311/ i- (ilDntfU Iniuf rattn Ctbrarg BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GrFT OF IHi^nrg HI. Sage 1891 k 3.k.^3^%k^ VM'^-!-L.. 93°* Cornell University Library QE 341.S94 1914 Introduction to the geology of New South 3 1924 003 991 134 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003991134 GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Missing Page AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES BY C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.G.S. PRINCIPAL OF NEWCASTLE TECHNICAL COLLEiiE, LATE LECTUKEIt IN CHAKGF OF THE DEPARTMENT OF (JEOLOGT AND MININ(4, SYDNEY TECHNICAL CoLLEUE Second i^dftio)/, ref'>:i'il tind t'ldanjcd, with 100 ill ust rations mud miipn SYDNEY ANGUS & ROBERTSON LTD. 89 CASTLEEEAGH STREET 1914 Printed by "SV. C. Penfold .^ Co., Ltd. for Angus li' Robertson Ltd., Pultlisbers to the University' of Sydney. London : The Oxford University Press, Amen Corner, E.G. To PROFESSOR T. W. EDGEWORTH DAVID, B.A., D.Sc, P.R.S., C.M.G., TO WHOM WE OWE SO MUCH OE OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE Geology of New South Wales PEEEACE This compilation of our present knowledge of the Geology of New South Wales has been prepared primarily for the use of students; it will also, it is hoped, be of some use to teachers, mining men and others. The informa- tion lias been condensed as much as possible, so that the size of the book maj' be kept within limits enabling it to be published at a price within the reach of all students. Such a compilation has long been needed, as no con- nected account of the Geology of this State has appeared since that published by the late C. S. Wilkinson in 1882, which has long been out of print. Many important con- tributions have been made to our knowledge since Wilkinson's work was published; but, scattered as they are through various official and other publications, some of which have been published abroad, while others are out of print, the information they contain is not aocessiljle to the majority of students. In the preparation of tliese pages the writer has gathered his facts from many sources. Full use has been made of the many excellent monographs, reports, &c., published by the Mines Department of New South Wales, and from these many of the geological sections and illus- trations of fossils have been taken The various geological papers which have appeared from time to time in the Proceedings of the Eoyal Society of New South Wales, in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, and in the Memoirs of the Australian Museum, have also been largely drawn upon. The geological workers whose papers have been made use of include, among otliers, E. C. Andrews, W. N. Benson, G. W. Card, J. E. Carne, Rev. W. B. Clarke, Professor T. W. E. David, Hy. Deane, W. S. Dun, R. Etheridge, Junr., L. F. Harper, J. B. .Taquet, Dr. H. I. Jensen, Dr. D. Mawson, E. F. Pittman, C. S. Wilkinson, Rev. Tenison Woods, and Dr. W. G. Woolnough. via PREFACE Even now, notwithstanding the many important additions to the Geology of New South Wales made during the past twenty-five years, our knowledge of it is still very incomplete; many blanks exist, many problems await solution. The area to be covered is large, while the workers are few; so that it will be many years before anj'thing even approaching a complete account of the geological history of this State will be possible. Mean- while, besides supplying the immediate need for a student's text-book, it is hoped that this compilation will be serving a useful purpose in "taking stock" of our present know- ledge — in showing how much lias already been accom- plished, how much still remains to be done. The classification of the geological formations here used is, with some slight modifications, that adopted by Mr. E. F. Pittman in his "Epitome of the Geology of Xew South Wales," published in 1909, and to liim my hearty thanks are due for permission to reproduce many of the geological sections and illustrations of fussils which have appeared in the juiblications of the I\Iines Dejiartment. Some few of the fossil illustrations have been copied from the Memoirs of the Australian Museum, and for permission to use these my thanks are due to Mr, R. Etheridge. junr. To Dr. W. G. Woolnough my thanks are due for the photograph and section at Tallong (Figures .3 and 4), and to Dr. E). Mawson for information regarding the Broken Hill District. I am much indebted to Mr. W. S. Dun for reading through and correcting the lists of fussils, and for much kind assistance; and my hearty thanks are also due to Pr(jfess(ir T. W. E. David and Messrs. E. C. Andrews, G. W. Card, J. E. Carne, and R. Etheridge, junr. for nuich kindly advice and assistance. A glossary of the less common geological terms used in the book has been included. Keweastle Technical College, April, 1914. Page CONTENTS Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Order of Suceesison of the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales . . . . . . . . 5 Chapter II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The Highlands 7 Distribution, 8; the Korthern or New England Tableland, 8; the Central Tableland, 9; the Southern Tableland, 9. The Western Plains 10 The Central Western Plateau, If); the Blaek-soil plains, 10; the Eiverina Plains, 10. The River Systems 11 The Eastern Rivers, 11; the Western Rivers, 11. CriAPTER III. PRE-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS. Barrier District . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Distribution, L3; Willyama Series, 13; the Broken Hill Lode, 15. The Cooma-Kosciusko Region . . . . . . . . 15 The Albnry District 10 Chapter IV. THE CAMBRIAN PERIOD. Distribution of Cambrian Sirata . . . . . . 17 Barrier District, 17; the Cambrian Fornuitions of South Australia, 18; the Cambrian Fauna, 20 X CONTENTS Chapter Y. THE ORDOA^CIAN PERIOD. Pa^e Occurrence and Distribution of Ordovician Strata . . 23 Counties of Auckland and Wellesley, 23 ; Tallong, 24; Lyndburst Goklfield, 24; Cadia District, 26; Parlies-Forbes District, 26; Tweed River District, 28. Ordovician Life . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Summary of the Ordovician Period . . . . . . 29 Chapter VI. THE SILURIAN PERIOD. Nature of the Silurian Strata — their distribution . . 33 Yass-Bowning District, 34; Jeiiolan District, 38; Batburst District, 39 ; Orange-Moloiig District, 40; Forbes District, 43; the Y^estern Areas, 43. Economic Aspects of the Silurian Formations . . 45 Silurian Life . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Summarj' of the Silurian Perioil . . . . . . 51 Chapter YII. THE DEVONIAN PERIOD. Distribution of the Devonian Formation . . . . 54 The Lower Devonian or j\Iurrumbidgean Series . . 54 The Murrumbidgee Beds, 56; the Volcanic Stage, 56 ; the Limestone Stage, 57 ; the Tuffaceous Shale Stage, 57; Comi^arison with Victorian Devonian Rocks, 5S; the Tamworth Beds, 58; Bingara and Barraba Districts, 60. Lower Devonian Life . . . . . . . . 63 The Marine Fauna, 63; the Fossil Flora, 66; Comparison of tlie ^Murrumbidgee and Tam- worth Faunas, 66. CONTENTS xi The Devonian Period (continued) — P^.,g The Upper Devonian or Lambian Series . . . . 67 The Mount Lambie Beds, 67; the Molong- Canobolas Beds, 70; the Parkes-Forbes Beds, 72; the Western Areas, 72; South- eastern Districts, 73. Upper Devonian Life . . . . . . . . . . 74 The Marine Fauna, 74; the Devonian Flora, 76. Summary of the Devonian Period . . . . . . 77 Close of the Devonian Period — the Kanimbla Epoch 80 Chatter VIII. THE CARBONIFEBOUS PERIOD. Distribution of the Carboniferous Formation . . 83 Lower Carboniferous Formation . . . . . . 83 Upper do do ...... 85 Hunter Hiver District, 85 ; Western New England, 88. Carboniferous Life . . . . . . . . . . 88 The Carboniferous Flora, 88 ; the Carboniferous Fauna, 89. Summary of the Carboniferous Period . . . . 92 Chapter IX. THE PERMO-CAEBOOTFEROUS PERIOD. Distribution of and subdivision of the Permo-Carbon- iferous Formation . . . . . . . . . . 93 The Lower Marine Series . . . . . . . . 95 Hunter River District, 95; the Northern Rivers District, 98; Emmaville District, 98. The Lower Coal-measure Series . . . . . . 99 Hunter River District, 99; New England Table- land, 102 ; Illawarra District, 103. xii CONTENTS The PERiro-CARBOxiFp:Rors Period (continued) — p^^^ The Upper Marine Series 104 Hunter River District, 104; the Lithgow-Capertee District, 106; the South-western Coal-tield, 108; the Illawarra District, 109; Gerringong Fossils, 111; Kiama Volcanic Series, 112. The Tomago and Demj^sey Series (Middle Coal Measures) . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 The Upper Coal Measures . . . . . . . . 117 Newcastle Coal Measures, 117; Origin of the Coal, 121; Rix's Creek Coal-field, 124; Carlewis- Gunnedah Coal-field, 124; the Murrurundi District, 125; the Western Coal-field, 125; the South-western Coal-field, 127; the Southern or Illawarra Coal-field, 128. ClIArTER X. THE PERMO-CARBOXIFEROUS FERlOB—continued. Pernio-Carboniferous Life . . . . . . . . 131 The Marine Fauna. 131; the Terrestrial Flora and Fauna, 135 ; Comparison of the Carbon- iferous, Pernio-Carboniferous, and Triassio Floras, 137 ; the Land Animals, 138. Economic Importance of the Permo-Carboniferous Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 The Coal — Quality and available supplies, 139 ; Analyses, 140 ; Kerosene Shale, 140 ; Analyses, 142; Clays, 143. The Permo-Carboniferous Glaeiation . . . . . . 143 Cause of the Glaeiation, 146. Summary of the Permo-(!'arboniferous Period . . 147 Chapter XL THE TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS. Nature and subdivisions of the Trias-.Jura Forma- tions 154 CONTENTS xiii The Teiassic and Jurassic Periods (continiied) — p^g-e The Hawkesbury Series . . . . . . . . . . 155 The Narrabeen Stage, 155 ; the Hawkesbury- Sandstone Stage, 159; the Wianamatta Stage, 161; Relation of the Hawkesbury Series to the Upper Coal Measures, 162. Life of the Triassie Period (Hawkesbury Series) . . 164 The Fossil Plants, 164 ; the Fossil Fauna, 164. The Clarence Series . . . . . . . . . . 168 The Artesian Series . . . . . . . . . . 169 The Talbragar Series 172 Correlation of the Hawkesbury, Clarence, Artesian, and Talbragar Freshwater Beds . . . . . . 174 Summary of the Triassie and Jurassic Periods . . 176 Chapter XII. THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD. Distribution of and subdivision of the Cretaceous Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 The Rolling Downs Formation, 179 ; the Desert Sandstone Formation, 181. Cretaceous Life . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Summarj' of the Cretaceous Period . . . . . . 186 Chapter XIII. THE TERTIARY PERIOD. Nature of the Tertiary Formations . . . . . . 188 The Marine Strata 189 The Fluviatile Deposits 191 The Lower Tertiary Leads, 192 ; the Kiandra Ijead, 192; the Bathurst Lead, 192; Upper Tertiary Leads, 194; Vegetable Creek Leads, 194; the Parkes-Forbes Leads, 194; the Gulgong Leads, 197; the Forest Reef Leads, 197. The Diatomaceous Earth Deposits . . . . . . 198 siv CONTENTS The Tertiary Period {continued}— Page The Volcanic Dej)osits . . . . . . . . . . 199 The Ohler Basalts, 199 ; the Newer Basalts, 200 ; the Alkaline Lavas and Tuffs, 201. The Tertiary Flora 202 The Tertiary Fauna 204 The Development of the Present Topography . . 208 Summary of the Tertiary Period . . . . . . 211 Close of the Tertiary Period — Kosciusko Epoch, 214. Chapter XIV. THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. Results of the Kosciusko Uplift . . . . . . 216 Effect upon the Climate, 217; Effect upon the Flora and Fauna, 217. Pleistocene Deposits . . . . . . . . . . 218 The Glacial Epoch 218 Recent Earth Movements .-. . . . . . . 220 Chapter XV. THE IGNEOUS ROCKS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. The Intrusive Rocks 224 Palfeozoic Intrusives, 225 ; Cainozoic Intrusions, 231. The Volcanic Rocks 236 Cambrian, 237; Ordovician, 237; Silurian, 237; Devonian, 237 ; Carboniferous, 238 ; Permo- Carbonif erous, 238 ; the Mesozoie Era, 239 ; Cainozoic Era, 240. Summary of the Igneous Rocks . . . . . . 242 Tables of Analyses . . . . . . . . . . 244 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Index 259 ILLrSTRATIOT^S (iedlogieal Map of Xew South Wales . . Frroilispiere Fig. Page 1. Seclidii of Lower C'aml)rian Beds, South Australia 19 2. Seclion of C'amhrian and Pre-Camhrian Stiata. Barrier District, N. S. Wales 19 3. Arehieoeyatliintu Limestone, Beltana, South Australia . . . . . . . . . . 21 4. Ordo\-ieian Strata, Shoalhaveu River, near Talhinii' . . . . . . . . faciiiij 24 "). Section of Urdovician and Silnrian Strata, Tallonij' 25 6. Section of Ordovician Strata, Cadia . . . . 2:") 7. Section of ( '?) Ordovician and Silnrian Strata, near Parkes . . . . . . . . . . 27 8. Ordo^'ician Uraptolites . . . . . . . . .'id 0. Silurian Limestone, Hattou's Corner, Yass faciiiij 'i4 II). Silurian Claystones, Jenolan .. . . fdchii/ o8 11. Sedion, Biu' Ku.gtjet Hill, Hargraves . . . . 40 12. Succes.siou of Siluilan Strata, Oaky Creek, near Oraii-e 41 ]o. Charactei'istic Silurian Corals .. . . fariiiii 42 14a. HeliophjiUiim — a diaracteristic Silurian Coral facinil 44 14h. ('f)filliojili i/Ilum Sltearsbii'i — a characteristic Silu- rian ( 'oi'al .. .. .. . . fariiii/ 44 14c. Fnrnsi/px — a common Silurian and Devonian ( 'lira! . . . . . . . . . . far'nni 40 14(1. llelioliles — ^a common Silurian and Devunian ( 'cjral . . . . . . . . . . fdriiii; 4() LI. Characteristic Siluiian Brachiopods . . fadiifi 48 Id. Weathered Specimen of Pentamerus . . . . 48 xvi ILLUSTRATIONS Pig. Pag-e 17. A Characteristic Silurian Brachioisod, Atrijpa retictdaris . . . . . . . • • . 4S 18. Silurian Trilobites 49 19. Lower Devonian Beds, Taemas, Muri'umbidgee River . . . . . . . . . . facing 54 20. Section of Silurian and Lower Devonian Strata, Murrumljidgee River, near Yass . . . . 55 21a. and b. SironKiUijiora — a Silurian Hydrozoan facing 58 21c. Syringopora — a Silurian and Devonian f'oral facing 60 21d. IJiph iiphgllum ijemmifornie — a Lower Devonian Coral . . . . . . . . . . f acini] 60 22. Lowei- Devonian Corals and Sponges . . . . 62 2.3. Ijower Devonian Mollusca.. .. .. .. 65 24. Section from Mt. Lambie to Rydal . . . . 66 25. Uppei- Devonian Strata, Mt. Lambie . . . . 6S 26. Succession of Silurian and Devonian Strata, Cap Creek, Cransje District .. .. .. 69 27. De"\"onian (|)uartzites, (jap (.'reek, near Orange facing 70 28. Section of Silurian and Devonian Strata, (iap ( reek. Orange District . . . . . . 71 29. Section of Ordovician and Upper De\"onian SI rata, Parkes-Forbes District .. .. 71 30. Upper Devonian Fossils . . . . . . . . 75 31. Seclion of ( 'arbonifennis Strata. Clarence I'owu . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 32. Secti(jn of ( 'arboniferous Strata, Pok(dl)in .. 87 33. Characteristic ('arboniferous Plants .. fai-inc) 88 34. A (^'arboniferous Trilobite .. .. .. 90 35. Characteristic Carboniferous Bradiiopods. /Vir/»(/ 90 36. (Ilacial Erratic. Branxton, N". S. Wales.. .. ;)i; 37. Map of X. S. Wales, shnwing approximate ai-eas c(jvcred by the Lower Marine Sea beliceen 96 ami 97 ILLUSTRATIONS xvn 38. Section of Permo-Carboniferous Strata, Ray- mond Tei-raee . . . . . . . . . . 100 39. Section of Pevmo-Carbonifevons Strata, Drake Uoldlield 100 40. Section across the Lochinvar Anticline . . . . 101 41. Section of the Ashford Coal Basin . . . . 101 -i'2. Map of N. S. Wales showing approximate areas covered Ijy the Lower Coal Measure Swamps .. .. betu'eenl(y2. andlOo 43. Section from Clyde River to Jervis Bay Bore . . 110 44. Grose Valley, Blue Mountains, showing Triassic Sandstones resting ui)on the Upper Coal Measures . . . . . . . . facing 110 45. Succession of the V^olcanic Series, Kiama District 114 46. Basalt Flow, Westley Park, Kiama . . facing 114 47. Columnar Structure, Bumbo Flow, Kiama, facing llti 48. Cliff Section, Moon Island, Xewcastle .. .. 120 49. Cliff Section, Swansea, Newcastle . . . . 122 50. Cliff Section of Upper Coal Measures, Newcastle 123 51. Map of N. S. Wales, showing approximate area covered Ijy the Upjier ^Marine Sea, and the Upi)er Coal Measure Swamjis. between 124 andl25 52. Section showing Faulting of the ITpper Coal Measures, Newcastle . . . . . . facing 126 .53. Section of the Upper Coal IMeasures, Illawarra District 129 54. Permo-Carboniferous ('orals and Polyzoa, facing 132 55. Permo-Cai'ljoniferous F^diinodermata . . . . 133 56. Permo-Carljoniferous Brachiopoda . . facing 134 57. Permo-Carboniferous Mollusca hettoeen 134 and 135 58. Permo-Carboniferous Plants he1ween\?i4: andVoo 59. Permo-Carljoniferous Plants . . . . . . 136 60. Permo-Carboniferous Ampliibian . . facing 138 61. Narrabeen Beds, Newport, near Sydney facing 154 62. Sketch Section, Mount Landiie to Sydney .. 156 63. Sketch Section, Jenolan to Mount Victcjria . . 159 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS Pig. PaKe (J4. Triassie Sandstunes, Blue Mountains facing ItiO (i.l. Current Bedding- in Ha^vkesbury Sandstones between 160 and 161 (i6. Prismatic Sandstone, liondi, Syiliiey . . facing 162 67. Unconfoi-mity l)et\veen Triassie and Permo- Carboniferous Strata. ^ISllalont;- . . . . 163 68. A Triassie Phmt, Tliinnfelilia oihintopleroiiles facing 164 69. A Triassie Fish. Plenraca>iUiiis . . . . . . 167 70. Triassie Fish . . . . . . . • facing 168 71. Charaeteristie Tiiassic Plants . . . . facing 170 72. (?) .Jurassic F(jssils. Talbrasar 17.3 73. Jlap of X. S. Wales, shmvina' ai'eas (iccujiied b.v Triassie Lakes .. hdiceen ^.~^^ andlll 71. Section fi'om Inverell to Mount Brown . . 182 7."). jMaji of X. S. "Wales, showing area occupied Ij.v the Cretaceous Sea .. lieficcew 182 rmfZ 183 76. Cretaceiius Pelecypoila . . . . . . facing 184 77. Ci'etaceous Cephalo)")()ila , . . . . . facing 186 78. Tertiary Basalt. (Juy Fawkes. Xew Eng. facing 188 7i). Map of South-eastein X. S. Wales, showing area cohered by Tei'tiary Sea .. .. TOO 80. Section (jf the Kiandra Lend 1!I3 81. Section of the Parkes Lead 1!)."; 82. Section across the Bald Hills, Bathurst. . . . 2ll(t S3. Ijipri}1(ifhin aiisl ralis (restored) .. ..facing 204 84. Skull of Dijjrolndon an-^tralis . . . . . . 2(lo -S."), Skull of 'fhglacaleo carnife.r . . . . . . 206 S(i. The Great East-Australian l'ene|ilain. Canberra facing 21 87. Lake All)ina . . . . . . . . facing 216 88. Lake Cootajiatainba . . . . . . facing 218 81). Raised Beach. Largs, near West ^laitland . . 223 (Ml. Section of Granite Intrusions. New England.. 228 01. Granite. Baker's Creek. Xew England . . .. 230 02. Section of tlie Pei-mo-Carboniferous Coal- liasin . . . . . . . . . . facing 232 GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Chapter I. INTKODUCTION. Ti-[E earliest eoiineeted acetmut of the Geology of New South Wales is that written by the late Rev. W. B. Clarke, and published by him in 1867, entitled " Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations of New South Wales"; later editions of this work appeared in 1870, 1875, and 1878. This great worker, the pioneer of the geologists of this State, laboured for luany years, itraetieally singlehanded, in a thinly- populated area of vast extent, and established the sueeession of the sedimentary formations of New South Wales. I'jjon the foundations so ably laid by him the superstructure of our present knowledge of its geological history has been erected. Considering the adverse circumstances under which he laboured, it is surprising how well these foundations have stood the test of time, and they stand to-day as an enduring record of his great ability and the patient care with which he applied himself to his work. In 1882 the late C. S. AVilkinson. F.CI.S.. F.L.S... then Government Geologist, published his "Notes on the Geology of New South Wales"; in this he sum- nuirised the information then avaihible. He. too. was an able pioneer and great worker, who thought nothing of making long journeys through the sparsely-settled interior, where travelling was of the roughest and A 1 2 INTRODUCTION means of communication few. He added notably to our knowledge, and was a worthy successor to Clarice. Since 1882 many able geologists have added largely to our store of knowledge, but, except for an epitome published in 1909 by Mr. E. F. Pittnian, Government Geologist, no connected account of the geology of this State has since appeared. The main features of the geological history of Xew South Wales are now well established, but much additional field-work must be undertaken before any- thing like a complete record will be available. This api>lies particularly to the pre-Cambrian and Lower Palaeozoic periods, our knowledge of which is still very incomplete. The order of succession of the sedimentary forma- tions of New South Wales is given in tabular form on page 5. An examination of this will show that nearly all the main subdivisions of the geological record of the northern hemisphere are represented, and that the same names are. in general, used for them. It must, however, be rememliered that it is not by any means certain that formations which carry similar names in Australia and Europe were actually con- temporaneous; in fact, some Australian geologists go so far as to suggest that purely local names should be usi^d for the subdivisions of the great eras in Australia. Pre-Cambrian formations appear to be but poorly represented, and occur over but limited areas, while the Cambrian has an even more limited development. INTRODUCTION 3 The other divisions of the Lower Paheuzoie era, viz. the Ordovieian. Silurian, and Devonian, oeeur, how- ever, more or h^ss over the whole State, although coneealed to a considerable extent in some regions by j'onnger formations. The Upper Faheozoie forma- tions are less widely distributed, being eonhned to the central aud northern tableland areas. The Mesozoic era is represented by fresh-water Trias and Tria.s-Jura strata and bj' Cretaceous jMarine strata, but their development is in nowise comparable with that of the Paheozoic formations either in thickness or extent. Tertiary formations are still more poorly represented. ^Marine strata are practically absent, while fresh-water deposits are limited to those occurring along Tertiary stream channels; Tertiary lava flows are, however, abundant and widespread. The direct geological records of the Tertiary history of Xevv South AA'ales are, in fact, so scanty that, were it not for the evidence provided by a study of the development of its physiography, oui- knowledge would be limited indeed. Fortunately the topo- graithy has recorded a very legible and interesting history, which Avill be dealt with more fully in a later chapter. Orogcnic earth movements are recorded for the pre- Cambrian and Paheozoic eras only ; the most im- portant erustal movements of this class appear to have taken place (1 ) at the close of the pre-Cambrian, (2) at the close of the Ordovieian, (3) at the close of the Devonian periods; and in addition (4) at the cl'ise of the Carboniferous and Permo-Cai'bnniferous 4 INTRODUCTIOK periods in the north-eastern part of the State. The crustal movements of the ^lesozoie and Cainozoie eras were of the epeirogenie type, in which vertical nplift was the dominant feature. The sueeesision of animals and plants has been, on the whole, essentialh' similar to that of other parts of the world ; there are. however, some striking- differences, particularly in the life of the land. The marine faunas of the various sub-divisions of the Pala'ozoie era and of the Cretaceous period resemble fairly closely those of the northern hemisphere, some of the species even being- identical. In its terrestrial faunas, however. Xew South Wales, in common with the rest of Australia, shows some remarkable features. That extraordinary group of terrestrial reptiles which dominated the i\lesozoic land life of Europe and North America is conspicuously absent, the only vertebrates known to have lived during this era being- fish and amphibia : and many of these were akin to Palaeozoic types of the Northern Hemisphere. Again, placental mammals, either as fossils or as indigenous living animals, except for the Dingo and certain native rats, are entirely absent from Aus- tralia ; on the other hand the non-placental mammals (Monotremes and .Marsupials), which first appeared during the Tertiary period, have since developed on a scale unknown in any other part of the world. The fossil floras, too. possessed characters of their own; the Permo-Carboniferous flora (Glossopteris flora), for example, while identical with that of the same iieriod in India and South Africa, has no INTRODUCTION 5 counterpart in the Carboniferous or Permian floras of Europe and North America. The mineral wealth of New South Wales is con- siderable, the output for the year 1913 being valued at about £12.100,000 sterling, while the total pro- duction to date exceeds £241.000,000 in value. The more important sub.stances mined include coal, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc. tin. and precious stones. OEDEE OP SUCCESSION OF THE SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. f Post-Tertianj ■] Cainozoic Era. L Ti^ftiai-y. [Rerent :--AiiYitevous and stannifer- ] ous soils and alluvial de- posits in the beds of existing rivers. Beach deposits. Fli^Utoreiie : — Glacial deposits of the Kosciusko tableland, deep and shallow allu- vial leads, containing tin, gold, and gem- stones. Alluvial de- posits of the western plains. Ossiferous cave deposits. Estuarine beds. f Upper i Tertiai-y : Tgrtin —Alkaline rocks of the Canoblas, W a r r u ni- bungle and Nandewar Mountains. The newer l>asalts. Alluvial leads under the newer basalts. -The older basalts. Alluvial leads under the older basalts. Marine strata of the south-western part of the State. IXTRODUCTJOX ORDER or SUCCESSION Or THE SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS OF NEW SOUTH WALES — (rontinued). Mesozoic Era. Pal.eozoic Era. C'retoreous. , Upper Cretaceous: — Desert sandstone ) formation. I Lower Cretareous : — KoUing - downs '_ formation. Trias-Jura. Clarence series, Artesian series, Tal- bragar beds. , Wianamatta shales. Trio.ssir. Hawkesbury \ Hawkesbury series. i sandstone. L Narrabeen beds, f Upper coal-measures. I Dempsey series. Pernio- j Middle or Tomago coal-measures. Carboniferous \ Upper Marine series. I Lower or Greta coal-measures. L Lower Marine series. r' Upper Carboniferous — Rliacopteris 1 beds and associated Marine I beds. ', Lower Carboniferous. 'Upper Devonian (Lambian), Mount Lambie, Molong and Yalwal beds. j Lower Devonian (Murrumbidgeaii), Mu.rrumbidgee beds and Tam- [_ worth beds. Limestones and Claystones at Yass, Molong, Orange, Jenolan, Wel- lington, &c. Graptolite slates of Cadia. To- mingly, Mandurania. Tallong, Berridale, &c. Glacial beds, limestones, &c., of the Barrier district. Carboniferous Devonian. Silurian. Ordoviciail. Cambrian. Proterozoic~> AND ' Pre-Camhrian. Arch«:ozoic ( Eras. ) Metamorphie series of the Broken Hill and Cooma districts. Chapter II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. New South Wales, from a geographical point of view, consists of two portions — (a) The Highlands; (h) The Western Plains. (a) The Highlands. These consist of a series of tablelands, occupying the whole of the eastern part of the State, and extend- ing from the coast inland for a distance of from 150 to 200 miles. They thus form a broad belt parallel to the coast, and are continuons with the highlands of Victoria and Queensland. These tablelands resulted from the uplift of a peneplain at the close of the Tertiary period to altitudes varying from a few hundred up to 6,000 feet, but averaging about 3,000 feet. This differential uplift was accompanied b,v faulting and warping, as a result of which the plateau region now consists of a series of more or less rectangular blodvs (fault-liloeks) separated frouj one another in m;ni.v cases by abrupt differences of elevation. This talileland region in its central portions is more or less flat-topped, but its margins are flexed downwards towards the coast on the one hand and towards the western plains on the other. On both its eastern and western margins the plateau region has suffered considerable dissection by stream 7 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY action since its uplift. Extensive Hood plains have been developed along the lower courses of the eastern rivers, and these are sometimes referred to as coastal plains; similarly where the western streams approach the western plains the tablelands have been much dis- sected, and extensive alluviation marks the entry of these streams on to the plains. The highlands may, for convenience, l)e divided into three portions : 1. The Northern or New England Tableland. 2. The Central Tableland. :3. The Southern or ilonaro Tableland. 1. The Northern, or New England Tableland. — This extends fi'om the Queensland border southwards to the Hunter River district ; here the Hunter River, cutting its valley -westward into the main divide, and the Peel River heading eastward, have nearly breached the divide, a low ridge only remaining as a connection lietween the northern and central table- lands. This breaching of the highlands at this point is due partly to une(]ual uplift accompanied by faulting. The northern tabk'land is built up. very largely, of Pahx'ozoic formations ; but in the north- eastern corner, and along the western margin, these rocks are overlain by Trias-Jura freshwater beds Tertiary basalt flows occur ovei' C(msiderable areas. The general altitude of this tableland is about :i.300 feet, hut some of the fault-blocks, such as those at (xuy Fawkes and (luyra, rise to altitudes of from 4,(100 to .l.OOO feet. THE Hir4IiLANDS 9 2. The Central Tableland. — The northern niargui of this section has already been referred to. It is bonnded on the south by the Yass tablehmd. a rehitively low fanlt-block (1.700 to 2.000 feet ui alti- tude) which lies between it and the Monaro tableland. The altitude of the central tableland varies; the Bowral-Moss Vale portion has an altitude of about 2.000 feet, the Wombeyan portion about 3.000 feet, the Blue Mountain portion varies from 700 to 4.000 feet with a decided warp eastwards, the Orange- Blaj'ney portion about 3,000 feet, while the Sydney Senkungsfeld in its lowest portion is not much above sea-level. The western and south-western parts of this tableland are Ijuilt up of Palaeozoic rocks, but its eastern and northern portions are occupied by the Permo-Carboniferous-Triassie basin. 3. The Soiithir)i Tahlclanel. — This occupies the south-eastern part of the State, and includes the highest land in Australia. It is a composite table- land, consisting of a group of fault-lilocks ranging from 2.000 to 7.000 feet in altitude, and separated from one another by great fault escarpments. Some of thi- lower l)locks are sandwiched in between higher blocks in such a, way as to form typical "rift valleys" or senknngsfelder. The whole of this region is occu- pied by pre-Cambrian and Lower Palipozoic rocks, except for a. capping of Permo-Carboniferou.s strata over a liniiled area in its north-eastern portion. Ex- tensive Tertiary basalt-flows cap the tableland in some localities. 10 PHYSICAL fiEOCllAPHY (b) The Western Plains, Therse extend from the western edge of the eastern con- highlands to the South Australian border; they cc sist partly of low flat-topi)ed plateaux and partly of alluvial plains, and nowhere have an altitude greater than 1.000 feet. Occasional isolated hills rise above the level of the plains. l>ut these are few and far between. The low plateau portion forms a broad lielt extending from the western edge of the central table- land in a westerly and north-westerly direction to the Darling River, and from thence to the South Aus- tralian border; its surface is a peneplain cut out of Lower Pakeozriic strata. For this area the term central-western taljleland niay be used in order to dis- tinguish l)etween it and the alluvial plains t') the north and south. The general altitude of its surface ranges from HOC) to 900 feet. To the north of this lie the "Black-soil Plains."" which consist of allu\'iun), deposited l^y the Darling River, and its tril)utarii_'s during tl(ir)d-time: these alluvial deposits overlie the Cretaceous and Trias-Jura strata which form the artesian l)asin of New South AVales. South of the low plateau lielt and along the lower courses of the ^lurray. i\Iuri'umbidgee. Lachlan. and Darling Rivers, he the Riverina Plains; here alsn the surface is occu- pied Iiy alluvial deposits, the waste of the southern tablelands l)i'(]UL'ht d(iwn and de])osited by rivers during fliiiids. These alluviums overlie Lower Pala-o- zoic strata, except in the simtli-western cmaier. where they overlie Tertiary marine l.ieds. The rainfall over the western plains is small, varying from 20 inches THE RIVER SYSTEMS 11 to less than 10 inches ; over the tablelands, on tho other hand, the rainfall ranges from 20 to 70 inches per annum. (c) The Eiver Systems. As the main divide of New South Wales runs approximately north and south, the rivers fall naturally into two groups — (1) the eastern rivers; (2) the western rivers; and as the main divide is relatively near the eastern coast, the eastern rivers are correspondingly short, while the western streams are much longer. 1. The Eastern Rivers. — As these hav(.! relatively short courses and a higli grade they are, for the most part, rapidly flowing streams, sub.ject to severe floods. Some of them, like the Hunter River, flow in more or less direct courses to the sea ; others, like the Hawkes- burj' River, have their main course parallel to the coast for 100 miles or nioi'c In ncarlj^ all cases there is abundant evidence that the latter are revived or re- juvenated streams, and existed before the uplift which produced the existing highlands took place. Through- out the greater part of their courses they are en- trenched in deep canyons. 2. 'Clie Western Fivers. — These may be divided into two groups — a northern one, which includes the Upper Darling River and its tributaries, and a southern group, the Murray and its tributaries, the Murrum- bidgee and Lachlan Rivers. Many of the northern group, such as the I\Iacquarie, Bogan, &e., flow in a 12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY general north-westerly direction until they join the Darling River. They probably originated during the Cretaceous Period and flowed then as individual streams to the south-eastern margin of the Cretaceous sea. Some of these tributaries of the Darling, for example the Macquarie, fail to reach it except in flood-time, usually dying away in marshes and swamps. The Murray River, like its tributaries the ilurrum- bidgee and Laehlan Rivers, flows in a general westerly direction to the South Australian border, where it suddenly turns southward and empties into the Southern Ocean. Chapter III. pre-ca:\ibrian formations. Ver.v little is known at present of the occurrence of pre-Cambrian rocks in New South AVales; and, as the greater part ol' tlie State lias now been mapped in some detail, it is fairly certain that the areas over which such rocks might occur must be limited in ex- tent. There are. however, two districts in which pre-Cambrian rocks are believed to occur, viz., the Barrier district and the Cooma-Koscinsko district. The Barrier District. — This is in the western part of New South Wales, ad.jacent to the South Aus traliaii border, with the town of Broken Hill as its chief centre. The rich silver-lead-zinc deposits of this region have made it world famous. The oldest un- doubted sedimentary strata occurring here are of Cambrian age, and will be described in the next chapter ; associated with these there is an older meta- morphie series of undoubted pre-Cambrian age known as the AVillyama series. This series includes gneisses, schists, quartz-garnet rocks, amphibolites and phyl- lites; garnet is a common constituent of many of these rocks, while the schists include mica-schists, silli- manite-schists, talc-schists, and chlorite-schists. The origin of this metamorphic series has not .vet been satisfactorily determined, but the balance of evidence appears to favour the view that many of them repre- 13 14 PRE-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS sent highly altered sedimentary rocks. The schists, both from their mode of occurrence and composition appear for the most part to be highly altered sedi- mentary rocks. The origin of the gneisses is more doubtfnl ; some appear to have resulted from the alteration of the pre-Cambrian granites; some are possibly of the kind known as injection, gneisses — that is, they have been injected in the form of thin layers between the layers of the schists. On the other hand, gradations between quartzites and quartz-felspar rocks suggest that at least some of the gneisses have resulted from the extreme alteration of sedimentary rocks. It has been suggested that the amphibolites are intrusive dykes forced upwards along the beddinj.' planes of the sedimentary rocks before they were metamorphosed; but the description of their occur- rence suggests that some of them may be highly nieta morphosed basic lavas and tuffs. Numerous bosses and liathyliths of muscovite- biotite-granite intrude the metamorphic series; these are also of pre-Cambrian age, for they do not intrude the Cambrian rocks of the district, while waterworn boulders of them occur in the Cambrian basal beds. A mai'kcd feature of these intrusions was the forma- tion of an abundance of pegmatite veins which in- trude the metamorphic series in all directions. Rocks of the Willyama series outcrop over an area about 20 miles long in a north and south direction, and about 30 miles wide ; they are unconformable with the Cambrian rocks above referred to (see Fig. 2). Associated with this metamorphic series there PRE-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS 15 occurs one of the richest of the world's ore deposits, some idea of the value of which may be gathered from the fact that during the twenty-five years which have elapsed since mining was first started £70,000,000 worth of metals have been produced, and over £13,000,000 have been paid in bonuses and dividends This deposit is being worl?ed for a distance of 3 miles along its strike, and to a depth of 1,'600 feet below the outcrop, and at some places to a width of upwards of 400 feet. The true origin of this mammoth ore deposit is still in dispute ; some regard it as being a saddle-reef, analogous to those of the Bendigo Gold- field, while others regard it as having been ])roduced by the metasomatic replacement of the country rock along a zone of shearing and crushing (shear-zone). The latter view is the more probable. The original sulphide ore consists of an intimate mixture of argentiferous-galena and zinc-blende, with smaller amounts of quartz, garnet, fluorite, felspar rhodonite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite ; it contains from 5 to 36 oz. of silver, from 5 to 50 per cent, of lead, from 14 to 30 per cent, of zinc, and from 2 to 3 dwt. of gold per ton. The oxidised zone was very rich in carbonate of lead, chloro-bromides of silver, and native silver. The value of this ore ranged up to 300 nz. of silver and 60 per cent, of lead per ton. Coomri-KdSciiisJw Ecfjion. — In the neighbourhood of Cooma there occurs an extensive series of meta- morphic rocks, including gneisses, mica-schists, phyllites, and amphibolites ; in the same area there also occur the fossiliferous Ordovician strata referred to IG PRE-CAl\IBEIAN' FORMATIONS on page 24. The tiekl relations of these two series of strata have not yet been investigated ; but as the latter have suffered very little metaniorphism, while the former are strongly metamorphosed, it seems probal)le that the former must be considerably olde-' than the Ordovician beds. The view has been put forward recently that there is an unbroken succession from the raetaniorphic series to the graptolite beds, and that the former are merely a metamarphosed phase of the latter. If this view should prove to be correct. then this metamorphie series is of Ordovician age. The metamorphie series, in its lithologieal characters, much resembles the pre-Cambrian forma- tions of other parts of Australia, and may, therefore, be provisioiiidly classed with them. Xear Cooma the gneisses contain numerous veins of pegmatite, in some of which the mineral tourmaline is abundant; they have assuciated with them also irregular masses of ami)hil)i)]ite. The schists and pliyllites are very much contorted, and show every evidence of having been subjected to extreme metamorphie intluenees. Somewhat siinilar gneisses and phyllites occur on the Kosciusko Tableland. Alhunj District. — An extensive series of metamor- phie rocks occurs in the district around the town oC Albiiry ; these are no doubt an extension of the Mitta Mitta series of the adjoining State of Victoria, where they are considered to be of pre-Ordovician age, and may provisionally be placed here. These rocks litho- logically resemble the Cooma series. Chapter IV. ca:\ibeian period. No stvata containing Cambrian fossils have yet been found in New South Wales, but Mr. D. Mawson, D.Sc, has recently shown that certain strata in the Barrier District are lithologieally the same as the Cambrian strata of South Australia, and are continuous with them. They outcrop at Torrowangce, about 20 miles from Broken Hill, and include slates, quartzites, limestones, dolomitic-limestones, and glacial boulder- beds (tillite). This series is unconformable with the pro-Cambrian metamorphic series of Broken Hill. The glacial boulder-beds, which occur at the base of the series, consist of a fine-grained quartzitic matrix (sometimes argillaceous), in which are embedded boulders of granite, gneiss, quartzite, schist, and slate, varying in size from a few inches up to two feet in diameter; it ranges up to 800 feet in thickness, Interstratified with the glacial boulder beds are quartzites, grits, laminated slates and limestones. One of these limestone beds was quarried at Torrowangee for use as a flux, when smelting was being carried on at Broken Hill, This bed is believed to be the equivalent of the Brighton limestone of the Mount Lofty series of South Australia, shown in the section in Fig. 1, The Cambrian limestones have been nnich metamorphosed and are more in the nature of true marbles. 18 CAMBRIAN PERIOD A generalised section of these Cambrian strata in South Australia (as drawn by the Rev. W. Howchin, F.G.S.) is given in Fig. 1. They will be seen to con- sist of conglomerates, limestones, quartzites, slates, and glacial beds, the whole series resting unconformably upon a pre-Cambrian metamorphic series. The beds described as having a glacial origin consist mainly of unstratified. indurated mudstone, more or less gritty, and carrying angular, subangular, and rounded boulders, which are irregularly distributed through the mass; these boulders range up to 11 feet in diameter. Most of the large erratics consist of quartzite, but granite, gneiss, porjihyry. and schist erratics also occur; many of these boulders are ice-scratched and facetted. These boulder-beds are regularly inter- stratified with the Cambrian sediments, and do not rest upon a. glaciated laud surface; they are, there- fore, not typical moraine-deposits. Nevertheless, much of the material in these beds has undoubtedly had its origin in terrestrial glaciers, and was trans- ported to its present position by floating ice. The position of the Cambrian land which supported the glaciers is not definitely kno-\vn. but appears to have been to the south-west of the present glacial beds. The glaciers must have reached sea-level, and. as happens in Antarctica to-day. large masses of ice must have broken awa>' from time to time, and floateil northwards across the Cambrian Sea; as this ice melted, its load of morainic material would be strewn over the sea-bottom. This glacial horizon occurs at the base of the Cam- it J, 5 S 'I -3 . 3 I II m II ; 20 CAJIBPJAK PERIOD brian formation of the Barrier District in New South Wales, and the lower strata shown in the South Aus- tralian section in Pig. 1 are absent; the Barrier Dis- trict must, therefore, have been dry land during the earlier part of the Cambrian period. The limestone beds of South Australia are numerous, and range up to several hundreds of feet in thickness ; some of them are dolomitie in com- position. Only two of them are knowTi to contain fossils, and, of these, the most important is that con- taining Arclid'ociiathhue. These organisms, although not true corals, built extensive reefs in the Cambrian seas, not unlike the coral-reefs of the present day. The fame limestone contains numerous other fossi. invei'tebrates, such as Sponges. Trilobites. Brachio- pods. Gasteropods, and Pteropods. The other fossil- ifernus horizon occurs about 1.000 feet vertically above the Archa?oeyathina3 limestone, and is strati- graphically above the glacial beds; it contains Trilo- bites. Brachiopods, and Pteropods. As already men- tioned, no fossils have yet been obtained from the Cambrian strata in New South Wales, but as it is probable that life in the Cambrian seas of New South AVales was essentially the same as in South Australia, the following list of Cambrian fossils from the neigh- bouring part of the latter State may be taken as representing the Cambrian fauna : — Arehajocyathina'. — Arclirrocyathus, Coscinocyatlms. Porifera. — Hyalosfelia. Brachiopoda. — Orthisiiia, Orthis (?), Oholella. CAMBRIAK PERIOD 21 Pelecypoda. — Avihonychia. Gasteropoda. — Slenotheca. Plalyceras, Ophileta. Pteropoda . — Scdterella, Hyolithes. Trilobita. — Olenelhis, Microcliscus. Conocephalites, Ptyclioparia, Dolichometopiis. Crustacea (Ostracods) . — Leperditia. Fig. 3. ArchiEocyafcbiiiffi Liiiiestoite, from Ajiix Hill, Beltuna, Sontli Australia. An etched siieeimen sbowiny tbe fosj^ils in relief. (After Taylor.) The Aech^ocyathin.^. — These anomalous organ- isms have the outward form of Sponges, but in their more detailed structures they resemhle corals. (See Fig. 3.) They have heen referred by different paleon- tologists to the Alga^, the Sponges, and the Corals; it has also been suggested that they are the ancestors 22 CAMBRIAN PERIOD of both the Corals and the calcareous Sponges. What- ever their true nature, they fiourished in enormous numbers in the Cambrian Seas, occupying in impor- tance the position later taken by the reef-building Corals. Brachiopods. — These belong to small primitive types. MOLLUSCA. — The Gasteropods and Pteropods are most in evidence ; the former belong chiefly to the primitive uncoiled conical types fcapulids). Crustacea. — Trilobites were abundant, and were the most distinctive and highly organised denizens of the Cambrian Sea ; of the genera listed above Olenelliis is perhaps the most characteristic. Small Ostracods, which had their bodies protected by valve- like shells resembling those of the bivalve molluscs, also occurred in considerable numbers. Chapter V. THE ORDOVICIAN PERIOD. The occurrence of Ordovician strata in New South Wales was unknown as recently as 1896, when Mr. J. E. Carne discovered Ordovician graptolites in the counties of Auckland and Wellesley, near the Vic- torian border. .Since then similar graptolite-bearing strata have been found at many widely separate localities on the southern and central tablelands, as far north as Tomingley. The kno^vu occurrences apparently lie on several well-defined north and south axial lines. The repeated discoverj^ of Ordovician graptolites in strata previously believed to be of Silurian age makes it probable that they vaay be found in many other ]jarts of the State, and thus very much extend the known Ordovician areas. The lithologieal charac ters 01 some of the so-called Silurian strata presents considerable similarity, so that the determination of the age of either strata on any other than a pateon- tological basis is practically impossible. Counties of Auckland and Wellesley. — The strata here consist of carbonaceous shales, claystones, sand- stones, and schists striking nearly north and south, and outcropping at intervals along the southern border of New South Wales from Cape Howe to the headwaters of the Murray River. These beds are. no doubt, an 24 THE ORDOVTCIAN PERIOD extension of the well-known Ordovician strata of the adjoining State of Victoria. Gfraptolites occur in abun- dance in the carbonaceous shales. Auriferous quartz reefs intersect the strata in man}' places and have been mined to some extent. Similar graptolite beds occur at Berridale, and also in the neighbourhood of Cooma; at the former they contain radiolaria. Talking. — A thick series of Ordovician strata out- crops on the Razorback, a spur between Barber's Creek and Shoalhaveu River. (Fig. 4.) They consist of carbonaceous shales, slates, and quartzites, all of which are intensely folded and crumpled. The first-named contain numerous well-preserved grapto- lites. Silurian strata can here be seen resting upon the Ordovician beds, and are separated from them by a well-marked unconformity. (Fig. 5.) The min- eral deposits at Tolwong, some few miles to the south, occur in strata of similar age. Lyndkiirst Gold-field. — At ^landurama the Ordovi- cian formation consists of elaystones with interbedded tuffs and thin bands of radiolarian limestones, the whole occurrence bearing a remarkable resemblance to the radiolarian beds of the Tamworth district. The Tamwnrth beds are, however, of Lower Devonian age. The Mandurama elaystones contain graptolites, brachiopods (Obolella), and doubtfid trilobites (' Agnostus). The whole series has been intruded by djdres and sills of diorite and augite-andesite, and where these occur the porous submarine tuffs have be- come impregnated with auriferous quartz, calcite, ;_^ R^ 1 - V^ . > ^^. " %^ ^■'m ;t''^^^>t./^ M mi:: -^^'>:.i i: '-'■'^.r' -1^^ ■'■ ■ ^^ •- 'r ,, t;%^.!^'. ■ i '-'^^ "■' -■",':■ WM "^■^irM Wi fp# tj^»! MM ^:,^ ^'0M m M ^ 4^ ■ '■'■' ' '■:,: ■' J "'si. Ji^^ j^,'^' *v^^^^^^^^H ■^iiSMi ^^mm. .;^^ IH^,,;- ■" ' [P*.,/.., ;,,,, TT-. G. Wnnl„0„:/h, Z).»-.] Fig. 4. Oraovician Strata, Shoalhaven Eiver, near Tall.jng, New South Wales. 26 THE OKDOVICTAX PERIOD mispickel, and pyrite. These deposits have beer, mined for gold. Cadui District. — At Cadia, near Orange, typicai graptolite-bearing carbonaceous shales occur, associ- ated with claystones, sandstones, and andesite tuffs. The largest iron ore deposit known in New South Wales occurs associated with these .strata. This bed, which is about 60 feet thick (Fig. 6), lies between two sheets of andesite, and has been estimated to contain at least 40.000,000 tons of iron ore. Much of this ore, however, contains ob.jectionable quantities of copper and sulphur. Gold and copper deposits also occur in this region. The iron ore deposits at Carcoar, some distance to the south of Cadia, are also believed to occur in the Ordovician strata ; iron ore from this locality is being smelted at Lit.hgow. The iron ore deposits of Carcoar and Cadia appear to have been produced by the altera- tion of pyritic ore bodies. Parlcs-Forhcs District. — Rocks of definite Silurian age occur in this district, but the non-fossiliferous belt of strata in which the gold reefs occur appears to be a much more highly altered series, and to be pre-Silu- rian in age. They strike from north to N. 15^ E. and have been traced from the Laehlan River udrthwards for a distance of about 32 miles. At Tomingley. about 30 miles still further to the north, similar strata have yielded Ordovician graptolites. The sediments (if the auriferous belt in the Porbcs-l'arkes district are very thick, and consist of a mass of folded schis- tose slate, arenaceous claystones, limestones, breccias -^•^ hi) M 28 THE ORDOVICTAX PERIOD and tuffs, jasperoids and clierty claystones, and what appear to be audesitie lava flows. The whole series has been much metamorphosed (Fig. 7.) Silicitication of the sediments is characteristic of this series, and numerous gold reefs occur in them. Intrusive ancle- sites appear to have determined the ore entries. Tweed Fiver District. — A series of highly folded slates, which are possibly of Ordovieian age. occurs in this district. These beds, particularly in the neighbour- hood of ;\Iurwillumbah, contain numerous thin veins of turquoise (hydrous phosphate of alumina) ; sim- ilar veins of turquoise occur in undoubted Ordovieian strata at many places in Victoria and in the southern pai't of New South Wales — for example, near Bo- dalla ; and as there is also a close similarity in lithological character between the Tweed Kiver strata and these Ordovieian rocks, the former may be of the same geological age. The wide-spread occurrence of phosphate-bearing slates of Ordovieian ages is interesting, and .suggests that the secretion of phos- phate of lime by marine organisms was more common then than now. Ordovician Life. The following fossils have been obtained from the Ordovician strata of Xew South "Wales : — Protozoa — It'adiolnriei. Spongida — T'ro.stosprnujia. Graptolitida — Dicranograijlus fiircatus, Bidjimo- fjraptu.s caduceus, Dicellofiretptus exfensus, Diceltograptus eJegans, Diplograpfus mucro- THE OEDOVK'IAN PERIOD 29 nafus, Diplograptiis rectangularis, Phyllo- yraptus, Diplogrnptus pahneus, Diplograp- tiis Carnei, Diplograptvs Manduramw, CUmacograptus ticornis, Climacograptus, affinis, Climacograptus hastaia, BetioUtes caudatiis. Crijptograptiis. Glossograpiiis. Braehiopoda — Obolclla. Pteropocla — Tlijolitlics. Trilobita {''.)~Agnostus. This, the oldest fauna yet found in New South Wales, would seem to have been pelagic in haliit, and to resemble fairly closely that of the Upper Ordovieiau strata of Victoria. The graptolites are abundant and widespread, but the other genera are local in their occurrence. The known fossilifcrous beds are few and far between. The characteristic graptolite fauna of the Lower Ordovician (■poch of Victoria, which ditfers considerably from that listed above, has not yet been found in New South Wales. St'MMAKY OP THE OrDOVICIAN PeRIOD. Of the changes which ushered in the Ordovician Period nothing is known. The only older formation known to exist in the districts in which Ordovician sediments are found is the metamorphic series of the Cooma district, and, as already stated, there is a possi- bility that these may prove to be metamor])hosed Ordovician strata. As the age of this series is in doubt, it throws no light on the question. The evi- dence obtained from the scattered outcrops of 30 THE OEDOVICIAX PERIOD Ordovneian strata is in itself very incomplete. Such evidence as these occurrences yield indicates that the south-eastern and central parts of New South Wales, :;=?* Upper Oriluviciiin Ijriiptolites. 1. (_l:,„nr,.,i,;,i,l„^ li„>l„l„ (Hall). 'l. Tlh: 1 1 n,, ,'., ,d « , .■ f . ,V, r„ n ■■„l >' , (Hall). 3. Tji,;H„,i,;,,,hK< ,l,-,i,i„... i. I>i/,l„,n;ii'l«s C,,,-,,,; (Halll. ,5. rtii'!n;n::i'>i,s r„l, „.■,„, (Hall). 6. C/.,„. ..-.„/, ■„,,/,... I,i, ■„,■„;.. IHall.l perhajis even the greater part of the State, was Ciivered liy the vatei's of an e]iic(intinpntal sea during at least the latto- half nf the Ordovician Pcrind. Tin- waters of this si'a ajipear to have been too deep for a shallow water fauna to tlourish. but its surface waters were populated liy a pelagic fauna in which grapto- THE OEDOVICIAN PERIOD 31 lites were the dominant element. The nearest shore- line was too distant for any but the finer sediments to be transported to these regions and deposited. This sea also covered the greater part of Vietoria. The Ordovician was a period of consideralih/ volcanic activity, and from submarine volcanoes large andesite lava Hows were poured out over the sea bottom, while at the same time immense ({uantities of volcanic ash were distributed far and wide. At Tallong, the one place where a .junction between the Ordovician sediments and those of the next period has been observed, a well-marked unconformity occurs. The Ordovician strata throughout the State have also, in general, suffered considerably more juetamorphism than the known (Silurian strata. At the close of the Ordovician period extensive earth- movements took place by which the marine sediments and volcanic rocjcs. which had accumulated to a thick- ness of many thousands of feet, were l)y lateral pressure bent into a series of folds trending approxi- mately north and south. This folding movement must have converted much of the area previously under the sea into dry land. This then became sub.ject to th'.' attack of meteoi-ic forces, by which the folded Ordovician strata were partly deimdcd; conseciuently, when the sea readvanced upon these land areas in the next i>eriod, the new beds of sediment were deposited uncdiifoi-mably upon the truncated ends of the oldiT strata. This epoch of erogenic earth-movement was one of the most marl^ed which occurs in the geological historv of New South AVales. 32 THE 0]">DOVICJAX PERIOD A marked feature of the Ordovieian formation in New South Wales is the association with it of valu- al:)le metalliferous deposits, particularly auriferous reefs, in mauj^ of the localities where the formation occurs. In some of these localities the adjacent Silurian and Devonian formations appear to be barren of similar ore deposits. It would seem prolj- able, therefore, that the folding of these strata at the end of the period, together with the igneous intrusions which accompany it, were responsible for the forma- tion of at least some of these deposits. From what little is known of them, the igneous intrusions which took place at this time appear to have been inter- mediate in composition. Chapter Y1. THE SILURIAN PERI(3D. Silurian rocks are widely distributed in New South Wales, and outcrop over a larger area, perhaps, than the strata of any other geological age; in addition they probably underlie, to a considerable extent, many of the yoiuiger sedimentary formations. Strata of this age, together with the igneous rocks by M-hieh they have been intruded, outcrop extensively in the south-eastei'u quarter of the State, particularly' about the head waters of the ilurray, ^Murrumbidgee, and Lachlan Rivers. A second extensive area is that stretching in a north-westerly direction from the western fall of the central tableland past Cobar and Nymagee to the Darling River. Large outcrops also occur in the far AVest. Lithologically the Silurian strata consist mainly of slates and limestones of marine origin ; littoral deposits such as sandstones, grits and conglomerates are un- common. Contemporaneous lavas and tuffs are of frequent occurr< x; o a> (N -U ci bb t- P '3 il o ^' Ph a> d ft ri m 0) d •V a> ^ s o o '5 « a> o S P3 3 56 THE DEVIJXIAX PERIOD and have yielded an abundant fossil fauna, in which corals are the most conspicuous element. Lithologi- cally the strata are not unlike those of the Silurian formation, but important differences occur in the con- tained fossils. Littoral deposits appear to be absent, I. The Murrumhidgee Beds. — These occur along the course of the ilurrumbidgee River, immediately above its junction with the Goodradigbee River, and extend for a considerable distance to the south along the watershed of the latter. The junction of these beds with the adjoining Silurian strata is obscure, the two being separated by extensive quartz-porphyry intru- sions 'Fig. 20); but an unconformity is believed to exist. The ^rurrumbidgee Beds, as measured by 'Mv L. F. Harper, have an average total thiclvness of about 14,000 feet, and consist of the following rocks: — Maximum Thickness feet. Dark-blue shales (with intm'bedded tuft'sj . . 7,000 Limestones (with interbedded shales and tuffs) 5.000 Rhyolite lavas and tuffs (volcanic stage) . . 5.000 (a) The VoJceniie Slage. — This occurs at the base of the series, and consits of rhyolite lava tiows and tuffs. These may be correlated with the Snowy River porphyries of A^ictoria. whi(di occupy n similar strati- graphical position in that State, and which they much resemble in their lithological characters. The thick- ness of the volcanic beds is variable, but they attain a maximum thickness of 5,000 feet at Cavan. They are believed to have been derived from several dis- tinct centres of eruption. THE MURRUMBTDGEE P.EDS 57 (b) The Limestone Stage. — This has a maximum thickness of about 5.000 feet, and. in addition to the limestone, ineludes numerous thin beds of shale quartzitc, and tutf. The limestoues are largely coral- line in origin, but some of the beds near the base of the series are built up mainly of braehiopod shells (Spirifer, Cliuitetes, &c.). The following detailed section of the lower beds of this stage, and of the volcauic beds, as they occur at 'Cavan. has been measured by -\Ir. Harper : — Limestone Stage. Thickness, feet. Second limestone series . . (Not measured.) Siliceous shales and cjuartzites (with lenticular limestone beds) 1,800 Basal limestone series . . 2,250 Tufts (with bands of shale and limestone) . . . . 150 Vulcanic Stage. Rhyolite tuff 100 Rhyolite lavas and tuffs . . 5,000 The great thickness of limestone in this series is only ef|ualled in Eastern Australia by that of the I5urdekin Beds of Queensland, which are also of Devonian age. (c) The Tnffaceous Shale Stagc.^'Yhf dark-blue shales which follow the limestone stage not only in- clude definite beds of tuff, but are, moi'e or less, tuffa- ceous throughout. Several small rhyolite flows occur near the top of the series. 58 THE DEVOXIAX PERIOD It lias been estimated that at least 8,000 feet of the ]\Iurrumbidgee Beds are composed wholly or partly of volcanic material. The limestone series and the overlying blue shales may be taken as the equivalents of the iliddle Devonian formations of Victoria (Buclian and Bindi Beds). Similar limestone beds to those on the ^Mnrrumbidgee have been observed as far south as Lobb's Hole, and occur on the Snovy River, .just across the Victorian liorder. The follow- ing is a comparison of the Devonian rocks of "Western A^ictoria and Southern Xew South "Wales. — Upper Devonian Middle Devonian Lower Devonian Virtot-i'i. Mount Tambo and Iguana Creek Beds. Buclian and Bindi Beds. Snowy River Por- phyries. New South Wales t'Scmthei-nj. Genoa Creek, Paiubula, and Braidwood Beds. , Murrumbidjjee Beds — ! \ Tuft'aceous shale stage J Murrumbidgee Beds — ' Limestone stage. Murrumbidgee Beds- Volcanic stage. There seems to be no reason for separating the volcanic stage of the ilurrumbidgee Beds from the overlying marine beds; the two appear to be conform- al)le. and the vuleanicity continued, to a greater or less degree throughout the depnsition of the marine strata. ir. Tin: T,>i-ifn/)on' THE TAMWORTII BEDS 59 and radiolariaii cherts. The foDowing section has been measured by them. Thickness, feet. Clay.stones and tuffs with LcpkJodendron 1,450 Cherty shales with beds of tuff and lentieuhir bed.s of radiolarian lime- stone 1,430 Claystones, tuffs, radiolarian cherts, and radiolarian limestones . . . . 1,960 Tuff's with Lcpidcxieiidroii austrcde . . 7 Claystones with Lcpidodoidroa austi-ale 50 Radiolarian cherty shales with inter- bedded radiolarian limestones and tuffs 4,150 Coralline limestones 140-1.000 Cho'stones . . . . . . Unlcnown thickness. It will be seen that the basal volcanic series of the iMurriinibidgee area is apparently absent here ; never- theless long-continued volcanic activity is evidenced in the al)undance of volcanic ash which occurs through- out th(.' .series. This volcanic material ^'aries from acidic to basic in composition, and some of the tuff lieds individvuilly attain a thickness of 100 feet. The limestone beds of the two areas are not very similar in their fossil contents, as will lie seen from the com- parison of tlie fossils given later. The beds which succeed the limestones possess two features of special interest; fl) the great abundance of Radiolaria; (2) the occurrence of Lepidodendron aiistrale. In the black cherts radiolarian casts occur to the extent of 1,000,000 to the cubic inch, and the rock contains 60 THE DEVONIAN PEPJOD over 90 per cent, of silica. The claystones also con- tain ca.sts of these organisms, but in a lesser degree; these beds are fine-grained, often minutely laminated, and occasionally ripple-marked. The radiolarian limestones occur as thin lenticular beds, varying from a few inches up to 2 feet in thickness, and are irregu- larly interstratiiied with other radiolarian rocks. In composition they consist largely of carbonate of lime, but contain aliout 18 per cent, of silica, the latter due mainly to the presence of the radiolaria ; as no other fossils have yet been found in them, the source of the carbonate of lime is unknown. It will be seen that all the Tamworth Devonian rocks are remark- ably fine-grained in texture ; this fact, together with the abundance of radiolaria, might be taken to indicate that thej' were deposited in deep water. The presence however, of plant remains (Lejyidodeiidron) on at least three distinct horizons, the occurrence of lime- stone beds, and of ripple-marks on some of the shales, are opposed to this view. It seems probable, there- fore, that this series of strata was deposited in a sea, not necessarily very deep, but sufficiently far removed from land to be beyond the reach of any but the very finest sediments. The Devonian strata of the western part of New England have lieen subdivided by W. N. Benson as follows : — Apparent TUickness. The Barraba Jlndstones . . . . 18,000 feet The Baldwin Agglomerates .. up to 1,800 ,, The Tamworth Series 10.000 ., The AVoolomin Series ? Fig. 21C. Si/rii';/f>t">ra.—A chariLcteristic Siluriun iind DevoiiiiLii Coral. I)ij,li;,,,ln/lh,,„ ,,e„,,„ifor Fig. 21D. ■. = A characteristic Lower Devonian Coral. \\'ESTEPvX XEW EXGLAXD Gi The Woolomin Series consists of red jaspers with radiolaria, elaystoues. tutf's, and spilite hnvas. The Taniworth Series is that already described above ; spilite lava flows are nnmero\is in this series, particu- larly near Nnndle. The Baldwin Agglomerates are coarse fragmental rocks containing rounded pebbles of the older rocks set in a tutfaceous matrix. Occasional small rapidly-chilled flows of spillite are interstratifled with them, and more rarely very fine- grained felspathic cherts containing radiolaria. These beds extend from Tamworth tn Bingara. a distance of 100 miles. The Barraba mndstoues contain frequent radiolarian bands, as well as beds of andesitic tuff. The fossil lyeopod, Lcpidodrudroii australc, is abun- dant. These beds have a very wide distribution in this region, covering an area of more than 1000 square miles. The spilite lavas mentioned above are dense fine- grained basic volcanic rocks very much like basalts, from which they dift'er in containing a rather high percentage of ahuuina and of soda (4-0 per cent.}, while the felspar consists largely of the alljite or oligoclase varieties instead of the usual labradoritc of the ordinary basalts. A very conspicuous feature in this district is a dyke-like belt of serpentine, from a quarter to half a mile in width, extending in a south-south-east direc- tion from AVarialda for a distance of above 180 miles This rock, which is an altered peridotite, intrudes the Devonian strata; a zone of red and dark grey 02 THE DEVONIAN PERIOD jasperoicl cherts, several hundreds of feet in width, occurs along the junction and contains abundant radio- larian easts. This intrusion has materially influenced the metalliferous character of the adjoining sedimen- 1. Cii,:lhni,hilll« Fig. 22. Lower DevoniiLu Corals mnl ['^) Sponges. 4aUfl.5. lt,r,;,l,„'„l,lrx „„sl,;,lis. tary rocks, with the result that numerous auriferous reefs occur in them in close proximity to it as at Bingara, AVood's Beef, Ironliark, Bowhug Alley Point, and Nnndle. THE DEVOXIAN PErJOD IjOwee Devonian Life. 63 The following are lists of the fossils collected from the two important districts where roel^s of this age are developed : — 2Itirntiiibidlas)na, IldiopJnjUum, &c. On the other hand, DrphijphyJhon, the most characteristic of the corals of the ]Murrunibidgee beds, is not abundant in Silurian strata. Similarly, the Brachiopod Fenta- mcnis is aljseut from the Murrumbidgee beds. Such genera as are common to both formations are repre- sented for the most part by different sjjecies. AVhile the fossil fauna of the Tamworth beds also differs from that of the Silurian period, it, in addition, displays a marked difference from that of the ^rarrumliidgee l)eds. 'Sir. AV. S. Dun has pointed out that the Tamworth marine fauna, as a whole, is more closely related to that of the former than it is to the latter. If the faunas of the ]\Iurrumbiclgee and Tamworth beds were contemporaneous thej- certainly must have been provincial faunas, i.e., were evolved in seas so isolated from one another that intermigration was very nnich restricted. The fossil lycopod, Lepido- deiidroii. is unknown in both the Silurian strata and the ]\Turrumbidgee beds; it is, on th(> other hand, very common in Uppei' Devonian strata. This raises the question as to whether the Lepidodendron-bearing strata of Tamworth and neighbouring parts of New England should not be correlated with the Upper Devonian beds. The ['pper DevonIx\n or Lambian Series. Moimt Lamb'ic Beds. — The best known occurrence of Upper Devonian strata is that occurring along the western edge of the Blue Mountain Tableland. At G8 THE DEVON! AX PERIOD Mount Lambie (near Rydal) this formation has a thickness of not loss than 10.000 feet, and includes shales, cla3'stones. sandstones, and quartzites, the last named predominating, ilarine fossils occur in abund- ance in some of the strata, and consist mainly of SOLITARY CHEEK Fig. 25. Section of Upper Devonian Strata, near Mount Laniliie. (After David anci Pitman). A = Granite. B ^ Qnartzite, with .S>,;,-;/V,- j;.y,n,rl„ and L, ,,i,jo,Je,nlrrj,i ,i,i.,i,:iIf. C = Ferrnginons sliales. D = Grey shales, with obscure plant impressions. E —Conglomerate. F -^ Quartzites and shales, with L^/zhloJeiidfuii. Braehiopods {Spirifcr, Iili iinclunieUa, Liiigula) and Pelecypods. the furmer largely predominating. In these marine beds drift Lcpidodrndron also occurs. At Capertee, some distance ti> the north-east of Mount Lambie, the formation consits of quartzites, conglomerates, claystones, and limestones. The lime- stone beds are usually thin, but sometimes thicken into solid masses of considerable extent; they contain fossil corals ( Favosites, Heliolitcs, Syringopora, and CyathopJni]l)()ii ) . This occurrence of a coralline limestone in the Iqiper Devonian formation of Xew Succession OF Strata along" Gap& Spring creeks. /■ c — (U t .,;-■=;.„,,... — r^r— r=— r.-_— a -. %-='«*^=°^'%,'V^..-%-% ''"i^.-V^o ;.; CP^. .: -,-.-:;; : \y/ : ■ :.■ — c fU 7)J (U ^ — . — _ — Q. — — „ _ Quantzites )* and Sandscones. Thickness. 382 feet. I Shaless. Sandstones r with Lin^ula,SpiriFer, \QQ iRhynchonella^avosites.&c I Massive f- Red Sancistones »uii> 200 I Thin band of Congionitrabe. • Shales, 30* . Conglomerates ^ with interbedded 4i£ ,. RedShale&Sandstones. J Probable sm^ll unconformity here. Red TufFs with bands of green chert:_y shales 8* 238 •• large masses of Rh^olite Creen Shales v occasional Chm S, bands ot- Fme- -grained TuFf. >Coralline Limesbone 20 Mith Halysite&,&<; >-5hales& TuFFs. Fig. 26. Section showing thickness aiid succe^^ion of Silurian and Devonian Strata at Gip Creek, Orange District. 70 THE DEVONIAX PERIOD South Wales is unusual. The whole series has been folded into symmetrical anticlines and synclines. In the adjoining Mudgee district thick beds of tuff and contemporaneous lava-flows occur at the base of the series. These flows consist of rhyolite and augite- andesite. Conglomerates are also strongh' developed in this region. The Mohnig-Caiiiiholas Beds. — Immediately to the west of the Canobolas ilonntains the succession of strata shown in Fig. 26 occurs. The Devonian strata shown represent only a portion of the original thickness, much having been removed by subse([uent denudation. They rest unconform- ably upon the Silurian strata, and the basal conglome- rates contain waterworn pebbles of the Silurian lime- stone. All the beds, with the exception of some of the shales, have a more or less red colour, the sandstones in particular presenting a typical "old red sand stone" appearance. ilany of the strata exhibit current-bedding, ripple-marks, and annelid tracks. The whole series must, therefore, have been deposited in shallow water along a shore line. As is usual in New South Wales, the fossils are nearly all brachio- pods, and these include Spirifer clisjuiicta, Rhyncho- iiella pleurodon, and Liitgula gregaria. Some plates of a placo-ganoid fish have also been found here. At Canowindra, some 30 miles to the south, similar Upper Devonian shales and sandstones occur, containing in one and the same stratum the fossil shell LinguJa gregaria and the fo.ssil plant Lcpielodeiulroii ; these plant remains evidently drifted to their present 7-2 THE DEVOXrAX PERIOD position. At Wellington, about 60 miles to the north of the ilolong locality, a massive series of Upper Devonian conglomerates, quartzites, and shales occurs, also containing Spirifer disjuncta and lihijn- chouella pleurodon. In the Parkes-Forbes district the Devonian sji'stem is represented by a much denuded series of quartzites, sandstones, and chocolate and greenish-grey coloured shales (Fig. 29). The thickness of the beds exposed to the east of Parkes exceeds 5,000 feet. A peculiarity of the series is the repeated alternation of quartzites and chocolate-coloured shales. Specimens of Lrpklodendron auxtralc and of fish-scales and plates (Asfrrolepis) are fairly connnon in these beds. From one locality the formation has yielded poorly preserved specimens of RhijnchondJa, Pfcrincca, and Off his. i\Iany other outcrops, some of them covering con- siderable areas and consisting of similar massive con- glomerates, quartzites and shales, occur in various localities in the western districts of Xew South "Wales. These occurrences have not yet been systematically examined, and have, in nearly all eases, been referred to the Upper Devonian, from their lithological character only. ]\Ir. E. C. Andrews has quite recently mapped an extensive series of Upper Devonian strata in the Cobar district, l.ving immediately to the west of the Silurian mineral lielt. They resemble the ^Mount Lambie beds in their lithological characters, and con- tain imperfectly-preserved brachiopod shells and crinoid stems. LOWER DEVOXIAK LIFE 73 South-Eastrni District. — Extensive areas of similar strata neeur in the south-eastern distriet extending at intervals from the Shoalhaven River to the Victorian border. In the Countj^ of Auckland these strata have a thickness of upwards of 1.200 feet. Here, in the Narrungutta and YambuUa Ranges, the beds are nearly horizontal, but on the Wolumla gold-field they have suffered considerable folding. In some of them ripple-marks and annelid tracks are not uncouunon. On the Genoa River fresh-water or estuariue shales, which occur near the top of the series, have j'ieldecl the following fossil plants : — Pccopteris ohscura. Archa:oplf)-is Iloiritfi. Sphciioptcris Carnci. Cordaitcs australis. These are the oldest fresh-water beds yet observed in New .South AVales. Farther to the north, on the Pambula gold-field, a thick series of Upper Devonian strata is seen resting unconformalily upon tlie Silurian beds. On the Yalwal gold-field, still further to the noi'th, contemporaneous lava-flows and tuff's are ftssociated with similar Upper Devonian strata ; rhyo- lite and basalt flows apparently alternate with one another, and the former outcrop on a grand scale for miles along the Upper Danjera C!reek, forming precipitous walls to the gorge. Fluxion and s])heru- litic structures are particularly well developed in the rhyolites. Certain belts of these Devonian strata have been impregnated with gold, along what are probal)ly shear zones, and have been extensively mined for that metal. 74 the devoxian period Upper Devonian Life. The following is a list of the more important fossils at present known from these beds : — Hydrozoa — SIromatopora. Actinozoa — IlcUoUtcs, Favosites, Syringopora (three species). Crinoidea — Crinoid stems. Vermes — Annelid tracks. Polyzoa — Fenestclla. Brachiopods — Lingula gregaria, Spirifer disjuncta, Spirifer Jaqueti, Rhynchonella pleurodoii, Chonetes. Athyyis, Atrypa, Lept(ena rhomboidalis. Pelecypoda — Pteronites Pittmani, Lcptodomus, Aviculopecten, Pterinea. Gasteropoda — Loxanema, Murchisoiiia, Euomphalits Cidleni, Belleropkon. Pisces — ^Plate.s of plaeo-ganoid fish ( ? Astcrolepis) Filicales — Pccnpteri.s ohsciira, Sphenoptcris Carnei, Archfropferis Howitti. hycopodialefi- -Lepidodoidron australe. Cordaitea; — Cordaites Australis. The fauna, so far as we know it. is for the most part a littoral one in which Brachiopods predominate. The two cosmopolitan species Spirifrr disjniicfa and Rhyn- chonella pleurodon are particularly abundant, certain beds lieing literally crowded with their shells. Lingula is also abundant at some localities. The sea-bottom where these brachiopod shells accumulated must have been not unlike the oyster-banks of the present-day. Pelccypods were numerous, and belonged largely to UPPER DEVONIAN LIFE 75 the ol)liqne-wiiiged aviculids. The gastropods were loss numerous, the long turreted forms of the Silurian and Lower Devonian now giving place to flattened types such as Eiiomjyhalus and Bellerophoii. The Brachiopods and Mollusea, although numerous, do not seem to have attained large dimensions as individuals. 1. L,i.:,ln,)cmh: Fig. 30. Upper Devoiiiiin Fussils. ,u,glr„lr. i. l'l,.,:,ulh-^ I'ilhuuui. 4. Illiil„rl,\'onian sti-ata, of two different types occur in New SouHi AVales. and Ihat they have Ixk'u referred to the Lower and Upper Devonian epochs resiiectively. l>i>th the Upper and Lower si'ries ar'e unconrormable with the Sihii'ian strata, but their s1 ratigraphieal ri.'lation lo one anothei' is ipiile unknown, as no .innetion between them has yet been found, nor arc l>oth known to oeciir in one and the same district, in Victoria, lio\ve\-er, the Ljjiier Devonian strala (Mt. Tanibo beds. Iguana rh'cek beds) I'est diri'ctly upon the ^Middle Devimian beds nf 1 hese localities, and the .junction bctwi'cn them shows a. marked inieonforuiify. The Fp|)cr Devonian strata, of V^idoria, howcvi-r, are all believcfl In be fresh-watci' beds. Judging by Hie Iciiown disti'ibulion of the Lower Devonian beds in ,\ew Snulh AVales, th(; deforniafive mnveinent whidi clnsed the Silurian period must liave raised a, considerable portion of the State above seadevel, leaving, however, at least two considerable areas still under marine eoiiditions — one 78 THE DEVONIAN PERIOD in the south, stretching from the JMurrunibidgee River southwards into Victoria, the other to the north, in what is now the Tamworth-Barrat)a district. The littoral deposits, whose deposition might reasonablj^ be expected to have followed this extensive uplift, do not apparently exist, or if they do have still to be found ; off-shore deposits, such as shales and limestones, are the prevailing rock types. Vulcanism was a pro- nounced feature, particularlj^ at the beginning of the period, and continued intermittently throughout ; the main centres of eruption seem to have been in the south. As already pointed out, the fossil faunas of these two areas indicate that if tliey were contemporaneous the seas in which they lived could not have been in direct coimnunication. but must have been separated from one another by a laud barrier which prevented the new species evolved in either area from migrating freely to the other. i\Iarine life was abundant in these seas, and reference to the list of fossils alreach' given will show that reef-building corals flourished; while, in the Jlurrumbidgee region, Brachiopods and the various groups of iMollusca were also well represented. From these beds the oldest vertebrates .vet found in Aus- tralia have been obtained. These were primitive fish, belonging to a group called the Dipnoi; an allied genus, Xcoc< ratudus. still survives in Queensland. Assuming that the Upper Devonian strata were de|)osited later than the Lower Devonian strata, and that a marlved Tuiconformitv exists between them in SOIilARY OF THE DE^•OXIAX PERIOD 70 New South "Wales, as appears to be the ease in A^ictoria, then a deformative movement must have followed the deposition of the Lower Devonian sedi- ments. The wide extent of the Upper Devonian strata indicates tliat it must have been followed by an exten- sive subsidence, which allowed of the formation of broad, shallow epicontinental seas, in which the Upper Devonian sediments were deposited. The common occurrence of conglomerate, grits, and sandstones indi- cates the existence of ciinsiderable areas of dry land at no great distance to provide tlie necessary material for their formation ; this supposition is supported by the presence of abundant drift-woud in the same .strata. It is impossilile, with our pjresent deficient knowledge, to reconstruct the geography of Xew South Wales as it was at this time, but it seems probable that there existed an archipelago of large islands sejjarated by broad, shallow epicontinental seas. An abundant marine invertcljrate fauna, consisting of Brachiopods, Pelecypods, and Gasteropods, inhabited these seas. Vetebrate aninuils were represented hy fish only, which appear to have been both large and numerous. That the neighbouring- land was clothed with vegetation is shown l)y the abundant drift Lepidodendron which is found in tliese marine strata and the occurrence of plant beds near the Victorian border. These plants were nearly all Cryptogams (l,ycopods and ferns). An alternative explanation of the relations between the Lower and Upper Devr>nian formations, however, suggests itself, and that is that the two formations 80 THE DEVOXTAX PERIOD were deposited more or less contemporaneously, the former in an open bnt eomparatively shallow epi- continental sea, at some distance from a shore-line; the latter in the shallow coastal waters of the same sea. The marked differences in the faunas of the two formations would ))e due in this case to the differences of environment. It has already been pointed out that the beds of the typical ^Murrumbidgee tyi)e and of the typical Jlount Laml)ie type do not occur in one and the same districts; that fact lends some support to this view. The occurrence of Lepidixh ndron avstralc in tlie beds above the coralline limestones in the so-cal](^d Lower Devonian lieds at Tamworth. and the Occurrence of a coralline limestone with Favositex, Hrlioliles, and Huriiifjopora in the Upper Devonian formations near Capertee, supply additional evidence. One would, of course, if this view were the correct one, exjiect to find formations somewhat intermediate in character between the characteristic AEurrumtiidgee and Jlount Lambie types; these, however, may yet be found. Until further evich.Miee is availal;)le it would be preferable, therefore, to use the terms Islnr- rumbidgean and Lambian in lieu of Ijower and Upper Devonian. Ci-osE OP THE Devonian' Period (K.vnimbla Epoch). The close of this period was one of the great mountain-making epochs of Xew Siouth Wales; and no jiart of the Stat(\ excepting the north-eastern section, has since been subjected to similar oi-ogenic earth movements. Throughout the central and southern talilelands and thmughriut the western part CLOSE OF THE DEVOXIAN PERIOD 81 of the State the Ordoviciaii, Silurian, and Devonian strata are strongly folded. Carboniferous strata are absent, and the strata of the succeeding period (Permo- Carl)oniferous) in those parts of the regions in which they occur rest upon the Devonian and earlier forma- tions with a marked unconformity. These Permo- Carboniferous strata are either ijuite horizontal or have a very low angle of dip, and have not been folded; their ])resent elevation above sea level is due to epeirogenic movements (vertical uplift) only. Throughout the greater part of this area the two lowest subdivisions of the Pci'mo-Carbonifei'ous series (the Lower Marine Series and the Lower Coal Measures) are absent, the Tipper Marine Series rest- ing directly upon the denuded edges of Devoiaian or older strata. It is apparent, therefore, that the erogenic movements which folded the Devonian strata in the region under consideration must have taken place before the I^ermo-Carboniferous strata were laid do\vn, ])robal)ly also before the Carboniferous sedi- ments to the north were deposited. This latter opinion is supported by the fact that, when the Permo- Carl)oniferous seas invaded these regions, the Devonian strata had been so deeply denuded as to expose extensively the large granite bathyliths by which they had been intruded. (See Fig. 63). The folding, therefore, must have taken place either at the close of the Devonian or, at latest, early in the Carboniferous period, and was on such an extensive scale as to convert the greater part of Xew South Wales into dry land. For this mountain-making 82 THE DE\'OXIAX PERIOD period the name Kanimbla Epoch is suggested, and will be used in that sense in this account of the geology of New South Wales. The strata then folded now dip either to the east or the west, the axes of the folds striking nearly north and south, i.e., approxi- mately parallel to the existing coast line. The tangential thrust which produced this folding prob- ably came from the east. The folding was accompanied by the intrusion of numerous bosses and bathyliths of igneous rock. These rocks vary considerably in composition, but are all more or less acidic, and consist, for the most part, of granites and tonalites. Some geologists are of opinion, however, that no earth movements of any great importance took place at the close of the Devonian period, and that it was not until the close of the Carboniferous period that the Upper Devonian strata were folded. This maj^ be true for the north-eastern part of the State (New England) where considerable areas were covered by the sea during at least part of the succeeding Carlion- iferous period. But there is no doubt that the greater portion of the regions covered by the sea in New South Wales during the Upper Devonian Epoch became dry land at the close of the Devonian Period. So far as the north-eastern part of the State is concerned, it is quite iirolia1)le that no important crustal movements took place at all at the close of the Devonian Period, and that the subsidence which was taking jdace continued on uninterruptedly into the Carboniferous Period. Chapter A^III. THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. The earth movements which closed the Devonian Period converted the greater part of New South AA^'ales (as already stated) into dry land, the only exception being the north-eastern portion, now known as the New England Tableland. A considerable part of this region was covered by the sea during some part of the Carboniferous Period. In the southern and western parts of this area extensive deposits of Carboniferous marine and fresh-water beds occur, having their present southern and south-western boundary approximately jiarallel to the railway' line from Newcastle to Narrabri, and at no great distance from it. The only known outcrop of Carboniferous strata south of this line is the small inlier surrounded by Permo-Carl)oniferous strata at Pol^olbin. The Carboniferous formation in New South Wales has been subdivided into : (a) The ITpper Carboniferous, with Lepiclo- (lendron Velthcimianum and Rhacopferis. (b) Lower Carboniferous with Lcpidodendron australe. Lower Carhoniferous. — Considerable thicknesses of strata, occurring in the New England district, have been referred to the Lower Carboniferous Period 83 84 THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD because of a supposed litliological resemblance to a formation in Queensland, known as the Gj'mpie Series. Some of these strata have been traced across the border into Queensland, and have ])een found to be continuous with some of the so-called Gympie beds of that State. Certain of the strata included in the Gjnnpie series in Queensland are undoubtedly of Carboniferous age; some are proliably of Perrao- Carboniferous age ; while other strata which have been referred to in this series are very probably older than Carboniferous, perhaps in some cases as old as Ordovician ; the absence of fossils in many localities makes a correct determination difficult. Xo marine fossils have yet been obtained from most of the so-called Gympie beds in New South AVales, and their reference to the Lower Carboniferous epoch, based entirely on lithological resemblances of strata in Queensland, whose geological age is so very doubtful, is not conclusive. As some of them have Permo-Carboniferous strata resting unconformably upon them, as, for example, at Ashford, near Inverell, these cannot, of course, be younger than Carboniferous. The fossil plant Lepidodendron au.stralc has been obtained from some of these beds, but as this fossil is very connuon in Devonian strata in the other parts of the State, its occurrence, in the absence of other fossils, might more .iustly be taken to indicate a Devonian age for such beds. Pntil detailed surveys have been carried out in this region no confident opinion can be expressed as to the geological age UPPER CARBOXIFEPvOUS SERIES 85 ol many of the so-called Lower Cai'boiiiferous (Gympie) beds, but the balance of evidence is in favour of the Devonian age for at least some of them. Quite recentlj' some of the so-called Gympie beds of northern Xew England have been shown to be of Permo-Carboniferous age. Upper C'arhoiiiferous Series. These strata are ex- tensively developed on the watersheds of the Karuah, Williams, and I'aterson Rivers, which are all tribu- taries of the Hunter River, draining the southern slopes of the New England tableland. According to ilr. Jaquet, they have a thickness of at least 10,000 feet. They are partly marine and jiartly fresh-water in origin, and consist of tutfaceous sandstones, elay- stones, limestones, conglomerates, cherty .shales, with contemporaneous lavas and tuffs. Some of the beds contain numerous marine fossils of undoubted carbon- iferous age, while in the fresh-water beds abundant plant remains are found. The marine beds are well developed in the neighbourhood of Clarence Town, where they consist of fossiliferous shales and sand- stones interstratified with coarse-grained arkose-sand- stones and tuffs; limestones occur, but are not very thick, and, when followed in the direction of their strike, pass rai)idly by insensible gradations into calcareous shales; oolitic structure is not luiconuuon. Fresh-water beds occur interstratified with the marine beds more or less throughout the series, increasing in importance towards the top, where they entirely re- place the marine beds. These fresh-water beds con- sist of shales and tiiffaceous sandstones, with thin I so THE C'ARBOXIFEROrS PEIUOD seams of inferior coal. Throughout the Upper Carhoniferous epoch vuleanieity was a marked feature, as evidenced by the numerous thick beds of tuft' and lava which occur over M'ide areas, interstratified with both the marine and fresh-water sediments. In the Clarence Town and Paterson districts no less than twelve successive lava flows occur, ranging individu- ally irp to 500 feet or more in thickness (Fig-. 31.). These volcanic rocks comprise rhyolites, I'hyolite- glass, and hypersthene-andesites with their cor- responding tufl's. Some of the latter are very coarse- grained, with l)locks up to 3 feet in diameter em- bedded in them; they contain also water-worn frag- ments of older rocks, and merge gradually into arkose-sandstones. At Bulladelah one of the rhyolite flows has, by the action of thermal springs, been altered into Alunite (hydrous sulphate of alumina and potash) ; this has been quarried on a large scale for the manufacture of alum. Another feati;re of possible economic importance is the occurrence of numerous beds of titaniferous magnetite interstra- tified with the Upper Carboniferous Series. These beds are of sedimentary origin, the magnetite having associated with it a variable proportion of quartz and felspar grains, and they merge b}' insensible grada- tions into ordinary tuffs and arkose-sandstones. This iron ore varies con.siderably in composition, contain- ing 36 per cent, to 50 per cent, of metallic iron. 10 per cent, to 2S per cent, of silica, and 3 per cent, to 16 ]-)er cent, (if titanic acid. Professor David has suggested that these beds have been formed by wave- 88 THE CARBOXIFEEOUS PERIOD action on a sea-beach, mechanically concentrating the grains of magnetite contained in the volcanic ash, so abundantly ejected during this period. At Pokolbin, some miles to the south of West ilait- land, an "inlier" of these Upper Carboniferous strata occurs, entirely surrounded by strata of Permo- Garboniferous age; this inlier consists of rhyolite lavas and tuffs, trachyte lavas and tuffs, conglomerates, chocolate shales, tuff'aceous sandstones, and andesites deposited in the order named (Fig. 32). The order of extrusion of the lavas for this locality has a|)parent)y been from acid to intermediate, viz., first rhj'olites, then trachytes, and finally andesites. Further outcrops occur also along the western edge of the New England taljleland, as for example near Barraba, where they consist of conglomerates, sand- stones, shales, and limestones, with which are associated rhyolites and rhyolite tuffs. These beds contain similar marine fossils to those at Clarence Town. An extensive development of these acid lavas and tuff's occurs further to the north, in a belt run- ning parallel to and west of the Northern railway line; they also underlie the Permo-Carboniferous rocks in the Drake District, ^larine Carboniferous strata also outcrop on the coast from Port Stephens to Port Slaccjuarie. Carboxiferous Life. (a) The Flora. — The Floi-a is well preserved, much more so than that of the Devonian Period alreadj^ m^^^'-^h-.r^ CARBOXIFEEOUS LIFE 80 described. It consists entirely of Cryptogams, and in- elndes the following species: — E( inisetaces' — Calamites radlatus. Lycopodiaeea'. — (?) Lcpklodeudron aiistrale, Lcpi- dodendron veltheimiamum, Lcpidodendron voIl-Dian- nlamum, Cyclostigma aiistrale. Filicacc'ie. — L'Jiacoptcris (Anei'niitfs) iiieqiiiJafcra, Ilhacoptcris iufermcdia. Fhacoptrris scptnitrionalis. Arclucoplcrh WUkinsnni, Card topi cris po'lymorpha. The geological range of Lfpidodcndrnn australe is vincertain; that it was al)undantl.y prcsi/nt during the Devonian Period is lUKincstioned. but whether it lived on into the Carboniferous Period is very doubtful. It has never been found associated with the other members of the flora listed ;d_iove, neither has it been found associated with marine beds con- taining a typical Carboniferous marine fauna. The beds iu which it occurs, as already pointed out, in the absence of other fossils might more reasonably be referred to the Devonian Period. The most abun- dant and characteristic fossil plant of the Carbon- iferous Period is h'haroptcris, and from it the flora as a whole has been termed the Rhaeopteris Flora. (h) The Fauna. — This, as far as we know it, is entirely a marine invertebrate fauna, consisting largely of Brachiopods, Polyzoa, Gasteropoda, Trilo- bites, and Corals, &c. The Brachiopods appear to have largely preponderated, but so little collecting has been done that generalization is difficult. The follow- 90 THE CARBOXIFEROUS PERIOD ing is a list of the more important genera and species so far described: — Actinozoa. — Amplcxus. Zaphrentis Culleni. Lopho- phyllum conuculuin, Campophyllum columnare, Cya- iliophyllum JJavidis, Michelinia, Lithostrotion. Criiioidea. — Adinocrinus, Pcriechocrinus. Blastoidea.— J/r/r(/>/fl,s//(.s ( ?) Polyzoa. — FcnrsliJla, l^olypora. Fig. 34. A Carl.oniferons Trili.l.ite. IVnII,,,,!,, .I„l„.,. Brachiopoda. — ^pinfcr striata. Spirifcr Jjisulcata, Orthis (EliypiilmiiiJla ) atislralis. OrtJiis (Schizo- phoria) rrsuphiata. Lcpta'na rhomhoidalis. Productus sriinn lirtitdl us. I'rofliictiis piiiictatiis. Pnuhirttis com. Clwjirtcs papiJioriacra, Orttiolrtcs crcnistria. Athijris planosatcata. Cyrliim carbonaria, Iiliyiichoii(Ua pAeu- rodon, Strophalosid. Pelecypoda. — A riculopcctcii. Eduiondia. Ento- Vnnii, Plcrouitcs. Fig, 35. C:irboniferi.ms Bracliiopods. 1-3. Orllus (Srliizo/jhoriii) re.-,n,H.,ml„ . i-5. Frridnntus seiulrelifnh, /,!.■< (Martin). «. Lpi.frt,,,! „uuh„/„ {¥Mmi>.) 7. OrHii:, (Rh;,,i,l„ii„'ll,i) Aii^lnil,,.. 8. S,,infer fl ri.ihi. S. 0,il,nl,-l,'x <:,; uixh'ni. CARBONIFEROUS LIFE 91 Gasteropoda. — Euomphalus jm iitaiujulafiis, Loxo- nema ialibindunciisis. Bellerophon. Cephalopoda. — Oiihoccivs. Trilobita. — FJi illipsia, Griffithides. Protozoa. — Neither Foraminifera nor Radiolaria appear to have been abundant. AcTiNozoA. — Corals, so far as is known, were only moderately abundant ; most of those found built simple coralla and belong to the Tetracoralla. The Tabulata, which were so strongly represented in the Silurian and Devonian Period, are here r<'presented by one genus only (Michelhiia) . EcHixoDERMATA. — Crinoids, although less abundant than in the Silurian Period, are still i>reseiit in con- siderable numbers. This formation contains the first and only recorded Blastoid from this State. MoLLUscoiDEA. — Polyzoa are numerous, and most of those found belong to the Fenestellid;e, the most characteristic Palaeozoic representatives of this class. Brachiopods are pre.sent in great abundance and domi- nate all the other invertebrates; the families Siropho- menidw, OrihidiV, Produdida' and Spiriferidir are all well represented. UhijiichoneUa pleurodon, which lived in such countless numbers in the Upper Devonian Epoch, still survives, but is not abundant MoLLUSCA. — All the important classes were repre- sented, but were quite subordinate in importance to the Brachiopods. Crustacea. — The Trilobites still lingered on, but were represented by but two genera, butli of which 9-2 THE CAP.EOXIFEROUS PERIOD are small in size. This unique and important group of Palajozoic organisms became extinct at the close of this period, SuilMARV. The erustal movements which closed the Devonian Period probably converted the greater part of Xew South Wales into dr_y land. ]Most of it remained above the sea during the succeeding Carljoniferous Period, but in the north-eastern part of the State a subsidence began at the Ijeginning of this period which allowed of an extensive transgression of the sea taking place in that region. i\Iuch dc'taile(:l mapping of the Car- boniferous formation will have to be done, however, before the extent of this trangression is at all accurately known. Subsidenc-e continried more or less throughout this jieriod. but repeat(_'d oscillations in the downward mo"\'ement lirought about alternate marine and fresh-water conditions, particularly to- wards its close. The sea contained an abundant in- vertebrate fauna, while the land supported a well- developed cryptogamous tiora. The subsidence was acM.'ompauiecl by intense and widcsiiread vulcanicity, and from numerous centres of activity in the- north- eastern part of the State extensive lava tinws and deposits of volcanic ash were produc-ed. These erup- tions continued at intervals throughout the greater jiart of the Carboniferous Period, liut were most pro- nounced towards its close. Chapter IX. TERIMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD. A TYPICAL Permian formation, analogous to that of the Northern hemisphere, does not occur in Australia, its place being taken hy the so-called Permo-Carbon- iferous system. This name, which was first suggested by Mr. R. Etheridge, Jr., has been applied in Aus- tralia to a tliick series of marine and fresh-water beds which follow the Carboniferous formation described in the la.st chapter, and which are in turn overlain by fresh-water Triassic strata. In New South AVales this Permo-Carboniferous system has a maximum thickness of about 17,000 feet, and includes both marine and fresh-water sediments. The marine beds contain an abundant fauna which, taken as a whole, is essentially different from that of the underlying Carboniferous strata, and which has affinities with both the Carboniferous and Permian marine faunas of the Northern hemisphere. The fresh-water beds interstratified with these marine sediments contain a fossil flora absolutely different from that of the underlying Carboniferous beds ; this flora displays a decidedly Mesozoic aspect, nevertheless it is quite different from that preserved in the overlying Triassic strata. The Permo-Carboniferous system is strongly developed in the eastern part of New South AVales, especially in what might be called the central-eastern portion of the State. Here it occurs in the form of 93 94 PEEilO-CARBOXIFEROUS PERIOD a great basin extending from the coast to the western edge of the Blue ^Mountain tableland, and from the Illawarra district northwards to the southern edge of the New England tableland. Throughout the greater part of this area the Permo-Carboniferous strata are overlain by Triassic beds; a continuous outcrop of them occurs, however, around the edge of the Ijasin, excepting along that part of the coast between Coal- cliff and Lake ^Macciuarie. In addition to this main basin, Fermo-Carboniferous strata are extensively de- veloped along both the eastern and western flanks of the Xew England tableland. l)ut are quite absent in the south-eastern and in the western parts of the State. Where the Permo-Carboniferous formations comes in contact with the underlying Carboniferous, as in the Hunter River district, the two systems seem to be separated by an unconformity, and there is frequently considerable overlap of the entire strata of the Permo-Carljoniferous on the Carboniferous, so that in many places the basal beds are entirely con- cealed from view by the later beds. The following subdivision of the Permo-Carbon- iferous svstem is used in Xew South AVales : — T/j)per Coal-measure Series Dempsey Series . . iliddle Coal-measure Series T'pper i\larine Series Lower Coal-mea.sure Series Lower JIarine Series Total Maximum Thicknfss 1.500 feet 3.000 1.700 6.400 300 4.800 17.700 PERMO-CAEBOXIFEROUS PERIOD 95 (A). — The Lower ]Marine Series. The Hunter River District. — This, the lowest sub- division of the Permo-Carboniferous system, has its greatest development in the Hunter River district, where it attains a maximum thickness of about 4,800 feet. The following strata occur (in descending order) . Farley stage— Thicknc.ss. ilarine sandstones . . . . 800 feet Ravensfield sandstones . . . . 15 ,, Lochinvar stage — • Tuffaceons and calcareous shales and cherts (with almndant Polyzoa and Foraminifera) . . 700 ,, Amygdaloidal basalt flow 100-500 „ Harper's Hill sandstones and conglomerates (passing into andesite in places) . . . . 200 ., Tuffaeeous shales (with glacial erratics and two contempo- raneous basaltic lava flows) . . 2,500 ,, Massive sandstones, with plant remains . . . . . . 50 ,, Glacial beds with numerous striated boulders . . . . 200 „ The basal ])eds consist of shales and sandstones con- taining numerous ice-striated pebliles and boulders. These are not in any sense boulder-clays or till, but are ordinary sediments into which, during their de- 90 PERilO-CARBOXIFEROUS PERIOD position, glaciated pebbles have been dropped by floating ice. It might be mentioned here that this is the probable origin also of the striated boulders and erratics which occur on several higher horizons in the Fernio-Carboniferous system in New South Wales. Fig. 36. Pliotoffraph of a Glucial Erratic (Granite) occurring in Upper Marine strata, near Branxton, New Soutli Wales. (David.) These glacial beds grade upwards into massive sand- stones containing plant remains. Then follows a series of shales with occasional glacial erratics, and containing abundant marine fossils. These beds are ^1 y [1 [1 Fig. 37.— Mnp of New South Wiiles, shoiving dmate area covered by the Lower Marine Sea. THE LOWER ilARINE SERIES 97 about 2,500 feet thick, aud include several contempo- raneous lava Hows. The luffaeeous sandstones and conglomerates which come next are typically exposed at Harper's Hill and in the railwaj^ cuttings at Allan- dale. They contain abundant fossil shells, some of which, such as Eurydesma, Keenia, Aviculopecten, &c., attain a considerable size. In close association with the Eurydesma beds occur andesitic lava flows and tuffs, tj'pically developed at Blair Duguid, to the south of AUandale. The Harper's Hill beds are followed by a series of basic lavas aud tuffs ranging from 100 to 500 feet in thickness, the latter contain- i]ig fossil plants. This volcanic series is well exposed at ]\Iount View, still further to the south of Allandale, and is overlain by about 700 fret of soft calcareous shales, some of which are crowded with exquisitely preserved fossil Polyzoa {FeiiesicUa, I'olypora, Stcno- ixjra) and Foraminifera (Xnbecitlaria, &c.). These calcareous shales are more or less tuffaceous ; they close the Lochinvar stage and are succeeded by the Kavensfield sandstones, the basal beds of the Farley stage. This bed of sandstone, although not more than 15 feet in thickness, is so persistent, that it one place it can be traced for a distance of 20 miles; it contains, in places, numerous fossils, the most characteristic of which are the genera GoniafUcs and Edrnondia. Some beautiful starfish are also obtained from this stratum. The remaining beds of the Farley stage have a thickness of about 1,000 feet, and con- sist mainly of sandstone; in some of them marine fossils are very abundant. 98 PERMO-CARBOKIFEROUS PERIOD Near Raymond Terrace the Lower Marine series in- cludes some fresh-water beds which occur at about the same horizon as the Eurydesma beds of Allandale. These contain abundant fossil ferns (Ganga- mopteris) and a coal seam about 10 feet thick, known as Garrett's Seam. The Northern Rivers Disti-ict. — Extensive outcrops of Lower Marine strata are known to occur at various localities between the Hunter River and the Queens- land border, notably on the watershed of the Macleay River, and about the head waters of the Upper Clarence River. The former area extends from the coast at the mouth of the Macleay River west- ward to the eastern fall of +he New England table- land; but very little is at present known as to its real extent. In his account of the Drake gold- field. Mr. E. C. Andrews has described the occurrence of Lower Marine strata, associated with which is an extensive series of andesitic lavas and tuffs, the whole resting unconformabl.y upon an older series of acid lavas and tuffs ; the latter are, probabl.v, of Carbon- iferous age. The Permo-Carboniferous strata in this region have been extensively folded, and have been intruded bv at b'ast two separate granite intrusions. Air. J. E . Carne has quite recently proved the existence of similar Lower Marine strata in the Emraaville district. Ovcrlappivfi of the Lower Marine Beds. — In the Hunter River district, where the northern edge of the Pcrmo-Carbonifcrous basin occurs, the Lower Marine beds, as well as the Lower Coal Measures which follo^^' THE LOWER COAL- MEASURE SEKIES 99 tliem, dip south and west under the later members of the system, but fail to reappear again, either on the southern or the western edges of the Permo-Carbon- iferous basin. Both series, therefore, have evidently been overlapped by the Upper Marine series, which in these regions rests directly, and at the same time iinconformably, upon strata of Devonian age (see Fig. 63 J. Just how far to the south and south-west this overlap tal\es place is unkno'wn. The probable position of the shore-line of New Soutli AVales during the Lower Marine epoch is shown in Fig. 37. The positions shown are. of course, mere approximations, as there may be other areas of Lower Marine strata at present unknown. (B). — The Lower Coal-measure Series. Hunter River District. — In this district the lower Coal Pleasures are generally referred to as the Greta Coal Measures, and have a thickness of from 150 to 250 feet. They comprise fresh-water shales, sand- stones, and conglomerates, and contain two important coal seams. The lower coal seam is known as the Homeville Seam ; it varies from 3 to 11 feet in thick- ]iess and contains a hard, bituminous coal. In the South Greta iline the base of this seam consists of kerosene shale. The upper seam, called the Greta Seam, varies from 11 to 32 feet in thickness, and is undoubtedly the finest seam of coal j^et found in Aus- tralia. The coal is very hard, bright, and bituminous, and show.s remarkable uniformity in composition throughout the district in whicli it iiecur.s; it is of >3 - II ? . £ •5 S -< "- 5 ^ c =^ >:«: k-- cu B a o g 71 d eS © o 2 'S 1 o ri M p s ^ H? K / ■a ji :; e W ^ 3 ~ B 5 w' cd a r^' ^ u ~ c/: ^ ^ ►J J rd ^ r^ 5 i^ = y. t «) (S^ (O ': A>\ d3 Ph H O" o - s *:;; w 1 1 % a; -_ OJ P -2 Ph rl n < ^ ^ x ^ 7' in -^ T, -ij fp I "Z. 'S 1 ^^ o a ■^ .2 l-J n- i ^ ^ t s; o !l a ?^ " =- 1 « ^ o r^ w 7i O II 11 10:^ PERi:0-CAEBOXIFEROi:S PERIOD excellent quality for steam, gas, and household pur- poses. In some places it merges into a cannel coal, and occasionally into kerosene shale. In the sand- stones and shales forming the roof of this seam stems of trees of considerable size occur. A bed of conglomerate, containing white and green pebbles, which overlies the bottom seam of coal, forms a characteristic "persistent horizon" which has been very useful in mapping the outcrop of these coal-measures. On the eastern side of the anticline a continuous line of collieries extends from We.st ilaitland to Cessnock. nearly all of which have been opened up during the past few years. As these coal seams are not horizontal, but dip at angles ranging up to 50'. or even more in some places, their depth below the surface must rapidly increase in the direc- tion of the dip. when the latter is considerable. Using ;i limit of 4,000 feet as the vertical depth at which coal seams can be profitably worked. Professor David has estiiiiated that these two seams exist at a work- able de|)tli over an area of 1.38 square miles, and con- tain a gross availabh' quantity of 1,893,000,000 tons of coal. A rich fossil flora has been preserved in the shale beds, and includes the genera Gangamopieris, Glossopteris, SpJienopteris, N'ocggerafhiopsis, and Dddoxylon: of these the first is the most abundant. New England TahJiIanrl. — The Lower Coal- measures extend northwards along the western fall of the New England Tableland towards the Queens- H E C fLybuxsorL LOhD. Map of New.Scmtli Wales, sbowiny aii]>roxi]iia ' Ihp Si Sydney ICopj'ngfitj :a covel-B'l Tiy the Lower Coal MeasTire Swamps. THE LOWER COAL-MEASURE SERIES 103 land border. They are known to outcrop in the parish of Tangorin (county of Durham), whei-e they appear to have been much disturbed. From there the outcrops trend northwestward past Muswellbrook. where a fine seam of eoal 15 feet in thickness is now being opened up. At AVingen the Greta Coal Seam is on fire, and has been burning for probably 1,000 j'ears or more. Still further to the north at Ash- ford, near Inverell, a long narrow coalfield occurs about a quarter of a mile wide and extending north- ward nearly to the Queensland border. Here the Lower Coal-measures have a thickness of over 400 feet, and include a fine coal seam 27 feet in thickness and of good quality. These beds have a dip of 40° and rest unconformably upon a series of highly inclined slates which have been referred to the Carboniferous Period. It is quite possible that these latter beds are of Devonian age. The fossil plants associated with the coal seams here are similar to those of the Greta Series. At AVilson's Downfall, near Tenterfield, deposits of graphite occur, associated with slates and tuffs, all of which have been intruded by granite. The graphite dejiosit has resulted from the alteration of a dirty coal seam by the granite intrusion. These beds probably belong to the Lower Coal Measures, Illawarra District. — Fresh-water beds containing coal seams have been found underlying the Upper Marine Series at several localities immediately to the south of the Shoalhaven River. They var^^ from a few feet up to 150 feet in thickness, and rest uneon- 1(14 PEPaiO-CARBOXIFEROUS PERIOD formablv upon tilted Devonian strata. Xear the head of the Cl>'de River these beds outcrop at an altitude of 1.300 feet, and include two coal seams, the upper one of which is about 5 feet thick (includ- ing bands). Thin layers of kerosene shale occur near the top of this seam. Similar fresh-water bed.s occur elsewhere in the district, but they have no great thickness, and the coal seams are either poor or absent. The formation, as a whole, appears to occur in the form of small isolated basins rather than to be con tinuous over any considerable area, and as coal- measures they appear to have very little commercial value. These measures have been correlated with the Lower Coal ^Measures of the Hunter River district, but there is some doubt as to whether they are co-extensive with them. Assuming that they are. the areas occupied by the lakes of the Lower Coal Jfeasures epoch were probably somewhat as 8ho\\Ti in Pig. 42. (C). — Tpie L'pper ^Iarixe Series. This series extends over a wider area, perhaps, than any of the other subdivisions of the Permo-Car)ion- iferous Systems in Xew South Wales, and outcrops all round the edges of the main coal basin. A description of its occurrence in the Northern, Southern, and AYestern Coal-fields will serve to give a general idea of the main features. Hunter IUvcr District (Northern Coal-field j. — The Ppper !^L^rine Series here attains a maxinnim thick- THE UPPER ^[ARINE SERIES 105 11 ess of 6,000 feet, and consists of the following strata : — • Crinoidal Stage feet. ClKenomya Beds . . . . . . 100 Crinoidal shales 2,900 Muree Stage Conglomerates and sandstones . . 400 Branxton Singe Marine shales, sandstones, and con- glonKn'ates (with erratics) . . ^-1,000 (a) The Braiixtejn Stage. — These beds consist mainly of sandstone and shale, in which marine fossils, particularly the Fenestellidm family of the Polyzoa, are very abundant; glacial erratics are also very numerous. These latter range up to 5 tons in weight, generally consist of granite, and some of the smaller ones are distinctly striated. One of these erratics is shown in Fig. 30. The position in which it rests, poised on edge, and the way in which it seems to have indented the underlying shales, shows that it was probalily dropped from floating ice into a bed of soft marine mud and left standing in the position in which it is now seen. One of the few fossil corals which occur in the Permo-Carboniferous strata, viz. Traehypora, occurs abundantl.y near the top of this staga. Ifln PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD (b) The Murrr Stage. — The lowest stratum is a calcarenus enngloiiierate, fontaiiiing numerous small and occasionally large glacial erratics and an abund ance of marine fnssils. Its hardness and resistance to weathering cause it to make a bold outcrop. This bed is usually about 3,000 feet above the Greta Coal measures, and passes upward into a series of massive calcareous sandstones about 400 feet in thickness, in which a small braehiopod (Sfroplujlosia) occi^rs in great numbers. (c) The Crinoieled Stafie. — The strata on this horizon are mainly shales, and, as the name implies, contain abundant remains of Crinoids. The thick- ness varies from 1.500 to 3.000 feet, and they termi uate upwards in beds of hard cherty shales called the Chd'uomya Beds, on account of the number of pelecypods of that name which they contain. The Tjitlujoiv-Cnpertee Visfrict (JVesiern fjejal- fielel). — The Permo-Carboniferous formation here has a total thickness of from 800 to 1.600 feet as com- pared with a thickni'ss of over 15.000 feet in the Hunter River district. The Lower ^larine Series and the Lower Goal-measures are entirely absent, while the Upper ^farine Series, the oldest subdivision represented, rests uuconformably upon highly tilted Lower Palaeozoic strata. It seems evident, there- fore, that this region was dry land undergoing denu- dation during the time the absent members of the fonuation were being deposited elsewhere. A fairly rapid subsidence towards the latter part of the Tipper THE UPPER MARINE SERIES 107 Marine epoch, however, allowed the sea to transgress much farther westwards than had been the case in the earlier part of the period. That the subsidence was fairly rapid is indicated by the thick coarse con- glomerates which occur at the base of the Upper ]\Iariue Series in the western district. This is a tyi:)ical basal conglomerate produced by the waves working over the regolith as the sea advanced on the land. The boulders in it are mainly granite and ciuartzite, derived from the older rocks upon which the conglomerate rests ; the material cementing the boulders together is frequently granite sand (arkose conglomerates). These conglomerates are of con- siderable thickness, with increasing coarseness to- wards the lowest stratum, where occasional boulders of quartzite several tons in weight occur. It has been suggested that these large boulders have been transported by floating ice, but as this is a typical littoral deposit laid down along an old shore-line, and as the boulders appear to have been derived from the underlying and adjacent older strata, this explana- tion hardly seems necessary. It is true that un- doubted glacial erratics exist in the Upper Marine strata of the Newcastle district, but they occur on what is probably a lower horizon. Above the con giomerates occur alternating beds of shale, sandstone, and conglomerate, the shales predominating as the top of the series is reached; here thin bands of dolo- mite and earthy limestone also occur. The Upper Marine strata in these western districts are singularly poor in fossil remains, and such as do 108 PEEMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD occur are found in the lower beds onlj-. The follow- ing forms have been identified: — ]\Iarfi}iio2)sis subradiata. Conularia inornata. Spirifer vespertiUo. Gowiatites micromphalus. Spirifer tasmaniensis. Feiiestella fossula. Productus brachythftnis. Stcnopora tasinaniensis. Mceovia carinctta. Aviculopccfcn temiicoJIis. Strophalosia Clorkei. PJaljischisnia. In some localities the basal conglomerates are auriferous; at Tallawang. and at Gough's Valley, near Gulgong, the auriferous conglomerates have been mined, and have yielded from 1 to 15 dwt. of gold per ton, while nuggets weighing up to 5 oz. have been obtained. The gold, which was coarse and water- worn, had undoubtedly been shed by reefs in the underlying Lower Pabvozoic foi-niations at the time the conglomerates were being formed, but its distribu- tion in the conglomerates was very patchy. The Souih-^ycs1en) Cord-fidd. — The Upper Marine Series outcrops in the valleys intersecting the table- land in the neighbourhood of Bundanoon. &c., and consists mainly of sandstones and shales containing abundant marine fossils. Farther south at Tallong the formation, which ranges up to 400 feet in thick- ness, consists mainly of conglomerates with thin bands of fossiliferous sandstone. The pebbles in the basal conglomerates have been derived from the underlying older Palaeozoic rocks, and include graphitic slates, qunrtzite. &e. THE UPPER MARINE SERIES 109 The Illawarra District. — Here, as lias already been shown with regard to the AVestern Coal-field, the Lower ilarine Series is absent and the Upper J\Iarine Series, where the base is visible, rests uneonformably upon truncated Lower Paleozoic strata. Near the southern edge of the Permo-Carboniferous Ijasin, how- ever, fresh-water beds, such as those at the Clyde River, underlie the Upper Marine P>eds — but, as already pointed out, to a very limited extent. Upper ]\Iarine strata outcrop along the coast froni Wollon- gong to as far south as UlladuUa. North of the Shoal- haven River they are overlain by the Upper Coal Pleasures, but south of it they occupy the surface of the tableland over a very considei'able area. Where the tableland is intersected by the river valleys, these beds have been removed, and the underlying Lower Pala30zoic strata exposed. The Uppei- i\rarine Beds, which here have a maximum thickness of about 3,000 feet, have been subdivided as follows: — Thick. Volcanic Series — Crinoidal shales . . 1,000 feet Nowra grits . . . . . . . . 250 ,, Wandra-Wandrian sandstone . . 550 Conjola Beds 1,400 „ (a) Gonjola Beds. — These occui' at the liasc of the series and rest either- upon the underlying fresh--water bed.s, or uneonformably upon Devonian or older strata. They consist of conglomerates, grits, and peblily sand- stones. Large boulders of granite, cpiartz porphyry, and quartzite occur both in the liasal conglomerates and the overlying beds of coarse sandstone. Marine K 5 ^ a s THE UPPER MAPTNE ,SEP>IES 111 fossils are fairly common in these beds, particularly the genus Jlceoma (a pelecypod). (t») The Wandra-Wandrian Sandstones. — These outcrop strongly along the road from Nowra to Mil- ton, but possess no features of special interest. (c) The Nowra Grits. — These are the gritty sand- stones \\hich outcrop around the township of Nowra and along the banks of the Shoalliaven River. They resemble the Muree rock of the Hunter River dis- trict both in litholdgical character and in their con- tained fossils. (d) Crinoidal Beds. — These consist mainly of marine shales and sandstones. In the Kiama district their place is taken largely by the Volcani(', Series. The lower beds contain erinoid stems in abundance, while in the (.rerringong district the strata are literally crowded with fossils, due probaljly to the rapid kill- ing off of the marine organisms by the showers of fragmental material which now began to be e.jeeted by volcanoes. The richness of this marine fauna is shown in the following list of fossils ; — Tipper Marine Fossils from Gerringong. Plant.e. — Coniferous -wood (Dadoxijlon) . Fiicoid remains. Grinoidea. — Trihrachiocriii ns corriigatus, PJdaJo- erimis Stephensi. PoLYZOA. — Sfenopora crinita, S. Tasmaniensis, Fene.stella fossula, F. internata, Polypora, Proto- reiepora ainpla. 112 PEUMO-CARriOXIFEROUS PERIOD Bracjiiop(_>da. — Ling Ilia ouata, Froduclus hrachy- tlueus. Dielasina Jiastafa, Marfinioxjiis subradiata, Martiiiiopits ovifonnis, Hpirifer vtspoiiUo, S. Tas- manknsis, S. ClarJ^ei, S. Strzelecl'ii, Spiriferina diiodccimcostata. Pelecypoda. — Deltopecten suhquinquiliniatus. D. leniiiscuhis, Merisrnoptera macroptera. Mceoitia elon- gata. M. vcdida, .¥. carinata, Chcenomya Etheridgei. C. Mitchelli, Astartila polita. Xotomija securi- formis, StiitchbiO'rta costata, Xucidana Darwini. Gapteeofoda. — Platijschisina ociduin. Ptycomplia- lina Morrissiana, Moiuiouia Siridtckiana, Murclii- soiiia vernetdiana. Pteropoda. — HiioJifhfs laiiceolafa. Comdaria inor- vata. Cei'iialopoda. — Giiiiiattt(.>; micrompJialus, Ortlio- cerai. (e) The Volcanic Series. — From the Cambewarra ^ionntains t(] Port Kembla the upper p'Ji'tion of the T'ppi.^r Marine formatioD consists mUirely of hivas and tuffs: these have in 1he neighbourhood of Kiania a niaxiinuin tliiekness nf alii.iut l.OiJO fei't. To the nortli. sMuth. and west the volc-anii- series oradually thins iiut and gives placi- to ordinary marine sedi- ments. From thi.' first I'eiitre "f eruption, which seems to ha^'i,' lieen in the neighbourhood of Kinma. a great S(jries of basie hivas and tuff's was ejected and deposited iin tli(^ sui'rounding sea-bottoni. A see.md Centre of (^ruptiiin then devehiped furth(n' to the south, in the direction of Caniliewarra. which pro- THE UPPER .MARINE SERIES 113 duced tracliytic lavas and tuffs; these in turn were followed by basic lavas. Vuleanicity was resumed (in a smaller scale in the Upper Coal Measures epoch with a further outpouring of basic lavas. The section in Fig. 45 shows this volcanic series, including the lavas of the coal-measures. The whole series of volcanic roclvs, although it varies from basic to intermediate in composition, is closely related from a chemical point of view, all the flows having been derived from a common magma. From a petrological standpoint they have all been grouped together by Mr. G. AV. Card under the name of Latite. 1. Westley Park Tuffs. — These are about 40 feet in thickness ; followed downwards, they merge imper- ceptibly into marine shales and sandstones. They con- tain abundant marine fossils, while ejected volcanic blocks up to a ton or more in weight are not un- common. 2. BlowJwlc Flow. — This outcrops at sea-level at Kiama, and extends southwards as far as Gerringong. This flow is a typical basalt in appearance, and is about 140 feet in thickness. 3. Kiama Tuffs. — These overlie the Blowhole flow, and have a thickness of 120 feet. They are basic in composition, fine-grained and well stratified. Bands of lapilli occur at intervals. Their basic composition results in a rich reddish-brown colour on weathering. 4. Bumbo Flotv. — This is a vei-y extensive sheet of lava, and ranges from .'JO to 500 feet in thickness. It is strikingly columnar, some of the columns attaining a height of 50 or 60 feet and a diameter of 8 feet. 114 PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD ■«>iti?i-'.Hif: .•■■;; •■ '■■*^^^- ^W^^!i ■ ■"■■- . 'i ':^ W''%:t^^^^ '.dx;. Jul F ** *%J^#J^A bki^BI^bHI^^H^B Bi^^^^^BWMBB^BKtJ^jBRiSKw I^P^CwI^ft^VmB ^^^KmK ^ ^^^^H^^^^B ,. ;: ?&:"-t^'*S^!^ ''*»^^'--''' ^f;-: ■'■■%. ^,. ' V- ■ •■■^ THE UPPER MARINE SERIES 115 The rock varies from basic to intermediate in com- position and is raarl^edly porphyritic in texture, the phenoerysts oi' Labradorite being as much as li inches in h^ngth. The rock also contains a very small per- centage of native copper. The flow has been ex- tensively quarried in the neighbourhood of Kiama for railway ballast and for road-making, its perfect columnar structure being of material assistance in quarrying. 5. Jamhcroo Tuffs. — These are trachytic in com- position, and have a maximum thickness of over 600 feet. They extend from Gambewai-ra as far north as Jamberoo, and overlap the basic flows and tuffs already described. 6. Saddlehack-Dapto Flow. — This is a basalt, and extends from Saddleback Moiuitain northwards to Da]ito; it has a thickness of 60 feet and upwards. 7. Caiiihewarra Flow. — Excepting perhaps the Bumbo flow, this is the largest and most extensive flow in the district. It has a maximum thickness of 600 feet, and extends from Stockyard Mountain (north- ■west of Kiama) to the southern edge of the Cambe- warra Eange. a total distance of 22 miles. It much resembles trachyte, and consists mainly of Orthoclase and Plagioclase, with a subordinate amount of Augite. The chemical analyses of these lavas are given on page 247. They are all somewhat rich in potash, and while they close! j^ resemble basalts and trachyte in land specimens, they belong more correctly to the group of latites. 110 PEEMO-CARBOXIFEROLS PERIOD An interesting trachyte boulder bed occurs at the top of the Upper Marine Series in this district, ex- tending from Cambewarra nearly to Wollongong The boulders are composed of a rock identical with the Cambewarra trachyte, and gradually diminish in size as the bed is traced northward. Its position in the succession is sho^vn in Pig. 53, The Bong-Bong basalt and the Kangaroo ^Mountain basalt .shown in the section in Fig. 45 are now con- sidered to be intrusive sills. (D). — The To:\ia(30 Series .vkd the Dejipsey Series. Tlie 'Middle Coal Pleasures. Lying between the Upper ilarine Series and the Upper Coal Measures in the Newcastle-ilaitland area of the Hunter River district there is a considerable thickness of fresh-water beds. The lower part of this formation contains several workable coal seams, and has been called the Tomago or Bast Maitland Coal Measures. (a) The Tomago or East Maitland Coal Measures. — These are fresh-water beds, varying from 600 to 2 000 feet in thickness, and include the following strata; — Four-mile Creek beds — feet Conglomerates . 20 Sandstones and shales . 58 No. 1 Coal Seam (top seam) . « Sandstones . 68 No. 2 Coal Seam 7 Shales (with Glossopteris) 5 THE TOMAGO AlCD DEMPSEY SERIES 117 No. 3 Coal Seam . . . . . . 6 Shales and sandstones (with two thin coal seams) . . . . 38 Buttai beds — Sandstones and shales . . . . 220 Rathluba beds — Rathlnba Coal Seam . . . . 11 Shales. &c 82 Morpeth Coal Seam .. ..4-^-8 Shales, sandstones, &e. . . . . 94 The coal-seams ai-e very variable in thickness, fre- quently splitting, and in places show marked evidence of contemporaneous erosion. The coal is friable and inferior to that obtained from tlie Lower and Upper Coal ]ileasures. The ag'gregate thicltness of coal is about 40 feet, of which about 20 feet has been proved to be workable. (b) TJte Dempscy Series. — This is a series of fresh- water beds, shales, and sandstones, about 2,000 feet in thickness, lying between the Bast Maitland Coal Pleasures and the T'pper or Newcastle Coal .Measures. The}' appear to contain no coal-seams, and possess no features of special interest. (E). — Upper Coal ;\Ieasukes. This, th(.' topmost sul)division of the Permo- Carboniferous system, extends over nearly the same area as the Tpper Marine Series, and, except in parts of the Hunter River district, directly succeeds the 118 PERMO-CAEBONIFEROLS PERIOD latter formation. It is the most inipoi'tant and exten- sive coal-bearing formation in Australia. The T'pper Coal Pleasures in the Newcastle district include the following strata : — Wallarah coal seam Shales Conglomerates Great Northern coal seam Tuffaceous shales (with fossil trees) Conglomerates Shales, sandstones, and cherts . . TJjiper Pilot coal seam . . Shales, tuffs, and cherts Lower Pilot coal seam . . Conglomerates with current bedding Cardiff' coal seam (with bands) Shales. &c. Burwood coal seam Shales and cherts Nolil^y 's coal seam Shales Dirty coal seam . . Shales Yard coal seam . . Shale and sandstones Borehole coal seam AVaratah coal seam Shales. &c. (with two small coal seams i feet 5 6 120 14 80 45 54 8 33 5 200 16-i 30" 13i 65 6 40 7 50 3 200 6-20 30 170 Total thickness 1.221 UPPER COAL MEASURES im It will be seen that the Newcastle Coal Measures in- clude ten important coal seams, as well as several smaller ones. Of these, the Borehole seam has received the greatest attention from the coal-miner, and ia worked at nineteen distinct collieries. It varies from 4J to 20 feet in thickness, and in places splits into two seams, the upper division being then known as the Young Wallsend Seam. The upper seams correspond with those in the Illawarra Coal Measures, and are being worked in several collieries. The two Pilot seams apparent^ coalesce in a south-westerly direction, and form the Australasian Seam, which (in- cluding clay bands) has a thickness of 50 feet, and is the thickest coal seam in New South AVales ; only the lower 7 feet of the coal is mined. The aggregate thickness of workable coal in the seams of the Newcastle Coal Measures is from 35 to 40 feet. The coals are fairly hard ; they include both splint and bituminous coals, and the quality is excellent for gas-making and steaming purposes. The strata with which these coal-seams are associated consist of con- glomerates, sandstones, shales, and cherty tuffs. Con- glomerates are strongly in evidence in the upper part of the series, individual beds ranging up to 200 feet in thickness. A feature of special interest with re- gard to these conglomerates is that they show strongly marked current bedding, the laminae in many cases dipping from the ocean towards the land ; this would seem to indicate that the land which supplied the pebbles for the building up of these beds lay to the 120 PERMO-CAEBONIFEROUS PERIOD 'snojsjTuoqjTJQ-onijaj; UPPER COAL MEASURES 121 east of the existing coast. The shales contain an abundance of fossil plants, among which the genus Glossopteris is particularly plentiful. Remains of fossil insects (Mayflies) also occur on some horizons. The beds of chert which occur at frequent intervals, particularly between the Nobby 's and Burwood coal- seams, have been shown to consist of minute broken fragments of felspar crystals, interspersed with volcanic ash. These beds then, fine-grained as they are, are really tuffs ; excellent samples of them may be seen in the cliff sections ad.jacent to Newcastle. Origin of the Goal. — Professor David, in his des- cription of the Pilot seam and the ad.iacent strata, makes the following remarks regarding the origin of the coal: — "No more impressive evidence can be imagined as to the origin in situ of our coal seams than that afforded by this beautiful section. (See Fig. 49). The beds of chert which separate the Upper Pilot seam from the Lower are traversed by numerous vertical stems of large trees, now converted into chalcedony. These can be traced downwards almost from the floor of the Upper seam through a thickness of from 20 to 30 feet of chert into the roof of the Lower seam. As they are traced downwards into the top layer of the coal of the Lower Pilot seam, the substance of the fossil trees changes quickly from chalcedonic quartz into a form of hydrocarbon. It is a fact most obvious, even to the most casual observer, that these trees are all in situ in the roof of this lower coal-seam, and that their stems and roots have become partly absorbed into the substance of the coal. The 122 PEiaiO-CARBOXIFEEOUS PERIOD •a a ja a a - -J o ■ay i».3 V '.' " - ^.•" '■3^-h ■ ■■- '^ •■ A!'!'! \ * ^ ! / ■ vf:g:H 1' •■'■,' : • ' ■■ 1 '■' ■ a c*|'."q,','| ,'|' • ■ ■ . ■ .1..' H ■"'■''i\'-TM---l .1 1 J" ; ■."'■Iv t-'V '^ ;" ' -■^ ' ■■ ! - o'tiav-j.-'.- '-^.-i-A^.i' "r V' ." ■-■%k4 ■-^ ,3-. "^t; '^f' 1- \ ' 1 ' :"['i •1 ■" tvM i 111 h-^ llTlll UPPER COAL MEASURES 123 trees were about 5 yards apart from centre to centre, and their diameter varies from 10 to 15 inches. In the floor of both the Upper and Lower Pilot seams, 20 to 30 feet. Coarse sandstones and fine conglomerates. Fossil trees. 20 feet (about). Dark-grey clay shales and sandstones. 6 feet Sandstone. 10 feet Cherts and cherty shales. 13 feet Burwood Coal Seam. 16 feet Dark-grey clay shales. Thin coal seam. 10 feet Fine greyish-white sandstone Sea level. 10 feet Clayey sandstones. 10 to 12 feet Cherts. B 5 to 6 feet Nobby's Coal Seam. Fig. 50. Clitf Section, Portion 30, Parish of Kuliiljali. south of Newcastle (David). This, with the two preceding sections, gives a nearly complete succession of the Upper Coal-measures as seen outcropping along the coast south from Newcastle. there are great numbers of more or less vertical roots of Vertehraria [the rhizome of Glossopteris, C.A.S.], while the layers of black shale between the beds of coal abound in Glossopteris [a fossil fern, C.A.S.] , and the 124 PEPaiO-CAEBONIFEEOUS PERIOD black fireclay bands are full of mother-of-coal and sporangia [seed vessels]. It is quite evident that we have here to deal with an ancient fossil forest which marked the linal stages in the evolution of a huge peaty swamp in Permo-Carboniferous times. This forest was formed of closely-packed, tall, coniferous trees, rooted on the su.rface of thick peat. It is clear, then, that in this seam, as in the ease of all Newcastle seams, the woody material which went to form the coal actually grew on the spot where the seams are now found. The past geological history of this part of the coal- field may probably be read as follows : — Along a wide coastal plain there was a development of plant growth in shallow marshes, the predominant type of plants at first being Glossopteris and Spheiwpteris. This growth of lowly-organised plants like ferns was followed later by a spread of forest trees. Iii.i's Crrck Coal-field. — The I'pper Coal iMeasures which occur at Rix's Creek, near Singleton, have a thickness of upwards of 1,000 feet and dip to the west. Bores put down in these measures at Eavens- worth j.ienetrated twelve (12) seams of coal, the aggregate thickness of coal being 86 feet. These coal measures are probably the equivalent of the New- castle Coal i\[easures. Tlie Curlcwis-Gunnedalt. Coal-field. — The same coal- seams extend in a westerly direction to Gunnedah. where they have been worked to a small extent. The Fig. 51.— Map of New Soutli Wales, showing approximate area c( ,ered by the Upper Marine Sea & the Upper Coal Measure Swamps. Premo-Carbonif erous — Upper Coal Measures. UPPER COAL MEASURES 125 following succession of strata have been desei-ibed from this locality by Mr. J. E. Carne. Thickness, feet. Tertiary (?) Dolerite Flow 200 I Hawkesbury Stage ... ... ... ... 130 Triassic ... i' Chocolate shales ... ... 3 ( Narrabeen Stage . Sandstones ... ... ... 40 (, Conglomerates ... ... 90 "Sandstones ... ... ... 50 Coal seam ... ... ... 12-15 ShaleSj sandstones, and conglomerates... ... 100 Coal seam ... ... ... 5 Cherty shales ... ... 50 Sandstone, conglomerate, and shales ... ... 5N Coal seam ... ... ... Shales and sandstone ( iin- kni.twn thickness) The Murrurundi District. — Here the Upper Coal Measures Series consists mainly of lavas and tuffs ; interstratifitd with them, however, there are some fresh-water beds. The riiyolites and rhyolite tuffs which occiu" at the base of the series are probably of Carboniferous age, The fresh-water beds are about 100 feet thick, and contain at least one coal seam in which an important deposit of kerosene shale occurs, which is now being opened up. The lavas and tuffs associated with these fresh-water beds are basic in composition, and are upwards of 1,200 feet in thickness. The ^Vcstern Goal-field. — This coal-field occurs along the western edge of the Permo-Carboniferous Tit) PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD Basin, the eoal measures outcropping beneath the Triassic strata along the sides of the valleys on the western edge of the Blue Mountains Tableland, from Lithgow northwards to Gunnedah. South from Lith- gow the outcropping edge of the coal-basin trends south-west past Burragorang to the south-western eoal-fleld. The Lithgow Coal Measures are the equivalent of the Newcastle and Bulli Coal jMeasures, and in the Lithgow district have a thieknesss of about 480 feet; northwards the thickness gradually increases, until at Talbragar, and in the north-western coal-field generally, a thickness of about 1,200 feet is reached. The base of the coal measures in the Lithgow district is marked by a bed of conglomerate about 50 feet in thickness called the Marangaroo Conglomerate; the remaining strata consist of shales and sandstoness, with a few thin bands of conglomerate and cherty tuffs. Seven coal seams are laiown to occur, three of which are of commercial importance. Of these the lowest (Lithgow seam) is the one most extensively worlced. seven collieries operating on it at Lithgow. and five collieries at AVallerawang and Cullen Bullen. The next seam is called the Upper Irondale Seam (sixth seam), and is 60-80 feet above the Lithgow seam. It is worked to some extent at Portland. Cullen Bullen. and Wallerawang. and is from 5 to 8 feet thick. The "Top" or "Katoomba" seam occurs at the top of the series, immediately below the Triassic strata. This seam is apparently identical Missing Page UPPER COAL IIEASUEES 127 with the "Bnlli" seam of the lUawarra district and with the seam now being worked in the Balmain Colliery (Sydney). It has been mined for coal at Hartley Vale and elsewhere, but its importance is due mainly to the occurrence in it of a band of kero- sene shale, varying' from 2 feet to 6 feet in thickness, ^vhieh has been extensively mined at Hartley Yale. Katoomba, &c. The nature and origin of kerosene shale will be referred to later. The shales associated with the coal-measures are very suitable for the maiuifacture of bricks, potterj\ stoneware, and fire- bricks, and are being extensively used for this pur- pose at Lithgow. The fossil flora preserved in these shales is similar to that found in the corresponding strata in other districts, and includes Glossopteris. Vertehraria, Sphenopteris, Phyllotheca, Brachyphyl- lum, Dndoxylon, and the Xar/gerathiopsis. In the eherty tuffs, near Lithgow, these plants are particu- larly well preserved. The South-Western Coal-field. — This occurs ad- jacent to the Main Southern Railway Line from Mittagong to Tallong. Here the main streams have cut down their gorges through the Triassie strata which forms the surface of the Tableland, and have exposed the underlying upper coal-measures. These range u]i to 200 feet in thickness and include several coal seams. At Tallong, on the southern edge of the basin, conglomerate and sandstones predominate. Here the coal is of a very poor quality, as might have been expected, since it was produced at the very border of the coal swamps, and was therefore subject to 128 PERMO-CARBONIFEROL'S PERIOD contamination by mechanical sediments. Here also the leaves of Nosggerathiopsis are far more plentiful than fronds of Glossopieris, probably due to the fact that the dry land to the south and west was clothed Avith Dadoxylon trees from which the leaves were shed. Throughout this coalfield the coal is apparently not of such good quality as that from other parts of the State, owing to the relatively higher percentage of ash contained. Kerosene shale of verj^ good quality has been mined near Mittagoug. The Southern (lUaivarra) Coal-field. — The Upper Coal Pleasures in the Newcastle district dip south, and at Sydney are nearly 3,000 feet below sea-level. From here they begin to rise, until at Clifton they again appear above sea-level. Followed still further south- wards, the strata continue to rise until, at Cambe- warra on the southern edge of the basin, they reach an altitude of 1,600 feet. Here they have a thickness of only 40 feet, whereas, at Jamberoo. some 20 miles northwards, the thickness has increased to 850 feet, which is about the average thickness for the district. The strata, often referred to as the Bulli Coal Measures, consist mainly of shales and sandstones (see Pig. 53). but at Jamberoo the Ijasal beds are tuffs, and two basaltic lava-tlows occur in the series. Cherty tuft's, similar to those of the Newcastle district, also occur. A section of the Upper Coal Pleasures in the neighbourhood of Unanderra and ilount Kembla is given in Fig. 53. It will be seen that these con- temi)oraneous lava-flows are included. Seven seams UPPER COAL MEASURES 129 Approximate remaining thickness. From 20 to 600 feet. „ 20 „ 40 ,, ,, 6S0 ,, 850 .30 feet.. 20 20 100 „ 240 „ Sea level. Hawkesbury stage Chocolate shales ... Triassic (Hawkesbury series,) Narrabeen stage J Bulll coal seam (No. 1), ^ The4-feet ,, (No. 2) The dirty ,, {No. 3) Coal seam (No. 4) No. 3 Nebo lava flow .. No. 2 ,, Coal seam (No. 5)... (No. 6)... (No. 7)... Silicified wood horizon. No. 1 Nebo lava flow ... Trach'tebo'ld"r horiz'n Berkley lava flow Flagstafl:' Hill tufls Dapto lava flow.. Carboniferous, Permo- Fig. 53. Vertical succession of Triassic and Permo-Carboniferous Strata, Wollong-onK- District, (Harper.) 130 PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD of coal exist in the Illawarra district, of which the following are the most important : — 1. The Bulli Seam . . 2-11 feet thick 2. The Four-feet Seam 4 „ 3. The Thick Seam or Dirty Seam .. 16-26 „ 4. The Eight-feet Seam .. 7-9 „ 5. The Bottom Seam . . 6 „ Of these, the top, or Bulli seam, has been mined all along its outcrop from Clifton to Mount Kembla. The coal is an excellent steaming and coking coal. The same seam is being mined at Helensburgh in the I\Ietropolitan Colliery, at a depth of 1.100 feet below the surface, and in the Sydney Harbour Colliery, at a depth of about 2,900 feet below sea-level. The coal from the latter colliery is semi-authracitic in composition, and is almost smokeless. Chaptee X. PERMO-CARBONIPEROUS PERIOD (continued). I. — Peemo-Carbonifeeous Life. (a) The Marine Fauna. — The marine life of this period is thoroughly Palffiozoic in character, and con- tains an admixture of what would, in the Northern Memisphere, be considered as distinct Carboniferous and Permian types. That it differs markedly from the marine fauna of the true Carboniferous forma- tions of New South Wales, already described, is shown by the following list of its more important members ; such genera as are common to the two periods are represented, in most cases, by different species : — Foraminifera : — Nuhecularia, Litiiola, Nodosaria, EndeAhyra, Lagena. Spongida : — Hyalostelia. Actinozoa : — Zaplirentis, Tracliypora. Crinoidea : — Fhialocrinus, TrihracMocrin us. Asteroidea : — Palwaster. Echinoidea: — ArcJiwrjcidaris. Polyzoa : — Fenesfella, Polypora, Protoretepora, Sienopora. Brachiopoda : — Lingula, Dielasma, Productus, Martiniopsis, Hpirifer, Spiriferina, Stivpha- losia. M 131 132 PERMO-CARBOXIFEROUS PERIOD Pelee.vpoda : — Aviculopccfcu, Deltopectcn, Mwonia, Meriiiiwpteya, Chrrnomija, Cleobis, XotoDtija, Edmondia. Eurydestna, Htutcliburia, Pleuro- pJwrus, Asiartila, Aphanaia. Ptcropoda : — Hijolithes, Comdaria. Gasteropoda : — Kceneia, Platyschisma, Ptijcompha- liiia, Mourhniia. Murchisonia. Cephalopoda: — Ortliocerca^, Goiikttites. Crastaeea (Ostracoda) : — Enfornis, PoJijcope, Car- honicola. Protozoa. — Foraminifera are abundant, particu- larly so ill the lower marine strata of the Pokolbin district. Radiolaria are not known to occur. Spongida. — Sponges are uncommon. Ca-:LEXTERATA. — Tile corals are the only group represented, and are uncommon, only two genera being known. The refrigeration of the climate, as indicated by the glacial beds, is the cause generally assigned for the practical extinction of the more abun- dant corals of the previous periods. EciiiNODERjiATA. — The crinoids were at times abun- dant, particularly in the latter part of the Upper ilarine Epoch. The genus Phialocrhnis had a calyx up to 4 inches in diameter, and is the largest kno^ni crinoid yet found in Australia. Tribracliiocrhtus is an interesting type, possessing three simple arms and two double-arms — it is the commonest genus, and is confined to Australia. Large starfish occur, particu- larly on the Ravensfield sandstone horizon. Sea- urchins were not numerous, while c.ystoids and blas- toids are unknown. 3 - 1. Pol,;,,,, Fig. 54. Permo-Carlioniferoiis Coral.s ;iiid Pulyzoa. 2. fit,;,nj,o,;, ,;-h,il„. S. T,;,,-!,,,/,,,,;, W',IH 4. Zui,l,,-eiilix (',ii,„„l„„. 5-7. Zn/,Ji,-c„/i^ 0,;-,-, THE MARINE FAUNA 133 MoLLuscoiDEA. — The Polyzoa -were nirore abund- ant than they had ever been before. The Fenes- tellidffi {Fenestella, Polypora, &c.) occurred in great numbers, and their beautiful lace-like structures are wonderfully well preserved in some of the marine shales. The coral-lilvc genus 8fenopora was also abundant, and is repi'esented by both massive (>S'. criiiila) and branching forms (>S'. Tasmaniensis) . Fig. 55. Pernn.i-Ciirlionit'eroiis Ecliinoilerniatii. ]. PI,:„!„r,-n,Hx iH-Ui,-,;,.-,. 1. P„hr„^lf ,■ ,,i,,,n,l<;,^. Th(^ Bbachiopoda lived in countless numliers, and probably dominated all the other invertebrates. The Spiriferida^ (Spirifer, 2Iartiiiiopsis, &c.) and the Pro- ductida' (FrcKhidiis and Hiroplialosia) were the most al)undant of these; the genus !^pirifci\ in particular, wa.s represented by large numbers, both of species and individuals. Martiniopsis supplied the largest 134 PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD brachiopod shells yet found in Australia. The Strophomenidw and Orthidie, so abundant in the Carboniferous strata, are absent here. MoLLuscA. — These rival the ^lolluseoidea in numbers, the two sub-kingdoms together providing the great bulk of the marine fairna. The Permo- Carboniferous was imdoubtedly the "Age of the Shell-fish." The Pelecypods dominate the other classes of the moUusea. and were more abundant and individually larger than they had been in any previous period. The shells of Aphanaia attained a length of 15 inches, while Clfobis and Eunjdesma also built very large and thick shells. The Gasteropoda, while not so numerous as the Peleeypoda, were larger than they had ever been before. Platiischistna, and its ally Krcncia. were the largest and most characteristic genera. The Cephalo- pods were relatively unconnnon ; Orthoccras still per- sists, and, together with Goiiiatites, is fairlj' abundant on the Ravensfield sandstone horizon. The great ad- vance in the Cei)halopods. which took place in other parts of the world towards the close of the PahTOzoic Era. and which foresliadnwed their extraordinary development in the ^lesozoic Era, has no parallel in New South Wales. Arthropod.\. — Trilobites are unknown, and evi- dently became extinct at the closc^ of the Carbon- iferons Period. The (.)strac(ids are the only known representative of the sub-kinudiim. and oven those ai'e not abundant. Fig. 56. Perjiio-Carbouiferous Bracliiopuds. si,l„-r„li,:fiix (internal cast). 4-.5. S'luriffi- T,is„io„i,;,„i.^. li-7. T.rehmlnl,, (Hi,.l„su,„) ,<,„■,■„/„». 8, 10. Pr,„hu-I„x bnu-lu/lkier,,., (ventral valve). 9. P.mliulHM l„;frh;iH,„:r„„ (dorsul valve) . Fig. 57. Permo-C!Lrboiiiferou,s Mt.ilhisca. 1.2. Biii-!i:lm„M r„i;h,h:ui (Morris). 3. An<-i,lni„i-lr„ lr„nir„ll,s (Daua]. i. M„„„i„ rhuHiuh, (Dana). .5. G.,„},ihl,„ (A;,„ll,,,;',;,x) ,„■„■,-„,„ i,l,„ln, (Murris). K. h',-li„.i„ /.hfl llxrl,:x„„N,lrs (Btb. til.) 7. I'lulll^rhixtuu „r,il,lia (Sowerby). k. 0,-!li>,i;'rNx iCiiijirroivrii.^j Pliiinjj.-,! (De Koii.) Fig. 58. Pernio-Carboniferous Plants. 1-2. GU,sm,>lfi-h li,u:„ri.i (McCoy). S-i. GI,mo,,feris Bmmilaiw (Bg-t.; PERMO-CAEBONIFEROUS PERIOD 135 (B.) The Terrestrial Flora and Fauna. — This in- cludes the following genera : — Equisetales. — Phyllotheca, Schizoncura, Annularia. Filieales (Ferns) — Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Vertebraria, Sphenopteris, Alethopteris, Taeni- opteris. Cordaiteai (?) — Dadoxylon, Nreggerathiopsis. Coniferre ( ?) — BrachypJiylluin. Ginkgoaeese — Baiera. Inseeta — Neuroptera ( ? ) . Amphibia — Bothriceps. Pisces (Fish) — Urosthenes. The most characteristic member of this flora is the fern Glossopicris (Fig. 58) ; its fronds occur in enormoiis numbers, and the peculiar anastomising venation shown in the illustration is very character- istic. Gangamopteris, although less abundant, is just as characteristic, particularly for the earlier part of the period ; its venation is like that of Glossopteris, but has no midrib (Fig. 59). Vertebraria was the rhi- zome of Glossopteris. Both ferns must have flourished abundantly in the coal-measure swamps, as also did the horsetail Phyllotheea. Dadoxylon was the largest of the plants, and probably ranged up to 100 feet in height ; numerous trunks occur in situ immediately on top of some of the coal-seams, and it is freciuently found as driftwood, both in the marine and fresh- water beds. It apparently flourished on the dry land surrounding the coal swamps, and spread over the sur- face of the coal-seams after coal-making conditions 130 PERilO-CAEBOXIFEEOUS PERIOD had ceased. The fossil leaves called XvfjfjcratJiiopsis are believed to have been the foliage of these trees. Fig. 59. Permo-Carljoniferons Plants. 1. G,iiiiia,uc,,,t(;i-'m Clarkei (Feist.). 2. .SWi/.-o./fn,-., .lutn' /•,(?/» (Etll. fils.). :?. B,;,ih,/,,l,,,lh,,„ .nistnile (Feist.). 4. Terteljrarl.i ii,,„l,;iliy (JVIoCoy). .5. Pli,/llotl,ei;i .iiislrall"— stem (Bgt.). li. Pl,j/llr,flice,i ,(((,./,•«;).<— w)iorl of leaves. The classification of Badoxijlon is uncertain, but it is believed to have belonged to the Cordaiiew. a group which combined some of the features of Conifers and C'ycads, and was. perhaps, the ancestor of both. Scluzoncura, Alethopieris. Taeniopferis. and Bnin-a ap])ear only towards the close of the period ; in the THE TERRESTRIAL FLORA 137 Balmain Colliery they oeeur immediately above the coal seam, and are associated there with Glossopteris; all four plants, as well as Phyllotheca, pass np into the overlying Triassic strata. SpJienopteris also occurs in both formations, but is represented Ijy different species. It will be of interest to make a comparison here of the Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous, and Tria.ssic iloras. The following table gives a list of the more import- ant members of the flora from each of these periods : — Eciuisetales Carljoniferous. Pernio- Oarbouiferous. Triassic. (Jala mites Phyllotheca Phyllotheca Schizoneura 8. Austrolis Australis Aiinulai'ia Equlsetvni Lycopodiales Lepidodendron (Unknown) (Unknown) Filicales Anei'inites Glossopjteris ThinnfeUlia Bhacopteris Gangamopteris TceniopteHs Oardiopteris Vertebraria Macfotcenioptet'is Archoeopteris Alethopteris c.f. Alethopjteris Australis Australis Sphenopteris Sphenopiteris Cordaiteffi (?) Dadoxylon (Unknown) Coniferae (Unknown) B rachyphyll um (?) Cyoadales (Unknown) (Unknown) Podozamites Pterophyllum Ginkgoaceae (Unknown) Baiera Baiera Ginkgo It will be seen that not a single member of the Carboniferous flora passed upwards into the Permo- Carboniferous. The refrigeration of the climate which took place at the beginning of the latter period, as indicated by the glacial beds in New South AVales 138 PERilO-C'AEBOXIFEROUS PERIOD and other parts of Australia, has been suggested as the cause of this marked break between the two floras. There is also a very marked difference between the Permo-Carboniferous and Tria,ssic floras, all the more important members of the former failing to pass the boundary. Some few members of the Triassic flora (>Sc]iizo)ieura. Aldhopteris. Tafniopferis. and Bai(ra) appeared, however, before the close of the Permo- Carboniferous. and we have thus a slight com- mingling of the twij floras in the topmost beds of the Upper Coal ]\Icasures. The Permo-Carl)oniferous flora, although so differ- ent from that nf the Triassic Period, has. as a whole, a decidedly ^lesozoic aspect, and. were it not for the fact that some of the fresh-water beds containing these fossil plants are actually interstratified with marine strat;), containing an unchjubted Upper Pala?ozoic fauna, the strata containing the (xlossopta-is flora would probably have been referred to the I\Iesozoic Era. Land Animals. — The terrestrial fauna is a very limited ijne ; a Laliyrinthodnnt { BofJi riap.s majuv- has lieen obtained from the Upper Coal Pleasures at Air]}' in the Lithgow distric-t. and is the (ildest verte- bi'at(' animal, nther than flsh. yet found in Xew South Wall's. A fossil flsh {rrnstln: ik s Anst rails ' has bc.?n obtained from the Upper Coal Pleasures, lioth in the Lithg'iw and Xi-wc-astle districts, while from the latter locality the wings of some undeseribecl insects, belong- ing prriliably to the Xeuroptera. have been obtained. ii'/J Fig. 60. Permo-Carboniferous Ampliiltiiin- linthncpf^ uaijoi' (A.S.W.) — from Airley. PERMO-CARBOXIFEROUS PERIOD 13n II. — Economic Importance op the Permo-Caebon- iFEROus Formation. The Coal — Quality and Availaile Supply. — Various estimates have been made from time to time as to the quantity of coal available in the Permo-Carboniferous Coal Pleasures of New South Wales. The first of these Avas made by the late Government Greologist (ilr. C. S. Wilkinson), who, assuming 4,000 feet as the limit of depth at which economical mining could be carried out, and allowing one-fifth for loss in work- ing, estimated an available supply of 78,198,000,000 tons of coal. He excluded seams less than 2^- feet in thickness. In 1890, Professor T. AV. E. David, taking the same limit of depth, but excluding seams under 3 feet in thickness, arrived at an estimate of from 130,000,000.000 to 150,000,000,000 tons. Still later in 1901, Mr. E. P. Pittman, G-overnment Geologist. with more accurate data as to the area over which the coal measures occur, viz., an area of 16,550 scjuare miles, and assuming an average thickness over this area of 10 feet of workable coal, reduced the above estimate to 115,346,880,000 tons. The estimate of the thickness of coal used in making this calculation is a verj^ conservative one. The output for the past six years has been as follows : — 1907 . . 8,657,924 tons 1910 . . 8,173,508 tons 1908 . . 9,147,025 „ 1911 . . 8,691,604 „ 1909 . . 7,019,879 „ 1912 . . 9,885,815 „ At this rate of production the estimated available supply would last for over 12,000 years. The follow- 140 PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD ing table gives analyses of the coal from various localities, the figures given in most cases being an average of a considerable number of analyses ; tlie3' are taken, for the most part, from Mr. E. F. Pittman's "Coal Resources of New South Wales": — Lower Coal ( Measures. ^ Locality. Water. Volatile Hydro Carbon Fixed Carbon Ash. Calori- metric value. Hunter River District Ashford fnr. Inverell) Clyde River 1-89 0-71 0-68 41-.35 22'90 34-96 50-51 68-96 52-92 6-25 7-43 11-53 13-2 13-83 Middle Coal j Measures. i East Maitland District 1-88 3,571 52-77 9-64 12-5 Upper Coal Measures. L I^ewcastle District ... Singleton Curlewis G-unnedah Lithgow District ... Illawarra , , Sydney 2-01 172 2-40 2-55 205 071 0-66 36-01 36-76 33-30 35 -35 32-31 23-65 17-57 53-27 52-87 56-30 55-35 53-08 63-98 71-09 8-71 8-25 8-00 6-75 12-56 11-66 10-68 12-7 12-7 12-0 12-3 11-9 12-68 13-0 It will be seen that the coals are all anhydrous bituminous coals, and show a considerable variation in the relative proportions of fixed carbon and the volatile hydro-carbons. These varieties include ex- cellent steam, gas-making, coking, and household coals; it is apparent, therefore, that New South AA^'ales possesses excellent coal resources, both from the point of view of quantity and quality, and as they are at the same time very favourably situated for commercial purposes, they form a great national asset. Kerosene Shale. — This substance occurs more ex- tensively in New South Wales than perhaps in any other part of the world. It is found both in the Upper and Lower Coal Measures, but the more ex- ECONOMIC lilPORTAXCE OF THE PEETOD 141 tensive deposits occur in the former formation. In nearly all cases the deposits occur at or near the edges of the coal basin ; it would seem, therefore, that the edges of the coal measure swamps provided the necessary conditions for the deposition of this material. The most extensive deposit at present known is that now being opened up at Wolgan. some miles to the north of Lithgow. The main tunnel here has exposed a seam with an average thickness of over 4 feet for a horizontal distance of over 4,000 feet, two-thirds of this thickness being of first grade quality ; ordinary coal also occurs in this seam, both above and below the kerosene shale. Kerosene shale also occurs at many other places in the Western district, including Katoomba, Hartley Vale, and Caperti'e Valley, at some of which it has been extensively mined. Im- portant deposits have also been worked at Jitadja, near ^Mittagong, in the south-western coal-field, and at ilount Kembla, in the Illawarra district, and an extensive deposit is now being opened up at ilurrii- rundi. The New South Wales production of kerosene shale to the end of 1912 was 1,651,131: tons, valued at £2,322,830. Kerosene shale is a close-grained, brownish-black rock, with a peculiar toughness, and a well-marked conchoidal fracture. In composition it differs markedly from coal, in containing a very high per- centage of volatile hydrocarbons, and a correspond- ingly low percentage of fixed carbon, as will be seen 142 PERMO-CAEBOXIFEROUS PERIOD from the following analyses of samples of high-grade material from various localities in New South AVales. Water. Volatile Hydro- Carbons. Carbon. Ash. Torhane ... 0-72 69-69 9-04 20-54 Jaodja ... 0-16 89-59 5-27 4-98 Capertee Valley 0-30 64-40 13-85 21-45 Wolgan ... 030 67-92 11-98 19-80 Hartley Vale ... 82-24 4-97 12-79 Mount Victoria 0-47 67-45 14-63 17-45 Katoomha 0-30 74-10 13-08 15-52 The average of the analyses from 61 Xe-w South AVales samples from various localities gives 69.85 per ceut. of volatile hydrocarbons and 1-i.lU per cent, of fixed carbon, or a ratio of about 5 to 1. AVitli an in- creasing proportion of fixed carbon, kerosene shales merge gradually into caunel coals; inferior grades contain increasingly higher percentages of inorganic material (ash). The mode of occurrence is similar to that of ordinary coal, the two often oi-i-urring in one and the same seam, it being not uncommon for the kerosene shale to have a layer of coal both above and below it. The area over which it occurs is seldum I'xteusive. as it sooner (ir later merges into, and gives place to, ordinary coal. The microscopic structure and com- position of kerosene shale indicate th;it it has result('d from the accumulation of an ulmic precipitate, to- gether with sred-spores, polb^n grains, and othei' vege- table debris. The plant-remains include fronds of ECOKOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE PERIOD 143 the genus Glossopteris, sometimes in considerable abundance. It seems probable, therefore, that near the borders of the coal-measure swamps expanses of oj^en water occurred, comparatively free from the usual coal- making vegetation. Upon the surface of this water showers of spores and pollen grains fell from the surrounding vegetation, while the water itself was more or less charged with organic material in solution. These materials slowly accumulated at the bottom of the swamp, and as the_y had a different chemical com- position from that of ordinary plant fibre, the result- ing rock (kerosene shale) has a correspondingly different composition from that of ordinary coal. Clays. — The shales of the coal-measures include some beds of shale which are very suitable for making bricks, pottery, &c. These are being utilised to a considerable extent in the Lithgow district. III. — The Permo-Caebonifeeous GlxVciation. Nature and Extent of the Glayiatioii. — The occur- rence of glaciated pebbles and erratics in both the Lower and Upper Marine Series has already been referred to. This glacial horizon is not confined to New South Wales, but occurs also in Victoria, Tas- mania, South Australia, and Western Australia, and is one of the most interesting features of the Permo- Carboniferous Period in the Southern Hemisphere. As already pointed out, the glacial beds of the Hunter River district in New South AVales are not typical boulder clays or till, but are marine sediments 144 PERMO-CAEBONIFEROCS PERIOD into which glaciated pebbles and large erratics were dropped by floating ice as the sediments accumulated. Xo actual glaciers are known to have existed in Xew South Wales, but the nature of some of the trans- ported boulders. Devonian cjuartzite and Silurian limestone, suggests that they may have been derived from corresponding formations in this State. In Vic- toria. Tasmania, and South Australia, however, the glacial deposits are true moraine deposits, which rest upon glaciated land surfaces. At Bacchus ^larsh, in Victoria, fresh-water sandstones, containing Ganga- moptcris and Schizoneura. are interstratified with the glacial deposits. In the Inman Valley in South Aus- tralia the removal of the glacial deposits is re-expos- ing the Permo-Carboniferous valley- down which the one-time glacier flowed. In West Australia the glacial beds are analogous to those of Xew South AVales. There can be no question, therefore, that glaciers existed on the Australian Continent during at least part of the Permo-Carboniferous Period ; that these glaciers extended at times down to sea-level is shown by the fact that glaciated pebbles and erratics were transported by floating ice and distributed over the bottom of the shallow Permo-Carboniferous sea. This Permo-Carboniferous glaeiation was not limited, however, to Australia ; in Peninsular India ("Gondwana Series), in South Africa fDwyka Series). and in Brazil, glacial deposits analogous to thuse of Australia are found, in each case associated with strata containing the characteristic lihutsopfi ris flora. The boulder beds of all these regions, and the THE PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS GLACIATION 145 glaciated land surfaces upon which they rest, are just such evidences as those upon which the existence of the Pleistocene lee Age of the Northern Hemisphere depends, the reality of which is universally accepted. The conclusion has been generally arrived at, therefore, that a glacial period existed in the Southern Hemisphere during the Permo-Carbon- if erous Period. The complete change in the tiora wliicii ushers in the Permo-Carboniferous Period in Australia is quite in harmony with this view. The marine fauna, how- ever, does not lend the same support. The absence of reef-building corals is, of course, significant; but there is not that marked difference between the marine faunas of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous Periods which might have been expected had there been a refrigeration of the climate, such, for examjile, a.s that which produced the Great Ice Age of the Pleistocene Period. On the contrary, the glacial boulder beds of the Irwin and Gascoyne River Dis- tricts of AVest Australia occur in a marine series of strata which contains a remarkable commingling of the Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous marine faunas of New South Wales; a similar commingling of these two faunas appears to exist to some extent in Queensland also. This shows that the change from one fauna to the other was a gradual one, and not a sudden one as might be expected if it were due to a sudden change to a colder climate. In the northern hemisphere, on the other hand, the palieontological evidence of the Pleistocene Period strongly supports 14(j PERMO-CAEBOXIFEEOCS PEEIOD the tlieoiy of an Ice Age. AVhile it must be admitted that extensive glaciers existed in Australia during the Pemio-Carboniferous Periocl, and that many of these glaciers extended down to sea-level, it is improlsable that Australia, during any part of this period, was buried under an ice-sheet or succession of ice-sheets analogous to those which submerged such a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere during the Pleistocene lee-Age. The transportation of glacial material by floating ice extended as far north as the Bo\ven River in Queensland, and the Gaseoyne River in West Aus- tralia. Init the existence of land ice is not known for certain frtmi further north than Derrinal in Victoria and the Jnnian Vallej' in South Australia. The direc- tion of the stria' rin the glaciated land surfaces indi- cates a general northerly direction of movement for these glaciers. Cause of ihi: Glaciation. — Tiie cause of this glacial period, and particularly its peculiar localisation, is one of the outstanding pniblems of geology. The con- diti(jns whieh produced the Pleistocene glaciation were world-wide in their effect, and the areas most strongly affected were more or less circumpnlar. In the Permo- Carljoniferous Period, on the other hand, the regions aff'ected were for the most part in the Southern Hemis- phere, and in India glaciers, extending nearly to sea- le^•el. exi.sted within a few degrees of the eciuator. The distribution of land and sea at this time was possilily an iin]iortant factor. The remarkable simi- larit\' (if the tluras of Australia, India, and South THE PEParO-CARBOXIFEROUS GEACIATIOX 147 Africa at this time leads ti> tlic inference that tliese regions, now so widely S(.'paratetl. were joined by direct land connections, and formed parts of a conti- nent, covering part of what is now the Indian Ocean; this supposed continent has been named Gondwana Land. There are also reasons tor thinking that Aus- tralia at this time had direct land coiuiection with Antarctica and thence to South America. With thi.s distribution of land and sea there nmst have been a very different oceanic (drcnlation to that which exists at the present day, a condition of things which must have had some corresponding inhnence on the climate. This factor, in itself, was probably not the main one in producing the glacial conditions, but wa.s most likely a strong contril)uting (■ause working in con- junction with other factors which are still unknown. Summary op the Perjio-Carboniferots Period: Xo \ery chifinite information is yet available ns to the earth movements which took place at the closi' of the Carboniferous Period in New South Wales. \n unconformity exists between the strata (jf this and the next perifxl. but is not very pronounced in some of the places where junctions between these two formations are definitely known to occur. The ]i|)lift which did take place at the close of the Carboniferous was later followed by a subsidence which allowed an extensive transgr(^ssion of the sea to take place. The limits of this sea are not definitely known, hut it certaiid^y covered a considerable portion of what is now the Hunter River district, as well as large areas between 148 PERMO-CARBONIFEP.OUS PERIOD there and the Queensland border. One of these areas extended from the coast at the mouth of the Macleay River westwards to the main tableland; a second area occurred in the Drake district near the Queens- land border, and extended westwards at least as far as Emmaville. AVhat the limits of these trans- gressions of the sea weve, and whether they were separate inlets or portions of one continuous sea, is not vet known, but the areas covered are shown approximately in Fig. 37. These marine conditions at the beginning of the Permo-Carboniferous Period were preceded in some localities for a limited time by fresh-water conditions, during which some fresh- water beds (including a coal seam in one case) were deposited; the places where this occurred seem to have been limited in area. In this epicontinental sea was deposited that thick series of marine sediments known as the Lower i\larine Series, all of which must have been laid down in comparativeljr shallow water. I^'loating ice, derived perhaps from glaciers in Victoria and Tas- mania, drifted northwards on the surface of this sea. dropping, as it melted, its load of morainic material into the marine sediments as they were being depo.sited. The "water of this sea was inhabited by an exceedingly numerous and varied marine inverte- brate fauna whose hard parts have been beautifully preserved in many of the strata. At certain localities the remains collected in sufh abundauiM^ as to form beds of limestone. From time to time this tranquil deposition of sediments was interrupti:'d by volcanic THE PERMO-CARBONIPEROUvS GLACIATION 149 eruptions on a. considerable scale, as a result of which extensive lava Hows were poured on to the surround- ing sea bottom, while innneuse quantities of volcanic ash were distributed far and wide. The volcanic cones from which these eruptions took place probably stood as islands in this shallow sea. To allow oi the deposition of such a great thickness of shallow-water marine sediments (4,600 feet) as was deposited during the Lower Marine Epoch, a more or less con- tiruious subsidence must have been slowly taking place. An upward movement of the earth's crust now followed, -which brought about the entire withdi'awal of the sea, converting some of the areas previously covered by it into dry land, but converting the southern area (Hunter River District) into a large fresh-water lake. This extended in a north-westerly direction at least as far as iMuswellbrook. but how far south and south-west is not at present known. A smaller lake extended from Inverell to the Queens- land border (see Fig. 42). In these lakes the shales, conglomerates, and coal-seams which constitute the Lower Coal ^Measures were deposited. Twice during this epoch the water shallowed sufficiently to allow of the whole area becoming covered by dense vegeta- tion whose accumulated remains formed two seams of coal with an aggregate thickness of about 40 feet. This thickness of coal would have I'equired a thickness of at least 2S0 feet of vegetable material for it,s formation, the growth and accumulation of which must have refiuired a very long period of time. 150 PEEMO-CAEBONIFEKOUS PERIOD Renewed subsidence now again allowed the sea to invade the land. This second transgression did not reach its maximum extent luitil fairly late in the Upper ilarine Epoch, when the sea extended over the area approximately shown on the map. (Fig. 51.) The area then covered did not coincide with that covered by the Lower ^Marine transgression, as will be seen li}- comparing Figs. 37 and 51. The Devonian and Silurian strata covered by the Upper ^larine deposits in the southern and western parts of the area affected had been undergoing denudation during the Carboniferous Period and the earlier part of the Permo-Carboniferous Period ; this resulted in the development of an extensive peneplain in the.se rocks, and exposed the granite bosses by which they had been intruded at the close of the Devonian Period. (See Fig. 63.) As the sea now slowly advanced on the land, the waves worked over the regolith on this old land surface and produced the thick basal con- glomerates which mark the base of the Upper ^Marine Series in these regions. This re-advanee of the sea was accompanied by a marine fauna similar to that which had inhabited it during the Lower ^Marine Epoch ; very few of the species of the older fauna failed to re-appear, and but few new species had developed in the meantime. That glaciers still existed (or had re-appeared) is evi- denced by the eii-atics which occur in the I'pper Marine sediments. Yulcanism still continued, but the centre of activity had shifted to what is now the Ulawarra district. From one point of eruption near Kiama a THE PERilO-CARBONIFEROUS GLACTATIOX 151 great series of basic lavas and tntfs was poured out; at first great showers ot voleanic ash. large blocks and bombs rained down into the sea, causing a wholesale destruction of the animals by whii'h it Avas inhabited, then followed great floods of molten lava which spread far and wide over the sea bottom. After these eruptions had been in progress for some time, a second centre of activity developed some few miles to the south at Cambewarra, from which traehytic lavas and tuft's were ejected. The volcanic activity in these regions continued until the close of the epoch. The development of a land l)arrier to the east now cut off the Upper JIarine Sea from the ocean and con- verted it into a fresh-water lalct i Macleay^Eiver Upper Coal Measure Dempsey Series Middle Coal Measure Upper Mai'ine Series Lower Coal Measure Lower Marine Series ft. 1,500 2,000-3,000 800-1,700 6,400 300 4,800 ft. 8.50 Absent. do 3,200 150 Absent. ft. 480 Absent do 400 Absent. do Absent do do do do Present (thickness unknown) . Total Tliiekness ... 17,700 4,200 880 Unknown. The apparently i^ermanent retreat of the sea at the close of the Lower Marine Epoch from the areas covered by it in the Emmaville, Drake, and ilacleay River districts suggests that some important earth movements may have affected these regions at that time. This is supported b}' the fact that the Lower ilarine strata here are much more highly folded than those of the Hunter River district, and that they have been extensive^ intruded by plutonic igneous rocks. The overlap of the Upper ilarine strata on the Lower Coal Pleasures and Lower ilarine Series at several THE PERMO-C'APJJONIFEKOUS GLACIATIOX 153 places in the northern edge of the ^laitland coal-field lends further support to this view. It would appear proliable, therefore, that at the close of the Lower Marine Epoch (or perhaps Lower Coal Measure Ej)och) the nortli-eastern part of the State was sub- jected to erogenic earth-movements which folded the Lower .Marine strata and lifted them above sea-level. The folding was accompanied by the intrusion of plutonic igneous rucks. The strength of this move- ment decreased southwards, and died out as the present ilaitland district was approached, the only effect here being to cause a slight overlap of the Upper Marine Series on the earlier Permo-Carlion- iferous strata. Eenewed orogenic earth movements took place in the same region at the close of the Permo-Carboniferous Period, and this time extended suffieientl.y far southward to develop a series of broad anticlinal and synclinal folds in the Permo-Carbon- iferous strata along the northern edge of the I\Iait- land coal-field. Onlj' one of these folds (the Lochin- var Anticline) extends much to the south of the present course of the Hunter Eiver, and even this soon flattens out and disappears. This was the last occasion upon which orogenic earth-movements are known to have affected any part of New South Wales. The Permo-Carljoniferous strata of the southern and western coal-fields were not affected by these orogenic movements. Chaptek XI. TRIASSIC AND JUEASSIC PERIODS. Above the Permo-Carboniferous formation described in the last chapter, there is found in New South AVales an extensive series of fresh-water beds, which rest conformably, for the most part, upon them, but which contain a distinctly different fossil flora ; this flora is of undoubted ^Mesozoic age. These fresh-water beds are overlain in turn^ in the north-western part of the State, by marine strata of Cretaceous age. As they represent the total sedimentation which took place from the close nf the Pakeozoic Era until the begin- ning of the Cretaceous Period, they are generally, in Eastern Australia, referred to as the Trias-Jura formation. It is considered by some authorities that part of these fresh-water beds in Xew South AVales 'the Hawkesbury Series) are of Triassic age. while the remainder ((Jlarenee Series and Artesian Series) are considered to have been deposited later: these they consider to be of the same age as the so-called Trias-Jnra beds of the neighbouring States of Queens- land and Victoria. The reasons for this will lie dis- cussed later. The Triassic and Trias-Jura formations in Xew 154 Fig. 61. Narraljeen Beds (Sh;iles. Sandstones, and Conyluiiierates), ;is .seen in tlie Cliti' Sections on the coast ne;ir Newport. THE HAWKESBURY SEPJES 155 South AVales occur in several distinct areas, and have been named as follows : — 1. The ITawkesbuiy Series. 2. The Clarence Series. 3. The Artesian Series. 4. The Talbragar Series. It will be convenient to describe each series separately, and discuss their relative ages subse- quently. 1. — The Hawkesbury Series. These overlie, to a considerable extent, the strata of the main Permo-Carboniferous coal-basin of New South AA^ales. They outcrop along the coast from the Shoalhaven River nearly to Xeweastle, and extend westwards to Lithgow. AVhat are said to be outliers of this series occur as far north as Camden Haven and Broken Bargo. Adjacent to S.ydncy, the base of the series is nearly 3,000 feet below sea-level; southwards, westwards and northwards the strata rise gradually until in the Illawarra Eange they reach an altitude of nearly 1,000 feet and at Lithgow over 3,000 feet above sea-level. They cap the greater part of the Blue ^fountains tableland. This series has been sub-divided as follows: — 1. The AVianamatta Stage. 2. The Hawkesbury Stage. 3. The Narrabeen Stage. The Xurmbecii Slagc. — The beds belonging to this stage consist of sandstones and shales, with occasional thin beds of conglomerate. They attain their maxi- C ID = o : 4 - ^ i»^ THE HAWKESBUEY SERIES 157 mum thickness near Sydney, where, in the Cremorne bore, the following section was proved : — Hawlicsbuiij Sandstones . . . . . . 1,020 feet Ka)Taheen Beds — Chocolate shales . . . . . . 170 ,, Sandstones, shales and conglomerates 1,082 ., Cupriferous shales . . . . . . 38 ,, Estheria shales . . . . . . 561 Upper Coal Measures . . (thickness unknown) The Estheria shales are so called because some of the beds contain immense numbers of a small phjdlo- pod of that name ; beds of sandstone and conglomerate are interstratified with these shales. The cupriferous shales which follow are probably redistributed tuft's, and contain a small percentage of coi:)per, too small, however, to give the beds any commercial value. Following these there is a thiclv series of con- glomerates, sandstones and shales, the latter contain- ing abundant fossil plants. The chocolate shales, which occur at the top of this stage, are also redis- tributed tuffs, and have a characteristic chocolate-red colour which, together 'with their jieculiar lithological characters, enables them to be readil.v identified. As this bed maintains these characters over the whole of the area in which the TIawkesbury Series occur, it is a useful "persistent horizon" in mapping these beds. These chocolate shales outcrop strongly on the coast at Narrabeen. a few miles north of Sydney, from whence the formation gets its name. AVhen followed westwards, the Narrabeen beds are 15S TRTASSTC AXD JrRASSTC PERIODS found to thin considerably, as will l)e seen from the foUowini;' sections taken from various localities at in- ereasintr distances westwards from Svdney: — Hawkesbury Sandstone Stage Narrafceen Stage^ Chocolate shales. .- Shales and sandstones .. Copper shales ... Estheria beds Totals (Narrabeen Stage) ... ^ i^ -J -H y i imi, ,^ra ^ o 5S) Q CO ^ -^ J ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 1,100 1,000 272 284 191 135 170 1,082 3S 561 } 744 1- 749 - 1,165 921 355 241 1,8.51 1,493 1,165 S21 3.55 241 In the western part of the Blue iroiintains the Narral)een Ix'cls eonsist mainly of massive sandstones. and the ehocolate .shale bed (170 feet thick at S.vd- ney) has split into thre(> well-defined liands separated by sandstone, the upper and lower bands being 130 feet apart. These are well shown in the road-euttings on the I\Iount Victoria Pass, On the north-western edge of the lia.sin, at Gunnedah and ^ilurrurundi, beds of conglomerate about 200 feet in thieknes.s occur at the l«ise of the Xarrabcen lieds. In the south-western part of the basin the Narralieen beds are missing, havin.g been overlapped by the Ilawkes- bury sandstones. Fossil plants are abundant in some of the shales, particuhirly those near the top of the stn-ies. as. for exaini)le, in the clift" sections along the coast tietween Narralieen and liarranjoey. Biiiple-marks. annelid THE HAWKKSIIURY SE1!IES 159 W l|-.| P 5 113 tracks aud Ijuito\v,s, and sun-eracks are common iu many of the shale beds, \vhile current-bedding' is /t ±'re([uently seen in the g ^S sandstones. All tliese S2^ features, together «-itli '^ the ocea-sional occurrence t'L^'. of bands of conglomerate, ^ S; furnish conclusive evidence %}_ 'i. of the slialliiwness of the I /'" -: water in which these l)eds glli were deposited. TIic fhuulicshiii'ij Hund- sto)tc Stdfjc. — These Ijeds iintcrop strongly along the coast in the neighbourhood of .Sydney, and foi'm the surface rock of the greater part fif the Blue iloun- tain talilclaiul. The pre- cipitous wall-like escarp- ments which this forma- tion presents aronnd the sides of the Blue iloun- tain valleys is due to the undermining of the hard Triassic sandstones bj- the more rapid weathering of the underlying soft shales of the coal measures. The Hawkesbury sandstone formation consists mainly of massive sandstones and gi'its, which attain 100 TPJASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS a maximum thickness of 1,100 feet at Sydney. Occasional thin lenticular beds of carbonaceous shale occur, but are always limited in extent. Current- bedding is a frequent and conspicuous feature in the sandstones, the prevailing direction of dip of the larainaj being north-north-east, and the average angle of dip about 20 degrees. It seems obvious from this that the sandstones were deposited in shallow water in which rapidly-moving currents, coming mainly from the south-south-west, were transporting large quantities of sand. Examples of contemporaneous erosion are also not uncommon. Some of the len- ticular beds of shale above referred to contain fossil plants, fish, and fresh-water shells (I'nio). and must have been deposited in small lakes or lagoons temporarily cut oft" from the main body of water in which the coarser sediments were being deposited. The sandstones vary somewhat in composition — some are very argillaceous, others are the reverse; others again contain mucli mica -, still other Ix'ds are very ferruginous; \\'hile small titikes of graphite are not infrequently found in many of the strata. AVhere the Hawkesbnry sandstones have been intruded by basalt-dykes, prismatic structure ha,s been developed in many cases, the most notalile being that at Bondi. This has been produced in what were porous sand- stone beds, saturated with water at the time the in- trusions toolv' ]ilace; unequal heating started convec- tion currents which heated the particular sandstone bed for some distance away from the contact, and caused the rock to expand. Subsequent contraction 1^ . .- '-^ -^ Fig. 64. Triassic Saiidstone.s, Valley of tlie Waters, Blue Mountains. THE HAWKESBURY SERIES 161 on cooling' developed the joints whose intersection resnltecl in the prismatic structure. This prismatiza- tion is always accompanied by a variable amount of secondary silification, which has converted the sand- stone into ail imperfect quartzite. The altered rock has been much in demand for road-making purposes, and is known to the road-maker as "white metal"; consequently, these interesting occurrences have been in nearly ever.y case quarried out and removed. Another interesting feature of the Ilawkesbury sandstones is the contortion of the laminae in certain of the strata showing current bedding. No really satisfactory explanation of this feature has yet been Huggested. iMany excellent beds of "free-stone," ranging up to 60 feet ill thickness, are found, and have been ex- tensively quarried for the building of the metropolis. Gold occurs more or less throughout the Ilawkesbury sandstones, but the quantity (2 or 3 grains to the ton) is, of course, too small to be of any value ; as much as 2 or 3 dwt. per ton has been found in some places, and has given rise to much profitless expenditure of money in prospecting the rocks in such localities. Thf Wianainatta Stage. — The strata of this stage consist of a thick series of shales, with occasi.inal bands of sandstone, carbonate of iron, and thin bands of impure coal. The beds attain their maximum thickness in the Pieton and Campbelltown districts where, according to the late Rev. AV. B. Clarke, the thiclaiess approaches 700 feet, and the formation in- cludes grits and sandstones. The name Wianamatta, 1C2 TRIASSIC AXD JURASSIC PERIODS wliieli was given to them by this geologist, is the nati^-e name for South Creek; he recorded from this locality a seam of impure coal, 4 feet in thickness. The ^Yianamatta shales overlie the Hawkesbury sand- stones over large areas, but do not extend so far to the west and north as the latter formation. In the Blue I\loLUitains they have been removed from con- siderable areas by deimdation ; the small outliers occurring under the basalt caps at ilounts Tomah and King George, and the larger outlier at Springwood, testifying to the greater area once occupied by these shales in this ri^gion. Small lenticuhir beds of impure fresh-water lime- stone occur at Kiu'ra.jong. which contain fossil Ostra- cods and Foraminifera. The fossil fauna found in the AA'ianamatta shales includes fresh-water fish, pelecypods. and large amphibia (Labyrinthodonts) ; fossil plants also occur in considerable abiuidance. The shales provide excellent brick-making material, and are extensively ciuarried for that purpose in the environs of Sydney: it is from such quarries at St. Peters that specimens of the fossil fish and amphiliia have been obtained. lUIafioii of flu Jfairkeslnirii Soia to flic Vpp(r Coal JJcasiii'cs. Thrnu.uhout the greater jiart of the area over which the Hawkesbury Series ocr-ui-. they rest conformal)ly upon the I'pjxT Coal Pleasures, sn that the Triassie sediriientation seems to have followed that of the Permo-Carboniferous witlmut any interruption; it is # & J II s -2 Q 3i ^ - = II 3 0) B I « 1C4 TRIASSIC AXD JURASSIC PERIODS a matter of difficulty to fix the dividiug line between the two formations. At ^Ellalong. however, on the northern edge of the basin, a \\ell-marked nncon- formitv occurs, as may be seen from the section. (Fig. 67.). A comparison of the floras of the two periods has already been made on page 137 wherein it was shown that, although a inarked difference exists, a slight commingling of them occurs at the junction of the two formations. Life of the Tr'utssic Perioel (Hairlfshitry Series). (A.) Fos.sil Plants. Equisetales. — ScJiizejneura enistrale, PJiyllotheca HfiolxCri [P. concinita) . Eqaisetum. Filicale.s — Thinnfeldiei odoiitopteroides. ThinnfeJdia narrabeenensis, Sphenopteris. Al(flujpti_ris (Clado- plehis ) australis. MaeroiiTiiiopfuris Wianamattw, Olecutdridium lentricidifrjrmc, Stt nopte ris rigida, ( 'iieadfjpteris scolope n-drina, Trie ii iopte ris. Cycadales — PoelozeDnitis laneeolatus. (xinkgoales — Ginkgo elilatata. Beiiera imdfifida. C unif era? — A ra uea rite s. (B. I Fos.sil Fauna. Foraminifera — Xnhi_eidaria, Ilaplophragmium, Eiidiithyra. Discorhina. &.r. Peleey7)oda — L' n io . Z'nioneUei. Crustacea (Ostracoda) — Beyriehia. Darwiinda. Cytherida. Crustacea (Phyllopoda ) — Esflieria. Fig. 68. Triassic Plant. Thiinifdd'ui odaiiioptemide!). THE HAWKESBURY SERIES 165 Pisces (fish) — Palaeoniscus, Myriolepsis, Gleithro- Icpis, Pie ur acanthus, Elonichthys, Gosfordia, Apateo- lepis, Dictyopyga, Sage nodus, Acentrophorus, Bele- itorhyncus, Scmionoius, Fristisomus, ElpisejpJwlis, Fholidophorua. Anipliibia (Labyrinthodonta) — Masiodunsaurus, Piatyceps. The Equisetales. — Schizoncura had alread.y ap- peared bei'oi'e the close of the Permn-Carboniferous ; it eoiitiniied on into the Triassic, but soon became ex- tinct. Phyllothecu, on the other hand, continued to flourish luxuriantly throughout the Triassic. Equise- tum makes its first appearence here. The Pn.TCALES. — Thinnfeldia is the largest and most abundant of these ; the size of the frond and the shape of the pinnules varied considerably, but the frond itself was always dichotomous. Among the many thou.sands of these which have been collected, not one fertile frond has yet been observed, and it is more than probable that this so-called fern is the vegetation of some more highly organised plant. Specimens of an inflorescence have been found associated with Thinnfeldia both at ]Mount Pidding- ton and at Xarrabeen, which pos-siblj' may have been derived from the same plant. Maa-oieeniopteris and Oleandridium are more characteristic of, and are fairly abiuidant in, the Hawkesbury Series. The Fish. — These occur on three distinct horizons — 1st, the Hawkesbury Sandstone Stage, at Gosford; 2nd, the AVianamatta Stage, at St. Peters (near Syd- 160 TPaASSIC AND .JURASSIC' PERIODS ney). and at Mittagong; 3rd, the Talbragar beds on the Talbragar River, near Gulgong; the latter beds have been referred to the Jurassic period by some writers. There is some doubt as to whether the Gosford fish-beds are near the base of the Hawkes- bury sandstones, or near the top of the Xarrabeen beds. The fossil fish genera described from the localities are as follows: — Elasniol ranchii Dipnoi Teleostomi (Actinopterygii) Hawkesbury Stage Wianamatta Stage Talbragar Beds (Gosford). (St. Peters). (Jurassic). : (An imperfect Pleii racmithns specimen). Gosfordia Sagenodus Myriolepis Myriolepis Coccolepis Semionotus Semionotus Aph/ielepis Cleithrolepis Cleithrolepis Aetheolepis Pholidophorwi Phulidophorus Archreomene ApateolepLS Accntropiiorns Leptolepis Dictyoptj'je Phitysomiis BeleriorhyiiciLs EipisophoUs Prist isomus Elonichthys Peltopleurus Palrpofiisciis The Gosford fish are all regarded as being homo- taxial with the Triassic of Europe; thi- assemblage of fish friiui the AVianamatta shales at St. Peters, how- ever, is remarkalile. in that it displays an a.stonishing connningling of European PaUeozoic and ilesozoic genera. Such genera as Ph iiraccnifltus. Sagrinxhts, Eloiiicliflnjs, Flatijsoiiiuf:. Pahr'niisciis, Ai( nt rupJioi-us, and EUpsopholis range in Europe from Lower Car- boniferous to Permian, and do not pass upwards beyond the Pala-ozoic. On the other hand. Scmio- notus, Clcithrnh pis. and Fholidoplionis are typical of the ^lesozoie in Europe. Thi.s seems all the more strana'C wheii one remembers that at Gosfurd, which THE HAWKESBURY SERIES 167 is on a lower horizon, only Mesozoic types occur. The Tal- bragar fish seem to have their nearest allies in the -Jurassic of Europe. Pleuracanthus appears to have been the largest of these Triassic fish, and attained a length of nearlj^ 6 feet. The Amphibta. — These had alread.v made their appear- ance before the close of the Permo-Carboniferous, but the Triassic examples are larger; one undescribed JJastodorisaurus (a Lab.yrinthoclont), from the St. Peters fish beds, has a length of quite 12 feet. The Crustacea. — Esflieria was the most important genus, and occurred in enormous num- bers in the early part of the period. The PoRAMmiFEEA. — The occurrence of Foraminifera in small lenticular beds of limestone near the top of the Wianamatta shales, near Kurra- .jong, is a remarkable anomaly. It has always been taken for granted that Foraminifera are limited in habitat to the sea : lOS TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS j^et here we have them occurring in a forma- tion whose every other character supports the belief that tliese beds were formed in a fresh-water lake. Did tliese organisms actually live in fresh water during this epoch, or was there a temporary inroad of the sea? Had the latter been the case one would have expected more evidence than the presence of a few fossil foraminifera gives, 2. — The Clarence Series. The.se also are fresh-water beds occurring in the form of a basin in the north-ea,st corner of New South Wales. They outcrop strongly over the eastern part of the watershed of the Clarence River and along the I'uast from Woolgoolga to the moutli of the Richmond River; northwards they cross into Queensland, and are continuous with the Ipswich beds of that State. At Grafton, which is at about the centre of the basin, a borehole put down in search of artesian water j)as.sed through a thickness of 3.700 feet of these beds, and was still in them wIk^u boring ceased. The Clarence Series have Ijeen subdivided as follows : — Tapper Clarence Beds . . Shales. &c. .Middle ,, . . ^Massive sandstones Lower ., .. Shab^s and samlstones with coal seams, conglomerate. The conglomerrites at the base of the series arc very thick, and fiutcrop strongly around the western edge of the basin ; thev are auriferous at Prettv Gullv, Fig 70. New South Wales Triussic Fish, a. MijriolejHS Clurh-i. h. Cleilhroli-jjis ;/nniiil„ni THE CLARENCE SERIES 169 about 15 miles from Drake, but not payably so. Five seams of coal occur in the Lower Clarence Series above the conglomerates, and range from 2 to 37 feet in thickness. So far as these seams have been pros- pected, they appear to contain too manj' clay-bands for the coal to have much economic value, except, perhaps, for local purposes. The sandstones of the i\Iiddle Clarence Beds have a strong lithological re- semblance to those of the Hawkesbury Series, and on that account it has been suggested that the Lower, Middle, and LTpper Clarence beds are the equivalents of the Narrabeen, Hawkesbury Sandstone, and Wianamatta stages of the Hawkesbury Series. The fossil flora of this series possesses some differences from that of the Hawkesbur^r Series, but is quite similar to that of the Ipswich Beds of Queensland and the Trias-Jura Beds of Victoria ; it is characterised liy the relatively great abundance of Twniopteris Daiiilrei, which has not yet. been found in the Ha.Avke.sburj^ Series. Several species of Thinnfeldia are present, but the genus is more variable and the fronds more delicate than tho.se from the Hawkesbury Series. Thinnfeldia of the true Hawkesbury type, as well as Macroicnuopicris, have, however, been found near the base of the series; coniferous wood occurs in abundance. 3. — Ti-iE Artesian Series. Fresh-water beds of Trias-Jura age outcrop along the western edge of the New England Table- 170 TRIASSIC AXD JURASSIC PERIODS land, from Dubbo northwards past Narrabri and Warialda to the Queensland border. Here they join on to the Ipswich beds, and are thus linked up by way of Queensland with the Clarence Series. The width of outcrop of the artesian beds (the intake beds) in an east and west direction is. on the average, about 60 miles, beyond which they dip westwards beneath Cretaceous marine strata. Further to the west they have Ijeen met with at considerable depths in the bore-holes put down to tap the artesian water which they contain. As they have been intersected at localities as far apart as ^Moree. Coonamble and Xyngan, these Trias-Jura strata must underlie the Cretaceous system over a verj- large area in north- west New South Wales, an area estimated by IMr. E. F. Pittman as being about 83.000 scpiare miles. The correlation of these beds with the Clarence Series is based, firstly, on the occurrence in both of them of TiTriiopteris Daiittrei: and secondly, on the fact that, as already stated, they are actually linked up with them by way of the Ipswich beds, in Queensland. The occurrence of artesian water in these strata is of the very highest impnrtauce to this part of Xew South AYale.s. which has a low average rainfall, and is sub- ,ject to long periods of drought. ^lany artesian wells have been sunk throughout this region, ranging up to nearly 1. 000 feet in depth, from which Hows of water have been obtained in the case of individual bore-holes up to 3.000.000 gallons per day. The water from some of the deeper bores has a fairly high temperature. 115- F. in the case of the Moree bore, 1-2. iM„r,;,l,ei,lo,,lr,-i. U', Fig. 71. Triiissic and Tri:i;>-JiU'a Plauts. ,a„ll,i-. :i. Ah-lhoi,lrrix aiixh-ulh. 4-5. r,rnin;ilrnx Thihilrei. THE ARTESIAN SERIES 171 and although the bore water generally contains a fair percentage of mineral matter, it has proved to be excellent for stock. Its use for a^grieultural purposes is not altogether so satisfactory, as, after it has been used for a few years, the soil becomes too highly charged with the mineral substances brought on to the land by the bore water. Upwards of 160 wells have been put down to date; but some of them are at present providing a considerably diminished supply as compared with that given at first ; whether this is due to exhaustion in the artesian beds, or to the partial caving in of the bore-holes, has not yet been determined. Until a few years back it had always been assumed that the water obtained from this artesian basin was of meteoric origin, i.e., had fallen as rain upon the outcropping edges of the Triassic strata (intake beds), had percolated downward through the more porous beds and had collected in the deeper part of the basin. Under these conditions the suppl.y of water woiild be undergoing a constant replenishment from rainfall and might be looked upon as being perma- nent. It has been suggested by Prof. J. W. Gregory, however, that the water is, for the most part, not of meteoric origin, but of magmatic origin, i.e., has been given off during the cooling of a deep-seated mass of igneous rock (magma) and, as it travelled upwards, collected in the porous strata of the Trias-Jura fresh- water beds. The importance of this theory, if correct, is that it puts some limit to the amount of water available, as, under the conditions supposed, Q 172 TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS the supplj^ will not be indefiBitely renewed, and is therefore being constantly reduced in amount in an increasing ratio as more and more bore-holes are put down. Professor Gregory's theory has not yet been generally accepted by Australian geologists, but he has certainlj'- made out a very strong case. The question is of too technical a character to be dis- cussed here, and the author prefers at present to sus- pend judgment. 4. — The TALBRAo.iR Series. These occur on the Talbragar River, about 20 miles from Gulgong; they are fresh-water beds about 40 feet in thickness, and the area over which they ex- tend is only a few acres in extent. The lowest beds consist of ferruginous eherty shales, about 10 feet in thickness, literally crowded with fish and plant re- mains. The plants are preserved in the form of siliceous impressions, their pure white colour being in marked contra.st to the yellow colour of the rock on which they occur ; the fish also occur as impres- sions on the shale, in most cases with the bones re- placed by oehreous material, and are beautifully pre- served. These fish are crowded together as if suddenly destroyed, a feature characteristic of the Gosford fish beds also ; this sudden destruction was probably due to a rapid influx of sediment into the lake in which the fish were living. The fish beds are succeeded by white siliceous shales and siliceous iron- stone, both of which are unfossiliferous. The Tal- THE TALBRAGAR SEPJES 173 bragar deposit, as a whole, appears to lie in an erosion hollow in the Hawkesbury sandstones. The Fig. 72. Slab of shale from Talbru^'-ai with fossil plants and fisli. A. — Tnc„„i,,ti'rix l)(ii,,t,;i. B.— Till a „f el ilia mhiiiloptemidn. C.-Po.-Cnm,lei,i„ (?) a fossil flsll. fossil flora is very similar to that of the Clarence Series; Podozamites lanceolatus is particularly abun- 174 TRIASSIC AND JURASSIC PERIODS dant, while T(eniopteris Daintrri and Thiinifeldia are not uncommon. The fish are different from those so far obtained from other Trias-Jura localities in New South Wales, and have their nearest allies in the Lias and Jurassic of Europe ; they are listed on page 166. Correlation of the Haivliexbury, Clarence. Artesian, and Talhragar Fresh-water Beds. — Considerable diversity of opinion exists as to the relative age of the Triassic and Trias-Jura beds from the different localities in New South AYales. The Hawkesbury Serias are generally accepted as being of Triassic age; the flora and fauna both support this view, and the absence of any break in the sedimentation in passing- from the Permo-Carboniferous strata to the Narra- been Ijeds (with the exceiition at .Ellalong already mentioned) confirms it. AVith regard to the Clarence and Artesian Series, however, the view is held by some geologists that these were deposited later than the Hawkesbury Series. It is now the generally accepted view that the Clarence and Artesian Series are of the same geological age as the Ipswich and Burrum formations in Queesland, with which they are. in fact, co-extensive, anci of the same age as the Gippsland and Cape Otway beds in Victoria ; in both of these States the age of these fresh-water beds is tal^en as being Trias-Jura. Various arguments have been put forward in support of the view that the Hawkesbury Series are older than the Clarence. Artesian, and Talbragar Trias-Jura beds. Taking the pahi?ontological one first as being the most im- COERELATIOX OF THE SERIES 175 portant, what difference's there are in the fossil floras will be seen from the foUowina- lists : — Hawkes- bury Series. Clarence and Talbragar Ipswicli Artesian Beds. Beds. Schizoneura austral e ... Series. X Dujllotheea Hookei-'i ... X Equisetur>i X Thinnfeldia odontopteroides ... X X X X Thinnfeldia Narraheenensis ... X Sphenopteris ... X X x Alethopteris australis... X X X X Macrotceniopteris Wianaw.-atlce X X Oleandridium lentriculiforme X x TcBnioptevis Baintvei ... X X X Podozamites lanceolatus X X Ginkgo dilatata X (or a sim X lar form' Baiera multijida X X X Araucarites X How far the difterenees are due to insufficient collect- ing, or how far they represent real differences in the respective floras, is at present somewhat difficult to decide. The fossil hsh of the Talbragar beds belong to genera which have not yet been found in the Plawkesburjr Series, and have their nearest allies in the Jurassic of Europe ; when one remembers, how- ever, that one particular bed in the Wianamatta shales at St. Peters contains an assemblage of fossil fish quite different from those in another bed in the same quarry, this fact loses some of its weight. The absence of artesian water in the Hawkesbury Series, which occurs in the form of a typical basin, has been urged as a reason why the Hawkesbury Series should ire TRIASSIC AXD JURASSIC PERIODS not be of the same age as the Artesian Series. This argument would, ho^vever. appl.y equally well to the Clarence Series, which also occurs in the typical basin form but, as far as is known, contains little or no artesian water. The absence of coal seams in the Hawkesbury Series has been similarly cited as a reason for their greater age ; there seems to be no \'alid reason, however, why sedimentation could not go on in two distinct basins simultaneously with con- ditions for coal-making favourable in the one locality and unfavourable in the other. At present, there- fore, while it may be admitted that there are some differences between the fossils of the Hawkesbury Series and the Trias-Jura beds of New South AYales. it is, perhaps, premature to say definitely that the former were deposited before the latter. Summary of the Triassk; and .Jr-RAsstc Periods. The close of the Permo-Carboniferous IVriod, as already pointed out, was marked in the mirth-eastern part of New South AVales by mountain-making (orogenic) movements which folded the Permo- Carboniferous sediments as far south, approximately, as the present Hunter River district, whcn'o the fold- ing produced an elevation of at least 7,000 to 8„000 feet. These folded strata suffered considerable denudation earl}- in the Triassic Period before the strata of this period were deposited unconformably upon them. To the south and south-west of this region no smdi earth movements took place, and Triassic sedimentation followed that of the Permo- •Sya-^ry{r./^-^.^A^ Fig. 73. -Map of New South Wales, sho s, showiuf? the positions and approximate ai- ls shown by the area hatched with oblique 1 ,j^^„„ ^-eas ui with oblique lines ; ..f the Triassic Fresh-water Beds. The jirobable westwar.l extent of the Artcsiau Series f ; this may extend further westward even than showji. SUMMARY 177 Carboniferous Period without any apparent break. The beginning of the Triassic Period found tlie whole of Xew South AVales above tlie sea, and extending mueli further eastwards than it does at the present time. Certain large areas re)nain(^d covered with fresh water, and in these lakes eonsideraljle .sedimenta- tion took place; it will be convenient to call these three sheets of water the Ilawkesbury Lake, the Clarence Lake, and the Artesian Lake resix'ctively. There is no doulit that the first-named existed at the beginning of the period, but there is some reason for thinking that the two latter may not have developed until somewhat later. The Ilawkesbury Lake was essentially the same sheet of water as that in which the L^pper Coal ^Measures were deposited, although for a time somewhat restricted in size, particularly on its northern margin ; in this lake were dejiosited in succession the Narrabeen, Ilawkesbury, and Wiana- matta beds, with a maximum thickness of about 3,000 fe(:'t. As shallow-water conditions of deposition are in evidence, more or less, throughout all these beds, th(_' lake-bottom must have been slo\vly sul)- siding. The other two lakes mentioned were in reality parts of an extensive sheet of fresh water which covered larg(- portions of southern Queensland and northern New South AVales, and which, perhaps, extended into South Australia. Parts of this lake became from time to time vast shallow swamps, in which grew the vegetation from which the Triassic coal seams were formed. The great thickness and the nature of the ITS TEIA8SIC AXD JURASSIC PERIODS sedimeuts deposited sliows that here, too, a slow sub- sidence was taking place, while the coal-seams indi- cate that the subsidence was of an intermittent nature, each coal-seam marking a period of compara- tive rest in the downward movement. In the waters of these lakes tish abounded, while on the acl.jacent shores lived the large ami^hibia. which preyed upon them. Small Pelecypods [Unio) and Crustacea also inhabited the lakes and river waters. The surrounding country was clothed with a h^xiiriant vegetation ; Cycads and Conifers flourished upon the uplands, while the marshes and swamps supported a dense growth of ferns and horse- tails. The great terrestrial and flying reptiles, which were such a characteristic feature of the life of other continents at this time,, do not appear to liave found their wav into Australia. Chapter XII. THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD. Strata of this age occur over an extensive area in tlie northern and north-western parts of New South Wales — an area of upwards of 70,000 square miles. They are not known to occur in any other part of the State. No detailed geological surveys have been made of this area. consei|uently information regard- ing the Cretaceous formation is somewhat limited. As these Cretaceous strata are continuous with those of the same period in the ad.joining States of Queens- land and South Australia, the information gathered from these localities will l)e made use of to supplement that which has been obtained from New South Wales. The Cretaceous formation of Australia has been subdivided as follow.s : — A. The Upper Cretaceous or Desert Sandstone Formation. B. The Lower Cretaceous or Rolling Downs Formation. The Boiling Dotvns Formation. — Although this formation has been met with in sinking wells and bore-holes in New South Wales, no surface outcrops have yet been discovered. In Queensland, however, outcrops occur over extensive areas, particularly in that part of the southern portion of the State known 179 ISn THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD as the Rolling Downs. The surface here consists of gentl.y undulating plains, or rolling downs as they are called, cut out of strata of Cretaceous age; hence the name. The strata in this region consist of shales, sandstones, limestoues. marls, and gypseous claj's. mainly of marine origin, but including some fresh- water deposits containing plant remains and thin seams of coal. The basal beds of the series, which consist of very porous sandstones, are known as the Blythesdale Braestones, and have been referred to by the Queensland Geological Survey as the intake beds of their artesian-water basin. As already stated, no surface outcrops of Lower Cretaceous strata have yet been met with in New South AVales, but considerable thicknesses hav(:' been passed through in sinking artesian «'ells. The AVallon bore, in the iMoree dis- trict, passed through a thickness of 1.500 feet of these beds, consisting mainly of marine shales, sandstones, and limestones. The bore-hole at Bulyeroi. 60 miles to the south-west, passed through similar strata 620 feet in thickness. In both cases the Cretaccuus strata were met with only a few feet from the surface, being covered and hidden by a superficial deposit of Post- Tertiary age. At Yandama Station, in the i\Iil- parinka district. 450 miles west of iloree. strata con- taining marine fossils characteristic of this formation were met with in sinking shallow wells. Small flows of artesian water have been obtained fi'om some of these Lower Cretaceous Strata ; but. as already explained, the main supplies in New South W'ales are being obtained from the underlying Trias- THE DESERT SANDSTONE FORMATION 181 Jura rocks. So far as is known, no unconformity exists between the two formations in New South AVales, but in Queensland a very distinct uncon- formity is believed by the local geologists to exist along the eastern margin of the Cretaceous basin. The Desert Sandstone Formation. — This gets its name from its occurrence in the desert regions of the interior of xUistralia. In New South Wales the for- mation outcrops extensive^ in the north-western part of the State, and consists of coarse sandstones, grits, conglomerates, and beds of a fine-grained white siliceoiis rock, resembling kaolin in appearance. The sandstones and grits are the lowest beds of the series, and are of marine origin. In many localities the sandstone has been altered into an intensely hard, brittle, porcellanous rock resembling quartzite. This alteration has been brought about by the introduction of secondarj' silica, possibly by the action of thermal springs. At some localities, notably at White Cliffs, there occur above the sandstone beds of a very fine- grained, soft, white rock, which in some places is almost devoid of alumina, and consists of nearly pure silica,, although in other places as much as 25 per cent of alumina may be present. Doubtful determina- tions of Radiolaria and Diatoms have been made, suggesting the probability of the rock having an organic origin. The same stratum also contains numerous fossil marine shells, fragments of fossilised wood, and the bones of marine reptiles (Saurop- terygia). A remarkable feature at AVhite Cliffs is the occurrence in this bed of numerous water-worn THE CRETACEOUS PEEIOD g o ^ a> Eh ^ S II 6* CC M I 11 « ji. 2 S II II 1 ffl a ^ II boulders of a fossiliferous Devonian quartzite, ranging up to 2 feet in diameter. The origin of these boulders has given rise to considerable discussion. The exceeding fineness of the sediments in which they are embedded pre- cludes the possibility of trans- portation to their present position by running water. Transport by floating ice has been suggested; the boulders do not, however, show any glacial stria:', and there is a total absence of an_y corroborative evidence. It has also Ijeen suggested that they may have been transported entangled in the roots of drifting trees. As Devonian quartzites outcrop about 20 miles to the westward, where part of the shore-line of the Cretaceous sea probably existed, and as fossil driftwood is common in the same bed as the lioulders, there seems to be some probability of this being the correct explanation. The Upper Cretaceous strata, which are alwavs horizontal \MARYB0ROUfcHi* J„ ("^N d I ^.1 r ij - \ , ,iw prA'sTLEMAWE/'^^ Mansfield ,^ Ararat 1?^ \ ^\ V,K,|moreJunc. ^"" ALLARAT- Volcanic Formations. Fig. 78. Tertiary Basalt Fliw (Newer Basalt), (iny Fawkes, New England, New Suiith Wales, THE TERTIARY PERIOD 189 A. — The IMarine Strata. These occur in the south-western part of the State, along- the lower courses of the Murray and Darling Rivers ; they consist of calcareous sandstones and shales containing marine fossils. They are concealed, for the most part, by more recent superficial deposits, but outcrop in places in the banks of the above- mentioned streams. A bore put down at Arumpo proved these beds to be at least 650 feet in thickness, as at this depth a characteristic Eocene Pelecypod {Trigonia seminndulata) was obtained. At Tareena and ^Miudarie similar beds have yielded abundant marine fossil shells, including various species of Cucullwa, Crassaiella, Trigonia, Cardita, Ostrea, Ftisus, Valuta, TurriteUa, and Cerithiiini. This marine fauna shows a commingling of species which in other parts of Australia are considered to belong to distinct Eocene and Miocene faunas. These beds are apparently co-extensive with marine strata in the ad.joining States of Victoria and South Australia, which are by the geologists of those States referred to ^the Eocene (?01igoeene) Period. Their presence shows that the subsidence which affected the southern part of Australia at the beginning of the Tertiary Period formed a large embayment. whose extent is indicated in the map sho^vn in Fig. 79. This trans- gression of the sea appears to have come to an end. so far as New South Wales was concerned, by the beginning of the ]\rincene Period. 190 THE TERTIARY PERIOD Fig. 79. Miip of tbe south-western p^ii't tit New Smitli Wales, sbowiug the prolnihle ;.re;L coverea hy the sea in the early part of the Tertiary Perioil. (After Gresrory.) THE TERTIARY PERIOD 191 B. — The Fluviatile Deposits. At many places in New South AVales old river channels are found buried between deposits of allu- vium and sheets of basalt. In these channels are found beds of fine and coarse river-gravel, clay, sand, and in some few cases beds of lignite ; the coarse gravels usually occur at the base of the deposit, and in many cases contain gold, tin-stone, gem-stones, &c. These buried gravels are known to the miners as "shallow leads" and "deep leads." The former may be delined as the alluvial deposits occurring along existing stream channels ; the latter as a stream channel whose alluvial contents are buried beneath a capping of alluvium or lava (or both). In some cases, as at Kiandra and Bathurst, the old river channel, with its gravel and basalt capping, is on top of a hill 500 or 600 feet above the level of the present day taljleland. These have yielded no recognisable fossil plants, and are probably of early Tertiary age; the basalt tlo\vs which cover and protect them are believed to be the equivalent of the "older basalt" of Victoria. These leads are provisionally referred to the Lower Tertiary (Eocene Period). In other cases, as at Forest Reefs and Gulgong, the old channels lie beneath the siu'faee of the tableland, and may be l)elow the level of the adjacent present day stream channels. Some of these contain numerous fossil leaves and fruits derived from a flora which, in its general character, was similar to the present day coastal brush vegetation. These leads are pro- 192 THE TERTIARY PERIOD visionall}' referred to the Upper Tertiary (Pliocene Period). (a) The Lower Tertiary Leads. The Kiandra Lead. — This occurs on top of a hill adjacent to the town of Kiandra; the section in Fig. 80 shows it as exposed in the face of New Chum Hill. The materials forming this deposit are as follows (in descending order) : — ■ Columnar basalt Earthy lignite Yellow and red sands and clays Lignite (containing tree-stems) Red and yellow clay Coarse sandy layers Red and yellow clay Lignite and black shales (containing plant remains) Earthy lignite Sand Auriferous wash . . This material lies in a well-defined rock channel up to 10 chains in width, and has been traced for a dis- tance of about 20 miles; there can be no doubt that it is an old river channel. This deep lead has been cut across in several places by the present day streams, thus exposing good sections of it in their valley walls. The Bathufst Lead. — This occurs on the top of the Ijald Hills, adjacent to the town of Bathurst; the basalt capping has a thickness of about 200 feet, and almost directly overlies the quartz pebble wash. 11 feet 35 8 8 45 6 25 4 3 14 194 THE TERTIARY PERIOD Between the two, on the north side of the hill, there is a deposit of white clay about 10 to 12 feet in thick- ness. The only fossils recorded from this lead are fragments of silicitied wood. The bed of this old river channel is about 550 feet above that of the present day Macquarie River. (b) Upper Tertiary Leads. Vegctahle Creek Leads. — These are in nearly all cases covered by basalt; in some places two distinct flows occur, separated by a small thickness of sand and clay. The Hume Lead at the AVesley Jline gave the following section : — feet in thickne.ss Red sandy soil 10 Basalt 8* Tuff and scoriaj 51 Basalt flow 211 Do. 73 Sands and clays 22 Stanniferous grav •els H All the leads in this district are stanniferous (tin-bearing), the tin occurring in the form of water- worn grains of oxide of tin fcassiterite). Fossil plants are not luicommon in them, and include varieties of beech, oak, banksia. grevilliM. laurel, and euealypfus. Many of the leads on the New England tableland. l:iesides being stanniferous, contain gem-stones, such as diamond, sapphire, zircon, topaz. &c. The Leads of the Parlcs-Forbcs Disl net .—Tlia leads of this district include lioth shallnw and deep THE FLUVIATILE DEPOSITS 195 ' ' -* ■ -^ ft. iu. 13 U Yellow clay. 10 (J YelloAv clay with sand. 9 Yellow and white sand. 14 Fine and coarse drift. 54 Yellow clay with stones. 1 tJ Kotten slate. 16 6 Red clay. 8 6 Eed clay with stones and slates. 20 13 Eed clay with stones. 44 Eed and Yellow clay. 2 Eotten or decomposed slate. Fig. 81. 193 6 Section of one ot the " Deep Leads " u,t Forbes, New Soiitli Wales. (Andrews.) lOG THE TEETIAKV PERIOD leads, the foniier in mauj' instances merging- down stream into the latter. They are auriferous, the gold occurring (a) along the gutters of the main channels, and associated with the coarser stream deposits; (b) along the rim rocks or the sides of the buried stream channel; (c) in various irregularly arranged patche.s of coarse stream material situated above the older and deeper buried .stream channels. In Fig. 81 is a section of a l>ore-liole put down through one of these alluvial deposits. These leads, unlike tlio.se in many other parts of the State, are not capped with basalt. ;\lr. E. C. Andrews, in his report on the Pai-kes- PVjrlies goldfield. gives the following history of the formation of these deposits ; — " (1 ) The land was raised, and a series of 'valley in -\'alley ' forms were excavated by the Lachlan tribu- taries. Along the steep channel bottoms gold was deposited by the rapid streams, for during the pro- L-es.s of wearing the country do^ra the lodes con- tained therein were also broken down, and their auriferoiis contents washed down and lodged in the channels of these old streams. ■■(2) After the formatimi of these rock channels the land sank, and the rock-bound watercourses, in- stead of being deepened, were at this stage graciually filled u]). The gold contents liei.-ame poorer in these ujiper alhivial deposits: firstly, liec-ause the gold reefs were beinw buried in ]iart ; secondly, liecause the streams at this stage had not the power to carry the coarser gold as far as frirmerly ; and. thirdly, because the gold was distributed throua'h a vast width of THE FLUVJATILE DEPOSITS 197 alluvial debris, instead of being concentrated near the bottom of a narrow gutter. " (3) After the iilling of the well-defined channels, the alluvial lxn;;an to overflow the rock rims of these old \vatercourses. and to bury the lower portion of the main Ijaehlan valli^y. The stream.s at this stage ran in no well-defined channels, except locally, and gold was naturally .iigged and deposited upon the channel sides and also bottoms. "(-t) The land to the east of Forbes appears to have risen considerably at thi.s stage, and heavj' masses of coarse drift were laid down upon the clay and sand l>eds by swiftly flowing streams. As the strength of the stream decreased, the black soil plains were deposited in turn ui)On the coarse drift." The Gtdfjonfi Leads. — The alluvial deposits in these leads range from a few feet up to 200 feet or moi'e in thickness, and are covered in some cases by liasalt flows ranging up to 130 feet in thickness. These leads were vci-y rich in gold, and in seven years (1869- 1876) produced about 16 tons of this metal; the gold was derived from the denudation of the reefs in the surrounding Silurian strata. In these deposits aliun- dant fossil leaves and fruits were obtained, as well as the bones of marsupials, some of which belonged to extinct species of large size. TJie Forest fi'eefs Leads. — These occur beneath the basalt flows which form the capping of the tableland in the Orange district. They are similar to the Gul- gong leads, and contain fossil fruits and leaves; they, too, are auriferous. 108 THE TERTIARY PERIOD C. — The Diatomaceous Earth Deposits. These occur at widely distant localities, such as Cooma, Canobolas IMountains. AVarrumbungle Mount- ains, Barraba. Wyralla (Richmond River). &c. The deposits are in no case very extensive, and appear to have resulted from the accumulation of the frustules of diatoms and the spicules of sponges in small fresh- water lakes and lagoons. Nearlj^ all these deposits are associated with Tertiary igneous rocl\S. those at the AVarrumbungle ^Mountains being interstratified with trachytic lavas and tuffs. The following are analyses of material from .some of these deposits, from which it will be seen that the diatomaceous earth is of good Cjuality : — Cooma. Barralia. Wan-umbungle. Mountains Wyralla. SiO., 81-64 80-56 S2-62 S6-01 re„o,, A1.,0„ 0-40 .3-20 1-77 4-15 5-20 2-83 CaCO., 1-50 0-31 9-53 Not deter- ijiined. MgCO.. 2-16 0-21 0-70 .Ici. H.,0 10-95 12-K4 10-96 5-48 The diatoms which they contain belong mainly to the genus Mdosira, and with these are associated the spicules of a fresh-water sponge (Spcnifillla ) . Im- pressions of the leaves of dicotyledonous plants and of fern fronds (Pteris) are frequently found in these deposits. THE TERTIARY PERIOD 199 D, — The Volcanic Deposits. Three distinct volcanic epochs seem to have occurred in New South Wales in the Tertiary pei-iod; two of these were productive of basaltic lavas only, bnt the third and latest prodnced a most interesting series of alkaline lavas and tuffs. The actual geo- logical ages of these volcanic epochs will be discussed later; they may be referred to as follow: — The Alkaline Lavas and Tuft's. The Newer or Platean Basalts. The Older Basalts, 1. The Older Basalls. — These survive as cappings on some of the residuals, which rise in the form of isolated hills (IMonadnocks), or long narrow ridges, above the surface of the great Bast- Australian Tertiary peneplain. River grav<'ls nnderlie these basalt flows at many localities. The basalt capping at Iviandra lead, as shown in figure in the previous chapter, belongs to this period, as also does that capping the Bald Hills near PJathurst (Fig. 82); the basalt cap- pings on some of the peaks rising aljove the level of the surface of the Blue ilountain tableland also pro- bably belong to this c])Och. These Ijasalts flowed down the valleys which occurred on the surface of a (".) Cretaceous peneplain, thus covering the river gravels. How extensive these flows were it is now impossible to estimate, as what we see to-day are mere isolated remnants lioth of the basalt and the pene- plain upon which it rested. 200 THE TERTIARY PERIOD + + + + + + + + + ++ + ■* t- f 4- *♦ v + t- 1 ^ '-•t ++ ^ A + + + + ♦ ^ / + +■+♦ + + The Xiircr Basaltg (Plateau Basalts). — These oi:-eur as exten- sive sheets (flows), resting in many j daces upon the snrfaees of the tablelands of Xew South AVales. This series has its greatest development on the Xe\\- England tablelands, cover- ing theri^ many hundreds of square miles in the neighbour- hood (if Inverell. Gl(:'n Innes, Armidale, Walcha. and other localities. d alkaline trachytes and extensive beds of tuff' of somewhat similar compositifin ; while still later eruptions pro- 202 THE TERTIARV PERIOD cliieed alkaline andesites of a somewhat basic type. The order of eruption was as follows : — 1. Conieudites and quartz trachytes. 2. Alkaline phonolitie trachytes. 3. Andesites. The sequence shows increasing basicity. The alkaline rocks of the Warrumbungle and Nan- dewar Jlountains closely resemble those of the Cano- bolas Mountains both in chemical composition and lithological characters, while the sequence of eruption was the same in all these localities. Analyses of these rocks are given on page 24-8. The Tertiary Flora. As has alread)' been mentioned, numerous fossil fruits and leaves have been obtained from some of the Tertiary leads. Those at Forest Reefs and Gulgong, in particular, have yielded a large niimber of fo.ssil fruits, which include the genera Plcsiocapparis, Spondylostrolius, Penteune, as well as numerous others. A large number of fossil dicotyledonous leaves have been obtained from the deep leads at Gunning. Forest Reefs, Emmaville. &c., and have been referred to such genera as Alnus, Qncrcus (Oak), Fagus (Beech), Cinvamomimi, Laurus (Laurel), Magnolia, BrimhriT, Piftosporum, Eucalypfus. Banl'sia, and Gr( villca. This flora has been descrilied as contain- ing representatives of the existing floi-as of many parts of the world, and entirely different to that now occiu'ring in Australia. Both the generalisation and THE >T)LCAKIC DEPOSITS 203 some of the generic mid specific determinations upon which it is based are open to serious cpiestion. It has been shown that it is unnecessary to seelc outside Australia for the typi^s of our Tertiary fossil plants, as they are to be found in the luxurious flora now confined to strips and patches along the coast, where there is a warm climate and an abundant rainfall. The Tertiary representatives of this present day coastal "brush'' flora had a very wide distriliution, occurring from Tasmania to Queensland, and as far west, at least, as Orange. These regions, some parts of which arc now relatively cold, and other parts relatively dry, must have had a warmer and moister climate during the Tertiary Period in order to have supported such a vegetation. It will be shown in the next chapter that the present tableland regions of East Australia were i)receded by an extensive i)ene- plain elevated lint little above sea-level, the only high- lands then existing being isolated hills and long narrow ridges, few. if any, of which reached an ele- vation of 1,000 feet. Tender such topographical con- ditions this region would have, it is considered, a more or less uniformly warm and moist climate Mdiich would Ije capalile of supporting such a "brush" vegetation as appears to have covered it in Ujijicr T{:'rtiary times. The Tertiary flora, then, while differing to a ronsideralile extent from that of the present tableland regions, with their relatively cold climate, and of the western slopes and plains with their hot and semi-arid conditions, was, taken as a whole, not ver^' different from onr present day coastal "lirush" flora. 204 THE TERTIARV PEPJOJJ The Tertiary and Pleistocene Land Faunas. The dominant group of land animals during this period was, as is the case at the present day, that grouj) of the iMamraalia known as the i\Iarsupialia ; the i\lonotremes were also well represented, but none of the higher mammals (Placental ^Mammals) were present. The following is a list of the more import- ant land animals of the Tertiary Perir)d: — ^Diprotodon I Nototherhiin FJiasrnlornis phiisrnJrDinjs (Wombat) 'Marsupialia -; Thiilmolen I T/'t!/'"<'i/i".s (Tasmanian Tiger) I ,S'('/voj,;i,7M.s(TasmanianDevil) 1 I Marropiis (Kantraroo) YEKTEBEATA ...-' LHa^maf.-.i.s (Wallaby) I'l Monotremes S-tf" "''"-' I fjrnlthorhijrichvs (Platypus) Aves (birds) Drouim-ius. &c. (^Men'ihiiii,, (Giant Lizard) Eeptilia - Cliehnlinu (Mao], mi, i (Turtle) INVEETEBEATA ^ P'^lecypoda Vn„-, It is still uncertain whether all the vertebrates listed above had already appeared in the Tertiary Period. Thosp found in the (J-ulgoug deej) leads {Diprofoclon, Mciiilania, Echidna. Oniithon-luiiicus) are un- doubtedly of Tertiary Age, but the others have never yet been found in undoubted Tertiary deposits, although it is probable that most, if not all. of them had already appeared in the Tertiary Period. Some of the genera listed aliove are now extinct, and those which survive are represented, for the most 8) 1 p W CO "m o THE TERTIARY AXD PLEISTOCENE LAXD FAUNA 205 part, by different species. As compared with their present-day representatives, the Tertiary vertebrates were characterised by their larger size ; not that small species did not exist, but that many which then lived were larger than any existing to-day. The largest of all was the genus Diprotodoii. a marsupial as large a.s Fig. 84. Skull of Ii!i„;,ln^lu„ „«.,/,■„/.«■. (After Owen). a rhinoceros, which walked on all-fours; its slcid! in some cases was over a yard in length. This huge extinct marsupial lived in large numbers even in the far western parts of the .State, where, under existing conditions, they would die of starvation and thirst. This supports the evidence given by the Tertiary plants that the climate was at that time moister than at present, and that the hnid was clothed ^vith a luxuriant vegetation. NototJuriuin was also of hu'ge size, quadrupedal in habit, and resembled in general appearance a large 20d THE TERTIARY PERIOD tapir. The wi)inl)ats (Phascdhmys) were mucli larger than their pn^seiit day descendants, as were also the Icangnroos {Macropus) and wallabies (Hahnaturits). Carnivorous niarsnpials,, which do not now exist on Fig. 85. SkuU of Tl,}ih,.;,h:, ,;,,-„lf,:, . (After Owen). the mainland of Australia, were represented by the two living Tasnianian genera Thiilacimis (Tasmanian tiger) and Harcopliilus (Tasmanian Devil), but here again by larger specie.s. The disappearance of these two genera from the mainland was. possibly, due to the advent of the dingo (Canis Dingo), which may have liecn introduced into Australia li.v the aborigines. Tliijldcolcu (^larsupial Lion) is another fossil mar- supial, said t(.i have been caruivorou.s in habit, but there is considerable difference of opinion upon this point. GcinjDiiiis and Dromoitiig. the largest of the Ter- tiaiy birds, smnewhat resembled the present-day Enui, but were larger. The present-day ]\Ionotremes — Evhkhta and Oruithonhtiiicus — were also repre- sented by largci- species, while the Reptilia ineluded lizards and turtles. THE TKRTIARY AXl) PJ.EISTOCENE LAXIJ J'-AIXA 207 Many of the Tertiary vertebrates which are now ex- tinct possibly still lingered on into the early part of the Pleistocene Period, and their extinction, particu- larly in the case of the larger herbivorous forms, proljably resulted directly or indirectly from the climatic changes which followed the extensive uplift that closed the Tertiary Period. The Marine Favna. — A list of the more important genera found in New South Wales has already been given on page 189. All the genera still survive in our present seas, although the ma.jority of the species arc extinct. As but little collecting has been done in the marine Eocene beds of New South AVales. a list of the more characteristic Lower Tertiary marine fossils occurring in the adjoining States of Victoria and South Australia is given on page 215. These will give a Ijetter idea of the general characteristics of this marine fauna, which consisted dominantly of Pelecypods and Gasteropods. Economic Import.\kce of the Tertiary Porafations. As has already been pointed mit. many of the Ter- tiary fluviatile deposits contain substances of economic value; these include gold, platinum, tin- stone, and precious stones. Of the total gold (value £60,000.000) and tin (value £8,750,000) produced in New South Wiiles to date, considerably more than one-half has probably been ol:>tained fi'om these alluvial deposits. The Tertiary basalts have, by then- decomposition, produced much of the best agricul- tural land m the State, and thus indirectly added to 20S THE TERTIARY PERIOD the national wealth to a greater extent even than the gold and tin-bearing alluvial deposits. The Development op the Present Topography. The information regarding the history of the Ter- tiarj' Period in Xew South Wales, obtained from a study of its Tertiary formations, is ver,y meagre, and it is desiraljle to supplement it as far as possible from other sources. A study of its present topography supplies much important information. No part of thi_' State, except one very small area, has been beneath the sea since the Cretaceous Period, while the major portion has not been beneath the sea since the end of the Pala?ozoic era. Considerable areas (see Fig. 73), however, were covered by fresh-water lakes in the Trias-Jura Period. The present topographical features, therefore, have been in course of develop- ment since as far baclv, at least, as the Trias-Jura Period over all parts of the State, except the area covered by the Cretaceous sediments in the northern and north-western regions and the small area covered with Eocene marine .strata in the south-western corner. The surfaces of the various tablelands forming the highlands of Xew South "Wales and of the low plateaux of the central-western areas are all parts of one and the same peneplain, cut indiscriminately out of strata varying from Pre-Camhrian to Trias-Jura in age. AVhether the same feature extends into the Cretaceous area of the north-west is not known to the author, but it is thought that it probably does. This peneplain was uplifted at the close of the Ter- ]JEVE1.0PiIEXT OF THE PRESENT TOPOOUAPHY 209 tiary Period to form the existing tablelands ; it was probably developed during the Tertiary Period, although some geologists are of opinion that it may have been produced during the Cretaceous Period. As it occurs throughout the whole of Eastern Aus- tralia, the name "Great East- Australian Peneplain" would be an appropriate one for it, and will, there- fore, be used here. Resting upon the surface of this peneplain in many places are extensive sheets of basalt (the newer basalt) ; these lava flows were obviously poured out after the peneplain surface had been developed. They cover, in many localities, old river channels (deep leads), such as those at Gulgong and Forest Reefs, whose valleys, which seldom exceed 300 feet in depth, and their contained alluvial deposits are, of course, also younger than the peneplain. It is these leads which contain the fossil leaves and fruits referred to on page 202. The surface of the pene- plain is not flat, but is traversed in most places by a network of broad, shallow, mature vallej's, ranging from 150 to 300 feet in depth ; these have been cut out of the basalts as well as out of the older rocks, and are, therefore, younger than the basalts. Rising above the general level of the Great East-Australian Peneplain are numerous isolated hills and long narrow ridges. They consist, in some ca.ses, of tilted palipozoic strata; in others, of plutonic igneous rocks; while others, again, are made up of nearly horizontal Triassic strata. In any one district the highest of these residuals all rise to about the 210 THE TERTIARY PERIOD same altitude above the peneplain level, showing that they are residuals of an older tableland, the surface of whieh was also a jjeneplain. This older peneplain was probablj' cut out during the Cretaceous Period. It will be convenient to refer to it as the Cretaceous Peneplain, it being understood, however, that the age assigned to it is provisional. On the Tass-Canberra tableland the residuals of the Cretaceous Peneplain rise to a height of from 600 to 850 feet above the level of the Great East-Australian Peneplain, indicating that the tableland which preceded the present one in this region had a minimum height of about 850 feet. Many of the residuals of the Cretaceous Peneplain are cai)ped by basalt flows; these have been referred to on a previous page as the Older Basalts; the river gravels luiderlying them contain, as far as is known, no recognisable fossils. The succession of events which produced these topographical features, with the ages provisionally assigned to them, may have been somewhat as follow : — ■ Cretaceous — • A cycle of erosion which produced the older pene- plain, follott'ed by an epeirogenic uplift, whieh converted thi_' peneplain into a tableland, and ushered in the Tertiary Period. Loii'cr Tertiary — (a) Volcanic eruptions, which brought to the surface basalt flows — tJn Older Basalts. fb) A cycle of erosion, which ]iroduccd the Great East-Austi'alian Penejilain. ^^ ^^1 wvl' 1 ^' .. * f I>E\'J';lOI'MKXT of the present topography 211 V'pper Tertiary — (aj A slight uplift, followed by renewed volcauie activity, \vitli the pouring uut of vast sheets of basaltic lavas — IJic Xeivcr or L'laliau Basalts. (b) Development of the shallow mature valleys now occurring on top of the tablelands. (c) Volcanic eruptions at several centres, which were productive of The Allraliiie Lavas. Kfi.sciusJiO EpocJi — (d) Great epeirogenic uplift, which produced the existing tablelands, and ushered in the Pleistocene Period. This uplift was accom- panied l)y normal faulting and monoclinai folding on a large scale, with the subsequent production of Fault Blocks, Ilorsts, Seii- kungsf elder (Rift Valleys) and Fault Escarjjments. Flcistoceiie in L'eceiit — The existing cycle of erosion, during which the tablelands produced b,v the late Tertiary up- lift h;ive been i)artly dissected. SUMMAEY OP THE TeRTIARY PeRIOD. The earth-movements which closed the Cretaceous Period brought about (1) a, retreat of the epicon- tinental sea which had previously covered the north- western part of the State; (2) a transgression of the sea which covered a relatively small area in the south- western corner; (8) the conversion of nearly the whole of New South AVales into a tableland, \'\'hich in the ■2\-2 THE TERTIARY PERIOD eastern part ranged from 600 to perhaps 1,000 feet in altitude. Very early in the Tertiary Period volcanic erup- tions began, from which basaltic lava-flovvs poured down the then river valleys, covering up the layers of sand and gravel (and in some eases, lignite) which occurred in them (the Older Leads). These basalts are jirobably the ecjuivalents of the "Older Vol- canics" of Vietijria, which are associated there with Lower Tertiary marine strata, and which also in some cases overlie lignite deposits. Owing to the absence of recognisable fossils in these older leads, nothing drfinitp is known of the terrestrial fauna and flora of this time. Long continued erosion during the Lower Tertiary Epoidi removed almost entirely the tablelands formed at the close of the Cretaceous Period, and cut out of it the Great East-Australian Peneplain, A small uplift at the beginning of the I'pper Ter- tiary Epoch brought about a retreat of the epiconti- nental sea which had previously covered part of the south-western region of New South AVates. This small uplift enabled the rivers to entrench themselves in their old valleys, and firing about the formation of the "Upper Tei'tiary Leads," in which are preserved abundant remains of the Lpper Tertiary plants and land animals, A stud,y of these fossils, as has already been shown, indicates that the whole of the State at this lime e-n joyed a ^varm, moist climate, and was cjnthed with a dense sub-tropical vegetation, very different ti) that which now covers much of it, but SUMMARY 213 similar to the present-day coastal ''brush" vegetation. The dominant land animals then, as now, consisted mainly of marsupials, but included also monotremes, reptiles, large birds, &e. ; all of these had representa- tives larger than any living to-day. The larger size of many of the Tertiary Vertebrata, the large nu.mbers of them which seem to have inhabited what are now the more arid parts of the State, and the fact that some of these larger marsupials were apparently quite unfitted to travel long distances in search of food, suggests that a luxuriant vegetation existed at the time they lived, even in the far western parts of the State. A much more regular and more abundant rainfall must therefore during the Upper Tertiary period have existed over what ar<' now the drier parts of the State ; while, owing to the absence of high mountains and tablelands, the climate of the whole Slate must have been sub-tropical as well as moist. Thi.s laltci' fact is borne out b.y finding the leaves of sub-tropical plants in the Upper Tertiary Leads occurring on the high tablelands which now have a relatively cold climate. Before the Tapper Tertiary Epoch was far advanced, great sheets of basaltic lava (the newer basalts) were poured over the peneplain surface, particularly in the eastern part of the State, in most cases, ap- parently, from fissure eruptions; these buried many of the river channels, thus forming the TTpper Ter- tiary Deep Leads, and preserving the fo,s.sil animals and plants which these river deposits contain. This volcanic phase was followed by a considerable 214 THE TERTIARY PERIOD period of erosion, during which tlie broad, shallow, mature valleys were cut both out of the basalts and the peneplain upon which they rest. Immediatelj' preceding the great uplift which closed this period active volcanoes broke out at several centres, from which highly alkaline lavas and tuffs were poured out. and which built up groups of volcanic cones such as the Canobolas. the AVarrum- bungle. and the Xandewai' iMountains. Close of the Tertiary Period — Kosciusl-o Epoch. — This was marked by an epeirogenic earth movement of considerable magnitude, as a result of which the whole of the eastern pai't of the State was uplifted so as to form the existing tablelands ; it ranged in amount from 2,000 to 6,000 feet. This uplift was accompanied by extensive normal faulting and wai'p- iug, sonjc of the faults having a vertical throw of at least 3,000 feet. The min-e important and the greater number of thes'' faults and warps strike ap- jiroximately north and south, but east and west faults and warps also occur. The development of these faults produced a series of great fault blocks, the sur- face of each of which is part of the Great Ea.st-Aiis- tralian Pene]ilaiii. In some localities — for example, at Cooma and at Jindabyne — relatively narrow fault blocks are bounded on either side liy much higher blocks, thus forming "Rift Valleys" or Senkungs- felder. Two large areas in the easterly part of the State — viz.. the area surrounding Sydney and that surrounding Gi'afton — lagged liehind. were U]ilifted but little above sea-level, and now form relativelv SUilMARV 215 depressed areas. These movements brought about consideraljle modifieation of the drainage systems and of the main divides. For the period of time during which these eartli movements were taking place, the name Kosciusko p]poch has been suggested liy 'Sir. E. C. Andrews. The "western parts of the State wi'i-e also uplifted at this time, but tn a nnich less extent, ranging up to 800 feet — in no case exceeding 1,000 feet. List of Ctiar.-\.cteristic Tertiary .AI.vrixe P(.)Ssils op 8. australia and victoria, AcTiiXozoA. — FhdicUutit, rUicotrocli us, Plesiastnm. EcHiNOiDEA, — Li locidaris. Sa]( iilii. Chiprasler, Holasfer, EupafcDifiiis, Loucii'm, PoLYZOA. — Ad CI) nil, lirdrj)orii, CcUcpiii'a. Beachiopoda, — Trrchral tilii. Widdliciinia. Pelbcypoda, — Oslrea. I'lrlcn. Iliinddes, Lima, ^poitdijlus, MjjiUiiS. ('uculla'a, Ffcfii iicidiis, Trigoiua, Cmsmtdla, Carddn, f'ardltnii. fJiimu. Gasteropoda. — Trlfoii, Fuxiis. Vnliifa, Pleurotoina, CoiiAis, ('i/pnea, Naticit, TitiidiTIa, Cerdhium. ILaliotus. Cephalopod.v. — Ainria. Vertebr-VTA (Pisces). — Shark's Tndh {Charcharo- don) . Chapter XIV. PLEISTOCEXE PERIOD. The close of the Tertiaiy Period (Kosciusko Epoch) was marked by tliat lende. frequently i I 2 with numer(jus visible erj'stals i B 'S. of spliene. It contains a " I I wonderful develoijment of s 5 rj Iiasic segregations, and makes a I o fe verv handsome ornamental stone when jiolished; it intrudes the ' ' Blue Granite. ' ' Large bathyliths of a very acid granite, which intrudes liotli the "Blue Granite" and the ' ' Sphene-Granite Borphyrj^, ' ' are found over the whole :;:p:i::: W: g ^^^ y^^^, England, but with their maximum development to the north. An extensive develop- ment of greisen and pegmatite occurs al:)out the peripheries -of these ai-id intrusions, and with them are associated impor- tant ore deposits containing tin, S 5 rf.J 05 2; H g ■"as THE JGXEOl'S EOCKS 229 bismuth, tungsten, niol,v])deiuini. and monazite. All the abovementioned igneous roeks are intruded by a series of intermediate and basie dykes, whose age ha.s not been determined. Regarding the evidence for the geo- logical age of these New England plutonic rocks, the "Acid Granite" and the "Sphene-Granite Por- phyrjr" both intrude the Ijower ilarine Series (Permo-Carboniferous) , while the former also in- trudes the latter; both also intrude the "Blue Granite." which, however, is not known to intrude any Permo-Carboniferous strata ; none of these plutonic rocks intrude the Triassic strata, which occur in the eastern part of this region. Taking these facts in con.junction with what has been said about the crustal movements which affected this region in late Palaeozoic times (Chapter X.). it would seem probable that the ages given above are approximately correct. ]Many extensive occurrences of serpentine (altered peridotite) are found in Xew South AVales. whose intrusion is no'\\' definitely stated as having taken place at the. close of the Carboniferous Period. The most striking example occurs in Xew England, and extends as a narrow belt from Bingara past Barraba, Crow Mount, and Nundle at intervals to Port Mac- quarie, a distance of a.bout 200 miles. This intrude; strata of Devonian and Carlioniferous age, but is not known to intrude any younger formation. Other well-known examides occur at Lucknow. near Orange (an altered andesite). and at Gundagai: these two :S 230 THE IGXEOUS ROCKS occurrences are probably older than those of New England, and nia.y be provisionallj' referred to the Kanimbla Epoch, The occurrence of extensive in- trusions of basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks which do not outcrop at the surface is implied by the occur- Granite, Fig. 91. uker's Creek, New England, rence of fragments of gabbro and peridotite in the dykes aad volcanic necks of the Sydney-Blue-Mount- ain and Illawarra districts. These have evidently been brought upward from some deep-seated source by the material which filled these dvkes and necks. THE IGNEOUS ROCKS 231 (b) Caiit-ozoic Intrusive Bocks. — Extensive epeiro- genie movements affected the earth's crust in Eastern Australia during this era. and tliese have been accom- panied in places by those types of intrusion which are usually associated with such movements, viz., laccolites, sills, dykes, and necks (plugs). These in- trude the Ti'ias-Jura strata; but, as no younger sedi- mentary strata exist where these intrusions are found, the exact determination of their age is difficult. They include a highly interesting series of alkaline rocks which, in their composition, appear to be related to the lavas of late Tertiary age described on page 241. This series includes nepheline-syenites. tin- guaites, trachytes, and bostonites. In the neighbour- hood of Lue several large laccolites of tinguaite in- trude the Triassie strata of that region. The rocks here consist of soda-orthoelase, nepheline, legirine, and sodalite, and are very rich in soda; they are pre- vailingly green in colour, and make a handsome orna- mental stone when polished. In the Mittagong- Bowral district numeroiis dykes and (?) plugs of alkaline trachyte occur; the latter will be referred to again on page 242. In the Kiama district sills of nepheline-sj'enite and tinguaite intrude the Upper Coal Mea.sures (Permo-Carboniferous) ; their age has not been determined, but their composition suggests that they are allied to the Tertiary alkaline rocks of other localities. Analyses are given in Table II. of some of these interesting alkaline rocks, which, as will be seen, contain from 10 to 16 per cent, of 232 THE IGXEOUS ROCKS alkalies, with very low percentages uf the alkaline earths. As stated alidvc they are very similar in com- position to the alkaline lavas described on page 24], but whether the two series were intruded and ejected contemporaneously it is at present impossible to say. An interesting .series of basic intrusions also occurs in the eastern part of New South AA^ales -. these have been .studied in some detail in the Sydney-Blue Mountain area, and in the Illawarra district, where they occur in thi' form of dykes, sills, plugs, and small laecolites. For .sndi basic rocks they contain a high percentage of alkalies, as will be seen from the analyses in Table III. One of the most interesting of these intrusions is that which occurs at Prospect, near Parramatta ; it is a f ') sill of peculiar shape containing analcite- dolerite. and intrudes the AVianamatta Shales Interesting aplitic and pegmatitie segregation veins are found near the periphery of this intrusion, the former of which are markedly mor{.' acidic and alka- line than the parent rock, and consist mainly of albite- feLsjiar and anah'ite. Of thi^ many ^'oll•anic necks which occur in this region some are filled, wholly or partly, with basalt; these were proliably ])oints uf eruption. Th(n-e are otlK^-s, however, which are filled with a bi-cccia composed largely i")f non-igneous material, including fragments of coal, carlionaceous shale, sandstone, etc.. derived from thi.' wall rocks; such are those occurring at H(jrnsby, Springwood, Missing Page THE IGNEOUS ROCKS 233 Euroka Farm, and The Basiii (Nepean River). These more or less ej-lindrical apertures have pro- bably been produced by the action of steam and other gases imprisoned in magma reservoirs at no great distance below the surface, which have, by their explosive energy, drilled an opening upwards through the overlying strata until escape became possible ; they possessed, however, neither energy enough to clear the vent of the comminuted rock material produced in forcing their way upwards, nor to force the molten magma to the siu-face. The volcanic neck at Dundas, near Parramatta, which is filled partly with basalt and partlj^ with agglomerate, contains numerous fragments (xenoliths) of basic and ultrabasic plutonic rocks embedded in the basalt ; these include gabbros and peridotites, with a considerable variety of mineral composition. Similar xenoliths have been found in basic dykes as far south as Kiama. and as far west as Bowenfels; their occurrence may be taken to indi- cate that large basic and ultrabasic plutonic intru- sions occur beneath this area, but are too deep-seated to have been revealed anywhere at the siirface by denudation. Basic dykes occ ■ in considerable numbers in the districts ad.jaeent x.c Sydney; those which outcrop along the coast, while having a general east and west strike, appear to have a radial arrangement, and to converge to a locus about 20 miles due east of Botany Bay. They range from a few inches up to 20 feet and upwards in thickness. Similar dykes in the Illawarra district intersect the Upper Coal Measures, 234 THE IGXEOUS KOCKS and have, in the ease of the larger ones, done con- siderable damage to the coal-seams. Here also basic sills have intruded the same strata, in some cases (Xorth Bulli) along the top of the Bulli seam, in other eases (Metropolitan Colliery) along the middle of the seam for long distances; such sills destroy the coal over large areas. Between two and three hundred of these dykes are now known. According to Mr. G. W. Card, the d.ykes of the Sydney-Illawarra region may. in the light of our present knowledge, be classified a.s follows: — 1 Camptonite. 1. Lamprophyric I Jlonchiquite. ' Olivine Basalt. ( Basalt. Dolerite. 2. Non-Lamprophyric 'i ,, , ,• ., / Aephennite. Basanite. This classification is based on (a) textural, and (b) mineralogical grounds, and is merely a tentative classification, because as pointed out by ilr. Card, many of the rocks included are undoubtedly represen- tatives of the same phase of intrusion. A consideralile number of these dykes have been classed as monchi- f(uite, a lamproph^a-ic rock. They are typically basaltic in appearance, are very dense, often show olivine, and are more or less calcareous. Under the mii'roscope they are seen to consist of a ground mass of automorphic augite and magnetite, with a base of more or less clear, colourless isotropic material. TlK'y contain small olivine phenoerysts and some of THE IC4XE0US ROCKS 235 them are slightly telspathic, but the dominant mineral is augite. The isotropic base is considered to be primary analeite. Some of the basalt dykes undoubted^ contain nepheline, and it is probable that this mineral will be detected in many more of them. One of the most interesting features of the Post- Triassie dykes of this region is the frequent occur- rence in them of xenoliths of basic and ultrabasic plutonic rocks. These xenoliths include various types of gabbro and peridotite often coarsely grained. One dyke at BuUi contains masses of olivine as large as an apple, and lustrous, well-cleaved hornblende, in pieces up to 6 cm. by 4 cm. in size. It would seem certain that the xenoliths and xenocrysts of this character must have come from rocks which cooled with unusual slowness under great pressure. Under the microscope their contacts with the enclosing dyke rock always show that assimilation has taken place ; in the case of the gabbro xenoliths. the assimilation has been selective. The occurrence of these xenoliths is common along the coast district from Sydney to Gerringong, a length of about 65 miles, and at least as far inland as Bowenfels. In two localities (Port Kembla and Gerringong) xenoliths of granite have also been found. Without critically discussing the origin of these xenoliths, it may be stated that they have probably been derived from very deep-seated ultrabasic plu- tonic rock, and that the dyke rocks in which they are embedded have been derived from the refusion of these plutonic rocks. 236 THE IGXEOUS ROCKS B. — The Volcanic Rocks. No active volcanoes occur in Xew South Wales, or in any other part of Australia, at the present day ; nevertheless there is abundant evidence to show that vuleanism had frequently, and for long periods of time, been an important factor in its geological his- tory. Nearly every period belonging to the Pateozoic Era had its volcanoes, from which extensive floods of lava were poured out. The ^lesozoic Era. on the other hand, appears to have been quite free from volcanic displays. In the Cainozoic Era renewed activity took place ; first came great floods of basaltic lava from fissure eruptions, while later on volcanic cones developed as the result of the piling up of alkaline lavas and tuffs. The,se late Tertiary cones, although they have suffered considerable denudation, still remain as evidence of the great eruptions which produced them. Reference has already been made in previous chapters to the volcanic rocks associated with the strata of each of the geological periods. These occurrences will now be summarised in chronological order. Nothing is yet known regarding the vulcanicity of pre-Pala'ozoic times ; some of the pre-Cambrian rocks of the Barrier district may represent metamorphosed lavas and tuffs, but no detailed description of these rocks is yet available. The volcanic eruptions of the Palffiozoic Era appear, in most cases, to have occurred in, or adjacent to, subsidence areas, and to have, in the main, preceded the more important crustal move- THE VOLC!ANIC! ROCKS 237 meuts. The Carboniferous eruptions, for example, appear to have lieen coniined to the north-eastern part of the State, the only part undergoing subsidence at that period. Cainbrian Period. — Nothing is yet known of the vulcanicitjr, if any. of this period. Ordovician Period. — Extensive deposits of andesitie lavas and tuffs occur, associated with the Ordovician strata of the Orange-Cadia district. These volcanic rocks have a great thickness at Forest Reefs, near Orange, and the tuffs there are crowned with angular fragments up to a foot or more in diameter. Ande- sitie lavas of Ordovician age have also been described from the Forbes-Parkes district. No analyses of these rocks are available. Silurian Period. — Considerable volcanic activity took place during this period ; rhyolite lavas and tuffs occur interstratilied with Silurian strata at Jenolan Caves, at Bowen Park, near Orange, in the Tass dis- trict, and in the Cobar district ; while andesitie lavas and tutfs occur in the Parkes-Forbes districts. The published information regarding these occurrences, however, is very scanty. ]\Iany of the rhyolites of this and the next period closely resemble quartz- porphyr,y in the hand specimens, and are frequently mistaken for this intrusive rock. Devonian Period. — The Silurian vulcanism con- tinued on into the Devonian Period, at the begin- ning of which stupendous outpourings of acid lavas and tuffs took place in south-eastern New South Wales and north-eastern Victoria. At Taemas, in the 238 THE VOLCANIC EOCKS former State, these accumulated, to a maximum thick- ness of 5,000 feet, while in addition the thick Lower Devonian marine strata, which overlie them, are more or less tuffaceous throughout. In the Tamworth dis- trict also vulcanieity was a pronounced feature during this epoch. Spillite lavas are a very cliar;ieteristic feature of the vulcanieity of this region, but extensive beds of tuff, mainly intermediate in composition, also occur. During the Upper Devonian Epoch on the other hand vulcanism was, except in the Yalwal district, more or less dormant ; in this locality, however, an extensive alternating series of rhyolite and basalt flows of some magnitude was poured out. Carboniferous. — Volcanic eruptions, although con- fined to the north-eastern part of the State, occurred there on a grand scale throughout the greater part of this period. Ijut particularly towards its close. In the Paterson and Clarencetown districts at least twelve distinct lava flows, a,s well as thick beds of volcanic ash, are interstratified with the Carljoniferous strata (see Fig. -31 ) ; these lava flows, which range up to 200 feet or more in thickness, are nearly all acidic in composition (rhyolites). but some hypersthene- andcsites also occur. At Pokolbin the volcanic series includes rhyolites, trachytes, and andesites erupted in that order. Extensive deposits of earljoniferous rhyolites and tuffs also occur on the Drake goldfield. in northern Xew England, and in the neighbourhood of Bolivia and Tenterfield. rrrmo-Carhonifcrous. — During this period vulcan- THE VOLCAXIC ROCKS 23!) ism was, on the whole, less pronounced and more local in its distribution than had been the case in the Carboniferous Period. During' the early part of the Lower Marine Epoch several extensive basic and intermediate lava-Hows were poured out in what is no\\' the Hunter River district, while at about the same time an extensive series of andesitie lavas and tuff's accumulated in northern New England (Drake goldfield). Then followed a considei"al)le period of rest until, towards the close of the Uppjer Marine Epoch, a great centre of eruption developed in the Illawarra district. Submarine volcanoes here poured out a great series of lavas and tuffs on a subsiding sea-floor; these range up to 1,000 feet in thickness, and vRvy from basic to intermediate in composition; thej' have already been described in some detail on page 112. These rocks are abnr)rmally rich in potash, and are now called latites; they are regarded as the effusive e((uivalents of the intrusive monzonites occur- ring at ililton and other parts of the district. These eruptions continued on into the Upper Coal Measure Epoch, but on a much reduced scale, when two small basaltic flows were poured out into the Coal ^leasiire swamps. At this time a new centre of eruption developed near i\lurrurnndi. on the north-western margin of the coal-basin, from which basaltic lavas aggregating many hundreds of feet in thickness were poured out. The Mesozoic Era. — Nq volcanic eruptions are definitely known to have occurred in New .South Wales during this era. Certain beds of chocolate- 240 THE VOLCANIC EOCKS coloured shales, which belong to the Xarrabeen stage of the Hawkesbuiy Series fTriassicj. are considered to be redistributed tuffs, and have the following com- position : — ■ SiOo j Al.O;, j FC0O3 ; FeO MgO | CaO | NaoO K.,0 I H„0 62-92% I 23-30 i 027 3.08 0-66 0-58 ! 0-28 1..52 T'OO AYliether these were produced by Trias.sie vol- canic eruptions is not known ; in an}- case they were formed very early in the ^lesozoic era. Xo other vol- canic rocks of ^lesozoic age are definitely known to occur in New South Wales. Cainozoic Era. — The lung period of rest which characterised the ilesozoir- Era now gave place to re- newed volcanic activity'. This resulted in the out- pouring of vast floods of basaltic lavas, which filled and in many places overflowed the river channels, and thus buried hundreds of square miles of country under a covering of basalt. These sheets of basalt still form the surface rocks over large areas in the eastern part of Xcw South AVales. There are reasons for thinking, as explained in the previous chapter, that these Tertiary basalts belong to two distinct periods of eruption — an older basalt series now repre- sented liy cappings on the tops of more or less isolated hills f residuals ) . which rise above the general level of the tablelands, and a younger series which over large areas forms the surface capping of the tableland itself. The former have been provisionally assigned to the Eocene Period, the latter to the Upper Pliocene or THE VOLCANIC ROCKS 241 Lower Pliocene Period. Tiiese olivine-basalts (see analyses) from a petrologieal point of view possess no feature of special interest, but by their weathering thej^ have produced some of the finest agricultural soils in the State. Towards the close of the Pliocene Period several isolated centres of eruption developed, from which a highly interesting series of alkaline lavas was erupted. These lavas and their associated tuffs built up groups of volcanic cones, such as the Cauobolas jMountains near Orange, the AVarrum- bungle ^lountains near Coouabarabran, and the Xandewar Mountains near luverell. Taking the first-named as a type, they stand on the top of the tableland near Orange, adjacent to a fault (or series of faults) marking its western edge. The first erup- tions brought to the surface a series of highly acid and alkaline viscous lavas, which built up a series of steep lava cones ; then came great showers of vol- canic ash. included in which were fragments varying up to several tons in weight. Further lava-flows followed at intervals, becoming progressively more basic, the eruptions finally closing with the outpour- ing of somewhat basic alkaline andesites. The order of extrusion of lavas was a.s follows : — 1. Alkaline rhyolites (Comendites) and quartz trachytes. 2. Alkaline trachytes. 3. Phonolitic trachytes, 4. Andesites, The Warrumbungle and Nandewar Mountains con- sist of similar lavas and tuffs, as may be seen from the 242 THE VOLCANIC EOCKS analyses in Table V. In the Mittagong-Bowral dis- trict two large cones of alkaline lava occur, viz., the Gib Rock and Mount Jellore. The well-known Gib rises about 800 feet above the surrounding eountrj-, and consists of a fine-grained alkaline syenite (allied to bostonite). which consists mainly of orthoclase- felspar, and contains narrow segregation veins con- sisting of sanidine, hornblende, and a^girine. This rock makes an excellent building stone, and is used to a considerable extent in the buildings of Sydney. The Gib is believed to represent the denuded pliig of a volcano similar to those occurring in the AVarrum- bungle ilountains. Alount Jellore is a similar lava cone, consisting of alkaline trach_yte. Alkaline trachytes also oceiu' near Dubbo, and at various places in the Northern Rivers district. Summarising the igneous rocks of Xew South Wales from the point of view of composition and age. we got the following: — Volcanic. Intrusive. Cambrian ... None known None known Ordovician... Intermediate Intermediate Silurian Acidic to interme- Devonian ... diate Acidic (mainly) .\cidic to interme- diate Carboniferous Acidic (mainly) Acidic mainly Premo - Carlionif er- Intermediate to ,, ous Viasic Triassic 1 \ .Jurassic Absent Absent Cretaceous... Eocene s Miocene Basic Basic L. Pliocene Up. Pliocene Acidic to liasic and Acidic to basic and highly alkaline hiyhly alkaline o P^ o Oj i- o a J- a;S) y. •■/ ifj -5 'J d fl < d i^W 3 y-^ w^-; <;W^"Wd^ ^ -5 -0 iO -+ I- X (1.0 O'O o o o ^ OO ■o -ooo = o o = = o iO -f X OJ rr, r^c-. -fH HO oo ooo.^ oo ■ O r-i rHO = o O' o = o o ■ o ?^ . . . - 'Ji -■ '"' 9& + X ^^s CC'ffj K5o oo Ow- ■ O O' Ol ■ 01 o =■ - = = ^oo O o GCiO iOOl OII--r-l OO o = £ = ^ i ii o •r. KSi? iMi^i^-;] M ■ceo >C CO CO :d CO CI oi CO .-1 c: 011^ '■'■ 01 -t O -Ti-t- o -* — :t C-- -ft J - t: — — - -^ -1 = C-. OlT-l t- -h o Oj oc CO 2; CO -M - r-. 01 tl -^ 01 CO CO 03 O M -f 01 C7 CO C-C. O X ^ iC o Ol cn -f :j o = = "-^^ c: -7 ^. 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MS'" .__, CD M I2; ^ ^ f^ ;:; ^ |o 6 x :c -ai m -, r^ aj « w S g s C CL t^ ^ ■;;■ ■-< ■-■ o M i'o io ^ ^. fo Ol 00 CO CO SJ s :g 8 ■o 01 ? s '^ X' X s I- '^ ^ X' I~ l~ ^ ^ -j::' ^^ i^. K 7: X' '-- c£ s ^ -i ^ e 3 ~4 C-. ^ -+ CO 5 5? 3 :;^ 0& . cr. I- ■c ■X' w in 8 CO 'X 10 ^ -f M CO 07 CO s 01 1* X -^ S C6 iX 'Z^ ^ I:; - lO ffl -^H ?^ 2 10 lO ^S 00 -^ u? CO ct! t ■3 X X c; 3 rt g 1^ ^ ■ &0 M W "oj 4id 1 3 oj u ^ u ^ pq - h GLOSSARY Actinolite Shale. — A metamorpliosed shale (■nn- taining the mineral actinolite. The latter is a bright green mineral, closely allied to hornblende in com- position and physical characters. It usually occurs in columnar or fibrous aggregates, and is a product of metamorphism. Alluviation. — The deposition of mechanical sedi- ments b}' rivers anywhere along their courses. Amphibolite. — A metamorphic rock consisting pre- dominantly of hornblende (amphibole) with small amounts of plagioclase felspar. It commoidy results from the metamorphism of basic igneous rocks, but may also be pi'f)duced Ijy the alteration of impure limestones, shales, etc. Arkose. — A fragmental sedimentary rock consist- ing of incompletely decomposed fragments of granite. Arkose Sandstone. — Somewhat similar to arkose, but with a preponderance of sand. Bathylith. — The largest known type of plutonic intrusion — it may be upwards of 100 miles in dia- meter. It cuts across the bedding planes of the invaded formation, and its contacts therewith are usiially .steep. ]\Iany granite intrusions are of this type. Boss. — A plutonic intrusion similar to bathylith, but tj'pieally smaller in size. 2.51 252 GLOSSARY Bostonite. — An igneous rock of intermediate oom- position, allied to nepheline-syenite. It is a fine- grained, light-coloured, compact rock ocCTrrring in sinall intrusions. The essential constituent is an alkali-felspar (orthoclase, mierocline, anorthoclase) ; a small quantity of biotite or hornl)lende may be present. Chiastolite Slate. — A slate containing a consider- able amount of the mineral i/hia.stolite. The latter is a variety of the mineral andalusite, containing' very numerous darlv opaijue inclusions with a characteristic synnnetrical arrangement. Andalusite is a silicate of alumina ; like chiastolite. it is a common product of metamorphism in sedimentary rocks rich in alumina. Comendite. — A light-coloun'd volcanic rock, acidic in composition, and highly alkaline. It consists pre- dominantl.v of sanidine \\ith a fair amount of quartz, and contains also a soda-bearing amphibole (riebiekite or arfvedsonite 1 . It much resembles trachyte in land specimens. Cryptogamous Flora. — An assemlMage nf plants living in a particular area (or which had lived in a particular area, in the case of fossil floras), and which belonged to that division of the Vegetable Kingdom known as the Ci'yptogams ( flowerless plants). Epeirogenic Earth Movements. — A movement of the earth's crust in a vertical direction, cither up- wards or downwards. Such a movement will atfect large areas simultaneously, and range up to many GLOSSARY 25:! thousands uf tVet in ammmt ; but no important folding ot the strata involved resnlts. The word means ■ ' CI mtinent-making. ' ' Epicontinental Sea. — A shallow sea overlying part of a continental platform as distinct from a true ocean basin. Such shallow seas occur around the margins of all the continents to a greater or lesser extent, and extend out to the 100 fathom line, which may he taken as the margin of a continent. The Gulf of Carpentaria is a typical examph^ of an epi- continental sea. Faceted Boulders. — Boulders of hard rock which have l^een dragged along their beds by glaciers, and have thus had their sharper edges groimd down or bevelled, until finall}^ the boulder possesses a nnndier of fiat faces at the intersection of which are rounded edges. The flat faces are frequently striated. Such features would not he possessed by ordinary M'aterworn boulders, which tend to become moi'r or less spherical. Fault Block. — A block of the earth's crust having its surface at a different elevation from that of the immediatel_y sin-rounding portions, from which it is .separated liy faults. Such a fault-block may have its surface level, gently inclined, or even highly tilted. Fissure Vein. — An ore deposit, tabular in form, occurring along a line of faulting; an open space between the walls of the fault has been subsequently filled by the depositiim of mineral matter from aqueous solution. Fissure veins are narrow as com- pared with their ext(:'nsion liorizontally and in depth. 254 GLOSSARY Grano-diorite. — A plutonic igneous rock which is like a granite in every respect except that plagio- clase felspar is present in much larger quantity than orthoclase felspar. In a normal granite the reverse is the case. Greisen. — A granitoid rock consisting of quartz and muscovite, occurring at or near the periphery of a granite intrusion. It represents part of the granite itself which has been modified by magmatie waters during the final stage in the solidification of the granite, so that the felspar has been replaced by quartz and muscovite. Littoral Deposits. — Sedimentarj^ deposits which have accumulated in the shallow waters near the margin of the land, and consisting mainly of pebbles, gravel, sand, etc. Magmatie Differentiation. — That process whereby the constituents of a molten magma separate from cue another during consolidation, the dift'erent con- stituents migrating to different parts of the intru- sion and forming different rock types. The most common case is that in which the more basic con- stituents migrate to the margin of the intrusion, where they consolidate into a relatively- lia.sic rock, leaving a more acid type to crystallise in the central part of the intrusion. Metasomatic Replacement. — The replacement, molecule by molecule, of one mineral substance by another, the latter lieing in aqueous solution. The original mineral is taken into solution and carried GLOSSARY 255 away, the new substance being deposited in its place. As an example we have the complete re- placement of slate by metallic sulphides. Metasomatism. — Same as metasomatic replace- ment. Meteoric Forces. — Natural forces which operate upon and modify the surface of the earth, such as the atmosphere, rain, running water, etc. Monadnock. — An isolated hill or mountain, the re- mains of a once-existing tableland, the other portion of the tableland having been removed by denudation. Orogenic Earth Movements. — Lateral or tan- gential movement in the earth's crust whereby certain regions are subjected to compression, and as a result the strata involved are folded and faulted. The word means "range-making." Pelagic Fauna. — The assemblage of animals which live in the surface waters of the ocean, as distinct from those which live on the sea-bottom. They are all essentially free-swimming organisms. Peridotitei — A plutonic igneous rock belonging to the ultra-basic group, and consisting very largely of the mineral olivine. Persistent Horizon. — A particular bed or stratum which extends over a large area, throughout which it maintains certain distinctive lithological characters by which it can be readily recognised. Phyllite. — A metamorphic rock consisting of a fine-grained schistose aggregate of quartz and mica; it is finer-grained than the typical mica-schist. 256 GLOSSARY Piedmont Plain. — An extensive alluvial plain developed along the margin of a mountain range or tableland. Each of the rivers flowing from the elevated region deposits alluvium where it leaves the high land ; the deposits of adjoining streams eventually unite and thus form a continuous alluvial plain. Porphyrite. — A porphyritie aphanitic igneous rock oeoirring in relatively small intrusions, and having a mineral composition similar to that of diorite. It usually contains numerous crystals of plagioclase felspar. Regolith. — The mantle of more or less decomposed and disintegrated rock-material which overlies most of the surface of the land, and which has been pro- duced by weathering. Rejuvenated Streams. — .Streams which, liy a com- paratively recent elevation of the region in which they occur, have had their grades very much steepeiu'd. With the increased power thus obtained they have cut down thei)- channels and entrenched themselves along their old courses in the newly- elevated land. Rift Valley. — A relatively long and narrow depression of the earth's surface resulting from the occurreni'e of a narrow fault-block between two higher fault-blocks. Saddle-Reef. — A saddlc-sha])ed ore liody formed by the filling of a saddle-shaped cavity between the bedding planes of folded strata along the cap of an anticlinal fold. GLOSSARY 257 Senkungsfeld.— (See Rift Valley). Shear Zone. — A line of faulting along which the rocks on one or on both sides of the fault plane have been sheared, shattered and fissured. Sillimanite Schist. — A schistose metamorphic rock containing the mineral sillimanite, together with quartz, mica, etc. Sillimanite is a white, silky, fibrous mineral consisting of a silicate of alumina. Terrigenous Sediments. — Sediments consisting of fragmental material derived from the waste of the land, such as mud. sand, gravel, etc. Tonalite. — A plutonic igneous rock allied to diorite, but differing from it in containing a fair amount of (juartz. Intermediate between a diorite and a granodiorite. Tremolite. — A white to grey mineral occurring as columnar or fibrous crystals allied to hornblende; one of the members of the amphibole group of minerals. It is a silicate of lime and magnesia, and is a product of metamorphism, particularly in lime- stones. Wollastonite. — A white fibrous mineral formed in limestones by contact metamorphism; it is a silicate of lime. Xenolith. — A fragment of one kind of rock occur- ring in another and foreign to it. as for example a piece of granite embedded in the basalt of a basalt dyke. In such a case the granite must be older than the basalt, and must have been formed originally under quite different conditions. INDEX Afentrophorus, lU.j, 16(j Acidaspis, 31 Actinoeeras, 37 Aetinofiiiius, f)0 Aetiiioeystis, 1)3 ^5]llalong', 164 Agnostus, 24, 2!) AgTosaurus, 185 Albuiy, l(i Alethoptei-is, 135, 130, 104, 175 Allaudale, 97 Ahius, 202 Alveolites, 44, 03 Anbon^'chia, 21 Auimonites, 184, 185 Amjilexus, 00 Aneyloeeras, 185 Aneimites, 89 Aniiularia, 135 Anodontopis, 51 Anoplotlieca. 51 Apateolepis, 105, 100 Aphanaia, 132 Arac4iiiopliylliini, 42. 47, 5ri Arauearites, 104, 175 Areliajoc-idaris. 131 Archajocyathina?, 20, 21 Avcliaeopteris, 73, 74, 80 AreluEozoic Eva, Armidale, 200 Artesian Series, 155, 109, 174 Artesian Water, 170 Arumpo, 189 Ashford, 103 Asliford Coal Basin, 101 Astartila, 112, 132 Asterolepis, 72 Astylospongia, 43, 50 Athyris, 74, 90 Atrypa, 37, 44, 48, 49, 03, 74 AuceJla, 185 Auckland, County of, 23, 73 Aviculopecten, 74, 90, 97, 108, 132 B Baiera, 135, 130, 104, 175 Bald Hills, 192 Baldivin Aggloinerates, 00 Bango Beds, 35 Banksia, 194, 202 Barraba, 00, 88, 198 Barrier District, 13, 17 ! Basalts, Newer, 199, 200 Basalts, Older, 199 Bathurst District, 39. 191 Batlmrst Lead, 192 Belemnites, 184, 185 Belonorhyncus, 105, 10(i Belenostomiis, 185 Belleroplion. 64, 74, 91 Berridale, 24 Bevrichia, 104 260 INDEX Biiigava, Gl, 62 Cambrian Period, (i. 17 Blaek-soil Plains, 10 Camden Haven, 155 Blue jMountain Tableland, i), 38. Candjelago, 44 67, 94, 125, 155, WO Canljerra, .15 Boamljola. 36 Canobolas Mountains, 69, 19S, Bombala, 200 201 Bombax, 202 Canowintli'a, 70 Bondi, 160 Capertee, 141 Borenore, 42 Campbelltowu, 161 Bothriceps. 135. 138 Campophyllniii. 63. 90 Bowning, 34, 35, 36 ■. Carljonifercjus Life, 88 Bowral, 9 Lower. 83 Brachyphyllum. 127, 135 I Peiiod. 6. 83 Braidwood, 58 j Plants, S8, 137 Bvanxton, 96 I I'lUJer, 83. 85 Brauxton Stage. 105 Yolcanie Roeks. 238 Bioken Bago. 155 ( 'arljonicola. 132 Biokeu Hill. 13, 17 Careoar. 26 Bronteus, 50, 51 ( 'anlioptei'is, 89 Buchan and Bindi Beds, 58 Cardita, 189 BuUadelali, 86 Cavan. 55. 56 Bulli Coal Measures, 128 Central Tableland, S. 9 Bulyeroi Bore, 180 Ceritbium, 189 Bundanoou, 108 ( lieirurns. 51 Burragorang. 126 Cbelodina. 204 Clicenomya. 105. 112. 132 ChanKiinya Becls, 1115 C (litt'tetes. 50. 74 Chonetes. 57. 63. 9(1 Cadia, 26 Cindiosaiu'us. 185 Cainozoic Ei'a, 5 Cinnamomum. 2(12 Intrusi\-e Igneous Rooks. 231 Clarence Series. 155. 168. 174 Volcanic Igneous Rocks, 240 Clarence To\\-n. 85. 86, 87 Calamites 89 Cleitiircdepis. I(i5. I(i6 Calymene, 51 Cleol)is. 1,32 < 'aniarot(ecbia. 51 ('lifton. 128 Cambewarra Mountain. 112. ( 'limacograptus. 29 115, 116, 128 Clvde River Beds, 104 INDEX 261 Coal, Analyses of, 140 Estimate of Amount Avail- able, 139 Ori^iu of, 121 Coal Measures — East Maitlaml, 116 Gi-eta, 98 Lowev, 98 Middle, llli Tomago, 116 Upper, 117 Cobar, 43, 44, 72 Conjola Beds, 109 Conocardiuni, 51 Couocephalites, 21 Conulai-ia, 108, 112, 132 Cooma District, 15, 24, 198 Coonamble, 170 Cordaites, 73, 74 Corimya, 185 Cosfinoeyathiis, 20 Crasatella, 189 Cretaceous Life, 184 Lower, 6, 179 Period, 6, 179 Uppei', (i, 179 Criuoidal Stage, 105, lOG, Criooeras, 184, 185 Cristellaria, 185 Cromus, 51 Cryptograptus, 29 Cucullaia, 185, 189 Cullen P.ulleii, 126 Cnrlewis Coal Field, 124 Cyathophyllum, 37, 42, 43, 50, 63, 68, 90 Cyeadopteris, 164 Cylonema, 49 Cyclostigma, 89 Cypbaspis, 51 Cyrenopsis, 185 Cyrtina, 90 Cystiphyllum, 63 Cytbericlai, 164 Uadoxylon, 102, 111, 127, 128, 135, 136 Dapto, 115 Darwiinila, 164 De Gray Ranges, 183 Deltopeoten, 112, 132 Dempsey Series, 116, 117 Dentalium, 64 Desert Sandstone Formation, 179, 181 Devonian Flora, 76 Lower, 54 Period, 6, 54 Upper, 54, 67 Volcanic Rocks, 237 Diatomaceous Eartb Deposits, 188, 198 Diatomaceous Eartb, Aiuilyses of 198 Dicellograptus, 28 Dicranograptus, 28 Dictyopyga, 165, 166 Didymograptus, 28 Dieiasma, 112, 131 Diphypbyllum, 63 Diplograptus, 28, 29 Diprotodon, 204, 205 Discina, 185 Diseorbina, 164 262 INDEX Doliebometopus, 21 Drake, 88, 98, 99, 152 Dromornis, 204 Dubbo, 170 East Maitlaud Coal Measures, lit; Echidna, 204 EdmoiKlia, 90, 97, 132 Eloniehthys, 1(35, 166 Elpisopholis, 165, 166 Emniaville District, 98, 202 Encrinnrus, 37, 50 Eudothyra, 131, 164 Entolium, 90 Entomis, 132 Eocene, Strata, 188 Equisetum, 164, 175 Estheria, 164 Estheria Shales, 157 Eucalyptus, 194, 202, 217 Euoniphalns, 74, 91 Eurydesma, 97, 132 Fagus, 202 Farley, Stage, 96. 97 Favosites, 35, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 47, 50, 63, 68, 74 Fenestella, 48, 50, 74, 90 97, 108, 111, 131 Forbes, 26, 43, 72, 194 Forest Reefs, 191, 197, 202 Four-mile Creek Beds. 117 Fnsus, 189 G Gauorhyncns, 64, 66 Gangamopteris, 98, 102, 135 'lap Creek, Orange District, 69, 71 (xenoa Creek Beds, 58, 73 Genyornis, 204 Gerringong, 111 Ginkgo, 164, 175 Glacial Beds, Cambrian, 17, 18 Glacial Beds, Permo-Carbon- iferous, 143 Glacial Epoch, The, 218 Glacial Erratics, 18 Glaciation, Cambrian, 17, 18 Cause of, 146 Pei'mo-Carboniferous. 143 Pleistocene, 218 Glauconome, 50 Glenbower Beds, 37 Glen Innes, 200 Glossograptus. 29 Glossopteris, 102, 121. 123. 127, 135 Glycinieris. 185 Gomplioceras. 51 Goniatites, 97. 108, 112, 1.32 Gosford, 165, 166 Gosfordia, l(i5, 166 Graf! on. 168 Greta Coal ^Measures. 98 Grevillia. 194 Grifhi hides, 91 Gulgong. 166. 191. 197 Gunnedah. 15S Gunnedah Coalfield. 124 Gunning. 35, 202 INDEX 263 Guy Fawkes, 8 Guyra, 8 H Halmaturus, 204 Halysites, 35, 42, 43, 47, 50 Hamites, 185 Haploceras, 185 Haplophragmium, 164, 185 Hargraves, 40 Harper's Hill, Sandstones, 07 Hai'pes, 51 Hartley, 226 Hartley Yale, 127, 141 Hatton 's Corner, 35 Hausiiianuia, 43, 50, 51 Hawkesbiiry Sandstone, 155, 157 Series,' 155, 174 Stage, 155, 158, 159, 166 Heliolites, 37, 38, 42, 43, 44, 47, 50, 03, 68, 74 Heliophyllum, 37, 50 Highlands of New South Wales, 7 Hill End, 40 Hume Beds, 35, 37 Hunter River District, 94, 98, 104, 116, 117, 142, 176 Hyalostelia, 20, 131 Hyolithes, 21, 29, 112, 132 lehthyopterygia, 185 Ic-hthyosaurus, 185 Illawarra Coal-field, 128 District, 103, 109, 129, 130, 142 Range 155 Inoceramus, 185 Inverell, 200 Isocrinus, 185 .Jamberoo, 115, 128 Jenolan, 38, 39 •Terrawa Shales, 35 Joadja, 141 Jurassic Period, 154 K Kanimbla Epoch, 80 Kanimbla Valley, 226 Katoondia, 127, 141 Keeneia, 97, 132 Kerosene Shale, 127, 128, 140 Analyses of, 142 Origin of, 142 Kiandra Lead, 191, 192, 193 Kiama District, 112, 113, 114 Kosciusko Epoch, 214 Kosciusko Tableland, 15, 16, 219 Kurrajong, 162, 167 Labyrinthodonts, 162, 165 Lagena, 131, 185 Lambian Series, 67 Lamna, 185 Largs, 222, 223 264 INDEX Latite, 113 Launis, 202 Leads, Batlmist, 192 Foix-st lifefs, 191 Gulgong, 191 Kiancli-a, 191, 193 Parkes-Forbes. 194 Vegetable Creek, 194 I^eperditia, 21 Lepidodenrli-on, 59, 60, CI, 63, 67, 08, 70, 72, 74, 89 Leptiwia. 43, 74. 90 Leptodoiiius, 74 Lic'has, 51 Lightning Ridge, 183 Lima, 185 Liiigiila, 68, 70, 74, 112. 131, 185 Lithgriw Coal j\'Ieasiires. 126 Lithgow District, 106, 126, 138, 142 Lithostrotion, 90 Litopliyllum. 63 Litnola. i:il Lobb's Hole, 58 Loehinvai- Anticline, 101 Lochinvar Stage, 93, 95 Lo]ilio|)hYllnm. 90 LoAver Coal Measnres. 98 Lower ]\Iarine Series. 95 Loxonema. 49. 74. 91 Lowther, 226 Lyndhni'sl (ioldfield. 24 M Macfoyella. 185 Maero]ius. 204 Macrota'iiiopteris, 164, 175 Magnolia, 202 j\Lrudurama, 24 JLirine Series, Lower, 94 Marine Series. Upper, 94 Marsnpials, 204 Martiniopsis, 108, 112. 131 Mastodonsanrus, 165 Jlegalania, 204 Meiolania, 204 Melosira, 198 : Jlerismoptera. 112, 132 IMeristina, 51 I\Iesozoic, Era, 6 Mesozoie, Yrdeanic Rocks. 239 Metablastns, 90 Michelinia. 90 ilicraster, 1S5 Microdiscns. 21 Mietocystis, 42 Milparinka. 18f(, 183 Mittagong. 127. 128. 166 Modiola. 185 Mceonia, 108, 112, 132 iMolong-Canobolas Beds. 70 i\rolong Distiiot. 40. 12, 70 Monaro Tableland. 8 Moree. 170. ISO :Moree B.ire, 170 :\[ount B(.ppy. 43 Brown. 183 Drysdale, 43 Hope, 43 Kenibla, 128. 141 I King George, 161 Landjie. (i6. 67. 68 Oxley. 183 T(]niali. 161 I View. 97 INDEX 265 Mourlonia, 112, 132 Mucophyllum, 42, 47, 50 Mudgee District, 70 Muvehisonia, 49, G4, 74, 112, 132 Muree Stage, 105, 106 Murrumbidgean Series, 54 Miirrumbidgee Beds, 56, 63 Murrurundi District, 125, 14J, 158 Murwillumbah, 28 Muswellbrook, 103 Mytilus, 185 N Nandewar Mountains, 201 Narrabeen, 155, 157 Beds, 157 Stage, 155, 158 Narrabri, 170 Narrungutta, Ranges, 73 Natica, 185 Nautilus, 185 Neuropteris, 135 Newcastle Coal Measures, 118 Newcastle District, 118 New England Tableland, 8, 91. 102, 169, 194, 200, 227 Nodosaria, 131, 185 Noggevathiopsis, 102, 127, 12S. 135, 136 Northern Rivers District, 98 Northern Tableland, 8 Notochelone, 185 Notomya, 112, 132 Nototherium, 204, 205 Nowra Grits, 109, 111 Nubecularia, 97, 131, 164 Nucula, 185 Nuculana, 112 Nundle, 62 Nymagee, 43 Nyngan, 170 Oakey Creek, 41, 42 Oberon, 200 Obolella, 20, 24, 29 Oleandridium, 164, 175 Olenellus, 21, 22 Omphalotrochus, 51 Opbileta, 21 Orange District, 9, 40, 200 Ordovieian Period, 6, 23 Ordovician Volcanic Rocks, 237 Oriostoma, 49 Ornithorhyncus, 204 Orthis, 20, 72, 90 Orthisina, 20 Ortlioceras, 37, 39, 44, 49, 64, 91, 112, 132 Ortbotetes, 43, 90 Ostrea, 185, 189 Paehypora, 50 Palaeozoic Era, 6 Paleozoic Intrusive Igneous Peeks, 225 Pala?aster, 50, 131 266 IXDEX Palechinus, 50 Panibula, 08, 73 Pai-kes, 2(), 43, 71, 72, 194 Paterson, 86 Pecteii, 185 Pec(]]itei-is, 73, 74 Peiitacrimis, 185 Peutameru.s, 37, 38, 43, 44, 48 Penteune, 202 Peiiechoc'i-inus, 90 Permo-Carboniferous — Glaciation, 143 Life, 131 Pericid, 6, 93 Plants. 135. 137 Volcanic Rdcks, 23S Pctraia, 51) Piiacdps. 37. 43, 50 Phascdldiuis, 204 Pbascoloniys, 204 Piiialoei-iiius, 111, 131 Pbillipsastrea, 39, 47, 50 Pbillipsia, 90, 91 Pbolidoi)bc.i-us. I(i5, IGfi Pbyllo.arai)tns. 29 Pbyllotbeca. 127. 135. 164. 175 Pbysicial Geonvapby of New Sontb Wales, 7 ' Picton, Kil Pisocrinns, 50 Pittnspiiruni, 202 Platycejis, 168 T'bityceras. 21 I'bilyscbisma. 108. 112. 132 Pleistocene Period. 5, 216 Plesiocajiiiaiis, 202 Plenracantbns. 1()5, 166 Plenropborns, 132 Pleuvotomavia, C4 Podozaniites, 164, 175 Pokolbin, 87, 88 Polycope, 132 Polymorpbina, 185 Polypora, 90, 97, 111, 131 Port Keuibla, 112 Macquarie, 88 Stepbens, 88 Pre-Caiiibrian Formations, 13 Fre-Canibrian Period, 6 Pristisomus, 165, 166 Prodnctus, 90, 108. 112, 131 Prretus, 51 Prospect. 232 l^roterozoic Era. 6 Protoretepora, 111, 131 Protospongia, 2S Pseudavicula, 185 Pterinea, 72, 74 Pteronites, 74. 90 Ptycbojiaria. 21 i'tyeompbalina. 112, 132 Purisiijbonia, 185 Q Queanbeyan, 35 Qnerens, 202 R Radiolaria. 28. 38. 44. 50, 59 Deposits. 38. 44. 59 Limestone, 59, 60 INDEX 207 Rathluba Beds, 117 Haveijsfield Sandstone, 96, 97 Kavenswortli, 124 Raymond Terrace, 98, 99 Keeent Formations, 5 Keee]itaeulites, 50, 63 Ketiolites, 29 Kbaeopteris, 89 Rheophax, 185 Rhizophyllum, 47, 50 Riiynchonella, 44, 63, 68, 70, 72, 74, 90, 185 Rhyolite, 38, 42, 44. 56, 69, 73, 86, 88, 125 River Systems of New South Wales, 11 Riverina Plains, 10 Rix's Creek Coalfield, 124 Rolling-Downs Formation, 179 Rookery Station, 44 Rvdal,'66, 68 Saddle Reefs, 40 Sagenodus, 165, l(i6 Salterella, 21 Sanidophyllum, 63 Sareopliilus, 204 Sauropterygia, 185 Sf-aphites, 185 Schizoneura, 135, 136, 104, 175 Semionotus, 165, 106 Serpentine, 229 Seipula, 185 Shea's Creek Dejiosils, 221 Silurian Life, 50 Period, 6, 33 A'oleanic Rocks, 237 Southern Coal-lield, 128 Southern Tableland, 8, 9 South Western Coal-field, 108, 127 Sphenopteris, 73, 74, 102, 135, 137, 164, 175 Spillite, 61 Spirifer, 37, 44, 57, 63, 68, 70, 72, 74, 90, 108, 112, 131 Spiriferina, 112, 131 Spongilla, 198, 204 Spondylostroljus, 202 Spongophyllum, 50, 63 Springwood, 161 Stauroeephalus, 51 Stenopora, 97, 108, 111, 131 Stenoi)teris, 164 Stenotheea, 21 St. Peters, 162, 165, 175 Striatopora, 50 Slromatopora, 38, 44, 46, 50, (i3, 74 Strophalosia, 90, 106, 108, 131 Strophomena, 51 Stutehburia, 112, 132 Sydney, 1-38, 159, 160 Syringojiora, 37, 43, 50, 63, 68, 74 Taiuiopteris, 135, 136, 164, 175 Talbragar, 126, 166, 170 2U8 INDEX Talbi-agai- Beds, 155, 166, 172, 174 Tallawaug', 108 Tallong, 24, 31, 108, 127 Tamwortli Beds, 58 Tamworth District, 61, 63 Tareena, 189 Tellina, 185 Teutaeulites, 51 Terebratula, 185 Tertiary, Fauna, 204 Flora, 202 Intrusive Igneous Rocks, 231 Leads, 192, 194 Lower, 5_, 192 Period, 5, 188 Upper, 5, 194 Volcanic Rocks, 240 Thamniscus, 50 Thinnfeldia, 164, 175 Thylacinus, 204 Thylaeoleo, 204 Titabooburra, 183 Tolwong, 24 Tomago Series, 116 Tomingley, 23, 26 Torrowangie, 17 Trachypora, 105, 131 Triassic Plants, 137 Triassie Period, 6, 154 Trias-Jura Period, 6, 154 Tribracliiocrinus, 111, 131 Trigonia, 185, 189 Troehus, 51 Tryplasma, 35, 37, 43, 44, 50 Turritella, 189 Tweed River District, 28 U Ulladulla, 109 LTnanderra, 128 Unio, 160, 164, 204 Uuionella, 164 Upper Cretaceous Formation, 179 Coal Measures, 117 Marine Series, 104 L^rosthenes, 135, 138 Vegetable Creek District, 194, 200 Vegetable Creek Leads, 194 Vertebraria, 123, 127, 135 Volcanic Rock, 199 Voluta, 189 W Walcha, 200 Wallerawang, 126 Wandra-Wandrian Sandstones, 109, ni "Warialda, 170 Warrumbungle Mountains, 198, 201 Wellesley, County of, 23 Wellington. 43, 72 AVestley Park, 113 Westley Park Tuffs, 113 Western Coal-field, 106, 125 Western Plains, 10 White Cliff's, 181 Wiauamatta Shales, 155 Wianamatta Stage, 1.55, 160, 166 INDEX 269 Willyama Series, 13 Wilson's Downfall, 103 Wingen, 103 Wolgan, 141 Wolumla Gold-field, 73 Wombej-an, 9, 38, 39 Wollongong, 109, 116 Woolomin Series, 60, 61 Wvralla, 198 Xenoliths, 235 Yalwal Beds, 73 Yambulla Ranges, 73 Yandama Station, 180 Yarrangobilly, 39 Yass Beds, 35 District, 34, 35 Tableland, 9 Zaphrentis, 42, 50, 63, 90, 131 C. 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Daily Telegraph: "Most of his verse is tinged with sad- ness — as in most Irish poetry — but there is a fine imaginative quality that lifts it to a far higher plane than that of the conventional melancholy rhymer. There are poems in this book that recall the magic of Rossetti .... Victor Daley has left his mark in the beginnings of an Australian literature." now HE DIED, AND OTHER POEMS. By John Farrell. Fourth edition. With memoir. appreciations, and iihotogravure portrait. Cloth gilt, gilt top, 3s. 6d. ; full morocco, gilt edges, 6s. (postage 2d.) JIelbourne Age: "Farrell's contributions to the literature of this country were always distinguished by a fine, stirring optimism, a genuine sympathy, and an idealistic sentiment. which in the book under notice find their fullest expression.' • SNOWY RIVER " SERIES. THE MAN FBOM SNOWY RIVER, AND OTHER VERSES. By A. B. Paterson. Fifty-seventh thousand. With photogravure portrait and vignette title. C'lotl' gilt, gilt top, 3s. 6d. ; full morocco, gilt edges, 6s (postage 2d.) Athenaeum: "Swinsinf?. rattling ballads of ready humour, ready pathos, and crowding adventure . . . Stirring and en- tertaining ballads about great ridea, in which the lines gallop like the very hoofs of the horses." London: Macmillan <£■ Co., Limited. RIO GRANDE'S LAST RACE, AND OTHER VERSES. By A. B. Paterson. Seventeenth thousand. Clotli gilt, gilt top, 3s. 6d. ; full morocco, gilt edges, 6s {postage 2d.) Spectator : "There is no mistaking the vigour of Mr. Pater- son's verse ; there is no difficulty in feeling the strong human interest which moves in it." London: Macmillan i '^. TO-MORROW: A Dramatic Sketch of the Character and Environment of Robert Greene. By J. Lb Gat Brerbton. Paper cover, Is. 6d. (postage Id.) Sydney Moenino Herald: "The first Australian play of literary worth." SONGS OF A SUNLIT LAND. By Colonel J. A. Kenneth Mackat. Cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. (postage 2d.) THE RISING OF THE COURT. AND OTHER SKETCHES IN PROSE AND VERSE. By Henry Lawson. With picture cover (Common- wealth Series). Is. (postage Id.) Queensland Times: "These stories show Lawsnn at his best, and Lawson at his best is not to be beaten by short story writers in current literature." AN OUTBACK MARRIAGE: A Story of Australian Life. By A. B. Paterson. Ninth thousand, with picture cover (Commonwealth Series). Is. (postage Id.) Scotsman: "Tlie chief virtue of the book lies in its fresh and vivid presentment of the wild life and the picturesque man- ners of the Australian bush, while in form and style it claims recognition as a work of considerable literary distinction." THE OLD BUSH SONGS. Collected and edited by A. B. Paterson. Thirteenth thousand, with ricture cover (Com.monwealth Series), Is. (voftnge I^.) Daily TELEOHAPn: "Rude and rnprred these old bush songs are. but they carry in their vigorous lines the very impress of their origin and of their genuineness . . . Mr. Paterson has done his work like an artist." GODS AND WOOD THINGS. By L. H. Allen. Paper hoards. Is. (postaoe ^d.) Sydney Mobning Herald: "Mr. Allen is one of the select band who are saturated with classic lore and who seek to translate the beincrs of naean mythology to the Australian bush. 'Oods and Wood Thincs' contains both nrose and verse — the latter rhapsodical, the former mystical." 9 rHEAP i;KiM!i.\T';, THE COMMONWEALTH SERIES. Picture covers, Is. per volume {postage Id.) BY HENRY LAWSOX. Prose. Ah Soon While the Billt Boils (First and Second Series) On the Track OVEB THE SlIPBAILS Joe Wilson Joe Wii^on's Mates Send Round the Hat The Romance of the Swag Verse. When the Wobld was Wide (First and Second Series) Populab Vebses HuMOBors Veeses When I Was ICing The Elder Son The Rising or the Court (Contains Prose alsn) BY A. B. PATERSON. Rio Orande's Last Race (First and Second Series) Ay OuTRACK JIabriage (fiill-leno'th novel) The Old Bush Songs (edited only by Mr. Patersnn ) BY WILL OGILVIE. Fair Qirls ) A reprint in two parts of the favourite volume. Gray Horses j "Fair Girls and Gray Horses." BY BRUNTON STEPHENS. My Chinee Cook, and Other Humobous Verses BY CHARLES WHITE. History of Australian Busheanging (in 4 parts, each com- plete in itself, and well illustrated) — The Earlv Days; 18.50 to 1S62; 1803 to ISGO: l?f.n to 1878 BY GEORGE E. BOXALL. TIi.stoey of the Australian Busiikancei;s — Part I.: To Ihe Time of Frank Gardiner Part II.: To the End of the Kelly Gang in liOOKS FOR CHILDREN. BUSHLAND STORIES. By Amy Eleanor Mack. Second edition, with coloured illustrations and decorated cloth cover, 3s. 6d. (postage 2d.) [Shortly. Academy: "It is not often that we have the pleasure to welcome from Australia a book of so many charming short stories as are contained in the volume before us." Scotsman: "Charming and simple nursery tales, appetisingly touched with local colour of the Bush." Birmingham Daily Post: "There is a daintiness and dis- tinct charm in these fairy tales." SCRIBBLING SUE, AND OTHER STORIES. By Amy Eleanor Mack. With coloured and other illustrations and decorated cloth cover, 3s. 6d. (postage 2d.) [Shortly. These stories are written in the same happy vein as "Bush- land Stories." Miss Mack's intense love of nature is reflected in all her books, and her readers, both young and old, are at once attracted by the natural ring of her work. GEM OF THE FLAT: A Story of Young Australians. By Constance Mackness. With coloured and other illustrations and decorated cloth cover, 3s. 6d. (postage 2d.) [Shortly. "Gem of the Flat" is a story of Australian bush children. The local colouring is distinctly good : the children are alive. and talk like real children: the incidents are natural and well described. The style is fresh, the dialogue well managed, and the story as a whole is interesting and pleasant, with a good tone about it. DOT AND THE KANGAROO. By Ethel C. Pedley. Illustrated by F. P. Mahony. Third edition, with decorated cloth cover, 2s. 6d. (postage 2d.) For school edition see page 30 Sydney Morning Herald: " 'Dot and the Kangaroo' is with- out doubt one of the most charming hooks that could be put into the hands of a child. It is admirably illustrated bv Frank P. Mahony. who seems to have entered thoroughly into the animal world of Aiistralia. The story is altosrether Australian. ... It is told 80 simply, and yet so artistically, that even the 'grown-ups' amongst us must enjoy it." 11 MTSCELLANEOT'^R. THE CHARM OF SYDNEY. A collection of prose and verse quotations referrin? to Sydney and surroundinsrs, chosen from the works of famous authors and travellers, includina: Robert Louis Stevenson, etc., etc., with three- colour frontispiece and 40 drawiners bv Svdnev Ure Smith. Uniform with "A Bush Calendar." cloth, 3s. 6d. (postage Id.) [Shortly. 'STORIES OF OLT) SYDNEY. By Charles H. Bertie. With .53 pen and pencil drawinsrs by Sydney TTre Smith. Cloth cover, printed in colours. 3s. fid. (postage Id.) Sydney Morning Herald: "A charminff and interestiDs little book . . . tbey live and breatlie. anrl he has contrived to make actual to us tlinse remote and almost incredible days . . . Mr. Smith's arlmirable illiis+rntions are an equally im- portant feature of the book, whi^h. in addition to its interest, presents a crreat antiquarian value." CWRTSTOHER COCKLE'S A US TRA LI AN EXPERIENCES. By "Old BOOTTERANr," ( J. R. Houldino I . Revised edition, with 2 portraits. Cloth gilt, 5s. (postage 2d.) Originally published under the title "Australian Capers." this volume has been out of print for manv vears. and copies which have come into the market spoondhand have been pur- chased at enhanced prices. The author has at last consented to its remiblication and has thorou^hlv revised it. As a picture of Australian life thirtv or fortv years ago the book is worthv of a nermanent nlace in our literature, and it con- tains plenty of fun and h\in"our for both old and youno;. TTTE MOTHER STATE: The Physical Features. Natural Resources, Geology, Scenery, Climjxte, Industries and Commerce of New South Wales. By ,T. M. Taylor. M.A.. T.T,.B. With S.5 illustrations and mans. Cloth g-iU. 3s fid. (vostage 2d.) This is the only up-to-date treneral description of New South Wales available for sendins to friends abroad. All the in- formation is drawn from the latest authentic sources and the illnstrations and maps add larcrely to the hook's interest and value. 12 BlOOltAl'Hy. HOME EARLY HECOIiDS OF THE MACAETHUBS OF CAMDEN, 1789-1834. Edited by Sibella JVIacarthur Onslow. With coloured plates and numerous facsimile reproduc- tions of original documents. Cloth gilt, 15s. (postage bd.) [Jiist out. This voluuie will be lecogiused as a classic, giving at tirst I/and an insight into the times and the moae and manner ol living of a pioneer iamilj' during tlie lirst forty years oi civilised story in Australia, and above all tlie trials of the pioneer of the wool trade. Uniform with the above. LIFE OF GAFTAIN MATTHEW FLINDERS, B.N. By Ernest Scott^ Professor of History in the Uni- versity of Melbourne, author of "Terre Napoleon" and "Life of Laperouse." With numerous por- traits, maps, manuscripts in facsimile, etc. Cloth gilt, 21s. (postage 6d. ) [Just out. This is a handsome volume of over 500 pages, octavo, and the only adequate biography of i'linders. Access has been had to all known sources ot information, including the t'Tinders family papers, the Decaen papers at Caen, the Bibliotheque Nationafe (Paris), the Mitchell Library (Sydney), and the Melbourne Public Library. Much entirely new matter is now published for the first time. LIFE OF LAPE BOUSE. By Professor Ernest Scott. With Chart of Voyages in the Pacific, and 13 illustrations. Cloth, 3s. Od. (postage Id.) For school edition see page 31. This story of Lapeiouse's work as an explorer and his close association with Australia is a most important contribution to our history. The illustrations are from authentic sources and very interesting. LIFE OF CAPTAIN CHABLES STURT. By iMrs. Napier O. Sturt. With portraits and other illustrations. Cloth gilt, 3s. Cd. (postage 6siiiii of nicinories of happy times with nature." lU SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL. THE BUTTERFLIES OF AUSTRALIA: A Monograph of the Australian Rhopalocera. By G. A. Waterhouse, B.Sc, B.E., F.E.S., and Gr. Lyell, F.E.S. With 4 coloured and 39 photo- plates, and numerous figures in the text. Demy 4to., cloth gilt, 42s. (postage 6d.) [Just oat. Every Australian butterily known to science is here des- cribed, and every species is figured. The authors' positions in tlie entomological world is sutlicieiit guarantee that the v'ork could not have been done better, and in addition to sifting the literature of the subject they describe for the hrst time many new species and sub-species from their unique collections. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GEOLOGY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. By C. A. SussiiiLCH, F.G.S. Second edition, thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged, with folding coloured map and 100 other maps and illustrations. Cloth gilt, 7s. 6d. {postage 3d.) [Just out. Tlie first edition of this most readable and useful work was e.-vliausted very rapidly. The second edition embodies tlie results of the most recent researches recorded by the N.S.VV. Mines Department, the Royal and Linnean Societies, and Aus- tralian .Museum, with the addition of much information not hitherto published. It is a thorougli "stock-taking" of present knowledge, and will not be superseded for many years. AUSTRALIAN HOUSE DRAINAGE PRACTICE. By H. G. Wills, A.R. San. I., Lecturer at Sydney Technical College. With 109 illustrations. Cloth gilt, 7s. 6d. (postage 3d.) [Just out. This book is indispensable to builders, master-drainers, journeymen and students alike — the only book on House Drain- age suitable for Australasian Conditions. Everything is ex- ]jlained in a thoroughly practical manner, and the illustrations and diagrams are exceptionally valuable. 17 SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL. DAIRYING IN AUSTRALASIA : Farm and Factory. By M. A. O'Callaghan, Chief of Dairy Brauoii, Department of Agriculture. Contains over 700 pages and more than 200 plates Royal 8vo., cloth, 10s. {postage 5d.) The Dairy (London) : "It gives in clear and unmistakeable language tlie whole of the dairy manipulation from beginning to end . . , His book is of world-wide application and use- fulness." MILK AND BUTTER TABLES: With Notes on Milk and Cream Testing. By M. A. O'Callaghan, author of "Dairying in Australasia." Demy 8vo., Is. (postage Id.) HERD TESTING RECORD BOOK. Designed by M. A. O'Callaghan for Herd Testing Associations and Stud Cattle Breeders. 200 leaves, foolscap size, strongly bound, 5s. (postage Is.) [ THE HOME DOCTORING OF ANIMALS. By Harold Leeney, M.R.C.V.S. Fourth edition, thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged, with nearly 100 illustrations. 8vo., cloth, 12s. lid. {postage 8d.) London: Macdonald (t Martin. SIMPLE TESTS FOR MINERALS: Every Man his own Analyst. By Joseph Campbell, M.A., T.G.S., M.I.M.E. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged (comi^leting the twelfth thousand). With illustrations. Cloth, round corners, 3s. Cd. {postage Id.) Ballarat Star: "This is an exfellent little work, and should be in the hands of every scientific and practical miner." Bendigo Evening Mail: "Should be in every prospector's kit. It enables any intelligent man to ascertain for himself whether any mineral be may discover has a commercial value." 18 AUSTRALIAN MILITARY HANDBOOKS. HINTS TO YOUNG OFFICERS In the Australian Military Forces on the Art of Com- mand, Mess Etiquette, Dress, Military Courtesy, etc., etc. Stiff manila cover. Is. {postage Id.) [Just out. INFANTRY POCKET BOOK. With prefatory note by Colonel W. Holmes, D.S.O., V.D., Nominal, Section and Attendance Rolls, and Duty Roster. Second edition, revised and en- larged. Pocket size, limp cloth. Is. 6d. {postage Id.) A concise guide to Regulations, Field Training, Musketry, Camp Duties, etc. THE ART OF INSTRUCTING IN AIMING AND FIRING, AND IN MINIATURE RANGE AND LAND- SCAPE TARGET TRAINING. With 15 illustrations. Stiff manila cover, Is. 3d. {postage Id.) Contains: — Elen;entary Instruction in Aiming and Firing, Grou]jing Practices, Application Practices, Visual Training, Military Vocabulary, Fire Orders, Indication and Recognition of Targets, Regulation, Direction and Control of Fire, Fire Direction Practices, etc., with complete Set of Rules for Minia- ture Range Competitions. SOLDIER'S MUSKETRY SMALL BOOK. Stiff manila cover, 3d. {postage Id.) Includes Hints on Shooting, Judging Distance, Grouping Practices, etc., with a large number of diagrams for keeping a Record of Scores in Instructional and Standard Test Prac- fives in Tables A. and B. OUTPOSTS, AND ADVANCED, FLANK AND REAR GUARDS. Stiff manila cover, Is. {postage Id.) With a special chapter and sketch map describing the telling-off and posting of a piquet on Night Outpost Duty. GUARD AND SENTRY DUTIES. Stiff manila cover, 9d. {postage Id.) A complete guide to the Guard Duties of Field Officer and Captain of the Day, the Commander, Sergeant, Corporal, and Private Soldier of the Guard, etc., with Copy of Guard Report. 19 AUSTKALIAJS MILITARY HANDBOOKS. LIGHT HORSE POCKET BOOK. Compiled by Lieut. D. C. Howell Price, A. and 1. Staff. With Nominal and other Rolls. Pocket size, limp eloth, Is. 6d. (postage Id.) A concise guide to Regulations, Field Training, Camp Duties, Equitation, etc. AUSTRALIAN LANDSCAPE TARGETS. Approved and adopted by the School of Musketry, Randvviek. 5 specially selected Australian Land- scapes in panels, each measuring CO inches by 30 inches, reproduced in natural colours and mounted on white canvas, 3.5s. per set ; unmounted, 17s. Od. per set. Also sold separately. A detailed description, witli pliotograph of each target and cost of postage, will be forwarded post free to any address on application. THE .JUNIOR CADET MANUAL. including the authorised Physical Exercises, Organ- ised Games, Miniature kihe Shooting, First Aid, Swimming, Life Saving, Squad Drill, etc. Edited by Lieut. R. Stupart. With about 150 illustra- tions. Cloth, 4s. Od. {postage 2d.) CADET HANDBOOK. Compiled by Lieut. R. Stupart. With Attendance Roll for Section Commanders. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Pocket size, limp cloth, Od. (postage Id.) A concise guide to Appointment and Promotion for Ofliceis and N.-C.O.'s. Including Syllabus of Exams., Syllabus ol Training, Duties of jSon-Coms., Guards and Sentries. RIFLE EXERCISE AND MUSKETRY INSTRUCTION FOR CADETS. Compiled by Lieu.t R. Stupart. Second edition. greatly enlarged. Stiff manila cover, 6d. (postage Id.) Includes Care of Arms. Rifle Exercises, Aiming Instruction, Firing Instruction, iluscle Exercises, Tests of Elementary Training, etc. With Sketch of Rifle showing all parts. 20 MISCELLAAEOUS. SEMAPHORE ALPHABET MADE EASY. An easy method of learninoj how to Semaphore in a few hours by means of a pack of 30 cards, show- ing Sender's Position "Front View." f)d. {postage 2d.) This is the standard system of Signalling and is of universal application. CALENDAR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY. Demy 8vo., linen, 2s. 6d. ; paper cover, Is. (postage 3d.) [Published annually in June. MANUAL OF PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS HELD BY THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY. Demy 8vo., paper cover, Is. (postage Id.) [Published annually in September, and dated the year following that in ivhich it is issued. THE PLACE OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN A MODERN UNIVERSITY. By R. F. Irvine, M.A., Professor of Economics in the University of Sydney. Paper cover, Is. (postage Id.) [Just out. AUSTRALIAN CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PRESENT ANTHROPO- LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. By W. Ramsay Smith, D.Sc, M.B., etc. Paper cover. 6d. (postage Id.) THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN AUSTRALIA. By H. S. Carslaw, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney. Paper cover, 2s. 6d. (postage Id.) This is a Report prepared for the Commission Internationale de I'Enseifinement Math^matique, and deals with the work in the Secondary Schools, Technical Colleges, Teachers' Training Colleges, and Universities of Australia. 21 MISCELLANEOUS. THE HANDLING OF STEAMSHIPS DURING HURRICANES ON THE EAST COAST OF QUEENSLAND. By Francis J. Balydon, Lieut. R.N.R., Master Mariner. With coloured diagrams. Royal 8vo., cloth, 3s. 6d. (postage Id.) RACIAL DECAY: A Compilation of Evidence from World Sources. By OcTAVius C. Beale, a Commissioner of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1907, and of the State of New South Wales, 1903. With numerous diagrams. Popular edition, 2s. 6d. {postage 3d.) Daily Telegraph : "A positively monumental accumula- tion of fact and quotation and argument on this gravest of all subjects." PROLEGOMENA TO A CENSURE OF OLD WRITERS. By Jean Hardouin, S.J. Translated by Edwin Johnson, M.A. (Lond.), author of "The Rise of Christendom," "The Rise of English Culture," "Antiqua Mater," "The Pauline Epistles Re- studied and Explained," etc. Crown 8to., cloth gilt, 6s. (postage Id.) CHURCH SERVICES, FOR USE BY LAYMEN. Prepared on the Authority of the Presbyterian Church of Australia (State, of New South Wales). Cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. (postage Id.) PRACTICAL BIO-CHEMISTRY. By H. L. Kesteven, D.Sc, Lecturer at Sydney Tech- nical College. Paper cover, 2s. 6d. (postage 'id.) MISCELLANEOUS. COOKERY BOOK OF GOOD AND TRIED RECEIPTS. Compiled for the Presbyterian Women's Missionary Association. Tliirteenth edition, enlarged, completing 170,000 eojiies. Cloth boards, Is. (postage Id.) Extract from Preface: "The aim of this book has always been, not only to provide wholesome and economical recipes for capable housewives, but to help those who have not had the benefit of maternal guidance and home training. It is significant that many discerning women have made a habit of giving a copy of the 'Presbyterian Cookery Book' to every new bride of their acquaintance." COMMONSENSE HOUSEHOLD COOKERY BOOK. Comnileri by the Cookery Teachers' Association of N.S.W.' Cloth boards, Is. {postage Id.) School edition, prescribed by N.S.W. Department of Public Instruction for use in Primary Schools, limp cloth, 9d. {postage Id.) [Just out. Over 10.000 copies already sold. The virtue of this book it that it sets out each ingredient and every step in method separately and distinctly, so that even the veriest novice has no difficulty in following the directions. DISHES WITHOUT MEAT. By Alice Jevons. Paper cover. Is. (postage Id.) As the title implies, this is a vegetarian cookery book. The recipes are simple and suitable for home use. A JUNIOR COURSE OF FIRST AID : For Boy Scouts, Girl Aids, and Primary Schools. By George Lane Mullins, M.D. With 30 illustra- tions, 6d. (postage Id.) FIRST AID IN NURSING : For the Bush and Country, and for use in Schools. By Mrs. W. M. Thomas (Sister Dickson). Illustrated. Limp cloth, Is. (postage Id.) EDUCATIONAL. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS. By II. S. Carslaw, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Sydney. Second edition, revised. Demy 8vo., cloth, os. (postage 2d.) London: Longmans, Green S Co. ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY, PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL. By C. Godfrey, M.A., and A. W. Siddons, M.A. Second edition, cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. {postage 3d.) Also published in two parts, cloth, 2s. each {postage 2d.) Key, 6s.; Answers to Exercises, 4d. London: The Cambridge University Press. PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By J. A. Pollock, Professor, and 0. U. Vonwillfr, Assistant Professor of Physics in tlie University of Sydney. Part I. With 30 diagrams. Pa;"er cover, 3s. 9d. {postage 2d.) MATHEMATICAL TABLES. Edited, with Introduction, by J. D. St. Clair Maclardt, M.A., Chief Examiner, Department of Public Instruction, New South Wales. Cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. {postage 3d.) Contains the following Tables:— Seven Figure Logaritlims (1 — 100,000); Logarithmic Sines, Tangents and Secants; Natxiral Sines, Cosines, Versed Sines, Chords, etc. ; Natural Tangents; Natural Secants, etc. Not for sale outside Australia and New Zealand. ABRIDGED MATHEMATICAL TABLES. By S. H. Barraclough, B.E., M.M.E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Cloth, Is. {postage Id.) Logarithms, &c., published separately, paper cover, fid. {postage Id.) EDUCATJU.NAL. BRUSTIWORK FROM NATURE, WITH DESIGN. By J. E. Brakch, Superintendent of Drawing, Depart- ment of Pulalie Instruction. Prescribed by the Department of Public Instruction, N.S.W., for Teacliers' Examinations. With 19 coloured and 5 other plates. Demy 4to., decorated cloth, 7s. 6d. (postage 3d.) THE CUTTER'S GUIDE. A Manual of Dresscuttinn; and Ladies' Tailoring. By M. E. Roberts, Lecturer at Sydney Technical College. Third edition, revised and enlarged, with 150 diagrams. Cloth gilt, 7s. 6d. (postage 2d.) Taii^ors' Art Journal: "To all those inquirers from whom we have had continued correspondence asking for information as to the ways and means of perfecting their knowledge in the rudiments of ladies' dressmaking and tailoring, we can safely say that no book is better suited for their purpose than this." GARMENT CUTTING FOR GIRLS. A Course of Scientific Garment Cutting for Schools. By M. E. Roberts. Prescribed for use in Girls' High Schools. With 50 diagrams. Paper boards, 2s. 6d. (postage Id.) DRESS-CUTTING MEASURE BOOK. For Students and Pupils using "The Cutter's Guide," and "Garment Cutting for Girls." 6d. (postage Id.) THE FORTIAN SEWING BOOK. Ruled in % inch squares for use in Schools. 3d. (postage Id.) EDUCATIONAL. ADDISON'S DE COVERLET PAPERS. Edited by A. B. Piddington, K.C. Revised edition, prescribed for use in Secondary Schools. Limp cloth, Is. 6d. (postage Id.) SHAKESPEARE'S AS TOU LIKE IT. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by M. L. MacCallum, M.A., B.C.L. (Oxon). Prescribed for use in Secondary Schools. Limp cloth, Is, (postage Id.) SHAKESPEARE'S HENRT V. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by M. L. MacCallum, M.A., B.C.L. (Oxon). Prescribed for use in Secondary Schools. Limp cloth, ]s. (postage Id.) HISTORY AND CIVICS FOR QUALIFYING CERTIFICATE, SCHOLARSHIP AND BURSARY CANDIDATES. By J. A. Broome. Limp cloth, Is. (postage Id.) QUALIFYING CERIFICATE MATHEMATICS. By S. W. Canthell, B.A. Limp cloth, 9d. (postage Id.) Answers, published separately, 6d. (postage Id.) QUESTIONS SET AT THE QUALIFYING CERTIFICATE EXAMINATIONS, 1911-1913. With Answers to Arithmetic Papers by A. J. McCoy. Limp cloth, 9d. (postage Id.) 26 EDUCATIONAL. GEOGRAPHY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. By J. M. Taylor, M.A., LL.B. Fourth edition, revised and enlarged, with 13 folding maps and 67 illustrations. Cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. (postage 2d.) ENGLISH GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND PRECIS WRITING. By James Conway. New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth gilt, 3s. 6d. {postage 2d.) A SMALLER ENGLISH GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION, AND PRECIS WRITING. By James Conway. New edition, revised and en- larged. Cloth, Is. 6d. (postage Id.) THE AUSTRALIAN OBJECT LESSON BOOK. Part I.— For Infant and Junior Classes. Second edition, with 43 illus. Cloth, 2s. 6d. (postage Id.) Part II.— For advanced Classes. Second edition, with 113 illustrations. Cloth, 2s. 6d (postage 2d.) GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Revised edition, with numerous maps and illustrations. 6d. (postage Id.) GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA AND AMERICA. Revised edition, with numerous maps and illustrations. 6d. (postage Id.) THE AUSTRALIAN LETTERING BOOK. Containing the Alphabets most useful in Mapping, Exercise Headings, &e., with practical applica- tions. Easy Scrolls, Flourishes, Borders, Corners, Rulings, &e. Limp cloth, 6d. (postage Id.) EDUCATIONAL. COMMONWEALTH MANUAL TRAINING SERIES. Concrete Guide to Paper-Folding for Design. Is. 6d. (postage Id.) Pupils' Papek-Folding Books for Classes I. and II. Class III., and Class TV. Id. each. Teachers' Manual of Cardboard Modelling for Classes II. and III. (Lower). Is. (postage 2d.) Pupils' Cardboard Modelling and Drawing Book. 3d. WIRE WORK FOR BOYS AND GIRLS. By Charles E. Dawson. With 25 Diagrams. Paper cover, Is. 6d. (postage Id.) These exercises are the outcome of practical work in manual training carried out by the author. TOY-MAKING FOR BOYS. By Charles E. Dawson. With 23 diagrams. Paper cover, 2s. (postage Id.) AUSTRALIAN SONGS FOR AUSTRALIAN CHILDREN. By Matbanke Anderson. Is. (postage Id.) A NEW BOOK OF SONGS FOR SCHOOLS AND SINGT.jG CLASSES. By Hugo Alpen, ex-Superintendent of Music. De- partment of Public Instruction, New South Wales. Is. (postage Id.) THE AUSTRALIAN PROGRESSIVE SONGSTER. By Dr. S. McBurney. Part I., for Junior Classes: Part II., for Senior Classes, 6d, each (postage Id.) 28 EDUCATIONAL. AUSTRALIAN SCHOOL SERIES. Grammar and Derivation Book, 64 pages. 2d. Table Book and Mental Arithmetic. New edition, greatly enlarged. 34 pages. Id. History op Australia and New Zealand. 80 pages. 4d. Illustrated. Geography. Part I. Australasia and Polynesia, 64 pages. 2d. Geography. Part II. Europe, Asia, America, and Africa, 66 pages. 2d. Arithmetic and Practical Geometry— Exercises for Class II., 50 pages. 3d. Arithmetic— Exercises for Class III., 50 pages. 3d. Bible History for Schools, wilh Scripture Class Helps. Illustrated. 64 pages. 4d. Practical Geometry. Classes II. and III. With ilia grams. 2d. Classes IV. and V. With diagrams. 4d. Classes TI., III., IV. and V. (combined). 6d. Practical and Theoretical Geometry. Book IT. 6d. THE METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, AND DECIMAL COINAGE. By J. M. Taylor, M.A., LL.B. 6d. {postage Id. DOTS' AND GIRLS' AIDS TO ARITHMETIC: A Series of Diagrams for the Guidanee of Pupils. Paper Cover, 6d. (vostage Id.) NIAV TESTAMENT LESSONS. By Rev. John Burgess, D.D. Part I.— The Life of Christ. Paper cover, Is. (postage Id.) 20 SUPPLEMENTARY READERS. THE CHILDREN'S TREASUBY OF AUSTRALIAN VERSE. Edited by Bertram Stevens and George Mackaness, M.A. With notes. Limp cloth, Is. 3d. {post. Id.) Tills volume contains all the best verse written in Aus- tralia and New Zealand, suitable for junior classes. It has been adopted by the N.S.W. Department of Public Instruction for supplementary reading in primary schools. SELECTIONS FROM THE AUSTRALIAN POETS. Edited by Bertram Stevens and George Mackaness. M.A. With notes. Limp cloth. Is. 6d. {post. Id.) The contents have been selected from the published work of Gordon, Kendall, Paterson, Lawson, Ogilvie, Daley, Essex Evans, Brunton Stephens, Mrs. Foott, Dorothea Mackellar, and many other well-known writers. In addition, the book con- tains a number of tine poems not obtainable in any other volume, and it is easily the best, if not the only, collection of Australian verse entirely suitable for young readers. It is prescribed for use in the High and Secondary Schools of New South Wales. TEENS: A Story of Australian Schoolgirls. By Louise Mack. Illustrated by Frank P. Mahony. Limp cloth, Is. 6d. (postage 2d.) GIRLS TOGETHER: A Story of Australian Schoolgirls. By Louise iILvck. Illustrated by George W. Lambert. Limp cloth, Is. 3d. {postage 2d.) DOT AND THE KANGAROO. By Ethel C. Pedley. Illustrated by F. P. Mahony. Limp cloth, Is. 3d. {postage Id.) THE TOM TITS' NEST, AND OTHER FAIRY TALES. 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The curves are well rounded, checking the tendency to too great angularity. ANGUS AND ROBERTSON'S PENCIL COPY BOOK. In nine numbers. Id. each. No. 1 initiatory lines, curves, letters, figures; 2 and 3, short letters, easy combinations, figures; 4, long letters, short words, figures; 5, long letters, words, figures; 6, 7, and 8, capitals, words, figures ; 9, short sentences, figures. THE REFORM WRITING BOOKS. With directions for teaching writing on the Reform system. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Id. each ; Nos. 3a, 4 and 5, 2d. each. Pam|)hlet on The Teaching of Writing, Is .■3)