality of Colorado. They may, or may not, apply to other sections and other 11 184 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. States. All these wheats have been improved by selection and crossing, culti- vation and irrigation, under different treatment. In this, as well as in different soils and climates, they might do better, or they might do worse. I am convinced that wheats made on the ground where they are to be raised will do much bet- ter in every respect than such as may be imported." It is not to be expected that the best seed, of the best varie- ties, and with the best of farm cultivation, will produce anything approaching the increase of loo, 200, 300, and even more than 400 for I, reported, as the result of these experiments; but when it is borne in mind that more than one-tenth of the wheat crop of one season is required as seed for the next — that is, that the average yield is less than ten from one — it is evident that im- proved varieties of seed would very greatly increase the products of our wheat-fields. There is, therefore, no reason to doubt that the growth of wheat for the sake of selling it for seed would, in the right hands, prove to be a very lucrative branch of agricultu- ral industry, just as the breeding of cattle has become. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FARM LABORERS. 185 CHAPTER XV. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FARM LABORERS. IT is a distinctive characteristic of American agriculture that the majority of the cultivators are the owners of the soil which they till. In 1880 there were 4,008,907 farms, of which 2,984,386, or about three -fourths of all in number, and a much greater proportion in area and value, are occupied by the own- ers. There are 322,357 farms which are rented for money; and 702,244, mainly in the South, and occupied by freedmen, who cultivate them on shares upon terms varying with the fertility of the soil, the conditions as to furnishing animals and farm im- plements by the owner, etc. Besides farmers, there are nearly as many " agricultural laborers " who work for wages, and many others who are regularly engaged in other occupations, but work as farm laborers during the harvest and other busy seasons. The amount of wages paid to these farm laborers is an im- portant element in estimating the profits of the farmers, many of whom employ a large number of hands. The wages of farm laborers vary widely in different sections, and from many causes. It was not until a quite recent date that there were any reliable means of ascertaining the statistics in this matter. About fifty years ago Mr. H. C. Casey set on foot inquiries the result of which was, that the average wages were about ^9 per month, with board. In 1866 the Agricultural Department undertook investigations upon a comprehensive scale, the result of which was, that the average wages were found to be $15.50 per month, with board. So that, if the two sets of data are accepted, there had been an increase of 72 per cent, in one generation. The average rate of wages, when board was not provided, was $26 186 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. per month for the whole country, and ^28 in the States where white labor was almost exclusively employed. During the next three years there was a decline to ^25.13 throughout the whole country, although the rates at the South were somewhat increased. There have been numerous fluctua- tions of varying degrees in different sections during the succeed- ing years, which are set forth in elaborate tables by the Agricult- ural Statistician in his Report for 1882. The year 1879 was the period of lowest depression in agri- cultural wages. The results of the great monetary revulsion which began late in 1873 had now fully developed themselves. The manufacturing industries were greatly depressed, and op- eratives thrown out of employment sought work upon farms, entering into competition with the regular agricultural laborers, and thus greatly reducing the wages paid to them. The opera- tives in the Massachusetts factories thrown out of work went back to their former homes in the adjacent States, and sought employment upon farms. From 1875 to 1879 the wages of farm laborers in Maine fell from ^25.40 to ^18.25; in New Hampshire, from ^28.57 to ^19.75. In all New England there was an average fall of 30 per cent.; in the Middle States, of 25, and in the Western States, of 14 per cent. In the Southern States, where the wages were low — ^just emerging from the no- wages of the slave system — there was comparatively little de- cline. After 1879 there was a gradual advance, up to 1882, of-- about $2, per month in all the States east of the Mississippi, al- though the rates of 1875 have not been reached; and in the new States beyond the Mississippi the average became higher than it was in 1875. Table XII. shows the average monthly wages, without board, paid in 1875, 1879, and 1882, to farm labor- ers regularly employed. Where board is furnished, the wages are lower by about one- third — sometimes a little more, some- times a little less. The influence of manufactures upon the prices of agricult- ural labor are strikingly evinced in this Table. Wherever other industries flourish they draw off many persons who would otherwise engage in agricultural labor ; thus, by diminishing RETURNING FROM WORK. See Note 9. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FARM LABORERS. TABLE XII.— WAGES OF AGRICULTURAL LABORERS. 189 Status. 18S2. 18T9. 1875. States. 1SS2. 1S79. 1S75. $24.75 25.25 33.37 30.66 27.75 27.90 33,63 34.35 23.88 18.20 16.34 13.96 13.86 13.10 13.86 16.64 13.15 15.10 18.30 30.30 $18.35 19.75 19.00 25.00 23.00 33.39 30.61 30.32 19.92 17.00 14.00 11.00 11.19 10.25 10.73 13.80 12.20 13.31 16.40 18.27 $25.40 38.57 29.67 31.87 30.00 38.25 37.14 30.71 25.89 20.33 20.03 14.84 13.46 13.84 14.40 15.50 13,60 16.40 18.40 19.50 Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia . . Kentucky Ohio $18.50 13.75 19.16 18.30 34.55 35.76 23.14 33.91 36.21 36.36 26.21 33.39 33.85 34.45 38.35 33.50 36.50 $17.12 13.73 16.98 15.17 30.72 33.88 20.30 30.61 31.07 24.55 23.09 17.59 30.67 23.04 41.00 35.45 35.00 28.87 33.10 38.56 $30.50 15.20 20.75 18.13 24.05 28.23 34.30 35.30 35.50 26.16 24.35 19.40 23.30 24.00 44.50 38.25 38.50 35.50 23.75 33.50 New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts . . Rhode Island . . . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaware .Maryland 'Virginia North Carolina.. South Carolina. . Georgia Michigan Indiana Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Nebraska California Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas . .... Colorado Utah Territory.. NewMex.Ter... Dakota the supply increasing the rate of wages paid upon the farm. The rates are higher in Massachusetts than in any other State east of the Rocky Mountains. Ohio and Kentucky lie side by side, with climate and soil essentially the same ; but Ohio is dotted over with cities and large towns having thriving manu- facturing industries, and the wages for farm labor are notably higher than in Kentucky, where there are few manufactures, and also a considerable percentage of negro labor. In the Southern States, where more than half of agricultural labor is performed by colored persons, the rates are very much lower than elsewhere — " because," says Mr. Dodge, " it is less intelli- gent and less efficient, and is applied mainly to a single routine of cropping ; but it has been gradually and surely improving in quality, commanding appreciation, so that it now brings very nearly the same price when cotton is 12 cents per pound as when it was 30 cents." The agricultural wages in California and Oregon are altogether exceptional, the rates being more than the average earnings of mechanics and operatives through- out the United States. The yearl)'- wages for farm labor, with- out board, are as follows : In the Pacific States, ^458 ; in the Eastern States, $320; in the Western States, $284; in the Mid- dle States, $267; in the Southern States, ^184. 190 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. There are also many persons, regularly employed in other occupations, who engage in farm labor for a few weeks during the harvest, and are paid by the day. The rates of wages for this work vary greatly. They are highest in the great wheat- growing States, " because of the extraordinary prominence of a single crop, which is an absorbing specialty. The harvest in the South is a longer season, not so exacting in demands for immediate and speedy conclusion, and harvest wages are there- fore lower, relatively, than the more transient service in the West." The average rates per day, without board, are : In the wheat-growing States, about $2.00; in the Eastern and Middle States, $1.60; in the Southern States, ^1.20; being lower in the cotton States (except Texas) than in the others. The ex- tremes throughout the United States are, California, $2.30, and Alabama, ^1.05 per day. There is no necessity that the man who commences life as an agricultural laborer should remain such all his days, pro- vided he has the intelligence sufficient to enable him to become a successful farmer, and will for a few years practise the strict- est frugality. It has been elsewhere shown that the farmer in a new country needs about ^1000 to start with to purchase and stock a moderate farm. Now, the average yearly wages of a farm-hand (exclusive of those in the Southern States) is about ^'332, without board; deducting one-third for board, there re- mains ^220; and out of this, if he has no one else to provide for, he can lay by ^120 a year without denying himself any absolute necessity. Let the young man begin to do this on his twenty- first birthday, depositing his savings in a savings- bank, at 4 per cent, interest, to be added annually to the prin- cipal. His first deposit, on his twenty-second birthday, will be $120. On his twenty- third birthday he will have to his credit $124.80, to which the new deposit of |5i2o being added, he will have $244.80. Going on in like manner, he will have on his twenty-fourth birthday, $374.59; on his twenty-fifth, $509.75; on his twenty-sixth, $649.95; on his twenty- seventh, $795.94; on his twenty -eighth, $947.77. On his twenty-ninth birthday, including the deposit of that day, he will have $1105.68 to his OPPORTUNITIES FOR FARM LABORERS. 191 credit. If he makes the deposit more frequently than once a year (and, as is the custom of savings-banks, the interest account is made up semi-annually), there will be a few dollars more than this to his credit. Thus, at twenty-nine, the prudent agricultural laborer will have in his hands cash capital enough to set up as a farmer. Few professional men begin to earn their livelihood at that age. The qualities which have enabled him to attain these results can hardly have failed to make him a good farmer, and the path to success is as open to him as to any other man. He will dur- ing this time have had ample time and opportunity to make up his mind where he shall locate himself. Now is the time for him to marry a woman who is fit to be a farmer's wife ; and, no longer a mere agricultural laborer, to begin his new life as a farmer, the owner of the soil which he tills. The ranks of suc- cessful farmers are, indeed, largely recruited in this manner from agricultural laborers. 192 ' THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XVI. THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. THE Mineral Products of the United States include the Precious Metals, gold and silver ; the Non - precious Metals, iron, copper, lead, etc.; Coal, anthracite and bituminous; Petroleum, or mineral oil ; and the Stones quarried for building purposes. This chapter will treat of the metals. The Precious Metals. Not less than one -third of the gold and one -half of the silver annually produced in the world is now mined in the United States. The value produced during the year ending May 31, 1880, was ^74,490,620, of which ^33,379,663 was gold, and ^41,110,957 silver. The weight of the gold bullion was 1,614,741 ounces troy, or 55.23 tons avoirdupois; that of the silver bullion was 31,797,473 ounces troy, or 1 090. 17 tons avoir- dupois. The weight of the gold was equal to five ordinary car-loads; that of the silver to about no car-loads. Of the gold, 64 per cent, was from deep mines, and 36 per cent, from "placer" or surface mines ; and of the placer gold, 71.5 per cent, was found in California, 9.7 per cent, in Montana, 7.7 per cent, in Oregon, and 7.3 per cent, in Idaho. Of the silver, all was from deep mines except about one -fourth of one per cent, which was found as an alloy of placer gold, nearly all of it being from California. In regard to the state of this branch of mining industry in 1880, the Census Report says: " Although these figures are somewhat less than those reached in three or four exceptiona!l years, they represent a yield considerably higher than the average annual product. While the Comstock lode, the former great producer of the country, has a greatly decreased output, this loss is compensated by a THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. 193 corresponding increase in other regions, notably in the Leadville district, Col- orado. As a whole, the mining industry of the country is in a healthy state, and the product of the precious metals in the future promises to show a regular and permanent increase." Table XIII. shows for each State the quantity and value of the gold and silver, and the total value of that produced in each State during the year ending May 31, 1880; and also the value of the yield in 1882. CO Virginia . . . , Washington Kew Ham New Mexi North Cari Oregon . . South Car Tennessee TTtah CD < Maine . . . Michigan Montfl.na. 1— 1 0( Alabama.. Alaska . . Arizona. - California, Colorado Dakota . . . ' £LC^T3 P CD • • ^ • ^ • ^' >~t ' CD ^ 05 to !-'■ h-i 00 rv -:? C7[ CO to i-L 5 j-^ coo pop 1 t~^ !-«■ CX COOO jf^ 05 j^ S>^p^S^ p^:r^ ^ cooaOfOcocoooioocoosot j^.-^Ih-'-tOO-^OlODOSS <^5opc^Oip>-'^^^-». 00 CO •^CnZO^-^ j-^ CO fs^CDtO-:! OCOOCOOOi-'CXi-^i-' CO 1— L • CO • JIO to 63 J-^ ' rfi^CDOCT■ h-J- • if^ ■ j^ j^ P^^S^ 1—1- * "-Q ■ CO VcO tN 0["^-^ CO 1 P 1— l- • 4i.- 10 COI-'COOtO OS 3 p^ <=> S^ S^ T^ >f^ P" ^ P 3^ s "co O* O- VfK-'-CobbbQo'tO 01 COOo'tOOO GO .2 ex h^- 00- OT CO hfs- CO OS OS ex 01 CO h-^ 'Q 00 to or ^ CO. -:?. osco -5 o-qoooooo toco t^-^ C7I i-i . -3 |_L 1— ^ h- 1- ^ i^ CX K-^ J^,^ ^ CO CO 00 to h^ Vl^-i^^ o^Vf "co CO to CO or ^ ^CO CO 1-^ to I-'- rfa- to I-'- (-'■ to !-'■ rfi- 00 -:} t4^ CO 5- "rfi- p CD ^ g "^ OS W GO CO OS "co rf^O Os'cO CO 00 O0"m. "to Co"b~I-^ go"-? b CO 2 i fcS tOI— itO-OStOOOOtOI-* CO to : .' to M ; 1— »- H-i. ^COCOOSM- t) HJ, M.' cO^-'-l-'-" OCX* toh-i-co' to CO :d Of ■ OCX- jxp>cxp: CT opp ■ pp: c- p p> p p ex p f ^ ob>b>b) • "ob>b"o* b>b> ■ obb 00 bb » gg •ooooooo OOOO- oooo- oo> ooooooo ht^ 1-^ Xfi 5S ■ P- M-. p^^f^. to . OS • o* cotoo- ot-;j- O- ; p>p>: : exp> 01 c> S 2 ■ OOOO i ■ ^ to • • - oooo : p> ex ex cxp g* "b b bi b" b » CO ooooooo sooo- oooo- 00. • ooooooo- .►» O o o ;> o It' <5 W f O o a n O > 194 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. All gold was doubtless originally deposited in veins of rocks of different kinds, usually quartz, and associated with various other pyritous minerals ; sulphate of iron,^and copper and lead ores being the most common, the gold itself forming a very small portion of the metallic contents of the rock. The gold often occurs in particles too small to be visible to the naked eye, also in grains, scales, and lumps or " nuggets." The largest known nugget was found in Australia in 1852. A native, in the employment of Dr. Kerr, was strolling through a sheep- pasture, when his eye fell upon what appeared to be a yellowish lump of stone. A blow with his hatchet brought to light a mass of gold. He brought word to his master, who rode to the spot. Close together lay three blocks of quartz, which had apparently been broken apart. All of them weighed about 150 pounds, and they contained 100 pounds of pure gold, worth more than ^20,000. In the course of ages the surface of the gold-bearing rock was sunk beneath the sea, and again elevated above it, very probably over and over again in some quarters of the earth. Many portions of the surface were exposed to the same kind of diluvial action as that by which tides and waves and currents are now wasting away the rocks : pounding and crushing, and grinding them into bowlders and pebbles, gravel and sand, clay and mud. The various substances, thus more or less dis- integrated, were carried along by the currents, and gradually deposited, the larger and heavier portions first reaching the bottom. If these currents acted upon gold-bearing rocks, the particles of the precious metal, being some seven times heavier than the rest, were deposited sooner than fragments of quartz of similar size. But large pieces of rock and small pieces of gold would at first be deposited together. The continued agitation by the currents would in the course of time cause the heavier metal to sink through the mass of bowlders, peb- bles, and sand, until they at last rested upon a bottom of rock or clay, impervious to water, and they could sink no farther. Below this rock or clay bed no gold is found. But very frequently the ancient beds of streams have be- H d so Cfi z m 2i Si o o > n ^ 2 p < THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. 197 come dried up, or the streams have found new channels ; and placer mines are often found in these dried-up beds, at a height much above the present level of the surrounding country. Placer mining consists in a great part in directing a stream of water through or against these ancient river-beds, washing away the pebbles, sand, and mud, and collecting the gold by the various processes of washing, amalgamating, etc. ; all involving considerable outlay for furnishing the necessary water, and for other purposes. Practically, placer -mining is now carried on by a few large corporations, who have the means for conducting extensive and costly operations. Nearly two-thirds of the gold, and all but an inconsiderable fraction of the silver, of the United States are produced by "deep" or "vein" mining. Here, man has to do that which Nature has done for him in placer -mining. He has to get the gold out of narrower veins diffused through the solid rock, which has not been broken up and pulverized by the elements. The gold has been deposited in these rocks according to laws with only a few of which we have made ourselves ac- quainted. Quartz veins are not all auriferous. Even in gold- bearing regions there are numerous veins in which no gold has been found; and large portions of actual gold-bearing veins contain no gold. Sometimes one side of a narrow vein is rich in gold, while the other side is destitute of it. The main dis- covered law in respect to the distribution of gold in the veins is that it is usually found in " chutes " or chimneys, having a vertical rather than a horizontal direction. The gold-bearing portion of the vein may be only a few feet in size in either horizontal direction, and yet may extend hundreds of feet or yards downwards. It is not the length of the whole vein which determines its value, but the size and depth of these ore-chutes. Thus, in the " Eureka " quartz vein, in California, the breadth of the vein is only four feet, while the depth of the paying chute is about looo feet — almost one -fifth of a mile — and the main shaft has been sunk to a depth of 1250 feet. To reach this chimney at different levels, eight " drifts," or tunnels, with an aggregate length of nearly two miles, have been excavated 198 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. through earth and rock. During the nine years, 1865-74, when this mine was the most productive, buUion to the amount of ^4,273,148 was taken from this chute, and ^2,054,000 was paid in dividends to the stockholders, after defraying all the working expenses. It was found, however, that the ore began to decrease in richness after the depth of 1000 feet had been reached. The accepted theory respecting these chutes is, that they were the channels for the exit of the primeval waters and vapors superheated to such a temperature that the gold was vaporized, and upon partially cooling was deposited in the chutes, as soot is deposited in a chimney. The processes of deep-mining begin with digging the ore and conveying it to the surface. This differs in no essential respect from iron-mining or coal-mining. The ore has next to be crushed and pulverized by me'ans of powerful machinery. The quantity of all the minerals is very small compared with that of the worthless vein-stone — the pyritous minerals, usually denominated " sulphurets," rarely exceeding 3 per cent. ; and even of this the gold forms but a small percentage. An ounce of gold to a ton of the rock, or 34 parts in 10,000, is considered a large yield. The extraction of this minute fraction of gold from the pul- verized rock requires elaborate processes, calling for the exercise of the highest mechanical and scientific attainments. A School of Mining is now as indispensable a part of a great university as is a school of law, of medicine, or of theology ; and there is cer- tainly no department of professional activity which gives a more sure promise of the highest pecuniary success. There is cer- tainly room for great advance in this respect, for we are assured that not less than one-fifth of the amount of the precious metals contained in the crushed ore is lost. The man or men who shall devise methods of saving any considerable portion of this enor- mous waste have in their hands the certainty of great fortunes. Silver is far more widely diffused throughout nature than gold. It exists in sea-water, and it is estimated that not less than 2,000,000 tons of silver are contained in all the oceans of the globe — nearly as much as, at the present rate, would be pro- THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. 199 duced from all mines in nine hundred years ; but it is not prob- able that this will ever become available for human use. Half of the silver now produced in the world is mined in the United States ; and of this half, not less than 40 per cent, is from Colo- rado, 30 per cent, from Nevada, 1 1 per cent, from Utah, and 16 per cent, from Montana, Arizona, and California. That is, three States and three Territories of the Union now produce 49 per cent, of all the silver mined in the world. To this fact, beyond doubt, is to be attributed the strenuous efforts made by European governments to "demonetize" silver, and thus to de- preciate its current value as compared with gold. In just so far as we take part in these attempts, in just so far do we diminish the value of one of our great natural products. As reckoned in the Census Report, the value of " fine gold " is about ^20.70 per ounce troy, and the average fineness of placer gold is 0.876 (that is, 876 parts in 1000). The value of fine silver is about ^1.30 per ounce; and the value of gold, as compared with silver, is about 15.9 to i. Gold and silver are produced in some quantities in twenty-two States and Territo- ries of the Union. Taking all of these together, the average production per head of the population is #5.80. The extent to which gold and silver mining is 'an important factor in the in- dustry of these States can be readily determined : in Alabama, Alaska, Maine, Michigan, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Vir- ginia, it was less than three cents per head ; in Georgia, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Wyoming, it was between three and fifty cents per head; in Washington, $1.81 ; in New Mex- ico, ^3.69; in Oregon, $6.44; in California, $21.16; in Dakota, $24.98; in Utah, $34.97; in Idaho, $59.62; in Arizona, $62.75 ; in Colorado, $99.05; in Montana, $120.03; i^ Nevada, $278.14. Or, taking the average of the principal gold and silver mining States — Colorado, California, Nevada, Utah, Montana, Dakota, Arizona, and Idaho — the production of the precious metals was, in 1880, $47.91 per head of the population. These figures indi- cate the directions in which gold and silver mining enterprise will probably be found to meet with the best success. The Report of the Director of the United States Mint for 200 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. 1882 (Table XIII.) furnishes materials for a comparison of the product of gold and silver for that year with that of 1880. There was a decrease in gold of nearly ^900,000, and an increase in silver of ^5,700,000: an increase in the product of the precious metals of about |54,8oo,ooo. The Non - Precious Metals. Iowa produced 384 tons of lead ore, valued at ^19,172; Idaho, 150,000 copper ingots; Nevada, 734,730 copper ingots; and Texas, 5,084 copper ingots, which do not appear in the table given below, but are included in the totals. The following is from the Census Report of 1880: TABLE XIV.— THE NON -PRECIOUS METALS {Regular Establishments). States. Iron Ore. Lead Ore. Zinc Ore. Copper Ingots. Alabama . . . Alaska Tons. 184,110 Bollan. 189,108 Tons. Dollars. Tons. Dollars. Pounds. Dollars. 3,933 8,183,750 730,000 1,578 1 Arizona Connecticut. Delaware. . . Georgia 35,018 2,726 72,705 147,799 6,553 120,692 922 772 10,681 30,200 460,980 3,000 7,348 39,000 477,693 Kentucky . . Maine Maryland. . . Massachu'ts. Michigan. . . Missouri . . . Montana T 33,522 6,000 57,940 62,637 1,887,712 386,197 88,930 9,000 118,050 226,130 6,034,648 1,674,875 102,500 30,910 18,040 672 7,300 28,315 45,830,262 230,717 1,312,500 34,050 7,979,333 25,780 5,993 1,478,571 34,344 599,373 N H New Jersey. N. Mex. Ter, New York. . N.Carolina. Ohio Oregon Penn Tennessee . . Vermont . . . Virginia W. Virginia. Wisconsin . . 754,872 2,900,442 39,381 451,070 4,055 1,239,759 3,276 198,835 6,972 1,820,561 89,933 560 169,683 60,371 41,440 3,499,132 5,102 448,000 4,669 4,318,999 129,951 2,750 384,381 88,595 73,000 1,640,000 350,000 ■ 20,459 3,699 394,568 22,145 214,736 158,880 2,647,894 678 36,256 ' 469',49i5 60 2,500 11,200 33,000 10,448 24,136 1,728 78,525 4,617 64,563 18,087 1,549 Totals. . . . 7,064,829 20,470,756 53,140 2,102,948 133,868 3,079,737 56,920,366 8,886,295 Irregular Products . . . 2,686,201 5,832,192 :ii:i"_ 2,170,269 573,139 Total values 23,156,957 7,935,140 4,240,006 9,458,484 THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. 201 Iron, in a separate state, is an almost unknown metal. Its affinity for other elements is so strong that what we know as iron is virtually a compound of iron and carbon in differing pro- portions ; and, besides carbon, there are other elements, such as manganese, phosphorus, etc., very minute proportions of which greatly affect the quality of the iron. The Census Report deals specially with the iron ores mined in 805 " regular establish- ments" in twenty-one States, which in 1880 produced 7,064,829 tons, valued at $20,470,756, averaging $2.90 per ton. In New Jersey the average value was $3.84 per ton; in Michigan, which produced more than any other State, the value was $3.29 per ton; in Pennsylvania, which ranked second in production, $2.49 per ton ; and in New York, which ranked third in production, the value was $2.82 per ton. Besides the products of these large establishments, there were returns from numerous "farm- ers' mines,!^ producing in all 909,877 tons of iron ore, valued at $2,686,201, making the entire product 7,974,706 tons : value, ^23,156,957. There were, in 1880, employed in iron -mining 31,668 per- sons (30,080 men and 1588 boys), an increase over 1870 of 1 1 1 per cent. The increase in tonnage of product was 108 per cent; increase of value of product, 55 per cent. The capital embarked was increased, from 1870 to 1880, by 247 per cent. The value of the products per hand decreased 26.5 per cent., and the average amount of yearly wages paid per hand decreased 33.8 per cent. Or (as it seems should have been done), if the values for 1870 had been reduced to a gold standard, there would still be a decrease of about 2 1 per cent, in the values produced per hand, and a decrease of about 27 per cent, in the wages paid per hand. These statistics show that, comparing 1880 with 1870, while the total value of the products of iron mining was largely in- creased, the value per ton was very sensibly decreased. This decrease is partly owing to the competition with the mining of Europe, especially that of Great Britain, where the price of labor is much lower than in the United States; so that, notwithstand- ing the heavy duty on iron, very large quantities are imported. 202 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. and it is only by a large reduction of the rates of wages that iron mining is at all profitably carried on at present. The re- ports of the iron industry for 1881, 1882, and 1883 evince the same tendency. While, therefore, the production of iron must always be a very important branch of American industry, it appears that, taking the home product and the importation together, the sup- ply is in excess of the demand, and the business is not at pres- ent one in which it is advisable to invest additional capital, ex- cept in localities which offer exceptional facilities. The greater part of the labor employed in mining is " un- skilled " labor, and the wages paid for it rank among the lowest of all, while the work is among the most severe, and more than half of it is performed by persons of foreign birth. Of the 234,228 miners, only 107,993, o^" 4^ P^'^ cent, were born in the United States. Certain of the higher departments of mining industry, how- ever, present great pecuniary inducements. Mining, engineer- ing, metallurgy, and the whole range of sciences taught in our schools of mines, rank among the most lucrative of all profes- sional avocations ; and, unlike most of the other professions, their ranks are not over -crowded. The successful exercise of these branches demands special aptitude and earnest study, and the remuneration is in proportion. Copper is diffused in minute quantities all over the globe. It exists in most soils, in sea-weed, and in the animal body. It occurs in ores of various compositions, and also in the form of native metal nearly pure. In the United States it is chiefly found in the latter form. It is produced as an article of com- merce in twenty-one States of the Union; but 80 per cent, of all the metallic copper was mined on the shores of Lake Supe- rior, in Michigan ; and its value constituted 84 per cent, of that of the entire copper product in the United States. The copper ore found in Arizona and California results not in the produc- tion of copper alone, but in " copper matte," a mixture of copper and other metals, which is sent to the East to be refined. There were, in 1880, in the United States, 53 "regular cop- THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. 203 per-mining establishments," employing 6258 hands (5966 men and 292 boys); the product of all of these was 1,007,245 tons of ore, yielding 56,920,266 pounds of copper ingots, the value of which was ^8,886,295. Copper, valued at ^572,139, was pro- duced outside of the regular establishments, raising the entire copper product for 1880 to $9,458,434. Reducing the sum given for 1870 to a gold standard, the real increase in the value of the copper ore in 1880 was 85 per cent. This increase was owing, partly to the increase in quantity produced, and partly to the increase in value per ton. In 1870 the value of copper ore per ton was (in gold) $5.90; in 1880 it was $8.82, an increase in 1880 of more than 49 per cent. Copper ore was the only one the value of which per ton was greater in 1880 than it had been in 1870. "This increase of value," says the Superintend- ent of the Census, " is owing to the increase in the percentage of metal contained in the rock of the Lake Superior region, the leading mine being exceptionally fortunate in this respect." The average yearly wages paid to copper- miners in 1870 was (in gold) $401; in 1880 it was $514, an increase of 28.2 per cent. Viewed in any aspect, copper-mining is a very lucra- tive and growing industry in the United States. Lead. — Lead and zinc are for many purposes grouped to- gether in the Census Report ; for, so far as these metals are produced directly from the ores, they come from the same mines, and are smelted in the same establishments. But near- ly 60 per cent, of all the metallic lead " is refined from base bullion, the principal value of which was silver," although in quantity the lead far exceeded the silver. This lead, of course, comes from the silver -producing States. Lead-mining, properly so-called, is carried on in seven States ; Missouri, however, produces 53 per cent, of the whole, and Kan- sas 20 per cent. The product of ore was 53,140 tons, yielding 66,970,838 pounds of lead; value, $2,102,948. From the refin- ing of base bullion were produced 95,967,267 pounds of lead; value, $5,832,192. The total product of metallic lead was, therefore, 162,938,105 pounds; value, $7,935,140. Zinc. — Metallic zinc, or '' spelter," is mined in nine States ; 12 204 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. New Jersey furnishing 31 per cent, Missouri 28 per cent, and Pennsylvania 17 per cent of the whole. The product of ore was 123,868 tons, yielding 46,477,999 pounds of metal; value, ^2,079,737. Besides this, there was "of zinc oxide (produced in chemical works from the ore, 20,213,631 pounds), equivalent to 16,203,460 pounds of metallic zinc;" value, ^2,170,269. The total value of all the zinc product was, therefore, ^4,240,006. Lead and zinc are mined and smelted in 206 " regular es- tablishments," employing 7483 hands (7323 men and 160 boys), an increase of 336 per cent, since 1870. Reducing the reported values for 1870 to a gold standard, the increase in the value of products was about 210 per cent. The average yearly wages paid to miners in 1870 was (in gold) ^280; in 1880 it was ^353, an increase of 26 per cent. The great increase in the number of hands employed, and in the total value of profits, is to be explained, at least in respect to lead, by the increase in silver- mining, by which ores, otherwise useless, acquired a large value. The increase in the wages paid shows that the business is a prof- itable one. It must become more remunerative, for the use of both of these metals is constantly increasing. Minor Minerals. — There are several minor minerals, some of which, as nickel, manganese, and tin, are also metals. The value of all of these, in 1880, was $3,387,444; of which nearly one-half was produced in New York. The two metals. Alu- minium and Magnesium, exist abundantly, but they are as yet produced in limited quantities, and by expensive processes. Their possible value, hereafter, will be considered in a sub- sequent chapter. In stating the values of all metallic products, the sums given include only the values of the mineral when extracted from the ground, and with such preparation as is necessary to fit it for transportation. When an industry is compound, em- bracing both mining and manufacturing — as when a furnace- company not only mines the ore, but also reduces it to pig-iron — that portion of the value given by the latter part of the proc- ess is not here included. The values of the metallic products of mines, in 1880, was 5.5 per cent of the value of agricult- THE PRECIOUS AND NON- PRECIOUS METALS. 205 ural products, and 2.3 per cent, of the value of manufactured products, as follows : Gold $33,609,663 Silver 41,170,957 Iron 23,156,957 Copper 9,458,434 Lead 7,935,140 Zinc 4,240,006 Minor Metals 3,387,444 Total $122,958,601 206 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XVII. COAL, ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS. COAL is mined in twenty- five States of the Union. It is divided into two great classes, anthracite and bituminous coal. No perfect line of demarkation can, however, be drawn between these classes, for they shade into each other by almost insensible gradations, according to the greater or less percent- age which they contain of volatile matter which has not been driven off by the intense heat to which the coal has been at some remote time subjected. Anthracite Coal. — It is convenient to consider as anthra- cite all that coal in which there is not more than 12 per cent, of volatile matter. This consists mainly of the Lehigh coal, which has from 3 to 10 per cent, of volatile matter, and the Scranton coal, which has from 9 to 1 2 per cent. ; while the bituminous coal of western Pennsylvania has from 30 to 50 per cent Intermediate between these extremes, but generally classed with the bituminous coals, are what are sometimes called "semi -bituminous coals," having from 17 to 25 per cent, of volatile matter. Anthracite coal is essentially the same as coke, formed artificially from bituminous coal ; but the heat which expelled the greater portion of the bituminous matter was applied under a high pressure, so that the residue is more dense than that of coke, or even of bituminous coal. The mining of anthracite coal is confined mainly to a por- tion of Pennsylvania, lying between the folds of the Alleghany Mountains, the coal basins having an area of not more than 500 square miles. In this region were mined, in 1880, more than 28,000,000 tons of anthracite; less than 10,000 tons being MINLk Al WORK— OLD MANNER OF WORKING. NEW MANNER OF WORKING — COAL -CUTTING MACHINE. (See Note ii.) COAL, ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS. 209 mined in Rhode Island and Virginia. The total production of anthracite in 1880 was 28,649,811 tons — being about 40 per cent, of all the coal mined in the United States ; and its value was #42,186,678 — being about 47 per cent, of the total value of all the coal. Bituminous Coal is much more widely diffused than an- thracite, and is n?ined in twenty- four States of the Union. Pennsylvania furnishes not only nearly all of the anthracite, but also 43.4 per cent, of the bituminous coal of the United States. So that in this State was produced 67.7 per cent, of all the coal mined in the Union. Table XV. shows for each State the quantity and value of the coal mined, in 1880, in the United States. Of that mined in Pennsylvania 28,649,812 tons were anthracite, and 18,075,548 tons were bituminous. All the coal of Rhode Island and a small part of that of Virginia is anthracite ; all mined in the other States is bituminous. The table also shows the value of the minor minerals produced in each State. TABLE XV.— COAL AND MINOR MINERALS. States. Coal. Minor Miuerals. States. Coal. Minor Miuerals. Alabama . . Arkansas . . California . Colorado . . Georgia . . . Illinois .... Indiana . . . Iowa Kansas Kentucky . Maine Tons. 333,934 14,778 336,950 463,747 154,644 6,089,514 1,449,496 1,443,333 763,597 935,857 Dollars. 475,559 33,535 663,013 1,041,350 381,605 8,739,755 3,143,093 3,473,155 1,498,168 1,133,046 Dollars. 19^448 103,334 33,391 3,066 159,303 101,970 41,075 13,196 ' 113^556 N J . ... Tons. Dollars. Dollars. 40,370 1,623,011 79,855 436! 103 371709 "48,788 179,135 'ib6',666 New York . N. C Ohio Oregon . . . Penn R. I S C 350 5,933,853 43,205 46,688,143 6,176 400 7,639,488 97,810 60,883,651 15,440 Tennessee . Vermont . . 494,491 638,954 Virginia . . . Wash W. Va .... Wyoming . 43,130 145,015 1,793,570 589,595 100,637 389,046 1,971,847 1,080,451 Maryland . Mass 3,327,844 3,584,455 Michigan . . Missouri . . Montana . . Nebraska . . 100,800 543,590 334 300 384,500 1,037,100 800 750 Total.... Irreg. Prod. Total Coal. 70,481,426 916,564 94,567,608 1,092,305 3,387,444 71,397,990 95.659,913 carry over. carry over. carry over. Delaware produced minor minerals to the value of $163,310, and West Virginia to the value of $4500, which are. included in the total. The " regular " bituminous coal, 47,880,000 tons, value 52,463,000, was produced in 2990 establishments, in twenty- 210 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. four States; the anthracite, 28,600,000 tons, value ^42,196,000, in 277 establishments, nearly all of them in Pennsylvania. These 3267 establishments employed in all 170,864 hands (148,573 men and 22,291 boys), producing nearly 77,000,000 tons of coal, value about $94,600,000. The small number of establishments, compared with the amount and value of the product, furnishes better data for attaining precise statistics for coal-mining than are accessible in any other branch of industry. The increase from 1870 to 1880 in the number of hands employed in coal-mining was about 82 per cent. (140.3 in bitu- minous and 33.2 per cent, in anthracite mining). The increase in the quantity of coal produced was about 105 per cent. (143.4 in bituminous coal, 82.7 in anthracite). But the increase in value was in a much less ratio. The average value of a ton of bituminous coal in 1870 was (in gold) fi.63; in 1880 it was $1.25 — a decrease of 23.3 per cent. The value per ton of an- thracite in 1870 was $1.97; in 1880 $1.47 — a decrease of 25.3 per cent. The quantity produced per hand also increased very considerably. In 1870 the amount per hand, mined and raised to the surface, was 413 tons of bituminous coal, or 295 of an- thracite; in 1880 it was 418 tons of bituminous coal, or 405 tons of anthracite — an average increase of about 16 per cent, per hand. This increase was, however, due mainly to the intro- duction of steam - engines, by which much of the work formerly done by men was now performed by machinery. Thus, while the quantity of coal mined was increased, from 1870 to 1880, about 105 per cent., its value was increased less than 30 per cent. The introduction of machinery, and other causes, re- quired the investment of a much larger amount of capital in mining. In 1870 the capital necessary to produce a dollar's worth of coal was estimated at $1.33; in 1880, ^3.67 — an almost threefold increase. The bearing of this upon the rates of wages is evident. In 1870 the value of the coal produced during the year by each miner was (in gold) $5.24; in 1880, each, with the aid of costly machinery, produced $5.60. In 1870 the miner received ^1.05 per ton; in 1880 he received $0.78.5 per ton. In 1870 the COAL, ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS. 211 wages paid to the miner were 59.8 per cent, of the value of the coal produced; in 1880 they were 53.9 per cent. In 1870 the average yearly wages of a coal -miner were (in gold) $346; in 1880 they were ^321 — a decrease of 7.2 per cent. But this diminution in the rate of wages did not enure wholly to the profit of the capitalists who owned or operated the mines. In 1870, the materials used in the business of mining amounted to 9.4 per cent, of the value of the product ; in 1880 they amounted to 15.9 per cent. — an increase of 6.5 per cent. In 1880 the value of wages and material together was 69.8 per cent, of the value of the product; in 1870 they were 69.2 per cent, of this value. Thus in 1870 there was left 30.8 per cent, of the value of the product, over and above wages and the cost of material, for other expenses and profits; in 1880 there was 30.2 per cent. The percentage of surplus being substantially the same, the gross profits of the mining operators was increased in just the ratio of the increase in the value of the products — that is, about 30 per cent. ; but the capital invested had been increased 185 per cent; so that the average percentage of profit to the operator upon his capital invested was in 1880 only about one- third of what it had been in 1870. Since 1880 the price of coal and the rate of wages has fluctuated ; but the general tendency has been downward. The obvious inference is, that — as in the case of iron -mining — the production of coal is somewhat in excess of the demand, and there is no apparent prospect of any immediate increase of prices except in consequence of a decrease of production. And the rates of wages, as shown above, are among the lowest in any branch of American industry; while the labor is about the most severe and unpleasant of all. 212 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XVIII. PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. PETROLEUM ("rock-oil") under various names, such as naphtha, coal- oil, and the like, has been known in various parts of the world from the remotest antiquity. The petroleum springs of Rangoon, in what is now British Burmah, have, it is said, yielded for ages more than half a million of barrels a year. Its existence was known to the aborigines of this country; the peoples who preceded the existing races on this continent dug numerous wells in the petroleum region in order to collect the oil which flowed into them. Trees which have been found grow- ing above these wells show that they could not be less than from 500 to 1000 years old. Early in the present century small quan- tities of the oil were collected and sold as a valuable medicine, under the name of " Seneca oil." Meanwhile it was discovered in Great Britain that oils (parafiine oils) of a similar character could be distilled from certain species of coal and lignite, and about 1850 the manufacture of these oils was introduced into the United States. In 1854 a company was formed for collect- ing the natural petroleum floating on pools and ditches in North- western Pennsylvania. In 1858 Mr. Drake, the manager of this company, conceived the idea that, by sinking a deep well, oil would be "struck." On August 28, 1859, a well had been bored down to a depth of 71 feet, when oil gushed to the surface at the rate of 400 gallons a day. From the sinking of this well dates the beginning of petro. leum mining, which has come to be a very prominent industry in the United States. Wells were immediately sunk in the rough region of North-western Pennsylvania, and the most un- 2 o PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 215 productive farm lands came to be held of the highest value ; for a well, which could be sunk for a few hundred dollars, might yield, with scarcely any additional mining labor, hundreds of dol- lars a day. Petroleum has this characteristic, that there is no apparent limit to the quantity that may be obtained by a comparatively trifling amount of labor. Practically, the value of it is regulated wholly by the amount wanted, and not by the quantity produced. The history of petroleum mining, therefore, furnishes an in- structive lesson upon the relation between the value of a pro- duction, its supply in the market, and the demand for it. The quantity produced in 1859 was 3,000 barrels, which sold at the wells for ^13.00 per barrel. In i860 there were 600,000 barrels, and the price fell to ^6.72 per barrel; in 1861 the yield was 2,000,000 barrels, at ^2.73. In 1862 the yield was 3,000,000 barrels, sold at ^1.68 ; so that, although the quantity was 50 per cent, greater, the value was somewhat less. But a large foreign demand had been created, and in 1863 the price rose to ^3.99 per barrel, and, although the quantity produced was 500,000 bar- rels less, the value was more than twice that of the previous year. The export demand increased so rapidly that it seemed that it would be unlimited; and in 1864 the price rose almost at a bound to ^9.66 per barrel, and, although the product was less than it had been three years before, the value was almost quad- rupled, exceeding ^20,000,000. In 1865 the production rose from 2,100,000 to 3,500,000 barrels, and the price fell to ^6.57 per barrel; still, the value of the product was $23,000,000. In 1866 the production was somewhat increased, but the price fell so that the value was $13,500,000. In 1867 the product was nearly the same, but it brought only $10,600,000, the price being $3.18. In 1868 and 1869 the product and price kept on increas- ing, and in 1870 there were 5,659,000 barrels, and, the price being $3.80 per barrel, the value was $25,208,550 ($20,166,840 in gold), a larger sum than was reached for several years after- wards. In 1874 the product reached to nearly 11,000,000 bar- rels, but the price fell to $1.18, so that the value was $12,760,000, and of this more than one-third was exported. 216 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. In 1880 the total amount of crude petroleum produced in the United States was 24,235,081 barrels, of which 23,915,446 were in North-western Pennsylvania, and 89,946 in other parts of the State; 219,254 in West Virginia and an adjacent county of Ohio; 5059 in other parts of Ohio; and 5376 in Kentucky. But for several years the production has been in excess of the demand, and large quantities were held over. These accumula- tions amounted, in June, 1879, to 7,948,352 barrels, and at the close of May i, 1880, to 13,299,252 barrels. But the production was still continued in excess of the sales, so that at the close of the year there were 18,640,000 barrels in the hands of the pro- ducers. It is, therefore, impossible to form any accurate esti- mate of the actual value of the yield of that year. The quantity refined was 17,417,455 barrels (of 42 gallons each), and its value $16,340,581. The cost of bringing the oil to the surface varies greatly in different districts. In the "flowing wells" of the great Bradford district, in Pennsylvania, it is only 6 or 8 cents a barrel ; in the " pumping wells " of the lower country it is from 60 to 80 cents ; and in the pumping wells of the Franklin district (which yield only about 7000 barrels of " heavy" oil ") the cost was $3 per barrel. The total number of wells drilled was 3696, of which 3086 were in the Bradford district, Pennsylvania ; and, besides these, there were 137 " dry holes ;" the estimated cost of sinking these wells being about $9,000,000. The number of hands em- ployed, including skilled workmen, was 11,477, of whom 8784 were classed as " laborers." The average rate of wages paid in Pennsylvania was from $1.50 to $2.00 per day; in West Vir- ginia, etc. (where, however, less than 500 hands were employed), the wages were from $1.00 to $1.50 per day; the total amount of wages in producing crude petroleum being about $7,500,000. Nearly all of the crude petroleum yielded by the wells passes into the hands of the refiners, and, strictly speaking, the oil is not a merchantable product until it has been refined. A few of these refining establishments hold nearly all of the stock on hand, and so are able to regulate the supply thrown upon the market. In 1880 there were 86 of these estabhsh- PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. 217 merits (mostly incorporated companies), having an invested cap- ital of ^27,395,746, the machinery and buildings being valued at ^5,437,286. They employed 9869 hands, who received, as wages, ^4,381,572, an average of ^444 per year. The products of these refineries were: TABLE XVI.— PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS. Articles. Illuminating oil Naphtha Gasoline Reduced petroleum for iournals . . . ParafHne wax Deodorized lubricating oils _. Paraffine oil Reduced petroleum for cylinders . . Residuum Mineral sperm Khigoline Petroleum ointment, harness oil, etc Total value of products Quantity. 11,003,249 barrels. 1,212,626 " 289,555 " 204,841 " 7,889,626 pounds. 70,415 barrels. 79,465 26,018 329,133 16,544 5,868 Value. $36,839,613 1,833,395 1,128,166 1,034,017 631,944 611,572 408,023 371,020 397,539 303,375 39,117 338,097 $43,705,218 The expenses of production were : Matkbialb. Quantity. Valne. 17,417,455 barrels. 684,664 tons. $16,340,581 1,087,905 291,103 1,206,053 85,064 62,815 20,954 11,618,607 3,793,997 906,911 645,312 Coal for fuel Sulpliuric acid 45,813 " 773 " 1,990 " Caustic soda Bone-black Barrels 9,717,308 " 23,841,089 " 6,452,801 " Value of raw material used $34,999,101 4,381,573 Wages paid for refining Total cost of refined petroleum $39,380,673 The value of the refined oil and other petroleum products being ^43,705,218, there is left ^4,324,545 — about 11 per cent. — for the apparent profits of refining; but the cost of the raw oil consists almost wholly in the labor expended in procuring it. The cost of the oil being ^16,340,581, and the wages paid to the hands collecting it being, as before stated, about $7,500,000, there remains about $8,800,000 for profits upon the raw mate- rial ; so that the actual profit upon the petroleum, when sold in 218 • THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. the market, is not less than ^13,000,000. It will be noted that the cost of the barrels, cans, and cases, in which the refined petroleum is packed, constitutes more than one-third of all the expense of the production. The petroleum business is, in some respects, among the most important of our interests. The amount produced is limited only by the quantity demanded ; and new uses for it are con- tinually arising, so that the demand will probably increase. But, from the nature of the case, the business . is, and will be, concentrated in few hands — the number being now fewer than it was in 1880. Most of the labor employed in the collecting and refining of petroleum is unskilled labor, and the wages earned by the hands are somewhat higher than those paid to other miners. Speculation, based upon the probable sales of petroleum, is very prevalent, and the reported values vary great- ly from time to time. STONE -QUARRYING AND SALT -MAKING. 219 CHAPTER XIX. STONE -QUARRYING AND SALT -MAKING. THE building-stones quarried in the United States belong to four classes of stone. Table XV O. shows, for the whole United States, the number of quarries of each kind, the capital invested,, the amount quarried, the value of the product, and the number of hands employed : TABLE XVIL— STONE-QUARRIES IN THE UNITED STATES. Kinds of Rook. Quarries. Capital. Product. Value of Product. HandB Employ'd. Marble and limestone Sandstone . . Number. 616 502 313 94 Dollars. 10,565,497 6,229,600 5,291,250 3,328,150 Cubic feet. 65,523,965 24,776,930 20,506,568 4,572,670 Dollars. 6,856,681 4,780,391 5,188,998 1,529,985 Number. 15,646 9,567 11,477 3,083 Crystalline silicious rocks . . . Slate Totals 1525 25,414,497 115,330,133 18,356,055 39,723 Of the laborers employed, 38,945 were above and 778 below the age of sixteen; 25,726 were employed in quarrying, 9840 in dressing the stone, and the remainder in hauling, etc. Table XVni. gives for each State the value of each kind quarried, the number of quarries and of the hands employed in them, and the value of all the products. It 'will be seen, by comparing this Table with other sta- tistics, that in some of the States the quarrying of building- stones and dressing them for market forms an important branch of industry and a leading source of wealth. The value of the marble and slate from the 61 quarries in Vermont was more than one -third as much as that of all the grain crops raised upon her 35,000 farms. The granite from the 113 quarries of 220 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. TABLE XVIII.— QUARRY PRODUCTS , BY STATES. States. Marble. Sandstone. Ciystalline. Slate. QnarrieB. Hands. Products. California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Dollars. I,320i742 593,375 666,554 131,570 93,216 '65,929 230,495 26,085 201,593 431,211 15,000 431.439 669,733 240,934 193,695 1,340,050 27,750 189,320 Dolla/rs. 9,m 1680,200 13,000 ' 21,830 40,400 4,200 11,000 144,394 59,080 41,150 81,960 400,430 724,556 1,871,924 637,943 3,666 16,689 37,745 Dollars. 173,450 41,400 407,325 ' 12,666 64,480 1,175,286 334,000 1,339,315 ' 13,675 110,000 303,666 99,000 10,000 2ii',454 633,000 ' 59,675 331,938 1,044 Dollars. 4,500 '83,866 56,700 7,000 ' 15,666 95,500 863,877 352,608 51,000 Nwmber. 2 6 38 1 3 8 43 70 131 19 19 74 17 113 9 41 34 1 39 35 351 345 164 17 13 61 14 2 10 60 Number. 195 134 1,902 35 30 146 3,315 1,788 2,091 434 806 4,011 701 2,951 200 1,175 783 55 595 812 3,303 4,902 4,284 962 443 2,762 919 16 154 820 Dollars. 172,450 50,400 1,087,435 13,000 12,600 68,980 1,342,572 633,775 670,754 142,570 92,216 1,359,086 346,639 1,711,104 79,165 355,818 613,171 15,000 303,066 514,420 1,361,495 3,541,647 1,944,308 623,000 193,695 1,752,383 410,678 3,044 16,689 337,065 Kansas Kentucky Maryland Massachusetts. . Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey. . . . New York Ohio Pennsylvania . . Rhode Island . . Tennessee Vermont Virginia Wash. Ter West Virginia . . Wisconsin Totals 6,856,681 4,780,391 5,188,998 1,529,985 , 1,525 39,723 18,356,055 Massachusetts was worth almost as much as all her corn and oats and rye ; that of the 74 quarries of Maine more than any one of her grain crops, and two- thirds as much as her potatoes. There are few acres of land worth as much as the same area of a good quarry of building- stone, so situated as to be accessi- ble to any great market. Stone and brick must become more and more the building material of the country, as the rapid diminution of the forests renders timber more and more costly. In none of our cities and larger towns is wood even now used to any great extent in building, except for interiors. Salt is strictly a mineral product, and in some parts of the world is a product of the quarry. But almost the entire amount produced in the United States is made by evaporating the brine of subterranean springs by means of artificial heat. There are 276 salt-works in sixteen of the States, having a capital of STONE -QUARRYING AND SALT -MAKING. 221 ^8,550,000; and producing, in 1880, 30,850,000 bushels, nearly three -fourths of which was made in Michigan and New York. There were employed 4473 hands, who received, as wages, $1,305,000, an average of $292 per year. The value of all the materials used was $2,350,000 — wood and coal for fuel making nearly half the amount. The value of the salt produced was $5,180,000. Summary of Mining Values. Table XIX. shows the value of the mining products of the United States in 1880, and the number of miners employed. The Census Report does not give the number of gold and silver miners. We have endeavored to supply these by deduct- ing the number of those given for the other metals and coal (220,475) from the total number returned as "miners" (234,228), leaving 13,753 ^^^ gold and silver miners. We treat petroleum, building -stones, and salt as properly belonging to mining, and therefore give the number of " hands " employed in their pro- duction. The quantity of petroleum given is that of the crude oil refined (not that of the total yield of the wells which might have been refined); the value is that of the refined oil and other products, as already explained. TABLE XIX.— QUANTITY AND VALUES OF MINING PRODUCTS. AUTIOLES. Quantity. Value. Miuei's, etc. Gold 1,614,742 ounces. 31,797,474 " 7,974,706 tons. 54,172,017 pounds. 162,938,105 " 62,681,459 " 33,609,663 dollars. ) 41,110,957 " f 23,156,957 " 9,458,434 " 7,935,140 " ) 4,340,006 " f 3,387,444 " 95,716,851 " 43,705,218 " 18,356,055 " 5,180,000 " 13,753 31,668 6,258 7,483 4,203 170,864 31,346 39,723 4,473 Silver Lead Zinc Minor minerals Coal 71,426,436 tons. 17,417,455 barrels. 115,380,133 cubic feet 30,850,000 bushels. Stone, quarried Salt Totals 285,856,725 dollars. 299,770 222 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XX. FISHERIES AND FISH -CULTURE. UP to 1880, the Census Reports in relation to the fisheries of the United States were so meagre as to be not only useless, but in many respects misleading, and so worse than use- less. The Census of 1870 reported the value of all the fishery products of that year as only $11,000,000. "It is question- able," says the Superintendent of the Census, " whether the results obtained ever reached 20 per cent. — if, indeed, they ever reached 15 per cent. — of the actual facts." But for the Census of 1880 preparations for more thorough work were set on foot, under the immediate direction of Prof. Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute, and President of the United States Fish Commission.; and a comprehensive investigation was undertaken into the statistics of the fisheries and fishing population of the United States. " Special canvassers, well trained for such inquiries," says the Superintend- ent of the Census, " were engaged to proceed in boats along the entire eastern and southern coast from Maine to Texas, visiting every fishing port or fishing village, and collecting the whole body of social and industrial statistics of the population engaged in this occupation. . . . Other parties were engaged to can- vass the Pacific Coast, the northern lakes, and the western rivers, while special agents were employed to work up the oyster fishery, and to obtain statistics of the fish-markets of the.principal ports." The result is, that we have now the means of investigating the fishing industry of the country perhaps more ample than for any of its other industries. In general, it may be stated that it employs 131,426 persons, of whom 101,684 ^re "fishermen," and 29,742 are " shoresmen." The total capital invested is LIGHT OF THE PVROSOMA. See Note 13. FISHERIES AND FISH-CULTURE. 225 $37,955,349. This capital comprises 6605 "vessels," with a ton- nage of 208,298 tons — value, $9,357,282; and 44,804 boats — value, $2,465,393 ; the minor apparatus and outfits were valued at $8,145,261 ; the remainder of the capital ($17,987,413) in- cludes all the shore property. The value of all the products of the fisheries in 1880 was $43,046,953. It is not possible to state even approximately how large a proportion of the value of the products of the fisheries are prac- tically paid out in the form of wages, since to a very great ex- tent the fishermen are the owners of the boats, and carry on the business upon their own account ; and in most cases of deep-sea fishing, the fishermen receive as pay a certain fixed proportion of the catch, another portion going to the owner of the boats, who also furnishes the outfit. But, dividing the entire products by the number of all persons — fishermen and shoresmen — engaged in the fisheries, we find that the average for the year was $327.50 for each person. It must be borne in mind, also, that to a very considerable extent the fishermen are employed as such for only a part of the year, many of them pursuing some other occupation during the remaining months. It would, therefore, seem that the fishing business ranks high among profitable industries. It has been found convenient to divide the fisheries into several departments. The oyster, whale, and seal fisheries need no explanation. The menhaden fishery is carried" on mainly along the shores of Long Island, New York, and in the adjacent waters. These fish are not used as food to any great extent, al- though within a few years they have begun to be put up in the same manner as sardines. They are, however, caught mainly for the oil which they furnish abundantly, and for manure, for which they are very valuable. In the division of " general fish- eries," which furnish fully one-half of the entire product, are com- prised the cod, the mackerel, the shad, the salmon, and all fresh- water fisheries, including those of the great lakes. Table XX. shows for each State the number of persons en- gaged in fisheries, the amount of capital invested, and the total value of the products; and also separates the value of the prod- ucts of the oyster, whale, menhaden, and seal fisheries. 13 226 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. TABLE XX.— FISHERIES AND PRODUCTS, BY STATES: 1879. States. Grand Totals. Products of the Several Fisheries. Persons Kmpl'd. Capital Invested. Value of Products. General Fisheries. Oyster Fishery. Whale Fishery. Menhaden Fishery. Seal Fish- ery. Alabama . . Alaska. . . . California* Conn Delaware . . Florida*. . . Georgia . . . Illinois Indiana . . . Louisiana. . Maine Maryland . . Mass.* Michigan . . Minnesota . Mississippi. N. H N.J New York . N.C Ohio Oregon. . . . Penn R. I S.C Texas Virginia. . . Wash. Ter. Wis Number. 635 6,130 3,094 3,131 1,979 2,480 899 300 62 1,597 11,071 26,008 20,117 1,781 35 186 414 6,220 7,266 6,274 1,046 6,836 552 2,310 1,005 601 18,864 744 800 ■ Dollars. 38,200 447,000 1,139,675 1,421,020 268,231 406,117 78,770 83,400 29,360 98,621 3,375,994 6,342,443 14,334,460 442,645 10,160 8,800 209,465 1,492,202 2,629,686 506,561 473,800 1,131,360 119,810 596,678 66,276 42,400 1,914,119 30,358 222,840 Dollars. 119,275 2,661,640 1,860,714 1,466,866 997,695 643,227 119,993 60,100 32,740 392,610 3,614,178 5,221,716 8,141,750 716,170 5,200 22,540 176,684 3,176,589 4,380,665 845,696 518,420 2,781,024 320,050 880,915 212,482 128,300 3,124,444 181,372 253,100 Dollars. 74,325 564,640 1,341,314 383,887 309,029 426,527 84,993 60,100 32,740 192,610 3,576,678 479,388 5,581,204 716,170 5,200 12,540 170,634 949,678 1,689,357 785,287 518,420 2,776,724 132,650 302,242 192,482 81,000 602,239 109,960 253,100 Dollars. 44,960 ' '6'72,S75 687,725 Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 500 201,650 32,048 '256,205 941 2,096,500 15,750 111,851 15,960 36,000 200,000 37,500 4,730,476 405,550 2,089,337 11,851 61,769 10,000 6,050 2,080,625 1,577,060 60,000 408 146,286 1,114,158 .'.'..'.'.'.'. 4,300 187,500 356,925 20,000 47,300 2,218,376 10,000 221,748 303,829 6l',4i2 Totals.. 131,426 37,955,349 43,046,053 22,405,018 13,403,852 2,323,943 2,116,787 2,289,813 It has also been found convenient to group the fisheries into six sectional divisions : Division I. comprises the six New Eng- land States. Here mostly are carried on the cod, mackerel, and whale fisheries ; the value of the entire products of this division being about 33.3 per cent, of the whole. Division II. comprises the Middle States, exclusive of the fisheries of the great lakes. Here are carried on most of the menhaden, about one-third of the oyster, and one-eighth of the general fisheries ; the value of the products of this division being about 20 per cent, of the whole. -Division III. comprises the Southern Atlantic States. Here are carried on more than one-half of the oyster, and about * In Florida there are also sponge-fisheries producing ^200,750, in California $302,000, and in Massachusetts $3,890, products of "marine salt industry," which are included in the total of products for those States. FISHERIES AND FISH - CULTURE. 227 one-tenth of the general fisheries ; the value of the products of this division being about 22.3 per cent, of the whole. Division IV. comprises the Gulf States. The fishing industry here is comparatively small, the value of its products being about 3 per cent, of the whole. Division V. comprises the Pacific States and Territories. The seal-fishery is almost wholly carried on here, and the general fisheries, especially that of salmon, are very extensive ; the value of the products of this division form about 17.4 per cent, of the whole. Division VI. comprises the Great Lakes. The products of this division are included among the general fisheries, and form about 4.1 per cent, of the whole. TABLE XXL— FISHERIES AND PRODUCTS, BY DIVISIONS : I879. Divisions. Grand Totals. Productions ot the Several Fisheries. Persons Empl'd. Capital Invested. Value of Products. General Fisheries. Oyster Fishery. Whale Fishery. Menhaden Fishery. Seal Fishery. I II Ill IV V VI Number. 37,043 14,981 52,418 5,131 16,803 5,050 Dollars. 19,937,607 4,426,078 8,951,722 545,584 2,748,383 1,345,975 Dollars. 14,370,393 8,676,579 9,603,737 1,337,544 7,484,750 1,784,050 Dollars. 10,014,645 3,882,394 3,317,797 713,594 4,792,638 1,784,050 Dollars. 1,478,900 4,533,900 7,068,852 313,200 10,000 Dollars. 3,131,385 408 Dollars. 539,733 1,361,385 315,680 Dollars. 111,851 202,150 3,177,963 Totals. 131,436 37,955,349 43,046,053 23,405,018 13,403,852 2,323,943 3,116,787 3,389,813 Each of the different branches of the fishing industry fur- nishes matter worthy of consideration in respect of the likeli- hood of its being one in which a person can profitably engage. The Whale -Fishery. — This has shrunk within limits far narrower than that which it formerly occupied. Not many years ago whale -fishing was extensively carried on from all ports in New England, and from some in New York, especially that of Sag Harbor in Long Island. Now, of the $2,323,000- products of the whale-fishery, $2,089,000 were earned in the State of Massachusetts; and of this, $1,897,000 were earned by vessels from New Bedford, which is now practically the only whaling-port of the United States. The New Bedford products were 1,135,000 gallons of sperm-oil, value $1,060,000; 595,000 gallons of whale-oil, value $257,000; 243,000 pounds of whale- 228 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. bone, value 1^567,000; 18,000 pounds of ivory, value ^5000; 62I- pounds of ambergris, value $6,225. The Seal- Fishery. — The seal-fishery of the United States is confined mostly to the procuring of the skins for furs, the value of the flesh and oil being of secondary importance ; where- as, in the Greenland seal-fishery, carried on mainly in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, the main product is the oil. Our seal-fishery is mainly conducted in Alaska, where, in 1880, there were secured 147,450 seal-skins, valued at $1,474,500, or $10 apiece, a large decrease from 1879; and 3500 sea-otter skins, valued at $175,000, or $50 apiece. There is every reason to be- lieve that, unless prompt legislation is had to prevent the kill- ing of seals in the breeding-season, it will not be very long be- fore the animals will become commercially extinct. The Salmon - Fishery. — Salmon were formerly abundant in all the rivers of the Atlantic side, northward of the Poto- mac. They are now practically unknown there. All the salm- on caught in Maine in 1850 were valued at only $21,000; in Massachusetts there were caught 220 pounds of salmon, valued at $33; it does not appear that a single salmon was caught elsewhere upon the Atlantic side of the United States. Meas- ures have been taken to re-stock these rivers with salmon, of which more will be said hereafter. But at present salmon-fish- ing belongs wholly to the Pacific' side, and mainly to Oregon and the Sacramento River, in California, where it employed about 8000 persons. The total catch of Oregon in 1880 was 39,500,000 pounds; value, as fresh fish, $2,776,724. But a very large part of the salmon were canned, and in that state sent to market. In Oregon and California there were some 45 canning establish- ments, employing about 8000 hands, and putting up 31,45.3,000 pounds of salmon in i-lb. cans, the value of which wag $3,255,365. The cost of the fish canned was $909,818 ; so that there was an increased value of $2,345,547 given to the fish by the process of canning. These figures evince, beyond possibility of doubt, that salmon^ifeshing in Oregon and the adjacent region is an ex- ceedingly profitable industry. The Cod- Fishery belongs almost wholly to Massachusetts FISHERIES AND FISH -CULTURE. 231 and Maine, the catch from those two States in 1880 being about 228,000,000 pounds. A portion of this, valued at ^450,000, was consumed fresh ; but the greater part was dried and salt- ed for market. From 215,000,000 pounds of fresh codfish, 80,000,000 pounds of dried fish were prepared, valued at about ^2,750,000 — making the total products of the cod-fishery about ^3,200,000. The fishing for hake, halibut, and haddock is es- sentially like that of cod. The value of all these fish was about ^1,800,000, bringing the value of this class of fisheries up to at least $5,000,000 in Massachusetts and Maine. The Mackerel -Fishery also belongs to Massachusetts and Maine. The catch in 1880 was about 90,000,000; the value of the product, fresh and pickled, about $1,700,000. The Herring- Fishery belongs chiefly to Maine, although it is carried on to some extent in Massachusetts. The entire value of its products in these two States was, in 1880, about $1,200,000. Of this, nearly 2,400,000 pounds, valued at $800,000, were put up in Maine as sardines. This sardine industry is a new one, which, it seems certain, must receive a very rapid growth and development. The products already compare fa- vorably with those of France. Until quite recently these Amer- ican sardines were put up with French labels, and sold in the market as an imported article. The oil used in preparing them is that produced from cotton-seed — which is also used in France instead of olive -oil, large quantities being exported from the United States for that purpose. It is not to be expected that the deep-sea fisheries of the New England States will in the future show any marked in- crease ; most likely, indeed, they will show a decline when com- pared with the increase of the population of the country ; for the reason that the salt fish, which is their principal product, forms a less considerable part of our diet than it formerly did ; whereas, fresh fish, caught near the shore or in our inland wa- ters, becomes of more and more easy access. The Oyster-Fishery is by far the most important of any in the United States. The value of its products is more than four times that of any other kind of fish. Oysters are found near the 232 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. shores of almost all seas, never very far from the shore, and usu- ally in from two to six fathoms of water. Their favorite habita- tion is the tranquil waters of the bays formed at the mouths of great rivers. Long Island Sound and Delaware and Chesa- peake bays are specially adapted to their nature and habits. Of the ^13,400,000 products of the oyster - fishery, none, of course, come from inland waters, only ^300,000 from the shores of the Gulf States, and not more than $10,000 from the Pacific coast. The area suitable for the oyster is therefore very lim- ited; and there is every reason to apprehend, unless prompt legislative action is taken to insure their cultivation and to regulate their capture, that the oyster -fishery will before very long become greatly diminished. That such danger exists, and that it may be warded off, we learn by European experience. In Great Britain the oyster- beds are kept up by careful culture, and by the introduction of fresh "seed" from all quarters. Some forty years ago it was found that the oyster-beds of France were nearly exhausted. About 1858 Government set on foot measures for their resto- ration by establishing " oyster - packs " in the sheltered bays of St. Brieuc and Arcachon; and these were rapidly extended all along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, wherever a favorable locality was found. The result has been that the oyster -product of France is now far greater than ever before. The matter is one which cannot be too strongly urged upon the consideration of the State government, and upon that of indi- viduals ; and there can be but few departments of industry which promise so large and certain profits. While these sheets were passing through the press it was announced that Prof. Ryder, of the United States Fishery Com- mission, had discovered a method for the artificial propagation of the oyster. He had ascertained that the American oyster is oviparous ; that is, that the young were hatched from eggs, and that there are male and female oysters. The eggs of the female and the melt of the male are procured by making incisions in the " mantle," and are artificially mixed together, just as with those of other fish. The eggs are very small, requiring, it is FISHERIES AND FISH -CULTURE. 233 estimated, 200,000,000 to fill a gill measure. In from four to twenty-four hours after the impregnation of the egg, the young fry assume the swimming condition, but soon fix themselves to some object, and the deposition of the shell begins ; they grow so rapidly that after forty-six days the shells are from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. If all that is expected should be realized in this discovery, it will be perfectly practi- cable to establish beds of artificially hatched oysters in all our shallow, brackish waters. That is, oysters can be produced at will, and be reared and fattened wherever the water is of proper saltness. What has heretofore been an uncertainty in oystering, will become as certain as the rearing of any other fish or animal. Fish -'Cultivation. — The art of rearing fish and fattening them in ponds has been practised frOm very ancient times, and especially by the Chinese. But the science of fish-breeding, or their propagation by means of the artificial impregnation of the eggs, is hardly forty years old, although there is evidence that it was suggested in Europe as early as 1758. Nothing practical was undertaken, upon any considerable scale, until 1849, when Prof. Coste, of the College of France, put forth a book upon the subject, which gave rise to the present industry of fish-culture, which has already accomplished much, and which can hardly fail to accomplish much more in the near future. The whole science rests upon two great facts : Fish are prolific to an extent vastly greater than any other creatures used for human food ; and the waters of rivers, lakes, and oceans furnish spontaneously food for any conceivable number. Add to this that several of the most important species are migratory — setting out when young in the pursuit of food for unknown distances, and re- turning at stated periods to the rivers and shores for the pur- pose of spawning, and so coming within reach of easy capture. About i860 several persons in various parts of the United States took up fish-culture as an occupation, not as a mere pas- time or matter of scientific research. The result of their efforts was so promising that in 1871 the National Government ap- pointed a United States Fishery Commission, at the head of 234 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. which was Prof. Baird, whose duty it was to prosecute investi- gations in order to ascertain what diminution had taken place in the number of food-fish upon our coasts and in our rivers and lakes, and to devise measures to remedy the evil. The efforts of this Commission were first directed towards the re-stocking of the several waters, to the erection of fish-ways around falls and dams, and to procuring the enactment of State laws forbid- ding the taking of fish during the spawning season, and regula- ting the use of seines, nets, and other wholesale means of capt- ure. In time the attention of the Commission was also directed to the introduction from other countries of valuable species of fish not natives of the United Statfes, but which there was rea- son to believe could be naturalized. Although much has already been accomplished in the mat- ter, there is good reason to believe that the limits of possible acclimatization have not yet been reached ; that, for example, salmon and shad may be raised and perpetuated in fresh-water lakes, without their ever making their way to the ocean. With respect to the salmon, at least, this is highly probable ; for there are numerous species closely akin to the sea-salmon which have their homes in all our great lakes. With respect to the shad, there is still room for doubt. But even if salt-water fish, or those migratory species who live mainly in salt-water, and only come at stated seasons to fresh -water, shall still retain their present habits', it is very certain that the raising of other fish in all our lakes, ponds, and clear rivers may be carried on quite as profitably as the breeding and raising of live-stock can be upon our farms. The industry is yet so new among us that precise statistics are not attainable; but there is enough to warrant the assertion of those best qualified to form an opinion, that an acre of fish-pond can be made to yield as much net, profit to its owner as an acre of pasture, corn-field, or garden. If, therefore, a man have upon his own farm a natural fish- pond, or if he can make an artificial one by damming up a brook, he cannot do better than devote it to fish -culture, just as he would devote so much land to agriculture or stock-raising. If a considerable stream or pond is bounded by the lands of FISHERIES AND FISH - CULTURE. 235 several proprietors, they should agree among themselves as to the modes of catching the fish, which must, from the nature of the case, be the common property of all. In regard to the great lakes and waters along the coast, which, and all contained in them, belong to the public domain, the exercise of the right of fishery should be regulated by general laws — national or state — according as to whether these waters pertain to some particular State, or to the collective United States. For example, the pres- ent destructive manner of catching the menhaden should be so far restricted that enough shall still be left to keep up their numbers. Shad- nets should be permitted only at the proper season, and with proper nets ; salmon should be allowed free access to and from their spawning-grounds. The oyster-beds should be most sedulously protected, so that no one now exist- ing shall be exhausted, and new ones should be established wherever there is a suitable spot. Much has — thanks to the Fishing Commission and other organizations — been effected in this direction, but more remains to be done. The " migratory " fish, especially the salmon and shad, de- serve especial attention, for the whole broad ocean is their feed- ing-ground. All that is needed to fully stock these watery past- ure-fields is to see to it that enough of the parent fish be ena- bled to reach their spawning-grounds, and that the young fry be enabled in due time to make their exit to the ocean. Once there, they will take care of themselves. When it is borne in mind that each female shad has at least 25,000 (sometimes, it is said, 150,000) eggs, and each salmon quite as many, and that each one of these may become a fish, it will be apparent that there need be little trouble in stocking the waters to their prac- tically unbounded feeding capacity. How easily this may be done, is shown by the fact that eight or ten millions of young shad are annually turned loose in the Hudson River from a sin- gle shad-hatching establishment near Albany ; and the like, to a more limited extent, is done for the Connecticut River, and also for rivers farther South. The result is evinced by the fact that the shad-fishery in those streams, which had begun to fall away, has already regained most of its ancient productiveness. The shad- 236 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. fishery lasts only a few weeks in the year, but its value in the Middle and South Atlantic States was fully ^1,000,000 to the fishermen employed in the business. But even more than with these salt-water fish does piscicult- ure com'mend itself to attention in our fresh-water lakes, ponds, and rivers. That nearly all of these, including Lakes Cham- plain and Ontario, had been pretty nearly " fished-out," is well known. But, to some extent, these have been tolerably re-stock- ed. The fisheries of Erie and Michigan produced, in 1880, more than ^1,000,000, and there is every reason to anticipate a continually increasing product, as fishermen grow wiser in their methods, and learn how to perpetuate, as well as how to capture, the inhabitants of the waters. It admits of no question that the fishing industry of the United States must become a far more important element than it has ever been in national and individual wealth. The prod- uct can be increased to any extent, with little labor except the mere catching of the fish. Once hatched, they grow and fatten without asking man to feed or shelter them. The vast life-sup- porting powers of our waters have hardly begun to be appropri- ated by man to his uses. Our fisheries are as yet hardly more developed than agriculture was before man begaii to plough and plant, and contented himself with merely reaping the chance- sown growths of the untilled soil. The ocean, moreover, unlike the land, has not been, and never can be, portioned out among individual owners. Any man can, without any pre-emption law, enter upon any piece of water not actually occupied by another, and appropriate all that he finds there. And if it so be that any one has come to be the possessor of a piece of inland water, he needs, so to speak, only to sow it with fish-seed in order to gather such an increase of harvest as few other parts of his pos- sessions will yield. The various industries immediately connected with fisheries — such as the canning of fish and shell-fish — are rapidly growing into importance. Men have found them profitable, and, therefore, others will find them profitable. The increased value ofsalmon by canning in Oregon and California is noted on page 228. FISHERIES AND FISH - CULTURE. 237 On the Passamaquoddy River, in Maine, herring worth, when fresh, not more than ^50,000, were put up as " sardines " in about 2,400,000 boxes holding one pound each, and their value in this condition was ^770,000. The statistics of the values of canned lobsters show similar results. The ways to wealth opened in the fishing industry are, therefore, exceedingly numerous. 238 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXI. FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. WHEN the first white emigrants came to the Continent of North America, they found the whole region densely wooded. To cut down the forests was the first essential to settlement. The axe of the woodman was too slow an im- plement for the purpose, and fire was employed. In an almost incredibly short period of time all the settled parts of the At- lantic coast, from Maine to Georgia, were bared of trees ; and before many years had passed the ruinous effects of this dev- astation began to show themselves. They are increasing year by year, and the end is not yet.. Two generations of wise effort will not undo the mischief caused by the folly of a season ; if, indeed, it can ever be wholly undone. The old Greeks had a word which literally meant " to cut down the trees," but was applied to the utter laying waste of a country. We are begin- ning to find out, and unless well - considered remedial measures are promptly supplied, those who come after us will still more sorely find out, that our tree - choppers are the workers of ruin to agriculture and consequently to every other interest of the country. The first great evil of the indiscriminate deforesting of a country is that it entails a scarcity of water ; and water is the prime essential of fertility. The hidden fountains of all our rivers and wells are in the atmosphere. Every drop of fresh- water upon the earth is supplied, in the form of rain or dew, from this inexhaustible reservoir. Trees act in several ways in regulating the supply of water. In some cases they certainly have an important share in actually producing the phenomenon of rain. Thus, in the island of St. Helena great attention has 1. ^. ^ _-S«»' - —aSBBi&r^ IT- rii'iiift •- AVENUE OF HEMLOCKS AND SPRUCES. FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 241 for the last fifty years been given to clothing the steep hill-sides with forests, and it is well settled that the quantity of absolute rainfall upon the island is twice what it was when Napoleon was immured in his ocean - barred dungeon. The reason is obvious. Trees in a hot climate always have a temperature lower than that of the surrounding atmosphere. The heated air, loaded with invisible moisture which it has sucked up while passing over the surface of the ocean, comes in contact with these cooler trees and is forced to give up a portion of its moisture, which is condensed in the form of rain or dew. It is a repe- tition, upon a larger scale, of what occurs when a vessel of iced water is brought into a heated room. Even when trees cannot be shown to exert any positive in- fluence in increasing the absolute rainfall, they act most potent- ly in the more important matter of regulating its distribution, equalizing it from one season to another. They shelter the ground beneath them, and thus prevent the rain which falls from rapid evaporation, and allow it to sink into the soil, keep- ing the springs and fountains in perpetual flow, even in times when the windows of heaven are shut for a season. Their roots penetrate deep into the earth, and prevent it from being washed away by any sudden shower, and form a kind of sponge which absorbs the moisture, giving it out slowly and uniformly, thus equalizing the flow, and preventing droughts, on the one hand, and floods on the other. But when the forests on the hill -slopes are cut down, the rain slides down them as upon a roof, and every shower swells the brooks to torrents. Every rivulet pours its accumulations into the rivers, whose channels are insufficient to carry off the sudden accession. Hence come sudden inundations, followed almost immediately by low water ; for the rainfall, whose flow should have been distributed over weeks, is drained off in as many hours. The water which should have bubbled up in springs, and flowed in perennial brooks, making the meadows green, is carried at once through the great rivers to the ocean, to be again taken up by evaporation, only to go again through the same changeless round. The volume of the great rivers may undergo no apparent change 242 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. for centuries, especially when they derive their water from a wide extent of country, for droughts in one section are balanced by showers in another. But the smaller rivers diminish, the rivulets dry up, except immediately after rains, when they are greatly swollen. Thus, by the constant operation of one law, the destruction of the forests causes the two opposite evils of droughts and floods. There is still another phase of this process of devastation. The trees and their roots form a support to the hill -side soil. This removed, the soil is washed away by each recurring shower, and in no very long time what had been a fertile slope becomes a mound of hard clay or a heap' of naked rocks, upon which not a blade of grass can find root. Not a few of the regions which were once the seats of civili- zation are now the standing monuments of man's folly or wick- edness in baring them of their ancient forests. Palestine was once a land of brooks and fountains, of wooded heights and well -watered fields; now, except the Jordan, there is hardly a valley which is not a " wady " or dry watercourse, save in the rainy season. Says Baden- Powell: "In the high lands of cer- tain districts, now barren and almost uninhabited, are found traces of ancient cultivation. What were once evidently river- beds are now dry, and there are ruins of numerous villages. The river-beds are dry, except when at the rains they are swol- len into sudden torrents." The African shores of the Mediterranean, extending far into what are now the deserts of Barca and of the Sahara, were, at the beginning of our era, and for centuries before and after, the granary of the Roman Republic and Empire. Long lines of aqueducts now stretch their arches over the burning sands, once bringing abundance of water to towns and cities in a region where even the camel can scarcely find water to last him from one fountain to another. So it is in many parts of India, not only in lower Bengal, but in the far-off Punjaub, "where the half dried-up streams, coming from the now denuded lower hills, point to the inevita- ble conclusion that the forest denudation has deprived them of FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 243 their ancient water supply, and has ruined the rainless countries which were once dependent upon them." Among the hills of Ceylon, where the forests have been cut down in order to form extensive coffee plantations, the loss of the springs and fountains has already grown to be an evil of great magnitude; and there are wide districts which have within our own day been aban- doned from this cause. In a large portion of Greece the forests that once clothed every hill-side have long disappeared, and as a consequence the most famous fountains of antiquity now flow only in song. Riv- ers of ancient renown have shrunk to rivulets which a child may ford. The Lernaean Lake is a stagnant pool, so hidden by reeds and rushes that the traveller passes by it without noticing it, unless, some one points out its site to him. Parts of Spain and France have the same story to tell. Italy has suffered less, for her lofty mountains are less accessible to the woodman's axe, and are yet the parents of perpetual streams ; but she has not es- caped. The famous Rubicon has dwindled to a brook so insig- nificant that antiquaries are not able with certainty to decide which of several is the right one. In tropical and semi-tropical regions the immediate connec- tion between forests and the water supply is most apparent. When the Spice Islands, some two centuries ago, fell into the hands of the Dutch, they were covered with a dense growth of spice -bearing trees. The new possessors thought it best to in- crease the value of the spices by limiting the supply ; so most of the trees were cut down, and the islands, once densely peo- pled, were transformed into piles of bare volcanic rocks. At Penang the Chinese emigrants pursued the same short-sighted course which so many of the settlers in our western settlements have partially adopted. It was their custom to raise but a sin- gle crop from the virgin soil. They cut down the trees and burned them, thus getting for the year's crop an abundant sup- ply of potash and other elements, and then repeated the process the next year upon a new patch. As their cultivation moved farther into the island, it left an ever-widening desert behind it ; and the island would by this time have become uninhabitable 244 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. had not the British Government, when it took possession of this portion of India, interposed in time to prevent the practice. But one need not go to the Old World to find warning ex- amples, though as yet the evil has not with us risen to such a point as to be irremediable ; but it has for years been growing in magnitude, and no one problem in economics is at this mo- ment more forcibly impressing itself upon thinking men than this of putting bounds to the destruction of our forests, and re- storing them, in a measure at least, where they have been wan- tonly destroyed. A quarter of a century ago, one whose thoughts had been turned in this direction wrote :* " Our own country is yet too new, and our forests are yet too numerous and extensive, for scarcity of Water to have become a serious evil. But like causes produce like effects; and, unless we change bur procedure, our children will suffer from our wanton carelessness. We have no right, for our own temporary gain, to desolate the land. No generation has more than a life-interest in the earth, of which it is but a trustee for future generations. Every man who re- visits his early home in one of the older States, after an absence of a few years, cannot fail to notice the diminution of the streams and springs. There is prob- ably no constant water in the brook that turned his toy water-wheel. The springs in the pasture, which he remerribers as ever-flowing, are dried up ; and if it be a season of unusual drought the cattle must be driven long distances to water — a necessity that was never known in his boyhood. More especially will this be the case if a furnace or neighboring railroad has occasioned a rapid de- mand for fuel. The trees have gone, and with them the water ; and the mead- ows are dry and parched. In their haste to be rich, the farmers have killed the goose that laid the golden eggs for them. " Within a mile or two from my father's homestead were some half - dozen beautiful ponds lying among the woods. One of these, known as ' Spring Pond,' was a perfect gem. It lay in a deep hollow, whose steeply sloping sides were clothed with a magnificent growth of maple, beech, and birch. At the foot of a sandy bluff the clear, sparkling water welled up, as if from the orifice of a subterranean pipe, in two jets as large as a man's body. From this foun- tain the water spread out into a pond of perhaps' fifty acres, and then flowed off in a trout-peopled brook, large enough, to turn a mill-wheel. "After a dozen years of absence I have just revisited the homestead, and took my way towards Spring Pond. There were some well-remembered land- marks, but the maples and beeches and birches were all gone. The wood- ed bluff was a dry sand -bank. A few water -worn stones marked the place * In Harper's Magazine, April, 1866. FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 245 where the spring had been, but it was waterless. The bright pond was a miry marsh, with here and there paths trodden by cattle in search of water. The trees had been cut down to supply fuel for a neighboring railroad — which, I was not sorry to learn, had never paid a dividend to its stockholders — and with them had gone sparkling fountain and clear pond and dancing stream. This is but a type of what is going on all through our older States. Unless men speed- ily grow wiser in this respect, they or their children will have abundant reason to deplore their folly when the great cry of drought, to which we are even now becoming accustomed, shall be heard season by season ali over the land. " Let us be careful of our trees. Preserve those which still grow upon mountain -sides and ravine - slopes, by fountains and springs. One woodman, with a keen axe, will destroy in an hour what it has cost a century to produce, and what a century cannot replace. A few cords of wood are, indeed, worth something ; but many hundreds of cords are not worth as much as a perennial spring of water. A few acres added to our present corn-fields will be dearly purchased by cursing the land with drought and barrenness. In our Eastern States there is even now more need of planting forests than of felling them. ' Put in a tree ; it will be growing while you are sleeping,' is good advice here and now, as it was in Scotland, when the Laird of Dumbiedikes is made to say the only wise thing which he ever said." Besides their bearing upon the water supply, forests have a very important influence upon climate. They not only shade the ground from the burning rays of the sun, but the leaves of a few trees in full foliage, if spread out on the ground, would cover an acre; and every inch of this surface is an evaporating one. The temperature in a forest is, from this cause, perceptibly lower on a hot day than it is in the shade of a house or wall. The terrible hurricanes in some of our prairie States may, perhaps, be partially owing to the absence of forests. During a "hot spell" the ground becomes heated far above its ordinary tem- perature, and the atmosphere above it is proportionally heated and rarefied. Now let a cool current of air pass over this rare- fied mass, and this cooler and therefore heavier air rushes in from every direction to fill the partial vacuum. When the sci- ence of meteorology comes to be somewhat more advanced, we may possibly be able to foretell hurricanes for some days in advance ; but we can conceive of no way of preventing them except by removing the inducing causes. Not improbably the lack of forests may be one of these. Certain it is, that they are more frequent and destructive than they were when the region 246 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. was better wooded. What the proper proportion is of forests to area, will vary with the climatic conditions of any region ; but, in general, it may be said that it is greater in a hot than in a cold climate. The actual existing area of forests must, in most cases, to a great extent, be a matter of approximate estimate. A very care- ful calculation was made about 1870 of the forest land of Europe and North America. According to this, there were in all Eu- rope about 725,000,000 acres of forest, being 30 per cent, of the whole land surface. But the ratio varied greatly in different countries. In Russia there was 40 per cent, of forest, but the greater portion of this was in the northern part, the southern portion of the empire being very sparsely wooded. The great " Steppes " of the Black Sea region are almost treeless. In Sweden and Norway there was 34 per cent, of forest ; in Ger- many, 26; in Italy, 22; in France, 17; in Holland and Spain, 7; in Great Britain, about 4 per cent. Spain, which ranks next lowest in this respect, needs more forest land than any other country in Europe; and there are not wanting those who as- cribe her descent in the scale of nations to the destruction of her ancient forests more than to any other cause. The same estimate gave to Canada about 900,000,000 acres, probably an over-estimate, unless we include the far north-west, where the forests, though covering great areas, have but few and small trees. To the United States were assigned 560,000,000 acres, or 34.7 per cent, of the land surface. In 1875 the United States Commissioner of Agriculture at- tempted an estimate of the forest area of the United States, based, as far as possible, upon actual statistics. The entire area (Alaska and the Indian Territory being included) was put down at 2,311,544,959 acres, of which 583,346,836 acres, or 25.2 per cent, was forest. But the ratio varied very greatly in different States : from only 3 per cent, in Dakota, to 65.9 per cent, in Mis- sissippi. The percentage of forest to the total area was : In Arizona, 6 per cent.; Alaska, 30; Alabama, 63.5; Arkansas, 58; Cali- fornia, 7.9 ; Colorado, 10 ; Connecticut, 21.2 ; Dakota, 3 ; Delaware, 29.2 ; Flor- ida, 50.6 ; Georgia, 62 ; Idaho, 15 ; Illinois, 16.9 ; Indiana, 34.8; Indian Terri- FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 247 tory, 8 ; Iowa, 14. i ; Kansas, 5.6 ; Kentucky, 49.1 ; Louisiana, 59.1 ; Maine, 46.9 ; Maryland, 38.4 ; Massachusetts, 29.2 ; Michigan, 47.1 ; Minnesota, 1 7.1 ; Mis- sissippi, 65.9; Missouri, 45.4; Montana, 16; Nebraska, 5.2 ; Nevada, 5 ; New- Hampshire, 37.2; New Jersey, 28.1; New Mexico, 6; New York, 27.6; North Carolina, 64.2; Ohio, 28.4; Oregon, 25.2; Penhsylvania, 38.9; Rhode Island, 24.2 ; South Carolina, 60.6, j Tennessee, 59.9 ; Texas, 26.7 ; Utah, 10 ; Vermont, 36.5; Virginia, 49.4; Washington, 33; West Virginia, 54.9; Wisconsin, 20.9; Wyoming, 8. The forest area has certainly decreased very considerably in some sections since this estimate was formed. In the great lum- bering States the native forests have been rapidly cut down for their timber, and in some of the Southern States — as Mis- sissippi, Alabama, and Arkansas, where the proportion of forest was the highest — large areas have been transformed from forests to farms and plantations. Still, if the whole forest land were uniformly distributed, it might, perhaps, be fairly adequate to the necessity in the respect under consideration. But immense re- gions are almost bare of forests, trees being found only along the river courses ; and the lack of wood for lumber and general building purposes is a very serious evil, even where the defi- ciency of wood for fuel may be supplied by the coal-mines. This is the case in those of the great prairie States where the forests form less than 20 per cent, of the total area, and on nearly the whole of the Atlantic slope of the continent. Of course it is still greater in the immense region where the ratio falls below 10 per cent. It may be said, in general, that in New England, most parts of the Middle States, and the lake region, not one more tree should be cut down unless another is set out to replace it ; and that in large portions of Texas, California, Dakota, and Colorado, there should be five trees planted for every one cut down for any purpose. This topic will be further considered in the succeeding chapter on Lumbering Products. The evils of deforesting a country have for many years at- tracted attention in Europe, and more recently in the United States and Canada. And a profession — that of Forestry — has gradually grown up, having for its object the preservation — not the destruction — of the forests. This new profession offers great inducements to those who are intelligently looking out for op- 248 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. portunities of profitable employment. As long ago as 1851 a special committee of the British Royal Association drew up an elaborate Forest Report, which was published by order of Par- liament. Although referring especially to the British Domin- ions, nearly every suggestion embodied in this report is equally applicable to the United States. Of this report we present the essential features : " I. Over large portions of the globe there is a wanton destruction of the in- digenous forests. 2. Improvements have been introduced ; and these may be extended by making still more stringent legal restrictions for the preservation or planting of seedlings in the place of mature trees removed ; by the prohibi- tion of the cutting down of trees until they are well grown, and, in case they pro- duce gums, resins, or other valuable products, taking greater care not to in- jure the trees by improper tapping or notching. 3. Especial attention should be given to the preservation and maintenance of the forests occupying tracts unsuited to other culture, whether by reason of altitude or other peculiar- ities of physical structure. 4. It is a duty to prevent the excessive waste of the timbers useful for building and manufactures. 5. In a region to which the maintenance of its water supplies is of essential importance, the cutting down~ of the forests in the localities whence those supplies are derived should be prevented." This last recommendation is the one of most pressing im- mediate importance to us. What, for example, is the use of spending ^20,000,000 or more in building a new aqueduct for supplying water to the city of New York, if in a few years the region to be drawn upon by this aqueduct shall become so arid as not to be reliable for a constant and regular supply of water ? It matters not that in the wet season there should be ever so much water running to waste from the dams and reservoirs, if in the dry season there is no supply. As a preliminary measure, the State should have absolute control of all the forest land in the region to be drawn upon, paying, of course, an equitable sum for the land thus appropriated. Without such provision the aqueduct might in time be as useless as are the ruins of those which bestride the Barcan desert. Something looking in the right direction has been begun. Among the things done are the Timber Cultivation Act of Congress, and similar enactments in several States, and " Arbor- FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 249 day" in some other States. It is something to know that on Arbor-day, 1876, there were 1,400,000 trees set out in poorly- timbered Minnesota, although the number set out was only a third as great the next year; and we are not told how many of the trees thus set out survive transplanting. If Arbor-day should result only in having village streets and some country highways lined with shade - trees, something will have been at- tained. If a few hundred sections of public lands now treeless should be forested, so far so good. If every farmer who has a rocky patch of land would set out upon it such trees as once grew there, very much would be gained, both by him and the public. If a few adjoining farmers would thus act in common, they would in time find constant brooks running in their ancient channels, which are now, except after a shower or the melting of the snow, as dry as the rocky ravines of the Sinai desert, down which running streams once coursed. Our few great landholders — railway corporations, for exam- ple — could easily do what the largest British landholders have been doing for the last forty or fifty years, with such success as to warrant Mr. Brown, the author of the most thorough British book on Forestry, to say : " In England and Scotland, land unfit for high farming will, under wood and good management, at the end of 70 years, pay three times as much as any other crop." Or to cite the words of Mr. Franklin Hough, our best — one might almost say, our only — writer on Forestry : " If a piece of soil is quite valuable for tillage, its value will doubtless be greater for that use than for forests. The best land will, of course, produce the best trees, but the grain which they will yield will be worth more than the trees would be. But there are vast tracts almost worthless for grain, which will be worth much for timber." Railroads must in any case have wood — for ties especially ; and a railroad tie is a very perishable article. Those corpora- tions which own great tracts of land will soon be forced to grow their own ties ; and the sooner they seriously set about it, the better will it be for them. Instead of trying to force all their land upon the market, they should reserve a goodly part for this 250 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. purpose. Every score of miles of track should have, closely bordering upon it, forest enough to furnish timber for ties, trestles, stations, and all the wood-work required. And, more- over, the value of the land adjacent to a forest would be greatly enhanced in many ways. The man who shall, fifty years hence, journey by rail from the Missouri to the Sacramento or the Columbia, should never be out of sight of a dense forest. Fortunately for us. Government, National or State, is yet the great land -owner, and should be the great forester. It still owns most of the regions which are the sources of our great rivers. The more unfertile regions of Texas, Colorado, Cali- fornia, Dakota, and Arizona should be reserved for forests ; and if now treeless should be made wooded. It does not need to be proven that this is practicable — is even not difficult of execution. But the work must be set about wisely. What is needed just now, more than any other one thing, is schools of Forestry, such as exist in Austria, France, and Germany. We have a Military Academy and a Naval Academy, all doubtless needful; but quite as much as either of these do we need a National Agri- cultural Academy and a National Forest Academy. In Prussia there are about 20,000,000 acres of forest land, of which about 6,000,000 acres belong-^ to the State, and are managed by it. The revenue from this forest land amounted, at the date of the latest reports, to about $10,000,000, of which about half went to defray the cost of management, including the expenses of the schools of forestry. From an elaborate Report on Forest Management, issued not long since by the British Parliament, we learn that " In Germany the forest service is a State department, filled by youths of good position who are specially trained for the service, the period of training occupying five years. The would-be Oberforster must, after passing certain terms at a Government school, spend a year with an 'over -forester,' and then pass an examination as ' forest-pupil ;' after which there is a two years' course at a forest academy, and an examination in scientific forestry, land-surveying, etc., when he becomes a 'forest-candidate ;' then the other two years' practical study, during at least nine months of which he must actually perform the duties of a forester, after which comes the final Government examination, on passing which he enters the grade of ' over -forester- candidate.' After passing this ex- FORESTS AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 251 animation, he is employed as an assistant in academies and control-offices, etc., receiving certain allowances. After five or six years of this probation he may look forward to being permanently employed. Thus we have at least five years spent in study, without pay, and the other five in probation, with little pay, before he is installed. Yet so great is the desire for forest service that there is no lack of competitors." The forest service for the 6,000,000 acres of Prussia employs about 5000 persons, of all ranks, as regularly graded as in the army, from " foresters," through " over-foresters," " forest-masters," and " over-forest-masters," up to the "overland-forest-master," who is a member of the Ministry. The " foresters," numbering about 4000, answer somewhat to our cadets, or to our non-commissioned officers in the army and navy; "over -foresters" and the others to lieutenants, captains, and colonels in the army. Each forester has under his care from 1000 to 3000 acres of woods ; the " over- foresters" three or four times as much; the "forest-masters" 60,000 acres or more. The result is that in Prussia "The forests have all been surveyed, valued, and divided into blocks; and there are accurate maps representing the extent and situation of each forest district, and the description and age of the timber growing on each block. Whatever be the size of the forest, every tree is recorded, and a working plan is drawn up and followed, certain species being destined to longer or shorter growth, ac- cording to their promise of vitality or liability to decay. The maps form the starting-point of every true system of forestry." In the great Bavarian forest - school of Aschaffenburg, the term of study is shorter ; but in order to enter it the candidate must have passed the course of the higher school or "gym- nasium," which includes the classics, mathematics, natural his- tory, and chemistry. The pupils are usually from seventeen to nineteen years of age when admitted, and for the first year be- come apprentices, assisting in the practical work of a forest district. The course of study in the school itself occupies two and a half years ; and not until the student has passed his final examination is he eligible for appointment in the forest service. The course of study comprises the following subjects : " I. Forestry : General management, planning operations, valuation surveys, rotation and details of working plan, transport and sale of timber and other 252 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. forest products. 2. Natural Science, with special reference to forest require- ments ; meteorological phenomena, organic chemistry, nutrition of plants, sys- tematic botany and zoology, entomology. 3. Mechanics, Surveying, Engifteering, and Road -making. 4. Forest Legislation and Police. Practical instruction is given in the laboratory, and excursions are made in the forests. Careful ob- servations are also made regarding the influence of forests on the air and soil, their hygienic importance, and effect on climate.'' In this chapter we have considered forests mainly with re- gard to their wide and intimate relations to water supply, cli- mate, and the like. But their mere pecuniary value for timber and other products demands further elucidation. Do away as much as we can with the use of wood for fuel, for house-build- ing, for ship-building, for machinery and implements, yet there will remain innumerable uses for which wood remains an abso- lutely essential, or at least the most convenient, material. LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. 253 CHAPTER XXII. LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. IN many sections of the United States the forests have al- ready been practically annihilated for the sake of the lumber produced from them. But there were, even in 1880, some of the most densely-wooded regions, especially in the South, where this industry had hardly been introduced, and where it has since that time been greatly extended. Thus, in 1879 Alabama produced lumber to the value of only about $1,500,000; the value in 1882 is set down at $8,000,000. The result of this will be the same as has been produced elsewhere, unless wiser means are adopted than have heretofore prevailed. The forests will disappear ; and it must be borne in mind that it is very rarely that a tract from which the forest has once been cut down has any value for lum- ber. Hardly any attempt has been made anywhere to preserve or renew our forest lands. Indeed, we find only one effort in this direction. We are told by the special forestry agent of the Census Office that " The system of cutting only the large trees, and carefully protecting the remainder, prevails in Maine, and allows the forest to be profitably "worked at stated periods, vary- ing from fifteen to twenty-five years. Their permanence is thus secured. Considerable areas in Southern Maine are covered with second-growth pine, which furnishes a large proportion of the pine sawed in the State." Elsewhere we meet with such in- formation as this: "The original white -pine forests of New Hampshire are exhausted. . . . The original white -pine forests of Vermont are practically exhausted. The estimated amount of merchantable black spruce standing May 31, 1880, was 755,000,000 feet, board measure. During the preceding year 254 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. 199,000,000 feet were cut, and 16,200,000 feet were imported from Canada." At this rate the entire timber supply of Ver- mont would be exhausted in less than four years from 1880. The general evils springing from the destruction of the for- ests have already been considered. We now present the statis- tics of the lumber industry for 1880. This, it will be seen, ranks among our great industries. It employed ^180,000,000 of cap- ital, gave employment to an average number of nearly 150,000 persons (and occasionally to at least half as many more), who re- ceived as wages nearly ^32,oo"o,ooo; and the whole value of the lumbering product was ^233,000,000, of which the logs them- selves were worth nearly $140,000,000. Table XXII. gives for each State the number of lumbering establishments in 1880, the capital and average number of hands employed, the amount of wages paid, the value of the logs, and the total value of all the products. The products of the logs brought from the forests and re- duced to lumber were : 18,091,356,000 feet of lumber, board meas- ure; 1,761,788,000 laths; 5,555,046,000 shingles; 1,248,226,000 staves; 146,523,000 sets of headings; and 34,076,000 feet, board measure, of spool and bobbin stock. Dividing the amount of wages paid during the year by the average number of hands em- ployed, and we have only $215 a year for each ; but only a por- tion of those actually engaged in lumbering worked at this oc- cupation continuously through the year. Still the mere work of felling the trees and hauling or floating the logs must rank low among our remunerative occupations. The mere lumber, as such, constitutes only a small part of the real importance of our forests. Wood is indispensable for the manufacture of innumerable articles, each of which con- stitu,tes a great industry of itself. Take a single example of a considerable product of the forest which was practically un- known five years ago. Rags and similar fibrous materials, from which paper was formerly almost exclusively made, are wholly insufficient "to supply the present demand for paper. "Wood- pulp" — that is, wood rasped or ground to an impalpable sub- stance — enters very largely into the composition of wrapping- SNAKING OUT LOGS. See Note i6. LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. 257 paper, card-board, paste-board, and of most printing-papers, and of not a few writing-papers. The newspaper which you read is, in effect, printed upon a sheet made in great part, sometimes almost wholly, of spruce, pine, birch, or poplar chips. The bark and rotten wood being cleared off, the sound wood is reduced to pulp in one of two ways : Either mechanically, by being ground TABLE XXII.— LUMBERING AND ITS PRODUCTS. States. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Delaware Dlst. of Columbia. . Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts .... Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Ter Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . . New Jersey New Mexico Ter. . New York North Carolina . . . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. . . > Tennessee Texas Utah Territory Vermont Virginia Washington Ter . . West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Ter Establish- ments. Totals 35,708 A'umber. 354 13 819 351 96 360 39 86 1 135 655 48 640 3,033 328 146 670 175 848 369 606 1,649 334 395 881 36 38 9 680 284 36 3,833 776 2,352 338 3,837 49 420 755 324 107 688 907 37 473 704 7 Capital. Hands. Dollars. 1,545,655 103,450 1,067,840 6,454,718 481,300 657,300 113,750 359,250 25,000 3,319,550 3,101,453 193,460 3,295,483 7,048,088 4,946,390 263,975 3,290,558 903,950 6,339,396 1,237,694 2,480,340 39,360,428 6,771,145 923,595 3,867,970 208,300 93,375 132,000 3,745,790 1,657,395 74,675 13,230,934 1,743,217 7,944,413 1,577,875 21,418,588 144,350 1,056,265 2,004,503 1,660,952 373,750 3,374,250 3,122,935 2,456,450 1,668,920 19,824,059 36,700 Number. 1,647 79 1,744 3,434 877 707 390 391 25 2,030 3,392 173 3,851 10,339 2,989 516 2,601 976 6,663 1,239 1,970 24,235 3,854 '1,170 2,503 143 140 35 3,104 768 172 11,445 3,039 9,317 579 14,914 153 1,468 3,718 3,186 385 3,511 4,011 499 3,183 8,465 38 Wages. 181,186,123 147,956 31,845,974 Dollars. 424,156 33,375 237,394 1,095,736 113,931 178,336 54,974 40,694 6,000 562,349 554,085 33,367 787,867 1,571,740 835,344 66,757 671,939 300,063 1,161,142 333,786 431,612 6,967,905 934,473 197,867 669,644 47,945 29,313 9,893 548,556 179,693 34,240 3,163,973 447,431 1,708,300 242,1-54 3,918,459 33,143 331,963 549,333 733,914 65,175 436,953 540,331 200,539 459,945 3,357,318 6,380 Logs. Dollars. 1,517,986 136,486 1,009,954 2,055,635 654,500 609,034 369,385 339,763 32,000 1,763,617 3,049,435 213,691 3,959,537 9,390,438 4.033,661 431,738 3,338,888 1,106,380 4,754,613 1,041,836 1,837,497 30,819,003 4,408,468 1,190,902 3,113,049 257,330 153,833 151,790 3,159,461 942,752 100,145 8,628,874 1,490,616 8,603,127 1,294,703 13,378,589 116,085 1,170,088 2,006,134 1,909,794 216,619 1,939,775 1,864,388 1,174,005 1,307,848 13,319,097 34,725 All Products. Dollars. 3,649,634 315,918 1,798,848 4,428,950 1,051,395 1,076,455 485,792 411,060 50,000 8,060,391 4,875,310 448,635 5,063,037 14,360,880 6,185,638 683,697 4,064,861 1,764,640 7,933,868 1,813,833 8,130,184 53,449,928 7,366,038 1,920,335 5,265,617 527,695 365,063 343,300 3,843,013 1,627,640 173,930 14,856,910 2,673,796 18,864,460 2,080,463 33,457,359 240,579 3,081,507 8,744,905 3,673,449 875,164 3,358,816 3,434,163 1,734,743 3,431,857 17,952,347 40,990 139,836,869 333,368,739 258 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. into pulp by means of heavy millstones revolving rapidly in water; or chemically, by boiling the chips, under heavy press- ure, in a solution of caustic soda. Without wood-pulp our great newspapers would not find it easy to procure the al- most countless tons of white paper which they need, or our paper-hangers to cover our walls; and the paste-board boxes, which we find so convenient for many purposes, could not be made in their present numbers or at their present prices. Fort- unes have been made, and are now making, by converting wood into paper. The reported value of the trees growing upon a single acre of woodland exceeds all belief, unless there were corroborative facts and figures. We condense, almost at random, from the ex- cellent Forest Report already cited : " In Maine the average value of farm lands is about J13 per acre, woodland averaging about the same. But in districts where the lumber can be readily brought to market, the value of forest lands vies with the richest orange and grape soils in California or the sugar region of Louisiana. In Sagadahoc and Hancock counties the average value of woodland is $50 per acre. In York County, although the first, and in many cases the second, crop of white pine has been cut off, the quantity now growing has been increasing, and it is estimated that in a forest of fifty years' growth the wood is worth ^250 per acre, and in one of seventy years' growth J500 per acre, on the stump. In Cumberland County the average value of forests, reckoned as woodland, is $80; timber land J120 per acre. In New Hampshire, in Sullivan County, the best forests yield sixty cords per acre, mostly hard-wood, worth, standing, %\ per cord, and 2o,oo'o feet of soft lumber, worth from ^2.50 to $5 per 1000 feet. In Grafton County many acres of spruce forests are valued at $1000, and of hemlock at $500 per acre. Large tracts of birch, for peg-wood, and of poplar, for paper-pulp, sell at $20 per acre ; and it is estimated that the forests in the county average in value $50 per acre. In Vermont, in Lamoille County, about half the forest lands produce soft timber, and these lands sell at fi-om J5 to $20 per acre, according to location and value of soil. The other half is made up of hard - wood varieties, of which the most valuable is the sugar -maple; and maple - orchards sell at ^100 to $200 per acre. In Massachusetts, in Bristol County, the best growths of pine are worth J200 per acre. In a few instances old fields have been set out with pine timber, and in most cases the investment has proved judicious. In Con- necticut, in Windsor County, the heaviest forests have all been cut down, and most of the forest area is too rocky and sterile to cultivate ; but upon about one- fourth of the forest area pines and chestnuts grow so rapidly that in twenty or thirty years they will make boards twelve to eighteen inches wide. Land on RAFTS IN THE DELLS. See Note 17. LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. 261 .which timber is growing increases in market value every year. In Litchfield County iron furnaces have been in operation more than a century, and to supply them with charcoal the hills have been repeatedly stripped of their coverings ; but after the trees have been cut down, most kinds sprout vigorously from the stump, and others spring up from the seed, so that if cattle are excluded the forest is soon renewed. Sprout- land, kept for wood, has proved remunerative, yielding every twenty-five years twenty -five cords per acre, worth $2 a cord, standing." These data evince that in the New England States there is even now ample opportunity for the remunerative exercise of forestry. We find similar facts in abundance as we pass to the Middle States: " In JVew York, in Washington County, all the accessible original timber has been cut off; yet there are some groves of hemlock, valued at ^500 per acre, of pine, at $1000, and of oak and hemlock at fabulous prices. In Livings- ton County it is held that one -eighth of the land now under cultivation, if it were planted in forests for wind-breaks and fuel, would largely increase the agricultural resources and value of the county: a suggestion well worthy of con- sideration, especially, as elsewhere noted, in fruit-raising. In Otsego County many tracts, after the timber has been cut off, are kept for successive crops of hop-poles, the trees attaining the proper growth in about ten years ; an acre often yielding 2000 poles, worth, standing, from $40 to $60. Good timber land is worth $50 per acre, and at that rate the wood product will pay for it, leaving the cleared land for net profit. In the southern part of New Jersey there are few forests remaining, and the farmers consider land from which timber has been cut too valuable for forest cultivation, though chestnut is excepted, on ac- count of its rapid growth. In Camden County the few acres of white and black oak and chestnut of first growth are valued at 5^300 per acre ; second growth at ^30; first growth cedar, $600 to $800; second growth, $25 to $75. As evidence that the oftener chestnut is cut, the more the growth is multiplied, it is stated that the sprouts of one stump produced sixty railroad ties, worth 50 cents each. In Pennsylvania the wooded portions are very large ; but many of them are so situated that the timber cannot find a market. In Bedford County, where there are twelve acres of forest to one acre under cultivation, the moun- tains are covered with pine, oak, and chestnut, and a tract of chestnut will yield per acre 3000 or 4000 rails for fencing, worth from ^30 to %io, and so rapid is the growth of this tree that in sixteen years after the first cutting the land will reproduce an equal yield. In Lancaster County the wood of good timber land sells at I300 per acre, the land itself not included. Locust-trees are planted along the fences on farms, and are considered very valuable. In Chester County the best forests sell for $125 to $200 per acre, the land not included." 262 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. In the Southern States the forests themselves have been unremunerative, owing to the limited market for wood and lumber, arising from the deficiency of means of transportation. The Report says : " Beyond a quite limited use for building, and the demand for fences and railroad ties, there is scarcely any home market. A peculiarity of the forest lands in these States is a vast extent of second growth, mainly pine, covering soil mostly worn out by exhaustive cultivation, and abandoned. Included in the primeval forests yet rerriaining are extended tracts of yellow and pitch-pine, and immense swamps of cypress and cedar, varieties of oak, including live-oak in the Gulf States. Hickory, walnut, cherry, poplar, gum, and chestnut are among the valuable kinds generally diffused." A change in this respect has begun, and the timber of these States is beginning to have a market value. But the first re- sults of this change were unfavorable ; notably so in Virginia. The people, exhausted by the results of the civil war, were per- haps forced to look only to present remuneration, irrespective of the future. The forests of some portions of the State af- forded one of the readiest resources, and a wholesale dev- astation of them took place. In Pittsylvania County timber land decreased to 30 or 40 per cent, in five years ; the wood cut down was sold at a merely nominal price, the main purpose being to get new land for tobacco and other crops. In Smyth County "timber lands vary in value from ^3 to ^25 per acre; in many instances the chestnut -oak is cut for the bark, and the timber is left to decay." In Roanoke County, " since the war, the indiscriminate destruction of forest for miles back from the railroad, for wood, has been highly disadvantageous." In James City County " two-thirds of the area is in forest ; pine, the most valuable timber, is being rapidly cut into wood, shipped to New York, and plank shipped to Baltimore." In Henrico County " the destruction of the forests by both armies during the war was very great." Spottsylvania County " has 60 per cent, of its area in forests, of which 10 per cent, is timber land, val- ued at ^20 per acre, and 50 per cent, land that will average fifteen cords of wood per acre, worth 25 cents per cord, stand- ing." Buchanan County "abounds in forests heavily timbered LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. 263 with hard -woods, which, remote from rafting streams, can be bought at from 50 cents to ^i per acre." These statements, and numerous others to the same general purport, furnish abundant reasons why the maintenance of the forests should receive prompt and careful attention in Virginia. North Car- olina presents conditions similar to those in Virginia. The Report says : " Haywood County has about 80 per cent, of its area in forest, a great portion being mountainous. In many instances timber is considered a nuisance, and every means for its destruction are resorted to, even to placing it in huge piles and burning it to ashes. In Beaufort County fully 80 per cent, of the land area is covered with forest, one-half of which is of original growth ; there are many saw-mills occupied in sawing lumber for the Northern and West India markets, and millions of cypress shingles are annually shipped. Alamance County contains 60,000 acres in original forest, besides a vast amount of land covered with second growth in different stages. Land worn out and abandoned as worthless has been restored, it is said, to its original fertility by a growth of pine, much of which now affords timber suitable for building. In Person Counfy the original forests of hard -wood are being rapidly cleared up for the purpose of growing tobacco, the timber being mostly burned on the land. The forests of Madison County abound in timber — chestnut and locust, poplars five feet in diameter, and white pine from two to four feet in diameter and one hundred and fifty feet high ; yet all this magnificent timber is worth from $10 to %\2 per acre less than nothing — the owners paying at that rate for having it removed from the land in order to fit it for cultivation. In Gaston County it is still not uncommon in clearing land to kill a part of the timber by gird- ling, and cut down the remainder, burning it on the ground. Many of the old fields are densely covered with pines of thirty or forty years' growth. In Ran- dolph County more than 67 per cent, of the area is yet in forests, which, with a railroad running near, would be very profitable. In Gates County the for- ests abound in pine timber, worth about $4 per acre ; and the swamps in cy- press and juniper, which, with shipping facilities, would be valuable." If one will read these statistics with a map before him, he cannot fail to perceive that forest culture and forest manage- ment is one of the chief directions to which the industry of North CaroHna should turn. Let her people not heedlessly cut down the forests in order to get two or three crops of tobacco, but preserve a due proportion of them as forests, and the lands of the State will be growing more and more valuable year by 264 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. year. In natural physical conditions North Carolina is not un- like Spain. Let her not follow the bad example of that country in regard to her forests. Georgia and Alabama, except in latitude and climate, bear many close analogies to the New England States. Both possess extensive water-power, and hence should become, to a consider- able extent, manufacturing States. Both have abundant forests, and have good natural facilities for working up their forest prod- ucts and sending them to market. Both, as lumbering States, should rank with Maine and Michigan, which cannot, with the wisest management, keep up the supply of the lumber required for the Union. Both- of these States have, moreover, need for that regulation of the supply and distribution of water which is afforded by forests. In both States, therefore, forestry should have ample consideration. The five Central States — Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin — present some special forest aspects. Originally they were far less densely wooded than the Eastern and South- eastern States, but fully one-third of their area, was covered by forests, especially on the river -banks, where they are most needed. The timber, except in the case of the white pine of Michigan, is not largely exported from the neighborhood of its growth, but yet the local demand for it is sufficient to warrant its preservation ; and so wooded land is not largely cleared up for the mere purpose of getting rid of the timber. The conse- quence is, that nearly 30 per cent, of the area of these States, taken as a whole, is still more or less wooded with timber of first or second growth. Were it not for the over-rapid cutting away of the pine forests of Michigan, the forestry of these States is not in a very unsatisfactory condition. Land, in most parts, is too valuable for cultivation to warrant the expectation that any large forests will be maintained ; but the planting of considera- ble belts of forest -trees, for the purpose of sheltering orchards and cultivated fields, is in every way desirable. The generally well -wooded State of Missouri lies like a wedge between this fairly-forested section and the half-wooded Iowa and Minnesota, and the almost treeless Kansas and Ne- LUMBER AND OTHER FOREST PRODUCTS. 265 braska. In these last four States the creation of forests is a matter of paramount importance in every point of view. In Iowa very successful efforts have been made in this di- rection. Thus, still citing the Forestry Report: " In Manona County a large portion of the farmers are cultivating timber, mostly cotton-wood, walnut, ash, and maple ; some have thirty to forty acres planted, and many plant belts around each quarter- section." In Tama County " there are fully 50,000 acres of tim- ber planted, all of which grows with great thrift." In Hardin County " our correspondent planted, ten years ago, one acre in trees — willows and cotton-wood — eight feet apart each way; find- ing them too thick, he cut out every other tree, and the product was 1 3 cords of wood, worth ^4 a cord ; the cost of cutting was 75 cents per cord ; this would give a net profit of $84.50 on an acre of poor land for ten years. The average value per acre of the wheat crop of the State was just twenty cents more." In Crawford County, where " timber land averages only one acre to forty-five acres of prairie, large numbers of the more thrifty farmers have planted groves of maple, cotton-wood, black-walnut, and box-elder, which have grown with great rapidity; and the vast expanse of treeless prairies which a few years ago stretched as far as the eye could see in every direction, is now dotted over with beautiful groves, which greatly add to the wealth of the county." Plymouth County " has only a few acres of natural forest along the streams. The township of Lemars, when set- tled seven years ago, had not a tree ; it now has 1 90 acres of planted forests and 1 5 miles of willow hedge." In Minnesota " there is a wide-spread interest in the planting of forest-trees, which is assuming organized efficiency ; there is also an extensive spontaneous growth of thrifty timber-trees on uncultivated prairies protected from fires. Many acres, once burned over annually, are now covered with a thick, young growth." This last statement is substantially repeated for vari- ous sections of the State, and indicates that nature is helping those who help themselves. " As soon as the prairies are pro- tected from fire, groves of timber spring up." " Where running fires have been prevented, fine groves of oak are springing up." 15 266 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. This shows that the absence of forests in this region is not owing to, any inherent defect of soil or climate. In Kansas and Nebraska the percentage of forest to the total area is less than in any part of Europe, except Great Britain, and is certainly not more than one-fourth of what it should be, al- though " on original prairies forest-growth has for some years been increasing from two causes : the arrest, by cultivation, of prairie -fires, which has resulted in the spontaneous springing up, on uncultivated portions, of a thick growth of young trees ; and by the planting of trees, stimulated by legislative encour- agement and by assured success in respect to both growth and profit. In addition to the pecuniary gain, there has been a per. ceptible modification of the climate, especially in the assuaging of the severity of the once unimpeded winds." Naturally, per- haps, the trees planted have been too largely of the soft, quickly- growing kinds, and recently attention has been directed to spe- cies ultimately, though not so immediately, of more value. California has especial need of forest-trees and forestry, and here, perhaps more than in any other State, has attention been turned to the introduction of foreign species of forest-trees. The eucalyptus, or "blue -gum" of Australia, has been more exten- sively planted than any other kind. So small is the proportion of forest, and so wide is the extent of regions where there are no forests at all, that there is ample reason for a confident be- lief that increasing attention will in future years be paid to this subject. AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 267 CHAPTER XXIII. CONDITION A-ND PROSPECTS OF AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. THE foregoing chapter refers especially to the forest con- dition of the United States as it was in 1875, when an elaborate report thereon was prepared by the Agricultural De- partment, based, to a considerable extent, upon the Census of 1870. During the Census year 1880, and subsequently, still more elaborate investigations were carried on ; but the results of these have been only partially published in isolated reports. From these and other sources we deduce some conclusions as to the present condition and future prospects of the country in the respect under consideration : The forests, as furnishing lum- ber for building and manufacturing purposes. Mr. Hough, in his Forestry Report for 1882, says: " In looking forward to the probabilities of future supply of timber, we can- not expect (unless so far as it may be derived from Canada) any assistance worth noticing from foreign countries, and must substantially dej)end upon our- selves for whatever we require to meet the vast and varied wants of our popu- lation. Although in some instances the consumption may become less, as from the substitution of iron in naval and civil architecture, or of mineral coal for fuel, we can scarcely expect that the general demand will ever decrease; but that it will steadily advance with our increase in wealth and numbers; and that its supply must depend upon the growth within our own territory; and, as the native timber is exhausted, it must in a great degree be re-reared under the care and protection of man." He lays it down as a general rule that trees will flourish in any region that was once covered with a forest growth, and also wherever grain of any kind can be cultivated without irrigation. In some regions trees of many kinds will flourish ; in others the 268 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. range of species is very limited; and to ascertain these condi- tions forms the main aim of forestry. He assumes that — " The work of practical cultivation and protection must be undertaken by the owners of the land ; for it is certain that no National or State Government or local municipality will spend its means in planting upon lands where the title is vested in private owners; and that no private owner will ever care for premises not his own. And, furthermore, that no tenant can ever be expected to plant lands where he is not to realize profits from the improvement; and that, in general, the cultivation of woodlands for a future supply implies a sta- bility of ownership and a faith in the certainty of returns, which, although it may not be inviting to speculation, is still a positive and easily-computed addi- tion to the wealth of the owner, reasonably sure in realization and profitable in amount. And that, with due forethought and intelligent care, there is no culti- vation that better repays the attention bestowed upon it than that of forest- trees." / Government, whether National or State, has the right, which it should exercise, of imposing restrictions upon the undue de- struction of timber growing on the land which it retains, and upon any that it may hereafter sell or grant to individuals or corporations. How much timber land yet remains in the pos- session of the National Government is wholly unascertained. Upon this point Mr. Hough says : "Within the present limits of the original States the General Government has never owned lands, excepting in very limited areas and for certain specified uses. The public lands once belonging to or still owned by the General Gov- ernment, acquired by cession, conquest, or purchase, originally amounted to about 2,835,606 square miles, of which (in 1882) a little over 40 per cent, have been surveyed. More than one-third of the unsurveyed part is in Alaska, and much the greater part of the remainder is among the mountains of the Territo- ries. The amount of forest land, surveyed and unsurveyed, cannot be stated from any information within our knowledge ; but it must be quite considerable, although much of it is remote from lines of transportation and unavailable for present use." Mr. F. B. Baker, who was appointed " to investigate and re- port upon the forestry and forestry necessities of the States and Territories of the Mississippi Valley and east of the Rocky Mountains, presented, at the close of 1882, a Preliminary Report concerning this region, which embraces the States of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, a AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 269 portion of Colorado, and portions of the Territories of Dakota, Montana, Idaho, New Mexico, Arizona, and the Indian Territory. Of this vast region he says : " The States of Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana are largely covered with native forests ; and Arkansas, in particular, stands in need of facilities for bring- ing Jier lumber to market; and the day cannot be far distant when the cypress of Arkansas will be as well known as the pitie of Michigan and Wisconsin." The cypress of Arkansas has, indeed, come to be well known in domestic and foreign markets ; but the latest statistics make it more than probable that the white pine of Michigan, Wiscon- sin, and other States will soon become a product of the past. Mr. Charles S. Sargent, the special agent in charge of the For- estry Statistics of the United States Census, says : " The entire supply of white pine growing in the United States, and ready for the axe, does not to-day (1882) greatly, if at all, exceed 80,000,000,000 feet; and this estimate includes small and infe- rior trees which a few years ago would not have been considered worth counting. The annual production of this lumber is not far from 10,000,000,000 feet, and the demand is constantly and rapidly increasing." At this rate of consumption the white pine of the United States would last just ten years, even supposing that there should be no increase in the consumption. But the quantity of pine lumber brought to market in 1882 was much greater than in any previous year, and unless this consumption falls off, the noble white pine will not find place in the Census Report of 1890. Mr. Sargent thus graphically sums up the ex- isting condition of the white-pine forests of the United States : " Fatal inroads have already been made into the great pine forests of the North Atlantic region. Its -n-ealth has been lavished with an unsparing hand; it has been wantonly and stupidly cut, as if its resources were endless. What has not been sacrificed to the axe has been allowed to perish by fire. The pine of New England and New York has already disappeared. Pennsylvania is nearly stripped of her pine, which only a few years ago appeared inexhaust- ible. The great North-western pine States — Michigan, Wisconsin, and Min- nesota — can show only a few scattered remnants of the noble forests to which they owe their greatest prosperity, and which not even self-interest has saved from needless destruction." 270 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Nowhere, excepting in Maine, do we find any mention of white pine of second growth which has attained a size for mar- ketable lumber ; and a generation must, in any case, elapse be- fore, with the wisest endeavors, any great addition can be made to the sources of supply of this timber. There is no other which can, to any extent, take its place, if we except the nar- row belt of red-wood timber along the California coast. The yellow pine of the South is a very different tree, admirable for some uses, but only available to a few of those for which the white pine is specially adapted. It is a hard, resinous wood, of about the same weight as the white oak, or nearly twice as heavy as the white pine or spruce. We have been accustomed to look upon the supply of yellow pine as inexhaustible ; but we are as far wide of the truth in respect to the yellow pine as we have been in respect to the white pine. Mr. William Little, of Mont- real, the best Canadian authority upon the timber question, puts the matter in a form well worthy of our consideration. He says: " When people talk, as they sometimes do, of the inexhaustible forests of the South, they know little of the sawing capacity of the Northern mills, which could, in twelve months, convert the whole merchantable pine of the States of Georgia or Alabama into lumber, and be but six months in using up that of Florida or either of the Carolinas." There is, undoubtedly, something of over-statement in this. Six months or a year would make very little apparent inroad upon the timber forests of the South. But the felling of these forests is increasing with unexampled rapidity under the growing de- mand for timber, not only for home use, but from abroad. For- eign capitalists are turning their attention in this direction. Hardly a week passes in which we do not hear of large purchases being made: of timber lands in the South by Europeans, with the express and sole view of lumbering. American enterprise and capital is nowise behind in the race ; and unless some check be placed upon this tendency, the South will, in a score of years, be as thoroughly stripped of its yellow pine and cypress as the North and West have been of their white pine. But we return to Mr. Baker's " Preliminary Report on the AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 271 Forestry and Forestry Necessities of the Mississippi Valley," condensing some of his most important statements : Outside of the wooded States of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Missouri there remains an empire to which the subject of forestry is at this moment a vital one. In Minnesota the belt of forest is comparatively narrow ; but when the first settlement of the region began, the north half was covered with white pine, and south and west of this was a large body of hard-woods of various species. " Of the total forest of the State, fully one-half has dis- appeared. The area of the State is about 54,000,000 acres, and only about 4,000,000 acres of hard-wood remain. The first set- tlers of Iowa found a considerable amount of timber on the banks of the Mississippi and its principal tributaries. This they proceeded to use after the manner of the American pio- neer, particularly when he encounters timber on the Govern- ment lands. Nature has since been repairing damages ; but native timber has long since ceased to be a matter of reliance." Nebraska, when opened for settlement, was almost entirely des- titute of timber. " The Omaha land district, of 2,560,000 acres, comprised the most heavily -timbered district of the State, but the original plats showed but 75,000 acres of timber." Kansas was originally somewhat less sparsely timbered than Nebraska. But Pike, who explored this region in 1806, "doubt- ed if, beyond the first hundred miles from the present border of Missouri, the country could be settled on account of the absence of wood." But some fairly-timbered districts were subsequently discovered in various sections ; and now, " after all the ravages of twenty years, the amount of timber in the State is estimated at 2,560,000 acres, or 4.92 per cent, of the whole area. Colo- rado, at the time of the discovery of its mines, twenty years ago^ had a great body of pine, spruce, fir, and other trees covering its mountain sides. " In 1870 it was estimated that one-third, or possibly one -half, of the trees in the settled portions of the then Territory had been destroyed by fire and ceaseless slash- ing. Since that period railroads have penetrated the country, and have added to the destruction by consuming millions of ties. The original forest lands of Colorado are now being conr 272 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. verted into deserts." This last statement of Mr. Baker deserves special attention, and fully corroborates the representations made in a previous chapter of this volume. The immense regions comprised in the present Territories of the United States present some striking features of their own. Dakota, according to Mr. Baker, "is a prairie country, resembling in its general characteristics the adjoining portions of Nebraska and Minnesota." It is therefore a region in which tree -planting is especially indispensable and practicable. Wyo- ming " is a country of high plains and lofty mountains. In 1873 it was estimated that there were 2,000,000 acres of timber in North-western Wyoming. The business of cutting off timber for railroad ties has been going on for many years, the con- sumption being estimated at 500,000 ties per annum. Charcoal- burning and the demand for mining purposes have also dimin- ished the native timber. The elevation of the country renders it liable to frost every month in the year except July, which en- hances the difficulties here surrounding artificial forestry." The mountains of Montana were originally clothed with extensive forests of pine, cedar, and the like ; but these forests have been ravaged by fire, and " it has been noticed that where the timber is once destroyed on these mountains it is not followed by a sec- ond growth." This last condition, which occurs elsewhere so frequently, and in accordance with no law as yet formulated, demands investigation. Why is it that in some cases — as the white pine of Maine — a second growth of the same species fol- lows the cutting off of the original growth, while in other cases the second growth is entirely different, and in others there is no second growth at all } Idaho presents great contrasts of sur- face and vegetation. " The finest body of red-cedar on the con- tinent exists in this Territory ; and, on the other hand, there are 16,000,000 acres of sage-brush lands, which are, however, for the most part susceptible of irrigation, and so offer a field for tree cultivation." The general aspect of what may be styled the treeless region, lying west of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Texas, and the Indian Territory, and stretching to the Rocky Moun- tains and beyond in the south, is thus summed up by Mr. Baker: AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 273 " Going west from the Mississippi the Missouri is encountered, lined with forests for the lower two hundred miles of its course ; above that running through a comparatively deforested region. At the Missouri begins the ascent to the Rocky Mountains, the great field for the exercise of all that man has learned or can acquire of the science of forestry. This region, as the elevation increases, becomes more bare, and, to the eye accustomed to mountains and forests, desolate. The forest keeps up a gallant struggle along the streams which flow eastward to the Mississippi and Missouri — the Platte, the Kaw, and the Kansas — but finally disappears to a thin, winding, fringe of cotton-wood or willows; and for hundreds of miles the eye sees no more till the pine-covered slopes of the Rocky Mountains appear dimly on the horizon. " The traveller coming within sight of the mountains, and then turning southward, comes to New Mexico, with its mountains ofttimes bare to their very summits, and at other times covered with piiion and pines. Its wide plains, watered by inconstant, treeless streams and occasional ponds or lakes, are traversed by but one stream of magnitude — the red, turbid Rio Grande — its banks destitute of trees or verdure, save where the patient Mexican has dug his acequia, or irrigating ditch. Then to the westward lies Arizona, a country of mountains, bearing everywhere the traces of volcanic action — extinct craters, lava-beds, and the veritable sandy desert. As the border of Mexico is ap- proached, the barrenness increases. Nothing relieves it save where man has overcome it by irrigation. The Mexican does not rely upon trees for his fuel, but digs up the heavy, branching roots of the mesquite. If the traveller, when within sight of Pike's Peak, turns northward instead of southward, and keeps his course parallel with the mountains, his way will lead him over the high plains, better watered and less desolate than those of New Mexico, but equally destitute of trees." In 1875 it was estimated that only 4.1 per cent, of the area of California was forest land. But the distribution is very un- equal. Estimates ^re given for 45 of the 50 counties. In seven counties the ratio of forest to area was more than 20 per cent. ; in five it was between 10 and 20; in eleven between 4 and 10; in nine it was less than i per cent. The most important native timber tree of California is the red-wood, which occurs in forests of greater or less extent. Of this tree Mr. Hough says, in his Forestry Report for 1882: " These grand supplies of timber are now undergoing a rapid waste, and the lumbering operations have been carried on in the most reckless and improvident manner. The forests have been plundered and destroyed, with scarcely a semblance of restraint, until the time can be foreseen when they will be ex- hausted altogether, and we shall be left wholly destitute of those inestimable 274 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. resources which, under judicious management, might be maintained for a long period, affording, besides their due supply of timber to the country, a substantial income to the treasury. " The natural limits of the red-wood are relatively of small extent, not reach- ing far inland, and being limited to the western slope of the Coast Range, with- in the State of California; and although it may be propagated elsewhere, it never presents such vigor of growth and such wonderful development as among the fogs and in the humid atmosphere of the Pacific coast. Considerable por- tions of these native forests have come to full maturity,' and the quality of the timber thus matured will not improve in the future, nor its quantity increase. It is quite proper that such timber should be used when at its greatest value, and that the Government and the country should derive the greatest possible benefit from this use ; but there are other portions which are now gaining in value, and would continue to do so for many years to come, if suitable regula- tions for their protection were devised and stringently enforced. The red-wood shows an unusual tendency to reproduction ; and there are large areas, from which the timber has been cut away, and which are now lying waste, in which every condition favorable to new plantation exists, as we have evidence in the growths but recently taken from them. We cannot but regard these localities as peculiarly valuable for timber culture, and this still more from the fact that, from their broken surface, they are worth little for any other use." Within a year or two the red-wood has come into special favor as an ornamental wood, and the demand for it for this purpose has greatly increased in this country and in Europe. As a consequence, the felling of it has assumed greatly aug- mented proportions, and under circumstances which threaten the rapid extinction of this invaluable forest-tree. As these pages are being written we find the announcement that a " Red-wood Lumbering Company" has been organized in Scotland, with a capital of $4,500,000, which has purchased from 50,000 to 70,000 acres of red-wood forest, mostly in Humboldt County, for which (including lumbering machinery, etc.) $ 1,500,000 was paid. Such a foreign company can have but one object in view : that of realizing the most money in the shortest time. This can be done by denuding their purchase — a third of the county — of its red-wood forests, as quickly as possible ; for there is a pres- ent demand for all of this lumber which can be brought to market. If the land belonged to private owners, there might be no way to prevent this impending devastation; but most of the AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 275 red-wood lands still belong to the Government, as do, indeed, a considerable part of all the remaining forest lands in the Union; and in respect to all these the recommendation of Mr. Hough cannot be too strongly urged: " We do not hesitate," he says, " to recommend that not only the red-wood forests, but also the land, still belonging to the Government, from which these forests have been destroyed, should be set apart for forest culture and manage- ment, under such regulations as, upon careful inquiry, should be deemed proper, and as experience may suggest ; and these plans, with reference to the red-wood forests of California, may be applied with equal reason to other great bodies of timber still belonging to the Government, upon the Pacific coast and elsewhere. In whatever plan it might be thought proper to adopt, the main object should be to secure the greatest possible benefit to the country at the least expense, and for the longest period of time." The general outlines of a comprehensive plan to prevent the destruction of timber upon the forest lands still in the possession of the Government may be easily laid down. The first thing to be done is to have an accurate survey made of all these lands, so that the precise nature of every square mile shall be ascertained. Then all large bodies of timbered land should be withdrawn from sale or grant, and placed under regulations calculated to secure an economical use of the present timber. When it becomes advisable to permit the timber to be felled in any locality, the right to do this should be put up at public auction, the Government retaining the title to the land and all the young timber growing upon it, which should be reserved and protected for future supply. The privilege of cutting timber should be by lease for a specified short term — yearly perhaps — with the right of renewal upon specified conditions. There should be no renewal unless all the conditions of the former lease had been complied with ; and the Government should have the right to terminate the lease at any time, for sufficient cause. The condition of all these woodlands should be inspected at frequent intervals, pre- cisely as with all other public property, or as a merchant or manufacturer regularly takes an account of stock: for every tree has its value. The cardinal principle to be always kept 276 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. in view, is that — except in special cases, where the land would be decidedly more valuable for other uses — our present Na- tional forest lands should be reserved for this sole purpose ; the growth being kept up where it is now ample, and restored where it has been reduced ; and also tracts now treeless should be planted and preserved,, wherever economically possible. Most of the forest land owned by the Government has com- paratively little value for other purposes, but much of it is in- valuable for this. How far and in what manner Government, whether National or State, can foster tree- culture by private individuals, by offering premiums for tree-planting, or remitting taxes upon woodlands for a specified time, or in other ways, is a matter to be considered separately. The great thing of present concern is to conserve the national forests. It may be hoped that the granting of extensive tracts of land to railroads or other corporations will be discontinued. What- ever necessity may once have existed for this has come to an end. Above all things, riot an acre of forest land should ever be allowed to pass into the hands of foreign corporations. A railroad has a permanent interest in the future prosperity of the country through which it passes, for the amount of its income is mainly dependent upon the productions of the region near its line. A foreign lumbering corporation has no such interest. Its sole object is present and immediate profit from the trees now growing, and the sooner that is secured the better for it, no matter how much future generations may suffer from its greed. We have dwelt upon the question of forests and forestry under its various aspects, and with much detail, in the full per- suasion that it is the important question of the day — the one upon which hangs the most momentous issues which are press- ing upon us. We are fully convinced that unless the matters involved are wisely settled by the present generation, we shall have entered upon that downward path which so many other nations have trodden before us. From the sketch in a preceding chapter, of the thorough training given in the great German Schools of Forestry, some AMERICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY. 277 idea may be gained of the kind and degree of knowledge which is there called into requisition in this profession as yet almost unknown among us. We need all this and far more, for the field in which it is to be exercised is immeasurably wider. We need men who shall be to our forest interests what thorough farmers and mineralogists and engineers are to the industries in which they minister. The want is beginning to be felt, and will be supplied. Shall it be supplied from abroad, or from the ranks of the young men of our country who are on the lookout for opportunities in life ? Mr. Hough says, almost doubtingly : " We are convinced that among those educated in European schools of forestry, many persons could be found in every way qualified for these duties ; and, should occasion arise for their employment, that they could be had, upon the assurance of a permanence of position and reasonable pay." We are firmly convinced that the occasion has already arisen for this employ- ment, and that it is one which presents inducements worthy of the highest ambition, opening a wide field for science and skill, and promising ample reward to those who are willing to seek it. 278 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXIV. THE PROFESSIONS. OUT of the 17,392,099 persons in the United States en- gaged in all industrial pursuits, the Census classes 4,074,238 as occupied in " Professional and Personal Ser- vices." The list, as thus made out,, is a rather curious one. The following is the number of persons engaged in each oc- cupation ; but in this chapter we shall speak only of those printed in italic letters, these being the avocations most com- monly designated as "professions," in distinction from other callings in life : Actors, 4,812. Artists and Art Teachers, 9104. Barbers and Hair-dressers, 44,851. Boarding and Lodging-house Keepers, 19,058. Clergymen, 64,698. Clerks and Copyists, 25,467. Dentists, 12,314. Domestic Servants, 1,075,655. Engineers (Civil), 8,261. Hotel and Restaurant Keepers, 45,527. journalists, 12,308. Laborers, 1,859,223. Launderers, 121,942. Lawyers,- 6/^,1^1. Livery- stable Keepers, i4,2'i3. Musicians and Music -teachers, 30,477. Officers of United States Army and Navy, 2,600. Officials of Government, 67,081. /^jy- sicians and Surgeons, ?ic^,69>i. Teachers, 221, "j 10. Watchmen, 13,384. Others in Professional Services, 270,547. All the " professions," as commonly considered, number only 498,927 members, of whom more than half are teachers. The labor which they perform is chiefly mental, and it is presumed that this labor demands for its successful exercise the highest native capacities, and a longer and more severe training than is requisite for other avocations ; and that these professions afford the highest rewards for capacity, industry, and energy. Un- doubtedly this was in former times the case. Through the learned professions and through that of arms lay the chief THE PROFESSIONS. 279 avenues of advancement ; and they did engross the best tal- ent of the day, and paid better, in wealth and honor, than other avocations. The eyes of the aspiring were turned almost wholly to one or other of these professions. The case is very much altered in our days, and those who are watching for op- portunities for a successful career should look about them with the eyes of the present rather than of the past. An occupation which was advisable at some former time may be an undesirable one now. Some of the professions — as that of the artist and the musi- cian — demand genius of a special character, without the posses- sion of which no industry will command success. If a man has that special genius he will most likely follow its bent, almost regardless whether his chosen path leads to poverty or riches. To give advice to such persons does not come within the scope of this volume. The Clerical Profession, in theory, at least, stands apart from all others in this respect. It is held that no one can rightly enter upon its functions unless he have a strong, in- ward call thereto. In most religious bodies the aspirant for the sacred oflfice must not only aver that he believes himself to have such a call, but must also convince the proper ecclesiastical au- thorities that his persuasion is well founded. In any case it is to be desired that the young man who proposes to enter the ministry should have a clear view of what he may fairly expect to lie before him. At the very outset there is one strong inducement. The pathway to entering the profession has been carefully smoothed and levelled. Schools and seminaries have been provided and so endowed that he can practically be educated without cost to himself. And then, again, he may be quite sure, if he completes his course with even tolerable credit, that a place will be stand- ing open for him. But, on the other hand, he may be quite as certain that his path in life will lead to no marked pecuniary ad- vantage. Only in very exceptional cases is the salary of a clergy- man a large one ; not uiifrequently it is meagre. No clergyman can expect to become rich by the mere exercise of his profession ; 280 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. but he may reasonably expect a comfortable maintenance from it ; and, moreover, the very fact of his being a clergyman gives him an honorable place among men. It is sometimes urged that the clerical profession is overcrowded : that there are more clergymen than are required to fulfil the functions of the office. In one sense this is certainly not true. There is far more Christian work to be done than can be performed by the sixty and odd thousand pastors now in the field. But the salaries of clergymen, as a rule, are certainly low. This, however, is owing to causes quite apart from the usual laws of supply and demand, which hold good in most other cases. It is said that if the salaries of all the clergy of all denominations were equalized, there would not be more than ^500 for each ; and the proportion of high salaries is not large. Surveying the matter in its mere pecuniary aspect, it may be said that the minister must look upon his profession as one which will probably involve no little self-sacrifice. It may be his duty to make that sacrifice, if need be, but it by no means follows that the churches should call upon him to make it. We hear much idle talk of the " decline of the pulpit " and the " waning power of the churches ;" but the truth is that the visible institutions of Christianity are now, as they have always been, an important factor in our American civilization. With- out them we should never have become what we are; and de- prived of them we should speedily become lamentably different from what we are. We believe that never was the Christian Church, and the pulpit, as its most prominent exponent, a great- er power among us than it is to-day. Every man who calls himself a Christian, by that very act acknowledges it to be his bounden duty to labor for the weal of the church of which he is a member. It may not be his duty to seek the office of the ministry — in the great majority of cases it will not be ; but he is none the less held to sustain those who, as he believes, are called to do this. How much of his means shall be thus sacredly devoted — no\. given as alms or charity — to this purpose, cannot be settled by any universal rule. But tHe man who devotes less to this purpose than was prescribed by divine law to the ancient THE PROFESSIONS. 281 Hebrews, may be well assured that he falls short of fulfilling his self - acknowledged obligation to his Heavenly Master. Very many should do much more ; and there is little reason to ap- prehend that too much will in any case be thus set apart. And this duty is an ever-present one. The man who has been nig- gard in this respect all his life long, makes small amends by leaving bequests, however large, to be paid after his death. It is a duty to be performed personally, not a mere debt which may be discharged vicariously. In many respects the profession of the Teacher resembles that of the clergyman ; but there is this important difference : the clergyman enters upon his profession as a life - long work ; the teacher very often takes it up as a temporary occupation, to be abandoned when something better presents itself, or as a means of support while preparing himself for other work. This is still to a very large extent the case with teachers in our public schools ; becoming less so, as our system of public education becomes developed and improved. There are many more persons occupied as teachers than are classed as such in the Census Report of " Occupations." This professes to include professor^ in colleges and regular in- structors in private schools, as well as public - school teachers ; and in all the number is set down at 227,710. But in the special enumeration of our common schools, alone, 236,019 persons are reported as being engaged as teachers in these schools, of all grades. Of the public -school teachers 106,099 were males and 1 29,400 females ; and of these 15,834 were colored. There were in all 225,880 public schools; of these 5430 are described as being " high-schools, or having high-school departments." The number of public - school buildings was 164,832, having, in all, sittings for 8,968,731 pupils. The average salary paid to the teachers was $236 per year; but the schools are kept open, upon an average, only a little more than six months of the year. Table XXIII. gives for each State the number of public schools, the value of the school property, the entire expenditures, the total amount paid for the salaries of teachers, and the aver- 16 282 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. age monthly salary while employed. It also gives the percent- age of " illiteracy " in the several States. By illiterates are here designated all persons, of more than ten years of age, who are returned as " unable to read." The proportion of these to the whole population above the age of ten is 13.4 per cent., their number being 4,923,451. But many who are able to read are unable to write; the number of these being 6,239,958, or 17 per cent, of the population above the age of ten. The ratio of il- literacy is much the greatest among the colored population. The whites of native birth who are unable to write form 8.7 per cent, of all ; those of foreign birth, 1 2 per cent, of all. The statements embodied in this table, however, afford only a partial view of the pecuniary side ' of the profession of a teacher in our public schools. The average ^36.21 per month includes all teachers of every age and grade of skill and abilit)^ In not a few even of the elementary schools, however, are high talents brought -into exercise and good salaries received. In each of the more than 5000 " high-schools " are several teachers employed, whose positions and salaries are in every respect de- sirable. In addition to these are college professorships, still more desirable. Still, our public -school system, taken as a whole, is not so organized and administered as to afford adequate inducements for choosing the profession of a teacher. In the lamentable lack of even tolerably remunerative occupations for women, this is better than many — perhaps better than most — now presented ; and there are in many localities more applicants for such posi- tions than there are positions to be filled. Unfortunately, also, in too many cases the administration of our public schools has become a part of the machinery of party politics. Many school commissioners have political friends to reward, or political ene- mies to punish; hence teacherships are not unfrequently be- stowed for reasons with which fatness for the place has little to do. For young men the profession of a public-school teacher as yet offers scanty inducements as a permanent occupation. Of itself, it leads to nothing ; and a man who can do even fairly THE PROFESSIONS. 283 TABLE XXIIL— COMMON-SCHOOL STATISTICS: 1880. ■ States, Value of School Prop- erty. Total Exp. for Schools. Teachers' Salaries. Avei'age Monthly Salai-y. Total of Pupils. Daily At- tendance. Schools. niitei-acy. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Number. Average. Number. Per Cent. Alabama. . . 299,599 430,131 388,128 21.66 187,650 123,366 4,629 43.5 Arizona 113,074 61,172 66,744 76.54 4,212 3,213 101 16.7 Arkansas. . . 237,302 382,637 331,750 37.62 108,236 66,619 2,678 28.8 California . . 6,949,983 3,031,014 2,271,219 76.99 161,477 106,179 3,446 7.1 Colorado . . . 710,503 400,206 190,839 57.97 22,804 13,807 614 6.9 Conneoticut. 3,454,276 1,336,234 986,989 40.36 118,529 72,725 2,601 4.2 Dakota , . . . 214,760 183,267 81,311 31.31 13,718 8,530 608 3.1 Delaware. . . 440,788 172,455 110,931 27.99 26,412 17,439 619 16.3 Dist. of Col. . 1,206,355 438,537 287,872 67.74 26,439 20,637 415 15.7 Florida . . . . 134,384 117,724 99,177 25.60 43,304 31,477 1,136 38.0 Georgia 1,046,026 663,464 616,096 30.26 237,124 151,759 5,939 42.8 Idaho 31,000 38,411 33,421 64.73 5,834 3,863 128 6.5 Illinois . . . . 16,876,572 7,636,682 4,587,046 38.78 704,041 431,643 15,203 4.3 Indiana . . . . 11,907,541 4,504,407 3,176,275 38.90 612,201 320,577 11,623 4.8 Iowa 9,460,776 4,347,119 2,907,446 30.59 426,665 260,813 12,635 2.4 Kansas 4,723,043 1,819,561 1,101,211 27.56 246,128 144,343 6,148 3.6 Kentucky . . 2,14.3,013 1,162,944 1,026,659 26.00 292,427 192,331 7,392 22.2 Louisiana . . 752,903 455,758 373,081 40.02 81,012 56,808 1,669 46.8 Maine 3,027,602 991,297 777,692 28.20 150,811 106,763 4,736 3.5 Marj'land . . 2,083,013 1,396,284 1,117,146 42.19 149,981 86,449 2,561 16.0 Mass 21,660,392 4,720,951 3,906,616 58.49 316,630 235,664 6,604 6.3 Michigan. . . 8,982,344 3,112,468 1,920,618 29.05 362,459 263,776 8,608 3.8 Minnesota . . 3,460,458 1,622,919 966,571 33.84 186,544 103,378 4,784 3.7 Mississippi . 563,610 679,476 663,351 29.10 237,065 156,824 5,166 41.9 Missouri . , . 7,810,924 3,092,332 2,261,058 36.33 486,002 260,640 10,329 8.9 Montana T. . 132,507 68,202 63,785 63.21 4,667 2,986 159 4.8 Nebraska . . 2,061,059 1,079,666 666,651 31.38 100,871 62,510 3,286 2.5 Nevada 282,870 212,164 131,019 89.46 8,918 6,385 185 7.3 N. H 2,328,796 568,103 415,777 28.12 64,670 48,943 2,662 4.2 N. J 6,298,600 2,039,938 1,391,550 41.42 205,240 116,360 3,241 4.5 New Mex. T 13,500 28,973 28,002 30.67 4,755 3,150 162 60.2 New York . . 81,236,401 9,936,662 7,438,277 40.71 1,027,938 551,968 18,616 4.2 N. 248,016 383,709 328,717 21.27 266,422 164,670 6,161 38.3 Ohio 21,643,615 7,707,630 4,972,541 37.79 762,442 496,924 16,473 3.6 Oregon . . . . 249,087 316,886 212,348 38.63 37,437 26,563 1,068 4.1 Penn 26,919,397 7,306,692 4,504,802 33.52 950,300 622,351 18,616 4.6 R.I 1,895,877 530,167 401,738 48.25 42,489 ■27,453 850 7.9 S.C 407,256 367,269 308,230 25.21 134,842 99,070 3,077 48.2 Tennessee . . 1,025,858 786,088 684,587 28.45 291,500 205,081 5,688 27.7 Texas 130,762 782,735 713,908 28.01 176,245 123,473 6,692 24,1 Utah 372,273 170,887 130,187 42.48 25,792 17,613 383 5.0 Vermont . . . 1,427,547 462,693 361,039 21.81 73,237 47,206 2,697 4.9 Virginia . . . 1,246,283 889,862 716,153 26.63 220,783 129,006 4,876 34.0 Wash. Ter. . 161,309 112,615 95,582 35.97 14,780 10,546 631 5.7 W. Va 1,686,999 720,967 527,099 27.61 143,796 92,132 3,874 12.1 Wisconsin . . 5,287,570 2,163,846 1,570,997 29.96 299,514 185,276 6,688 4.0 Wyoming T 40,500 28,504 25,894 60.23 2,907 1,920 65 2.6 Totals 211,411,540 79,339,814 55,745,029 36.21 9,946,160 6,276,398 226,880 13.4 well in it, may almost certainly do much better elsewhere. Its demands upon the vital energies are more continuously exhaust- ing than are those of any other profession. The zealous public- school teacher must always work under high mental tension. The clergyman may pause in the writing of his sermon, and re- fresh himself by exercise or repose before resuming his pen; 284 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. the over-wearied lawyer may leave his office or shut out his' clients when he will, and is not constrained to work when he is not in working trim; but the public -school teacher must work straight on during school-hours, and usually those hours are al- together too long, for he has much work to do when his pupils have been dismissed for the day. And, moreover, his work is almost always to be done in a closely-packed and ill-ventilated room. A properly ventilated school-room, even in our best ap- pointed schools, is an exception to the general rule. The teacher has nominally his " vacation ;" but the chances are that his salary is not sufficient to enable him to spend this in such a way as to derive much benefit frOm the intermission in school work. He, of all men, needs , relaxation — not merely relaxation for a few days or weeks once a year, but daily relaxa- tion, and the amenities of social life. AH this applies with still greater force to the female teacher, for her more delicately- wrought system still more urgently demands that relaxation which her yet more meagre salary renders still less attainable to her. Nothing can be worse economy than this under-payment to teachers in our public schools. Next to the family stands the common schocil, in the importance of its influence upon the train- ing of the young. A good school may, indeed, do much towards mitigating the evils of a faulty home, while a bad school will do much to thwart the salutary influence of the best home; and without a good teacher there can be no good school. The State is in a wide sense the guardian of all its children. But the State can only, in exceptional cases, interfere with home arrangements. Unless the parents are grossly and notoriously unfit, the State must leave their children under their own unre- stricted control. For this there is perhaps no remedy. The State cannot see to it that there shall be no unfit parents; but it can and should see to it that there are no unfit teachers — none who are unfit for the office by reason either of want of character, or by want of capacity and attainments. And, except in the rarest instances, good teachers cannot be had without paying them a proper salary. It is sometimes said that public- MAIN ENTRANCE TO THE CATHEDRAL, SEVILLE. See Note i8. THE PROFESSIONS. 287 school teachers get all they are worth. This we do not hold to be true. But, if it were true, so much greater would be the urgency that teachers should be made worthy of far better pay- ment than they usually receive, and should receive all they are worth. Public schools should attract to themselves not a little of the best talent of the community. For high success as a teacher, capacities are required fully equal to those demanded in either of the other professions. The teacher must, of course, be master of the science which he proposes to impart; and, as all sciences are progressive, he must keep fully up with the general movement. The instructor who should to-day undertake to teach any one of the sciences as he learned it while a student, would soon find himself the laugh- ing-stock of his pupils. The successful teacher must be a dili- gent student ; and so interwoven are all branches of knowledge, that it is not enough for him to be thoroughly conversant with the one which it is his special province to teach. He must be a well-read man; and the wider the circle of his reading, so much the better in many respects. The teacher must, also, not only have mastered the subjects upon which he is to give in- struction, but he must diligently cultivate the art of imparting that knowledge. He must be able to inspire his pupils with a love for their studies ; and he cannot do this unless he himself loves them. The teacher is not merely an instructor, but he is also a law- giver and a judge. He not only makes laws for his pupils, but he is also the sole tribunal for trying offenders. But, though in a sense an absolute sovereign, he is also an elective one. If his subjects cannot depose him, they can leave his dominion at will. He can, therefore, permanently hold his place as law-giver only by making just and wise laws, and by administering them justly and wisely. Still further, he is not only a law-giver, but he is the executive who enforces his laws. He must, therefore, have the power of command ; and that man is the best commander whose orders are so given that they, as it were, enforce them- selves ^the man in regard to whom "to hear is to obey." Lack- ing this inherent or acquired power of command, the teacher 288 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. lacks — whatever else he may have — one of the prime requisites for his profession. He may, perhaps, become a successful doc- tor or lawyer or clergyman, but not a successful teacher. The Medical Profession is, in every respect, one worthy of the utmost consideration. Its highest rewards are very high, and its demands are proportionally exacting; but they are of a sober kind. Men may be urged by a strong, inward impulse, born, perhaps, from the conscious possession of peculiar gifts, to become painters or musicians. Men may be urged by a like in- ward impulse, to which is superadded a belief in an immediate call from on high, to become clergymen. But no such special summons, from within or from without, conscripts a young man into the ranks of the healing art. No one says to himself, " I must be a surgeon or a physician, or I can be nothing which I should be." Of course he must be fond of his profession, if he would succeed in it. And fortunately every man likes, or comes to like, the doing of that which he has learned to do well. The young man who meditates entering the medical profes- sion should look well at what he is doing. In the first place, the preparatory steps are long. It may be assumed that he has already acquired a collegiate education, or something equivalent to it, and will therefore have reached an age at which, in most avocations, he can earn something — most likely can support himself. But the future physician has yet some years of seed- time before he can begin to reap his harvest ; and these are ex- pensive years. The theological student has instruction provided for him free of charge ; and, if need be, all or nearly all his ex- penses for living are supplied to him. The medical student has no such swimming-bladders provided for him. Then again, when he has received his diploma, and has a right to call him- self a doctor, he is not in the position of the divinity graduate for whom a pulpit of some kind is presumably waiting. The young doctor must find his patients, and it behooves him to look care- fully to the choice of a place of residence. A great city certainly presents the strongest apparent inducements. Where there are so many patients, there must be room for still other practition- ers. This is true. In tlie medical profession, as in all other THE PROFESSIONS. 289 vocations in. life, there is room, and always will be room at the top ; and if a man has the faculty of climbing, and has won the first rounds of the ladder, every upward step grows easier than the last had been. Then again, medicine is eminently a progressive science. Each day adds something to its developments. New facts are always coming to light, and these often overset old theories. The great principles of jurisprudence are so well and clearly de- fined that they stand as accepted axioms. Our law is essentially the " common law " of England ; and that is essentially the civil law of the Roman empire. In divinity there are, indeed, sects and denominations and " schools " enough ; but within each of these there is little or no room for fresh research. No Christian teacher expects to be wiser than his Bible ; few or none expect to go behind or beyond the creeds, catechisms, and other sym- bols of their respective churches. A clergyman of thirty may be as profound a theologian as he will ever be. Calvin wrote his great " Institutes " before he had reached that age. But the healing art, in all its departments, is a changing one. Diseases, it would seem, are continually assuming new types. At all events, new remedies and new modes of treatment are continually proposed and advocated. The physician who de- serves to succeed must keep himself abreast with his profession. He must be able to decide intelligently, not only what new modes should be adopted, and to what extent, but — which is of quite as much consequence — what should not be adopted. The physician stands in more intimate relations to his pa- tients than the lawyer does to his clients, or perhaps even than the pastor does to his flock. To no other man, therefore, is an unblemished personal character more absolutely indispensable. There have been great and successful lawyers whose lives have been notoriously bad ; there have been famous authors whose characters were more than questionable. But no physician whose character is not above any taint of reproach need hope to attain — or, if he attains it, to retain — professional renown. One other requisite to success in the medical profession is a pleasing manner. The very presence of a physician in the 290 THE WOI?.LD'S OPPORTUNITIES. siclcTchamber should be of itself a cordial, more efficacious in cases not a few than any actual medicine could be. Without in the least disparaging the intrinsic value of medicines, it is cer- tain that their efficacy is greatly enhanced by the faith of the patient.; and the patient's faith in the prescription resolves itself almost wholly into faith in the prescriber. While it is by no means necessary that the medical attendant should profess — of which he can never be certain — that his treatment will inevita- bly effect a cure, he should at least assure himself that it is the best one to be adopted ; and should so deport himself as to in- spire his patient, and his patient's friends, with a like confidence. To the man who has the capacity and the persistency needed for performing the high duties devolving upon the physician or surgeon, there are few avocations which hold out as high or as certain promises of success. Those who cannot, or will not, do the work belonging to the profession, will most likely fail — as they ought — in reaping its rewards. The Legal Profession is, in some aspects, more tempting than any other. The lawyer must, indeed, study long and hard before he can begin to practise, and must usually work longer and harder than most other men before he attains any notable success. One of the most alluring things pertaining to the pro- fession of law is that it affords the most frequent avenue to po- litical and civil honors and emoluments. The bench, it may be assumed, will almost invariably be filled from the bar. In our National and State legislatures the ratio of lawyers has always been out of all proportion to their numbers as compared with the whole population-. This tendency is, perhaps, less noted than formerly; but still, if one has his eye upon public life, a preliminary legal training is a decided advantage. Indeed, a somewhat careful reading of law is worth the while of many who have no design to practise it as a profession. But, simply as a profession, it is confessedly overcrowded. There are too many lawyers for the amount of law business to be done ; and such is the nature of the most lucrative parts of this busi- ness, that they are likely always to be engrossed by a few prac- titioners. The very highest rewards in the legal profession are. THE PROFESSIONS. 291 doubtless, higher than in any other. The salary of the most ac- complished divine or professor, the practice of the most skilful physician or surgeon, falls far below the fees earned by a few leaders of the bar. The high prizes are higher, but the propor- tion of blanks is by so much the greater. We know of every lawyer who has notably succeeded, but we do not hear of the far greater number who have failed. The Literary Profession. — There is no State or organized Territory of the Union which has not ten or more periodicals ; and Idaho was the only one which in 1880 was without its daily newspaper. The whole number of periodicals was 11,314. Of these, 971 were published daily, 8633 weekly, 1167 monthly, and 116 quarterly. The average issue of each daily newspaper was nearly 4000; of the other periodicals, about 2700; but some of the periodicals of all classes issued more than 100,000, so that the circulation of by far the greater number was necessarily much below the average. Of these periodicals, 10,515 were printed in English, 641 in German, 49 in Scandinavian, 41 in French, 26 in Spanish, and the remainder in 10 other languages. There were 8863 periodicals devoted to news, politics, and mis- cellaneous reading; 284 to trade and commerce; 173 to agri- culture and horticulture; 114 to medicine and surgery; 248 to education; 553 to religious topics. The " religious " periodicals were issued in advocacy of the tenets of twenty-four recognized denominations. The Methodists had 75 ; the Roman Catholics, 70; the Baptists, 63; the Presbyterians, 42; the Episcopalians, 33; the Evangelicals, 27; the Lutherans, 22; the Jews, 16; the Congregationalists, 14; the Second Adventists, 12; and smaller numbers for the other sects ; while 96 were classed as " unsecta- rian." Rhode Island and Florida were the only States not hav- ing a religious periodical. The number of periodicals published in the several States is only partially determined by their respective populations. New York had 1411; Illinois, 1017; Pennsylvania, 973; Ohio, 774; Iowa, 569; Missouri, 530; Indiana, 467; Michigan, 464 ; Massa- chusetts, 427; California, 361; Kansas, 347; Wisconsin, 340; none of the other States having as many as 300. There is a 292 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. very marked tendency in journals to concentrate in the large cities. The number of journalists is given in the Census Report as 12,308, being only a little more than one journalist to each periodical. In New York there were 211 1; in Pennsylvania, 1005; in Illinois, 937; in Massachusetts, 698; in Iowa, 516; and smaller numbers in other States. The number set down as journalists is u,ndoubtedly much less than those more or less regularly engaged in furnishing matter for the periodical press, and who find it a profitable employment. Journalism, using the term in its widest sense, presents many opportunities for those actively engaged in other employments. There are many persons who make considerable additions to their earnings by writing more or less frequently for periodicals. So great is the circle of readers, and so wide are the bounds of their tastes and requirements, that very little written for periodicals which is really worth being read, fails to find a purchaser among the publishers and editors, who act as inter- mediaries between the writer and these readers. But there is no end of that which is written and not printed Or worth print- ing; and much that is printed is not read or worth reading. A very large part of what is written and paid for is ^done by persons who have some other avocation than that of author- ship. Even the editors of most journals and periodicals usually write little themselves. Very few men or women among us are distinctively authors by profession ; and even in Europe it has been well said that " authorship is good for a staff, but not for a crutch." Very many persons have gained renown by writing books ; but the number who have gained wealth, or even com- petency, in this way is quite limited. Leaving out of view a few exceptional cases, the best books in almost every department of knowledge have been written by men who did not live by their books. They either had an inherited competence, or were regu- larly engaged in some gainful occupation. The Census reports only 1 131 "authors, lecturers, and literary persons," of whom 811 were males, and 320 females. Still authorship, pursued as an incidental rather than as an exclusive occupation, furnishes numerous remunerative oppor- THE PROFESSIONS. 293 tunlties. Many a one can write an occasional magazine sketch or newspaper article, which will bring a good price, when he could not produce enough of these to earn a comfortable liveli- hood. He would, in a few articles, tell about all he knew. If a man, like Prescott or Bancroft or Motley, have a com- petence to start with, or if, like Emerstfn or Longfellow or Bry- ant, he have an assured profession to rest upon, he may well devote his leisure — and the busiest man has more leisure than he is apt to suppose — to authorship. The busiest lawyer or physician, the most earnest clergyman, the most active teacher or college professor, if he have the right talent, may write more than one good book during his lifetime, and thus build a monument for himself. A few great rulers or soldiers or statesmen live in after -times; but apart from these, literary fame is the only enduring one. The fame of the greatest orator or lawyer or physician or divine, as such, dies with them, or at most lives for a generation. A single good book carries one down through ages. If, however, a young man really resolve upon making liter- ature the business by which he is to live, his best course is to seek an engagement as "journalist" upon some newspaper or periodical. He must content himself with beginning low down ; but there are continual chances to rise, provided always that one has in him the faculty for rising. An established literary reputation, of course, goes for much with publishers and editors, just for the reason that it goes for much with readers and buy- ers. An editor would gladly accept a poem by Bryant or Long- fellow without even reading it, because he knows that people will buy the magazine because it contains the poem. The aspirant for distinction and payment in periodical literature should bear in mind that he must adapt his writings to the medium through which he hopes that they will reach the public. It would be useless to offer a novel to a medical magazine, or a poem to a railroad journal. Of all forms of com- position, mere verses — no matter how perfect is the rhyme and how accurate the number of syllables in a line — are the least likely to find acceptance. Probably short stories, of not more 294 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. than eight or ten pages of an ordinary magazine, or half as many columns in the " story papers," are more likely to meet with success than any one other kind of article. Every literary periodical must have a good supply of these, and is very glad to pay for such as it accepts. The able editors, to use a phrase quite common among them, "have offered to them ten times as many tolerably good stories as they have space for ; but are al- ways in want of very good ones." One essential to a good tale is that it be fresh, either in sub- ject or in mode of treatment, or better still in both. A mere imitation of a good story — no matter how clever the imitation may be — does not go very far towards making up a good story. If any story has made a decided " hit," it is sure to call out a host of imitations, very like the original one, for it seems a very easy thing to tread in the track which some one else has laid out. The closer the imitation is, thfe more likely is it to be " respectfully declined," if offered to the periodical who printed the one imitated. The besetting sin of most persons when they begin to write is to attempt to portray scenes of which they know nothing, and characters the like of which have never come before their eyes. A young woman living in a country village must take it upon herself to describe metropolitan balls and parties, and send her heroine to the opera and. the picture- gallery, even if she refrains from English mansions, German castles, and Italian palaces. All this will be quite "sure to be so much labor thrown away. Sketches of incident and character enter largely into our current periodical literature. If a person has a quick eye for discerning the pathetic or the humorous, and has the faculty of portraying in words what he sees, this affords one of the most promising openings for literary effort, and more especially if facility in the use of the pencil be added to that of the pen. The person who can design cleverly, as well as write clearly, need never lack profitable employment. Such a person may, with perfect confidence, make literature a -^jrofession for life. Not a little depends upon the appearance of the manuscript submitted to an editor. Let it be assumed that the contributor THE GATES OF GHIBERTI. See Note 19. THE PI^OFESSIONS. 297 Spells correctly and falls into no gross grammatical errors ; yet, if the manuscript be illegibly written, it has very little chance of receiving a careful perusal. If the powers of the editor are sorely tasked to make out the written words, he cannot have much left to appreciate any vigor of thought or grace of ex- pression which may be hidden under those obscure hiero- glyphics; A manuscript submitted to an editor, especially if the contributor be a stranger to him, should be as legible as a printed page, in order to have even a tolerable chance of success. Other things being at all equal, the most legible manuscript will have the greatest probability of acceptance. A prize was once offered for a tale, and Edgar Allan Poe, then quite unknown, was one of the competitors. His offering gained the prize, mainly because the manuscript was so clearly written that the ■judges could easily decipher it. It was an exceedingly clever story; but its cleverness would most likely have missed recog- nition had it been hidden under a half -legible chirography. If one who hopes to be a contributor will not favor the editor by writing legibly, he cannot reasonably expect the editor to favor him by a severe effort in reading. Most paying periodicals have at least an approximate rate of payment, based upon the length of an accepted contribution. Some, however, pay much more liberally than others. No first- class periodical will accept anything for which it is not ready to pay current rates; and usually those writers whose names have a pecuniary value demand and receive much more than these. So, also, papers, the preparation of which requires special labor, special' knowledge, or costly travel, are paid for at special rates, usually arranged by agreement. As to the remuneration re- ceived for such articles, no general rule can be established. A very convenient way of measuring the length of an article is that of counting how many thousand words it contains. This is the mode of measurement usually adopted by periodicals. The best- paying' periodicals — in the absence of any special contract — pay ten dollars for a thousand words ; two-thirds of that rate is more often paid ; half as much is probably quite as frequent as either ; a quarter of it is not unusual, especially for translations. 298 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The clerical and legal professions are almost wholly en- grossed by men. Of the clergy, only 165 were women; of the lawyers, only 75. In the medical profession women were not quite so sparsely represented: of 85,671 doctors, 2432 were fe- males. In most other professional avocations the disproportion between the sexes was less strongly marked. Of the 30,477 musicians and teachers of music, 17,295 were males and 13,182 females. Of the 9104 artists and teachers of art, 7043 were males and 2061 females. Of the 4812 actors, 2992 were males and 1820 females. In the profession of teaching alone do the females outnumber the males. ' The various professional employments not comprised in what are generally styled "the Learned Professions," will be considered in their appropriate places in this volume. MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 299 CHAPTER XXV. MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. IT is not easy to draw any tolerably close line between the manufacturing and mechanical industries. Both are em- ployed in transforming raw material, otherwise useless, or nearly so, into forms in which they subserve man's necessities. In both human labor is brought into exercise, and in each of them other mechanical forces are employed. The manufacturer and the mechanic both use machinery, for the simplest tool or im- plement is as truly a machine as is the most elaborate engine or loom. Perhaps the most convenient classification is to in- clude among " manufactures " all those industries in which the larger portion of the result is produced directly by machinery, and to designate, in a general way, those as " operators " who direct the action of the machinery; while those industries in which human labor predominates over machinery are designated as "mechanical," and those engaged in these industries are called " workmen." The Census Report includes mining and fishing among manufacturing and mechanical industries, which employ, in all, 3,837,112 persons, of whom 3,205,124 are males and 631,958 females — 86,677 males and 46,930 females being from ten to fifteen years of age. The following is a classified list of the several occupations, with the numbers engaged in each : Apprentices to trades (3857 females), 44,170. Bakers (1063 females), 41,369. Blacksmiths, 172,726. Bleachers and dyers (649 females), 8222. Bookbinders (5491 females), 13,883. Boot and shoe makers (21,007 females), 194,079. Brass-workers (737 females), 11,568. Brewers and maltsters (61 fe- males), 16,278. Brick and tile inakers (68 females), 36,052. Broom and brush 300 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. makers (642 females), 8479. Butchers, 76,241. Cabinet-makers (480 females), 50,654. Carpenters and joiners, 373,143. Carriage and wagon makers (138 females), 54,589. Cigar-makers and tobacco-workers (10,668 females), 77,045. Clerks in manufacturing establishments (193 females), 10,114. Clock and watch makers and repairers (1818 females), 13,820. Confectioners (1800 fe- males), 13,692. Coopers, 49,138. Cotton-mill operatives (91,479 females), 169,771. Curriers and leather-finishers (200 females), 29,842. Engineers and firemen, 79,628. Fishermen and oystermen (65 females), 41,352. Glass-work operatives (564 females), 17,954. Gold and silver workers and jewellers (1967 females), 28,405. Gunsmiths and locksmiths (195 females), 10,572. Harness, saddle, and trunk makers (1601 females), 42,973. Hat and cap makers (3855 females), 16,860. Iron and steel work operatives (402 females), 114,530. Lumbermen and wood-choppers, 43,382. Machinists, 101,130. Manufacturers and officers in manufacturing companies (407 females), 52,217. Marble and stone cutters, 32,842. Masons, brick and stone, 102,473. Millers (77 females), 53,440. Milliners and dress-makers (281,928 females), 285,401. Miners (79 females), 234,228. Painters and varnishers (266 females), 128,566. Paper-mill operatives (6719 females), 21,430. Photographers (451 females), 9990. Piano- forte makers and tuners (37 females), 5413. Plasterers, 22,083. Plumbers and gas-fitters, 19,383. Potters (589 females), 7233. Printers (3456 females), 72,726. Quarrym'en, 15,169. Rubber-factory operatives (2058 females), 6350. Saw-mill operatives, 77,050. Sewing-machine operatives (5805 females), 7505. Ship-carpenters, riggers, etc., 17,452. Shirt and collar makers (8660 females), 11,283. Silk-mill operatives (9211 females), 18,071. Steam-boiler makers, 12,771. Tailors and tailoresses (52,098 females), 133,756. Tinners (1037 fe- rtiales), 42,818. Tool and cutlery makers (535 females), 13,749. Upholsterers (542 females), 10,443. Wheelwrights, 15,592. Wire makers and workers (245 females), 7170. Wood turners and carvers (193 females), 12,964. Various manufacturing, mechanical, and mining occupations not specified, 242,479. Steam -power and Water -power used in Manufactures. The power of human muscle would be wholly inadequate to move the machinery employed in the various branches of manu- factures. Steam-power and water-power are used as the main motive force for driving machinery. In estimating the capacity of a steam-engine or water-wheel, what is called a "horse-power" is taken as the unit of measurement. One "horse-power" is that which would raise 33,000 pounds to the height of one foot per minute. This is considerably more than the actual power of a horse, and about eight times as much as can be exerted by a man. So that the 3,500,000 "horse-power" of the steam-engines MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 301 and water-wheels employed in manufactures in the United States is equal to that which could be exercised by 28,000,000 men for the same purpose. If to this we add the steam-power employed upon railroads and steamships, it appears that all the men in the United States could not perform one-third of the work done by the steam-engines and water-wheels. Table XXIV. shows for each State the number of establish- ments in which steam-power or water-power is employed in man- ufactures; the number of water-wheels, and their horse-power; the number of steam-boilers and engines, and their horse-power; and the percentage of increase of horse-power in 1880 over 1870. The total increase in 1880 over 1870 in Jhe steam and water power employed in manufactures was 45.38 per cent., the in- crease in the former being much greater than in the latter. In 1870, 48.18 of the power employed was water-power and 51.82 per cent, was steam-power; in 1880 there was 64.07 per cent, of steam-power and 35.93 per cent, of water-power. The steam- power in 1880 was equivalent to 2,185,458 "horse-power;" the water-power was equivalent to 1,225,379 "horse-power." Wher- ever water-power exists, under circumstances where it can be brought into use, it will, of course, be utilized for manufacturing purposes, since it costs little except for the machinery required. Water-power, to be available upon any large scale, must be constant up to a certain point. The river must have sufficient water at its lowest stages to turn a certain number of water- wheels ; and it is of little consequence how much more water there may be at high stages. Indeed, a great excess of water at flood -time above the usual flow is a disadvantage, by rendering it necessary so to place the works as to render them safe during flood -time. A river with a large and nearly uniform flow of water is required for manufacturing purposes. Large and costly dams are in many cases constructed in order to equalize the flow of water from season to season, and for the different hours of the day. These dams form reservoirs which store up the water during the night, when the wheels are not running, and let it off, at a regulated rate, during working hours. Many of these dams are very large and costly, and their construction involves the ut- 17 302 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. most knowledge and skill of the civil engineer, in order to render them capable of withstanding the enormous pressure which they must endure. The breaking of such a dam has often involved an immense loss in life and property. Water-power, to be of any use, must be so located as to be accessible. While the TABLE XXIV.— STEAM AND WATER POWER IN MANUFACTURES. States. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Dakota Ter Delaware Dist. of Columbia. Horida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. . . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Ter Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. . New Jersey New Mexico Ter. New York North Carolina. . . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania . . . . Rhode Island . . . . South Carolina. . . Tennessee Texas Utah Ter Vermont Virginia Wash. Ter West Virginia. . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Ter. . . . SB 1,357 31 739 1,000 181 3,038 79 317 115 344 3,074 67 3,733 4,066 1,546 578 1,767 403 1,918 1,533 5,173 3,581 964 893 3,438 63 363 36 1,653 3,386 78 11,776 3,333 6,684 443 10,381 608 1,359 3,108 1,334 348 1,583 3,768 70 1,190 3,154 10 Water-power. Water- Horse- Whe'ls. Power. 931 8 149 305 53 1,784 36 233 15 70 1,917 48 751 1,143 1,093 399 653 13 3,887 1,004 3,046 1,746 650 301 537 39 345 6 3,132 1,313 69 9,753 3,370 3,080 873 7,075 386 1,057 1,382 174 314 3,138 3,339 46 670 3,032 3 11,797 160 2,024 4,850 1,849 61,205 803 4,785 880 939 30,067 1,136 17,445 21,819 20,363 7,611 9,013 90 79,717 18,043 138,363 34,395 28,689 3,449 8,162 954 5,495 108 69,155 37,066 932 219,848 30.063 38,641 9,355 110,376 33,340 13,878 18,564 3,508 3,535 53,336 87,464 1,185 9,454 45,356 88 steam- Steam- Horse- Boil'rs. Eng's. Power. Totals 85,933 55,4041,335,379 72,304 56,483 2,185,458 3,410,887 Steam-power. 616 15 555 990 158 1,670 56 365 137 391 948 38 4,148 3,8 1,339 426 1,686 491 747 1,203 5,105 4,109 760 676 3,448 31 138 37 598 3,358 19 8,101 699 7,081 196 13,095 1,164 593 1,074 1,329 55 378 982 96 934 1,879 18 551 14 545 ' 779 153 1,134 55 354 118 193 799 33 3,445 3,634 1,068 396 1,494 430 511 914 3,096 3,085 569 635 3,128 31 136 28 456 1,619 19 6,673 616 6,315 176 7,913 476 509 967 1,167 55 273 899 61 816 1,366 18 15,779 370 13,709 38,071 3,953 57,057 1,431 10,643 2,368 6,208 31,102 546 126,848 109,960 33,858 13,468 45,917 11,256 30,759 38,316 171,397 180,353 25,191 15,001 72,587 544 2,999 608 18,595 72,793 427 334,795 15,035 232,502 4,384 403,183 41,335 11,995 33,388 38,026 1,154 11,088 19,710 3,210 28,456 60,729 717 Total Horse- Power. 37,576 530 15,733 33,931 5,802 118,383 2,334 15,428 3,143 7,147 51,169 1,683 144,288 131,770 54,231 31,079 54,929 11,346 100,476 51,359 309,759 164,747 53,880 18,450 80,749 1,4 8,494 716 87,750 99,858 1,859 454,143 45,038 261,143 13,589 512,408 63,575 35,868 51,953 30,534 4,689 63,314 57,174 4,395 37,910 106,085 755 Per Cent, of Increase in ISSO. 47.06 488.89 105.77 29.76 160.76 47.10 586.42 80.80 66.38 93.16 33.80 177.56 67.69 31.39 37.11 158.67 38.83 ' 26! 27 58.10 68.03 55.64 167.54 47.93 46.65 156M ' '13.85 71.76 49.18 35.82 36.00 49.80 64.18 40.80 51.37 73.34 36.78 134.08 87.56 33.37 15.34 55.69 38.71 65.18 119.48 45.38 MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 303 canons of the Colorado and Gila contain an immense water- power which will, probably, never become available as such ; that of Niagara may be utilized to any desired extent. The districts in which available water-power exists, though large in themselves, are small when compared with the entire area of the United States. The Mississippi, below its junction with the Missouri, affords no water-power, because there is no fall of water. The low-lying Gulf States are necessarily without water-power, for the same reason. In New England, the Atlantic States, from Virginia northward to New York, and in the prairie States of the West and North-west, the water-power is already utilized to very nearly its full capacity. The Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Passaic, the Gen- esee, the Susquehanna, the Delaware, the Potomac, the Shen- andoah, the James, and the Ohio now turn about as many mill- wheels as they are capable of turning. The table shows how many of these there are. In portions of North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee there is an immense amount of avail- able water-power not yet utilized; and there can be no doubt that these States will, consequently, become great manufactur- ing States. It will not be many years before they will not only manufacture all the cotton -goods required for their own con- sumption, but will also, probably, to a large extent, supply the great agricultural States of the West. There is no more prom- ising opening for the investment of capital and the exercise of skill and industry than in manufacturing in those Southern States which have an abundance of accessible water-power. Steam-power presents some marked advantages over water- power. It can be employed almost anywhere within a reason- able distance from the coal-mines; in the most densely peopled city as well as in the country. Steam-power is more constant than water-power, except in the favored localities. The manu- facturer knows precisely what amount of steam - power is at his disposal on any day of the year ; and he can increase the quan- tity at will by simply putting up new engines. Hence, as the table shows, the use of steam increases more rapidly than that of water-power in almost every State in the Union. 304 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Table XXV. shows, for 1870 and 1880, for the principal branches of manufacturing industry, the total amount of steam and water power used ; the number of operatives employed, the amount of horse -power for each operative, and the percentage of increase of the steam-power and water-power in 1880: TABLE XXV.— STEAM AND WATER POWER, AND OPERATIVES. Indubtriks. Cotton goods Flour and Grist Mills . Iron and Steel Lumber, sawed Paper Silk goods Woollen goods Worsted goods Total House- Power. 146,040 576,686 170,675 641,665 53,218 1,911 85,101 8,016 135,519 58,^8 77,585 149,997 17,910 6,699 77,870 12,930 1830. per Hand. 1.08 9.87 3.20 4.38 3.97 0.29 1.09 0.62 Total Hands Horse- Em- Power, ployed. 375,5041 771,301 397,247 821,938 123,912 8,810 106,507 16,437 185,472 58,407 14b, 978 147,956 34,433 31,337 86,504 18,803 per Hand. 1.49 13.20 2.82 5.56 5.07 0.38 1.23 0.87 Per Cent. of Increase. 88.65 33,78 133.75 28.09 132.84 361.02 25.15 105.05 There is a marked tendency in manufactures towards con- centrating the work in large establishments, having much cap- ital and employing a great number of hands. In 1870 there were in the United States 252,148 manufacturing establishments, employing 2,053,996 hands — men, women, and children — being an average of 8 employes to an establishment. In 1880 there were 253,852 establishments, employing 2,738,995 hands, being 10.7 employes to an establishment. Thus, while the number of manufactories did not increase to any appreciable extent, the number of hands increased 33.3 per cent, the ratio of increase being a little higher than that of the entire population. In the Census Report males above sixteen are counted as men, females above fifteen as women, and all persons below those atges as children. The men employed as operatives increased 25.5 per cent., the women 64.4 per cent, the children 58 per cent. In 1870 the average wages paid to operatives was (in gold) ^302 a year; in 1880 it was ^346. The cost of food — especially of meat — was greater in 1880 than in 1870; the cost of cloth- ing was less : probably the entire cost of maintaining a fam- ily was about the same ; so that the general condition of the two and three-quarter millions of operatives was more favora- ble in 1880 than it was in 1870. But in 1881 and 1882 the cost MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 305 of all food was much enhanced, without a corresponding in- crease in wages. The increase in the value of manufactures, from 1870 to 1880, was much greater than that in the number of operatives. The value of all manufactured products in 1870 was (in gold) ^3,385,860,329, or ^1668 per hand; in 1880 the value was ^5,369,579,191, or ^1923 per hand. The relative cost of the materials used differs in the various manufactures. In some it constitutes the chief item in the cost of production ; in others it is relatively small,, the chief expense being wages paid out. Taking all manufactures together, the cost of materials in 1870 was 59 per cent, of the value of the product; in 1880 the cost of the material was 63 per cent, of the value of the product. The wages paid out in 1870 formed 18.3 per cent, of the value of the product; in 1880 they formed 17.7 per cent. Thus, in 1870 the manufacturer paid out for material and wages 77.3 per cent, leaving 22.7 per cent, for interest upon capital and profits. In 1880 he paid out 80.7 per cent, for material and wages, retaining 19.3 per cent, for interest and profits. The in- crease in capital invested was very large. In 1870 the total capital invested in 252,148 manufacturing establishments was (in gold) ^1,684,567,015; an average of about $6650 for each. In 1882 there was invested, in 253,852 establishments, a capital of ^2,790,272,606; an average of about ^11,000 for each. Thus, capital invested in manufactures returned considerably less per- centage of profit in 1880 than it did in 1870, although so great was the increase in the value of the products, that the total of manufacturers' profits was very much greater in 1880 than in 1870. There is a wide difference in the rates of wages earned by operatives in the various manufacturing industries. This arises from many causes, the one of most importance being the amount of skill required from the operative. In every industry the highest skill demands and receives the highest wages ; while in nearly all there are many persons employed whose work and wages are only those of the common " laborer." The average rate of wages is also less in those industries where women and 306 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. children form a considerable portion of those employed ; for they invariably receive less wages than those paid to men, and the low wages paid to these reduces the general average. In many industries, also, the work is carried on during only a part of the year. In the full and elaborate Tables comprised in the Census Report, 320 manufacturing industries are specified, with the number of establishments in which they are carried on. These establishments included (with certain exceptions) " every one in which mechanical or manufacturing industry was returned as having had during the Census year a product of five hundred dollars or more in value." These exceptions are : Fishing-prod- ucts, quartz-milling, petroleum-refining, gas-making, and manu- facturing by steam railroad companies. In regard to these sta- tistics, the Superintendent of the Census says : " The fact that — in the face of a large increase in the number of hands em- ployed in manufactures, of the amount of material consumed, and of the values of the products — the number of establishments shows hardly an appreciable gain from 1870 to 1880, not-withstanding an increase of 30 per cent, in population, is amply accounted for by the well-known tendency to the concentration of la- bor and capital in large establishments. A very good example of the effect of this cause is found in the cooper trade, where, with a reduction in the number of, establishments from 4961 to 3898 (or nearly 22 per cent.), the hands em- ployed have increased 11 per cent. " This cause has not, however, operated equally to produce a proportional reduction in all branches of industry. Thus, in the carpenter trade we have the average number of hands employed, 5.9 in 1880 against 3.9 in 1870. But this increase in the average number of hands does not alone explain the de- crease in the number of establishments. We have also to take into account the effect of the growth of the sash, door, and blind factories, doing on a krge scale, and by the aid of machinery, what was formerly done slowly on the spot by the individual carpenter. We have then to take into account the growth of the wheelwright trade. In 1870 there were 3613 establishments, employing an aggregate of 6989 hands; in 1880 there were 10,701 establishments, employing 16,108 hands. We have next to take into account the introduction of machin- ery into the furniture and cabinet-making industry, replacing much of the for- mer work of the local carpenter in rural districts and small towns. "We have to consider the immense extension of the contract-system of erecting buildings, the effect of which is to disconnect an increasing proportion of the working carpenters of every city or large town from actual shops, and CARVED DECORATIVE PANEL. COLUJIBUS BEF(JKE THE COUNCIL, See Note 20. MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 309 constitute them a movable, readily disposable force, to be hired now by this contractor and now by that, according as jobs arise. We have last to consider the rapid substitution of brick and stone for building, evidenced by the fact that the number of persons employed in the manufacture of brick in the United States has increased more than 50 per cent, in ten years. '" In the same way, while the cross-road's blacksmith-shop is still a necessity for tens of thousands of localities, very much of the work formerly done by the blacksmiths is now done on a larger scale by wheelwrights, locksmiths, or ma- chinists, or in hardware factories or establishments producing numerous spe- cialties in iron and steel. . . . Space will not allow us to take up trade after trade to indicate the conditions which have affected its rate of growth during the decade just passed, but the foregoing will serve to show the variety and the nicety of the considerations which require to be taken into account in this connection." Although in the Census Report 320 manufacturing and mechanical industries are specified, yet more than seven-eighths of all the workmen are engaged in about fifty of these. Table XXVI. presents a general view of the most important features of these chief industries, including all of those in which more than 10,000 hands are employed. It shows, for each industry, the number of establishments, the number of hands employed, whether men, women, or children, the value of all the products, the total amount of wages paid during the census year (June, 1879, to June, 1880), and the average yearly amount for each hand. It will be observed that, in those industries in which any con- siderable proportion of women and children are employed, the rate of wages falls much below the general average of ^346. Thus, in the manufacture of men's clothing, women and chil- dren form 52 per cent, of the hands, and the average of yearly wages is $286. In women's clothing, women and children form 90 per cent, and the average of wages is $264. In cotton goods, women and children form 65 per cent., and the average of wages is ^246. In woollen goods, women and children form 46 per cent, and the average of wages is ^299. In hosiery and knit- goods, women and children form 74 per cent., and the average of wages is ^232. In silk manufactures, women and children form 70 per cent, and the average of wages is ^290. In shirt- making, women and children form 92 per cent., and the average 310 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. TABLE XXVI.— WORKERS AND THEIR WAGES. 1880. Industbikb. Establish- ments. Worl vers. Valne of ■ Products. Wages dur- ing Tear. Average Yearly Wages. Men. Women. Childreu. Total. No. No. No. No. No. Dollars. Dollara. Dollars. Agr'l implements . . 1,943 38,313 73 1,194 39,680 68,640,486 15,359,610 388 Blacksmiths 28,101 33,992 18 516 34,526 43,774,271 11,126,001 322 Bookbinding 588 5,127 4,831 664 10,612 11,976,764 3,927,349 369 Boots and shoes . . . 17,972 104,021 25,946 3,862 133,819 196,920,481 50,996,144 381 Bread, etc 6,396 5,631 18,925 59,032 2,210 268 1,363 7,055 . 22,488 66,365 65,824,896 32,833,587 9,411,328 13,443,632 419 202 Brick and tile Car-building 130 13,885 13 334 14,232 27,997,591 5,507,763 387 Carpenters 9,184 53,547 74 517 64,138 94,152,139 24,582,077 464 Carpets 195 10,104 8,570 1,697 20,371 31,792,802 6,836,218 325 Carriages & wagons 3,841 43,630 273 1,491 45,394 64,951,617 18,988,615 419 Clothing, men's ... . 6,166 77,265 80,994 2,564 160,813 209,548,460 45,940,363 286 Clothing, women's. . 562 2,694 22,253 346 25,192 32,004,794 6,661,005 264 Cooperage 3,898 24,435 42 1,496 26,973 33,714,770 8,992,603 342 Cotton goods 1,005 64,107 91,148 30,217 185,472 210,950,383 45,614,419 246 Dyeing, etc 191 12,788 2,038 1,872 16,698 32,297,420 6,474,364 388 Fertilizers 364 14,677 75 146 14,898 23,650,795 2,648,422 178 Flour, etc 24,388 4,958 58,239 140,^59 42 675 126 4,217 58,407 146,351 506,185,712 214,378,468 17,422,316 65,982,133 315 454 Foundery, etc Fruits, canned ..... 411 10,638 15,463 6,804 31,905 17,599,576 2,679,960 84 Furniture 4,843 211 45,186 17,778 917 741 2,626 5,668 48,729 24,177 68,037,902 21,154,571 20,383,794 9,144,100 418 378 Glass Hardware. ....... 492 14,481 814 1,606 16,801 22,663,693 6,846,693 408 Hats and caps 480 11, .373 5,337 630 17,240 21,303,107 6,635,522 385 Hosiery, etc 359 7,517 17,707 3,661 28,885 29,167,227 6,701,475 232 Iron and steel 1,005 133,203 46 7,730 140,978 296,557,685 55,476,785 393 Jewellery 739 2,521 10,060 15,774 1,998 286 649 389 12,697 16,448 22,201,621 86,750,608 6,441,688 7,286,785 600 443 Leather, dressed . . . Leather, tanned... . 3,105 23,287 188 337 23,812 -113,348,336 9,204,243 386 Liquors, malt 2,191 26,001 29 190 26,620 101,058,385 12,198,053 465 Lumber, planed ... 1,203 14,614 23 662 16,289 36,803,350 5,890,724 385 Lumber, sawed .... 25,708 141,564 426 5,967 147,956 233,268,729 31,846,974 215 Marble and stone. . 2,846 21,112 23 336 21,471 31,415,150 10,238,885 477 Masonry 1,691 470 15,877 17,471 1 20,620 142 5,382 16,020 43,373 20,586,553 66,221,703 6,880,866 13,316,763 430 307 Mixed Textiles Musical instruments 429 10,905 176 250 11,331 19,254,739 7,098,794 627 Painting, etc 3,968 17,271 131 309 17,711 22,467,560 7,920,886 447 Paper 692 2,161 16,1.33 9,217 7,640 16 649 452 24,422 9,684 66,109,914 18,13.3,260 8,626,355 4,770,389 349 493 Plumbing, etc Printing, etc 3,634 49,521 7,067 6,212 62,800 97,701,679 32,838,969 521 Saddlery 7,999 20,024 661 861 21,446 38,081,643 7,997,752 370 Sashes, doors, etc. . . 1,288 20,644 79 1,276 21,898 36,621,325 8,540,930 390 Sewing-machines. . . 124 10,168 248 959 11,375 15,928,025 5,319,437 468 Ship^building 2,188 21,338 7 21,346 36,800,327 12,713,813 600 Shirts 549 382 2,878 9,375 22,i86 16,396 623 5,566 25,687 31,337 20,130,031 41,033,045 5,403,696 9,146,706 210 290 Silk goods Slaughtering 872 26,113 1,184 27,297 303,562,413 10,608,530 386 Tin- ware, etc 7,595 23,903 '"853 1,492 26,348 48,096,038 10,722,974 423 Tobacco, chcw'g, etc. 477 14,886 10,776 7,094 32,756 52,793,066 6,419,024 196 Tobacco, cigars .... 7,145 40,099 9,108 4,090 53,297 63,979,575 18,464,662 345 Wheelwright 10,701 15,821 17 270 16,108 18,892,858 5,074,799 377 Wire-work 345 9,139 472 1,017 10,628 19,964,426 3,690,896 348 Wooden, wares 997 9,201 275 1,222 10,698 11,905,593 3,688,485 345 Woollen goods .... 1,990 46,978 29,372 10,154 86,504 160,606,721 25,836,392 299 Worsted goods .... 76 6,435 9,473 2,896 18,803 33,549,942 5,683,027 302 of wages is ^210. In the manufacture of chewing and smoking tobacco, women and children form 60 per cent., and of these fully one-third are children, and the average of wages is ^SigS. MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 311 The question of the effect of the employment of women and children, to any noticeable extent, in any branch of industry, upon the general rates of wages in that branch, is deserving of consideration in several aspects. Upon the one hand it affords employment, more or less remunerative, to a large number of persons who most need it, and in this aspect it appears highly desirable ; but on the other hand it certainly tends to lower the general rate of wages paid to all the persons engaged in those industries. While the women and children receive much less than appears in the general average, and the men, conse- quently, somewhat more than this average, it will yet be found that the wages of the men in these branches fall below the gen- eral average in similar industries. That is, the wages of male factory operatives are less than those of most other mechanics. Tbere are, indeed, exceptions to the general rule. In all our large manufacturing establishments there are men of high skill in some departments who command very large salaries ; and these are sufficiently numerous to furnish excellent openings for skilled industry. In a number of industries in which men are chiefly employed the rate of wages falls much below the general average of all in- dustries. For this several causes are to be assigned. In some branches the labor is mainly " unskilled," and the rates of wages do not differ materially from those paid to other " laborers." Thus, in flour and grist mills, in which the hands are almost wholly men, the average of wages is ^315. In many cases, also, the work is carried on during only a portion of the year. Thus, in brickmaking, which is interrupted during the winter, the average of wages is only $202. In lumbering it is ^215. The canning and preservation of fruits and vegetables is the most striking example of this class of occupations, since the season during which it can be carried on lasts only a few weeks, and the hands employed, of whom one -third are men, earn in this business only ^84 a year. It is to be presumed that the men are busied in other occupations during the remaining months of the year. Those industries which are mainly carried on in-doors, and, consequently, are not greatly influenced by the 312 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. state of the weather, show a marked gain in total wages over those of Hke character which are carried on out-of-doors, al- though in the latter the daily rate of wages is somewhat higher. Thus the average for carpenters is $454 a year, while that of stone-masons and bricklayers is #430. There are also several industries which are carried on to a considerable extent in rural localities which show a reduced rate of average wages. There will, for example, be a blacksmith and a saddler in almost every hamlet, who may not be occupied at his trade all the time. The average yearly earnings of a blacksmith are ^322 ; of a saddler, ^370. Very often these men are also farmers, and are some- times returned in the Census Report as " blacksmith and farm- er," or " saddler and farmer," etc. These and many other fac- tors enter into the problem of determining the comparative advantages of the various branches of mechanical industry. In cities the mechanic is usually occupied solely in his own trade, from which he derives his entire support, and in each city the rates of wages for each trade are very nearly uniform, although there is a wide difference in the several cities. The wages in cities are, as a rule, somewhat higher than in the country adjacent to them. Table XXVII. shows, for nine of the principal cities of the United States, the amount received as wages in twelve of the leading mechanical industries during the year 1880. The trades selected are those in which few or no women and children are employed, and, if any are employed, due TABLE XXVII.— WAGES IN CITIES, FOR TRADES. Tea-DBS. o Bakers , Blacksmiths . . . Carpenters . . . , Foundery-men Masons Painters Plumbers Printers Saddlers Shipwrights.. . Tinsmiths Wheelwrights , 455 550 505 407 633 483 595 446 600 463 365 $455 484 477 542 438 446 S04 640 410 639 490 453 1510 587 505 495 470 630 646 603 450 524 490 490 $895 490 440 490 483 362 389 467 400 584 412 406 479 521 640 893 810 563 679 498 512 470 300 652 643 642 605 597 580 606 527 828 490 571 $418 480 496 482 444 396 415 490 402 740 447 466 548 602 537 535 448 520 583 452 671 415 424 $690 664 763 665 707 636 515 851 490 1127 608 661 MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 313 allowance has been made. The table, therefore, shows the num- ber of dollars earned by men. Table XXVIII. will afford material aid to the student of industrial development, and will be extremely valuable to all who contemplate embarking in manufacturing enterprises. It will, in fact, repay the careful study of any person. Interest on money invested, taxes, wear of machinery, etc., etc., must be deducted from the profits named in this table. The investigator can ascertain most of these items in various ways, and draw conclusions for himself. TABLE XXVIII.— MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS, CAPITAL, AND PROFIT. MANrFAOTTJEKS. Establishments. Capital. Profit. Agricultural implemeats Ammunition Artificial feathers and flowers Artificial limbs Awnings and tents Axle-grease Babbitt metal and solder Bagging flax, hemp, and jute Bags, other than paper Bags, paper Baking and yeast powders Baskets, rattan and willow- ware Bellows Bells Belting and hose, leather Belting and hose, linen Belting and hose, rubber Billiard-tables and materials Blacking Blacksmithing Blueing Bone, ivory, and lamp-black Bookbinding and blank-book making , Boot and shoe cut stock Boot and shoe findings Boot and shoe uppers Boots and shoes, including custom and repairing Boots and shoes, rubber , Boxes, cigar , Boxes, fancy paper Boxes, wooden, packing Brass and copper, rolled Brass castings Brassware Bread and other bakery products Brick and tile Bridges Bronze castings Brooms and brushes Buttons Calcium lights Number, 1,943 4 174 33 151 16 9 27 37 80 110 304 3 20 96 1 2 46 48 28,101 23 18 588 173 135 81 17,973 9 221 369 602 36 396 30 6,396 5,631 75 7 980 124 4 Dollars. 62,109.668 824,000 1,253,050 83,600 527,700 373,600 73,100 2,491,500 3,425,900 1,304,700 1,350,600 1,853,917 8,750 793,120 2,748,799 10,000 365,000 1,078,169 494,625 19,618,853 178,650 637,350 5,798,071 1,210,300 770,800 309,364 54,358,301 2,435,000 1,023,777 2,496,496 5,304,212 9,057,600 5,740,237 594,582 19,155,386 27,673,616 4,058,649 186,500 4,186,897 3,013,350 19,500 Per Cent. .35 .38 1.08 .74 .79 .30 .41 .35 .38 .48 .71 .31 .73 .33 .33 .65 .34 .74 1.35 .93 .54 .32 .49 .70 .65 .83 .56 .91 .84 .68 .43 .35 .38 .37 .73 .34 .35 .58 .58 .50 .79 BU THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Manufaotuees. Card-board Card-cutting and designing Carpentering Carpets other than rag Carpets, rag Carpets, wool i Carriage and wagon materials Carriages and sleds, children's Carriages and wagons Cars, railroad, street, and repairs, not including statistics of establishments operated by steam railroad companies Celluloid and celluloid goods Charcoal Cheese and butter (factory) Chocolate Cigar-moulds Cleansing and polishing preparations Clock-cases and materials Clocks Cloth finishing '. Clothing, horse Clothing, men's Clothing, women's Coal-tar Coffee and spices, roasted and ground Coffins, burial-cases, and undertaker's goods . . . Coke Collars and cuffs, paper Combs Confectionery Cooperage Coppersmithing Cordage and twine , Cordials and sirups Cork-cutting ' Corsets Cotton-compressing Cotton goods Cotton ties Crucibles Cutlery and edge-tools Dentistry, mechanical ' Dentist's Aaterials Drain and sewer pipe Dr-ugs and chemicals Dyeing and cleaning Dyeing and finishing textiles Dyestoffs and extracts Electric lights Electrical apparatus and supplies Electro-plating Emery-wheels Enamelled goods Enamelling ' Engravers' materials Engraving and die-sinking Engraving, steel Engraving, wood Envelopes Explosives and fire- works Fancy articles Felt goods Establishments. Capital. Profit. Nwmher. Dollars. Fer Cent. 8 443,000 .46 9 13,793 1.39 9,184 19,541,358 .91 196 31,468,587 .37 896 353,604 .97 5 41,600 1.33 413 7.034,718 .86 67 770,000 .45 3,841 37,973,493 .40 130 9,372,680 .29 6 1,314,000 .51 175 457,484 .57 3,933 9,604,803 .60 7 530,500 .76 3 69,800 .35 31 412,325 .41 2 6,000 3.75 23 3,474,900 .35 20 137,350 .63 3 410,000 .25 6,166 79,861,696 .43 562 8,207,273 .70 3 385,000 .30 300 6,366,392 .53 769 5,735,392 .43 149 5,545,058 .11 13 901,333 .29 38 583,390 .44 1,450 8,486,874 .50 3,898 13,178,736 .51 98 915,102 .37 165 7,140,475 .33 16 128,400 .60 46 873,884 .40 113 1,611,695 .65 29 3,243,800 .11 1,005 319,504,794 .23 6 70,500 .76 11 1,450,350 .14 439 . 9,859,885 .25 75 773,650 1.48 20 840,800 .44 51 489,163 .51 592 38,598,458 .33 303 851,110 .66 191 36,333,981 .46 41 2,368,700 .84 3 425,000 .44 36 873,300 .56 221 865,898 .79 11 397,900 .88 3 150,000 • .28 19 145,200 .38 11 54,500 .30 346 416,840 1.19 55 2,387,050 .16 167 183,733 1.80 13 933,800 .33 39 579,750 .57 151 1,359,450 .53 26 1,958,354 .38 MANUFACTURES AND MECHANICS. 315 Manupaotdbeb. Establishments. Capital. Profit. Number. Dollars, Per Cent 364 17,913,660 .31 179 1,666,550 .44 39 8,115,489 .14 3 400,000 .09 11 54,300 .81 58 404,615 .66 79 620,455 .36 24,338 177,361,878 .26 109 1,293,905 .44 4,958 154,519,484 .39 15 126,500 .44 1 150,000 .41 411 8,247,488 .34 1 100,000 .37 161 3,724,664 .63 4,843 38,669,764 .41 384 6,276,364 .32 192 3,598,887 .41 21 671,450 .79 35 8,248,400 .36 34 1,147,000 .26 211 19,844,699 .20 170 945,180 .70 300 3,379,648 .40 7 2,255,000 .39 82 3,916,750 .23 60 498,500 .38 28 817,100 .29 4 113,000 .27 156 2,566,779 .54 14 125,361 .33 33 4,983,560 .15 299 613,040 .77 5 22,300 1.38 206 1,032,090 .50 39 153,700 .45 46 103,150 1,38 492 15,363,551 .37 64 1,655,550 .56 64 ♦ 746,828 .57 489 5,455,468 .97 21 1,601,625 .66 25 182,525 .59 5 430,188 .15 359 15,579,591 .46 48 456,806 .64 35 1,251,300 .19 63 1,351,050 .42 171 1,342,196 .45 1,005 230,971,884 .21 100 4,933,019 .40 6 79,375 1.19 91 3.598,241 .33 62 3,877,805 .27 35 6,139,565 .33 131 663,197 .47 89 738,000 .74 55 775,564 .36 30 78,710 .77 739 11,431,164 .47 17 63,000 .51 4 415,000 .26 Fertilizers Piles Fire-arms Fire-extinguishers, chemical . *. Flags and banners Flavoring extracts Flax, dressed Flour and grist mill products Food preparations Foundery and machine-shop products Foimdery supplies Fruit-jar trimmings Fruits and vegetables, canned and preserved . Fuel, artiiicial Furnishing goods, men's Furniture Furniture, chairs , Furs, dressed Galvanizing Gas and lamp fixtures Gas machines and meters Glass Glass, cut, stained, and ornamented Gloves and mittens Glucose Glue Gold and silver leaf and foil Gold and silver, reduced and refined, not from the ore Graphite Grease and tallow ; . . Grindstones Gunpowder Hair- work Hammocks Handles, wooden Hard knit goods Hard stamps , Hax'dware Hardware, saddlery Hat and cap materials Hats and caps, not including wool hats High explosives Hones and whetstones Hooks and eyes Hosiery and knit goods House-furnishing goods Ice, artificial Ink Instruments, professional and scientific Iron and steel Iron bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets Iron doors and shutters Iron f orgings , Iron nails and spikes, cut and wrought Iron pipe, wrought Iron railing, wrpught Iron-work, architectural and ornamental Ivory and bone- work Japanning Jewellery Jewellery and instrument cases Jute and jute goods 316 THE WORLD'S- OPPORTUNITIES. Manufaotubes. Establishments. Capital. Profit. Kaoline and ground earths . Kindling-wood Labels and tags Lamps and reflectors Lapidary work Lard, refined Lasts Lead, bar, pipe, sheet, and shot. ♦. . Leather, board Leather, curried Leather, dressed skins Leather goods Leather, patent and enamelled . . . . Leather, tanned Lightning-rods Lime and cement Linen goods Liquors, distilled Liquors, malt Liquors, vinous Lithographing Lock and gunsmithing Looking-glass and picture frames . Lumber, planed Lumber, sawed Malt Mantels, slate, marble, and marbleized Marble and stone work Masonry, brick and stone Matches Mats and matting Mattresses and spring-beds Millinery and lace goods Millstones Mineral and soda waters Mirrors Mixed textiles Models and patterns Mucilage and paste Musical instruments, and materials not specified. Musical instruments, 690 120 1,172 3,216 The States selected contain nearly one-half of the population of the Union, and each of them may be considered a fair repre- sentative of several others closely connected with it by geograph- ical position and general characteristics of society. Thus, Maine represents New England ; California the Pacific States ; New York the Northern, and Virginia the Middle Atlantic States ; Ohio the older and Iowa the newer of the Western States, and so on. There is a marked dissimilarity in the distribution of mechanics in the several groups, but a similarity quite as marked between the States of the same group. The ratio of mechanics - to the population is much the largest in New England and the Pacific States, and much the smallest in the Southern States ; and in the remaining groups it is somewhat larger in the older than in the newer States. This shows that the general distribution has conformed it- self to the present local requirements. If it could be presumed that the existing conditions of society would remain as they are, SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND MANUFACTURES. 337 there would be no doubt that the States in which slavery formed a distinctive feature of society would offer very slight induce- ments to the mechanic and artisan as compared with other sections. But the whole structure of Soq^thern life is being rapidly reconstructed, and the new developments must greatly increase the demand for the products of mechanical industry. It is not merely, nor even, mainly, that the colored people will not content themselves with what measurably satisfied them in their former condition. The augmented demand for the pro- ductions of the mechanic will come at least, in the outset, from the other quarter. The farmer and planter will not be content- ed with the kind of dwelling which satisfied the aspirations of his fathers, nor with the furniture which corresponded with those comparatively rude dwellings. Why, for example, should the resident of Georgia be worse housed than the resident of Iowa.? The area and population of the two States do not differ greatly, but Iowa has more than ii,ooo carpenters and joiners, while Georgia has less than 5000, and Ohio, with twice the population of Tennessee, has nearly six times as many carpenters to build her houses. The same holds good in regard to masons. Georgia has only one- third as many as Iowa; Tennessee, one-sixth as many as Ohio. So, also, with the painters and paper-hangers, who decorate the exterior and interior of our dwellings. Taking the whole Union together, one of these does the work required by 390 inhabi- tants; but in California there is one for every 260, and in Ohio one for every 198; and there is no complaint that these avoca- tions are overcrowded. In Virginia there is only one house- painter to every 1351 of the population; in Georgia, one to every 1672; in Alabama, one to every 2710. We imagine that the demand for more mechanical industry in these Southern States will manifest itself at first most decid- edly in those branches which pertain to building, for the reason that these must be carried on upon the spot, while the products of many trades can be brought from a distance. It is not to be expected that the requirements for increased mechanical indus- try will be very suddenly apparent ; but, upon a survey of all 19 338 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. r the conditions, it is every way likely that the most promising openings lie in those sections where the ratio of artisans to the population is below the general average. Where it is greatly above the average it may be reasonably assumed that the sup- ply treads hard upon the fully developed demand; but where the number falls greatly below the general average, without any permanent natural reason, it may be presumed that an increased demand will spring up. But there are certain exceptions to this general principle. Thus the trade of a printer will inevitably be mainly carried on in large towns. Books and great journals will always be chiefly printed in the principal cities : a very sparsely peopled section cannot support even its local newspaper and jobbing office. Such trades as that of the dyer, the jeweller, the engraver, the photographer, the bookbinder — all indeed which produce arti- cles of taste and luxury rather than of convenience or necessity — will inevitably be concentrated in cities and towns instead of being diffused through rural neighborhoods. The engineer will find occupation only where there are engines to be run, and the machinist in localities where there are machines to be construct- ed or repaired, and consequently where the necessary materials and appliances, such as iron, brass, coal — perhaps water-power — are readily accessible. In some industries — as in the manufacture of agricultural implements, of carriages and cars, of sewing-machines, of fire- arms, of clocks and watches, etc. — a number of separate trades are combined to produce a single article ; and these trades are concentrated into a single establishment, which forms the nu- cleus of a town, and not unfrequently constitutes a town of itself. Such establishments, in common with all other manufactures, involve matters for special consideration. The most obvious feature of them is, that most of the work is performed by ma- chinery; and, in so far as this is the case, the most dexterous workman may become a mere attendant upon the machine. One workman comes to be the attendant of but a single kind of machine, and all that he can learn of his trade can be speed- ily acquired. There will, indeed, be some few persons required SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND MANUFACTURES. 339 who have special skill in doing something which machines can- not as yet perform, and these may receive exceptional pay; but they are few when compared with the whole number, and the general rates of wages approximate more and more to those of operatives in cotton and woollen mills, which, as already shown, are decidedly below the average of mechanics in general. Every artisan should be to some degree a man of business also. If he have an enterprising spirit he will not be apt to con- tent himself with remaining a mere employe, but will wish to go into business for himself, and thus keep in his own hands that portion of his earnings which would otherwise rightfully go to his employer ; and, if at all successful, he will himself become an employer, having other workmen under him. The earnings of this class of artisans do not appear in our tables and in the Cen- sus Report under the head of " wages," but are included in the balance of the " values of products " which remains after deduct- ing the "wages paid" and the "cost of materials." These mas- ter mechanics, if at all successful, of course gain much more than the average of their respective crafts, and usually more than the most skilful of those who remain employes ; and the greater number of those who become even moderately wealthy belong to this class. Employers must of necessity be few in comparison with the whole number of artisans, and the ratio is constantly decreasing. During the period from 1870 to 1880 there was scarcely a per- ceptible increase in the number of " establishments," although the number of workmen increased about 30 per cent. Taking all establishments together — from those having not more than two or three, to the great factories, each having hundreds and even thousands — there were, in 1870, about eight workmen to one employer; in 1880, nearly eleven to one; and there is no reason to doubt that the ratio of the number of employers to employes will grow smaller and smaller in the future. The great establishments gradually "eat up" the smaller ones. At first view this change appears to be one to be deprecated. It does not seem to be well for the community that three men should be made considerably the poorer in order that one man 340 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. may become very much the richer. But, on the other hand, it may be said that the great estabhshments crush out the smaller ones, only because they turn out as good or better products at a cheaper rate ; and so the great mass of the community is bene- fited by the change, and they who lose by it are few in compar- ison with the ones who gain. Those who take this view of the case point to the undeniable fact that — leaving out of view the very poorest classes, who could not well be much poorer than they are — the great body of the community are better off than they formerly were ; they are, upon the whole, better housed, better clothed, better taught, and certainly not worse fed. But whether the change is, in all respects, for the better or for the worse, it is inevitable. Great establishments will produce more cheaply than smaller ones, and men will buy where they can buy the cheapest. The best that any individual can do is to con- form himself to what he cannot avoid. What, then, are the essential conditions of success in those departments of productive industry which are now under consid- eration ? First and foremost are skill and energy. Competition is so great that whoever enters upon suqh a career must not only bring to his work ceaseless activity, but much thought and fore- casting. The manufacturer, of whatever degree, must be con- tinually on the alert to know what improvements are making or likely to be made in the processes employed in his business : he cannot afford to lag behind in the race. If he be able to originate improvements — to be an inventor as well as an appro- priator of the inventions of others — he cannot, unless otherwise incompetent, fail of success. We are indeed told that the real inventors of great improvements rarely reap the rewards of their genius. This is even partially true in a less proportion of cases than is assumed, and is wholly true only in those ex- ceptional cases where the inventor lacked some other important requisites for success. The inventor is not the man who conceived the first crude idea, and then from any cause failed to develop it to the proper extent, even though that crude idea be essential to the perfected SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND MANUFACTURES. 341 invention ; but the one who puts the conceptions of others as well as his own into a practical shape. James Watt, not Solomon de Caus or the Marquis of Worcester, was the true inventor of the steam-engine. Robert Fulton, not John Fitch, or ^ny other man of the scores for whom the honor has been claimed, was the inventor of the steamboat. George Stephen- son, well styled " the Father of Railways," was the inventor of them, although what he did was simply to " marry the track to the locomotive," both of which, although in a rude form, he found ready for his use. It is rare, indeed, that an in- vention is completed at once ; in most cases it is gradually developed by slow steps ; and not unfrequently he who might have been the inventor has failed to become so because he lacked the persistency, or perhaps the means, to perfect his first conceptions. But making all due allowance for failures from all causes, it will be found that the real inventors of any great improvement have in most cases reaped high rewards. True, many others have shared very largely in these rewards, but they were the men who had the sagacity to perceive the value of some invention which they themselves could never have origi- nated. For a man of native inventive genius there is no avenue to success so promising as that of the exercise of this faculty. There is no reason to suppose that the field for inventions in any one department of industry is half occupied. The records of the patent-office tell a different story, and will continue to tell it. How far, for example, are we from applying the possibilities of electricity as a motive-power ? One caution may not be out of place. It is wiser to employ one's time and energies in per- fecting a few inventions — or even one — than in half perfecting many. The profit lies in the completed invention, not in its original and partial conception. This subject will be more fully considered in another chapter. The highest requisite for success — which virtually includes very many — is Honesty, involving much more than the mere absence of positive cheating, or even of what are euphemisti- cally styled " tricks of the trade." No man who aims at success 342 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. can afford to play any such tricks. Even were there no higher considerations, they are sure to be found out. In the very broadest acceptation of the terms, " Honesty is the best policy." As far as any success in life worthy to be so called is concern- ed, it is the only true policy. Any apparent success gained by other means is a bane and a disgrace to the acquisitor. The articles which one makes should be. good of their kind; if the best of their kind, so much the better for the producer. In any case they should be just what they profess to be. Not only should the maker refrain from representing them to be other than they are, but they should not be made to represent themselves to be what they are not. " Let -the buyer look out for himself" is a maxim of questionable morality as commonly understood. The buyer will be quite sure to "look out" for himself, and when he finds that he must also " look out " for the seller he will be apt to make his purchases elsewhere. It behooves the manufacturer to establish not merely an un- impeachable personal character, but an unimpeachable character as a manufacturer — that is, in order to attain high success he must acquire a high character for his goods. Such a character is emphatically a plant of slow growth — it is a work of time; but, once attained, it is a permanent possession. There are few species of property of more pecuniary value than a " trade- mark," which has come to be recognized as a guarantee for the quality of the articles sold under it, and there is no kind of property the exclusive right to which is more sedulously guard- ed by law, and the infringement of which is more certainly pun- ished. Better, as far as money is concerned, steal a man's purse than pirate his trade-mark. As well forge his signature to a note of hand as counterfeit his peculiar trade-mark upon wares of your own. And the law wisely takes a very liberal view of the right which it has created in a trade-mark. An evident imita- tion, calculated to deceive even the unwary, is a violation, to be restrained or even punished, as well as a palpable counterfeit. An established name for any article, or " brand," for any par- ticular species of it, is valuable in two ways. It commands a higher price, if the manufacturer chooses to ask it, than would SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND MANUFACTURES. 343 otherwise be paid. As a matter of fact, however, such estab- Hshed manufacturers do not find it to their interests to charge for their wares a price greater than that for which others could make the same goods. An exception to this would probably be made in most cases in which there is a patent for the man- ufacture, not merely a trade-mark to identify the articles man- ufactured. Their advantage lies rather in the increase of sales than in the enhancement of prices for the goods above what is required for a reasonable profit. The purchaser buys these goods in preference to others, simply because the name of the manufacturer is a warranty for the quality of the goods. Other manufacturers who produce wares equally as good must, in or- der to effect sales to any amount, sell at somewhat lower prices until they have likewise acquired an equally high reputation. Instances without number might be adduced of the pecuni- ary value of such a reputation. Perhaps the Collins axes, the Ames shovels, the Cooper glue, and the Brewster wagons, are no better in themselves than the best of those of other manu- facturers ; but then acknowledged reputation of itself gives them a wider and therefore a more profitable market. There are publishers of books whose imprint upon a volume is accepted by the public as a warranty that it is of high value in its class. The fact that a work is issued by such publishers will of itself insure a sale at once which the same work might never reach if issued by a publisher who still had his reputation to make ; just so in the case of an author who has won a reputation. A poem by Longfellow or Tennyson or Whittier, a novel by Black or Reade or Frances Hodgson - Burnett, a history by Bancroft or Greene or Lossing, a school-book by French or Willson or Swinton, finds purchasers at once, when bearing their names, which it would not have found for a long time,, if ever, had it appeared anonymously. It required twelve years, to find purchasers for an edition of five hundred copies of " Nature," the first book, and by many held to be the best, of those written by Emerson, then an unknown author, while of his later works thousands were sold on the day of publication. But such a reputation, though difficult to gain, is easy to> 344 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. lose, and when impaired is hard to regain. There can be no more short-sighted poHcy than fpr one whose wares, be they what they may, have acquired a reputation to suffer their char- acter to deteriorate. One cannot go on very long trading upon the capital of a past reputation. It must be kept up — " the mill never grinds again with water which has passed." One instance will serve as an example of the care with which some manufacturers find it to their interests to guard their business character: A leading establishment produces goods in solid silver and in plated ware, each kind equally character- ized by artistic design and workmanship, and the two kinds cannot be distinguished one from the other except by cutting into them. Each kind bears its distinctive trade-mark, showing which it is, and, moreover, the same pattern is never used for cup or fork or spoo^ for both kinds of ware. It happened upon a time that by some accident a quantity of silver was wrought into the plated form, and the manufacturers themselves could not distinguish which was which. They therefore sold the whole of both kinds as plated ware, and those who happened to get the silver articles reaped the benefit of the accident, while the manufacturers bore the loss. It is not very long since our manufacturers were accustomed to make up certain goods after foreign patterns, and put foreign labels upon them, so that they were sold, at least to the con- sumers, as imported goods. In the case of woollen, cotton, and silken goods, it is believed that this semi -fraudulent practice has gone almost entirely out of usie. Manufacturers have found that they can produce nearly all of these goods of a quality no- wise inferior to those of their European competitors ; and they are setting themselves strenuously at work, and with ample success, to establish a reputation for their own goods under their own special trade-marks. If a customer fancies that Brit- ish or French cloths must of necessity be better than corre- sponding American ones he can gratify his fancy by paying an advanced price. But the chances are more than even that the goods have nothing imported about them except the label, and that is most usually affixed, not by the manufacturer, but by the A SOUVENIR. See Note 23. SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND MANUFACTURES. 347 not over-scrupulous tradesman. So superior, indeed, are some of our standard cotton goods to those of the British manufact- urers that large quantities of these goods, woven at Manches- ter, are exported to the East, stamped as the product of New England mills. Sardines have long been put up on the coast of Maine, but until quite recently no one ever saw an American sardine for sale. The boxes all bore a French label. This might be ex- plained so long as it was supposed that olive-oil only was fit for making sardines, and that olive-oil only was used in France for this purpose. But the case was changed when it became known that our cotton-seed oil was largely substituted for olive- oil in Europe. It is not altogether certain that the one is not as good as the other for this purpose, but it is clear that the cotton-seed oil is not converted into olive-oil by a voyage across the Atlantic and back. American sardine-packers are begin- ning to understand that the true way to compete with their French rivals is to equal or excel them in the quality of the article, and to sell it honestly for just what it is. So now we find American sardines sold as such. The same is coming to be the case as regards articles such as pickles, preserves, canned vegetables, fruits, and the like. Some wines and liquors are doubtless among the last articles of American product which will be sold as imported. But when it is borne in mind that the chances that every bottle of champagne or port or sherry or brandy which is actually im- ported is a factitious compound, or one more or less largely adulterated, it matters little on which side of the ocean the fraud is pfirpetrated. The less one uses these articles, the more sure he will be of not being imposed upon. To sum up the main conditions for success in the direction now under consideration : First. Choose well the particular avocation in which you are to engage, having special reference to your own qualifications, mental as well as physical. If you are of delicate frame, the. trade of a blacksmith or carpenter is not for you. If your fingers are greatly deficient in suppleness, and in celerity of movement. 348 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. the craft of a compositor or engraver is not the one for you. If you happen to be color-bHnd, do not try to become a painter. If there be no special disqualification, then, of all the occupa- tions open to you, select the one which promises to pay best. If, for any reason, or even for no reason which you can definitely assig;i, you have a liking for any particular trade, that one, other things being equal, should be chosen. If you are fond of read- ing, that is a good reason for becoming a printer ; if you have a natural mechanical turn, you are specially fitted for a machinist, a cabinet-maker, or a millwright; and all the more so if you have an inventive genius. The inventor who cannot with his own hands make, at least, a model of his invention labors under a serious, though not an insuperable, disadvantage. Second. Make yourself a thorough master of your trade, in- cluding the use of all the machinery and other tools used in it; but do not so confine yourself to it as to render yourself, incapa- ble of doing anything else. No one handicraft is sufficient to exhaust all the capacities of any one man. You will be the bet- ter painter for being able to handle the saw; the better joiner for knowing how to use the brush ; the better machinist for ac- quiring the use of the pencil. Third. Having learned your trade, whatever it may be, look well for a location in which to exercise it. It is as important to know where to do a thing as how to do it. Do not become so enamored of your present abode as to refuse to leave it for a better one ; nor so given to change as to seek it merely for its own sake. Of course, the healthfulness or unhealthfulness of a place is a great reason for or against choosing it. Upon this point more will be said hereafter. Fourth. Be on the alert for opportunities to better your con- dition. Look for them, for it is not often that they will come unsought, or that accident will throw them in your path. It is very right and proper to be " always contented with our present condition," provided always that is the one we are best fitted to fill. But it is by no means certain that the condition in which one finds himself is the one in which Providence designed him to remain. The true condition which Providence designs for a SUCCESS IN MECHANICS AND MANUFACTURES. 349 man is the best honest one to which he can honorably attain, and the work of which he can honestly perform. To George Washington it may have seemed at a time that the lot of a land - surveyor was the one divinely appointed to him : and he would certainly have been a very good surveyor. Richard Arkwright seemed to be called to no better vocation than that of a barber, shaving rough beards in a cellar at a penny a chin, as his father had done before him. His inventive faculties were first turned to the folly of discovering a machine for perpetual motion. Yet Providence willed that he should not be content in his condition until he had invented the spinning- frame, in which lay potentially the manufacturing greatness of England and the wealth of the cotton -fields of America. Robert Ful- ton found himself a miniature-painter in early manhood, and with his best efforts only an indifferent one ; that, as we now see, was not the position in life with which he should have been satisfied. George Stephenson was a collier's helper, igno- rant of the alphabet until he had almost reached manhood. When, at thirty, he was made an engine-driver at ^loo a year, he thought that he was '' a made man," and had reached the highest station to which Providence had assigned him ; but Providence willed that he should not be content in that con- dition. Had Peter Cooper remained in any one of the various occupations to which Providence had apparently called him, we cannot well imagine how great losers we should have been. It is the men who have not been " content with their present con- dition," but have always yearned after and striven for something better, who have not only improved their own affairs, but those of the world. Fifth. To skill and industry, persistence and energy, with intelligence to guide them, add honesty in act and purpose. Be content with no present state, however good, so long as there appears to be something beyond attainable. However high you have climbed, let your motto and watchword still be, ''Excelsior — yet higher ! " 350 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXVIII. TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION. THE industries of trade and transportation differ from those of agriculture and manufactures in this, that they are em- ployed not in producing articles of any kind, but in giving addi- tional value to those already produced by changing their loca- tion so as to render them more accessible to the consumer. There were, in 1880, in the United States, 1,810,256 persons en- gaged in trade and transportation. Of these 1,750,892 were males and 59,364 females; of both sexes there were 28,615 i^^di- viduals between the ages of ten and fifteen. The following is the classification of the Census Report, with the number of per- sons employed in each separate branch : Agents (371 females), 18,523. Banker^ and brokers (133 females), 19,373. Boatmen and watermen (11 females), 20,368. Book-keepers and accountants in stores (2365 females), 59,790. Canal-men (48 females), 4329. Clerks in stores (23,722 females), 353,444. Clerks and book-keepers in banks (74 fe- males), 10,257. Clerks in express companies (8 females), 1856. Clerks in in- surance offices (53 females), 2830. Clerks in railroad offices (57 females), 12,331. Commercial travellers (272 females), 28,158. Draymen, hackmen, etc., 177,586. Employes in warehouses (206 females), 5022. Employes of banks, not clerks (21 females), 1070. Employes of insurance companies, not clerks (105 females), 13,146. Employes of railroad companies, not clerks (447 females), 236,058. Hucksters and peddlers (2492 females), 53,491. Milkmen (326 females), 9242. Newspaper carriers (76 females), 3374. Officials and em- ployes of express companies, not clerks (11 females), 13,004. Officials and em-- ployds of street-railway companies (4 females), 11,925. Officials and employes of telegraph companies (1131 females), 22,809. Officials and employes of tele- phone companies (16 females), 9702. Officials of banks, 4421. Officials of in- surance companies, 1774. Officials of railroad companies, 2069. Packers (526 females), 4176. Pilots, 3770. Porters, etc. (2524 females), 32,192. Sailors, TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION. 351 60,070. Salesmen and saleswomen (7744 females), 32,279. Saloon-keepers and bartenders (1308 females), 68,461. Shippers and freighters (6 females), 5166. Steamboat men and women (183 females), 12,365. Stewards and stew- ardesses (298 females), 2283. Toll-gate and bridge keepers (418 females), 2303. Traders in agricultural implements (2 females), 1999. Traders in books and stationery (199 females), 4982. Traders in boots and shoes (186 females), 9993. Traders in cabinet-ware (84 females), 7419. Traders in ci- gars and tobacco (534 females), 11,866. Traders in men's clothing (199 fe- males), 10,073. Traders in coal and wood (90 females), 10,871. Traders in cotton and wool (10 females), 2494. Traders in crockery, etc. (124 fe- males), 2573. Traders in drugs and medicines (120 females), 27,700. Trad- ers in dry-goods, fancy-goods, etc. (4060 females), 45,831. Traders in gold and silver ware and jewellery (41 females), 2305. Traders in groceries (3974 fe- males), 101,849. Traders in hats, caps, and furs (87 females), 4809. Traders in ice (12 females), 2854. Traders in iron, tin, and copper ware (62 females), 15,076. Traders in junk (71 females), 3574. Traders in leather and hides (2 females), 2382. Traders in liquors and wines (132 females), 13,500. Traders in live-stock (14 females), 12,596. Traders in lumber (8 females), 12,263. Traders in marble, stone, and slate (7 females), 1405. Traders in music and musical instruments (45 females), 1906. Traders in newspapers and periodi- cals (107 females), 2729. Traders in oils and paints (14 females), 1940. Trad- ers in paper and paper-stock (47 females), 1862. Traders in real estate (39 fe- males), 11,253. Traders in sewing-machines (99 females), 6577. Traders not specified (3746 females), 113,017. Undertakers (55 females), 5113- Weighers, gaugers, and measurers (11 females), 3302. The foregoing list shows the distribution among the several branches of all the persons engaged in trade and transportation. The "traders not specified" are those who deal in a great vari- ety of articles, buying whatever they think they can sell. It will be observed that there are few of these occupations in which fe- males, to a greater or less extent, are not engaged. This opens up an inquiry which will be further pursued in the chapter on " Work for Women," Railroads. The first railroad operated by steam was opened in England in 1825; the first in the United States, in 1832. At the present time (1884) there are probably more miles of railro'kd in opera- tion in the United States than in all the rest of the world. They form the most important factor in our internal transportation, and have greatly modified our system of trade. At the end of June, 1880, there were in the United States 1146 railroad com- 352 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. panics having roads in operation. There were 87,891 miles in operation, besides 19,722 miles projected. There were also 336 new companies, having 21,307 miles of projected road. Between June, 1880, and January, 1882, 16,922 miles were completed, so that there were then 104,813 miles in actual operation. The fol- lowing will show the progress of railroad-building in the United States : In 1830 there were in operation 23 miles; in 1831, 95 miles; in 1832, 229 miles; in 1833, 380 miles; in 1834,' 633 miles; in 1835, 1098 miles; in 1836, 1273 miles; in 1837, 1497. miles; in 1838, 1913 miles; in 1839, 2302 miles; in 1840, 2818 miles; in 1841, 3545 miles; in 1842, 4026 miles; in 1843, 4185 miles ; in 1844, 4377 miles ; in 1845, 4^33 niiles ; in 1846, 4930 miles ; in 1847, 5998 miles; in 1848, 5996 miles; in 1849, 7365 miles; in 1850, 9021 miles; in 1851, 10,982 miles; in 1852, 12,908 miles; in 1853, 15,360 miles; in 1854, 16,720 miles; in 1855, 18,374 miles; in 1856, 22,016 miles; in 1857, 24,503 miles; in 1858, 26,968 miles; in 1859, 28,789 miles; in i860, 30,635 miles; in 1861, 31,286 itiiles; in 1862, 32,120 miles; in 1863,33,170 miles; in 1864, 33,908 miles; in 1865, 35,085 miles; in 1866, 36,801 miles; in 1867, 39,250 miles; in 1868, 42,229 miles; in 1869, 46,844 mil^s ; in 1870, 52,914 miles; in 1871,60,283 miles; in 1872, 6'6,i7i miles; in 1873, 70,278 miles; in 1874, 72,383 miles; in 1875, 74,096 miles; in 1876, 76,808 miles; in 1877, 79,089 miles; in 1878, 81,776 miles; in 1879, 86,497 miles ; in 1880, 93,671 miles; in 1881, 104,813 miles. Dividing the half century from 1832 to 1881 into periods of ten years, we find that from 1832-1841 3420 miles of railroad were built; from 1842-1851, 7447 miles; from 1852-1861, 20,304 miles. The civil war seriously checked railway-building, but it was resumed with increased energy upon the restoration of peace, and from 1862-1871 were built 28,997 miles; from 1872-1881, 44,503 miles. In 1881 were completed 1 1,142 miles, against 7144 in 1880, and 4721 in 1879. The total cost of building the railroads of the United States, up to June 30, 1880, was #4,112,367,176, or 5^47,387 per mile. The cost of equipment was #418,045,458; other items, such as buildings, telegraph lines, etc., brought the whole permanent investments up to #5,182,445; or, including all cash assets, to #5,536,419. The capital stock paid in was #2,613,606,264; the debt, funded and unfunded, was #2,812,116,296; thus, the total capital paid in and borrowed was #5,425,722,560. The. gross BAY-WINDOW IN W. K. VANDERBILT's HOUSE, FIFTY-SECOND STREET, NEW YORK. See Note 24. TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION. 355 income, from all sources, was ^661,295,391; the expenditure, for all purposes, including the interest upon debts, was 1541,950,795 ; leaving, for net income or profit, ;^ 119,344,596, or 4.57 per cent, upon the capital stock. From this, dividends amounting to ^70,550,342 were declared, $48,794,254 being retained as sur- plus. But about one -fifth of the railroad capital is invested in companies which earn no dividends ; that is, their income is not sufficient to more than pay the interest upon their debt and the running expenses. There were reported 542 com- panies, with a capital of $510,538,018, earning no dividends. The remaining 623 companies, with a capital of $2,103,068,246, declared dividends of various amounts, from i per cent, up to 20 per cent, the average of these for the entire United States being 6.32 per cent. These figures, taken together, show clearly that, as a whole, the capital in railroads has not as yet been profitably invest- ed. Immense fortunes have been made by a few persons by this means, but in very many cases they have been gained by buying up, at low rates, the stock of unpaying companies, and holding it until the roads began to pay. A considerable portion of the original stockholders have lost by their invest- ments. Of the few fortunes that have been acquired, and the many that have been lost by speculations in railroad stocks, we do not here speak, further than to say that it is the height of folly for any man who has in his possession a moderate capi- tal, to risk it in stock-speculation of any kind. It is a species of gambling, and in all gambling operations the aggregate of losses must be greater than the aggregate of winnings. The losers, not the winners, pay the expenses of carrying on the game. It may, however, be reasonably presumed that the profits of railroad enterprise will be, upon the whole, much greater than they have heretofore been. There are few or no roads which, with their present equipment, could not do more business than they are now doing ; and as the country becomes more densely peopled the amount of business will increase in a greater ratio 356 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. than the operating expenses, thus leaving a larger residue for profit. Railroad Employes. — The whole number of railroad em- ployes in 1880 was 418,957. They were thus distributed: General officers, 3375; general ofiice clerks, 8655; station men, 63,380; trainmen (comprising 18,977 engineers, 12,419 conductors, 48,254 others), 79,650; shopmen (comprising 22,766 machinists, 23,202 carpenters, 43,746 others), 89,714; trackmen, 122,489; all other employes, 51,694. The pay-roll for the year amounted to ^195,350,013, an average of $466 per year. A few of them re- ceived very miich more than this ; most of them considerably less. This average is probably about that paid to conductors. The wages earned by railroad employes do not differ materially from what is paid in similar employments in other departments of industry, being probably a little higher in the case of skilled labor, and a little lower in the case of unskilled labor. Passengers and Accidents. — The number of passengers (that is, of passages) was 269,583,340: the average length of a passage being 23 miles. That is, averaging the whole, every person in the United States made from four to five railway journeys a year, and rode a little more than one hundred miles. There were 8215 casualties — 2541 persons being killed and 5674 injured. Of these 6348 (2174 killed and 4174 wounded) are reported to have suffered " through their own carelessness," and 1802 (364 killed and 1438 wounded) " through- causes beyond their control." Of those killed or injured, 4540 were employes of the roads, 687 were passengers, and 2988 were neither pas- sengers nor employes. From this it appears that each pas- senger, in travelling 23 miles by rail, runs one chance in about 400,000 of being killed or injured; and as there were 305 pas- sengers who suffered " through their own carelessness," each passenger runs one chance in about 715,000, in every 23 miles of travel, of being killed or injured " through causes beyond his control." The risk is very much greater for employes of the roads, of whom one in 90 was either killed or injured during the year — about one - half of them through no carelessness of their own. TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION. 357 Canal Navigation. There are within the United States 2926 miles of navigable canals (including 411 miles of slack-water navigation), of which 784 miles are in Pennsylvania, 749 in Ohio, 723 in New York, and 200 in Maryland, the remainder being in eleven other States. The cost of their construction was $170,028,636; their gross in- come, in 1880, $4,538,620; total expenditure, $2,954,156. Be- sides these there are about 2000 miles of abandoned canals, con- structed at a cost of about $44,000,000. It is not probable that any more canals will be constructed, except for the pur- pose of connecting bodies of slack -water navigation. Practi- cally, except in a very few instances, railroads have superseded canals for purposes of transportation. Steam Navigation. The United States has 5139 miles of "waters with a naviga- ble outlet, and subject to customs and inspection laws." Upon these, in 1880, were 5139 merchant steamers, having a tonnage of 1,221,206,093 tons, and valued at $80,192,495. The capital invested in them was $112,005,600, and their gross earnings amounted to $85,091,007, being 80 per cent, on the capital in- vested. Their crews numbered 53,843 persons (including 7032 " roustabouts," or irregular hands, employed at low wages on the western rivers) ; the wages paid to them amounted to $25,45 1,- 404, an average to each, including officers, crews, and rousta- bouts, of $409. The Census Report arranges these waters into ten groups, as follows : I. The New England States : Number of steamers, 463; tonnage, 118,553; value, ^7, 890,550 ; crews, 5645 persons ; average wages, ^472 per year. II. The North-western Lakes: Number of steamers, 947 ; tonnage, 222,290; value, $13,918,925; crews, 9143 persons; average wages, $360. III. The Upper Mis- sissippi: Number of steamers, 366; tonnage, 83,918; value, $3,004,050; crews (including 2950 roustabouts), 7824 persons ; average wages, $282. IV. The Ohio: Number of steamers, 473; tonnage, 107,472; value, $5,661,500; crews (including 2000 roustabouts), 9090 persons; average wages, $313. V. The Mid- dle States: Number of steamers, 1459; tonnage, 432,803; value, $2,851,550; crews, 17,268 persons; average wages, $510. VI. The Lower Mississippi : Num- 20 358 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ber of steamers, 31,5; tonnage, 48,303; value, jiS2,85 1,550 ; crews (including 1696 roustabouts), 5655 persons; average wages, $288. VII. Gulf of Mexico : Number of steamers, 126; tonnage, 41,610; value, ^3,272,800; crews, 1919 per- sons ; average wages, ^530. VIII. The South Atlantic Coast: Number of steam- ers, 266; tonnage, 30,833; value, $2,515,300; crews, 1886 persons; average wages, $448. IX. The Pacific Coast: Number of steamers, 319; tonnage, 97,004; value, $6,477,500; crews, 3008 persons; average wages, $650. X. The Upper Missouri: Number of steamers, 40; tonnage, 12,099; value, $402,3^00; crews (including 386 roustabouts), 1047 persons; average wages, $288. The mercantile water-craft of the United States, of all de- scriptions, in 1880, was: Steamers, 5139; tonnage, 1,221,206; value, $80,192,495. Sailing Vessels, 16,820; tonnage, 2,366,132; value, $59,152,950. Canal-boats, 8871; tonnage, 1,253,688; value, $8,273,255. Barges, 5033; tonnage, 1,331,562; value, $6,430,562. Flats, 2072; tonnage, 220,690; value, $1,286,020. Wharf-boats, 145 ; tonnage, 86,390 ; value, $385,100. Hulks, 46; tonnage, 7638; value, $64,425 — Totals: Vessels, 38,656; tonnage, 6,487,309; value, $155,784,709. Telegraphs and Telephones. At the close of the census year 1880 there were ']'] tele- graphic companies in the United States, but the principal lines were practically consolidated into the " Western Union," which performed fully three-fourths of the whole telegraphic service. The entire capital stock was put down at $67,901,255 ; gross receipts, $16,696,026 ; expenses, $10,062,921 ; leaving net receipts, $6,633,105. But since the date of the census there has been a large increase in the telegraph business in every respect. The Census Report makes the whole number of officers and employes 22,809, t)ut many of these were employed only a part of the time, the average number being 14,928. The total wages paid amounted to $4,866,128, or an average of $326 per year. The operators numbered 9661, of whom about one-eighth were females. Since then there has been a large increase, the females now constituting about one-fourth of all persons engaged. The males receive from $25 per month, for boys and beginners, up to $100, by a few, the average being $75 per month. The TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION. 359 female operators receive from ^25 to ^65 per month, the aver- age being ^45. The telephone companies had, according to the tables of the Census Report, 1197 "officials and employes," but an additional statement brings the number up to 3338. The rates of wages are essentially the same as stated above. It will be seen that telegraph operators receive wages consid- erably above the average rates paid to artisans. It is an occu- pation which requires some special qualifications. In addition to intelligence, the operator must have a sensitive physical or- ganization to start with ; the sense of hearing must be acute. The accomplished operator often reads the message by the mere " click " of the machine, without even looking at the vis- ible signs which are produced upon the slip. Great manual dexterity is indispensable, and consequently the hand especially needs to be thoroughly trained. It might be supposed that the more delicate organization of woman would give her a marked advantage over man in this avocation ; but experience has not thus far justified this anticipation : the best female operators, we are told, do not equal in efficiency the average of males. It is quite certain that the telegraphic business will be ex- tended in a ratio much greater than that of the increase of pop- ulation, and there is no reason to anticipate that the supply of accomplished operators will exceed the demand for their ser- vices. So much depends upon the accurate performance of their duties, that the few great telegraphic companies who have absorbed nearly the whole business cannot afford to employ any but the most reliable operators, and the probability is that their salaries will increase rather than diminish. It is, therefore, an avocation which commends itself to the consideration of those who have the requisite mental and physical qualifications for pursuing it. 360 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXIX. GENERAL REQUISITES FOR MERCANTILE SUCCESS. WHILE it is no doubt true that a very large proportion of those who have attained competence and wealth have done so in some of the various departments of commerce and trade, it is equally true that the proportion of those who fail in doing this is greater than in almost any other department of enterprise or industry. To be assured of this, one needs only to read over the regularly published lists of bankruptcies, or to call to mind those within his own personal knowledge who have " failed " in business. But we have always before our eyes those who succeed, while those who fail of success are apt to pass from our remembrance. The undeniable truth is, that the mercantile profession has become, more than almost any other, overcrowded ; and this for many reasons. To a person of an indolent nature it seems a much easier, thing to stand behind the counter and sell some- thing which another has made than to make it himself. Then, again, it has come — perhaps we should say had come — to be looked upon as more " genteel " to buy and sell than to produce. A salesman in a shoe store was looked upon as in some way superior to a shoemaker. The son of a farmer was too apt to grow weary of farm-life, and to hire out as a clerk in the neigh- boring village, with the purpose of." setting up a store," in time, upon his own account, or to betake himself to the city to seek his fortune. A few who had special gifts for trade — and per- haps special opportunities — succeeded, and the success of ev- ery fortunate one was proclaimed upon every house-top in the neighborhood, from which he had migrated. And, moreover, FRIEZE : THE LADY OF SHALOTT. HALL AND STAIRCASE. See Note 25. GENERAL REQUISITES FOR MERCANTILE SUCCESS. 363 there was a lurking idea that little more was needed for a trader than to be tolerably well-looking and well-mannered, and to have a fair share of " gumption." Through these and many other causes business has been overdone everywhere, and most of all in the great cities. Only a small proportion of the " clerks " of whom one catches a glimpse through the shop-windows can, in any case and at any period, go into business for themselves ; and these chances are growing notably fewer and fewer in comparison with the increase of population. The constant tendency is towards the concentra- tion of trade in fewer and fewer hands. Only a certain amount of goods of any kind can be sold in any locality ; and one great establishment tvhich absorbs the business once done by ten, does it by superior ability or greater capital ; for this, whether we regret it or not, there is no remedy. Customers will go where they are most likely to find what they wish and where they can buy cheapest. The proprietor of the great store has four advantages over his more humble competitor: i. He will likely be a better judge of what will suit the tastes or needs of his customers. 2. He can offer them a larger assortment from which to choose. 3. Purchasing in larger quantities, he can buy cheaper. 4. His sales being so much larger, he can afford to sell at a less percentage of profit, and so more cheaply. Most persons who begin as clerks must remain so, and there are really few more hardly worked or more poorly paid than clerks in a city store ; and yet In no employment is there a greater proportion of applicants for " situations." If a man ad- vertise for a clerk or a book-keeper he will be overwhelmed with answers. If he advertise for a workman of any kind the answers will be much fewer. This shows clearly that there are many more fairly competent clerks and book-keepers than there are situations for them to fill. Still there are and will be, as there have been, not a few suc- cessful merchants and traders ; and some of the chief requisites for success may be pointed out. First and foremost we place honesty. Credit is the very life-blood of trade. No man can reasonably attain permanent success as a merchant unless his 364 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. word is as good as his bond. He needs to be in good credit, not only with those from whom he buys, but with those to whom he sells. Indeed, of the two, the latter is of the greater impor- tance. He should so conduct his business that his representa- tion shall be held as a sufficient guarantee that his goods are just what he sells them for ; and he can gain this only by making himself well acquainted with the articles in which he deals. If he buys poor wares he cannot sell good ones. His first business is to study the markets — both the buying and the selling ones. He must sell cheaply if he is to sell at all ; and if he buys dearly he cannot sell cheaply, except at a loss. The successful merchant must be sagacious and forecasting — he must not take it for granted that because 'some particular kinds of goods which have been and are in demand will con- tinue to be so ; the more especially is this the case in respect to articles the demand for which depends, ' to a great extent, upon the changes and caprices of taste and fashion — otherwise he will some day find his warehouse filled with unsalable goods. He must forecast the changes in taste, and be ready to meet them, not waiting to find them out by sad experience. He must be enterprising, but his enterprise must be gov- erned by discretion. He must not assume that because business is good this season it will surely be so the next. If he sell a part of his stock for less than it costs him, that loss comes out of the profit on the remainder. If he sell at cost, so much of his business brings no profit. It is better to sell a little less than he might have sold than to buy a little more than he can sell. In the one case he loses only the profit which he might have made ; in the other case he loses the entire cost of what he cannot sell at all. The loss upon one piece of unsold or unsalable goods will counterbalance the net profit upon many pieces which have been sold. But he should steer clear of the other extreme. He should not assume that because the last year was a dull one, the next will be like unto it. He should compare the present with the past one, and from the comparison judge of the future. If the present be better or worse than the past one he must search for the cause of the GENERAL REQUISITES FOR MERCANTILE SUCCESS. 365 change, in order to ascertain whether they are temporary or perntianent. This inquiry will not unfrequently take a wide range, in- volving the whole scope of production, finance, and even of party politics. The demand for all goods varies with the general condition of the country. If the labor market is disturbed, if there be "strikes," say among the iron- workers of Pennsylvania, these workmen earn less money and so have less to lay out for clothing ; the .manufacturers sell less of their goods, and begin to produce less or reduce the rates of wages; the operatives, earning less, have less with which to buy the products of others, and so on. If the harvest be bad, the farmer has less grain to sell and must buy less of manufactures. A drought in the grain-fields of Kansas or Illinois is felt in the mills of Lowell, in the founderies of Pittsburg, and behind the counters of New York. It stands the merchant in hand to keep his eye upon all these things.' He has as much to do as any other man can have with the movements of " the trades," the weather- reports of the Signal - office, and the bulletins of the Agricultural Department. Dry reading enough they may seem to be, but he will soon find them " interesting " to him in more senses of the word than one. And, finally, the merchant, if he be a wise man, will main- tain a due relation between the business which he undertakes and the amount of the capital which he can command. It matters not whether this capital be in money of his own or in credit, or, as is most likely to be the case, partly in both. Many a merchant has become bankrupt, losing in the end hundreds of thousands of dollars, simply because at some critical and unex- pected moment he could not at once command a few thousands to meet his current engagements. Assignments and receiver- ships, even when they are expected to be only temporary, will speedily eat up a great estate. A forced closing-up of any busi- ness will be pretty surely a losing one. " But," it may be asked, " must a young man never enter upon mercantile business unless he have a capital already se- cured ?" To this we answer. Yes or No, according as the word 366 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. is understood. Capital he must certainly have, of some sort, but that capital may consist not in cash, but in credit — that is, not in what he actually has, but in what he can do. It may consist in unusual mercantile knowledge and capacity, added, of course, to recognized integrity. It may, and often does, consist in his being a perfect "judge" of some important article. We have in mind a young man who has just been invited to a partnership in a large importing house where he had been a clerk. Their business consisted in importing a special article of manufacture produced in Germany. One day, not three years ago, his employers told him that they wished to send some one abroad to purchase these goods and to arrange for the manufacture of particular styles for their exclusive use. " If you only understood German," they said, " you would be just the man." To their surprise, the answer was, " Oh, I speak German." The fact was that, six months before, he had learned that the firm had such a project in mind, and he set himself down to learn German, devoting to it every spare hour. He was sent, and acquitted himself so successfully that he went again the next season. Upon his return the firm, knowing his value and being quite sure that others in the trade would soon find it out, offered him a partnership, although he had only a few hundred dollars which he had saved from his by no means large salary. His special knowledge of a single article was a full equivalent for many thousand dollars in cash. Of course such young men are not very common, and per- haps it is not often that such an opportunity offers itself. But, after all, we fancy that 'such possible opportunities are less un- frequent than are the men capable of anticipating them and prepared to seize upon them when presented. Good roads lead- ing to success outnumber the men who can be found to travel on them. Thus far we have chiefly considered the ways to success in life which are or may be traversed by great numbers. We have taken up, one by one, the prominent occupations, and have en- GENERAL REQUISITES FOR MERCANTILE SUCCESS. 367 deavored, by a copious array of statistics and figures, to show what is the present condition of these industries as compared with the past, and what may be reasonably anticipated of their prospect in the years to come — where they can be most success- fully carried on, what are the present and prospective pecuniary inducements which they offer, and to indicate in a general way the essential personal requisites for at least fair success in each of them. The general conclusion from this wide survey is, that in this country, as it is, and as it is likely to be for many years to come, every man of good physical constitution and fair intel- lectual capacity may, by industry, prudence, and forethought, secure all the comforts of life and not a few of those conven- iences and luxuries which were in by-gone ages attainable only by the comparative few, and this within the beaten tracks of avocation and employment. But there are still higher summits of success in life to be reached through those narrower paths, which can be traversed only by those who have natural or acquired faculties of a higher order than are possessed by the average of men. These paths to high success often run side by side with the well-trodden ways, or are a continuation of them, beginning where the others leave off. A few of these we shall proceed to point out with some detail in succeeding chapters. 368 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXX. HOUSE -BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. SOME limit the term "architect" to those who design and construct costly and ornate buildings — public or private — temples and state -houses, palaces and mansions. We style every man an architect who plans and erects any building, for human use and occupancy, in such a manner that it will, in a good degree, subserve the purposes for which it was designed. For competent architects of every class there is a wide and ever-widening field among us ; of incompetent ones there are enough and to spare. We have costly churches, court-houses, and public halls built with such disregard of the laws of acous- tics that the voice of the speaker can scarcely be heard by half the auditors. A public building or school -house capable of being properly warmed and decently ventilated is rather the ex- ception than the rule. To find a great public building in which the space within the walls is fairly utilized, one must look far and wide. If one is in search of glaring examples of all these defects he need not look farther than to the New York Custom- house, Post-office, or City Hall. If it had been the purpose of the architects that the occupants of these buildings should be half-frozen in winter, half-roasfed in summer, and half-stifled at all seasons, they could hardly have done more than they have to accomplish their designs. Nor is it much better with our dwellings. In cities espe- cially, what with architects and plumbers, few even of the most costly dwellings are fit for human occupancy. Foul exhalations from the sewers pollute the most gorgeously furnished parlors, dining-rooms, and bedrooms. , The architect has thought mainly MODERN DWELLINGS, DESIGN NO. I. MODERN DWELLINGS. DESIGN NO. 2. See Note 26. HOUSE- BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 371 of producing what he considers a handsome exterior, and the interior arrangement has been little cared for. Windows have been put where they were thought to give a picturesque aspect to the house, with little care as to whether they would properly light and ventilate the halls and rooms. The plumber has so fitted, his pipes and traps that they will not do their work when in order, and' will not stay in order at all. Nowhere is this worse than in our hotels, flats, and tenement - houses, where large numbers live under a single roof. Not a few of the most imposing " apartment " houses are only a little less faulty in these essential requisites than the poorest "tenement" houses. Diseases arising directly from malaria or foul air are rife among the very rich hardly less than among the very poor. Puny chil- dren are to be seen clad in velvets as well as in rags. Bad architecture and imperfect plumbing work less evil in rural than in city dwellings, simply because the architect and the plumber have had less to do in their construction and fitting up; but it is rare to find a dwelling-house in a village or on a farm which is not wofully deficient. Where there is space enough and means enough so to build that all the apar-tments might be large and airy, the bedrooms are contracted into clos- ets, and the doors and windows are placed with little care for the requirements of ventilation. "Any place will do to sleep in " has come to be an axiom in practice if not in speech. Nine- tenths of our population spend fully half their lives in-doors ; a majority spend at least three-fourths of it thus, in their homes, their workshops, and places of business. Taking the seasons together, even the farmer is in the fields fewer hours than in the house. No man who has ever built a house for his own occupancy but will confess that, were he to build again, he could do it bet- ter and at less cost. He has bought his present knowledge by experience, and at a high price. It would be better for him to buy the knowledge of others than to gain it by his own experi- ence. Before he begins to build he should make up his mind pretty nearly as to what he wants, and how much he is able or willing to expend for it; then, if he is wise, he will call in an arch- 372 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. itect — if he can find a competent one — to carry his wishes into effect. Most probably the architect will tell him many things of which he had not thought. Some of his own objects may be impracticable, some not desirable, and for some, though good in themselves, better ones may be substituted. A man may know very well what kind of coat he wants, but he will get one more to his liking by employing a tailor than by trying to make it for himself. So he may know what he wants in a house, but a competent architect will carry his wishes into effect much bet- ter than he could do it himself. Of course it is better to employ no architect at all than to have an incompetent one, just as it is better to have no physician at all than to call in a quack. As we grow in wealth we require more of comfort, conven- ience, and elegance ; and as we become educated we look more judiciously for the means of supplying our wants. Nowhere is this more apparent than in providing better homes. Every- where there are men who want houses better planned, as re- gards their comfort, convenience, and health, than they them- selves can design or build. This long-felt want is only partially met by books upon domestic architecture, although some of these are of decided value. But the best book can give only general hints and indications. There are still wanted practical architects, who can adapt these hints to individual cases, and supply others to meet special conditions, and who, more than all, can carry out these conceptions in brick and mortar, stone and wood, according to all the varying conditions of site, climate, and material to be used. We have an American climate, American building materials, varying in different sec- tions, and American habits and modes of life. We may, if we please, construct our churches and public buildings after models which have come to us from other times and other lands ; but we need, and in time shall have, a distinctive domestic architect- ure, varied in details to suit the various sections of our wide land. And for this architecture there must be architects who have learned not only what is to be done, but how to do it. Very much is required of such an architect. It is not enough that he shall be able to draw a design which looks HOUSE-BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 373 well upon paper, with its pretty windows and oriels, its porches and verandas, its picturesque roof and chimneys. The win- dows must not only be capable of being opened and closed, but they must be so placed as to give light and air to the rooms — they are for the rooms, not the rooms for them. Picturesque roofs should be discarded if they will not shed rain and snow, for usefulness should not be sacrificed to neat appearance. Beau- ty is useful in and for itself, and that beauty which results from harmony of proportion is attainable in the humblest as well as in the most pretentious dwelling. An ugly design is all the uglier the larger the scale upon which it is carried out. Many a de- sign which pleases the eye is displeasing when rendered into stone, or brick or timber. Things which are to be used are beautiful only when they serve their uses. A monument is made only to be looked at; a house is made to live in or to work in. Every building should therefore indicate by its very exterior the purpose for which it is to be used. A handsome church would be an ugly dwelling-house; a school -house would be an ugly one if it looked like a manufactory or a warehouse. A dwelling should be adapted to the climate. The steep-pitched roof adapted to the snows and rains of Vermont would be useless in California. The broad, encircling verandas of a Mississippi dwelling would be out of place in Maine. The materials of which a house is to be built must mod- ify nearly every detail of the construction. One design can be well carried out in wood, and not in brick or stone ; another in brick and not in wood. Probably stone will be used to any con- siderable extent only in public buildings and large mansions. Country dwellings, in many districts, may continue to be mainly of wood. In towns, and in those sections of the country where lumber is becoming dear, brick will be the usual material ; but whatever may be the material, the house should never be made to appear other than what it is. Nothing can be more absurd than to paint a brick wall and mark it off into squares to simu- late blocks of stone. No eye is deceived by this, and every eye instinctively protests against any attempt to cheat it. 374 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. It is a comparatively easy task to plan a house for an equa- ble climate, for there are only one set of conditions to be taken, into view. But in a very large part of the United States the winters are almost arctic and the summers almost tropical ; and if the house is to be occupied as a permanent residence all the year round it must be adapted to both extremes of weather, as rnany things desirable in one season would be objectionable in the other. • The broad verandas, so cheerful in the Gulf States, are no less pleasant in a New England summer ; but nothing is _ more cheerless than such a veranda when the dead leaves of au- tumn cover it, or when it is heaped up with the snows of winter. On the other hand, the contracted windows and doors and pas- sages which winter comfort suggests would render the house close and uncomfortable in summer. The small sitting-room, which has so cosy an aspect at Christmas, becomes almost un- endurable in midsummer. The architect who plans a dwelling to be lived in all the year round must compromise between what he would have done had he been planning only for sum- mer or for winter, the features most appropriate for either pre- dominating according as the summers or winters predominate during the twelvemonth. Any man may have a summer suit and a winter suit, but few can have a summer house and a winter house : one residence must do duty for all seasons. Common-sense lies at the foundation of all true architecture. The color of a. house has not a little to do with its attrac- tions. Nobody, of course, would dream of painting a stone house, but would leave it of its own natural color, ' whatever that might be : a few years' exposure to the weather will tone down the color of any stone to a pleasant tint. To paint brick is hardly less absurd. It is generally assumed that a dwelling of wood should be painted for the sake of preservation, but there is far less advantage in this than is generally supposed. Painting may cover up bad material, but will not make it dura- ble. If any part of a building needs protection it is the roof. Mr. Holly, an excellent architect, says : " Although painting is used to protect the shingles against the weather, it in reality promotes their destruction ; for the shingles, in their natural HOUSE-BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 375 state, allow the water to run free, whereas paint fills up the cracks or watercourses, and forms ridges which prevent its escape; consequently it remains in the wood." If this be true of the roof it must be no less so with the walls. But painting is commonly used for ornament. The same writer also says : " Shingles, if left to themselves, will naturally assume a color which improves every year by exposure, while paint not only appears unnatural at the outset, but looks worse and more rusty as each season passes." This, too, is as applicable to boards and joists as to shingles. The unpainted, boarded walls of a house will gain a pleasant color by time as well as its unpainted, shingled roof. But if paint is to be used, the color should be judiciously chosen, and the architect should make the color a part of his design. If he have an educated eye he will set himself firmly against white, which is always glaring and makes an ugly spot in the landscape. Any one of a hundred warm tints — neutral, not positive — may be chosen ; say French gray, buff, olive, or a delicate shade of salmon. Next to white the kind of dirty yellow so prevalent a few years ago is to be tabooed. For the common use of this color that very clever landscape-gardener, Mr. Downing, must be held responsible. He said : " Pluck from the ground the roots of the grass, and the color of the earth thereon should be the color of the house." His disciples took him at his word, and covered the country with their mud- colored structures. The color was ugly, and everybody felt it to be so, Mr. Downing to the contrary notwithstanding. Whatever be the material or color, no wall should present an unbroken mass of tint; the trimrnings should be darker than the rest, but there should be no startling contrasts. More than is generally conceded rests upon the external color, and the architect should not leave the selection of it to the house-painter. The color of a dwelling is in itself of minor importance, but upon it depends very much the general impression which the house makes upon the spectator; and a building which makes a pleasant impression at first view is the best advertisement for the architect. 376 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The foundation and the roof are points which call for the utmost care of the architect. The best edifice raised upon a bad foundation will soon go to pieces, and no house with a leaky roof can be a habitable one. The roof, moreover, is, more than any other part, exposed to the rough usage of the elements — to rain and snow, to winds and sun. Hardly less important in a cold climate is the chimney. Smoky chimneys may be fairly counted among the minor miseries of human life. But the sphere of the architect lies quite as much with the interior as with the exterior of the house. In the country or in a village, where there is ground enough, the architect has much scope for choice in the matter of site and exposure, and he may gain the required interior room by merely enlarging the ground- plan ; but in a city, where the plot is necessarily limited, he works within narrower limits. • Upon a rectangular lot, the length of which is four or five times its breadth, he has to con- struct a house covering as much gf the area as is any way con- sistent with leaving a "yard" large enough to admit air and light from the rear — light and air can be admitted only by windovvTS in the narrow front and rear. Three stories, including the dormer roof or attic, are all for which provision need be made in a rural house ; twice or three times as many are be- coming the necessary rule in most of our large cities. The deficiency in the quantity of light which can be ad- mitted through the windows possible in such a front and rear may be partially made up by gas-light, but there must be further provision made for ventilation. As the vitiated air can- not be adequately carried off through the walls, vents must be made for it through the roof, and mainly through the chimney. It has come to be an axiom among all who have given attention to sanitary science, that, in a city house at least, no room is fit for the occupancy of a human being — whether for living, work- ing, or sleeping — which has not a chimney - flue kept open all the while. These chimneys and their flues must form an in- tegral part of the house. If they are badly planned, the fault is well-nigh irremediable. A proper chimney-cap will make a good chimney better, but the most scientific cap cannot make a good HOUSE-BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 377 -chimney out of a bad one. Chimneys and flues may be regarded as the crucial test of the ability of an architect. If his plan is deficient here the fault is all his ; whereas, if the plumbing does not come up to the standard the fault may, in part at least, be shifted upon that convenient scapegoat, the plumber, who in any case has enough sins of his own to answer for. In most European cities the use of gas is almost unknown in private houses, and the water-works are not contrived so as to introduce constant running water into the various apartments. The contrary is the rule with us. Our mode of building also makes it almost universal that the privies and water-closets should be a part of the house, and under the same roof. In a very large proportion of houses these indispensable adjuncts are located, one over the other, in the successive stories or flats, and not unfrequently without due provision for discharging the exhalations. The capable architect will always place this struct- ure at the rear end of the building, so that every closet shall have a window opening into the outer air. * In any case, a ventilating shaft from top to bottom should be held absolutely indispensable. The architect should regard the plumbing of a house as one of the most essential parts of his work, and the client, if he be a wise man, will leave the direction of this to him. One of the most important parts of an architect's duty is to estimate the cost of carrying out his design. The conscientious architect will ascertain as nearly as possible how much his client is disposed" to lay out upon his house, and will work out the de- sign accordingly. A man who has only five thousand dollars to lay out upon his house does not want a ten-thousand-dollar de- sign. In many cases, and in large towns most frequently, the actual work of building will be done by contract — most likely by different persons : the mason-work by one, the wood-work by another, the plumbing by another, and so on. If one of them fails to do his part at the time fixed upon, the others, in their turn, will be behind time. The architect must draw up the con- tracts in such a manner that each of them can be properly exe- cuted in accordance with its terms. If his client fails to get his 21 378 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. house properly built, and in a proper time, it will be small sat- isfaction to be able to learn whose fault it was. The duties of the architect thus involve a knowledge of many specialties. He needs to be an artist, an engineer, a sanitarian, a lawyer, and, as a prerequisite to all, an honest man. Now, will a profession pay which makes such large require- ments ? The question resolves itself into another : " Is there now, and is there likely to be in the future, a demand for this kind of work ?" The statistics which are scattered 'all through this volume give a direct answer to this question. Not only is the country, as a whole, growing richer, but the number of per- sons who pass from straitened circumstances to competence is increasing rapidly from year to year. The man who five or ten years ago broke the virgin sods in Iowa or Kansas, or started an orange - grove in Florida or vineyard in California, is to-day a thriving farmer. His requirements for home comforts have kept equal pace with his means of gratifying them. He has not lived all these years shut up in the cabin which he hastily put up. He has read books and periodicals, which tell him of a home for himself and his family quite different from that which* he occupies. In his journeyings he has seen many such homes, even if only in passing by them on the railroad. He perceives, also, that to build such a dwelling requires a knowledge and practical experience which he himself has not acquired, and probably could never acquire ; but he has learned, also, that there are men whose aid he can command, who can do for him just what he wishes done, and the nearer an architect is to him the sooner will he be Hkely to make requisition for his services. Again, the whole of that vast region, so varied in its re- sources, which we denominate " the South," has entered upon a new stage of development. More Southern men than ever be- fore go North, with eyes open to see whatever of good may there be found. More men from the North and from Europe seek homes in the South, carrying with them the ideas of their former homes. In an early chapter of this volume the characteristics of this interstate and international migration, as shown by the Census of 1880, have been set forth. The next Census will tell TTffiii|ip i|iri p EBONY CAHINEU. CHEST IN CARVED OAK, INLAID WITH COLORED WOOD. NORMAN WORK, I550. See Note 27. HOUSE-BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 381 a quite different story. The North will have far more emigrants from the South ; the South far more emigrants from the North and from Europe. This interchange will be of advantage to both sections, but, in a material point of view, most especially to the South. The domestic architecture of the rural districts of the South will be quite another thing than it has heretofore been. And, moreover, the South is coming to be far less exclusively rural than it has been. The great plantations, each an almost isolated community, are breaking up into farms ; hamlets are growing up into villages*; villages into towns ; towns into cities. Manufact- ures are springing into life. The Lowells and Manchesters of Massachusetts and New Hampshire will soon have their coun- terparts and rivals in Georgia and Alabama. City life will of course demand an urban architecture in the South, as well as in the North and the East. Architecturally, the South is as yet a new country; but in the sections which are older in this respect the demand for compe- tent architects is by no means fully supplied. The truth is, that the greater part of our city buildings have been flung up with- out any competent architect, and the extent to which they are now being demolished evinces that their tenants and owners are becoming aware of their defects. Owners of property have be- gun to find out that it pays to build dwellings with some regard to the convenience and health of their occupants, and that this cannot be done except by the aid of an architect. The growth of knowledge in this respect has increased the number of archi- tects, but in nowise in pfoportion to the call for them. Every really good building which is put up is an incentive to the erec- tion of others ; and the improvement in architecture, strictly so-called, opens up avenues for success in other occupations con- nected with the economy of domestic life. Some of these we proceed to point out; " There is no great smoke without some fire," and " any stick is good enough to beat a dog with," are two proverbs which should be read together. The plumber has come to have a bad name among all owners and tenants. He could not have 382 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. got such a name without having measurably deserved it, and now that he has got it he has to bear the blame of many things that do not belong to him. It cannot be denied that there are few departments in which so much scientific knowledge and practical skill is required, and in which so little has been called into practice. It must be borne in mind that it is not fifty years since gas was first introduced as a means of lighting our houses, and not much more than half as long since water-pipes were at all common even in our city houses. Before that time architects had no occasion to take these things into account. The laws which govern the distribution and permeation of gas- es were practically unknown, for no one had any occasion to study them. That water in a pipe would rise to the level of its source, and would run off if an opening were made for it, was about the sum of the hydraulic and hydrostatic knowledge of the day. It is no wonder, when this principle had to be practi- cally applied in the thousand forms now demanded, that the grossest mistakes were common. We have insisted that the architect should take the whole matter of plumbing into the most careful consideration when making his design for a house. There is all the more need that this work should be faithfully done, because nowhere else is de- fective material or bad workmanship so hard of detection. A leaky joint or a flaw in a gas-pipe may not be found out until the whole apparatus has been put in operation, and not unfre- quently the evils are of such a nature that they are discovered only when too late. Bad plumbing must, under all circum- stances, occasion expense and inconvenience, but its mischiefs lie far deeper, involving disease and death ; and not unfrequent- ly the cause of the evil is never suspected until its fatal con- sequences have appeared. Not a few of our most imposing residences are pervaded by the most offensive odors. Recourse is had to perfumes and fumigations, but these are wholly useless. The fatal effluvia are not destroyed by overpowering them by any perfume. Disinfectants, such as chloride of lime, carbolic acid, and iodine are not without their uses ; and in some cases, as in hospitals and sick-rooms, they are indispensable for tempo- HOUSE-BUILDING AND ITS OPPORTUNITIES. 383 rary purposes. But the necessity for their use should be re- duced to the lowest pt)ssible limits. It should never be forgotten that disinfectants are only ex- pedients to meet a temporary and local emergency. Nothing will effectually remove the evil from a dwelling except you re- move the cause, and this deep-lying cause will always exist so long as the practical plumbing of our houses is left in incompe- tent hands. The trade of the plumber should be elevated into a profession. No person should be allowed to act as a master- plumber until he has passed a successful examination as an engineer. There is as much need that plumbers and gas-fitters should be licensed as that apothecaries should be. Practically, the arrangement of the heating apparatus of a house comes within the sphere of the plumber, and in large buildings it requires a great amount of scientific skill. When there is a steam-engine belonging to the establishment, the ex- haust steam, after having performed its office as a motive-power, offers a ready means for the solution of the problem of heating. Steam-coils, properly distributed, are beyond question the best mode of heating where they can be put in use, but the system is so costly and complicated that it can be employed in only exceptional cases. It will find place in comparatively few pri- vate dwellings. The number of persons who will find lucrative employment in this direction will always be limited, although the few who succeed at all will attain high success. There has been a general and persistent decrial of the hot-air furnace. The main objection urged against it, which virtually includes most of the others, is that the heated air which it deliv- ers is deprived of its moisture, so that it becomes unfit for respi- ration. The attempt to obviate this by placing vessels of water in the room to be heated is altogether inadequate ; but a com- petent plumber will so arrange the furnace that the heated air shall pass over a water-surface of sufficient area to impart to it the requisite degree of moisture before it is delivered from the register. The advantages of a properly constructed furnace are obvious. It is really only a close stove upon a larger scale, and so located that the heat produced by it can be utilized to advan- 384 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. tage. The halls of a large house can be kept at a temperature not greatly below that of the inhabited rooms, so that one need not pass at once from a tropical to an arctic climate. Golds, and the long train of diseases springing from them, are occa- sioned not by the absolute temperature to which one is exposed, but by the sudden passage from one degree to another greatly different — it matters little whether from a cold to a warm or from a warm to a cold one. It requires much less fuel to supply one furnace than to keep up a number of stoves throwing out an equal amount of heat ; and, moreover, all the heat can, when desired, be directed into any part of the house. The fur- nace is an adjunct to the open grate, not a substitute for it. The architect who plans a house without providing for the warming of it, and the plumber who does not know how to carry out the plan, are alike incompetent for their work. HOUSEHOLD DECORATION AND FURNITURE. 385 CHAPTER XXXI. HOUSEHOLD DECORATION AND FURNITURE. AVERY excellent periodical has for its motto "Take care of the Beautiful, and the Useful will take care of itself." This seems to imply a distinction which we by no means admit between what is useful and what is beautiful. Whatever gives innocent pleasure is in itself, and for that very reason, useful, and just in the proportion that it gives pleasure. A picture is as truly useful as a mirror. A tastefully decorated house is much more useful than one untastefuUy furnished, although it should afford the same amount of shelter from the elements. The man who can best minister to the sense of the beautiful is the one who will meet with the highest pecuniary rewards. We propose to present some practical suggestions on this topic as applied to house decoration as distinguished from architecture. A pleasing arrangement of colors and forms is an important element in the pleasure which we derive from the most common surroundings of our daily life. If the walls of our chambers are of a gloomy color, they fill the rooms with gloom. If they are of garish or discordant colors, they act as a perpetual irritant, although we may be hardly able to tell why. Wall-papers afford a ready means of securing the result at which we aim in this respect. When we look at the kinds of paper which arrant stupidity inflicted upon us a few years ago, we cannot wonder at the revulsion which they excited. Anything — even a dead, un- meaning white — was better than that, and a slight, unvaried tint — blue, rose-colored, gray, or anything — was a positive relief. If they lacked something in pleasing, they were not positively displeasing. 386 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. But now we are not driven to the alternative of choosing be- tween hideous wall-paper and none at all. True artistic taste and skill have been brought into play and have given us a wide range for selection. The designing of patterns for wall-paper has grown into a profitable branch of artistic industry, well worthy the consideration of those who are endowed with the requisite capabilities ; and so wide is the circle to which they address themselves that there is little fear that the paths of real merit will be overcrowded. There is inexhaustible scope for variety. No person of cultivated taste wishes all the rooms of his house to look alike. He feels instinctively that what best befits a dining-room does not best suit a parlor or a bedroom. He does not even wish all his bedrooms to look alike. It is becoming more and more usual to vary the aspect of the wall surface by breaking it up with a frieze at the top and a dado at the bottom, with an interspace between ; charming contrasts and harmonies of color may thus be attained. Thus the dado may be of an arabesque pattern in chocolate, relieved with dark- er shades — even with black, or black and gold. The frieze may be a running pattern in quite brilliant colors — say a vine and trel- lis-work in green, with red or purple or golden fruit ; or it may represent a series of living figures, as if moving in long proces- sion around the apartment. The intermediate space, or wall proper, may be treated in a hundred effective modes, but should always be less decided in tone than the frieze and dado. It can- not be denied that there is a tendency among artists to render these patterns too intricate, so that the eye wearies itself by at- tempting to follow the interlacing lines of the pattern. For a bedroom, where the cardinal idea is that of repose, simplicity of pattern should be sought for. Pictures show best against a light background, furniture and dresses against a dark one. So in a parlor, if there is to be any difference in tone, the dado should be darkest, the frieze the lightest, and the intermediate space of a general, neutral tone between the others. The ceiling is usually the most neglected or the worst abused part of the room. Plain whitewashing is perhaps the most com- mon mode of treatment. In a sleeping-room the eye rests upon HOUSEHOLD DECORATION AND FURNITURE. 387 this quite as often as upon any other portion, and a dead white is more wearying to the eye than any color. If the ceiHng is to be perfectly plain it should have some soft tint : a delicate blue, or rose -color, or a faint green are all unexceptionable. The other extreme is to overload the ceiling with heavy panellings and mouldings in plaster, which always look as if they were about to tumble down, and not unfrequently do so. Even worse than this is an exaggerated frescoed imitation of such work. A thing bad in itself is not so bad as a poor imitation of it. But the ceiling need not be undecorated. Indeed, there is no other portion of the room which is more susceptible of orna- mentation, or which requires it more. The walls, if left plain, must be broken by windows, doors, and fireplaces, and may be relieved by pictures, and the floor by furniture ; but the ceiling presents an entire surface visible at a glance. A flat design in color may be the leading feature, reaching to within a few inches of a border which surrounds it like a frame. Natural foliage is always appropriate for walls and ceilings, but with this differ- ence, that in walls the plant should be viewed from the side, and have an upward direction, while for ceilings and carpeted floors it should be represented as lying flat or trailing. All the effects of which we are speaking are produced by color. Nature is the great colorist, and we have only to repro- duce, on our small scale, the happiest effects of what she has done on her large scale. Thus, the roots and trunk of a tree are dark ; the branches are clothed with foliage, rarely of a very pro- nounced color ; the blossoms, of all gay and bright hues, belong to the top. The tree corresponds to our room, with its dark dado, its middle-tinted wall-space, and its bright-hued frieze. Our ceil- ing represents the dome of the sky : blue, the color produced by distance and of itself giving the effect of distance, or with such other colors as the varying clouds assume. We may even go farther in our imitation of nature, and people our bright sky with flying birds or stud it with golden stars. All this pleases the eye and is true Art — indeed, it is true Art because it pleases the eye. Fortunately, we are not left, in decorating our ceilings, to depend upon the efforts of such painters as we may chance 388 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. to find. Paper for ceilings is now to be had, designed and ex- ecuted with as much artistic feeling as is shown in any other wall-paper. The general effect of a room depends very much upon the way in which the windows and doors are treated. Their loca- tion and size rest with the architect as such; their coloring to the house -decorator. The architect may have done his part well, and yet, as far as beauty is concerned, the decorator may spoil it. It is quite common to see doors and windows with their cases and trimmings painted white, even when the walls are dark. Now these are the emphatic parts of the room, and should be darker than the general tone of the whole. The cornices, architraves, and other trimmings, moreover, have the effect of frames, and should be darker still, but yet not as dark as the dado or base. White should not be used at all, even for the sashes. If there be any one thing upon which custom has set its sanctioning seal, it is that in a house of any architectural pre- tensions the fireplace should be of marble. Who ever saw a house advertised for sale or for rent in which " marble mantels " were not enumerated among the chief attractions ? Marble finds its proper place in the interior architecture of churches and palaces, where, fashioned by the sculptor's hand, it fulfils true artistic conceptions. Wooden mantels satisfy the eye far bet- ter. Any one of our native hard-woods is appropriate : ash, maple, chestnut, or oak. A room otherwise in good taste is often spoiled by a mantel of white or black or variegated mar- ble, or by some " marbleized " imitation, worse even than an im- itation mahogany or rosewood door. Carpets are the prevailing weakness of an American house- wife. Whatever a woman may confess herself unable to do, it is not easy to find one who will endure even the hint that she cannot select a carpet. Possibly she may be qualified to do this, so far as quality is concerned ; but the carpet is essentially for deco- ration, or rather it is the foundation upon which the other dec- oration rests. The carpet is part of the floor; it is to be trod- den upon, and it should never suggest any unfitness for this use. 2. n n O CO > H O HOUSEHOLD DECORATION AND FURNITURE. 391 This precludes all direct representations of fruits and flowers, of birds and beasts, of vases and medallions. A carpet of very light color is out of place and always unpleasing. The tone of color should be at least as dark as that of the darkest part of the walls, nor should there be any mass of color so decided as to force itself upon the eye. Perhaps the highest praise which could be accorded to a carpet would be that it was so ex- actly adapted to its place that one did not consciously look at it at all. For many reasons, and especially for sanitary ones, it is to be wished that carpets were much less used than they are. For all situations, as halls and staircases, where there is much tread- ing within a small space, they are out of place. At the best they hold dust, and are not easily kept clean, so that they are decidedly objectionable in bedrooms. It would be far better, instead of a carpet nailed fast and covering the whole floor, to have movable strips laid down before the fire, by the side of the bed, and in front of the dressing-table — that is, in the places most trodden upon. These could be taken up and swept in the hall or out-of-doors, thus doing away with a great deal of un- necessary dust. It needs but little consideration to perceive that the occu- pation of house-decorator — call him joiner, upholsterer, or what one will — presents numerous openings for higher capacities than are required for the artisan or mechanic. The designing of patterns for wall-papers, for example, has long given very profitable occupation to many persons in England and France, and we are not now obliged to look abroad for this manufacture. We now produce it in every way as attractive as any which is imported; and the day, if not wholly past, is fast passing when it will be thought to be a recommendation of any article to say that it was produced in London or Paris or Berlin, rather than in New York or Philadelphia or Chicago. The sense of the harmony of colors, which lies at the foun- dation of all decorative art, is common to most persons — so far, at least, that they can appreciate the result when they see it. To know how to produce this result is what distinguishes the 392 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. decorative artist. He must originally have this faculty in a higher degree than is common, but having it in a good degree it may be cultivated up to any point. The man or woman who attains to this cultivation need not fear that he will lack lucra- tive occupation or that the field will be exhausted. Few persons ever saw a room so decorated that they wished for one exactly like it : they want one as beautiful, but yet different. As well might the author or painter fear that when he had perfected one great work there would be nothing more for him to do, because everybody would want that and need no other. The truth is, that everything well and thoroughly done causes a demand for something better, or at least different ; and no one need give himself any fear that the end of advancement has come. The round earth may have its Ne plus ultra ! but to possible human progress there is no finite boundary line upon which is inscribed " No more Beyond !" Decorative Furniture. By " furniture " we mean those appurtenances to a room which do not form a part of the structure, but may be removed from place to place in it, or from one apartment to another. The furniture of a people is an index to its domestic life ; where this is universally scanty, or ill-adapted to its purpose, it is sure proof that the people have no homes in any high sense of the word. Their dwellings are merely sleeping-places, or refuges more or less temporary during inclement weather. The mo- ment that a dwelling becomes a permanent habitation the occu- pants seek to make it attractive by furniture and decoration. The absence of furniture does not of necessity imply a state of barbarism. The Greeks of old were a very highly civilized people, but they were not a domestic people ; they thought little of home-life, they lived out-of-doors, and while they adorned all public places with the grandest architecture and the noblest statuary, their houses were hardly thought of. Athens was a group of temples rising up from a mass of huts. The temples of the gods were not temples in our sense of the word — struct- ures in which to worship — but monuments at which to look. HOUSEHOLD DECORATION AND FURNITURE. 393 The Parthenon and the Erechtheum were merely dark cham- bers, surrounded and surmounted by gorgeous porticos and friezes. The Romans had more of the domestic feehng : their idea of woman, though far below that of the Germans, was far above that of the Greeks. The wife of a Roman was not mere- ly his plaything, but was in a good degree his mate ; thus, hav- ing a home of his own, the Roman set himself to render it pleasant. Some of the excavations at Pompeii show what a refined Roman dwelling was. We can step into it to-day and see how it looked on that evening, eighteen centuries ago, when the fatal ashes from Vesuvius came down and buried it. Pity it is that these excavations also show another side of life, and reveal hab- its and' manners from the very thought of which we shrink back. If one of our cities should be in like manner buried, and be ex- humed after the lapse of two thousand years, though not a page of writing were found, the people of the thirty-ninth century would be enabled to gain a clear idea of the home-life of the people of the nineteenth century from the very furniture of their dwellings. We propose to speak of furniture not — except incidentally — from an artistic point of view, but as furnishing means of profit- able employment to those who produce it. In our tables, chairs, beds, bureaus, household utensils, and the like, utility is the first consideration, beauty of form and color being a secondary one. A chair upon which one cannot sit with ease, a bed upon which it is torture to lie, a table which will not stand of itself and support what is meant to be placed upon it, a bureau the drawers of which will not open and shut, all violate the primary law of its being, and are fit only to be consigned to the fire, although all art- critics ring its praises and designate it by the loftiest of artistic names, or assign it to the most famous periods : Egyptian or Pompeiian, Gothic or Medieval, Renaissance, Elizabethan, Louis Quatorze, Queen Anne, Eastlake, or what not. Durability, of course, is essential to utility ; so there must be sound materials and honest workmanship. The cabinet- 394 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. maker has more opportunities than most men to slight his work. Paint and varnish and putty may be made to cover up bad wood and worse workmanship. It is inevitable that most of our furniture should be made in large factories, where machin- ery can be made use of instead of hand labor. The result should be better work instead of worse, as has been too often the case. We trust the time is pretty well over when the cheap and flimsy wares which have filled our furniture warehouses will find favor ; but that furniture-buyers, like others, have discovered that nothing is cheap which is not good of its kind. Beauty of material, form, and color is perfectly compat- ible with the perfection of utility, and there is a growing de- mand for both. Herein lie the opportunities for the attain- ment, of that profitable occupation which we have in mind. The " Shaker " chairs found favor because they were really easy chairs, and were framed so as to hold together; men even perceived a kind of beauty in their intrinsically ugly forms. But we have come to perceive that ugliness is not essential to usefulness ; that a seat may be as easy and as durable as a Shaker arm-chair, and as pleasing to the eye as anything which an Eastlake could design. Our great manufacturers have dis- covered that their customers have also found this out, and have seriously set themselves to meet and even anticipate the demand. The designing of furniture has already begun to be a profitable employment. The result is, that one can now purchase really beautiful and well-made furniture, from the simplest chair or lounge or table to the most elaborate bureau, sideboard, or book- case, and at prices adapted to his means or inclination. Earthen -ware, or pottery, in one form or another, enters largely into the furnishing of our dwellings. Our most com- mon household utensils are made of burned clay; the most beautiful articles for the ornamentation of our tables and the decoration of our mantels are primarily fashioned from this abundant and cheap material, and upon this is often lavished the utmost artistic skill. Glass -making is, in a wide sense, a branch of pottery. This subject forms the theme of the next chapter.. DECORATIVE POTTERY, OR CERAMICS. 395 CHAPTER XXXII. DECORATIVE POTTERY, OR CERAMICS. CERAMICS, or pottery, is among the oldest of the arts, and is perhaps the most widely diffused of all. Excepting in extreme polar regions, where its exercise is impracticable, it would not be easy to find a land where the potter's art has not been and is not now practised. It seems to have been indige- nous everywhere, and everywhere to have been practised upon an extensive scale. The sites of ancient cities now uninhabited, on both continents, are often mere heaps of pottery, and some- times, as in ancient Troy, layer after layer of broken earthen- ware, of different characteristics, show that city after city has one after another grown up and deca3'ed upon the same site, with long intervals between them. The frail works of the potter have survived all other creations. Clay is so easily fashioned into various forms, and when dried or baked so preserves those forms, that it was applied to many purposes for which other materials are now substituted. The oldest extant books were tablets of clay, into which the let- ters were stamped with a wedge-shaped tool, by means of which the so-called "cuneiform inscriptions" were formed. The pot- ters soon began to exercise their invention in giving ornamental shapes to their wares. Caricature is perhaps the earliest devel- opment of art, and grotesque forms are more common than any other. Our museums contain specimens of early pottery, from the most widely -separated regions, ugly enough to please the most inveterate collector or antiquarian ; and not unfrequently, as in Peruvian and Phoenician ware, these bizarre features are added to graceful forms. The adaptation of color is of very 396 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ancient date. The potter has it in his power to produce his effects by very simple means and with hardly any tools. Cam- eron, in the narrative of his journey " Across Africa," describes the operation of a female potter whom he saw at work near Lake Tanganyika, in the very heart of Africa : " I was very much interested in watching a woman at her work. She first pounded with ^ pestle enough clay and water to make one pot, until she formed a perfectly homogeneous mass. Then, putting it upon a flat stone, she gave it a blow with her fist to form a hollow in the middle, and worked it roughly into shape with her hands, keeping them constantly wet. She then smoothed out the finger-marks with a corn-cob and polished the pot with pieces of gourd and wood, the gourd giving it the proper curves, finally ornamenting it with a sharp stick. I went to examine the work, wondering how it would be taken off the stone and the bottom shaped, and found that no bottom had yet been formed. But after waiting four or five hours in a shady place it was sufficiently hardened to be handled, and a bottom was then worked in. The pot held about three gallons. From beginning to pound the clay till one pot was put aside to dry occupied thirty-five minutes ; and providing it with a bottom might take ten minutes more. The shapes were very graceful and truly well-formed, many of them being like the amphora in the Villa Diomed at Pompeii." This primitive potter worked wholly by the eye and by the " rule of thumb," but she evidently had — most likely had inher- ited — what we have elsewhere styled an " educated hand." She apparently knew nothing of the potter's wheel, although that implement was used by Egyptian potters more than three thou- sand years ago. A few such pots, each costing the work of less than an hour, form almost the only household furniture of mill- ions of African dwellings. From this rude pottery there is a wide step to the artistic ceramic productions now within the reach of all. In our public museums and private collections there are few objects more attractive than ceramics. To those who have not the opportunity of visiting these, the recent works of Mr, Prime and Miss Young furnish a very satisfactory substitute. These books, with their profuse illustrations, not only afford a view of what had been done at the date of their publication, but give in- valuable hints as to the means employed, and to be employed, by those whose capacities and inclinations may lead them to 7 >^ -is ^' ^*h^f^ 0k TRENTON AND ITS POTTERIES. DECORATING-ROOM OF TRENTON POTTERY. See Note 29. DECORATIVE POTTERY, OR CERAMICS. 399 turn their attention to this department as a remunerative em- ployment. " Ten years ago," says Mr. Prime, " there were probably not ten collectors of pottery and porcelain in the United States. To-day [1877] there are perhaps ten thousand. The exhibition in public museums of the fine works of ceramic art revealed, for the first time, to the American public the wealth of beauty which is in ' old china,' and now, in nearly every town and village in the land, more or less persons are ' collecting.' " There are, in- deed, " ceramio-maniacs," just as there are " biblio-maniacs," for whom the chief attraction of any work is that it is very old, very rare, or very odd, no matter if it is also very ugly and altogether useless ; and when we read of hundreds of dollars being paid for an antique cup and saucer or teapot, simply be- cause it is old and odd, we call to mind the old proverb touch- ing the facility with which a fool and his money part company. Mr. Prime — himself a most enthusiastic, but withal a most sen- sible, collector of ceramics — has some weighty suggestions in this regard : " Antiquity adds nothing to the value of a specimen, unless it has some his- torical or artistic value apart from its age. Beautiful art, of whatever factory the product, is valuable. Beautiful art of rare old fabrics is more valuable be- cause such specimens are sought for. But a beautiful work of an undistin- guished factory is worth more than a poor work of a renowned factory." But if the productions of the ceramic art had no wider use than to serve as harmless hobbies for mere collectors, they would have no place in such a volume as this, the object of which is purely practical. " Hitherto," says Mr. Prime, " America has been content to depend on Europe, China, and Japan for her supplies of beautiful pottery and porcelain. Within the last two years [1875-1877] an increased demand has been visible for the higher qualities of decorated porcelain. To meet this demand some of the New York merchants have employed foreign artists to decorate wares here, and admirable work has been produced. White porcelains are now im- ported and painted in New York, chiefly in the styles of foreign factories, no at- tempt at original patterns having been made. Occasionally are seen in the shops modern Sfevres porcelains which have been decorated in New York, and cups and saucers of Limoges ware, prettily ornamented. These are the works 22 400 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. of industrious men and women, and are to be noted as among the first efforts in America in decorative ceramic art. As such they deserve hearty en- couragement." ' They have received this encouragement, and have received it because they have more and more deserved it. We have begun to do something besides importing white pottery and decorating it after foreign designs. There are potteries, espe- cially those at Greenpoint (near New York), at Jersey City, and at Cincinnati, where artistic and beautiful pottery is produced; and the designing of the wares and the decoration of them has grown up into a by no means inconsiderable branch of profita- ble occupation. Greenpoint plates, cups, saucers, and pitchers, and the Jersey City vases, show articles available for domestic use and ornamentation ; while such more elaborate productions as the Greenport " Century Vase " and " Keragiose Vase " aim successfully at a higher mark. What was hope and prophecy only eight years ago has since then become fact and fulfilment. The ceramic, art, as applied to household decoration, has come to be an important and growing industry. We are no longer, forced to fall back upon the productions of the " old masters " for materials, and it may be confidently anticipated that the growing wealth and culture of the American people will offer inducements still more ample than are now furnished for the profitable exercise of the artistic faculty. But the one who seeks in this direction for a lucrative occu- pation must look wisely at his own capacities and must cultivate them to the utmost. He must acquire an education in indus- trial art. Fortunately the means for attaining this are coming more and more within the reach of all who wish to avail them- selves of them. To begin with, it has come to be felt that draw- ing should form a part of the instruction in our common-schools, or at least in all which rank above the primary grades, for the money-value of art is coming to be appreciated. A person who cannot make a drawing is hampered from the outset in the most profitable parts of many industries. It is not to be expected that every person can become an artist in the highest accepta- tion of the term, but any one who can be taught to write a DECORATIVE POTTERY, OR CERAMICS. 401 legible hand can be taught to execute an intelligible drawing. Then there are schools of decorative art and of industrial art. Among the many and great obligations conferred by Peter Cooper upon the community the art department of the Cooper Institute is among the foremost. In this and in several other art-schools instruction of the most practical nature is given. The carpenter, the cabinet-maker, the machinist will find it of immense advantage to be able to make a design upon paper. We have already indicated some departments in which this is quite indispensable, such as in paper-hangings, ceramics, etc. ; the list might be extended almost indefinitely. Indeed, when we get beyond the bounds of the lowest branches of unskilled labor it would be hard to name any industry in which the ability to use the pencil will not often come into profitable exercise. Some of these special branches will be considered in the next chapter. 402 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXXIII. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. THESE branch out in every direction and touch upon every sort of handicraft. We note the present condition and future prospects of some of the leading industries. We have already spoken of the employments of the draughtsman and designer, in so far as they are directly related to architecture and household decoration, we now consider them more espe- cially as applied to the. illustration of books and periodicals, to the production of pictures to be reproduced and 'multiplied by the cunning hand of the engraver, so that instead of a single copy to be purchased by one person and seen by comparatively few there shall be many copies diffused among thousands and hundreds of thousands. With pictures as with books it has been found that the pub- lic, except in a few cases, is a more munificent patron than any one class of it. Only a few persons can live by ministering to the necessities or inclinations of the few, whereas very many acquire competence or wealth by serving the many. All our modern tendencies are in the direction of the popularization of art as well as of everything else. Here and there a great paint- er has also occasionally acted directly as a designer for the en- graver or other reproducer of works of art. Raphael drew cartoons for tapestry-workers; Albert Durer and Hans Holbein drew upon the wood, and even sometimes engraved their own designs upon the block. But it is only within our own days that painters of acknowledged power have to any extent turned their attention to this special branch of their art : those who have done this have found it to pay. Competent designers hav- THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. 403 ing taken the field, competent engravers to interpret in black lines what they conceived in color have also sprung up, and the result has been that good pictures have become as plentiful as good books. The high artistic endowments requisite for a designer are but rarely bestowed, and the man or woman who possesses them need be at no loss in making this his avocation for life instead of considering it as merely a means of support while mainly occupied in producing other works. The engraver, it has been said, occupies to the painter somewhat the position which the printer does to the author. But this is only a partial view of the case. The engraver is more especially a translator of the work of the designer. He tells in another language what the artist has told in his own, and he, moreover, enables the artist to address a far wider audience. There are three methods of engraving, under one of which all are to be classed. These are not very happily designated as copperplate engraving, wood-engraving, and lithography. But metal plates have often been used for the execution of engrav- ings in which the lines stand out in relief, while wood might be -used for engravings in which the lines are cut into the surface of the plate. Lithography is based upon the chemical law that oil and water will not mix, or, as it is sometimes expressed, " you can- not wet grease or grease water." The artist, with an oily pencil, or with a pen and an oily ink, makes a drawing, usually upon a slab of a particular kind of stone adapted to the purpose ; the whole face of the stone is rubbed over with a wet sponge, but the water will not hold upon the oily lines of the drawing ; then a roller covered with an oily ink is passed over the stone ; the ink adheres to the pencilled lines which have been drawn, but will not touch the wetted parts of the stone. A sheet of paper is laid upon the drawing, which is passed under a heavy roller, and the ink is thus transferred from the drawing to the paper, and so on for each separate impression. This process of print- ing is a slow one, and consequently is comparatively costly, and is wholly inadequate where a large number of copies are re- 404 , THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. quired in a short time. Its merit is that the picture is precisely what the artist made it, whether good or bad, whereas in an engraving properly so called the result depends no little upon the skill of the engraver. It is no more difficult to make the drawing upon the stone than with a crayon upon paper, and from this one drawing a large number of copies can be printed. Lithography is especially adapted for large portraits and also for the reproduction of architectural and mechanical drawings, where no great delicacy of line is required. For the wider purposes of illustration of books lithography is almost wholly superseded by wood-engraving. Copperplate Engraving. — In this method of engraving the lines and dots which make' up the picture are cut, one by one, into the surface of a polished plate of rhetal. If this eng^raved plate could be printed from in the same manner as with ordi- nary types the cut would consist of white strokes upon a black ground, like the marks of a white pencil upon a black slate. The whole effect of the cut would be reversed : the portions which should be light would be dark, those which should be dark would be light. In printing from a copperplate engraving the whole surface of the plate is covered over with the ink, which also fills up all the engraved lines ; the ink is then carefully wiped from the surface of the plate, leaving only that which fills the incised -lines. The sheet of paper is then laid upon the plate, which is passed under a heavy roller, which presses the surface of the sheet into the lines, and the ink in them is taken up. This inking, wiping, and impressing must be repeated for each copy, so that the process is even slower than that of litho- graphic printing. Five hundred copies of a print of the size of a page of this volume would be as many as two men working together could throw off in a day. Etching differs from copper- plate engraving only in this: the plate is covered with a thin coating of varnish, through which the lines are drawn upon the metal and then " bitten " into the plate by a strong acid instead of being cut in with the gr;aver. Very often the two modes are combined in the same plate, the heavier parts being bitten in by the acid, the more delicate ones cut by the graver. FAIENCE VASE. See Note 39. THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. 407 The rubbing to which the plate is subjected wears it away so rapidly that not more than a few thousands of good impressions can be taken from a copperplate. This objection is partly ob- viated by making the engraving upon a plate of soft steel, which is afterwards hardened. Engraving upon steel differs in no respect from engraving upon copper, its sole advantage being in the greater number of copies which can be printed from the plate. Copperplate engraving is capable of producing finer effects than any other method. The engraver has his choice of every kind of line or point — he can make his lines as heavy as he chooses or finer than a hair ; he can cross and recross his lines at will, just as though he were using a pencil. The main ob- jection is the slowness of the printing and the consequent cost, which render th^ whole process unavailable to meet the requi- sites of ordinary book and periodical illustration. Still there are many uses for which there is no substitute. Foremost among these is the reproduction of paintings of the highest class. A copperplate engraver of the highest merit undoubt- edly stands at the head of his profession, and of course earns in proportion. Wood-Engraving. — The process of engraving upon wood is the exact reverse of that of engraving upon copper. In it the lines which form the picture are raised instead of being sunk ; or, rather, all except the lines is cut away, leaving them standing in relief. One can gain an idea of the comparative difficulty of the two methods by closely examining a copperplate and a wood engraving. In the former the engraver has cut each black line into the plate as we see it, and as his graver has a triangular point, the deeper he cuts the thicker will be the line, and he can thicken the line from time to time, as he sees fit, in order to produce such depth of color as he finds best for the general effect. But, in the latter, the engraver has cut out one by one each separate white line or point as it appears in the print, leav- ing the black lines standing. If he should cut away too much there is no remedy ; unlike the copperplate engraver, he has no means of deepening the color if he has once made it too light. 408 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. He can put in more light if he chooses, but cannot put in more shade. Let one try to reproduce with pencil and paper the lines of a simple part of a wood-engraving. With a fine black pencil, upon white paper, he will. find little difficulty; the hardest thing, perhaps, would be to reproduce it exactly. If he make an exact copy he will have done just what the copperplate engraver would have done. Then let him, with a fine white pencil, attempt to make a similar copy upon black paper. If he succeed in mak- ing this he will have done just what the engraver has done, for this is a woodcut, after all. The engraver has accomplished a difficult task, and has succeeded in doing tolerably well only what a copperplate engraver of equal ability would have done better and with less labor. Engravings in relief have not unfrequently been executed upon soft metals. Wood has, however, been faund the best material for the purpose. Boxwood is the only kind which has a grain sufficiently close for fine cuts, and this is sawed across the grain, and not in boards or slabs. The art has been prac- tised in China from time immemorial, for a page of a Chinese book is a woodcut, with the letters in relief. The oldest known European woodcut bears the date 1423. Wood-engraving in the United States dates back only to about 1830, and some tolerable work was executed within the succeeds ing ten years ; but for nearly twenty years more the Ameri- can engravers were far behind their European contemporaries. Nearly all the good engravers were foreigners who had learned the art abroad. To-day, American wood -engraving is, beyond question, the best in the world, and perhaps the best idea of its progress may be gained by examining the successive volumes of Harper's Magazine since 1855, when original illustrations began to be a prominent feature of its management, and the very best which could be executed at the time were secured, although for several years after the bulk of them were mere reproductions of the work of foreign designers and engravers. But we have to do with the economical rather than with the historical or artistic aspects of the subject. The great advance THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. 409 of the last fifteen years has been partly the effect and partly the cause of the increased artistic appreciation of the American pub- lic, and there has been a wholesome rivalry among those pub- lishers who have taken it in hand to meet the growing want. They have been wise enough to see that it was not enough to keep abreast with the public ; they must move in advance of it, and offer better productions than their patrons were then pre- pared to appreciate. This better work could only be had by offering pecuniary inducements sufficient to stimulate greater endeavor on the part of a higher order of artistic talent, both among designers and engravers. The times are past — if they ever existed — when artists were content to work without liberal payment, and now that they have the great public for their real patrons there is no need that they should do so. The cost of producing a hand- somely-illustrated work is hardly suspected by the person who purchases a copy. The amount paid to the draughtsmen and engravers of each of the cuts which have been presented in this volume as types of our best wood - engraving is not less than three hundred dollars. From this an approximate estimate may be made of the entire expenditure for this one purpose of illus- tration. This sum, if divided among the copies of an edition of a few thousand, would amount, for each copy, to more than the price of the volume. But when this total amount is spread over scores or, perhaps, hundreds of thousands of copies, it be- comes comparatively small for each. It need not be repeated that the avocation of the wood- engraver is now among the most remunerative. That it will continue to be so is as certain as anything can well be, so long as the country keeps on advancing in wealth and cult- ure. The causes are permanent and the effect cannot be tran- sient. To us it seems hardly possible that engravings better, as such, than the best of those now made, can be produced in the future. We may hope to have better pictures, for there is no limit which we can assign to the development of that genius which is required to create a picture. But it seems to us that the engravers whose names are attached to the cuts here given 410 THE AVORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. — and many .more who rank fairly by their side^have done nearly all that can be accomplished in black and white lines to reproduce the thought and intent of the designer. To a certain extent wood-engraving is a mechanical art, de- pending upon accuracy of eye and dexterity of hand. This was notably so until quite recently, for the designer was accustomed to draw with his pencil every line just as he wished it to appear in the cut ; but, working in black while the engraver worked in white, he often used lines easy for him to produce with the pen- cil but hard for the engraver to preserve by cutting around them. As engravers became more and more artists and less mechanics, it was found that the arrangement and form of the lines might better be left mainly to them, and the designers rnerely drew the dominant lines which gave the form and washed in the other parts with India-ink, so as to produce the color and effect, which the engraver reproduced in line. The result is shown by the illustrations in this volume, which comprise some of the finest specimens of the art of wood-engraving. No finer ones can be found in any book expressly devoted to art. The wood-engraver who shall attain high success should be aware of the conditions essential to that end. He must possess genuine artistic feeling to begin with. He may not be able to produce the design which he is to render, but he must perceive just what was the idea or feeling which the artist meant to em- body, and be able to render it by the methods of his own art. The great composer is not of necessity a great singer: he may not have a voice capable of expressing the music in his soul. The translator of a poem from one language into another may not have been able to have written the poem in either language, but he must well understand the language from which he trans- lates, and must have a full mastery of that into which he trans- lates. Form and tint and line are to the artist what words are to the author. The engraver reproduces the forms of the artist and translates his tint into his own lines. Upon the ability with which he does this depends his success in his profession. A thorough education of the eye and hand are indispensable, and they must be trained to work togefher. The hand of the THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. 411 engraver works under the constant direction of the eye. No tremulous or inflexible hand can belong to a good engraver. It might be supposed that the superior delicacy of the female or- ganization vsrould render engraving peculiarly a fitting employ- ment for women. It certainly has some special adaptations. It does not involve great physical exertion, and it can be practised at home as well as elsewhere. The experiment has been begun — as in the school for engraving in the Cooper Institute — but it is yet too early to pronounce positively upon the degree of its success. This much may be said in its favor: Women here stand upon an equal footing with men. The female writer is paid as highly as the male writer, provided that her work is as good, and the woman who engraves will command as high re- muneration as the man of like ability and skill. Art and litera- ture know no sex. The quality of the work accomplished, not the personality of the doer of it, governs the remuneration and the fame. The application of the artistic faculty to practical industrial purposes, so that it shall open new and wide avenues for success, ranks high among the subjects of general interest. The indus- trial arts must come more into exercise as the requirements of the community extend beyond the bare necessities and conven- iences of life. 412 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXXIV. OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. IT is not easy to draw any exact line between the Sciences and the Arts. The two departments of thought and en- deavor overlap each other upon every side. There is one thing which they have in common in our age. The persistent ten- dency of our times is to direct all research, speculation, and en- deavor to some practical result. Knowledge is regarded not so much as an ultimate end, to be sought for its own sake, as it is for a means for the attainment of some further end and object, that object being the augmentation of the sum of human com- fort. Money is but a form for the expression of the amount and degree of this augmentation. The money-value of a thing is precisely the amount, expressed in pounds and shillings, or dollars and cents, of the comfort or pleasure which it may be made to afford its possessor. Some have styled ours a " money- getting age," by way of censure and sneer, and have poured forth torrents of lamentation and objurgation over the prevail- ing "haste to get rich." With all this we have no sympathy. We hold that the man who in any way produces anything which adds to human comfort and happiness is the useful and estimable man. He who does not do this is the useless man — useless to himself and to others. The .useful man is the one, and the only one, who ought to be successful in any sphere of life. But the man who puts in thought and knowledge, science and enterprise, contributes more than the one who puts in merely muscular labor, and deserves a higher reward. The ox that drags the plough is not the real plougher of the field ; it is OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. 413 the man who devised the plough, and that other one who guides the team. The operative who works at the loom is not the chief manufacturer; it is the man who invented the loom, and he who builds the mill, provides the machinery, and directs the whole series of operations. If his contribution consists of capital rather than of immediate labor or thought, still, that capital is the product of previous labor performed either by himself or by some one from whom he has received it. There are few men who have not far more of capital in the form of thought and skill than they ever put to use. If they bury this capital through disuse, they cannot reasonably expect to make it pay interest or yield a profit. In all that has gone before, one aim has been to point out some of the directions in which this kind of capital may be utilized to the advantage of its owner, and in all that is to follow this will be held strictly in view. Physical Science is the study of the laws of physical nature. By " Applied Science " we mean the direct application of these laws to the increase of human comfort and physical well-being. It is industry guided by knowledge. With all the progress in this direction of which we boast, we have taken only the first steps in any of the paths. We shall indicate some of thesfe ap- plied sciences which at the present time seem to promise large rewards to those who shall wisely cultivate them. What has been successfully begun is one of the safest guides as to what may still be accomplished. Chemistry. — It was long before any practical effort was made to apply this science to any really useful end. Bewildered by baseless theories, the alchemists wasted their lives in the vain attempt to discover the " philosopher's stone," which should transmute the base metals into the precious ones ; or the " elixir of life," which would confer immortality upon mortals. But no sooner did students abandon these dreams, and begin to direct their researches and experiments to practical ends, than ample results rewarded their efforts. There is no hour in the day in which every one of us does not receive much benefit from the work done for us by chemists. These are so common that we are wont to forget how few of them were attainable even by our 414 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. immediate forefathers. The means by which we illuminate oui dwellings and streets, thus doubling, if need be, the hours for labor or recreation, are among the results of applied chemistry. Most of the medicines which alleviate our sufferings or cure our diseases are the direct products of applied chemistry. We write with chemical ink, and color our fabrics with chemical dyes. Applied chemistry enters largely into the production of the bread which we eat. The steel which edges our knives, ^ven iron, as we use it, is a chemical product. The gunpowder which tears down mountains to make way for our highways, and fights our battles for us, is the product of the chemist's laboratory. Let the traveller find himself in a region where matches are not to be had, and attempt without them to light his fire by rubbing two sticks together, and he will begin to appre- hend what are some of the debts which he owes to the chemist. Hardly a day passes that does not add to the sum of benefits conferred upon us by applied chemistry. The field still unoc- cupied or only partially explored is yet so vast that there is no danger of its becoming overcrowded. The practical chemist must find lucrative occupation, and should he make — as many will make — 'any valuable addition to the supplying of the public wants, his reward will be ample. Civil Engineering. — Instead of solving old mathematical problems or propounding new ones, men of the highest genius now turn their attention in a practical direction. In place of inventing " magic squares," or endeavoring to " square the cir- cle," they set themselves to work in studying the strength of materials, the best forms of the arch, the proper slope of em- bankments, and the like. They level the lines of railroads, de- vise means of directing the course of rivers, and build bridges such as no former age would have dared to imagine. They con- struct works for irrigation which will fertilize regions which would otherwise be deserts ; and devise and execute systems of drainage which will avert pestilence from crowded cities. There is no assignable limit to the field which lies open to the competent civil engineer ; and it is a hopeful sign that this is becoming more and more appreciated by aspiring young men. OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. 415 A generation ago, to say that a youth was " getting an education " was equivalent to saying that after he had acquired a little Latin and less Greek, a little algebra and the rudiments of geometry, he proposed to become a clergyman, or a lawyer, or a doctor. The student who now expects to make his way in the world turns aside from the old classical curriculum, and either takes a "special course" in the university or enters a school of technol- ogy, devoted to instruction in some or all of the physical sciences. The man who undertakes to master the science of civil engineer- ing will soon find that he has enough to do to occupy all the time and thought which he can devote to the study of that one science. But he has undertaken to fit himself for doing work which the public demands, and for which it stands ready to pay. Electricity. — Some five centuries before the beginning of the Christian era Thales of Miletus, a kind of Greek Benjamin Franklin, happened to be rubbing a piece of electron, or amber, and carelessly touched it to a feather or some other light sub- stance, which he found to be attracted by it. To this hitherto unobserved natural force he gave the name of " electricity." He little dreamed that this apparently feeble force was in time to become one of the most efficient — not improbably //^^ most effi- cient — servant of man. Not quite a century ago Galvani of Bo- logna, in like manner by accident, brought the leg of a dead frog in contact with two dissimilar metals; a convulsive action en- sued, and the force which produced this was found to be identi- cal with, or at least kindred to, that which attracts the paper- shreds to the rubbed amber or glass, and that which keeps the ends of the magnetic needle pointing towards the northern and southern poles. Franklin had shown that this feeble force was identical with that manifested in the lightning; but no one for long years dreamed that this could be made serviceable to man. Up to the beginning of the present generation electricity in any of its forms was nothing more than a scientific play- thing, which might perhaps be turned to some slight practical purpose. We all know what service this humanly developed electricity has been made to render. In the telegraph it sends our mes- 416 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. sages around the globe with a rapidity like that of light. The telegraph alone renders possible those simultaneous comparisons of meteorological observations which may result in a science of weather-prophecy. A suspension of telegraphic communication would bring about a revulsion in the commercial business of the world. In the telephone, electricity does for sound what the telescope does for the vision. In electrotyping it plates the precious metals upon the cheaper ones, and makes a periect/ac- simile of the most exquisitely engraved plate or block. But the possible powers of this newly yoked servant of man have only begun to be called forth. There seems to be no rea- son to doubt that the time is close at hand when the electric light will to a great degree supersede gas as a means of illumi- nation ; when we shall work and study by the flashes of lightning made permanent instead of momentary. There is,- moreover, good reason to anticipate that electricity will, at no very remote period, largely take the place of steam as a motive-power ; al- though it is not many years since one of our foremost authori- ties in science laid it down as a matter "long since settled that the motive - power derived from electro - magnetic combinations can only be secured at an expense which forbids its employment on a large scale ;" the most that could be said was that " for many purposes, in which the consideration of cost is unimpor- tant, the convenience of application of this power has secured for it an acceptance which is becoming every year more general." But the great Dionysius Lardner a few years ago demonstrated most mathematically that steam could never be successfully em- ployed in ocean navigation, because no vessel could carry coal enough for a voyage of three thousand miles. Men whose opin-' ions are entitled to great consideration now look forward to a day not far distant, when many of our railroads will be operated by electricity. In any case, there can be no question that the industries in which this force is and is to be employed must furnish profitable occupation for many more persons than are now engaged in them. Mineralogy. — In the chapter on Mines and Mining, statis- tics have been given which show that, next to agriculture, mining OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. 417 is the most important of the world's industries ; indeed, without this few ot];ier industries could be successfully practised. The United States include what are pre-eminently the mineral re- gions of the globe. With the exception of tin, there is no valu- able mineral which is not abundant in large sections. Fully two thirds of all the coal known to exist is here. The produc- tion of iron in any country must in time depend to a great extent upon that of coal ; and there is to-day more probability thlt the continent of Europe will have to look to us for coal and iron than there was twenty years ago that Europe would look to America for bread and corn. The increase in the demand for food must, of course, keep nearly equal pace with the increase of population, and be limited by it ; but the uses of metals multiply much more rapidly than the population does. We have the metals so readily at hand that it cannot be very long — protection or no protection — before we shall cease to import them ; for we shall be able to produce them more cheaply than we can buy them abroad. In another chapter we speak of the possible — nay, probable — future impor- tance of what may be styled the chemical metals, aluminum and magnesium. We use the word mineralogist in its widest signification, to designate all those, except mere diggers of the ores and other unskilled laborers, who are occupied in the production of miner- als, and rendering them into the forms in which they are used by the artificer. It will thus include a wide range of vocations, from the mining engineer who plans the drifts and tunnels, to the expert who analyzes the ores, and the assayer who frees the metal from its alloys and impurities, or combines the ores so as to produce that form of the metal in which it is best adapted for the special end in view. The range of knowledge required by the practical mineralo- gist is wide, and requires apparatus and appliances upon a scale which can be furnished only by large institutions. Until within a few years, American students have been obliged to go abroad and study in such German schools as Berlin, Freiberg, or Claus- thal, at Schemnitz, in Hungary, or Leoben, in Styria; at the 23 418 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Ecole des Mines in Paris, or the Royal School of Mines in Lon- don. Undoubtedly, something may be learned in each of these great schools better than anywhere else. But we are well assured that no one of them presents greater opportunities than are furnished at the School of Mines of Columbia College, the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale, the School of Mining and Practical Geology of Harvard, the Scientific Department of the University of Pennsylvania, the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of Troy, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Boston, or the Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken. With such ample means for acquiring instruction, and such widening fields for the exercise of the knowledge acquired, the vocation of practical mineralogy is one which must be more lucrative than most others. Glass-Making. — Glass is an artificial compound, produced, by melting together silex and potash or soda, to which lime, borax, and lead are sometimes added, for various purposes, the result of the fusion being a more or less transparent, brittle, in- soluble substance of extreme hardness, and acted upon by no acid except hydrochloric. The manufacture of .glass is of great antiquity, but it was mainly used for decorative and ornamental purposes ; its use for windows not being at all common until the revival of civilization after the overthrow of the Roman Empire. The manufacture of glass is an important industry in the United States, the growth of which has more than kept pace with the increase of population. As reported in the Census of 1870, there were in the United States 201 glass-works, employing 15,822 hands, the value of the product being (in gold) $15,235,862. In 1880 there were 211 glass-works, employing 24,177 hands, the value of the product being $21,154,571 ; an increase, of 52 per cent, in the number of hands employed, and of 38 per cent, in the value of the prod- ucts; but the average wages paid was about the same, $380 per hand, of whom about one fourth were women and children. There were in 1880 glass-works in fifteen states of the Union; but about three fourths of them were in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio. OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. 419 A large part of the work in the manufacture of glass is per- formed by unskilled labor, and is paid for as such. But in the production of ornamental and decorative glass-ware, and especi- ally in painting upon it for windows, there is a growing demand for artistic work of a high though special character. " Glass-painting," says Mr. Charles A. Cole,* " is an art taxing the highest pictorial resources. The artist should be a student of history, sacred and profane, well versed in ecclesiastical and civil costume, armor, heraldry, con- ventionalism, symmetry, coloring, and the manufacture of colors. It is neces- sary that he should draw geometrically, mechanically, and artistically, and strengthen himself with a mechanical knowledge of combining numberless parts to compose a whole, the effect of which he has scarcely an opportunity of form- ing any other than a problematical judgment until the entire work is erected, and which, therefore, he can acquire only by habit and intuitive feeling." Until quite recently painted -glass windows were confined wholly to Catholic and Episcopal churches, and they were almost always the work of foreign artists. But now windows of painted glass are coming to be more and more common in churches of other denominations and in private mansions. The painter on glass must ever keep in mind the restrictions imposed upon him by the very nature of his work. Unlike oil-painting, it excludes minute detail, partly on account of the greater distance at which the picture is to be viewed, and partly because this detail, which is capable of great effect on an opaque surface, would be lost through the transparency of the glass. A painting on glass is incapable of those nice gradations of color and of light and shade which are indispensable for direct and close imitations of nature, and for producing the full effect of atmosphere and dis- tance. And, moreover, if this difficulty could be surmounted, the bars, or other window work, would spoil the effect of such a picture. A landscape should not be the principal feature of a. painting on glass ; neither should a figure or group of figures which require much foreshortening. The figures should occupy the immediate foreground, not running into the distance. This, subject is worthy the consideration of the public as well as o£ * Harper's Magazine, October, 1879. 420 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES; artists, and we therefore quote a few further sentences from Mr. Cole's suggestive paper : " In the glass-painters' workshops in New York — we write these remarks in one of the most noted — may be seen devices, at a cost within the reach of the majority, which would brighten and illuminate habitations large and small. Here are windows filled with medallions, or panels, containing colored pictures arranged in a symmetrical manner, and imbedded in a mosaic ornamental ground formed of rich colors. Here are pictures without number representing successive incidents in a parable, a story, or legend, or poem. Profuse in fancy are groups of leaves — the maple, oak, ivy, and the parasitical plants — as well as birds and insects ; the scroll-work being formed of the twining tendrils of plants or of boughs or branches.' Borders, with stalks running up the sides of the panes, either in a serpentine manner or straight, from which spring leaves, acorns, nuts, fruit ; the stalks perhaps of one color, the leaves of another, all introduced on a colored ground. Attractive enough will be found the common ' decorated patterns,' consisting of a number of narrow fillets and bands, some colored, some ornamented, but for the most part plain and white, disposed in the forms of circles, lozenges, ovals, quatrefoils, and other geometrical figures, or even simply reticulated, and curiously interwoven with each other. Mean- while, some advice may be remembered with profit by any one who wishes to use painted glass as a household ornamentation. The positive colors ought to be employed sparingly, and confined to the chief points of the composition. When overloaded with color, the sparkling brilliancy so desirable in painted glass is entirely lost. The general ground of the window, for example, should be of a neutral tint, suitable in tone to its character and situation." The demand for painted glass has produced among us artists capable of meeting all desires. Forty-five years ago there was- not a single manufactory of this kind in the United States. Now, within the compass of a few streets, near Broadway and the Fifth Avenue, in New York, one may count the studios of a score of painters upon glass, and there is no considerable city in the Union which does not possess artists of this class — attrac- tive to those who practise it from the remuneration which it affords, and to the public from the beauty of their work. Facts fully justify the statement of Mr. Cole that " glass-painting of a high order of art is accessible in this country, and there is a large and increasing demand for it as a means of households decoration " — ^ demand which shows a constant increase. Closely allied to painting upon glass is the production of ornamented glass-ware. There is, indeed, no other substance, ON A MARKET-BOAT IN NORTH HOLLAND. See Note 30, OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SCIENCES AND ARTS. 423 except clay, which so readily lends itself to many useful and ornamental purposes as glass. Composed of the very cheapest and most common of materials, human skill fashions it into forms which serve to gratify not only the humblest needs, but the most refined tastes. Ornamental glass-ware has long been a special industry of Venice. This graceful and useful art is making its way among us, as, indeed, it should ; for there is no reason why the most common articles of glass-ware should not have the beautiful forms which the natural beauty of the mate- rial suggests. Up to a certain point beauty costs no more than ugliness ; and beyond this there is no conceivable limit to the artistic labor which may be lavished upon the shaping and orna- menting of glass-ware. Working in the Precious Metals. — In the arts of pottery and glass-working the artist and workman give value to mate- rials which are in themselves almost worthless. The worker in gold, silver, and precious stones confers additional value upon the most costly materials. The production of silver-ware, and of ware plated with silver, has grown to be a very important industry in this country. There are establishments in which it is conducted upon a very extensive scale ; and the advancing culture of society demands a higher and still higher grade of artistic merit, and the cultured public is ready to pay liberally for the gratification of its tastes. The manufacture of silver-ware in the United States dates from 1 83 1, when Jabez Gorham began to make silver spoons at Providence, Rhode Island. In about thirty-five years the " Gorham Manufactory " became the largest of its kind in the world ; and there are now several others of scarcely less extent. Each of these establishments carries on a dozen or more dis- tinct trades. To make spoons and forks is a trade of itself ; to make cups, vases, and other large vessels is quite another. Chasing is one trade, embossing another. Die-cutting, pattern- making, moulding, engraving, burnishing, polishing, are all sepa- rate trades, each of which requires a regular apprenticeship in order to become a competent workman. It is the business of all of these trades to carry into effect the conceptions of the 424 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. designer, whose aim is not merely to produce beautiful forms, but also to unite elegance with convenience ; always to be ahead of public taste, so as to be ready to furnish to the purchaser something superior to that of which he is in search. The business of the jeweller, as distinguished from that of the silver-worker, also presents numerous openings for the highest order of workmanship. The census of 1870 reports 18,508 " Gold and Silver Workers;" in 1880 there were 28,405, an increase of 53 per cent. The labor is almost entirely " skilled," and receives a corresponding remuneration. The average wages for " jewellers " of both sexes and all ages, including apprentices, is given in the census at ^640 per year. The large percentage of increase in the number of persons employed evinces the increasing demand for their services. PATENTS, PATENT-RlbHTS, AND PATENTEES. 425 CHAPTER XXXV. PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. A" PATENT," in the widest sense, is defined to be " a grant made by the government or the sovereign of a country to some person or persons of some privilege, property, or authority ; or the exclusive right to some new invention, discov- ery, or improvement." Under the first clause of the definition are included the numerous monopolies arbitrarily bestowed by sovereigns upon their favorites, and these still exist in various European countries. In England this was limited by an Act of Parliament in 1624, which prohibited the granting of exclusive privileges in trade, with the exception that letters -patent might be issued for a term not exceeding twenty-one years, "for the sole working or making of any new manufacture within this realm, to the first and true inventor of such manufactures." The earliest English letters-patent, in our sense of the term, were issued in 1643, to Arnold Rotsipenjfor an improvement in printing machinery. The earliest American patent was granted in 1 64 1, by the General Court of Massachusetts, to Samuel Winslow, for a process of making salt; and in 1653 a royalty of ten shillings was granted to John Clark, to be collected from every family which should use a method devised by him for " saving wood and warming houses at little cost." Grave objections have been urged against the patent system, all of which resolve thernselves into this, that they create mo- nopolies which deprive other persons than the patentees of the exercise of certain rights belonging to them. " Suppose," it is said, " that a certain man has, whether by study or accident, dis- covered that by mixing India-rubber and sulphur together in 426 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. certain proportions and submitting them to a certain degree of heat a new and valuable substance is produced, what right does that give him to prevent any other person from doing the same thing with his own materials and producing the same result? All persons had originally the same right, and the fact that he was the first to exercise it cannot invalidate the right of any one else. If he has discovered such a process he may, if he choose, keep it a secret, or divulge it to whom he pleases and upon such conditions as he pleases, and make as much of it as he can in that way, and that is the limit of his right in his dis- covery ; all beyond this is an arbitrary monopoly, and monopo- lies are, by their very nature, against the public interest." To this it is replied : " It is for the public interest that men should be encouraged and stimulated to study and experiment for the purpose of making discoveries and inventions ; and if these are of public advantage the public should, for their own good as well as in justice to him, in some way remunerate the inventor for the benefit which he has conferred upon them. They may do it by bestowing upon him a specific sum, as when Jenner was awarded ;^ 10,000 for his discovery of the process of vaccination, Davy ^2000 for the miner's safety-lamp, or Whit- ney ^50,000 for the cotton-gin; but in the great majority of instances this mode would be ineffectual, for governments are rarely in a position to ascertain accurately the benefits which may accrue to the public from any particular invention. It is far better to frame general laws to effect the object, and there are no apparent means of doing this so surely as by bestowing upon the inventor the exclusive right, for a certain time and upon proper conditions, to the profitable use of his invention. Let him put up this right for sale in what way he pleases, and the public will pay him as much as it is worth to them and no more. If it is worth nothing to them the inventor will receive nothing, no matter how much time and labor it may have cost him ; if it be worth much he will receive much, no matter how little labor it may have cost him. The question is not how much it has cost the inventor, but how much the public find it worth to them. In granting such a patent, it is further said, the PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 427 Government, representing the people, does indeed surrender to the patentee certain of their rights, but it does so for a valuable consideration. The patentee also surrenders certain rights be- longing to him. He imparts to the public certain information, valuable to them, which he was at perfect liberty to withhold. The whole transaction is in effect a bargain between the State and the patentee. The State, by its patent-law, makes certain propositions open to the acceptance of all whom it may concern;, the inventor, by applying for a patent, accepts those proposi- tions, and both parties are rightly held to the fulfilment of the conditions of the bargain." Nearly all civilized States have come to the conclusion that the manifest advantages of a system of patent-laws far overbal- ance any alleged disadvantages. In Holland, Greece, and Switz- erland, however, no patents are granted, and in some of the States of the German Empire they are looked upon with dis- favor. In Prussia the annual average number of applications for patents is about 800, of which only about one-fourth are granted, and the patentee forfeits his exclusive right if he suffers his invention to be unemployed for twelve consecutive months ; and, moreover, the patent gives him only the exclusive right of manufacturing the article within the kingdom, and does not hin- der the sale there of similar articles produced abroad. In most European countries patents are issued for various periods up to a certain number of years. In Great Britain a patent may be taken out for three years, the fee being £2$ ; it may be renewed for four years more for ;^50, and for an addi- tional period of seven years for ^100 more; so that the entire cost of a British patent for fourteen years was, until recently, ^175, or about ^875. Some modifications have, however, been recently introduced. In France a patent may be taken out for five, ten, or fifteen years, and is subject for each period to an annual tax of 100 francs, so that the total cost for a patent for fifteen years is 1500 francs, or about $300. In Austria a patent may also be taken out for fifteen years or for a shorter period, the tax for each period of five years being double that of the preceding five : thus, for the first five years it is $48.72 ; for the 428 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. second five, $97.44; for the third five, $194.88, amounting in all, for fifteen years, to $341.04. In Russia a patent may be taken out for three, five, or ten years, the entire cost for one of ten years being $357. In the United States aipatent runs for sev- enteen years, the entire cost of obtaining it being only $35. It is owing in a great measure to the comparatively small cost that probably as many patents are taken out in the United States as in all Europe. American Patents. — The United States Patent-office is one of the bureaus of the Department of the Interior, all the offi- cials being paid by fixed salaries from the Government. But an applicant for a patent must pay a fee of $ 1 5 upon filing his application, and an additional $20 when the patent is issued. The term of the patent is now fixed at seventeen years. Since 1875 the term of a patent can be extended only by an Act of Congress. Copyrights for books, maps, engravings, and artistic designs, though essentially of the nature of patents, do not come within the jurisdiction of the Patent-office. Obtaining a Patent. — The general principles regulating this procedure are easily>understood. Any person, whether a cit- izen pr alien, may obtain a patent for any "art, machine, man- ufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful im- provement thereof," of which he is the inventor or discoverer. The thing patented must be both " useful " and " new." As to usefulness, the law is very liberally construed. It does not pre- scribe any absolute degree of utility. An invention which is injurious to health or public morals, or which is designed to facilitate the perpetration of crime, is not patentable, because of what is denominated its " want of utility." The most novel and ingenious burglars' "jimmy" or thieves' picklock would not be patentable ; but we suppose that if the philosopher of Laputa had succeeded in extracting sunbeams from cucumbers, he would have found no difficulty in obtaining a patent for his discovery in the United States. Novelty of an IIsivention. — In respect to this there is need of much care on the part of the inventor. To be " new," in the legal sense of the term, the invention must not have been known PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 429 or in use by others in this country, and must not have been pat- ented or described in any printed publication in this or any for- eign country; and the inventor himself must not have allowed the use or sale of his invention for more than two years previous to his application for a patent. If he has done this, it is held that he has thereby abandoned his invention to the public use. Completeness of the Invention. — An invention to be pat- entable must be so far completed that it shall be capable of being put to use without further addition, and so that the means of producing the result aimed at may be accurately and fully set forth. The mere conception that a certain end may be secured by certain means is not sufficient. Mere experiments are not patentable ; but, supposing that the invention consists of a proc- ess or a composition of matter, the inventor is not required to be able to explain why the effect is produced. It is sufficient that he has discovered w.hat materials are necessary, and how they may be applied, to produce the required effect. Goodyear could not tell — and perhaps no one else can tell — why exposing a compound of India-rubber and sulphur to a strong heat pro- duces a new and valuable substance. It was sufficient that he ascertained the fact, and discovered the means which produced the result. Nor is it necessary that the invention shall be the outcome of long labor or study. It may be the result of sheer accident, as was the case in the vulcanizing of India-rubber. What may be Patented. — The discovery of a principle that is a law of nature is not patentable. Thus, no one can acquire an exclusive right in the properties of the electric fluid, nor in that actinic power of the sun's rays by which photographs are produced ; but the discoverer of any new mode of applying the electric power may secure the exclusive use of his own mode. In brief: the discovery of a principle, a natural law, a scientific truth, or any property of matter, is not of itself the subject of a patent ; but any one who makes a new and useful application of any of these, or invents new machinery or any new processes by which desirable results can be attained, may secure a patent, not for all possible applic?ations of the abstract principle, but for his methods of practically applying it. The application of an old 430 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. invention, to new uses is not patentable. There was a well- known machine for curling hair for mattresses ; some one ap- plied for a patent for the use of a similar machine for curling palm-leaf for the same purpose ; this was refused. The applica- tion of ether as an ansesthetic was held not to be patentable, because " the claim was for a new effect produced upon old sub- jects, by old agents, and operating by old means." Nature of the Right to a Patent. — From the nature of the case the privilege secured by a patent can only be secured by positive law. Apart from such law there is nothing to pre- vent any one from repeating, for his own advantage, what has been done by any other person. A man may have discovered some means by which two blades of grass may be grown instead of one, and he would be a great public benefactor; but, in the absence of positive law prohibiting it, any other man may right- fully adopt all his methods. The patent laws endeavor to pro- vide for such cases by conferring upon the discoverer a temporary exclusive right to its use. For how long a period this right shall exist must be somewhat arbitrarily determined. It is generally conceded, on the one hand, that it should not be perpetual, and, on the other hand, that it should be for so long a time that the inventor shall be repaid ; and, after that, this right shall revert to the public, by whom it was temporarily granted. The grant of a patent-right to the inventor, and his acceptance of it, is in effect a contract between the State and the inventor, in which the former gives to the latter, upon certain conditions, the exclu- sive right to the usufruct of his invention in consideration of the benefit which the public may receive from it during that time and thereafter. The issue of a patent is not, however, an abso- lute guarantee of the right which it purports to secure ; it is merely prima facie evidence of such a right, giving to the pat- entee a power of action for any alleged infringement. Forfeiture of the Right to a Patent. — The right to take out a patent may be forfeited in several ways : if the inventor fails to apply for a patent within two years after the invention has been put upon sale or has been in public use, he is held to have abandoned it to the public, and such abandonment is a PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 431 forfeiture of the exclusive right/ To this rule there is an appar- ent exception. After having conceived the general idea of an invention which he wishes further time to perfect, the inventor can enter a caveat in the Patent-oflfice, setting forth the charac- teristics of his invention and asking protection for his right in it until it shall have been perfected. This caveat is kept secret in the Patent-office ; but in case during a year any other person puts in a claim which apparently interferes with his, he is enti- tled to notice of the fact from the Commissioner of Patents, so that he can appear and prove his own priority. A caveat may be renewed from year to year, the fee for filing it being $io, and $30 for each application for a re-issue of it. Moreover, an inventor may so deal with his invention as to create an abandonment of it at any time. This may be done if the invention is, with his knowledge, generally used by others. Delay in applying for a patent does not of itself constitute an abandonment; but an unreasonable delay, and especially if an- other person has originated the same invention, will involve the risk of losing his right to it. Whoever restores a lost or aban- doned invention may obtain a patent for it, just as though he were the original inventor. The patentee of anything patenta- ble is in law the inventor of it. Walter Hunt invented the curved, eye -pointed needle for the sewing-machine years be- fore Howe thought of it; but Hunt neglected to take out a patent for it in time, and when he applied for one it appeared that Howe, perhaps never having heard of Hunt's prior inven- tion, had patented his own, and it was held that Hunt, although he had in the mean time perfected a good working machine, had forfeited his right by not having patented his invention or placed it before the public, and Howe's right to the needle was af- firmed. A patent which has been granted will be invalidated if it be judicially established that the thing itself was not patent- able, or that the patentee was not the real legal inventor, or that he had in any way forfeited or abandoned his right. To guard the public against deception, every patented article must be marked with the date of the patent, and any person who shall mark as patented any article for which a patent has not 432 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. been granted, or shall, without authority, put upon it the name, or ■ imitation of the name, of any person who has received a patent, is liable to a penalty of ^loo for each offence. In case of the infringement of a patent the law makes ample provision for the recovery of all damages which have been sustained and for the prevention of further infringement. If actual infringement is shown, it is not necessary that the infringer should have known of the existence of the patent. It is enough that he has in- fringed upon a right, and he must make good any damage which the patentee can show that he has suffered thereby. American Patentees. — The Census Reports, while valuable in many respects, furnish a very inadequate idea of what may be styled the "Inventive Industry" of the United States. In 1870 only 352 persons were reported as "Inventors;" in 1880 " Designers, Draughtsmen, and Inventors " were classed to- gether, the entire number being 2820. But every patentee must be an inventor, and it may be assumed that the majority of inventors are patentees also ; for the man who has made an invention which he believes to be valuable will, in most cases, choose to avail himself of the rights secured by a patent. In some cases he may prefer to keep his processes a secret, but he runs the risk of their being discovered by some other person, who may use them as he pleases. The number of patents issued in the United States is much greater than in any other country, in proportion to the popula- tion. The total number, up to the close of 1881, was 251,865. Previous to 1843 there were not quite 3000. In that year there were 510, the yearly number slowly increasing until in 1850 it reached 993. Thereafter the increase was more rapid until i860, when there were 4778. During the civil war there was a diminution, but when peace was restored the inventive genius of the country came into new and larger exercise. In 1866 there were 9458 patents issued; in 1867 the number rose to 13,026, with some fluctuations from year to year until 1880, when there were 13,947. There was a marked increase in 1881, when the whole number of patents, certificates of designs, etc., was 16,584. The number of applications received at the Patent- PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 433 office during that year was 30,242, each of which required more or less of special investigation, and of these 17,620 applications were favorably considered. Nearly 1000 patents during that year were granted to foreigners, and 15,118 new patents were issued to citizens of the United. States, being about one patent to every 3300 of the entire population. The ratio between the number of patents and that of the population presents some curious and not unimportant facts. It is much higher in the manufacturing States, gradually de- creasing as agriculture predominates over manufacturing, and being least of all in the " cotton States." In Connecticut a patent was issued for every 898 of the population ; in Rhode Island, one for every 994; in Massachusetts, one for 1367; in New York, one for 1584; in Ohio, one for 2099, being a little above the average proportion of the whole Union. The farther south we go the less do we find the industry turned in the direction of invention. In Virginia there was one patent issued to 14,005 of the population ; in Georgia, one to 16,582 ; in North Carolina, one to 21,871; in South Carolina, one to 22,133; '^^ Alabama, one to 26,861; in Mississippi, one to 27,559. The special objects towards which the attention of inventors has been largely directed is worthy of note, indicating as it does some of the leading interests which have been found to remu- nerate labor thus laid out. A somewhat careful analysis of the Patent-office Reports was made in 1874, from which it appeared that of 168,947 patents issued up to that date, about 6500 were for improvements in spinning and weaving; 6000 for carriages and wagons ; 4000 for fire-arms and explosives ; 3500 for railway applications; 2500 for improvements in printing; and 2000 for sewing-njachines and appurtenances. The Index to the printed Records of the Patent-office for a single year makes a book at least four times as large as this volume. It gives, in two separate lists, alphabetically arranged, the names of the patentees and the titles of the patents granted to them, with the registered number of each patent, the day of its issue, and the residence of the patentee. Even from a vol- ume apparently so dry as this not a few items of general interest 434 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. raay be gleaned, bearing upon our purpose of setting forth the condition and prospects of the various departments of American industry. The following are some principal subject-matters of the patents issued in 1881, with the number of separate patents for each of these subjects. It shows the chief directions towards which invention was directed. The same general facts would be shown by the Indexes of previous years. In 1881 patents were issued — For air-compressing machines, 17 ; amalgamating apparatus, 32 ; axle-boxes, 40 ; axle-lubricators, 15 ; baling-presses, 30 ; barrels, 30 ; beds and bedding, 135 ; belts for machinery, 51 ; bicycles, 19; billiards, 21 ; boiler-furnaces, 22; book- holders, 22 ; boots and shoes, 156; bottles and bottle-stoppers, 90; bracelets, 40; brick - machines, 40; bridles, 15; brooms and brushes, 40; buckles, 50; burglar- alarms, 22; butter - making, 12; buttons and button machinery, 120; cans, 30; caps, 20; car- brakes, 70; car - couplings, 225; cars and car -'attach- ments, 210; car-wheels, 25 ; carpet stretchers and sweepers, 45 ; carriages, 90; cartridges, 45; chains, 50; chairs, 50; churns, 70; cigars and cigarettes, 80; clocks, 50; clothes driers and washers, 40; coffee-pots and coffee-mills, 50'; coffins, 15 ; corn cutters, shellers, etc., 60 ; corsets, 60 ; cotton gins, presses, etc., 50; cultivators, 90; curtain -fixtures, 30 ; dentists' apparatus, 30 ; desks, 25 ; doors and door-attachments, 50; ear ornaments, 15 ; egg-beaters, 30; electrical apparatus, 190 ; elevators, 50 ; engines, 70; faucets, 40; fertilizers, 20 ; files, 30; filters, 50; fire-alarms, 10 j fire-arms, 75; fire-escapes, 25; fire-extinguishers, 50 ; fishing-rods, 15 ; fruit pickers, driers, etc., 60 ; furnaces and furnace-attach- ments, 120 ; gas and gas-lighting, 160 ; gates and gate-fastenings, 85 ; glass and glass-ware, 60 ; gloves and glove-fasteners, 30 ; governors for steam-engin"es, 35 ; grain reapers, binders, etc., 200 ; grates and grate-fixtures, 30 ; grist-mills, 50 ; hames and halters, 30; hammers, 20; harnesses, 35 ; harrows, 75 ; harvesters, 100; hats and hat - machinery, 70; hay forks, rakes, presses, etc., 60; heating- apparatus, 60 j heel appliances, 20; hinges, 30; hoisting apparatus, 15 ; hoop- machines, 2*0 ; horse-detachers, 20 ; horse-power, 20 ; horse-shoes, 60 ; hose and hose-apparatus, 35 ; hubs, 30; hydrants, 15 ; hydraulic engines, 25 ; hydrocarbon furnaces, etc., 30; ice and ice-cream apparatus, 60; inks and inkstands, 15; insect-destroyers, 10 ; iron and steel making, 25 ; knitting-machines, 50; lacings, hooks, studs, etc., 25; ladders, 15; lamps, 50; lanterns, 35; lasts and lasting- machines, 35 ; latches, 30; lathes, 40; life-boats and life-preservers, 20 ; lifting apparatus, 25 ; locks, 60; locomotive-attachments, 60 j looms and loom-attach- ments, 60 ; lubricators and lubricating attachments, 70 ; magnetic machines and appliances, 30 ; matches and match-boxes, 20; mechanical movements, 25 ; milk-coolers, etc., 50 ; mills and millstones, 75 ; mittens, 15 ; motors and motive apparatus, 70; mowers, 25 ; musical instruments, 70 ; nails and nailing-machines, 35 ; nuts, nut-locks, etc., 60 ; oil cans, cups, etc., 40 ; ore crushers, furnaces, etc., PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 435 lOo ; packing for engines, 30; pantaloon-guards, 20 ; paper bags and boxes, 50; paper - making, 100; parers and corers for fruit, 15 ; pens and pen-holders, 45; photographic apparatus, 40; pianos and piano-attachments, 45; pins, 20; pipes for draining, etc., 50 ; planes and planing-machines, 25 ; planters for grain, 1 10 ; ploughs and ploughshares, 170; printing presses and apparatus, 100; pulleys, 40; pumps and pumping apparatus, 180; railway joints, ties, rails, etc., 80; railway signals, 40; railway switches, arresters, etc., 70; reaping-machines, 15; refrigerating apparatus, 90 ; rock-drillers, 25 ; rocking-chairs, 20; rotary engines, 30 ; rubber compounds, 30 ; saddles, 25 ; sashes and sash apparatus, 60 ; saws and sawing apparatus, 130 ; sawing-machines, 35 ; scales, 30 ; scarfs and adjuncts, 15 ; scrapers, 25 ; screws, 45 ; seats for carriages, etc., 20; seed -sowers, 50; sewage apparatus, 25 ; sewing-machines, 350 ; shirts, 20 ; shoes and appurte- nances, 40 ; shutter-fasteners, 15 ; skates, 38 ; sleds and sleighs, 30; smoke- consumers, 15; soaps, 20 j soldering apparatus, 40; spark-arresters, 30; spin- ning-machinery, 70 ; spoke-machines, 15 ; springs for beds, 30 ; steam-boilers, 4S ; steam-engines and appurtenances, no ; steering apparatus, 20 ; stoves, 200; sugar-making, 30; tables' and appurtenances, 40; telegraphic apparatus, 130; telephones and apparatus, 200 ; thill-coupling, 40 ; threshing-machines, 45 ; fire-apparatus, 25 ; tobacco manufactures, 40 ; toys, go; trucks, 35 ; trunks, 25; trusses, 15; type - writers, etc., 35; umbrellas, 20; valves, 130; vapor- burners, 20; vehicle-springs, 44; vehicle-wheels, 30; velocipedes, 50; wagons and appendages, 70; water-closets, 30; water-meters, 20; water-wheels, 20; weather-strips, 10; wells, 30; wheels, 40; wheelbarrows, 10; whips, 20; wind- mills, 50; windows, 30; wire - apparatus, 65; wood -work machinery, 30; wrenches, 25. The foregoing partial list comprises several thousands of separate patents, but the whole number issued during the year amounts to more than 16,000, each of which is pronounced by the Patent - office authorities to be both " useful " and " new ;" and the patentees of each of them had sufficient confidence in the paying qualities of the invention to induce them to prepare the necessary specifications, drawings, and models, and to pay the $35 required to obtain a patent. Quite suggestive, also, are many of the apparently trivial matters for which patents have been taken out. One would imagine that in the single year 1 88 1 the whole field for inventive ingenuity had been gone over, but the records of any one of a score of years would pre- sent a very similar showing, all tending to evince that there is really no limit to the possible field. The following are some of the more singular things which were made the subjects of one or more patents : 24 436 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Adding -machines, addressing -machines, advertising -balloons, advertising washboards, bag-holders, bats for tennis, batons for policemen, bean-cutters, beehives, billiard - cue tips, bird - cages, book - holders, boot - brushing ma- chines, bouquet -holders, bottle - stoppers, bungs for barrels, candy -packages, card-frames, carpet-sweepers, carving - forks, cash -carriers, cattle-ties, cheese- hoops, Christmas-trees, cigar- lighters, closet -seats, clothes-pins, coops for poultry, corkscrews, curry-combs, decoy-ducks, doll -houses, dress-shields, drinking - cups, ear - piercers, exercising -machines, eye-glasses, fare - registers, feed-bags, fish-hooks, flower-pots, fly-traps, game -counters, garment -stretch- ers, garters, grub -pullers, gun-wads, hair -crimpers, hat-racks, head-rests, heel-plates, hitching-posts, hog- nose trimmers, incubators, ironing-boards, kaleidoscopes, knife- cleaners, lamp- extinguishers, lemon-squeezers, lunch- boxes, mail -bags, mop -wringers, moth- catchers, mouse -traps, overalls, pan- taloon-guards, peach -pitters, picture -cords, pigeon-starters, pin-holders, poul- try-crates, quoits, razor-strops, rein-holders, sample -stands, saw-setters, scis- sor -holders, screw- drivers, shawl -straps, shoe buttons and fasteners, shoul- der-pads, skate -fasteners, sled-steerers, soap-bubble pipes, spectacle-cases, spittoons, stocking -supporters, suspender ends, swimming apparatus, teapot handles, ticket-cases, till-alarms, toy-pistols, toy-puzzles, toy -wind wheels, travelling-bags, tuning -hammers, violin - rests, washboards, watch-guards, watch -winders, well-poles, whip-handles, whiskey- racks. Number of Inventors. — Only an approximate estimate can be made of the number of living patentees in the United States. The number of separate patents issued during the last twenty- years exceeds 200,000. Many persons have taken out only one or two patents, some from five to ten, a few have taken out several scores. The most prolific living patentee is Thomas A. Edison. The first record which we find of his name was in 1872, when he secured 33 patents, all relating to telegraphy. In the eight succeeding years the annual average was about 13, chiefly for telegraphs and telephones, until 1 881, when he took out 69 ; so that in ten years the number of his patented inven- tions was 206 — about one in every fifteen working days for the entire period — nearly all of them relating to electricity. The scanty accessible data indicate that there are in the United States more than 25,000 living patentees of "new and useful inventions." By far the greater number of these are regularly occupied in one or another of the professions, trades, or occupa- tions, and are thus classed in the Census Report, and not as '' inventors." Thus, Bogardus is probably included among " ma- PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 437 chinists," Ericsson among the " engineers," Edison among the " electricians." Profits of Patents. — No approximate estimate can be made of the average pecuniary value of a patent. A few have netted millions to the inventors, or to those who have pur- chased rights in them. Among these are patents for sewing- machines, reaping-machines, railway - cars. India-rubber goods, and steel-making. Elias Howe, in 1846, took out a patent for a sewing-machine which embodied a claim for making a seam by thfe use of a curved eye-pointed needle. His own machines were far from successful, but this single specification of his claim covered something essential to the construction of any useful machine ; and for the right to use this needle he received a large royalty from other manufacturers which for several years amounted to ^200,000 a year. In all he received about ^2,000,000 for the use of this invention. Several other patents for improvements in sewing-machines have been not less re- munerative. McCormick's patents for reaping-machines have proved perhaps quite as profitable, and the list of very lucrative patents might be largely -extended. But, apart from such extraordinary successes, there are innu- merable other patents, each of which has produced large in- comes. Many of these, indeed, are for the cheap production of articles of which large numbers are sold, though 'the price of each one is very small. Matches may be taken as a good illus- tration of this class of patents. Not long ago a clever lady wrote-, probably half in jest, " If some ingenious woman will in- vent a button that will stay upon boots, or something more last- ing than the fasteners now in use, she will reap a large pecun- iary harvest." Such an invention has been made and patented. It consists merely of a bit of slender, flattened wire, half an inch long, bent into a peculiar shape so that it can be passed in an instant through the eye of a shoe-button, which it will hold se- curely in its place. It is a very simple thing, but it is both " new and useful," and costs less than a penny ; and, when one considers the number of shoe-buttons in constant use, he will comprehend that there is a competence if not " millions in it." 438 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. What proportion of the patents taken out are profitable ? is a question easy to ask but difficult to answer. Some facts in regard to British patents may throw a little light upon the sub- ject. In Great Britain, as has already been shown, it costs ^25 to secure a patent for three years, ^50 more to renew it for another four years, and ^100 for a further renewal for seven years. Now of the 4000 or 5000 patents annually taken out, about 70 per cent, are allowed to expire at the end of three years, and of the remainder only 20 per cent, are kept up after the first seven years. This appears to indicate that not' quite one-third of the patents have proved, or appear to be likely to prove, sufficiently valuable to make it worth while to pay ^50 for a further four years' possession of the patent-right ; and after the expiration of seven years only about six per cent, of the whole are worth ;^ioo for seven years more. Many of each class probably have some value, but only the six per cent, of the whole belonging to the third class are thought to be worth ^100 for a further seven years' exclusive possession of the right. *A patent which is not worth that much cannot be regarded as a. very valuable one. It is quite impossible to say how far this proportion of valuable patents holds good for the United States. It may perhaps be inferred that the much greater cost of secur- ing a British patent deters many inventors from taking out pat- ents who would have secured them could it have been done as cheaply as with us ; otherwise it is not easy to understand why in Great Britain only one patent is annually issued for about 7000 of the population, while in the United States the ratio is one to 3300; this apparent difference is, however, partially offset by the fact that in the United States several separate patents are sometimes required to cover what in Great Britain may be included in one. It must be borne in mind that the actual money value of an invention is not necessarily limited by that of the patent taken out for it, which merely gives it the additional worth of an ex- clusive right to its use during the unexpired term of the patent. If an invention is valueless in itself, the exclusive right to its use is of no value. The present worth of a valuable patent di- SAINT CECILIA. See Note 31. PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 441 minishes as the term approaches its close. The ^75 paid for a British patent for seven years may have been wisely laid out, while the same amount — not to say nearly twice as much — would have been thrown away upon another seven years' exten- sion. Or an invention valuable at one time may have become superseded by a subsequent one which produces the same result better or more cheaply. Or, again, the thing produced by the invention may have goiie out of use. There have been patents for hoop-skirts which were lucrative a few years ago, but are now without value. If custom or fashion should proscribe the wearing of corsets, not one of the 60 patents taken out for them in 1 88 1 would be worth a dollar. And again, an invention may have a great value, to which the exclusive right of using it would add little or nothing ; no one but the inventor of it might ever have occasion to use it, although he may use it with great profit. It should not, therefore, be assumed that an invention is without use merely because a patent for it has no apparent value. Circumstances often arise which give a high value to an in- vention where there had 'been no seeming use for it before. Take a single example: In 1843 Theodore Timby, a New York inventor, filed a caveat for a revolving turret for naval warfare, and afterwards, at intervals, obtained patents for " a revolving tower for offensive and defensive warfare," and endeavored to procure its adoption by the United States Government. Its practicability was admitted, but it was affirmed to be wholly su- perfluous, because the existing fortifications were far more than were necessary. He made several models of his invention, one of which was sent to the government of France and another to the Emperor of China, but nothing came of them, although in 1848 a Congressional Committee, of which Jefferson Davis was a member, made a favorable report upon this invention to the Secretary of War. Nothing was done in the matter until the outbreak of the civil war ; then Mr. Ericsson planned the Mon- itor, an essential feature of which was Timby's turret, and for the right to use this ^35,000 was paid by the constructors, with a further sum, amounting to ^100,000 in all, for other vessels 442 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. should they be ordered by the Government. Thus an invention which had remained unused for more than a dozen years with no profit to the inventor anticipated a great emergency and amply repaid him for his labor. And, moreover, had not Erics- son's Monitor proved an overmatch for the Merrimac in March, 1862, the history of our civil war might have been quite different from what it has been. Upon the whole, there can be no doubt that in our country, where the cost is so slight, it is advisable that the inventor or discoverer of any valuable process or implement should secure a patent for it. The loss in any case will be trifling and the gain may be very large. There is no danger that the field for profitable invention and discovery will ever be exhausted ; on the contrary, it widens be- fore us, day by day, in manifold directions. We are only begin- ning to discover the uses to which electricity may be put; not a week passes in which chemistry does not provide some new uses to which the most common materials may be profitably applied ; and the man who discovers any such use has only to thank his own lack of sagacity if he fail to reap the reward. Nothing which has a demonstrable money value need be long without finding a purchaser for all that it can be shown to be worth. In the department of mechanics there is no limit to the invention of new devices and the improvement of old ones. In Harper's Magazine (December, 1874, January, February, March, and April, 1875) is a series of exceedingly instructive papers on the "Mechanical Progress of the United States"* during the first century of our national existence. It passes in rapid review over the main inventions and discoveries which had, up to that date, not only marked the progress of the Amer- ican people, but had in no small degree contributed to it. But if any one will pursue the investigation through the eight or * These papers are by Mr. E. H. Knight. They are collected in a volume entitled The First Century of the Republic : A Review of American Progress, which also contains papers by fifteen other writers of the highest eminence in their several departments, the whole constituting a historical work of unusual in- terest and value. PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 443 nine years since that time, he will see that during no previous period has our progress in this direction been so marked and decided. Requisites for an Inventor. — The inventive faculty in any department is to a great extent an original endowment of nature. Great inventions sometimes appear to be the immediate result of accident, but such fortunate " accidents " occur to those only who are capable of understanding them. Galileo was not the first man who had seen the swinging of the lamp suspended from the ceiling of a church in Pisa, but he was the first one to whom that common accident revealed that all the oscillations of any pendulum were performed in equal times ; and to his use of that "accident" we owe our clocks. Many inventions of the highest value have been made by men whose previous occupa- tions lay in quite other directions — Arkwright was a barber, Cartwright a clergyman, Peele a farmer. Watt a mathematical instrument -maker, Fulton a miniature-painter, Whittemore a gunsmith, Whitney a law -student, Blanchard a nail -maker, Morse a portrait-painter. But all these men had the genius of invention, and accident did nothing more for them than the same accidents might have done for thousands of others who did not know how to avail themselves of them. There are well- authenticated instances where the essential thing needed to per- fect an invention came to the mind of the inventor in a dream. Such is said to be the case with Amos Whittemore, the earliest great American inventor, whose patent for a wiring-machine for cotton and wool cards brought him $ 1 50,000 at the close of the last century. But we may be sure the minds of these men had been absorbed in the idea, and the dream was the outcome of intense waking thought. To be a successful inventor one must first find out some want, either already existing or which may be created, and then search for the means of meeting that want. He only avails himself of natural laws, and he must find out what are the laws which apply to the case in hand. He must know, for ex- ample, that no combination of wheels, springs, and levers can create power ; that no watch will run unless it is wound up, 444 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. and that it will stop when the force, external to itself, is ex- pended. Then, when he knows what cannot by possibility be ■ done, leaving that aside, he must consider what may possibly be done; and between the certainties on either side there is a wide limit of possibilities. Not everything which has been as- sumed to be impossible is really so. The philosophers of Sala- manca agreed with Columbus that a ship might perhaps sail half-way round the globe and so reach the antipodes; but they maintained that it could never get back again, because, in order to do so from either direction, it must sail up a hill whose height was equal to the diameter of the globe — a most mani- fest impossibility, according to their conceptions. In the first year of this century Jacquard invented a machine for weaving nets without the use of a shuttle. Inventor and machine were brought to Paris and underwent an examination by Bonaparte, then First Consul, and Carnot, his able Minister of War. "Are you the man," sneered Carnot, " who pretends to do the impos- sible — to tie a knot in a stretched string ?" Jacquard was not long in showing that his machine would do that very thing — the assumed impossibility was quite possible. A hundred men may have wholly failed to do a thing, while the next one may succeed, and the line between failure and success may. be an almost imperceptible one. Very often one's own failures or those of others are guide-posts on the way towards success. Quite as many men have failed from dishearten ment in follow- ing the right path upon which they had entered, as from at- tempting to proceed in some wrong direction. If one has good reason to believe that he is upon the right track, let him per- severe, and do his best to go ahead — Mr. Faintheart came no nearer the Celestial City than did Mr. Obstinate. The better a person is acquainted with what has been done or left undone by others the more likely is he to succeed as an inventor. An inventor often spends months or even years in perfecting a device for a certain purpose, and when he has done this and applies for a patent he learns that his invention had been anticipated by some other device, either identical with his own or similar to it in some essential respects. All his labor, in PATENTS, PATENT-RIGHTS, AND PATENTEES. 445 that case, has been thrown away. Not only is he debarred from obtaining a patent, but he cannot even make use of that which he honestly believed to be his own invention, for some one else had forestalled him in it and had already received the exclusive right to its use. It is hard enough for one to find that he has failed to accomplish what he had in view, but it is still harder to discover, after one has succeeded in doing what he hoped to do, that the work has all been thrown away. This caution is especially applicable to mechanical inventions. The application for a patent demands great care. The " pe- tition," which must be in writing, must state upon oath that the applicant believes himself to be the inventor ; and this must be accompanied by a full description of the invention, with draw- ings or models if the case admit of it. The specifications must be so clear and definite that any person versed in the matter would be able from them to make use of the invention. If it be for a composition of matter, specimens of the ingredients must be furnished ; if it be for a machine, the best mode of working it must be set forth. The essential thing is, that the description be full and intelligible, setting forth just what the inventor claims to be new. If anything claimed is not new, the whole patent will be voided thereby : a patent defective in one point is defective in all ; but provision is made for remedying any error that may have been committed inadvertently and without fraud- ulent intent. A patent-right, being wholly an artificial one, is not only created by law, but is limited by law ; and, while it be- hooves the inventor to be acquainted with the general aim and scope of the patent law, it is usually unwise for him to rely solely upon his own knowledge in drawing up his specifications and claim. There are lawyers and patent - agents who make this their specialty, and it is far safer in most cases for the inventor to consult with such a person. Cases are numerous in which applications are refused, or even patents already granted are declared void, by reason of defects or ambiguity in the speci- fications. There is no reason to apprehend that the future will be less favorable for the exercise of the inventive faculty than the past 446 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. has been. During the past ten years more valuable inventions were made in the United States than in the whole preceding century; and there is every ground to believe that the coming decade will repeat the story of the last in innumerable forms. Those who lead on the advance in any direction, or who in any good degree contribute to it, will, if they are sagacious as well as ingenious, be the ones to profit by it. The law of patents gives them abundant facilities and all needed protection. If they have the wisdom to avail themselves of their opportuni- ties, they may reasonably expect to reap abundantly the harvest of the seeds which they have sown. MINOR PROFESSIONAL AVOCATIONS. 447 CHAPTER XXXVI. MINOR PROFESSIONAL AVOCATIONS. THE leading professional occupations — Divinity, Law, Med- icine, and Teaching — have been considered in a previous chapter. There remain some others which must not be passed over. The Stage — dramatic and lyric — affords a desirable avoca- tion for far fewer persons than would be supposed from the prominence which it holds in the press and in conversation. The Census of 1880 reports 4812 professional actors, of whom 2992 were males and 1820 females, only 63 of both sexes being under the age of fifteen. The number, however, has much more than doubled since 1870, when there were 2053 actors, of whom 692 were females : the number of females upon the stage having thus more than quadrupled within ten years. This great in- crease is owing to a marked change in the character of the plays presented — the spectacular character, in which the exhibition of the person and gorgeousness of costume, to no small extent, take the place of dramatic representation. The above figures do not, however, include all those who appear on the stage in spectacles and the like, and who are also engaged more or less in other occupations. There is a peculiar fascination surrounding the stage, of which only the illuminated side is presented to the uninstruct- ed spectator. To him or her it seems that no life could be happier than that of representing the heroes or heroines of the drama, cheered on by the plaudits of the spectators. Nothing would seem to be easier than to pronounce with proper tones the words of the dramatist, accompanied by appropriate attitudes 448 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. and fitting gestures. Then again, there' is a current impression that the earnings of actors are very large. It is bruited about that this professional star or that receives for an hour or two of a week's evenings more than most men and women can earn by the steady industry of a month, six months, or a year; or that this or the other foreign celebrity has paid us a professional visit of a few months, and gone home with tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars. All this may be true — and pity it is so — in a few isolated cases ; but, taken in the aggregate, there is no doubt that the average net earnings of actors are very small, and their necessary expenditures for costumes and general outfit are very large, while the occupation is a very precarious one. Mere pecuniary considerations are not the only ones to be regarded in choosing an occupation. The healthfulness of it is to be carefully looked at, and moral soundness is assuredly of quite as much value as bodily healthfulness. Now, whichever it ought to be or might be, it is a conceded fact that the social and moral surroundings of the stage are, and always have been, bad. ' We do not deny — on the contrary, we most directly and gladly affirm — that there have been, and now are, men and women on the stage of noble character and pure lives. All the more honor to them that they have passed, and are now pass- ing, unscathed through a fiery ordeal. It would perhaps be a thankless task to attempt to dissuadfe those who have, or fancy that they have, high dramatic talent from going upon the stage, if the opportunity presents itself; but all experience and observation show that by far the greater portion of these will find to their sorrow that they have sadly mischosen. It need hardly be more than intimated that this is true of women even more emphatically than of men. It is not easy to conceive of a position more fraught witlj peril than that of a handsome young woman when she first becomes an actress. The path upon which she has entered is a perilous one, marked through its whole course by the monuments of blighted hopes and ruined reputations. The lyric stage, or opera, presents some special character- istics worthy of note. The possession of an exceptionally fine JACQUES CARTIER SETTING UP A CROSS AT GASP£. See Note 32. MINOR PROFESSIONAL AVOCATIONS. 451 voice, especially in a young girl, is a prospective mine of wealth ; but it has come to be accepted as an axiom that the voice can be thoroughly cultivated and developed only under some one of a few foreign masters in Italy, France, or Germany. This cult- ure must commence early, and at that age when the pupil is passing, or has just passed, from girlhood to womanhood. The girl who goes abroad for such instruction, unless she can go surrounded by home influences, runs a fearful risk — one which should be well calculated at the start. The position of prima donna, in opera or the concert -room is beyond all question a brilliant one; but if one will read the biographies of famous songstresses, as well as of famous actresses, there will be found abundant monitions that it is often purchased at too high a cost. Music Teachers and Musicians. — It is coming to be more and more recognized that singing should be a part of our ele- mentary education, and probably a considerable proportion of the teachers in our schools can give some instruction in this. There is no good reason why instruction in instrumental music should not be more widely diffused than it is. Perhaps it will not be possible at present to introduce this into primary schools ; but in those of a higher grade — those in which a piano is a part of the apparatus — such pupils as show an aptitude should be taught to play upon this as well as to listen to it. In private schools, girls, as a rule, are taught to play ; boys rather as an ex- ception to it. A comparison of the Census Reports for 1870 and 1880 will indicate the advance made in this direction. In 1870 there were 16,010 professional musicians and teachers of music; in 1880 there were 30,477 — an increase of 90 per cent. This increase of teachers, in a ratio three times greater than that of the population, implies a somewhat corresponding increase in the number of pupils. The Census of 1880 does not discrimi- nate between professional musicians and teachers of music, but in 1870 there were reported about three of the latter to two of the former; and it may be assumed that the proportion has not been essentially changed. The former were almost wholly males ; of the latter a considerable majority were females. Tak- 452 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ing the two together, there were, in 1880, 17,295 males, 13,182 females. Many male teachers of music are also musicians — that is, they practise their art, as well as give instruction in it, as a remunerative occupation. They perform not only in public con- certs, but for private companies, and are paid for their services. This is rare with women, but there is no reason why it should be so. There are great musical compositions which require the com- pass of the opera-house or the concert-hall, but apart from these there is no place in which music can be so thoroughly enjoyed as in the parlor ; and there are teachers of music who, while they lack the nerve and force of execution requisite for the concert- room, are abundantly capable of executing parlor music. Why should not these hold themselves ready to sing or play, and charge a fixed and stated price for so doing, precisely as they do for giving lessons ? They would be all the better teachers for being able to practise their art for direct gain and without un- dergoing the weary routine of imparting the rudiments and cor- recting the errors of their pupils. Here, indeed, as it seems to us, is an almost untried and yet quite feasible opportunity for professional teachers of music, and more especially for women. The Platform. — Some fifty years ago an enterprise was set on foot which seemed likely to result in a decided change in our modes of amusement and popular instruction. In almost every city, town, and village, associations were formed which under- took to provide for a succession of lectures or recitations from persons who, it was thought, were able to amuse or instruct a miscellaneous audience. The name of " Lyceum " was applied to this system of associations. These lectures have been pro- ductive of good in many ways. The lectures of such men as Silliman, Agassiz, and Mitchel did much to popularize science, and for a time it seemed as though nearly every brilliant or pro- found writer — and not a few who were far enough from being profound or brilliant — had joined the Lyceum. Curiosity had very much to do with this. People naturally wished to see and hear men who had made themselves famous or even notorious, and more especially if they came from abroad. Crowds thronged MINOR PROFESSIONAL AVOCATIONS. 453 to see and hear Kossuth and Dickens, Thackeray and Tupper, Gavazzi and Oscar Wilde. But the Lyceum has fallen far short of becoming what it was expected to grow into. The " lecturers " as such numbered only a few bright names ; those of Emerson, Gough, Lord, Wendell Phillips, and Anna Dickinson, in effect make up our list of popular lecturers, distinctively such. But there are not a few who have found lecturing highly remunera- tive as a subsidiary occupation ; among such are Bayard Taylor, Chapin, Beecher, Curtis, Holmes, and Saxe. The really popular lecture — the one which will pay — is a special kind of composition. A profound essay — unless Em- erson's are to be made an exception — is not a lecture. Yet a lecture must bear reading as well as hearing, although it is to be heard rather than read. It must have points. A single dull or heavy passage in a discourse of an hour is inadmissible. If one is to repeat a discourse a score or perhaps a hundred times, and be paid for each repetition, he can afford to put into it his best thought, expressed in his best manner. The popular lecturer, moreover, should have an attractive delivery. His first aim is to please, and positive instruction is a secondary purpose. There are very many men who may be wholly incapable of writ- ing a profound and exhaustive book on any subject who yet have thought enough upon many subjects to enable them to produce several attractive lectures which, properly delivered, will put money in their purse. This topic will be further con- sidered in the chapter upon Popular Amusements. Canvassers and Agents. — The selling of wares by travel- ling agents is coming more and more into use. In many cases it is of decided convenience to the purchaser, doing away with the necessity of his visiting the great markets whenever, at a loss of time and money, he has occasion to replenish his stock. It is quite as easy for one commercial traveller to visit a hun- dred customers as for any one of these to visit the warehouse ■ of the wholesale dealer. The travelling salesman holds a more responsible position than the resident one, for he more fully represents his principal, and acts less immediately under his personal direction. As a matter of fact, the merchant sends 454 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. his most capable and most trustworthy clerks as commercial travellers. The book-trade is, in important respects, especially adapted to this method. The purchaser of groceries or dry-goods knows pretty nearly what there is in the market, and what and how much of it he wants. Most of those who would be buyers of books labor under a disadvantage in this respect. In cases not a few the buyer does not imagine that he needs a book at all until he has seen it; or, if he happen to know that he needs a book which would give him this information or that, he rarely knows what that book is, or which is the best of several of which he may have heard. It happens continually that what was once the best attainable book upon any given subject is so far inferior to one which may now be had as to be practically worth- less. It is not many years since Calmet's " Dictionary of the Bible " was an indispensable part of a clergyman's library. It is now little better than none at all, simply because M'Clintock and Strong's." Cyclopaedia" is infinitely its superior. The pro-^ fessional man may be presumed to keep himself fairly posted in the literature of his profession; but comparatively few people' are in a position to know what books would be useful or even interesting to them. It is a part of the business of the travel- ling bookseller, as the canvasser or book-agent should be styled, to supply this information. Those who should be his custom- ers will not come to him, and he must therefore go to them. If he can show them that such and such a book will be useful to them or their families, they will purchase ; but not other- wise. The first requisite for success is that the book which he hopes to sell is really a good one. The times are pretty well past when mere trash can be palmed off upon the public. If a man has been once deceived in that way he will in the future steer clear of the person who has cheated him. One chief guarantee that a book is a good one is that it bears the imprint of a responsible publisher; for it may be safely assumed that such a publisher will not risk his business reputation by issuing a book which he has not taken care to assure himself is a good MINOR PROFESSIONAL AVOCATIONS. 455 one of its class. Every important publishing-house has in its employ a corps of " readers," thoroughly versed in the various departments of knowledge, whose special business it is to make a careful examination of such books' as are laid before them for that purpose. In case the book be one of importance, and especially if it is to be offered to the public through can- vassers, it will most probably be examined and vouched for by more than one critical reader. The publisher cannot afford to run any risk upon this point. The judicious canvasser will be chary of undertaking to work for any publisher whose name is not a warranty for the value of the book. More especially is this the case when the work is to be put forth in successive parts. It is by no means rare that such a work is well begun but poorly continued and finished. The canvasser is in a wide sense a guarantor of his principal to the purchaser. It is not to be expected that the canvasser will be acquainted with the entire range of books which are offered for sale, but it is indispensable that he should be thoroughly acquainted with the merits of those which he offers. It is not enough for him to assure the person whom he approaches that the book has merits ; he must be able to point out what those merits are, and how the work will be useful to this particular individual. Some kinds of books are useful to every one. To no intelligent per- son, for example, can the history of his own country be other- wise than desirable. The travelling bookseller may very safely assure every person that a well written American History is worth to him far more than its cost, while he would not try to urge a book relating to cattle-raising upon a city clergyman. The canvasser must needs be a man of good address. There are some men whose first appearance is a letter of recommenda- tion, and others who bear the imprint of " bore " upon their foreheads. One's first thought upon being accosted by such a man is how to get rid of him the most speedily, and the read- iest way is to give a curt " I don't want it," when invited "Just to look " at any article — say a book, or the prospectus of one. The canvasser must be careful not to expose himself to this preliminary rebuff, which will, in four cases out of five, be a final 25 456 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. one. On the other hand, the battle is half won when you have brought your auditor to the point of looking carefully at what you have to offer, and hearing what you have to say — provided always that you have something to show worth his looking at, or to say worth his listening to. Nothing can be more erroneous than the idea that a man who has failed in everything else can pick up a livelihood as a canvasser. His occupation is one that demands superior ability, one every way honorable, and one of which he has just reason to be proud. He brings before a large number of persons, who would not otherwise have known of them, works which it is for their advantage to possess, and he undertakes to point out their merits. If he succeed he has done them good service. The great Bacon said of one of his works : " These are the medi- tations of Francis of Verulam, which, that posterity should be aware of, he deemed for their benefit." The travelling book- seller might, in the same spirit, say to his auditor : '' This is such and such a work, which, that you should purchase, I deemed for your benefit." It has been shown that the occupation of a canvasser requires for high success some high capacities, and affords a wide scope for their exercise ; but underlying all these is that of personal character. Few men are brought into such immediate personal contact with those with whom they transact business. The or- dinary purchaser must, in a great measure, take the merits of a book upon trust. Usually he knows nothing of it until the can- vasser has brought it before him. He can know but little of it until he has read it, or at least enough of it to show him that it is not worth reading; and if he find that he has been deceived he will be pretty sure not to be taken in again by the same person. That a canvasser is of known good repute is a great point in his favor. Other things being equal, it "would be well for him to work in a region where he is known ; but if, for any reason, it is advisable for him to operate elsewhere, he should go there well recommended. The mere fact that he is engaged with a pub- lishing-house of acknowledged repute is of itself a letter of intro- MINOR PROFESSIONAL AVOCATIONS. 457 duction and recommendation. It shows that they place confi- dence in him, and it may be fairly assumed that they have not done so without good reason. It is not likely that he will go to any district in which there is not somebody who is acquainted with him, or some one who knows him : a letter of introduction from that person is in every way desirable. A general letter of favorable introduction is a good thing, but such a special one is worth securing. One such acquaintanceship naturally leads to others. It is like a pebble dropped into the water: the ripples succeed each other in ever-widening circles. It is altogether a mistake to look upon this occupation as necessarily a mere temporary one, to be taken up for a time when one is, as the phrase goes, " out of employment," and to be laid aside as soon as something else turns up ; yet such tempo- rary employment is not unfrequently desirable and sometimes unavoidable, and there are few avo\;ations in which spare time may be more profitably utilized ; but the business may be made a permanent one. This business will certainly be carried on by some one, and men naturally prefer buying of those from whom they have been accustomed to purchase. There is one thing characteristic of book -buying more than almost anything else — the desire for reading grows with its grat- ification. When one readable book has been introduced in a family, the members will not long be contented with that. A source of enjoyment hitherto unknown has been discovered ; the single book first bought is apt to be the beginning of a fair col- lection. Then, again, the desire for books spreads from family to family throughout an entire neighborhood, especially among the rising generation, who are almost unconsciously growing up in an atmosphere of books. Two generations ago it was an almost exceptional case when a dozen books were to be found in a fairly well-to-do country dwelling in New England. There were not more than this number in the house of the father of him who writes these pages. The clergyman of the village had one of the best libraries in the county, yet it was all held in one little room. History was represented by RoUin's "Ancient His- tory," Hume's " England," and Weems's " Life of Washington." 458 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. In fiction there were " Thaddeus of Warsaw," the " Scottish Chiefs," and one or two of Scott's novels. In poetry there were " Paradise Lost," Thomson's " Seasons," Campbell's " Pleasures of Hope," Akenside's " Pleasures of the Imagination," and By- ron's " Bride of Abydos." It was a great day for the village when a newspaper was set up there, and the printer, who was also the editor, opened a " Circulating Library," containing not less than three hundred volumes Of miscellaneous reading. There was not in the region anything like such a collection, unless it was in the library of Middlebury College, twenty miles distant. It would be a curious matter to find out how many books are now to be found in this district. The bearing of all this upon the subject in hand is evident. This immense increase in the demand for books is in no small degree owing to their introduction by canvassers ; and the same thing is now going on still more notably all over the country. A thoughtful writer avers that the fact that our Western States grow up into civilization without passing through a period of barbarism is to be attributed more to the efforts of missionaries than to anything else. Quite as much, we imagine, is it owing to the itinerant booksellers who have created the present desire for literature, to satisfy which the future will present great op- portunities for canvassers. The avocation, judiciously prose- cuted, is now a lucrative one, and there is every prospect of its becoming more so. This is probably the most systematic busi- ness in which one can embark, and therefore success is more certain than in mercantile enterprises. Failures in other lines generally result from lack of system ; in the subscription-book trade from lack of ability. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 459 CHAPTER XXXVII. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. THE paths to success in life have been pretty well marked out in many directions by the foot-prints of those who have gone before us. One can now estimate, with an approach to accuracy, what he may hope to earn by agriculture, or in any of the usual trades and professions. Of course, exceptional cases continually occur. Now and then a man discovers an oil-well upon his farm, or finds veins of silver in the rocky ledges of his pasture. Now and then a single invention proves a mine of wealth ; or a series of well-planned or lucky adventures in trade or speculation make him a millionaire. But lying between these extremes, upon either hand, there is a wide field traversed by numerous paths, not a few of which give promise of abun- dant reward to those who shall wisely enter upon and pursue them. Some of these have already been spoken of with more or less detail. It is here proposed to speak of others of this class. Silver and gold, iron and copper, lead and zinc, are found with us in abundance. But tin, which is quite as valuable as copper, lead, or zinc, has been supposed not to be found in the United States in any appreciable quantities. We import from Great Britain block tin and tin plates to the amount of some ^20,000,000 a year. Since the census year, 1880, it is affirmed, large deposits of tin ore have been discovered in California. As we are writing this chapter (September, 1883) a committee of the United States Senate, appointed to investigate the condition of education and labor, is in session in New York. One witness, whose position ought to insure the accuracy of his statements, 460 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. testifies that " California's supply of tin ore is larger than that of England, and the quality is better." He adds, " We are the larg- est tin-consumers in the world, and our manufacture of tin plate is practically nothing. The establishment of this industry would afford employment to 40,000 additional working-men, involving the payment of at least $4,000,000 a year in wages." If tifi ore does exist with us in considerable quantities, it forms an item in our national wealth upon which we have never counted. Aluminum is a metal of which no man ever heard sixty years ago ; yet it is more widely diffused through the crust of the earth than any other mineral, forming the substance of our clays, slates, and feldspathic rocks. It is never found in nature alone, but exists in combination with not less than two hundred other substances. Its oxide {alumina) is found impure as emery ; when pure and crystallized it is called corundum, the hardest known substance, except the diamond ; when colored with chromium and other substances, this corundum becomes sapphire, ruby, topaz, amethyst, etc. Alumina consists of about fifty-three parts of aluminum and forty-seven of oxygen. Our common clays con- tain alumina, sulphur, and potash or ammonia. Aluminum was first obtained as a metal in 1828. It is very ductile, almost as malleable as gold or silver, an excellent conductor of electric- ity, and not readily acted upon by any of the ordinary acids ; it is of a bluish-white color, and less than one fourth as heavy as lead. When first produced it cost its weight in gold ; it costs now about half its weight in silver. Its chief present use is for the pro- duction of alloys. A fusion of ten parts of aluminum and ninety of copper forms a kind of bronze finer than any brass, and especially adapted for gun-metal, the bearings of machinery, and all orna- mental metal-work. An alloy of one part of silver and two parts of aluminum is equal to standard silver in all respects, and bet- ter in some, for spoons, forks, and all kinds of table service. The comparatively great cost of aluminum prevents its use for many purposes for which it is especially adapted ; but eminent metal- lurgists are fully convinced that cheaper methods will be found for the production of the metal from its compounds. Some of them look for this result to electro-magnetism. The sources |ii||l|| |ii I iiiin i[ iiiiii iiii|i||ini|ii II iii| )i iiliii||l il l|lM|li |Ili lliiiyi II ii| 111 i liiilii|l|| HOME DECORATION. See Note 33. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 463 from which aluminum may be derived are so abundant, and the uses to which it can be applied are so numerous, that they are sanguine enough to believe that it will become the most impor- tant of all metals — superseding iron for very many purposes. Magnesium, the metal of which magnesia is the oxide, is an element widely diffused in nature. Among the more common magnesian rocks is serpentine, which usually contains about twenty-six per cent, by weight, or thirty-five per cent, in bulk, of magnesium, and sometimes still more. It is also abundant in the water of the ocean. A tank of sea-water fifty feet square and one foot deep contains at least two thousand pounds of metallic magnesium. This metal is silvery white in color, very brilliant, ductile, and malleable, melting at a red heat, is easily cast into ingots, and does not rapidly rust in damp air. It is the lightest of known metals, the specific gravity being less than twice that of water, or one tenth that of gold. The existence of magnesium as a metal was first discovered about 1830, and the amount produced is still very inconsiderable — not more than a few tons in all. When drawn into a fine wire it can be ignited, and burns with a very brilliant white light. A wire one one- hundredth of an inch in diameter burns at the rate of a yard in a minute, the weight being only two grains, affording a light equiv- alent to seventy-four stearine candles. Its principal use is for illuminating purposes, especially as an artificial light in photo- graphing. It has been suggested that " should magnesium be procurable at a much less cost than at present, it may serve as an excellent material for furnishing light where great intensity is required, especially in lighthouses." Professor Wurtz, one of the ablest American chemists, says : " Magnesium, being by far the lightest known substance of equal strength (except, possibly, calcium), and obtainable in unlimited quantities, is unquestion- ably — next to aluminum — the most important of the metals of the future." He adds : " It is not easy to comprehend our al- most absolute inaction in the way of bringing into common use this class of metals, which will hereafter be far more valuable than any other materials known to mankind." The high cost of these metals is the only obstacle in the way of their extensive 464 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. use. Professor Wurtz suggests that " a modification of the mag- neto-electric engine will undoubtedly give us currents of electric- ity strong enough ^nd cheap enough to make these metals by di- rect electrolysis." Among the uses to which one or both of these metals would be at once applied, if they could be produced cheaply enough, would be that of telegraphic wires, for which they are especially adapted by their strength, lightness, ductility, and high conducting power. Here is a field eminently inviting for chemical research and experiment. Reference* has already been made to the opportunities af- forded by Chemistry for reaping the highest pecuniary rewards. A whole volume would not suffice to comprise even the names of the chemical discoveries which have within our own days not only benefited the public, but enriched their originators. Products of great value have been derived from substances be- fore considered worthless, and new products have been evolved from well-known articles : such as glucose from corn, celluloid from gun-cotton, vaseline from petroleum, stearine from lard, paraffine from coal, shale, peat, petroleum, fats, oils, etc. The greater part of our medicines, as administered, are the products of the chemist's laboratory ; and many of the perfumes and flavoring extracts which gratify the smell or the taste are arti- ficially procured from materials otherwise worthless. Electro- magnetism is a department of chemistry, and mighty as have been recent achievements here, the exploration of this field has hardly been begun. Perhaps no art has been more indebted to chemistry than that of dyeing. Very few, indeed, of the natural vegetable or animal dyes can be rendered permanent without the aid of the chemist. Most of the mineral dyes are the artificial products of chemistry : blues from iron ; yellows from lead ; greens from ar- senic, copper, and chromium, etc. Not a few of these dyes are highly poisonous, and therefore to be avoided. Within about a quarter of a century chemistry has produced a series of artificial colors which has almost revolutionized the art of dyeing. They are grouped together as " aniline colors " (the term being derived from anil, the Spanish name for indigo). Aniline was first pro- SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 465 duced by the distillation of indigo, but is now obtained from ben- zole, one of the products of the distillation of coal-tar. The first aniline dye was a brilliant purple ; but they are now produced in all colors, under the various names of aniline, phenol, naphthaline, and anthracene colors, and their manufacture has grown into an important industry, the real originator of which was W. H. Per- kin, an English chemist, who produced the first mauve aniline dye in 1856. The art of dyeing is of more industrial importance than is generally supposed. Besides its application to new fab- rics of all materials, immense quantities of goods, the colors of which have faded or become unfashionable (either before or after having been made up), are re-dyed and re-dressed so as to be really fresh fabrics. Were it not for this the prices of many goods — especially those worn by women — would be much higher than they are ; for when their colors came to be unseasonable or unfashionable the unsold goods would remain upon the hands of the manufacturer or dealer, who must take this risk into ac- count when fixing the price. The cost of unsold goods must be defrayed from the .profits upon those which have been sold. Unsalable goods are as valueless as uncollectible debts. The business of dyeing is one which seems to be capable of much ex- tension. Not a few garments are discarded before they are half worn out, because their, colors have faded; and double wear would be got out of them by having them re-dyed. Cotton stands so indisputably at the head of the plants which produce textile fibres, and so large are the portions of the United States especially adapted to its growth, that it is hardly to be expected that any notable additions will be made to our existing industries in this respect. Possibly improvements may be effected in machinery adapted to the working of flax, so that linen cloth shall again take a place among our manufactures. Some species of hemp which flourish in this country have a valuable fibre ; the possible use of one of these, the ramie plant, has already been noted. So large and increasing is the consumption of silk goods in this country, so admirably adapted are many portions of our ter- ritory to the propagation and feeding of the silk-worm, and so 466 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. easy is the labor required, that it is difRcult to understand why " it is that we are yet almost wholly dependent upon other coun- tries for the raw material. The wool of the sheep will undoubtedly remain the chief of our animal fibres ; but there are other animals whose hair or wool possess special valuable qualities, and it is certainly worth ascertaining how far such animals as the Angora goat and the alpaca can b^ profitably naturalized in one section or another of the Union. Fur-bearing animals will become practically extinct before many years are past if their destruction continues to go on so rapidly. We see no reason why legislation might not provide more fully than it does against the wanton destruction of th^se animals, at least of the various marine kinds which bring forth their young upon the land. Their great breeding- places should be stringently protected, and the capture of the seal, during the breeding - season especially, should be pro- hibited. Paper is an important factor in modern civilization. One may measurably estimate the civilization of a people by the comparative quantity of paper which it consumes. The United States ranks by far the first in this respect, preat Britain coming next. The consumption of paper in the United States has in- creased in a ratio far greater than the increase of population. The value of the paper manufactured in 1870 was (in gold) about ^39,000,000; in 1880 it was ^55,000,000, an increase of forty-one per cent; but the cost per ream in 1870 was about one fourth greater than in 1880, so that the increase in quantity consumed was more than fifty per cent. Rags, which formerly constituted the chief material for paper-making, are now quite insufficient for that purpose, and attention has been turned in almost every direction to find new materials. The waste paper which has been written or printed upon is bleached and ground up for stock. All kinds of vegetable fibre have been more or less utilized for this purpose. Paper has been made from the fibres of the aloe, artichoke, asparagus, banana, basswood, bean -vine, bulrush^,cane, cat-tail, clover, corn-husks, grasses of various kinds, hop-vines, osiers, reeds, rushes, sorghum, thistles, tobacco, wild SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 467 rice, and many others. Among the materials of this class, apart from cotton, flax, and hemp, that which has been most success- fully employed is the esparto grass, from which a very strong paper is made. A kind of cane {arundinaria macrosperma) which grows abundantly in some of the Southern States furnishes an inex- haustible supply of material for paper adapted for many pur- poses. The mode of preparing this fibre is peculiar. The cane, after having been stripped and cleaned, is placed in large closed iron cylinders, called " guns," into which steam is introduced un- der a pressure of one hundred and eighty pounds to the square inch, for a quarter of an hour. The pulling of a trigger removes the cap from the muzzle of the gun, and the disintegrated cane is blown out in a mass of brown fibre, resembling oakum. The guns are twenty-two feet long, with a bore of twelve inches. One such gun will prepare from four to six tons of fibre in twenty-four hours. The straw of all kinds of grain is very largely used in the manufacture of wrapping-paper and the lower grades of news- paper stock. Wood pulp is the most important recent addition to the materials for paper-making, and its use, especially in the cheaper kinds of printing-paper, is rapidly increasing. The proc- esses by which the wood is converted into pulp are described elsewhere in this volume. Paper of very good quality has been made from peat. An admixture of from five to fifteen per cent, of clay is advantageous in most kinds of paper, giving a smoother surface, and rendering the sheets more opaque. Much larger quantities are often used in order to increase the weight, but the paper is made weaker and more brittle. It is advantageously used in large proportions in the pasteboard for boxes ; and as it diminishes the combustibility of the article, it may be used to good purpose when paper comes to be employed for building purposes and for furniture. Papier-mache (" pulp-paper ") has long been used in China and Japan for many purposes for which we employ wood ; and as lumber becomes more and more costly with us, the use of paper will be much extended. Its comparative lightness and tough- 468 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ness adapt it especially for the panels of doors, for light parti- tions, for the sides of railway cars, and the like uses. Mr. Clay, who introduced the use of papier-mache into England, acquired thereby an immense fortune ; and there can be no doubt that fortunes are yet to be made in this direction. There is certainly room for the exercise of inventive genius. Numerous and abundant as are the food products of the United States, we are still very far from having availed ourselves of all which may be produced among us. This is fully illus- trated by the introduction of the sorghum plant. The Western Continent, when first settled by the whites, was singularly defi- cient in this respect. Corn and the potato are the only important food plants indigenous to America, and these, with tobacco and the cacao (chocolate) plant, make up the list of vegetable products for which the old world is debtor to the new. We have borrowed much more largely. All the other grains and all fruits (except the grape) which we grow have been naturalized among us ; and not a few of them have here found soil and climate more favor- able than those of their original homes. The matter has been already considered at some length in respect to fruits. Our National Department of Agriculture has done, and is doing, much to indicate the lines in which experiments may be prose- cuted. One successful effort in acclimatization will more than repay the cost of a hundred failures. There are several plants which would seem to promise much. The mate, or Paraguay tea-plant, is used in a considerable part of South America as extensively as tea and coffee are in other parts of the globe. The tree itself is a species of holly, closely allied to that which produces the yaupon, or " black drink," of our Southern aborigines, and it is not improbable that it might be introduced among us. Or, if not grown here, it might be advan- tageous to import it, as we now import tea and coffee, to which the properties of mate bear a stropg likeness. The coca is a Peruvian plant, to whose leaves the most remarkable stimulant and narcotic properties are ascribed. We are told, upon what appears to be reliable authority, that " under its influence the Indians of Peru will work twenty or thirty successive hours SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 469 without sleep; that they will travel more than two hundred miles in three days, consuming little food, but continually chew- ing coca leaves, which they carry in a little bag slung over their shoulders." The leaves themselves cost, on the spot, from fifty to seventy-five cents per pound, but it is said that two or three of them steeped will produce coca-tea enough for half a dozen people. In the matter of many food products, the thing which more than most others calls for invention is better modes of preparing them for market. In the canning or drying of fruits, so as to preserve their flavor and enable us to have an abundant supply all the year round, there is a wide scope for invention. So, also, in the modes of desiccating vegetables, by which they may be preserved in a small compass without losing their flavor or vir- tues. Fish — especially salt-water fish — will doubtless come to fill a much larger place in our dietaries than it now does, both as a matter of health and of economy. To enable us to reap the full benefit of the boundless capabilities of the ocean as a source for the supply of animal food, we need better and more economical modes of " putting up " fish, lobsters, oysters, etc., so that they can be attainable at all seasons in the most inland points of our continent. The foregoing are only hints and sug- gestions as to a few of the objects to be aimed at by persons of inventive capacity. The production, conservation, and distribution of heat pre- sents a wide field for research and invention. In our present methods of warming buildings by grates^ stoves, and furnaces, more than one half of the heat is wasted ; and, in spite of all improvements in the steam-engine, a large percentage of the heat generated is not utilized. The combustion of wood and coal is the chief means heretofore employed for the artificial production of heat. Petroleum, weight for weight, contains much more heating power than coal, and is now used for many purposes to advantage ; it may be safely assumed that means can be devised to obviate the defects which still exist, so that this liquid fuel will come more and more into use. Heating by gas has been proposed for adoption on a large scale. It has been suggested 470 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. that the coal-dust, which absolutely forms mountains of waste fuel in the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania, might be convert- ed upon the spot into gas, which should be conveyed in pipes to the large towns. There is no mechanical impossibility involved ; and as this coal-dust amounts to not less than one fifth of the entire product of the mines, a vast saving of fuel now wasted might be effected. Even upon a winter's day there is a very large amount of heat in the direct rays of the sun, and various means have been suggested by which this may be used for warming purposes. A very simple device is that of Mr. Morse, of Salem, Massachusetts. It consists of a surface of slate, three feet by eight, painted black, with flues leading into the room to be warmed, and placed against the wall outside of the building, so that the rays of the sun fall upon it as directly as possible. The apartment, which was twen- ty by fourteen feet, and ten feet high, was made comfortable during the entire winter, except on the coldest days. The in- ventor says that, " in general, a difference of thirty to thirty-five degrees can thus be secured during four or five working hours of the day." Experiments and investigations upon a large scale have been entered upon for utilizing the rays of the sun as a motive power for machinery. At the French Exposition of 1878 M. Mouchet exhibited his solar engine. It consisted of a solar mirror, having a surface of about twenty square yards, and connected with a re- ceiver. At the focus of the mirror was placed an iron boiler hav- ing a capacity of twenty-five gallons, in which was about sixteen gallons of water, the remainder of the space being left for steam. In half an hour the water was raised to the boiling point, with a steam pressure of five atmospheres, but under a clear sky the steam pressure was subsequently raised to seven atmospheres. A pumping-engine was attached to the boiler, and worked under a pressure of three atmospheres, raising from three hundred and fifty to four hundred and fifty gallons of water per hour to the height of six and a half feet. These experiments were made towards the close of September. Of course, the heat produced would have been greater "on a day in summer. The adaptation SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 471 of the mirror to cooking and domestic purposes was also shown. The veteran inventor, Mr. Ericsson, has for several years de- voted much of his thought to the invention and perfection of a solar engine, from which the highest results are anticipated. The various motive powers available for human use have called into exercise some of the highest inventive powers. Thou- sands upon thousands of inventions have been made in connec- tion with the steam-engine and its appliances. Ericsson's caloric engine, although not successful where large power is required, is invaluable in cases where small engines are wanted. The capa- bility of electro-galvanism as a motive power was first suggested some fifty years ago by Thomas Davenport, an obscure New England blacksmith, and was slowly developed by others, so that it has been profitably employed for working engines of low power. Within a few months it has been demonstrated that this power can be economically applied to engines sufficient to draw trains upon our street railways, for which purpose, at least, it is anticipated that it will supersede steam. The use of compressed air as a motive power has received far less attention than it should have done. This can certain- ly be applied in many cases where steam would be inconven- ient, or even impossible. Without it the Mt. Cenis tunnel could never have been excavated. The problem was to drill a hole some twenty -five feet in diameter through nearly eight miles of solid rock, rising for a perpendicular mile or more above the level of the tunnel, so that no shafts could be sunk even for ven- tilation. To drill by hand would have been practically impos- sible. All the men who could have found space to work upon the head of the drift" could not have drilled and blasted through in half a century, even if they could have worked at all in such a hole. Drilling by steam-power was out of the question, for the steam-engine must have fire, and fire demands air, and no air could enter or leave except by the mouth of the tunnel. But, fortunately, there was a mountain torrent half a mile from the proposed mouth, furnishing abundant water-power. This was used, by appropriate machinery, for compressing the air, which was conveyed in pipes into the tunnel so as to work the drilling- 472 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. engines within. This liberated air could only find an exit through the mouth of the tunnel, carrying out with it the smoke produced by the "blasting. One drilling-engine, as large as a railway locomotive, worked nine drills, each giving two hundred strokes a minute, or eighteen hundred in all, each much heavier than a miner could deliver with a sledge-hammer. Not more than five pairs of miners could have worked at a time, each hammer- man giving twenty strokes a minute, or one hundred in all. This machine, therefore, did the work of fully twenty men, and could, moreover, be managed by relays during the whole twenty-four hours, while a gang of miners could not work more than eight hours. Compressed air may be used to advantage wherever there is a superabundance of water-power, inconveniently located for manu- facturing purposes ; say, high up a mountain side, or in a deep gulch or ravine. A condensing-engine worked by a water-wheel might be placed here, and the compressed air be conducted in pipes for any required distance. There would be no mechanical impossibility in using the water-power of Niagara Falls to work engines in Buffalo, or even in New York. There is, indeed, a loss of absolute power, but this would be of no consequence in the case supposed, where there is unlimited water-power running to waste. It is estimated that the water-power of Niagara is as great as would be the steam-power produced by 266,000,000 tons of coal per year — a quantity equal to the entire consumption of the world. Steam-power might, in many cases, be profitably used for com- pressing air. A large steam-engine can be worked at much less cost than a number of small ones having the same aggregate power. Such a compressing-engine might be located on the outskirts of any large city, or at any convenient point within it, and the compressed air — the equivalent of the steam — be con- veyed in pipes, just as gas and water are, wherever wanted. Thus would not only the danger from fire and explosions be obviated, but much of the noise and jar of the steam machinery would be avoided. The compressed-air engine works almost noiselessly ; and, moreover, the room in which such an engine works would of necessity be thoroughly ventilated. Unless this method shall A SUNDAY MORNING IN SURREY. See Note 34. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INVENTION. 475 be anticipated by the electro-magnetic motor just mentioned, it would seem that our street railways must in time be operated by compressed air. The means for effecting this present no serious mechanical difficulties, and the man who shall devise a practi- cable compressed-air motor cannot fail to find a fortune in it. At present, we believe that this power, so easily developed and so entirely under control, is used for little else than for sending pneumatic despatches for short distances — a use which might be largely extended. The force of the wind as a motor is quite too much over- looked in this country. It costs money to run a steam-engine, while water-power and wind-power cost little or nothing. Few men can have water-power upon their grounds, while the wind blows everywhere, if not always. The disadvantage inseparable from the windmill is its uncertainty. One cannot know posi- tively when or how fast it will run. But in spite of this there are few regions where it may not be useful, and there are many in which it would seem to be almost indispensable. Such are all our great prairie lands, and those others where there is no available water-power. If there be a lake, pond, or still-water river near by, the windmill, when it will go, and if there is nothing else for it to do, may be kept busy in pumping up water into a reservoir, to be used for irrigation and other pur- poses. For pumping water from deep wells it is invaluable. Indeed, in many cases the reservoir might be large enough and high enough to furnish a considerable water-power, which would be available at all times. One cannot make the windmill work when there is no wind ; but when it works at all it can be made to store up force in several ways. There are few large farms where one would not be worth much more than its cost. A man somewhere on our great plains has worked out this general idea in another shape. Water is scarce with him, while sand is plentiful. His windmill carries an endless belt, provided with buckets, like a grain elevator. These dip into a large box of sharp, dry sand, and raise it into a reservoir at the top of the building, whence, by opening a sluice, it falls upon a large wheel like an overshot water-wheel, which it turns just as water would 26 476 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. ,do. The sand is discharged from the wheel into the box from which it had been taken, and is thus used over and over again without Hmit. As many windmills can be put up as are required to lift the necessary quantity of sand. This sand-reservoir is, in effect, a dam for storing up the power, to be used when wanted. Here is a suggestion which may be carried out by any one, and almost everywhere. We do not learn that the inventor has patented his sand-mill ; if he has not, he has missed a sure fortune. BUILDING MATERIALS. 477 CHAPTER XXXVIII. BUILDING MATERIALS. IN a preceding chapter it has been shown that great changes will be wrought in the character of our domestic architec- ture. The dwellings of the future will be very different from most of those of the past and many of those of the present. As we build more and more for health and comfort we shall build more and more durably. This involves a marked change in our building materials. Such a change would have been inevitable in any case ; for, even with the wisest measures for the conser- vation of our forests, wood will become an article too costly to be generally used for exterior building purposes, and some- thing else must be largely substituted for it. We shall still look to the surface of the earth for most of our food and for the materials for our clothing; but we must mainly construct our houses, as well as warm them and light them, from substan- ces which nature has from the beginning been fashioning and storing up for us within the bosom of the earth. Coal and pe- troleum, stone and clay, iron and copper, are at hand to serve many of the uses for which wood has been heretofore used. Our mines will supply future generations that which our forests can no longer provide, more especially what is required for build- ing purposes. Stone will doubtless be used for most public buildings, and very largely for others, in those localities where good building- stone is readily and cheaply accessible. The present impor- tance of our quarrying interests has been shown in a previous chapter. This importance must be greatly enhanced in the future. Any man who has a quarry of good building - stone, 478 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. easily accessible, is richer than if he owned a gold-mine ; and there are many such quarries quite unworked and even unsus- pected; the valuable rock being more or less covered up by worthless deposits. Prospecting for a stone-quarry gives better promise than prospecting for gold or silver. But there are immense regions in which houses must be built, where wood is already scarce, and where good building- stone is not found. Here other materials must be supplied. What they shall be depends upon circumstances. There are several kinds of " concretes " or artificial stone, many of which possess considerable value for building purposes if properly man- ufactured, and if employed within certain limitations. Beton- Coignei, of which the constituents are sand, hydraulic lime, and Portland cement, is used for the fluted columns of the inte- rior of St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, and quite largely for ornamental facings to brick buildings. Ransomes Concrete Stone is made by filling the interstices of sand, gravd, etc., with an insoluble cementing substance, most commonly sili- cate of soda (" soluble glass ") and chloride of calcium ; double decomposition takes place, resulting in the formation of chloride of sodium (common salt) and silicate of lime, which is the binding material. The Sorel Artificial Stone is made by mix- ing chloride of magnesium and oxide of magnesium, the result being oxychloride of mkgnesium, a very strong cement. The so-called emery-wheels, used as grindstones, etc., consist of this compound of magnesium. To form the building-stone, twenty parts of this cement are mixed with one hundred and twenty parts of sand and pounded marble, and the whole moulded into blocks. A cubic foot of this stone costs about sixty cents ; but for many purposes large pebbles, or even cobble-stones, may be placed in the mould, forming the greater part of the block, and thus the cost may be reduced to ten or twelve cents per cubic foot. The Frear Artificial Stone consists of a mixture of silicious sand and hydraulic cement, with an addition of gum- shellac ; but good authorities question the advisability of the last ingredient. " It yields," they say, " to the solvent power of the alkalies, and should be employed with great caution in localities BUILDING MATERIALS. 479 exposed to such influences." Portland Stone is a mixture of Portland cement with sand and gravel, formed into blocks ; its value depends upon the quality of the cement used. This is equally true of all kinds of artificial stone. General Gillmore, the highest' authority upon this subject, says : " I am not aware that any good silicious or argillaceous hydraulic lime has ever been manufactured in the United States; and I know of no calcareous deposit capable of producing such a lime." It is certainly worth making diligent search to ascertain whether such deposits exist among us. If they shall be found, their future value must be immense. There is, beyond doubt, room for great improvements in the processes of the manufacture of artificial stone, and here is a wide field for research and experi- ment. There have been several attempts at building in con- crete, that is, making the artificial stone into solid walls instead of blocks, to be laid up as masonry. Not improbably this may be successfully done, at least, for interior walls and partitions. Artificial stone in blocks is largely used for floors and pave- ments ; and the concrete pavements are nothing but artificial stone made in masses and upon the spot, instead of being moulded into blocks and afterwards laid down. One great ad- vantage of this concrete stone is that, like brick and terra-cotta, it can be moulded into blocks of any desired shape and dimen- sions, requiring no subsequent cutting or dressing to fit them to their places. There is much room for the selection of the natural stones for building purposes. This depends upon the cheapness with which they can be furnished at the place where they are to be used ; upon their durability, strength, and beauty. Some kinds of stone rapidly disintegrate when exposed to the action of the elements. Thus, the stone of which the British Parliament Houses are constructed began to decay perceptibly almost as soon as it was laid. It is usual, when any new quarry of stone is opened, to endeavor to ascertain the durability of the stone by chemical analysis, by boiling it in saline solutions, and by subjecting it to great alternations of temperature, freezing mixt- ures and heat constituting the means. But all such tests 480 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. are of little value compared with a careful examination of the rock itself, as exposed in its natural outcrop. Such an exam- ination will show that some rocks soften and disintegrate by weathering, while in others the angles and faces have re- mained sharp and hard through countless ages of exposure. Some rocks, indeed, are quite soft when first quarried, but con- tinually grow harder by exposure. Such stone has a special value from this circumstance, since it can be worked with com- parative ease when newly quarried. There are kinds of stone which are durable in an equable climate, and yet yield to a varia- ble one. The obelisk recently erected in the New York Central Park was hardly injured by an exposure of twenty centuries to the almost changeless climate of Egypt, while it has been sensi- bly defaced by the frost and snow of two or three of our winters. The white marble, so beautiful for ages in Greece or Italy, be- comes discolored in a few years in New York or New England. Many other conditions enter largely into the selection of a build- ing-stone. One of the most important is the comparative ease with which it can be wrought. Thus trap-rock, although one of the strongest and most durable of all stones, is little used in building, because of the great difficulty with which itis quarried ; and being very hard, and generally without cleavage, it is espe- cially untractable under the chisel or hammer. But while stone, natural and artificial, will enter more largely than it now does into our architecture, especially for large struct- ures, we must look upon brick as our chief future building material in most localities. Brick, indeed, may be properly con- sidered as a kind of artificial stone, in which some of the proc- esses of nature have been imitated by submitting clay, moulded into convenient forms and sizes, to the action of intense heat, which renders the soft material as hard and durable as stone, and even less liable to injury from fire than almost any kind of stone. In some nearly rainless districts, " adobes," or bricks dried in the sun, answer a tolerable purpose. But bricks burned, or, rather, baked, form the material which we have in view. All clays are not equally suitable for brick-making; many BUILDING MATERIALS. 481 kinds are absolutely useless, and most of even the best kinds re- quire some admixture of foreign substances. The essential in- gredients of good brick-clay are silica and alumina. But bricks made from " fat clays " warp and shrink in burning, and require an addition of a greater or less proportion of sand, ashes, or cin- ders. If the clay, on the other hand, has too great a proportion of sand, the bricks will be brittle, and so an addition of other and " fatter " clay is required. If too much iron, with an excess of silica or lime, is present, the bricks will melt, instead of properly baking. If there be carbonate of lime, whether in the form of chalk, marl, or calcareous petrifactions, it is converted into quick- lime in the process of burning, and only such portions as come in contact with the silica and alumina combine with these sub- stances ; the excess remains as quicklime, which will slack when the bricks are exposed to moisture, and so destroy them. Hence such clays as contain too great a percentage of carbonate of lime are altogether unfit for brick-making. Nor is the best clay in a fit condition for use when newly dug from the pit. It needs to be exposed to the weather until it becomes thoroughly disintegrated. Frost is the best agency for this purpose, and the longer the exposure, the more effectually is the clay reduced. There are few industries which call for more knowledge and sound judgment than that of selecting and tempering the clay for brick-making. Moulding the clay into brick was formerly done by hand, but machinery is now largely employed; still, much manual labor is required in handling the brick in the various stages of manufacture. The standard at the great brick-yards at Hav- erstraw, on the Hudson, where the best machinery is used, and where the facilities for shipping are excellent, is one thousand bricks a day for each person employed, from the time when the clay is dug to when the bricks are placed on board the vessel. The burning of the bricks is perhaps the direction in which improvement is most to be looked for. It is said that in the neighborhood of London bricks take about three months in the burning; at Haverstraw the time, a few years since, was about 482 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. two weeks, requiring from thirty to forty cords of wood for one hundred thousand bricks. The time now required is three or four days, and the fuel is reduced to sixteen cords of wood, and a little coal-dust, mixed in the clay, costing about as much as half a cord of wood. With us, bricks are usually burned in kilns ; in Europe permanent furnaces are also employed. It would seem that the principles of heating developed in Siemens' Regenerat- ing Gas Furnace, so largely used in the smelting of iron and in the production of Bessemer steel, might be applied to the burn- ing of brick, for the fuel forms a very considerable item m the cost of the product. There is a slight variation in the size of the brick made in different sections : 8x4x2^ inches being about the average. We see no reason why the length and breadth should not be doubled, even though it may not be ad- visable to make any great increase in the thickness, on account of difificulty of thorough baking. Brick can be moulded in vari- ous forms, just as stone is cut, and much more easily. Terra- cotta (" baked clay ") and tiles, whether plain or ornamented, glazed or unglazed, are only modifications of bricks. Both these are capable of innumerable applications in both interior and ex- terior architecture. The substitution of brick and stone for wood in our dwell- ings will be accompanied by the use of iron for many purposes. We shall have iron beams and girders, possibly iron rafters. Building in more difficult materials, we shall build better, and more enduringly. Ornamentation will come to be more thought of, and decoration, not merely as applied to architecture, but as an integral part of a building, will be demanded far more gener- ally than it has ever been. The Sand-Blast is a new device for producing ornamental work upon any hard material, to the practical applications of which no limit can be assigned. It furnishes an interesting chapter in the history of American inventions. If one will turn to the Patent Office Reports for 1870 he will find, under date of October 18, the record of the issue to Benjamin C. Tilghman, of Philadelphia, of Patent No. 108,408, " For the cutting, boring, grinding, dressing, engraving, and pulverizing of stone, metal, BUILDING MATERIALS. 483 glass, pottery, wood, and other hard or solid substances, by means of sand used as a projectile, when the requisite velocity has been given to it artificially by any suitable means." A stream of sand falling with considerable velocity upon any hard, brittle substance cuts it away rapidly; the harder and more brittle the substance, the greater is the wear; while soft, tough substances are hardly worn at all. Let one put his fin- ger in a moderate sand-blast, and the nail will be worn away in an instant, while the flesh is uninjured. Glass, stone, and brick are the substances which yield most readily to the sand- blast. Fasten a piece of the most delicate lace upon a plate of glass, and place it under the sand, and the parts of the glass not covered by the lace will be cut away to any depth, according to the duration of the exposure, while the parts covered by the threads, almost as fine as a spider's web, are untouched. Let a picture be drawn with liquid glue or any suitable material, upon glass, and every line will be reproduced. The parts worn down are roughened and semi-opaque, like gx-ound glass, while the pro- tected parts retain their polish. The pattern, whatever it be, appears in polished lines upon a " ground " surface. Colored glass usually consists of a thin colored layer upon the surface of a plain sheet. Upon this colored side produce any pattern, by drawing it with some thick ink, or otherwise; place it in the sand-blast, and this surface, where not protected, will be cut away, and the pattern will stand out in brilliant red (supposing that to be the color) upon a soft white ground. The initials, crests, monograms, and other devices now so common upon in- side windows and glass-ware of all kinds are produced by the sand-blast. Here, it hardly need be said, is opportunity for high artistic skill in designing. The sand-blast will take care for the execution ; for, like the camera of the photographer, it will exe- cute the most elaborate work as easily as the simplest. Work like this does not need more than a moderate velocity in the sand-stream. But there are other kinds of work which require a high rate. The apparatus is a kind of gun, loading itself automatically near the breech with fine sand, which is driven out through the muzzle by steam, under a pressure, some- 484 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. times, of four hundred pounds to the square inch. The ma- chine is quite simple, but its use requires some skill. The sand-stream may be made to act as a plane, a drill, or a chisel. In quarrying, when a large block of stone is to be detached, the groove to separate it from the mass may be cut by the sand- blast more easily than by any other means. The main use to which the sand-blast has been applied is for dressing and ornamenting stone, after it has been quarried. Under a steam-pressure of fifty pounds it will cut away five cubic inches of marble, or three of granite, in a minute. For ornament- al work upon stone, the desired pattern is cut out in a sheet of india-rubber, say, one sixteenth of an inch thick. This is fixed to the face of the block, and the sand-stream turned upon it. The same pattern may be used over and over again upon different blocks. In one case a pattern had been used for fifty slabs of marble, each of which was cut down a quarter of an inch, or more than a foot in all, and yet the thin rubber pattern showed no signs of wear. Blocks of stone may be turned by the sand-blast as easily as wood is turned in a lathe. The block is placed in the lathe, where it is accurately centred. The sand-pipe is carried along parallel to the axis of the block, by a sliding-rest, as the chisel is in wood-turning, and in a very short time the rough block is turned into a true cylinder. By the use of " chucks," as in turn- ing irregular forms in wood, any similar form may be produced in stone with equal facility. It may require the labor of a fort- night to chisel a block of stone into the pilaster of a balcony. By the sand-blast, the same block may be turned into the same shape in half a day. The stone-work of the Philadelphia Acad- emy of Fine Arts was executed by the sand-blast, not the chisel. Brick yields to the sand-blast as easily as stone ; and if it is ever desirable to ornament a brick wall with carvings, the sand-blast furnishes a ready means. There is practically no end to the possible applications of this invention. It has already been made to round and dress mill-stones ; engrave glass, metals, and execute wood-carvings; drill holes in all tough materials; and smooth off the rough surface of castings. The sand-blast will BUILDING MATERIALS. 485 hereafter become a very potent factor in house-building, and es- pecially so when quarried or dressed stone is employed for ex- terior or interior purposes. The inevitable change in our building materials must work a considerable change in the distribution of labor among the dif- ferent building trades. The proportion of masons and brick- layers must increase, that of carpenters must comparatively diminish. The tendency of machinery in house-building will be to dispense with unskilled labor rather than that which re- quires skill. The winch and pulley will do the work of the hod- carrier; mills may be made to mix and attemper the mortar; but we imagine that nothing short of direct human agency will spread the mortar to the varying thickness required, and lay the brick and stone plumb and true in their places. 486 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XXXIX. WORK FOR WOMEN. WOMEN, as well as men, must live by labor performed either by themselves or by others; and the number of viromen is very large who must support themselves, wholly or in part, and not a few have others dependent upon them. It is beyond question that it is more difficult for women than for men to find employment at all remunerative, and when their work is of the same general character, their wages, as a rule, are much lower. In either aspect of the case the evil is a grave one, and much earnest thought has been directed towards it. The first thing to be done is to ascertain the magnitude of the evil. In the Census Report for 1880 (as has been shown in Chapter III.) children below the age of ten (who constitute 18 per cent, of the population) are assumed to contribute nothing to their own support. Between the ages of ten and sixteen 1,118,356 boys and girls are reported as engaged in some regular occupa- tion, but it may be presumed that few of these more than par- tially support themselves. This is so of those beyond the age of sixty, although 1,004,517 are assigned to regular occupations. What may be styled the productive season of life embraces the period lying between sixteen and sixty years. Leaving out of view those who are below sixteen and above sixty, there were in the United States 27,384,446 individuals of both sexes ; of these i 3,907,444 were males, of whom 12,986,1 1 1 — nearly 93 per cent. — were engaged in some specified remuner- ative occupation. The remaining 921,333 — a little more than 7 per cent. — comprise pupils in schools, students in colleges, A LIBRARY EFFECT. See Note 35. WORK FOR WOMEN. 489 the vagrant pauper, and criminal classes, and all those who are permanently precluded from labor by mental or physical in- firmity. The females, between sixteen and sixty, numbered 13,477,002, of whom only 2,283,115 — or 17 per cent. — are enu- merated as engaged in any paying occupation. This statement, taken by itself, would indicate that only one in six of the women of the United States, between the ages of sixteen and sixty, is occupied in any productive industry. This is by no means the case. A large proportion of them are the wives and daughters of farmers, or men engaged in other occu- pations, and are themselves workers, as really as their fathers, husbands, and brothers. But making all due allowance for these, the number is very large to whom directly remunerative employment is a necessity. In what directions must this em- ployment be sought for.? and how far and by what means can the comparatively small remuneration be increased .'' In theory there is hcirdly an avocation, except, perhaps, those of law and divinity, in which a woman may not freely engage if she has the requisite physical strength ; indeed there is no abso- lute impossibility of her practising either of these professions. In fact, there are very few avocations in which more or less women are not to be found. But the universal feeling of both sexes excludes woman to a very great extent from nearly all out-door occupations, although in most European countries she has her full share in the labors of the field. This cannot very well be otherwise, so long as huge standing armies withdraw the men in the flower of their strength from productive labor. Soldiers in camp, even in times of peace, cannot till the fields. Women must plough and dig, haul and reap, or all must starve. Few men or women of American birth or training wish things to be essentially changed in this respect, or that women as well as men should be miners, lumbermen, or out-door laborers. We now and then read of a family of women who cultivate a large farm, performing with their own hands the severest of the out- door labor. Some years ago a long, specific statement to this effect went the rounds of the newspapers and magazines. Of this we give the essential points : 490 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. " I am in the family of Malvina and Paulina Roberts, farmers, with 350 acres of good land. They have been on this farm two years. There are eight children : seven daughters and a son of nine years. This season four of the daughters, from eleven to nineteen years, assisted by their mother and a niece of seventeen, have ploughed 75 acres, dragged 100 acres three times, sowed broad- cast and rolled 100 acres. More ploughing has been done, but this was exclu- sively the work of the mother and the five young women. The other day I saw two of the girls, aged fifteen and seventeen, sowing wheat broadcast ; the oldest girl was rolling, another was dragging, and another piling and burning brush with her father. To-day the thirteen-year-old daughter was ploughing — holding the plough and driving her own team ; her day's work was the usual one — an acre and a half. These daughters have the care of their own teams. One daughter, aged seventeen, is this season detailed as house-keeper, but she is as good at ploughing, sowing, dragging, and rolling as the rest of them. The house-work is by them considered the hardest and most difficult of all ; they all prefer the out-door farm-work. They have now growing 45 acres of wheat, 50 of oats, 30 of flax ; and are to put in 10 acres of corn, 10 of beans, 8 of carrots, 10 of potatoes, and three-fourths of an acre of onions. During the two years more than 50 acres have been cleared of bushes, stumps, and roots, mainly by the mother and daughters." Mrs. Mary Mapes Dodge, commenting upon the foregoing, and some other Hke instances, says : " I allude to these facts for the purpose of resisting the one grand ^r/m^^^r generally used to strangle each new-born proposition relative to women-farmers — that they lack the requisite physique. ' Fancy a woman digging, ploughing, carting, pitching hay, and the like !' Yet, much as we may deprecate the practice, this is just what thousands of wom- en have done and are doing the world over. Many a woman's arm, since the world began, has turned over the heavy soil and prepared it for the seed. And as for pitching hay, one of the prettiest girls I ever knew could never leave home at haying- time, because, as her father said, ' We can't spare her then no- how, for she's worth a brace of boys for raking and pitching.' " Mrs. Dodge sums up the matter in this judicious manner : "Woman can do farm-work, for she has done it, and is still doing it, in nearly every part of the world. Granted that she does it at a heavy cost, for extreme physical labor is a destroyer of beauty and the finer powers of thought with either sex. Still we must remember that in most cases the alternative would not be repose, but either pinching want or uncongenial work of some kind; and there are few kinds of work which are a pastime. Woman, however, is WORK FOR WOMEN. 491 especially adapted to the lighter branches of agriculture ; and while her big brother has stronger muscles and a hardier frame than she, it is undesirable that she should devote herself to the heavy manual labor of the farm. Besides, American women (simply through generations of inactive modes of life, and not because God has made them so) are not so well fitted for severe work as most others are, though there are many who can do it if they must, or if they wish to, as in the case of these Roberts sisters. " Why, then, bring in this clincher as the invariable answer to every query concerning woman on the farm ? Does every male farmer spend his own strength in the hardest manual labor? Or does he employ stout men to pick his small fruits ? Cannot women do all such work as well or better than men ? Can they not, in short, take part in more than one-half of the labor of the farm — in drilling, planting, weeding, trimming, grafting, gathering, tying up bushes, training vines, and a hundred other such things ? And are not these labors less exhausting and more healthful than the washing and ironing, the scrubbing and cooking, the sewing and factory-work, which so many women accept, and think themselves compelled to accept, as their appointed work in life ?" Horticulture and Floriculture. — In any case the garden, the orchard, and the poultry-yard present numerous means of occupation which no one will look upon as unfitted for a woman who wishes to make money for immediate support, or as a desir- able addition to otherwise inadequate means. There are, indeed, not many women in city or country to whom a few more dollars would not be very convenient. Upon the subject of profits in gardening and fruit-raising something has already been said in another chapter. From a very suggestive little work* we con- dense a few passages bearing upon this point : " Women resident in the country have in many instances great advantages over those in a city, in the way of opportunities for money-making. Among these are the raising of flowers, vegetables, medicinal plants, etc., and the care of bees, poultry, and other live-stock. Many a careworn woman, struggling with her house-work, and finding it next to impossible to make both ends meet, has only to look into her garden-patch and see there'the foundation of a differ- ent order of things. "There were two sisters who found themselves sorely put to it for the means of living, in spite of owning a comfortable house and garden. A friend pointed out to them the garden as a source of revenue, and somewhat incredu- lously they adopted her suggestions. They hired a boy to keep the garden in * " Money-making for Ladies." By Ella Rodman Church. 492 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. order, to gather the vegetables daily and dispose of them in the neighboring village. It was late in the summer when the experiment was begun, and the crops had been planted without reference to anything but home consumption, but the returns were very encouraging even for that first season. In country villages the inhabitants really suffer from the want of fruit and vegetables, for which they depend on some chance huckster, or send for them to the nearest town. And yet how seldom is any one found who has the foresight to raise fruit and vegetables on purpose to supply these waiting purchasers. Even so small a patch as a half acre, if cultivated to its utmost capacity with the usual vegetables, would, with little addition of labor, not only supply the family table, but would afford a surplus for sale which would bring in a very respectable sum of money during the season." In the neighborhood of large towns, and especially of manu- facturing villages, there is nothing which is more certain of sale than ordinary garden vegetables. A family which is in posses- sion of an acre or two of land in such a location may turn it to good account beyond the supplying of its own wants. Most of the labor of cultivating a garden is not as hard as ordinary household work, and may be performed by women as well as by men ; but, in order to make this profitable, a woman requires a knowledge of market -gardening. She must know what kinds of products are wanted in her neighborhood, what kinds can be made to succeed on her plot, how to cultivate them to the best advantage, and also how to sell them. A -very important item is to have a succession of crops, so that there shall be something to sell during the whole season. The gardener should not let his land lie idle, any more than the manufacturer should let his factory be closed. If a man is to succeed in any business he must understand it. It is precisely the same with a woman. A few definite results of practical experience in any direction are worth more than much theorizing, and we condense the ac- count which one who has made the experiment gives of her re- sults. It will be noted that in this case there is hardly any kind of work which women are not fully capable of doing ; and the result will furnish suggestions and encouragement to those who wish to learn how a little land may be cultivated for profit : " A part of what had been a carrot-patch was devoted to onions, and all around the edge of the onion-bed I sowed parsley-seed, and between the rows WORK FOR WOMEN. 493 of early peas were put in dwarf celery for a second crop after the first hoeing. A man worked the ground with the horses at the time of hoeing the carrot and other green crop, and made the headlands of potatoes, and we used early and late corn to prolong the season. It is astonishing how much may be produced upon a small piece of ground, if it is properly enriched, and planted wide with a view to a second crop. " Radishes among beets are soon out of the way, and so is lettuce among carrots. Turnips did well, even late, between the rows of onions, which were pulled up in August. The turnip-fly seems to dislike the smell of onions, and left ours unmolested. Half a (jiozen tomato-plants, put into a warm, dry corner, not too rich, supply for first use, and a few later plants give a second crop for preserving, and these may be put in after any of the early vegetables — spin- ach, beets, or radishes — are pulled. The first year I grew every kind of vege- table except asparagus ; since then a bed of this has been planted, and it is the most eagerly sought and highly prized 'of them all. Cabbage and cauliflower are grown in small quantities, the caterpillars giving much trouble, so that we had to apply air-slacked lime several times ; and then, if the plants were neg- lected a few days, we find the leaves all riddled. " I planted strong-rooted currants and gooseberries, in rows wide enough for the horses to cultivate. It is well to have these two near together, for the worms appear first on the gooseberries, and can be promptly disposed of by two dust- ings of hellebore, applied when there is dew on the bushes ; they will not then appear to any great extent on the currants. Two rows of strawberries along the fence supply sufficient for table use and preserves, while by keeping a few raspberries, cut back and trained to a trellis, we have large fruit. I keep the rubbish in the compost-heap all winter, and make it the place of deposit for soapsuds and the like. When it is removed in the spring to the garden, a rich spot is left for a few melon and cucumber seeds. If these are covered with a bottomless box, having a pane of glass for the cover, the melons will ripen a week earlier than in the open air." Such a judiciously managed garden-plot as this it is easy tq see may be made a source of profit in any locality where there is a sale for its products ; that is to say, in the immediate vicinity of any large village or town ; and it involves nothing, except per- haps the ploughing and the manuring, which a woman might not perform. The same things are true of fruit -culture. In speaking of fruit-growing in California, we cited Mr. Nordhoff's remark that numerous German emigrants committed the care of their fruit-gardens wholly to their wives and children. There is no reason why this kind of productive industry should not be carried on all over the country, and by American women. In 27 494 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. this, also, woman's work receives the same pay as that of man. The products of the garden or orchard bring none the less be- cause they are raised and sold by a woman. All this implies that the working woman has the needed garden-plot at her command. Those who are not thus favored, 9,nd who must yet labor, must look out for other modes. Domestic Service. — Of the 2,647,157 females who are enu- merated in the Census Report of 1880 as having any gainful employment, 938,910 are classed as "domestic servants;" and of these about 250,000 were of foreign birth, and many others of foreign parentage. It is not necessary here to inquire into the reason of the evident fact that. American women are averse to this kind of occupation. With us this domestic service ranks among the most unskilled of labor, but it undoubtedly pays better than the labor of men equally unskilled in their work. Those who engage in it have, as they suppose, no sufficient reason to learn' their work properly. Very few of them expect to remain long as servants. They usually look forward to mar- riage, which will relieve them from the hard necessity of " living out." Domestic service with us is rarely entered upon except as a mere temporary occupation, to be given up as soon as any- thing better offers, although the number is large to whom noth- ing better ever does present itself. Work and Wages. — The Census Report enumerates 338 different occupations practised in the United States. Women, in greater or less numbers, are engaged in 262 of these — the exceptions being usually those in which they may be pre- sumed to be physically incapable of engaging. There are no female blacksmiths, carpenters, engineers, lumberers, masons, machinists, plumbers, or wheelwrights ; no stock-drovers, sailors, or soldiers.; only 2 hostlers, 2 chiropodists, 5 lawyers, 24 den- tists, 67 divines, and 525 physicians. Of the 44,000 officials of government 414 were females. The problem in regard to work for women is not, therefore, to devise new occupations for them so much as to facilitate their entering largely into those in which they are already engaged ; and, still more, to endeavor to secure for them adequate remuneration in these employments. WORK FOR WOMEN. 495 There is hardly an occupation, where both sexes are en- gaged, in which the earnings of women are not much less than those of men. The reason for this is that their work is usual- ly not worth as much ; and the explanation is found not in the fact that they are physically or intellectually less capable than men, but in their failure to devote themselves with equal per- sistence to learning how to perform the work which they un- dertake. The two sexes, indeed, differ in many respects, physi- cally and mentally ; but leaving out of view those employments in which great physical exertion is required, the natural advan- tages about equally balance each other. A young man looks upon the occupation in which he is about to engage as the one which will most likely be the busi- ness of his life. He has, therefore, every incentive to make him- self master of it, for in that mastery lies mainly his prospect of ultimate success. He knows, moreover, that the family which he will in time come to have around him will depend upon his exertions. From the very first he looks upon his trade or pro- fession as a permanent one. He learns telegraphy, let us say, and expects to be a telegrapher, and means to be a thoroughly competent one. The young woman who learns the same busi- ness comes to it with very different purposes. In the great majority of cases she naturally and properly anticipates that she will be a wife before many years or, perhaps, months have passed. This anticipation gives form and color to the whole of her life as a workwoman. This subject can be best studied in those occupations in which both sexes are employed in- the same kind of work. Silver-working. — A large silverware manufactory in New York employs many hands, among whom are twenty-five wom- en, who earn from four to twelve dollars a week. The result of their experience with workers of both sexes is suggestive. They say: "Young women who have secured positions in the factory are, as a rule, loath to make haste slowly. Their brothers enter at sixteen, and obtain men's wages only after an apprenticeship of five years, meanwhile receiving four dollars a week and upward. They understand perfectly that any real advance 496 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. in acquiring a knowledge of the silversmith's art, and proficiency in the use of it, must be made gradually, and step by step. They have been taught so by their parents, by their associates, and by their own observation, and they act accordingly. But the girl who goes to work there has an extra purpose of her own. She wishes to get over the preparatory ground as rapidly as possible, and to earn full wages in half the time that her brothers do. She has not learned that in such a business she must make haste slowly if she is to make speed at all. " In the next place — not always, but frequently — she becomes restive under authority, and occasionally refuses to do the work laid out for her. 'This piece of silver,' said a girl to the foreman, ' is too thick for me to saw : it is men's work.' The foreman will tell you that when he is pleasant to a girl under him she is apt to try to ride over him. Any boy or young man in a similar position would expect to be discharged at once if he hesitated to obey the foreman, or suggested that somebody else could do better what had been asked of him. A young woman, on the contrary, is found to be more or less disputatious in tendency — to argue a matter where every law and precedent of business life requires prompt obedience to the orders of the foreman. "Nor is it easy, when the foreman insists upon having his orders obeyed, for her to believe that he is strictly impartial. 'You don't like women, Mr. A ,' said a young woman, in answer to the repetition of a request from the foreman that she should do something distasteful to her. And if, on the other hand, the foreman seems unusually complacent, his demeanor is apt to be ascribed to his own good-nature, without reference to her own merits or de- merits. The other day a young woman said of her foreman to a fellow-worker : 'Mr. B has a noble heart.' 'Better not trust to that,' was the reply; 'he will discharge you in a minute if he thinks you deserve it.' The inability to appreciate the significance of the phrase, ' Business is business,' lies at the root of such shortcomings on the part of young women. " Then again, the young woman who is learning the silversmith's art has been found to lack self-confidence. ' Well, if you think I can do it,' she is apt to reply, when asked to do something new to her. ' Don't be timid,' replies the foreman ; ' if you get it wrong, try again.' The prospect of learning a new branch of the trade usually disheartens her. She will go a certain distance very well, but she will not learn the one thing extra, the knowledge of which would give her the rank and the pay of a skilled workman. Etching on silver is to-day more fashionable than engraving on silver ; but if the case were to be reversed, and engraving should again come to the front, the foreman would expect the average girl to be unwilling to learn engraving if she had already learned etching. ' One trade is enough for me,' he would expect to hear her say. " Then, moreover, there is the old obstacle of marriage. You train a girl to be an expert in the business, and all your time and labor go for nothing the mo- ment she gets married. We have here scores of boys who wish to stay for life, EMBROIDERED SCREEN. See Note 36. WORK FOR WOMEN. 499 because they know that we can make it for their advantage to do so. Every- thing we teach them is a permanent help to us ; their services become more and more valuable, and are always at hand. But as soon as one of our girls is married that is the end of her, as far as we are concerned, and what encour- agement is there in training a girl when she may leave you at any moment ?" To the question, if there wag any reason why girls should not resume work in this establishment after marriage, the reply was, " None whatever. We should be glad to have them come back, but they never do ; they are too proud." This pride is in itself a very proper one, and is fully shared by their husbands. Both feel that they have married for a home, and, at the very best, much that constitutes a home is lost if the wife must be absent from it during the day. The objection on either side is not that the wife should work, and work for pay, if she can do this at home. Upon one occasion the foreman of such an estab- lishment was asked by a workman to let him take home work to be done by his wife, who had left upon her marriage. " We cannot do that," was the reply, " but if your wife will return to her old place we will find work for her." The well-meant offer was not accepted. In the establishment of which we are speaking women are paid the same prices as men, for the same work. That the best female workers do not receive as much as the best males is sim- ply because they do not earn it. For reasons such as have been adduced they have not qualified themselves for doing the work which requires the most skill, and which consequently is most highly paid. But these objections do not apply to every young woman, and not, to a very serious degree, to the majority of those employed by this establishment, for the proprietors propose not only to continue to employ women, but to increase their number very largely, not out of charity, but simply because, upon the whole, they find it for their interest to do so. The disadvan- tages arising from the employment of women in their business are counterbalanced by such advantages as the following: " Girls are regularly at their places on Monday morning, while men are not always so. Moreover — and this is a matter which is coming to be regarded as of no little import — women are not often members of trades -unions, by 500 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. which they may be ordered to ' strike ' at any moment, whether they like it or not. Thus, in two ways, and to a certain extent, they are more reliable than men. Then again there are certain departments in this art, as in several oth- ers, in which the thinner skin and more delicate nervous system of women are thought to give them a natural capability superior to that of men." We have spoken at length' of the silversmith's art as appli- cable to women, for it is one in which the experiment may be considered as having been fairly tried. It requires nothing for which the physical powers of women are not fully adequate. The departments in which it has been found that women work to as much advantage as men are thus stated by the able writer,* from whom the foregoing statement has been condensed : i. Gen- eral finishing, including burnishing. 2. Preparation for gilding, for enamelling, and for etching. 3. Engraving. 4. Chasing, or repousse work. This last consists in the indenting or modelling of the surface, the parts of the metal not being cut away, as in engraving. The writer adds : " All this work requires the exercise of artistic taste to a greater or less extent, and if we add to it the higher business of designing, in which women have already accomplished excellent results, we shall obtain a just conception of the nature of woman's work as a silversmith. Any woman possessing ability as a designer can earn from twenty to sixty dollars a week, and there is no reason why she should not fit herself for that specialty. But to become a sil- versmith a woman must be willing to enter a workshop, to obey rules that sometimes seem harsh, and to be dead in earnest.'' Art-work. — In work in which the artistic faculty is brought into play, and just in proportion as this is the case, women are growing into an equality with men in the matter of remunera- tion ; but here we meet the same difficulties which have been mentioned in the case of silversmithing : they are too much in haste ; they wish to reap the harvest as soon as the seed has been sown. Take a single example : Some two years ago the Metropolitan Museum of New York opened a class for instruc- tion in decorative art, the object being "to furnish instruction to young women seeking a means of. support in practical, remuner- * In Harper's Bazar, August 18, 1883. WORK FOR WOMEN. 501 ative production." A considerable number of pupils presented themselves the first year. The second year the attendance was much less. One of the directors of the Museum thus accounted for the notable falling off in the number of pupils : " The whole trouble is this : the young women who entered the class were in too great a hurry to make money ; they expected to be coached at once into a state of affluent remuneration. Anybody can easily learn a smattering of anything, but there is no royal road to thorough knowledge. In order to design well, a protracted drill in elementary principles — particularly in drawing — is in- dispensable. As soon as we began to teach them drawing they were impatient to get into coloring. As soon as we began to show them how to make money, they were so eager to be making it as to spurn the necessary prerequisites there- to. This has been our difficulty, and it is one that cannot be overcome until young women who aspire to support themselves by art consent to make them- selves, at least, respectable draughtsmen." Nevertheless there are not wanting young women who have the good-sense to perceive the openings which present them- selves in this direction and the resolution to put forth the pre- liminary effort requisite for success. We collate from various authentic sources instances and hints of what has been done by a few persons within less than two years, as furnishing an indication of what may be done by others : A young woman who has mastered the fundamental princi- ples of design, and who is able to impress herself upon her work, has several ways for disposing of the products of her skill : I. She may become a teacher. In 1882 we are told that at the Cooper Institute " the demand from the West for teachers of drawing is greater than ever before ; and clever girls who are recommended by the authorities of the Institute find no diffi- culty in obtaining remunerative positions. One of these girls is now a teacher in Michigan, at a salary of eighty dollars a month ; another receives a thousand dollars a year. In the Eastern cities and their suburbs from one dollar to two dollars an hour is paid for such instruction by principals of schools or private persons. But it must be borne in mind that in order to become a successful teacher one must have already been a dili- gent and apt pupil." 2. Some of the leading firms of house-decorators now employ 502 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. women to carry out their designs, at a salary of from eight to twelve dollars a week. " This work pays less than much special work performed by the artist at her own home, but it affords her a means of familiarizing herself with the best which is doing in her department, increases her acquaintance with the current modes of business, and gives her many facilities of creating a constituency of her own — provided always that she possesses the requisite capacities, and has learned the meaning of the phrase, ' Business is business.' " 3. She may make designs at home, and sell them directly. The demand for such designs is much more widely extended than one not acquainted with the subject would suppose. A really artistic design for a dealer's " trade-mark " has no little to do in selling the article. A gentleman's hat, with a pretty stamp on the lining of the crown, will sell more readily than it would without it. A box of confectionery, of gloves, or any one of a hundred fancy articles, is much more attractive to purchasers if it bears a tasteful label. Not a little genuine artistic skill is now put forth on the business cards of tradesmen. Clever deal- ers have discovered that such a card is preserved and looked at by a score of persons, when an ordinary one would be thrown aside at once. An appropriate artistic design for the cover of a book does no little towards increasing its sale. A cleverly de- signed placard induces many purchasers to enter a shop which they would otherwise pass by. Tradesmen and manufacturers of all kinds are becoming aware of this, and act accordingly. At first they contented themselves with borrowing the designs of foreigners ; but they have more than begun to discover that there is such a thing as an American public desirous of having original designs and patterns such as shall express American ideas and feelings, and bring out the aroma of the soil upon which Americans live. Engraving. — Wood -engraving has been mentioned in an- other place as among the arts which afford a high scope for the labor of women. Ten years ago we doubt if there was in the United States a single woman who had even begun fairly to look to this profession. If there were any female engravers in WORK FOR WOMEN. 503 1880, the enumerators of the Census failed to discover the fact. Now the number is quite noticeable who have already passed the threshold, and there are at least half a dozen who may be fairly ranked among the members of the school of American engravers, confessedly the best in the world. Among the scores who are aiming in the same direction it may fairly be ex- pected that there are others who will come to stand by their side. We are told that " the most successful of the women en- gravers who have fought their way into the front ranks of the men engravers has taken eight years in accomplishing the feat, but already she is offered more orders than she can execute, and some of her best work has paid her at the rate of sixty dollars a week." A man or woman who attains the capacity of producing the best class of work in eight years of diligent labor and study does well. But he or she has this advantage over the members of most professions : the work is of such a nature that it speaks for it- self, and needs no great previous reputation to secure recogni- tion from the publishers and editors who are the main custom- ers. And, moreover, there are opportunities for earning respect- able sums while actually learning. The statement was authori- tatively made in 1882 that "in one of the classes of the Cooper Institute are two clever girls who, in the second year of their training, made six hundred dollars apiece by executing orders for publishers ; and last year there were twelve pupils who earned a hundred dollars apiece in the same way in twelve weeks — a sum more than sufficient to meet their necessary expenses during that term ; this money was received for work in the profession which they were studying. They were fitting themselves to get better prices by earning the money which they did get." There is for women a special advantage in this work above that of the silversmith. It is not necessary that the work should be done in a factory or workshop, but may just as well be carried on at home. The accomplished woman engraver who marries is not thereby precluded from gainful employment any more than is the female author. If her household duties 504 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. are such as to leave her the time, she can devote it to the prac- tice of her profession as a regular employment. Other Spheres for Women Artists. — The sphere which decorative art already opens for woman's work is continually widening. Many things have contributed to this, but nothing else so much as the far-sighted benevolence of Peter Cooper. If we were called upon to name the noblest feature of that mon- ument which he has erected for himself, we should select the " Free Art School for Women " — a department of the Cooper Institute. Not long before his death, in April, 1883, we read that at the previous session of the school 1397 pupils applied for admission, but only 711 obtained it, on account of lack of room. One of the teachers, herself a woman, said that during the previous year forty of her pupils in art had made ^7000, or ^175 each, while learning the art of crayon-photogra- phy. " Every year one hundred young women, on leaving the Cooper Institute, make from ^400 to ^1200 a year by art-work, the largest demand being for teachers of drawing and for makers of crayon-photographs. One graduate is now receiving from $2000 to $3000 a year as a teacher of drawing in the New York public schools, and another has been appointed manager of a decorative art society in New Orleans, with a salary of $150 a month, with opportunities to earn as much more by private tuition; and similar instances are numerous." The writer of the foregoing goes on to say: " A little girl, as Mr. Cooper described her to me, called at his house to thank him for what she had learned at the Institute. ' I have earned ^300 this year,' she exclaimed, with enthusiasm, 'by painting photographs, and anything else I could get hold of.' A man in middle life met Mr. Cooper on the stairs of the Institute. 'My daughter,' he said, 'makes $1300 a year by teaching painting and drawing in a Brooklyn school, and I never earned more than $1200 a year myself.' A young woman from California sat on the sofa in Mr. Cooper's library. 'I have come to thank you,' she said. 'I feel as rich as a queen. I have thirty pupils in wood -engraving.' Like her two sisters just mentioned, she had studied art at the Cooper Institute." The coloring of photographs gives employment to many hundreds of young women, and there is no prospect that the WORK FOR WOMEN. 505 market will become glutted. In 1882 there were thirty of these young workers in the school of the Cooper Institute, one coloring a portrait, another a landscape, a third an interior, and so on. About one-fifth of this number were earning from five to twelve dollars a week by executing orders, and this while they were learning their art. After a two-years' course of study many of them will make more, and sometimes even during the first year they earn as much. But let no one imagine that facility or even capability in this art is to be acquired without a natural artistic faculty, and granting this, not without labor and thought. Each art has demands of its own. This one demands not only an eye for colors and dexterity in using them, but also a knowl- edge of drawing. Painting on china is another of the ornamental arts in which women may to a certain extent find remunerative employment. The subject of decorated pottery has been considered in a pre- vious chapter. Here it may be added that the general principles of art having been mastered, their special application for this purpose is easily learned. Four years ago it was assumed that the passion for decorated china was merely a " craze," which would soon die out, but there is no present indication of this, the shelves of the crockery-dealers are full of painted china, and the Society for Decorative Art finds sale for more of it than for any other production except embroidery. Embroidery is especially woman's work, but like all other needlework it is very poorly paid. Large quantities of it do, indeed, find purchasers, but those who have the best oppor- tunities for making an estimate say that a skilful embroiderer who can earn two dollars a day in this occupation, so wearying to the back and eye, is fortunate far beyond the average. Small articles for common use pay better than larger ones. It was thought to be a great thing, not long since, when a piece of elaborate embroidery was sold for $125, but it had cost just that number of days to do the work. It must be set down as one of those very pretty arts which a lady may practise at odd hours for her own adornment, or for making acceptable presents to her friends, and if she occasionally receives a few dollars for an order 506 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. from the Decorative Art Society, or otherwise, that is so much clear gain. Women as Artists. — Mrs. Susan N. Carter, the accom- plished principal of Cooper Union School of Art, presents, un- der the title, "Women who should not Study Art for a Living,"* some suggestions well worthy of consideration in connection with what has been stated in the preceding paragraphs. She says: " It is a curious and interesting study to look over the multitude of drawings which are sent each season for inspection to a school like this. The pictures are supposed to prove the talent of their authors, who hope, after a few months' study, to earn a good living by art. Some of the drawings are good, and occa- sionally a really beautiful specimen of flower-painting, pen-and-ink work, or lit- tle landscape is sent. But most frequently these works are rude copies of bad originals, and really indicate nothing, as a general thing. The girl may have talent, and she may not. All that can be known is that she wishes to make out a living and a profession. If she truly wishes to succeed what must she do ? " In music it is very obvious that the fingers can only gain strength and nimbleness by constant practice, and in art it is equally true that the eye and the judgment can be trained only by long and constant effort. A few hours in the week may make a pleasant amateur artist, but the work which can rank as professional, and which will insure pecuniary reward, has to be pursued through long, steady interest and application. " It is true that often, after a few inonths' teaching, young women can earn money by finishing photographs, but those who do this have talent for like- nesses and a clear eye to preserve the look of the portrait, for a careless touch or blunt perception may in a moment efface the line which makes a nostril or the curve of a lip true. And if the artist has not the knowledge of form to appre- ciate how the picture should look when finished, it will quit her hands a stupid and ignorant result. Photograph work requires patience, neatness, talent for observing and producing form — or, at least, not losing it — and long application. The young artist must have mastered the details of form, use of material, ideas of style, until she knows a great deal about drawing, and then only can she succeed. " Engraving, much more than photography, requires continuous study. A woman with deft fingers, a quick eye, and intelligence, united to a sense of the picturesque, may, indeed, be able to earn money from the work she can do in simple line-engraving if she study six hours a day during that time ; but unless she is willing to give at least three years to her education she had better not adopt this profession. In drawing, also, and learning to design, character and * In Harper's Bazar, February 3, 1883. WORK FOR WOMEN. 509 disciplined powers are as important as talent ; and though in teaching several thousands of women to draw during the past ten years I have never had an example of success unless aptitude was shown soon after the beginning of study, yet beauty, comeliness of form, rendering of light and shade, and the number- less points which make the charm and value of a good drawing, come only from the continuous habit of study, which carries the thought of one day into the work of the next, and so accumulates and develops artistic impressions. " Brilliant examples of success have led many young women to seek admis- sion into art-schools who have not the proper qualifications. A large class of those who plan and work to enter the school have no clear idea of what will make their lives a failure or a success. All the qualities I have named are necessary, and unless a young woman is possessed of them her labor is in vain. If they have the necessary talent, and love art enough to make the sacrifices required for success, let them venture, but none should attempt art merely be- cause they desire to get a living. They had better try something for which they have an aptitude, or at least some occupation which does not require all these essential qualifications which I have mentioned. " There is one point about which many women think vaguely : What neces- sary connection is there between marriage and art-employment ? Long obser- vation of multitudes of women is convincing that though many give up such work when they marry, yet, if they have really studied it to the point of success, they can use their whole time, or even odd time, in doing work which will pay well. They have really learned a profession, and whether it is simple or elabo- rate work, with a little continued practice they can still earn money after their steady and continuous school study has ceased." 510 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XL. WORK FOR yNOM.'^'^— Continued. CLERKSHIPS of various kinds are among the branches of industry which occupy women. The number who are thus engaged is quite considerable, but the Census Report is not sufficiently definite to be of much value in this respect. The cases are exceptional in which book-keepers receive more than two-thirds as much as men who perform similar duties, and the instances are exceedingly rare in which female book- keepers are employed in situations which among men command high salaries. Very many are engaged as saleswomen. The number of young women in this vocation, and even of girls be- low the age of sixteen, is inordinately large. The duties are very exhausting, and are protracted more than in almost any other occupation; for, as a rule, stores are kept open to a later hour than workshops. In many ways, at which it is not neces- sary to more than hint, a shop-girl is exposed to peculiar temp- tations, especially where men constitute the customers whom she, has to serve. Telegraphy presents many apparent advantages for women. It does not involve the soiling of dresses, the operators do not stand, they need not sit in a constrained posture, and the work does not involve great muscular exertion ; yet there is certainly a severe strain upon the nervous system, and as they are more delicately organized than men, they are less adapted to the most efficient protracted telegraphic labor. The experiment has been pretty fairly tried by the great telegraphic corporations, bodies which can be moved only by pecuniary considerations, and the result seems beyond dispute : women, as a rule, are not as effi- WORK FOR WOM.Y.'^— Continued. 511 cient as men. The poorest of the one sex are probably no worse than the poorest of the other, but the average of the females of the same experience is below the average of the males, and the very best female operators are not above the average of the males. Taking all things "into account, it may be fairly concluded that telegraphy presents, for women, just about the same inducements as does the profession of teach- ing in the public schools of our cities and large towns, with this difference : that teaching offers some positions which pay much better. Type-writing is an occupation which has sprung into exist- ence within less than ten years, and is especially adapted to women, requiring in the main physical and mental qualities in which she excels man — such as quickness of apprehension and delicacy of touch. The operator frequently performs the func- tions of a private secretary and amanuensis, and is rapidly taking the place of the copyist in law-offices and counting- rooms. Her efficiency, and, consequently, her remuneration, may be greatly enhanced by a knowledge of some other mat- ters. Phonography is an adjunct of very decided advantage, for she will not unfrequently be called upon to write from dic- tation. She need not be so rapid a phonographer as to be able to follow unerringly a fluent public speaker: half or a third of that rate will answer every usual purpose. The per- son who is dictating rarely talks at full speed, and will make the requisite pauses, or repeat anything that has not been per- fectly understood. A fair preliminary education, equivalent at least to that imparted in our best public schools, is an essen- tial prerequisite. She will, moreover, be obliged to write down from dictation many words not used in common conversation. These will vary with the nature of the business of her employer. If he is a lawyer, there will be one set of technical words ; if a merchant, another set, and so on. She should understand the meaning of these when she hears them, and know how they are to be spelled. Defective orthography is an almost insu- perable bar to success. An acquaintance with some foreign languages, especially French and German, is a very decided 512 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. advantage. This occupation is very rapidly extending, and it is universally conceded that young women make better opera- tors than young men. The average earnings are estimated at 5^500 a year: a few receive twice as much. The work in it- self is among the most pleasant of all employments, being almost the same as piano-playing, only with a key-board of half the size. The hours are usually considerably less than in most other employments, being those of the business -man rather than of the workman. Type-setting. — Closely allied to type-writing is type-setting. Some of the large publishing-houses have separate composing- rooms for men and women, although in the latter, as will be seen, it is necessary to employ men to do certain portions of the work. From the foreman of one of the best organized of these offices we gather the following particulars : There are in his room about fifteen female compositors, and as many men and boys. The girls have been mostly trained in the office. It is preferred that one should be about fifteen when she begins. She works two months without pay, for it costs more to teach her the elements than her work is worth. If she has made fair progress, at the close of the two months she is paid by the piece, at full woman's rates, the ampunt of her earnings depend- ing wholly upon the quantity of work which she accomplishes. It will not be very long before the average female compositor will earn ^4 per week, gradually increasing as she becomes more expert. At the end of a year or so she will earn on in average $7 a week. She is not tied very closely to a given num- ber of hours a day. As a rule, she is engaged about eight and a half hours, although she may, if she choose, work ten hours, as the men and boys usually do ; in which case, as she works by the piece, her earnings would be so much more. That she labors shorter hours is not to be attributed to indolence, for there are many things which a woman attends to for herself which a man cannot well do : such as repairing her own dresses, and even making them, to a greater or less extent. The present rate here for ordinary plain work (upon which they are mainly employed) is 35 cents per 1000 ems. The men receive 38 cents, WORK FOR "NOME^— Continued. 513 but they do several things in connection with their work which the foreman or his assistants do for the women ; so that, prac- tically, the pay of the two sexes is equal for the same work. The experience of the establishment for several years is to this general purport : the directions in which female labor can be advantageously employed are somewhat limited. In "plain work," that is, where an ordinary book — say a novel, or the usual pages of a volume like this — is to be set up from printed copy, or from manuscript properly prepared for the printer, there is no very great difference between men and women, whatever advantage there is being, however, in favor of the former, for the " proofs " of the men are, as a rule, more free from errors than those of the women, and therefore demand less labor on the part of the proof-reader ; but in the more intricate kinds of work, such as the tables in this volume, women are very decidedly inferior to men. The man will usually study out for himself how a diffi- cult piece of work should be done ; the woman would expect that the foreman should explain it to her. As the foreman phrasqd it: "My girls don't like conjuring up how to do any- thing ; they do not put so much brains into their work as the boys do." Probably there is not a single female compositor in New York who could advantageously, either to herself or to'the office, be set to do any of the table-work in this volume. In the office of which we are speaking only very neat work is allowed to pass. For example, the matter must be uniformly " spaced ;" that is, not only must an equal space be left between the words in each line, but the spacing in the different lines must be as nearly as possible uniform. There must not be some lines very thinly spaced and others very widely spaced. There are offices in which women are largely employed at prices very much below those which we have given, and where neatness of execution is not insisted upon. Women trained in such offices have sometimes found employment in the one of which we are speaking, but the experience ,of the foreman has been that it is much harder to make them unlearn bad workmanship than to teach fresh hands to do good work from the first. Men are much more readily raised to a higher degree of skill. 28 514 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. There are few employments in which a young woman can begin to earn wages so quickly after beginning as in this, and the sum which she can expect to earn is decidedly above the wages paid to operatives in factories or upon sewing-machines, and is quite as pleasant and healthy. The Civil Service of the United States Government cer- tainly affords opportunities for the employment of many women, and should probably afford more. In theory the law, as it stands, renders " nominations to clerkships open to women as well as to men." But practically, according to the rules, al- though the number of nominations may be ever so large, the number of actual appointments of females must, in any case, be comparatively small. The posts attainable by women may be arranged in three classes: i. Certain designated positions in the various departments at Washington. Practically these are in the Treasury Department, where it is said that in counting money women excel men. 2. Appointments 'in the postal ser- vice ; but these positions occur only in post-oflfices where the whole number of officials is not less than fifty. Of these offices there are at present only twenty-three, in the following cities: Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincin- natf, Cleveland, Detroit, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Louisville, Milwaukee, Newark, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Providence, Rochester, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Washington. 3. In Custom-houses in which the whole number of officials is not less than fifty. Such offices are at present in the following eleven cities : Baltimore, Boston, Burlington (Vt), Chicago, Detroit, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, Port Huron, Portland, and San Francisco. The larger number of clerkships are in the first of these divisions. As there is every probability that the " classified civil ser- vice " will hereafter embrace many more females that it has heretofore done, it is desirable that the prescribed mode of pro- cedure should be generally known. There is a regular form for an " application paper," which can be obtained either from the office of the Civil Service Commission at Washington, or from the post-office or custom-house of either of the cities above- WORK FOR 'WOM.¥.'i:i— Continued. 515 mentioned. This application, which must contain the names of five persons as vouchers for the good character of the appH- cant, must be forwarded to the Commission at Washington, if it is for a position in one of the departments, or, if in the postal or revenue service, to the postmaster or head of the custom- house of the district in which service is desired. The party does not apply directly for an appointment, but for admission to an " open, competitive examination as to fitness for the public service ;" and when a vacancy occurs it is to be filled by selec- tion, according to grade, from among those graded highest as the result of such competitive examination ; " but the number of appointments must be apportioned among the several States and Territories, upon the basis of their respective population." The names of the applicants are entered upon a register, but no person can remain eligible more than one year upon any register. The examination takes place at such time and place as is designated by the proper authorities. It consists mainly of written answers to written questions upon the following subjects : I. Orthography, penmanship, and copying. 2. Arithmetic. 3. Interest, discount, and the elements of book-keeping. 4. Ele- ments of the English language, letter-writing, and the proper construction of sentences. 5. Elements of the geography, his- tory, and government of the United States. Proficiency in these subjects will be credited, in the grading of the candidates, " in proportion to the value of a knowledge of such subjects in the branch or part of the service which the applicant seeks to enter;" but in the first, second, and third of the above divisions the applicant, in order to receive a certificate, must receive at least 65 per cent, of " complete proficiency " — that is, nearly two-thirds of the questions must be answered correctly. When a vacancy occurs in any of these branches, the officer who has the power of appointment applies to the board of ex- aminers for four names from those standing highest on the proper register, and the law provides that " sex shall be disre- garded in such certification, unless there be a law or regulation which calls for those of either sex, in which case the four high- 516 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. est of that sex shall be certified." Practically, therefore, one of the four persons, irrespective of sex, who are graded highest, must receive the appointment, and if any one is higher than all the rest, it may be assumed that he or she will be the successful candidate. If two or more receive the same grade, the selection between them will devolve upon the head of the department in question. The appointee remains upon " probation " for six months, when, if competency is evinced, the appointment is finally confirmed, and the incumbent cannot be removed except for cause duly proven. It will be seen that in respect to these appointments there is no distinction of sex. The salaries of each position are definitely fixed by law, altogether irrespective of the sex of the appointee; and though none of the salaries are very large, they are yet sufficient to make these positions apparently very desirable for women. . The highest salary, we believe, attached to any of these clerkships is $1500 per year. This system of rendering certain positions in the Govern- ment service non-political is an experiment among us, but it has been tried in Great Britain to some extent for a long time, in respect to both sexes, and the results are universally conceded to be eminently satisfactory. If the positions of which we speak were subject to what has been our baneful custom, by which it is held that the " patronage " of offices belongs to the politicians who happen to be in power, and that the bestowal of them is to be a reward for services rendered to "the party" by friends of the applicants, we should certainly do all in our power to dis- suade women from seeking such employment. But if the aims which the Civil Service Commission professes to have in view shall be fairly realized, we consider that this occupation is one altogether womanly, and the principle embodied in it might be extended to many more positions in State and municipal governments. There are, indeed, numerous positions in the public service from Which women are naturally excluded by reason of their sex. No one would advocate that a woman should be President of the United States or Governor of a State, Secretary of War or of the Navy, a General in the Army or Admiral in the Navy, ^'r SOME ART CONNOISSEURS. See Note 3S. WORK FOR WOMEN— Continued 519 Collector of a Port or Chief of Police. But excluding all of those clearly unadvisable positions, there still remain many which should be open to women, provided they are qualified to fill them. The thing upon which those who favor this view urgently insist is that women shall have fair opportunity to show whether they do or do not possess this fitness. " The tools to those who can use them," it is urged, is the true maxim to be applied here as elsewhere. The " Civil Service " law is intended to promote this end, which all admit to be in every way desirable, and, it is hoped, not wholly unattainable. It may be assumed that however widely the doors to the Bar may be, opened, there will never be among us many female law- yers, and probably only a few preachers. How far the propor- tion of female physicians may properly extend is yet a matter of discussion, into which it is not proposed here to enter. It is sufficient to say that there has been a steady, if not a rapid, in- crease in the number of females who fit themselves for the med- ical profession. The requisites for the successful exercise of these professions are essentially the same for women as for men. Teaching is fully recognized as a feminine not less than a masculine profession, and the normal schools for the training of competent teachers of both sexes are among the most useful of our educational institutions. In the matter of remuneration there is certainly a tendency in the right direction. As women become more and more fitted for this profession, their salaries approximate more and more to those of men ; but in both, as has already been insisted upon, the salaries are wholly too low for the duties which a competent teacher has to perform. In the higher grades of our public schools the inequality of salaries paid to the sexes should be done away with. The duties im- posed upon the principal of a female grammar-school in the city of New York are in no respect less than those of the principal of a male school. If a woman cannot perform them as well as a man, this is a good reason why she should not fill such a situation. Here the saving of a few dollars a year, by getting inferior service, is the most foolish of all unwise economy. If there be, as undoubtedly there are, departments of instruction 520 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. which men only can fill in the best manner, let them be re- served for men ; but no teacher should be called to a place in our public schools for which he or she is not fairly competent. The value of the services required should be the measure of the remuneration, and this value is nowise affected by the sex of the teacher. The disproportion between the salaries paid to male and female teachers, where equal competency may be assumed, is fairly shown in the grammar-schools in the city of New York. In these, in 1882, there were 23,102 male pupils and 726 male teachers, with an average of 31.7 boys to one teacher. There were 19,844 female pupils and 607 female teachers — an average of 32.7 girls to one teacher. The average salary of all male teachers is ^1112; the average salary of all female teachers, ^826. The salary of the male principal of a school, with an average attendance of more than 500 pupils, is $3000 ; that of the female principal of such a school,, $1700. The salary of the male vice- principal of a school having more than 250 pupils is ^2000; that of the female vice-principal, ^1200. The average salary of male assistant teachers is ^'i 500 ; of female assistants, ^800. There is, moreover, a special provision that the Board of Education may pay to all male principals of more than fourteen years' service a salary of not less than ^2500, and to all such female principals not less than ^1900, irrespective of the number of pupils in their schools. Thus the highest possi- ble salary of a male principal is #3000, and the highest possible salary of a female principal is ^1900. A similar discrimination against women pervades the whole system. Thus there is a grade of junior teachers whose salaries for the first year are ^700 for males and $400 for females. In Literature and Art there is no such discrimination against woman. She receives just as much as a man does for a story or an essay, for a novel or a history, for painting a picture or sing- ing a song. If any one gets more than another, it is because the work is worth more. At present fully one-half of the popu- lar novels, poems, and magazine sketches are written by women. Women here are as successful as men, just because their work is WORK FOR YIOMEi^— Continued. 521 as good. The public and the publishers care nothing for the sex of an author. Nursing. — However wide may be the divergence of senti- ment upon other points, no one questions that the care of the sick is pre-eminently woman's work. It is one which has always devolved upon her, and it seems almost to be assumed that pro- ficiency in it comes to her by instinct, without need of careful and well directed training. It may be admitted that many wom- en — perhaps most — are, to a certain extent, natural nurses. There are few women who will not be called upon at one time or another to act as such in their own families, and all should learn what is to be done in common cases of indisposition, and even in graver emergencies, when the attendance of a competent phy- sician cannot at once be had. There are, moreover,, everywhere women who have somehow gained the reputation of being skilful nurses, and they are not unfrequently called upon by their neigh- bors to advise what should be done ; but the ideas which such persons have acquired are often misleading : they are apt to ad- vise in all cases something which they suppose has proved bene- ficial in, some other instance. If it so happen that several such persons give their advice in any one case, they will differ very greatly, the patient or his friends not seldom undertaking to follow all the recommendations, and serious results often ensue from, this ill-advised overnursing or overdosing, even when the advice of any one of them might have been properly followed until better could be had. The importance of this household nursing can hardly be overrated. It is proposed here, however, to speak of nursing as a profession, to be studied as such, with the purpose of making it a remunerative occupation for those who may be led in that direction by circumstances or inclination. If there be one thing for which it is wise to provide before- hand, it is for proper care during sickness, which may come to all and will surely come to most. It is much to have a compe- tent physician, but this is by no means all. A physician with a large practice can devote only a comparatively small portion of his time to any one patient, no matter how critical the case may be, for there will be others with equal claims upon his care. He 522 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. can rarely spend consecutive hours by the sick-bed, watching each change of the disease, and personally seeing to it that his directions are followed to the letter. When he makes his regu- lar visit he needs to know not merely what is the present appar- ent condition of his patient, but also what fluctuations have taken place since his last diagnosis. He can, indeed, infer much from what he sees at the time, but upon some points he must d,epend upon the information of others. Few patients are in a state to describe accurately their own condition, and the friends in attendance are usually equally incapable. That the physician should act with perfect confidence in a critical case, it is essential that he should be assured that the patient is under the care of a person who will not only obey his orders, but can inform him what has been the effect of his mode of treatment. The province of the nurse is not in the least to supersede the functions of the physician, but to aid him in carrying them out. The wiser a physician is, the more fully will he recognize the value of a competent nurse ; and if, as is always desirable, she be selected by him, so much the greater will be the hopefulness with which he meets the responsibili- ties of his ppsition. These are heavy enough at the lightest, how great soever may be the aid which he may be able to secure from the nurse or friends. Indeed, there are reasons which render it often desirable that the nurse should not be a jiear connection of the patient. Physicians are usually unwill- ing to treat a critical case in their own families, for they are aware that their anxiety tends to impair the soundness of their judgment. This is not less true of the nurse. It is not easy for a wife or daughter to compel a husband or father, whose authority has always been unquestioned, to do, or suffer to be done, anything to which, in his morbid condition, he is averse. A mother or sister is under strong temptation to humor a sick child, although she is perfectly aware that it may be to its injury. The profes- sional nurse should be as free from all this as the physician. She should feel, and make others feel, that, in the absence of the medical attendant, and subject to his orders, the patient is WORK FOR ViOMEN— Continued. 523 under her sole charge, and that no one must interfere with her. When a physician finds that his directions are systematically disregarded he throws up the case ; the nurse should do the same. Except in rare cases, there has been until recently no means of securing the services of a competent professional nurse — in fact, there was, strictly, no such thing — and not a year ago an able writer speaks of nursing as " a new profession for women." The first schools for the practical training of nurses in Great Britain originated with the efforts of Florence Nightingale, some thirty years ago. The first successful attempt in this country was made as late as 1873, b)' the founding of the Training-school for Nurses in connection with the Bellevue Hospital in New York. The plan was developed in accordance with that elabo- rated by Miss Nightingale. The requisites demanded of the applicant for admission included a fair education, healthy con- stitution, and freedom from personal defects, especially those of sight and hearing. The course of instruction was to last two years ; it comprised training in dressing wounds, applying fo- mentations, preparing and applying bandages, rollers, and splints — cooking, especially the preparation of delicacies for the sick. Instruction was also given as to the best methods of warming and ventilating the sick-room, and for promptly meeting the thousand emergencies which are liable to occur. The experience of the first year was not encouraging. Ap- plications for admission were presented from two-thirds of the States of the Union, but of the 79 applicants only 29 had the preliminary qualifications, and of these 10 were dismissed with- in nine months. The managers wisely, however, resolved not to lower the standard of requirements or the thoroughness of training, and they soon found that the fitness of an applicant for the work could be determined only by absolute trial, for many who at first manifested no special aptitude for the work proved in the end to be the most efiicient. Some of the stu- dents in this school have taken upon themselves this life from motives of pure benevolence, meaning to devote themselves to the care of the sick poor, but most of them study this new pro- 524 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. fession with a view to gaining a livelihood, and all receive the same general course of instruction. All the students are boarded and lodged by the school, which has a " home " near the hospital, and receive a small monthly stipend. Besides studying from text-books, and attending reg- ular courses of lectures, they are occupied in the care of the patients in the wards of the hospital ; they are taught how to make accurate observations and reports for the use of the physician, as to the symptoms and condition of the several pa- tients — such as the state of the pulse, the temperature of the system, the breathing, appetite, sleep or wakefulness, the effect of the diet, medicines, and in fact everything which may aid the physician in judging of the condition of the patient and the re- sult of his mode of treatment. At the conclusion of the two- years' course, and after passing a satisfactory examination, they receive a regular diploma, which is enough to insure immedi- ate and fairly lucrative employment. The heads of the nursing departments of several of the principal hospitals all over the Union are graduates of the Bellevue school, but the greater number enter upon private practice. Something more than one- half of them are now thus engaged in New York, and their earnings are greater than the average made by skilled labor, by either men or women, in other departments, and fully equal to that of the average compensation of female teachers in the New York grammar-schools. This training-school encountered at first many prejudices from various quarters — even from members of the medical profession, where it was least to have been expected. It was averred that a hospital was not " a proper place for a woman to visit" — certainly not for a young woman, unless, perhaps, she might be a sister of charity — and it was apprehended that trained nurses might set the authority of physicians at naught; but the profession has come fully to appreciate the value to them of such services, and they have not been slow to inculcate the same idea upon their patients. When the man- agers of the Bellevue Training-school first proposed to provide nurses for private families, the applications were so rare that it Ililfli » II AMONG THE WEEDS. See Note 39. WORK FOR "^OMEH— Continued. 527 was feared the idea of opening a sphere in this direction must be abandoned ; but they persevered, and the call upon them for graduates is now greater than they can supply. Physicians are beginning to insist upon having their patients attended by a well-trained nurse in whom they can confide, and surgeons not unfrequently make it a condition, for the performance of a crit- ical operation, that the patient shall be subsequently placed un- der the care of a person trained for such a position and approved by them. Without such co-operation they will not risk their own reputation or the life of the patient. It may be anticipated that the time will come when it will be held just as essential that the professional nurse shall be edu- cated in such an institution as has been described, as it is that the physician should have studied at some reputable medical school. But at present this can be attained only partially. There are several training-schools for nurses, but we suppose the whole number of their graduates does not exceed looo, whereas the Census shows that there are (including midwives) nearly 15,000 female professional nurses, a good proportion of whom it is to be hoped have, in some fair measure, qualified them- selves to fulfil the duties of their profession. In all cases of severe illness it is better to employ an ordinary nurse, if recommended by the physician, than for the well members of the household to share among themselves the duties of sick-nurse, or even, which is better, to devolve it upon one of their number. One nurse for an invalid is better than a number, just as one physi- cian is better than half a dozen. Health has, indeed, a value not in any way to be estimated in money; yet it has also a definite pecuniary value. While a man is sick he must spend more than when in health, and at the same time he is earning nothing. He loses, therefore, this extra sum expended and what he would have earned had he been well. No money is more economically expended than that which is paid to the competent nurse, when one can be had. The number of professional nurses is likely to be for some time to come altogether too small for the work to be done, and which they will be called upon to do more and more as the public be- 528 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNrTIES. come better enlightened upon this subject. This is emphati- cally one of the cases in which supply increases demand, and demand increases supply, and the limits of either in this de- partment of woman's work are far from having been reached. At present, and especially away from cities and large towns, and apart from those few households which are large enough and rich enough to be able to keep a regular nurse, the imme- diate care of the sick must be undertaken by the members of the family, and mainly by the female members of it. Almost every mother of a family, and very many of the unmarried daughters, will, at one time or another, be called upon to act as nurse, and not seldom in cases where a professional nurse would have been in every way desirable. It is assumed that, in case of any illness which threatens to be either protracted or imme- diately dangerous, a competent physician has been called in; and considering the number of those already in practice, and the number who honorably graduate from the great medical schools, it will be only in exceptional instances that the aid of a competently educated physician is not immediately to be had, even by the poorest. The first and paramount duty of the household nurse is to follow implicitly the directions of the physician. The medicines which he prescribes, and those only, should be administered. Our newspapers are filled with advertisements of all sorts of nostrums, which it is averred are a sure cure for all the ills to which flesh is heir. Some of these are beyond doubt valua- ble remedies when properly administered. The physician will know, or should know, if this be the case, and, what is of the utmost importance, when and in what quantities they may be properly administered in this particular case. Do not give them unless by his direction. Turn a deaf ear to the represen- tations of any neighbor who assures you that she has heard of some instance in which just such an ailment has been cured by such and such a thing. The more such friends you have, the more numerous will be the remedies urged upon you ; and the more of them you adopt, the greater is the probability that you will kill instead of cure the sick person under your care. WORK FOR y^OME^— Continued. 529 There are certain conditions as to exposure, food, and the like, of which no person who is likely to have even the tempo- rary care of an invalid should be ignorant. The sick person is always in an unnatural, condition of body, and, in a greater or less degree, of mind also. You have to think for him as well as to act for him. It is for you to prescribe what he should do, not for him to direct what you should do for him or he should do for himself. You must govern him — directly, if you can, indirectly, if you must. The appetite of an invalid is usually in a morbid condition, and to this you must be able to minister. It is not enough that you should know how to prepare the little delicacies fit for his use, you must know how to present them in a neat and at- tractive form, and at the proper moment. Sometimes the appe- tite is abnormally craving as to quantity or kind of food, but more frequently it is fastidious in both respects, or the very idea of any food is repulsive. A small portion of food, neatly served, and especially at an unexpected moment, will often be eagerly accepted when a larger quantity, coarsely served, would be invol- untarily rejected. Nothing more effectually defeats its own pur- pose than the persistent urging of food upon an invalid. Do not be perpetually reminding the invalid of his condition, even by the most tender inquiries as to how he is feeling. Of course you must sometimes make such inquiries, but the more they can be dispensed with the better. Your own observation will usually tell you better than he can how he really feels and has been feeling. There are circumstances in which silence in the sick-room, both on the part of the invalid and the attendant, is indispen- sable ; but this may be carried too far. Few things are more oppressive than the ostentatious — one may say noisy — inculca- tion of stillness. In the sick-room, as well as elsewhere, there is a time to speak and a time to keep silent. When you do speak, do so as nearly as you can in your natural voice and with your natural manner. Few sounds grate so harshly upon the abnor- mally quick ear of an invalid as the sharp, sibilant whisper which is thought by many the equivalent for speaking low. When you 530 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. have occasion to move around the room, or to enter or leave it, walk softly, indeed, but without any apparent effort to do so. Do not go tiptoeing from place to place. You cannot be too careful in 'all these respects, but the perfection of care lies in the avoidance of all appearance of carefulness. The sick-room must at the best look like a sick-room, but it should look as little so as it can be made to do. The medicines should not be kept where the invalid can always be gazing upon them ; his mind should be kept from them as much as possi- ble. When the time comes for administering them, they can be brought forth as though it were a matter of course that they are to be taken : the chances of any opposition or revulsion will thereby be greatly diminished. The less the invalid broods over his condition, or thinks upon what the physician and nurse are doing for him, the better are their chances of success. AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 531 CHAPTER XLI. AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. BY amusements we mean in general all those occupations which are carried on mainly for pastime ; those in which the labor is performed for the pleasure of doing it, rather than for the sake of any ulterior benefit to be derived from it. The same work may be an amusement to one person or at one time, and a labor to another. One man hunts or fishes for the sake of the game, and to him it is a labor; another does it for the sport, and to him it is play. Athletic games, from croquet and tennis to base-ball and cricket, are amusements to some ; but the " professionals " find them hard work — and, we presume, not very lucrative. But play within due bounds is as useful as work ; for one works all the better for having a proper amount of play. We hold, therefore, that amusements of all innocent kinds, at proper times, and not in excess, are among the most useful of employments. Men and women need, as well as wish, to be amused, just as really as they need to be fed and clothed and taught; and they are as ready to remunerate those who provide them with amusements as to pay those who furnish them with food, clothing, and shelter. A list of those who have found op- portunities for success in catering for the amusement of the pub- lic would be a long one. The stage, dramatic and lyric, comes foremost in the catalogue of public amusements. Of this, and the opportunities which it presents, and the disadvantages to which it is exposed, we have already spoken at sufficient length. Of music, when practised as a profession, whether by way of teaching or of performing, we have also spoken. But something may here be added by way of 532 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. suggestion to' those who wish to derive pleasure and profit from this and other amusements, without making them a regular pro- fession. Every town, next after its school-houses and churches, should provide itself with a commodious hall for amusements, capable of accommodating as many persons as are likely to be assembled for such purposes ; it is better to have some room to spare than not to have quite enough. The town-hall, if built also with a view to such purposes, might, perhaps, suffice. At all events, there should be some such public hall, to be open to the public upon suitable conditions. It might be well that it should be open to hire on moderate terms for any unobjectionable enter- tainment — a concert, a lecture, a reading, or even an exhibition of ventriloquism or sleight of hand. Where there was upon any occasion a fee for admission, a rental should be charged. But, the essential feature should be that, of a free hall, open, at least upon certain evenings, for free entertainments, more especially for musical ones, which there should be no difficulty in providing, if a few public-spirited citizens would take the matter in hand. In every town where there is a considerable German element in the population there is certain to be abundant materials for forming musical associations, vocal or instrumental, or both ; and it is among the things upon which we have reason to congratu- late ourselves, that this Rhineland scion has been so largely grafted upon American stocks. Every such association would be more than willing to play or sing without pay on certain even- ings of the week, provided a hall fitted for the purpose, and properly lighted, and warmed when necessary, were provided. If there were an afternoon concert, say on Saturdays, so much the better. Now let the public-spirited citizens, whom we have pre- sumed to exist, provide the funds for defraying the small neces- sary expenses, and place the matter of arranging the successive programmes in the hands of a committee, and the work would be done. If there were such an entertainment every evening, it would probably be worse for the saloons, but all the better for the community. Many a* young man betakes himself to the liquor-shop simply because he has nowhere else to go for AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 533 amusement in the evening. Many a family passes weary even- ings at home, not because the home itself is unpleasant, but be- cause it presents no variety. One evening, passed as has been suggested, would break up the monotony of the whole week. It needs but a small bit of leaven to lighten a great mass of what would otherwise be very heavy dough. One great problem of liv- ing is to make the home one to be contented in. One's town is in a wide sense his home. If this be a dull place he will always wish to get away from it. That life outside of our cities is apt to be dull is not to be denied ; and herein lies the chief cause of that craving for city life which pervades the country to an unhealthful extent. Make home cheerful and few persons will leave it for light reason. In many manufacturing towns the advantage of doing what has here been suggested has forced itself upon the attention of the far-seeing men who control the establishments without which these towns would have no existence. It is coming to be more and more common to do even more ; to establish a free library, reading-room, and sitting-rooms, open to all employees. Self-in- terest, as well as higher motives, prompts to this. It is for the interest of employers to be able to secure the best operatives, and to make sure of retaining them. It is for the interest of good operatives to stay in a place where the surroundings are pleasant, even though the wages are no higher than elsewhere, These manufacturing corporations can do this more efficiently and economically than the operatives could do it for themselves.. The cost is really so much in addition to the nominal wages, and should be so regarded by both parties, and not in any sense as a gratuity. Those who enjoy the benefits of all this really pay for them. One of our prominent thread manufacturers was asked why his firm took so much care for the operatives in his mills in this respect. " Because they make so much better thread," was the reply. Very many of the corporations look to the social and domes- tic comfort of their operatives. They build boarding-houses, which they let at a low rent, and only to persons of approved character. These are built contiguous to the, factories, and. are 29 534 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. under as strict supervision as any other portion of the establish- ment, of which they are really a part. The following is extracted from the regulations of one of the largest New England manu- facturing corporations : " The tenements of this corporation are expressly for the accommodation of persons in its employ. They are not to be underlet by the tenant of the com- pany, nor are persons not employed by the corporation to board-in them, except by special permission ; and males and females will not be allowed to board in the same house, except by permission given in writing by the agent. It is ex- pected that all children between the ages of twelve and fourteen, living in the company's houses, will be kept constantly at school. It will be strictly required that all who live in the houses shall be vaccinated, which may be done by a physician employed by the company, and at its expense. A suitable chamber for the sick must be reserved in each house ; and if any contagious disease is suspected, notice of it must be at once sent to the counting-room. The doors are to be closed at ten o'clock in the evening. Rude or disorderly conduct will at no time be permitted ; and the tenant will be held answerable for any such from visitors allowed to remain after the time of closing. " The tenants will, when required by the agent, give to him, in writing, so far as is within their knowledge, a correct account of the number, names, character, habits, and occupations of their boarders. They must send to the counting- room, on the first Monday of every month, a list of all the boarders they have taken, and of all who have left their houses during the preceding month, and must not discharge any boarder without first giving notice to the agent of their intention. If any person leave for the purpose of boarding off the corporation, immediate notice must be given at the counting-room. " Conformity to these regulations will be strictly exacted, and tenants will be held answerable for the observance of them on the part of their boarders. The tenements will be inspected once a month by the agent, to see that every- thing is kept in proper order, and in a manner satisfactory to the corporation." The regulations also contain strict provisions as to the daily ventilation of the houses, and for the cleanliness of every part of the premises. If the observance of these regulations be rigidly insisted upon by the agent of the corporation, who is its chief executive officer in every department, it will be impossible that disreputable occupations should be carried on, or disreputable persons find harbor within the corporate limits of these com- panies ; and for many purposes each of these corporation grounds is practically a city ward. The surveillance which the corpora- tion is thus enabled to exercise over every person in its employ- AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 535 ment is of a kind and degree to which no law-abiding person can object. It is a power which every good citizen desires that his own municipal government should hold and exercise. The result is that in those manufacturing towns where this system prevails, the standard of morals among the factory operatives is exceptionally high, and compares favorably with that of the gen- eral community. Our great sea-side places of summer resort for pleasure bear, in some respects, a close analogy to these manufacturing towns. The ground is in almost every case under the control of the pro- prietors of the hotels and other establishments, and no disrepu- table business can be carried on to any great extent, or for an)'^ long time, without their sanction, or, at least, their connivance. If there is a gambling den, a swindling establishment, or a dis- orderly house of any kind, these men must know of it, and could easily repress it if they chose so to do. They own the buildings in which these misdemeanors are committed, or, at least, have the control of the ground upon which they stand ; and they could have the leases so framed that their premises should be vacated upon proof of any improper practice. They may not be able to prevent disorderly people from coming there, but they can, to a great extent, see to it that they behave themselves while there ; and such people are not fond of seeking pleasure where good order is enforced. Very much of the attractiveness of these places depends upon the nature of the amusements presented. People visit them mainly for relaxation, for a change from the daily routine of their lives. The amusements will therefore be mainly of a light char- acter. One will hardly go to Coney Island to attend a scientific lecture or a literary discourse ; to hear an oratorio or a sacred concert. Of course, there is nothing to be said against those places of resort where the religious element is made a predomi- nating feature. A camp-meeting by the sea-shore is an excellent thing, as far as it goes ; but it fails to meet some very proper re- quirements of the great mass of pleasure-seekers. The amusements at such places must be mainly such as can be enjoyed out of doors. Men do not leave the brick and mor- 536 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. tar walls of the city to shut themselves up in wooden or iron walls, or even in a canvas tent, upon the sands of the beach. As it happens, the means of access to these sea-side resorts are main- ly in the hands of proprietors, who own also the railroads and steamboats running to them. The conveyance of passengers is one of the great items of profit ; and the amusements provided are chiefly for the sake of attracting passengers, and the cost of the amusements is really included in the price of the ticket for passage. Good music, especially that of a fine band, stands foremost among the amusements adapted to such places. It is, indeed, one of the very few out-door amusements in which a crowd can participate. An exhibition of fire -works is coming to be a necessary part of sea -side attractions. Music, as such, stands almost alone in this — that it refuses to be a medium for the conveyance of low and ignoble thought. The purest tones of the voice, or notes of the instrument, may be made to express impure thoughts by forcing them into union with filthy words or obscene gestures ; and the tune, when sung or played, may suggest those base ideas. But that is an abuse to which all good things are liable. A pen-knife is not a bad thing be- cause it may be made an instrument of murder. It is always possible to steal the livery of heaven to serve the devil in. Mu- sic may, perhaps, not always be positively ennobling, but it is never of itself debasing. A musical entertainment, moreover, presents little opportunity for gambling. Men will bet untold sums upon a half-second's time in the speed of a race-horse ; but one never hears of a wager whether the voice of a singer will touch a certain difficult note. There can be no doubt that many of the amusements almost universally concomitant with our pleasure resorts are highly ob- jectionable ; and it may be a matter of question whether the evils connected with these places, as they are at present conducted, do not outweigh their benefits. But it is a cheering circumstance that the popularity of these resorts, especially of those close by large cities, is very nearly in the ratio of the quality of the public amusements provided ; notably, of the free musical entertain- LOST LENORE. See Note 40. AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 539 ments. That which is really good is a leading attraction for visitors. It pays well to provide a good band ; and it pays best where the best band is provided. Taken in its broadest accep- tation, the question of amusements is one which should enter very much into consideration in the choice of a home. The an- cient Romans, not altogether unwisely, placed "bread and the games " side by side as things to be looked after. If v/e were to rank things in the order of their importance, we should say that a community should be well-taught, well-fed, well-housed, well- clothed, well-amused, and well-governed. Variety is the very essence of all recreation ; and recreation is actually, what it is etymologically, a " re-creation," a giving of new life. Anything pursued unintermittingly becomes weari- some, no matter how pleasant in itself. If the conditions of the life hereafter are at all like those of the life here, we imagine that the spirits of the redeemed will have an endless variety of celes- tial joys. All innocent amusements are to be cherished in their due place and degree. Some of them, at least, should be such that persons of all ages and both sexes can participate in them together. The home which is stratified into three separate lay- ers, parents, grown-up sons and daughters, and children, is not the ideal one. They should melt into each other in their occu- pations and amusements. Out-door recreations are still a desid- eratun^ for most American women and many American men. Croquet, lawn-tennis, quoits, and the like, are excellent ; archery is admirable, and there is no reason why a woman should not be a good pistol-shot. Social home games should not be over- looked. The man who invented backgammon or checkers or chess was a benefactor to the human race. The inventor of many a toy oi: game has reaped well-earned wealth ; and there is yet room for more such. Many persons labor too much. Not that they accomplish too much work, but that they are engaged too many hours upon a stretch. The weekly Sabbath — viewed merely as a day of rest, and quite irrespective of its spiritual relations — is a profitable institution. We should have some hours of rest and recreation at the close of each day. Daylight, in our latitude, at most 540 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. seasons of the year, is more than enough for doing all that any one should regularly perform. When men had little more than their hands with which to accomplish their daily tasks, a longer period was needed to produce what was required for sustenance and comfort. By the aid of machinery and implements not only is the possible product of labor indefinitely increased, but the time is greatly diminished. It has been estimated that, had we only the spinning-wheel and hand-loom of our fathers, it would re- quire sixteen millions of people to produce the, cotton cloth con- sumed in the United States, which is actually spun and woven by one hundred and sixty thousand. That is, one person, with our present spinning and weaving machinery, does as much work as one hundred could do with the implements in use less than a century ago. But the spinning-wheel and hand-loom are ma- chinery quite effective when compared with the distaff and loom of savage tribes. If they had only these, all the working popu- lation of the country could not make enough cloth to clothe us as we are now clothed. Savage nations must mainly clothe themselves with the skins of wild beasts or go naked or half- naked. The same holds good in a greater or less degree in agriculture, mining, fishing, and almost every industrial voca- tion. In all "of them machinery must inevitably produce great changes in the modes and conditions of our daily life. There is no probability that these changes will be less in the next than they have been in the last half century. There is no certainty that the application of machinery has reached its limit in any direction ; it is certain that it has not in most directions. The bearing of all this upon the subject of Amusements is evident. If, through the introduction of labor-saving machinery, all the necessities, comforts, and conveniences of life can be pro- duced by fewer hours of labor than they now are, then working men and women should have more hours which they can devote to recreation. It is useless to talk of providing amusements and recreation for men and women who have, and can have, no time to enjoy them, no matter how much they may need them. If the increasing adaptation of labor-saving machinery into every department of industry has had, and must continue to have AMUSEMENTS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE. 541 ■ — as is maintained by some — the effect to depress the condition of the laboring classes, who must always constitute the majority of the community, then we are forced to the conclusion that it is a public evil of a magnitude which cannot be overstated. This general subject has been touched upon incidentally in various places in this volume. It is proposed to consider this question more specifically in the next chapter. 542 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XLII. LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY AND WORKING MEN. IN considering the influence of labor-saving machinery upon the past, present, and future condition of those who must always constitute the great majority of the community — and who are, in fact, the community — it must in the very outset be ad- mitted that the use of machinery to displace manual labor does, in many cases, act unfavorably upon individuals. The artisan or operative who is even temporarily thrown out of work by a machine is in most cases injured thereby. Sometimes the in- jury is compensated by the increased demand for his produc- tions, occasioned by the greater cheapness. As before noted, there are more printers than there would have been if no other than hand-presses had been invented. In the printing of books there are more persons employed than there would have been in the copying of them, had there been only scribes to multiply copies. But the cases are numerous where there is no such compensation. There are, for example, fewer nail -makers re- quired than there would have been if nails were made only by hand, and one or two hundred nails was a good day's work. But, taking a comprehensive view of the whole question, there is in our mind no doubt as to the general conclusion to which we must come : Machinery — taking the word in its wid- est signification, so as to include the most complex as well as the simplest kinds of labor-saving implements — adds largely to the sum of human comfort and therefore of human well-being, however much its introduction may temporarily injure a few in- dividuals. Those workmen, indeed, who are, on the one hand, injured by being brought into direct competition with machinery. LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY AND WORKING MEN. 543 are, on the other hand, benefited by its competition with others. Every workman buys what he needs at a lower rate than he could have done had not its production been made more easy, and therefore cheaper, by machinery. Nothing which grows or is produced is of any value to man unless it can be in some way used — that is, consumed — either at once or hereafter. If in some South Sea island there are more plantains or cocoanuts spontaneously growing than can be eaten, the overplus is worthless ; if — of which there is no likeli- hood — the world should come to raise more wheat or corn than it can consume, the surplus must rot on the fields or in the barns ; if the cotton crop is twice as much as can be sold, one half of it would be worth just as much as the whole ; should we weave more cloth than can be worn, the excess represents just so much labor thrown away ; and, as the possible limit of con- sumption is being reached, the production will slacken or cease altogether, until the balance between supply and demand is re- stored. But what would be an overplus at one time may be a deficiency at one not very far distant. It is not quite four cen- turies since the greatest book -printers in Rome complained bitterly that they had accumulated some twenty thousand copies of their publications, and were on the point of ruin because there were no more purchasers. Guttenberg's first edition of the Bible consisted of only a few hundred copies, and it glutted the book-market of all Europe for years. Here is one of the innu- merable instances in which the possible supply has actually created the existing demand. The case is just this: We are constantly producing more and more, in proportion to population ; everything that is pro- duced is in the long run consumed, that is, put to use, or thrown away as useless ; increased consumption implies increased com- fort. Therefore the people, in the mass, are, with us at least, bet- ter off than they were. We are, as elsewhere stated, better fed, better housed, and better clothed than our fathers were ; and if we are not also better taught and better governed, the fault is our own. We have in that case neglected to avail ourselves of our opportunities. All this is owing, in a great measure, to the 544 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. increased use of machinery in manifold industries. Considered from the industrial point of view, the benefits derived from labor-saving machines may be thus summed up : The benefits arise from the addition which they make to human power; the economy which they produce of human time ; and the conver- sion of many substances, otherwise worthless, into products which minister to human comfort and well-being. If we, in imagination, put ourselves back into the times before the general application of labor-saving machines to our great in- dustries, we shall be able, in a measure, to apprehend what we should lose by their even partial abandonment. How many of the things which we have come to regard as absolute necessaries of life could we have had without machinery to produce them .? There are, indeed, few people who would, in this respect, be willing to go very far back in any one direction — to be obliged to use the tinder-box and flint instead of lucifer matches ; to fall back upon pine-knots and tallow-dips in place of kerosene lamps and stearine candles ; to replace gas by whale-oil ; to wear linsey- woolsey and homespun linen instead of broadcloth and muslin ; to give up steel-pens, and go back to quills. But there always have been, and we suppose there always will be, those who in respect to their own immediate vocations would have the world stand still. They have adjusted themselves in some tolerable degree to things as they have shaped themselves, and do not wish to be disturbed, although they are quite content that the rest of the world should be discommoded by being brought into competition with labor-saving machines. The British farm laborers did not wish to go back to the hoe and pointed stick in- stead of using the deep-cutting plough ; but they set themselves against cultivators and reaping-machines. The carriers did not wish to abandon their vans, and go back to pack-horses ; but ob- jurgated against railroads. The spinners and weavers were quite willing that the foot-wheel and hand-loom should keep the place from which they had driven the distaff and treadle ; but they broke up Arkwright's spinning - frames and Jacquard's power-loom. The London printers, who had learned to work Applegate's power-press, did not wish to go back to Stanhope's LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY AND WORKING MEN. 545 hand-press ; but when the Times introduced the steam-press, the premises had to be guarded by the mihtary. But it may be assumed that no effort will be permanently successful whi,ch aims to prevent the introduction of labor-sav- ing machinery in any case where it can do its work better or cheaper than it can be done by hand. If the machine is stronger or more skilful than the workman it will inevitably supplant him, just in the degree that it is so. If watches can be made more economically by machinery than by hand, they will be thus made ; because, when a man purchases a watch, or anything else, he buys it where he can do so for the least money. But skil- ful as the machine may be, there are yet things which require a kind or degree of skill which it does not possess. The highest and the rarest skill in any department of industry is that which is always best paid. The workman who can do something which is beyond the skill of the machine is not brought into competition with it ; and therefore his wages are increased rather than lowered by the machinery; for he in so far supplants the machine, instead of the machine supplanting him. Hence we confidently affirm, as the result of all experience as to the rela- tions between skilled human labor and labor-saving machinery, that, all things taken into account, the result of the most intelli- gent application of machinery to most branches of industry is a large increase of production coupled with comparatively high wages to the skilled workm.an, provided that the educated skill of the workm.an keeps pace with the improvements in the machinery, but not otherwise. The machine will supplant the man if it can ; and it can do so only by doing the work more cheaply. The workman can succeed in the contest only by keeping ahead of the machine in skill. It must, moreover, be borne in mind that skill is a com- parative term, not an absolute one. A man who would have ranked as a very skilful workman or artist a dozen years ago, would be at best considered to-day as a* moderately skilled one. Look, for example, at the very best specimens of wood- engraving produced twelve years ago, and compare them with those presented in this volume. The human worker has indi- 546 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. vidually two advantages over the machine. He can keep on increasing his capabiUty, while the individual machine is almost stationary ; to make any essential improvement in it is to make a substantially new machine. Moreover, the machine can do only the specific kind of work for which it was designed. The drill-planter cannot reap, or the reaping-machine plant; while the agricultural laborer can plant and reap, and do a hundred things, each of which would require a separate machine, and many of which can never be done by a machine. In making choice of an occupation, it stands one in hand to consider whether it is one in which he is likely to be driven out by machinery, for such a probability is a serious drawback. A wise man will not be contented with the ability to do a single thing, no matter how well he may do it. The farmer who con- fines himself to a single crop runs no little risk ; if it fails, he is ruined ; but it is not likely that all crops will fail in any one season. Let him have something to fall back upon in case his main crop fails. So of the craftsman. It will necessarily take much of his attention to perfect himself in the vocation which he has adopted. But no one occupation, however earnestly it be followed, brings all the powers of a soundman into exercise. There may, indeed, be now and then a " Blind Tom," who can do some one thing admirably, and can do nothing else; but no wise man will try to develop himself into any sort of a Blind Tom. The cases are rare in which a man will do any one thing the better just because it is the only thing he knows how to do. In a practical point of view, the man who can in case of need turn his hand and brain to several purposes has a great advan- tage when compared with him who must do one thing or do nothing at all. He has more than one string to his bow, more than one barrel to his rifle. There are, of course, limitations in this direction ; for, while most men can learn to do several things, often quite different, very well, few men can have time to learn to do very many things, and no man can learn how to do every- thing. The great problem of success in life is to be able to avail one's self of opportunities — opportunities, not only to seize a LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY AND WORKING MEN. 549 desirable position, but quite as often to escape from an undesi- rable one. One must not forget that the occupation which is a profitable one to-day may become an unprofitable one hereafter. The stanchest ship may encounter an iceberg, or be struck by a cyclone. It is well to have a life-boat in case of emergencies, even though there may never happen to be occasion to launch it. The bearings of the competition between labor-saving ma- chines and unskilled labor involve some further consideration. If machinery could not be used in ploughing and mowing, digging and lifting, and the like, there would not be men enough in our generation to do the work which is actually accomplished. Our railroads, for example, could not be con- structed at anything like their present rate by mere manual labor. It is clear, however, that the wages paid for this class of labor is higher than it was at former times. There are not at hand adequate statistics, except for agricultural employees. These, as given in a preceding chapter, show a continual in- crease, except when there have been retrogressions at times of general financial depression; and agricultural labor may be pre- sumed to be a fair type in this respect. ^ If a man can earn more money by working on a railroad than on a farm, he will seek that employment, and vice versa. But this book is designed for those who are in search of op- portunities for success in life ; and the man who remains in the position of an unskilled laborer has not attained that measure of success which we have in view. That, surely, is not the con- dition of life in which any man should pray to be contented, either for himself or his family. The first thing for one to do who finds himself in this condition is to escape from it if he can. The figures given in the chapter on agricultural laborers evince that, by industry, economy, and prudence, a young man may, in a few years, accumulate sufficient capital to enable him to own his own farm, and so make a new start in life with ample opportunities before him for further success. And what is possible for the agricultural laborer is not impossible for many other unskilled laborers, although the obstacles are greater and the opportunities fewer. One circumstance to be taken 550 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. into consideration is this : the agricultural laborer, while work- ing as such, is practically learning his future profession of farmer; while most other laborers, as such, learn only to do the thing which they are about. The hod-carrier learns only to carry his load ; the street-sweeper only to handle his broom. This brings us back to a subject to urge which has been a leading purpose throughout this whole volume : the importance of a more useful, and therefore a higher, education than has hith- erto been secured by our institutions of learning. The ques- tion was asked of a wise man of old : " What should a boy be taught ?" The answer was : " That which will be useful to him when he becomes a man." We grant that there is an apparent deficiency in this, for there are things useful to a boy, as such, which will not be useful to him when he becomes a man. The person who has learned to swim throws away his cork float or swimming-bladder. But the deficiency in statement is more ap- parent than real. That which has been useful to the boy, as such, is useful to him when he comes to be a man. Whatever has made him a better or a happier boy tends to make him a hap- pier and a better man, and it was wise to instruct him therein. But it is a grave question how much that is taught in our schools, with such infinite trouble to teacher and pupil, is of any real use to boy or man ? How much of it is thrown away, not because it has fulfilled its uses, but because it never had any use at all ? And the worst of this is that all this useless instruction takes up the time which should have been devoted to better pur- poses. And again, as no man can learn everything worth learning, it is folly that everybody should study the same thing. It is quite necessary that there should be men who can repair a watch ; but it by no means follows that every boy should learn the trade of watch-maker. It is quite desirable that there should be a few men who can read Cicero and Virgil ; but it does not follow that every boy should spend half the years of his pupilage in master- ing the Latin Grammar. There is an altogether groundless apprehension in some minds that the masses of the people will become too highly edu- LABOR-SAVING MACHINERY AND WORKING MEN. 551 cated. A common expression of this apprehension is : " They will get to be above their business. " That is, if common people learn too much there will be nobody left to perform the common work of life. Society will develop into the condition of an army in which all are officers, with no privates under their command. We think that there is no danger likely to arise in this direction. Do the best we may, there will always be enough, and more than, enough, of men and women who have not the ability to fill any other than the lowest positions. The crowding is at the bottom, not at the head of the stairway. The more that labor-saving ma- chines enable human beings to impress the forces of inanimate nature into their service in doing- the harder work of life, the more scope will there be for the exercise of the educated powers of our being. Towards this end we believe that humanity is tending under the wise government of the Creator. And in ac- tive obedience to his law and rule lie the World's Opportunities for advancement and success. 552 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XLIII. HEALTH AND MORTALITY. IN Great Britain and some other countries there is a system of registration by which the annual number of deaths is ascertained with a close approximation to accuracy. In the United States there is, unfortunately, no such system, except in about four States and in some of the larger cities. For the re- mainder of the country the number of deaths, as returned by Census enumerators, has always been much below the true number. In i860 the number thus reported was 12.5 to every 1000 of the population; in 1870, as 12.8 to the 1000; in 1880 the number reported was 756,893, or 15.1 to every 1000 of the population. " But this," says the Superintendent of the Census, " does not indicate any actual increase in the number of deaths as compared with the population ; it shows, rather, that the efforts made in the Census of 1880 to obtain more complete returns of deaths than had been collected in previous enumer- ations have been to some extent successful." As, however, there could be no doubt that the enumeration of 1880 was yet defective, an effort was made to- remedy the defect. The effort was thorough and exhaustive, and there is every reason to believe that a close approximation to the truth has been attained. The result, partly by estimate, is that the number of deaths in the United States, during the Census year 1880, instead of the 756,893 reported by the enumerators, was 914,442, being 18.2 deaths to every 1000 of the population. " The actual mortality for the whole country during that year," says the superintendent, " was not less than 17 nor greater than 19 per 1000 of the population. This rate compares favorably THE GHOST IN "HAMLET. See Note 42. HEALTH AND MORTALITY. 555 with that of other civiHzed countries. The death-rate for the whole of England during that year was 20.5 per 1000; for Scot- land, in 1878, it was 21.3 per 1000." He considers that "the low death-rate in this country is due to the comparative absence of overcrowding, and to the more general and equable distribu- tion of the means of supporting life, including, especially, the abundant food-supply of good quality for all classes of people." In all the statements which follow the figures are those given in the Census enumeration, not as they would have been in the corrected statement of the Bureau, where, when absolute num- bers are concerned, they would have been greater by a little niore than one-fifth (21.6 per cent.). In all such cases sufficient accuracy will be attained by adding one-fifth to the numbers as given. Thus, the number of deaths by consumption is put down at 91,551 ; add one-fifth, and the result will be 109,861 — a close approximation to the actual number; and so of the other diseases enumerated. But as in most cases the figures given are comparative, showing the relations of various causes of death to sex, age, and locality, the value of the conclusions drawn from them will be only slightly affected by the deficiencies referred to. Thus, when it is stated that of every 1000 deaths 87.57 were between the ages of five and fifteen, 299.66 were between fifteen and sixty, it is of no ' consequence what were the abso- lute number of deaths, for the proportion is the same, what- ever may have been the actual number. In the few instances where misapprehension would arise, the number given in the Census enumeration is followed by the correction enclosed in brackets. Thus, " the mortality of the white population was 14.74 [17.69], and that of the colored population 17.28 [20.75], that of the entire population being 15. i [18.2] per 1000." Of the 756,893 enumerated deaths 23,053 are unaccounted for, leaving 733,840 the causes of which are assigned. Of these there were 35,932 deaths from accidents and injuries of all sorts (including homicides and suicides), so that the en- tire reported deaths from all ascertained diseases was 697,898. The number who died from eleven of the principal forms of disease was as follows: Consumption, 91,551 ; diphtheria, 38,398; 30 556 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. enteric (typhoid) fever, 22,905; malarial fevers, 20,261; scarlet fever, 16,416; whooping-cough, 11,202; measles, 8872 ; diarrhoeal diseases, 65,565 ; diseases of the digestive system, 34,094 ; of the nervous system, 83,670 ; of the respiratory system, 107,994 — in all 500,728, or 72 per cent, of all the deaths from disease, leav- ing 197,162, or 28 per cent, from all other forms. By adding one-fifth to each of these numbers the actual number of deaths from any of these causes will be approximately ascertained, but their relative proportions — ^which is the main point under con- sideration — will not be changed. The death-rate is very sensibly affected by numerous special circumstances, among which are color, sex, age, locality, and climate, which will be considered in their order. Color. — The death-rate is considerably higher among the colored than the white population. Taking the whole together, it is 15. 1 [18.2] deaths to 1000 of population: among the whites it is 14.74 [17-69]; among the blacks, 17.28 [20.74] to the 1000. This difference is especially observable in those States in which the proportion of colored population is the largest. In the judg- ment of the Census Bureau " this difference is largely due to the relatively great number of deaths among infants in the col- ored population." Sex. — The death-rate among males is decidedly higher than among females. In males it is 15.35 [1842], and in females, 14.81 [17.77] to 1000 of population; or, for every 1000 females who died there were 1074 males, according to the returns of the Census. The Census Bureau, while giving these numbers, adds, without assigning its reasons : " It should be borne in mind, however, that the proportion of female to male deaths is some- what greater than these figures would indicate." The dispro- portion between the male and female death-rates, as returned, is very notable in the case of children. The Report says : " The proportion of male deaths of those under five years to all the male deaths recorded was 419.51 per 1000; the proportion of female deaths of this age was 381.85 per 1000." No reason is assigned why the male deaths of young children should thus ex- ceed the female deaths by 37.66 in 1000, or nearly 4 per cent. HEALTH AND MORTALITY. 557 Age. — The respective ages at which the deaths occurred were as follows : Five years and under 440-37 in looo Between five and fifteen years 87.57 " Between fifteen and sixty years 299.66 " Over sixty years 172.40 " 1000.00 It thus appears that a little more than 44 per cent, of the deaths occur before the individuals have completed the fifth year of their age, and fully one-half of these die during their first year. Locality. — The corrected average death-rate — that is, the ra- tio of the number of deaths to each 1000 of the population — as compared with that of other countries, shows that the climate of the Union, as a whole, is salubrious. There are, however, some portions iij which, at certain seasons, at least, it is comparatively unhealthy; but no very large districts are positively and per- manently pestilential. The Census Report gives for each State the number of deaths returned as having occurred during the Census year, and, by comparing these with the number of the population, the actual death-rate could have been positively ascertained had all the deaths been enumerated; but, as has already been said, this enumeration is manifestly imperfect. Still, even these defective data are of much value for purposes of comparison. As given in the Report, the rfumber of deaths to each 1000 of the population of respective States was as fol- lows : Alabama, 14.20; Arizona, 7.3; Arkansas, 18.4; California, 13.3; Colorado, 13. 1 ; Connecticut, 14.5; Dakota, 9.6; Delaware, 15.1; District of Columbia, 23.4 ; Florida, 20.5 ; Georgia, 14.0 ; Idaho, 9.8 ; Illinois, 14.5 ; Indiana, 15.6 ; Iowa, 11.9; Kansas, 15.2; Kentucky, 14.4; Louisiana, 15.4; Maine, 14.7; Maryland, 18.0; Massachusetts, 18.7; Michigan, 12. i j Minnesota, 11.6; Mis- .sissippi, 13.0; Missouri, 17.0; Montana, 8.6; Nebraska, 13. i ; Nevada, 11.7; New Hampshire, 16.0 ; New Jersey, 16.3 ; New Mexico, 20.0 ; -New York, 17.4 ; North Carolina, 15.0 ; Ohio, 13.3 ; Oregon, 10.7 ; Pennsylvania, 16.0 ; Rhode Island, 17.0; South Carolina, 15.8; Tennessee, 16.8; Texas, 15.5; Utah, 16.7; Vermont, 15.1; Virginia, 16.3; Washington, lo.i ; West Virginia, 12.0 ; Wis- consin, 12.2 ; Wyoming, 9.0. 558 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. The population of the Union being 50,155,783, and the num- ber of reported deaths 756,893,, the average death-rate was 15. i. In sixteen States the number does not vary from this by more than I in 1000 either way; in thirteen States it exceeds this proportion, and in eighteen States it is less. Some of these variations admit of easy explanation : The high death-rate in Florida is owing to the fact that this State has become a resort for invalids, many of whom die there instead of at their homes ; and the population of the State being small, a comparative few of these foreign deaths considerably affects the death-rate. The high reported death-rate of New York is caused partly from the fact of the city laeing the latiding-place of the greater part of the emigrants from abroad, the sick remaining and dying there. In the States in which the colored population is comparatively large, the proportion of unreported deaths is doubtless unusually large, rendering the death-rate apparently smaller than it actu- ally is. The most noticeable deviations from the average occur in the newly settled and sparsely peopled States and Territories, in some of which the death-rate is less than two-thirds of the aver- age. This is to be explained mainly by the fact that the immi- grants, who form the bulk of the population, are generally men in the vigor of manhood ; it does not, therefore, indicate of itself that the climate is unusually favorable to health. It may, more- over, be laid down as a general rule that to attain completeness in such statistics is much more difficult in a thinly settled region than in one more densely peopled. All these considerations should be taken into account when estimating the comparative healthfulness of any State from these mortuary statistics. It is not to be assumed that the climate of Arizona or , Dakota is more genial than that of Delaware or Vermont, because the death-rates are not half as high. It should also be borne in mind that the various conditions of climate often vary greatly in different portions of the same State. In New York the climate is very different in the Adi- rondacks,. upon the shores of great lakes, and upon the banks of the Hudson. What would be true of one part of Virginia or HEALTH AND MORTALITY. 559 California or Texas, would be quite untrue of other parts — and so, to a greater or less degree, of nearly every State or Territory. The nature of the surface, and the proximity to or distance from the ocean, are important; mere State lines are in this respect of no consequence, except as they indicate geographical posi- tion. For the purposes now under consideration, the Census Re- port divides the entire Union into twenty-one " Grand Groups," quite irrespective of State boundaries. Three of these groups, composed of portions of some half a dozen States, present marked distinctive features, especially in regard to the more prevalent diseases, and are treated with some detail : The North Atlantic Group comprises Rhode Island, and the portions of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, and New Hamp- shire bordering upon the ocean. The population of this group was 2,617,210, the deaths 45,358 — being 17.3 to 1000. The deaths from consumption were 16.5 per cent, of the whole; from diphtheria, 5.3 per cent; from enteric fever, 1.9 per cent; from malarial fevers, .04 per cent The Great Lake Group comprises those counties of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Wisconsin border- ing upon the great lakes. The population of the group was 3,049,412, the deaths 43,578 — being 14.2 to 1000. The deaths from consumption were 1 3.0 per cent, of the whole ; from diph- theria, 8. 1 per cent ; from enteric fever, 2.2 per cent ; from malarial fevers, 9.7 per cent The Gulf Coast Group comprises Florida and those counties of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas bordering imme- diately upon the Gulf of Mexico. The population of this group was 1,056,124, the deaths 16,124 — being 15.3 to 1000. The deaths from diphtheria were 1.2 per cent of the whole; from enteric fever, 2 per cent ; from malarial fevers, 6.6 per cent. Con- sumption, in this group, also causes more deaths than any other disease — the deaths being 11.8 per cent of the whole. In New Orleans, which is in this district the ratio of deaths from this disease is higher than in the Northern cities — being 15.2 per cent, of the whole — while in the remainder of the group it is 9.8 560 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. per cent. This prevalence of consumption in New Orleans " is probably due to the fact that the city is not sewered or drained, and has the soil-water very near the surface." It is doubtless true, as appears from the foregoing, that the death-rate in the northern region bordering upon the Atlantic is considerably higher than the average for the whole Union, and higher than in most other sections ; but the disparity is some- what less than these figures would indicate, for the population here is more congregated in towns and cities, so that the num- ber of deaths returned by the Census enumerators approximates somewhat more nearly than elsewhere to the true number. This section is decidedly unfavorable to persons with con- sumptive tendencies. Consumption is decidedly more preva- lent among females than among males — the number of males re- ported as having died from this disease in all the States being 40,619; of females, 50,932. The climate of the region bordering upon the great lakes is decidedly favorable to human life, as is shown by the death-rate above given. The portions of the Southern States lying upon the Gulf of Mexico, from characteristics of the population, present unusual diflflculties to ascertaining the actual number of deaths. The real death-rate is undoubtedly somewhat higher, compared with other sections, than is indicated in the Census returns, and is, perhaps, not less than that of the North Atlantic group. In regard to the comparative healthful ness of cities, the Cen- sus Report says : " The figures show that neither diphtheria, en- teric fever, nor consumption are especially the diseases of large cities. They appear to be the rnore prevalent in the small towns and rural districts which have no general water supply or sys- tems of sewerage, but obtain their water from springs and wells, and observe the usual custom of storing excreta in cesspools or vaults ;" and, as above noted, the exceptional prevalence of con- sumption in New Orleans is attributed to the lack of drainage and sewerage. In large cities, where there is a system of regis- tration of deaths and burials, the death-rate will be apparently higher than elsewhere, because in them every case of mortality / CLOUD EFFECT ON JIOUNT LAFAYETTE. See Note 43. HEALTH AND MORTALITY. 563 is ascertained and recorded, while elsewhere many deaths occur which are not recorded at all. It is estimated that " in the Cen- sus of 1870 there were 41 per cent, of the deaths occurring dur- ing the Census year which escaped record ;" and, in spite of the greater attempts at accuracy, it is estimated that the omissions ranged from 13 per cent, in Massachusetts and 20 per cent, in New Jersey to 30 per cent, in some other States. The Super- intendent of the Census says, emphatically, " The United States are at a marked disadvantage in comparison with almost any other civilized nation in the matter of vital statistics. We know not the number of persons born or dying in any year of our political history." We know, indeed, that the number of births must largely exceed the number of deaths, because the net in- crease of population exceeds by far the total number added to it by emigration from other countries. Leaving immigration out of view, the total increase of population must be just the excess of births over deaths. This subject has been treated at length because the consid- eration of health should be paramount. What advantage is gained if in securing wealth the time for its enjoyment is ma- terially shortened ? What chance will a broken-down man have in his efforts to succeed in life ? 564 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. CHAPTER XLIV. CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND RAINFALL. THE adaptation of any region for human habitation depends mainly upon its dimate, by which is to be understood the conditions of the atmosphere in regard to heat and cold, dryness and moisture, for these chiefly determine the character of the animal life and vegetable productions of any region. The United States lie wholly within the temperate zone ; but so nearly do they approach the tropics on the south and the Arctic circle on the north that the range of temperature is very great. The healthfulness of any region is also very much determined by its climate. There is no considerable part of the United States which can be regarded as positively insalubrious ; but each section has some classes of diseases more especially incident to it. Persons afflicted with or predisposed to one class of dis- eases will find some districts more favorable to their health than others, while these same districts would be less favora- ble for persons differently affected, or having different constitu- tions or habits. Temperature. — The heat or cold of any place depends upon its distance from the equator more than upon any one other thing; but there are numerous modifying influences. Elevation above the level of the sea is one of these. Thus the line of per- petual snow within the tropics is at an elevation of from 15,000 to 19,000 feet, sinking gradually towards the poles, until it touches the sea-level in the Northern Hemisphere in about lat- itude 78°. Within the temperate zones 300 feet in elevation is reckoned to be equal to 1° of temperature. The temperature of a place is much affected by its position in regard to the ocean CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND RAINFALL. 565 •or other large bodies of water, by the nature of the soil, and by the presence or absence of forests, or even of vegetation. The effect of this latter cause, however, does not consist so much in modifying the general temperature of the whole twenty- four hours, as in affecting its distribution between the day and night. The greatest extremes of diurnal heat and cold are ob- served in bare, sandy deserts, where a day of intense heat is often followed by a night uncomfortably cold. The influence of forests is directly the reverse. They sensibly lower the tem- perature during the day, and raise it during the night. Hence the essential difference between the climates of two regions, where the absolute amount of heat is the same, but one of them is covered with vegetation while the other is bare, lies in this, that the heat of the day is more equally distributed over the en- tire four-and-twenty hours in the former case, and is, therefore, less intense during the hottest part of the day. Close observa- tion evinces the same thing upon a smaller scale. During the warm months of the year the temperature is sensibly lower in a patch of woodland than in the open fields outside of it, and there is consequently a slow but steady outflow of air from the forest ; but the reverse happens during the night, when the tem- perature of the forest is higher than that of the open country, and there is consequently a perceptible inflow of air into the forest. The relations between forests and economic considera- tions are fully treated in another chapter. There is a very marked difference between the temperature of the Eastern and Western Continents within the same lati- tudes and at the same elevation. On the Atlantic shores of the continents the difference in mean temperature is equivalent to about seven degrees of latitude, equal to nearly 500 statute miles. The isothermal line of 59° traverses the parallel of 42° in Eu- rope, but sinks to that of 35° in America. Rome and Boston are in nearly the same latitude (about 42°) ; but the climate of Rome corresponds to that of Beaufort, N. C, in latitude 34° 41'. Of more importance to us is the marked difference in the climates of our own Atlantic and Pacific sides in corresponding latitudes. On the Atlantic coast the mean temperature of 52° 566 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. occurs in latitude 41°, on the Pacific coast in latitude 48°. In crossing the continent from east to west the isothermal line of 44° of temperature ranges through every degree of latitude be- tween 34° and 45°. This difference is not confined to the op- posite coasts, but is notably manifested in passing from the Mis- sissippi westward to the great central plateau at the base of the Rocky Mountains, where the temperature at considerable alti- tudes is higher than it is at the level of the Atlantic coast in the same latitudes. Fort Benton, on the Upper Missouri, is at the altitude of 2700 feet; but the mean temperature is 10° warmer than at St. John's, Newfoundland, in nearly the same latitude ; whereas, by the . general rule of altitudes, it should be 9° colder. At Fort Laramie, 4500 feet above the sea, it is warmer by 2° or 3° than at Boston, the latitudes being nearly the same. Denver, 6000 feet above the sea, has the same mean temperature as Baltimore, whereas, the latitude being the same, it should be 20° colder. The extremes of mean annual temper- ature in the United States occur in Southern Florida and the sandy plains of Arizona, where it rises to 76°, and in Northern Minnesota and Dakota, where it sinks to 36°. But the extreme range between summer and winter temperature is much greater. A summer heat of 118° in the shade has been noted in Arizona, and a winter cold of —25°, or 57° below the freezing point of water, in Maine, and nearly as much in Nebraska. Table XXX. shows the rainfall for each State and Territory, of the whole year, and the hottest summer and the coldest winter month in the year, the numbers being, whenever possible, the average for several successive years. Rainfall. — A regular and adequate supply of moisture is the prime essential of fertility of the soil. Without this, no mat- ter what else there may be, barrenness is inevitable, and there are very few regions outside of the polar regions which are des- ert from any other cause than the absence of water. Taking the' term rainfall in its widest sense, so as to include snow and fogs, all the fresh water of the globe has rained down from the clouds. There is a prevalent opinion that a gradual diminution is going on in the annual rainfall of the earth. There is, indeed, a very CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND RAINFALL. 567 considerable variation in the amount of rainfall from one year to another. There are wet years and dry years, and there seems to be a degree of periodicity in the recurrence of these, and em- inent meteorologists have endeavored to show that the seasons run in respect to cycles of about ten years. But accurate obser- vations have been made in Great Britain and the older parts of the United States since 1810, and the recorded results show that, dividing this seventy years into periods of ten years, the annual rainfall does not appreciably differ from decade to decade. Dur- ing the whole seventy years the difference between the lowest and the highest decade was as 938 to 1068 in the Eastern and Middle States of the Union, and slightly less in Great Britain. The change, moreover, as far as there is any, is by way of in- crease in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and on the Atlantic coast from Maine to Virginia, with a slight decrease on the South Atlantic coast." In California, where the observations go back only to 1850, there appears to be a considerable decrease during the last decade ; but it is not improbable that all these apparent variations are to be ascribed to inaccuracies in ob- servation rather than to any permanent change in the general amount of rainfall in the several sections, although there is a considerable difference between the quantity in a dry year and a wet one. There is a very great difference in the amount of rainfall in different regions. At Cherrapoonjee, among the Ghauts in India, the annual rainfall is 610 inches; at Singapore, 190; at Bombay, 85 ; at Madras, 45. In France it is 56 inches at Bayonne, and 23 at Paris. In Great Britain it is 50 inches at Galway, 39 at Glasgow, and 24 at London. It is 85 inches at Bergen (Norway), 38 at Milan, 29 at Brussels, 24 at Berlin, 20 at Vienna, 16 at St. Petersburg, 9 at Madrid. In Africa there are 86 inches at Sierra Leone, 27 at Algiers, 24 in the Cape Colony. In America, outside of the United States, we find 153 inches at Balize (Honduras), 90 at Sitka, 54 in British Columbia, 75 at Barbados, 83 at Kingston (Jamaica), 50 at Havana, 59 at Rio Janeiro, 8 at Cumana (Venezuela). In Australasia, there are 46 inches at Sydney, 30 at Melbourne, 20 at Hobart Town, 19 at 568 THE WORLD'S OPPORTUNITIES. Adelaide. In Tahiti and the other Polynesian islands the aver- age is about 45 inches. In the United States the average rainfall is very different in the different sections. The extremes are 70 or 80 inches upon the upper Pacific slope, down to 12, 8, or even less in the great interior basin lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, and portions of Lower California. On the At- lantic slope the range is from 36 to 60 inches, and somewhat less in the Lake region and in the valleys of the Missouri and Upper Mississippi. In those States and Territories the area of which is very large the amount is different in different sec- tions. Table XXX. shows (together with the mean tempera- ture) the average rainfall in the several States and Territories: TABLE XXX.— MEAN TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL. ^ Mean Temper jture. „. Mean Temperatnre. ■3 Sam- mer. Win- ter. Year. •3 ■ K Sum- mer. Win- ter. Year. Inches. Deg. Deg. Deg. iTwlies. Deg. Deg. Deg. Alabama 50 82 50 63 Missouri 32 79 28 55 Arizona 6 85 35 60 Montana Ter. . . 13 70 11 42 Arkansas 48 80 46 62 Nebraska 28 70 22 48 California .... 21 60 59 66 Nevada Colorado ...... 13 74 29 49 New Hampshire 50 68 27 46 Connecticut . . . 48 69 30 50 • New Jersey . . . 44 70 29 52 Dalsota 50 88 19 64 New Mex. Ter. . 20 70 • 32 51 Delaware 50 79 33 62 New York .... 42 75 32 48 Florida 54 83 53, 70 North Carolina. 46 72 38 54 Georgia Idaho 62 83 46 66 Ohio 40 39 76 66 32 37 52 60 Oregon Illinois 40 77 33 54 Pennsylvania . . 40 75 32 48 Indiana 38 76 31 52 Rhode Island. . 42 70 30 50 44 45 71 76 24 29 48 53 South Carolina. Tennessee 41 46 79 74 46 38 63 57 Kansas Kentucky 50 76 35 65 Texas 35 84 50 68 Louisiana 58 82 60 68 Utah Ter 15 76 27 61 Maine 42 69 23 44 Vermont 41 68 17 42 Maryland 48 79 34 56 Virginia 45 76 41 58 Massachusetts . 45 71 21 48 Wash. Ter 54 63 38 61 Michigan 31 68 27 47 West Virginia . 43 71 31 52 Minnesota .... 36 75 25 47 Wisconsin 32 72 20 46 Mississippi .... 58 84 43 66 Wyoming Ter. . 14 72 13 44 Whenever possible, these figures give the average results at different points in the States for a number of years ; but in some cases such data are inaccessible, and the figures represent only a single place. Thus, the observations for California were those made at San Francisco ; for Texas, at Austin ; for Washington CLIMATE, TEMPERATURE, AND RAINFALL. 571 Territory, at Steilacoom ; for Utah, at Salt Lake City ; for New Mexico, at Santa Fe ; for Wyoming, at Cheyenne. We find no record of continuous observation for even a single year in Ne- vada or Arizona; and in no State does the mean temperature indicate the extreme range of the thermometer, which often rises in summer many degrees above the mean, and in winter falls many degrees below the mean range. This is more especially the case in the central basin and in the prairie States of the North-west. The rainfall in nearly every section is amply sufficient for agricultural purposes if it were properly distributed ; but where it falls below twenty inches artificial irrigation is advisable ; if it is less than ten inches, irrigation is absolutely indispensable in order to secure any probability of good crops. The periodic- ity of the rainfall is also a matter to be taken into account. On the Atlantic coast rains occur at all seasons, but in the Southern portions mainly in the summer, and to this fact is to be ascribed the adaptation of the climate to the growth of cotton. On the Pacific coast the rainfall is mainly in the winter, although south of latitude 40° there are autumnal rains. In the region bounded by the Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountains rain in summer is almost unknown, and to this, rather than to any absolute defi- ciency, is to be ascribed the necessity of irrigation there. This peculiarity is specially noted in the chapter devoted to Califor- nia. The first thing to be considered by the agriculturist who has it in mind to emigrate to any part of the United States where there is a distinctively dry season, is whether artificial irrigation is practicable. If this cannot be had, the lands, how- ever excellent in other respects, will be comparatively worthless for agricultural purposes, and are suitable only for grazing. NOTES. Note i. IT woulcJs be difficult to select a more fitting frontispiece for this book than " The Promised Land," an engraving of a statue by Franklin Simmons, one of our foremost American artists. It expresses the energetic pioneer spirit that has looked over this broad land of ours, and, seizing upon its possibilities, has made the wilderness blossom like the rose. No feeble purpose is here depicted ; but the ardent gaze of one who longs for a wide sphere of activity, and has the keenness of vision to detect the grand opportunities which beckon from the horizon the thoughtful and the vigorous. Note 2. The rapid development of the West, and the magnificent scale upon which agricultural operations are carried on, are well shown by these companion engravings — " Ploughing and Sowing," " Harrowing and Reaping." One of the fields in Dakota devoted to wheat - growing contains 13,000 acres, while farms of 6000 acres are quite common. "A Harvest Scene" in Scotland makes a contrast which is by no means exaggerated. Note 3. "Irrigating an Orange Grove" and "Vintage at San Gabriel" illustrate scenes in Southern California so graphically described by Mr. Charles Nordhoff. He states that good crops of both grapes and cereals may be raised there for a series of years ; but then a dry year comes, and everything is scorched from the face of the earth. Orange groves must be irrigated every year. Want of water ruins many a crop in the rest of the United States. Why should not the farmers in all sections turn their thoughts to irrigation ? Would not the windmills which now dot every landscape in the North contribute some- thing to the solution of the problem ? Note 4. — Runners. * * * Iroquois was born in America, trained by an American, and had won fame on the American turf before he landed in England. He unfortunately 574 NOTES. missed the Two Thousand Guineas, but won the Derby by half a length, and the St. Leger, over a longer course, by a length. The throngs of horse-taming Yorkshiremen who crowd the Town Moor at Doncaster are better judges of genuine sport than the Londoners who make an annual holiday at Epsom, and the welcome they gave to Iroquois was warmer than the ovation accorded to him at Epsom. Iroquois is a brown horse with one white fore-foot, and shows splendid action and staying powers. In both races he enjoyed the benefit of Archer's riding, Lord Falmouth resigning his claim to that jockey's services in the St. Leger. Between these two great events he won the Prince of Wales's Stakes at Ascot, giving nine pounds. The success of Mr. Lorillard's horse is to be attributed- in no small degree to his American trainer, Pinqas, who, as a well-informed correspondent of the Spirit of the Times writes, " took a lame horse from the hands of his predecessor and won the great event of the year." How great a horse Iroquois is, is proved by the fact that since the establish- ment of the two races only nine double victories have been gained. * * * Foxhall, by King Alfonso, was born in Kentucky, and was purchased by his fortunate owner for the small sum of $650. He is a dark bay, with black points, and the near hind pastern white. He has a clean head, light neck, a back a trifle too lengthy, but a good barrel, and shoulders of admirable power. He was the first American colt that ever ran in France. The finish for the Grand Prix was magnificent. Archer was riding the French colt Tristan, and as they came along the homestretch rode his very best, and lifted his horse almost even to Foxhall. A shout of " Tristan ! Tristan !" was rending the air from thousands of excited Frenchmen, the horses were almost past the Jockey Club stand, when Fordham for the first time raised his whip. A cut on the shoulder of FoxhalL is answered by a grand leap forward, and the Grand Prix of Paris, with its 160,000 francs, is won by Mr. Keene. After his French victory Foxhall performed but poorly at Ascot, and Eng- lish critics felt inclined to think his triumph at Longchamps a mere accident. They were undeceived by his splendid performances in the great autumn locals. In the Cesarewitch he carried no pounds, and won in a common canter; in the Select Stakes, with 127 pounds, he again defeated with the utmost ease his old French rival Tristan; in the Cambridgeshire, with 126 pounds on his back, he defeated Lucy Glitters, carrying 91 pounds, by a head,, while Tristan came in third, with 107 pounds. Among the horses not placed by the judge in this last race was the Derby victor of 1880, Bend Or, carrying 134 pounds. In the Champion Stakes, ten days before the Cambridgeshire, Bend Or, with 130 pounds, had defeated Iroquois with only 116 on his back. But we must not rashly infer anything as to the relative merits of the two American horses from these performances, as Iroquois was quite fourteen pounds below his Derby form. Foxhall's double victory in the two great Newmarket handicaps has had only one parallel, the victory of Rosebery in 1876. Mr. Keene may well say that his "colt is the greatest horse in the world." The Cesarewitch course is two miles and a quarter in length, and Foxhall came in ten lengths in front NOTES. 575 of Chippendale — an exploit of which the greatest horses in the annals of the turf might have been proud. In the Cambridgeshire the finish was closer, but the great stamina of the American enabled him to struggle successfully with his less heavily weighted competitors. Trotters. The best trotters that flourished about 1830 could not do a mile under 2.50, but in 1856 Flora Temple reduced the time to 2.24-|-. In 1866, Woodruffs pride, Dexter, under the saddle, did the mile at Buffalo in 2.18, and in the following year in 2.17:^. Since that time Mr. Bonner's famous Rarus, Gold- smith Maid, Lulu, and others have trotted their mile in 2.15 or less. * * * If the pedigree of Almont, in the male line, were succinctly stated after Script- ural fashion, it would be somewhat as follows : The Darley Arabian, imported into England in the year 1709, begot Flying Childers, and Flying Childers begot Blaxe, and Blaze begot Sampson, and Sampson begot Engineer, and Engineer begot English Mambrino, and English Mambrino begot Messenger (imported into the United States), and Messenger begot Abdallah, and Abdallah begot Rysdyk's Hambletonian, and Rysdyk's Hambletonian begot Alexander's Abdal- lah, and Alexander's Abdallah begot Almont. The pedigree in the breeder's catalogue, however, follows back his dam and granddam in the same way, the first tracing through the divergent stream of Mambrino Paymaster to the Dar- ley Arabian also, and the second through Alexander's Pilot, Jun., and imported Diomed to the Godolphin Arabian. It traces also each male factor to his first, second, and third dam, and sets down his famous progeny and his time, so that the whole occupies two closely printed duodecimo pages. Make way ! make way ! The spirited young stallion Almont Lightning, son of Almont, is led out into the straw -covered aisle. He is good -nature itself, yet it would not be comfortable to be knocked by his heels into the middle of next week, even in play. What power and fire ! He is sixteen hands high, dark bay, and has black points extending up to the knees and hocks. * * * The stallion Aberdeen is a son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian by the star mare Widow Machree. The Widow was one of the gamest mares that ever lived. She would go in any condition of health, and in her greatest race had to be helped to her feet, and " could scarcely put one foot before the other " when she first came on the track. Happy Medium is another son of Rysdyk's Hamble- tonian, by Princess, the great rival of Flora Temple. Ethan Allen, Jun., repre- sents the hardy Morgan family. Note 5. "Sheep Tending" and "A Barn-yard" are both English scenes, introduced by way of contrast, to bring into relief the farm scenes of America. In " Merrie England" an average of twenty-eight bushels of wheat is raised to the acre, and frequently from forty to fifty bushels are obtained. Many of the farms are 31 576 NOTES. five and six hundred acres in extent, and the farmers who lease the land (they rarely own it) have a struggling time, and the laborers invariably end their days in the pauper establishments. Relief to laborers is characterized as " their share in the wealth of England.'' All of this struggling and humiliation go to sustain the grandest nobility on the face of the earth. Note 6. — " View of Echo Farm Buildings." "Jerseys." , This model dairy farm on the sterile soil of Connecticut is conducted on strict ; business principles by a business man, who, by raising the celebrated "Jersey" stock and using correct methods in all details of management, is enabled to command one dollar a pound for all the butter produced, and get fabulous prices for his animals. Note 7. — "A Home Lawn." Why do young men grow restive, and chafe to leave the farm 'i Because the fathers and mothers are too much absorbed in money-making, and forget that the bright and the beautiful appeal more forcibly to the young life than the prudent and the prosaic. What a potent influence a beautiful home exercises over a youth, following him through manhood and finally bringing him back to be gathered to his fathers! Every country home can be made a Paradise without the expenditure of much money. Its grounds, at least, can be em- bellished in a variety of ways, of which this engraving gives a hint. Note 8. "The Field Bouquet" shows how profuse nature is in supplying the means of an adornment which attracts the eye, and appeals to the taste quite as much as marbles and bronzes. Such simple bouquets as the one shown in this en- graving are always of great value for house decorative purposes, and are always sure to delight the lovers of nature and the invalid, as much as an expensive bouquet of hot-house roses. Note 9. — "Returning From Work." The artist finds more to depict in rural scenes than among the palaces of the great cities. Let no aspirant for art-honors, living in some obscure local- ity, think that he has not at hand an abundance of material from which to draw his inspirations. Note 10. " Turning a River " is a characteristic scene in California, where even the " everlasting hills " give way before the search for gold. NOTES. 577 Note ii. "Old Manner of Working" and "New Manner of Working" show the march of improvement in coal-mining. Note 12. "Petroleum Pumping near Oil City" explains itself. May we not ask, while our thoughts rest a moment upon this marvel of these later times, if there is not some other natural product awaiting discovery? Note 13. — ''Light of the Pyrosoma." Humboldt refers to a spectacle he enjoyed when passing through a zone of fire bodies in the Gulf Stream, saying, " One night among the Florida Keys our party had been drifting over the reef in silent admiration of the scene, when, in a boat in front of us, a singular light suddenly appeared like a halo, sur- rounding a fair young face, flooding it seemingly with golden radiance. A large pyrosoma had been captured, and its glass prison held aloft in pleasant jest — a living beacon to the more tardy explorers. The brilliancy of this beau- tiful creature was distinctly visible at a distance of several hundred yards, and that of one five feet in height can well be imagined." Note 14. — "Salmo7i Fishing." This engraving illustrates a scene common in Maine, where the rivers still furnish abundant sport to fishermen, and one that may again become common in rivers where salmon were once abundant, if the Fish Commission receive active co-operation on the part of the people. Note 15. — "Avenue of Hemlocks and Spruces." In this engraving we have an effect in landscape gardening within the reach of any one owning a few acres of land. It is in the power of any reader of this book who is engaged in farming not only to contribute his mite to the future health, comfort, and wealth of the country by planting trees, but to add largely to the beauty of his neighborhood by their proper selection and arrange- ment. Herein is room for the finest artistic perceptions. An authority on this subject declares that a landscape artist whp has any proper conception of his task is difficult to find. Note 16. "Snaking out Logs" is a scene in the California redwood forests. "Near the end of the log an iron hook called a 'dog' is driven in, where the drag is 578 NOTES. attached ; then six or eight yoke of oxen drag it endwise down the hill. Though the pitches they scramble down are too steep and smooth for us to follow, the oxen stay upon their legs and keep out of the way of the logs. But a single log must be of extraordinary size to content the driver. He frequently chains together two, three, even five or six logs, and starts up the slow-moving cattle with a train behind them four or five rods long." Note it.— "Rafts in the Dells." "The Dells" is an irregular gorge some ten miles in length, walled in with sandstone rock from thirty to one hundred feet in height, through which the Wisconsin River flows. The river here swells to a greater width, its broad expanse so smooth that the sky and floating rifts of fleecy clouds are reflected in its surface with such perfection that we seem afloat between hemispheres of light, clasped by a double zone of dark-brown rock and sand, and set in broken bands of green. The rafts will soon cease to add to the picturesqueness of the scene, for the pine forests have but a few more years of existence before them. Note i8. — "Main Entrance to the Cathedral, Seville." This engraving is inserted for the benefit of readers interested in art and architecture. Note 19. — "The Gates of Ghiberti." This is a representation of the doors of the Baptistery of Florence, a church twelve hundred years old. In 1400 these doors in bronze were designed by Lorenzo Ghiberti. When the designs were submitted to the judges, his chief competitor, who divided their opinions, besought them to decide in Ghiberti's favor, as the merit was un- doubtedly his. Michael Angelo, standing before them one day, said, " They are so beautiful that they might stand at the gates of Paradise." A copy in bronze one-half the size of the original was made by Barbedienne of Paris, and sold to Prince Demidofl". At the sale of his collection they were purchased for Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, to grace his residence on Fifth Avenue. Note 20. — "Columbus Before the Council." This, with seven other panels of the bronze doors of the Capitol at Washing- ton, was executed by Randolph Rogers, one of our talented American artists, who has given to the world many exquisite works indicating fine sentiment and fancy. A " Carved Decorative Panel " is by T. W. Dewing, an American artist, and is in answer to the demands upon art made by those who are creating beautiful homes. NOTES. 579 Note 21. "Evening" is by E. D. Palmer, of Albany, who has won transatlantic fame by the purity and originality of his art. His exquisite bass-reliefs, in which he has embodied with extreme felicity the domestic sentiments, or the yearnings and aspirations of the Christian soul, are among his best and most widely known productions. Note 22. — '■'■Sculpture over Door of St. Hubert's Chapel at Amboise," France. This chapel is said to contain the finest fifteenth century art-work in Europe. Note 23. — "Souvenir." This drawing was inserted not only as a specimen of the engraver's skill, but because it is an interesting example of the conversion of artistic material to purely decorative uses in illustration. It is one of the most graceful of the many ornamental conceits that Mr. Gibson's fertile pencil has produced. Note 24. " The Bay-window in W. K. Vanderbilt's House, Fifty-second Street, R. M. Hunt, Architect," is a specimen of the elaborate decoration which is to adorn the buildings of the future. Heretofore, as compared with Europe, we have but little architecture and feeble art. But both the architect and the artist are in process of evolution, and the genius of each will be found among the young readers of this book. Note 25. — "Hall aiid Staircase." The stiff, unbroken stairs of our primitive dwellings are to give way to ele- gant constructions like this, which admit of decorative effects otherwise im- possible. The "Frieze" also shows the direction of the mural decoration which now replaces the heretofore wearisome and empty areas of even our best interiors. Note 26. — "Modern Dwellings." Few residences display the just proportions of Design i. The original idea was suggested by a design of a villa by M. Aubertin in "Habitations Modernes." In stone or brick, the estimated cost of such a building would be $16,000. It contains fifteen commodious rooms. Design 2 is a good illus- tration of the prevailing style of architecture. Twelve or thirteen rooms can be constructed in it, and the cost complete would be about $15,000. 580 NOTES. Note 27. — ''Ebony Cabinet!' With this elaborate specimen of wood-carving is seen an " Oak Easel," a "Child's Walnut Chair," and an "Italian Sconce," all interesting to students of Decorative Art. The " Chest in Carved Oak " furnishes an example of an- tique carving which in some respects is not approached in these days. Note 28. — ''Parlor Decoration." This represents a parlor decorated by Louis C. Tiffany & Co., the foremost decorators of this country. Twenty years hence thoiisands of decorators will have an ample field for the display of their talents. We trust that some of the readers of this book may be among the foremost. Note 29. "Trenton and its Potteries" and "Decorating Room" illustrate the begin- ning of a great industry in this country. Enough has been accomplished to prove that there is in store for America a complete ceramic independence of the countries that now supply her with the finest wares, since she possesses both the inventive genius and unlimited supplies of the best raw materials. This beautiful " Faience Vase " is one of the most important ones belong- ing to the collection of Mrs. Colonel T. Scott. The United States Potters' Association, composed of over fifty firms, has founded an evening School of Design at Trenton, to which those employes may be sent who evince a talent for drawing, modelling, or decoration ; thus endeavoring to supply the artistic requirements also. Note 30. " On a Market-boat in North Holland " is an excellent piece of wood-en- graving designed to furnish an example for readers interested in the study of the art. Note 31. — "5a Cecilia," by Raphael. The celebrated painting from which the engraving is taken is in the museum at Bologna. The matchless artist has represented the virgin martyr in an ecstasy listening to celestial music, and letting fall from her hands a little port- able organ on which she has begun the concert finished by the angels. Note 32. — "Jacques Car tier Setting up a Cross at Caspar In 1534 Cartier visited Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence, and at Gaspd, in the province of Quebec, near the mouth of the river, erected a cross. The NOTES. 581 artist and wood-engraver have both succeeded well in this effort to depict a historic scene. Note 33. This illustration shows the decorative value of a few old plates. It is not a fancy sketch, but a photographic copy of the fireplace and chimney in a room in an old New England country house. The mantel is of plain wood, in old style, without ornament, and the excellent taste of a lady who loves art has made it brilliant with enamels. We only regret that we cannot give the colors to exhibit the charming effect. The tiles which surround the fireplace are blue- and-white, decorated in quaint old patterns at Delft, except the corners, which are Venetian. Above them hangs a row of five ancient blue-and-white Chinese and Japanese plates of various patterns, all superb in color. On the mantel stand from time to time such ornaments as suit the taste or the mood of the lady. To-day there are two old square bottles of Chinese porcelain, a pair of Sfevres cups of very delicate work, a drug vase of Italian majolica, and two tall vases of German glass, graceful in shape and rich in color. On the wall hang both paintings and plates. The paintings are water-colors, which generally harmonize better than oil-paintings with enamels. None of the plates hanging here are painted with subjects. It is not often that pottery or porcelain with subject paintings can be hung with other paintings. But each of these plates is a gem of color. The lower one of the three in the middle is a wonderful piece of old Japanese splendor, a wild intermingling of every color known to ceramic art, in leaves, flowers, and emblematic designs around the arms, or insignia, of a prince. Above it is a plate of "porcelaine des Indes," which might be mistaken for Lowestoft, and above this a large Delft dish. The plate at the right is by Wedgwood, and (a rare occurrence) on its back is the name of the person for whom the service was made — a New Englander of the last century. There are some very rare and very beautiful ceramic treasures in cabinets on the other sides of the room ; but this chimney is important to our purposes, as well as beautiful, for many of the plates are representatives of old services in the family, and all the specimens here visible, including those on the mantel, excepting only the Venetian tiles, were obtained in this country. There is no one specimen which for beauty and decorative effect is not worth much more than its weight in silver. It is a very easy matter for any one, with patience and taste, thus to make a room brilliant, cheery, and full of bright thoughts. There is probably no New England village, dating its settlement from the last century, which could not furnish material for many such decorations. Note 34. " A Sunday Morning in Surrey " is a fine wood-engraving by Hoskin, who ranks among the best wood-engravers of this country. American wood-en- 582 NOTES. gravings are now admitted by all critics to be superior to foreign productions. We would here suggest to our readers that first-class wood-engravers are always ' in demand. Note 35.--"^ Library Effecty A writer on Decorative Art says, " It is only a few years since the name of an American artist has become commercially valuable. Now that our com- mercial millionaires have begun to vie with each other as liberal patrons of art, we find the most ambitious undertakings in New York City ; and though five years hence the most elaborate efforts of to-day will seem comparatively mere experiments in luxurious splendor, it is hardly five years since a description of them would have sounded to American ears, at least, like fabulous extrava- gance. Not that the humbler tastes of the aesthetic poor are receiving less attention — on the contrary, our most famous decorators take special pride in such small triumphs over economical restrictions as the accompanying illus- tration of a small library effect by Mr. Samuel Colman, in which a delicate sense of proportion and of color is made to supply the place of expensive material and workmanship." There is nothing to prevent woman, with her ex- quisite taste, from filling this promisi;ig field of Decorative Art. Note 36. " Screens " afford an ample field for the display of the fancy of amateur decorators, and add largely to the elegance of a room. The engraving repre- sents one painted by Princess Helena. Notes 37 and 38. "Springtime" and "Art Connoisseurs,'' drawn by W. H. Gibson, are most beautiful specimens of wood-engraving, and will serve as models for those who wish to excel in the study of that interesting, profitable art. Note 39. — "Among the Weeds'' What is said of the "Field Bouquet" is equally applicable to this wood- engraving. The delicacy of treatment, however, is greater, and it can be char- acterized as a far better example of fine work. Note 40. "The Lost Lenore" is reduced from one of the engravings in "The Raven," the last work illustrated by the great French artist, Gustave Dord. It follows these lines : ' ' Eagerly I wished the morrow ; vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow — sorrow for the lost Lenore." NOTES. 583 Note 41. " The Sisters," from a painting by E. A. Abbey, affords another engraving for the study of those ambitious to excel in wood-engraving. Note 42. "The Ghost in Hamlet" is by Thomas R. Gould, an American artist who has created some remarkable and beautiful ideal works. In his productions we find a powerful originality, and an attempt to render in marble effects usu- ally left to the higher orders of pictorial art. Note 43. V "A Cloud Effect on Mount Lafayette, White Mountains," drawn from nature by W. H. Gibson,, is interesting to the artist, and at the same time worthy of the attention of the engraver. Note 44. " A Winter Rendezvous," by W. H. Gibson, furnishes more material for amateur engravers — those who wish to draw from the storehouse of nature. APPENDIX. Various Interesting and Valuable Tables front Haswell's Mechanics and Engineers' Pocket-book: re-written, and enlarged to about 850 pages. 1884. Harper Sr Brothers, Publishers, Franklin Square, New York. {Nearly Ready}) HUMAN AND ANIMAL SUSTENANCE. Least Quantity of Food required to sustain Life. Carbon. Nitrogen. Grs. Grs. Adult Man 4300 300 Adult Woman 3900 180 Mean 4100 190 These quantities and proportions are contained in about 2 lbs. 2 oz. ordinary bakers' bread. A man, for his daily sustenance, requires about 1220 grs. nitrogenous matter, and bread contains 8.1 per cent, of it. Therefore, 2 lbs. 2 oz. = 14,875 grains X 8.1 =: 1205 grains. Nutritive Vahies of Food in Grains per Pound. Pood. Beef Barley-meal Bakers' Bread Buttermilk Bullock's Liver. .. Beer and Porter . . Carrots Cheddar Cheese... I Cocoa Dry Bacon Fut Pork Flour, Seconds . . . Carb. Nitr. 1.854 184 2.563 68 1.975 88 387 44 934 304 274 1 .508 14 3.344 306 3.934 140 5.987 95 4,113 106 3.700 116 Foon. Fresli Butter Green Vegetables Green Bacon Indian-meal Lard Molasses Mutton New Milk Oatmeal Pearl-barley Potatoes Parsnips Carb. Sitr. fi.456 430 14 5.426 76 3.016 120 4.819 3.395 — 1.900 189 .599 44 2.831 136 2.660 91 769 23 554 13 Foon. Rye-meal Eice Red Herriggs . . . Split Peas Sugar Skimmed Milk.. Skim Cbeese Suet Salt Butter Turnips Whey Wliite-flsh Carb. Nitr. 3.693 86 2.732 68 1.4-35 317 2.698 248 2.9.55 438 43 1.947 483 4.710 — 4.585 — 263 13 1.54 13 871 195 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. Primary division of Food is into Organic and Inorganic. Organic is subdivided into Nitrogenous and Non-Nitrogenous ; Inorganic is composed of water and various saline principles. The former elements are destined for growth and maintenance of the body, and are termed " plastic elements of nu- trition." The latter are designed for undergoing oxidation, and thus become source of heat, and are termed " elements of respiration," or " calorifacient." Although fat is non-nitrogenous, it is so -mixed with nitrogenous matter that it becomes a nutrient as well as a calorifacient. Alimentary Principles. — I, water; 2, sugar; 3, gum ; 4, starch ; 5, pectine; 6, 586 APPENDIX. acetic acid ; 7, alcohol ; 8, oil or fat. Vegetable and Animal.-^— 9, albumen ; 10, fibrine; 11, caseine; 12, gluten; 13, gelatine; 14, chloride of sodium. These alimentary principles, by their mixture or union, form our ordinary foods, which, by way of distinction, may be denominated compound aliments ; thus, meat is composed of fibrine, albumen, gelatine, fat, etc. ; wheat consists of stafch, gluten, sugar, gum, etc. DIGESTION. Time required for Digestion of several Articles of Food. — Beaumont, M.D. / Apple, sweet and mellow " sour and mellow " sour and hard Barley, boiled Bean, boiled Bean and Green Corn, boiled Beef, roasted rare " roasted dry " Steak,broiled " boiled. " boiled, with mustard, etc " Tendon, boiled fried . . . ; " . old salted, boiled Beet, boiled . .■ Bread, Corn, baked \ " Wheat, baked, fresh Butter, melted Cabbage, crude " ■ crude, vinegar " crude, vinegar, boiled \ Carrot, boiled Cartilage, boiled Cheese, old and strong Chicken, fricasseed Custard, baked Duck, roasted \ Dumpling, Apple, boiled Egg " whipped " boiled hard " " soft " fried Fish, Cod or Flounder, fried " Cod, cured, boiled " Salmon, salted and boiled " Trout, boiled or fried Fowl, boiled or roasted Goose, roasted Gelatine, boiled Time. A. m. 1 50 3 3 50 3 3 30 3 45 3 3 30 3 3 45 3 30 5 30 4 4 15 3 45 3 15 3 30 3 30 3 30 3 4 4 30 3 15 4 15 3 30 3 45 3 45 4 4 30 3 3 1 30 3 30 3 3 30 3 30 3 4 1 30 4 3 3 30 Food. Heart, animal, fried -. , Lamb, boiled Liver, Beef's, boiled Meat and Vegetables, hashed Milk, boiled or fi-esh | Mutton, roasted " broiled or boiled Oyster " roasted " stewed Parsnip, boiled Pig, sucking, roasted "■ Feet, soured, boiled Pork, fat and lean, roasted " recently salted, boiled " " " fried " " " broiled " " " raw Potato, boiled " baked " roasted Rice, boiled Sago, boiled Sausage, Poi-k, broiled Soup, Barley " Beef and Vegetable " Chicken " Mutton or Oyster Sponge-cake, baked Suet, Beef, boiled " Mutton, boiled Tapioca, boiled Tripe, soured Turkey,roastedig;'J^*-jj- •;;;;;;;;;; " boiled Turnip, boiled, Veal, roasted " fried " Brain, boiled Venison Steak, broiled Time. A.m. 4 3 30 O 3 30 3 3 15 3 15 3 3 55 3 15 3 30 3 30 3 30 1 5 15 4 30 4 15 3 15 3 3 30 3 20 3 30 1 1 3 1 4 3 3 3 5 4 3 1 3 18 3 30 2 35 3 30 4 .4 50 1 45 1 35 45 30 30 30 30 30 30 Analysis of Different Foods in their Natural Condition. Ni- trates. Carbon- ates. Phos- phates. Water. Ni- trates. Carbon- ates. Phos- phates. Water. , Apples 5 17 24 15 8.6 4 19 13 35 L5 11 10 69.5 57.7 30 .75.4 . 5 ' ■ 3,5 73 48 1 35.5 1 3.5 3.5 5 \ 1.8 1 4.5 1 3 .5 3.5 84 10 14.8 50 14.3 90 73 14 14 97 50 Milk of cow. . . Mutton Oats . . 5 13,5 17 9.3 10 3,4 1,5 6,5 5 16 15 8 40 66,4 7 50 33,5 38,4 79,5 4 16.5 69,3 1 4.5 3 1 L5 .9 3.6 .5 ,5 4,5 L6 86 43 13,6 83.8 38,5 74.2 67.5 13,5 90.5 63 14.3 Beans , Beef ...;... Parsnips Pork Buckwheat . . . Cabbage Chicken Corn, Northern " Southern Cucumbers Potatoes " 'sweet. Rice Turnips Veal Wheat APPENDIX. 587 Nitrates — Are that class which supplies waste of muscle. Carbonates — Are that class which supplies lungs with fuel, and thus furnishes heat to the system, and supplies fat or adipose substances. Phosphates — Are that class which supplies bones, brains, and nerves, and gives vital power, both muscular and mental. From above it appears that Southern corn produces most muscle and least fat, and contains enough of phosphates to give vital power to brain, and make bones strong. Mutton is the meat which should be eaten with Southern corn. The nitrates in all the fine bread which a man can eat will not sustain life beyond fifty days ; but others, fed on unbolted flour bread, would continue to thrive for an indefinite period. It is immaterial whether the general quantity of food be re- duced too low, or whether either of the muscle-making or heat-producing principles be withdrawn while the other is fully supplied. In either case the effect will be the same. A man will become weak, dwindle away, and die, sooner or later, according to the deficiency ; and if food is eaten which is deficient in either principle, the appetite will demand it in quantity till the deficient element is supplied. All food, ' beyond the amount necessary to supply the principle that is not deficient, is not only wasted, but burdens the system with efforts to dispose of it. Analysis of Fntits. Pbuit. Water. Sagar. Acid. Albnmi- uous Sub- Btauces. Insoluble Matter. Pectous Sub- stances. Asb. Apple, white Apricot, average Blacicberry Cheri'y, red " sour " black Currant, red Gooseberry, red . . . " yellow . Grape, white Peach, Dutch Pear, red Plum, yellow gage . " large " . " black blue . . . " " red " Italian, sweet Raspberry, wild StrawbiM'ry, ** Banana 85 83.5 86.4 TO.4 80.5- 79.7 85.4 85.6 85.4 80 85 83.5 80.8 79.7 88.7 a5.3 81.3 83.9 87 73.9 7.6 1.8 4.44 13.1 8.77 10.7 5.6 8 7 13.78 1.58 7.5 2.96 3.4 2 2.35 6;73 3.6 4 1 1.1 1.19 .35 1.28 .56 1.7 1.35 1.2 a .61 .07 .96 .87 1.27 1.33 .84 2 1.5 .51 .51 .9 .83 1 .36 .44 .46 .83 .46 .25 .48 .4 .4 .43 .83 .55 .6 Sugar, Pectin, Salt, 1.83 4.7 5.26 5.83 5.91 6.01 3.74 293 3.17 2.48 5.49 3.54 3.98 3.91 6.86 4.23 4.01 8.37 5.5 Acid, etc. 3.88 7. .55 1.72 3.73 207 1.33 2.4 1.26 2.4 1.44 6.4 4.8 10.48 11.3 .23 5.85 5.63 1.28 .4 , 26.1. .47 .84 .48 .69 .64 .67 .8 .43 .37 .47 .46 .34 .34 .42 .54 .61 .66 .4 HORSE. Avtoitnf of Labor a Horse of avera<^e Strength is capable of performing^ ai different Velocities, on Canalf Railrond, and Turnpike. (Traction estimated at 83.3 lbs.) Veloci- ty per Hour. Dura- tion of Work. Useful Effect, drawn 1 Mile. Veloci- ty per Hour. Dura- tion of Work. Useful Effect, drawn 1 Mile. On a Canal. On a Eailroad. On a Turupike. On a Canal. On a Eailroad. On a Turnpike. Miles. 3.5 3 4 5 Hours. 11.5 8 4.5 3.9 530 243 103 53 Tons. 115 93 73 57 Tons, 14 13 9 7.3 Miles. 6 7 8 10 Hours. 2 1.5 1.135 .75 Tons. 30 19 13.8 6.6 Tons. 48 41 86 38.8 Tons. 6 5.1 4.5 3.6 Actual labor performed by horses is greater, but they are injured by it. Tractive Power of a horse decreases as his speed is increased, and within limits of low speed, or up to 4 miles per hour, it decreases nearly in an inverse ratio. A horse can travel 400 yards at a walk in 4^ minutes, at a trot in 2 minutes, and 588 APPENDIX. at a gallop in i minute. He occupies in the ranks a front of 40 inches and a depth of 10 feet ; in a stall, from yk to 4J feet front ; and at a picket, 3 feet by 9 ; and his average weight = 1000 lbs. A horse, carrying a soldier and his equipments (225 lbs.), can travel 25 miles in a day (8 hours). A draught - horse can draw 1600 lbs. 23 miles a day, weight of carriage in- cluded. The ordinary work of a horse may be stated at 22,500 lbs., raised i foot in a minute, for 8 hours a day. In a horse-mill a horse moves at the rate of 3 feet in a second. The diameter of the track should not be less than 25 feet. A horse-power in machinery is estimated at 33,000 lbs., raised i foot in a min- ute; but, as a horse can exert that force but 6 hours a day, one machinery horse- power is equivalent to that of 4i horses. The expense of conveying goods at 3 miles per hour per horse teams being i.the expense at 4i miles will be 1.33, and so on — the expense being doubled when the speed is si miles per hour. The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of 5 men. The daily allowance of water for a horse should be 4 gallons. Hauling Stone. — A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road will travel i.i miles per hour of trip. A four-horse team will haul from 25 to 36 cubic feet of limestone at each load. The time expended in loading, unloading, etc., including delays, averages 35 min- utes per trip. The cost of loading and unloading a cart, using a horse-crane at the quarry and unloading by hand, when labor is $1.25 per day, and a horse 75 cents, is 25 cents per perch 1=24.75 cubic feet. The work done by an animal is greatest when" the velocity with which he moves is \ of the greatest with which he can move when not impeded, and the force then exerted .45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a dead pull. Labor ufon Embankments. — Ellwood Morris. Single Horse and Cart. — A horse with a loaded dirt-cart, employed in excava- tion and embankment, will make 100 lineal feet of trip, or 200 feet in distance per minute, while moving. The time lost in loading, dumping, awaiting, etc. = 4 min- utes per load. A medium laborer will load with a cart in 10 hours, of the following earths, measured in the bank : Gravelly Earth, 10; Loam, 12 ; and Sandy Earth, 14 cubic yards. Earth from a natural excavation occupies \ more space than when transported to an embankment. Carts are loaded as follows : Descending Hauling, -^ of a cubic yard in bank ; Lefvel Hauling, f of a cubic yard in bank ; Ascending Hauling, ^^ of a cubic yard in bank. Loosening, etc. — In Loam, a three-horse plough will loosen from 250 to 800 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. The cost of loosening earth to be loaded will be from i to 8 cents per cubic yard when wages are 105 cents per day. The cost of trimming and bossing is about 2 cents per cubic yard. Scooping. -7— K scoop-load will measure -j^jy of a cubic yard, measured in excavation. The time lost in loading, unloading, and turning, per load, is \\ minutes. The time lost for every 70 feet of distance, from excavation to bank, and re- turning, is I minute. In Double Scooping, the time lost in loading, turning, etc., will be i minute ; and in Single Scooping it will be i^ minutes. APPENDIX. 589 M-EN. Mean effect of power of men working to best practicable advantage is raising of 70 lbs. I foot high in a second for 10 hours per day = 4200 foot-pounds per minute. Windlass. — Two men, working at a windlass at right-angles to each other, can raise 70 lbs. more easily than one man can 30 lbs. ' Labor. — A man of ordinary strength can exert a force of 30 lbs. for 10 hours in a day, with a velocity of 2.5 feet in a second = 4500 lbs. raised one foot in a minute =:.2 of work of a horse. A man can travel without a load, on level ground, during 8.5 hours a day, at the rate of 3.7 miles an hour, or 31.25 miles a day. He can carry in lbs. 11 miles in a day. Daily allowance of water, i gallon for all purposes ; and he requires from 220 to 240 cube feet of fresh air per hour. A porter going short distances, and returning unloaded, can carry 135 lbs. 7 miles a day, or he can transport, in a wheelbarrow, 150 lbs. 10 miles in a day. Crane. — The maximum power of a man at a crane, as determined by Mr. Field, for constant operation, is 15 lbs., exclusive of frictional resistance, which, at a ve- locity of 220 feet per minute=3300 foot-pounds, and when exerted for a period of 2.5 minutes was 17.329 foot-pounds per minute. Pile-driving. — G. B. Bruce states that, in average work at a pile-driver, a laborer, for 10 hours, exerts a force of 16 lbs. plus resistance of gearing, and at a velocity of 270 feet per minute, making one blow every four minutes. Rowing. — A man rowing a boat i mile in 7 minutes performs the labor of 6 fully worked laborers at ordinary occupations of 10 hours per day. Drawing or Pushing. — A man drawing a boat in a canal can transport 110,000 lbs. for a distance of 7 miles, and produce 156 times the effect of a man weighing 1 54 lbs. and walking 31.25 miles in a day; and he can push on a horizontal plane 20 lbs. with a velocity of 2 feet per second for 10 hours per day. Tread-mill. — A man either inside or outside of a tread-mill can raise 30 lbs. at a velocity of 1.3 feet per second for 10 hours =: 1,404,000 foot-pounds. Pulley. — A man can raise by a single pulley 36 lbs. with a velocity of .8 of a foot per second for 10 hours. Walking. — A man can pass over 12.5 times the space horizontally that he can vertically, and, according to J. Robison, by walking in alternate directions upon a platform supported on a fulcrum in its centre, he can, weighing 165 lbs., produce an effect of 3,984,000 foot-pounds for 10 hours per day. Pump, Crank, Bell, and Rowing. — Mr. Buchanan ascertained that, in working a pump, turning a crank, ringing a bell, and rowing a boat, the effective power of a man is as the numbers 100, 167, 227, and 248. Pumping. — A practised laborer can raise, during 10 hours, 1,000,000 lbs. of water I foot in height with a properly designed and constructed pump. Crank. — A man can exert on the handle of a screw-jack of 1 1 inches radius for a short period a force of 25 lbs., and continuously 15 lbs.; a net power of 20 lbs. Mr. J. Field's tests gave 11.5 lbs. as easily attained, 17.3 as difiicult, and 27.6 with great difficulty. Mowing. — A man can mow an acre of grass in i day. Reaping. — A man can reap an acre of wheat in 2 days. Ploughing. — A man and horse .8 of an acre per day. Day's Work. — D. K. Clark. Laborer. — Carrying bricks or tiles, net load 106 lbs. =:6oo lbs. i mile. Carrying coal in a mine, net load 95 to 1 15 lbs. = 342 lbs. i mile. Loading coke into a wagon, net load 100 lbs. = 270 lbs. i mile. Loading a boat with coal, net load 190 lbs.= 1230 lbs. i mile, or 20 cube yards of earth in a wagon. 590 APPENDIX. Digging stubble-land .055 of an acre per day, or 2000 cube feet of superficial earth. Breaking 1.5 cube yards hard stone into 2-inch'cubes. Quarrying. — A man can quarry from 5 to 8 tons of rock per day. A foot-soldier travels in i minute, in common time, 90 steps = 70 yards. He occupies in ranks a front of 20 inches, and a depth of 13, without a knapsack ; interval between the ranks is 13 inches. Average weight of men 1 50 pounds each, and five men can stand in a space of i square yard. CRUSHING STRENGTH. The Crushing Strength of any body is in proportion to the area of its section, and inversely as its height. In tapered columns the strength is determined by the least diameter. Crushing Strength of various Materials, deduced from the Experiments of Maj. Wade, Hodgkin- sou, and Capt. Meigs, U. S. A. {Reduced to a uniform Measure of One Square Inch.) ' Figures and Matebiat.. Cast Ikon. American, gun-metal " mean English, Low Moor, No. 1 " " No. 3 " Clyde, No. 3 " Stirling, mean of all " " extreme Wkought Ieon. American " mean English I Various Metals. Fine brass Cast copper Cast steel Cast tin Lead Woods. Ash Beech Birch Box Cedar, red Chestnut Elm Hickory, white Locust Mahogany, Spanish Maple Oak, American white " Canadian white " " live " English I Pine, pitch " white " yellow Spruce, white Sycamore Teak Walnut Stones, Cements, etc. Bi'ick, machine-pressed ] Crushing Weight. Lbs. 174,803 129,000 63,450 93,330 106,039 133,395 134,400 137,720 83,500 65,300 40,000 164,800 117,000 395,000 15,500 7,730 6,663 6,963 7,969 10,513 5,968 5,350 6,831 8,935 9,113 8,198 8,150 6,100 5,983 6,8.50 9,500 6,484 8,947 5,775 8,200 5,050 7,083 13,100 6,645 14,316 Figures and Material. Brick, common \ Clay, fine, baked " " rolled and baked Common brick masonry ■! Crown-glass ■. Craigleith Limestone, English . ] Aberdeen granite. .. " -j Arbroath " Caithness " Limestone " Portland " -j Portland cement ... " " mean " Portland oolite " Fire-brick, Stourbridge Freestone, Belleville " Caen " Connecticut " Dorchester Little Falls Gneiss Granite, Patapsco " Quincy Marble, Baltimore, large " " small " East Chester " Hastings, N. X " Italian " Lee, Mass " Montgomery Co., Pa. . . . " Stookbridge " Symington, large " fine crystal " " strata horizontal " " strata vertical .. . Mortar, good " common Normandy Caen Portland cement 1, sand 1 Koman " Sandstone, Adelaide " Aquia Creek " Seneca Stock brick Sydney " CrushiTig Weight. 4,000 800 175 400 800 500 31,000 7,300 2,185 8,400 10,363 7,884 6,493 3,065 15,583 4,570 15,000 8,300 3,850 1,717 3,533 1,088 3,319 3,069 3,991 19,600 5,340 15,300 8,057 18,061 13,917 18,941 13,624 33,703 8,950 10,382 11,156 18,348 10,134 9,334 240 120 1,543 1,380 843 3,800 5,340 10,763 3,177 3,228 APPENDIX. 591 Strength of Ice. Thickness : 2 inches will bear infantry ; 4 inches will bear cavalry or light guns ; 6 inches will bear heavy field-guns ; 8 inches will bear, upon sledges, a weight not exceeding 1000 lbs. per square foot. TENSILE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Weight or Power required to Tear asunder one Square Inch, METALS. Lbs. Lbs. 34,000 36,000 43,260 61,200 36,800 14,076 16,125 23,468 13,735 25,764 31,829 19,484 45.970 37,332 103,000 72,000 59,500 - 56,000 53,300 53,350 53,913 53,900 65,000 44,750 55,800 48,000 63,000 ' Iron, plates, mean,' English 51,000 53,800 48,800 30,000 73.600 8o;ooo 53,400 1,800 3,320 8,580 53,000 40,000 142,000 88,657 133,000 104,000 134,000 170,980 173,817 179,980 96,300 93,700 150,000 5,000 2,132 3,500 16,000 " rolled * ' cast, Ameiicau *' " crosswise '* wire '* inferior, bar bolt " wire, American Iron, cast. Low Moor, No. 2 " Ch'de, No. 1 16d'iam. ... " scrap " No. 3 " Calder, No. 1 Lead, east " milled '* mean of American Platinum, wire " mean * of JSn>i;lish . Silver, cast " Greenwood, American Steel, cast, maxim um " " mean " blistered, soft ] " shear " best Swedish bar " Russian bar " Euglisli bar " chrome, mean " rivets, American " puddled, extreme " bolts " American Tool Company. . Tin, cast, block " plates, boiler, American.. •! Zinc *' sheet Lake Superior and Iron Mountain charcoal bloom iron has resisted 90,000 lbs. per square inch. COMPOSITIONS. Lbs. Lbs. Gold 5, Copper 1 50,000 43,000 18,000 17,698 56,788 Copper 10, Tin 1 32,000 30,000 50,000 11,000 48,708 " 8, " 1, gun-metal " 8, " 1, small bars Tin 10, Antimony 1 " yellow Bronze, least " greatest WOODS. Ash Beech Box Bay Cedar Chestnut, sweet. . . Cypress Deal, Christiania.. Elm Lance Lignumvitje Locust Mahogany , " Spanish . Lbs. 14,000 11,500 20,000 14,000 11,400 10,500 6,000 12,400 13,400 23,000 11,800 20,500 21,000 13,000 8.000 Maple Oak, American white . " ' English " seasoned " African Pear Pine, pitch " larch " American white. Poplar Spruce, white Sycamore Teak Walnut Willow Lbs. 10,500 11,.500 10,000 13,600 14,500 9,800 12,000 9,500 11,800 7,000 10,290 13,000 14,000 7,800 13,000 ■ By Commissioners, on application of iron to railway structures. 32 .5.92 APPENDIX. MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. Brick, well turned "« fire " inferior -j Cement, blue-stone " hydraulic ^ Harwich " Portland, 6 mos " Sheppy Portland 1, sand 3 Chalk Glass, crown Gutta-percha Hydraulic lime " " mortar Ivory Leather belts Lbs. 750 65 290 100 77 ■234 30 414 24 380 118 2,346 3,500 140 140 16,000 330 Limestone \ Marble, Italian " white Mortar, 12 years old Plaster of Paris ^ Hope, Manila , " hemp, tarred ,.. " wire Sandstone, fine grain Slate Stone, Bath " Craigleith ... " Hailes " Portland | Whalebone Lbs. 670 2,800 5,200 9,000 60 72 9,000 15,000 37,000 200 12,000 353 400 360 857 1,000 7,600 WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. Weights and Volumes of various Substances in Ordinary Use. SUBSTANOEB. Cabe Foot. Cube luch. Mbtais. B-s |^?Pr'33'[ " gun-metal.. sheets " wire Copper, cast ' " plates Iron, cast " gun-metal " heavy forging . . . " plates " wrought bare Lead, cast. " rolled Mercury, 60° Steel, plates " soft Tiu Zinc, cast " rolled Woods. Ash Bay Blue Gum Cork Cedar Chestnut Hickory, pig-nnt " shell-bark . . , Lignumvitse , Logwood Mahogany, Honduras. Oak, Canadian ' English ' live, seasoned — ' white, dry " upland. . . ne, pitch red white well-seasoned .. yellow Us. 488.75 543.75 513.6 524.16 547.25 543.625 450.437 466.5 479.5 481.5 486.75 709.5 711.75 848.7487 487.75 489.562 455.687 428.812 449.437 52.812 51.375 64.3 15 35.062 38.125 49.5 43.12-) 83.313 57.063 35 66.437 54.5 58.25 66.75 58.75 42.937 41.25 36.875 34.635 29.563 33.813 Lis. .2829 .3147 .297 .3033 .3179 .3167 .2607 .27 .3775 .3787 .2816 .4106 .4119 .491174 .2823 .2833 .2637 .2482 .2601 Cube Feet in a Ton. 42.414 43.601 34.837 . 149.333 63.886 58.7.54 4.5.252 51.943 26.886 39.255 64 33.714 41.101 38.455 33.558 41.674 52169 54.303 60.745 64.693 75.773 66.248 SUBBTAKOES. Woods. Spruce. :.. . Walnut, black, dry. . WiUow " dry Miscellaneous. Air Basalt, mean Brick, fire " mean Coal, anthracite bituminous, mean. " Cannel " Cumberland " Welsh, mean Coke Cotton, bale, mean " " pressed. ] Earth, clay " common soil " " gravel.. " diy, sand " loose " moist, sand " mould " mud " with gravel Granite, Qnincy " Susquehanna . . Gypsum Hay, bale " hard pressed Ice, at32° India-rubber " vulcanized Limestone Marble, mean Mortar, dry, mean Plaster of Paris Water, rain " salt " at 62° Cube Foot. Lbs. 3L25 3L25 36.562 30.375 .075291 175 137.562 102 89.75 103.5 80 94.875 84.687 81.25 62.5 14.5 20 25 120.625 137.125 109.312 120 93.75 128.125 128.135 101.875 126.25 165.75 169 135.5 12 25 57.5 56.437 197.25 167.875 97.98 73.5 62.5 64.313 63.355 Cube Feet iu a Ton. 71.68 71.68 61.365 73.744 12.8 16.284 31.961 34.958 21.854 28 33.609 26.451 27.569 35.84 154.48 114 89.6 18.569 16.335 20.49 18.667 33.893 17.482 17.482 21.987 17.743 13.514 13.254 16.531 186.66 89.6 38.95 39.69 ii.355 13.343 23.862 30.476 35.84 34.83 35.955 APPENDIX. 593 BRICKS. Variations in dimensions by various manufacturers, and different degrees of intensity of their burning, render a table of exact dimensions of different manu- factures and classes of bricics altogether impracticable. As an exponent, however, of the ranges of their dimensions, following averages are given : Deboription. Ins. Desobiption. Ins. Baltimore front. . . Philadelphia" ... Wilmington " ... Croton " ... Colahaugh English ordinary.. " Lond. stock Dutch clinker •8.35x4,125x3.375 8.5 X4 x2,35 8,35x3.625x3.375 9 x4.5 x3.5 8.75x4,35 x3,5 6,35x3 xl.5 Maine 7.5 X3.375x2,375 8,5 x4.125x3.375 8 x3.5 X2.35 ( 7.75 X3.635x2.25 ( 8 X4.135x3.5 9.135x4.635x3.375 8.875x4.5 X3.635 Milwaukee North River Stoui'bridge Are- ) brick f American do., N.T. In consequence of the variations in dimensions of bricks, and thickness of the layer of mortar or cement in which they may be laid, it is also irnpracticable to give any rule of general application for volume of laid brickwork. It becomes necessary, therefore, when it is required to ascertain the volume of bricks in ma- sonry, to proceed as follows : To Compute Volume of Bricks^ and Number in a Cttbe Foot of Masonry. Rule. — To face dimensions of particular bricks used, add one-half thickness of the mortar or cement in which they are laid, and compute the area ; divide width of wall by number of bricks of which it is composed ; multiply this area by quotient thus obtained, and product will give volume of the mass of a brick and its mortar in inches. Divide 1 728 by this volume, and quotient will give number of bricks in a cube foot. Example. — Width of a wall is to be 12.75 inches, and front of it laid with Philadelphia bricks in courses .25 of an inch in depth ; how many bricks will there be in face and backing in a cube foot ? Philadelphia front brick, 8.25 x 2.375 inches face. 8.25 -|- .25 X 2 -=- 2 = 8.25 + .25 = 8.5 = length of brick and joint ; 2.375 + .25 X 2 -V- 2 = 2.375 + .25 = 2.625 == width of brick and joint. Then 8.5 X 3.625 ^ 22.3125 ins. =: area of face ; 12.75 -^ 3 (number of bricks in width of ■wall) ^ 4.25 ins. Hence 22.3125 X 4.25 = 94.83 cube ins. ; and 1728 -^ 94.83 := 18.22 bricks. LIME AND LATHS. A Cask^of Lime = 240 lbs., will make from 7.8 to 8.1 5 cubic feet of stiff paste. A Cask of Cement = 300 lbs., will make from 3.7 to 3.75 cubic feet of stiff paste. Laths are ij to i^ inches by four feet in length, are usually set ^ of an inch apart, and a bundle contains 100. Estimate of Materials and Labor for 100 Square Yards of Lath and Plaster. Materials and Laisok, Three Coats Hard Finish. Two Coats Slipped. Materials and Laboe. Three Coats Hard Finish. Two Coats Slipped. 4 casks, i " 4 " 2000 4 bushels. 7 loads. 3^ casks. 2006 ' 3 bushels. 6 loads. White sand.... Nails 31 bushels. 13 lbs. 4 days. 3 " 1 " 13 lbs. 3i days. 3 " J " Lump lime .... Plaster of Paris Laths Masons Laborer Cartage Hair Sand 594 APPENDIX. CAPACITY OF CISTERN IN GALLONS. For each lo Inches in Depth. Diam. Gallons. Diam. GiiUoiis. Diam. Gallons. Diam. Gallons. Diam. Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 2. 19.5 4.5 99.14 7. 239.88 9.5 441.4 14. 959.6 2.5 30.6 5. 122.4 7.5 275.4 10. 489.6 15. 1101.6 3. 44.07 5.5 148.1 8. 313.33 11. 592.4 20. 1958.4 3.5 59.97 6. 17B.35 8.5 353.72 12. 705. 25. 3059.9 4. 78.33 6.5 206.85 9. 396.56 13. 827.4 30. 4406.4 SLATES AND SLATING. A Square of Slate or Slating is loo superficial feet. Gauge is distance between the courses of the slates. Lap is distance which each slate overlaps the slate lengthwise next but one below it, and it varies from 2 to 4 inches. Standard is assumed to be 3 inches. Margin is width of course exposed, or distance between tails of the slates. Pitch of a slate roof should not be less than i inch in height to 4 of length. To Compute Surface of a Slate when laid, and Number of Squares of Slating. Rule. — Subtract lap from length of slate, and half remainder will give length of surface exposed, which, when multiplied by width of slate, will give surface required. Divide 14,400 (area of a square in inches) by surface thus obtained, and quo- tient will give number of slates required for a square. Example. — A slate is 24 x 12 inches, and lap is 3 inches; what will be number required for a square. 24 — 3 = 21, and 21 -^ 2 ^ 10.5, which x I2 = 126 inches ; and 14,400 -^ 126 ^ 114.29 slates. Dimensions of Slates. AMERICAN. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 14x7 14x8 14x9 14x10 16x 8 16x 9 16x10 18X 9 18x10 18x11 18x12 20x10 20x11 20x12 23x11 23x12 22x13 34x12 24x13 34x14 24x16 ENGLISH. Inches. Inches. Inches. 13x10 13x 7 Ux 6 lOx 5 12x10 13x10 18x10 Ladies 12x 8 14x 8 14x13 15x 8 16x 8 16x10 20x10 Marchioness 23x33 24x12 30x24 36x24 36x24 26x15 24x14 it Sniall doubles. .. Imperial Rags Plantations — | Viscountess Queens Thickness of slates ranges from .125 to .3125 of an inch, and their weight varies from 2 to 4.53 lbs. per square foot. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF BUILDING STONES. Expansion or Contraction for each Degree of Temperature. — Lieut. W. H. C. Bartlett, U. S. E. For One Inch. Granite 000004825 Marble 000005668 For One Inch. Sandstone 000009533 White-pine 00000355 APPENDIX. 595 ZINC— SHEETS. Thichiess and Weight per Square Foot. Inch. Inch. Inch. .0311 = 10 oz. .0534 = 14 oz. .0686 = 18 oz .0457=13 oz. .0611 = 16 oz. .0761 = 20 oz WINDOW GLASS. Thickness and Weight per Square Foot. No. Thickness. Weight. No. ThicltnesB. Weight. No. Thicli^ess. Weight. Inch. Oz. jTich. Oz. Inch. Oz. 12 .059 12 17 .063 17 26 .125 26 13 .063 13 19 .091 19 32 .154 32 15 .071 15 21 .1 21 36 .167 36 16 .077 16 24 .111 24 42 .3 43 WEIGHT OF CATTLE. To Compute Dressed Weight of Cattle. Rule. — Measure as follows in feet : 1. Girth close behind shoulders ; that is, over crop and under plate, immediately behind elbow. 2. Length from point between neck and body, or vertically above junction of cervical and dorsal processes of spine, along back to bone at tail, and in a vertical line with rump. Then multiply square of girth in feet by length, and multiply product by factors in following table, and quotient will give dressed weight of quarters. Condition. Heifer, Steer, or Bullocli, Bull. Condition. Heifer, Steer, or Bnlloclc. Bull. Half fat 3.15 3.36 3.5 3.36 3.5 3,64 Very prime fat Extra fat .3.64 3.78 3.a5 4.06 Prime fat Illustration. — Girth of a prime fat bullock is 7 feet 2 inches, and length measured as above 4 feet 5 inches. 7' 2" = 7.17, and 7.17" = 51.4, which X 4' 5" and by 3.5 = 794.5 lbs. Exact weight was 799 lbs. Note. — i. Quarters of a beef exceed by a little half weight of living animal. 2. Hide weighs about an eighteenth part, and tallow a twelfth part of animal. Transportation of Horses and Cattle. Space required on board of a Marine Transport is: for horses, 30 inches by 9 feet ; beeves, 32 inches by 9 feet. Provender required per diem is : for horses, hay, I S pounds ; oats, 6 quarts ; water, 4 gallons. Beeves, hay, 1 8 pounds ; water, 6 gallons. Proportion of Food Appropriated and Expended by following Animals. Oxen. Sheep. Swine. Proportion appropriated 6.3 8 17.6 " inmanure 36.5 31.9 16.9 respired 57.3 60.1 65.5 100 100 100 596 APPENDIX. HAY. 550 cubic feet of new meadow-hay, and 440 and 500 from large or old stacks, will weigh a ton. 577 to 604 cubic feet of dry clover weigh a ton. Hay and Straw. Hay, loose, 5 lbs. per cube foot. Ordinarily pressed, as in a stack or mow, 8 lbs. Close pressed, as in a bale, 12 to 14 lbs. ■ Ordinarily pressed, as in a wagon-load, 450 to 500 cube feet will weigh a ton. Straw in a bale 10 to 12- lbs. per cube foot. HILLS IN AN AREA OF AN ACRE. Feet apart. No. Eeet apart. No. Feet apart. No. Feet apart. NOi 1 43,560 5 1,743 9 538 16 171 m. 19,360 5X 1,440 .9K 482 17 151 3 10,890 6 1,210 10 435 18 135 3K 6,969 6W 1,031 103^ 361 20 108 3 4,840 7 889 12 302 25 69 3M 3,556 % 775 13 358 30 48 4 2,722 8 680 14 223 35 35 4}^ 2,151 8X 692 15 193 40 27 NUTRITIOUS PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT VEGETABLES AND OIL-CAKE, COMPARED WITH EACH OTHER IN QUANTITIES. Gil-eake 1. Pease and Beans 1.5 Rice 1.6 Wheat, grain 2.5 " flour 3. Oats 3.5 Rye 2.5 Bran, wheat 3.75 and 3. Corn 3. Barley 3. Pea straw 3. Clover hay 4. Hay 5. Potatoes 14.. Old Potatoes 20. Carrots 17.5 Cabbages 18. Wheat straw 26. Barley " 26. Oat " 27.5 Turnips 30. Illustration — i lb. of oil-cake is equal to 18 pounds of cabbage. RELATIVE VALUE OF FOODS COMPARED WITH 100 POUNDS OF GOOD HAY. Lbs. Clover, green 400 Corn, green 375 Wheat sti-aw 374 Bye straw 442 Oat straw 195 Corn-stalks, dried Carrots LbB. .... 400 .... 276 .... 54 .... 45 .... 54 Oats ; Corn Lbs. 57 59 Rye 62 Wheat 69 Barley Wheat bran 105 MANURES. Relative Fertilizing Properties of Various Manures, Peruvian Guano 1. I Horse Human, mixed 069 | Swine Or, I lb. guano = 14K human, 21 horse, 22% swine, 33X farm-yard, and 38)^ cow. Farm-yard 0298 Cow 0259 CONSUMPTION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR.— Coathupe. The average daily volume of carbonic acid gas given off by the respiration of an adult human being amounts to 4.08 per cent, of the air respired. In 24 hours the respiration of one healthy adult produces 10.7 cubic feet of carbonic acid gas, and removes from the atmosphere exactly the same volume of oxygen. One wax-candle (three in a pound) destroys, during its combustion, as much oxygen per hour as the respiration of one adult. The total volume of air that can be required for the respiration of an adult APPENDIX. 597 human being in 24 hours, even if no portion of that which has been once respired were to be inspired again, does not_ exceed 266.7 cubic feet. A lighted taper, when confined within a given volume of atmospheric air, will become extinguished as soon as it has converted 3 per cent, of the given volume of air into carbonic acid. Air and Ventilation. An average-sized man will exhale from his lungs and body from .6 to .7 of a cubic foot of carbonic acid per hour. A lighted oil-lamp or two candles will fur- nish the same volume. Assuming, then, that there are 4 volumes of carbonic acid in 10,000 volumes of air, and that a man in a room with a lighted lamp or two candles furnishes from 1.2 to 1.4 cubic feet of acid per hour, there will be required to maintain the air at the required condition for health for one man, the allowable pollution of it being 6 volumes in 10,000, fully 3000 cubic feet of fresh air/ By experiments made in Paris it was shown that there was required from 2400 to 3120 cubic feet per hour. Result of Observations of the Vitiation of the Air. — Angus Smith, M.D. Atmosphere 3.2 to 3.4 City Parks 3.a to 3.8 " Streets 3.8 to 4.4 " " in a fog 6. to 6.8 Tlieatres, average 8. to 32 Offices, " 17. to 22 Worlisliops, " 20. to 30 Mines, " 78. to 250 EFFECT UPON VARIOUS BODIES BY HEAT. Wedgwood's zero is 1077° of Fahrenheit, and each degree = 130°. In the designation of degrees of temperature the symbol -|- is omitted when the temperature is above ; but when it is below it, the symbol — must be prefixed. Degrees. Acetification ends 88 Acetous fermentation be- gins 78 Air-furnace 3300 Ambergris melts 145 Ammonia boils 140 Ammonia (liquid) freezes —46 Antimony melts 951 Arsenic melts 365 Beeswax melts 151 Bismuth melts 476 Blood (liuman), heat of. . 98 " " freezes... 25 Brandy freezes — 7 Brassmelts 1900 Cadmium melts 600 Charcoal burns 800 Coal-tar boils 325 Cold, greatest artificial. . . —166 " " natural.... —56 Common fire 790 Copper melts 2.548 Glass melts 2377 Gold, fine, melts 2590 Gutta-percha softens 145 Heat, cherry red 150U Degrees. Heat, cherry red (Daniell) 1141 " bright red I860 " red, visible by day.. 1077 " white 2900 Highest natural tempera- ture, Egypt 117 Ice melts 32 India-rubber and Gutta- percha vulcanize 293 Iron (cast) melts 2100 " (wrought) melts 2980 " bright red in the dark 7.i'3 " red hot in twilight.. 884 Lard melts 95 Lead melts .594 Mercury boils 663 " volatilizes 680 " melts —39 Milk freezes 30 Naphtha boils 186 Nitric Acid (sp. grav.1.424) freezes — 45 Nitrous Oxide freezes —1.50 Olive-oil freezes 36 Petroleum boils 306 Phospho rus melts 108 Degrees. Phosphorus boils 560 Pitch melts 91 Platinum melts 3080 Potassium melts 135 Proof Spirit freezes — 7 Saltpetre melts 600 Sea- water freezes 28 Silver, fine, melts 1250 Snow and Salt, equal parts Spermaceti melts 112 Spirits Turpentine freezes 14 Steel melts 2500 " polished, blue 580 " " straw color 460 Strong Wine's freeze 20 Sulphur melts 226 Sulphuric Acid (sp. grav. 1.641) freezes — 45 Sulphuric ether freezes ... — 46 " " boils .... 98 Tallow melts 97 Tin melts 421 Vinegar freezes 28 Vinous fermentation. . .60 to 77 Water in !;ocMo boils 98 Zinc melts 740 VOLUME OF OXYGEN REQUIRED TO OXIDIZE 100 PARTS OF FOLLOWING FOODS AS CONSUMED IN THE BODY. Grape Sugar 106 | Starch 120 | Albumen 150 1 Fat 293 Hence, assuming capacity for oxidation as a measure, albumen has half value of fat as a food-producing element, and a greater value than either starch or sugar. 598 APPENDIX. PROPORTION OF ALCOHOL IN lOO PARTS OF FOLLOWING LIQUORS.— Brande. Small Beer 1 and 1.08 Porter 3.5 and 5.26 Cider 5.3 and 9.8 Brown Stout 5.5 and 6.8 Ale 6.87 and 10 Ehenish 7.58 Moselle 8.7 Johannisberger 8.71 Elder Wine 8.79 Claret ordinaire 8.99 Tokay 9.33 Budesheimer 10.72 Mareobrunner 11.6 Gooseberry Wine 11.84 Hockheimer 12.03 Vin de Grave. 12.08 Hermitage, red 12.32 Champagne 12.61 AraontilTado 12.63 Frontignac 13.89 Barsac 13.86 Sauterne 14.22 Champagne Burgundy... 14.57 White Port 15 Bordeaux 15.1 Malmsey...! 16.4 Sherry 17.17 Malaga 17.3 Alba Flora 17.26 Hermitage, white 17.43 Cape Muscat 18.35 Constantia, red 18.93 Lisbon 18.94 Laehryma 19.7 Teneriffe 19.79 Curran t Wine 30.55 Madeira 22.27 Port 23 Sherry,old 23.86 Marsala 35.09 Raisin Wine 25.13 Madeira, Sercial 37.4 Cape Madeira 29.51 Gin 51.6 Brandy 53.39 Rum 53.68 Iiish Whiskey 53.9 Scotch Whiskey 54.33 BOILING POINTS OF VARIOUS FLUIDS. Degrees. Ether 96 to 104 Alcohol, sp. grav. 813 173.5 NitricAeid, '" 1.5 210 " " 1.43 348 Sea Salt 324.3 Common Salt 326 Sulphuric Acid, sp. grav. 1.848 600 " " '^ 1.3 340 Degrees. Rectified Petroleum 316 Oil of Turpentine 304 Phosphorus 554 Sulphur 570 Lluseed-oil 640 Sweet-oil 412 Sea-water 213.3 Water, distilled 212 AVERAGE QUANTITY OF TANNIN IN SEVERAL SUBSTANCES.— Morfit. Catechu. Tee Cent. Bombay 55 Bengal 44 Sino 75 Nuigalh. Aleppo 65 Chinese 69 Oak. Old, inner bark | ^^ Oak. Per Cent. Young inner bark 15.2 entire bark. .. 6 (C spring-cut b'k 22 root bark — 8.9 Chestnut. American rose, bark. . 8 Horse *' 3 Sassafras root bark 58 Alder, bark 36 Sumac. Per Cent. Sicily and Malaga .... 16 Virginia 10 Carolina 5 Willow. Inner bark 16 Weeping 16 Sycamore, bark 16 Tanshfvj) " 13 Cherry-tree 24 AREAS OF U. S. COAL-FIELDS. Statu. ' Square Milea. State. Square Miles. State. Sqa.4 .69 2689 3375 2878 .6 Woods. New Jersey Pine Yellow Pine White Pine Beech Spruce Hemlock Cotton-wood Cord. Valne. Lhs. 2137 1904 1868 .54 .43 .42 .7 .52 .44 THE END. Hasmirsi leclailcs' aii Eiiiieefs' Focl[Gt-Bool[. New Edition, from Entirely New Plates, containing Rules of Arith- metic ; Weights of Materials ; Latitude and Longitude ; Cables and Anchors ; Specific Gravities ; Squares, Cubes, and Roots, &c. ; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids ; Trigonometry ; Mechanics ; Friction ; Aerostatics ; Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics ; Dynamics ; Gravitation ; Animal Strength ; Windmills ; Strength of Materials ; Limes, Mortars, Cements, &c. ; Wheels ; Heat ; Water ; Gunnery ; Sewers ; Combustion ; Steam and the Steam-Engine ; Construction of Vessels; Miscellaneous Illustrations; Dimensions of Steamers, Mills, &c.; Orthography of Technical Words and Terms, &c., &c. By Charles H. Haswell, C. and M. E. i2mo. Leather, Pocket-Book Form. (Nearly Ready:) NOTICES OF PREVIOUS EDITION. It is scarcely necessary to say anything in commendation of this well known and fully ap- preciated hand-book for engineers. We have always kept a copy of this one on our shelves, as containing matter which, if found elsewhere, was still more accessible, in point of arrange- ment and clearness of type and diction, in Has- well than in any of its rivals ; and we recom- mend the Pocket-Book as one entitled to a promineiit place in the library of all interested in the mechanic arts. — Engineering News, N. Y. Certainly no book in the guise of a vade mecum has arrived at such popularity in the United States as " Haswell." You will find it in the lumber-cutter's cabin in Maine, in the miner's shanty in Nevada, and on the work- bench of the American mechanic in all parts of the country. 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