CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BS1198 .Hm" """"'""' '■"'"^ ''™l?lilffiiii^lS?i?.V,/,!?,.,!;!?« O'" Tesfament- olin 3 1924 029 283 111 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029283111 CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES EDITED BY WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT BY WILLIAM R. HARPER THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER PE0FES80E OF 8EM1TI0 LANGUAOE3 AND LITEEATOEES IN THE UNIVBESITY OF CHICAGO CONSTKUCTIVB BiBLE STUDIES COLLEGE SBKIES CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1905 Copyright jgoj By The University of Chicago PREFACE This collection of studies is a partial realization of a larger plan which includes the entire field of prophecy, its scope resembling that of my volume, The Priestly Element in the Old Testament {iqo^). It has been found necessary to publish the first part, with the expec- tation that the second part will follow within a comparatively short time. These studies are intended primarily for students in college and those in the theological seminary, but they will not be found too technical for the more intelligent Bible classes in our best Sunday schools. The plan rests upon two vital principles: (i) That the stu- dent, guided by the suggestions made, shall do his own thinking and reach results which at least in a measure may be called his own. No conscious effort has been put forth to control the exact development of his thought. (2) That the student shall do his work upon the basis of the Scripture material ; in other words, that he shall study the Bible, and not merely read what others have said concerning it. At the same time, the literature of each subject discussed has been presented in detail. Only that literature has been included which seems to be most important and is most easily accessible. Arrangements have already been made for the publication of this material in a more simple form intended for students of high-school grade. For a more technical presentation the reader is referred to the author's Amos and Hosea ("International Critical Commentary," 1905). The Appendixes present some materials essential to an intelligent study of the subject of prophecy. They have been prepared especially for those deprived of access to the standard works on Hebrew History and Prophecy. I wish to express my appreciation of the assistance rendered me by my colleague. Dr. John M. P. Smith, especially in the arrangement and verification of the scriptural references, and in the references to the literature on the various topics. CONTENTS PART I. GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT PAGE Chapter I. — Content and Classification of the Prophetic Element i Chapter II. — Definition and Principles of the Prophetic Element 12 PART II. THE HISTORY OF PROPHECY THROUGH HOSEA Chapter III. — Prophecy and Prophetism during the Period of the Patriarchs and Judges 25 Chapter IV. — Prophecy and Prophetism during the Davidic Period 37 Chapter V. — The Background of Prophecy and Prophetism in the Northern Kingdom 49 Chapter VI. — The Product of Prophecy and Prophetism from 933 to 800 B. C 73 Chapter VII. — The Prophetic Message of the Early Histories . 82 Chapter VIII. — The Prophetic Message of Amos 98 Chapter IX. — The Prophetic Message of Hosea 112 APPENDIXES A. A Table of Important Dates 125 B. A Chronological Table of the Religious Life of Israel .... 127 C. The Prophetic Vocabulary 128 D. An Analysis of the Hexateuch 139 Paet Fiest GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT I. Content and Classification of the Prophetic Element. II. Definition and Principles of the Prophetic Element. CHAPTER I. CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT. § I. Preliminary Inquiry. — The study of prophecy is so largely a study of history that the methods of historical study must be adopted. This means, first of all, the arrangement of the prophetic material in chronological order. The basis of such arrangement must be sought through a preliminary examination of the authorship, historical back- ground, occasion, and purpose of each book or document. This introductory work must be performed either by or for the student. The difficulty of the task is, of course, very great ; its necessity is, however, in no way minimized by this difficulty. See on Hebrew history: Ewald, History of Israel, 7 vols. (1843 ff., 3d ed. 1864 ff., transl. 1869 ff.); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (187S, 5th ed. 1899, transl. 1885); ^VfiKTi, History of the People of Israel {\%'&']-(j-i,\.ra.Tii\. 1888-95); TfaiTKi., History of the Hebrews, 2 vols. (1888-92, transl. 1895); McCvkd\, History, Prophecy, ami the Monuments, 3 vols. (1895-1901); Kej^t, A History of the Hebrew People, 3 vols. (1896-99); Cornill, History of the People of Israel (1898); W. E. Barnes, art. "History of Israel," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible,Va\. H (1899) ; VxTON, Early History of Syria and Palestine (igoi); OTT1.EY, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman Period (1901); GuTHE, art. " Israel," Encyclopedia Biblica,V6\. II (1901); Wade, Old Testament History (1901, 2d ed. 1903); H. P. Smith, Old Tes- tament History (1903). Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, 2 vols. (1881-88) ; Wellhausen, Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte (1894, 5th ed. 1904); Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel in het Persische Tijdvak (lii)^, German transl. 1895) ; Winckler, Geschichte Israels in Einzel- darstellungen, 2 vols. (1895-1900); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (1896); V AT^ Yiooifti.CK.t.K, Nouvelles Etudes sur la restauration j'uive (iSgb) ; Guthe Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1899; 2d ed. 1901); Piepenbring, Histoire du peuple d' Israel (1898); Stade, Die Entstehung des Volkes Israel (1899); Lohr, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1900). § 2. Materials for such inquiry may be obtained (i) from each of the books or writings concerned, by an examination of the diction and style, of the allusions to institutions and historical events, and of the religious ideas; and also (2) from outside sources, among which may be included the Egyptian, and especially the Assyrian and Babylonian monumental literature. See Schrader, The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament (ii%^, transl. in 2 vols., 1885-88); ?>\YC¥.(eAi\. Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament(2,i ed. 1902); Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fiir semitische Epigraphik, Bd. I (1900-1902), Bd. II (igosff.); Oettli, Der Kampf um Bibel und Babel (i<)02); Gunkel, Israel und Babylonien: Der Einfluss Babyloniens auf die israelitische Religion (1903) ; C. Bezold, Die babylonisch-assyrischen Keilinschriften und ihre Bedeutung filr das Alte Testa- ment {\^0^); Alfred Jeremias, Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alien Orients (1904); Morris Jastrow, Jr., Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens (transl. from the English, and enlarged; Vol. I [1905]). §3. Certain Principles are accepted as guiding an inquiry of this nature. Among these may be noted the following : 1. Evidence as to the date, authorship, origin, etc., of a writing, based on a study of the language, style, historical allusions, etc., is of the highest value, provided it has been gathered in a scientific way. 2. Full recognition is to be made of the general method of history- writing employed in ancient times ; viz., compilation. 3. The writer or speaker, in each case, addressed the people of his own times, and, consequently, shaped his material to influence those times primarily. 4. The sacred narratives as such are to be accounted neither poeti- cal pieces, nor historical treatises, nor scientific theses ; but rather as literature illustrating and intended to teach the great principles of the religious life. 5. Distinction is to be made sharply between the record of an event, whatever may be the date of the record, and the event itself. CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION 5 6. Distinction is also to be made between the original form of an utterance, and any later literary form in which it may have been clothed. 7. A writer describing an event of earlier times does not always separate clearly the sympathies and antipathies of his own times from those of the age to which the event belongs. 8. The writer or compiler is influenced in his selection of material and in his form of presentation by the purpose which he has in mind. § 4. Certain Problems exist, for which some kind of solution is necessary before real progress can be made, in the study of the pro- phetic element. The more important of these are the following :' 1. The scope and character of the work which is to be ascribed to Moses. 2. The particular psalms, if any, which are to be assigned to the authorship of David. 3. The content, character, and relative position of the portions of the Hexateuch commonly ascribed to the two prophetic narratives known as J and E. 4. The date, circumstances of origin, and general interpretation of the prophetic writing ascribed to Joel ; in other words, the question whether this is the earliest, or one of the latest, of the prophetic writings. 5. The origin and date of the book of Deuteronomy, whether in early times, such as those of Moses, or in the days of Josiah, about 621 B. C. 6. The origin and date of chaps. 40-66 of Isaiah, whether they come (a) from one author, viz., the Isaiah of Hezekiah's times, or an exilic prophet; or (d) from several authors, all of whom lived in the period of the exile or later. 7. The relationship of chaps. 40-48 of Ezekiel to the preceding and following development of the priestly idea, as seen in the portions of the Hexateuch ascribed to P. 8. The question of insertions in earlier prophets, especially Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah, from the hands of later prophets. 9. The date and place of Zechariah, chaps. 9-1 1 and 12-14. 10. The relationship and the editorial union of the various sources of the Hexateuch, known as J, E, D, and P. 11. The origin and literary character of the book of Daniel, in its present form. ' These problems will be given further consideration in connection with the various periods to which they belong. 6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 12. The particular periods to which the various groups of psalms, as well as many individual psalms, are to be assigned. §5. The Content of Prophetic Material is to be understood as including : 1. The important lives and events of a given period; for these, entirely apart from the record of them, constituted an influential factor in the development of Israel's religious thought. Prophecy of this kind (e. g., the life of Samuel, or the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib in 701 B. C.) may be called living prophecy. 2. Stories of the past concerning great lives and significant events written down for the encouragement or warning of Israel by one whose purpose is prophetic ; for such stories (e. g., those of Genesis, Exodus, Samuel, and Kings) were intended to influence the life of the people in the midst of whom the prophet worked, and to whom they were addressed. Prophecy of this kind may be called experience prophecy. 3. Descriptions of the present, in which the writer depicts the sins of the rulers, the corruption of the priests, and the ignorance of the masses; or expresses approval of the manifestation of a true desire for righteousness; or names the obligations growing out of the relation- ship sustained by Israel to Jehovah ; or describes the punishment which Israel is now suffering because of her faithlessness ; for such descriptive utterances were intended to turn the people away from their sins — a true prophetic purpose, and may properly be called descriptive prophecy. 4. Predictions of the future, in which the prophet foretells the divine judgment which is soon to fall upon a land full of corrup- tion and to leave it a scene of desolation ; or the glorious future of a redeemed Zion, abounding in peace and prosperity, a future which shall include even the coming of Jehovah himself, and the renovation and purification of the entire world ; for, here again, the sole purpose of the utterance is to deter the people or to persuade them to come nearer to Jehovah and to live lives more worthy of his character. Such utterance is properly czW^i predictive prophecy . § 6. A Classification of Prophetic Material According to Historical Periods will follow the usual divisions of Hebrew history; viz., early (down to 621 B. C), middle (621-444 B. C), and late (444-161 B. C). The close connection between history and prophecy not only justifies but demands the adoption of the same general divisions. The history of the Hebrew nation is, for the most part, a history of thought, rather than of life or of action. Prophecy is one phase of that thought, and is to be understood only as it stands in proper relation to the other phases. CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION 7 § 7. The Early Period of Hebrew history (to 621 B. C.) will include the larger portion of the prophetic development ; for prophetism is the earliest of the three great factors entering into the history of Hebrew thought (the others being the priestly element, and the wisdom element). In this early period we find three stages of prophetic growth, viz.: 1. The patriarchal, extending to the time of Samuel (iioo B. C), and including : a) Institutions expressive of religious thought, and especially those employed in connection with oracular consultation. V) The facts of history, whether lives or events, from Abraham to Samuel, in so far as they had significance in connection with the development of Israel's religious life, e. g., the exodus from Egypt. c) The ancient traditions, whatever they were, inherited by Israel, and handed down from father to son. d) Actual utterances by religious leaders of prophetic spirit, which may safely be attributed to this period. 2. The Davidic, extending from Samuel to Solomon, and called Davidic because David was the central figure of the great group, Samuel, Saul, David, and Solomon. This period may properly be called that of the United Kingdom, and will include : a) The institutions which had their origin, or on which special emphasis was placed, in this period ; e. g., the prophetic schools, the temple. f) The lives of these men in so far as they influenced and insti- gated religious thought, together with the events of national impor- tance connected with those lives; e. g., the founding of the monarchy. c) Old traditions concerning the patriarchs, and new traditions just forming concerning Israel's earliest leaders. d) Oral utterances of prophets of the period, like Samuel, Nathan, Gad, and others, which were handed down, due allowance being made for accretions in the transmission. e) Actual literary pieces of a prophetic character coming from this period, whether in the form of stories, addresses, or psalms. 3. The prophetic stage, so called because during this period prophet- ism was the most conspicuous factor in Israelitish thought. Here two separate, yet closely connected, growths present themselves : a) The northern (933-721 B. C), which includes, besides the insti- tutions and traditions of northern Israel, the work of Elijah, Elisha, and Jonah, who did not write; also that of Amos and Hosea, who were the 8 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT first literary prophets ; and the story-literature which took form at this time, including the E-narrative. b) The southern (760-630 B. C), which includes, besides the insti- tutions and traditions of southern Israel, the prophetic narrative J; the literary work- of Isaiah, Micah, and Zephaniah ; and the story- literature which took form at this time. §8. The Middle Period (621-444 B. C.) finds prophecy at its highest point and carries it in its decay through three stages : 1. Pre-exilic, or the prophecy of Jeremiah and his contemporaries (640-586 B. C). Here are assigned, in particular, {a) the legal and story-literature found in Deuteronomy and the earlier portions of Kings; ((5) the utterances of Nahum, Habakkuk, Jeremiah, and the earlier sermons of Ezekiel ; and {c) such prophetic psalms as may be so treated. 2. Exilic, or the prophecy of the captivity (586-538 B. C). Here belong [a) the significance of such lives as Jeremiah's, and such events as the destruction of Jerusalem ; {S) the later sermons of Ezekiel, the utterances of Obadiah, portions of the collection found in Isaiah, chaps. 40-66, and (c) some psalms. 3. Post-exilic, or the prophecy of the Restoration (538-444 B. C). Here belong the sermons of Haggai and Zechariah (chaps. 1-8), the book of Malachi, additions to earlier prophecies, and many psalms, although most of these are priestly in their tone. §9. The Late Period brings prophecy to its end (444-160 B. C), and includes only the last and dying words of prophecy, which really have more of the character of apocalypse than of true prophecy. Here belong the book of Joel, the material of Zechariah, chaps. 9-1 1, 12-14, the story of Jonah, later additions to the earlier prophets, and, in its present form, the story of Daniel. The psalms of this period are almost wholly priestly. §10. The Work of the Prophet, viewed externally in distinction from the inner thought of prophecy, deserves careful study, since much depends upon the immediate environment which conditioned the pro- phetic thought. Each historical period makes a special contribution to this subject. The principal heads of classification are the following : 1. The private life oi the prophet, including his parentage, home, education, occupation, and social position. 2. The political activity of the prophet, including his attitude toward the home government, his policy in relation to foreign nations, the new measures which he proposes, and his general political point of view. CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION 9 3. The pastoral activity of the prophet, in its various forms of preaching, of individual work, teaching in schools, charitable work, etc. 4. The literary activity of the prophet, including story-writing, its methods and characteristics; sermon-writing; editorial revision of earlier writings ; general literary form. 5. The prophetic reception of the divine message, as by forms of sorcery and divination, the use of external agencies such as music, the use of the lot, the urim and thummim, dreams, visions or ecstatic trances, and spiritual enlightenment. 6. The prophetic proclamation of the divine message, by tongue and pen, through symbols and symbolic actions, by the use of literary skill, and by the employment of oratorical methods. §11. The Principal Ideas of prophetism, as they were presented from period to period, form a definite body of teaching, including many subjects. These subjects may be roughly classified as follows : 1 . As relating to God and the supernatural world: a) The idea of God, his personality, his names, and his self- manifestations. i) The various attributes of God. c) God in creation and in history. d) Angels, cherubim, seraphim. e) Evil spirits ; sorcery, witchcraft, etc. 2. As relating to man: a) The origin of man, his nature, dignity, destiny. d) The origin and nature of sin and guilt. c) Atonement for sin. d) Death and the future world. 3. As relating to the future of Israel: a) The coming of Jehovah ; the day of Jehovah. b) The holy land in which Israel will dwell. c) The future destruction of the "nations." d) The new covenant, individual instead of national. e) The royal order and the messianic king. f) The place of prophetism in the new regime. g) The place of the church in the new regime. h) The suffering servant ; the vicarious idea. 4. As relating to ethical standards and worship : a) Morality and standards of morality for individual and nation. b) Righteousness and faith. 10 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT c) A covenant relationship between God and man. d) Attitude toward worship and forms of worship. §12. The Various Schools of Interpretation may be arranged in three groups : 1 . T/ie rationalistic school denies the existence in Hebrew prophet- ism of any element or factor not found in the history of other nations. The visions of the prophets are only the aspiration and imaginings of a school of poets; their predictions have not been fulfilled, and their fulfilment need not be expected. 2. The predictive school lays greatest emphasis on the predictive ele- ment in prophecy, other elements being largely ignored. This school has two divisions: a) The literal interpreters, who understand that the prophetic pre- dictions will be fulfilled in their literal meaning. b') The spiritual interpreters, who maintain the fulfilment of the spirit, not the letter of the predictions. 3. The historical school assigns to prediction a less important place, and emphasizes the historical element in prophecy, and the ethical character of the prophet's work in and for his own times. Here again two divisions exist: a) The conditional interpreter of the predictive element teaches that the various predictions are conditioned rather than absolute, and consequently capable of fulfilment only in case of the realization of the condition expressed or implied. (5) The idealistic interpreter understands that the predictions were ideal representations based upon a high conception of God; and that these representations have been gradually realized as these higher ideas of God have been accepted. § 13. Books on Prophecy.'' ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. (1868, Sth ed. 1896, transl. 1892); KUENEN, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (1875, transl. 1877); W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (1882, new ed. 1895) ; Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy (1882, transl. 1885); '&v.\QG%, Messianic Prophecy (x'i'it) ; Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament {lUd, transl. 1893); Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the Prophets ( 1892) ; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures" for 1892) ; Cornill, The Prophets of Israel (1894, transl. 3d ed. 1898); McCuRDY, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, 3 vols. (1894-1901); F. H. WOODS, The Hope of Israel (1896); G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets, 2 vols. (Expositor's Bible, 1896-98); RiEHM, Messianic Prophecy (3d ed. 1900); G. S. Goodspeed, Israel's Messianic Hope (1900); Davidson, art. "Prophecy and Prophets," Hastings's 'This list is intended to include only the most important books on the subject of prophecy. CONTENT AND CLASSIFICATION I I Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV (1902); Cheyne, Guthe, and Volz, art. "Prophetic Literature," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. Ill (1902); A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy (1904); L. W. Batten, The Hebrew Prophet (igos). DuHM, Die Theologie der Propheten (1875); Bruston, Histoire critique de la litterature prophltique (i88l); KONIG, Der Offenbarungsbegriff des Alien Testaments, 2 vols. (1882) ; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Propheienthums {iSS$); LoTZ, Geschichte und Offenbarung im Alien Testament (1891); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (li()'i, 2di &i. 1899); Marti, Geschichte derisraeli- tischen Religion (3d ed. 1897); VoLZ, Die vorexilische Jahweprophetie und der Messias (1897); Gl^s^BKt.cnT, Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten (1897); KiTTEL, Profetie und Weissagung (1899); KoNiG, Das Berufsbewusstsein der alttestamentlichen Propheten (1900); Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alien Israel (1901); KoBERLE, Siinde und Gnade im religiosen Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf Christum (l 905) ; Stade, Biblische Theologie des Allen Testaments, Vol. I (1905)- CHAPTER II. DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES OF THE PROPHETIC ELEMENT. §14. The Word "Prophet" and the Hebrew word of which it is a translation require consideration. 1. Does pro in "pro-phet" mean "before" or "for"? What is the meaning of the Greek word phe-mi from which the second syllable of "prophet" is derived? 2. Compare with this the word "pre-diction," which is of Latin origin, and note the difference. 3. Consider the meanings assigned the Hebrew root nd-bha' , from which nd-bhV, "prophet," comes; does it mean {a) "to bubble forth," the prophet being thus represented as one through whom prophecy bubbles forth, as the spring bubbles forth from the earth? or (p) simply "to speak" (cf. the Assyrian root, which means "to call, name"), the prophet being thus simply a spokesman? or (c) "to carry off by force" (cf. Assyrian root), thus representing the prophet as an involuntary speaker, carried away by a supernatural power, as in an ecstatic vision ? or {d) is the word prophet a denominative meaning "one con- trolled by the god Nebo" ? 4. Note the meaning of the word "prophecy" as used of Saul and others in i Sam. 10:5, 6, 10, 13; 18:10; 19:20-24; its use with music, the frenzy implied, the violence indicated; also the characterization of Elisha by Jehu's servants as "mad fellow," 2 Kings 9:11; and consider the relation between prophecy and insanity in their outward manifestation. 5. Consider the note in i Sam. 9:9 which refers to the introduction of the word "prophet" as a substitute for an earlier word "seer." 6. Note also that the word is used of an ofificial class, characterized as "false prophets;" cf. especially Deut. 13:1-6; 18:20-22, and many places; e.g., Isa. 28:7; Jer. 2:26; 4:9. 7. Decide in what sense Amos's denial (7: 14) that he is a prophet or the son of a prophet is to be taken. 8. Consider the discredited position of the "prophet" in the days of Zechariah, as indicated in Zech. 13:2-6. 9. Note, on the other hand, the meaning of "prophet" called for in the statement (Exod. 7:1) that Aaron is to be a prophet to Moses {cf. Jer. 15:19). DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 1 3 See the commentaries on i Sam. 9:9, especially those of H. P. Smith (1899), NowACK (1901), BuDDE (1902), KENNEDY (1905), and Thenius-Lohr (1898); and the Hebrew dictionaries, viz., Brown Driver-Briggs (1891 ft.), Gesenius-Buhl (14th ed., 1905), and Siegfried-Stade (1893). See also Redslob, Der Begriff des Nabi (1839); Ewald, Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament, Vol. I, pp. 8 f.; Hupfeld, Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 'Vol. Ill, p. 40; Delitzsch, Assyrisches Bandworterbuch, p. 44 1; Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, pp. 42 ff.; Hoffmann, Zeitschrift fitr die alttestameniliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill, pp. 87 ff.; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), pp. 390 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology, pp. 363 ff.; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums, p. 113; Fleischer in Delitzsch's Genesis (4th ed.), p. 552; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 264 ff.; Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (3d ed.) p. 242; Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. II f.; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, pp. 14 ff.; Konig, Der Offen- barungsbegriff des Alien Testaments, V o\. I, pp. 73 ff.; GlESEBRECHT, Die Berufs- begabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten (1897); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament- lichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed., 1899), p. 80; Kittel, Prophetic und Weissagung (1899); Konig, Das Berufsbewusstsein der alttestamentlichen Propheten (igoo); Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alien Israel (1901); A. B. Davidson in HKiTiViGS's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 108 f.; Cheyne, Encyclopadia Biblica, cols. 3853 f.; Bewer, American fournal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVIII (1902), p. 120; W. R. Harper, Amos and Hosea (International Critical Com- mentary, 1905), p. 4; H. p. S-MiTH, Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXIV, pp. 27 £.; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet, pp. 317, 344; and Holzinger (1898), GuNKEL (1901), and Driver (1904) on Gen. 20:7. §15. The Words for "Seer" and "Vision" also occupy an important place in prophecy. 1. Note the use of ro-'eh in Isa. 30:10; i Sam. 9:9 ff.; 2 Chron. 16: 7, 10. 2. Note the use of ho-zeh in Am. 7:12; Isa. 30:10; Mic. 3:7; 2 Chron. 33:18; 2 Sam. 24:11; 2 Chron. 9:29; 29:30. 3. Note the use of "vision" in Isa. 21:2; 29:11; 28:18; Joel 3:1; Job 4: 13; 7:14; 2 Sam. 7:17; Zech. 13:4. 4. Consider again i Sam. 9:9, and explain the significance of this change; when and why did the new word come in? 5. Observe that these words originally marked the method of receiving the divine communication, it being seen in a vision, that is, an ecstacy or trance (Dan. 8: 13, 17, 26), or a dream (Isa. 29: 7); but in time they came to designate the utterance or writing of the message, as in Jer. 23: 16; Hab. 2:2; Hos. 12:11; Nah. 1:1; Isa. 1:1. See on visions and similar phenomena: Oehler, Ueber das Verhdltniss der alttestamentlichen Prophetie zur heidnischen Afantii (iS6i); Baur, Der Prophet Amos p. 400; TiVilM, Die Theologie der Propheten, pp. 86ff.; Oehler, Theology of the Old Testament,%% 2oy,20(); KuENEN, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel,pp. 76-85; KONlG, Der Offenbarungsbegriff des alien Testamentes, Vol. II, pp. 8-60 ; Maybaum, DieEnt- 14 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT wickelung des uraelitischen Prophetenthums, pp. i-6; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, pp. 6-10; RiEHM, Alttesiamentliche Theohgie, pp. 20 ff., 212 £f.; ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 250 ££., 275-79, 281 ff.; Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. 4 ff.; Meinhold, Prophetic und Schwdrmerei (1892); GuNKEL, SchSpfung und Chaos, pp. 323-27; W. R. SiAiTli, Prophets of Israel, -pf. 2i9'ff., 421; BoRCHERT, "Die Visionen der Propheten," Theologische Studien und Kritiken (1895), pp. 217 ff.; Dillmann, ^A- testamentliche Theohgie, pp. 477 ff., 494 ; ScH wartzkopff, Die prophetische Offenbarung (1896); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttesiamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed.), pp. 82 ff.; GlESEBRECHT, Die Berufsbegabung deralttestamentlichen Propheten,^^. 38-72; Driver, Joel and Amos, pp. 200 ff., cf. p. 126; Macdonald, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XX (1899), pp. 89 ff., 96, 109 t, 117; Morgan, arts. "Trance" and "Vision," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV; Volz and Cheyne, art. "Prophetic Literature," (§§19, 20), EncyclopcEdia Biblica. § 1 6. The Prophetic Vocabulary contains also other words deserving special study, among which are : 1. The word tte'um, translated "saith" in Ps. 110:1; this would be better rendered " utterance," " oracle " {cf. also in Ps. 36 : i ; Prov. 30 : i), and really means "whispering," "murmuring ; " it is used espe- cially with divine names, e. g., Gen. 22:16; Isa. 14:22!.; 30:1; 31:9; Hos. 2:15; ii:ii; Am. 3:13; 4:5; 6:8; 8:3; Ezek. 13:6; 16:58; Jer. 2 : 22 ; 46:18; 49:5; Nah. 2:14; Zech. 13:2; but also with the name of a prophet in an ecstatic state, cf. Numb. 24:3, 15; 2 Sam. 23:1. 2. The word waxj'a', translated " burden," "utterance," "oracle." {a) Note the use of the verb (="liftup") in Numb. 23 : 7 ; Mic. 2:44; Isa. 14: 4, when the reference is to some formal or solemn utterance. {b) Examine the word in Isa. 13:1; 14:28; 15:1; 2 Kings 9:25; Hab. 1:1. {c) Note, however, that in Jer. 23 : 33, 34, 36, 38 the use of this word is strictly prohibited. 3. The use of "word" (Heb. ddbhdr) is also to be noticed as a technical one, designating the utterance of the prophet, as dis- tinguished from the "law" {tordh) of the priest, and the "counsel" of the sage {cf Jer. 18:18). 4. The phrase "And Jehovah (or God) said," or "Thus said Jehovah," is frequently used to designate a prophetic utterance {cf Am. I : 3, 6, 9, II, 13; 2: i, 4, 6; 5:4; Hos. 3:1; Isa. 8:1; 37 : 33; 43: I ; Jer. 3: 11; 11:6; 13:1; Ezek. 6:11; 8:5; 30:13; Zech. 8:9; 11:15. Concerning this phrase, it may be noted {a) that it does not indicate the method of speech employed by the Deity, since it is used of all the methods of divine communication ; (3) that in many cases it designates the prompting of the heart, the voice of conscience, and consequently is used by the false prophet (Jer DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES I 5 28 : 2 ff.; I Kings 22 : 11) who, perhaps, really thinks that he is utter- ing the " word of God," and also of ideas which later experience shows God would not indorse ; cf. the lying spirit placed by God in the mouths of the prophets (i Kings 22:19-23); (c) that time was required to sift the alleged "sayings of God," and to determine whether, after all, they bore the divine stamp; observe the provision made for this in Deut. 18 : 22 f. See especially Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, pp. 12-22; Orelli, Old Testa- ment Prophecy, pp. 5-13; GiESEBRECHT, Die Berufsbegabung der alttestamentlichen Propheten; Konig, Das Berufsbewusstsein der alttestamentlichen Propheten; VoLZ, art. "Prophetic Literature" (§§ 14 f-), Encyclopcsdia Biblica. §17. Definitions of Prophecy. 1. The nationalistic School ol interpretation excludes from prophecy everything that points to guidance by a higher power, and then reduces it to the level of ordinary human composition. Prophecy, from this point of view, may be defined as a system of thought {a) intended to lift the people to an ethical conception of the Deity; {b) advocated by men of various degrees of moral and intellectual attainment, some of whom were fanatics, others men of great spiritual endowment ; {c) including coarse and extravagant pictures of the people's sins, and varied by prognostications of the future which were more likely to prove false than true. Here may be classified such works as Spinoza, Tractatus theologico-politicus (1670), chaps, i-iii ; Hitzig, Vorlesungen iiber biblische Theologie und messianische Weissagungen des Alien Testaments {1S80) ; Renah, JTistory of the People of Israel; and, with some reservation, Kuenen, Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. 2. The Predictive School of interpreters, on the other hand, ignores very largely any relationship between prophecy and history, treats prediction as the most important factor in prophecy, and demands an exact fulfilment in letter or spirit of every predicted utterance. From this point of view, prophecy may be defined as the foretelling, by information granted directly through revelation, of occurrences which were contingent, and which, therefore, were not to be foreknown by human wisdom. To this school belong, for example : Hengstenberg, Christology of the Old Testament (1872-75); R. Payne ^mycv., Prophecy a Preparation for Christ (1871); Gloag, The Messianic Prophecies (1879) ; Pember, The Great Prophecies concerning the Gentiles, thefews, and the Church of God (1881); Stanley Leathes, Old Testa- ment Prophecy; Its Witness as a Record of Divine Foreknowledge (l8?io) ; Thomas Newton, Dissertations on the Prophecies Which Have Remarkably Been Fulfilled, etc. (1883) ; W. H. Green, Moses and the Prophets (1883). 1 6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 3. The Historical School of interpretation places great emphasis upon the historical connections of prophetic utterances, relegates pre- diction to a less prominent position than is given it by the Predictive School, and endeavors to trace through the centuries the beginnings, the growth and climax, and the decay and death of this movement of Israelitish thought. From this point of view, prophecy may be defined as a special form of religious instruction, in which effort is made to illustrate and to formulate the principles in accordance with which the Ruler of the universe conducts his government of nations and of indi- viduals. As representative of this school, which is now dominant, may be cited : W. Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel; Cornill, Prophets of Israel; Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the Prophets; Riehm, Messianic Prophecy; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttesta- mentlichen Religionsgeschichte ; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion; Monte- FIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet. § 18. History in its Relation to Prophecy. — Three points deserve attention : 1. A knowledge of Israelitish history is necessary for any proper understanding of Old Testament prophecy; still further, there is needed an acquaintance also with that wider Semitic history of which Israelitish history is only a part. This becomes evident in the study of such a prophet as Isaiah, whose voice was heard on all the great political issues at a time when Israel's interests were closely interwoven with those of Egypt and Assyria. 2. The history of a period is fundamental to the prophecy of that period, since the history lies back of the prophecy and supports it.) Even more, the history occasions the prophecy; the historical event furnishes the situation which prophecy undertakes to interpret. Con- sider from this point of view the prophecies of Isaiah uttered in con- nection with the embassy of Merodach-Baladan to Hezekiah (chap. 39). 3. If prophecy has in it a divine element, then history has the same. If history is human — that is, determined by the will of man, characterized by the limitations of human weakness — so is prophecy. The prophet conveys a true conception of God's will, but he is limited in his work by the character of the language which he employs, by the ignorance and wilfulness of the people whom he addresses, and by the weakness inherent in his own humanity, and inseparable from the situation in which he does his work. § 19. The Time, Form, and Substance of Prophecy are conditioned: I. The time of the utterance of a given prophecy was determined by the time of the occurrence of the event or experience which gave rise DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 17 to the prophecy. If the event or experience had been postponed, the preaching of the particular truth taught by the event would have been postponed. Each truth was appropriately made known at a particular time in the history which, as it proceeded, furnished a basis for the announcement of that truth. Every crisis signified the promulgation of some new truth ; e. g., Isaiah's doctrine of the inviolability of Jerusalem was announced in connection with Sennacherib's attempt upon the city. 2. The form of the prophetic utterance was also determined by the historical event out of which it grew. The same truth takes on varying forms in different periods. The form in every case finds its explanation in the particular circumstances with which it stood closely related. Consider, for example, the apocalyptic, enigmatical character of the prophecy of Daniel in the light of the tyrannical oppression of Antiochus Epiphanes, in whose reign it was written. 3. The very substance of prophecy was dependent upon and deter- mined by the historical event. Amos preaches destruction in view of an approaching Assyrian invasion. Isaiah announces the doctrine of the remnant when Jerusalem's existence is threatened. The doctrine of individualism appears at the very moment when national existence is about to perish. When loyal Israel is languishing in captivity, the reproach and sport of her enemies, the doctrine of a suffering servant is presented. At this time, too, arguments for the oneness of God are urged more earnestly than before. At the time of the restoration, prophecy concerns itself with the rebuilding of the temple. The substance of prophecy cannot, in any case, be separated from the his- tory of the prophetic people. § 20. Prophecy's Relation to the Nation's Past, Present, and Future. — Prophecy had to do with all three spheres of time : 1. With the past, when the speaker presents for the encouragement or the warning of his countrymen the record of God's dealings in for- mer times with the nation and with individuals — stories of the nation's apostasy and consequent slavery; of a king's crime and the punish- ment which followed ; of a royal prayer and a miraculous deliverance ; of a prophetic mission and a city turned from sin, such as are found throughout Genesis, Exodus, Samuel, and Kings. 2. With the present, when the prophet describes the wickedness and iniquity whicTTTie" sees on every side and rebukes it ; or observes a true desire for righteousness and approves it — pictures of the corrup- tion and debauchery existing among the ruling classes ; of extortion and oppression practiced upon the poor; of faithlessness and skepti- 1 8 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT cism toward the nation's God Jehovah ; of peace and prosperity the result of obedience, such as occupy a large portion of the space of written prophecy. See, for example. Am. 3:9-15; 5:4-12; Hos. 4:1-19; Zeph. 2:1—3:7; Jer. 3:21—4:5. 3. With the future, when the prophet, acquainted with the laws in accordance with which the divine will acts, and knowing therefore that which must follow this or that line of conduct, directs his thoughts to the glorious future, with all its splendid prospects for the nation and its ideal government ; or in tones of thunder depicts the divine judgment which must inevitably fall upon a land so full of corruption and idolatry, and leave it a scene of desolation. Cf. Isa., chap. 28 ; Am. 9:11-15; Ezek., chaps. 6, 7. § 21. Prediction occupies a large and important place in prophecy, and may be considered from the point of view of — 1. Its immediate purpose, viz., to influence the minds of the people directly addressed. Here it is important to observe' (a) that every pre- diction grew out of two factors : one, the historical situation ; the other, the body of principles received and applied by the prophets ; (/^) that prediction in almost every case was general rather than specific; (c) that general predictions were frequently applied specifically by New Testament writers, e. g., Isa. 9:1, 2; cf. Matt. 4:14 ff.; Isa. 29:13; cf. Matt. 15:8 f. 2. Its conditional character. Study Jer. 18: i-io and note: {a) When the prediction contained a threat, and the people for this reason gave heed to the words of the threat, the calamity threatened did not fall ; in other words, the prediction remained unfulfilled ; and {J>) when the prediction took the form of a promise, and the people gave no heed to the words of the prophet uttering the promise, the thing promised was not given ; in other words, the prediction was unful- filled. The predictions of the prophet who was able by his preaching to turn the people from their sins were not fulfilled, the prophet's suc- cess rendering the fulfilment unnecessary; while on the other hand, the predictions of disaster made by a prophet who had failed to reach the hearts of the people were the predictions which received fulfil- ment. 3. Its more distant purpose, as shown by time, the New Testament writers, and human experience. This distant purpose (a) rested upon the fact that the prophets' words were based upon principles true for all time, and therefore capable of application to every situation which corresponded in general to the situation for which the words were DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 19 originally intended ; (d) presupposes the introductory and preparatory character of the history in connection with which the utterances were made ; {/:) is to be closely connected in every case with the immediate purpose ; (ti) is to be interpreted in the light of the fact that in many cases the prophets were setting forth lofty and inspiring ideals in highly poetic and figurative language, the exact realization of which in every detail is not to be expected ; see, e. g., Isa. 2 : 2-4 ; 1 1 : 6-9 ; Zech. 14: 16-21. On predictive prophecy see Briggs, Messianic Prophecy, chap, ii ; KuENEN, Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, chap, v ; Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy, pp. 50-62; A. B. Davidson in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 120 f.; VOLZ, art. "Prophetic Literature " (§§ 16 f.). Encyclopedia Biblica; Hoffmann, Weissagung und Erfiillung (1841); Kittel, Profetie und Weissagung (1899). § 22. The Prophet Himself is to be thought of — 1. As one of the people, the product of the agencies at work in the nation, identified in spirit and life with his age, choosing one or another of the political parties of his times, and always speaking a message primarily intended for his contemporaries. 2. As a reformer, whose chief function was to improve the religious condition of his people, dealing with the sins of his day rather than with those of other periods, never speaking except to influence the lives and thoughts of those whom he addressed. 3. As himself one of the objective factors influencing his people and his age, representing ideas far in advance of his times, urging poli- cies directly in contrast with those of his age, contending with an audacious courage against the tendencies of his times, and all the while shaping and molding these times. § 23. The Prophetic Work is also to be considered from the point of view of — 1. The prophet's life in each case, and his relation to the technical schools of the prophets which were in vogue. Some were professional prophets, among these the so-called false prophets ; others refused to be so considered. Some were priests, especially in the closing periods of prophetic work. Some lived in the cities ; others came from the country. Some were of royal blood ; others, of the most humble parentage. Some exercised the powers of king or dictator; others lived the life of martyrs and were placed in dungeons. See I Sam. 10:9-12, 25 £f.; 11:14 f.; 13:8 £f.; i Kings 19:19 ff.; 20:35; 22:27 {•; 2 Kings 2:15 £f.; Amos 7:14 £f.; Jer. I:l; 38:6; Ezek. 1:3; 4:14. 2. His relation to the priest. At first priest and prophet were hardly 20 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT to be distinguished ; later the prophet's high conceptions of God and life bring him into direct conflict with the priests of his times; after a time, prophet and priest join hands in promulgating the new law of Deuteronomy, the priest thereby gaining great advantage ; still later, the priest with the written "law" takes the place of the prophet and his " word," the last prophets being themselves priests. See I Sam., chap. 3; 7: 5-1 1; Hos. 4:6-10; 5: i ff.; Amos 7: 10 ff.; 2 Kings, chaps. 22 and 23; Ezek. 1:3; 4:14; chaps. 40-48; Hag. 2:11 £f.; Mai. 1:6-14; 2:1-9. 3. His relation to the sage — one of sympathy and co-operation, although the prophet always represented the national point of view, while the sage stood for the universal. See Prov. 29 : 18 ; Am. 5 : 10; Isa. 29 :2I ; Prov. 11:21; and 20:7; cf. Jer. 32:18; and cf. CheynEj/o^ and Solomon, pp. 119 ff., 182 f. §24. Israelitish History, Literature, and Prophecy share alike in the characteristics of the Israelitish development. 1. Israelitish history, whatever may have been the special divine relationship sustained to it, includes, on the part of its greatest leaders, actions of the most sinful character, and, on the part of the nation itself, actions and institutions of the most degraded type. It is the his- tory of a nation, starting on the level of other nations, and gradually rising, through the influence of great leaders, to a more and more noble, more and more true, conception of God, and with every step upward leaving behind some belief or custom inherited from paganism which had become inconsistent with the higher ideal of God. This history exhibits the influence of the divine spirit — an influence exerted with all the strength of almighty power acting in consistency with other attri- butes, and working in the hearts of a people held down by sin. It is, in short, the story of a nation lifted little by little from the lowest condition of nomadism, and exhibiting at each stage of progress the weaknesses and sins common to peoples at that stage of advancement. 2. Israelitish literature, whatever may have been the special divine relationship sustained to it, contains different and differing accounts of the same event, including errors and inconsistencies in statement, if interpreted in the light of history and science, and shows a total disre- gard for the common laws of history-writing accepted in our time. It is the literature of a nation passing through successive periods of national growth, each period making some new contribution toward a better knowledge of God and of his relationship to man. This litera- ture exhibits the influence of the divine spirit — an influence exerted with all the strength of almighty power acting in consistency with other DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES 21 attributes, and working in the hearts of a people of Semitic blood, living during these periods of the world's history. The literature shared all of the merits and the demerits of the history. Whatever one was, the other was. It is, in short, the literature of a people brought, from time to time, into contact with the great nations of the world, absorb- ing from these nations good, as well as bad, and transmitting to the next age the accumulations of the past to be arranged and interpreted according to the ideas of each successive period. 3. Old Testament prophecy is both history and literature ; the former, if viewed as a movement; the latter, if viewed as the product of that movement. The prophets made history as well as literature. As agents of the higher power which they firmly believed had especially called them to its service, they entered heartily into everything that consti- tuted national life. At times they were actually in full control of the nation's development and for a period they almost exclusively consti- tuted the literary class. Whatever is said of Israel's history may be said of Israel's prophetism ; whatever is said of Israel's literature may be said of Israel's prophecy. It was a movement, in some respects the most eventful in the history of human thought, exhibiting more definitely than any other, perhaps, the direct influence of the Holy Spirit. Paet Second THE HISTORY OF PROPHECY THROUGH HOSEA III. Prophecy and Prophetism during the Period of the Patriarchs and Judges. IV. Prophecy and Prophetism During the Davidic Period. V. The Background of Prophecy and Prophetism in the Northern Kingdom. VI. The Product of Prophecy and Prophetism from 933- 800 B.C. VII. The Prophetic Message of the Early Histories. VIII. The Prophetic Message of Amos. IX. The Prophetic Message of Hosea. CHAPTER III. PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES. §25. The Scope of This Period is practically that of Israel's begin- nings, commencing with Abraham and closing about the time of Samuel's birth. It includes therefore (i) the early nomadic life in Palestine, (2) the descent into Egypt, (3) the exodus from Egypt, (4) the residence in the wilderness, (5) the conquest of Canaan, (6) the settlement in Canaan — a period of more than one thousand years. § 26. The Character of the Period may not easily be indicated. The earlier portion could be only what a nomadic life made possible. It was certainly not a period furnishing prophetic thought or pro- phetic movement. It might be called /r^-prophetic, because it pre- ceded, and prepared the way for, the earliest phase of prophetic development which started with Samuel. The religious spirit was crude and primitive, although very intense. It was this spirit, how- ever, that furnished the basis on which prophecy was to develop. It was, above all, the period in which the older Semitic religion came into contact with the Baalism of the Canaanites, in which Israel "assimilated the mass of the Canaanites with their thought and their principles" (Davidson). Israel's religion was long weighed down with the foreign elements thus absorbed ; but when once these new elements had been overcome and brought into control, the result was something which proved to be broader and warmer; something which could not have existed but for this commingling. §27. The Contemporaneous Literary Sources of this period are few. Those that exist are hardly to be called prophetic. The determination of these sources is at- tended with much difficulty (cf. § 3). Entire agreement has not yet been reached. The following pieces, in whole or in part, may, however, be regarded as the literary product of this period : Gen.4:23,24. i. The Song of Lamech, in which the primitive war- like spirit of the early Semites finds expression. Gen. 9:35-27. 2. The blessing of Noah, in which the hostility of the Hebrews toward the Canaanites in post-Egyptian times is the dominant note. 25 26 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 3. Portions of the blessing of Jacob, a reflection of Gen., chap. 49- the conditions and relations of the tribes in the days of the early occupation of Canaan. 4. The Song of the Exodus, in which the triumph Exod. 15:1-19. of Jehovah over the Egyptians is celebrated. 5. The original words of the Decalogue, in which Exod. 20: 1-17. ethical and religious laws for the newly organized nation are formulated. 6. Some portions of the Book of the Covenant, con- Exod., chaps. ^ 21-^3. taining the laws required for the conduct of social and religious life in the newly acquired land of Canaan. 7. Notes of the itinerary from which the later accounts Numb., chaps. ' ^ 10-25 and 33. were developed. 8. Songs of the desert, arising out of the conditions Numb. 21:14!., of nomadic life. Q. Portions of Balaam's addresses, which grew out of Numb., chaps. 23, 24. the strife between Israel and Moab in the days of con- quest and settlement. 10. Portions of the Song of Moses, which express Deut., chap. 33. the ideals and hopes of the later days of this period. 11. The Song of Deborah, a triumphal ode upon Judg., chap. 5. Israel's overthrow of the Canaanites under Sisera. 12. Jotham's fable, an illustration of the disturbed Judg. 9:7-15. political conditions in early Israel. It is to be noted that the present literary form of some of this material — e. g., the Decalogue, the Bless- ing of Jacob — is from a date later even than 900-800 B. C. § 28. Constructive Work. — In the case of each of the twelve pieces cited under § 27, consider the following suggestions : 1. Ascertain the particular century to which the piece is now com- monly assigned, together with the grounds on which its assignment to this period rests. 2. Separate carefully those portions of the piece which may fairly be regarded as having had their origin later than 1050 B. C, indi- cating the reasons for this separation. 3. Describe the historical background of the piece in as close detail as possible. 4. Indicate succinctly the content of the piece — what, as a matter of fact, is said in it. THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 2/ 5- Try to connect the content with the historical setting, and to discover the underlying purpose of the piece. 6. Formulate the principal teachings, the most vital thought, which the piece contains. § 29. Later Literary Sources of information relating to this period and throwing light upon (i) the institutions, (2) the important lives and events, and (3) the utterances of the principal characters, are to be found in certain documents or books, the date of which falls a considerable time after the events themselves. This material, ordi- narily called tradition, represents more accurately the point of view of the later age in which it took its present literary form, than that of the age which it describes. The following are the principal pieces falling under this head : Humb.2i:i4; X. Books (now lost) of the Wars of Jehovah and Jos. 10". 13, 13 \ aSam. i: i7-a7. of Jashar, probably collections of songs celebrating Israel's victories from the time of Moses onward. £. J-., judg. 6:1- 2. The book of Judges, a compilation of stories con- 10; 10: 6-16; chaps. 17 and cerning the conquest of Canaan, and of heroic deeds 2:6—3:6. ' against the Canaanites and other foes of Israel in the pre-monarchical period. These stories were first reduced to writing about the ninth century B. C, and this primi- tive work underwent thorough revision at the hands of successive editors until the book assumed its present form. The result is a narrative presenting the early history in Canaan from the Deuteronomic standpoint. .£.£••> Gen. jo: I- ->. E, One of the constituent documents of the 17; 21 : 8— ^ 32:13; 31:2-16, Hexateuch, taking its name from its use of the word 19-34, 33-43, 51 —33:2; 3s:i-4, Elohim in speaking of God, compiled probably in north- 6^-8; 37:5-36 ^ ,'^, ^ . ' ^ J. .J (in the main) ; ern Israel, and narrating the ancient traditions and early 401 z — 41 :4o: 43:8-37; Exod. history of Israel from the point of view of northern 1:15 — 2:10; 17:1^—18:27; prophets, living not later than 8=;o B. C. 30:1—24:8; r r ' & 3 Deut., chap. 33. 4. J, another constituent source of the Hexateuch, E. g.. Gen. 3:43.. . »•, ,. — 4:36;6:i-3; deriving Its name from its use of the name Jehovah in 9:18-27; 11: i-g; , . e r^ 1 -1 1 ■ T 1 1 1 , i3:i-4a, 6-30; speaking of God, compiled m Judah, and narrating the 38-34:1-^7;' ancient traditions and early history of Israel from the Ezod. 34 : 1-38. point of view of southern prophets, living not later than 750 B. C. 28 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 5. D, a third Hexateuchal source, containing the ^^^P^^^^fyj,^^"*- greater part of the book of Deuteronomy and other materials, especially in the book of Joshua, characterized by the same style and spirit, being chiefly a revision of the earlier legislation and a narrative of the events con- nected with the promulgation of the Mosaic law. This is probably the book that was found in the reign of King Josiah (621 B. C). 6. P, a fourth Hexateuchal source, being a narra- s.r. Gen. i.i- , . . ,, 2:4a/ 5:1-28; tive of Israel's history beginning with creation itself, 6:9-22; 9:1-17; .... , 11:10-27; 17:1- compiled by men controlled by the priestly spirit and 27; 28:1-9; ^ ■' , , M- T 36:1-30; Exod., representing the point of view of the post-exilic Jews; 6:2—7:13; 12:1-20; 34:29 in its latest form, not earlier than the days of Ezra, —40:38; Book of Leviticus ; 440 B. C. Numb. 1:1— 10: 28; 15: 1-41. § 30. In the Interpretation of These Later Sources it will often be found difficult to distinguish between the thought of the writer's time and that of the times of the event. In general, three schools of interpretation exist : 1. The school which maintains that the material of these documents is, for the most part, contemporaneous with the events described or words uttered ; and that, in any case, by direct divine interposition, the narratives have been rendered absolutely accurate in every par- ticular, and consequently are to be understood literally, the words, for example, placed in the mouths of Abraham, or Jacob, or Moses, being the exact words used. 2. The school which maintains that this material has no historical value, since it is largely, if not wholly, the creation of the later author, the representations made by him belonging to his own time rather than to the times which he describes. 3. The school which concedes the later date of the literary author- ship of the books in their present form; but insists that these authors made use of earlier writings, some of them very old, and that, conse- quently, some, at least, of the essential substance, belongs to the age of the events. The point of view of this, the third school, is taken in these studies. It is frankly conceded that the adoption of this posi- tion often leaves one in great uncertainty, for the reason that in many cases sufificient data do not exist to serve as a basis for sharply distin- guishing the writer's point of view from that of the times of which he is giving the history. THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 29 §31. Constructive Work. — It is important to make use of these later traditions, and to this end it is suggested that, in the case of each of the collections or documents indicated in § 29, the student — 1. Secure from some authority (see below) the actual Scripture material which scholars are accustomed to regard as included in it. 2. Consider the various points which are thought to be characteristic of it. 3. Study closely the times in which it is claimed to have had its origin, and the important ideas of those times. 4. Note the "traditions" given concerning these early times which form the basis of this study, and distinguish the sympathies and antipathies which have been transferred from the later period. 5. Sum up briefly the essential events and ideas which, after due allowance has been made for such transference, may fairly be regarded as belonging to the period described. See especially Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament^ pp. 116-72; Carpenter and Harford-Battersbv, The fIexateuch,\o\. I, pp. 92-156, and Vol. II; Mitchell, The World before Abraham, pp. 16-67; B. W. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis (1893); Idem, The Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I (1893), Vol. II (1898); articles " Hexateuch," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible and Encyclopedia Biblica; GuNKEL, The Legends of Genesis; and the commentaries by Driver, Moore, Nowack, Kennedy and H. P. Smith on Deuteronomy, Judges, and Samuel. § 32. Monumental Sources throwing light upon the times of this period include, among other material : I. The Hammurabi code of laws, dating from about 2250 B. C, and revealing fully the advanced stage of civilization already attained by the Babylonians. See R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia (1904); L. W. King, The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi (1898); S. A. Cook, The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (1903); W. Haves Ward, "Who Was Hammurabi?" Century, July, 1903; C. F. Kent, "The Recently Discovered Civil Code of Hammurabi," Biblical World, Vol. XXI (1903), pp. 175-90; C. H. W. Johns, "Notes on the Code of Hammurabi," Amp-ican fournal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIX (1903), pp. 96-107; Idem, The Oldest Code of Laws in the World: The Code of Laws Promulgated by Hammurabi, King of Babylon, B> C, 228^-2243 (1903); T. G. Pinches, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, November, 1902; W. Hayes Ward, "The Code of Hammurabi, King of Babylon {about 2250 B. C.)," Independent, 1903, pp. 67-70, 127-32, 183-90; V. Scheil, Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Tome IV (1902); H. Winckler, Die Gesetze Hammurabis (1903); D. H. Muller, Die Gesetze Hammurabis und ihr Verhdltnis zur Mosaischen Gesetzgebung sowie zu den XII Tafeln (1903); Kohler und Peiser, Hammurabi's Gesetz; Band I, Uebersetzung, furistische Wiedergabe, Erlduterung 30 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (1903); Grimme, Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses (1903); Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora Israels (1903); J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi (1903). 2. Babylonian contract tablets from the time of Abraham, showing that persons bearing Hebrew names were then in Babylonia, that there was much intercourse between Babylonia and the West, and that Babylonian civilization was already highly developed. See R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature — Selected Translations (1901), pp. 256-72. 3. The Tell-el-Amarna letters, dating from the fifteenth century B. C, and showing the extent of Babylonian influence in Canaan and the disturbed political condition there at that time. See Bezold, Oriental Diplomacy (1892); Budge and Bezold, The Tell-el- Amarna Tablets (1892); WiNCKLER, The Tell-el-Amarna Letters (1896); Petrie, Syria and Egypt from the Tell-el-Amarna Letters (1898); NiEBUHR, Die Amarna-Zeit (1899); R. F. Harper, op. cit., pp. 217-41. 4. The popular Egyptian story entitled " The Tale of Two Brothers," which originated about the thirteenth century B. C, and affords a parallel to the story of Joseph and Potiphar's wife. See Petrie, Egyptian Tales, Vol. II (189S), pp. 36 ££.; Records of the Past (ist series), Vol. II, pp. 137-52; Maspero, Contes pnpulaires igyptiennes. 5. The Stele of Merneptah, mentioning the Israelites and illus- trating Egyptian activities in Canaan about the time of the exodus. See J. II. Breasted, .5/WzVa/ W??-/^/, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 62-68; Spiegelberg, Zeitschrift fUr aegyptische Sprache, Vol. XXXIV (1896), pp. 1-25 ; Hommel, Expository Times, October, 1896; Petrie, Contemporary Review, May, 1896; Sayce, Academy, July, 1896; Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, III, §§602 ff.; 10-12; 629-38. 6. The lists of the Egyptian kings, Thothmes III. (1501-1447 B. C), Seti I. (1313-1293 B. C), Ramses II. (1293-1226 B. C), and Ramses III. (1198-1167 B.C.), furnishing evidence of Egyptian activities in Palestine. See Records of the Past (new series). Vol. VI, pp. 24 ff., 31 £f.; W. Max MtJLLER, Asien und Europa (1893), PP- IS9. 164 ff., 227 ff., 393 ; Sayce, Patriarchal Palestine, pp. 235—40. 7. The Egyptian narrative entitled "The Travels of a Mohar," coming from the reign of Ramses II. and being an imaginative recital of a trip through Palestine. See Sayce, Patriarchal Palestine (1895), pp. 204-24; Records of the Past (ist series). Vol. II, pp. 107-16. 8. The legend concerning the birth and boyhood of Sargon I. king of Agade, a story furnishing some parallels to the narrative of the birth of Moses. THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 3 1 See R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature — Selected Translations (1901), p. I. 9. Historical inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar I., king of Babylon (about 1 140 B. C), and Tiglath-pileser I., king of Assyria (about iioo B. C), yielding much information concerning the power and influence of Babylonia and Assyria in the twelfth century B. C. See R. F. Harper, op. cit., pp. 8-27; W. Lotz, Die Inschriften Tiglathpileser's, I (1880); Eb. Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, Vol. I (1889), pp. 14-49. §33. Constructive Work, — Prepare a brief statement in relation to each of these pieces, presenting the essential items of interest from the point of view of Israel's history and thought in this early period. For these materials in general and their value see the literature cited in §§ 2, 32, and also the following : S. R. Driver, " Hebrew Authority," in Hogarth's Authority and Archceologyy PP' 35-79; C. J. Ball, Light from the East, pp. 62-133; Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments {\.%<)i,\, Xys^ta, Patriarchal Palestine ; HoMMEL, T'/^if Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Illustrated by the Monuments (1897); W. Max MtJLLERj Asien und Europa nach altaegyptischen Denkmdlern (1893); L. B. Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine {1901); ScHRADER, Die Keilinschriffen und das Alte Testament (3d ed. 1902); T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the His- torical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia (1902). § 34. Constructive Work. — On the basis of the monumental material cited in § 32, consider in general (i) the relations of Israel with other nations ; (2) the various changes in Israel's geographical, historical, and social environment during this early period ; (3) the help received from it for a better understanding of Israel's life and religion. § 35. Study the Institutions expressive of religious thought as they existed in this period, in general (see my Priestly Element in the Old Testament [1905], §§ 15, 16), and in particular, viz.: 1. The Priest ; see Priestly Element, §§ 59-61. 2. The Place of Worship, §§ 73, 74. 3. Sacrifice, §§ 83, 84. 4. Feasts, §§96, 97. 5. The Sabbath, §§ 108, log. 6. The Clean and Unclean, §§ 122, 123. 7. Prayer, §137, i. 8. The Vow, § 140, i. 9. Blessings and Cursings, § 143, i. 10. The Ban, § 146, i. 11. The Oath, § 149, i. 12. The Fast, § 152, i. 32 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 13. Consultation with the Deity through Oracles, Urim and Thum- mim, the Ephod, the Lot, § 155, i. 14. Consultation with the Deity through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft, § 158, i. 15. Mourning Customs, § 161, i. 16. Circumcision, § 164, i. § 36. Constructive Study on the Religious Sentiment of the Times. — Upon the basis of the material thus collected formulate a general statement which will characterize the religious sentiment of the times in respect to — r. Its purity from superstition. 2. Its stage of advancement. 3. Its simplicity or complexity. 4. Its adaptation to nomadic life. 5. Its adaptation to agricultural life. 6. The presence of elements approved or disapproved in later times by the prophets. 7. The presence of elements common to other Semitic religions. 8. The presence of elements peculiar to the Hebrew religion. 9. The relative importance of the religious and the moral elements. § 37. Survey Rapidly the Great Characters and Events of this period, with a view to ascertaining, in the case of each, the peculiar religious significance which it must have suggested to the people of the earliest times, e. g. : 1. The life of Abraham, with its lessons of joyful 6611.12:1—25:11. communion between Jehovah and his people. 2. The characters of Isaac and Jacob, suggestive of the Gen. 35:19—50:3. low standards of religion and morality prevalent in patriarchal times, and of the strife between Israel and the neighboring tribes. 3. The career of Joseph, teaching Jehovah's preserv- Gen. 37:1—50:26. ing care of his people and the triumph of true virtue. 4. The residence in Egypt, welding the captive clans Exod.,chaps.i; 2. into a unit through common suffering, and bringing them into contact with the advanced civilization and religion of Egypt. 5. The exodus from Egypt, furnishing convincing Bxod., chaps. 5- evidence of Jehovah's care of Israel and his power to ''' deliver them from the mightiest foes. THE PERIOD OF THE PATRIARCHS AND JUDGES 33 Eiod., chaps. 6. The residence in the wilderness, necessitating a 16-19; Numb., ° chaps. 10-33. simple, abstemious manner of life, and emphasizing the nation's absolute dependence upon Jehovah's favor. £. .f., Exod., 7. The work of Moses in organizing the clans into a chaps. 3; 4; ao; ' 00 S\imb.,^assi>r:. nation, giving them a new conception of Jehovah, and laying the foundations of their religion. Joshua and 8. The lessons of the conquest, which made evident Judges, >aj-rz»i. the necessity of hearty co-operation among the clans, and showed the superiority of Jehovah to the gods of Canaan. £.£-., Judg., 9. The anarchy in the times of the Judges, when the chaps. 8 ; II ; n. . , , ,. . , 1 , j, nation was in danger of disintegration and was held to- gether only by the common worship of Jehovah. 10. The significance of the settlement in Canaan. In this work, the greatest effort must be made to re- construct the picture of the times of the event, in dis- tinction from those in which the narrative, in each case, was written. The question is: What was the significance of Abraham, or Moses, or the exodus, or the conquest to the people of these early times? We do not, at this point, care what the later generations thought. What special impression did these great lives and these wonderful events make on the people of the times of which they were a part ? § 38. Constructive Study. — Consider now the religious progress indi- cated by these lives and events, and formulate the same in a series of propositions under the following heads : 1. Faith in the power of Jehovah to deliver. 2. The consequences of sin. 3. The reward of righteousness. 4. The nation's conception of its own future. 5. Israel's attitude toward other tribes and nations. 6. The existence of other gods than Jehovah. 7. The relation of Jehovah to Israel. 8. The nation's conception of Jehovah. § 39. Constructive Study on the Prophet and Prophetic Work. — Study the more important instances in which reference is made to the prophet, or his work, viz.: Gen. 20:7 (E). Abraham is called a prophet; Moses is represented as Deut. 18:15 (D). calling himself a prophet; the song of "Miriam, the 34 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT prophetess," upon the overthrow of Pharaoh's army; the Exod.i5:2of.,(E) prominent part in the overthrow of Sisera's army given Judg. 4:4ff. to "Deborah, a prophetess;" and the description of the Numb., chaps. , , 22-24 (J and E). work of Balaam, the prophet. 1. Note the fact that all these passages are in narra- tives that received their literary form from the hands of prophetic editors later than this period, and consider, in view of this fact, whether the term "prophet" in each case is properly applied to the individual in question. 2. Upon the basis of these statements, consider how comparatively inactive the prophetic function still is at this time. 3. Consider, further, the fact that in this period, Israel, like other nations, was accustomed to resort to wizards, sorcerers, necromancers, for information con- cerning the will of the Deity, and that these classes of wonder-workers occupied a large place in the thought and life of the people. §40. Constructive Study on the Principal Religious Ideas, prophetic or otherwise, during this period of patriarchs and judges. From the various sources cited — viz., (i) contemporaneous literature (§§27, 28), (2) later literature (§§29-31), (3) monumental literature (§§32-34), (4) religious institutions as they stood in these periods (§§35, 36), (5) the great characters and events, as distinguished from the history of them prepared in later times (§§37,38) — let us endeavor to for- mulate the religious ideas as they were entertained in those days : I . As relating to God and the supernatural world. — (a) What, for example, was the opinion held among the people at large concerning Jehovah ? What are some of the explanations of the origin of the word Jehovah? What conception of the Deity is involved in each of these explanations ? What other names of the Deity were employed in this period ? Is there evidence that any effort was being made by certain leaders to introduce a conception of the Deity quite different from that held by the mass of the people ? What attributes of God are receiving special emphasis at this time ? Are there in the contemporaneous literature references to Jehovah as the God of creation ? ((5) Do the people of the times believe in the existence and manifestation of angels ? If so, what relation do these angels sustain to God ? Are there other superhuman beings who have power over human life and fortune ? (-7:i; 7:3-17; coming from a somewhat later time and from a different ^' 10:17-25; "; ^ 15 ; 10:1-13 ; 17: I point of view, forming another constituent element of — i8:5;i8::4-i9; ^ ' o 18:30 — 19:10,19: 'The analysis of the books of Samuel here given is that of H. P. Smith in The International Critical Commentary on Samuel {i8gg). Reference may also be made to the commentaries of Thenius-Lohr {1898), Budde (1902), Nowack (1902), and Kennedy (1905); Budde's edition of the text in the Polychrome Bible (1894); WELLHA0SEN, Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen BUcher des Alten Testaments (3d ed. 1899); Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 22 ff.; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897), pp. 172-85 ; Sten- NING, art. "Samuel" in YiK%lvnQ%^% Dictionary 0/ the Biile, Vol. IV {igo2); Stade, art. "Samuel" in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. IV (1903); Cheyne, Devout Study of Criticism, pp. 1-126. 40 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 18-24; 21:11-16; the present books of Samuel, and characterized by the large share of attention given to the life and work of Samuel, by a considerable measure of idealization, and by an unmistakably theological point of view. 3. Later additions to the earlier histories by an editor dominated by the spirit and teachings of the book of Deuteronomy. 4. Still later additions by another Deuteronomic editor who gathered up and carefully edited various frag- ments pertaining to the history of earlier times. 5. The various sources incorporated in the first eleven chapters of the first book of Kings, which deal with the closing days of David's reign and the entire reign of Solomon ; viz., (a) a narrative of David's last days which perhaps belonged originally in the books of Samuel ; (3) a "book of the acts of Solomon," probably a list of court annals ; (<;) records drawn from the archives of the temple compiled by the priests ; (d) a pre-Deuteronomic life of Solomon ; (e) the work of the Deuteronomic editor who compiled the book, supplied the "framework," and added much else from his own hand ; (/) the work of the post-exilic editor, controlled by priestly influences, who supplemented the book with various materials intended to render it more edifying for the people of his own day.° 6. The Chronicler's narrative of the reigns of David and Solomon compiled about 200 or 300 B. C. The spirit and tone of this work are priestly, its interest being especially in the religious institutions and the law. The main sources of this narrative were (a) the present books of Samuel and Kings, or possibly a midrash of these books ; I chron. 29:29; 2 (i) a collection of prophetic writings such as "the his- Chron. 9:29. ^ ' ^ ^ " , , tory of Samuel the Seer," "the history of Nathan the ^For the analysis of the books of Kings see the commentaries of Kittel (1900), Skinner (1904), and Benzinger (1899); Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexa- teuchs und der hisiorischen Biicher des Alten Tesiaments (3d ed. 1899), pp. 266-302, 359-61; TyKW-E.^, Introduction /o the Literature of the Old Testament {bVn ed. 1897), pp. 185-205; C. F. BURNEY, art. "Kings," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, '^o\. II (1899); W. R. Smith and E. Kautzsch, art. "Kings," Encyclopiedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); C. F. BURNEY, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings (1903), pp. ix-xix; Stade AND ScHWALLY, The Books of Kings (Polychrome Bible, 1904). 22:3-5; 23:11- 24: 26; 28; 31; 2 Sam., chaps. 5-8. I Sam. 10:253-27; i: : 12-14. Sam. 2:1-11; 13:1; 20:1 — 21:1 ; 2 Sam. 21:15-22; 22 ; I — 23 : 29. I Kings I : i — 2 ; 2(1 ;2: 5-9, 13-46. II :4i ; 4 : 1-19; 6: 37 — 7:i2;io:i6- 20, 26-29. 7 : 13—8 : 13. 3:5-13, 16-28; 5: 15-23; 9:ii3- 14 ; 10: i-io; II : 14-31. 2 : 10-12; 3 :i4f.; 8:14-43, 54-9:9; 9 : 15-22 ; II : I- 13- 8:44-53. I Chron. 10: i— 2 Chron, 10:19. E.g,,\ Chron. io:i-i2;ii ;i-9; 14:1-16. PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 4 1 prophet," "the history of Gad the seer," "the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite," and "the visions of Iddo the i Chron. 11:41*- seer;" (<:) old genealogical and official lists; (\. History, Prophecy, and the Monuments,Vo\.\{\'ic)a,),-f •p. 21^-2%; Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine (1901), pp. 176-91 ; Rogers, A History of Baby- lonia and Assyria, Vol. II (1900), pp. 35-45 ; WiNCKLER, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens (1892), pp. 176-81 ; Idem, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 3d ed.. Vol. I (1902), pp. 38!.; TiELE, Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte (1886), pp. 167, 178. 2. The contemporary Egyptian records, showing that Egypt was paralyzed by internal struggles for supremacy, thus interposing no obstacle to the rapid development of Israel. 3 On the sources of Chronicles see: Kittel, Z^zV Biicher der Chronik ("Hand- kommentar z. A. T.," 1902) ; Benzinger, Die Biicher der Chronik ("Kurzer Hand- Commentar z. A. T.," 1901); Barnes, The Books of Chronicles (Cambridge Bible 1899); KiTTEL, The Books of Chronicles in Hebrew (Polychrome Bible, 1895) Francis Brown, art. "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898) Driver, art. " Chxomcles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. 1(1899); Driver, Introduction, etc., pp. 516-40. 42 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT See Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations (1896), pp. 756-72; Ed. Meyer, Geschichti des Alterthums, Vol. I (1884), pp. 380-82; Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschickte {i%i^),'P'p. 527-42; Budge, A History of Egypt, Vol. VI (1902), pp. 33-60. § 48. Constructive Study. — Prepare a brief statement of the essential facts in the history of Assyria and Egypt during this period, with especial reference to their bearing on the life and thought of Israel. §49. Study the Institutions expressive of religious thought as they existed in this period, in general (see my Priestly Element in the Old Testament [1905], §§ 15, 16), and in particular, viz.: 1. The Priest; see Priestly Element, §§59-61. 2. The Place of Worship, §§ 73, 74. 3. Sacrifice, §§ 83, 84. 4. Feasts, §§ 96, 97. 5. The Sabbath, §§ 108, 109. 6. The Clean and Unclean, §§ 122, 123. 7. Prayer, §137, i. 8. The Vow, § 140, i. 9. Blessings and Cursings, § 143, i. 10. The Ban, § 146, i. 11. The Oath, § 149, i. 12. The Fast, § 152, i. 13. Consultation with the Deity through Oracles, Urim and Thum- mim, the Ephod, and the Lot, § 155, i. 14. Consultation with the Deity through Magic, Divination, Sor- cery, and Witchcraft, § 158, i. 15. Mourning Customs, § 161, i. 16. Circumcision, § 164, i. From the above materials select only such as belong to the par- ticular period under consideration here. §50. Constructive Study on the Non-Prophetic Religious Sentiment of the Times. — Upon the basis of the material indicated in §49, formulate a general statement which will characterize the non-prophetic religious sentiment of the times in respect to — 1. Its purity from superstition. 2. Its stage of advancement. 3. Its simplicity or complexity. 4. Its adaptation to agricultural life. 5. The presence of elements approved or disapproved by the con- temporary or later prophets. 6. The presence of elements common to other Semitic religions. PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 43 7. The presence of elements peculiar to the Hebrew religion. 8. The relative importance of the religious and moral elements. §51. Survey Rapidly the Great Characters and Events of this period, with a view to ascertaining, in the case of each, the particular religious significance which it must have suggested to the people of those days, viz.: 1. The life and iudgeship of Samuel as an example of i Sam. 3:1—4:1 ; ^ -^^ ■ ■ 7:1-12:25, etc. unimpeachable integrity. 2. The founding of the kingdom as an evidence of i Sam. 8:4— 11:15. the growing consciousness of unity among the clans. -?. The reign of Saul, with its constant wars, the per- i Sam. 13:1— ° ■ 2 Sam. 1:27. secution of David, the friendship of David and Jonathan, and the final overthrow at Mount Giiboa. 4. The reign of David, at first in Judah, then over all 2 Sam. 2 :i— ° J I Kings 2:11. Israel, with the resulting wide extension of territory and great increase of wealth and power. 5. The significance of the capture of Jerusalem and 2 Sam. 5:6-16. its establishment as the national capital. 6. The many wars of David, with almost uninter- aSam. 5:17-25; 7:1 ; 8:1-14; 10: rupted victory, as an evidence of Jehovah's favor and 1-19, etc. power. 7. The reign of Solomon, with all its wealth, pomp, i Kings a:n—ii: and magnificence, and the corresponding deterioration of national vigor and virtue. 8. The erection of the temple and its significance in i Kings 6:1-38. the development of Hebrew worship. 9. The relations of Israel with the outside world ; e. g., the hostility with the Philistines, Ammonites, 2 Sam. 5:17-25; 8 :i-i4 ; 10 :i-i9; Amalekites, etc.; the treaties with Phoenicia under David 5:iif. ; i Kings 3 : 1 ; 5 : X ff . ; 7 : and Solomon ; the treaty with Egypt in Solomon's reign ; ist. ; 9:26ff.; and Solomon's general attitude toward foreign peoples. 10. The internal relations of Israel during this period; e. g., the dissatisfaction occasioned by the injus- i Sam. 2:11-17; 7 "7; 8*1-5; 13' tice and oppression of Eli's sons and of Samuel's sons; sff., 19-22; 19: the absolute inability to resent Philistine oppression in 2Sajn..3:i— certain periods of Samuel's activity; the civil war be- 1:5-53; 2:13-25; tween Saul and David; the existence of two distinct 9:15-23; n:a6- governments for seven years after the death of Saul ; the revolts of Absalom and Shimei; the influence of Joab; the conspiracy of Adonijah ; the organization of the king- 44 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT I Kings 5:13-16; dom under Solomon; the existence of a standing army; 4o''t2'f4."'^ the exaction of forced labor for Solomon's building operations ; the flight of Jeroboam ; the despotic charac- ter of Solomon. In doing this work bear in mind the suggestions made at the close of § 37. On this period of Hebrew history see : Ewald, History of . Israel, Vol. Ill ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 448-56; KiTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 103-96; Kent, ^ History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, pp. 113-206; CoR- NILL, History of the People of Israel, f ■p. 56-95; Ottley, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman Period, pp. 120-57 ; Wade, Old Testament History, pp 213-31 1; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 106-76; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 197-343; GuTHE, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 68-128. Also the various articles in Encyclopaedias and Bible Diction- aries on "Samuel," "Saul," "David," "Jonathan," "Solomon," etc. §52. Constructive Study. — Consider now the religious progress indicated by these lives and events, and formulate the same in a series of propositions under the following heads: 1. The nation's conception of Jehovah. 2. The relation of Jehovah to Israel. 3. The existence of other gods than Jehovah. 4. Faith in the power of Jehovah to deliver. 5. Israel's conception of its own future. 6. Israel's attitude toward other peoples. 7. The reward of righteousness. 8. The consequences of sin. 9. The standard of conduct. 10. The average state of morals and religion. 11. The religious aspects of the monarchy, 12. The character of David. § S3- Constructive Study on the Prophet and Prophetic Work. — Study the more important instances in which the prophet appears or reference is made to his work, viz.: I Sam. 9:6ff.,2o. I. The reputation and influence of Samuel as a "seer," or soothsayer. I Sam. 10:9-13; 2. The relation of Saul to the prophets, and his own 16:14 if. "^ ^ participation in the prophetic spirit. Consider in this connection the significance of the "evil spirit" which troubled Saul. PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 45 3. The higher work of Samuel as a teacher of right- i Sam. 12: 1-5; 15; eousness and the dominant councilor in national affairs. 4. The story of the witch of Endor, and the insight 180111.28:3-25. it affords into current conceptions of religion. 5. The careers of Nathan and Gad, their relation to i Sam. 22:5; 2 ... , . ,..,._, , ■ . r , Sam. 7:1 if. ; 12: the king, their political influence, and their fearless i:ff. ;24:iiff.;2 Kings, chap. i. utterance. 6. The prophetic guilds, their relation to Samuel, iSam.io:5ff.;i9: the ecstatic and fanatical character of their work, their resemblance to the modern dervish, their communal life, their political influence, and their significance as repre- sentatives of the original Jehovah religion and opponents of all Canaanitish innovations. 7. The relation of David to the prophets, as seen in the friendly counsel given him by Gad when Saul was iSam.22;5. seeking to kill him; in his attitude when rebuked by 2 Sam. 12:1-15. Nathan; in his willingness to surrender the privilege of 2 Sam. 7:1-17. building the temple to his successor in accordance with Nathan's word ; in the part played by Nathan in deter- i Kings chap. i. mining the choice of David's successor; in his submis- 2 Sam. 24:11. ff. sion to the rebuke of Gad upon the occasion of the census; and in his spirit and character in general. 8. The attitude of Solomon toward the prophets, as i Kings i :8, 10-27, inferred from the part taken by Nathan in securing the 5: iff'.; ii':i-8l throne for him ; from the autocratic character of this king ; from his tolerance of non-Israelitish religions and his treaties and marriages with several pagan peoples ; and from the attitude of the prophets toward the disrup- tion under his successor. § 54. Constructive Study on the Principal Prophetic Ideas prevalent during this period. In the light of the various sources of information previously cited — viz., (i) contemporaneous Hebrew literature (§§43, 44); (2) later Hebrew literature (§§45, 46); (3) monumental literature (§§47,48); (4) the religious institutions found existing during this period (§§49, 5°); (s) the great characters and events, as distinguished from the history of them prepared in later times (§§51, 52); (6) the character of the prophets and their methods of work (§53) — let us endeavor to formulate the contribution of the prophets to the religious ideas entertained by their contemporaries : 46 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT I. y4s relating to God and the supernatural world. — {a) What was the conception of Jehovah prevalent among the people at large ? Does this popular idea of God show any advance upon the correspond- ing idea in the previous period ? What phases of the divine activity were especially impressed upon the popular consciousness ? Was Jehovah looked upon as the only God ? What was the significance of the use of a special, proper name — viz. Jehovah — for God? What was the attitude of the people toward the gods of other nations? What was the relation of Jehovah to these foreign gods ? What was the significance of the ban? Did the lives and teachings of the prophets tend to change the conception of Jehovah in any important respects ? What does the existence of a class of prophets and seers in itself imply as to the relation of God to man ? How was the idea of God related, on the one hand to the development and organization of the national spirit, and on the other to the appearance of the prophets in connection with this national life ? Upon what phases of the divine character did the prophets lay emphasis ? {b) Is there any evidence that the people or the prophets of this period believed in the existence and manifestation of angels ? If so, what was the function of such beings and their relation to God ? Were there any other superhuman beings who had power over human life and fortune ? (c) What was the opinion of the times concerning spirits ? Were these spirits always evil ? Was there any connection between them and the spirits of departed ancestors ? What was the feeling of the times toward sorcery, soothsaying, witchcraft, and necromancy? Did the prophets of the period oppose such practices? Were these customs in them- selves inconsistent with true prophecy? If so, why? 2. As relating to man. — (a) Did any new teaching appear in this period concerning the origin of man, his relation to God, his relation to the animal world, and his future place in the world-economy? Was the estimate of the value of human life a high one ? {f) What were the existing ideas of sin and guilt, and how were they related to the existing idea of God ? Did the contemporaneous prophets impart any new meaning to the word sin ? What was the effect of sin upon man's relation to God and upon God's attitude toward man ? Was sin con- ceived of by the prophets as primarily a violation of ceremonial or ethical laws ? What sins were most denounced by the prophets of these times ? {c) How was atonement made for sin ? Was there any progress in this respect beyond the ideas of the previous period ? What is the significance in this connection of the practice of blood- PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM DURING THE DAVIDIC PERIOD 47 revenge ? How did the teachings of the prophets affect the situation ? {d) What was the view of death and the future world ? Was there any relation between the idea of sin and that of death ? How did the beliefs concerning death and the future influence the present life ? 3. As relating to Israel's future. — What was the influence- of Israel's unification into a nation upon the conception of her future ? What especially important steps were taken in this period in the progress of the idea of Israel's future? How did the splendor and power of David and Solomon influence the development of the idea? How did the establishment of Jerusalem as the national capital and the building of the temple there affect the idea ? Was there yet any teaching con- cerning the Messiah ? What was the significance of prophecy in relation to the nation's future ? Was there any teaching concerning the future relation of Israel to the outside nations ? Was there any doctrine of the "Day of Jehovah"? 4. As relating to ethical standards and worship.— {a) Was the stand- ard of morality prevailing in these times high or low ? Was there any distinction between national and individual morality? Were morals and religion dissociated and independent of each other, or were they inseparably connected? Was the prophetic standard of ethics a uni- formly high one ? Did the prophets contribute anything to the current idea of righteousness ? Did they emphasize either ethics or religion, the one more than the other ? Is there any evidence of the existence of an attitude of faith on the part of the worshipers of Jehovah ? If so, how was it manifested ? {b) Was the idea of a covenant-relationship between Jehovah and Israel modified or enriched in any way? What demands did it make upon the two parties to the covenant ? (c) What was the influence of the building of the temple upon the ideas of wor- ship ? Was the worship of the period in general purer and more spir- itual than heretofore, or had it deteriorated ? What was the effect of continued contact with Baalism, and other worships tolerated by Solo- mon ? Did the prophets of the period take any position with refer- ence to the nature and conduct of worship? What was their attitude toward the building of the temple, the offering of sacrifice at the local shrines, etc.? Were they deeply interested in these things ? §55. Literature to be Consulted. On the prophets and prophecy of this period see: ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1868, 5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 151-57; Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (1875, transl. 1877), pp. 369f., 392 f., 564-67 ; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (l?i%2,ri.tvi ed. 1895), pp. 391 £.; OREl,l.l,Old Testament 48 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Prophecy (1882, transl. 1885), pp. 148-57; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 121-52; PlEPENBRING, The Theology of the Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 11-20; MoNTEFIORE, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (\?it)2'), pp. 72-83; CORNILL, The Prophets of Israel (1894, transl. 3d ed. 1898), pp. I-15 ; BuDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899), pp. 88-1 1 1 ; S. A. Cook, "Notes on the Composition of 2 Samuel," American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI { 1900), pp. 145-77 '. White, art. "Nathan," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1900); Stenning, art. "Samuel," ibid., Vol. IV (1902); Davidson, art. "Prophecy and Prophets," ibid.. Vol. IV (1902), pp. 109 f . ; S. A. CooK, art. "Nathan," Encyclopadia Biblica, Vol. Ill (1902); Cheyne, art. "Prophetic Literature," §§4, 5, ibid.; Stade, art. "Samuel," ibid.. Vol. IV (1903); Davidson, Old Testament Prophecy (i()o^), pp. 40-61 ; Batten, The Hebrew Prophet (1905), pp. 161-76. Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthunis (1883), pp. 30-59 ; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (1893, 2d ed. 1899), §5; y[.Kf..'n,Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (3d ed. 1897), pp. 79-91 ; Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alien Israel (l<)0\); KuRTZ, Zur Psychologic der vorexilischen Prophetic in Israel (i<)0^). Also the commentaries on Samuel and Kings cited in notes i and 2, pp. 39, 40. On the so-called "schools of the prophets" see especially: Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel, pp. 46 ff.; L. W. Batten, The Hebrew Prophet, pp. 42-72; Kautzsch in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. V, pp. 652 ff.; Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alien Israel; Kittel, Prophetic und Weis- sagung; G. RoTHSTEiN, "Herkunft und urspriingliches Wesen der israelitischen Prophetic," Studierstube, 1905, pp. 323-331, and the list of literature on p. 81. CHAPTER V. THE BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY AND PROPHETISM IN THE NORTHERN KINGDOM. § 56. The Scope of this Period is that of the Northern as distinguished from the Southern kingdom. It commences with the revolt of the Northern tribes under Jeroboam I. (933 B. C), an event incited by the prophets; and closes with the fall of Samaria (721 B. C), an event foretold by the prophets in considerable minuteness. This period includes : 1. The more or less successful efforts of Northern Israel to establish herself in spite of wars with Judah (933-887 B. C), with Syria (890-790 B. C), and with Assyria (854-721 B. C). 2. Three successive and prolonged struggles: (i) of Jeroboam I. and his successors against misfortune of every kind, intensified by disorganization and confusion, until Omri builds Samaria and makes it the central and controlling factor in the kingdom (933-885 B. C.) ; (2) of Omri's dynasty and that of Jehu, against the prophets Elijah, Elisha, and their followers who were unwilling that the worship of Jehovah should be contaminated by the impurities of Baalism (885- 784); (3) of Jeroboam II. and his successors, against Assyria on the one hand, and on the other against the prophets Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, who recognized in Assyria the instrument in Jehovah's hands for Israel's punishment and destruction (784-721 B. C). 3. Three startling and indeed significant movements of prophetic character, each seemingly revolutionary, but each, when viewed closely, passing onward into the next, the three together constituting the real foundations of prophecy; viz., (i) the prophetic revolt from despotism and priest-control at the time of Solomon's death which alone fur- nished opportunity for the freedom demanded for prophetic growth; (2) the assumption by the prophets of a power superior to that of kings, in their determined effort to rid themselves of the injurious influence of outside religious cults ; and (3) the transition, made neces- sary by the situation, from the primitive methods and ideas of the earliest prophets, to the more permanent and efficient work of the ■writing prophets, of whom Amos was, perhaps, the first. 4. Three contests of great importance in world -history ; (1) the battle of Karkar, 854 B. C, in which Israel's military forces (in union 49 50 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT with the armies of other nations) first met defeat at the hands of Assyria; (2) the Syro-Ephraimitish campaign (735 B. C.) against Judah, the end of which was the fall of Damascus (732 B. C.) ; (3) the siege of Samaria and its final destruction in 721 B. C. §57. The Character of the Period has been partly indicated in the statement of its scope (§56). If we attempt to think of it as a whole, covering two centuries and more, we are able, in spite of the great variety which it presents, to distinguish certain predominant features : 1. There is almost always to be noted a condition of disorganiza- tion and confusion which very frequently becomes anarchy. At no time does the government seem to have been regarded as stable. This was due in part, at least, to the prevalence of a democratic spirit, a spirit without which prophecy could not have been developed. While this is the home situation, the foreign relations are even worse, resulting in continuous wars with one or another of the outside powers (see §56). 2. It is evidently a period during the progress of which a great transition is taking place, e.g., from agricultural life and residence in villages, to military life and residence in cities — a change due to the warlike character of the times. Little of the pastoral life remains. Mercantile ideas and influences prevail. This has come about in large measure because of the wars. And with this change have come great wealth, and, particularly, in the reigns of Jeroboam II. in Israel and of Uzziah in Judah, great prosperity. | These are Israel's days of greatest splendor, and are due, in large measure, to the peace which followed the Syrian wars. 3. In these years Israel is in the fullest sense an independent world- power — one of the lesser kind, in contest with "the restless aggressive- ness of the gigantic empire of Assyria." This was in accordance with the divine plan, which involved a close contact of Israel and Judah, for educational purposes, with all the great world-powers of antiquity. Israel never was an isolated nation, and never was intended to be, until long after the Babylonian exile. As a part of this general movement there came to Israel a closer intercourse with foreign nations. This brought about a widening of her intellectual horizon, a stronger _and deeper sense on the part of the true leaders, of her own indi- viduality, and of her mission to the world. For in proportion as she lost her place as a nation, in that proportion was her great vocation realized. With all the bad that came from intimacy with these outside nations, there came much that was good. This good, while not suffi- cient to save Northern Israel from destruction, was handed down in various ways to the great advantage of posterity. BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 5 1 4. The religious zeal of the times was marked ; but while outwardly flourishing, there was corruption within. Tainted with impurity, abounding in pagan customs, given over to magic, necromancy, and superstitious rites of every kind, the more rigidly it was observed, the less of true religion really existed. The immorality of the period was most flagrant; shameless sensuality prevailed everywhere. Violence and robbery, murder and corruption were rampant. 5. It is, however, the period of all periods in Israelitish history, in which the prophet has largest place. It is true that he is always in opposition to the governing power; but his opposition is so strong that it means a large measure of control. He was Israel's adviser, and had his guidance been freely accepted the pages of history would have told a far different story. At the same time, these changes in government and these many wars with hostile neighbors, this transition in method of life, and the opportunities afforded by increased wealth, this position as a world-power in contact with other world-powers ; even this false religious zeal, and the immoral activity of the times — all this furnishes an experience, an object lesson, a text for prophetic appeal and for the announcement of divine law, which was to educate some of those who lived then, and more of those who were to follow. § 58. The Contemporaneous Literary Work of this period is very large in quantity, and of the highest value. This, in fact, is the age in which Israel comes to literary consciousness. Our greatest difficulty lies in the abundance and the richness of this material. The following may be regarded as a rough catalogue of the most important prophetic material. Distinction is to be made between the literature produced in Northern Israel, and that coming from Judah. For the sake of con- venience we may arrange this material in three groups : A. Narrative Literature, produced in this period, which relates to times preceding 933 B. C. These works are of especial interest in that their spirit and purpose belong to the times under consideration. They were written to meet the problems of these times; and, present- ing as they do the sympathies and antipathies of the period, they form a true expression of the inner thought. Here may be placed : I . The great prophetic narrative of Judah, _/.' This narrative begins 'Gen. 2 :4* — 4:25; 7 : 1-5, 7-10, 12, 17*, 22 f.; 8 ■.2b, 3a, 6-12, 13*, 20 f.; 18; i — 20:38; 24:1-67; 29:1-14, 31-35; 30:3*-i6. 22^-3ia, 34-383, 39, 40a, 4OC-43; 31:1, 17, l8a, 25, 27, 31, 43/, 46, 48-50; 38:1-30; 39:1-23; 43:1— 45: la,- 48:13- 19; 49:li}-27; Exod. 1:8-12, 14a,- 4:1-16; 5:5—6:1; 8:1-4,8-153,20—9:7; io:l-ll; 11:4-8; 12:29-34,37-39; 34:1-28; Numb. 22:33-53, 5 24-36; 2:1a, 5(J, 23 ; 3:2, 5, 6, i6-27a, 28; 6: 11-19, 21-24, 34 ; 7= I; 7-9, 12-16, 20-22 ; 8 :4-2I, 24-27 ; 9:26-41 ; 13:2-25; 14: 1-20; 15:1-19; 16: 1-313,. 17:1.5.7-12; 18:1-14,17-30; 19:1-6; 9 f., 12, 14-23,25-30; 20:1,3-8, i8f., 29, 36-41,44,47; 21:1,15-23; and the following to E : 4:6-22; 6:33,36-40; 9:1-25,. 42-55; 11:1,3-11,30-40; 12:1-6; 17:2-4, 7, II; 18:2-4, 8f., 15, 31 ; I9:7f.,I0, I2f., 15. 54 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT originated during the first or second century of this period. Whether or not they formed a part of the J and E of the Hexateuch cannot be definitely determined, but in any case they come from the same school of prophetic narrators, and show the light in which these interpreters of history looked upon events and movements of comparatively recent times."* 4. The earlier Samuel Narrative (see § 45, i), dealing with the history of the times of Saul and David, and having value for this period because the writer's purpose and point of view appear so plainly in his selection and use of materials and in the general attitude assumed toward these great leaders of former times. 5. The later Samuel Narrative (see §45, 2), covering the same period as the earlier narrative, but reflecting a more highly developed stage of thought and feeling and characterized by a distinctly prophetic spirit. 6. The various narratives and documents in Kings relating to David and Solomon, i Kings, chaps, i-ii. Chaps, i and 2, dealing with the last acts of David, really belong to the books of Samuel and express the same ideas as the sources of Samuel. Chaps. 3-1 1 include several sources (§45, 5), among the earliest of which are: (a) an early life of Solomon, the purpose of which seems to have been to emphasize the great wisdom and power of Solomon, and (l)) still older annalistic records of Solomon's building operations, and various other matters. These are of interest and value as showing the thought of the times concerning the life and work of Solomon. The pieces, thus included, represent in truest fashion not only (i) the general purpose and spirit of 933-721 B. C, or some special sub-period in these two centuries; but also (2) a definite and separate development of prophetic growth and prophetic literary expression, standing between the earlier work of Elijah and Elisha, and the later activity of Amos and Hosea. §59. Constructive Study. — In the case of each of the documents treated in §58 : I. Ascertain the various views concerning the time of its origin, ^On the sources of Judges see the commentaries of G. F. Moore, Budde and NowACK, and also Moore, art. "Judges," Encyclopedia Biblica; KoNiG, art. "Judges," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Moore, Judges (Polychrome Bible) ; Stadb "Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des vordeuteronomischen Richterbuches," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I. pp. 339-43 ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (iSgj), pp. 160-72; Frankenberg, Die Composition des deuteronomischen Richterbuches (1895) ; Marquart, Fundamente der israelitischen und jiidischen Geschichte (1896). BACKGROUND OF PROPHECY IN NORTHERN KINGDOM 55 together with the grounds upon which its assignment to this period rests. 2. Separate carefully any portions which may fairly be regarded as having had their origin later than 721 B. C. and indicate the reasons for this separation. 3. Try to determine the particular portion of this period in which the piece originated, and study the historical environment out of which it came. 4. Endeavor by continuous reading of each document by itself to secure a clear conception of the document as a whole. ~ §60. The Covenant Code. — (Exod. 20:23 — 23:33). This is a series of laws arranged in groups of five and representing the ideas and usages that had come into existence and received general acceptance between the days of Moses and some time in the eighth or ninth centuries B. C. at the latest. This code is characterized by (a) the comparatively primitive character of many of its requirements; (6) the agricultural background reflected in its laws; ( fj b 13:20, 21S, 23, the land; the determination of the route around Edom 24, 266; 14:25; 20:16, 14-18, and Moab and through the kingdom of Sihon. 21a, 32s; etc. 10. The stories of Balaam. Numb. 22:8-10, 12-16, etc. 11. The story of the death of Moses, and of Joshua, Deut. 34:51.; 1 • ,1 r .1 T 1 1 r Josh. i:if., 10, his successor; the passage of the Jordan ; the capture of 3:6; 4:4!; 6:1, Jericho and Ai; the covenant made at Shechem. 8:i'8,^4;'chap'. Keep in mind (i) that J is history (not like D, § 29, 5, ^^' which is largely legal), and that this history indicates the spirit of the prophet (not, like P, § 29, 5, which is strongly priestly); (2) that J, like other prophets, speaks for God, i. e., he interprets the events of past times from, the point of view of God, as he conceives him; (3) that J selects only such material as will enable him to accomplish the purpose he has in mind ; (4) that his selection, therefore, will be greatly affected by his thought concerning God and sin, i. e., by the thought on these subjects which he wishes to present to his contemporaries.' §82. Constructive Study. — Study each section of J included in the analysis given above (§ 81), with a view to collecting data that will throw light upon the following heads : 1. The prophetic character of the narrative. 2. The idea of God which it represents, including all references to an overruling providence. 3. The idea entertained concerning man and his relation to God, sin, and deliverance. 4. The ethical standards which the narrative seems to advocate. 5. The attitude indicated toward forms of worship. 'The pragmatic element in J (and in E) is, of course, but sliglitly manifest, if we compare it with the later representation of this same element in D and P. At the same time, neither ] nor E may be regarded as a collection of uncolored folk-lore. Cf. George F. Moore, art. " Historical Literature," Encyclofmdia Biblica. 84 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 6. The feeling of the writer toward outside nations and his idea of Israel's future as a nation. 7. The degree of importance attached to the land of Canaan and the representations made concerning it. §83. The Prophetic Element in the narrative as a whole should be formulated. In connection with such effort - 1. Study the general framework of the narrative, from the story of Eden to the settlement in Canaan ; (i) Is a definite purpose to be discovered? Does the purpose relate to the origin of the people of Israel ? (2) Is there evidence of a desire to connect Jehovah with this origin and with the subsequent development ? 2. Is the spirit throughout that of insight into Jehovah's plans, recognition of the consequences of sin, encouragement toward higher ideals of life ? 3. Is there a reflective element to be seen in the fond- Gen. 6:1-4; 6:5— ness for incorporating (i) songs and sayings which 8 ;22 ', 9*.20. Gen. 16:13; Exod. involve anthropological observations? or (2) remarks 15:23; Mumb. to V / 11:34; Gen. 32: which contain reference to the origin of customs and of 32. names ? (3) Is it possible to make out quite clearly a definite purpose which, one may suppose, explains the presence in the collection of a given story, or, at all events, its general form and coloring ? Numb. 22:36-36; 4. Is there evident everywhere a strong interest in the 24:1—25:36,* josh.7:2— 8:23. nafiona/, SLS distingmshed from the institutional,^ i\d^ oi affairs ? Why is this element to be treated as pre- eminently prophetic? 5. To what extent is the predictive element present? Gen. 3:14, 15. Consider, ^. ^., (i) the first prediction concerning the history of sin, its long struggle with mankind, but the final triumph of humanity, though wounded in the con- 9:26,27. flict; (2) the representation of the relations of Shem, Gen. 12:1-3; 13: Ham, and Japheth ; (3) the patriarchal blessings (involv- 27:27-19. ing great numbers, great prosperity, and blessing to the 49:8-12. world) placed in the mouth of (a) Abraham, (3) Isaac, arfd Numb. 24:17-19. (c) Jacob; (4) the forecast of Israel's future relation to the nations. How far, now, are these utterances the very mes- ' The narrative of the origin of the Passover (Exod. 12 : 3-16) is the only instance in which extended consideration is given in J to any institution. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 85 sage of the prophet for his times, and placed for rhetorical and homiletical purposes in the form of prediction ? 6. Is there to be noted throughout the narrative a tendency toward idealism ? Just how can this best be de- fined ? Does the writer present pictures of life, which he would have his contemporaries observe in order that their life, still lower than the ideals presented, may be lifted to a higher plane ? Consider the picture thus presented in the pen-portrait of (i) Abraham, representing the ideals Gen. « .1-40,6-3; of intimate acquaintance and communion with Jehovah; (2) Isaac and Jacob, representing the superiority of the 116:6-14^16, 19-33^ Hebrews in all relations with other peoples because of m; 32:43-50. their especial relation to Jehovah; (3) Joseph, repre- 39:i-;23;43:i— 44: senting the vindication and triumph of the pure and upright, notwithstanding the machinations of wicked opponents; (4) the oppression in Egypt and deliverance Exoa. 1:8-12, 140; from the same, representing the wonderful power of 'sa; 8:20—9:7; Jehovah in triumphing over the mighty gods of Egypt; 34; etc. (5) the giving of the law on Sinai, teaching the awful Kxoa. 19:20-^5; sanctity of Jehovah and the absolute authority of his law; (6) Moses, representing the ideal of a national leader. Numb. 14:41-45; taking every step in absolute dependence upon the guid- ance of Jehovah; (7) Joshua, representing courage and Josh. 5:i3-i5j6: success due to obedience to Jehovah's command to 17,19-23. exterminate the Canaanites. §84. Constructive Study. — Consider the message, in general, intended for people living 800 to 850 B. C. contained in a presenta- tion of (i) Israel's actual origin under circumstances of so peculiar and elevated a character; (2) the origin of Israel's neighbors under circumstances of an entirely opposite character ; (3) the origin of customs (e. g., marriage) and of names (e. g., Jacob and Israel); (4) stories like that of Cain and Abel, or the angels and women, or the elevation of Joseph, or deliverance from Egypt, or the giving of the law on Sinai ; (5) so many points relating to the nation as such, at a time when Israel believed herself to be a nation side by side with other nations; (6) predictions assuring plenty and prosperity, the degrada- tion of enemies, and victory and world-power for Israel herself; (7) pictures of ideal life for individual and for nation. § 85. The Conception of God, of supernatural beings, and of an overruling providence is after all, the most S6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT fundamental element in the message of any prophet. What was J's conception of God ? Gen. 4:26. I. Consider (i) the significance of the fact that Jehovah is everywhere, from the earliest times to the end, the name and title of the Deity; (2) the principal mean- ings which have been suggested for Jehovah.^ 2. Inquire into (i) the writer's representation of Jehovah as doing many things ordinarily ascribed to men, some of them being quite undignified;,!?. g-,{a) 2:7; 8:21; 11:7. as molding, blowing, smelling, coming down; also ((5) 32:24-30; Exod. as fearing, repenting, arguing, etc.; note, further, U) the 4:24. still more strange representations in the stories of the wrestling of Jacob and the circumcision of Moses ; and (2) the proper interpretation of this material {a) as expressing J's conception of God {b) as reflecting the opinion of J's times. 3. Note the agents through whom Jehovah is repre- Gen. 16:7; 24:7, sented as acting in his intercourse with men, viz., (i) 40; Exod. 3:2; ° ' ' V / angels — what was the idea entertained in J's times of the Kumb. 22:22. nature, abode, and function of angels? (2) captains of Josh. 5:13-15. ' ' & \ / f the hosts — what is meant by "hosts" in this phrase, and Exod.i3:2i. in the phrase "Jehovah of hosts P"-* (3) "pillar of cloud 3For example: (i) " The One who is" (Lieblein); (2) the Hebrew equivalent of the name of one of the Egyptian gods of light (Roth, Geschichte unserer abend- IdndiscAen Philosophie,\oi. I, p. 175, note); (3) a translation of the Egyptian phrase *'Nuk pu nuk" [^AUK'M'U^jy, Badyionierthum^ Israeliterthtmi U7id Ckristenthum, \t, 119); (4) "He will be" (Rashi; Ewald, Die Lehre der Bibel von Goll, Vol. H, pp. 337 f-); (5) "He who causes (rain or lightning) to fall" (W. R. Smith, Old Testa- ment in the Jewish Church, p. 423); (6) "The Feller" or "Destroyer" (Stade, Geschichte des Volies Israel, Vo\. I, p. 429); (7) "He who causes to be," i. e., "the Creator" (Lagarde; Schrader ; Schultz, Old Testament, Theology, \o\. II, p. 134); (hi) "The Breather" (Wellhausen). The meaning and origin of the name are discussed in Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 11, pp. 117-39; Driver, Studia Biblica,Yo\.l (1885), pp. 1-20; Spoer, " Origin and Interpretation of the Tetra- grammaton," American Journal of Semitic Languages, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 9-35; BUDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 1-38 ; Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religious, pp. 269-308 ; Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religions- geschichte. Vol. I, pp. 179-254 ; E. Kautzsch, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. V, pp. 625 f.; Dehtzsch, Babel and Bible (translated by C. H. W. Johns, 1903), pp.71 f., 133 ff. * For the meaning of this phrase see Lohr, Untersuchungen zum Buch Amos, pp. 37-67; Driver, art. "Lord of Hosts," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; G. A. Smith, Book of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. I, pp. 57 f.; E. Kautzsch, Zeitschrift fUr THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF THE EARLY HISTORIES 8/ and fire" — what is the force of the symbolism in this phrase? (4) a presence — what is meant by this ? Exod, 33:14. 4. Study other representations concerning Jehovah made by T : (0 the instances in which his name is l^nown Gen. 10:9; 24:31. •' -' ^ ' Numb., chaps. 23 and his worship accepted outside of Israel; (2) the and 24. r f > \ / Gen. 26:24; 28:13; meaning of the references to his being the God of the Ezod. 3:16 14:5. patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; (3) as God of Gen. 24:3, 7. heaven and earth; (4) as the Judge of all the earth; (5) Exod. 14:216, 25; ' ^^' ■' ° ^ ' Josh. I0:I2f. as a God of unrestricted power; (6) as a moral God, Gen, 3:1-24; 6:51 ^ ' \ / Gen. 19:16; 24:27; hating sin ; (7) as a God of mercy to those who are in Exod. 34:6. ^ > \i ' J Gen. 9:15-17; distress ; (8) as a God of everlasting faithfulness to those 18 ; 19; 21 : 33; ' ^ ' o 28:156. who are his people; (g) as a God "with" and "in the Gen. 26:3; 28:15; ^ ^ ' ^^' 39:2; Numb. 14: midst of" his worshipers. 96. 5. Observe the frequent recurrence of the idea of an overruling providence, (i) in which the heroes have an abiding faith; (2) of which the progress is "irresistible and triumphant," against (a) the nation when antagonis- Numb, h :3i-35. tic; (6) the individual whose sin takes on the form of Numb. 16:266, cowardice, fraud, or malice; or U) the nation whose sm josh. 7:2-26. Numb. 14:41-45. takes on the form of blindness, cruelty, or deceit. § 86. Constructive Study. — Formulate briefly (on the basis of § 85) J's teaching to his times concerning God; and, in connection with the statement thus formulated, (i) show the progress in this teaching seen in comparing the grossly anthropomorphic representation with other representations seemingly inconsistent and vastly higher; (2) compare this teaching with that of Elijah and Elisha; (3) indicate the signifi- cance, for J's times, of his idea that Jehovah has been worshiped as such from the earliest days of history and is so recognized by people of other nations; (4) indicate those attributes of God found in J which are new; (5) indicate those attributes which are taken up and empha- sized by later prophets; e. g., is not the use of "with" (see above) an anticipation of Isaiah's Immanuel ? Is not his doctrine of a God of mercy the basis for Hosea's doctrine of divine love ? Are there perhaps die alitestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VI (l886), pp. 17-22; Idem, art. "Names," § 123, Encyclopcedia Biblica; Idem, art. "Religion of Israel," Hastings's 2); \ / I 12; 31:10, 24; dream as a means of revelation, especially in the story 42:9. of Joseph; (5) the very significant use of the plural of Gen. 20:13; 31:53. the verb when employed as a predicate to the word for God — Elohim; (6) the fact that the representations of the Deity are generally less crude than those of J, and partake far less of the anthropomorphic character; (7) Gen. 31:42,53:28: '^ f r ' ^'^ 22; Exod. 33:9; the use of the phrase "fear of Isaac; the sacred stone; josh. 24:27. the pillar at the door of the tent speaking; the stone of witness; (8) the peculiar representation of the Deity Gen. 22:1. as "trying" his people; (9) the custom of treating josh. 6:20; Exod. important events as the result of the direct action of the Deity, and not as having come about through the inter- position of human effort; (10) the use by the Deity of Gen. 50:29; 45:58. men to accomplish his plans, although they may be ignorant of them or hostile to them. 3. Other characteristic teachings may, perhaps, be grouped together, the more important being (i) a desire c/. Gen., chaps. 16 to shield the reputation of the patriarchs by relieving them of the responsibility in certain transactions, thus showing a keener ethical sense than J exhibited; (2) a Gen.28:22; 8:20a; definite recognition of the patriarchal cultus, including 27; Exod. 33:7- the tent of meeting (which was placed under the charge 16^30. of Joshua, rather than Aaron and his sons), altars, pillars, but no priests; (3) a lack of interest in the outside world, *'^°- so:'-'?; 21: and in the connection of Israel's history with that world, but an attitude toward neighboring nations altogether friendly; (4) points of contact with Amos and Hosea; cf., e. g., (a) the widely differing conceptions of Israel's future in E and Amos; (6) the contrast between the Hos.4:i3f.;8:iif, attitude of E and that of the prophets toward the high- places and ancient sanctuaries of Canaan; (c) Hosea's Hos. 9:10; c. '^ ' \ / Numb. 25:30. reference to the sin of Israel in joining themselves unto Baal-peor; (a?) Amos's allusion to the great stature ■*^''l '■?' 'I- g6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT of the Amorites; (if) the high ethical standards of Hosea and Amos as related to the corresponding standards of '*9*7-Vos 7^8ff'- ^' (/) '^^ attitude of E toward the surrounding nations, '■'• and that of Amos and Hosea toward them. § 96. Constructive Study. — Formulate, on the basis of § 95, the special points to be noted in E's message to his times, including (i) that which is new in E as compared with J; (2) that which is different in E as compared with J; (3) that which is lacking in E as compared with J. On the teachings of E see : Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, TAe Hex- ateuch. Vol. I, pp. 1 10-20 ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6thed.), pp. 118 f.; Addis, TAe Documents of the Hexateuch,Wo\.\,^p.\i\,\v; Kent, The Beginnings of Hebrew History, pp. 34 f.; McFadyen, The Messages of the Pro- phetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 76-83; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, pp. 146-54; W. R. Harper, articles in Hebraica for 1 888-91; Ydym., Amos and Hosea, pp. Ixxix-lxxxiv ; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 219 f.; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 457-89. Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 1<)T-212,\T>K!A, Genesis erklart •{"Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament") pp. xviii, xix; Baudissin, Jiinleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, § 30 ; Baentsch, Exodus-Leviticus- J^umeri (" Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament "), pp. xxviii-xxxii. § 97. The Early Laws of the Israelitish nation^ found in three main groups — viz., the Decalogue, the larger and smaller books of the Covenant — stand related to the prophecy of this period in three ways : (i) they are codified in this period — a step which involved general and, indeed, official acceptance; (2) they are appropriated and made a part of the prophetic history of JE — a step which signifies their indorsement by these prophets; (3) they serve as the legal basis for the prophetic utterance until the year 621 B. C. They may rightly be regarded as representing prophetic thought. Accordingly, the following study is suggested with a view to determining the character of the prophetic message which was con- veyed through these codes to the people of the ninth and tenth centuries B. C. I. An examination of the principal passages relating Exod. M:2fi., 7; to God, and a formulation of the results; viz., (a) the 33:17, asff.; 34: ; > \ / 14,17,23*. idea of Jehovah s jealousy — what is meant by this term ? {b) the prohibition of improper use of the divine name — what is involved here ? ( \ / ' ^ ' 27; (_g) 20:16; damage to property; (/) loans; (g) testimony; (A) the 23:1-3; W 22: exercise of kindness; (z) bribery; (y) covetousness. "; (o 23:6-8; 5. A study of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah, with a view to ascertaining, in the case of each prophet, the extent to which these codes, or their individual enact- ments, are recognized by them and indorsed. § 98. Constructive Study on the Early Judean Narratives in Judges, Samuel, and Kings. — Take up these narratives (see § 58), for consider- ation in the same way as the foregoing materials, and endeavor to formulate (i) the writer's point of view as seen in his choice of materials and in his version of the story; (2) the purpose of the writer as revealed in his presentation of his materials; (3) the prophetic ele- ment in his narrative; (4) the teachings on the great themes of prophecy, viz., God, sin, Israel's future, righteousness, and deliverance; (5) the points of agreement and difference in comparison with the method and ideas of the J narrative in the Hexateuch. What con- ception of Israel's history prevails in these narratives ? What national ideals are here presented ? § 99. Constructive Study on the Early Ephraimitish Narratives of Judges, Samuel, and Kings. — In the same general way, consider these narratives (see § 58, 3-6) and compare them with the foregoing Judean material on the various points at issue, noting (a) the points of agree- ment and ((5) those of variation ; and formulate the teaching of these writers with reference to the times and circumstances which they were striving to influence. How far is the teaching determined and influ- enced by the environment amid which it found utterance ? What out- look for Israel is here presented ? CHAPTER VIII. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS. § 100. The Personal Life of Amos. — Since many points of peculiar interest in the work of Amos turn upon his personal life, and especially on the location of his home, it is important to consider — 1. The evidence found for supposing that he lived in i:i. Judah : (a) the statement of the superscription that his home was in Tekoa, which is known to have been located about ten miles south of Jerusalem and five south of 7:12. Bethlehem; (i5) the command of Amaziah to flee to Judah, which implies that Judah was the home of Amos; (c) the unsympathetic attitude of Amos toward Israel, which is more natural in an outsider than in a native citizen. In contrast with which may be noted — 2. The suggestions offered in opposition to the loca- tion of his home in Judah, for example, (a) his entire occupation with Northern Israel; (i) the too great eleva- tion of Tekoa for sycamore culture; (c) his lack of interest in Judah; (d) the suggestion that his home was in Northern Israel, and that he went to Judah only after being expelled from Bethel. In this same connection — 3. It is worth while to consider the location of Tekoa, and (a) the likelihood of its producing a character like that of Amos; (d) its contiguity to the lines of travel c/. 2 Chron. 11:6, taken by the Arab caravans; likewise (c) its proximity to Jerusalem, and (a!) its relation to the wilderness, and the significance of a matter like this in the creation of character. §101. The Date and Circumstances of Amos's Career. — These are of vital concern in any effort to understand his prophetic work. Note the almost unanimously accepted date of 765-750 B. C, and consider the support 1:1. found for this view (a) in the superscription; (d) in the 7:10,11,17. statements of a personal character contained in chap. 7, 6;i4. as in harmony with the times of Jeroboam II.; (/) in THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 99 the statement of the boundaries of Israel which agree a Kings 14:25, with its extent in the reign of Jeroboam II.; (d) the con- fidence of the people politically in view of the pre- occupation of the kings of Assyria (Shalmanezer, 783- 773 B. C, and Ashurdan, 772-755 B. C), whose time was taken chiefly with conspiracy at home and wars in other parts of the empire; likewise (e) the general religious situation, one marked by keen interest in the religious cultus of the times because the people in this 3:14; 4:4,5; 5:21- time of political prosperity seek to acknowledge their appreciation of the divine favor accorded them, as well as because of anxiety aroused by earthquake and pesti- lence. It is to be noticed (/) that the social situation is ^'^''J^f°:^j\a- one of wealth and luxury, debauchery and oppression, pif'''^~*' fraud and robbery. It may not be uninteresting (g) to 4:10; 8:9; 1:1. observe that the land had within recent years been visited by pestilence as well as by a solar eclipse (about 763 B. C.) and by an earthquake. §102. The Occupation of Amos. — Closely associated with the question of Amos's home and time of work is that of his occupation. Here it is necessary to study (a) 7:14-, cf. 1:1. the prophet's own statement, with its implications. Does he disdain to be reckoned as one of the regular prophets of the times? If so, why? Is his work different in purpose or in spirit? Is he a closer observer than those who have preceded him ? Does he exhibit evidence of greater philosophical insight ? Is he more inclined to recognize general law ? Is he, in fact, almost as truly a sage as a prophet ? (1^) What was the nature of his occupation as a dresser of sycamores, and what was implied in this? Was he poor, or was he financially independent? (c) Was he also a shepherd? In what way is the occupation of a shepherd consistent with that of a dresser of sycamores ? Was he perhaps a wool-gatherer ? Was this a higher occupation than that of a shepherd ? Did it involve journeys in which he might meet men from different parts of the world ? (d) Do we find evidence of his rustic life in the language of 2:13-, 3:4 f.i^; ° ° 4:1 1; 5:11, 17 Amos? May we attribute to the loneliness of his occupa- «; 6:13. tion the lack in his message of anything that may be 100 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT :3,6,i3; 2:i,9- 12; 4:6-11. 8;8; 9:7. :3i Gi 13; 2:1, 6, lib', 3:10, II, 12; 4:5-"; 5:3a, 16, 17,27; 6:86, 146; 7:1-9; 8:lf ; 9:1. 7:14. 7:1-7. Isa., chap. 6. Amos, 2:11 f.; 3:7. Kiunb., chaps. 13, 24- Hosea8:i2. Judg., chap. 5; Gen., chap. 49. called tenderness or love ? Was it in this shepherd life that he learned to observe facts and causes ? § 103. The Preparation and Call of Amos. — This brings us to the question of his call and preparation, (a) Do we find in his writings evidence of a lack of intellectual preparation and ability; or, on the other hand, is he a master in the use of the Hebrew language ? Has he a large knowledge of history and society ? Does he seem to have seen things with his own eyes? Is he an ethnologist as well as a historian, a geographer as well as a sociologist ? Is his conception of God and of ethical philosophy high or low? Is he credited with working miracles ? (i) Did he really entertain contempt for the prophetic societies of his times ? If so, how are we to explain the respect shown for prophets ? In what respects did he resemble Elijah ? Did he himself make use of the technique of prophetism ? Did he, after all, stand alone ? Or was he not closely preceded by J and E, and just as closely followed by Hosea ? How, then, are we to explain his apparent desire not to be reckoned as one of the prophets ? (if) Aside from the discipline which he secured in the desert and in the progress of travels which were undertaken in connection with his occupa- tion, what are the facts in reference to the development of culture in eastern society? (d) Is it possible to suppose that Amos's call, like those of Isaiah and Jeremiah, came in visions, namely, those of the fire, locusts, and plummet ? Does the fact that these visions are recorded in the seventh chapter oppose this sugges- tion ? Compare the place of Isaiah's call in the narra- tive. (1?) Consider what may be called the antecedents of Amos's thought as they are found in connection with (i) the prophets whom he cites; (2) Elijah and Elisha; (3) the many disconnected fragments of pro- phetic utterances found in J and E ; (4) the prophet of Isa., chaps. 15, 16; (5) the priestly literature which had already taken form ; (6) the prophetic diction which Amos employs and which implies long usage; (7) the great poetical pieces which had come down from ancient times, like Deborah's song, etc. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS lOI § 104. The Character of Amos. — Consider now the character of Amos in so far as it can be gathered from the facts at our command, and discover the evidence, if such exists, for regarding him as {a) bold and courageous; 7:10-17. (d) accurate in observation and scientific in habits of 3:4-6. mind; {c) nomadic in his instincts; {d) austere and 6:4-7. uncompromising ; (e) the nature of his spirituality as distinguished from that of Isaiah. § 105. The Message of Amos — This, after all, is the most important topic. Consider (i) the reasons for the opinion that the message of Amos is the most important of any conveyed by an Old Testament writer, and (2) the two or three factors which are disclosed in a general analysis of this message, namely, (a) a profound convic- tion on certain subjects relating to God and to human life; (i) a knowledge of certain facts in national and international history; (c) a conclusion which grows out of putting together the conviction and the knowledge of the situation; (3) the importance of distinguishing c/. § 66. the words actually uttered by Amos from the insertions and additions that come from the pen of later prophets, in all nearly one-fifth of the entire book. § 106. The Popular Religion. — It is necessary to formulate the state of feeling and opinion of the people against which the prophet arraigns himself. This popu- lar opinion, it will be remembered, represents also that of the royal order, the priests, and a vast majority of the 4:1; 6;i; 7:iof. prophets. Consider now the consensus of thought which he opposes, the old theology in comparison with which his theology is new. 1. To what extent was the people's conception of Jehovah that of a nature-God, one among other gods, the Deity of Palestine ? 2. To what extent was their conception of Jehovah 3:2; 9:7. that of a national God — -a God, therefore, who would be satisfied if Israel would limit herself to his worship; a God who could not get along without his nation Israel any more than Israel could get along without her God ? To what extent did the people interpret the period of 5:16-24. peace and prosperity which they were enjoying as a 102 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT definite indication of Jehovah's pleasure and satisfac- tion ? 3. Did the people believe that Jehovah was virtually 5:i4-,c/. Mic.3:ii. bound to protect their political interests without reference to their moral conduct? Must he sooner or later, with- out reference to wright or wrong, identify himself with his people ? Was it a matter in which he had no option ? In other words, was his relation to them one which did not involve an ethical basis ? Was their belief in Jehovah non-moral, that is, natural ? 4. What, according to the opinion of the people, was Jehovah's attitude toward other nations ? Was it to fight against them on behalf of his own people ? And if they were conquered, did it exhibit on his part a lack of strength ? Did these other nations have gods, and was it understood that the gods of the other nations were stronger than Israel's God when Israel was in subjection, but that Israel's God was stronger than other gods when Israel was victorious ? Had Israel's God shown his power against Egypt and in Canaan, and more recently against Syria ? Did his relationship with these nations cease when peace was declared ? Did Israel belong wholly to Jehovah ? Was Jehovah wholly Israel's ? 5. How, in the opinion of the people, was Jehovah's favor to be secured and his anger averted ? Was there any other method than by following out the ceremonial or cultus, including its festivals and sacrifices ? Were these indispensable ? Were they likewise wholly satis- factory ? Could they give him nothing else than gifts, pilgrimages, and praises ? Did Jehovah ask nothing more ? Would the increasing costliness of these require- ments develop injustice and inhumanity ? 6. Did the people then understand that moral requirements were ignored by Jehovah in case they were faithful to the routine of the ceremonial ? Can it be said that they were entirely ignorant of moral duties in view of the existence of the Covenant Code and the Decalogue ? In any case, did they not seem to have the belief that morality was an unnecessary factor in religion ? Was this not a fundamental conception in early Semitic religion ? Judg. 11:24. Amos 2:9 f.", 3:1 3 Kings 13:25 14:25- Amos 3:1, 2. 3:14; 4:4*-; 5 21-26; 8:10. Exod., chaps. 20- 23; 34:10-26. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS IO3 7. Did the people think about Assyria ? Did they fear her? Why should they, in view of the fact that Amos 6:13. Jehovah had only recently shown his great strength ? Could they doubt his ability, and, besides, were not Egypt and Syria equally interested with Israel and Judah against Assyria ? Was it possible that one nation could overpower four? Then, too, were not the Assyrians occupied for the most part with distant wars and internal conspiracies? Had Assyria always been victorious? Did not fear of Assyria imply lack of faith in Jehovah ? Why should they exhibit this lack of faith at a time 2 Kings 14:25. when he had given such definite evidence of his favor? § 107. The Teachings of Amos. — What, now, were the convictions of Amos ? To what extent is his thought in direct antagonism with the current thought of his times ? To what extent is it positive rather than negative, and thus the statement or restatement of eternal truth ? Were there some popular beliefs altogether wrong which he did not possess ? I. Consider Amos's conception of Jehovah, and remember in this connection the full significance of the title, "Jehovah, God of Hosts," as well as the favorite expression of Amos, "Lord Jehovah," occurring perhaps nineteen times. In what way did Amos represent Jehovah as All Sovereign and Omnipotent ? In connec- tion with nature ? In connection with history ? What has Jehovah's relation been to the Syrians, the Philistines, Israel herself ? Does his power reach to heaven and to Sheol ? But is this power of Jehovah ever said to be universal ? Did other nations ascribe to their gods the same power ? Does Jehovah have intercourse with any nation other than Israel? Is there evidence, in other: words, that Amos in his conception of Jehovah repre- sented pure monotheism ? Does he anywhere deny the existence of other gods? In any case, does not Amos ascribe to Jehovah unlimited power ? But, in this case, what relationship did these other gods sustain to Jehovah ? If Jehovah, for example, brought the Philis- tines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir, did he do this with or without the permission of the gods of those 5 ;I4,27. 4 :I3- 3 :7, 11; 4 5:3- ;2, 5; 4 :6-ii; 8 4; 9;7- ;8; 9 ;2- 104 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 6:14 7:3,6,7. C/. Hos. 3:4. Amos 3:2. 5:6. 5:7-15,24. I Kings 21:18 ft. C). Mic. 3:11. Amos I :3-8. 15; 2:1-3. nations ? Does not Amos clearly imply that other gods are inferior and subject to Jehovah ? They only carry out Jehovah's will. Jehovah, then, is a God who has defeated the gods of Egypt, of Philistia, and of Canaan. He has overthrown the Phoenician Baal and the Syrians. Can we see the relationship of Amos's thought to that of the past ? Did Amos make use of anthropo- morphisms ? In what way are these to be explained? Did Amos pass by image-worship ? Had objection been made to image-worship ? What was the restriction in Exod. 34: 17 ? Had use been made of images — for example, the ephod and the teraphim ? Is there any objection to the interpretation of 2 : 4 as representing Amos's views on this point, or 8:14? Is there any evidence that Amos approved image-worship ? 2. Is Jehovah ever called God of Israel in Amos ? Is Jehovah nevertheless represented as sustaining a peculiar relation to Israel ? Is this relationship indissoluble, or is it clearly conditioned ? {a) Does he give any reason why Israel was selected by Jehovah rather than some other nation ? With unlimited power could he not have taken any nation ? {b) What special responsibilities rest upon Israel in view of the selection that has been made ? (<:) Is Jehovah interested in the outside world simply for Israel's sake, or is he interested particularly in Israel for the world's sake ? Is Israel really anything more to him than are the Cushites? On what condition alone is Israel's future safe ? Does the prophet actually expect the people to adopt his view of the matter ? 3. To what extent does the conception of Jehovah as a God of justice control the thought of Amos ? Had this idea of God been expressed by Elijah in the Naboth episode ? (a) Does Amos go farther than did Elijah ? Was he enabled to do this because he conceived of Jehovah as standing in close relation to all nations ? Must Jehovah be impartial, and consequently ethical, because his power is universal ? What is it to be a national God, if not to show favor to Israel ? Can he do this and be ethical ? Must a God to be ethical be a world-God ? {b) But if righteousness is an essential element in Jehovah's THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 105 character," must he not demand it of those who are his followers ? Can he have one standard for the world at large and a lower standard for Israel ? If Israel has enjoyed special privileges, must she not be judged by a higher standard ? (c) But does Amos express any clear 3:s. or adequate conception of sin ? Does he show any great purpose on the part of Jehovah in the working out of this idea of righteousness ? 4. If Jehovah has unlimited power, is he not able to control the world ? Does this not include Assyria as 6:14. well as Egypt ? Will Jehovah demand righteousness of the world-nations ? Why is punishment announced for chaps, i and a. Syria, Philistia, Moab, and Ammon ? Was it because they had not treated properly his nation Israel ? Was it because of idolatry on their part, or was it rather because of the violation of some dictate of universal morality, some principle of the natural laws of humanity and mercy?' =;. Does Jehovah really care for the observance of 5:25; 5:21-23; 3: ■' 14; 5:5; 7:9; the ceremonial ? Is he pleased with Israel's pilgrim- 8:10; 9:1-4. ages ? Does he enjoy their feasts and songs ? Is he not actually ready to destroy their places of wor- ship, and to put an end even to worship as a whole ? What, now, does Amos really mean ? Is he denouncing to the people sacrifice itself, or is he trying to change the belief of the people that sacrifice duly performed will satisfy the mind of Jehovah? Does he teach that the ritual of itself cannot meet the demands of an ethical Deity ? Could he have opposed sacrifice itself without opposing the only method yet known to humanity of coming into communion with the Deity? Does he really wish them to give up the ritual ? 6. If something beyond the ritual is demanded, what 5:7-15,24. is it ? Does it grow out of Jehovah's ethical character, and is it in fact an ethical demand ? Is it a demand for justice, and what does justice include except honesty, integrity, purity, and humanity? Did Amos present his demand in the abstract or in the concrete form ? And does he, after all, ask anything that has not been recog- ' W. Robertson Smith, Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), p. 134. I06 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT nized as necessary by all nations who have attained 2:7 f.; 4:i-, 5:12; governmental organization ? Is any more asked of Israel than of other nations? Is it obedience to mere legal justice that is called for, or rather consideration of the 5:4, 6. poor and weak — that is, moral justice ? Is any statement of reward or punishment associated with the demand ? 3:6. In the language of the prophet's demand and in the universality of its character, does he not himself resemble the sage ? 5;i8ff. 7. What position, now, is maintained by Amos con- cerning Israel's future, and what is his conception of the day of Jehovah ? Is Israel to suffer punishment ? Will 6:7!., 14; 7:81., this punishment mean utter destruction? How impor- 17; 9:1-86. tant a place does this thought have in the message as a whole ? Had anyone before Amos proposed the utter destruction of the nation? Was the overthrow con- 5:14 *• templated in any sense political? Is the sentence a possibly revocable one ? Is it at all clear that Amos saw a brighter picture in case of repentance ? Review here the considerations for and against assigning 9 : 83-15 to a later date. Is it possible that Amos, being from Judah, expected the true religion to be continued and developed by Judah after Israel had perished ? What were the essential points of difference between Amos's conception of the day of Jehovah and that of the people of his times ?^ § 108. The Antecedents of Amos. — The relation of Amos to those that preceded him is a subject which furnishes many interesting questions for study. To what extent was Amos a creator of the Israelitish ethical monotheism; or to what extent is the essential content of Amos's teaching rooted in the past? I. Consider the importance of this question in the study of the progress of the Old Testament develop- ment, and especially in determining the place of prophecy in that development. Was he, perhaps, instead of Moses, the founder of the religion ? If, in general, Old Testa- ment history, like other histories, is an evolution, is the = See J. M. P. Smith, "The Day of Yahweh," American Journal of Theology, Vol. V (1901), pp. 505 ff. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS 10/ movement which found expression through Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah exceptional in that it had no antecedents? Is the fact that Amos makes no appeal to something earlier than his own work — for example, a code of laws — evidence that his work was not the fruitage of the past ? 2. Is the morality which he demands something new c/.,«.?., the Book •' ° of the Dead, or of long standing? Were not demands for this same and the code of ° ° Hammurabi. justice, including honesty, humanity, etc., made in the 1:3, 6, 13-, 2:1. earliest days of history ? Did they not form the basis of his condemnation of other nations? Is anything more asked of Israel than of them ? Does Amos in his pres- entation of these demands assume that Israel is ignorant of these things; or is aware of them, and negligent of them, and therefore deserving the punishment? Is it possible to explain the representation of Amos as an anachronism ; or as a piece of beautiful rhetoric ? Could Israel be punished justly for failing to observe con- ditions or demands of which they were totally ignorant ? Could Amos, living in such close proximity to Jerusalem, have been ignorant of the past history of the nation, its literature, and its laws as handed down by tradition ? •5. To what extent does Amos show a knowledge of 1:3, 6, 13; 2:9-12; 3:3f, 4:6-11; Israel's past history ? How far did Israel's history rest 5:25; e^s; 9:7- on the character of Jehovah as shown in history? To what extent is Amos making use of the terminology of prophecy as fixed by his predecessors ? 4. Does he concretely express appreciation for pre- 2:11,12. ceding prophets? Who were these? Would the num- ber include Elijah and Elisha, J and E? 5. Is it quite certain that Amos knew such written Exod., chaps. 34, 20; Deut., chap, documents as the Decalogue and the Book of the Cove- 5;Exod.,chaps. 21-23. nant ? May we suppose that, in addition to these works, others were familiar to him? (a) Were there national Judg., chap. 5; ^ ' Exod.,chap. 15; songs which prepared the way technically as well as Gen., chap. 49. spiritually for his work? (d) Would these include the Song of Deborah, the Song of the Red Sea in its earliest form, the blessing of Jacob, as well as Deut., chaps. 32 and 33? (c) And would there be, in addition, proverbs Gen. 4:23 f.; 25: 23; Judg. 9:7— 20. and folk-lore, some of which had already been incorpo- I08 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Numb. 21:27-30. rated in J and E, and some of it perhaps preserved in the canonical Book of Proverbs? Does Amos himself Amos 9:4. show a familiarity in his own address with the folk-lore, and with the speech and thought of the common people ? § 109. The Ministry of Amos, that is, the external form of Amos's work. What was its scope ? In what did it consist ? I Kings, chap. 13. I. Is it possible that the story of the man of Judah is a distorted account of Amos's ministry P^ Or is it worth while to consider the suggestion that the story of his Amos 7:14. ministry, together with that of Jonah, is a later invention or fiction?'' What is a natural inference to be drawn from {a) the fact that no miracle or wonder-story is con- nected with his work; (3) no ecstatic frenzy is suggested; ''cMsa''ohap'6' ^^^ W ^^^ emphatic statement made in answer to jer. 1:11-19. Amaziah? Did he use music, as did Elisha, to pro- duce ecstatic trance ? Did he have visions ? Are these to be compared with those of Isaiah and Jeremiah ? What relation did the visions of Amos sustain to those of the past and those of the future ? Does he in receiv- ing his message follow the method of those who pre- ceded him ? In his own method of presentation does he show progress ? 2. What significance lies in the fact that Amos was the first of the prophets to write down his sermons? (a) How far was this due to the fact that Israel is now for the first time enjoying the privileges of civilization, and therefore literature? To what extent was opportunity for this afforded in the long and peaceful reign of Jeroboam ? To what extent is he merely following the fashion already set by the priests, and the prophets of J and E ? (6) If Israel's religion in the prophet's mind stood for something more than ritual — in other words, for ideas which could not be expressed in an institution — was writing a necessity ? Is it true that prophetic utterance has now become something of permanent value ? Has the prophet himself assumed new functions and new responsibilities ? 3 So Wellhausen. ■•So Day and Chapin, "Is the Book of Amos Post-Exilic?" American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVIII (1902), pp. 65-93. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS lOQ 3. What was the nature of the influence exerted by the earlier prophets in comparison with that of the later prophets ? How far did the earlier work wield " an instantaneous influence" ? Is the prophet henceforth to be leader of the masses ? Is his work outwardly to be a failure? Is he compelled to put his words in writing because of his ill success in reaching their hearts ? 4. How could permanent interest be secured without an opportunity to read and study the prophetic stories? Could there be a continuous development without this ? Would it be necessary for the prophet to write out his words just as he had spoken them ? Was it necessary that the prophet himself put his speeches into written form ? May this have been done by a band of disciples ? What motive could have existed in the mind of Amos for writing down his addresses, if he expected the end of Israel to come within his own generation ? § no. The Political Activity of Amos. — This deserves consideration, especially in the variation which it pre- sents from the older types. 1. Is this a difference in fact or in method ? Was the ' Kings iSnyff.; 19:15-18; 21: prophet's influence in national life less than was that of 27 ff; 2 Kings '^ ' 13:14 It. Elijah and Elisha? Was he an official of the govern- ment? Did he sustain a special relation to the king? Was he more than a private citizen ? Did he establish any organization ? Did he adopt any other method than that of preaching? 2. Consider the skill with which Amos announced chaps, i and 2. his political views concerning the nations. What are the features of the method adopted, and what may be regarded as the chief motive ? 3. Consider the political insight exhibited in his interpretation of Assyria's relation to Israel. §iri. The Stages in the Ministry of Amos. — Con- sider the question of the chronological order of the stages in Amos's ministry. I. Did he, may we suppose, while in Tekoa, make visits at home and abroad, and in such visits would he learn the methods and work of the prophets? Might he in this way secure information concerning the world at large in these early years ? no PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 7;i-9. 2. May he, in visions like those of the locust and fire, have received his call to preach; and, in a vision like that of the plumb-line, the message which he was to preach, namely, the irrevocable destruction of Israel ? 5:4,6,i4A7:2t, Did he perhaps at first believe that the doom might be averted ? But is he gradually convinced that there is no hope unless something extraordinary happens ? Does he then go to Northern Israel, amazed that all do not see as he sees ? Chaps. I and 2. 3. Did he introduce his work, may we suppose, by a proclamation in diplomatic form of one oracle after another concerning Israel's neighbors ? Were these uttered on successive days, or did they extend perhaps over months ? Does he in time announce to Israel the 2:6-16. future ruin, and does he, going from place to place, finally reach the climax of his work at Bethel when utterance is given to the words contained in chap. 6 ? 7:1-9. 4. Is it possible to assume that at this point he is interrupted, and that a demand is made for his authority, and that in justification of his words, he tells the story of his call as it came in the visions of the locust, fire, and plumb-line, closing with the definite announcement of Jerusalem's end ? 7:10-17. 5. May we understand that this is followed by the attack of Amaziah ? Does he give up his prophetic work immediately, or does he continue in spite of the priest's interference? Is it possible to suppose that the inter- ference was a friendly one; or, on the other hand, was Amos strong enough to defy the king's command and remain permanently? Is it more reasonable to suppose that he continued to preach until he had finished his message ? isa.,8:i6ff. 6. Does the prophet then go back to Judah and gather about him a small band of disciples, to whom, as in the case of Isaiah with his disciples, he turns over his sermons and his visions ? § 112. The Efficiency of the Ministry of Amos I. To what extent is there a lack of the religious element ? Could his ministry have reached many minds ? Did he himself clearly recognize the issue involved in THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF AMOS I I 1 his preaching? Did he have a purpose, or is he like a sage advocating a new philosophy without reference to its consequences ? 2. To what extent may his ministry be explained upon the supposition that it contained an infusion of the new spirit, namely, that of philosophical inquiry and the acceptance of law ? In what sense does his work furnish the basis for future prophecy ? § 113. Literature on Amos. — On the teachings of Amos see especially : the commentaries o£ W. R. Harper (1905), G. A. Smith, Driver, Mitchell, Orelli, Wellhausen, Gunning, NoWACK, and Marti; and also Cheyne, art. "Amos," Encyclopedia Biblica; Taylor, art. "Amos," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Driver, art. "Amos," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed.); W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel(2A ed.), pp. 120-43; Co'Mil'Ll., Prophets of Israel, -p-p. 37-46; KiRKPATRiCK, Doctrine of the Prophets, pp. 83-108; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp. 211-18; McCuRDY, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, §§302-4, 937-41 ; BuDDE, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 133 ££.; DAVIDSON, "The Prophet Amos," Expositor, Vol. V (1887), pp. 161-73; Mitchell, "The Idea of God in hmos," Journal of Biblical Litera- ture, Dec, 1887, pp. 33-42; Paton, "Did Amos Approve the Calf-Worship at Bethel?" ibid.. Vol. XIII (1894), pp. 80-91. Duhm, Theologie der Propheten, pp. 109-26; Smkny), lehrbuch der alttestament- lichen Religionsgeschichte {2d ed., pp. 179-86); LoHR, Untersuchungen zuni Buch Amos, pp. 28-36 ; Meinhold, Studien zur israelitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol. I, pp. 31-63; Procksch, Die Geschichtsbetrachtung bei Amos, Hosea und fesaia, pp. 2-12 ; Seesemann, Israel und Juda bei Amos und Hosea, pp. I-17 ; Tesch, Setzt der Prophet Amos autoritatives Gesetz voraus? GlESEBRECHT, Die Geschichtlichkeit des Sinai- bundes, pp. 19 ££.; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (3d ed.), pp. 180 £[ ; G. Rothstein, "Amos und seine Stellung innerhalb des israelitischen Prophetismus," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, April, 1905 ; Franckh, Die Prophetic in der Zeit vor Amos [Beitrage zur Forderung Christlicher Theologie, IX (1905), pp. 27-86]. § 114. Constructive Study. — Consider each of the sections 101-112 as furnishing the basis for a constructive study in which the various points suggested in the questions asked shall be treated. The formu- lation of the subject may thus be presented in the form either of propositions or of a more general discussion. In each there will of course be incorporated the results of a study of the Scripture material cited, and of the reading pursued in the list of literature suggested. Jos. 1:7, ri; 4:15 5:6; 6:4; 8:14 CHAPTER IX. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA. §115. The Personal Life of Hosea. — In the history of no prophet is there a closer connection between the message and the personal life than in the case of Hosea. And since Hosea's work was performed among his own people rather than in another country (cf. Amos), it is especially instructive to consider — 1. His place of residence. In this connection one may iChron. 5:6. pass over the views (ci) that Hosea was of the tribe of Reuben (compare his father's name Beeri with the name Beerah), and (f) that Hosea, like Amos, went up from Judah ji:i2, etc. tQ Israel — a view based upon the frequent reference to Judah in the book. But would these passages, even if all j:i. authentic, prove the place of the prophet's work? Is this view supported by anything which may be found in the superscription or by the prophet's apparent attitude of leniency toward Judah in contrast with Israel ? Is there any evidence that the book was written out in Judah after Hosea had left Israel ? In favor of Northern Israel as his home take up the following questions: Does the lan- guage of the book indicate anything ? Is there any evi- 7:5; 6:10; 1:1. dence to be found in such expressions as "the land," "our king," etc.? Does he show any special interest in Northern Israel, its historical conditions and foreign relations, and 4:15; 5:1,8; 6:8,9; its political parties ? Are the places with which he shows 7:i;8:5,6;9;I5; r r r 10:5,7,9, »5; familiarity in the north or in the south — for example, Mizpah, Tabor, Samaria, Gilead, Shechem, Gilgal, Bethel, Gibeah, Ramah ? Does he speak from the point of view of a visitor or a resident ? How important is this question of his citizenship in the Northern kingdom ? 2. The suggestions offered as to the meaning of the word " Hosea." Is it a combined word made up of "Jehovah" and the root "to save" (<:/. Joshua), or simply a word meaning "deliverance"? Is there anything sig- nificant in the name? X2:ii. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA II3 §116. The Date and Circumstances of Hosea's Life and Work. — Are these indicated in the superscription? 1:1. Is this superscription from Hosea's hand or from a later date? In what respect may Hosea's life and work be compared with those of Jeremiah ? 1. Consider now the data which determine the begin- ning of his work and its duration. What date is implied in view of the threat concerning Jezreel ? Would his 1:4- marriage and the birth of his oldest son have preceded? Is evidence to be found that he preached in the midst of ''J../'^' ^■^*^'' the anarchy which followed the death of Jeroboam II. ? Does the book contain any allusion to the Syro-Ephraim- Itish war? If not, what indication does this give of date? Is Gilead in Hosea's times a part of Northern Israel? But was not Gilead with Naphtali conquered 5:1; 6:8-, uin. by Assyria in 734 B. C. ? What then are the dates within which he must have preached ? 2. Consider the historical events of the period indicated 3 Kings, chap. 15. above and their consistency with the times described by Hosea; for example, is there evidence in the early part of the book of prosperity and wealth ? On the other hand, Hos.2:5f., gff. does the situation change later? Is lawlessness prevalent? 4:2; 5:1; 7:1. Is the political situation one of peril ? Are the leaders 5:i5;^7:"; 8:8; themselves guilty? Are revolution and anarchy prev- 4:8; 5:1; 9:15. alent? How does Hosea's description of the times 5:13; 7:"; io:6-, differ from that of Amos ? Which of the two saw more widely ? Which more deeply ? 3. Concerning Hosea's occupation and social stand- ing, it may be asked whether he was one of the so-called prophets, or was he, like Amos, neither prophet nor the son of a prophet? May we infer from a familiarity 4:4, 6-9; 6:9. which he shows with the evil practices of the priests that he himself was a priest? Is there anything opposing this view ? Is there evidence of any kind to indicate whether he occupied a high social position or the opposite ? §117. Hosea's Call and Preparation. — This subject is perhaps the most important of all that will present themselves in a study of the Book of Hosea. The diffi- culty and the delicacy of the subject are apparent, but a 114 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT careful examination of the material, and the various views that have been presented concerning it, will give a clear insight into Hosea's character and the significance of his personal experience as determining the nature of his message. 1:2-9. I. Make a thorough study of the narrative which describes the harlotry of Hosea's wife, and in connection with this the narrative of the purchase of Gomer as a s;!--!. slave and her retention many days, and prepare a brief statement of the thought contained in these two pas- sages, keeping in mind that, whatever view may be taken of the authenticity of the remaining verses of the first three chapters, these passages contain the actual narra- tive concerning Hosea and his wife. 2. Consider whether this transaction is to be regarded as (a) a vision or trance, something that never actually happened in real life; or (f) as a parable or allegory. Could a prophet have done the thing here described ? Is the woman of 3 : i the same as in chap, i ? And did Hosea have two marriages of the same kind ? Did the prophets sometimes represent themselves as commanded Ezek. 4:1-8, 9-17. to do strange things? Could Hosea psychologically have received such a command ? Or (c) is the trans- action to be understood literally? Does the prophet indicate in any way that it was a vision? Is the thing commanded less objectionable in a vision than in actual isa. 7:3; 8:1-4. practice? Was it the custom of prophets to give sym- bolical names to real children ? Is a real experience of this kind consistent with the message which Hosea preached ? But (d), if it is taken literally, are we to under- stand that Gomer was a harlot when Hosea married her? Or is it possible (e) that spiritual fornication is meant, since Gomer was, like other Israelites, an idolatress ? Hos. 1:2, Or may we understand (/) that the phrase " a wife of whoredom " may mean one who, although chaste at the time of marriage, had in her a tendency to impurity which manifested itself after marriage ? Does this view cover the facts of the narrative ? Does it remove the moral difficulties ? Does it furnish a reasonable basis for Hosea's love for his wife ? Will it furnish explanation THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA II5 of the mental process through which Hosea came to realize Jehovah's love for Israel ? 3. Trace the connection between the symbolical names given to the children and the progress of the thought in Hosea's mind, and at the same time take up the close connection between chap. 3 and chap. i. Is the old relationship of wife re-established? In what position is 3:1-4 the wife placed at the close? Is the period of seclusion 3:4. — namely, "many days" — a definite period? 4. Consider the following questions : If we restrict the narrative to i : 2-9 and 3 : 1-4, is the conclusion of the story furnished ? Is there any inconsistency between the representation made of a love so strong that it leads the husband to do strange things, and the usual Israelitish custom in accordance with which the wife was Exod. 22:16 f. the property of the husband? How long a period must these transactions have covered ? What was Hosea's domestic situation during these years? 5. Consider these additional points : Might a call to prophecy come through a personal experience as well as in a vision? Was the chief teaching of these domestic experiences the announcement of Israel's destruction, or the announcement of Jehovah's love for Israel in spite of faithlessness? If Gomer was a harlot at the time of marriage, why was she called "wife of whoredom" Hos. 1:2. rather than harlot ? Is this command of Jehovah to marry such a woman to be compared with Scripture representations concerning the hardening of Pharaoh's Exoa. 10:1. heart and the command to Isaiah, and were these really isa. 6:91. commands ? Could these experiences have been used in communicating to the people the thought which the experience itself brought to the prophet? 6. Is it to be understood that the prophet in writing out the story of his experiences at a later time introduced into the story much of his later history. Did Isaiah do isa., chap. 6. this in the story of his call, and Jeremiah likewise? jer., chap. i. May we understand, then, that there first came the experi- ence, after that the recognition of the truth which it suggested, and still later the writing out of the experi- ence in the light of this truth ? Is there anything analogous to this in Amos ? Il6 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 7. To what extent did the old Semitic conception, that the national deity was the husband of the land, afford a basis for Hosea's interpretation of his experi- ence ? Supposing this to be the basis, what new thought does he introduce ? § 118. The Character of Hosea. — Consider the facts and the material of the book, and picture to yourself the character of the author, Hosea. 1. In what respects did Hosea's strength differ from that of Amos? 2. In what respects was his character complex, as compared with the • simplicity of the character of Amos ? 3. Compare closely the character of Jeremiah with that of Hosea, and indicate the points of resemblance ? 4. Does any other personality in Old Testament history exhibit so affectionate a character ? 5. Was Hosea strongly ethical or rather strongly religious ? Cf. Amos. 6. Was Hosea, because of his emotional character and the com- plexity of his temperament, illogical ? 7. To what extent did Hosea represent the national type ? § 119. The Message of Hosea. — -Consider in general the importance of the message and the facts which contribute to it a special interest. 1. Is the message a strongly personal one, and is this personal ele- ment so pervasive as to give it a prominence over and above the politi- cal and religious factors ? 2. Is there a remarkable relationship between the message of Hosea and that of Amos, both being required to secure a complete conception? 3. Is there any significance in the fact that this message is given within a few years of the end of the Northern kingdom ? 4. Is it true that nearly one-fourth of the verses contained in the Book of Hosea are to be regarded as insertions and additions from the point of view of later prophets, and will this affect somewhat the formu- lation of Hosea's message ? 5. Consider whether the general thought of Hosea may be connected with the following topics, and formulate a proposition presenting his thought concerning each of the subjects named: (a) Israel's character and condition; (h) Israel's future; (c) Jehovah's relation to Israel; {d) Israel's conception of Jehovah; {e) Israel's acts of repentance; (/) the outcome of Israel's present attitude toward Jehovah. 6. Consider what Amos had said that did not need to be said over again by Hosea, and also what Amos had not said which Hosea must THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA II7 now say. For example, did Amos present any plan for a restoration? Did Amos lay emphasis upon Jehovah's love, or upon universal law ? If the latter, what was the next problem to be solved ? Was it necessary for Hosea to promise redemption, or would it be sufficient if he would show that redemption was possible?' Had the popular feeling on fundamental questions changed, or was it practically the same as at the time of Hosea's utterances ? § 120. The Convictions of Hosea. — Recognizing the fact that Hosea, when compared with Amos, deals dif- ferently with the same questions, the one being deeper, while the other is broader; the one being strongly reli- gious, the other strictly ethical; consider the more important points upon which expression is made: 1. The omnipotence of Jehovah. Is this idea as important in Hosea's scheme of thought as it was in that of Amos ? How does Hosea represent Jehovah's power Hos.2:8; 4:3; 9:2; over nature, and in what way does he describe the power of Jehovah in history? Is he interested in Jehovah's ":i.3,4; 12:9,10; work outside of Israel? 2. Was Hosea more truly monotheistic than Amos ? Is Jehovah represented as a national God? Is Hosea's 3:4; 9:3; 13:4- representation of Jehovah anthropomorphic? Is the 6:5;^5:i4; 13:7; manner of his representation of Jehovah influenced by ''l"'.^^''' "■''•• his own poetic nature ? 3. How are we to account for the fact that Hosea 8:5, 6; 3:1; 13:2. attacks the image-worship of the times, which was passed over in silence by Elijah, Elisha, and Amos? Why should Hosea have taken this position rather than Amos ? 4. Prove that Hosea's fundamental idea of Jehovah is 6:7. that of a God of love. What, in detail, is the significance of the word "love" used of Jehovah by Hosea? What is involved in the exercise of this feeling on the part of both Jehovah and Israel ? What words or phrases may be used as synonyms to express the idea contained in the word translated "love" ? What, according to the prophet, is the relationship of this feeling to religion itself? 5. From a study of the passages cited, formulate the ^-fvl-JT*' ^■*'' substance of Hosea's most bitter complaint against Israel. Explain what is the full meaning of the word "know" as ' C/. George Adam Smith, Booi of the Twelve Prophets, Vol. I, p. 229. Il8 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT used in these passages. What knowledge of God is it that Hosea has here in mind? Something which the nation once possessed, but has lost, or is it something 4:1 ff.; 6ff.; 5;ifE. really new? Why is it that the people do not reach up 2:8; 4:6. to this new knowledge ? And in what way is it possible for Israel to gain a true knowledge of Jehovah ? 2:2; 3:1. 6. If Jehovah is the husband of Israel, or if he is the ":'• father of Israel, what relation does he sustain to outside nations? Is Hosea much concerned with the outside world ? What evidence is there that Jehovah occupies a place of superiority in the outside world ? Why was Hosea indifferent to the world at large ? 4:i3f.-, 6:6; 8:11- 7. Formulate a statement representing Hosea's mes- 13; 13:1 f.-, *^ =■ chap. 10, passim, sage on the cultus, and compare with this the thought of Amos. Why is the Canaanitish worship distasteful to Hosea ? Why is he opposed to calf-worship ? Does he give larger consideration to the cultus than does Amos ? 4:8; 5:1; 10:13; 8. Prepare a statement expressing Hosea's concep- tion of the immorality of Israel in those days. What is the occasion of this general immorality? Is it encour- aged by the priests ? Why ? What methods does Hosea adopt to bring about a reform in this particular? 8:4-6. g. Prepare a statement representing the political situation at home and abroad as represented by Hosea. In what respect has the home policy been wrong? Does he condemn the disruption of the kingdom which took 7:1-8; 8:4-13; place in the days of Rehoboam ? What is his attitude 10:8 ff. ^ ■' toward the anarchy of his own time? What about the foreign policy ? Exactly what was it, and what was its weakness ? 10. What was Hosea's interpretation of Israel's past history? What interpretation of this same history had been made before the days of Hosea, and what two great 1:4; 5:13; 7:3-7, interpretations follow? Formulate in some detail Hosea's I3lf.; 9:14; II: * i;i2:3, 9f. point of view and the great religious lesson which he based upon it. 1:10—2:1, 14-16, II. If 14:1-8 comes from a later hand, compare also i8-a3; 3:5; li: ' f 10 f- Other suspected passages with Hosea's representation concerning Israel's immediate future. Present in con- trast his conception of the future on the supposition that THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA II9 these passages come from his pen. What considerations now may be urged in this connection against the authen- ticity of the passages cited? In any case, is not Hosea's conception of Jehovah one which furnishes a basis for a 2:2; 5:4; 6:6; 10: hopeful future? Did he teach the possibility of repent- 13:14. ance? Did he expect Israel to repent? 12. Consider two additional points in reference to Hosea's message : (a) To what extent did he make use of the nation's past history, and where did he get his material? Is it possible that he may have made use of c/.s-.n; g-.w, oral tradition? Did he have information which no pre- c/. 8:13; 9:3, 10; 10:9: II : I 5; ceding document still in existence furnished? Did he 13:4*. exercise a judgment concerning the past, differing from c/ "4; 10:5. that of those who preceded him? {d) In what sense now may the character of Hosea's message be said to be typi- cally Israelitish? Was his message a true expression of the national spirit? In what respects may the message of Hosea be contrasted with that of Amos? § 121. The Ministry of Hosea. — What is the external form of his work? What was its scope? In what did it consist? Remembering that the ministry of Hosea was that of a poet, not a philosopher; that of a mystic, not a moralist — consider the following topics: 1. In the reception of his call to preach and the message which he was to preach, what method was definitely employed ? Through how many years did this experience continue? What was the nature of the experience? How may we in a practical way explain the reception of the message by the prophet ? 2. In the presentation of his message to the people, what methods were employed ? Was the use of symbolical names for children a good method? May we suppose that he made a public statement of the story of his discourse, and, if so, for what purpose ? 3. Did he preach? What was the important purpose of his dis- course? How many of these discourses have been preserved? What may be said as to the character of these discourses from the point of view of public delivery? 4. Did he follow the example of Amos in committing his addresses to writing? 5. How may we contrast the ministry of Hosea with that of Amos in its relation to political activity? Did Hosea occupy any public position? Did he come into contact, so far as we know, with the 120 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT government ? Was it, in other words, a private rather than a public ministry ? Were the political conditions of his times peculiarly diffi- cult? Was he more severe toward the prophetic policy of the past than toward that of his own times ? § 122. Stages in the Ministry of Hosea. 1. Criticise in detail the following hypothesis concerning the chronological order of the various stages in his ministry: ° a) At the time of his marriage (750 B. C. ?) he was presumably a young man, and, if his occupation was that of a priest, his mind had been dwelling on sacred things for many years. At first hand he gained his knowledge of the evil practices of his fellow-priests, and their close associates, the prophets. b) Within two or three years (747 B. C.) he had satisfied himself as to the doom of Jehu's dynasty; this was announced in connection with the birth of his son (Jezreel). He, doubtless, expected Israel's collapse to be contempo- raneous. c) Within six or seven years the tragedy of his life has been enacted ; the real call to preach has come; the great message has been received; Jeroboam has died, and anarchy has set in; important announcements concerning the future have been made (in the symbolic names given the three children of his wife). d) During the next six or seven years (742-735 B. C), with his wife put away (for he cannot now live with her, however much he loves her), he preaches his impassioned sermons, breathing into them all the warmth and all the pain of an agonizing heart. These are the years of revolution and vacillation, of decay approaching close to death — -years without any hope, yet with a faith in Jehovah that is strong and steadfast. e) What next? We do not know. It is improbable that, like Amos, he left home and went to Judah, there to put his writings into form, and to include the Judaistic references which are in the present book. It is probable that he was spared the worst agony of all, that of seeing Samaria in ruins and Israel carried captive. We have nothing from his lips or pen later than 735 B. C. 2. Present considerations which may be offered to prove the effi- ciency of Hosea's ministry. What is its real success, notwithstanding the failure of the prophet to turn people from their sins and to save the nation from destruction ? § 123. Literature on Hosea. For presentations of the teachings of Hosea see: The introductions to the various Commentaries, especially those of Cheyne (Cambridge Bible), George Adam Smith (Expositor's Bible), EwALD, WiJNSCHB, Valeton (Amos und Hosea), NowACK (Hand- Kommentar zum Alten Testament), Marti (Kurzer Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament), and W. R. Harper ("International Critical Commentary," 190$). = See Amos and Hosea ("International Critical Commentary," 1905), pp. clvii f. THE PROPHETIC MESSAGE OF HOSEA 121 Special discussions are: A. B. Davidson, "The Prophet Hosea," Expositor, 1st Series, Vol. IX (1879), pp. 241-64; W. R. Smith, art. "Hosea," Encyclopedia Bri/annica {iSSi); Idem, PropAets 0/ Israel {iSg2, 2d ed., 1895), pp. 144-90; KlRK- FATRiCK., Vocirine 0/ iAe Prop Ac/s {l8g2, 3d ed., 1901), pp. 109-42; Idem, art. "Hosea," S}.inH's Dictionary 0/ /Ae Bible {zi. ed., 1893); Cornill, Prophets of Israel (1894, English 1898), pp. 47-55; L. B. Paton, "Notes on Hosea's Marriage," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XV (1896), pp. 9-18 ; A. B. DAVIDSON, art. " Hosea," Has- tings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899) ; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899), pp. 45 £f.; W. R. Smith and Karl Marti, art. "Hosea," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (190 1). DUHM, ZJif TAeologie der PropAeten (1875), pp. 126-41; LAGRANGE, "La nou- velle histoire d'Israel et le prophfete Os^e," Revue Biblique, Vol. I (1892), pp. 203-38; 'ii1il.%S'D, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (l&()J„ 2d ed., 1899), pp. 204-18 ; Oettli, "Der Kultusbei Amos und Hosea," Greifswalder Studien (1895), PP- 1-34; VOLZ, Die vorexiliscAe JahwepropAetie und der Messias (1897), pp. 24-40; ^EVSXiAk^^, Israel und Juda bet Amos und Hosea, nebst einem Exkurs ilber Ho. 1-3 (1898); VoLZ, "Die Ehegeschichte Hosea's," Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche TAeo- logie, 1898, pp. 321—35; ProcksCH, Die Geschichtsbetrachtung bei Amos, Hosea und Jesaia {1901); Oettli, Amos und Hosea, zwei Zeugen gegen die Anwendung der Evolutionstheorie auf die Religion Israels {igoi); NowACK, "Die Zukunftshoffnungen Israels in der Assyrischen Zeit" in TAeologische AbAandlungen (Festgabe fiir H. J. Holtzmann, 1902), pp. 33-59; RiEDEL, AlttestamentlicAe UntersucAungen, Heft 1 (1902), pp. 1-15; Boehmer, "Die Grundgedanken der Predigt Hosea's," ZeitscArift fiir wissenschaftliche TAeologie, Vol. XLV (1902), pp. I-24 ; Meinhold, Studien zur israelitiscAen ReligionsgescAicAte, I : Der heilige Rest (1903), pp. 64-88. § 124. Constructive Study .^ On the basis of the results reached through the foregoing study and in the light of the literature cited in § 123, prepare a positive, constructive statement of the message of Hosea, giving special attention to (i) his call and preparation, (2) his relation to Amos, (3) his diagnosis of Israel's religious condition, and (4) his conception of God. Appendixes D. A Table of Important Dates. B. A Chronological Table of the Religious Life of Israel. C. The Prophetic Vocabulary. D. Analysis of the Hexateuch. APPENDIX A. TABLE OF IMPORTANT DATES. Israel. B.C. Other Countries. Hebrew clans in Canaan (Gen. 14). c. 2250 Hammurabi, king of Babylon. c. 1700 Hyksos enter and subdue Egypt. Jacob-clans enter Goshen. c. 1500 Hyksos expelled from Egypt. c, 1400 Tell-el-Amarna letters. c, I2q3-i226 Ramses II. (Pharaoh of the Oppression). Israel defeated in Canaan by Merncptah. c. 1226-1198 Merneptah. Exodus of Jacob-clans from Goshen. c. 1198-1167 Ramses III. Philistines enter Canaan. Jacob-clans enter Canaan. c. 1150 Deborah and Barak (Judg. 5). Gideon. Abimelech. C. IIOO Jephthah. Eli. Philistine oppression. Samuel. c. 1040 Saul. c. 1025 David becomes king. c. 1000 Jerusalem captured and made the capital. Solomon. c. 970 Temple completed. c. 960 Disruption. 933 JUDAH. ISRAEL. Rehoboam. Jeroboam I. 933 Wars between Ju- dah and Israel. Shishak invades Ju- dah and Israel. 929 Shishak I, of Egypt. Abijam. 916 Wars between Ju- dah and Israel. Asa. Nadab. 912 War against Philistia. Philistia invaded by Israel, Baasha. 911 Wars between Ju- dah and Israel. 900 Rise of Damascus. Asa appeals to Da- mascus for aid against c. 890 Ben-hadad of Damascus invades Israel. Israel. Northern campaigns of Tukulti-Ninib II. Baasha loses territory to Syria. Elah. War against Philistia. Philistia attacked by Elah of Israel. Zimri. Omri. 885 Civil war; factions led Ashurnasirpal III.; northern campaigns, 885, by Omri and Tibni. 884, 883, 880, 867; eastern campaigns, 882, Tibnl slain. 881; campaigns in west Mesopotamia, 884, Omri builds Samaria. 879, 878-875 (?) ; reaches Mediterranean, Long peace between Judah and Israel. 876 (?) Ahab. 875 Alliance with Phoeni- Phcenicia and Israel allied. Jehoshaphat. cia. Wars with Syria. 872 Wars between Syria and Israel. c. 860 Mesha's revolt ; Moabite stone. 860-825 Shalmaneser II.; constant war; campaigns in Babylonia, 852, 851; in west Mesopo- tamia, 859-856; in south Syria, 854, 849, 846, 843, 839; in central Syria, 850, 843, 841, 832; in north Syria and northwest, 840, 838, 837, 835, 834; in north, 860, 855, 853. 845, 833, 831-828; in east, 844, 836. First contact with 854 Assyria; battle of Karkar. 125 126 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT APPENDIX ^—Contimud. JUDAH, Jehoshaphat aids Jehoshaphat aids Jehoram. Revolt of Edom and Libnah, Ahaziah. Ahaziah aids Joram Ahaziah slain by Jehu. Athaliah. To ash. Joash gives tribute to Hazael of Syria. Amaziah. War against Edom. J e hoash smites Jerusalem. Uzziah. Total eclipse of sun Israel. Jotham. Ahaz Judah invaded by Ahaz sends tribute to Tiglath-plleser. Ahab against Syria. Ahaziah. Joram. Joram against Moab, War against Syria, against Syria. Joram slain by Jehu. Jehu tributary to Shalmaneser II, Hazael smites Gilead, Gad, Gath, etc. Jehoahaz. Syria's long oppres- sion of Israel. Jehoash. Vi( 'ictories over Syria. War with Amaziah. Jeroboam II. Syria expelled from Israel. on June 15, visible in Syria. Zechariah (6months). Shallum (i month). Menahem. Men ahem sends tribute to Tiglath- pileser. Pekahiah. Pekah. Pekah and Rezin of Syria. Tiglath-pileser deports inhabitants of Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali. Hoshea, an Assyrian Vassal. Hoshea rebels against Assyria. Siege of Samaria, Fall of Samaria, 853 850 843 836 c. 830 827-822 825-812 814 812-783 c. 800 797 itSwKov (Jer. 9:14) Baal 1?3 (KKaleiv, iKKadalpciv, d(pavl- consume ©155 ^TjTeTp^ iK^T]TUV seek, enquire ni-ia diad^KT], p.apTtjptov, ivToKyj covenant 1^5 evayye\i^ea8a.L preach, announce good news ni?3 ai'trxiii"; shame nbina ■jrapd^fos, vip.(pTj virgin '■jii53 VTrepriipavia, tppTjayp^a, ^^P^^^ majesty, pride d6^a bK3l \vTpodv^ CLyXi-0'T€6€lP^p^€{T6aL, aTToXvrpovv^ i^aipeiv ""IS e^i'09, Xa6s b'^Si dyaWiaa-dai, x^'-P^^^i ^^ (Ppaiueiv AvoiyeLV, (pavepoOv^ alx- p.a\ojTi^€LV, alxP-^^^TOv yeviffdai^ dTroi /effete, dird' yeip, d4>t(TTavai redeem, act as kinsman exiles, exile nation, people rejoice uncover, go into exile 130 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Qibi^a nya 131 am bin biyin yifflin efSwXa, ^7riT7)5ei5|aara, (336- \&yixaTa, diavo-fuj-ara, iv- $viJ.-/i/j.aTa. AireLXeiy, dTrctXiJ, dwoffKO- paKti^etv, iTn-TificLv, trv\- XoiSopeti' (rvvTd(r(reiv^ viroTdatTeiv^ iv- (ryXXaXetp, TrpotrXaXeii', p^et*', ciTreti', XaXcic, X^ctv XiYos, €7ros, pw" OdvaroSj Slkt/ yivea, eK-yomv, avyyheia Kplvuv, SiaKpheiv dffdevTi!, irivTi^, tttuxi^s, tcl- yvwffts, ^TrLffTrip-y}^ iirlyvu(rLS, §ov\-n (Isa. 44 : 25), rive- (TiS ird^eiv (Deut. 13:15), diroKpivetrdai, irvvBdveadai (Gen. 25:22), ^irepaiTaK, iiriffKiTTTeadai (Ezek. 20 : 40), iiTLiXKoireiv (Deut. 11:12), {\irl^(iv (Isa. II: 10), xP't'^f'O^^y^^'' (Jer. 38:4) fxdTatoSj fw.TaiSTtjSj etddjKov, fjidrtjVj eU oi/Siv (Isa. 49:4) ihipeKeiv^ (h(pi\eta, (j}(p4\Tjfjui pos throne D?3 6vfji6s, ipyij vexation, anger n-'i? m.3 StaffiJKiiv Smriehai, SLaS^Kiiv TiBivai. cut, or make, a covenant b03 iaeevetv, Koviav, iivvareiv stumble, stagger (Isa. 8 : 13), ivUvai (Isa. 3 : 8), irapaXieiv (Isa. 35 : 3). TXovav (Jer. 31 : 9), KUTavoKiaKav (Isa. 59:14) 134 PROPHETIC ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Kapdla, Jpvxv, i'TiSvfita., Sio- f heart, mind, will voia, V0V3 ) • •^i) liav0di>€iv, SiSdiTKeiv, SeiK- vvvcLi, dtSaxv learn, teach m-g devetv, i^ovdepouv reject n-Qinp Bbpvfios, diriiXeia, rdpaxos, Tapaxv, ciyx>>(Ti,s, eKcrTo.- tumult, confusion npsn'a Karaa-Tpi^civ overthrow no'ia iraiSeia discipline, correction HBT'a iTapa.voiJ.ia (Ps. 37:7)» ^^^" ^oiiKiov (Ps. 10:2), ivii- viov (Ps. 10:4), povXij (Ps. 21:12), dta\oyL(TiJ.6v (Ps. 139:20), j33Au7/xa (Jer. 11: IS), ijX^tpvIM (Jer. 23:20; 30:24), lipT'?' (Jer. 51 :ll) purpose, device nrnu Hpafia vision b'lTBDtl aKdvdaXov, Trrtj/ia, dadiveia, occasion of stumbling. ^dfxavo^, K6\atTL^ stumbling-block vh-g i^atpetv preserve, escape "ISD^ kottetSs wailing Tiyp I'crxiJs, §orjdbi, (TKcir-q. ^oridua stronghold, refuge, for- tress riw-a ipyov, irol-niia, iroiTjcris work, deed nasi? (rTTj\7], cTvXos (Jer. 43 : 13), pillow, rnassebah n'12'a nn'a map uiria-Tncris (Ezek. 26:11), 6r}K7j (Isa. 6:13) ^VToKi], ivToKjia, TrpbuTayixa, SiKatuipia (l Kings 2:3), Kpta-is (Deut. 11:1), '^"■O' (TTrap (Jer. 12:14), ^/c- KdwTuv (Mic. 5:13), ^|a'- pei» (Jer. 12: 17; 18 :7) ?\ews yheffSai, t\eus eiyai, l\(i(TKeeLP, VirO(TTp4ift€lV turn, return nsijj ^TiKav6a.vi(rSaL forget naic ip-i)p.ovavt(rp.6s, dirJjXeia, 6\€6pos, dolKTJTOS, epTJpiOS desolation, vpaste UEffl KptveLv, dtaKpiveiv, dLKd^etv, judge ■jTlpiC ^SiKvyfia, irpotrdx^i-'^P-o- abomination, idol ^R® tpcvSos, \pev5-/is lie, deceit nnxn iirtdvfiia desire ns^an irOveaLs, 7 32a 336 35 -iS'~3° -}r>'"''0 4^^-566 76-23 ^--,(1 3 S 15)'' - I 14631 34 E J/28i;-3i 326-330 34 36 jt) _3y ^j bacia 4^1-23 4^1-30 32. J ^ J 356 366 41-450 466 49 560 57 24.70 c 27-280 38 E4^350C36o 37-40 47-50-55 566 4-^1 3 6 8 90 76 96-26 29-35 286 36. P 456-460 J 4,1-13 15-34 A A '-34 ^e'* 264-50C 9-11 13. 1906-210 28 ,fi,i(ir E43 14 44 45 16-203 56^-8 12 15-18 2i6r-27 40 2-4 j6 50 '6 P J /I A ^^"-54 /i-7i~4 66 12-270 29-31 o 26 96-100 13-19 E 4'-' 47 4" 1-20 8-90 106-12 20-22 P 6. '8-27 5-60 7-11 276-28 3-6 '7 E 4y 246-26 5^ 15-17 19.22.25. r^-xuuub 1 7 I 5-200 P 10 '18 28'o 6-330 c 12. 1-5 13 146 J .J 206 22 _ 11-230 - 2-405 7-90 '14 16-18 A^~^^ "13-16 19-200 '21-23 E ^ 21 -^ i-io 01 466 96-13 15 '19. 21. 4 17. 206 P 236-25 J ,24-26 29-31 - 35-23 A I ^14 16-170 18 210 24, Q1-4 8-150 e4 27. 5 1. 4 D 7 15 176 206 23 o P 2-T2 '13-30 I-I3 19-200 216-22 5-7 156-19 J 020-32 (-.1-7 13 "14-16 17- 236 246 256-290 "6 "3033. _ ^10 '16-2 3r-ii E <^ V 8-12 '19-21 22-230 240 250 31, 35r AU 12-130 J Tf~,i36 146-150 15C-19 24-29 4-8 -„ 210 "216-23 "25-270 276 29-34 E -1 '-' 140 156 20-23 ^ ^ 1-3 A Z '^^^ J T ^37-39 TO 30 4 °S 6 "7. 10-13 21. 5. 100 11-14 E A -^ -^ O '30 "9 "14-16 17-19 *4 7 90 106 150 '40-42 43-50 '51 1. 20 1-4 8 96r 156 J _ . 196 200 21& 240 25 270 250 30 T r^ 22-250 27 ,^ E ^4i6o 190 200 246 '31 1 J '2-18 20. 256 '26 ^O 4 P 166-18 210 21C-23 26-270 280 '29 '19 1-3 '5 6. '8 J tA ._ 3 26 70c ,0 '2-47 9-11 E 10 -17 16-20 4-6768-16 -lOir 5.8 12-27 ■'9 9-140 i5'o6-2l '22-30 31-35 36 J _ '36-6 116-13 18 20-22 24. ^/-.'^ '46-6 "76 -9. "126 '176 E 1926-30 7-110 14-17 19 '23 '''-'13-40 70 8 120 13-170 18-26 -^11-36 J „„ '216-22 '24 -- '13 '156'17'19 '23-250 '27 '316-33 E ■^■^1-210 23 25-31 -^01-90 '6 10-12 14-150 16 18 20-22 256-26 28-310 J o^i-S-il T C -) T -» o 7"'4 25-29 1 3-40 '6 E''43-8 120'6 13-150 186 -^0 Ji 186 i''i-6 15016-24 "30-3435 33 '2 P 156-180 I— 180 '156 APPENDIXES 141 APPENDIX Vi— Continued. J TT ■'= 23 , . 11--S '6-9 loa -loS-is 14 -15. i7-i8a'4 19-23 25-28 .- . _, _:?....L^ o4 -24 29-33 ■34- 35 40 I— 38 \ Leviticus i 27 Numbers i 10 ''^" ^=11,4""°" '°*"" 'V'.e P I- 34 I— - 28 34 E I I "246-30 1 2i-i5 13 176 171;- 186 19 22 i8a c 2o-2ia 23. 270 28 30. 266 276 29 33r P I- i-jd 216 25- 260 32 J . . IC3 8 96 11-24 31 E i4 li 4 25 39 41-45 6-40 15 1 6 i/za 13-1411 15 T2 146 P la 2 5-7 9a 10 26-30 32-39(1 [-41 la h 2&- 7'8- -II '16. J J (C 27C-31 33a E i '-^ 25 166 27& 320 33634 I 7 20 ,6^" = 86 19. 216 14-18 2ia 22a P 18-24 26a 27a '326 '33c 35 ; '36-40 4' ;-5o I — la 2 36-4 6-8a c-: 13 J op, O T ^~2 16-20 24S-2S E ^^ ^ J- 46-9 116-15 21-240 '26 32 27-31 ■ 36-Sa<;- 33-35 -^ -^ 2-30 S* ■7 8-] II 17. [Q 12-16 19-21 P 22&-29 4a 10 I J oT 22-34 35'' 36a 37639 T, £22 366-377 Ds5i4 "5 6-8 O 18 27 / Ps 10-12 19 'l J lor 26-80 9-11 14-17 i9-23r 25 29 4.66-7' 116-14 156 16b d E Q 12 '13 18 24^ 26 n^^^ 8-90 no 150 160 c j)sO i6-2a &b 27. 30-35 V 96-10 Ps I. 15c 17-21 J 226-23 26.r iarc2. 5b-6ac 7a 9 io6 i2r-i4 i6-24r 26. 14-^9 E ^220 -^ 16 4-5*1 6bd TOO II ^, ^^ Ds y 24. J^ ^ 76-8 15 25 28-43 ■*■ ^ 2. 10-23 ■'■■^1-24 ps J I 7 13 14-19 63 1-3 10 E /r Ds I 3 2-6 8-12 14*- 14 6-15 15 ^^ Ps 15-210 '216-22 23-32 '33 1-5 I-I3 '13 20-62 4-8 '9 J 11-18 47 Is 17 ^g '2-6. '8-100 ^^ 20 Ps 10 '16-2 3. '5. 7 '8 9. I '7 '106 11-28 1-46 48-51 1-3 '4 5r-9 j ^ Ds21 43-43 2 2 1-6 -74 -6-8 ^di-iS 24 13 31 ps i-io '11 12-42 '9-34