ALBERT R. MANN ■ 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 SB 195.S58 1884 
 
 Silos for preserving British fodder crop 
 
 3 1924 003 417 882 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003417882 
 
SILOS 
 
 FOE 
 
 PRESERVING BRITISH FODDER CROPS 
 
 STOEED 
 
 IIsT A GREE^ STATE. 
 
 NOTES ON THE ENSILAGE OF GRASSES, 
 CLOVERS, VETCHES, ETC. 
 
 BY 
 
 THE SUB-EDITOR OF "THE FIELD." 
 
 Second Edition. 
 
 LONDON: 
 HOEACE COX, "TIELD" OPPICE, 346, STEAND. 
 
 1884. 
 
MNDON : 
 PRINTED BY HOEAOE OOX, 346, STEASD. W.O. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The second edition of this book was intended to be issued 
 early in tbe Spring; and the compiler would gladly have 
 carried this intention into effect. Unfortunatelyj however, 
 he was prevented by illness from making progress with the 
 work, and its publication has in consequence been con- 
 siderably delayed; but the delay has not proved an unmiti- 
 gated evilj as it has enabled information to be added on 
 several points which otherwise could not have been included. 
 Mr. Jenkins's excellent report in the "Journal of the Royal 
 Agricultural Society," and the chemical analyses contained in 
 the same volume, although not quoted at any length, have 
 afforded facts which called for comment, and which could ill 
 be spared from the chapter on the feeding value of silage. 
 The same may be said of the South Kensington lecture of 
 Mr. Woods, the tables of feeding experiments at St. Albans 
 by Sir John Lawes, and various other matters. 
 
 An endeavour has been made in the present edition to 
 improve upon its predecessor, and to render the book of 
 greater interest and utility, by illustrating the various points 
 of ensilage practice by results obtained in recent experiments. 
 Especially has it been thought desirable, in Chapters IX. 
 and X., to impress upon beginners the lessons to be learned 
 from scientific investigators, by showing the nature of losses 
 which may ensue from slovenly modes of operation, although 
 the provender remaining may itself be good ; also the wide 
 difference in value of samples of silage made from different 
 
IPreface. 
 
 crops, or from similar crops under varying conditions of 
 moisture, &c. ; and likewise to trace the cause of the con- 
 flicting results reported as to the effect of silage on dairy 
 produce and on the condition of the animals fed upon it. 
 
 The consequence has been that the volume has been much 
 expanded, and a number of supplementary pages have had to 
 be interpolated (pp. ] 60a to 160p) because, the last half of the 
 book having been printed first, in order to afford an opportunity 
 for direct reference to the numerous experiments commented 
 on, the allotted space was considerably overrun by the after- 
 growth of material, notwithstanding the omission of the 
 greater portion of the contents of the previous edition, so far 
 as they related to experiences abroad. Altogether the 
 volume has become nearly twice the thickness of that of last 
 year, despite the great amount of condensation the reports of 
 experiments have undergone; nearly three-fourths of the 
 matter in the present issue was not included in the first 
 edition ; and the amount of correspondence and extracts 
 which have perforce been laid aside, would have sufficed to 
 make a second volume of equal bulk. 
 
 One result of this expansion has been to make it obvious 
 that this book is much too voluminous to meet the require- 
 ments of persons who wish to gain a general knowledge of 
 the process without going deeply into details ; and, as some 
 landed proprietors have expressed a wish to distribute among 
 their tenantry a small publication affording such particulars, 
 a selection has been made from the pages of this work and 
 issued as a cheap pamphlet under the title of " Short Notes 
 on Silo Experiments and Practice." 
 
 MpU Office, June, 1884. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 •CHAP. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Inteoduotort. — Cattle-feeding v. Corn-growing ; 
 previous information on tlie storage of green 
 fodder in pits ; silos in ancient and modem 
 times 1 
 
 I. Summary op Practice 13 
 
 II. Crops por the Silo. — Grasses, clovers, lucerne, 
 vetches, maize, green rye and oats, spurrey, 
 buckwheat, comfrey, roots and miscellaneous 
 crops 17 
 
 III. The Variotts Kinds op Silos. — Earthen pits a.nd 
 
 other simple forms of silo ; barn and other 
 converted silos; specially constructed silos of 
 stone, brick, concrete, wood, &c. ; ensilage 
 stacks and barrels 37 
 
 IV. Cost op Silos. — Estimation of capacity ; cost of 
 
 British silos, specially constructed ; converted 
 buildings ; patent silos of concrete slabs, slate, 
 and wood ; French silos ; relative capacity and 
 cost of silos and hay-barns ; roofs 89 
 
 v. Filling the Silo. — Mixture of dry material with 
 green fodder ; influence of wet weather ; 
 chopping up the fodder ; slow v. quick filling ; 
 curbs or super-silos; the use of salt; trampling 
 down the fodder 110 
 
 VI. Covering and Closing the Silo. — Straw and other 
 materials; the covering boards; closing the 
 doorway 125 
 
vi Contents. 
 
 VII. Weighting the Silo. — Amount of weight to put 
 on ; consequences of insufficient pressure ; 
 expression of juice from tlie fodder ; mechanical 
 arrangements for pressure J cost of apparatus... 129 
 
 VIII. Opening the Silo. — Precautions to be taken in 
 
 uncovering the silage, and removing the weights 139 
 
 IX. Effect of Ensilage on Foddees. — Fermentation 
 in the pit ; advantages and losses produced by- 
 fermentation ; reduction in weight and altered 
 proportion of constituents of silage resulting 
 from excessive fermentation 141 
 
 X. Feeding Qualities of Silage. — Effect of amount 
 of moisture in diluting the nutrient matters ; 
 comparative money value of green fodders and 
 silage ; results of feeding experiments on the 
 condition of the animals and the production of 
 milk and cream; silage for horses, sheep, &c 151 
 
 XI. Effect of Silage on Dairy Peoduce. — Complaints 
 of bad flavour in milk and butter ; causes of 
 conflicting reports 160 n 
 
 XII. Cost of Haymaking v. Ensilage. — Differences of 
 
 cost of the process under various conditions ... 160 p 
 
ILLUSTEATIOl^rS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Bam-Silo belonging to M. Lecouteux, at Cer9ay 43 
 
 Mr. Stobart's Silo at Pepper Ardeu, Yorkshire 45 
 
 Lord ToUemaohe's Silos at Peokf orton, Cheshire 47 
 
 American "Wooden Ice-house or Silo 49 
 
 Ground Plan of M. Goffart's Triple Silo 51 
 
 M. Goflart's Silos and Cattle Sheds at Bnrtin 52 
 
 Vertical Section of M. GofEart's Triple Silo 53 
 
 Lord Ashburton's Concrete Silos at Alresf ord, Hants 57 
 
 Vertical Section of Lord Ashburton's Silos 58 
 
 Mr. Bailey's Plan for Building Concrete SUos 59 
 
 Plan for Small Silos 60 
 
 Mr. Copley's Improved Silo at East Cowton, Yorkshire 63 
 
 The Kentish Silo, Mr. Kains- Jackson's Plan 65 
 
 Side View of the Vicomte de ChezeUes' Silo 66 
 
 Mr. Johnson's Lever-pressure Silo, Croft, Darlington 69 
 
 Messrs. BentaU's Concrete Silo and Section 71 
 
 Messrs. Pearson's Silo, with Weighting Apparatus 73 
 
 Mr. LasceUes' Silo of Portable Concrete Slabs 74 
 
 Messrs. Brindley and Co.'s Slate Silo 76 
 
 Mr. Stocks' Patent Wooden Silo and Press 77 
 
 Messrs. Churchton's Patent Wooden Silo 80 
 
 Messrs. Reynolds's Patent Wooden Circular Silo 81 
 
 An Australian SUo — Mr. Lamb's, Rooty Hill, New South Wales 83 
 
 Messrs. Pearson's Ensilage Stack and Pressing Apparatus 85 
 
 M. Houette's Method of Partially Pilling Long Silos 118 
 
 Mr. Potter's Pressing Apparatus with Hydraulic Jack 135 
 
 Messrs. Reynolds's Pressing Apparatus, with Chains and Screw 137 
 
 The Vicomte de ChezeUes' Silo, End View 194 
 
 The Bast Cowton SUo, as originally made 203 
 
 Mr. Johnson's Lever-pressure Silo, Details of Apparatus 213 
 
 Sections of Drainage Well in Mr. Grant's SUo 230 
 
 Mr. Mead's Silo and Screw Apparatus for Pressure 243 
 
 Lord Egerton's Silo (Converted Ice-house) 250 
 
 Mr. Edwards's Silo at St. Alban's 276 
 
BOOKS ON EIsTSILAGE. 
 
 The following is a list of books on ensilage. Those marked f we have 
 not seen, but take the particulars from Dr. Thurber's book : 
 
 " Manuel de la Culture et de I'EnsUage des Mais et autres fourrages 
 verts." Par Auguste GofEart. 4th edition. Paris : G. Masson, 
 120, Boulevard Saint Germain. 1883. 
 f M. Goffart's previous edition was translated by Mr. J. B. Brown, and 
 published at New York in 1879. 
 " Le Mais et les autres fourrages verts, Culture et Ensilage." Par 
 Ed. Lecouteux. 2nd edition. Paris : Librairie Agricole, 26, Rue 
 Jacob. 1883. 
 " The Book of Ensilage ; or, the New Dispensation for Farmers." By- 
 John M. Bailey. New York: Orange Judd Company, 761, Broad- 
 way. 1881. 
 f " Ensilage of Green Forage Crops in Silos." By H. B. Stevens, Echo 
 Dale Farm, Dover, Massachusetts. Published by the author. 
 " Silos and Ensilage : the Preservation of Fodder Corn and other 
 Green Fodder Crops." By Dr. George Thurber. New York: 
 Orange Judd <!!ompany, 751, Broadway. 1881. 
 " Silos and Ensilage. A Record of Practical Tests in several States 
 and Canada." Special Report No. 48 ; Department of Agricul- 
 ture. Washington : Government Printing Office. 1882. 
 " Ensilage : A System for the Preservation in Pits of Forage Plants 
 and Grasses, independent of Weather." By Thos. Christy, F.L.S. 
 London : Christy and Co., 155, Fenchurch-street. 1883. 
 " Ensilage in America : its Prospects in English Agriculture." By 
 James E. Thorold Rogers, M.P. London : W. Swan Sonnenschein 
 and Co., Paternoster-row. 1883. 
 " Ensilage : its Origin, History, and Practice ; with Experimental 
 Trials and Results, and illustrated by Plans," &c. By Henry 
 Woods. Norwich : Stevenson and Co. London : W. Ridgway, 
 169, PiecadiUy. 1883. 
 "Ensilage: its Influence upon British Agriculture." By Henry Woods. 
 
 London : Hamilton, Adams, and Co., 32, Paternoster-row. 1884. 
 " Ensilage : how to make and how to use it; showing its practical value." 
 By Robert Foulis. William Blackwood anc^ Sons, Edinburgh and 
 London. 1884. 
 "The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England." 
 Vol. XX., Part I. April 1884. London : John Murray, Albe- 
 marle-street. 
 A shorter article appears in the " Journal of the Bath and West of 
 England Society ; " and articles in other publications are too 
 numerous to particularise. 
 
SILOS 
 
 FOE 
 
 PRESERVING BRITISH PODDER CROPS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Bad seasons and severe competition have made it imperative 
 on the British farmer to look to something more profitable 
 than corn crops as a means of existence. The most fruitful 
 source of profit seems now to lie in the feeding of live stock 
 of some description or other; for, whereas wheat and other 
 cereals are kept down to exceedingly low prices by the enor- 
 mous supplies forthcoming from countries where they can be 
 grown, at considerably less cost than in these islands, the 
 demand for butchers' meat and for dairy produce increases 
 faster than the supply, and prices are enhanced accordingly, 
 despite the efforts of foreigners to send us dead carcases and 
 . live stock, butter, cheese, and other produce. 
 
 How long this state of things will last it is difficult to say ; 
 but meanwhile it behoves the agriculturist to make the most 
 of his opportunities, and to turn his resources to the best 
 account, so as to be able to hold his own when the pinch 
 comes. If he can, by recourse to processes that are new to 
 him, feed his stock more cheaply than heretofore, and store 
 his fodder crops in safety instead of leaving them to rot in 
 the fields under rainy skies, he may be able to withstand 
 competition should it become even more sharp than at present. 
 The storage of green fodder in pits is a subject to which 
 the attention of the agricultural world has been directed, 
 from time to time, for many years past ; but with very little 
 effect. The German practice was described in the " Transac- 
 
 B 
 
Silos for Fodder Crops, 
 
 tions of tlie ' HigHand and Agricultural Society " more than 
 forty years ago ; but it is not surprising tliat this fact should 
 be almost unknown to people of the present generation, 
 although the article was copied into Stephens's " Book of the 
 Farm/' printed in 1844, and in subsequent editions of that 
 work ; as well as in the " Eural Cyclopedia," by the Rev. 
 John M. Wilson, published in 1848, and in the " Farmers' 
 Dictionary of Agriculture," by the same author, issued a few 
 years later. It is more remarkable, however, that so little should 
 be known of what has been said and done within the last few 
 years, and that ensilage should now be generally looked upon 
 as a new invention. In the Farmer, in 1870, Mr. T. Schwann 
 wrote on the "sour-fodder" process as carried out in Hungary; 
 and he alluded to it again in the Field in 1876, when writing 
 about M. Goffart's doings in France. Professor Wrightson, 
 when reporting on the agriculture of the Austro-Hungarian 
 Empire, in the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England," in 1874, said that this " sour hay " was well worth 
 the attention of our agriculturists ; and he returned to the ■ 
 subject in the Times in 1875. The Agricultural Gazette pub- 
 lished an illustrated description of the process about the same 
 period, besides many more recent contributions ; and numerous 
 articles have since appeared in the various agricultural journals 
 of the three divisions of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Of late years the subject has been taken up in the agricul- 
 tural press of America, and with much more effect than in this 
 country. The first silo is said to have been made and filled 
 in 1876 by Mr. Francis Morris, who officiated as president at 
 the Ensilage Congress at New York last year. In the autumn 
 of 1876, also, Mr. C. W. Mills buried in a trench some maize 
 that had been damaged by frost, and he found its condition 
 so good next spring that he used it for feeding his cattle. 
 After this, others tried experiments j and M. GofEart's manual 
 having been translated as a text-book, our American cousins 
 set vigorously to work, and proved the process to be both 
 practicable and profitable. Accounts of the successful results 
 have accordingly been brought back to the Old World, and 
 
Introductory. 
 
 some writers on the subject appear to have imagined that the 
 process was an American discovery, and quite a new invention. 
 A fewj but very few, silos were constructed in this country 
 prior to 1883, and these were mostly of small dimensions. 
 The experiments of one English gentleman (Mr. A. J. Scott), 
 whose letter is printed on page 235, commenced eight years 
 since — which is as far back as the earliest . silos made in the 
 United States. The great impulse given to the ensilage 
 process in this country dates only from the summer of 1882, 
 when the Vicomte Arthur de Chezelles paid a visit to the 
 Eoyal Agricultural Show at Beading, and gave to Englishmen 
 some account of his doings. The striking woodcut (at p. 195) 
 of a silo of more than 1000 tons capacity was calculated to 
 impress itself on the mind j the statement that hundreds of 
 acres of clover, tares, lucerne, and artificial grasses were 
 stored therein showed the application of the system to crops 
 ordinarily grown on British farms ; and the subsequent visit 
 of Mr. H. Kains-Jackson to the Chateau de BouUeaume, and 
 his account of the feeding of 130 milch cows, besides bullocks, 
 sheep, and horses, upon this pitted fodder, proved that the 
 question had at , length been brought within the range of 
 the practical politics of the farmyard. 
 
 Seven lean years have made many British farmers more 
 receptive of new ideas than they were formerly. Numbers 
 are now willing to construct silos, and anxious to know how 
 to set about the work ; and those who had any knowledge of 
 the subject have freely given information thereon. But some 
 who have constructed silos have either not had good advice, 
 or, through following notions of their own, have fallen into 
 serious errors ; while theorists, on reading about ensilage, at 
 once began to suggest methods for improving or simplifying 
 a process of which they had little experience, or none at all. 
 
 It is well for beginners to "hasten slowly;" they should 
 learn to walk before they attempt to run. Many suggested 
 improvements are old methods tried years ago, and found 
 wanting; supposed new and simpler processes have long 
 been in use, but have been discarded by the best practitioners 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 as not economical ; and plants mentioned as especially suited 
 to the silo have already been pitted^ and given unsatisfactory 
 results by reason of the want of chemical constituents requi- 
 site to the perfection of the process. 
 
 The object of these pages is to lay before beginners some 
 information as to what to do and what to avoid. It is 
 undesirable^ on every consideration, to start with the notion 
 that all is so easy, success so certain, and cost so trifluig, 
 that you cannot do wrong in trying the process. Exaggerated 
 accounts in this respect are certain to produce a counter- 
 current. People who are misled by such statements, and 
 who have not taken the precautions necessary to obtain good 
 results, are sure to cry q,ut that the process is a deception; 
 that they have spent so much in hard cash, have wasted so 
 many tons of fodder, and have obtained in return only a mass 
 of manure. 
 
 That the cost may be trifling under certain circumstances, 
 is one advantage of the process, as many persons who cannot 
 afford a large outlay are thus enabled to carry out experiments 
 with their ordinary crops. But they must not run away with 
 the idea that, because the process is easy, they can dispense 
 with precautions necessary to safety. If they are unwilUng 
 to take the trouble requisite to ensure success, they had better 
 leave the matter alone, or they may only waste their materials. 
 With due care, good results may be obtained with small 
 means and rough appliances; but such results must not be 
 expected to be as perfect in all respects, nor eventually so 
 economical, as those which can be obtained by the employ- 
 ment of large, well-designed, and permanent structures. It 
 is not by any means essential that people should begin with 
 costly works ; these may, if desired, be afterwards carried 
 out by those who can spare the capital, and who have satisfied 
 themselves by tentative experiments that a judicious outlay 
 on a liberal scale will be a saving of money in the end. 
 
 Much of the advice here given is based on the writings of 
 M. Auguste Goffart (of the Chateau de Burtin, Nouan-le- 
 Fuselier, Loir-et-Cher), who may be said to be the father 
 
Introductory. 
 
 of the most approved modern process known as ensilage ; 
 for althougli many French as well as German agriculturists 
 liave practised tlie system for years, in some form or othei", 
 lie especially distinguished himself by the improvements he 
 introduced, and the currency he gave to them by his book 
 on the subject.* The word ensilage f means storage in a 
 silo or pit, and is of comparatively recent origin. The ancient 
 practice of using pits as stores for farm produce (more 
 especially grain) ^ates back for thousands of years. Old 
 Greek writers mention these pits by the name of siros j Latin 
 authors use the word sirus — so that storing of corn in a pit 
 would be to put it in siro. As in many other words, the letter 
 r got changed into I in course of time ; and old Spanish and 
 French books show that silo was the word use'd for such pits 
 centuries ago. With respect to this subject, Mr. B. H. 
 Cowper wrote in the Field as follows : 
 
 The word silo, wHoli is found in some of our dictionaries, also occurs in 
 Prencli, Italian, and Spanish, and denotes a kind of cave, well, or pit sunk 
 in the ground for the storing of grain, &c. The Spanish also have the verb 
 ensilar, which signifies the putting of corn in a silo to preserve it. In the 
 Latin, the word sirus or syrus is to be found; and in Greek we meet with 
 siros, both being the same in sense as sUo, and only older forms of that 
 word. Where the term originated we cannot say ; but possibly one of the 
 Latin writers is correct in ascribing it to what he calls "the barbarians." 
 
 Pliny, in his Natural History, book xviii., chap. 30, after describing 
 mowing machines worked by cattle, and other processes during and after 
 harvest, mentions that com is well preserved in trenches which they call 
 siri, as in Oappadoeia and in Thrace. In Spain and Africa, he says, they 
 
 * Manuel de la Culture et de I'Ensilage des Mais et antres Fourrages verts. 
 Par Anguste Goffart. Paris : G. Masson, 120, Boulevard St. Germain. 
 
 t Mr. Jenkins suggests, in the E.A.S. report, that the word ensilage should 
 only be used to describe the process, and that the product should be called silage. 
 As a great portion of this book was already printed, we are not able to carry 
 this out fully ; but the suggestion is a good one. The inoonvenience of using 
 the same word in two senses has been experienced by the French, who commonly 
 substitute conserve as a designation for the product ; but this expression does 
 not adapt itself weU to English use. The employment of ensilage as a verb, and 
 "the formation of such words as ensilaging, we think should be avoided; and 
 ensile, as adopted by Mr. Woods, is scarcely suited to the generality of farmers 
 and farm-labourers. They find it more convenient to use the original word in 
 just the same way as they say to stack, or to pit, or to hoe ; and there is no more 
 difficulty in making the necessary inflections in the word silo, when used as a 
 verb, than there is with our ordinary words to do and to go. 
 
Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 are specially careful to have these in a dry soil, and. spread chafE or stubble 
 underneath, and the grain is laid up with the ear. Thus protected it wUl 
 suffer no harm ; and Varro observes that corn thus stored will keep for 
 fifty years, and millet for a hundred. Pliny is indebted to Columella and 
 Yarro for most of his information. Vitruvius, who refers to the same kind 
 of thing, calls the silo a vault. Quintus Ourtius alludes to the custom as 
 prevalent in the Caucasus. To the foregoing, Nonius and other ancient 
 Latin authors might be added, especially Tacitus, of whom more anon. 
 
 Among the Greeks who speak of the silo or siros are Euripides, 
 Theophrastus, Hesychius, and Suidas. In the Greek language there was 
 also a curious word, siromastes — a kind of instrument with an iron point or 
 prong, for probing the corn pits or sUos to see if^ contraband or other 
 improper goods were secreted in them. This was also used in time of war 
 — for instance, to find out whether hidden pits existed to catch unwary 
 horsemen, and so forth. It seems to have often proved a serviceable 
 weapon as a lance or javelin ; and in this way it is spoken of in the Greek 
 version of the Old Testament. Thus, in 2 Kings xi., 10, Jehoiada is 
 represented as giving the centurions the siromastce of David. The same 
 use of the word appears in Numbers xxv., 7 ; Judges v. , 8 (in some copies) ; 
 1 Kings xviii., 28; and Joel iii., 10. Even if the Greek translators were 
 wrong in their rendering of the Hebrew, it is evident that they were 
 familiar with the name of the instrument, the etymology of which is so 
 clear and suggestive. 
 
 That the ancient Hebrews did bury or cover their com is evident from 
 Jeremiah xli., 8, where we read that certain men saved their lives by 
 saying, " Slay us not, for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, and of 
 barley, and of honey." Possibly some other text points to the same thing; 
 but it may be well to quote a short passage from the article " Barn," in 
 Cassell's Bible Dictionary. The writer says : " In ancient times it (the 
 barn) was almost always underground ; and from numerous specimens of 
 such repositories yet to be seen in Syria, we find that it consisted of an 
 opening above, which gradually became larger as the excavation deepened. 
 "When it was not in use the aperture was closed and covered with earth, 
 but when it was empty it was left open." 
 
 It may be here observed that the foregoing description naturally reminds 
 us of the ancient pits in our own country, as in Kent and Essex, which 
 some, like_Oamd en in his " B ritannia," have thought were intended for a 
 similar use byour remote "anceitofsT Camden illustrates his idea by 
 referring to a passage in the " Germania" of Tacitus, where we are told 
 that the Germans had underground pits, which they covered with dung, 
 and which served both for a refuge in winter and as a receptacle for crops 
 (chap. 16). 
 
 That the practice was ancient and wide spread we have seen, and that it 
 is no novelty in modern times will be made apparent. The silo is said to 
 be still in use in Sicily; and as regards eastern lauds the evidence is 
 abundant. In Cobbin's Condensed Commentary on Jer. xli., 8, the follow- 
 
Introductory. 
 
 vug occurs: "In Barbary, when the grain is winnowed, it is lodged in 
 subterraneous repositories, two or three hundred of which are sometimes 
 together, the smallest holding 400 bushels (Shaw). They are in great 
 numbers near Aleppo (Russell). There are deep pits at Rama in the Holy 
 Land, designed for holding corn (Le Bruyn). Three large vaults at Joppa 
 were used for the laying up of grain (RanwoM)." In Gender's " Tent 
 Work in Palestine," in the chapter on the Fellahin we read, "The corn is 
 stored in underground granaries, which are carefully concealed, and form 
 traps for the unwary horseman. These granaries (Metamir) are often 
 under the protection of the Mukam, and are therefore excavated near that 
 building. They are circular wells some four or five feet deep, and the 
 mouths are closed with clay like that used for the house roofs." Tyrwhitt 
 Drake and Burton also mention sUo-like holes found in Syria. We under- 
 stand that the practice is followed much further east, at Merv and in 
 Turkestan, for example. Mr. W. G-. Browne, who travelled in Egypt, &o., 
 in the years 1792-1798, when describing harvest operations ia Darfur, 
 gives the following interesting details : " When threshed — which is 
 awkwardly and incompletely performed — they expose the graia to the sun 
 till it becomes quite dry. After this a hole in the earth is prepared, the 
 bottom and sides of which are covered with chaff, to exclude the vermin. 
 This cavity or magazine is filled with grain, which is then covered with 
 chaff, and afterwards with earth. In this way the maize is preserved 
 tolerably well." (2nd edit., 1806, p. 321.) This carries us further into the 
 S.E. of the African continent, and nearer to the equator than any other 
 example I have found. Nearer home we are told that in some parts of 
 Ireland oats are stored in a similar fashion ; and we have all become 
 familiar with the laying up of potatoes, turnips, and other roots in this 
 country by covering them with earth. 
 
 The earliest date at which I have yet found the actual word " sUo " is 
 1569, when it occurs in the margin of a Spanish Bible, at Jer. xli.,. 8. 
 Here, while rendering the matmonim by thesoros, i.e., " treasures," the 
 margin reads " silos escondidos," or " hidden silos." 
 
 The use of these grain-pits in Prance nearly three centuries 
 ago is shown by the following paragraph translated from 
 Perussac's " Bulletin : " 
 
 Silo discoveeed in the Bnvieons of Beeke (Bouches du 
 Rhone). — M. Toulouzan, in the paper " L'Ami du Bien," vol. ii., 1828, 
 p. 155, notes the discoveiy of an excavation containing corn partly in good 
 preservation, after an interval of 235 years . The excavation was formed in 
 1591 by orders of the Duke of Savoy, who was besieging Berre, and it was a 
 " veritable silo," used to store food for the troops. The custom constantly 
 occurs in Provence, at all epochs, back to the time of the Romans. 
 
 In the present day^ stores of a somewhat similar kind are 
 
8 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 in use in various parts of tlie world. Mr. Prank Parker, J.P., 
 writing to tlie Field from Indwe Park, South Africa, said : 
 
 The natives of South Africa know no other method of preserving 
 grain for consumption except this one — of burying it in the ground ; but 
 if they store it for seed and sowing purposes, it is packed away in clay 
 huts, in reed baskets of an immense size. 
 
 The Kafir word for a grain pit is essisile, which struck me as being 
 very similar to sUo. The plan of pit-making in Africa is as follows : A 
 Kafir with some sharp tool makes a small circular hole in the ground, 
 large enough to stand in. He then excavates the ground, scraping it out 
 with his hands, working the hole larger and larger the deeper he goes. 
 In this way, supposing the entrance to the pit is 20in. in diameter, the 
 bottom would be perhaps 5ft. acro,ss. The grain is then thrown in loosely 
 — ^it may be wheat, maize, or Kafir com — a stone is then placed on the 
 pit's mouth, and earth over this, stamped down with the feet until quite 
 hard and air-proof. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Boddam-Whetliani (author of "Pearls of the 
 Pacific," &c.) says, in a letter to the Field : 
 
 The silo system has been long known and practised by the natives of 
 the South Sea Islands. In many of the islands of the Southern Pacific 
 the natural products of the soil, such as cocoauuts, bread fruit, bananas, 
 tare, and yams, are almost the only means of subsistence ; and, as a year 
 of plenty is frequently followed by a year of great scarcity, the inhabi- 
 tants provide for the latter season by preserving the surplus of the former. 
 Their mode is as follows : 
 
 A large rectangular pit, 6ft. or 7ft. deep, is dug in the ground, and the 
 sides well lined with plantain or other thick leaves sewn together. The 
 fruits or vegetables are then stripped of their skin and thrown into the 
 pit, which is then covered with more leaves, and heavily weighted with 
 large stones. Small spaces are left between the stones so as to allow the 
 gas generated by fermentation to escape, and this fermentation is some- 
 times assisted by the introduction of pungent fruits and strong-smeUing 
 herbs. 
 
 Sometimes the pits are very large, and in one of the Samoan Islands I 
 was shown one 8ft. square and 14ft. deep, belonging to a chief, and, when 
 orders were given, it had to be filled from the contents of the smaller pits 
 owned by his subjects. I was told that its contents would remain good 
 for three or four years, and that " mai " (as it is called in Samoa), like 
 good wine, improves by age. 
 
 Col. Burnaby in his " Eide to Khiva," and Mr. O'Donovan, 
 in "The Merv Oasis," both allude to the subject. Mr. 
 O'Donovan says (Vol. II., p. 100), " We picked our way with 
 
Introductory. 9 
 
 difficulty among tlie shallow pits which served as granaries 
 for the storage of the corn of the Turcomans. The grain is 
 first covered with straWj and then with earth. This system 
 seems to result very satisfactorily^ and I have seen corn taken 
 from these receptacles in excellent condition after many 
 months." And Col. Bumaby shows thatj not only corn^ but 
 green fodder is preserved in pits, for he says in Chapter 
 XXIV., in the ride between Kasala and Khiva : " We now 
 encountered a party of men and women who were engaged in 
 unearthing a quantity of grass from a deep cutting in the 
 ground. This grass had been mown the previous autumn, 
 and was thus preserved until such time as the owner required 
 it, the extreme cold, or perhaps the dryness of the air, 
 keeping the grass as fresh as the day it was cut." 
 
 It is unnecessary, however, to dwell longer on this part of 
 the subject. Suffice it to say that a German named Klap- 
 meyer described, about a century ago, a method of fer- 
 menting gre^n fodder, and thereby producing a so-called 
 "brown hay;" and, with some amount of variation the 
 process of pitting green crops is carried out in many parts 
 of Germany, Austria, and Hungary as a means of making 
 ." Sauerf utter " (sour fodder) or "Viehsalat" (cattle salad). 
 The article by Professor J. F. W. Johnston, published in the 
 " Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society," in 
 October, 1843 (page 61), relates to this process; and it is 
 interesting to note the close similarity, in many respects, to 
 the process as it has been carri&d out in this country by some 
 experimenters. The particulars quoted are taken from the 
 " Yerhandlungen des Baltischen Yereins fiir Porderung der 
 Landwirthschaft " (" Transactions of the Baltic Association 
 for the Advancement of Agriculture"),- and are introduced 
 by Professor Johnston as follows : 
 
 When green grass or cloTer approaching to maturity is first cut down, 
 it contains a considerable proportion of starch, sugar, and gum, still 
 unchanged into woody fibre, as it would mostly be were the plant allowed 
 to become fully ripe. But when left to dry in the open air, the circula- 
 tion proceeds to a certain extent, and, under the influence of light, woody 
 fibre continues to be formed in the upper part of each stem until it 
 
10 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 becomes completely dry. It may even be a matter of doubt whether thia 
 process of change does not often proceed after the hay has been carried 
 ofE the field and stacked. The effect of this change will obviously be to 
 render the dry hay less digestible on the whole, and consequently less 
 valuable as food than the green grass from which it was prepared. 
 
 Again, we tnow that by drying, many very digestible and nourishing 
 substances become less soluble, and consequently more difficult of diges- 
 tion. The stomach of a growing animal cannot afford the time necessary 
 to the complete digestion of such dry substances, and hence a larger 
 portion of the really nutritive matter of their food is rejected in the 
 droppings of animals which are fed upon them. How much of dry corn 
 escapes half digested from the stomach of the horse — how much, probably, 
 of the animal matter of the bones it eats from the stomach of the dog — 
 which either of these animals would have been able fully to digest, and to 
 woi-k up for its own sustenance, had the food been presented to it in a less 
 hard and solid state. So it must be, to a certain extent, with dried hay. 
 What was easily soluble and digestible in the green, has, without under- 
 going any chemical change, become less soluble and more tardily digestible 
 in the dry, and hence a second reason why the hay should afford lesa 
 nourishment than the grass from which it was made. 
 
 The knowledge of these two causes of deterioration suggests the kind 
 of inquiries which the practical farmer ought to make, and the kind of 
 practice he ought to adopt, in order to retain as much as possible of the 
 feeding property of his grass and clover crops, and thus to turn to the 
 greatest advantage the annual produce of his land. Thus he may ask-^ 
 Is it possible to preserve these crops in their moist state ? Can I cut 
 them down and so preserve them, undried, as to obtain from them, for 
 my cattle, an amount of food more nearly equal to that which the fresh 
 cut grass is capable of affording ? 
 
 A method has lately been tried in Germany, which, by the aid of a little 
 salt, seems in a great measure to attain this object. Pits are dug in the 
 earth from 10ft. to 12ft. square and as many deep ; these are lined with 
 wood, and puddled below and at the sides with clay. They may obviously 
 be made to any other suitable dimensions, and may be lined with brick. 
 Into this pit the green crop of grass, clover, or vetches, is put just as it 
 is cut. 4 or 5 cwt. are introduced at a time, sprinkled with salt, at the 
 rate of lib. to each cwt., and, if the weather, and consequently the crop, 
 be dry, two or three quarts of water to each cwt. should be sprinkled over 
 every successive layer. It is only when rain or a heavy dew has fallen 
 before mowing that, in East Prussia, this watering is considered 
 unnecessary. Much, however, must depend upon the succulency of the 
 crop. Each layer of 4 or 5 cwt. is spread evenly over the bottom, is. 
 well trodden down by five or slk men, and especially is rammed as close 
 as possible at the sides with the aid of wooden rammers. Each layer 
 is thus salted, watered if necessary, and trodden in succession, till 
 the pit is perfectly full. Much depends upon the perfect treading 
 
Introductory. H 
 
 of the grass for the exclusion of the air, and, therefore, for a pit 
 of 10ft. square, 4 cwt. is as much as ought to be put in for each 
 layer. Between each layer may be strewed a few handfuls of straw, 
 in order that, when emptying the pit afterwards for the daUy consump- 
 tion of the stock, the quantity taken out may be known without the 
 necessity of a second weighing. When the pit is f uU, the topmost layer is 
 well salted, the whole then covered with boards or a well-fitting lid, and 
 upon these a foot and half of earth, for the more perfect exclusion of the 
 air. A pit 10ft. square, and as many deep, will hold about 5 tons of fresh 
 grass, and each pit should, if possible, be filled in not less than two days. 
 
 When covered up, the grass speedily heats and ferments, and, after the 
 lapse of about six days, when the fermentation has ceased, the whole has 
 sunk to about one-half of its original bulk. The lid must be examined 
 during the fermentation, at least once a day, and the earth, as it sinks, 
 carefully replaced, wherever crevices appear ; for, if the air be allowed to 
 gain admission, a putrefactive fermentation will come on, which will 
 impart a disagreeable odour to the fodder, though it will not prevent it 
 from being readily eaten by the stock. When the first fermentation has 
 ceased, the lid may be removed, the pit again filled with fresh grass, 
 trodden in, salted and covered as before. A pit 10ft. square, when 
 perfectly full of this fermented grass, will contain nearly ten tons — equal 
 to two or three tons of dry hay. 
 
 The grass, when thus fermented, has the appearance of having been 
 boiled, has a sharp acid taste, and is greedily eaten by the cattle. The 
 pits should be kept covered for, at least, six weeks, after which they may 
 be opened successively as they are required and may be kept open till 
 their contents are consumed by the cattle without snfEering any injury 
 from the contact of the atmospheric air. 
 
 Of the feeding qualities of this salted fodder, one experimenter says 
 that, by giving only 201b. a day of it along with chopped straw, he kept 
 his cows in condition during the whole winter. His green crop was 
 vetches, and the 201b. of salted fodder were equal to, or would have made 
 less than 41b. of vetch hay. Another experimenter says that, on a daily 
 allowance of 281b. of his salted fodder, his cows gave a rich and well- 
 tasted mUk. 
 
 This method of salting and preserving green crops in their moist state 
 appears to afford an answer to the first question which is naturally asked 
 when we are told of the difference in feeding value between the same 
 grass when first cut and dried into hay. It is probable that the fermen- 
 tation which takes place in the pit may in some degree diminish the 
 nutritive value of the grass, but the likelihood which exists that a very 
 large proportion of this value will be retained renders the method of 
 salting in this manner well worthy the attention of our more skilful 
 agriculturists. It would greatly benefit both theory and practice also 
 were a careful series of experiments to be made in different localities, 
 with the view of determining the true relative value in feeding stock of 
 
12 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 the grass of the same field when newly cut and when salted and preserved 
 in the manner above described. 
 
 There is a rather remarkable similarity in the process here 
 described and that carried out at Merton, as described at 
 pp. 260-lj as regards method of salting, ramming with vfooden 
 rammers J &c. 
 
 More than thirty years ago Klapmeyer's process* was tried 
 by M. Goffart, but he found the result not nearly so 
 satisfactory as he wished, and then he began experimenting 
 on his own account, and has little by little brought his method 
 of preserving green crops to its present highly improved, if 
 not perfected, state of practice ; and having commenced with 
 small silos less than three cubic yards each in capacity, he has 
 gone on building others larger and larger until his storage of 
 green fodder exceeds 1000 tons a year. He admits that he 
 had but meagre success at the beginning ; but he persevered 
 nevertheless, changed his mode of practice, and thus 
 eventually extended the time of keeping from a few weeks to 
 double as many months. He says he has found it necessary 
 to alter his opinions, and to retract advice which he gave 
 years ago ; but he only does so when he has proved by 
 experience that he can obtain more profitable results by 
 changing his method of procedure, and he may therefore be 
 looked on as a safe man to follow. 
 
 The information here given, however, will not be limited to 
 the teachings of M. Goifart, but will be greatly supplemented 
 by the practical experiences obtained of late in the British 
 Islands, and will include many particulars taken from articles 
 and letters in the Field and other journals, as well as the official 
 report of the Agricultural Department of the United States. 
 
 * In Martin Doyle's " Cyclopedia of Practical Husbandry," published in 
 Dublin in 1839, is given an account of a method of making brown hay, recom- 
 mended by the Eev. Mr. Klapmeyer of Wormen, in Courland. The clover being 
 cut is allowed to lie for a day or so to get partially dried, then formed into 
 heaps, and trodden, and left to ferment for a time, according to the state of the 
 weather, before being itored. The article originally appeared in the Irish 
 Farmers' Journal, to which it was communicated by Mr. John Taylor. 
 
CHAPTER I.-SUMMARY OF PRACTICE. 
 
 [This chapter is only intended to set forth briefly the course suggested 
 to be followed, without entering into the why and the wherefore. 
 References are made, from time to time, to the pages in which reasons 
 and authorities are given.] 
 
 The silo should be secured from any invasion of water, 
 whether from above or below. (P. 39, 105.) You need take no 
 trouble in trying to make it air-tight at the surface. (P. 126.) 
 
 Where liable to infiltration of water, simple earthen pits 
 should be avoided (p. 39) ; and, at the foot of rising ground, 
 the pressure of subterranean water may even force an 
 opening through cemented floors, unless made of a good 
 thickness. (P. 228, 229.) 
 
 When silos are constructed wholly above ground, and not 
 inside barns or other buildings, it is desirable to avail oneself 
 of any shade that is obtainable. Warm weather prejudicially 
 affects the silage, and it tells most on that which is above 
 ground. (P. 50, 134.) 
 
 The walls of the silos are best made perfectly upright. 
 (P. 53.) If they have a "batter" or slope, proper settlement 
 is obstructed (p. 160 h) ; and, even if the boards do not hang, 
 more weight is required to force down the mass at the sides, 
 where compression is most needed. 
 
 Walls should be smooth, to facilitate settlement. (P. 58.) 
 When earthen pits are dug in soils where there is no fear of 
 flooding, the walls may nevertheless be smoothly plastered 
 with advantage, or lined with planed boards, set up on end — 
 which is better than having the boards laid horizontally. 
 
 When the fodder is cut, it should be got into the silo as 
 soon as possible. (P. 110.) The longer it is allowed to lie 
 and wither in the field, the less likely it is to keep well. 
 
14 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Crops for the silo are best cut when young and succulent. 
 Green rye should be cut about the time when the head 
 begins to be formed^ oats when in blossom or in the milky 
 condition, and clovers and grasses as soon as they come into 
 flower. 
 
 Grasses, clovers, vetches, &c., need not be passed through 
 the chaff-cutter before being put into the pit, especially if they 
 are young. (P. 114.) But the stronger and more elastic the 
 stems of the plants the more weight will be requisite to 
 compress them. When the crops are allowed to stand till the 
 stems become old and woody, it may be preferable to pass 
 them through a chaffing machine, as they would then pack 
 well with less weight. 
 
 It is not necessary, with our ordinary fodder plants, to mix 
 straw, or other dry material to absorb the moisture. (P. 111.) 
 Such admixture would be likely to do more harm than good, 
 so far as regards preservation of the silage. 
 
 If you have dry fodder that you wish to make more palatable 
 to the stock, a small quantity might, for that purpose, be 
 mixed with very succulent crops ; but you must be careful 
 not to add too much, or you may endanger the condition of 
 the whole. (P. 110.) Pew of our crops would admit of the 
 addition of a tenth part of dry fodder. 
 
 Rain need not prevent the storage of crops in the silo. 
 (P.m.) More damage is likely to arise from letting the crops 
 'lie long on the ground than from pitting them in a inoist or 
 even wet condition ; but, for all that, an excessive quantity of 
 water should be avoided. 
 
 Salt is not required for the purpose of preserving the 
 fodder. (P. 122.) A moderate quantity may be useful to 
 the stock ; but, if added largely, it is likely to check the flow 
 of milk. (P. 123.) 
 
 The fodder, on being put into the silo, should be spread 
 evenly, to prevent the occurrence of lumps in some places and 
 hollows in others ; and then it should be trodden down, 
 more especially alongside the walls. (P. 124.) Some farmers 
 turn horses or buUocks into large silos, to do the treading ; 
 
Summary of Fractice. 15 
 
 but tliey cannot get so near to the edges as men, who can do 
 good service by going round sideways with their heels 
 close to the walls. Elsewhere the trampling is of minor 
 importance. 
 
 Unless heavy weights are put on the mass after the silo is 
 filled, the previous trampling will have been of small avail. 
 (P. 129.) It matters little how the pressure is put on, so 
 that it is sufficient and continuous. It is even more wanted 
 at the end of a long period than it is at the beginning. 
 
 With well-formed silos and smooth walls the weight should 
 not, as a rule, be less than 1001b. to the square foot. (P. 128.) 
 With rough appliances the weight may often be doubled or 
 trebled with advantage ; but it is less necessary with wet 
 fodder. (P. 259.) When earth is used it should be piled on 
 to the depth of l^ft. or 2ft., and especial care be given to the 
 trampling down at the edges of the pit. 
 
 Between the weights and the siloed fodder there should be 
 a layer of straw — the dryer and harder the better (p. 125) ; or 
 a layer of pine-needles, gorse, heather, reeds, or some other 
 substance that will not readily mat together, but will allow 
 the air to escape freely as the mass becomes more and more 
 compressed. (P. 125.) 
 
 Boards are usually laid upon the layer of straw, &o., before 
 the weights are put on. (P. 127.) They have a decided 
 advantage wherever lumps of stone, barrels of earth, or any 
 rough weighty matters are used. But where the weights 
 consist of matters that pack well together, as evenly-shaped 
 blocks of iron, concrete, cut stone, bricks, or wooden boxes 
 containing clay, &c., the boards may be dispensed with. 
 (P. 132.) Sometimes loose earth is shovelled directly on to 
 the straw; but it is liable to get mixed up with the fodder 
 when the pit is opened. Sand should not be used in this 
 way, as it runs into every crevice. 
 
 The weights should, for the most part, be placed at the 
 ends of the boards, close to the walls. If the fodder is well 
 pressed down at the edges, the centre is pretty sure to be all 
 right. (P. 53.) 
 
16 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 The boards need not be tongued or made to fit with great 
 accuracy. (P. 127.) A few crevices are useful in permitting 
 the escape of air, which must be forced out by the weight 
 above if the fodder is to keep well (p. 126); and if the mass is 
 well compacted, and the weights are kept on, air is not likely 
 to get in afterwards. 
 
 When there are several silos, so that the workmen can be 
 transferred from one to another, it is best to fill the silo slowly 
 at intervals, extending over a week or ten days, a foot or two 
 being put day by day into each pit. (P. 119.) By this means 
 the fodder packs closely, and is so well settled down by the 
 completion of the filling, that nearly all the space in the silo 
 will be utilised. (P. 116.) 
 
 If this course cannot conveniently be adopted, the silo may 
 be filled and the weights put on at once. After some weeks, 
 when the mass has settled down, the weights may be taken 
 off, the silo refilled, and then again covered and weighted. 
 (P. 120.) A framework of boards may be used to temporarily 
 increase the height of the silo when filling. (P. 121.) 
 
 The silo may be kept six or eight weeks, or as many 
 months, before being opened. 
 
 The silage should be cut out from a narrow end of the 
 pit. (P. 56.) The boards and weights should be removed 
 from only a small portion of the surface, and a vertical section 
 made so as to cut out a slice of sufficient thickness for the 
 day's consumption. (P. 139) 
 
 The continuance of the pressure during the period of 
 cutting out is most important. If the weights be taken off in 
 advance, mischievous results may ensue. (P. 139.) 
 
 The more perfect the ensilage, the less fermentation will 
 have taken place in the pit. Exposure to the air, under such 
 circumstances, is desirable for a few hours, in order to set 
 up alcoholic fermentation before giving the food to the 
 animals. (P. 143.) It thus becomes more palatable. 
 
CHAPTER II.-CROPS FOR THE SILO. 
 
 The Geasses, 
 
 In these islands, grass has been mucli more used than any 
 other crop for the filling of the silo ; and it is not surprising 
 that such should be the case, seeing how widely it is grown 
 and how generally it is employed for the feeding of our live 
 stock. Great as is the care bestowed on the saving of grass 
 in the form of hay, this care is often rendered of little or no 
 avail by adverse climatic conditions ; and one of the chief 
 advantages claimed for the ensilage process is, that it admits 
 of the storage of the crop in any 'weather. Being, moreover, 
 preserved in a green state, the herbage has a nutritive effect 
 very different from that produced by dried fodder, and much 
 more closely resembling the feeding properties of the grass 
 when freshly consumed in the summer months. For dairy 
 cattle in particular it has been found beneficial, by reason of 
 its producing a more liberal supply of milk, and butter of 
 better colour and flavour, in the winter season, when quantity 
 and quality both fall off under the old conditions of dietary. 
 
 In the corresponding chapter of the last edition of this 
 book we particularised the various experimentalists who then 
 had siloed grass crops in this country, and gave in each case 
 a summary of the results. We cannot attempt the same 
 course now, for it may be said of the experimenters that 
 " their name is legion ;" and any bare epitome of their 
 doings would become insufferably tedious, seeing that there 
 is not a sufficient amount of variety in the stories of failure to 
 relieve the monotony in the records of success. Suffice it to 
 say that grasses coarse and fine, wet and dry, chopped and 
 unchopped, salted and unsalted, have given considerable 
 
 c 
 
18 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 satisfaction to large numbers of bipeds and quadrupeds ; 
 andj thougli it cannot be pretended tliat an equal degree of 
 excellence has been attained in all cases, there are very few 
 instances in which the experimenter is dissatisfied, or unable 
 to account for shortcomings .which he will endeavour to 
 avoid for the future. 
 
 It need hardly be said that there are very considerable 
 differences in the qualities of grasses; and corresponding 
 differences must occur in the fodders after conservation. One 
 does not expect to get from the rough ''fog" of marshy 
 grounds and the coarse herbage of woodlands the same 
 quality of hay as from good upland grass ; and one must not 
 look for equal results in the contents of all silos, either as 
 I'egards appearance or odour — the latter especially. We 
 have seen pitted grass which had so much the look and smell 
 of hay that it would hardly be taken for anything else by 
 persons who knew nothing of its history. Such samples have 
 remained exposed for days near our writing table without 
 becoming unpleasant, whereas other samples we have been 
 glad to expel from the room in a less number of minutes 
 than these stayed days. 
 
 Although there is a peculiar characteristic odour common 
 to most pitted fodders, there appears to be an infinite variety 
 •of modifications, without going to crops other than grass. 
 Some samples have a rather pleasant apple-like scent; in 
 others it degenerates into the fetid odour of an unventilated 
 apple store-room ; in some there is a more or less cheesy 
 smell, and others give one an idea of rancid butter; while 
 occasionally (and it is to be hoped these are few and far 
 between) samples are met with that call to mind nothing 
 better than a dung-heap. Yet of each we are told, almost 
 ■without exception, that "the cows eat it with avidity." It 
 is not surprising, however, that many of the horses are more 
 fastidious. 
 
 Except by means of exhaustive series of experiments, 
 carefully carried out and minutely recorded, it will be almost 
 impossible to account for these differences, or to trace effects 
 
Crops for the Silo. 19 
 
 in otlier ways — such as waste of material and deterioration in 
 feeding qualities. As far as we aire able to judge from 
 evidence that is somewhat wanting in detail (seeing that 
 few persons recount all the circumstances requisite for the 
 formation of a reliable opinion), it would seem that the most 
 hay-like samples are made from the finer grasses pitted with 
 comparatively little moisture in them. Under such condi- 
 tions they would not compact readily, and, unless submitted 
 to exceedingly high pressure, would be likely to undergo a 
 good deal of heating, and to acquire the strong flavour of 
 over-heated hay, which is very appetising to animals, 
 though it may not, perhaps, be the most nutritious. When 
 there is more moisture, there appears to be less fermentation, 
 or fermentation of a different character ; and, if the grass is 
 very wet and there is much pressure, the centre of the mass 
 seems to undergo little change until after it is cut open and 
 exposed to the air. In such case, however, the liquid that 
 exudes from the mass is apt to set up a pungent and some- 
 times very offensive smell, even when the centre of the mass 
 is almost odourless ; and this inodorous provender will usually 
 become more palatable to the beasts after a few hours' 
 exposure to the atmosphere, but deteriorates more rapidly 
 than samples which originally were drier. At all events, such 
 appears to be the case with specimens that have come under 
 our notice ; and it was in very coarse rank growths that the 
 tendency to become offensive seemed most pronounced. 
 
 Clovers, Lucerne, and Vetches. 
 
 Clovers have been preserved in silos by many English 
 gentlemen with more or less success ; but they seem to require 
 a greater amount of pressure than grass, owing, no doubt, to 
 the stems being stronger and more elastic, and requiring more 
 force to expel the air which necessarily is intermingled with 
 the fodder when it is put into the silo. In a number of 
 instances, where the clover has been chaffed, we have found 
 the ensilage in capital condition, and some samples of 
 unchaffed clover have also been excellent ; but we have not 
 
 c 2 
 
20 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 yet seen anytMng to surpass the sample from the Vicomte de 
 Chezelles' silo alluded to on p. 198. Owing to the sample 
 being detained for examination at the Custom House, on 
 the supposition that it was a kind of tobacco, the analysis 
 was not made till three weeks after the sample was taken 
 out of the silo, and, from being opened and pulled about, 
 it may meanwhile have undergone some amount of deterio- 
 ration, as seems probable from the quantity of alcohol and 
 acetic acid ; but its nutritive qualities were nevertheless of a 
 very high order. This clover (with which there was some 
 admixture of grass) had been passed through a chaff-cutting 
 machine before being put in the silo. On a previous occasion, 
 however, M. de Ohezelles had stored in the silo about 80 acres 
 of clover, put in unchopped, and much of it dripping wet with 
 rain; yet it cut out in capital condition when the silo was 
 opened, nine months afterwards. 
 
 With regard to Trifolium incarnatum, M. Lecouteux (who 
 is the author of a capital book on ensilage* as well as editor 
 of the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique) says : 
 
 The best time to obtain good ensilage from Trifolium incarnatum is 'to 
 cut it when it is in fuU bloom, as the plant is then tender. Such has been 
 done with mine at OerQay this year. I sowed more Trifolium incar- 
 natum than my beasts could consume in the last three weeks of May ; 
 about the 15th of May we began to cut it, and we stored it in a sUo 
 made in a closed bam. About the middle of July I hope we may begin 
 to consume it, as we did last year. 
 
 It is a great thing to be able to store in the silo in spring a supply of 
 fodder against the fearful season of drought which at times parches us up 
 in Sologne, and especially when this early forage is removed from the 
 ground with little trouble and expense, and replaced by other crops, as 
 maize, millet, cattle cabbage, or roots. The feeding of green crops is 
 diificult on dry soils, where we can get fodders in spring and autumn, but 
 little, if anything, that can be cut in the height of summer. Such was my 
 position in Sologne, and I long despaired of being able to get over the 
 difficulty ; but the ensilage of Trifolium incarnatum has helped me out of 
 my trouble. 
 
 Rain is of little importance when Trifolium incarnatum is being stored. 
 I have put cart-loards into the silo dripping with water, and the fermenta- 
 tion has been none the less perfect. 
 
 * " Le Ma'is et lea autrea fourragea verta, Culture et EnaUage. Par Edouard 
 Leoouteux. Paria : Libraiuie Agrioole, 26, Eue Jacob. 
 
Crops for the Silo. 21 
 
 Mr. Grant says (p. 226) that he put into the silo a few loads 
 of Trif olium incarnatum, also cut and carried in rain j but 
 this, having been put into a very small pitj and with 
 insufficient weight on the top, did not turn out so well as 
 other samples ; nevertheless it was all eaten up by the cows. 
 Mr. Hoare, however (p. 284), is reported to have had very 
 satisfactory results with Trifolium ; and Mr. Solomon (p. 285) 
 did well with it in an earthen pit. 
 
 Lucerne (which in America is known by the Spanish name 
 of " alfalfa ") has been successfully preserved in silos for some 
 years by M. Pornay, of Eomorantin ; and at the district agri- 
 cultural show at Bourges, in 1879, M. Pornay was awarded a 
 silver medal for an excellent sample which he exhibited. The 
 Vicomte de Chezelles mentions it among the crops put into 
 his silo, and so likewise does M. GofEart. Lucerne is also a 
 favourite crop in Germany ; but we have not heard of many 
 experiments with it in this country. Mr. John Mackay, of 
 Herriesdale, Dalbeattie, is well satisfied with his success in 
 pitting lucerne north of the Tweed; and Mr. P. Beard, of 
 Horton, Kent, is also said to have had satisfactory results. 
 
 Sainfoin (frequently spoken of in French, German, and 
 American books by the name of " esparsette ") is another 
 leguminous plant, very rich in nitrogenous matter, which has 
 been siloed with success. Last season Mr. B. B. Gibson had 
 a very good sample of mixed sainfoin and clover in Essex ; 
 and Mr. Biddell reports (p. 272) that chaffed and unchaffed 
 sainfoin have both been well preserved in Suffolk. 
 
 Of vetches the reports of experience are rather conflict- 
 ing. Several persons who have tried them have given in the 
 Field very unfavourable accounts of the result. One corres- 
 pondent, who apparently had taken every care, says that "the 
 vetches appear to be quite rotten, with a fearful smell, and 
 nothing will touch them," although the clover iu the same 
 silo was good and sweet, and readily eaten by the cows and 
 sheep. On the other hand, Mr. Basdale sent us a capital 
 sample of vetches from Mr. Stobart's silo, and said : " The 
 cattle eat it with the same alacrity as they do that made 
 
22 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 of clover or meadow grass ; and the many visitors wlio 
 have inspected it consider it most excellent, and that the 
 characteristic vetch flavour or smell has Ibeen retained in a 
 high degree." Mr. Grant (p. 228) says that " spring vetches 
 and oats make perfect ensilage ;" and Mr. Ashforth, of 
 Longley Hall, Sheffield, sent us a sample of oats and tares, 
 which was in excellent condition, and had a very pleasant 
 aromatic odour. 
 
 Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) a species of vetch, closely 
 allied to the British species called " birdsfoot" (Ornithopus 
 perpusillus) is much grown in Germany, as well as in Spain, 
 whence it gets its name. Baron Laffert sent us from Mecklen- 
 burg a specimen of serradella from his silo, and it was in 
 very good condition, although pitted when dripping wet. 
 This is a plant that might probably be worth cultivating in 
 this country, as it grows on light sandy and gravels near the 
 sea, and is rich in nutritive qualities. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Until within the last year or so the works published about 
 ensilage have related almost exclusively to the preservation of 
 maize or Indian corn (ordinarily spoken of in America as 
 " corn," without any prefix) ; but it is not surprising that such 
 should be the case, seeing that these books were brought 
 out in countries where maize is largely grown, and more used 
 for this purpose than any other crop. Many people, indeed,, 
 when it was proposed to introduce the system into this 
 country, seemed to be under the impression that silos would be 
 of comparatively Httle use without maize, which they looked 
 upon as a more nutritious fodder than our ordinary grass 
 crops. This, however, is a mistaken notion; for, although 
 ripe Indian corn is a very rich cereal, the entire maize plant, 
 consumed as green fodder, is not nearly so nutritious as is 
 often supposed. It is certainly most highly spoken of by 
 M. Goffart, and he cultivates it largely himself — not, however^ 
 because it is more nutritious, but because it suits his soil much 
 better than many other crops ; and he says that his land wiE 
 
Crops for the Silo. 23 
 
 produce double the weight of maize that it will of mangold. 
 Moreover, he contrives to get two crops a year off the same 
 ground, by cutting green rye in May, and immediately after- 
 wards planting maize, which is sufficiently advanced towards 
 maturity by the autumn to answer his purpose. In America, 
 too, maize is grown on so extensive a scale, that any mode of 
 preserving it as- green fodder, where other winter foods are 
 difficult to obtain, must necessarily cause the system to be 
 widely adopted among the myriads of farmers who dwell on 
 that vast continent. 
 
 The advantage of maize as a fodder plant is therefore 
 beyond question; though its value lies, not in its inherent 
 richness, but in its abundant growth and consequent cheap- 
 ness, where soil and climate are suitable. It is not, indeed, 
 so nutritious as fodders ordinarily grown in these islands, as 
 will be seen by the following remarks of M. Goffart : 
 
 Now, is maize in itself a rich food? Evidently not. Besides the 
 analyses, more or less exact, which have been published, one unanswerable 
 fact proves that it is not rich in nutritive principles, and that is, the large 
 amount which must be eaten to keep beasts in good condition. Nobody 
 would maintain that a given weight of maize would replace the same 
 weight of lucerne, clover, or sainfoin ; but that does not prevent anyone 
 from making up by quantity what is wanting in nutritive properties. . . . 
 I need hardly say that green rye is much richer than maize, and that a 
 smaller quantity of the former feeds as well as a larger quantity of the 
 latter : a mixture of these two fodders constitutes an excellent regimen. 
 
 American agricultural authorities of high repute also speak 
 of it as a " one-sided food," requiring the addition of more 
 nitrogenous material to bring up its feeding value. And now 
 we have evidence of a similar character with respect to some 
 which has been grown in England, where, probably owiag to 
 lack of sunshine, the maize proved to be poorer in nutritive 
 principles than that grown on the Continent or in America. 
 
 Mr. Sutton, in his analytical report on the green crops and 
 ensilage alluded to in Mr. Woods' lecture, at South Kensing- 
 ton, in March last (published in a pamphlet by Hamilton, 
 Adams, and Co.), says : " It cannot be disputed that maize, as 
 grown here, is weak in nitrogenous and saccharine con- 
 
24 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 stituents as compared, for instance, with rich grasses or 
 cloTer ; but, on the other hand, the enormous weight of the 
 crop which may be grown acts as a compensation." 
 
 Mr. Woods, in his balance-sheet, makes this compensation 
 assume wonderful proportions, seeing that his figures show 
 about double as much profit on maize as on grass, although 
 the cost of cultivation, &c., is considerably heavier on the 
 former crop. The following are Mr. Woods' summaries ; but 
 he also gives in his pamphlet full details of the outlay. 
 
 Value op One Acre op G-bben Maize made into Ensilage. 
 
 1 acre of maize, cut green, weighed 28 tons, and pro- £ o. d. 
 duced 26 tons of ensilage, value 26s. 8d. per ton, 
 being one-third value of hay at 4L per ton 34 13 4 
 
 Deduct rent and tithe, cost of cultivation, manure, 
 seed, cutting, carting, chaffing, filling silo, and 
 all other expenses, including interest on cost of 
 barn silo 14 3 10 
 
 Nett value of ensiled maize per acre £20 9 6 
 
 Value op One Acre op G-bass made into Ensilage. 
 
 1 acre of grass weighed 12f tons, and produced £ s. d. 
 12 tons of ensilage, value 26s. 8d. per ton, being 
 one-third value of hay at 4Z. per ton 16 
 
 Deduct rent and tithe, cost of cutting, carting, 
 chaffing, filling silo, and all other expenses, 
 including interest on cost of barn silo 5 4 9 
 
 Nett value of ensiled grass per acre £10 15 3 
 
 On paper, this certainly looks well for the maize; but it will 
 be observed that Mr. Woods obtains his results by assumiag 
 for the maize the same value per ton as for the grass. 
 The analyses, however, do not support this assumption. Mr. 
 Sutton says : "The figures of analysis speak for themselves; 
 but in judging of the results we must look at all the 
 materials as being in a perfectly dry state." This observa- 
 tion Mr. Woods does not appear to have sufficiently con- 
 sidered ; for he takes his ensilage of different crops as being 
 of equal value, notwithstanding that the proportion of nu- 
 tritious matter in his maize is less than half what it is ia 
 
Crops for the Silo. 
 
 25 
 
 other crops. To make this more ob-vious than appears in the 
 ordinary form of analysis, -we select from Mr. Sutton's table 
 the percentage figures relative to the ensilage of maize and 
 grass above alluded tOj and place alongside, for comparison, 
 the quantities per acre of the respective constituents. It -will 
 have been seen, from Mr. Woods' summary, that the ensilage 
 of the crop of maize was equal to 26 tons per acre, and that 
 of grass to only 12 tons. We accordingly turn the percentage 
 of water and other constituents into tons per acre, so as to 
 make up these respective totals. 
 
 
 Pbrobntaob Composition. 
 
 TONS PEE ACKE. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 Grass 
 Ensilage. 
 
 Maize 
 Ensilage. 
 
 Grass 
 Ensilage. 
 
 Maize 
 Ensilage. 
 
 Water 
 
 73-530 
 2-805 
 
 11-605 
 8-140 
 3-920 
 
 86-280 
 1-149 
 5-186 
 5-076 
 2-310 
 
 8-82 
 0-34 
 1-39 
 
 0-98 
 0-47 
 
 22-43 
 
 Albumenoids 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 0-30 
 1-35 
 
 Woody fibre 
 
 Ask 
 
 1-32 
 0-60 
 
 
 100- 
 
 100- 
 
 12 tons 
 
 26 tons 
 
 Among the constituents, there are (to quote from Mr. 
 Sutton's remarks) ''only two classes of really nutritious 
 matters, namely, albumenoids or flesh-formers, and digestible 
 carbo-hydrates or fat-formers." These (which are here printed 
 in more conspicuous figures) are both shown to be higher in 
 the acre of grass than in the acre of maize, while the chief 
 difEerence in the two crops consists in the excess of water 
 in the maize — the extra 14 tons being wholly worthless 
 material; yet all this is included in the account at the rate 
 of 11. &s. 8d. per ton. If, however, this excess of worthless 
 material were deducted from the sum quoted above, the nett 
 value of the maize would cut a comparatively poor figure 
 alongside that of the grass. And it may be observed, in 
 addition, that, owing to the extra bulk, the silo to contain 
 the maize would have to be double the size of that required 
 for the grass. 
 
26 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 It must not be forgotterij toOj tliat all soils are not equally- 
 well adapted for the cultiyation of maize. If it were a 
 question solely of temperature^ it might be expected to thrive 
 better in the southern counties than in Norfolk ; yet 
 Mr. A. Grant says (page 228) : "Even in the mild climate 
 of Hampshire I cannot make maize a success. On wonder- 
 fully rich and carefully-worked soilj saturated with manure^ I 
 have grown maize 7ft. high, and with very thick strong 
 stems ; but the first heavy wind from the south-west blew it 
 all down ; and in the fields it grew fairly well, say 5ft. high, 
 and very thick, but the same fate overtook it. A neighbour 
 of mine tried it in a fairly good field, but it was useless as 
 a crop.^' 
 
 Mr. Bateman relates much more successful experiments in 
 Essex, in the following extract from a letter in the Field : 
 
 Maize as fodder certainly succeeds in England, but will seldom ripen. 
 Mr. Staunard, of Elmstead Market, Essex, grew half an acre of it in 
 1880, and was so well pleased with the result as green fodder for farm 
 horses, that he grew two acres of the same crop in 1881. I saw this. At 
 a rough estimate it would weigh 35 tons to the acre. The land (1 acre), 
 sown with " flat " maize seed, grew strong and stifE to a height of from 
 9ft. to 9ift., while that planted with " round " seed only reached from 
 3ft. to 4£t. in height. 1 may add that Mr. Stannard's farm was a poor 
 clay, dear to rent at 25s. per acre. 
 
 In 1882 I induced a tenant at Brightlingsea to try the same crop on far 
 superior and lighter land. He procured some good " flat " seed and 
 sowed in April, which experience teaches was two months too early. It 
 germinated well, was cut to the vitals by a frost early in May, partially 
 recovered, and was, when cut in August-September, 1882, but a partial 
 success, only reaching a maximum of 4ft. high, with an approximate 
 weight of fourteen tons to the acre. 
 
 On the same farm we tried planting 3| acres for ensilage in 1883. It 
 was sown on June 1, and again on June 14, the first sowing having 
 proved to be thoroughly bad seed, only 20 per cent, of which sprouted. 
 The second sowing on the same ground was also with very inferior seed, 
 which hardly germinated better than the first. This of course gave 
 trouble in keeping the land clean. The crop had reached from 7ft. to 9ft. 
 in height by Aug. 31, 1883, when its progress was suddenly checked by 
 the biting gale of Sept. 1, which stopped all further growth and withered 
 the tops. Cutting took place on Sept. 6, when we chafEed the whole and 
 siloed it. The result is certainly satisfactory ; all stock seem to like it 
 
Crops for the Silo. 27 
 
 and thrive thereon. We were, however, somewhat frightened by th& 
 floods of juice exuding from the silo, and stopped at 701b. pressure, which 
 was hardly enough to prevent the ensilage taking an acid turn. 
 
 How far this success would be borne out in a succession of 
 years, experience only can determine. Dr. Voelcker, speaking 
 at the Society of Arts, after a lecture on ensilage, said "He 
 had grown maize in England, and also sorghum, but the crop 
 depended very much on the season ; one year it was a 
 beautiful plant, 7ft. high ; and next it was only about 3ft., 
 and the cattle would not. look at it. Two years ago he grew 
 maize on the Experimental Farm, but it came to nothing. It 
 was too uncertain a crop for this chmate." 
 
 Without wishing to discourage experiments in the culture 
 of maize in these islands, we think it desirable that persons 
 who attempt it should proceed cautiously, and not make large 
 ventures until they have ascertained whether it is likely to 
 succeed on their soils. M. Goffart says : " There are certain 
 indispensable conditions in the physical, hygrometrical, and 
 chemical condition of the soil, the absence of which may 
 render the profitable cultivation of this forage impossible.'"' 
 In his own case, where the soil is favourable, he manures 
 heavily with farmyard and artificial manures, and thus, if the 
 crop does not turn out well, there may be a heavy loss. 
 These matters ought to be taken into consideration, and 
 M. GofEart does not hide themj for, although he is a very 
 warm advocate of maize-culture, where conditions are suitable,, 
 he nevertheless says that "Maize is a ruinous crop ia bad 
 seasons. Nothing is more advantageous than a successful 
 maize crop ; nothing more ruinous than a bad crop of maize.. 
 More than 40 tons an acre on the one hand, and less than 
 6 tons an acre on the other. Such are the divergencies that 
 I observed in fifty places in 1878." 
 
 Gebbn Rye and Geeen Oats. 
 
 Green rye is a favourite crop for ensilage with many French 
 farmers. M. Goffart grows it largely, gets it into the silo in 
 May, and immediately plants maize on the same ground. It 
 
28 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 has also been siloed in England. At a meeting of tlie Society 
 of Arts Mr. E. B. Gibson said that in the previous May he 
 had put into silos the produce of twenty acres of green rye, 
 cut just as it was coming into ear, and passed through a? chaff- 
 cutting machine before being siloed. At the time of the 
 meeting Mr. Gibson was feeding forty head of cattle on 1| 
 bushels of this product, with 1^ bushels of swede turnips, and 
 21b. of cotton cake each per day ; and they throve so well that 
 he thought the cotton cake might be dispensed with without 
 any diminution in the milk. So satisfied was he with the 
 results, that he intended to put into the silo a larger quantity 
 of green crop ; and he felt certain that heavy land farmers 
 would iind it highly beneficial to substitute ensilage for roots. 
 The particulars of Dr. Voelcker's analysis, given at page 273, 
 show that this rye ensilage was good food, though not so rich 
 as that made from clover or grass. 
 
 M. Lecouteux, writing in the Journal d' Agriculture Pra- 
 tique, says : — " In other parts green rye is spoken of. It is 
 an excellent green crop, which, with abundance of manure, 
 especially artificial manures, gives immense produce. I have 
 tried rye as recommended, chopping it up small at the time of 
 pitting ; but the beasts much preferred Trifolium incarnatum, 
 which, thanks to a spring dressing of superphosphate, came 
 almost as early as the rye. I therefore hold to the clover, but 
 without ceasing to recommend rye or any other fodder which 
 may be preferable under different circumstances. Besides, it 
 is well to have several strings to your bow ; and rye has this 
 advantage, that it comes at a time when, being chopped up 
 with hay or straw, it facilitates the transition from dry winter 
 diet to the succulent food of spring." 
 
 Green oats have been siloed in many cases, especially in 
 Scotland. We received excellent samples of chopped oats 
 from Mr. Miller, of Singleton Park (p. 293), and Mr. Wilson, 
 Eigmaden Park (p. 297) ; a sample from Mr. M'Oonnel 
 (iPy 324) was rather acid, but otherwise in good condition j 
 and one of unchopped oats, from Mr. Mackenzie (p. 318), 
 hardly came up to the level of the chaffed samples. Among 
 
Crops for the Silo.- 29 
 
 others wlio have pitted green oats are Lord Walsingham, Col. 
 Tomline (p. 271), Mr. Whitbread (p. 280), Sir T. E. Cole- 
 brooke (p. 318), Lord Blantyre (p. 319), Mr. Urquhart 
 (p. 320), Mr. Dudgeon (p. 322), and Mr. Duncan (p. 330). 
 In some oases, the oats have not been cut as green fodder in 
 the summer, but have been put in the silo because they could 
 not be harvested. Some [sprouted oats were pitted very 
 successfully by Mr. Kemble (p. 242). 
 
 M. de Moidrey, in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique says : 
 " At that time of the year when oats were liable to be beaten 
 down before the grain is ripe, an excellent method of turning 
 to account those crops which, if they remained laid, would 
 give no produce, is to silo them in a green state. Last year I 
 thus treated about five-and-twenty tons, mixing them with a 
 little lucerne in alternate layers. The oats were half black, 
 and the straw nearly yellow, so that it was necessary to water 
 them. The result was excellent, and all was eaten during the 
 winter by cattle destined to be fattened on pasture. Not only 
 had the grain been preserved in the silo, but it appeared to 
 me to have attained more complete maturity." 
 
 Miscellaneous Ckops. 
 
 Spurrey (Spergula arvensis), also known as "yarr," is a 
 plant that grows naturally in cornfields on very light soils in 
 England and Ireland, but in Germany is largely cultivated as 
 winter fodder for sheep and cattle. Lord Walsingham has 
 experimented with it very successfully on his estate in Norfolk, 
 and Mr. Woods gave some interesting particulars about it in 
 his South Kensington lecture. On twenty acres of blowing 
 sand — so poor in quality that it had seldom produced either 
 corn or roots, and was for several years left uncultivated — 
 spurrey gave 5j tons per acre. The ensilage was excellent, 
 and sheep and cattle fed upon the product, mixed with straw- 
 chaff, preferring it to that made from grass. The trial was 
 so satisfactory that arrangements have been made to sow 
 upwards of 120 acres for the present year. Compared with 
 the maize produced on the same estate, the crop of spurrey 
 
30 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 was, no doubtj very liglit, but both crops were not grown on 
 ■equally poor land ; and as regards value per ton, Mr. Sutton's 
 analysis sbow the spurrey to be worth twice as much per ton as 
 the maize, so far as the nutritive constituents are concerned, 
 there being in the spurrey more than double the quantity of 
 flesh-formers and fat-formers, with a much smaller quantity 
 of water, than was contained in an equal weight of maize. 
 The utility of the crop on almost worthless light soils is thus 
 shown in a very marked degree. 
 
 Buckwheat is another crop which has been grown and 
 siloed on Lord Walsingham's estate. There being no analysis 
 of the product, its value as compared with other crops cannot 
 well be estimated ; but the green crop being less nutritious 
 than spurrey, it may be expected that the siloed fodder would 
 be so likewise. M. de Moidrey, writing in the Journal d' Agri- 
 culture Pratique, does not speak at all favourably of buck- 
 wheat, for he says : — " Of all the kinds of forage which I have 
 tried in ensilage, green buckwheat has given the worst results. 
 Two years ago I mixed some with maize, and the preservation 
 was good, but the animals could not relish the half-gluey 
 product given by the buckwheat, and it had a narrow escape 
 of being thrown upon the dung-heap. It is much better to 
 keep to maize (mixed or not with second cut of meadow grass) 
 or to clover, and especially lucerne." 
 
 Many other kinds of crops have been put into silos by 
 different persons. Before M. Goffart discovered that, by 
 improving his mode of ensilage, he could keep fodder for 
 much longer periods than he had been accustomed to do, the 
 quantity of maize grown by him was comparatively small. In 
 1872 the crops of his home farm of 300 acres included 40 
 of wheat, 32 of rye, 80 of oats, 12 of buckwheat, 11 of 
 Jerusalem artichokes, and only 3| of maize (producing more 
 than 150 tons), besides which his natural and artificial grasses, 
 vetches included, amounted to 600 tons. Six years later his 
 growth of maize had reached 1100 tons. His experiments in 
 pitting crops have been of a widely varied character, for it 
 appears that he has put into his silos maize and rye, various ' 
 
Crops for the Silo. 31 
 
 kinds of cloyer and trefoil, Jerusalem articliokes, beetrootj 
 sorglium, comfrey, turnips, and potatoes. He says he lias 
 been more or less successful witli all of them, but makes no 
 special remarks as to his treatment of the majority. With 
 regard, however, to prickly oomf rey he gives some particulars, 
 showing that it is very good fodder when freshly cut, but not 
 Tvell adapted for ensilage alone, owing to the paucity of 
 .sugary matters rendering it incapable of alcoholic fermentation. 
 He says : 
 
 My beasts ' eat the green comf rey without eagerness, but without 
 repugnance. In autumn, at the time of ensilage, I mix a certain quantity 
 of it with my maize, and obtain very good results. The comfrey appears 
 to be superior to maize in nitrogenous matters, and the maize will come to 
 the aid of the comfrey through its greater richness in certain very useful 
 principles much sought after by the animals. 
 
 Maize contains, on the average, only 1'20 to 1'25 per cent, of nitro- 
 genous matters, whilst recent analyses of comfrey credit it with 2"70 
 per cent, or more than double. These two plants, instead of being opposed, 
 :serve to complete one another, to the great advantage of agriculture. 
 
 At the beginning of October, 1878, I put in the silo a few tons of 
 comfrey. The fodder was perfectly sound, but it is well known how poor 
 it is in sugary matters, and consequently how little fitted for alcoholic 
 fermentation. The results confirmed our anticipations in all respects. 
 Despite all the care which I gave to this ensilage, I only obtained a 
 ■"brown hay" — very good food, but quite refractory to alcoholic fer- 
 mentation. On exposure to the air, the comfrey soon underwent butyric 
 iermentation, and had to be consumed immediately, otherwise it would 
 quickly become unfit for the feeding of cattle. 
 
 Other experiments with prickly comfrey have reported 
 unfavourably of the result. It Tyas tried at Glasnevin, at the 
 Albert Institution, being chaffed with lucerne, ,and mixed 
 with a very small proportion of oat straw. As lucerne is very 
 rich iu carbo-hydrates, and thus would tend to remedy the 
 deficiency in the comfrey, while the oat straw would be likely 
 to counteract the excessive amount of moisture, it might have 
 been supposed that there would be a better prospect of 
 success ; but Professor Carroll reported that " The comfrey 
 and lucerne were quite spoiled; the colour had not been 
 much altered, but the smell was most offensive, and the mass 
 appeared to be putrid." 
 
32 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 In tlie account of the visit to Mr. Copley^s silo, quoted on 
 page 299j it is stated that the cows did not like the comfrey. 
 And Mr. H. M. Jenkins, in his report to the Eoyal Agricul- 
 tural Society, says : " I have not yet met with an instance of 
 prickly comfrey making good silage.'" Mr. A. J. Scott names 
 comfrey as one of the crops that he has failed with. The 
 only exception to the general consensus of opiuion that we 
 are aware of has been the evidence of Mr. H. Doubleday^ who, 
 in a letter to the Field endeavoured to explaia the unsatis- 
 factory results by stating that the comfrey sUoed by G off art 
 and others is poorer in sugary matters than that which he has 
 used. He said : 
 
 It is stated by M. GrofEart that, despite all his care, he had not 
 succeeded in making good ensilage from comfrey. These experiments 
 were made, I believe, eight years ago, and, of course, upon the old 
 varieties. I have practically found no difficulty whatever in making 
 good ensilage from the Russian variety. 
 
 It seems very evident that this Russian variety of prickly comfrey is 
 rich in substances convertible into sugar; in fact, there is very little 
 chemical difference between gum and sugar. It is very evident that a 
 considerable amount of sugar was produced in the silo, or the ensUage 
 would not have had such a sweet and vinous smell and the cows have 
 been so attracted by it. 
 
 It keeps well in the sUo, and we do not want to keep it long when out 
 of it, as it was carted at once from the field into the silo without any 
 chaffing. We chafE it with the addition of a little straw for the cows as 
 we take it out. We are quite independent of roots and also of seasons, 
 for it is a crop that never fails. The produce is very large, and my 
 cows are doing much better than they would on roots. 
 
 The soHd-stemmed, or so-called Russian variety, is, we 
 believe, merely a " sport " from the comfrey tried by Goffart, 
 and, as we have not seen any comparative analyses, we cannot 
 say what ground there is for the opinion expressed by Mr. 
 Doubleday as to the new variety being richer in gum and 
 mucilage than the old one. But, even if it were so, it does 
 not necessarily follow that it has more sugar. G-enerally 
 speaking, when gum and mucilage are abundant, sugary 
 matters are scanty. We do not look upon Mr. Doubleday as 
 a disinterested witness, and cannot but consider his descrip- 
 tion as coulmr de rose ; for we have seen, smelt, and. 
 
Crops for the Silo. 33 
 
 unfortunately, handled a sample of Mr. Doubleday's comfrey 
 ensilage, and, so far from thinking it had " a sweet and 
 vinous smell," the writer and several others considered it to 
 be, without exception, the worst-smelling sample of ensilage 
 that we had ever met with. Soap and water seemed power- 
 less to remove the scent from the hands for hours; and, if 
 this Russian variety is really an improvement upon other 
 kinds of comfrey ensilage, we hope never to have a close 
 acquaintance with them. 
 
 In a report, made in 1875 to the National Agricultural 
 Society of Prance, by three commissioners (Messrs Bella, 
 Moll, and Barral) appointed to visit M. Goffart's farm and 
 inquire into the subject of ensilage, the information given has 
 reference chiefly to maize, but the following remarks are also 
 made with respect to the preservation of other materials, 
 many of which are frequently thrown aside as useless : 
 
 In the Lyonnais district, green leaves of tlie vine, preserved as food for 
 cattle, and for the goats which have made the reputation of the Mont 
 Dore cheese, have given excellent results from time immemorial. It is 
 the same in cider districts with sUos of apple refuse. In various parts of 
 Germany vegetables of all sorts — ^turnips, cabbages, and divers kinds of 
 leaves, flavoured with a little celery — have been preserved for the feeding 
 of cows for ages as far back in the night of time as cabbages destined for 
 the food of man have been preserved and known under the name of 
 " sour-trout." 
 
 In the north of France several eminent agriculturists — M. Georges, of 
 Orgival, near St. Quentin, among others — have for more than twenty 
 years past successfully preserved their beetroot leaves in silos ; others 
 have applied the same process to sliced beetroots, and have found that 
 they kept better than when the roots were placed whole in ordinary pits 
 and sUos. The beetroot pulp from sugar distilleries also keeps weU when 
 put into silos. 
 
 Beetroot, it need hardly be stated, is but another word for 
 mangold, betterave being the French name common to all the 
 species of this genus of plants, in like manner as mangold- 
 wurzel is the name used by Germans. Accordingly, unless 
 some distinctive expression, such as hetterave glohe jaune is 
 made use of, one cannot say that any particular variety is 
 indicated; and therefore, where we have used the word 
 
 D 
 
34 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 "beetroot" in the translation, it does not necessarily mean 
 that sugar-beet is alone referred to — it may also mean the 
 variety that we should designate by the name of " mangold." 
 Of course, with the beetroot pulp just mentioned there can be 
 no doubt; but the sliced beetroots alluded to a few lines 
 before may equally well mean sliced mangold ; and the same 
 remark will apply to various other instances where the word 
 " beetroot " occurs. 
 
 M. Lecouteux says, with respect to the ensilage of beet- 
 root or mangold : " It is requisite to cut up your roots in some 
 fashion before being eaten by the stock. If kept whole 
 in pits they are liable to sprout, especially if the winter be 
 mild ; and, besides, the necessary quantity will have to be cut 
 up day by day. It is preferable to have them all sliced up in 
 the first instance, and mixed with some straw chaff, and then 
 put into the silo, whence you can take out daily the quantity 
 required for consumption. You will thus have the double 
 advantage of securing better preservation of the crop, and 
 avoiding the inconvenience of setting men and teams to work 
 day after day." 
 
 The Commissioners of the National Agricultural Society of 
 France (quoted above) likewise state that sliced roots keep 
 better than those which are left whole. They also discussed 
 the question whether mangold could be profitably grown on 
 M. G-offart''s estate, and say : 
 
 The question may be asked whether, at Burtin, it would not hare been 
 preferable to cultivate mangold (betterave fourragere), which also gives 
 considerable returns per acre, and is so easily kept in winter. Tor anyone 
 who knows the Sologne country, this cannot be a matter of doubt. In 
 other parts there are farms where yellow globe mangold is almost sure to 
 give 40 tons per acre if you give in due season 40 tons of manure. But 
 such results are impossible in Sologne. Mangold is ill adapted to its soil, 
 whereas maize is easily grown there under good conditions, and gives 
 fabulous crops — 40, 50, and even 60 tons of excellent forage. Maize is 
 less rich than mangold, no doubt, when both are fresh ; but it is better 
 suited to the feeding of milch cows, and is improved by ensilage. We 
 believe we shaU not be far from the truth in saying that in Sologne, with 
 equal conditions of culture, the average produce of maize per acre would 
 be at least double that of mangold. 
 
Crops for the Silo. 35 
 
 In England tlie sugar-beet is comparatively little grown ; 
 but some remarks made by Mr. Duncan, at the Society of Arts 
 meeting previously alluded to, show that the refuse pulp 
 from the sugar-beet has been found of value in this country 
 as well as in France. Mr. Duncan said that, some consider- 
 able time since, when his manufactory was actively engaged 
 iu producing sugar from beetroot pulp, some of the waste of the 
 latter, for which at the time there was no use or sale, was 
 placed in a trench, and remained there uncovered for three 
 years. In a period of great scarcity it was taken out abso- 
 lutely uninjured, except a very small portion of the top, and 
 the neighbouring farmers were glad to give him 12s. per ton 
 for it. 
 
 The Jerusalem artichoke is a favourite subject with many 
 French experimenters in ensilage. M. GofEart, as will have 
 been seen in a previous extract, grew eleven acres on his 
 farm. In Eichardson's '^Corn and Cattle Producing Districts 
 of France" (1878), it is stated that districts previously 
 barren, had been brought into cultivation by the help of 
 the silo; and that one of the first crops attempted on the 
 worst of the land was the Jerusalem artichoke, of which 
 the tops were cut, when in full growth, and stored in a 
 silo for winter consumption by cattle. Even in sheer sand, 
 the Jerusalem artichoke will push a growth two or three feet 
 high ; and there seems no reason why it should not be grown 
 for its herbage upon soils whereon no crop of tubers can be 
 expected. The tops, however, appear to be more nutritious 
 than the tubers; and analyses published by M. Cottu show 
 that his siloed artichoke leaves contained more than double 
 the nutritive matter there is in siloed maize of equal weight. 
 
 Turnip-tops have been siloed with success by Mr. Brougham 
 (see page 331), who found them very serviceable in the spring; 
 and German authorities put the nutritive value of swede turnip- 
 tops as high as that of maize. Mangold tops are rather less 
 valuable, but those of the sugar beet stand higher. Potato- 
 tops also have been siloed, and their value is also put higher 
 than that of maize. Mr. John Mackay, of Herriesdale, says, 
 
 D 2 
 
36 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 that tie kept some mangold tops in satisfactory condition; 
 but both mangold and swede tops put into Mr. Pochin's silo 
 (p. 316) are said to have turned out a complete failure. 
 
 At p. 342 mention is made of five or six tons of thistles 
 having been siloed, and the cattle ate them freely. Gorse is 
 said to have been put in the pit with rough grass, &c., and 
 to have come out in very good condition ; but we saw a sample 
 of gorse that had been siloed separately, and we are not 
 surprised that the cattle would not eat it, for there seemed no 
 more nourishment in it than in a chopped- up dry birchbroom. 
 This, howevei;, must not be taken as a fair specimen of the 
 capabilities of gorse ; for it had been cut in December, when 
 there would be no sap in it. If it had been cut early in the 
 year, about the time of blossoming, the result would probably 
 have been very different. 
 
 As an instance of multifarious contents in one silo, we may 
 quote from the report of the United States Department of 
 Agriculture the particulars of what was put into his pit by 
 Mr. 0. Cromwell, of Rye, New York : — " (1) 18in. of green 
 oats; (2) 6in. of red clover; (3) 6in. of Canada peas; (4) 2in. 
 of brewers' grains; (5) 2ft. of maize, sowed broadcast, and 
 containing more ragweed than maize in the crop ; (6) 5in. of 
 grass; (7) 12in. of sorghum; (8) more maize. Came out 
 excellent, fresh and sweet." 
 
 Brewers' grains have for many years been preserved in pits 
 in much the same manner as green fodder — this method 
 having been in use long before the name of the " Silo" was 
 known in England. Filberts, walnuts, &c., are also preserved 
 by burying them in the ground. Those who are fond of these 
 fruits, and wish to keep them in good condition, cannot do 
 better than pack them closely in earthen jars, cover the mouth 
 of the jars tightly by some such method as tieing them down 
 with pieces of bladder, and then bury the jars a foot or more 
 underground. They will thus have diminutive silos which 
 will keep the nuts good for many months. 
 
CHAPTER IIL-THE YARIOFS KINDS OF SILOS. 
 
 It is not desirable to run away witli the idea that one pit is 
 just as good as another^ and that a rough-and-ready silo will 
 answer quite as well as one that is carefully made. Cheap- 
 ness does not necessarily mean economy, and not unfrequently 
 it is the very reverse. 
 
 One method which has been recommended, and which is 
 very likely to attract beginners, on account of its being easy 
 and inexpensive, is that of heaping up fodder on the surface 
 of the ground and then covering it over with earth. This is 
 utterly condemned by M. Goffart, who says that, except in 
 the case of unchopped maize, he never knew an instance 
 where the results were not bad. This is borne out by experi- 
 ments at the Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland, where 
 grass covered up in this way became so mouldy as to be per- 
 fectly unfit for food. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is not requisite to go to a large expenditure 
 before making any attempt to preserve green fodder in pits ; 
 but it is desirable that the beginner should bear in mind that 
 he cannot obtain from small silos and rough methods of pro- 
 cedure the full success attainable from better appliances. The 
 more carefully all arrangements are carried out, the greater 
 amount of success is likely to be attained. Satisfactory 
 results may, no doubt, be obtained with comparatively small 
 outlay ; and where the saving in first cost is of greater import- 
 ance to the beginner than some waste in the fodder, he can 
 adopt that course which is most convenient to himself. 
 
 At the Ensilage Congress at New York, in 1883, one of the 
 speakers said : " In the matter of silos, it makes no difference 
 
38 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 wliether they cost 25 or 25,000 dollars ; one will preserve 
 your ensilage as well as the other ; the only thing required is 
 continuous pressure." But this should be taken cum grano 
 salis ; for you cannot make small silos as effective as large 
 ones, nor can you pack the fodder so well against rough 
 surfaces as against walls that are smooth ; consequently there 
 is more waste of fodder with small pits and rough surfaces 
 than with large silos and smooth walls. Where fodder is so 
 abundant that waste is unimportant, such a statement may 
 pass muster; but it does not accord with the teachings of 
 the gentleman to whom, at that same Congress, an address 
 was voted to " express their appreciation of the great value 
 of the system of ensilage discovered and introduced by him." 
 M. Goffart tried cheap methods, and obtained therefrom 
 results which are not likely to be exceeded by persons of 
 less experience ; yet he has given up rough-and ready modes 
 of storage, and betaken himself to silos of masonry as being 
 more profitable in the end. 
 
 Baethen Pits, and othbe Simple Forms or Silo. 
 
 All simple methods are not condemned by M. Goffart, 
 although he may have ceased to practise them. In 1876, 
 in replies which he gave to a series of questions put by the 
 " Societe des Agriculteurs de Prance," he said : " I preserve 
 from 300 to 400 tons in eleven silos of various shapes and 
 dimensions. Pive are old rectangular rooms, all above 
 ground. Six are oval or rectangular tanks — one half above 
 ground, and the other five almost wholly below ground. The 
 best are the last built, with semicircular ends, and half under- 
 ground." Since then he has built the large silos alluded to 
 at page 53, and increased his ensilage to more than 1000 tons 
 per annum. At a conference in connexion with the Agricul- 
 tural Show held at Blois in May 1875, he said, with respect 
 to earthen pits : " The trial of an underground silo, without 
 walls of masonry, has given favourable results, so far as 
 regards loss, which scarcely amounted to 1 per cent, of the 
 fodder put into the pit ; but the soil crumbles away rapidly 
 
Simple Forms of Silo. 39 
 
 when tlie silo is empty, and in this respect it is inferior to 
 walls of masonry." 
 
 In a report to tlie Central Agricultural Association of 
 Sologne in 1876, particulars of some roughly-constructed silos 
 on M. Groffart's farm were given by M. Julien, president of 
 the Romorantin Agricultural Committee, who said : 
 
 We visited the silos, some in buildings, and others in the fields. The 
 first consisted of brickwork compartments in an old cart-shed. They 
 were empty at the time of our visit. But a silo in a field was opened in 
 our presence, and, with the exception of some mouldy patches on the 
 upper layers, the fodder was in a very satisfactory state of preservation. 
 Henceforth, however, earthen silos wUl be done away with at Burtin, the 
 owner finding it advantageous to replace them by silos of masonry, which 
 
 are more easily managed and give better preservation Silos simply 
 
 dug in the earth should not be of such a depth as to be in danger from 
 infiltration of water. The bottom and walls should be covered with a thin 
 layer of straw, to prevent contact with the earth, and the fodder be then 
 packed in, either cut or uncut. On reaching the surface of the ground, 
 the fodder, having been well trodden down, should receive a thin layer of 
 straw, and then be evenly covered with a good layer of earth, thick enough 
 to prevent the penetration of rain. 
 
 With respect to the use of earthen silos among the small 
 farmers of France, M. Lecouteux says : 
 
 Silos dug out of sound earth are those generally preferred by small 
 farmers, who do not want buildings of masonry. As I have often said, 
 earthen silos would tend to popularise ensilage on farms where, for some 
 reason or other, they shrink from constructing buildings. At Oer9ay 
 [where M. Lecouteux lives] the preference is in favour of buildings ; but 
 under these circumstances — that they are bams which are at liberty in 
 April, May, June, July, and part of August, and which consequently 
 may be filled with provender, that disappears in turn, and affords room 
 for the storage of grain crops. Later on, in October, the cereals being 
 thrashed out, the barns become silos for maize. There are thus three 
 successive destinations— silos for maize, silos for trifolium, and bams for 
 cereal crops. It is a suppression of " fallows " in farm buildings ; and 
 such fallows are not least in importance where one has to consider whether 
 it is better to lock up money in bricks and mortar or to devote it to 
 reproductive improvements. 
 
 Mr. Francis Morris, president of the Ensilage Congress at 
 New York ia 1883, is a strong advocate of earthen silos ; 
 and in the Special Eeport of the U.S. Department of Agri- 
 
40 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 culture on Silos and Ensilage the following remarks are made 
 with respect to Mr. Morrises operations : 
 
 Especial attention is invited to the earth silos mentioned in the state- 
 ment of Francis Morris, Esq., of Oakland Manor, Maryland. Mr. Morris 
 is a pioneer in ensilage in America, his first silos having been built and 
 filled in 1876. These were in the basement of his barn ; walls of 
 masonry. The next year he made a trench in sloping ground, so that a 
 cart could be backed in at the lower end for conveying ensilage to the 
 feeding room. The sides are- sloping, and the average depth does not 
 exceed 6ft. The cost is simply the cost of digging a ditch of similar 
 dimensions. This trench was filled in 1877, and regularly since, and has 
 kept its contents pei-feotly. 
 
 Mr. Morris has several silos of the same kind, in different places, for 
 convenience of filling. He uses a large cutter driven by a steam-engine, 
 and packs in the silo by treading with horses. The filling is carried 
 several feet above the surface of the ground, and rounded up at the 
 centre, the excavated earth serving to confine the ensilage. The cover- 
 ing is first roofing felt, then earth for weight, 
 
 Mr. Morris has put in whole fodder, and it has kept perfectly. He 
 cuts it fine, mainly for convenience in handling and feeding. Whole 
 fodder (maize) should be laid across rather than lengthwise in the trench, 
 so that it can be taken out easily. 
 
 In order that the extent of Mr. Morris's operations may be understood, 
 it is proper to add that his estate at Oakland Manor comprises about 1700 
 acres. His wheat crop this year (1882) was 5000 bushels, and his maize 
 is expected to reach the same figures. The meadows yield upwards of 
 200 tons of hay annually. The stock consists of 50 horses and mules, 
 100 cattle, 600 sheep, and 60 hogs. And as the whole is managed on 
 business principles, Mr. Morris very justly esteems his earth silos of 
 primary importance. 
 
 The information given by Mr. Morris himself as to the 
 construction of his silos is very brief. He says that the silo 
 should be made in the field where the crop is grown ; for the 
 feed must be carted^ and he considers that time and trouble 
 are saved by putting it into a pit on the spot. He digs a 
 trench '' 11 feet wide at top, 7 feet at bottom, as deep as 
 convenient, and any length required," and covers up with 
 20 inches of earth. The soil is marly clay, and the water, he 
 says, never comes in. 
 
 Baron Corvisart is another warm advocate of earth silos ; 
 and on his estate at Ch&,teauneuf-sur-Cher, he stored a large 
 
JEarthen Pits. • 41 
 
 quantity of maize in 1875, for a sample of wMcli he was 
 awarded a gold medal at tlie Agricultural Stow at Bourges in 
 1879. In reporting on this show, M. Franc, professor of 
 agriculture at Cher, said : " Hitherto nobody has produced 
 ensilage kept for so long a time. Four years : it is prodigious. 
 We examined the maize closely, and can affirm that the 
 preservation was perfect." The secret of its keeping so long 
 appears to be simply that it was subjected to exceedingly high 
 pressure, by the great thickness of earth piled upon it. In 
 an article in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique on Baron 
 Corvisart's mode of practice, M. Lecouteux says : " M. Corvi- 
 sart estimates that his covering of earth exercises a pressure 
 of 4500 kilogrammes on each square metre. Neither air nor 
 water, he says, can penetrate and interfere with its good and 
 durable preservation." Under so great a mass of earth this 
 is not surprising, for 4500 kilogrammes per square metre 
 equal about 9001b. per square foot; and as a cubic foot of 
 earth weighs from 801b. to 1001b., one can imagine the 
 immense thickness of soil required to produce such a pressure. 
 As M. Lecouteux remarks, " It must not be supposed that the 
 digging of these trenches costs nothing." 
 
 In these islands there have been several instances of 
 earthen silos being made with success. Mr. Solomon quaintly 
 says (page 285), "I simply dug a hole in the ground and 
 buried my haystack ; " and he is so contented with the result 
 that he intends, for the ensuing season, to enlarge the pit, 
 which was already 21ft. long by 12ft. wide. One that is 
 longer and wider— 30ft. by 15ft. — has been made by Mr. John 
 Bourne (p. 254) ; another equally long trench, but narrower — 
 30ft. by 9ft.— was made by Mr. Quartly (p. 241) ; and smaller 
 pits by Mr. Hargreaves (p. 286), Dr. Foulis (p. 287), Mr. 
 Oakeley (p. 314), one on Lord Seafield's estate (p. 320), and 
 three by Mr. G. Fry (p. 351). Mr. Miller (p. 236) excavated a 
 trench 60ft. long, which he had lined, owing to the porous 
 nature of the soil ; and probably there are many others, not 
 here mentioned, who have experimented in a somewhat similar 
 way. 
 
Various Kinds of Silos. 43^ 
 
 Baen Silos. 
 
 Allusion has already been made to M. Goffart^s conversion 
 of an old cart-shed into silos ; and the commissioners appointed 
 by the National Agricultural Society of France reported also 
 on M. Goffart^s ready adaptation of means to ends, saying v 
 "We have been very favourably impressed by seeing silos 
 placed in an old disused distillery which was now supplying 
 the cows with their daily provender. These silos are simply 
 formed by the side walls of the building, with dividing walls 
 about 8ft. in height. No excavation has been made, and the 
 forage is heaped up on the soil as high as the floor above will 
 permit. Openings have been left in the dividing walls, so as 
 to allow of passage from 'one compartment to another, in order 
 to fill and empty them in succession." 
 
 A quotation from M. Lecouteux, on p. 39, stated his pre- 
 ference for turning existing farm buildings to account, 
 instead of either digging pits in the earth or building special 
 silos. The illustration on the opposite page gives a represen- 
 tation of the barn silos belonging to M. Lecouteux, together 
 with the ground plan, these illustrations as well as the follow- 
 ing particulars being copied from his book on " Le Mais et les 
 autres fourrages verts." 
 
 The building has a frontage of 114ft. in length, with a 
 height of 25ft. up to the ridge of the roof. It faces the north, 
 and is divided into seven parts, A A being sheds with lofts 
 over ; B, site of the thrashing machine, also with loft above ; 
 C C, barn silos, the inner angles of which are well rounded. 
 They are built of brick to the height of 10ft., the walls being 
 14in. thick, with pilasters 18in. wide. Above the height of 
 10ft. the walls in front, except in the gables, are built of 
 wood, with windows. D is a penthouse in the rear, and E a 
 barn for corn-sheaves. A portable steam-engine, which works 
 the thrashing machine, is shifted to the right or left at the 
 time of ensilage, in order to work the chaffcutter when 
 placed close to the respective sUos, 00. These are each 45ft. 
 long by 18ft. wide, and the chopped maize is filled in to the 
 height of about 13ft. 
 
1 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 ', 03 i 
 ' 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Q 
 
 4 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « ' 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■0 c; 
 
 
 
 >l 
 
 
 
 ID 
 
 loose 
 
 BOX£S 
 
 ovEir 
 CADTSnaa 
 
 LLu._i 
 
Barn Silos. 45 
 
 In America the practice of converting barns^ and other 
 buildings, wholly or in part, into receptacles for green forage, 
 has been very widely adopted. 
 
 Of the number of silos as yet constructed in the British 
 islands a very large proportion have been adapted from existing 
 buildings of some kind or other — dilapidated barns, unused 
 icehouses, manure pits, and various other structures being 
 made serviceable at comparatively small outlay. One of the 
 earliest, if not the earliest, in doing so, was Mr. A. J. Scott, of 
 Rotherfield Park, Hants, who has carried on ensilage expe- 
 riments for the past eight seasons, and who converted 
 two cattle-feeding pits into silos at a cost of 30s. Lord 
 Walsingham, in 1881, constructed a small silo in a granary, 
 and in the following year made three silos in an old clay 
 barn, as described at page 260. On the Earl of Wharncliffe's 
 estate in North Yorkshire several stone barns have been con- 
 verted into silos as detailed in Mr. Broderick's letter at 
 page 216. 
 
 Mr. W. Stobart, of Pepper Arden, has had a double silo 
 made out of a large seldom-used building in his farmyard. 
 Mr. Easdale, the agent of the Pepper Arden Estate, has fur- 
 nished the accompanying plan of the structure, which occupies 
 an angle of the farmyard between the barn on one side and 
 cart-sheds with loose boxes over them on the other side. The 
 large pit is computed to hold between 90 and 100 tons of 
 silage, and the smaller one upwards of 40 tons. Fig. 1 is 
 the ground plan. Pig. 2 the cross section, and Fig. 3 the longi- 
 tudinal section. A A , the door through which the large silo 
 is emptied ; BB, door through which the small silo is emptied j 
 CO, the wall, 3ft. thick, on top of which the block-iron 
 weights rest while the pits are being filled. 4. End elevation, 
 showing the door where the grass is thrown in. Lengthy 
 details of the experiments are given by Mr. Easdale at p. 207, 
 and an account of the R.A.S. inspection appears at p. 298. 
 
 Sir Eichard Glyn (p. 287) utilized an old sawpit as a recep- 
 tacle for lawn mowings and other grass. Mr. Harris's silo 
 (p. 288) was originally a receptacle for dung, but has been 
 
«o 
 
 M 
 
 ■4 J- SI 
 
 o 
 
 ^ o 
 
 I 1^ 
 
 I 1 
 
 5 
 
 ft 
 
 Q 
 
 P 
 O 
 
 03 
 
 
 
Barn Silos. 47 
 
 altered for tlie present purpose at a cost of a good round sum 
 (lOOZ.) ; and it now is a building 35ft. in lengtli, 18ft. in 
 breadtli^ and tlie walls are 10ft. Gin. higl., with a slate roof. 
 
 By far tlie largest utilizers of antique farm buildings are 
 the Messrs. Trepplin, who put upwards of 1000 acres of 
 grass into their silos last year. Mr. 0. Trepplin, in a letter 
 in the Field, said : " Tou doubt the desirability of drawing off 
 the moisture by draining from grass pitted in barns. We 
 can speak with a certain amount of experience^ as we have 
 made some five thousand tons of ensilage this year, and feed 
 upwards of three hundred dairy cows, besides other stock, on 
 it. There is no need of either cementing or draining if barns 
 are used. All that is necessary is to have the ventilating 
 holes, cracks, &c., filled up. By not draining, the moisture is 
 gradually re-absorbed again, and thus none of the strength is 
 lost. Those who make pits for ensilage, and yet have old 
 barns and threshing floors comparatively unused, are very 
 extravagant, for there is no need of any expense beyond a 
 few shillings for a bricklayer's wages in stopping the holes in 
 the walls. If only one bay of a bam is used, the open end 
 can be fastened up with planks." Some particulars of Messrs 
 Trepplin's silos are given at p. 267. 
 
 Lord ToUemache is another converter of existing buildings 
 into silos. Wishing to ascertain practically, on behalf of his 
 tenants, what were the advantages of the ensilage process, he 
 determined to adapt an open Dutch barn to the purpose, by 
 inclosing and dividing it into four silos, as will be seen by the 
 plan given in the opposite page. The building was a little 
 over 50ft. long by 15ft. broad, and supported on ten pillars ; 
 and it was converted into four silos by bricking up the spaces 
 between the pillars. The doors (a) were used for filling to a 
 certain extent, after which the doors were closed, and screwed 
 to the jambs, and they were eventually bricked up on the out- 
 side, so as to make them impervious to air. The shutters (&) — 
 which are 8ft. above ground — were then used for continuing 
 the filling, and those above (c) could finally be employed for 
 entrance and egress when the silos had been filled to the 
 
48 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 height required [d). It will be seen that below silo 4 there 
 are dotted lines showing an excavation of 3ft. into the soil, 
 which was done with a view to ascertain whether there was 
 any difference in the quality of ensilage below ground and 
 that above the surface, as in the other three silos. 
 
 Lord Egerton had an icehouse in Tatton Park converted 
 into a silo, as shown at page 250 j Lord Harlich also (p. 341) 
 and several other gentlemen have converted similar buildings 
 to a more useful purpose, by storing summer crops that are 
 always available instead of a winter crop that is seldom 
 produced in our climate. 
 
 Among the other converted buildings may be mentioned 
 Mr Lowe's (p. 253), Mr. Bourne's (p. 254), the Earl of 
 Warwick's (p. 255), Lord Pitzhardinge's (p. 259), Mr. Whit- 
 bread's (p. 280) ; Mr. Miller's (p. 293), Mr. Bckersley's 
 (p. 294), the Marquis of Bute's (p. 324) ; a disused water 
 tank (Mr. Melrose's, p. 322) ; a disused gas tank (Waverley, 
 p. 325) ; an old brick-kiln (Sir D. Baird's, p. 333) ; a coach- 
 house and stable (Mr. E. J. Smith's, p. 335); a "turnip hole" 
 (Sir J. 0. Kennedy's, p. 337) ; a cow-house (Mr Lloyd- 
 Vaughan's, p. 345) ; and various others. 
 
 In America a number of ice-houses have been turned into 
 silos. It must not be supposed, however, that these are 
 necessarily pits dug in the ground, lined with masonry, and 
 closely shut in above, as depicted at page 250, and as is the 
 case with most of the ice-houses in this country. In the 
 States, ice-houses are commonly built of wood, above ground, 
 and are left open to the air between the roof and the top of 
 the walls, so that there would be little difference in their 
 method of storing ice and storing fodder. In these ice-houses 
 the walls are built of double planking, much after the fashion 
 shown in the ground-plan for building the concrete walls of 
 Mr. Bailey's silo on p. 59. But, of course, the joists that 
 are there represented outside the planks should be between 
 the boards in the wooden silo, as the inside walls of the silo 
 should be as smooth as possible ; and planed boards, placed 
 upright, would be better than rough ones, because they would 
 
Building Wood Silos. 
 
 49 
 
 allow tlie fodder to slide down more evenly and pack better — 
 which, is a very great advantage. We have not seen a repre- 
 sentation of a wooden silo, but the following small figures of 
 an American ice-house will doubtless afford a tolerable idea of 
 some aniong those which are said to have been applied to the 
 storage of green crops instead of the storage of ice. The 
 window shown in the building is intended for the purpose of 
 
 5JWS« 
 
 ventilation, already alluded to as common in American ice- 
 houses ; but in a building specially erected for a silo it would 
 be advantageous, for convenience of filling, to have the roof 
 raised, as shown in the side view of Mr. Bailey's silo (page 59) . 
 The following description of the mode of making the walls of a 
 similar structure may be interesting as showing how American 
 farmers set to work in such matters : 
 
 Mark out your ground the size you require for the house ; then, com- 
 mencing at one comer, dig a double set of holes opposite each other, 
 1 foot deep and 2|ft. apart, on each side of the intended building, say 
 3ft. equidistant, so that when the posts stand up they will present a. 
 double row, l|ft. apart. Then set in your posts, which should be of oak, 
 chesnut, or some lasting wood, and pack the earth firmly around them. 
 The posts should be full 8ft. high above the ground to where the plate 
 of the roof is attached. If the posts are sawed, they may be 4in. by 6in. 
 in size, set edgeways towards each other. If not sawed, they may be round 
 sticks cut from the woods, or split from the body of a tree, quartered, 
 and lined to a surface to receive the planking. Of course, when the 
 posts are set in the ground, they are to show a skeleton of what the 
 building is to be when completed. When this is done, square off the top 
 of each post to a level all round; then frame or spike on to each line of 
 posts a plate, say 6in. wide and 4in. to 6in. deep, and stay the two plates 
 together strongly, so as to form a double frame. Now plank or board up 
 
 E 
 
50 ^*^c>* for Fodder Crops. 
 
 closely the inside of each line of posts, that the space between them shaU 
 be a fair surface. Cut out, or leave out, a space for a door in the centre 
 of the side where you want it, and board up the inner partition sides of 
 his opening, so as to form a door-case on each side, that the space 
 between the two lines of posts may be a continuous box all round. Then 
 fill up this space between the posts with sawdust, well packed from the 
 ground up to the plates. For the roof, take common Sin. by 4in. joists 
 for rafters ; or, in place of them, poles from the woods, long enough, in 
 a pitch of full 36° from a horizontal line, to carry the roof over the 
 outside of the plates. Secure the rafters well to the plates by pins or 
 spikes, and then board over. 
 
 This method of making walls is very well suited for par- 
 titions in barns^ &c., when a portion is required to be divided 
 off for use as a silo. A wooden silo, built in England, some- 
 what after the above fashion, but with clay filled in between 
 the boards, will be found described at page 281. 
 
 Specially Consteucted Silos. 
 With respect to the question, "■ What kind of silo is 
 preferable?" M. Goffart said, at the Conference at Blois 
 before mentioned : 
 
 A silo on the ground level — a kind of room or chamber — is that which 
 gives the best results during cold weather (from December to March 
 inclusive) ; but as soon as the temperature rises, fermentation sets in 
 with great energy, and in 1874 and 1875, from the month of March, a 
 considerable settlement was seen to go on in such silos, owing to the slow 
 combustion which took place in the mass. 
 
 The underground silo, with waUs of masonry, does not sufEer from this 
 inconvenience. The temperature does not rise in them in March, nor 
 even in April. And at Burtin the ensilage which is being taken from the 
 silo at this time (May 8, 1876) has undergone only a slight fermentation; 
 it is nearly in the same condition as when put into the silo seven 
 mouths ago. 
 
 If I were about to commence the construction of silos, I would choose a 
 rather elevated spot, where the ground could be dug into to the depth of 
 six or seven feet without fear of an influx of water. I would make the 
 silo of masonry, and carry up the walls a similar distance above ground, 
 and thus I should have a mixed silo twelve or thirteen feet high, and 
 seven to ten feet wide, half under and half above ground. During the 
 winter the part of the ensilage above the ground level would be consumed, 
 and the lower portion be reserved for the hot months, when the part 
 farthest from the entrance would be first attacked, and the cutting 
 
Goffart's Triple Silo. 
 
 51 
 
 carried back towards the door. In this way, I think, excellent conditions 
 would be obtained, suited to the exigencies of the different temperatures. 
 
 Since the time of that Congress, M. Goffart has built several 
 new silos, together with extensive cattle-sheds immediately 
 facing the silos, as shown in the engraving on the next page ; 
 and he has considerably enlarged his ideas with respect to the 
 dimensions of his silos, in like manner as he has greatly 
 increased the number of cattle which he feeds upon silage. 
 With regard to the shape, also, he has made some modifica- 
 tions, and now prefers the sHos to be " elliptical," as he c^Us 
 
 Gbotjnd Plan 01- M. Gop^abt's Teiple Silo. 
 
 them — though they are not strictly elliptical, the sides and 
 "walls being straight and the ends semicircular. We give a 
 plan of his latest construction, three silos combined together, 
 each being 5 metres (about 16^ feet) in width, the same 
 in height (half being below and half above ground) and 
 12 metres (about 40 feet) in length ; about 24ft. of the walls 
 being straight, with a semicircle at each end. With regard 
 to this modification in form M. Goffart says : 
 
 If I have greatly modified my process of ensilage, the modifications 
 have related principally to the form, the dimensions, and above all the 
 covering up of my silos. 
 
GoffarVs Triple Silo. 
 
 53 
 
 The form has particularly occupied my attention ; it exercises a very 
 great influence on the results to be obtained. The form ought to be that 
 which aToids every kind of angle and offers the least obstruction to the 
 settlement of the materials in the silo. The elliptical silo represented in 
 the plan fulfils these conditions. All angles are done away with, and the 
 walls being vertical (not sloping as some persons make them) offer the 
 least possible resistance to settlement — ^but more than is desirable never- 
 theless. The elliptical form also presents another advantage, which is 
 very valuable as regards the strength of the silos. The underground 
 walls thoroughly withstand the thrust of the earth, which forced in the 
 walls of my first structures, and sometimes rendered them unserviceable. 
 
 "With respect to the dimensions of my silos (length, width, and height), 
 those who have followed my doings can answer for my constant tendency 
 to increase them, in order to obtain the greatest capacity. When you 
 
 VBBTicAii Section of M. GorrAET's Triple Silo. 
 
 must operate upon considerable quantities of fodder, and have in your 
 cattle-sheds a large number of beasts to feed every day, you must not 
 hesitate to give to your silos the greatest dimensions compatible with the 
 other conditions of an easy and economical service. 
 
 Great masses keep much better than those which are small, or in other 
 words, the preservation in small silos is always less perfect than it is in 
 great ones, for these reasons : — However smooth the walls may be made 
 by plastering, the fodder always lodges against them; and whatever 
 precaution may be taken, the settlement close to the walls is sure to be 
 more or less obstructed, and this is detrimental to good preservation. 
 The trampling down alongside the walls may have been very carefully 
 done at the time of filling the silo, you may have heaped on the top 
 of the mass, alongside the walls, a very considerable quantity of heavy 
 
54 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 ■weights (wHch is a practice that I cannot too highly commend), but the 
 best preserved materials will nevertheless be those farthest away from 
 the sides. Near the walls there is usually some amount of damage, and 
 although it may not be important it is nevertheless desirable to restrict it 
 as much as possible. This particular damage is increased or diminished 
 according as the walls present a greater or less amount of surface in 
 contact with the fodder as compared with the whole mass. Hence there 
 is considerable advantage in giving silos the greatest capacity possible, as 
 those which hold but a small quantity have proportionately a much larger 
 surface of contact. 
 
 Suppose, for example, a sUo one yard square and one yard deep ; for 
 this cubic yard of capacity would be five square yards of surface. If 
 you multiply these dimensions by ten, and make your sUo ten yards every 
 way, you will then have a receptable of 1000 cubic yards capacity, with a 
 surface of contact of only 500 square yards ; that is to say, there would 
 be, for every cubic yard of capacity, only half a square yard of surface, 
 instead of five square yards as in the small silo ; and you thus wiU have 
 diminished by niue-tenths the evil pointed out. I need scarcely say, 
 however, that I do not recommend silos of such proportions as these. 
 I merely give an extreme illustration in order to render my meaning 
 the more clear. 
 
 Fact answers but too well to the theory here set forth. I have continually 
 found the fodder not so well preserved in small silos as in large ones. 
 Whether the sUo was great or small, I always used to find that, where the 
 fodder came into contact with the walls, there was a layer from half an 
 inch to an inch in thickness which had not kept well. In large sUos this 
 forms but an insignificant part of the mass, and cannot produce any evil 
 effect ; but it is otherwise in small silos, where the damage may afEect 
 15 or 18 per cent, of the mass. Nowadays, thanks to the care which I 
 take to put extra heavy weights on the mass close by the walls, the fodder 
 is as well preserved there as elsewhere. 
 
 Formerly I recommended silos of small dimensions; but that was 
 because I had not then discovered the marvellous results which may be 
 obtained by the employment of heavy weights in establishing and 
 maintaining density in the silos. "When ensilage was taken out, the air 
 quickly penetrated into the mass in the silo (where a want of sufficient 
 density gave it free passage), and rapid deterioration was the result. It 
 was natural, therefore, to endeavour to check this as much as possible ; 
 for the first effect of the penetration of air was to raise the temperature 
 of the mass to a very high degree by continuoite fermentations (first 
 alcoholic, then acetic, then putrid) which rapidly succeed one another; 
 and the mass being thus a prey to a kind of slow combustion, went on 
 continually deteriorating as long as the ensilage remained in the sUo. 
 Under such circumstances it was necessary to make the sUos small, and to 
 get the contents eaten as quickly as possible. But when at last I 
 discovered that, by maintaining a constant density in the mass, the 
 
Construction of Silos. 55 
 
 penetration of air was was rendered impossible, I then could abandon tbe 
 small sUos for others on a more important scale. 
 
 In consequence of the greater diflSculty and cost of roofing 
 satisfactorily tlie triple siloj M. Groffart afterwards said lie 
 should be inclined^ in any future structurej to make it with 
 two instead of three divisions, and obtain the same capacity 
 by an increase of length. He had previously made both 
 double and single silos with the rounded ends, so had had 
 practical experience of their respective advantages. 
 
 In America, some writers on this subject have recommended 
 that the silos be made rectangular^ but that the corners be 
 cut off, as shown in the illustration on page 59. This, 
 however, is only reverting to a former practice of M. Goffart, 
 who said in his communication to the Farmers' Dinner of 
 January, 1876 : 
 
 Having observed that the angles of my old silos constituted weak 
 points, where the fodder did not settle evenly, and where its preservation 
 was not so good, I replaced the right angles by obtuse angles. The 
 inconvenience disappeared ; thanks to this simple modification the angles 
 no longer present the exceptional damage, which goes on increasing with 
 time. 
 
 But, although he found an improvement from the corners 
 being cut off, he found still further improvement from the 
 ends being rounded, and hence his subsequent recommendation 
 of " elliptical " silos. 
 
 As to precautions to be taken in the construction of silos, 
 M. Goffart says : 
 
 Too much care cannot be taken in the construction of silos. The 
 underground part especially ought to be the object of particular pre- 
 cautions. The fact should never be lost sight of that the walls have to 
 resist two kinds of thrust, in opposite directions. When the silo is empty 
 the masonry has to undergo pressure from the ground without ; and this 
 is especially dangerous to new waUs. When the silo is fuU, the masonry, 
 more particularly that which is above ground, has to withstand the pres- 
 sure exercised by the ensibge, increased as it is by the weights put 
 thereon in order to secure preservation. 
 
 Any undue economy in these constructions may have to be paid for 
 very dearly. Nevertheless it is not necessary to slavishly foUow the 
 method which I have adopted. Instead of making all my walls of brick- 
 work, I might, so far as regards the underground portion, have made use 
 
56 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 of hydraulic concrete, which costs one-half less than the former ; but in 
 such case you should be Tery sure of your materials and workmen, which 
 can seldom be relied on in country places. 
 
 It would be an advantage for those who have a hill at hand to utilise it, 
 so that one side of the silo should be entirely underground and the upper 
 part of the wall be on a level vrith the ground by which the waggons 
 containing the fodder could be brought up, and upon which the chaff- 
 cutting machine could be placed, if used, so that the chopped fodder 
 would fall from the machine into the silo. It is impossible, however, to 
 lay down a general plan suited to all situations ; the arrangements will 
 depend upon the surface of the ground, the existing buildings which are 
 to be utilised, the nature of the soil, and so forth. 
 
 In choosing a site for the construction of silos, it is desirable not to 
 lose sight of the fact that their distance from the feeding sheds may have 
 a considerable influence on the economy of labour. They should be as 
 close at hand as possible, in order to diminish carriage ; but sometimes 
 there is an advantage in placing sUos farther away, in order to avail 
 oneself of more suitable ground. 
 
 The door of the silo ought to be at the end ; because, if opened in the 
 middle of the long wall, two surfaces would be exposed to the action of 
 the atmosphere. The door should be closed before putting in the fodder, 
 and this may be done by means of boards fitting into grooves in the walls. 
 Such was the method that I first adopted ; but now I close the entrance 
 of my silos by means of temporary brickwork plastered inside with 
 hydraulic mortar, and this wall is pulled down again at the time of 
 opening the silo. This brickwork closes the opening much more 
 effectually than the boards, whatever care may be taken to adjust them 
 one upon another. Each of these openings may be closed up by a brick- 
 layer in the course of an hour or so. 
 
 Many persons in this country and in America have availed 
 themselves of the opportunity of utilizing the side of a hill, as 
 well for the sake of avoiding excavation when constructing the 
 silo, as for saving labour in filUng and emptying it. Where 
 the slope is gradual, the building is usually built with its 
 length extending down hill ; but where there is a very sharp 
 incline, it may be convenient to build broadside on the hill, as 
 in the case of Lord Ashburton's silos at Alresford, Hants. 
 For particulars and woodcuts of these we are indebted to the 
 "Bath and West of England Society's Journal" for 1883-4, in 
 which there is an article on the subject by Mr. J. B. KnoUys, 
 including a description of the building, by Mr. T. Potter, Lord 
 Ashburton's clerk of works. Of this we give an abstract. 
 
Concrete Silos. 
 
 57 
 
 Lord Ashburton has built three silos at the home farm ; or perhaps it 
 would be more correct to say one silo divided into three compartments, 
 each lift, square by 12ft. in depth, the total capacity being 4350 cubic 
 feet. The site chosen for the silo is separated from the farm buildings 
 only by the farm road. This road is on level ground, but nearly parallel 
 with another road on a slope leading to a rickyard on higher ground. At 
 one point, where there is about 13ft. space between them, the upper road 
 is 12ft. above the lower road, and between the two is a sloping bank at an 
 angle of nearly 45°. In this space the sUo is built, the top of the walls 
 
 
 LoBD Ashbueton's Silos. 
 
 being level with the higher road, and the floor nearly level with the road 
 below. 
 
 The walls are made of concrete 12in. thick, except those portions which 
 "back" against the natural ground, and there they are only 9in. thick. 
 The roof is of galvanized corrugated iron, resting upon wall plates front 
 and ba*k^ and an. intermediate purlin or plate, all extending the full 
 length of the buHding. The intermediate purliu or plate is carried by 
 four rafters, placed respectively over the two ends and two division walls 
 «f the silo, A very substantial roof is thus provided with a small amount 
 
58 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 of timber, as the area is 481 superficial feet, and the quantity of timber 
 used 18 cubic feet only. 
 
 A special mode of compression^ by m^eana of a hydraulic 
 jack, has been applied to these silos by Mr. Potter, who has 
 patented the invention. Particulars of the mode of applica- 
 tion are given subsequently in the chapter on weighting. Mr. 
 Potter is also an authority on concrete building ; and persons 
 who wish for information on this subject can scarcely do better 
 than obtain his book on the subject, " Concrete, its Use in 
 Building, and the Construction of Walls, Floors, &c." 
 published by Messrs. Spon, of Charing Cross, London. 
 
 Veetical Section of Lord Ashbitrton's Silos. 
 
 In the United States concrete is a favourite material for the 
 construction of silos, as American farmers are very handy men, 
 and do much of their own building work. In his " Book of 
 Ensilage," Mr. John M. Bailey gives a plan which has some 
 resemblance to a double silo of M. GofEart's, except that the 
 ends are not rounded off, but have the inner angles removed 
 as alluded to on page 55. Mr. Bailey thus describes his 
 mode of proceeding : 
 
 Having resolved to try the experiment thoroughly, I selected a side hill, 
 excavated on the west side and south end 7ft. deep, and put in on the west 
 side a solid stone wall 44ft. long and 12ft. high, built of very heavy stone 
 and in a most substantial maimer. I afterwards banked up on this side to 
 the top of the wall, making a level spot upon which to set an engine and 
 ensilage cutter ; also to drive carts upon, to deposit the fodder as it came 
 from the fields. 
 
Concrete Silos. 
 
 69 
 
 I then commenced building the silo walls. These are 15in. thick, built 
 in the following manner : First, Sin. X 4iii. scantling (a) are set up at each 
 of the angles and at intervals of about 8ft. on each side of the waUs. 
 These scantlings beiug placed 18in. apart, planks 12in. wide and IJin. 
 thick are set up inside the scantling, leaving 15in. between the planks as 
 the thickness of the walls. 
 
 M. Goffart recommends that the comers be rounded. I thought that 
 cutting them ofE, as shown in the diagram, would answer as weU and be 
 much less expensive. 
 
 1. Ensilage. 4. Stone weights. 6. Doors. 
 
 2. Straw uncut. 5. Vertical slice to be taken out T. Cement floor. 
 
 3. Plank covering. daily. 8. Drainage. 
 
 The concrete is made by mixing one bushel of cement with three of 
 plastering sand and four of clean gravel. This is thoroughly^ mixed 
 together when dry ; it is then wetted and thoroughly mixed again, making 
 a very thin mortar. 
 
 1 2 
 
60 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 About Sin. in depth of this mixtuie is put in between the planks ; then 
 stones of all sizes and shapes are packed and bedded ia this layer of con- 
 crete, after which another layer of concrete is poured in on top of this 
 layer of stones, and the operation is repeated until the space between the 
 planks all round each sUo is filled; then the planks are raised about lOin., 
 and the space filled with concrete and stones as before, until the walls are 
 at the desired height. The best way is to have a suificient number of 
 hands to just raise the wall the width of the plank each day. 
 
 A 4in. X 12in. siQ was bedded on the wall in the last layer of concrete. 
 Upon the siU a wooden building was placed, with posts 5ft. high, the 
 beams on the top of these posts being thoroughly braced to the posts, 
 thus firmly tying the whole structure together. 
 
 The cost of the structure will, of course, vary in different localities, as 
 the cost of labour and materials varies. My silos (capacity about 400 tons) 
 
 cost me about 1001., or about 5s. for each ton capacity. Large ones will 
 cost less, small ones more. 
 
 Silos may be built of stone, pointed with cement mortar, and plastered 
 on the inside ; or of brick, or of concrete, as miue are. Whichever 
 material is the cheapest and most convenient in any locality is the best to 
 use. Brick will cost more than the concrete. Concrete wall costs here 
 about 5d. per cubic foot. 
 
 Large silos 40ft. to 50ft. long, 15ft. to 18ft. wide, and 16ft to 24ft. deep, 
 are the cheapest : they will not cost more than 4s. or 5s. for each ton 
 capacity. They require no repairs, and, if properly built, will last for 
 ages. The cost therefore, of storage-room for ensilage is about 3d. per 
 ton yearly. My plans of building silos are cheaper than to dig pits in the 
 ground. 
 
 Small silos, capable of holding enough ensilage for ten to twenty cows 
 oaji be constructed by digging and walling up, as for a cellar, when stoae 
 
Construction of Silos. 61 
 
 is plentiful. Mix one part cement with two parts sand, and make a con- 
 crete floor about lin. tHct. Put a cheap battened roof over it to keep 
 the rain and snow out, and you have just as good a silo as any. One 12ft. 
 wide, 30ft. long, and 12ft. deep would not cost, besides the labour, over 
 lOL where stone is plentiful, and it would hold enough ensilage to winter 
 twelve to fifteeen cows. 
 
 The figure on the opposite page gives a sectional view of a small silo of 
 this kind, I being 3 X 4in. scantling ; II, Ij X 12in. plank, between which 
 and the rough wall a concrete or grout is poured ; and III, a dotted line 
 showing the face of the concrete pointing and plastering. A door 4ft. X 8ft. 
 is in the centre. 
 
 Among tlie more noticeable of tlie specially-built silos in 
 this kingdom is that of Lord Blantyre, at Freelands BrskinOj 
 near Glasgov?. It is said to be like an ordinary house in 
 appearance, being built of red brick, pointed, with a good 
 substantial roof of slate, and, as one correspondent said, 
 ''furnished almost like a dwelling-house," with doors and 
 fittings of pitch pine. Of course, such a building would be 
 rather expensive, and the cost, as will be seen by the 
 ■description at page 326, was more than 270L 
 
 The diagrams given on the ensuing page represent Mr. 
 Copley's improved silo at Bast Cowton, Yorkshire. At page 
 203 will be seen a description of the East Cowton silo as it 
 existed when the first edition of this book was printed. Now 
 its dimensions are more than doubled, by the addition of a 
 second and larger pit ; and a new roof has been erected, which 
 extends 3ft. beyond the edge of the pit on either side, 
 as will be seen by the ground plan on the next page. A kind 
 of bench or platform is thus formed on both sides, which is 
 very convenient for laying the weights on when they are lifted 
 off the ensilage ; and at other times the covered space makes 
 an excellent shed. The building is enclosed at the back and 
 two ends by feather-edged boards, while the front has double 
 doors made of the same material. One of the pits is 15ft. 
 long, and the other (the old one) 12ft. in length; they are 
 both 7ft. in width and 10ft. deep, 8ft. being below ground and 
 2ft. above the surface. 
 
 Mr. Bateman (page 274) has built in Essex a concrete silo 
 which is very similar in structure to the " Kentish Silo " 
 
-.d 
 
 z 
 o 
 a: 
 
 I 
 
 » 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 <1 
 
 o 
 o 
 
The Kentish Silo. 63 
 
 designed by Mr. Kains-Jackson, and given in the last edition 
 of this work. Prom the description and figures on the 
 next page it will be seen that it is about three-fourths under- 
 groundj and is covered by a movable roof , which can be taken 
 off in sections, or run to and fro, as required during the 
 process of filling or emptying the pit. Further details will be 
 found in the following particulars and specification : 
 
 This silo — which I call a "Kentish silo" — could be conveniently placed 
 alongside any farm roadway for ease of access, or adjacent to the home- 
 stead. Its movable roof renders it a receptacle that would serve many 
 purposes of storage. In the specification, cost has not been spared so far 
 as the employment of best materials, but such structures should last 
 many generations ; in fact, the " Kentish silo " would be well nigh an 
 indestructible " farm improvement." The illustrations may be left to 
 speak for themselves. 
 
 As to the cost, any country builder could give an estimate from the 
 specification given below. The amount, as given to me by a " quantity 
 surveyor," is not a very important one ; but each district having draw- 
 backs or facilities, tenders should be obtained in the localities where the 
 silos have to be built. Doubtless the walls might be made of concrete ; 
 indeed, good concrete has many recommendations, but bricks or stones 
 always form valuable materials in themselves, and are permanent repre- 
 sentatives of the outlay, whereas " concrete " scarcely represents money, 
 and is a substance that somehow seems to invite fraud in the making. 
 Where the proprietor or tenant supplies the right materials and sees 
 them properly mixed, concrete silos may be recommended. 
 
 Specification of Woeks required to be done in building a sUo for the 
 storage of grass, clover, and other green forage. 
 
 Mecavator. — ^Excavate to a depth of 12ft. from the surface of the 
 ground, to a length of 80ft. and breadth of 10ft., and cart away the soU 
 to where directed. The earth in the foimdations is to be well rammed 
 down, so as to form a natural bed, and not made up of loose earth ; sand, 
 if found, is to be allowed for by the contractor. Excavate the earth at 
 one end in front of silo, 30ft. long, gradually sloping to bottom of pit, as 
 shown, if required. 
 
 . BricUayer. — Build in Flemish bond the walls and piers of best hard 
 weU-burnt grey stocks, laid in cement composed of one part of approved 
 cement and three of clean sharp sand, with footing of four courses of 
 brickwork. Build in the one end of wall 16ft. X 10ft., and buUd a brick 
 pier 15ft. X 1ft. 2in. on each side at other end, as shown. Lay the 
 bottom of the pit with concrete 1ft. in depth, with a layer of asphalte 2in. 
 in thickness on top. Form a drain in the asphalte, and concrete through 
 
64 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 RAIL FOR ROLLINS ROOF HU/U/ll/nC ON TOP 
 
 Plan 
 
 THE KENTISH SILO. 
 
The Kentish Silo. 
 
 65 
 
 I line sAows d eptTi of p it 
 
 * " CONCRETE F-OUNDATIQN ^ 
 
 :rspecti ve 
 
 F 
 
 FLEVATION Of END 
 
66 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 the centre the entire length, with a fall of Gin. from the centre towards 
 each end, and also with a slight fall from either side of walls. Provide 
 and lay a damp course of unbroken slates, laid, breaking joint in cement 
 above projection of footing course. Leave a rebate at top of walls the 
 entire length to receive the wall plate ; size, 9in. by Gin. 
 
 Carpenter. — ^Provide and fix a wall plate to run the entire length of 
 pit (80ft.) on each side, size, Gin. by Gin., to receive the rails, and secure 
 same firmly to walls with nails or screws ; provide wood blocks for same, 
 to be inserted in the wall. 
 
 Founder and Smith. — Provide and fix iron rails, 4in. by 2m., to run 
 the entire length of walls on each side (viz., 80ft.). Provide eight covers, 
 as shovm, vrith galvanised iron roofs, l-16th of an inch in thickness, 
 each 10ft. by 10ft., with bearers and six rollers, three on each side, to fit 
 rails ; make same to run easily, the roofs to have -a pitch of 1ft. Gin. from 
 centre ; the galvanised iron cover to be firmly joined together at ridge, 
 and to project over the bearers and rollers, as also over the walls a 
 distauce of 2in., with a small eaves gutter on either side of the cover; 
 each end of the cover (roof) is to be made so that, when the covers are 
 close together, they will overlap each other slightly, as shown in the 
 drawing, to prevent rain from drifting in. 
 
 General Semarlcs. — The whole of the work is to be carried out without 
 stoppage, and to the satisfaction of the owner for whom the works are 
 done ; the materials are to be sound and good in their respective trades, 
 and everything left complete and in good working order at finish. The 
 contractor failing to complete any of the works commenced by him, shall 
 be liable for the cost incurred in obtaining another contractor to finish 
 the work, and the amount so forfeited shall be deducted from the 
 original contract. 
 
 According to the rule given in the next chapter for esti- 
 mating the capacity of silos, the structure here described would 
 hold 240 tons of ensilage ; but, of course, the length could be 
 reduced, as thought desirable, and the capacity diminished in. 
 proportion. 
 
 There is, we believe, no single silo in the world that 
 approaches the dimensions of that built by the Vicomte de 
 Chezelles, at Liancourt St. Pierre, in the department of the 
 Oise, a side view of which is given on the opposite page. 
 From a letter written by the Vicomte (printed at page 195, 
 where an end view of this silo is also given) it appears that 
 the silo is 216ft. long, by nearly 20ft. in width, and has a 
 depth of IS^ft. The produce of 170 acres of clover and other 
 green crops were put into this pit, and there was still space 
 
€8 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 ior more. The capacity is given in the estimate appended to 
 Mr. Kains- Jackson's article as 1475 tons; but making the 
 same allowance for unoccupied space as we have done in other 
 cases, we estimate its capacity as 1200 tons. The particulars 
 given at pp. 196 — 201 render it unnecessary to enter into 
 more detail at present. 
 
 A very novel kind of silo, with lever-pressure apparatus, 
 invented by the owner, Mr. C. G. Johnson, of Croft, is shown 
 
 Me. Johnson's Levee-pkesstiee Silo. 
 
 in the following illustration. The building is of brick all 
 above ground, with slated roof. It is 28ft. high up to the 
 eaves, 10ft. by 18ft. inside, 9in. walls, with the exception of 
 the front end, around the doorway, which is 14in. work ; and 
 is designed to be filled to 22ft. high of ensilage, leaving the 
 remainder for working room. The weight, which works the 
 lever that ; applies pressure to the mass within, is seen sus- 
 
BentalVs Concrete Silo. 69 
 
 pended at the further end of the building. Details of the 
 apparatus and mode of working are given at pp. 210-215. 
 
 Another silo whichj at the first glance, has great similarity 
 of appearance with that of Mr. Johnson, is one constructed by- 
 Messrs. B. H. Bentall and Co., the well-known manufacturers 
 of chaff-cutters, &c., of Heybridge Works, Maldon, Essex, 
 who won the prize offered by M. Goffart in 1882 for the best 
 machine for cutting up green maize for ensilage. The silo is 
 a rectangular building of concrete, divided by a party wall 
 into two chambers, each lift, square and 25ft. deep. The first 
 illustration represents the exterior, and the second shows a 
 section of the silo, while the following extract from Messrs. 
 Bentall's circular gives some particulars of the arrangements. 
 
 An opening 2ft. 6m. in width (c c), which commences 5ft. from the 
 ground level and continues to the top of the silo, is left in the middle of 
 the front wall in each chamber. Through these openings the silo is filled 
 and emptied. They are closed with faced concrete slabs, 2ft. Sin. wide, 
 1ft. deep, and Sin. thick, which fit in an internal rebate. A strong 
 boardedf rame-work, with double doors over the openings (c c), supports 
 the roof, raising it sufiioiently to enable the silo to be worked when filled 
 to its utmost capacity. This framework is bolted to the walls, serving as 
 a, tie to strengthen them where they are severed by the openings. 
 
 A crane, which swings between these two openings, and a winch, 
 standing on the ground directly beneath it, constitute the necessary 
 appliances for filling, emptying, and weighting the silo. 
 
 The crop, after being cut, is carted to a steam-power chaff-cutter, placed 
 within a few feet of the silo, which cuts it into inch lengths. The cut 
 fodder is then raked out of the box beneath the chaff-cutter into baskets, 
 which are emptied into the silo, where the material is levelled and 
 trampled down. The baskets, which are emptied by hand until the level 
 of the opening is reached, are then hoisted up by a rope attached to 
 the winch and passing over the crane pulley, until they arrive at a suitable 
 height to be emptied by a man standing within the building. As the 
 material rises within the silo, the opening is closed inside with faced 
 concrete slabs. The joints are then plastered to render them au--tight. 
 When the fodder reaches to within about two feet of the top, it is 
 covered with a three-inch layer of whole straw, upon which loose boards 
 are laid so as to make a platform covering the surface within half an inch 
 of the walls. Bucketsful of pebbles are then, hoisted up, shot down, and 
 levelled, until a pressure is attained of a hutdredweight and a half to 
 every square foot. About nine tons of stone.5 are thus required for 
 weighting the contents of each chamber. 
 
70 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops, 
 
 When the ensilage is required, for use, the concrete slabs which cover 
 the opening are removed until the level of the covering boards is reached. 
 The pebbles are then shovelled out of the opening, ' preferably into a 
 trough leading to some convenient place where a heap may be formed for 
 future use. The boards being taken up, the ensilage is removed in layers 
 
 Messks. Bentall's Concrete Silo. 
 
 from the surface of the mass and forked into baskets, which are lowered 
 from the silo by means of t\e rope and crane. 
 
 Although Messrs. Bentall prefer concrete for building purposes, having 
 plenty of gravel at hand, chey do not recommend it in preference to stone 
 or brick for districts w\ere those materials are the cheapest. In soils 
 
Benf (ill's Concrete Silo. 
 
 71 
 
 where there is no danger of an incursion of water, tho silo might be 
 built partially undergronud. 
 
 Tho foundations under the floor level are laid with slag, a material, 
 which being impervious to water, prevents the damp from rising. The 
 floor itself, aud the walls, are made of ordinary concrete, consisting of 
 ten parts of clean gravel to one of Portland cement. The walls which are 
 
 :^::?s^ 
 
 1 - /7~ "^z^" 
 
 v__^ 
 
 Section of Messes. Bentall's Silo. 
 
 about 12in. thick at the base and 9in. thick at the top, are firmly l)Ouud 
 together internally by strips of iron hooping, and are strengthened with 
 piers on either side of the openings (c c). The interior angles are filled 
 up and rounded ofl:, with the view of rendering them more accessible to 
 the men who trample down the fodder. The inside walls arc truly and 
 smoothly rendered with a mixture consisting of two parts of sand to one 
 
72 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
Pearson's Silo and Say Barn. 73 
 
 part of Portland cement. The roof is boarded from ridge to eares, the 
 joints being covered with splines, which, together with the boards, are 
 grooved so as to prevent leakage. 
 
 The accompanying illustration represents a combined silo 
 and hay-barn or shedj roofed witli corrugated iron, designed 
 by Messrs. Thos. Pearson and Co. of Wolverhampton and 
 Glasgow. It shows the silo filled and partially weighted, a 
 travelling crane being used to lift the concrete or iron blocks ; 
 while the further end of the barn is occupied by hay or corn. 
 The silo can be of any length, and from 8ft. to 20ft. in width ; 
 and the shed being made several feet wider than the pit, con- 
 venient space is available for packing weights, &c. If .the 
 contents of the pit are required before the removal of the corn or 
 hay, it will of course be requisite to build the stack on timbers 
 laid across the silo ; and, indeed, such would be desirable in any 
 case, unless the stack is made narrow enough to sink with the 
 
 silage. 
 
 Silos of Portable Concrete Slabs. 
 
 Messrs. W. H. Lascelles and Co. of 121, Bunhill-row, 
 London, exhibited at a meeting of the Croydon Farmers' Club 
 in February, 1883, a silo made of portable concrete slabs, and 
 Mr. Lascelles subsequently gave in the Field, lengthy details 
 of its construction, from which we make an extract. 
 
 I would make all sUos portable, so that they can be shifted or enlarged, 
 or converted to other uses, if desired. The construction should be so 
 simple that any agricultural labourer of average intelligence can erect 
 them or take them down. No part should be heavier than one man can 
 lift; and the various parts should be of such a nature that they can be 
 sent by rail, or carted on an ordinary farmer's cart, and should be stowed 
 away until wanted, in the least available space. 
 
 Now, my method of erection is as follows: Having decided where to 
 erect the silo, level the ground, or, if already level, place on it a raised 
 platform of earth of about 12 or 18 inches in height, so as to keep the 
 bottom out of the wet. Then lay down plates of ordinary 44in. by Sin. 
 quartering, with mortices throughout 3ft. apart., centre to centre. Insert 
 uprights all one size— say for example 8ft. long— with a tenon each end 
 in the plate. Drive a head plate in the top of the same length as the 
 bottom pkte, and the framiug is complete. The walls are now formed by 
 screwing slabs of concrete 3ft. long, 2ft. high, and l|in. thick, with a 
 hole in each comer, to the wood uprights. The screws can be galvanised 
 if desired. The joints can be formed by a piece of tarred cord laid in as 
 
 G 
 
74 Silos for Fodder Orops. 
 
 the work proceeds, or a rush as used by coopers will do as well. These 
 slabs can be procured foom W. H. LasceUes and Co., 121, Bunhill-row, at 
 4(Z. per superficial foot, as advertised. They weigh about |cwt. each, can 
 be sent by rail or road any distance without packing, and can be stacked 
 outdoors. They are water, fire, and frost proof. . 
 
 The general appearance wiU be something like the sketch (Fig. 1) ; I 
 have indicated thatch for the roof, which might be reed, heather, straw, 
 or whatever is cheapest and handiest. Boards, tiles, or slates will do 
 where thatching material cannot be obtained. 
 
 The wood framework, before the concrete slabs are screwed on, wUl 
 have an appearance something like that shown in Pig. 2. It consists 
 of deal, all of one size (4 Jin. x 3in.), the horizontal plates all mortised 
 3ft. apart, centre to centre, each mortise being Sin. by lin., and quite 
 through the plate. By this arrangement the plate can be bought all ready 
 with the mortises made ; any length wiU. come in ; it can be kept in 
 stock and cut off as it may be wanted. Fig. 3 is a' sketch of this plate. 
 
 The vertical pieces are the exact height of the silo side, whatever may 
 be found most convenient. I have taken them at 10ft., and they have a 
 tenon each end 4iin. long, 4Jin. wide, and lin. thick, as shown by Fig. 4. 
 These uprights or vertical pieces should be all alike, so that they, too, 
 like the plates, could be kept in stock ; and the putting up the wood 
 framework of a silo would become as simple a matter as putting up the 
 shutters of a shop. 
 
 The comers I woxdd arrange as shown by Fig. 5. By this contrivance, 
 the necessity of having special comer pieces is avoided. It will be 
 noticed that I have shown an iron square at the corner. I would have 
 three of these at each corner, about 12in. each way, of wrought iron, say 
 2in. by Jin., with four Sin. by |in. coach screws in each square. The 
 centre one might be somewhat shorter. 
 
 The siU-plate I would keep up from the ground by putting blocks of 
 stone or broken slabs under it, to protect it from the wet ; and the lower 
 edge of the bottom slab should be rather below the bottom edge of siQ 
 plate, as shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 A more simple, but less neat-looking plan to form the walls of sUos 
 will be to use the quartering without mortising and tenoning, simply 
 bolting or nailing the joint, as in Fig. V. I have shown a 6in. i bolt, 
 cost about 3d., but two Sin. wrought nails might be used instead. 
 Although this plan is not so neat-looking as the one first described, it 
 is reaUy more scientific, and it has the great advantage of saving one 
 portion of the process necessary, and thereby reducing the cost, and at 
 the same time increasing the strength of the structure. 
 
 To tie the structure together, I have bored holes through the plate 
 and tenon, through which oak pins should be driven ; and, about 6ft. 
 or 9ft. apart, bolts should be carried across the silo as tie-rods, both at 
 the top and bottom, with a nut at each end. 
 
 Although I have specified the uprights as 4|in. by Sin., the size can 
 

 FIC. 1. 
 
 ^i. 
 
 tic*. 
 
76 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 he increased if found necessary. A 9in. by Sin. deal, with the edge 
 towards the slab, for great silos, or where much pressure is expected, 
 would be better ; or iron might be used instead of wood, without afEecting 
 in any way the principle of construction. 
 
 rio. e. 
 
 PiC.9. 
 
 A comer-tie, formed by a piece of quartering (Fig. 8) halfened down 
 on the top and bottom plates, would stiffen the structure, and could be 
 used in many cases instead of the iron squares ; and an additional tie-rod 
 with plates could be added to the centre of the silo walls (Fig. 9). 
 
 Messrs. Lascelles issue a pamphletj ■whicli can be obtained 
 on application, giving fuller details on various points. Par- 
 ticulars witb respect to experiments made last season mtli 
 these silos will be found at pp. 288-291. 
 
 Slate Silos. 
 Messrs. Joseph Brindley and Co. Limited, of 61, King 
 William-street, City, a well-known firm of slate merchants, 
 suggest that slate would form an excellent material for silos. 
 
 as being " cleaner, sweeter, cheaper, and more durable than 
 any other similar material," and have patented a silo as 
 shown in the accompanying illustration. It is constructed of 
 wrought-iron standards fitted with grooves into which slate 
 slabs slide, the joints being made air-tight by oakum, and 
 the standard kept together by iron rods. If out of doot% 
 
Patented Silos. 
 
 77 
 
 they suggest tliat it should be sunk a few feet in the ground 
 and covered with a light roof of corrugated iron. The advan- 
 tages claimed for this silo are^ that it is imperishable, being 
 constructed entirely of iron and slate ; that it is easily put 
 together, as all that has to be done is to fix the supports and 
 slide the slate slabs into the grooves in them, which can easily 
 be done by any unskilled labourer; that it can with equal 
 readiness be taken to pieces and removed; and, lastly, its 
 cheapness ; but the price we have not seen stated. 
 
 Patented Wooden Silos. 
 Mr. S. H. Stocks, of Gleckheaton, near Normanton, has 
 patented a silo and press of which the following are particulars : 
 
 Fig, 1 is a side elevation. Fig. 2 is a plan of top when filled and press 
 applied. Fig. 3 is a transverse section, and Fig. 4 a longitudinal section, 
 and Fig. 5 an end elevation. 
 
 Fig.l. 
 
 -^ 
 
 !i: 
 
 ' '-' ' ', 
 
 Sicie Etevaiion, 
 
 -9- 
 
 I . 1^1 
 
 A A is the silo chamber. A' A' are doors (by preference provided). 
 The covers of the chamber, A^ are llin. by Sin. or 9in. by Sin. planks; 
 these are laid separately on the contents after the chamber has been 
 fiUed. 
 
 Beneath the transverse planks forming the bottom, a longitudinal beam 
 or beams (B) is laid, by preference of iron. C are the rods or ties ; 
 they are secured at their lower ends to the beam (B) by screw nuts. The 
 upper end of each tie or rod passes through the cover ; D D are volute 
 springs surrounding the ties or rods ; these springs wiU each support a 
 load of six or seven tons. The upper ends of the rods have screw threads 
 cut upon them, and E E are nuts working upon the screw threads; F F 
 are plates on which the springs stand, and F' F' are washers ; G G are 
 
78 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 cross pieces of timber on whicli the spring plates rest, and these crosa 
 pieces bear upon stiff longitudinal timbers H H; i i are metal tubes to 
 
 M .''^•'•. M 
 
 Ptcui of Top with (bver 
 
 Fig.*. 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^X 
 
 ^^i^asssssa^az 
 
 mmJLwm^k 
 
 l-^A^^^■H^<^^^-^^jV^^s■!^liV^,J.^x«^iv^^v,^■■^^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 : . ■" ■ - . ci) — . ii L 
 
 Longitwiuuil Seeium^' 
 
 
 Trtinsver^e , Section, . 
 
 protect the screw threads on rods. K is a tap which may be provided to 
 draw off the juices. 
 
Patented Wooden Silos. 79 
 
 After filling the chamber with the green material to be preserved, the 
 cover is laid as indicated by the drawings, and the screws are turned by 
 levers until the springs are compressed. It is necessary to turn the 
 handles once or twice during the first day or two in order that the 
 pressure may be maintained. 
 
 When the preserved material is required for use, the silo is opened only 
 at one end where the doors A' are placed. Two of the planks of the 
 cover are taken off ; to admit of this the pressure is relieved for the time, 
 and when the planks have been got out, the nuts are again screwed up 
 tight. In this way the material may be worked out as required, and 
 the only exposure to air wiU be at the face when the fodder is cut 
 for use. 
 
 The foregoing sketclies represent a wooden silo, but the 
 apparatus is also applied to corrugated iron silos, concrete, &c. 
 Samples of oats, clover, and grass, preserved by Mr. Stocks 
 in one of his silos, were in very good condition when sent to 
 the Field office, and some butter, the produce of his silage- 
 fed cows, was excellent. 
 
 Messrs. Ghurchton and Co., of 49, Queen Victoria-street, 
 London, have patented a mode of constructing wooden silos, 
 for which they claim extreme simplicity and ease of erection, 
 with facility of removal, if required, and state that they are 
 only about half the cost of masonry or brick silos of equal 
 capacity. They are formed of yellow deal planks and battens, 
 and all the parts are numbered and marked so that they may 
 be put together by ordinary farm labourers, under the super- 
 intendence of the master or a foreman. A rectangular frame, 
 12ft. long and 8ft wide (or larger as may be desired), is laid 
 upon the ground, and the soil dug away from the interior to 
 the depth of 5ft ; upright battens, 10ft. in height, are fastened 
 to the inside of the frame, and rest against the 5ft. earthen 
 walls of the pit, and the soil that has been dug out from the 
 centre is piled up outside the upper half of the battens, so as 
 to form a raised bank round the portion of the silo that is 
 above ground-level. The principal parts of the framework 
 are made of timber either llin. by 3in., or 9in. by 3in., dimen- 
 sions which are estimated to be capable of resisting both 
 internal and external pressure, while the sides, tops, and 
 bottoms vary from l^in. to 2iin. in thickness. 
 
80 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Of course the purchaser of silos of this character would hare 
 to take into consideration the probable duration of the 
 material, and other circumstances attendant on their use, 
 such as the nature of the ground, &c. ; for in some localities, 
 with good sound soil, no drainage might be necessary, whereas 
 in others 5ft. of soil could not be dug out without coming to 
 
 Chuechton's Wooden Silo. 
 
 water, and the woodwork is not caulked or rendered water- 
 tight. By a modification of the process, however, these silos 
 can be built wholly above ground ; but stronger timbers require 
 to be used, and the cost is accordingly somewhat increased. 
 Messrs. F. W. Eeynolds and Co., Acorn Works, Edward- 
 
Patented Wooden Silos. 
 
 81 
 
 street, Blackfriars-roadj London, have patented a new form 
 of silo, which is represented in the accompanying illustration. 
 It consists of wooden boards planed on the inside, and jointed 
 to suit the radius of the required circle. These boards are 
 erected vertically like staves of a barrel, and are held together 
 on the outside by iron bands, which are tightened up by lugs 
 and screws ; the bands beincn in sections. Some of the staves 
 
 Reynolds's Wooden Silo. 
 
 are supplied with staples, in which the bands rest before 
 they are tightened. These staves are erected first, and, after 
 the bands are placed in position, the remaining staves are put 
 in a circle inside the bands, and the whole drawn together by 
 means of the screws. A door is supplied, as shown in the 
 illustration, to facilitate the removal of the contents. The 
 roof consists of a cross-beam of timber, with a timber upright 
 in the middle, the whole being covered with rot-proof and 
 
An Australian Silo. 83 
 
 water-tight canvas, fastened down to the sides of the silo by a 
 baridj drawn together with a screw. The patentees claim for 
 this eilo that it is practically air and water-tight, and that its 
 form enables it to resist internal pressure, besides being best 
 adapted for the sinking of the ensilage ; and they state that 
 the whole structure may be erected in about an hour, and 
 removed in less than half that time. 
 
 An Australian Silo. 
 
 The illustration opposite gives a representation of a silo 
 erected by Mr. Walter Lamb, of Eooty Hill and Merilong, 
 Liverpool Plains, New South Wales. Mr. Lamb, having been 
 well satisfied with the ensilage of 26 tons of fodder, on which 
 his stock were doing well, has had silos constructed at Eooty 
 Hill to hold 1700 tons, and intends to ensilage about 10,000 
 tons on his estate at Merilong. The Sydney Mail, from 
 which the illustration is copied, says : 
 
 The silo which our artist depicts as in the course of being filled, is. 
 under a large hay-shed. The silo is 67ft. long, 9ft. wide, and 10ft. deep, 
 almost entirely sunk in the floor of the shed. The sides and one end are 
 lined with brickwork 9in. thick, not cemented. One end is completely 
 open, but so made that it could be closed by slabs, and in the centre there 
 were projections so that a partition of slabs could be made. Thus this 
 long silo coidd be converted iuto two. A slight slope in the rock bottom 
 afforded draiaage. The excavation and brickwork of this silo cost about 
 43i. A similar excavation if lined with ordinary wooden slabs would 
 entaU the expenditure of 27Z. At the time of our artist's visit it was 
 being filled with green maize, a poor crop consequent upon the late 
 droughty season. A portable engine of eight -horse power was on the 
 bank, driving a chafEcutter, which was cutting the stuff into haK-inch 
 stuff as it was brought from the field by bullock teams. When the bottom 
 of the silo was covered to a depth of 2ft., a horse was ridden through the 
 stuff, so that it might be well trampled. Mr. Lamb has placed this silo 
 under the shed simply as a matter of convenience. Hay may be stacked 
 on top of it if necessary. In the case of the larger silos which will be 
 made at Rooty Hill and Merilong, the covering wiU be of the simplest 
 and least costly character. He intends to prove to his fellow pastoralists 
 that with the ensilage made from natural grasses saved in a good season,, 
 stock in a bad one can be saved from starvation, in fact, kept fairly weU 
 for a year at the cost of 8s. 9d. per bullock, and Is. 9(2. per sheep. The 
 weighting is done with earth ; and by placing a frame on the top of each. 
 
84 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 silo he will save the cost of labour incidental to filling up the silo after the 
 shrinkage of the stuff. Mr. Lamb uses no top covering between the 
 eusUage and the earth. The bottom of his silo is the natural rock. . 
 
 At the estimate^ as in other cases, of 50 cubic feet to tlie 
 ton, this silo would be of 120 tons capacity, and the cost little 
 over 7s. per ton. Considering the high price of labour in the 
 colony, this seems a very reasonable figure. 
 
 Ensilage Stacks. 
 
 In the last edition of this book was inserted a letter giving 
 & description of an ensilage stack alleged to have been made 
 in an open Dutch barn by Mr. Van der Breggen in Holland ; 
 but it has since transpired that the writer of the letter was 
 mistaken on one point, for although a stack of green grass 
 had been built up in a Dutch barn, it was not an open one, 
 as the space between the posts had been boarded up, thus 
 turning the open barn into a closed wooden silo. 
 
 Other attempts have, however, been made to dispense with 
 walls, and M. Cormouls-Houles, secretary of the Agricultural 
 Society of Mazamet, Tarn, in the South of France, gave in 
 French agricultural journals, in October last, the following 
 particulars of an experiment he had carried out : 
 
 Taking our idea from an American agriculturist, and wishing to avoid 
 ^11 the precautions and silo building expenses that seemed to us super- 
 fluous, we placed last spring, some thirty cartloads of fresh grass and 
 rye upon the earthen floor of a shed on the farm at Montledier. The 
 mass was about 12ft. square and 13ft. high. Four days were employed in 
 making this stack, on the top of which was placed planks loaded with 
 stones, creating a pressure of about 2601b. to the square foot. The sides 
 of the mass reached the walls of the shed, but the two ends remained 
 exposed. These were pared away and made trim. The compression of 
 the weights reduced the bulk, in less than a month, from four yards to as 
 many feet, subsequent shrinkage being scarcely noticeable. Decomposition 
 soon showed itself on the exposed ends, and caused such a disagreeable 
 smell that, for the moment, we thought our experiment would be a failure; 
 but the silo is now opened, and a careful examination of the compressed 
 forage has shown that the first vertical cut was, as we expected, entirely 
 decomposed for 6 to 8 inches. The top surface in contact with the planks 
 was scarcely changed, and only for a couple of inches. 
 
 Beyond the first vertical outside cut, the interior mass, perfectly 
 
^Ensilage Stacks. 
 
 86 
 
 homogeneous and impermeable to atmospheric influences, had undergone 
 a most regular fermentation, had become solidly compact and of a yellow- 
 green colour, giving a sugary, alcoholic smell; it was in perfect preserva- 
 tion, having a temperature 40° to 46° 0. (104° to 113° Pahr.) and when 
 offered to the cattle of the farm they ate this ensilage greedily, and in 
 preference to the best hay. Since the time of opening, a regular portion 
 has been taken daily, without losing any of its appetising qualities. 
 
 Our regret is that the experiment was made on a small scale. We shall 
 make another, after a brief delay, and are confident we can easily reduce 
 the loss in the sides exposed to the air. 
 
 Messrs. Pearson and Co., of Wolverhampton and Glasgow, 
 represent, in the accompanying illustration, a simple con- 
 
 trivance for compressing ensilage stacks by means of winders 
 at the sides. Beams and planks are laid on the top and at the 
 bottom of the stack, and, as the compressors are portable, they 
 can be taken to the stack wherever it may be most convenient 
 to build it. A light corrugated iron portable roof is provided 
 by Messrs. Pearson, from whom particulars as to cost may be 
 obtained. 
 
 The Eev. C. H. Ford, writing in the Field, gave the 
 following particulars of an experiment carried out in the 
 county of Durham : 
 
86 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Mr. Coltman, of Hardberry Hill, near Middleton in Teesdale, last 
 sumraer made a frame as follows : He let four larch poles into the 
 ground, so that 12 feet were above ground, in the open air. He thus 
 inclosed 7ft. square; to the posts he nailed slabs of wood l^in. thick, 
 leaving an interval of 6in. between the slabs. Fourteen loads of inferior 
 grass were stacked within this inclosure, which were estimated to weigh 
 about 8 tons. The top of the grass, well trodden, was covered with 
 boards. Ashes were laid on the boards, and on the boards were evenly- 
 distributed about 3 tons of clean river stones. The stack was not even 
 thatched. The ensilage, when cut into, was found to be moulded all round 
 the sides to the depth of 6in. ; on the top, under the boards. Sin. It was 
 of a brown colour, of good quality considering the coarseness of the 
 material, and was greedily eaten by his cows ; and so well did they milk 
 on this food that, when it was consumed, he purchased a ton of ensilage 
 at 30s. of Mr. Bainbridge of Middleton, and led it four or five mUes up 
 a very hiUy road to his place, and, mixing it with bad hay of his own to 
 spin it out, consumed the whole. 
 
 We give the above particulars about ensilage stacks, but 
 witbout recommending tbeir adoption; for we tbink it very 
 probable that an insidious amount of waste goes on of which 
 the mere external decay affords little evidence. Grood palatable 
 provender may be produced, to a certain extent ; but this is not 
 the sole test of economy, as will be explained in the chapter 
 •on Fermentation in the Silo. 
 
 Ensilage in Baeeels. 
 
 The packing of grass and other herbage in barrels has 
 «xoited the attention of many persons as an easy method 
 of ensilage, and it has been practised with more or less 
 success for a number of years. At the National Agricultural 
 Convention of America, held at Chicago, in February, 1883, 
 Dr. J. T. Smith said : " I got this ensilage fever about 
 fourteen years ago. It originated in Vermont by a man of 
 the name of Brown, who put green hay in a barrel, and 
 tramped it down solid, headedit up, and kept it for three 
 months. Ever since that, every article that I have seen on 
 the subject of ensilage has very much interested me." 
 
 Barrels, from their shape, are not convenient for packing 
 green fodder, as when it shrinks, there must be cavities left at 
 the curvature of the staves ; and the capacity being so small, 
 
Unsilage in Barrels. 87 
 
 the amount of damaged fodder is likely to be proportionately 
 large. Professor Wm. Brown, in his report on experiments at 
 the farm of the Ontario Agricultural College, says : 
 
 We considered it would be a good thing to be able to show that live 
 stock can be fed on green fodder either when importing from, or export- 
 ing to, Great Britain — summer and winter. For this purpose we took 
 ordinary sized oak barrels, as also larger barrels, such as are used for 
 beer, and lastly a very large oak tun — capacity 60 cubic feet. We found 
 it very dif&cult to fill a barrel solidly round the edges with screw power, 
 as the material tends towards the centre and leaves empty space adjoining 
 the circumference, even when the fodder is in inch lengths. Thus we had 
 to pack with the hand and lever power in addition to the screw. This 
 was the first trial. 
 
 The second consisted in the same size of barrel, but fitted inside with a 
 square box, so as to allow of the screw pressure being equal on all parts. 
 This necessarily diminished the capacity for fodder, as vacancies remained 
 between the box and barrel. In order, therefore, to obtain an ordinary 
 barrel capacity along with the inside box, a larger barrel was employed as 
 our third example ; and, still further to insure success, the vacant spaces 
 were packed very solidly with earth — earth being also placed beneath the 
 box and on top of fodder when finished ; so we had green fodder com- 
 3)letely inclosed, first, by an air-tight box ; second, surrounded by a six -inch 
 packing of loamy soil ; and third, outside, by an air-tight hardwood barrel. 
 
 In each of these three forms we used out and uncut fresh clover, rye 
 grasses, and permanent pasture — very succulent and none near maturity ; 
 the plants were so tender that the screw abrased and discoloured them as 
 well as pressed out the natural sap to a considerable extent. 
 
 Mr. H. Woods, in his lecture at South Kensington, speaks 
 more favourably of the result of his experiments : 
 
 Two years ago we put a quantity of ohafCed grass and other material 
 into casks, ramming it down compactly, and weighting it and covering it 
 vnth bran, as in the silos. The restdt was so satisfactory that last year 
 we extended the experiment, using casks of various sizes. The ensiled 
 material consisted of maize, oats, brank, spurrey, and common grass. 
 The casks were fiUed at different times between July and September ; an 
 operation easily, economically, and expeditiously performed. When 
 opened in the present year the contents were found to be sound and good. 
 •Hiere is therefore no doubt that, on well-conducted principles, with the 
 aid of artificial pressure, crops may be ensiled in casks available for the 
 use of cowkeepers, resident in large towns. 
 
 Brewers^ grains have been stored in barrels for this 
 purpose. Sir H. Allsopp recently stated that it was done 
 by his father about fifty years ago. 
 
88 iSilos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 The Eev. 0. H. Ford gives the following account of a 
 barrel experiment carried out in his part of the country : 
 
 Mr. John Gargate, of Langdale Beck, near the High Force in this 
 county (Durham), is a lead miner, and has a little grass land. He filled 
 a barrel, measuring 4ft. high by 31in. in diameter, with grass from his 
 meadow, and refilled again and again till it was full, weighting it with 
 clean river stones. He consumed the content, which was excellent ; and, 
 spinning it out, it lasted his two cows seven weeks. 
 
 Why should not every cottager who keeps a cow, like Mr. Gargate, 
 have a row of barrels somewhere under cover filled with roadside grass, 
 hedgeback grass, cabbage leaves, lettuce ditto, pea haulm, and even lawn 
 mowings ? I venture to say that they would find it a most useful addition 
 to their cow's dietary, and the improved quantity and quality of their 
 milk and butter would amply repay them for their labour. 
 
 When there is an available supply of old barrels already at 
 hand, they may be turned to some account in small experi- 
 ments of this kind ; but it is very doubtful whether it will 
 prove economical, as a rule, to silo green crops in such 
 receptacles, wherein there must necessarily be a greater pro- 
 portion of damaged fodder than in larger silos. Their cost, 
 too, if purchased, would be high as compared with their 
 capacity. An ordinary beer-barrel of 36 gallons contains 
 barely six cubic feet when "full to the bung; " whereas many 
 persons give a cow a cubic foot of silage a day, some giving 
 two or even more. Eight or nine 36 -gallon casks would be 
 required to hold a single ton of silage of average weight, 
 even if the barrels were perfectly full ; but considering the 
 large amount of shrinkage that ordinarily occurs in the 
 material, when would the barrels be perfectly full ? From 
 the dimensions given of Mr. Gargate's barrel-silo, it was 
 probably a " butt," of the capacity of 108 gallons, or three 
 ordinary beer-barrels, and would hold about 1 7 cubic feet, or 
 one-third of a ton of silage, and thus would allow the two 
 animals about 71b. or 81b. a day each for the time stated. 
 
CHAPTER IV.-COST OF SILOS. 
 
 The cost of silos must necessarily be influenced by various 
 circumstances, sucli as tlie materials of wMch they are made, 
 the dimensions that are chosen, the nature of the soil on 
 which they are built, and the power of adapting existing 
 buildings to new purposes. It is impossible to lay down a 
 general rule a3 to what any particular structure should cost, 
 even when the size and materials have been determined on, 
 because local conditions will make a considerable difference 
 in the outlay, ajid what may be a. cheap mode of building in 
 some districts will be very expensive in others. 
 
 In certain localities, abounding in gravel and sand, concrete 
 may be very cheaply made, if there is a sufficient supply of 
 water to mix the cement ; in other places it may be advisable 
 to have recourse to quarried stone ; elsewhere brickwork may 
 be more economical; while some estates may have an 
 abundance of timber that can be profitably turned to account. 
 Even those who would adopt the simplest form of silo, by 
 merely digging a pit in the ground, will find that they cannot 
 advantageously carry out in loose, porous soils, liable to incur- 
 sions of water, what others can readily accomplish in firm, 
 sound earth, out of the reach of floods. 
 
 The mere cost of excavation becomes a considerable item 
 where pits are dug in the ground, whether these are or are 
 not lined with masonry, concrete, or planking. Work of this 
 kind may be said to have a fixed rate of cost in proportion to 
 size, because, if you wish to have a pit of 10 cubic yards 
 capacity, you must dig out 10 cubic yards of soil, and if you 
 wish to make it two, three, or twenty times larger, you have 
 two, three or twenty times as much work to do, and the cost 
 is proportionately increased. 
 
90 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 It is otherwise witli structures built above ground. There, 
 if you double the length of each of your walls, you double the 
 cost of building them ; but the space they inclose is increased 
 fourfold, and consequently the relative cost of that space is 
 only one-half that of the smaller enclosure. And if you make 
 all the walls ten times as long^ the space is increased 100 
 timeSj and the relative cost is only one-tenth. Obviously, 
 therefore, large silos must be relatively much cheaper than small 
 ones, except so far as regards the mere cost of excavation ; and 
 even where excavations form part of the scheme, if they are 
 lined with masonry or concrete, &c., the cost of building walls 
 in these structures will follow the same law as when the walls 
 are wholly above ground. 
 
 Where there are unused barns, outhouses, &c., they may 
 often be rendered serviceable as silos at a very moderate 
 outlay, as will be seen from quotations given further on. 
 
 Estimations of Oapacitt and Cost. 
 What is here proposed to be done is, not to say that silos of 
 such and such dimensions can be built in any way at a given 
 cost ; for, although some readers might find it true, others 
 would find it false. Even where a manufacturer in London or 
 any other large town undertakes to supply materials at a certain 
 price, the conveyance by rail and road may add considerably 
 to the first expenditure, especially if workmen are sent like- 
 wise. Widely divergent statements have, however, been 
 made pubHc as to what silos have cost, or must cost, but so 
 little has been said to explain the circumstances affecting the 
 respective buildings, differences in size, and variations in 
 estimates of capacity, that the conflict of assertion has been 
 very bewildering. It is thought, therefore, that a collection 
 of facts from various sources — but for the most part English — 
 may be serviceable to those who would form a notion of the 
 outlay under circumstances having a certain degree of resem- 
 blance to their own ; for, even though the prices may differ, 
 there may be something to learn as regards modes of con- 
 struction or utilization of different kinds of material. 
 
Cost of Silos. 91 
 
 In giving these statements of cost, an endeavour lias been 
 made to reduce them to a common standard. One m^an may 
 say tliat his silo has entailed an outlay of a certain number of 
 pounds, and that it will contain so many tons of fodder; 
 and another may have a larger silo but be content with 
 a much more moderate estimate of its capacity. Obviously 
 no fair comparison can be made under such circumstances, and 
 therefore, in all the records here given, the capacity of the 
 silo in tons is calculated at the rate of fifty cubic feet to the 
 Unglish ton — we say English ton, because the American ton 
 is only 20001b., and therefore is about one-tenth less than 
 ours, being, in fact, a little under 18cwt. 
 
 Some persons have taken 561b. to the cubic foot {i. e., 40 
 cubic feet to the ton) as a basis for calculating the capacity 
 of silos; but this estimate is too high. In the first place, 
 561b. is considerably above the average weight of silage ; and 
 although one instance is on record (p. 216) of 601b. being 
 reached, there are several instances (pp. 307 and 332) of only 
 about 301b. In the second place, when the silage has attained 
 its maximum weight, the silo is never full. 
 
 Others have proposed to take two cubic yards as represent- 
 ing a ton ; and this is certainly much more correct, as an 
 average estimate, than that of half a hundredweight to the 
 cubic foot. At first sight, too, it seems hardly possible to 
 have a more simple formula ; but when one comes to put it 
 into practice, it proves by no means so simple as it appears, 
 because the measurements of silos are seldom or never 
 found to be even yards, and to reduce feet and inches 
 into cubic yards of 27 cubic feet each is more troublesome 
 than to calculate the tonnage by the process here adopted. 
 
 The reasons which originally induced us to take 50 cubic 
 feet of capacity as representing a ton of silage were these : — 
 M. GofEart has shown that his silage, well compacted under 
 heavy pressure, had a weight of rather over 800 kilogrammes 
 the cubic metre, which is equivalent to almost exactly 601b. per 
 cubic foot. He also stated that, with care in filling the silo, 
 only about one-tenth of the space was unoccupied when the 
 
 H 2 
 
92 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 fodder had settled dovm. If, then, we take 50 cubic feet at 
 501b. each, we get 25001b. ; but, deducting one-tenth for 
 unoccupied space, we have a very close approximation to the 
 English ton, which is 22401b. 
 
 Silos in general are seldom or never likely to contain more 
 than a ton weight of silage in 50 cubic feet of space, whereas 
 many that are unskilfully filled and insufficiently weighted 
 will hold a very great deal less. How greatly some persons 
 may be out in their estimates will therefore be seen by the 
 following statement made by an owner of silos in reply to 
 questions issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture : "Last 
 season my silo was 32ft. by 14ft., and 12ft. high; I have 
 added 10ft. to the height, and built another the same size. 
 The whole capacity is now 1000 tons." 
 
 This is a remarkable example of exaggerated estimate. 
 The cubic capacity of these two silos is under 10,000ft. each, 
 and 1000 American tons are equal to 2,000,0001b.j so that, if 
 not an inch of space were left unoccupied, the contents would 
 have to weigh more than 1001b. per cubic foot to make 
 up the weight stated. Our estimate of the capacity of these 
 silos is under 200 BngHsh tons each — the total equivalent for 
 the pair being about 440 American tons, instead of 1000. 
 
 Cost oi' British Silos, specially consteucted. 
 Of the silos which have been made in the United Kingdom, 
 full details of cost have been made known in comparatively 
 few instances; and in those cases where information is 
 given it is often less explicit than could be desired. We 
 here summarise the particulars given with respect to silos 
 which have been specially made for the purpose, whether 
 they are elaborate and costly structures or mere pits dug in 
 the soil ; and in a subsequent page will be given those silos 
 which have been formed by the adaptation of already-existing 
 buildings. They are arranged in the order of cost per ton 
 of capacity — 50 cubic feet being taken, as previously explained, 
 to represent a ton. If the cost per cubic foot should be 
 required, a very close approximation can be obtained by 
 
Cost of Silos. 93 
 
 taming tiie shillings per ton into farthings per cubic foot; 
 BO that 20s. per ton would be about 20 farthings, or 5i. per 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Small silos generally cost more per ton than large ones, 
 and therefore they head the following list : 
 
 The Eev. 0. H. Ford's silo (page 224) has proved a very 
 costly one for its dimensions — 15ft. by 8ft., and 9ft. deepj 
 for, owing to the unfortunate invasion of water, and 
 expense of well, &c., to remedy the defect, the outlay 
 was raised considerably above the original estimate. Its 
 capacity is 20 tons, and the cost was bOl. Is. ScZ., or 
 21. 10s. a ton. 
 
 Mr. Firman's silo at Oraig Park (page 333) is a 10ft. cube, 
 built of concrete, and has a capacity of 20 tons. The cost 
 was 36Z., or 36s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Wood's two silos (page 306) are each 15ft. long, 10ft. 
 wide, and lift, deep, entirely below ground, and built of 
 concrete, roofed over. Capacity, 33 tons each ; cost of the 
 pair 1001., or 30s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Kenyon's silo (page 308) is llfft. long, 10ft. wide, and 
 lift, deep, excavated near the edge of a bank, and faced with 
 bricks set in cement ; the floor is made of flag-stones, laid in 
 mortar and jointed with cement, and a drain runs below the 
 foundation, to carry off water into an adjacent stream. At 
 the four corners, brickwork pillars are carried up to support a 
 Hght roof, so as to form a sort of Dutch barn, for storing 
 hay, &c. Capacity of silo, 25 tons. Cost (including covering 
 boards) 35Z. 10s., or 28s. per ton. 
 
 Lord Ashburton's three silos (illustrated on page 57) are 
 each lift, square and 12ft. deep, built of concrete, 12ia. 
 thick, except where the walls back against the earth, in which 
 case they are reduced to 9in. The front of the silo was 
 inclosed with ledged shutters, to keep out drifting rains. The 
 following statement of the total cost, including pressing 
 apparatus, is given in the " Journal of the Bath and West of 
 England Society :" 
 
94 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Cost of tlie building, including walls, floors 6iii. thick, 
 output doors, roof, eaves-gutters, inclosing shutters, 
 
 excavation and haulage 113 14 3 
 
 The 12 standards for compression 27 
 
 The cover planks. Sin. thick, and the six transverse timbers 10 3 6 
 
 Hydraulic jack 6 
 
 Total £156 17 9 
 
 As in other cases where silos are specially bnilt with a view 
 to permanence^ the cost cannot fairly be compared with others 
 in which less regard has been paid to durability. The total 
 capacity of these three silos is 4350 cubic feet, or 87 tons ; 
 and the cost for the building alone about 26s. per ton; the 
 pressing appliances amounting to about 10s. per ton in 
 addition. 
 
 On the farm of Young's Paraffin Works (page 328) a silo 
 20ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 7ft. deep has been built partly of 
 brick and partly of planks. The capacity is 22 tons, and the 
 cost, exclusive of cartage, was 261. 15s., or about 24s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Johnson^s lever-pressure silo (of which illustrations 
 are given at pp. 212-213) is built of brick with slated roof. 
 It is 18ft. long, 10ft. wide, and 28ft. high up to the eaves, 
 but 6ft. of this height is left for working the machinery, so 
 that the total capacity, at 50 cubic feet to the ton, would 
 be about 80 tons. But Mr. Johnson's silage weighed very 
 much more than usual, as it reached 601b. per cubic foot ; and 
 at this rate, if the whole space were occupied, fully 100 tons 
 might be put in. The total cost of the silo and apparatus was 
 about 150L, of which 651. was for masonry, 40Z. for pressing 
 apparatus, and the remainder for roof, &c. ; but Mr. Johnson 
 was his own engineer, and the cost would have been higher 
 had a professional man been employed to superintend the 
 work. Deducting 4<0l. for pressing apparatus, the cost, 
 at the same rate as in other cases, would be about 22s. 
 per ton. 
 
 Mr. Hunting's silo (page 301) is 40ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 
 10ft. deep, built of stone, with an inside lining of bricks laid 
 in cement, and concrete floor ; the walls -are 2ft. thick, and 
 
Cost of Silos. 96 
 
 the roof of corrugated iron. Capacity, 96 tons ; cost about 
 lOOL, or 21s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Edwards's silos (page 276) have eacli a mean width of 
 about 8^ft. and a length of about 18ft. and depth of 8ft. 
 Capacity about 25 tons each ; cost of the pair a few shillings 
 under 50L, or about IZ. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Gibson apparently has altered his silo since 1882, when 
 the description was written which is reprinted on page 273 j 
 for he states in the '^E.A.S. Journal" that it is 17ft. deep and 
 has a galvanised iron roof (formed with frames on hinges, 
 which are raised by means of pulley-blocks), and that the cost, 
 including 5 tons of cement weights, was 230Z. As the capacity 
 would be about 240 tons, this would amount to about 1 9s. a ton. 
 Mr. Swan (page 292) has two silos, each 27ft. long, 7ft. 
 wide, and 14ft. deep, built of 14in. brickwork faced with Port- 
 land cement. Capacity 52 tons each; cost lOOZ. 10s. 3cZ. or 
 about 19s. a ton. 
 
 Mr. E. Johnston, of Tan-y-Park, near Cardiff, made two 
 silos by running a brick wall across a portion of a barn, and 
 dividing the space into equal compartments by another brick 
 wall. The cost of this operation was 20?. Is. M. But Mr. 
 Johnston gives in the " R.A.S. Journal" a statement of what 
 these silos would have cost if they had been altogether newly 
 built. The dimensions inside are given as 17ft. long, 15ft. 
 wide, and 17ft. high, and the number of cubic feet as 3825 ; 
 but apparently there is a wrong figure in the dimensions, as 
 17x15x15 gives 3825 as the product. The cost, in 14m. 
 brickwork, is stated as follows : 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Bricks, 23,000, at 308. per 1000 34 10 
 
 Lime and sand 2 15 
 
 Two doors and frames 1 15 
 
 Bottom cemented 3 10 
 
 Roof 12 15 
 
 Labour and building 1117 
 
 £67 2 
 Taking, as before, 50 cubic feet to the ton, 3825 would give 
 
96 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 tlie capacity as about 76 tons ; and the cost about 175. Qd. per 
 ton for a new building, or little more than 5s. per ton for the 
 oonversion. 
 
 Mr. Mouflet's wooden silo (page 281), is built of double 
 boarding, with an intervening layer of puddled clay. It is 
 24ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 10ft. high, and has a capacity of 
 about 58 tons. The cost was 53Z., or rather over 18s. per 
 ton. 
 
 Sir T. B. Colebrooke (page 318) built for his tenant, Mr. 
 John Morton, a stone silo, 15ft. long, 12ft. broad, and 12ft. 
 deep, or 48 tons capacity, the cost being 38Z., exclusive of 
 cartages, or about 17s. Qd. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Pochin (page 316) has erected two sUos, each 24ft. 
 long, 9ft. wide, and 12ft. deep, with stone walls 2ft. thick. 
 The outlay is estimated at about 85Z. ; and as the capacity 
 would be rather over 60 tons each, the cost would amount 
 to about 17s. per ton. 
 
 Lord Blantyre^s silo (page 319) is 54ft. long, 20ft. 4in. wide, 
 and has walls 12ft. high, with the floor sunk 3ft. below the 
 surface. The walls are of red brick, 14in. thick, and, as will 
 be seen from the description, it is expensively fitted up. 
 The cost was as follows : — Digging, carting, and carriage, 
 32Z. 4s. 6d. ; ironwork, 62Z. 16s. 2d.; stones, bricks, and 
 cement, 140Z. 12s. Qd. ; slater and plumber work, 38L Is. — 
 total, 273L 14s. 9d. The capacity is about 330 tons, and the 
 cost 16s. 6d. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Bateman's silo (page 274) is very similar in character 
 to the " Kentish sUo," of which an illustration is given on 
 page 64. It is divided into three compartments each about 
 15ft. square, and 13ft. deep, the total length of the building 
 outside being 47ft. and the width 17ft. The walls are of 
 concrete faced with cement, and are 1ft. thick. The roof of 
 two compartments was of corrugated iron (for which it is 
 proposed to substitute Willesden paper) ; the third was 
 covered by a haystack. The total cost was about 160L, or 19s. 
 a ton on a total capacity of about 170 tons. Mr. Bateman 
 says that by roofing with Willesden paper, instead of corru- 
 
Cost of Silos. 97 
 
 gated iron, the cost would be reduced by about 20Z., wbich 
 would lower tbe rate to about 16s. Qd. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Wills's silo (page 244) is 14ft. by 12ft. and 13ft. deep, 
 tbe walls being of limestone, 2ft. tMck, tbe floor of flags, and 
 tbe roof of pantiles. Capacity, 43 tons ; cost about 36Z., or 
 16.S. &d. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Kirby's silo (page 283) is 24ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 
 12ft. deep, half above and half below ground. It is built of 
 14in. brickwork, and roofed with galvanized iron. Capacity, 
 46 tons; cost 30Z., or 13s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Hamilton's silo (p. 318) is built of brickwork, cemented, 
 and concrete floor. It is 13ft. by 10ft., and 13ft. deep, with 
 34 tons capacity, and cost 22Z., or rather over 13s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Eennie's silo (page 329) is built with 2ft. stone walls, 
 and floored with engine ashes covered with tarred wood. It 
 is 32ft. by 9ft., and 9ft. deep (5ft. below ground), and has 52 
 tons capacity. The cost was 30Z., or about lis. Qd. per 
 ton. 
 
 Sir J. P. Dillon's silo (page 339) is 40ft. long, 10ft. wide, 
 and 10ft. deep, and cost 72L, of which 14L was for apparatus 
 for lifting the weights. The capacity is 80 tons ; and this, 
 on the cost of the building alone, would be equal to about 
 14s. 6d. per ton. But Sir John Dillon says the size of the 
 silo could be doubled for another 30L ; in which case the cost 
 would be reduced to lis. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Duncan's silo at Benmore (page 330) is built of con- 
 crete, with wooden roof, and cost 160Z. It is in two compart- 
 ments, each 20ft. square, by a like depth, 15ft. of which is 
 below ground on a slope. The capacity is 320 tons, and the 
 cost 10s. per ton. 
 
 A combination silo (page 341) has been built in Ireland, from 
 iron rails and boards, with a front of masonry. It is 70ft. 
 long, 16ft. wide, and 16ft. deep, divided into five compart- 
 ments, and has a capacity of 336 tons. It cost less than 120Z., 
 or about 7s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Eamsay (page 322) has a silo 28|ft. long, 14ift. wide, 
 and 15ft. deep, on sloping ground, built of double bricks. 
 
98 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 cementedj with a slate roof. Its capacity is 120 tons ; and it 
 cost about 401., exclusive of cartage, or about 6s. 6d. per ton. 
 
 Mr. John Bourne (page 254) had a pit, 30ft. long, 15ft. 
 wide, and 9ft. deep, excavated, and covered with a corrugated 
 iron roof on a light wooden frame. It has 80 tons capacity ; 
 and the total cost was 15Z., or less than 4s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Scott's silos (page 235) are three in number — one 10ft. 
 long, 13ft. wide, and 12ft. deep, dug in the ground (soil, clay 
 upon chalk) and cemented, at a cost of about 6Z. The other 
 two, which are lift, in length, and 8ft. in width and depth,, 
 were formed out of cattle-feeding pits at a cost of about 30s. 
 each. The first-mentioned would be little more than 3s. a ton 
 capacity, and the others about 2s. a ton. 
 
 Mr. G. Young (page 321) constructed a silo in a sloping 
 bank, the sides and ends being of wood planking. It is 60ft. 
 long, 10ft. wide, and 10ft. deep (5ft. underground), and has a 
 capacity of 120 tons. The proprietor (Sir G. Houstoun 
 Boswall, Bart.) gave the timber, and the cost to the tenant' 
 was about 151., or rather over Is. 6d. a ton. 
 
 Mr. Solomon (page 285) puts the cost of digging his earthen 
 silo at 30s., which seems a very moderate sum, considering 
 the size of the pit, viz., 21ft. long by 12ft. wide, and 9|ft. 
 deep. It is not clear, however, how much of this depth was 
 temporarily made up by boards j but supposing the excavation 
 to have been 6ft. deep, the cost would be little more than 6d. 
 a cubic yard. Mr. Solomon estimates the cost at Is. Qd. per 
 ton of silage. 
 
 Mr. Urquhart's silo, on Lord Seafield's estate (page 320) 
 was dug out of a bank, at a cost of 31. 8s. ; and being 16ft. 
 by 16ft., and 9ft. deep, its capacity would be about 46 tons, 
 and the cost about Is. 6d. per ton. 
 
 This cost (Is. 6d. per ton capacity) seems as low as it can 
 well be, in this country, for earth silos. The mere expense 
 of excavation appears to vary from 8c?. to Is. per cubic yard. 
 Mr. Willan (page 235) got his gravel dug out for 8d. a yard in 
 Hampshire ; Mr. Potter states 9d. a yard as a fair price for 
 excavating chalk in the same county ; and the Eev. C. H. 
 
Cost of Silos. 99 
 
 Ford (page 224) gives Is. a yard as the cost of excavating clay- 
 in tlie county of Durham. As a cubic yard contains 27 cubic 
 feet, nearly two cubic yards would therefore be required for a 
 ton, on the basis of 50 feet to the ton. 
 
 As remarked on page 90, the cost of excavation must be 
 a constant quantity ; for if you wish to obtain an underground 
 silo of a given capacity you must dig out a corresponding 
 quantity of earth, whereas, if you wish to make an inclosure 
 above ground, or to build walls in an excavated pit, the 
 relative cost decreases continually with increase of dimensions. 
 With regard to cost in th^ chalk district of Hampshire, Mr. T. 
 Potter says : 
 
 The cost of silo construction must in a measure depend upon the 
 nature of the soil to be excavated and the price of materials and labour, 
 but by far the most important factor in the calculation is the size of the 
 sEo. Assuming, for instance, that two silos are about to be built, the 
 lesser 10ft. square and 10ft. deep, and the larger 20ft. square and 10ft. 
 deep, also that the walls are to be of concrete 9in. thick, the bottom of 
 concrete 6in. thick, costing 14s. per cubic yard, the walls faced internally 
 with Portland cement at Is. per superficial yard (and the excavation is in 
 chalk soil costing 9d. per cubic yard, and these figures should be a close 
 approximation for Hampshire silos in chalk soil), we should get the 
 following result : 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Capacity in 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 Cost per 
 Cubic foot. 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 Large silo ... 291. 
 Small silo 14J. 
 
 4000 
 1000 
 
 If (J. nearly 
 3i(J. nearly 
 
 Exclusive of roof or compression 
 appliances. 
 
 With regard to roofs nothing could be more suitable than galvanized 
 iron, but, instead of the ordinary " principals," or main rafters, curved 
 ribs formed of three thicknesses of 9in. by fin. board nailed together are 
 the best in every way. A waggon load of timber would construct a roof 
 of this kind 60ft. by 30ft., and the total cost of wood, iron, and labour 
 need not exceed 2Z. per square of 100 superficial feet, while single spans 
 up to 30ft. or 36ft. are as easy of construction as smaller ones. 
 
 OONVBKTED BuiLDINGS. 
 
 The difference in the amount of alterations and additions 
 in converted buildings varies considerably, and there is a 
 corresponding variation in the cost. In some cases only a. 
 wall or two have been utilised ; and when substantial roofs. 
 
100 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 concrete floors, and otter additions Lave been made, the 
 outlay has been as great as with entirely new structures 
 of a less lasting character, as will be seen by the following 
 particulars : 
 
 Earl Portescue's silo (page 240) is 19ft. long, 6fft. wide, and 
 5ift. deep. Three existing stone walls were utilised, and the 
 fourth built ; and it is roofed with corrugated iron. The cost 
 was 11 Z. 10s., of which about 4Z. 10s. was for labour. Capacity 
 about 13 tons, and cost 18s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Harris's (page 238), 35ft. long, 18ft. wide, and lOift. 
 deep, was formed out of a disused manure shed; but the 
 work has been done very substantially, with a good slate roof, 
 and altogether cost llOZ., which, with a capacity of 130 tons, 
 would amount to nearly 17s. per ton. 
 
 On the Marquis of Bute's home farm (p. 324) a silo 18ft. 
 long, 6ft. wide, and 8ft. deep was formed in part of a barn, 
 by running a brick partition across, and cementing the floor 
 and walls. The cost was lOZ. 16s., and the capacity 17 tons, 
 or about 12s. 6d. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Kemp's silo, on Lord Seafield's estate (page 320) was 
 formed out of a disused building, and divided into two com- 
 partments by a concrete wall. They measure 16ft. by 13|ft. 
 •each, and 15ft. high. The cost was 80Z., and the capacity 
 is about 130 tons, or rather more than 12s. per ton. 
 
 Lord Walsingham's three silos (page 261), made in a clay- 
 built barn, and having about 60 tons capacity, cost 30Z., or 
 12s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Lowe's silo (page 253) is 27ft. long, 17ft. wide, and 10ft. 
 deep, the rubble stone walls of an old barn having been 
 utilised, made level, and cemented, at a cost of about 50Z. 
 The capacity is 92 tons, or lis. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Bourne's, at Hilderstone Hall (page 254), was excavated 
 under the roof of a Dutch barn, and is walled and double- 
 bottomed with bricks. It is 31ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 12ft. 
 deep. The cost (including planks for covering) was 48Z. 13s., 
 and the capacity is nearly 90 tons, or about lis. per ton. 
 
Cost of Silos. 101 
 
 The Duke of Hamilton's silos (page 271) were constructed in 
 the bay of a barn, the walls being of 14in. brickwork coated 
 with cement, and the floors of concrete cemented. They are 
 each 22ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 10ft. deep, giving a capacity of 
 35 tons each ; and the cost of the pair was about 361., or a 
 trifle more than 10s. per ton capacity. 
 
 Lord Londesborough's silo (page 306) is 13ft. long, 8ft. wide, 
 and 10|-ft. deep, made in the end of a barn, at a cost of 121. 
 Its capacity being 22 tons, this amounts to about lis. per ton. 
 
 At the Croydon Sewage Farm (page 281), a concrete silo 
 15ft. by 8ft., and 10ft. deep (8ft. underground), was erected 
 against the brick wall of a shed, at a cost of about 12Z. The 
 capacity being 24 tons, the cost amounted to 10s. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Willan's silo (page 235) was excavated in the bay of a 
 barn, and then bricked and cemented. Its capacity is 1850 
 cubic feet, or 37 tons, and the cost 181. 10s. 6d., or about 10s. 
 a ton. 
 
 Mr. A. Grant says (page 231) : " I am now making a silo in 
 a barn, I shall not therefore have to charge for the cost of a 
 roof, as the barn, when the silo is filled, will be just as useful 
 for storage of corn, &c., as before. The gravel which I have 
 dug out (about 51. worth) just balances the cost of digging. 
 The silo will be about 21ft. long, by 16ft. wide, by 10ft. deep 
 — of which depth 7ft. will be excavated, 3ft. filled up to the 
 level of the old barn floor. Bricks and bricklayer's labour, 
 cement, and lime, will cost about 151., and weights perhaps 
 8Z. more j rough fir slabs 21. I thus get a large silo complete 
 for 25Z. ; but this cheap construction can only be obtained 
 under very favourable circumstances." The capacity of this 
 silo would be 68 tons, and the cost under 7s. 6d. a ton. 
 
 Messrs. Broderick's silos (pp. 216 and 218) were converted 
 out of existing stone hay-barns, which have been cemented 
 and floored with concrete. The first pair are each 14ft. 
 square by 18ft. deep, and cost about 501. to convert, or 7s. 
 per ton on a capacity of 70 tons each. Another, which is 
 22^ft. long, 10ft. wide, and 19ft. deep, cost about 20L to 
 convert, or less than 5s. per ton on 85 tons capacity. And 
 
102 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 another, whicli is 13ft. square by 16ft. deep, cost about 10^, 
 or 4s. a ton on 50 tons capacity. 
 
 Cost of Silos of Poetablb Oonceete Slabs. 
 
 Particulars are given at page 73 with respect to the mode 
 of constructing Lascelles' silos made of portable concrete 
 slabs. These slabs, which are 3ft. by 2ft., cost 2s. each, or 
 4d. per square foot ; and the 4|-in. x Sin. quartering, used 
 for fixing them together, costs 4d. per foot run, if morticed 
 and tenoned, or a trifle less if not. The quantities and cost 
 of materials for the silo described at page 74 (15ft. long, 
 12ft. wide, and 10ft. high) are thus stated by Mr. Lascelles: 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 220 feet of post at 4(J 3 13 4 
 
 108 feet of plate at 4(J 1 16 
 
 90 slabs, each 36in. by 24m 9 
 
 Screws for ditto 3 
 
 12 iron squares for corners, bolts, cross ties, and 
 
 tarred cord for joints 1 15 
 
 ^16 7 4 
 
 The cubic contents being 1800ft., the capacity would, at 
 the rate previously stated (50 cubic feet to the ton), be 
 36 tons, and the cost about 9s. a ton. The larger the 
 structure, the less would be the comparative cost for 
 materials; and a silo 60ft. by 24ft. and 12ft. high would 
 contain about ten times as much as the above (viz., 355 tons), 
 while the cost would be little more than 3s. a ton. The 
 above is the price in London; to this would have to be 
 added the expense of carriage and of fixing, and of roof also, 
 if required. The cost of fixing the above-mentioned silo is 
 stated, at page 289, to be 21. ; a similar silo is mentioned at 
 p. 288, as erected inside a barn, so it would require no roof; 
 and a larger one, with corrugated iron roof, described at 
 p. 272, cost, including carriage, a trifle under 501. This is 
 24ft. by 18ft., and 12ft. high, giving a capacity of about 
 104 tons. 
 
 Mr. Arthur M. CardweU (p. 288) gave in the Field the 
 
Cost of Silos. 103 
 
 following estimate, based on his own experience, of tlie total 
 ■cost of a concrete slab silo, 24ft. long, 12ft. wide, and ■12ft. 
 deep, including roof, bricks for weighting, &c. : Silo, 25L ; 
 fixing, 11.; concrete floor, 21.; carriage, 21.; bricks for 
 weighting, lOZ. ; roof, 101. — total cost, 50Z. 
 
 It need hardly be stated that estimates of cost of different 
 sizes of these, as well as other kinds of silos hereafter 
 mentioned, may be obtained on application to the respective 
 makers. 
 
 Patent Wooden Silos. 
 
 The wooden silos made by Messrs. Ohurchton and Co., 
 described at page 80, are made of llin. x Sin. and 9in. x Sin. 
 timber in the principal parts, the sides, tops, and bottoms 
 being of plank lyin. to 2|in. thick. They are supplied 
 ■complete, with bottom and top planks and all necessary bolts 
 and screws, at the undermentioned prices for the sizes 
 named, but larger ones may be had on application. In the 
 ioUowing table we have calculated the estimated capacity of 
 the silos according to the rule previously laid down (50 cubic 
 feet to the ton) and have substituted these figures for Messrs. 
 Ohurchton' s, which are about 10 per cent, higher. We have 
 also added the relative cost per ton on this basis. 
 
 12ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 10ft. deep' 
 16ft. „ 10ft. „ „ 10ft. „ 
 20ft. „ 10ft. „ „ 10ft. „ 
 24ft. „ 12ft. „ „ 10ft. „ 
 28ft. „ 14ft. „ „ 10ft. „ 
 
 This does not include the roof, the price of which would 
 vary with the material. Messrs. Ohurchton also supply plans 
 for the construction of silos on their principle on payment of 
 a royalty. 
 
 The dimensions and prices of the circular wooden silos 
 made by Messrs. Eeynolds and Co., as depicted on page 81, 
 are as stated on the next page; but, as in the previous 
 instance, we have substituted our own calculations as to their 
 ■capacity, and added the corresponding cost per ton. 
 
 Capacity. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 ... 19 tons . 
 
 .. 16Z., or 17s. per ton 
 
 ... 32 „ . 
 
 .. 20Z., or 12s. 6d. „ 
 
 ... 40 „ . 
 
 .. 26Z., or 13s. 
 
 ... 68 „ . 
 
 . 32?., or lis. 
 
 ... 78 „ . 
 
 . 36?., or 9s. 
 
104i Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Capacity. Cost 
 
 10ft. llin. diameter by 9ft. high ... 15 tons ... 9L, or 12s. per ton. 
 
 12ft. 4in. „ by lift. „ ...26 „ ... 1«., or lis. 
 
 16ft. „ by 12ft.. „ ...42 „ ... 20Z., or 9s.&d.„ 
 
 The waterproof canvas roof would cost from 21. 10s. to 51., 
 according to size, and the covering-boards would be extra. 
 
 Mr. Stocks' silo with screw pressure is figured and described 
 at page 78. A wooden silo, 20ft. by 10ft., and 10ft. deep, 
 would cost 50L ; and as the capacity is 40 tons, this amounts 
 to 26s. per ton, including the pressing apparatus. The press 
 and springs can be apphed to any silo of the same size at 
 a cost of 181. 
 
 Cost of Febnch Siios. 
 
 In France it may be expected that silos would cost less 
 than in England, because labour is cheaper; and the state- 
 ments made by M. Goffart and the Vicomte de Chezelles 
 both bear out this impression. In excavation alone a large 
 saving would be effected. The particulars of cost of M. de 
 Chezelles' silo, at page 199, give 65 centimes per cubic metre 
 (or barely 6d. per cubic yard) as the charge for excavating 
 and carting earth. This compares very favourably with the 
 lowest of the English charges for excavation only, as given 
 on page 190. In one of the American returns quoted in the 
 official report the sum stated for excavating and carting is 
 equivalent to about 2s. 3d. per cubic yard; verily a most 
 remarkable difference. In concrete work there is not such 
 a wide divergence — Mr. Bailey stating it as 10 cents per 
 cubic foot (or about lis. per cubic yard) in America, while 
 M. Goffart gives it at 12 francs the metre (or 7s. &d. per yard) 
 in the account opposite. The brickwork, at 20f. per cubic 
 metre, is equal to about 12s. 6d. per cubic yard. In England, 
 in very favourable localities, concrete may cost 6s. or 7s. per 
 cubic yard, and in others it will cost as much as brick or 
 stone, if not more. Mr. Potter, in the estimate on page 101, 
 puts it at 14s. per cubic yard in Hampshire. 
 
 M. Goffart gives the following particulars respecting the 
 construction of his last silos, which, he saya, were much more 
 
Cost of Silos. 105 
 
 costly tlian they would be in many places, owing to the nature 
 of the soil : 
 
 My farm at Burtin presents exceptional difficulties to the formation of 
 silos. It is traversed by a little river, the N&nt, whicli has a weir across 
 it for the service of my water-wheel, and thus a very high head of water 
 is kept throughout the neighbourhood. Everywhere on the farm, water 
 is found at the depth of about 3ft. ; and, as I always make my silos at 
 least 6ft. deep (because the underground part keeps much cooler in 
 summer than that which is above the soil), I am obliged to make this 
 lower portion water-tight, in order to avoid flooding ; and this entails a 
 pretty heavy outlay. The works are as follows : 
 
 The excavation made for the foundation of my silos is carried down 
 about 7ft. below the ground level. In order to dig so far down without 
 being stopped by water, it is necessary in the first place, to cut a drain to 
 carry off the waters to the depth of 7ft., and conduct them into the miU 
 stream about 80 yards below the turbine. 
 
 The excavation being finished without obstruction, owing to this pre- 
 liminary drainage, I lay down, over its whole extent, a bed of concrete, 
 6in. thick, composed of broken bricks and hydraulic cement. Upon this 
 bed of concrete I build, up to the ground level, vertical walls, which form 
 the boundaries of my silos, making them two bricks (or 18in.) thick. 
 Above ground, I reduce the thickness of the walls to a brick and a half 
 (about 14in), and then carry them up to their full height of about 17ft. 
 Finally, I give the inside and the bottom a coating of Portland cement, so 
 as to make the whole perfectly water-tight. These works cost : 
 
 155'562 cubic metres of ordinary brickwork, at the rate 
 
 of 20 francs the cubic metre 3111f. 24o. 
 
 30'47 cubic metres of concrete, at 12 francs the metre ... 365 64 
 Cost of excavation, coating with cement, and other 
 
 expenses, about 700 
 
 Total 4761f. 88o. 
 
 My three connected silos thus will have cost me as nearly as may be 
 4176f. 88c. (about 167?.); and as their total capacity is 812'45 cubic metres, 
 each cubic metre of capacity wiU have cost me 5f . 14o. 
 
 These explanations suffice to show that silos at Burtin cost more than 
 in most cases. I had to build on perfectly flat ground, often full of 
 water, the intrusion of which into the silo must be prevented at any cost. 
 I had sad experience of this not long ago. The water found its way 
 through a crevice into one of my silos filled with green rye, and all that 
 part which the water reached, to the depth of about a foot, was spoilt. I 
 have therefore spared no expense to attain the desired end, and I am 
 certain of having attained it, by drainage especially. 
 
 A cubic metre being equal to about 35 J cubic feet, the 
 
 I 
 
106 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 total capacity of these silos will be about 28^690 cubic feet, 
 or 570 tons, and the cost barely l^d. per cubic foot, or about 
 6s. per ton ; but to this would have to be added the roofing, 
 of which no mention is made. 
 
 The cost of the Vicomte de Chezelles' large silo is propor- 
 tionately much less without its coyering — which, however, is 
 not merely a roof, but is a kind of Dutch barn, in which are 
 stored the grain crops of the farm. From the particulars 
 given at page 199, it will be seen that the cost of the silo 
 alone was about 160L, and that of the barn superstructure 
 250L, or 410Z. in all. The capacity, estimated as before 
 stated, would be about 1200 tons, or about 2s. 6d. per ton for 
 silo alone, and nearly 7s. a ton if the Dutch barn be considered 
 merely as the roof of the silo — which, however, would not be 
 a fair representation of the facts, seeing that the barn is 
 applied to other purposes. 
 
 Relative Capacity and Cost of Silos and Hay-Baens. 
 
 Many landowners build on their estates permanent hay- 
 barns for the use of their tenants ; and as, by the pitting of 
 green crops instead of drying them, it may become desirable 
 to construct one kind of permanent building instead of 
 another, it may be as well, while considering the capacity and 
 cost of silos, to take into consideration also the cost and 
 capacity of hay-barns. No doubt it may be said that hay- 
 barns can be dispensed with, as, indeed, is already done on 
 many farms, where the hay is stacked and thatched, instead 
 of being put under roofs ; but, although this is so commonly 
 done, it does not follow that it is the best course of pro- 
 cedure ; and, unless hay-barns were believed to be economical 
 in the end, it is hardly to be supposed that the owners would 
 go to the expense of building them at all. 
 
 With the keeping of hay, as with the preservation of pitted 
 fodder, there are two modes of proceeding. You may have 
 sound permanent buildings that will last for generations, or 
 you may have makeshift contrivances which avoid any large 
 outlay at first, but entail a continued repetition of indirect 
 
Cost of Silos. 107 
 
 expenditure afterwards. Silos of masonry, &c.j may be dis- 
 pensed with, in like manner as it is possible to dispense with 
 hay-barns ; the fodder may simply be buried in the earth, as 
 already shown, instead of being put in permanent buildings ; 
 but persons who have had long experience with the rough 
 methods have nevertheless found it worth their while to go to 
 the expense of replacing them by masonry and concrete, as 
 being, on the whole, more economical. Beginners can choose 
 for themselves which course they prefer. 
 
 The pitted fodder is so much heavier than hay, owing to its 
 being preserved with all its moisture, and thus being about 
 three-fourths water, that some persons seem to imagine it 
 must occupy a large amount of space as compared with 
 hay. But the reverse of this is the case ; for if a barn were 
 turned into a silo, it would contain about double as many 
 acres of grass as it would hold if the grass were made 
 into hay. 
 
 Dry hay, as it is commonly called, contains, on the average, 
 about 15 per cent, of moisture, so that in a ton of hay there 
 would be about 17cwt. of really dry substance. The silage 
 made from grass contains, on the average, about 70 per cent, 
 of moisture ; and in a ton there would consequently be 6cwt. 
 of dry substance, or little more than one-third of that con- 
 tained in a ton of hay. 
 
 Hay, however, would require about six times as much 
 storage room as silage. "V^hen first packed in a barn it could 
 hardly exceed 71b. or 81b. per cubic foot, so that about 
 300 cubic feet would be requisite to hold a ton. Hence, 
 weight for weight, silage would contain one-third the feeding- 
 matter and occupy one-sixth the space of hay ; consequently, 
 for an equal quantity of feeding-matter, silage would require 
 only half the space of hay. 
 
 This, however, can only be approximate, and apply to 
 average circumstances. The quantity of moisture in grass, 
 both before and after it has been siloed, varies considerably, 
 and the actual weight of silage as compared with hay must 
 necessarily depend upon the proportion of that moisture 
 
 I 2 
 
108 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 wldcli has been evaporated in the one case and retained in the 
 other. Supposing that equal portions of a field of grass 
 were out in the same condition, one acre being converted into 
 hay and another put into the silOj and that, on the one hand, 
 there were no loss in the hay -making process beyond mere 
 reduction in weight by evaporation of water, while, on the 
 other hand, no loss were sustained by fermentation in the silo, 
 then the proportion of silage to hay would vary simply in 
 accordance with the moisture in the grass. Hay contains, on 
 the average, about 15 per cent, of water j and, taking this as 
 the standard for comparison, the relative proportions of silage 
 and hay, according to the amount of moisture in the grass, 
 would be as follows : 
 
 Amount of Moisture 
 in G-rass. 
 
 Proportionate weight per acre of 
 Silage and Hay. 
 
 83 per cent Silage about 5 times the weight of the hay. 
 
 81 
 78 
 75 
 71 
 65 
 56 
 50 
 
 4i 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 The highest percentage of moisture in grass silage of which 
 we have seen any analysis is rather over 81 per cent., and the 
 lowest about 51 per cent. 
 
 As to the cost of permanent hay -barns, there will be found 
 in the Field of March 3, 1883, a plan and statement of cost 
 of some hay-barns built upon the Earl of Shrewsbury's estates 
 in Shropshire, Staffordshire, &c. Although sound and well- 
 built, they are not extravagant structures, but are recom- 
 mended on account of their economy. The cost is from 12L 
 to 14?. per bay, according as a large or a small number is 
 built, and the capacity of the bay is about 14 or 15 tons, so 
 that the cost would be about 18s. per ton; and, as a ton of 
 hay averages about three times as much dry feeding-matter 
 as a ton of silage, 18s. per ton for the hay-barn would be 
 about equivalent to 6s. per ton for the silo. 
 
Cost of Silos. 109 
 
 EooFS OVER Silos. 
 
 A considerable difference in the outlay will be necessary if 
 roofs are dispensed with. Such is not unfrequently done in 
 France, where the silos are covered by means of faggots, 
 trusses of straw, or any other convenient matters, being 
 ■stacked over the pit, thus affording shelter as well as weight. 
 In some cases a thicker layer of soil is made to answer the 
 same purpose — a rick cloth being first placed over the fodder, 
 in some instances, if the earth is porous. Both these methods 
 have been adopted by M. Goffart, and the latter is used by 
 some Americans farmers. Still, there is no doubt that roofs 
 are advantageous ; and M. Goffart said on this point : 
 
 I have of late come to the eonolusion that large silos should not be 
 without a permanent roof. The absence of covering was not inconvenient 
 for my small silos, which could be quickly covered up by means of a few 
 hundred faggots, but it was no longer the same when my silos had each of 
 them more than 500ft. of surface. I have therefore decided to cover 
 each of my new silos by a slate roof, although it is somewhat costly. The 
 most economical roof would doubtless be obtained by the use of bituminous 
 paper, for which a light framework would suffice. Unfortunately it only 
 answers when it is of excellent quality and put up by able workmen. 
 
 For such a purpose the " Willesden Paper," made by the 
 Waterproof Paper Company, Canal "Works, Willesden Junc- 
 tion, is apparently well adapted. It is 4<^it. wide, made in 
 long lengths, and varies in price according to thickness j 
 the 4-ply or roofing paper costing about 2d. per square foot. 
 Mr. Grant (page 227) points out, however, that this paper will 
 not stand rough treatment, and that men are apt to make 
 holes in the roof with their forks when filling; he therefore 
 prefers corrugated iron. Roofs of this material are shown at 
 pp. 57 and 72 ; and at p. 65 is a sliding roof running on 
 rollers. Boarded roofs, thatch, and other materials are also 
 used, as convenience and economy determine. 
 
CHAPTER V.-riLLING THE SILO. 
 
 As soon as tlie crop is cut, it sliould be put into the pit, and 
 not be allowed to lie and wither in the sun. When water 
 evaporates from the plant, air enters and occupies the vacant 
 cells ; and air in the silo is much more to be feared than damp. 
 Indeed, with the ordinary green crops grown in this country, 
 there seems to be little fear of their containiag too much 
 moisture for ensilage. Even maize, which has a larger pro- 
 portion of water than our grasses and clovers, is not found too 
 moist when pitted alone. 
 
 MixTUEE OP Dby Mateeial with Geeen Fodder. 
 It has been stated that, in order to absorb the moisture in 
 the green fodder, it is necessary to mix with it some amount 
 of dry chaff. This, however, is a mistake, and is contradicted 
 by the experience of years in France and America, as well as 
 by results already obtained in England. The addition of 
 dry chaff may even do more harm than good, especially if 
 added in large proportions. The effects of mixing dry chaff 
 with green fodder are thus stated by M. Goffart : 
 
 Wten I first began with ensilage, I had, as the chief means of feeding 
 my beasts, a very large quantity of straw chafB, and whole straw of wheat, 
 rye, oats, &o. To induce the beasts to eat it, I mixed it as much as possible 
 with maize and rye chopped up green ; but I was not long in finding out 
 that the greater the proportion of straw the less the time the mixture 
 would keep. One fifth in volume, or one tenth part by weight, was the 
 utmost the maize would take without being quickly impaii'ed. When 
 I exceeded these limits, the time it would keep diminished continually, 
 and ended by not lasting longer than forty-eight hours. I attribute this 
 to the fact that the straw, which is very dry by itself, takes from the 
 maize too large a proportion of its moisture. 
 
Filling the Silo. Ill 
 
 A moist condition, instead of being a cause of deterioration in ensilage, 
 is, on the contrary, in some measure indispensable to the good preserva- 
 tion of the materials put into the silo. 
 
 In its normal condition, maize contains 85 per cent of water. When, 
 by the addition of dry straw, the average amount of water in the mixture 
 is reduced below 75 per cent., its good preservation is greatly compromised, 
 and becomes impossible if an attempt is made to go much beyond that. 
 
 Rye and wheat cliafE is often mixed by M. Goffart with, his 
 chopped green fodder, before putting it into the pit, not for 
 the purpose of securing better conservation in the damp 
 herbage, but in order to render digestible that which is dry. 
 With oat-straw, and other soft material, it sufficed to mix the 
 chaff with the silage after the latter is taken out of the pit. 
 
 Influence oe Wet Weathee. 
 
 Prom many quarters at home and abroad, there is evidence 
 that fodder can be pitted in wet weather, and yet do well. 
 M. Goffart thus answers a question on this subject : 
 
 Is there any inconvenience in ptittiug maize into the silo when wet with 
 rain ? — None at all. Last October I filled my sUo in the open air in 
 frightful weather. On several occasions the rain fell in torrents ; but 
 the success of that ensilage was none the less complete. 
 
 M. Lecouteux, in an article quoted at page 20, relative 
 to the ensilage of Trifolium incarnatum, mentions that he 
 had put cartloads into the silo when dripping wet ; and the 
 Vicomte de Chezelles did the same with his mixed clovers, 
 the conservation being excellent in both cases. American 
 writers have also given information to much the same effect ; 
 and now we have evidence of a similar character from many 
 English experimenters. 
 
 Mr. G. Broderick says (p. 219) : "We have pitted grass in 
 dry weather when it was free from external moisture, and also 
 when it was dripping wet, with no material difference in the 
 preservation resulting, except that when it is put in wet there 
 is more soakage at the bottom — which should not be wasted — 
 and less heating during fermentation. With ordinary grass I 
 think it is better to err on the wet side, if either. If it is 
 
112 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 allowed to dry in tlie sun for a few hours, tlie heating in the 
 silo will be much greater." 
 
 In Sir Eichard Glyn's silo (p. 237) "the grass was put in 
 very wet, but the sample of ensilage was good both in colour 
 and smell." 
 
 In Mr. Harris's silo (p. 239), "some of the first crops had 
 been carried in a wet state, and with no bad result." 
 
 Lord Tollemache had filled one of his silos with wet grass, 
 cut after a night's rain in June, and the contents of the pit, 
 when opened in April, were found to be in sweet and sound 
 condition. His lordship said (p. 249) that "he should now 
 have no hesitancy in filling these silos in any weather j if at 
 all, he would undoubtedly give preference to grass containing 
 moisture." 
 
 Mr. Trepplin says (p. 259) that some grass cut in September 
 " being carried damp, settled down quickly, and, after being 
 covered with some old hay or a few boards, turned out as good 
 as the ensilage made in the summer and weighted heavily." 
 
 Mr. Miller (p. 293) siloed meadow grass, and rye grass and 
 clover, when quite wet, and this came out in good condition. 
 
 Mr. Wilson says (p. 297) "Mine was cut and put into the 
 silo on as wet a day as ever rained on the face of the earth. 
 It was a perfect wet squash when put in." Grass and oats 
 were put in alternately, and both kept remarkably well. 
 
 Mr. Stobart says (p. 298) that " they did not take wet days 
 in preference to dry days in filling the pit, but the pit had 
 been filled regardless of the weather, and it rained during the 
 whole of the three days the men were at work." The results 
 were very good, as detailed by Mr. Basdale at p. 207. 
 
 Mr. Kenyon writes (p. 311) : "At the same time that the 
 silo was being filled with coarse herbage from a poor sideland 
 field, we were endeavouring to save a crop of hay from an 
 upland meadow, very favourably situated for drying in 
 ordinary seasons. When the sun shone out for a brief season, 
 all hands repaired to the hayfield; when clouds and rain pre- 
 vailed, they resorted to making ensilage. In the one case, in 
 fact, we ' improved each shining hour ; ' in the other we utilised 
 
Filling the Silo. 113 
 
 ■eacli wet and cloudy one. Yet, strange to say^ the measure 
 of success was in precisely inverse ratio to tlie care and 
 expense bestowed. The hay — badly weathered in spite of all 
 our efforts — was only used, because only fit, for bedding the 
 cattle, which were actually fed upon the ensilage already 
 described, ensilage composed of the coarsest kind of herbage, 
 and carried cut into chaff, and pitted regardless of the rain. 
 And, what is perhaps quite as remarkable, the animals grew 
 and throve remarkably well during the three months they 
 were fed upon this rough kind of ensilage." 
 
 In describing the experiments in Mr. Oakeley's silos, 
 Mr. Dunlop says (pp. 373-4) " The second time this silo was 
 filled (in July) it was raining hard ; the grass was quite wet, 
 and was put into the silo during weather in which nothing 
 could be done at haymaking. . . . To-day (March 1st) the 
 ensilage was cut from top to bottom, the result being that the 
 quality of the same throughout was highly satisfactory. 
 Within a few inches from the heather (on the top) the ensilage 
 gave forth a most pleasant aroma, perhaps a little strong, 
 but when it was cut down two or three feet it became perfectly 
 
 sweet." 
 
 A number of other letters might be quoted, showing that 
 crops have been pitted in various degrees of dampness from 
 dew and rain, and with more or less satisfactory results ; but 
 sufficient has been said to make it evident that wet is not so 
 injurious as some persons bave imagined, and that, where the 
 conservation of the fodder has been defective, it may have 
 been due to a cause irrespective of the quantity of moisture 
 
 in the crop. 
 
 Chopping up Poddee. 
 
 Our ordinary British fodder crops do not, as a rule, require 
 to be chopped up in the same way as maize. An exception 
 may be made with respect to rye, which is so hard in the 
 straw ; but with our grasses and clovers the operation may be 
 dispensed with; and, indeed, it will be difficult to improve 
 upon the sample of unchopped grass siloed by Mr. A. Grant, 
 who has given details of his operations (with an analysis of 
 
114 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 the product) in an article wMch appears at page 226. Clovers, 
 will doubtless require greater pressure tlian meadow grass, 
 especially if left till the stems have become hard ; but they 
 should not be so left, it being best, as a rule, to cut fodder for 
 ensilage while it is young and full of sap. Of course, if any- 
 one has convenience for cutting up the fodder into chaff, 
 this may be carried out, as in the case of the Yicomte de 
 Chezelles (page 195), who passed through a powerful chaff- 
 cutter the produce of 170 acres of clover, sainfoin, lucerne, 
 tares, and artificial grasses, before putting the fodder in 
 his silo. 
 
 Maize, like mangold, is a fodder which is more profitably 
 consumed when chopped up than when given whole ; andas a 
 matter of economy M. Goffart strongly advocates the chopping. 
 For meadow grass and other soft-stemmed crops, however, 
 he does not consider it necessary to go to the same trouble as 
 for maize, rye, buckwheat, &o. He says : " Chopped fodders 
 always pack more regularly and consequently keep better.. 
 Nevertheless, for the smaller plants and aftermaths this 
 operation is unnecessary : it would be time and trouble utterly 
 thrown away." 
 
 M. Lecouteux also says : " In our opinion, it is useless to 
 chop fodders with short soft stems, such as clovers, vetches, 
 second cuts of lucerne, and meadow grass." 
 
 Many of our English experimenters, however, think that it 
 is best to chaff grass, &c. ; but some who have tried both 
 methods have come to a different conclusion. 
 
 Mr Kenyon says (p. 312) : " Hitherto I had always cut the 
 grass into chaff before packing it into the silo ; but last year 
 (1883) I pitted it long, just as it came from the field. This 
 plan, than which nothing could be more simple, has answered 
 perfectly. The ensilage^, although mostly put in wet, like the 
 previous years, is, to say the least, quite as good as any that 
 
 has gone before it For my own part, although I have 
 
 water power and chaff-cutters, I don't intend to chop up my 
 grass in future ; for, besides the saving of expense, there is 
 less waste in handling the unchaffed ensilage. In this 
 
Filling the Silo. 115 
 
 condition, too, it can be supplied to stock in either racks or 
 troughs, whichever may be most convenient." 
 
 Mr. M'Oonnelj who siloed both chopped and unchopped 
 fodder last year, says (p. 323) that ^^he does not intend to 
 chaff this year before siloing : it is both troublesome and 
 expensive.'^ 
 
 Mr. Grant says : " Ohaff-cutting is certainly unnecessary, 
 and therefore a useless expense, with all the grasses, &c., 
 which I have mentioned above" — (p. 228). 
 
 Mr. Broderick says (p. 217): "It is quite unnecessary to 
 chop grass for ensilage : a little more pressure will do just as 
 well." 
 
 Mr. Biddell reports (p. 272) that the chaffed and unchaffed 
 sainfoin in the silo of the Hon. St. Vincent Saumarez were 
 equally well preserved. 
 
 Mr. Bateman (p. 275) pitted both chopped and unchopped 
 fodders with good results. 
 
 We have seen both kinds in such excellent condition that it 
 would be difficult to surpass them in quality; but unchopped 
 fodders do not succeed so well when the stems are strong and 
 stubborn, as when barley, oats, and clovers are allowed to get 
 old and woody. 
 
 Slow ■;;. Quick Filling. 
 
 Various persons have advised, with respect to the filhng of 
 silos, that it should be carried on as rapidly as possible, 
 and that, if the process cannot be completed in one day, the 
 boards and weights should be put on at once and not taken 
 off again till the filling is resumed. Such, indeed, was the 
 advice formerly given by M. Goffart ; but he afterwards found 
 cause for altering his course of procedure, as he says : 
 
 I was wrong when I formerly said : " Fill your silos as quickly as 
 possible." Now that more effective means can be made use of, and 
 that some agriculturists put into the silo 100 or 120 tons a day, I say, on 
 the contrary, " Do not fill the same silo too rapidly ; but so arrange as to 
 fill several silos at a time, m order to allow a settlement to take place." 
 
 In filling a silo by putting in every day a fresh layer of maize about 
 half a yard in thickness, you will check fermentation sufficiently mean- 
 
116 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 while, and at the end of a week or ten days of filling in this way the 
 .spontaneous settlement will be so great that the sinking afterwards will 
 not exceed one-tenth of the total height. 
 
 Such was the result which I obtained at Burtin last autumn. My silos, 
 which are about 164ft. in height, had an empty space at top of about 
 20in., or only one-tenth of their capacity. 
 
 This advice is supported by 'the experiences of various other 
 authorities, both in France and America. M. Lecouteux says, 
 in his book on ensilage : 
 
 It is not necessary to fill a silo to its full height at once. A night 
 suffices to produce a sufficient settlement to admit of a very advantageous 
 refilling, not only because of the new mass added to the heap, but stiU 
 more by reason of the check it gives to a too active fermentation in the 
 layers underneath. This is beyond doubt. Any forage that is freshly 
 cut and put upon a mass that is heated, serves to cool that mass, and from 
 this cooling a general fermentation results which is best adapted to the 
 whole. 
 
 Writing to the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, M. Niviere 
 gave the following particulars of an experiment of his : 
 
 I commenced on May 28 and finished at mid-day on June 5 ; the filling 
 therefore extended over eight days and a half. In prolonging this 
 operation I proposed to obtain a more complete utilisation of the silo, 
 which is 46ft. long, I3ft. wide, and I3ft. deep. Last year the fiUing was 
 carried on rapidly until the forage was about a foot above the walls ; 
 but it sank so much afterwards that the mass was eventually only 
 about 44ft. in height, 80 loads of Trifolium incarnatum having been 
 put in. 
 
 This year I have more than doubled that quantity, having been able to 
 store 195 loads of meadow grass, mixed clover and rye grass, and 
 Trifolium incarnatum sown with oats. I arrived at this result by leaving 
 rather long intervals during the filling, two being of 18 hours and one of 
 36 hours complete stoppage. I constantly followed, by means of a 
 thermometer, the changes of temperature, which varied from 15° 0. 
 (59° r.) on the forage arriving at the silo, to 26° 0. (79° F.) and 32° 0. 
 (90° r.) at the moment of resuming operations after stoppages of 18 and 
 36 hours. An addition of fresh forage checked this fermentation, which 
 after the ordinary night's stoppage always showed a temperature of about 
 26° 0. (79° F.) at 20in. below the surface, gradually diminishing to 
 21° (70° F.) towards the bottom, and to 15° 0. (59° F.) at the top. 
 
 It seems to me clear that the filling may be prolonged much beyond the 
 limit usually laid down ; that you may, for instance, go on filling up till 
 mid-day, and then stop work till next morning; by this means double 
 
Filling the Silo. 117 
 
 the quantity of stuff can be put into the silo, and the percentage 
 on the cost of construction is lessened, accordingly 
 
 There is no appreciable difference in the colour and flavour of the 
 different layers ; there is less damage than in the previous year along the 
 walls in the upper portion, and no damage whatever in the lower two- 
 thirds. A cubic metre weighs 920 kilos in the lower half and 880 in the 
 upper (about 681b. and 551b. per cubic foot respectively). The height of 
 the compressed mass is about 8ft. I found at 18in. above ground a 
 wooden lath that I had placed across the silo on the top of the forage at 
 the time when it was 8ft. above ground ; this reduction of about four- 
 fifths is explained by the immense weight of the GJft. of silage which 
 pressed upon that below, and which, together with the weight on the 
 surface, gave a pressure of about 4001b. per square foot. The gi-eatest 
 possible height in the construction of a silo is therefore a certain condition 
 of success and of economy. 
 
 As to diminution in weight, a sample of green and very tender meadow 
 grass which I inclosed with osier twigs, tied together by galvanised iron 
 wire, and had placed in the centre of the mass, had been reduced from 
 100 kilos to 63 kilos [i. e., from 2201b. to 1391b.) ; thus showing a loss of 
 37 kilos, due more, I think, to loss of water by compression than to 
 evaporation by fermentation. 
 
 M. Lecouteux recently said^ in the Journal d' Agriculture 
 Pratique, with respect to the filling of long silos : 
 
 With a silo 60ft. long and 12ft. wide it is advantageous not to divide it 
 into compartments by transverse walls. The greater the number of walls 
 the greater the liability to damage (mouldiness), which arises in such 
 parts of the mass as touch the walls. But it is evident that silos of great 
 length can only be quickly filled in two ways — either by putting in the 
 forage without loss of time (which is not always possible, owing to an 
 insufficiency of men or teams, or by reason of bad weather coming on 
 during the work), or else by dividing the silo into several piles formed 
 one after the other, without intervening walls. . . 
 
 Hurry in the work is by no means necessary ; and it is well not to close 
 the silo until a certain settlement has taken place. By dividing the 
 operation into sections, the maximum of settlement is obtained, by 
 heaping up the mass to its full height. In other words, the same quantity 
 of fodder spread over a length of 60ft. and to the height of 3ft. would 
 not be much compressed by the upper layers ; whereas, if spread over a 
 length of but 15ft. there would be greatly increased height, and better 
 compression by the upper layers. It is useless, however, to close the 
 silo immediately: it should be allowed to settle of itself, and be filled 
 up again after a lapse of two days, then closed and weighted. 
 
 My two silos at Oer^ay are each about 45ft. long by 18ft. wide. They 
 are only closed and weighted when the fresh fodder has reached a height 
 
118 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 of 13ft. Eight days are required to fill tlie two ; but there are several 
 intervals to facilitate the settlement, which, I repeat, increases the 
 •quantity stored. 
 
 This mode of filling (whici. was first adopted by M. HouettSj 
 of La Mothe-Jarry) is better suited to chafEed material than 
 to unchopped fodder, as the latter does not make a good 
 junction between successive piles. From the following illus- 
 tration it will be seen that a movable partition of planks is fixed 
 across the silo, and is kept in place by stanchions, held by iron 
 bolts driven into the floor, while movable struts (h) support the 
 temporary wall. The modus operandi is thus described in the 
 book of M. Lecouteux :' 
 
 As soon as the maize is cut, it is carted to the chaff-cutter placed at the 
 door of the silo. The chopped maize falls into the silo and forms the 
 heap J ; two men with large shovels fiU the baskets i, which they place 
 upon the truck I ; this runs upon two iron rails screwed down to wooden 
 sleepers, laid lengthwise, and held together by cross-pieces of wood. 
 
 
 When the truck is loaded, it is pushed by a boy up to the partition H, the 
 baskets are handed to the builders of the pile JST, who spread the stuff in 
 thin layers and tread it as solidly as possible ; on each layer is scattered a 
 sprinkling of salt, not for the purpose of conservation, but simply as 
 a condiment for the animals. 
 
 "When the pile has reached the height of the waUs, or a little above, the 
 partition H is drawn back about six feet or so, and a new pile is begun. 
 On the pile being completed, it is covered with a layer of clay about a 
 foot thick, which is well beaten down ; and this beating is repeated from 
 time to time as the mass sinks. 
 
 By the process carried on at La Mothe- Jarry, the filling of a silo may 
 extend over a fortnight, or a month if desired. Tou are almost inde- 
 pendent of conditions of weather ; for, provided that the cutting and 
 carting of the crop can be proceeded with, the filling may be carried on 
 without any inconvenience. 
 
 Since the above was written the necessity for the portable 
 
Filling the Silo. 119 
 
 railway and baskets lias been in great measure done away 
 witli by the invention of cliafE- cutters made by M. Albaret, of 
 63, Boulevard de Strasbourg, Paris, wliicli propel the chopped 
 forage a long distance into tbe silo. Bnglisb machines for 
 effecting a similar purpose, but differing in mode of operation, 
 ■a,re made by Messrs. Bust, of Winterton, Lincolnshire, and 
 Messrs. Benthall, of Maldon, Essex. 
 
 Among the most noticeable instances recorded of extension 
 of the filling process over long periods is one narrated in the 
 American Cultivator by Mr. Gilbert Morton, who says that 
 he took twenty-one days in filling his silo, containing 70 tons ; 
 and he adds that " This shows that if we can take care to 
 keep the corners and sides well trodden, we can take our own 
 time in filling." There are, however, many other cases 
 mentioned of much longer time being taken than some 
 persons in this country think permissible. The following are 
 u few quotations from the reports made to the U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture : 
 
 Mr. Otis Bisbee, Poughkeepsie, New York. — " It is expedient, wlien 
 nearly full, to alternate, so as to give time to settle. A covering of 
 six inches wiU control the surface heat. When packing, we tread it aU 
 we can, but depend more on the natural settling." 
 
 Mr. J. B. Brown, New York. — " Not important to be in a hurry when 
 filling silo, except to save cost ; if trampled every morning it will not heat 
 sufficiently to injure it, even if the process of filling consume a month, 
 with interval of days." 
 
 Mr. J. Winslow Jones, Portland, Maine. — " I think it best to be three 
 or four weeks in filling a silo, or even longer, if it is 20ft. or 25ft. high. 
 If you are filling several, fill a foot or so a day ; and if a day intervenes 
 it is all the same. The fodder should be kept level and trod very hard, and 
 every morning, before any new is put in, it should be thoroughly trodden." 
 
 Mr. Jacob Pugsley, Wassaic, New York. — " No harm seems to ensue if 
 silo is two weeks or more in filling, providing ensilage is well trodden and 
 packed as put in.'' 
 
 Mr. W. M. Vilas, Burlington, Vermont. — " It is important to have the 
 fodder spread evenly and well packed as it is put in ; 6in. to 1ft. in depth 
 put in each day will do." 
 
 It need hardly be stated, that the weights are not put on 
 at night and taken off in the morning, as some of our experi- 
 menters consider to be so essential. 
 
120 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 When, tlirougli delay in tlie filling, tlie surface of the fodder 
 in the pit shows symptoms of dryness, some American writers 
 advise that it be sprinkled with water by means of a garden 
 watering-pot ; and thus they seem to be adopting the German 
 practice described in the "Journal of the Highland and Agri- 
 cultural Society ' ' nearly half a century ago . It is not advisable, 
 however, that the water should be applied too copiously, as it 
 would run through to the bottom instead of remaining where 
 it is wanted. A slight sprinkling, repeated several times at 
 short intervals, would be much better than putting on the 
 same quantity of water all at once. 
 
 Mr. G. Fry, of Chobham, Surrey, whom we have quoted at 
 considerable length at page 349, although an advocate of 
 slow filling, would be very unlikely to adopt such a practice 
 as watering the fodder to keep down the heat, as he is in 
 favour of a development of active fermentation by reduction 
 of moisture. But such a process as he recommends could 
 hardly be carried out in wet weather, when the advantage of 
 the silo is greatest ; and when it can be carried out, it is 
 questionable whether it is likely to prove more beneficial 
 than the course generally adopted. We shall therefore have 
 some observations to make on this point in Chapter IX., with 
 respect to "Losses by Fermentation" (page 149). 
 
 In concluding these remarks on slow v. quick filling, we may 
 say that, where it can be conveniently carried out, we should 
 prefer to adopt the slow process ; and we certainly should not 
 go to the trouble and expense of lifting on and lifting off 
 so many tons of weights night and morning. 
 
 There is one inconvenience, however, with regard to slow 
 filling, and that is, that it would be very troublesome for the 
 owner of a single silo of limited dimensions to cut and put in 
 a small quantity of grass day by day, and thus tediously spin 
 out the process. Under such circumstances he can scarcely 
 do better than fill the pit at once, and put on the weights, 
 and at some convenient time afterwards, when the mass has 
 well settled down, lift off the weights and boards, and fill up 
 again to the brim. 
 
Filling the Silo. 121 
 
 "CUEBS" OR " SuPEE-SlLOS." 
 
 To facilitate tlie filling of tlie pit, or rather to avoid tlie 
 trouble of refilling, some American siloers make use of a 
 wooden superstructure, which they call a "curb" or "kerb," 
 by means of which they fill in the fodder for some feet above 
 the height of the regular walls, and when the mass has 
 sunk down sufficiently this temporary portion is removed. In 
 many cases, although the silos have the lower part of the walls 
 built of concrete or stone, there is only a thin boarding 
 on the top, evidently to answer a similar purpose, i. e., to 
 obtain a complete filling of the solid portion of the structure. 
 In the oflBcial report of the Department of Agriculture, it is 
 stated that " a temporary curb is sometimes added to the silo 
 proper, so that the latter may be full when the settling 
 ceases ; " and in the individual returns we find the curb 
 mentioned as being 3ft., 4ft., and even 6ft. in height. 
 
 Mr. Kenyon was one of the earliest to adopt a similar' 
 method in this country; for he says (page 309), in his account 
 of his experiments of 1881, that "by fixing up a sort of 
 movable frame of planks around the top of and flush with the 
 brickwork, we were able to cram in seven loads more grass." 
 Mr. Swan (p. 292) used his floor-boards for a like purpose ; 
 and Mr. Solomon (p. 285) employed some deals in a similar 
 way with his earthen pit. At Merton it was one of the 
 improvements adopted last season, and Mr. Woods thus de- 
 scribes it in his South Kensington lecture: "This contrivance 
 is what I may describe as a small super-silo, — an oblong two- 
 inch deal box, without bottom or lid, about 30 inches in 
 depth; the sides and ends, which are separate and apart, 
 being brought together and affixed by ordinary bolts and 
 clamps to the wooden coping and walls of the silo proper, 
 and the sides strengthened against lateral pressure by a few 
 iron struts." Mr. Grant (p. 227) attains the same end in a 
 different fashion, for he piles up his blocks of concrete on the 
 walls, thus adding 3ft. to the height of his silo ; and, as the 
 mass sinks he rolls the blocks over upon the boards. 
 
122 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 The Use of Salt. 
 
 Salt has often been recommended as a preservative of tlie 
 crops put into the silo, and some persons have used it iu 
 inordinate quantities. But if the ensilage process is properly 
 carried out, and the fodder in a sound state, salt is needless 
 for preservation ; and, on the other hand, if these conditions 
 are not complied with, salt alone will not suffice to remedy the 
 defect. M. Goffart's opinion, in answer to the question, "Is 
 it necessary to make use of salt in a silo V was given as fol- 
 lows : " You can do without it. I often dispense with it 
 myself, without good conservation being interfered with ; but 
 I think the moderate use of salt is favourable to the health of 
 the animals, and I sometimes mix some with my fodder at 
 the rate 2-|-lb. to 31b. to a ton, so that the animals may get 
 loz. to l^oz. in their daily ration of food." 
 
 M. Lecouteux says, " I no longer employ salt, experience 
 having demonstrated that it is not required in order to obtaia 
 good fermentation." And Dr. Thurber says that in America 
 the use of salt is generally abandoned. 
 
 In Lord Walsingham^'s first ensilage experiment (page 260) 
 not only was salt mixed with the fodder at the rate of lib. to the 
 cwt., but a layer of salt one inch in thickness was spread over 
 the surface before covering up the mass. When the silo was 
 opened, instead of the herbage being well preserved, it was 
 rotten for a depth of four or five inches. This unsatisfactory 
 result was thought to be due to the grass and clover having 
 been pitted when wet with rain. But grass and clover have 
 been put into the silo elsewhere when saturated with rain, and 
 yet have kept well ; and the probability is that the bad result 
 in this case was due to the layer of salt. This would at once 
 destroy all vitality in the herbage, and make it an im- 
 penetrable mass, through which the air within could find no 
 exit, and, being thus shut inside, it would produce decay. In 
 the second experiment (p. 261) the quantity of salt mingled 
 with the fodder was raised to 21b. a cwt. The silage was 
 good, not because of the large quantity of salt— for excellent 
 
Filling the Silo. 123 
 
 preservation lias been obtained without any salt whatever — 
 but probably because a large admixture of salt, when evenly 
 scattered throughout the mass, is far less detrimental than a 
 similar quantity placed in one layer upon the surface. 
 
 It will be seen above that M. Goffart considers from loz. to 
 1 Joz. a sufficient amount of salt in a day's ration of silage, of 
 which he gives to his cows from 601b. to 701b. per diem. In 
 similar quantities containing the proportion of salt above 
 mentioned (21b. to the cwt.) the animals would receive a 
 pound or more of the condiment. It is not surprising that 
 the effect of this is not always beneficial, especially with dairy 
 stock ; for, although small quantities of such provender, when 
 mingled with an abundance of other food, might be used 
 without deleterious effects, a large supply of the silage would 
 have a tendency to dry up the milk and cause a falling off in 
 the condition of the animals. Lord ToUemache found (p. 248) 
 that, with 301b. of silage, containing this proportion of salt, 
 the milk diminished considerably, and he accordingly reduced 
 the quantity one half, when the milk increased again. In 
 Lord Fortescue's experiments (p. 240) the salt added was 
 only about lib. per cwt., or half that previously mentioned, 
 yet the animals that received 501b. of silage a day lost 
 condition and fell off in the milk supply, although those which 
 received two-thirds of that weight did well. 
 
 When one considers that the silage is, as a rule, three- 
 fourths water, one may see that the addition of 21b. of salt to 
 the cwt. would produce provender that would be something 
 like a mixture of 281b. of well-salted hay with about eight 
 gallons of a liquid nearly as salt as sea-water, though not 
 exactly the same in all its ingredients. 
 
 We are glad to find that, among the recent modifications in 
 the Merton practice, mentioned by Mr H. Woods in his South 
 Kensington lecture, is the reduction of salt. He said: 
 " Another alteration, and also an undoubted improvement, is a 
 reduction in the allowance of salt ; a matter in which I believe 
 mistakes to have been made. After careful observation I am 
 not prepared to concur with those who would dispense 
 
 K 2 
 
124 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 altogetlier with the use of salt ; but, so far as I am at present 
 able to judge, the proportion should be about fib. and in 
 no case more than lib. to every cwt. of the fodder." 
 
 But even this quantity would be too much where the silage 
 is used very freely; and it will be seen on page 160c that 
 M. Niviere gave as much as 1301b. a day to beasts he began 
 to fatten. We prefer the practice of those who give the 
 silage unsalted, and place in the manger a lump of rock-salt, 
 which the animal can lick at discretion. By so doing, they 
 spare themselves the trouble of mixing when the silo is being 
 filled, and give the animal the opportunity of stopping the 
 salt without stopping the food. Such is the practice of men 
 of experience, as will be seen by reference to the letter of 
 Mr. Grant (p. 228) ; while Mr Kenyon (p. 312) writes : 
 
 Witli respect to salt, a good deal of misapprehension seems to exist. 
 Its liberal use is evidently regarded by some as indispensable to the pro- 
 duction of good ensilage. I held much the same opinion three years ago, 
 but it has been dispelled by experience. I should say that if this sub- 
 stance exerts any influence at aU on the process, it is certainly not a 
 beneficial one. As a condiment or a corrective I believe it is a good 
 thing for stock, but I prefer to give it them separately, in the form of 
 rock-salt, which they can lick or not, as their tastes or instincts prompt 
 them. In 1881 I mixed a considerable quantity of salt with the grass as 
 it was thrown into the silo ; in 1882 I only did so with about half of the 
 ensilage ; and last year I discarded it altogether. If the quality of my 
 ensilage is no better in consequence, it has certainly suffered no deterio- 
 ration by the omission. 
 
 Trampling Down the Fodder. 
 
 M. Goffart strongly advocates trampling down the fodder 
 when filling the pit, yet says it is of less importance than 
 efficient weighting. Some persons use horses or cattle for 
 this purpose, or have carts or rollers drawn over the mass; 
 but animals cannot tread close up to the walls, where the 
 trampling is most needed. Mr. Woods (p. 261) recommends 
 well ramming with wooden rammers — a method mentioned in 
 the old German practice described at p. 10. 
 
CHAPTER VI.-COVERING AND CLOSING THE SILU. 
 
 Some persons have advised that in packing the fodder in the 
 pit, it should be piled up in the centre at the finish ; but the 
 experience of M. Goffart is that such an arrangement is 
 detrimental to good preservation, and he says on this point : 
 
 The filling of the silo should be carried out in such a manner that the 
 layer of fodder should always be horizontal. The trampling down along- 
 side the walls (which ought to be as smooth as possible) is carried on 
 whilst the silo is being filled. A person going constantly round as close 
 as possible to the walls suffices for this operation. The topmost layer in 
 the silo should be made perfectly flat, and not higher than the level of the 
 wall. To ridge it up in the centre is a grave error ; the mass cannot be 
 sufficiently compressed, and dry rot sets in, which is not long in communi- 
 cating itself to the mass below. 
 
 The filling having been completed, the covering up takes 
 place. Some of the American farmers put nothing whatever 
 between the boards and the fodder, thinking it unnecessary ; 
 and such a course is preferable to the use of anything close 
 and compact, which is likely to mat together and become 
 impenetrable, because, with a layer of this kind, air is shut in 
 which ought to be expelled. M. G-offart says : 
 
 The most important question — and one without which there can be no 
 good preservation — is the covering up of the sUos. A layer of dry straw, 
 an inch or two in thickness, should be spread evenly over the green fodder ; 
 this straw should be covered with boards, and, finally, upon these boards 
 should be placed heavy materials to the extent of about 1001b. per square 
 foot of surface. Thinnish boards, such as battens, suit better than 
 thicker deals, because they give more to the inequalities of settlement, 
 which are difficult to avoid. 
 
 But better even than straw, in M. Goffart's opinion, are the. 
 " needles " or leaves of pine-trees, where such can be obtained. 
 In the forests in the Sologne district they are in great 
 
126 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 abundance, and M. Goffart utilises them largely as bedding 
 for bis stock, by which means he is enabled to chop up his 
 straw and mix it with the cattle food. As to the use of these 
 pine-needles for covering up the fodder, he says : 
 
 The best covering consists of the newly -fallen needles from pine-trees : 
 the great quantity of resin which they contain prevents their decomposing 
 quickly, whilst soft straws, and especially after-maths (which are commonly 
 employed) are rapidly softened and decomposed by the vapour which 
 escapes from the lower layer of maize and converts it into a mere dung- 
 heap. This mass becomes impermeable, and completely imprisons the 
 vapour which, for want of an outlet, remains at the top of the layer of 
 maize, and sets up the mouldiness which soon renders it unfit for feeding 
 beasts. 
 
 In short, make use of pine needles if you have them at your disposal ; if 
 not, don't cut up the straw that you are about to employ, but use it whole, 
 and choose in preference the hardest you can get, such as will the longest 
 resist the action of moisture. Here rye straw stands in the first rank; 
 next comes wheat straw, and then oat straw ; after-math grass should be 
 utterly proscribed. 
 
 Never lose sight of the fundamental principles which assure success in 
 ensilage — continued pressure to expel all the air contained in the silo. 
 This air, at the time when you have rapidly carried out the process of 
 ensilage, represents at least one half of the cubic space occupied by the 
 pitted fodder. Leave this air in contact with the material, and it wiU 
 end in the whole mass undergoing serious damage. 
 
 The vapour which escapes more or less freely from the pitted material, 
 according to temperature of the latter — which is always disposed to rise a 
 little at the upper part of the silo — is equally a cause of deterioration when 
 the vapour is imprisoned. But, on the contrary, it is harmless when it 
 finds an outlet among the stones and bricks which form the covering. 
 
 Mr. Oakeley (p. 313) used a layer of heather between the 
 grass and the boards, and others have also found it service- 
 able. Gorse, fern, reeds, and various other matters may be 
 employed for this purpose — hard, tough materials being better 
 than soft. 
 
 Some persons take a good deal of pains to make the surface 
 impervious to air. In Mr. Stobart's silo strips of zinc were 
 placed under the boards in order to close the crevices. 
 Mr. H. Woods recommends (page 261) that a layer of bran 
 be spread above the boards. This is a much better arrange- 
 ment than putting it under them, for it will not shut in the 
 
Covering and Closing the Silo. 127 
 
 air to the same extent ; and it is far preferable to some other 
 methods of excluding the air. Mr. Gibson uses cavings for 
 the same purpose ; and both are better than sawdust, which 
 others have made use of. Sand is objectionable from the 
 probability of its running through crevices and getting 
 mingled with the food. 
 
 The CovEEma Boaeds. 
 
 These are ordinarily boards of 1 |in. or 2in. in thickness ; if 
 thicker they do not adapt themselves so well to any inequality 
 in the packing. They should cross the narrow way of the 
 silo, and be half an inch or an inch short, so as to sink freely 
 down without any obstruction. The small amount of vacant 
 space is not objectionable with heavy weights — indeed, it is 
 an advantage rather than otherwise, as it permits the air to 
 escape as the fodder settles down. For the same reason, it is 
 not requisite that the boards should fit very closely together 
 on the top. Some persons have had their boards tongued and 
 accurately matched together, so as to form large sections 
 several feet in width; but these are disadvantageous for 
 several reasons. They are not so readily handled ; they do 
 not accommodate themselves to any inequalities in the mass ; 
 a larger portion of the surface has to be exposed in cutting 
 out ; and, finally, although they may serve better to exclude 
 air, they also are more effectual in keeping air in. 
 
 Mr. M'Connel (page 323) used small pieces of board only 
 about 40in. long and llin. wide, laid about half an inch apart 
 to admit of the escape of air ; and he found these small boards, 
 with iron weights on them, very handy. 
 
 As M. Goffart says, when the silos are deep, the cost of the 
 covering boards is not of much importance, but when they are 
 shallow the cost per square foot should not be lost sight of. 
 In Mr. Ford's estimate (page 221), the cost of 105 sq. ft. of 
 Sin. battens is put down as II. 15s., or 4i. per square foot, 
 which seems rather high. Those of Mr. Willan (page 235) 
 cost a little more than M. per sq. ft. ; thinner boards would 
 be cheaper, and some l^in. boards are spoken of as costing 
 
128 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 id. per square foot ; but^ of course, price varies with the 
 locality. 
 
 Closing the DooEWAy. 
 
 In silos that are wholly or partially above ground, there is 
 usually a doorway. The closing of this is a matter that 
 requires some degree of attention ; and the nearer the door is 
 to the bottom of the silo the more carefully should it be 
 attended to. M. Goffart experienced some trouble in this 
 way, and made various changes with a view to get over the 
 difficulty. He found that thin boards warped under the action 
 of the damp, and let the air penetrate. He replaced them by 
 small beams or bars of wood about 4in. square, made to fit 
 closely, and to slide in vertical grooves placed. one on each 
 side of the doorway. These bars did not warp and leave 
 crevices between them as the boards were apt to do, but, by 
 keeping their shape better, they shut out the air much more 
 effectually, and the damage decreased accordingly. With his 
 last silos, however, he adopted a still more certain method 
 of excluding the air, viz., temporarily bricking up the door- 
 way. He says : " I now close the entrance of my silos by 
 means of temporary brickwork plastered inside with hydraulic 
 mortar j and this wall is pulled down again at the time of 
 opening the silo. This brickwork closes the opening much 
 more effectually than the boards, whatever care may be taken 
 to adjust them one upon another. Bach opening may be 
 closed up by a bricklayer in the course of an hour or two." 
 
 As previously stated, the doorway should be so placed as to 
 cause the least possible exposure of the contents of the pit to 
 the action of the air, and therefore it should be at the end or 
 narrow way of the silo. The middle of the long wall would 
 be the worst place, because, on cutting into the mass, it would 
 be exposed on both sides. If made in the long wall, the best 
 place would be at one corner. 
 
CHAPTER VII.-WEIGHTING THE SILO. 
 
 This is a point on which M. Goffarfc insists as more essential 
 than any other part of the process, and some of his American 
 disciples far outdo their master, as they state that they put on 
 four or five times as much weight as is recommended in the 
 following extract, the italics of which are in the original : 
 
 It is indispensable to put on the cover or movable planhs of the filled 
 silo about lOOlb. per square foot of heavy matters, such as stones, &c. 
 
 Here I come to the most important point — which I have had the most 
 trouble in determining, and which I have only lately settled. When a 
 sUo has just been Med, it is not merely necessary to exclude the outer air,, 
 it is requisite in the first place to expel the mass of air which is shut up in 
 it. This is the part which the heavy weights put upon the silos have to 
 perform, and by means of which I attain the desired end. 
 
 A layer of clay, which hermetically seals up the pit, is exactly opposed 
 to this object. It is necessary that the air inclosed in the sUo should find 
 means of escape between the planks above; it is necessary that great 
 pressure should drive out the air as quickly as possible from the place 
 where its presence would cause most serious mischief. 
 
 This great pressure ought to continue for several months, because the 
 trampling down at the time of ensilage, however thoroughly carried out, 
 is not in itself sufficient. At the time when the green fodder is chopped 
 up, it is still living, and endowed with such elasticity that it reacts strongly 
 against the momentary pressure which you have put upon it. It is not 
 the same, however, after a few weeks or a few months ; the fodder soon 
 undergoes a softening which diminishes the elasticity, or, ui other words, 
 increases its compressibility to a considerable extent. 
 
 It is when these physical and chemical modifications are accomplished 
 that the heavy weights, which I have indicated as an indispensable condi- 
 tion to success, produce their salutary effect. They follow the fodder as 
 it collapses, and produce that state of very high density which is necessary 
 to put it beyond the reach of deterioration. 
 
 Some American farmers, however, state that the juice of 
 the maize has been squeezed out by 1001b. pressure; but it is 
 not improbable that this result may have been due to the- 
 
130 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 maize being in an exceptional condition. M. Goffart states 
 that lie never found tlie juice of the maize squeezed out 
 except in one instance ; then it had been left until too ripe, 
 and had been exposed to rain and frost, and the juice ran out 
 from the mere weight of the fodder, before any other pressure 
 ■was put upon it. Mr. Bateman mentions (page 26) that his 
 maize parted with its juice at a very low pressure ; but here, 
 too, it had been affected by the weather. 
 
 It seems pretty clear that, under certain circumstances, a 
 breaking-down of the cellular tissue in plants occurs, and the 
 juices thus escape much more readily than under normal con- 
 ditions. Unless such be the case, it is difficult to account for 
 the conflicting reports which occur as to the amount of weight 
 used, and the effects produced. On the one hand we read 
 accounts of comparatively light weights being put on, and 
 the juices being squeezed out of the fodder ; in others several 
 times as much weight is reported to have been used with bene- 
 ficial effect. For example, Mr.v Eraser says (page 290) that 
 he applied a pressure of " something like 5001b. per square 
 foot," and attributes the good results to this heavy pressure. 
 Somewhat similar statements appear in the American official 
 report. Some men state that they used 3001b., 4001b., or 
 5001b. per square foot, but make no mention of juice being 
 squeezed out; whereas another says: " We used 100 pounds 
 per square foot (too much) ; floor of silo covered with expressed 
 juices of forage." 
 
 The fact should not be overlooked that the weight which is 
 put on the top of the mass is but small in comparison with 
 the pressure upon the fodder at the bottom of the pit — from 
 which the juice would be most likely to be driven out, if 
 driven out at all ; and an increase of a yard in the depth 
 of the silo would have greater effect on the pressure at the 
 bottom than a difference of 1001b. per square foot in the 
 weight upon the top. In many American silos the depth is 
 20ft. or more, some being as much as 25ft. In such a case 
 the pressure at the bottom, from the superincumbent mass, 
 would be at the rate of about half a ton to the square 
 
Weighting the Silo. 131 
 
 foot J without tte addition of any weiglit upon tlie surface. 
 The surface pressure is chiefly requisite for the purpose of 
 keeping the top layer in sound oonditionj and thus preventing 
 deterioration from being conducted from the surface down- 
 wards ; and in shallow pits it is of much more importance than 
 in deep silos, where the great bulk of the silage is kept in 
 good condition by its own specific gravity. 
 
 In some of the instances where there has been much liquid 
 found in the silo, it has probably been due in great measure 
 to the wetness of the fodder when put into the pit. From 
 Mr. Stobart's silo 50 or 60 gallons of liquid were drawn off ; 
 and it appears from the report (page 298) that " the pit had 
 been filled regardless of weather, and it rained during the 
 whole of the three days the men were at work." But in some 
 instances, with underground silos, the supposed expression of 
 juices has been imaginary. In one case in America, where 
 the bottom of the pit was thought to be swimming with the 
 juice of the fodder, the liquid was found to be due to a leakage 
 of water which ruined four or five tons of the silage. Dr. 
 J. T. Smith, at the Chicago Congress, said, "There is more 
 trouble in keeping water out of these underground pits than 
 there is from the water getting away from the corn fodder." 
 M. Goffart says (p. 108) that he had a lot of silage spoilt by 
 a crevice letting in water. An instance of such leakage is 
 related by the Eev. C. H. Ford at page 223 ; and we think it 
 very likely that various complaints of juice in the pits have 
 had their origin in unobserved crevices, for liquid seems to be 
 more prevalent in underground silos than in those that are 
 above ground. 
 
 In some instances, where there has been much liquid in the 
 pit, it has been found convenient to have a tap to draw away 
 the hquor, as mentioned by Mr. Easdale (p. 207). In one of 
 Mr. Oakeley's silos (p. 313) some liquid was also drawn off; 
 but in other cases, where there have been taps, there has been 
 found none to remove. Mr. Grant shows (p. 230) his arrange- 
 ment for collecting the ooze in the pit, so as not to incon- 
 venience the men when cutting out the fodder. Where there 
 
132 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 are taps, our impression is that it is best not to draw off the 
 liquid till the cutting out takes place ; but this is a matter that 
 can only be definitely settled by further experience. 
 
 Cost op Weighting Appaeatus. 
 A considerable item of cost will be weights, if they are pur- 
 chased. In the estimate of Mr. Ford's silo (page 221) it will 
 be seen that concrete blocks' for weighting form about one- 
 fourth of the whole outlay, and the tackle to facilitate the 
 moving of them costs nearly half as much as the blocks. 
 In none of the American estimates do we find any mention of 
 expenditure in this respect. Anything available is turned to 
 account — blocks of stone, barrels of earth, sacks of grain, 
 casks of cider, logs of firewood, kegs of water — in short, any 
 heavy stuff that may be upon the farm. Barrels form a 
 favourite vehicle for the weight, all sorts of substances being 
 packed therein ; and as they can be readily rolled about, and 
 whipped up by means of slings or falls, with a horse to pull a 
 rope running over a block, the process of loading is quickly 
 accomplished. On this subject M. Goffart says : 
 
 When silos are of great depth, the cost of planks is not very important; 
 bnt when the silos are shallow, the price per square foot should not be 
 lost sight of, for it may become a rather heavy item. At all events, it 
 would be a matter of importance to get rid of it, and I am going to try 
 some experiments for this purpose. I shall dispense with planks in one 
 of my silos, and shall merely place some well-burnt bricks upon the bed 
 of straw, so as to form a compact layer of sufficient height to give the 
 weight of about one hundredweight per square foot. My silos have a 
 surface of SOO square feet, and my bricks weigh about 61b. each, there- 
 fore 10,000 bricks will be required for each silo. The bricks would cost 
 some 8Z. or more, but would have the same value after as before the 
 temporary use to which they are put. Bricks in any case will be better 
 to handle than lumps of stoue, the irregularities of which make the work 
 painful and slow. Of course it will be requisite to have well-burnt 
 bricks, so that there should be no fear of breaking. 
 
 If I had silos in England or Belgium, where pig-iron can be obtained 
 for about 40s. a ton, I would not hesitate to get blocks cast of such 
 shape that they would lie sufficiently close together. To be convenient 
 for lifting, they might be about Sin. thick, and oast with a handle, as in 
 the large weights used with scales. In this way a very useful method of 
 rapid shifting might be obtained. 
 
Weighting the Silo. 133 
 
 I need not say that weights once lifted to the top of the silo ought not 
 to be taken down : they should be placed on the surrounding walls. 
 
 Those who have stone-quarries near at hand would probably have the 
 opportunity of buying rough-hewn stones, with an even surface, and lOin. 
 or 12in. thick. Supposing they have a mean density of 1001b. to 1201b. 
 per square foot, a single layer would give sufficient pressure. Old paving 
 stones might, in certain cases, be used advantageously, especially when 
 they are nearly cubical in shape. 
 
 I intend to employ three different modes of covering my silos — (1). 
 Rubble stones with old rick cloth put under them, so as to prevent the stones 
 getting mixed with the fodder. (2). Bricks without boards. (3). Placing 
 upon boards the sacks of phosphate intended for my manure heaps. But, 
 as with everything else, advantage should be taken of local resources, 
 whatever may be most economical, but without losing sight of other 
 conditions of good service, for nothing would be moi-e dangerous than a 
 mistaken economy with regard to means of compression. 
 
 Mr. Stobart (as will be seen by Mr. Basdale's letter on 
 page 207) has adopted blocks of pig iron as vreigMs ; and 
 others have followed his example. Mr. Easdale stated in the 
 Field that these blocks are cast to a model made with a view 
 of their being convenient for lifting, and have clip-holes for 
 grapples to lay hold of. They are 18in. long, 5in. wide, and 
 4|in. deep, and each block weighs as nearly as possible Icwt. 
 A single layer of blocks placed closely side by side gives a 
 pressure of l^cwt. per square foot. They were delivered at 
 Cowton station at 45s. per ton ; but since then, the price of 
 iron having fallen, they have been obtainable at 39s. per ton, 
 to which, of course, carriage would have to be added. 
 
 The Duke of Hamilton (page 271) adopted bricks for 
 weighting purposes, at a cost of 50s. per thousand, or I7s. per 
 ton, a thousand weighing about three tons. 
 
 Mr. Grant (p. 228) and others use blocks of concrete ; while 
 others, again, have square boxes filled with clay or pebbles. 
 
 Many persons are naturally anxious to avoid tLe trouble 
 and labour consequent on the use of heavy weights ; but the 
 difficulty has generally been to find anything that will answer 
 as Well, and with as small an amount of attention. Com- 
 missioner Loring's American report says, pithily : " Screws 
 are used by some instead of weights. The objection to them 
 is that they are not self-acting, like gravity." Consequently, 
 
134 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 if they are not watched, and screwed down from time to time, 
 the pressure may be lost as the fodder sinks, and the air will 
 get in and produce mischief. 
 
 Mechanical contrivances will answer, beyond doubt, if they 
 are properly attended to ; for we have seen several excellent 
 saijiples of silage pressed by their means. Nevertheless, we 
 think it more than probable that the majority of farmers, and 
 the men in their employ, will not attend to all the details with 
 the same amount of care as the inventors of the various kinds 
 of apparatus ; and machinery of this kind has yet to pass 
 through the ordeal of ordinary farm practice before it can be 
 said that it fully answers the purpose for which it is designed. 
 
 It will be well for persons who are thinking of investing 
 in one or other of the various methods for pressing siloed 
 crops, to consider whether they are prepared to give the 
 apparatus the amount of attention necessary to ensure success. 
 If they are, they may find their investment profitable in the 
 end, because it will save labour ; but if they think of adopting 
 the machinery with the idea that it will save them personal 
 trouble, they possibly may find themselves mistaken. The crops 
 that are put into the silo do not behave exactly alike in all 
 instances ; not only are there different kinds of crops, but the 
 same crops vary in condition, owing to the state of the 
 weather and other causes. Goffart has pointed out that, in 
 the spring, when the temperature rises, fermentation at times 
 sets in with great energy, and the mass of silage sinks con- 
 siderably. We have known a similar thing to occur, where 
 some grass, rather heavily weighted, had for a long while 
 shown no indication of settling down further than it had done 
 in the first week or two after being pitted ; but, on a rise in 
 temperature, a further considerable shrinkage ensued, and the 
 weights naturally sank down as the mass subsided. If, how- 
 ever, a similar thing should happen in a silo with mechanical 
 pressure, it is not improbable that such a shrinkage might occur 
 without attracting attention, and the silage be left without any 
 surface pressure. The advantage of dead weights in cases of 
 this kind is unquestionable, as they are always in operation. 
 
Weighting the Silo. 
 
 135 
 
 However^ as before stated^ mechanioal appliances can be 
 made to answer well if they are properly looked after. One of 
 the methods which has given very successful results is that 
 invented by Mr. Johnson^ of Croft, and described with illus- 
 trations at page 210. That process is not patented. 
 
 Another, which also answered well, is one patented by Mr. 
 Potter, clerk of works to Lord Ashburton, and manufactured 
 
 Potter's Compbessino Appaeatus with Htdeatjlic Jack. 
 
 hj Messrs. Reynolds and Co. of Edward-street, Blackfriars- 
 road, London. It is shown in the above woodcut, and was 
 applied to Lord Ashburton's silos depicted at page 59. 
 The following description of the appliances is given in the 
 " Journal of the Bath and West of England Society." 
 
 In the walls of the silo, near the angles of each compartment were built 
 channel iron standards, each having a powerful claw at bottom going- 
 through the wall. Every 6 inches apart in the height, projecting 
 " fangs" were riveted to the standards, each capable of resisting a force of 
 
136 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 six tons ; tlie fangs were not allowed to project beyond the face of the 
 wall. 
 
 A hydraulic jack was provided with a foot at the bottom that would 
 pass under any of the fangs as required, and the ensilage materials being 
 ready for pressing, the whole area of the silo was covered with 9in. by 3in. 
 plants, leaving a space of about Jin. between them for air to be expelled, 
 and being also about \\n. short that they might not pinch the walls. 
 Across these planks were laid two others, llin. wide and 7in. thick, their 
 ends abutting against the channel-iron standards. The jack being placed 
 on one of the ends of these transverse timbers, with the foot placed under 
 one of the fangs (the latter being the point of resistance) the pressure 
 was applied with the jack handle, and the contents of the silo were 
 rapidly depressed. When no more depression seemed obtainable, a 
 
 wrALL 
 
 A 
 
 ^«i4^ 
 
 CHANNEL 
 IRON 
 
 
 
 wedge was put into the place occupied by the foot of the jack, and the 
 jack then withdrawn and shifted to the opposite standard, and so on, tiU 
 the four had been acted upon. 
 
 The operation was repeated each succeeding morning for about a week 
 after the last batch of ensilage materials had been deposited, when further 
 compression appeared to have no effect ; but at later dates the pressure 
 has been occasionally applied and the ensilage put still closer together. 
 The jack was tested to 4 tons ; the total compressive force was therefore 
 not less than 16 and probably nearer 20 tons, or 3001b. per superficial foot. 
 To apply the full force at the four points of the silo, or compartment, 
 occupied one man ten minutes, and to release the pressure and remove the 
 ■cover planks required two men a somewhat less time. 
 
 The channel irons can either be applied to the surface of 
 the walls of existing silos, as shown at c c on the previous 
 page, or let into the wall as represented in the woodcuts 
 above. The cost of the apparatus is stated at page 96. 
 
 Messrs. Reynolds and Co. are also the manufacturers of 
 another method of applying pressure in silos. The following 
 woodcut, and the accompanying particulars from a circular 
 issued by the firm, will give a good idea of the nature of 
 
Weighting the Silo. 
 
 137 
 
 the appliances^ wliicli consist of chains, rollers, and screw 
 apparatus for tightening the chains. 
 
 A chain is attaclied to the lower part of the wall of the silo, in any 
 suitable manner, either by taking it through the wall with a plate and 
 bolt on the outside, by weighting it in the ground with concrete, or 
 attaching it to a, beam ; and on the opposite side of the silo a similar 
 chain is attached. While the silo is being filled, the ends of these chains 
 
 **( 
 
 \xT^^ 
 
 Eeynolds's Compressing Apparatus with Chains and Screw. 
 
 are thrown over the wall or hung on spikes on the sides. After the 
 material is put in the pit covering boards are placed over it, and a stout 
 tranverse beam is laid on the top, stretching from side to side of the silo. 
 In the ends of this beam brackets are fixed to carry movable rollers, over 
 which the ends of the chains from either side are led. The chain- 
 tightener is hooked into the links, and on turning the handle of the screw 
 the ends of the chain are drawn closer together, causing the beam and 
 covering of the silo to sink, and so to press the material. Pins are then 
 inserted in a link of each chain to hold the beam down, when the screw- 
 
138 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 tightener can be made to take a fresh hold on the chain for further 
 pressure, or be removed altogether. Any number of beams may be used, 
 according to the length of the pit and the pressure required per square 
 foot of surface ; but the chain tightener and pair of rollers are removed 
 from beam to beam, so that only one set of these is sufficient for any 
 number of silos. 
 
 The chain-stretcher and pulleys together cost 51., and the 
 expense of the remainder of the appliances would depend 
 upon the number of the beams required and the length of the 
 chains. For a silo 60ft. long by 12ft. wide and 12ft. deep, 
 Messrs. Reynolds state that, to produce a pressure of 2001b. 
 per square foot, eight beams would be required, and the cost 
 of the 320ft. of chain and other appliances to work them 
 would come to 24Z., thus bringing up the total for 720 square 
 feet of surface to 29Z. If the silo were half the length, the 
 cost of chains, &c., would be reduced accordingly; but the 
 51. for the screw apparatus would remain as before. This 
 does not include the cost of the covering boards, which would 
 be the same as in any other silo of the same dimensions ; but 
 the beams would be an extra outlay. 
 
 Mr. Stocks' mode of applying pressure is described at 
 page 77. The press and springs can be applied to a silo 20ft. 
 by 10ft. for 181. 
 
 Messrs. Pearson and Co. give the cost of their arrangement 
 of continuous pressure, shown at page 73, as 181. for a 
 travelling crane for 60ft. by 12ft., and 12s. per ton for 
 concrete blocks; or at the rate of 21. 10s. per 100 sq. ft. of 
 surface, with a pressure of Icwt. to the sq. ft. Their arrange- 
 ment for mechanical pressure, shown at page 85, costs for 
 four sets of winders, &c., for a stack 18ft. by 10ft., 8Z., or at 
 the rate of 41. 10s. per 100 sq. ft. 
 
 A method of using ordinary screws and nuts, as adopted by 
 Mr. J. Mead, is represented at page 243. 
 
 The suggestions that have been made for applying pressure 
 to silos are so numerous as to defy description. They would 
 almost fill a volume in themselves. Many are evidently 
 impracticable, and of others it is not desirable to say anything 
 until they have been submitted to the test of practice. 
 
CHAPTER VIII.-OPENING THE SILO. 
 
 On the door being opened, as little as possible of tbe silage 
 sbould be uncovered^ only a sufficient number of boards being 
 removed to give room for the operation of cutting to be per- 
 formed. It is usually cut in vertical sections, as is done in a 
 haystack, as much being taken out each day as is required 
 for the day's consumption. The weights should not be 
 removed from the uncut portion until absolutely required 
 for the work to be done, as pressure is even more necessary 
 -after the opening than before. When weight was deficient 
 M. Groffart found the ensilage deteriorate very rapidly after 
 opening ; and one of the American farmers, in reporting to 
 "the Board of Agriculture, says : " In opening our silos we 
 took all the stones off ; this was a mistake, as we lost about a 
 ton apparently from the want of sufficient pressure to exclude 
 the air." Another American farmer adopted a much wiser 
 •course when, instead of removing the weights altogether, he 
 shifted the weights from the boards to be lifted and piled 
 them on the others not yet wanting removal, thus increasing 
 the pressure during the opening ; and he says that the ensilage 
 taken out last was better than that taken out first. 
 
 Where the weights are removed and the silage taken from 
 the surface alone (as is done in some silos that have no door 
 in the wall), the danger is much less than when all pressure 
 is taken ofE and the mass cut vertically from an open door. 
 Such a course has been adopted by some American farmers, 
 and by a few in this country. But it should only be done 
 where the silo is small and deep, with a quick consumption, 
 so that the entire surface can be quickly cleared off. In a 
 broad and shallow silo, with slow consumption, it would be 
 very impolitic to attempt this method. 
 
 L 2 
 
140 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 In hot weather there is greater liability to deterioration: 
 than in the winter months, and the heat affects silos abov& 
 ground more than those which are below. For this reason 
 M. Goffart, although he acknowledges the advantages of 
 above-ground silos, recomniends that silos be built half 
 underground, and he adopts the practice of cutting from the 
 top down to the ground level in cold weather, and leaving 
 untouched for the hotter season the lower portion, as shown 
 in the illustration on page 53. 
 
 One of the American farmers recommends, for the purpose- 
 of facilitating the cutting out the upper half of the contents 
 of the pit, that a layer of boards be placed in the middle of 
 the fodder while it is being packed. There can be Uttle 
 objection to this course ; but much the same advantage would 
 apparently be obtained by taking the boards removed from 
 the top and placing them underfoot, when the cutting has 
 descended to the required distance. The settlement would 
 probably be more regular, and the expense of a double set of 
 boards would be avoided. 
 
 Another American farmer makes the following suggestion 
 with respect to the emptying of the silo : " Let me suggest a 
 convenience for those whose pits are partially below the 
 surface of the ground at the lower door. My own silo is 5ft. 
 below the surface at this entrance, and I have therefore made 
 a set of trestles, with legs 5ft. in height ; after the first section 
 of ensilage has been cut back from the door, two trestles 
 are put in, and the planks previously removed from the top of 
 that section are placed upon the trestles, thus forming a false 
 floor, on which a cart or the mixing trough can be run in from 
 the level of the ground. After the removal of another section 
 of ensilage, a second pair of trestles is placed in position, and 
 the floor continued, and thus on to the back of the silo ; so 
 that a cart can be backed in to the very rear as conveniently 
 as though the bottom of the silo was on a level with the 
 ground." 
 
€HAPTER IX.-EFFECT OF ENSILAGE ON FODDERS. 
 
 The effect wMcli ensilage will produce on the fodders put into 
 the pit will mainly depend upon the manner in which the 
 process is carried out. Undoubtedly there may be a very 
 ^reat deal of waste if the work is badly done ; and it is not 
 surprising that persons who have seen the bad results^ and not 
 the good, should utter words of warning or condemnation. 
 
 Fermentation can be no more carried on without consuming 
 «ome of the material fermented^ than a fire can be made to 
 burn without consumption of the fuel by which it is fed. In 
 both cases combustion is going on, and the more abundant 
 the supply of oxygen the more rapidly the burning proceeds. 
 If you stop the draught, a fire will languish and die out ; and 
 a similar result is produced in the silo if you lessen the supply 
 of air by the imposition of heavy weights. 
 
 Many persons seem to think that the course most requisite 
 for the conservation of the fodder is to make the top of the silo 
 air-tight. But exclusion of air from without is of less imme- 
 diate importance than expulsion of the air which is within j 
 and if the top of the silo be hermetically sealed as soon as the 
 fodder is pitted, more harm than good will be done, as air 
 win be shut in that ought to be allowed to escape. When the 
 crop is first put into the pit, more than half the space occupied 
 is filled by air ; and if the fodder is to be maintained in good 
 condition, this should be driven out as well as kept out; for, 
 unless such is done, a process of slow combustion will go on,- 
 which will attack first the most nutritious ingredients of the 
 plant;, and, unless checked, will end by destroying the mass so 
 far as its feeding value is concerned. Heavy weights effect 
 the double purpose of driving out air and keeping it out; 
 
142 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 whereas hermetically sealing the top of the pit^ even if it catt 
 be done, only effects one purpose, and that the least important.. 
 In his early experiments M. Groffart closed the top of his silos. 
 with clay, and he thus relates the consequences : 
 
 Having successively filled my silos, and had the layers trodden down by 
 persons dancing on them with very great energy, I placed on the surface 
 a layer of straw chaff about four inches in thickness, and on that a layer 
 of adhesive clay carefully beaten down, so as to prevent any communica- 
 tion between the ensilage and the outer air. During the next few days, I 
 closed, every morning, any cracks that were to be found in the covering. 
 
 When, at the end of a few weeks, I proceeded to open a sUo thus treated, 
 I invariably found a space of an inch or two between the silage and the 
 clay covering. No matter how forcibly the maize had been rammed down, 
 there had been a further settlement, and the upper portion had undergone 
 deterioration which would rapidly be communicated to the layers beneath. 
 To prevent such a result, I had no other course but to get my silage 
 consumed as quickly as possible. 
 
 Subsequently I abandoned the clay as a covering for my sUos. Imme- 
 diately after treading down my mixture of maize and chopped straw, I 
 placed over aU. a cover made of oak, exactly shaped to fit the sUo, and 
 descending with the fodder as this settled down. This simple change 
 produced a decided improvement, though still insufficient — ^the mischief 
 was only deferred for a while ; but I was upon the right road. 
 
 Nowadays I stiU make use of the same silos, and I obtain complete 
 preservation for an indefinite period of time. The chief point of difference 
 is this : I place upon the cover of my silo, as soon as it is filled, about a 
 hundredweight of stones, &c., for each square foot of surface. 
 
 That fermentation can be checked by heavy weights on the 
 fodder is proved by experiment. It is a common thing for 
 silage to have an alcoholic or an acid smell when first taken 
 out of the pit. If the alcoholic flavour is very marked, there 
 has been more fermentation, and consequently waste, than is 
 desirable ; if there is strong acidity, matters are worse still. 
 That such results may be prevented by due care is shown, 
 by M. Goffart's experience : 
 
 In AprU, 1877, 1 opened my last elliptical sUo, which contained nearly 
 100 tons of maize pitted in October, 1876 — i.e., more than seven months, 
 before. The whole presented itself as a most compact mass of a brownish, 
 green tint; the temperature did not exceed 10° 0. (S0° Pahr.), and therfr 
 was no appreciable odour ; on being put to the mouth, the maize at that 
 instant was quite tasteless, and the absence of smell and taste produced 
 at first an almost unpleasant sensation. 
 
Effeat of Ensilage on Fodders. 143 
 
 I took out from the mass a few hundredweights for the next day's 
 rations of my beasts ; and scarcely was the maize exposed to contact with 
 the air when it underwent a veritable metamorphosis ; the brownish colour 
 became sensibly greener, and a commencement of alcoholic fermentation 
 was soon produced, without going beyond the limits which that fermen- 
 tation ought never to exceed. 
 
 This silo was not completely exhausted till the 10th of August, and the 
 maize remained in good condition to the last day. 
 
 It must not be inferred, however, that M. Goffart objects to 
 fermentation under all circumstances. His object is to prevent 
 it in the silo, but to permit it in the silage when taken out 
 of the pit for the beasts. Within certain limits he considers 
 the fermentation of the fodder to be beneficial ; beyond those 
 limits it is wasteful, and may become positively injurious. 
 How he regulates the fermentation is to open the mass of 
 silage taken from the pit, mix it with the chaff or other food 
 to be given with it, and let it lie until it has heated sufficiently. 
 In warm weather twelve hours may suffice, and in cold weather 
 twice as long may be necessary. In one exceptional instance, 
 where the fodder had been frost-bitten before being put into 
 the silo, fermentation did not set in for two or three days. 
 With respect to the effect of leaving it to the second day under 
 ordinary circumstances M. Goffart makes these remarks : 
 
 I have said elsewhere that the fodder taken out of the mass ought, 
 before being given to the animals, to be exposed to the action of the air 
 for fifteen or twenty hours, in order to set up alcoholic fermentation. 
 After that time (which may, however, be lengthened or shortened some- 
 what, according as the external temperature is high or low) the fermenta- 
 tion becomes excessive, and therefore harmful ; the spontaneous heating 
 produced in the stuff when it ceases to be compact ought never, if possible, 
 be allowed to exceed 35° to 40° C. (96° to 104° Fahr.). 
 
 Two years ago I had no silos on my farm at Gouillon, and on alternate 
 days I had the silage taken from my silos at Burtin to feed the cattle on 
 the other farm. On the second day the heat of the silage thus carried 
 greatly exceeded the limits that I have just laid down, and the alcoholic 
 vapours came off so abundantly as to show the serious loss which was 
 going on. Acetic acid, too, was not long in also showing itseM. 
 
 In the North of France the beetroot pulp given to cattle in winter is 
 sometimes very acid; and it is to 'this circumstance that I attribute 
 the poor quality of milk and butter obtained from animals fed upon 
 this food. 
 
144 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Losses by Peementation in the Pit. 
 In the autumn of 1882 two celebrated scientific authorities 
 on agriculture expressed opinions that were pretty strongly 
 adverse to the ensilage process ; and for so doing they were 
 rather sharply attacked by enthusiasts in its favour. Those 
 scientific opinions may have been originally founded, in some 
 measurOj on defective samples of silage, but it would be wrong 
 to assume that there was no ground for the notes of warning 
 that were uttered. Instances of serious loss, such as were set 
 forth by Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker, undoubtedly have 
 occurred, though their occurrence may not be a necessary 
 consequence of the process. The endeavour should be to 
 avoid such loss by following the best line of procedure, and 
 not court disaster by setting to work in full faith that pre- 
 cautions are needless, and that everything must come right. 
 Here is a portion of a letter by Sir J. B. Lawes, which 
 appeared in the Times of Oct. 26, 1882 : 
 
 About a year and a half ago I received a bulky volume on the subject 
 of ensilage from the United States. The writer, who was most enthusiastic 
 with regard to the system — which he said would create a revolution in the 
 agriculture of the country — furnished some important statistics respecting 
 the loss which took place in the silo. Indian corn was the substance 
 used, which, according to the author, when put into the silo contained 
 5 per cent, of ash, as calculated on the dry state ; while the ensilage when 
 taken out contained 9 per cent, of ash, calculated also on the dry state. If 
 this destruction of the vegetable matter, which amounts to about 40 per 
 cent., extended equally over the whole crop, it would be serious enough ; 
 but unfortunately it is the substances which possess the highest feeding 
 value that are the most easily destroyed. The heat generated, and the 
 smell of alcohol and acetic acid, to which the author also alludes, can have 
 had no other source than the sugar which is found so abundantly in Indian 
 com at the time of blooming. 
 
 Last year I wrote some articles on the subject of ensilage, which were 
 published in the United States, and I then pointed out how serious was 
 the loss of the nutritious portion of the plant which appeared to take 
 place in the silo. I concluded by remarking that although, under the 
 conditions of agriculture that prevailed in the States, ensilage might he 
 profitably used, stiU I hardly thought that British farmers, who had 
 to produce the food for their stock at a great cost, could afford to 
 adopt a system which apparently destroyed so large a proportion of the 
 nutritious matter. 
 
Effect of Ensilage on Fodders. 145 
 
 It is beyond question that there is a loss of some of the 
 most nutritious parts of the plant when alcohol and acetic acid 
 are formed by fermentation ; and it is beyond question, also, 
 that in some specimens of silage these products have been 
 iound in great abundance. But it does not follow, because 
 such facts are stated, that the loss of which these are indi- 
 cations are directly visible, or that the writer means it to be 
 understood that that portion of the provender which remains 
 in the pit cannot be eaten. The food may be readily consumed 
 by the cattle, and may be nutritious also ; but it will not 
 contain all the nutriment that might have been there had the 
 process been more skilfully carried out; and so far as this 
 loss is allowed to go on, so far will it impair the economy of 
 the process. Such a loss, however, as Sir John Lawes quotes 
 (40 per cent.) is so enormous that the idea of some error 
 naturally suggests itself ; and, in an estimate founded solely 
 on the increased quantity of ash, there is a possibility of error, 
 seeing that the accidental admixture of a small quantity of 
 earth with the sample of fodder taken from the pit would 
 materially alter the proportion in the analysis ; or an addition 
 of salt to the fodder put in the pit would considerably change 
 the basis of compai'ison. 
 
 Nevertheless there are instances on record in which care- 
 fully-conducted investigations have shown the loss sustained 
 to be even greater than that mentioned by Sir John Lawes. 
 At page 186, in the chapter on the Chemistry of Ensilage by 
 Mr. Woodland Toms, will be found a table giving the results 
 of ten experiments in which the amount of loss averaged 
 34 per cent, on the solid mattbr of the fodder put into the pit, 
 and in one case, where a bad system of procedure was carried 
 out, as much as 54 per cent, was lost. This, however, 
 occurred with beetroot refuse from sugar works, in which the 
 fermentation is likely to be much more destructive than with 
 our ordinary fodder crops. 
 
 In the case alluded to by Sir John Lawes, the crop was 
 maize, in which, owing to the quantity of sugar in the plant, 
 there may also occur a considerable amount of loss from 
 
146 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 excessive fermentation when the process is badly carried out. 
 Some instances of such having been found to be the case are 
 particularised in a table by Professor Moser quoted on page 
 180. Here several weighed bundles of maize (samples of 
 which were analysed) were inserted at different depths in a 
 mass of similar maize buried in a trench dug in the ground. 
 On the trench being opened, the bundles were again weighed 
 and analysed, so as to ascertain the exact amount of loss in 
 each of the different constituents of the fodder. The total 
 reduction of weight in that bundle which had been placed 
 lowest in the trench was 40 per cent., and in that which was 
 uppermost the weight was reduced 65 per cent. ; but th& 
 greater portion of this loss was water, which doubtless had 
 been absorbed into the soil. Of solid substance the loss was 
 not so great as in that stated by Sir John Lawes, being 
 28 per cent, in the upper layer and 35 per cent, in the lower; 
 hence that which was reduced most in total weight lost least 
 in solid substance. To show how this loss was distributed, we 
 will re-arrange the figures of the table, turning them into 
 tons and hundredweights, on the supposition that each masa 
 consisted of 60 tons instead of 6000 grammes. 
 
 
 Fresh 
 Maize. 
 
 Siloed Maize taken out 
 (17 inches deep). 
 
 Siloed Maize taken out 
 (84 inches deep). 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Leas. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Albumenoids 
 
 Fatty matters 
 
 Soluble carbohydrates 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Ash and sand 
 
 T. cwt 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 6 10 
 4 
 18 
 
 T. owt. T. cwt 
 8 or 3 
 8 „ 1 
 3 10 „ 3 
 3 17 „ 3 
 16 „ 2 
 
 T. cwt. T. cwt. 
 7 or 4 
 8 „ 1 
 
 2 15 „ 3 15 
 
 3 16 „ 4 
 16 „ 2 
 
 
 Solid matter, dry... 
 Water 
 
 12 8 
 47 12 
 
 8 19 „ 3 9 
 12 3 „ 35 9 
 
 8 2 „ 4 6 
 28 9 „ 19 3 
 
 Full weight 
 
 60 
 
 21 2 
 38 18 
 
 
 36 11 
 23 9 
 
 
 Loss 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 Here it will be seen that, out of 60 tons original weight, 
 the reduction amounts to nearly 39 tons in the one case and 
 
Effect of Ensilage on Fodders. 147 
 
 to about 23| tons in tlie otlier ; but the 16 tons diSerence of 
 loss is almost exclusively water^ and the amount of nutritive 
 material in the 21 tons of the first sample is much about the 
 same as in the 36^ tons of the second. Consequently the one 
 lot would be worth much more per ton than the other; and, 
 as will be seen on reference to page 155, where the percentage 
 of the constituents is given, and the respective values are 
 estimated, the one sample is put down as worth 14s. per ton 
 (which is just about the value of the original fresh maize), 
 and the other as worth 24s. If, then, an analysis of the latter 
 were compared with that of the fresh maize, without the 
 reduction of weight being thought of, it might easily be 
 supposed that the maize had been greatly increased in value 
 by the process of ensilage. But if allowance be made for 
 the loss of weight, a very different result is shown. The 
 original value of the fresh maize being about 14s. a ton, 
 the 60 tons would be worth 42Z. Comparing this sum with 
 the weight and value per ton of the two lots of silage, we 
 have the following results : 
 
 Value. Loss. 
 
 £. &'. £, s. 
 
 60 tons of green maize, at 14s. per ton ... 42 
 
 21 tons 2cTrfc. of silage at 24s. per ton ... 25 6 16 14 
 
 36 tons llcwt. of silage at 14s. per ton ... 25 11 16 9 
 
 So that the two lots, although differing so greatly in weight, 
 are worth just about the same sum total, while both fall very 
 far short of the original value of the green maize. 
 
 It is not to be supposed, however, that this is a necessary 
 consequence of the ensilage process. It is a result due to 
 the process being badly carried out; and is what may be 
 encountered, to a greater or less extent, by those farmers who 
 think that the cheapest and easiest mode of setting to work 
 is the best. If they put a quantity of green fodder into a 
 pit, and get fairly eatable provender out of it, they are apt to 
 think that every end is served. Persons not accustomed to 
 consider the effects of fermentation often fail to appreciate 
 the losses that may arise therefrom. What is not apparent 
 to the eye is too often passed over as though it were non- 
 
148 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 existent ; but everyone who is in the habit of burning gas in 
 his house would be aware that a quantity of gas, for which he 
 had to pay, might easily escape without his being any the 
 wiser, so far as his sight is concerned ; and so it is with the 
 most nutritious portions of the hay. It may be said, however, 
 that if you cannot see the escape of gas, you can readily smell 
 it, and stop the leak. True ; and in like manner you can 
 smell the alcohol and acetic acid, and thus can trace the 
 source of mischief ; but in neither case can you restore the 
 loss. All that you can do is to endeavour to prevent loss for 
 the future. 
 
 At page 349 is given an account of Mr. G. Pry's experi- 
 ments and the method recommended by him for the produc- 
 tion of "brown ensilage," by inducing an exceedingly high 
 temperature. The siloed forage which has undergone fermen- 
 tation of this character is certainly pleasanter to smell and to 
 handle than that which is very moist and has not been heated, 
 and no doubt, as a marketable commodity, it would also be 
 likely to prove more attractive to a purchaser who judges by 
 appearance and odour. Whether it is so nutritious for the 
 stock is another question. This, however, is a matter which 
 can only be satisfactorily solved by careful experiment ; but 
 prima facie we may assume that the high temperatures spoken 
 of could not be produced without the consumption of a con- 
 siderable amount of fuel, and that fuel consists of nutritious 
 matters in the herbage. Unfortunately there are no analyses 
 of Mr. Fry's green fodders to show what portion of the con- 
 stituents have been consumed ; and we can do no more than 
 put the analyses of the silage into comparison with those of 
 other samples made from similar crops. On doing this, we 
 find that Mr. Fry's silage takes a low position, both as regards 
 the clover and the meadow grass ; but the figures in the table 
 on page 155 scarcely afEord a satisfactory means of comparison 
 because of the diiference in moisture, which is apt to mislead 
 one as to the relative proportion of nutritive constituents. 
 We therefore subject them all to a common standard, and 
 recalculate them on the supposition that each sample contained 
 
Effect of Bmilage on Fodders. 149 
 
 75 per cent, of water. It will sufBce, however, to give merely 
 the nutrients, without the water, ash, &c. We insert the 
 month when the crops were cut, as first- cuts are usually more 
 nutritious than aftermaths. Where, in Dr. Voelcker's analyses, 
 the constituents are not particularised, w.e put the figures 
 midway between two columns, as in the table on page 155. 
 In those relating to Mr. Fry's samples^ we have added the 
 amount of digestible fibre from the particulars by Messrs. 
 Cross and Bevan, given at page 354; and Mr. Gibson's, where 
 we have inserted a (?), would, in like manner, probably have 
 to be raised to 10 or 11, if the proportion of digestible fibre 
 were ascertained. The relative value of the different samples 
 is stated at page 155, but it may here be mentioned that the 
 albumenoids are worth about five times as much per lb. as the- 
 carbo-hydrates. 
 
 Olovee. Albumenoids. Oarbo-hydrateB. Fat. 
 
 Vieomte de Chezelles' (July) ... 4-59 9-33 1-04 
 
 Mr. Gibson's (July) 4-63 4-22(?) 
 
 Mr. Pry's (June) 2-61 12-66 
 
 Mr. Scott's (September) 2-66 12-54 
 
 Mr. Earle's (September) 2-93 8-42 1-66 
 
 Mr. Eokersley's (September) ... 3-11 13-36 0-78 
 
 Meadow Grass. 
 
 Mr. Grant's (May) 3-49 10-94 0-68 
 
 Lord Walsiugliam's (July) 2-75 11-74 0-69 
 
 Lord Egerton's (July) 2-44 9-74 1-44 
 
 Mr. Fry's (June) 2-50 11-86 
 
 Mr. Duncan's (Autumn) 2-57 11-94 1-28 
 
 Mr. Smith's (October) 3-30 9-45 0-99 
 
 Of the clover samples, that of the Vieomte de Chezelles was 
 mainly clover with a small admixture of common grasses and 
 barley; Mr. Gibson's was clover and sainfoin; and all the 
 others were clover and ryegrass. Mr. Fry's (cut in June) and 
 Mr. Scott's (cut in September) are nearly on an equality ; but 
 it will be seen, on reference to pp. 235-6, that Mr. Scott's 
 silage from the second-cut was very inferior to his hay from 
 the first cut. Of the grass silage, the figures after Lord 
 Walsingham's name are the average of his three samples ; 
 and the same is the case with Lord Egerton's. Mr. Fry's 
 sample, from grass cut in June, is also inferior to the after- 
 
150 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 maths of Messrs. Duncan and Smitli. Whetlier these results 
 are due to poorness in quality of the fresh herbagej or to loss 
 in Mr. Fry's process of ensilage^ is a matter of uncertainty; 
 but at present it does not promise well for the process. And 
 it would be very desirable not only to have analyses made of 
 fresh herbage and silage, but to weigh quantities of green 
 fodder put into the pit, in order to compare with the weight 
 taken out. 
 
 Mr. Pry says that "M. Groffart insists on the advantage 
 of filling small quantities of chaffed maize at a time, but 
 whether he really succeeded in obtaining the desired tempera- 
 ture has not been recorded. It is clear that he knew that a 
 brisk fermentation was an advantage, but he did not know 
 why." Mr. Pry, however, appears to have misunderstood 
 M. Goffart, who says again and again that there ought to be 
 xio fermentation in the pit, and that " the best way to avoid 
 bad fermentations is to let none of any kind be produced." 
 Whether this is altogether possible is open to doubt ; but he 
 makes it perfectly clear that he intends the temperature to 
 be low, and that the heating of the silage should only occur 
 after it is taken out to be given to the beasts, and even then 
 the exposure should not be continued long enough for the 
 temperature to get very high {see page 143). 
 
 As far as present evidence goes, we should be inclined to 
 adopt Mr. Fry's method if we wished to sell the silage instead 
 •of using it ; but if we wanted to store food for feeding our 
 own cattle, we should prefer to follow the recommendations of 
 M. Goffart. 
 
CHAPTER X-FEEDING QUALITIES OF SILAGE. 
 
 The amount of moisture in the silage has an effect which 
 many people seem not to take into consideration, viz., that of 
 ■diluting the nutritive material. One frequently sees general 
 statements with respect to the feeding value of silage and the 
 quantity requisite to be given to various animals — no regard 
 whatever apparently being paid to the proportion of water 
 it contains. If anyone were to assert in direct terms that 
 101b. of hay given with four gallons of water would nourish a 
 cow as well as 201b. of similar hay with three gallons of water, 
 he would be laughed at, or considered a lunatic — especially if 
 he allowed the animal to drink more water at will. Yet many 
 people apparently see no absurdity in statements of a like 
 character being made indirectly when the dry food and water 
 are combined. They seem to look upon a ton of siloed grass 
 or other green stuff as though it represented a definite 
 quantity of food, and estimate its value at so much per ton, 
 or say that so many pounds per day ought to be given to a 
 milch cow or a fatting bullock, in utter disregard of the fact 
 that one sample may contain two or three times as much 
 nutrient matter as another, but less water. 
 
 In maize and some other crops the average percentage of 
 water is considerably higher than in grass. Obviously, then, 
 there must be a great disparity in the value of samples of 
 silage, even if the only difference between them consisted in 
 the proportion of moisture they contain. 
 
 Supposing, for instance, that a sample of maize silage 
 ■contained 86 per cent, of water, the dry material (in which 
 is included all nutrient matter) could be no more than the 
 remaining 14 per cent. ; and supposing that a sample of grass 
 .silage contained 72 per cent, of water, the residue or dry 
 
152 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 material would then be 28 per cent., or just double that in the 
 maize. Consequently^ if the feeding material were equally- 
 good in both crops, a ton of the grass silage would be worth 
 double as much as a ton of the maize silage, because in the 
 former there would be twice as much nutrient matter as in 
 an equal weight of the latter. In 1001b. of the grass silage 
 there would be 281b. of dry matter with 721b. of water (about 
 7j gallons), whereas, to obtain 281b. of dry matter in the maize 
 silage you must take it in connection with 1721b. of water 
 (about 17^ gallons). You might give your cattle 2001b. of the 
 latter instead of 1001b. of the former fodder, but they would 
 receive no additional nutriment, for the additional 1001b. woul 
 merely be 10 gallons extra of water. 
 
 If the grass silage, instead of having the average amount 
 of moisture, contained only about 51 per cent, of water, as in 
 the instance mentioned by Sir John Lawes (page 160 a), the 
 contrast would be still more marked ; for 1001b. of silage with 
 51 per cent, of water would have just as much dry material 
 as 3501b. of silage with 86 per cent., the difference being that 
 in the former the nutrient matter is diluted by 5 gallons of 
 water and in the latter by 30 gallons. 
 
 YaLUE of GrEBBN FoDDEES AND SiLAGE. 
 
 The difference in the proportion of water is not the only 
 cause of variation in the value of silage ; for the crops them- 
 selves differ in their chemical constituents. It has there- 
 fore been thought desirable to give some idea of the relative 
 value of analysed samples of silage, and to place them in 
 comparison with dried and green fodders whose value has 
 been previously estimated by competent authorities. 
 
 In Germany an immense amount of work has been done by 
 the professors of agricultural chemistry at the various Govern- 
 ment experimental stations in ascertaining the digestibility 
 and estimating the feeding value of different crops. Not only 
 have the crops been analysed at different stages of growth, 
 but animals have been fed on the herbage in a green state, or 
 after it has been made into hay, or preserved in some other 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 153 
 
 fashion ; and the excreta of the animals have been analysed, 
 in order to ascertain what proportion of the food has been 
 digested by the animals and what has been voided without 
 being utilised. From calculations published by Professor von 
 Wolff the ensuing table is for the most part compiled. It 
 gives the chemical constituents and amount of digestible 
 nutrients contained in various kinds of hay, green fodder 
 crops, &c., together with the money value. But inasmuch as 
 German values per 1001b. would be of little service to the 
 English reader, seeing that prices and weights are not alike in 
 the two countries, it has been thought best to turn those 
 values into shillings per English ton, at the same time raising 
 the prices to our level. At the time of doing this the current 
 rates in the London hay market are returned as follows : 
 " Best meadow hay, 80s. to 90s. ; inferior, 50s. to 70s. Best 
 first cut clover, 100s. to 108s. ; inferior 70s. to 80s. ; second 
 cut clover, 75s. to 90s." Accordingly, the German value for 
 very good meadow hay has been raised to correspond with 80s. 
 per English ton ; and this having been taken as the basis for 
 comparison, all other fodders are raised iu similar proportion, 
 so that prime meadow and clover hays, &c., also assimilate 
 themselves pretty fairly with our current prices. 
 
 To the estimated values of several kinds of German silage, 
 as included in Prof, von Wolff's tables, we have added some 
 that are American, taken from Prof. Stewart's book on 
 "Feeding Animals," the blanks in the early columns occurring 
 in the original. The remainder (in which blanks occur in the 
 later columns) are founded on analyses contained in this work, 
 in the R.A.S. Journal, Mr. Woods' pamphlet, M. Goff art's 
 book, &c. In the absence of any special experiments to 
 ascertain the digestibility of the silage, we have not attempted 
 to fill up the blanks in these columns, but have endeavoured, 
 as nearly as we are able, to estimate the approximate value of 
 the various samples. We have also given in the first table, 
 for the sake of comparison, the corresponding values of the 
 green fodder before ensilage, wherever analyses of both were 
 forthcoming. 
 
154 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Kind of Fodder. 
 
 Oeoanio 
 
 StTBSTANOES. 
 
 DlQBBTIBIE 
 NOTBIBNIS. 
 
 -si 
 
 5-9 
 
 HAYS, 
 
 Meadow hay, poor 
 
 „ „ better , 
 
 „ „ raedium 
 
 „ „ very good , 
 
 ,, „ extra prime 
 
 Italian ryegrass , 
 
 Perennial ryegrass , 
 
 Ked cloverj poor 
 
 ,, „ medium 
 
 „ „ very good 
 
 „ „ extra prime 
 
 "White clover, medium , 
 
 Trifolium incarnatum , 
 
 Lucerne, medimn 
 
 Sainfoin (cut in flower) 
 
 Serradella „ 
 
 Vetches (cut in flower) 
 
 „ (before flowering) 
 
 Spurrey hay, German , 
 
 GREEN FODDEB AND BOOTS 
 
 Pasture grass 
 
 Eich pasture grass 
 
 Grass, just before flowering , 
 
 „ Lord Egerton's 
 
 ,, Lord "Walsingham's , 
 
 Upland grasses, average 
 
 Italian ryegrass 
 
 Perennial ryegrass 
 
 Pasture clover, young 
 
 Bed clover, before flowering 
 
 „ „ in full flower , 
 
 Wnite clover, In flower 
 
 Trifolium incarnatum 
 
 Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) ...... 
 
 Sainfoin 
 
 Vetches, beginning to flower 
 
 Green maize, German 
 
 „ „ American 
 
 „ „ M. Goffart's 
 
 „ ,, Lord Walsingham's... 
 
 Spurrey, German 
 
 Buckwheat, in flower 
 
 Green oats 
 
 Green rye 
 
 Green rape 
 
 Cattle cabbage 
 
 Kohl-rabi leaves 
 
 Swede turnip tops 
 
 „ „ roots 
 
 ,, „ Lord Walsingham's... 
 
 Mangold tops 
 
 „ roots (German) 
 
 „ do. (English, average) ... 
 „ do. ( do. 181b. roots)... 
 
 Sugar beet roots 
 
 Artichoke tops 
 
 „ tubers 
 
 Potatoes, tops (October) 
 
 „ tubers 
 
 Toung thistles 
 
 Gorse (cut in August) 
 
 14-8 
 
 (i-n 
 
 14-3 
 
 5-4 
 
 14-3 
 
 H-?, 
 
 18-0 
 
 7-n 
 
 160 
 
 7-7 
 
 14-» 
 
 7-R 
 
 14-3 
 
 6-5 
 
 160 
 
 6-1 
 
 160 
 
 5-S 
 
 16-.5 
 
 6-0 
 
 16-6 
 
 7-0 
 
 16-5 
 
 6-0 
 
 16-7 
 
 SI 
 
 16-0 
 
 fi-2 
 
 16-7 
 
 fi-2 
 
 16-7 
 
 7-S 
 
 16-7 
 
 8-3 
 
 16-7 
 
 9-3 
 
 16-7 
 
 9-5 
 
 80-0 
 78-2 
 75-0 
 70-5 
 75-6 
 70-0 
 73-4 
 70-0 
 830 
 83-0 
 80-4 
 80-5 
 81-5 
 80-0 
 80-0 
 820 
 82-2 
 84-0 
 81-3 
 83-7 
 80-0 
 86-0 
 81-0 
 76 
 87-0 
 84-7 
 850 
 88-4 
 87-0 
 88 5 
 90-5 
 88-0 
 S8-0 
 92-5 
 81-5 
 80-0 
 800 
 78-0 
 7S-0 
 86-7 
 72-0 
 
 7'5 
 
 9-2 
 
 97 
 
 117 
 
 13'5 
 
 11-2 
 
 10'2 
 
 11-1 
 
 12-3 
 
 1 13'5 
 
 ' 15-3 
 
 14-5 
 
 12'2 
 
 14'4 
 
 13-3 
 
 13'5 
 
 14'2 
 
 19'8 
 
 12-0 
 
 3-5 
 4-5 
 30 
 3'0 
 2-2 
 3'4 
 3'6 
 3-6 
 4'6 
 3-3 
 3'0 
 3-5 
 27 
 30 
 3-2 
 3-5 
 1-2 
 1'4 
 1'2 
 1-2 
 2-3 
 2-4 
 2-3 
 3'3 
 2'9 
 2'5 
 2'8 
 2-1 
 1-3 
 1'4 
 1-9 
 1-1 
 1-4 
 0-4 
 I'O 
 3'3 
 2-0 
 2'3 
 2-1 
 2-9 
 3-2 
 
 33-6 
 29-2 
 26-3 
 21-9 
 19-3 
 22-9 
 80-2 
 28-9 
 260 
 240 
 22-2 
 25-6 
 30-4 
 380 
 27-1 
 22-0 
 25-6 
 23-4 
 22-2 
 
 4-0 
 4-0 
 6-0 
 9-5 
 11-4 
 101 
 7-1 
 10-6 
 2-8 
 4-6 
 6-8 
 6-0 
 6-2 
 5-2 
 6-5 
 6-6 
 4-7 
 4-7 
 4-9 
 8-2 
 
 e-3 
 
 4-2 
 6-5 
 7-9 
 4-2 
 2-4 
 1-4 
 1-6 
 1-1 
 1-2 
 1-8 
 0-9 
 11 
 
 i's 
 
 3-4 
 1-3 
 6-0 
 11 
 1-4 
 13-3 
 
 ,38-2 
 397 
 41-2 
 42-3 
 40'5 
 40-6 
 3S-1 
 377 
 38'2 
 37-1 
 35'8 
 33'9 
 32-6 
 27'9 
 34-2 
 35-6 
 32-8 
 28-5 
 36-6 
 
 97 
 
 lO'l 
 
 13'1 
 
 141 
 
 8'8 
 
 13-4 
 
 12-1 
 
 12'8 
 
 7'2 
 
 7'0 
 
 8'9 
 
 7'2 
 
 7'3 
 
 8'9 
 
 8-2 
 
 6-6 
 
 10'3 
 
 8-4 
 
 ll'O 
 
 5'1 
 
 97 
 
 6-4 
 
 8-3 
 
 10-4 
 
 37 
 
 81 
 
 8-2 
 
 5-2 
 
 9'5 
 
 8'2 
 
 4'0 
 
 91 
 
 8-5 
 
 5-9 
 
 15-4 
 
 9-8 
 
 15-5 
 
 97 
 
 207 
 
 61 
 
 8-2 
 
 3-4 
 4-6 
 5-4 
 7-4 
 9-i 
 7-1 
 51 
 6-7 
 70 
 8-5 
 
 10-7 
 8-1 
 6-2 
 9-4 
 7-6 
 8-5 
 9-4 
 
 16-1 
 7-6 
 
 0'8 
 10 
 0-8 
 0'8 
 0'4 
 1-0 
 1-0 
 I'O 
 0-9 
 07 
 0'6 
 0'8 
 07 
 11 
 0-6 
 0'6 
 OS 
 0-5 
 0'3 
 0'4 
 07 
 0'6 
 0'5 
 0-8 
 0'6 
 07 
 0'8 
 0'5 
 01 
 0-2 
 0-5 
 01 
 0-2 
 
 o-i 
 
 0-8 
 0-2 
 1-0 
 0'2 
 0'9 
 
 i-r 
 
 34-9 
 36-4 
 411 
 41-7 
 42-8 
 41-6 
 85-8 
 37-9 
 38-1 
 38-2 
 37-6 
 36-9 
 84-9 
 28-3 
 36-8 
 86-2 
 82-5 
 311 
 86-8 
 
 1-6 
 1-5 
 
 1-; 
 
 1-9 
 2-0 
 1-8 
 2-0 
 1-5 
 1-3 
 
 i'i 
 
 11 
 
 1-0 
 20 
 2-0 
 1-0 
 2-1 
 2-2 
 
 0-5 
 0-6 
 0-9 
 1-8 
 1-5 
 1-4 
 0-8 
 10 
 1-2 
 1-7 
 31 
 2'0 
 1-4 
 1-0 
 1-4 
 2-8 
 1-6 
 1-4 
 l-£ 
 
 0-4 
 0'6 
 0-4 
 
 0-5 
 0-4 
 0-4 
 0-6 
 0-6 
 0-4 
 0-5 
 0-3 
 0-7 
 0-3 
 0-g 
 0-2 
 
 0-3 
 0-4 
 0-2 
 0-4 
 0-4 
 0-4 
 0-4 
 0-3 
 0-1 
 
 6-2 
 0-1 
 
 O'l 
 0-4 
 0-2 
 0-3 
 0-2 
 0-6 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 
 
 155 
 
 Kind of Fodder. 
 
 SILOED FODDERS. 
 
 Bed clover, Q-ermau 
 
 „ American 
 
 Olover and sainfoin, Mr. Gibson's ... 
 Clover and grass, Vicomte Ohezelles 
 
 „ „ Mr. Eclsersley's... 
 
 „ „ Mr. Earle's 
 
 >> „ Mr. Fry's 
 
 „ ^ Mr. Scott's 
 
 Grass, Lord Walslngliam's, No. 1 ... 
 
 „ do. No. 3 
 
 „ do. No. 3 
 
 „ Lord Egerton's, No. 1 
 
 „ do. No. 2 
 
 „ do. No. S 
 
 „ Mr. Duncan's 
 
 „ Mr. Fry's 
 
 „ Mr. Grant's 
 
 „ Mr. Smith of Wilmslow 
 
 Bye Grass, Glasnevin. No. 1 
 
 do. No. 2 
 
 Eye, American (Dr. Voelcker) 
 
 ,, Mr. Gibson's 
 
 Maize, German 
 
 „ American (Dr. Voelcker) 
 
 „ do. average of eleven analyses 
 
 „ Lord Walsingham's 
 
 „ M. Goilart's (p. 181) 
 
 „ Prof. Moser's, 17in. (p. 180)... 
 
 „ do. 34in. (do.) ... 
 
 „ do. No. 2 (do.) 
 
 „ M. Oottu's, 1877 
 
 „ do. 1880 
 
 Spurrey, Lord Walsingham's 
 
 Sainfoin, German 
 
 „ (M. Oottu's) 
 
 Artichoke leaves (do.) 
 
 „ tubers (do.) 
 
 Swede turnip roots (fermented) 
 
 Sugar beet leaves 
 
 Potato tops 
 
 79-2 
 79-2 
 57-6 
 60-3 
 75-0 
 78-1 
 75-8 
 79-1 
 74-3 
 65-9 
 78-6 
 68-7 
 66-8 
 78-6 
 78-4 
 74-4 
 70-4 
 81-4 
 66-6 
 68-1 
 76-2 
 72-6 
 83-5 
 82-4 
 82-0 
 86-3 
 81-3 
 57-6 
 77-8 
 80-7 
 830 
 77-7 
 73-5 
 62-5 
 74-5 
 651 
 78-5 
 84-6 
 80-0 
 77-0 
 
 Oesanio 
 Substances. 
 
 4-2 
 
 7'9 
 9'1 
 3'1 
 2-6 
 2-5 
 2-2 
 3-0 
 3-6 
 2-8 
 3'0 
 3-4 
 2-1 
 2'2 
 2-6 
 4-1 
 25 
 2-8 
 2-6 
 1-8 
 2-0 
 1-2 
 1-3 
 
 VI 
 1-2 
 1'9 
 1-0 
 0-8 
 1-2 
 I'O 
 2-4 
 9'8 
 4-6 
 2-4 
 1-6 
 1-4 
 3-0 
 2-9 
 
 5-9 
 
 23-3 
 14-3 
 S-.5 
 8-0 
 7-S 
 6-3 
 6-5 
 9-2 
 8-1 
 
 6-4 
 
 7 
 18-6 
 13'4 
 7-4 
 12' 
 10' 
 13'0 
 17-7 
 10'9 
 ll'l 
 15-4 
 7-4 I 8-0 
 6-2 i 10'3 
 8-7 , 12' 
 13-0 
 7-0 
 
 S-5 
 6-8 
 
 11-3 I 15-2 
 
 10-1 
 110 
 9-7 
 6-3 
 6-1 
 
 si 
 
 4-9 
 18-3 
 10-4 
 8-4 
 4-4 
 8-2 
 8-8 
 15-4 
 6-0 
 7-3 
 2-3 
 1-7 
 2-7 
 4-7 
 
 14'8 
 
 9-6 
 
 13' 
 
 8'0 
 
 8'5 
 
 4'8 
 
 lO'O 
 
 16'6 
 
 7-5 
 
 6-8 
 
 9-6 
 
 13'9 
 
 10'2 
 
 16-7 
 
 11'4 
 
 20-8 
 
 14-8 
 
 10-8 
 
 9-0 
 
 7-5 
 
 2-2 
 
 l" 
 
 |2'1 
 O'S 
 
 \Vb 
 
 3 
 
 '6 
 0'7 
 0-9 
 0-8 
 2'3 
 1-8 
 0'9 
 I'l 
 2 
 
 0-8 
 0-7 
 0-8 
 0-8 
 0'9 
 
 •6 
 0'9 
 1-6 
 
 0-4 
 0'4 
 1'9 
 
 ri 
 ri 
 
 0-5 
 0-4 
 1-5 
 2'3 
 0-6 
 0-4 
 0'2 
 0'2 
 1'2 
 2-6 
 
 DlflBSTIBIiIS 
 
 Nutrients. 
 
 ^3, 
 
 28». 
 30s. 
 60s. 
 66j. 
 26s. 
 20j. 
 21s. 
 18s. 
 24s. 
 26j. 
 21s. 
 25s. 
 26s. 
 18s. 
 20s. 
 21s. 
 29s. 
 18s. 
 21s. 
 23s. 
 17s. 
 19s. 
 14s. 
 16s. 
 17s. 
 lis. 
 14$. 
 24s. 
 14s. 
 12«. 
 13s. 
 14s. 
 22s. 
 56s. 
 29s. 
 24s. 
 21s. 
 20s. 
 18s. 
 16s. 
 
 The three columns whioli give the constituents containing 
 the nutritive materials in the provender are printed in more 
 conspicuous type. These nutrients are not of equal money- 
 value ; the albumenoids and fat being worth about 2|-d. for 
 each pound digested, whereas the carbo-hydrates, including 
 digestible fibre, are worth about one-fifth of that amount, or 
 ^d. per lb. 
 
 Where the figures stand across two columns, the "fatty 
 matters^' are not separated from the other carbohydrates in 
 Dr. Voelcker^s analyses. In two of the lines with reference 
 
 L* 2 
 
156 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 to mangolds, we have included Dr. Cameron's analyses of 
 average-sized and extremely large roots, in order to show that 
 the feeding value varies with roots as well as with silage, and 
 that there is comparatively little nutriment in huge watery 
 specimens, although heavy manuring may produce a greater 
 number of tons per acre. 
 
 Results op Feeding Experiments. 
 
 A cattle-feeding experiment carried out by Mr. Stobart at 
 Pepper Arden is described by his agent, Mr. Basdale, at 
 page 208, where a table is given showing the weights of the 
 animals before and after the experiment. Twelve beasts 
 received 111b. each daily of meal and cake, but six of them 
 were allowed 24^1b. of hay and 961b. of turnips, while the 
 remainder had 751b. of silage. At the end of three weeks 
 the latter had increased in weight 4|cwt. and the former 
 4cwt. Iqr. 71b., being a difference of 491b. in favour of the 
 animals fed upon silage ; i. e., rather more than 81b. each for 
 the whole period, or about 6oz. each per day. Some conclusions 
 which Mr. Basdale arrived at were taken exception to by 
 Mr. T. Parry, in the Farmer's Gazette, as follows : 
 
 Mr. Easdale contends tliat this experiment proves tlte superiority of 
 ensUage over the quantities of hay and turnips specified above, leaving 
 " a considerable something to spare besides." Very well, let us examine 
 the facts. 
 
 In Lot A, 13321b. of live weight increased, on an average in 21 days, 
 88'61b., while in Lot B 10821b. of live weight, on an average in 21 days, 
 made an increase of SO'Slb. in live weight. If we reduce these different 
 increments into a " common denomination," we shall find the relative 
 increase in each case. In Lot A every 1001b. live weight increased 6'61h. 
 in 21 days, while every 1001b. live weight in Lot B increased 7'51b. in the 
 same period — showing a difference of 12 per cent, in favour of hay and 
 turnips. Mr. Easdale's contention, therefore, hopelessly falls to the 
 ground. 
 
 I would also point out that the omission of various details, such as the 
 proportions and kinds of cake and meal given to the beast, the kinds of 
 hay, the ages of the stock, and their recent history — these, combined with 
 the rather serious difEerenee in the total weights of each lot, are calculated 
 to vitiate the accuracy of the experiment, and in this particular case as a 
 test of the nutritive value of ensilage. 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 157 
 
 We agree witli Mr. Parry that the omission of various 
 details, and the differences in the weights of the animals, have 
 a tendency to vitiate the accuracy of the experiment. But the 
 result is not quite so bad as appears from his letter ; for, by 
 some accident, he has put the average weight of Lot A as 
 1001b. more than it should be, and that of Lot B as 191b. too 
 little; seeing that 66cwt., or 73921b., give 12321b. as the 
 average of the six animals in the former lot, and 59cwt., or 
 66081b. give the average of the latter as 11011b. If these 
 errors be rectified, Lot B, when the increase is calculated on 
 every 1001b. of live weight, still have an advantage, but, 
 instead of its being 12 per cent, in favour of hay and turnips, 
 it is only 2 per cent. (It may be well here to point out, in 
 order to prevent confusion, that Lot A of Mr. Parry's letter 
 is the second lot in the table as printed in Mr. Basdale's 
 letter on page 208, where Lot B is placed first.) 
 
 Agreeing, as we do, with Mr. Parry, that the increment in 
 animals of different weight ought to be reduced to a common 
 basis of comparison, we should not have reproduced his 
 remarks merely for the purpose of pointing out an inaccuracy 
 in the figures. We wish, however, to show that, in order to 
 form a reliable estimate of the improvement of animals that 
 vary in size, it is necessary, not only to take into consideration 
 the relative increase on original live weight at the beginning 
 of the experiment, but also to allowance the fooA in propor- 
 tion to that weight. Such, however, was not done in the 
 experiment now under consideration. The animals in Lot B 
 received the same quantities of meal and cake as the heavier 
 beasts in Lot A ; and, with respect to the rest of the dietary, 
 the smaller beasts had much the greater amount of food. 
 This may not be obvious at first sight ; but if we examine the 
 quantities more closely we shall find such to be the case. 
 
 Lot B received 24|-lb. of hay, which, at the average amount 
 of moisture in hay (15 per cent.) would consist of about 3|-lb. 
 of water and 211b. of dry material. They also received 951b. 
 of turnips, which, with 88 per cent, of moisture, would contain 
 about 841b. of water, and 111b. of dry matter. Accordingly, 
 
158 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 each of the animals in Lot B received 321b. of dry feeding 
 material per diem^ besides the meal and cake. 
 
 Lot A received 751b. of silage ; and by Mr. Jenkins's report 
 it appears that a sample of Mr. Stobart's silage contained 
 76 per cent, of water. At this rate 751b. of silage would consist 
 of 671b. of water and 181b. of dry matter. Consequently there 
 would be 31b. less dry feeding material in the 751b. of silage 
 than in the 24|lb. of hay alone^ and 141b. less than in the hay 
 and turnips together. 
 
 If these two lots of animals had been fed in proportion to 
 their weighty Lot B would have had more than one-tenth of 
 their supply of meal and cake cut off ; and their allowance of 
 hay and turnips would have been reduced one half, seeing that 
 they were receiving in this form 321b. of dry feeding matter, 
 whereas their proper proportion was only 161b. On the other 
 hand, if 321b. was not too much for Lot B, then 361b. was the 
 proportionate quantity for Lot A, and they were entitled to 
 double the amount of silage they received, or to an equivalent 
 in some other supplementary food. Indeed, if anything, the 
 quantity should be greater, as, weight for weight, the dry 
 constituents of swedes stand higher in feeding value than 
 those of grass or hay ; and it is with respect to the dry con- 
 stituents of the food that the above remarks are made. 
 
 Taking these circumstances into consideration, there seems 
 little ground for surprise that Lot A did not make greater 
 progress in comparison with their live weight ; the surprising 
 matter is that they increased as they did, and to the extent 
 shown in the following table : 
 
 ATorage Weight Average Weight Increase in Increase 
 
 on Nov. 17. on Deo. 8. 21 days. per diem. 
 
 Lot A ... 12321b. ... 13281b 961b., or 7-19 per cent. ... 41b. 4oz. 
 
 Lot B ... llOUb. ... 11821b 811b., or 7-34 per cent. ... 31b. 14oz. 
 
 The percentage of relative increase in Lot A is, as previously 
 remarked, a httle lower than in Lot B, but the actual increase 
 in the silage-fed beasts was highest by 6oz. a day, though 
 receiving much less feeding matter in their rations. The 
 conclusion that we arrive at is, that the effect of the silage 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 159 
 
 was not confined to its own nutrient qualities, but that there 
 were certain constituents in it which enabled the beasts to 
 digest more thoroughly the 111b. of cake and meal, and thus 
 to extract more nutriment from the lesser quantity of feeding 
 matter. The benefit derived from food lies, not in the quantity 
 that is eaten, but in the quantity that is digested. 
 
 That such an effect as is here indicated is produced by 
 mixing silage with other food is, we think, clearly proved by 
 the evidence of various experiments. Prom what we have 
 said at page 25, and the estimates given at pp. 155-6, it will 
 be obvious that we consider maize to be of comparatively 
 low feeding value, when regarded as a sole article of diet ; 
 nevertheless we cannot overlook the consequences of an 
 admixture of maize silage with other food, as shown by the 
 result of the experiment carried on with Lord Walsingham's 
 cows, and detailed by Mr. Woods in his South Kensington 
 lecture. We have, on the one hand, the figures of Mr. Sutton^a 
 analyses, stating the constituents of the maize before and 
 after ensilage ; and, on the other, we have Mr. Woods' tables 
 showing the quantity of milk and proportion of cream given 
 day by day with the different dietary, and can see the effect 
 produced by the change from one dietary to another. Either 
 we must conclude that these figures are fictitious (which we 
 are not at all disposed to believe), or we must suppose that 
 the maize silage had an influence over and above the amount 
 of nutriment inherent to itself, and that that influence was 
 shown in its turning other portions of the rations to more 
 profitable account. 
 
 At the time of entering upon the trial two cows were 
 receiving a daily allowance of 61b. maize meal, 81b. bran, and 
 30Ib. chaff (mixed hay and straw). The weight of the respec- 
 tive animals and their daily produce of milk and proportion 
 of cream were as follows : 
 
 Weight. Milk Average. Oream. 
 
 Lady Manchester ... 48st 114 quarts 11° 
 
 Spark4th 56st 11 „ 11° 
 
 On Jan. 10 the dietary was altered, and both animals 
 
160 8ilos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 received 81b. maize meal, 21b. bran, and 101b. chaff (straw), in 
 addition to whicli Lady Manchester had 421b. of maize silage, 
 while Spark 4th had 701b. of Swedes. 
 
 Lady Manchester continued to receive her dietary of silage, 
 &c., for twenty-eight days. Spark 4th received the swedes 
 for twenty-two days, and for the other six days she had 
 exactly the same food as Lady Manchester, the silage being 
 substituted for swedes. The average produce of milk and 
 cream of the two animals, and their respective weights at the 
 end of the four weeks, were as follows : 
 
 Lady Manchester (28 days) . 
 Spark 4tli (22 days) 
 
 Weight. 
 .. 62st. ... 
 
 .. 58st. ... 
 
 Milk Average. 
 . . . 14|- quarts . . . 
 ... 12i „ ... 
 ... 15i „ ... 
 
 Cream. 
 
 ... m° 
 
 12*° 
 
 Ditto (6 days) 
 
 ... 13° 
 
 By comparing this and the last table it is seen that at the 
 end of the time Lady Manchester weighed 4st.j or 561b., 
 more than at the beginning, having increased 21b. a day on 
 the average. With Spark 4th the increment was only half as 
 great, as she was 281b. heavier at the end of the month, and 
 thus had increased lib. a day on the average ; but how much 
 of that increase occurred while she was on turnips, and how 
 much on silage, does not appear on the record. 
 
 With regard to the milk supply, however, the information 
 is more explicit. Lady Manchester gave 2\ quarts more milk 
 a day on the average of the month, and the cream rose from 
 11° to 14°. Spark 4th gave an increase of IJ quarts a day on 
 the average during the time she had the swedes, the cream 
 rising from 11° to 12 i°; but during the six days in which the 
 swedes were changed for silage there was a farther increase 
 of 3 to 3i quarts a day, while the cream rose to 13° j so 
 that, whereas she had always been lowest in quantity of milk 
 previously, she " came with a bound " on receiving the silage, 
 and surpassed her rival by 3 pints a day, although she did 
 not attain the same level as regards proportion of cream. 
 
 Evidently, therefore, there must have been something ia 
 the silage to produce so marked a difference of result ; and 
 the question is, what is that something ? So far as regards 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 160a 
 
 the mere quantity of nutriment in the two kinds of provender, 
 Mr. Sutton's analyses show that the advantage was greatly in 
 favour of the swedes. Instead of taking mere percentages, 
 let us change the figures so as to represent the actual quanti- 
 ties given to the animals in their daily rations, viz., 421b. of 
 maize silage and 701b. of swedes respectively ; then the pro- 
 portions of water and other constituents stand as follows : 
 
 Maize Silage. Swedes. 
 
 Albumenoids (flesli formers) 0-481b 0-971b. 
 
 Carbo-hydrates (sugar, gum, &c.) ... 1'77 5'71 
 
 Fatty matters O'lS 0-15 
 
 Woody fibre 2-13 0-86 
 
 Ash 0-97 0-37 
 
 Acetic and lactic acids 0'23 O'OO 
 
 6-76 806 
 
 Water 36-24 61-94 
 
 Total 421b. 701b. 
 
 We here find that the chemical constituents in the first 
 three liaes — on which the nutritive value of the provender is 
 estimated — are very much higher ia the allowance of swedes 
 than in the allowance of silage. The albumenoids in the 
 swedes are twice as high as in the silage, the carbo-hydrates 
 more than three times as great, and the fatty matters nearly 
 equal; while the indigestible woody fibre and ash are 
 exceedingly abundant in the silage, forming more than one 
 half of its entire solid matter. 
 
 If, however, there is so much less nutriment in the silage 
 than in the turnips, it may be asked. What is it that causes 
 such an improvement in results ? 
 
 On looking over the constituents of the silage, it will be 
 seen that there is a certain item which has no corresponding 
 quantity in the swedes. There is 0-231b., or nearly 4oz., of 
 acetic and lactic acid in the one, and none whatever in the 
 other. Excluding the water in the silage, nearly one- 
 twentieth of its whole weight consists of the acids; and 
 here we may probably find a clue to the mystery. Lactic 
 acid is a very powerful solvent of food ; and its effect would 
 
160 B . SUos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 not be limited to tlie silage in whicli it is formed, but it 
 would Hkewise assist in the digestion of otber portions of the 
 provender given to the animals. In the 421b. of silage there 
 waSj as shown in the table, less than 61b. of solid matter; but 
 this was supplemented by 81b. of maize meal, 21b. of bran, 
 and 101b. of straw chaff, or 201b. altogether; so that the 
 silage formed only about one-fourth of the entire quantity of 
 solid food contained in the daily dietary. The whole of this 
 additional 201b. would not be utilised under ordinary circum- 
 stances ; for, as will be seen by reference to the particulars 
 given by Mr. Woodland Toms on page 173, a very large pro- 
 portion of some of the most nutritious constituents of the food 
 will generally pass through the animal undigested. If, then, 
 the solvent action of the acids contained in the silage enables a 
 larger portion of the meal, bran, and straw to be digested, the 
 animal that receives the silage may obtain a much larger 
 amount of nutriment from its daily dietary, although the 
 whole of that additional nutriment may not be directly derived 
 from the silage itself. 
 
 Another ground for believing that the advantageous effects, 
 produced by the silage are not due merely to its own nutrient 
 qualities, is to be found in the fact that, in various 
 instances, when the quantity of silage has been increased 
 beyond certain limits, the animals have fallen off in condition, 
 although the amount of meal or hay withdrawn was apparently 
 not disproportionate to the extra quantity of silage given. 
 One may readily understand that a limited amount of some 
 condiment may serve as an aid to digestion, yet that, by 
 unduly increasing the condiment and reducing the other 
 articles of diet, deterioration would ensue, instead of 
 improvement. 
 
 It is very probable that some of the conflicting accounts of 
 results of feeding experiments with silage may be due to the 
 different quantities of acids produced in the fodder; for the 
 greater the acidity in the product, the less would it be fitted 
 to become a sole article of diet. Maize is likely to produce a 
 much greater amount of acid than many other crops ; and as 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 160 o 
 
 maize silage is given as an exclusiTO article of diet by some 
 American farmers, it is not surprising ttat bad results a.re 
 reported from time to time ; for an animal may thrive on 201b. 
 of acid silage mixed witli meal, &c., but may do very badly 
 on 1001b. of the same silage and no meal. Further investiga- 
 tion is required to trace the effect of different methods of 
 ensilage in producing the various acids, lactic, acetic, and 
 butyriCj as well as their influence on the digestion of the 
 animals ; but where very large quantities of silage are given 
 daily with satisfactory results it seems probable that the pro- 
 portion of acid is comparatively small. 
 
 An experiment in fattening cattle which is rather remark- 
 able for the very large quantity of silage that was given to 
 the animals was carried out by M. Mviere, whose experiment, 
 in the slow filling of his silo is narrated at page 116. He 
 gave in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique of March 22, 1883, 
 an account of the feeding of two bullocks, of the Charolais 
 breed, on some Trifolium incarnatum which he had siloed. 
 The daily rations per head were regulated as follows : 
 
 Trifolium Bilage. Cotton cake. 
 
 Dec. 1 to 15 60 kilos (1321b.) 
 
 Dec. 15 to Jan. 15 50 kilos (1101b.) 3 kilos (6^1b.) 
 
 Jan. 15 to March 6 40 kilos (881b.) 4^ kilos (101b.) 
 
 M. Niviere states that the cake was first soaked in water, 
 and given at each meal in the form of a soft paste. One 
 animal he sold on Feb. 20, and the other on March 16. The 
 live weight of the two beasts at the commencement of the 
 experiment was 1403 kilos (30911b.) ; the fattening was 
 carried on for 81 days with one and for 95 days with the 
 other, making a total of 176, or an average of 88 days each; 
 and the daily increase was 1034 grammes, or 21b. 4|oz. 
 each. 
 
 In the same journal, on May 15, 1884, M. Niviere gives the 
 result of his feeding experiments with the crop siloed in June, 
 1883, which consisted of mixed grasses (described on p. 116), 
 cut in full flower. Besides affording provender for working 
 bullocks, milch cows, &c., this silage formed the basis of 
 
160d 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 nutrition of fourteen fatting beasts. The average weight of 
 these animals was 555 kilos (12241b.) ; they cost 70f. the 
 quintal {M. per lb. or 3s. 6d. per stone) live weight, and were 
 sold at 78f . (3s. lO^d. per stone) weighed and delivered on the 
 farm. Their rations were 71b. of silage for every 1001b. of 
 live weight, besides 3i kilos (71b. 2oz.) of cotton cake per head, 
 and nothing more. The mean duration of the time of fattening 
 was 61 days, and the increment per head per day was 1047 
 grammes (21b. 5oz.) 
 
 At pp. 276-280 we have given particulars of the ensilage 
 experiments carried out by Mr. Edwards at the St. Alban's 
 Dairy Farm. It is stated at the end that feeding experiments 
 were to be carried out under the superintendence of Sir John 
 Lawes, but at the time those pages were printed the results 
 had not been make known. Since then (in the Live Stock 
 Journal of May 9, 1884) a most elaborate series of tables has 
 been published ; and these we propose now to summarise. 
 
 Three lots of cows, seven in each lot, were selected, and 
 fed before the commencement of the experiment on 41b. cotton 
 cake, 41b. maize meal, 21b. bran, 101b. oat straw, 211b. grains, 
 and 241b. cabbage. Omitting minute fractions, the dietary 
 and produce during two months' trial were as follows : 
 
 Lot 1. — Comparative food : 181b. chaff and 451b. mangold per head 
 
 per day. 
 
 Week ending 
 
 Cotton 
 Cake. 
 
 Maize 
 Meal. 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Chatf. 
 
 Man- 
 gold. 
 
 Total 
 Food. 
 
 MUk 
 per day. 
 
 Dec. 11, 1883 
 
 ,. 18, „ 
 
 lb. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 lb. 
 
 19i 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 lb. 
 
 154 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 46 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 
 lb. 
 45 
 
 73 
 73 
 73 
 
 72 
 71 
 71 
 71 
 71 
 71 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 17 9 
 17 2 
 
 „ 25, „ 
 
 18 9 
 
 Jan. 1, 1884 
 
 17 7 
 16 4 
 
 „ 15, „ 
 
 15 12 
 
 
 15 12 
 
 „ 29, „ 
 
 15 9 
 
 Feb. 5, „ 
 
 18 13 
 
 „ 6 to 9 
 
 17 11 
 
 
 
 . C Fresh food 
 Average [D^yj^atter 
 
 3-4 
 
 2-9 
 
 8-4 
 8-0 
 
 2-0 
 1-7 
 
 18-2 
 15-2 
 
 44-7 
 5-6 
 
 71-7 
 28-4 
 
 17-0 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 
 
 I6O1 
 
 Lot 2. — Comparative food : 14'41b. ohafE and GOflb. mangold per head 
 
 per day. 
 
 Week ending 
 
 Cotton 
 Cake. 
 
 Maize 
 Meal. 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Ohalf. 
 
 Man- 
 gold. 
 
 Total 
 food. 
 
 MUk 
 per day. 
 
 Dee. 11, 1883 
 
 lb. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 lb. 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 I5i 
 14i 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 14 
 
 lb. 
 
 36 
 59 
 66 
 62 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 
 lb, 
 
 53 
 
 84 
 90 
 
 86i 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 19 6 
 
 18 9 
 
 „ 25, „ 
 
 18 3 
 
 Jan. 1, 1884 
 
 18 3 
 
 19 1 
 
 „ 15, „ 
 
 20 8 
 
 „ 22, „ 
 
 20 13 
 
 „ 29, „ 
 
 20 16 
 
 Feb. 5, , 
 
 20 8 
 
 6to9 
 
 20 5 
 
 
 
 .„„,„„„ f Fresh food 
 Average [^ry matter 
 
 3-4 
 2-9 
 
 3-4 
 30 
 
 2-0 
 1-7 
 
 14-4 
 11-9 
 
 60'7 
 7-6 
 
 83-9 
 27-1 
 
 1911 
 
 Lot 3. — Comparative food : 401b. silage per head per day. 
 
 Week ending 
 
 Cotton 
 Cake. 
 
 Maize 
 Meal. 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Silage. 
 
 Man- 
 gold. 
 
 Total 
 food. 
 
 Milk 
 per day. 
 
 Dec. 11, 1883 
 
 lb. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 lb. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 lb. 
 291 
 40 
 40 
 
 40 
 40 
 40 
 40 
 40 
 40 
 40 
 
 lb. 
 20 
 
 lb. 
 
 69i 
 
 61i 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 17 6 
 15 14 
 
 „ 26, , 
 
 19 3 
 
 Jan. 1, 1884 
 
 
 
 18 8 
 17 7 
 
 
 16 8 
 
 „ 22, , 
 
 16 14 
 
 
 16 10 
 
 Feb. 6, „ 
 
 15 13 
 
 6 to 9 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 
 
 A „,„„„ r Fresh food 
 Average [j^ry matter 
 
 3-4 
 2-9 
 
 3-4 
 3-0 
 
 2-0 
 1-7 
 
 40 
 19-4 
 
 0-2 
 0-03 
 
 49 
 
 27 
 
 16-4 
 
 Without individualising the animals, they may be briefly 
 described in the foUowiag particulars, to which is appended 
 the average yield of milk of each lot on the day before the 
 experiment began : Average Miik. 
 
 Lot 1. — Seven cows, averaging 24 weeks 3 days since 
 
 calving ^° 3 
 
 Lot 2. — Seven cows, averaging 20 weeks 4 days since 
 
 calving •■■•• ^^ -^* 
 
 Lot 3.— Seven cows, averaging 16 weeks 3 days since 
 
 calving ^° ^^ 
 
160 F 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 From Dec. 4 to Feb. 9 tlie three lots were fed alike as 
 to cake, meal, and bran, but varied as to cbaff, mangold, and 
 silage. The chaff throughout, except on the first day, con- 
 sisted of one-third hay to two-thirds oat straw. 
 
 The average cost of the food per head per week from 
 Dec. 12 to Feb. 9 is estimated as follows : 
 
 
 Cotton 
 Cake. 
 
 Maize 
 Meal. 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Cliafl. 
 
 Man- 
 gold. 
 
 Silage. Total, 
 
 Lotl 
 
 J. d. 
 
 1 4 
 1 4 
 1 4 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1 9 
 1 9 
 1 9 
 
 s. d. 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 3 
 1 9i 
 
 s d. 
 1 4f 
 1 lOf 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4"4i 
 
 s. d. 
 
 7 4i 
 
 Lot 2 :. 
 
 7 5i 
 
 8 li 
 
 Lots 
 
 
 
 Price per ton 
 
 £6 5s. 
 
 £8 5s. 
 
 £5 5s. 
 
 £2. 
 
 lOs. 
 
 £116s. 
 
 
 The price per ton, at the foot of the last table, gives the sums 
 on which the previous calculations of cost were based. The 
 cotton cake was undecorticated ; the chaff was one-third hay 
 at 3Z. per ton and two-thirds oat-straw at 30s. a ton. The 
 value of the silage was calculated by Sir J. B. Lawes in this 
 way : To the dry matter in the silage was added one-fifth- of 
 its weight (to put it on an equality with the hay as regards 
 amount of moisture), and then it was reckoned at the same 
 price as the hay, viz., 3Z. a ton. Mr. Edwards, being of opinion 
 that the calculations of cost of feeding put the silage at a 
 disadvantage, wrote to Sir John Lawes on the subject, and 
 his letter, and the reply thereto, were as follows : 
 
 " Westminster Lod^e, St. Albans, 21st April, 1884. 
 " Dear Sir John, — I am extremely obliged for tbe very exhaustive and 
 complete calculations you have sent me, relating to the experiment of 
 Silage V. Mangolds ; but I should like to draw your attention to one point 
 — namely, that of the ' cost per head ' of each lot of cows. I find you 
 have taken the cost of hay at 3L per load; that is too low, as I am making 
 3Z. 13s. Qd. of the same class of hay in the rickyard. The mangolds you 
 have taken at 10s. per ton; this is also too low, as I bought all the 
 mangold at 17s. per ton delivered at the dairy. The value of the sUage I 
 think you have placed much too high ; I only estimate its value at one- 
 third that of hay. If you were to base your figures on the above, I think 
 you win find that the ' cost per head per week ' is about as follows : — 
 Lot 1, Qs. Qd.; lot 2, 9s. Id. ; lot 3, 7s. Id. My reason for estimating 
 the silage at one-third the value of hay is that I find I had three times 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 
 
 160g 
 
 -the weigtt of silage to ttat of hay per acre. The loss of weight of the 
 grass in the silo was very trifling (if any). I quite agree with you that 
 "the bent grass I used was not succulent enough to make first-rate 
 silage ; therefore, I think that silage made from more succulent grass or 
 maize will prove a valuable addition to a dairy farm. I shall be glad to 
 hear your views as to the above figures. — Tours truly, 
 
 " Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., Rothamsted." " I. BT. Edwaeds. 
 
 " Rothamsted, St. Albans, April 22, 1884. 
 
 " Dear Sir, — In estimating the value of food, we consider it to be the 
 fairest plan to make some allowance for the manure value. When they 
 are consumed on the farm, the manure value of a load of hay is really 
 worth more than 13s. &A. With regard to mangolds, I should estimate 
 the food value at about 10s. per ton, manure value 6s., total, 15s. If you 
 purchased mangolds regularly, I think that you might have them for 15s. 
 per ton. With regard to the value of silage, the calculation was made as 
 follows: 40 X 7 = 280, at 60 per cent, of water = 1401b. ; add 201b. of 
 water, to bring it to hay composition, makes it nearly equal to IJcwt. 
 hay ; so we valued it as hay. It would appear by the various statements 
 that hay -making and ensilage-making cost about the same. Tou can, of 
 course, make any alterations you please in the figures. I hope, if you 
 make ensilage this year, that you will weigh the grass which goes in care- 
 fully. — Tours truly, J. B. Lawes. 
 
 I. N. Edwards, Esq." 
 
 The difference in tte cost per head per week, as estimated 
 "by Sir John Lawes and by Mr. Edwards is shown in the 
 following table : 
 
 Sir J. B. Lawea. 
 
 Mr 
 
 Edwards. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 7 4i 
 
 7 5i 
 
 8 li 
 
 s. d. 
 
 9 6 
 
 9 7 
 7 1 
 
 Lot 1. — Mangold, &c. 
 Lot 2. — Mangold, &c. 
 Lot 3. — Silage, &c. .'. . 
 
 On the question whether, in estimating the cost of the 
 food, a reduction in the price of hay and turnips ought to be 
 made on account of their manurial value, opinions may be 
 allowed to differ; but we think that Sir John Lawes' s mode 
 of estimating the value of the silage is a much more reliable 
 one than that of reckoning it as one-third the value of the 
 hay. Indeed, with grass so dry that the silage contained 
 only about 50 per cent, of water, we do not see how it would 
 
160h 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 he possible to get three times as much silage as hay from the 
 same quantity of herbage. (Eemarks on the proportion of 
 hay to silage will be found on page 108.) 
 
 Some rather curious results are shown in these feeding 
 experiments. When the cows were taken off grains (probably 
 containing more acid than this dry silage) ^ the milk fell off 
 with all three lots, though not in an equal degree, as will be 
 seen by the following figures : 
 
 
 Before the 
 Experiment, 
 
 During the Experiment. 
 
 
 First week. 
 
 Second week. 
 
 Third week. 
 
 Lot 1 
 
 lb, oz, 
 
 19 3 
 19 14 
 18 11 
 
 lb, oz, 
 
 17 9 
 19 6 
 17 6 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 17 2 
 
 18 9 
 15 14 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 18 9 
 
 Lot2 
 
 18 3 
 
 Lots 
 
 19 3 
 
 
 
 In the third week of the experiment, Lot 3 was the only 
 one that had got up to its original quantity. In the fifth 
 week, as will be seen by reference to the previous tables, the 
 amount of cake and meal was reduced, and further reduced in 
 the following week, whereupon Lots 1 and 3 dropped again, 
 the latter especially; but Lot 2, strange to say, although 
 reduced in mangold and chaff as well as cake and meal, gave, 
 for the next five weeks, on the reduced dietary, a larger 
 supply of milk than they had given before. 
 
 This series of experiments, unlike the others, does not 
 redound to the credit of the ensilage process ; but the silage 
 appears to have been of inferior quality. Not only was the 
 grass too dry to produce the best results, but the form of the 
 silo (shown on page 276) was opposed to a proper settlement 
 of the material it contained. Mr. Jenkins says, ia the R.A.S. 
 report : " The cause of so much mould and waste is not far 
 to seek. A glance at the section of the silos will show that 
 they have sloping sides, and therefore the weighted doors 
 could not follow the pitted fodder as sinking progressed. This 
 was made evident as soon as the arrangement was seen, owing to 
 the curious inequalities of surface which the doors presented." 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 160 1 
 
 Among the less elaborate experiments in feeding that have 
 been carried out are the following : 
 
 In Earl Fortescue's experiments (page 240), nine cows were 
 divided into three classes (A, B, and C) and put respectively 
 on the following dietary, each animal receiving one-third of 
 the quantity stated : 
 
 Decorticated cotton cake . , . , 
 
 OlasB A. 
 
 ... 61b 
 
 6 
 
 Class B. 
 
 61b 
 
 6 
 
 Class 0. 
 61b. 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Pollard 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Wheaten straw chaiS 
 
 ... 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Hay 
 
 Grass silage 
 
 ... 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 lOO 
 
 ISO 
 
 For the three weeks from Dec. 26 to Jan. 16, Classes A and 
 B were fed as above stated ; but at the end of a fortnight the 
 experiment was stopped as regards Class C, for the animals 
 lost condition, and fell off in the quantity and quality of the 
 produce as compared with Class B. 
 
 It will be observed that the dietary is alike for all, except 
 in those parts printed in blacker figures. Where 1001b. of 
 silage was substituted for 361b. of hay, there was a slight 
 increase of both milk and butter ; but where another 501b. of 
 silage was substituted for only 161b. of wheaten straw chaff, 
 there was a diminution in quantity, and the butter was ill- 
 flavoured. Prom remarks made in the early part of Lord 
 Bbrington's lecture (page 240), the silage does not appear to 
 have been first-rate ; but it would seem probable that it con- 
 tained acid or other chemical constituents which enabled it 
 to educe from the remainder of the dietary some amount of 
 nutriment over and above that contained by itself, and that 
 this only operated within certain limits, beyond which the 
 effect might be detrimental. Except for some such qualities 
 it would be difficult to account for the fact that, on the one 
 hand 1001b. of silage gave a better effect than 361b. of hay, 
 and, on the other, that 501b. of silage gave a worse effect than 
 161b. of straw ; for we can hardly expect wheat straw to be 
 12 per cent, more nutritious than hay. 
 
 L ** 
 
160j 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Mr. Poabery-j agent to the Earl of Warwick, gives 
 (page 256) particulars of a feeding experiment with two lots 
 of four cows each, which had been giving as nearly as possible 
 the same results when fed on 401b. of pulped mangold, 151b. 
 of hay chaff, and 61b. of palm-nut cake and bean-flour mixed. 
 During the experiment. Lot 1 were continued on the same 
 food as before, but Lot 2 received 201b. to 301b. of sUage 
 (according to their appetites) in lieu of the 401b. of mangold. 
 The results of the three weeks of trial were as follows : 
 
 LOT 1. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Milk. 
 
 lb. 
 
 . 791i .. 
 .. 811i .. 
 
 .. 7671 .. 
 
 Percentage 
 of Cream. 
 
 LOT 2. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Milk. 
 
 lb. 
 
 .. 975 .. 
 .. 994 .. 
 .. 1000^ .. 
 
 Percentag 
 of Cream 
 
 First week,... 
 Second „ .... 
 Third „ .... 
 
 .... 59f 
 
 .... 56 
 .... S6i 
 
 First week.... 
 Second „ ... 
 Third „ ... 
 
 ... S3 
 ... 61i 
 ... 53} 
 
 Average . 
 
 .. mi .. 
 
 .... 57i 
 
 Average 
 
 .. 989f ., 
 
 ... 52| 
 
 Accordingly, the average daily produce of the cows in 
 Lot 1, that were fed on mangold, was 28^1b. of milk, or about 
 11-|- quarts J that of Lot 2, fed upon silage, was 35-|^lb. or 
 14 quarts a day, being an increase of one-fourth. The 
 per-centage of cream, it will be seen, was less in Lot 2 ; but 
 the total quantity of cream was greater, it being about one- 
 seventh more than that of Lot 1. 
 
 Mr Harris (p. 238) gave in a letter in the Field the follow- 
 ing particulars of the quantity of silage eaten by young cattle 
 in mid -winter : " I ordered six North Devon yearlings to be 
 let out for about four or five Jiours every day in a field with 
 other cattle, where there was nothing beyond the ordinary 
 winter bite of grass. They had two feeds in the morniug, and 
 two more in the evening. The ensilage was carefully weighed 
 out every day (1801b. for the six yearlings), and each day they 
 failed to eat the whole ; the remainder was each day set aside. 
 At the end of the seventh day there remained 1001b. weight 
 of ensilage. The result proves that each yearling ate some- 
 thing less than 281b. a day. They were looking very well at 
 the end of the week, and seemed quite satisfied with their 
 daily rations, which will be continued in the same way as long 
 as my ensilage lasts." 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 160k 
 
 Mr Jolmson says (p. 215), "For the last two montlis I have 
 been feeding sixteen bullocks and heifers on nothing but 
 ensilage and 61b. daily of cake and meal ; and the result is, I 
 consider, at least a dead heat between them and similar 
 bullocks on the same allowance of cake and meal, and turnips 
 and hay ad lib." 
 
 Mr G-. Broderick says (p. 219), " I have been feeding milk 
 cows entirely on ensilage, and others of similar age and size 
 entirely on hay, and I find that those on hay eat on an average 
 281b. per day each, and those on ensilage eat 661b. per day, 
 and thrive better than those on hay." Mr Broderick calculates 
 that the 281b. of hay represents 1121b. of grass, and the 661b. 
 of silage not more than 701b. of grass, and concludes that 
 there is a gain of over 30 per cent. 
 
 The Rev. 0. H. Ford says (p. 225) that " Ensilage has not 
 increased the quantity of milk as he expected," but that " if 
 you calculate the cost of ensilage, it will show a favourable 
 comparison with any other food whatever." 
 
 Mr Hunting's experiment (p. 303) at first appeared likely 
 to have a disastrous resulb ; for the cows that received 281b. a 
 day of silage became seriously constipated in their bowels, and 
 the milk supply fell off one half. The quantity of silage was 
 then reduced to 141b., and 141b. of pulped turnips added, 
 whereupon the ordinary yield of milk was brought back, 
 vnthout being either richer or poorer. The silage given in 
 this case appears to have been some which was pitted in 
 a wretched condition, having been originally intended for 
 stacking, but, owing to bad weather, it lay on the ground and 
 was soaked by rain for several weeks, and eventually was put 
 into the silo. The washed-out condition of this fodder will 
 probably account for the unsatisfactory result. 
 
 In Lord Londesborough's experiment, four cows were fed 
 on a mixed diet (stated on page 307), and produced an 
 average of nearly 2l\Vo. or about 11 quarts of milk a day. On 
 281b. of silage being substituted for 181b. of hay and 31b. 
 chopped straw, the milk sUghtly increased (about ilb. or 
 nearly half a pint a day) . Then the mangold was knocked off, 
 
160l Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 and more silage given witli 51b. maize meal^ and the milk 
 increased to 2911). a day, or about 11| quarts; so that the 
 improvement was not very considerable. 
 
 The Marquis of Bute having had a sUo made on his home 
 farm, supplied three of his tenants with silage (grass and 
 clover) for the purpose of experiments in the feeding of their 
 dairy cows. The details are given at page 324, but the 
 results may be summarised here. Two cows belonging to 
 one of the tenants were fed for a fortnight on the first of the 
 two kinds of dietary stated below, and during the next fort- 
 night 401b. of silage was substituted for all the turnips, and a 
 portion of the hay and chaff, oilcake and beanmeal, the result 
 in the daily average of milk and weekly supply of butter being 
 as follows : 
 
 DrKTAKT. 
 
 Hay and chaff. Turnips. Oilcake. Beanmeal. Silage. 
 
 661b 761b 81b 91b 
 
 141b 61b 81b 401b. 
 
 Peoduob. 
 Milk. Butter. 
 
 2Jgala 61b. 
 
 3 gals 71b. 
 
 Increase 20 p. cent. 17 p. cent. 
 
 Two cows belonging to a second tenant had, during their 
 second fortnight 241b. of the same silage substituted for 101b. 
 of hay, the rest of the dietary remaining as before. The 
 quantity of milk produced is not specified, it being merely 
 stated that there was an increase of three pints per cow when 
 fed on silage ; but it appears that the increase of butter 
 amounted to about 17 per cent. 
 
 The third tenant substituted 901b. of silage for 341b. of hay 
 and 941b. of turnips, with the result of an increase of milk in 
 the first week, and a falling off in the second. The quantities 
 are not given j but the falling off is said to be due to the 
 silage not having kept perfectly — which is not very surprising, 
 seeing that a fortnight's supply had been taken out of the 
 silo at one time. 
 
 In the case of the experiment of Mr. Duncan of Benmore 
 (p. 330), about 120 head of cattle are said to have been 
 feeding on the pitted fodder — the Ayrshire cows getting 451b. 
 corn (oat) silage, 341b. turnips, 51b. of draff (grains), and 61b. 
 
Feeding Qualities of Silage. 160 m 
 
 of straw or chaffy witli the result ttat there was an increase in 
 the yield of milk (quantity not stated) ; while those not giving 
 milk were getting too fatj and the silage had to be reduced 
 accordiagly. Both butter and milk are here said to be 
 dehcious. 
 
 Sir John F. Dillon says (p. 340) that he fed twenty-fiTS 
 heifers on silage, with 81b. of cake and 21b. of hay per diem, 
 and sold them out fat at the end of about nine weeks. One 
 animal was fatted on nothing but silage and 21b. of hay daily. 
 
 Capt. McBride, in an account of his experunents, laid 
 before the County Cork Agricultural Society (p. 344), con- 
 cludes that 201b. of silage is equal to 501b. of roots and 
 cabbage, 21b. of straw, and 101b. of hay. 
 
 Silage foe Hoeses, Sheep, &c. 
 
 In America, cases of sickness and death in horses are 
 alleged to have resulted from feeding on silage. On the other 
 hand many persons state that they have fed their horses on 
 silage with beneficial results. Considering the difference in 
 the product, it is not surprising that there should be conflict- 
 ing reports. The silage used in America is chiefly made from 
 maize, and there apparently are greater differences of quality 
 in it than in silage made from ordinary grass. M. Goffart 
 says : " I can only repeat what I have said a hundred times, 
 that badly siloed maize nourishes the animals badly, and may 
 even become a poison for them." The brown silage described 
 by Mr. Fry appears to be much more acceptable to horses 
 than that which is sour j and it would seem that horses are 
 much less fitted than cows to consume very acid food. 
 
 Sheep have done very well on ensilage in several instances, 
 one of which is described by Mn. Woods at page 267. Pigs 
 are also reported to have thriven on it. And an American 
 correspondent stated that he had found silage of chopped 
 grass very beneficial to poultry. 
 
CHAPTER XL-EFFECT OF SILAGE ON BUTTER, &C. 
 
 A GOOD deal has been said about tbe effect of silage on the 
 quality of milk and butter. As far as our own experience has 
 gone, the quality of the samples we have tasted has been 
 excellent, the butter made in mid- winter having a richness of 
 colour and sweetness of flavour that usually are to be found 
 only in the produce of the summer months. And the great 
 majority of reports we have seen are to a similar effect. 
 Nevertheless, it is beyond question that there have been 
 many complaints of tainted milk and butter, more especially 
 in America, where the silage is usually of maize, and liable to 
 become extremely alcoholic and acid if carelessly made. 
 Groffart says : " Let a farmer show me the butter wiich his 
 silage gives during the winter, and I shall need no other evi- 
 dence to decide on his ability as a siloer.'^ 
 
 Sir John Lawes, in the Agricultural Gazette, quoted some 
 statements from America (see page 353) to show that the 
 quality of the butter was inferior, and Mr. H. Woods, in reply, 
 gave particulars from eighteen British experimentalists as to 
 the results of their experience. Most of them spoke of an 
 improvement in quality, or said the butter was excellent, 
 or never better^ or that there was no deterioration, while only 
 one said " I am not pleased with the butter, as it is always 
 pale in colour." In this case the cows received four parts of 
 barley-straw chaff to one part of silage, so they could not 
 have been overdone with the latter. 
 
 But, although complaints have been rife in America, the 
 great majority of the evidence seems to be favourable, and 
 the bad results, when details are given, are frequently seen to 
 be the result of bad practice. 
 
Effect of Silage on Butter, SfC. I6O0 
 
 In tlie official report of the United States Department of 
 Agricultare are about ninety retains from owners of silos, 
 nearly all of whom report favonrahly as to the influence of 
 silage on dairy produce. About half a dozen content them- 
 selves with saying " No bad effects ; " " Milk sells well ; no 
 fault found with it." But the majority are more explicit^ as 
 will be seen by a few examples here given : 
 
 Improves colour of butter, increases quantity and richness of milk, 
 where ensilage is good. 
 
 Biclier and much pleasanter to the taste ; more lite that produced from 
 pasture. 
 
 The effect on butter was as maried as in the yield of milk, making fnH 
 as much from the same amount of milk, and being nearly as high coloured 
 as summer butter. We have regular customers for our butter ; all said it 
 was the best butter we ever made in the winter, and nearly as good as the 
 best of June butter. 
 
 Good ensilage produces more and better milk and cream, if fed in, 
 connection with a proper aJbuwi/enoid ration, than I have ever been able 
 to get from any other food. No better butter can be made with any feed 
 I know of, except sweet young grass. 
 
 The only adverse reports are as follows, and we append 
 
 statements as to the character of the silage : 
 
 People have complained a little of the taste of the milk and butter ; 
 I do not tbinV it injures either. [The silage was " slightly a«id."] 
 
 Cream did not make so much butter, nor were the colour and flavour 
 equal. [The odour from the silo was " like a whisky stiTL"] 
 
 Ithink, when past acertara stage of fermentation, the ensilage, although 
 relished by the cows, has a tendency to flavour milk and butter like 
 cabbage. 
 
 When milch cows were fed without miving with other foods, there is a 
 tendency to dry them up. When mixed with meal, they gained slightly. 
 [The silage was " sour, apparently a vinegary acid."] 
 
 One cause of taint is mentioned in the " Royal Agricultural 
 Society's Journal " by Mr. J. Swan, who says : " If, through 
 want of care, the milk during milking time or afterwards 
 should be left under the influence of the smeU (of the silo, 
 it will, of course, become impregnated with that, as it 
 would with any other pungent odour. Since I have given 
 strict orders on this point, there has never been the slightest 
 flavour in Tnilk or butter." 
 
CHAPTER XII.-COST OP HAYMAKING V. ENSILAGE. 
 
 It is difficult to make any general statement witL. respect to 
 tte cost of pitting green fodder as compared with that of 
 converting it into hay, because the cartage and other circum- 
 stances vary considerably in different cases. 
 
 As regards the coat, when the grass is unchaffed, Mr. Grant 
 says (p. 231), " I cut and carried in 1881 five acres at 7s. 2d. 
 per acre. In such a season, haymaking a like crop would 
 have cost 11. per acre." Mr. G. Broderick says (p. 219), 
 " The cost of storing green crops may be anywhere between 
 10s. and 20s. an acre, according to crop and circumstances j 
 but, on the whole, I am inclined to think it is cheaper than 
 making hay." Mr. Oakeley (p. 313) had 54 tons cut, carted, 
 and siloed for 4Z. 8s. Sd., or Is. 7fd. per ton. 
 
 As to the cost when the fodder is chopped, there are some 
 rather wide differences. A detailed account (p. 262) of the 
 expenditure at Tatton Park shows it to have been at the rate 
 of nearly 2Z. 12s. an acre. In another elaborate account 
 (p. 277), Mr. Edwards states the cost of haymaking as 
 11. 2s. b^d. per acre, and that of filling the silo 11. 5s. 6c?., 
 including 8s. 6d. for interest on cost of building, &c. Mr. 
 Basdale (p. 299) says what would cost 20s. in haymakiag 
 would cost 24s. to cut and chaff the grass and put it in the 
 silo. Mr. Hunting (p. 302) gives the cost of siloing 70 tons 
 of crops as 15Z. 13s. 6d., or 4s. 6d. per ton. In the R.A.S. 
 Journal, the expense per ton is estimated by Mr. Garrett 
 Taylor at 9s. or 10s. ; Mr. Hoare, about 7s. ; Mr. Swan, 
 5s. 6d. ; Mr. Ashforth, 5s. ; Mr. Fryer, 4s. 9d. ; Mr. Gibson, 
 4s. 7d. ; the Duke of Sutherland, 4s. 3d. ; and Mr. C. G. 
 Johnson, 2s. 9^. per ton. 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OE ENSILAGE.* 
 
 By F. woodland TOMS, F.T.C., F-C.S. 
 
 I. — Practice and Theoet. 
 HiSTOBT acquaints us with the fact that, in times of famine, 
 contagious diseases spring up readily and spread with unusual 
 rapidity ; and if we be now, as scoffers suggest, suffering from 
 " ensilage fever," our susceptibility to its attack may fairly be 
 traced to the unhealthy and impoverished state that has been 
 brought about by repeated failures of the food-getting processes 
 upon which we have hitherto relied. There can be little doubt, I 
 think, that the majority of the experiments made, or about to be 
 made, in this country with respect to ensilage, have had their 
 origin in a paiiiful experience of the shortcomings of the ordinary 
 process of haymaking, rather than in any prior conviction of the 
 innate merits of the silo. And to persons who are thus influenced 
 there undoubtedly has come a very apposite warning in the 
 cautions of those respected authorities, Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. 
 Voelcker. 
 
 What we need is not merely a change, but an improvement — a, 
 relief from ever-impending mischief ; and now, in the lull between 
 the tentative experiments of the past and the more active opera- 
 tions that are promised, it is fitting to sum up and review what 
 we have learnt. It seems to me that some such summiug-up is 
 especially desirable, because, from a want of a standard of com- 
 parison, some persons have styled their experiments " a success,'" 
 whereas their products, when passed through my hands, have 
 proved distinctly inferior to others which have been described in no 
 more glowing terms. Moreover, there have been statements made 
 public which I either know to be wrong from my own observations, 
 
 * These articles formed part of a series which appeared in the Meld, under 
 the title of " Facts about Fodder." Others haTe treated on the chemical 
 effects and deterioration produced hy rain during hay-making, hy fermentation 
 in the stack, &o. The whole are about to be republished in book form. 
 
 M 
 
162 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 or whicli would seem to be so from tlie teacHngs of authorities of 
 experience abroad. 
 
 Our knowledge on this subject is admittedly imperfect as yet, 
 but it is stronger in some directions than in others. To prevent 
 experimenters wasting time on points already thoroughly thrashed 
 out, and to lay bare the points where information is most needed, 
 I have ventured to frame a few leading questions that appear to 
 me to cover the ground that the agriculturist is chiefly interested 
 in. To the best of my ability, answers will be supplied to these 
 questions ; and on those points where the replies are weak, 
 readers are asked to assume that information is wanted, and will 
 be welcomed if supplied. The four test questions are : 
 
 1. Can English fodder plants really be preserved in an edible 
 condition by burying in pits ; and for how long ? 
 
 2. Is the resulting product nutritious and advantageous to the 
 animal ? 
 
 3. Is the method economical to the farmer ? 
 
 4. How does it compare with alternative systems, already 
 familiar to us ? 
 
 No one, I think, who has paid any attention to facts recently 
 brought forward, will deny that, by burying green fodder in 
 pits, it may be maintained in a remarkably good state of pre- 
 servation for months together. The preservation is never absolute 
 or perpetual ; but to obtain the best results it is necessary to tightly 
 pack the green fodder into large smooth-walled silos, and to 
 maintain the mass under a continued pressure of 1001b. or 
 more per square foot ; and " the most energetic compression 
 is always that which gives the best results " (Groffart's book 
 on " Ensilage," pp. 64, 81, 87). 
 
 It is not necessary to add any dry material to the green 
 fodder ; and to add more than 10 per cent., even with a plant 
 containing so much water as maize, is absolutely prejudicial. 
 G-offart distinctly states that he has added straw, not to keep the 
 ensilage good, but to render the straw eatable; and he found 
 that, the greater the proportion of straw mixed with the green 
 fodder, the less time would the mixture keep (p. 60). " A 
 moist condition in ensilage," he says, " instead of being a 
 cause of deterioration, is, on the contrary, indispensable to the 
 good preservation of the stored materials. Maize, in its normal 
 condition, contains about 85 per cent, of water ; and when, by 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 163 
 
 the addition of dry straw, " the proportion of moisture in the 
 mass is brought down below 75 per cent., good preservation 
 is greatly compromised, and soon becomes impossible if you 
 go beyond that " (G-offart, p. 61). In the Journal de V Agri- 
 culture M. Goffart wrote as follows on this subject : " Last 
 winter I tried four experiments in four different silos ; one 
 silo contained pure maize, and in the other three straw was 
 added in different proportions ; and the greater the proportion 
 of straw mixed with the maize, the worse was the preservation." 
 
 Neither should the crops be allowed to partially dry in the field 
 before being put into the silo. " There is no middle term," says 
 M. G-offart ; " the crop must either be thoroughly dried and 
 stacked, or stored with all its moisture, if it is required to 
 be converted into ensilage " (p. 72). 
 
 The fodder may be siloed whilst in a damp condition; and 
 crops have been successfully pitted when dripping with water. 
 Among the authorities for this are M. Lecouteux, editor of 
 the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, the Vicomte de Chezelles, 
 M. G-offart, M. Julien, president of Agricultural Society of 
 Eomorantin, and various American experts, besides correspondents 
 m The Field. The following is an instance given by M. Goffart ; 
 " Last October my silos were filled during frightful weather ; the 
 raia at times fell in torrents ; but the ensilage was perfect never- 
 theless." 
 
 Salt is not necessary for good preservation, though it adds 
 flavour to the mass, and may be added in small quantities— two or 
 three pounds to a ton, so that a cow may get an ounce or so in her 
 daily rations (Goffart, p. 89). In America the use of salt is now 
 abandoned as unnecessary (" Thurber on Ensilage," p. 22), and 
 the excessive amount of salt (21b. to the hundredweight) used in 
 some experiments in this country has been found by practical men 
 to be hurtful, and has been condemned by veterinarians. As 
 salt did not improve the ensilage when the fodder was pitted 
 in good condition, so also it did not stop its spoiling when 
 the crop was discoloured and damaged from being left till it 
 Tvas old and beaten down (Goffart, p. 101). 
 
 A very acid product is not the ideal to be worked up to in 
 making ensilage. In the product that has undergone least change, 
 alcohol and acids are only found in very minute quantities. To 
 obtain the best result, the expulsion of air is necessary, and this 
 
 M 2 
 
164 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 is secured by heavy weighting. When thoroughly well preserved, 
 ensilage is devoid of taste and smell on first being taken out of the 
 pit. The following describes ensilage as it can be made by proper 
 skill, and as it has been _ made of late years by M. Groffart. 
 Formerly he thought fermentation in the pit was necessary, and 
 for many years he did not obtain very successful results ; and it 
 was the marked difference in smell and taste, under his improved 
 method, that made the opening of this silo so noticeable. " I 
 opened," he says, "in April, 1877, my last elliptical silo, which 
 contained more than one hundred tons of maize, pitted in October, 
 1876, or more than seven months previous. It presented one very 
 compact mass of greenish-brown tint, and the temperature did not 
 exceed 10° C. (50° Pahr.) There was no appreciable smell, and, 
 on being put into the mouth, the maize was at that time tasteless ; 
 and the absence of smell and taste produced at first a sensation 
 that was almost disagreeable. I had a few hundredweights of 
 the mass taken out for the next meal of my beasts ; and 
 scarcely was it exposed to contact with the air, than it under- 
 went a veritable metamorphosis. The brownish colour became 
 sensibly greener, and a commencement of alcoholic fermentation 
 was not long in setting in, without, however, exceeding the 
 limits beyond which such fermentation ought not to go. This silo 
 was not completely emptied until the 10th of August, and the 
 maize kept in good condition until the last day " (Groffart, p. 75). 
 
 The above represents what it is desirable to get in this country, 
 and not the intensely acid products that some experimenters have 
 turned out. The " sour fodder " of the Germans and Hungarians, 
 obtained by burying green food in pits with small precautions, is, 
 there is reason to believe, very wasteful, from the fermentation 
 being carried to excess. M. Groffart has "civilised" the primitive 
 " sour fodder " process, and made it worthy of recognition of 
 modern agriculturists by pointing out the advantage of weights 
 (and well-constructed silos to permit the weights to have full 
 effect) in reducing fermentation to a minimum, and thus preserving 
 the food in a condition most approaching its natural state when 
 freshly cut. Its distinctive marks are, that the temperature is kept 
 low, and the proportion of acid and alcohol remain exceedingly 
 small. 
 
 The foregoing extracts epitomise the main features of what 
 M. Goffart recommends, and he, be it mentioned, has made more 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 165 
 
 experiments in, this direction than anyone else. He has given 
 to the term " ensilage " a world-wide repute in connection with 
 the storage of green fodder crops ; and I think it would be 
 convenient as well as courteous to reserve that term for substances 
 in which his rules are recognised. If any prefer to reject his 
 advice, work in a crude fashion, and revert to " sour fodder," let 
 them call it by that name, and let the merits of their concoctions be 
 discussed apart. 
 
 Many specimens of ensilage have come under my notice during 
 the past two years, and I have observed very considerable difference 
 between them. The difference was certainly one of degree, but I 
 believe that degree was sufficiently wide to constitute the difference 
 between a success and a comparative failure, economically speaking, 
 though nearly all were eatable and free from mould. The most 
 successful specimens — i.e., those that most resemble the freshly-cut 
 plant — had been subjected to considerable, pressure ; the others 
 were faulty in this respect. 
 
 It seems generally admitted that, other things being equal, a 
 crop well supplied vnth sugar is better adapted for ensilage than 
 one less richly furnished. And it is even more certain that, 
 working with the same material, vast differences may exist in 
 quality of ensilage, according to the care expended in expelUng and 
 keeping out the atmosphere. By the use of weights M. Q-offart has 
 now, he says, no difficulty in preserving for eight months or more 
 crops which previously he was unable to keep many weeks when he 
 sought to hermetically seal the silo by a covering of clay. He 
 says, too, that the waste by heating or fermentation is very greatly 
 reduced. 
 
 It has been a matter of surprise to men of science, quite as 
 much as to farmers, that vegetation can, by such simple means as 
 pitting, be preserved to so great an extent from the decay common 
 to dead organised substances. Among the many more or less satis- 
 factory explanations which have been given, that of Professor 
 Lechartier appears to merit most attention, from, the suggestiveness 
 of his experiments, and his high position as an authority on 
 fermentation. 
 
 By a very long series of researches on fruit, seeds, roots, and 
 leaves, this investigator has shown that, when these substances 
 are detached from the plants that bear them, life is not extinct in 
 the cells of which they are composed ; and that, if maintained out 
 
166 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 of contact witli the air, this life will go on for a considerable 
 period consuming sugar, and giving rise to alcohol and carbonic 
 acid gas. The evolution of gas slackens after a time, and finally 
 ceases altogether. This kind of fermentation is a proof of vitality 
 in the plant, and is distinguished from the fermentation of decay 
 by the fact that none of the germs that favour putrefaction are 
 found when examining the pulp microscopically. When, however, 
 the evolution of gas stops, the cells are really dead, and, being so, 
 are liable to very rapid destruction when in contact with the 
 atmosphere. So long, however, as the air is excluded, and no fer- 
 menting germs penetrate to the interior, the fruit remains dormant, 
 and subject to no further change. Thus, Lechartier has kept 
 pears suspended in closed jars for eight or nine months, and shown 
 at the end of that time that they maintained their colour, and 
 tasted merely like mellow fruit ; but, on being exposed to the air, 
 they very quickly became " sleepy " and rotten, and the leaves 
 soon acquired the normal appearance of dead leaves. 
 
 Lechartier considers that the facts he has proved to hold good 
 with regard to fruit, seeds, and leaves kept out of contact with the 
 oxygen of the air, find their analogy in green fodder placed under 
 pressure in pits. He has made miniature silos with glass bell-jars 
 containing fodder pressed down by a wooden disc weighted with 
 lead, and so arranged that he could, from time to time, extract the 
 gas for analysis ; and he has also sealed up fodders in flasks, and 
 compared their composition before and after fermentation. 
 
 He shows that the first action that takes place is the complete 
 absorption of the oxygen in the residual air of the pit — ^which 
 doubtless is the cause of the brief heating observed when a silo is 
 being filled. During the first week or two (a period varying 
 somewhat according to the composition of the crop, atmospheric 
 conditions, and mode of pitting) there occurs a free evolution of- 
 carbonic acid gas, which is succeeded by a greatly diminished 
 outflow lasting over several months. So long as this continues, 
 the fodder remains in a state of good preservation ; and, with 
 liberal weighting, a very small evolution of gas is capable of 
 resisting the pernicious tendency of the atmosphere to penetrate 
 into the interior. 
 
 The rate of disengagement of this gas, and therefore, its efficiency 
 as a preservative, may be gathered from the following figures,, 
 obtained with Lechartier's miniature silo. It wiU be evident that- 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 167 
 
 heavy -weiglits are even more requisite at the end of the experiment 
 than at the beginning : 
 
 Hourly per Idlogramme. 
 12th of November — Gaa disoharged 37'7 cubic centimfetres. 
 
 22ud 
 25th 
 
 6th of December 
 28th 
 From Feb. 21 to March 1 
 
 14-1 
 5-4 
 5-2 
 2-7 
 0-25 
 
 On the 1st of March there was no gas ; the cells had lost all 
 activity, and mould may therefore he afterwards expected to appear 
 on the surface, and decay begin to prey upon the ensilage. 
 
 If I understand Lechartier aright, he contends that, while the 
 vegetable cells are still alive, they will not grow mouldy and decay. 
 That, when severed from the living plant, each constituent cell 
 possesses a certain vitaUty in itself, or power of doing work ; and 
 that it cannot be considered dead till it has expended that power. 
 That, in the presence of air, the cells live and act with considerable 
 energy, and exhaust their powers early. Out of contact with air, 
 however, they live more sluggishly, and take a far longer time to con- 
 sume the same amount of sugar ; indeed, the process becomes so slow 
 that the sugar is not all consumed when the silo is opened. This 
 is proved by the analyses of Barral, Lechartier, and myself, and by 
 the heating and formation of alcohol that takes place on exposure 
 to air. The vital energy being longer in expending itself, the time 
 is postponed when the moulds and other parasites can begin to 
 prey on, the dead residue, and set up their characteristic and 
 generally offensive fermentations. The above, though it sounds 
 somewhat theoretical, is not without experimental proof, for 
 Lechartier has found that the vital action, which will go on for 
 months in a properly-weighted silo, does actually cease in a very 
 few days if air be drawn through the ensilage. 
 
 Perfect fruit and undamaged leaves, kept out of contact with 
 air, furnish us, one would think, with " ensilage " under theoreti- 
 cally perfect conditions ; yet even here some loss of substance and 
 considerable modifications in the constituents of the fruit occur ; 
 and loss of substance is in the same way inevitable to ensilage, 
 even when made in the best constructed silo. It is the price one 
 must pay for the vitality that enables the ensilage to resist 
 putrefaction. 
 
 How slight this loss may be reduced to we do not know with 
 
168 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 precision, for no conclusive experiments have been made con- 
 trasting the weight and composition of that put into a silo with 
 the weight and the composition of that which was taken out. 
 
 This is to be regretted, for it deprives us of the best way of 
 ascertaining the economic value of the method. We do possess, 
 however, comparative analyses of ensilage made by wasteful 
 methods, and these will be produced in the next article. They 
 teach a useful lesson to those who adopt such methods, and show, 
 on a magnified scale, the changes that go on. The losses that 
 occur are due to fermentation, which may vary very greatly in 
 extent in the same substance according to the way in which it is 
 pitted ; and, as the fermentation varies, the loss will naturally 
 vary .in a corresponding degree. M. Barral, who is a chemist 
 as well as permanent secretary of the National Agricultural 
 Society of Prance, mentions that maize ensilage, pitted in three 
 different silos, possessed temperatures respectively of 46°, 16°, and 
 10° C. (116°, 60°, and 50° Pahr.), and the degree of acidity was 
 respectively equivalent to '792, '644, and '099 per cent, of sulphuric 
 acid. He says, " It is the maize that has been maintained in the 
 silo at the lowest temperature that contains by far the least acid. 
 It is that one which, in my opinion, has been preserved in a state 
 most resembling maize at the time it was cut." Deductions that 
 are true of one specimen of ensilage, made in one kind of silo, are, 
 however, not necessarily true with respect to that which is made in 
 a different way ; but at several of the agricultural colleges in 
 this country and in America the professors are working at this 
 subject experimentally, and we may hope shortly to obtain some 
 statistical results. 
 
 !!.■ — ^The Nttteitivb Value of Ensilage. 
 
 English experience of ensilage is relatively small as yet; but, 
 taking into account France, America, and Germany, ample facts 
 exist to warrant the assertion that all English green crops can be 
 preserved in a condition but little removed from their natural 
 state, by storing them in silos under heavy weights. 
 
 In England successful results — though not all equal in success — 
 have been obtained with meadow grass, rye grass, clover of different 
 kinds, green oats, green rye, and vetches. In America, Commis- 
 sioner Loring, of the Grovernment Department of Agriculture, 
 reports (as the results of inquiries circulated among the farmers 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 169 
 
 of tlie United States) ttat, in addition to Indian corn — which is so 
 high in favour from the immense crops it yields per acre — the 
 ensilage system has been tried on rye, oats, clover, sorghum, rowen, 
 Hungarian grass, and field peas. " In fact, almost every crop 
 used for soiling has been stored in silos and taken out in good 
 condition." 
 
 In Prance, a commission appointed by the National Society of 
 Agriculture speak of good results obtained by thus storing vine 
 leaves in wine-growing districts, apple refuse in cider districts, 
 beetroot leaves, sliced beetroot, and beetroot pulp, in sugar-making 
 districts. M. Groffart, besides maize, rye, various kinds of clover 
 and trefoil, has put into his silos, with more or less success, Jeru- 
 salem artichokes, beetroot, comfrey, and potatoes. M. Pornay, of 
 Eomorantin, has for some years practised the ensilage of lucerne 
 with success, and was awarded a silver medal for an excellent 
 sample that he exhibited at the Bourges Agricultural Show ; and 
 M. Julien, the President of the Eomorantin Agricultural Society, 
 names (with other crops already alluded to) rape and buckwheat 
 as suitable subjects for the silo. Lastly, in G-ermany, cabbages, 
 turnips, and leaves of various kinds, besides ordinary fodder crops, 
 are said to have been stored on much the same principle. 
 
 The above facts ought to show that we are here dealing with a 
 law of very wide application, and that contemplated experiments 
 wUl be by no means the risky speculation that some persons 
 believe. In future, therefore, if the general principle be assailed, 
 the onus of proof should surely in fairness fall upon the objectors, 
 and, where facts are adduced, they should be subjected to rigid 
 cross-examination with a view to ascertain whether the results 
 complained of have arisen from a disregard of rules laid down as 
 essential to success, or whether there is any defect in the rules 
 themselves. 
 
 An afiirmative reply having been given to the question whether 
 English crops can be successfully preserved in silos, we may pass 
 on with awakening confidence to the consideration of the second 
 query to be answered, viz., " Is the resulting product nutritious 
 and beneficial to the animal ? " 
 
 The nutritious qualities of ensilage, like those of hay, must of 
 course mainly depend on the substance from which it is made. 
 Ensilage from very inferior fodder may possibly be more palatable 
 than the same material made into hay ; but one cannot expect it to 
 
170 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 be as valuable as ensilage made from a crop of high nutritive 
 quality. The farmer will notice, too, that there will frequently be 
 a considerable difference in odour and appearance between different 
 species of siloed fodder, even when prepared in exactly similar 
 fashion. Judging from experience so far, ensilage from fine 
 rather dry herbage is far more pleasant to smell and to look at 
 than the ensilage from the coarse grasses of low-lying damp^ 
 localities. Over and above this difference, due to constituents, the 
 value of ensilage is modified by the mode of curing. Fermen- 
 tation, in a greater or less degree, is inseparable from ensilage;, 
 and such fodder, therefore, is characterised by containing small 
 quantities of alcohol, and acetic and other organic acids. It does 
 not appear that in small quantities they do any harm ; indeed, 
 they seem to be beneficial rather than otherwise, and they prove so- 
 attractive that many animals will renounce green grass, hay, meal, 
 and other good foods, to feed on the ensilage. Some, indeed, 
 regard the silo as a kind of factory for the preparation of cattle 
 condiments. Experimenters of this class should recollect that they 
 run a risk of using up good feeding constituents to produce these 
 " spices," and should therefore endeavour to stifle the change till 
 the silo is opened, when a short exposure will produce all the 
 alteration necessary. 
 
 It is not probable that any of our ordinary English fodder crops, 
 even if inefficiently stored, will develope as much acidity as beetroot 
 and starch refuse, or even so much as maize ensilage sometimes 
 produces ; and as such food is tolerated by cattle, we need hardly 
 disturb ourselves on the score of acidity in our own specimens. 
 Even if it should prove excessive, it can always be neutralised by 
 a little powdered chalk being mingled with it after taking it out of 
 the silo. Still, the acetic fermentation should be resisted as much 
 as possible, for such fermentation signifies the consumption of 
 material that is more useful than the resulting product ; besides 
 which, the latter is the forerunner of an objectionable fermen- 
 tation called butyric. By this latter acid a very unpleasant odour is 
 given to the mass ; and, although cattle can even put up with this 
 in small quantities, yet they recoil from it in the end, and fall off 
 in their feed. M. Groffart met with this objectionable kind of fer- 
 mentation in some of his earlier experiments. It arose when he 
 attempted to store crops that had been beaten down and become 
 yellow and decayed at the foot. He finally succeeded in rendering 
 
The Qhemistry of Ensilage. 171 
 
 eatable even such crops as these, hut he had to double or treble 
 the weights, and the product resembled the " brown hay " of the 
 G-ermans rather than that kind of- ensilage in which M. Goffart 
 delights. 
 
 The Americans, who generally seem to have followed Groffart's 
 directions very closely, appear to have been singularly fortunate in 
 their experiences ; for Commissioner Loring, of the U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, sums up the results obtained by nearly one 
 hundred farmers, who have reported to him, in these words : " The 
 condition of stock fed on ensilage, both as to health and gain in 
 weight, has been uniformly favourable." This refers not only to 
 maize ensilage, but also to the many other green crops they have 
 experimented on. Considering that the Americans are themselves 
 only novices, this speaks much for the simplicity of the process, 
 and is an encouraging testimony of what we may ourselves expect. 
 I have read carefully through these 100 American reports, and 
 have watched for some time past the opinions expressed in 
 American, French, and German periodicals ; and, considering the 
 ordinary tendency of mankind to grumble, and the natural liability 
 to fail when trying a new process, I have been fairly astonished at 
 the small amount of complaint from those who have tried the 
 process and can speak from their own personal experience. 
 
 It seems to be taken for granted among users of ensilage that 
 the /forage is improved, rather than deteriorated, by a slight 
 alcoholic fermentation ; and this is what M. Goffart aimed at when 
 he first commenced working. He soon found, however, that, in the- 
 silo, the fermentation is apt to overstep the mark and degenerate 
 into acetic and lactic fermentation, which are to be avoided, because 
 they are wasteful, and finally into butyric fermentation and putre- 
 faction, which is, of course, positively objectionable. Consequently, 
 as Goffart found it impossible to hit off the happy mean in the 
 silo, he now strives to stifle fermentation entirely, so long as the 
 fodder remains there. He finds he can readily obtain the desired 
 amount of fermentation by a few hours' free exposure to the air 
 previous to feeding. 
 
 To show the views of Goffart on this point, the following extract 
 may be cited : " If it were necessary to sacrifice the fermentation 
 in order to avoid the loss of materials which is undergone in siIos„ 
 I should prefer to undergo that loss, because I attach the highest, 
 value to fermentation, the good effects of which are indisputable i 
 
172 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 but, fortunately, the two points can be easily reconciled. Tlie 
 benefits of fermentation are these : Thanks to fermentation, the 
 siloed materials undergo a commencement of decomposition which 
 facilitates the digestion and increases the nutritive or assimilatiye 
 power. My beasts, especially the 'milch cows, when they live 
 exclusively on fresh maize during the summer, consume it in very 
 large quantities, and always have the belly greatly developed — 
 which proves that their food has not all the richness desirable, and 
 that they are obliged to make up for the deficiency of quality by 
 excessive consumption. If my beasts eat siloed and fermented 
 maize, the belly decreases, and their ration (which they themselves 
 limit) diminishes in weight, and their general state becomes more 
 satisfactory. Let us, then, not attempt to suppress fermentation, 
 but only to regulate it." 
 
 Fermentation always has the result of producing new substances 
 at the expense of existing constituents ; and as some of these new 
 substances are gaseous, fermentation always implies a certain loss 
 in weight. 
 
 If animals digested and converted to useful purposes the whole 
 of the food they receive into their system, then undoubtedly loss in 
 weight .would be an unmixed evil ; and if, again, the loss fell on 
 -the easily-digested parts, and left the other constituents untouched, 
 then this would make matters even worse. But luckily (and this 
 is a most important matter) we have evidence to prove that such is 
 not the effect of fermentation on well-made ensilage. There the 
 loss which occurs falls most markedly on the substances that 
 possess the smallest feeding value. Owing, as I believe, to the 
 action of the water present, fermentation does not produce precisely 
 the same effect upon ensilage as upon hay. Fermented hay shows 
 an increase of woody fibre over prime hay, whereas fermented 
 ensilage has commonly a much smaller percentage of fibre than the 
 substance from which it is made. Fermentation apparently acts 
 in a very thorough manner upon ensilage ; it not only converts 
 sugar into alcohol, and acetic and other acids, but it also converts 
 the starchlike bodies into saccharine substances, and reduces 
 insoluble woody fibre into soluble bodies somewhat allied to starch. 
 Sugar, starch, digestible and indigestible fibre, have chemically all 
 the same percentage composition ; but the last is of small feeding 
 value, and is even actively injurious, for it may encase round sub- 
 ^stances ;thai are in themselves very easy to assimilate, and thus 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 
 
 17a 
 
 prevent tteir being acted on by tte digestive powers of the 
 animal. 
 
 Commissioner Loring says : " There are indications that some 
 materials have their value enhanced by. the fermentation of the silo, 
 while in others there is a loss ; " and I think, when we shall have 
 tested this question more thoroughly, that the value will be found 
 to be most enhanced in substances containing a considerable 
 amount of indigestible matter. 
 
 The constituents of grain are naturally digested by the animal 
 with very considerable completeness. If, therefore, we attempt to 
 ferment them, we shall find — as Sir J. B. Lawes showed in the case 
 of malted barley — that the slight improvement in digestibility 
 produced is more than overbalanced by the loss in weight. Such 
 results, however, are not on the same footing with coarser foods, as 
 grass for instance ; for here a very considerable amount of indi- 
 gestible and rejected matter exists, and a loss of weight which 
 would be wasteful with grain, might turn out a good investment as 
 regards grass, from the greater scope for improvement that is 
 possible. Prom the following table it will be seen that, with 
 inferior hay, the animal may not assimilate one half of what is 
 given him. Could we but manage to mate one pound of this poor 
 hay go as far as an equivalent weight of young pasture grass, we 
 could apparently submit to any amount of loss short of one-fourth, 
 and stiU obtain a balance of profit. 
 
 
 Proportion of each constituent digested by the animal 
 out of 100 parts supplied. 
 
 Description of Food. 
 
 Of 
 
 organic 
 
 matter as 
 
 a whole. 
 
 Of alhu- 
 menoids. 
 
 Of fat. 
 
 Of soluble 
 
 carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Of fibre. 
 
 
 per cent. 
 621 
 51-7 
 46-3 
 90-9 
 
 per cent. 
 68-8 
 64-3 
 58-4 
 77-6 
 
 per cent. 
 13-4 
 23-5 
 18-8 
 68-0 
 
 per cent. 
 65-8 
 56-9 
 51-7 
 93-9 
 
 per cent. 
 57-0 
 
 Meadow hay (very good) 
 
 Meadow hay (ordinary) 
 
 Maize (aoaked grain) 
 
 42-6 
 
 37-3 
 
 100-0 
 
 The above are the results of actual experiments carried out on a 
 horse by Professor von Wolff, the grass used being cut at various 
 times from the same field. It will be seen that the animal never 
 succeeded in digesting the theoretical amount even of the soluble 
 compounds present ; and it would appear that the great obstacle 
 that prevented this was the fibre. There was nearly double as much 
 
174 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 woody fibre in the oldest hay as was contained in the younger 
 specimen ; and it would, of course, be more consolidated and resis- 
 tant. When the animal was fed' on soaked maize — which contains 
 scarce a tenth of the fibre contained in hay — the digestion of the 
 various constituents immediately became very complete indeed. In 
 the same way I believe that if the woody fibre of grasses can be 
 rendered soluble or disintegrated, not only will a larger proportion 
 of it be digested, but other substances previously locked up will be 
 more readily acted on. 
 
 An experiment which can only be explained on some such 
 principle as the above, is one by Professor Henry, of the Agricul- 
 tural Department of the Wisconsin State University, already 
 referred to in the Field. Two equ.al lots of maize (21,0001b.) from 
 the same field were converted, one into hay, the other into ensilage. 
 Two months afterwards two cows were fed on the siloed maize, and 
 two others on the dried fodder which had been under cover ever 
 since it was well cured. At the end of twenty-one days the food of 
 the cows was changed, and those fed on ensilage before were now 
 fed on dried fodder, and vice versa. During this test each cow, 
 whether on ensilage or dried fodder, received lib. of Indian corn 
 meal, lib. of wheat bran, a,nd l-J^lb. of oil meal, morning and 
 evening. Each cow had as much ensilage or dried fodder as she 
 could eat up clean. The cows were fed, watered, and milked at the 
 same hour each day, and every means were used to make the test 
 complete and fair. The results in milk, and in butter churned 
 therefrom, were : 
 
 Milk. Butter, 
 
 lb. oz. lb. oz. 
 
 Ensilage (with meal as stated) produced 1456 8 59 8i 
 
 Dried fodder (with same meal) produced 1322 15 53 3i 
 
 Increase produced from ensilage 133 9 6 5 
 
 The test continued forty-two days. At the rate the food was 
 consumed, the thirteen rows of maize cut into fodder would have 
 lasted forty-eight days, while the thirteen rows made into ensilage 
 would have lasted 67| days. Thus the ensilage increased the pro- 
 duce of milk 10 per cent., and the butter 12 per cent., showing that 
 the butter-making quality of the milk was also enhanced. Lastly, 
 the proportion of maize consumed as ensilage was 29 per cent, less 
 than that eaten as hay. 
 
 Another observation, equally difiicult to explain away, is con- 
 tributed by Mr. 0. B. Potter, to the American Cultivator. A field 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 175 
 
 of pearl millet had inadvertently been allowed to attain so large 
 and hard a growth that the cows wholly rejected the stalks, and 
 would eat nothing but the leaves when the millet was offered to 
 them green. By way of experiment, one-fourth of the crop was cut 
 and put into a silo, the remainder of the field being cured by drying 
 in shocks in the ordinary way. This last was found so nearly 
 worthless for feeding dry that it was used for litter in the barn- 
 yards and for covering ice in an icehouse ; whereas that which was 
 preserved in the pit was opened and fed in April. The cows ate it 
 aU, leaf and stalk, eagerly, without any loss or waste, and, Mr. 
 Potter says, it was fully equal in value to the same quantity of the 
 best maize fodder preserved in the pits. 
 
 The following experiment by Colonel Le G-rand B. Cannon, of 
 Burlington, Vermont, U.S., is interesting, because maize ensilage is 
 contrasted with an approximately equal amount, reckoned dry, of 
 ordinary hay and also of hay and roots. I say " approximately," 
 because the actual proportion of ensilage was rather under than 
 over the mark; for average hay contains about 15 per cent, of 
 water, so that 201b. of hay would have about 171b. of dry matter, 
 and the average proportion of water in maize ensilage is said to be 
 about 82 or 83 per cent., so that the quantity of dry matter in the 
 ensilage given to these beasts would probably weigh about 151b. 
 Colonel Cannon says : " I fed ninety three-year-old steers, divided 
 into three lots ; cattle and feed weighed monthly. First Lot. — 
 Fed 201b. hay with 31b. grain daily, run in yard with shelter. 
 Second Lot. — Kept in warm stable and stanchions, fed 17|lb. hay, 
 one peck mangolds, and 31b. grain. Third ioi.— Fed 851b. ensilage, 
 with 31b. grain. This lot gained fib. a day more than No. 2, and 
 |lb. more than Lot. 1. The cost was 5 per cent, in favour of 
 ensilage." 
 
 The feeding was kept up for five months and a half, and Colonel 
 Oannon adds : " The cattle fed as stated were in better health and 
 condition than others fed on the chopped hay and grain. I 
 consider ensilage profitable, and believe it entirely healthy, taking 
 the place of roots. It is easily digested, as is shown by the uniform 
 temperature of the animals and the condition of the skin and 
 hair." 
 
 Details of an extensive series of experiments by Prof. McBryde, 
 of Tennessee University, are given in Dr. Thurber's book on " Silos 
 and Ensilage." Unfortunately, he worked on single animals only, 
 
176 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 and lie puts the ensilage at a great disadvantage by comparing 
 together 201b. best hay (about 171b. dry matter) with 401b. maize 
 ensilage (about 71b. dry matter). Considering, too, that green 
 maize is far poorer in albumenoids or flesh-formers than ordinary 
 grass, it is not surprising that the 201b. of hay frequently showed 
 better results than the 401b. maize ensilage. It is only when the 
 tables are turned that one has cause for astonishment ; and the 
 following are cases in point. These experiments extended over one 
 month ; and the last is especially noteworthy as showing that clover 
 ensilage is far better than maize ensilage : 
 
 The animal 
 Daily Rations per 10001b. live weight. gained per cent. 
 
 2OII1. hay (taken a3 a standard) I'Slb. 
 
 101b. ,, 201b. oat straw, B^^lb. Indian corn meal 3'9 
 
 101b. „ 201b. ensilage, 6ilb. „ 7-2 
 
 201b. oat straw, 201b. ensilage, 6ilb. „ 6-6 
 
 201b. bay, B^lb. Indian corn meal 5'7 
 
 201b. ,, 6ilb. cotton seed meal 5'6 
 
 201b. ,, 6ilb rice corn meal 7'5 
 
 401b. ensilage, 6ilb. Indian corn meal 10"2 
 
 401b. ,, 6ilb. cotton seed meal lO'l 
 
 401b. ,, 651b. rice corn meal 2'8 
 
 51b. hay, 641b. corn meal, 401b. maize ensilage 6"25 
 
 51b. „ 6ilb. ,, 401b. clover ensilage 9-03 
 
 Of the value of ensilage for dairy purposes the evidence is 
 remarkably strong. Commissioner Loring sums up the hundred 
 reports sent to him in the words : " Ensilage has been fed to milch 
 cows more generally than any other class of stock, and no unfavour- 
 able results are recorded. There can be no doubt its greatest value 
 will always be found in this connection. There is a marked increase 
 in quantity and improvement in quality of milk and butter after 
 changing from dry feed to ensilage, corresponding with the effect of 
 a similar change to fresh pastui-e. A few seeming exceptions are 
 noted, which will probably find explanation in defects easily 
 remedied rather than such as are inherent." 
 
 In illustration of this good effect on milk production it is not 
 necessary to go so far as America, as a very admirable example has 
 been furnished us at home by Mr. Henry Woods, in his account 
 of the experiment on Lord Walsingham's estate. The experiment 
 was carried out by feeding five cows on a fixed quantity of 
 crushed oats and bran (61b. of the former and 31b. of latter), with 
 as much as they could eat of coarse fodder, which consisted first of 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 177 
 
 chaff (composed of two-thirds barley straw, and one-third hay), 
 and afterwards of the same chafi mixed with gradually increasing 
 quantities of grass ensilage. 
 
 As Mr. Woods' table is published at a subsequent page, it will 
 suffice to quote the amount of milk and cream obtained on the 
 last day of each series : 
 
 Milk. Oream. 
 
 Quarts. Degrees. 
 
 All chaff (of hay and barley straw) yielded per day 68 12 
 
 One- third ensilage and two-thirds chaff , 70 13 
 
 One-half ensilage and one-half chaff „ 71 15 
 
 Two-thirds ensilage and one -third chaff „ 77 16 
 
 Three-fourths ensilage and one-fourth chaff „ 82 16 
 
 This ensilage was made from grass of exceptionally coarse and 
 poor quality, yet as soon as it was given to the cows the flow of 
 milk increased ; and there was a continued gradual increase with 
 the augmented proportions of ensilage allowed, till at the end of 
 one month's experiment the result differed from that obtained at 
 the beginning by 14 quarts of milk per day, or an increase of more 
 than 20 per cent. And on two of the cows being deprived of the 
 ensilage for a couple of days, they each gave three quarts of milk 
 less per day. It is even more noteworthy that the quality of the 
 milk was also greatly improved, as shown by the increased amount 
 of cream. This milk from cows fed on ensilage, when compared 
 with that of other animals fed in a similar way, but without the 
 ensilage, showed a percentage of 3'11 of milk fat, as against 2'76 ; 
 of sugar, casein, and albumen 9*82, as against 9'87 ; and of ash 
 0'75, as against 0"70 per cent. In a word, the ensilage-milk was 
 superior in every respect. 
 
 The above facts are quoted because they are statistical results 
 obtained by actual analysis, and therefore are of much greater 
 value than any indefinite statement teeming with adjectives. 
 They suggest, too, the kind of experiments that may advan- 
 tageously be carried out during the extended trial which the 
 system wiU probably undergo before long in this country. 
 
 So far, the evidence speaks well of the tendency of the silo to 
 produce food which is beneficial to the animal; and it indicates 
 that, relatively to other methods of preserving fodder, ensilage 
 turns out food of good quality. This view, as will hereafter be 
 shown, is also supported by an examination of known chemical 
 facts; and, inasmuch as these have their bearing on the cost at 
 which the advantages are obtained, they will help us to work out 
 
 N 
 
178 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 replies to the questions wMcli will confront us : " Is tlie process 
 economical, all things considered ? " and " How does it compare 
 with other methods already familiar to us ? " 
 
 III. — The Loss by Febmbntation. 
 
 The main conditions for successfully mating ensilage are, as we 
 have seen, simple and few. Nevertheless a feeling is abroad that 
 if it be already so simple, it might be made simpler still ; and many 
 who, a few months ago, would deny the possibihty of preserving 
 crops in the green condition in any way whatever, are now developing 
 a tendency to complain of the labour of putting on weights, or of 
 the necessity of making a receptacle at all. The number who think 
 thus are, it is to be devoutly hoped, small, for they are dangerous 
 disciples. 
 
 Ensilage, let us never forget, though new to us, is very old in 
 itself, and there is little which we are likely to devise during our 
 noviciate that has not been tried before ; so that it is scarcely too 
 much to say that what is not recommended may reasonably be 
 presumed to have failed. At any rate, it will be far wiser to fuUy 
 avail ourselves of the experience of workers on this process abroad, 
 and to turn neither to the right nor the left in the conditions so 
 simple yet so important that they lay down, than it will be to 
 venture on unknown paths in search of improvements. First let 
 us endeavour to do as well as our teachers are doing ; improvements 
 may be attempted afterwards. 
 
 To make good ensilage, it is necessary, not only to prevent air 
 getting in, but to drive out aU air that is already inclosed in the 
 mass. The only practicable way of doing this on the large scale is 
 energetic compression. The early experimenters started without 
 weights, but, finding their importance, have little by little increased 
 them ; so that, if we begin with small weights, we shall be simply 
 retrograding, not advancing. In the same way they began with 
 holes in the earth, and now prefer well-built silos. Silos of masomy 
 or wood are useful, because they facihtate the practical working of 
 the process. They are easier to fill and to empty, are cleaner and 
 more permanent, and in short, more convenient. They can also be 
 made watertight, which doubtless is an advantage ; but, best of all, 
 they have smooth and regular sides, so that the mass slips down 
 the walls without much friction, and thus the mass becomes com- 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 179 
 
 pressed with little effort. So far as the preservation of the food is 
 concerned, large and smooth-walled silos are, to my mind, mainly 
 useful as economisers of weight. One can make, it appears, as good 
 ensilage in an earthen pit as in the most expensive silo ; but far 
 greater weights must be used to produce the result, for the mass 
 clings to the irregular sides with obstinacy, and is difficult to com- 
 press. It is, under any circumstances, necessary to put the heaviest 
 weights round the edge of the silo ; the centre will almost take care 
 of itself. 
 
 Ensilage has been made, I am well aware, without any artificial 
 weights being placed on the top : but this does not rebut the 
 advisabiUty of having recourse to weights — for in such cases the 
 whole contents of the pit are not well preserved, but only the lower 
 parts that are compressed by the mass above. The upper part and 
 sides, which are not compressed, are generally mouldy and of little 
 value ; while even the preserved parts show, by their high acidity, 
 that they would have been much improved if weights had been 
 used. On the score of preservation, deep silos are obviously more 
 to be recommended than shallow ones, and, owing to the smaller 
 surface, less weight is necessary on the whole mass. 
 
 For the process to be economical, we must save the top and sides 
 as well as the kernel ; and it is to preserve these outer parts that 
 weights are required. G-offart now manages, it is said, to keep the 
 top and sides of his silos almost entirely free from mould, whereas 
 formerly the loss used to amount to 15 per cent, or more. 
 
 Mouldiness is a form of waste that every farmer can understand ; 
 but there is another variety of waste which also exists, but which it 
 is most difficult to make apparent, because it is not obvious to the 
 eye. It does not occur to him that solid matter can "evaporate" 
 and pass off into the air, even from those portions which he con- 
 siders to be of good quality. If freshly cut plants containing one 
 ton of sohd matter be buried in a pit, under no circumstances is it 
 possible that a ton would be taken out ; but the more perfectly the 
 air is excluded, the nearer to a ton the mass will weigh. 
 
 An experiment conducted by Professor Moser, of the Agricul- 
 tural Experimental Station at Vienna, illustrates this fact in a very 
 forcible way. He buried^ bundles of maize No. 1, of known weight 
 (6000 grammes) at depths of 17in. and 34in., in the centre of 
 the contents of a " grube " or earthen silo familiar to that country, 
 also another lot of maize No. 2, and when the siloes were opened he 
 
 N 2 
 
180 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 re--v7eig]ied these bundles and ascertained the loss of each con- 
 stituent of the fodder. The following give the absolute -weight ia 
 grammes obtained from each bundle : 
 
 
 Fresh 
 Maize 
 No. 1. 
 
 Ensilage 
 17in. 
 deep. 
 
 Ensilage 
 34in. 
 deep. 
 
 Fresh 
 Maize 
 No. 2. 
 
 Ensilage 
 No. 2. 
 
 Water 
 
 4761 
 
 54-0 
 45-6 
 649-2 
 400-2 
 37-8 
 52-2 
 
 1215-5 
 
 39-0 
 39-6 
 350-4 
 386-5 
 40-0 
 39-0 
 
 2846 
 
 36-5 
 39-0 
 273-5 
 379-0 
 37-0 
 44-0 
 
 4603-2 
 
 58-8 
 55-2 
 734-4 
 462-0 
 38-4 
 48-0 
 
 3886-4 
 
 Albnmenoids 
 
 Fat 
 
 Soluble carbo-hydrates 
 
 Fibre 
 
 38-6 
 
 53-5 
 
 326-8 
 
 404-0 
 
 Ash 
 
 39-5 
 70-3 
 
 Sand 
 
 Total solid matter, dry 
 
 1239-0 
 
 894-5 
 
 809-0 
 
 1396-8 
 
 932-7 
 
 In Hungary the method for preparing "sour fodder," as they call 
 it, is to dig a long trench in the ground, and fill in the fodder, not 
 only up to the level, but far above it, and then to cover the whole 
 over with earth. There is a constant tendency, under these circum- 
 stances, for the earth to crack round the sides, and air gets in 
 accordingly. Considering, too, that the French and Americans, 
 ■with their more perfect silos and heavier compression, still consider 
 it necessary to cut up a large-stalked plant like maize into half or 
 quarter-inch lengths, it is not surprising that Professor Moser met 
 with such a wasteful result when using a bundle of imchopped 
 maize. 
 
 Another German experiment is that by Professor Weiske, on 
 sainfoin. The first half of this table shows the composition of the 
 dry matter in fresh sainfoin, as compared with an equal weight of 
 dry matter in ensilage made from the same sainfoin ; and it might 
 be assumed, from a hasty glance at the two sets of figures, that 
 there is a considerable increase in some of the constituents ; and, 
 although some loss is obvious in others, yet there is nothing to 
 indicate that the total is any way diminished. This is owing to the 
 fact that, although you know the weight of the ensilage as taken 
 out of the pit, you do not know what the fodder weighed when it 
 was put in. The second half of the table supplies this deficiency, 
 for it shows the weight of the dry matter in the fresh fodder on 
 being put into the silo, and the weight of what remained, when it 
 was taken out in the form of ensilage. 
 
The Chemistry of Bnsilage. 
 
 181 
 
 
 Composition of 100 
 parts of dry 
 matter in 
 
 1001b. of the dry 
 matter of the fresh 
 
 fodder yielded 
 
 When As taken 
 
 put in out of 
 
 silo. silo. 
 
 Gain 
 
 or 
 Loss. 
 
 Albumeuoids 
 
 Pat 
 
 18-56 
 
 2-89 
 
 38-60 
 
 33-93 
 
 6-02 
 
 20-44 
 
 6-02 
 
 30-88 
 
 35-18 
 
 7-48 
 
 18-56 
 
 2-89 
 
 38-60 
 
 33-93 
 
 6-02 
 
 15-53 
 
 4-57 
 
 23-47 
 
 26-74 
 
 5-50 
 
 — 3-03 
 + 1-68 
 
 SoluHe carbo-hydrates 
 
 Pibre 
 
 — 15-13 
 
 — 7-19 
 
 Ash 
 
 — 0-52 
 
 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 75-81 
 
 
 Here it -will be seen that, although the fat is apparently increased, 
 there is, on the -w^hole, a loss of 24 per cent, of dry matter in the 
 ensilage; and the right-hand column will show in what way the 
 loss is apportioned. This table marks ia a very instructive manner 
 the importance of comparing ensilage with its equivalent of the 
 green stiofE it was made from, instead of tating equal weights of 
 each, as is usually done. 
 
 If ensilage prove a failure, this is the direction in which its 
 defects must be looked for ; and from a consideration of analyses 
 hke the above, I am convinced of Groff art's wisdom in insisting 
 on heavy weights. It must be borne in mind that none of the 
 foregoing analyses apply to well-made ensilage — at any rate, to the 
 extent there set down — since heavy weighting did not form a 
 feature of the experiments quoted. They therefore mainly apply 
 to those who refuse to recognise the importance of great pressure. 
 M. G-offart asserts, and M. Barral, the chemist, supports him, that 
 the above is by no means a fair representation of what takes place 
 in weU-made ensilage ; and M. Grandeau, another eminent French 
 chemist, shows by the following comparative analyses of fresh and 
 siloed maize from M. Groffart's farm at Burtin, that the amount of 
 alteration is relatively small : 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Albume- 
 noids. 
 
 Soluble 
 carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 rat. 
 
 Fibre. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Acid. 
 
 Natural state ... 
 Ensilage 
 
 81-28 
 81-28 
 
 0-58 
 0-15 
 
 1-22 
 1-24 
 
 10-41 
 9-58 
 
 0-25 
 0-36 
 
 4-98 
 4-91 
 
 1-29 
 2-25 
 
 0-00 
 0-23 
 
 Prom a study of the above analyses it will be evident that, 
 whether the loss in ensilage be great or small, it always is in 
 
182 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 the same direction ; that is to say, it always falls heaviest on the 
 members of the closely-aUied group — the sugars, starches, and 
 cellulose (fibre or cell- substance). As a good deal of the starch 
 and a portion of the cellulose are destroyed to produce successively 
 sugar, -alcohol, carbonic acid, and, if air be present, acetic acid and 
 lactic acid also, the nitrogenous substances, being more stable 
 bodies, appear by contrast to rise in amount. The ash receives a 
 similar apparent increase, as well as an actual increase, frequently, 
 from dirt or added salt. The fat is the only normal constituent 
 that can be regarded as increased in larger absolute amount after 
 pitting; it appears to be formed, or something like it, by the 
 changes undergone during fermentation. 
 
 The tendency of fermentation to break down and render soluble 
 the fibre of the pitted food is a most valuable feature in ensilage. 
 Comparative analyses by G-randeau and by Lechartier ; the results 
 obtained by Dr. Cameron, with the Irish rye-grass experiments ; 
 Mr. Sutton's analyses of Lord Walsingham's ensilage — all show 
 this property of prolonged fermentation. The object of digestion 
 is to convert food into a condition that is soluble in the juices of 
 the body ; and that portion of the substance which cannot be so 
 dissolved is not only useless but objectionable, as having a 
 tendency to exhaust the animal by labour in vain. It further 
 hinders the digestion of substances that are very nutritious in 
 themselves, by encasing them round, as is seen with seeds, which 
 frequently pass unaltered through the animal, whereas, if crushed 
 or husked, they would be very valuable food. The experiments of 
 M. G-randeau and Mr. Sutton indicate that there is more soluble 
 matter in ensilage than there is in the dried or green fodder — 
 reckoning, of course, pound for pound of the dry matter in each. 
 Whether it is always so, when we compare grass or hay -with 
 the weight of ensilage that would have been produced if these had 
 been put in the pit, is the great unsettled question, around which 
 turns the whole economical value of the process. 
 
 The view, then, that I take of the ensilage process is this — That 
 those who feel inclined to shirk in any way the imposition of the 
 weights necessary to compression -will be ill-advised in trying the 
 process at all ; for, economically, it is not likely that their 
 endeavours -will prove profitable in the long run. They may see 
 distinctly enough the mouldiness or putrescence that is upon the 
 surface, and may estimate its amount as compared with the mass 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 183 
 
 of apparently sound food tliat is in the pit ; but it will be well for 
 them to bear in mind that they only observe a portion of the 
 mischief, and this may represent but a minor part of the actual 
 waste, if regard be paid to the loss which has been going on in 
 unseen parts of the silo, in consequence of a defective mode of 
 carrying out the process. If, however, the fermentation be skilfuUy 
 controlled, there appears to be no reason why the improvement in 
 quality brought about in the mechanical condition of the food may 
 not more than compensate for the loss in quantity, considering the 
 very large margin of undigested matter which coarse fodders 
 contain. 
 
 Ensilage, has, moreover, the advantage, of saving labour, and of 
 being independent of the weather ; and these two are in themselves 
 sufficient to counterbalance a considerable amount of the loss that 
 takes place in the silo. Of the profitableness of ensilage in the 
 United States, Commissioner Loring's report says, " Not a doubt 
 exists, certainly not a dissenting opinion ; " but, of course, a large 
 amount of this unanimity lies in the fact that American farmers 
 can grow a cheap crop like maize, and store it up as they never 
 could do before. 
 
 It is much to be hoped that those who make experiments on 
 ensilage will, for the benefit of their fellow agriculturists, keep 
 records of the cost and results of their trials ; and, if they do go so 
 far as to have analyses made, let them always endeavour to make 
 them comparative, either by sending hay made from forage cut at 
 the same time, or by having a sample of fresh_ grass analysed at the 
 time when it is put in the silo. Whether ensilage be for our good, 
 or be harmful, it is alike needful that we should quickly know its 
 real nature ; and a deep debt of gratitude will be owing to those 
 pioneers who test it. 
 
 IV. — Ensilage veestjs Hat. 
 
 When the ensilage discussion assumed very great prominence, 
 in the autumn of 1882, it fell to my lot to analyse a number of 
 samples of this novel feeding material, and when the subject had 
 for the time exhausted itself, I took the opportunity of reviewing 
 the pros and cons of the matter, so far as I felt warranted by my 
 own experiments or those of investigators in countries where the 
 process was well known. 
 
184 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 The year that has passed (1883) has not been characterised by 
 the same discrepancies in practice and opinion, and there is conse- 
 quently less excuse for critical observations. Nevertheless, ensilage 
 is still in its infancy ; and it may be of service to many who intend 
 to experimentalise during the coming season to have put before 
 them certain points that probably 'will be rather outside their own 
 particular line of observation. Oertain fallacies to be found in 
 estimates of the cost, value, yield per acre, and comparative feeding 
 merits of ensilage, practical men may be relied on to detect for 
 themselves ; but there are many points connected with the 
 chemistry of the question which, though really of practical im- 
 portance, the majority of agriculturists most certainly do not 
 appreciate. 
 
 In a previous article on the " Chemistry of the Silo " it was 
 pointed out that " if freshly-cut plants, containing one ton of 
 solid matter be buried in a pit, under no circumstances is it possible 
 that a ton will be taken out ; but the more perfectly the air is 
 excluded the nearer to a ton the mass will weigh." 
 
 This statement, which is at variance with what is said by some 
 enthusiastic admirers of ensilage, is borne out by every comparative 
 analysis that has been made, and can easily be proved by anyone 
 who cares to embed deep down in the centre of his silo a weighed 
 quantity of grass, and re-weigh it at the end of the experiment. A 
 sack (waterproofed, if possible, to prevent juice gravitating to 
 bottom of pit, but so arranged that the contained air could be well 
 pressed out at the mouth of sack) would, if fiUed with grass, be a 
 convenient method of testing this point, which is important as 
 concerning the economic value of the process. 
 
 There are several points of practice bearing on this question of 
 loss, which have been recommended, but which, from a chemical 
 point of view, seem unadvisable, as calculated to render this loss 
 of weight unnecessarily large. One of these is adding chopped 
 straw or chafE to the fresh fodder when placing it in the pit. 
 Grofiart found, from comparative experiment, that the more straw 
 he added, the worse the ensilage kept. A recent experiment of 
 Dr. Marcker, director of the Grovernment experimental station at 
 Munich,* seems to place this beyond dispute. He experimented on 
 siloed beet residues, and the following table will show the per- 
 
 * Abstracted in Biedermann's Central-Blatt fwr Agricultur-Chemie,FehTn»,Ty, 
 1883. 
 
The Chemistry of Bnsilage. 
 
 186 
 
 centage of loss on the fresh substance, by burying it in a silo with 
 and without an admixture of straw : 
 
 Loss on portion 
 
 ■Without 
 Btraw. 
 
 With 
 Btraw. 
 
 Increased 
 loss by 
 
 addition of 
 Btraw. 
 
 Freali substance 
 
 Dry organic subatanoe 
 
 Fat 
 
 Fibre .' 
 
 Nitrogenous substances .... 
 Non-nitrogenous substances 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 19-3 
 
 21-8 
 + 60-0 
 
 10-0 
 9-1 
 
 28-8 
 
 Per cent. 
 23-5 
 29-0 
 
 + 15-7 
 23-6 
 24-6 
 32-6 
 
 Per cent. 
 4-2 
 7-2 
 
 13-6 
 
 15-5 
 
 3-8 
 
 Another cause of excessive loss in a silo is very probably due to 
 attempts to drain it. It must almost necessarily facilitate the 
 admission of air, and it allows of the escape of juice. The 
 following analyses I have made of two specimens of ensilage liquor, 
 and of juice expressed from fresh grass, will show that this is far 
 too valuable to be lost : 
 
 I. Ensilage liquor, amber brown colour, pleasant alcoholic odour, 
 fermenting and giving off carbonic acid gas freely. Con- 
 tained 5'17 per cent, solid matter, of which 0'98 per cent, 
 was mineral matter rich in phosphates. It contained 0'688 
 per cent, of glucose. 
 II. Ensilage liquor, fermentation evidently progressed further 
 than in last. No sugar. Acidity equal to 0'6 per cent, 
 acetic acid. Contained 5'47 per cent, of solid matter, of 
 which 1'39 per cent, was mineral salts. 
 III. Juice of fresh grass contained 7-02 per cent, of solid matter, 
 of which 2 '02 per cent, was mineral matter, and 2 '08 per 
 cent, sugar, calculated as glucose. 
 The above analyses wiU gain point if we call to mind that fresh 
 grass only contains about thirty per cent, of solid matter, of which 
 about two per cent, consists of mineral matter. Considering, 
 too, that matter in solution is always m.ore easy to assimilate 
 than soUd matter that has first to be rendered soluble, it is obvious 
 that it must be wasteful to allow this juice to leat away, or to 
 voluntarily squeeze it out from the fresh grass, as has been 
 suggested. 
 
 Professor Marcker, in the paper above referred to on the 
 preservation of beetroot refuse from sugar works, gives instances 
 
186 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 of the loss incurred with this substance, as shown by the 
 amount first put in being contrasted with that afterwards taken 
 out, and poiats out that the greatest loss occurs in porous unwalled 
 pits, and that to obtain the best results, air-tight and water-tight 
 cemented silos are desirable. 
 
 The figures he gives are very startling, and it is to be hoped that 
 they do not hold equally good of grass and English fodder crops ; 
 but it is certainly desirable that comparative experiments of a 
 similar kind should be made to ascertain what are the facts. 
 Undoubtedly they show the direction of the change that goes on in 
 all sOos, although it may differ in degree, and the results are, there- 
 fore, most instructive. The experiments were conducted at 
 different experimental farms, except 4, 6, 6, and 7, which were 
 all carried out at one farm, and exhibit the result of a bad 
 system of procedure. The decimals have, for convenience of 
 reference, been omitted. 
 
 •g 
 
 §■3 
 
 Loss per 
 
 cent, of 
 
 Loss incurred on 100 parts of each ol the 
 
 dry organic constituents present 
 
 in the food. 
 
 l5 
 
 Original 
 undrled 
 sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Dry 
 matter. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Wood 
 fibre. 
 
 Nitro- 
 genous 
 
 sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Non-nitro- 
 genous 
 sub- 
 stances. 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 + 105 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 + 140 
 
 45 
 
 37 
 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 —1 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 4* 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 —32 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 4i 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 —44 
 
 40 
 
 28 
 
 49 
 
 6 
 
 4* 
 
 47 
 
 27 
 
 + 26 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 4i 
 
 62 
 
 54 
 
 —52 
 
 52 
 
 37 
 
 56 
 
 8 
 
 8J 
 
 23 
 
 36 
 
 —23 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 + 60 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 —8 
 
 31 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 Meai 
 
 35 
 
 34 
 
 + 17 
 
 —29 
 
 —24 
 
 —38 
 
 The word "loss," as employed in the above table, and in all 
 previous remarks, does not refer to damaged or moulded ensilage, 
 involving a virtual waste of so much food, if unfit for consumption, 
 but to an actual loss or dissipation of solid matter. As has been 
 shown by the experiments of Lechartier (quoted on p. 167), and 
 which I have myself been able to confirm by analysis of air drawn 
 from the heart of a freshly opened silo, some of the solid matter of 
 
The Chemistry of JEnsilage. 187 
 
 ensilage is constantly " evaporating " away, as it were, in the form 
 of carbonic acid gas, nitrogen, &c. Tlie loss falls heaviest on the 
 carbo-hydrates, such as starch and sugar and cellulose ; conse- 
 quently, pound for pound, ensilage may appear more nitrogenous, 
 and therefore a more meat-producing food after storing than 
 before. Unless, however, the ensilage is purchased, it is necessary 
 to bear in mind that, even if the quality is improved, the quantity 
 is decreased. Moreover, even the nitrogenous substances by no 
 means escape without loss. A portion disappears entirely, a 
 further portion becomes changed from albnmenoid substances, of 
 great value as flesh-formers, into substances probably akin to 
 ammonia, which are chiefly of value as stimulants, and can only 
 replace albumenoids in food to a limited extent. Professor Kinch, 
 of Cirencester, recently pointed out an instance where the per- 
 centage of true albumenoids had diminished 50 per cent, from 
 this cause. The increase, too, which appears under the head of 
 " fat " is chiefly due to butyric and other acids formed by fermen- 
 tation, which chance to be extractable by the same procedure as 
 the true fat. It is therefore probably a fictitious increase, so far 
 as true fatty bodies are concerned. It is from considerations such 
 as these that chemists are apt to regard the ensilage process with 
 suspicion, unless feeding experiments or some tangible practical 
 data accompany the results of the operation. 
 
 Whenever chemical action takes place, changes in temperature 
 are produced ; and an accurate determination of the temperature 
 inside a silo will serve as a measure of the amount of change going 
 on, and the circumstances under which these changes are most 
 active. Not many data of this description are accessible, and som^ 
 of those that have been published over here give temperatures so 
 much higher than those of skilled experimenters abroad as to 
 suggest that the ensilage was not of the best and most economical 
 description. 
 
 The Ontario Experimental Farm (which, under the able direction 
 of Mr. W. Brown, has been doing some 'exceedingly good, work 
 of late) undertook, in their silo experiments, to keep a record 
 throughout of the maximum and minimum temperature in various 
 parts of the silo. They seem to be the most elaborate that have yet 
 been published, and are worthy of careful attention. The rather 
 regrettable discrepancies to which attention is here drawn by an 
 asterisk mark are probably only printer's or clerical errors. 
 
188 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Temperature inside the Silo. Mean 
 
 temperature 
 
 } 
 ] 
 } 
 } 
 
 Top. Centre. Bottom. outside. 
 
 (■Highest 71° 92° 65° ) 
 
 1st week ^ Lowest 63 89 64 ^ 52' 
 
 "(Mean 67 91 65 
 
 (•Highest 67 91 65 
 
 2nd week ^ Lowest 53 86 63 f 40 
 
 (Mean 51 88 64 
 
 (•Highest 62 88 64 
 
 3rd week ^ Lowest 53 86 63 ^ 42 
 
 (.Mean 55 87 63 
 
 (•Highest 59 93 68 
 
 4th week ^ Lowest 58 92 67 )■ 41 
 
 (.Mean 58 92 67 
 
 (•Highest 64 89 66 •) 
 
 5th week ^ Lowest 57 79 64 [ 39 
 
 (Mean 60 84 60* ) 
 
 (■Highest 56 87 67 ") 
 
 6th week ^ Lowest 46 81 64 [ 25 
 
 (Mean 52 84 62* ) 
 
 (•Highest 56 84 66 ) 
 
 7th week ^ Lowest 54 78 63 i 43 
 
 (Mean 55 81 64 ) 
 
 Last week 73 — 26 
 
 Average for whole period... 58 87 61* 
 
 Stress has been laid, in the previous pages, •upon the insidio-us 
 " evaporative " or fermentation loss that goes on in silos, mainly 
 because it has been overlooked by so many other -WTiters, ■while 
 farmers in general either disregard it entirely or look upon any 
 shrinkage in -weight as though it -were merely due to loss of 
 •water. It is time they should clearly understand that the solid 
 constituent originally built up out of the carbonic acid in the 
 air is resolved back into this gas by fermentation. There is 
 more fermentation in the silo than ordinarily takes place in hay- 
 making, and consequently there is (independently of loss of water) 
 a greater loss of weight of solid matter in the silo than usually occurs 
 in the hayrich. I think that if farmers once fairly grapple •with 
 these facts — checking them, if they can, by experiments of their 
 own — the views of many enthusiasts on ensilage will have to 
 be moderated, and especially those who advocate the adoption of 
 whatever seems cheapest and least troublesome. 
 
 * Those figures marked with the asterisk are given as in the original ; but 
 there is evidently some error, as the mean is stated to he less than the lowest ; 
 and in the last line, applicable to the whole period, the temperature at the 
 bottom is several degrees less than the average of the figures given above. 
 
The Ghemistry of Unsilage. 18& 
 
 The dark brown, aromatic smelling ensilage, produced when con- 
 siderable heating tates place in the fermenting mass, shows this 
 loss in the highest degree, because the high temperature can only 
 be produced by consumption of the fodder. Being commonly dry 
 and hay-like, keeping well out of the pit, such ensilage is usually 
 in highest favour. Prom an economic point of view, however, the 
 green, fresh substance, obtainable by care and heavy pressure, ia 
 far preferable. It is distinguished by little smell or taste when 
 taken out of the pit, and the temperature is low. Mr. Grant's 
 ensilage may be mentioned as an excellent specimen of this class, 
 as is the Vicomte de Chezelles' of the brown variety. Some dis- 
 tinctive marks in composition will be seen on reference to analyses 
 given on page 232. It is for the practical man to determine ta 
 what extent this loss is permissible. If good ensilage can be 
 made where the hay crop would be a failure ; if it can be prepared 
 at a considerable saving in labour and expense ; or, if for dairy or 
 other special purposes it is better adapted to a farmer's require- 
 ments than hay or roots — then a moderate amount of waste may 
 not be incompatible with even an ultimate profit. 
 
 To solve this difficult matter one requires, above all, an accurately 
 carried out and strictly comparative series of feeding experiments. 
 Moreover, the meat or milk producing power of the competing 
 foods should not be reckoned on the ton of food supplied, but 
 should be calctdated back, if possible, to the yield per ton of fresh 
 produce ia each case, or to the yield per acre. We should then 
 be working with fairly definite quantities. 
 
 Even accurately conducted experiments, as above suggested, 
 would not necessarily settle the question absolutely, for this reason r 
 Ensilage, when once we know the most economic mode of preparation,, 
 can apparently always be reproduced of very similar quality ; 
 whereas with hay, tmless we have a substitute sun in the form of a 
 hay-dryer, there must necessarily be vast difference in quality,, 
 according to the nature of the weather at the time of harvesting. 
 Hence ensilage should not be judged in comparison with the best 
 hay, but with the average of hays as we get them on contrasting 
 one year with another. On the other hand, unfavourable weather, 
 or a desire to obtaui a heavy crop, causes grass cutting for hay to 
 be delayed till the grass is over-ripe and stemmy, whereas ensilage 
 is usually made from grass at the time of early bloom, and it is 
 scarcely fair to compare hay made from over-ripened grass with 
 ensilage made from less aged and more nutritious material. 
 
190 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 The best hay suffers little loss of nutriment in dryiag. By 
 artificial heat in the laboratory one can even so contrive that 
 it loses none whatever ; but even in practice it does not exceed 2 or 3 
 per cent, of sohd' matter under favourable circumstances. Care- 
 fully conducted experiments on the feeding value of fresh grass as 
 compared with hay made from the same grass at the same period of 
 growth, do not confirm the popular view as to the great loss of 
 digestibility produced by the mere operation of drying. Practical 
 farmers are apt to overlook the fact that the statements of men of 
 science are backed up by experiments expressly carried out with 
 the view to secure exact conditions of equality, whereas the 
 farmer's belief is for the most part based on the circumstance that 
 cattle are found to thrive better on young and succulent pasture 
 than when fed upon hay made, not at the time of the grass 
 being young and succulent, but at a much later stage of growth. 
 They are, in fact, comparing incomparables. In this way it is 
 impossible to ascertain the real effect of drying, for the percentage 
 of digestible matter, which may amount to 75 per cent, in the one 
 condition, is sometimes reduced 50 per cent, as the grass increases 
 in age. One may, moreover, when the weather is unfavourable, 
 lose one-tenth or more of the total constituents of the hay before 
 it is stacked (as was shown in an article of this series pubUshed in 
 the Field of Sept. 16, 1882), and this portion, too (as was illus- 
 trated in the same article by some striking feeding experiments, 
 carried out by Dr. Voelcker), may contain so large a proportion of 
 the nutritious part of the hay that the residue left is almost 
 valueless as food, and, though taken in. unUmited quantities, the 
 animals fed on it may actually lose weight instead of putting on 
 fat. Of course this apphes with equal force to ensilage, if the 
 crop, after cutting, has been left long exposed to the vicissitudes of 
 the weather, before being put into the silo. An instance of this 
 kind occurred at the South Hetton silo, where the crop, when 
 originally cut, had been intended to be stacked, but, owing to the 
 rain, it lay on the ground from the beginning to the end of 
 September, and eventually was put into the silo. The result was 
 that, when the silo was opened, and the cows were fed upon such 
 washed-out residues, they became constipated and lost condition, 
 so that it was found necessary to reduce the amount of ensilage 
 and give other food to remedy the evil. 
 
 In addition to rain, that washes out the bone-forming phosphates, 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 
 
 191 
 
 and readily-digested sugars, &c., hay suffers at times considerable 
 loss by fermentation in the stack. The following is an analysis of 
 two portions of hay, taken out of the same rick. The one was Ught 
 yeUow, and of moderate quaUty; the other of a coffee-coloured 
 brown, with a pungent odour, characteristic of aldehyde, an organic 
 substance intermediate in composition between alcohol and acetic 
 acid. By immersing in cold water some of this hay fresh from the 
 stack, and gently warming the distillate therefrom with ammonia- 
 nitrate of silver, I was enabled to obtain a silver mirror on the 
 side of the glass test-tube — a reaction confirmatory of the presence 
 of aldehyde. Aldehyde is only formed when oxydation has taken 
 place in a limited or iasufiicient supply of air or oxygen, and 
 consequently shows that change was goiag on ia this portion of 
 the rick greater than the current of air produced by a powerful 
 fan and engine could keep up with. 
 
 Analysis of Two Samples op Hat i-kom the same Eiok. 
 
 The original snb stance of the two 
 samples contained respectively 
 per cent. : 
 
 A. 
 Yellowish Hay. 
 
 JB. 
 
 Brown or Fermented 
 Hay. 
 
 Water 
 
 Undried. 
 
 15-20 
 
 10-31 
 
 1-84 
 
 1-60 
 
 13-47 
 
 23-02 
 
 26-97 
 
 7-59 
 
 Dried at 
 212° P. 
 
 12-06 
 2-17 
 1-89 
 
 15-88 
 
 27-25 
 
 31-80 
 
 8-95 
 
 Undried. 
 
 12-80 
 
 10-51 
 
 3-71 
 
 4-69 
 
 9-03 
 
 21-61 
 
 29-43 
 
 8-22 
 
 Dried at 
 212° P. 
 
 12-05 
 4-26 
 5-38 
 
 10-36 
 
 24-77 
 
 33-75 
 
 9-43 
 
 Ether extract (fatty matter) . . . 
 
 Sugar and sugar-forming sub- 
 stances (starch-like sub- 
 stances, &o.) 
 
 Other non-nitrogeneons extrac- 
 tives 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 * Containing nitrogen per cent. 
 
 1-62 
 
 1-90 
 
 1-66 
 
 1-90 
 
 It is noticeable that the loss in the fermented hay fell chiefly on 
 those carbohydrates that are convertible into sugars ; and further 
 examination showed, that it was the starch-hke substances 
 (insoluble in cold water) that most suffered ; for, whilst the yellow 
 hay contained 12-46 per cent, of starchy bodies, the dried brown 
 hay contained but 3'42 per cent. 
 
 Of glucose (one of the true sugars) the yellow hay contained 
 S^ per cent., but the dark fermented hay scarcely any. Instead, it 
 
192 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 contained some products of decomposition, doubtless akiii to dextrin, 
 whicli, by boiling -with weak sulpburio acid, produced the same 
 effect on Febling's sugar test as 7 per cent, of glucose. Ensilage 
 commonly shows a loss of sugar similar to this brown hay ; but 
 unless the original fodder was exceedingly poor in carbohydrates, or 
 the fermentation is carried further than is at all necessary, I have 
 not found that the sugar entirely disappears.* 
 
 The facts regarding brown hay being of practical importance, 
 from the fancy that some farmers exhibit for such fermented or 
 "heated " hay, an attempt was made to ascertain the total amount 
 of organic substance thus lost. As it was of course impossible 
 to obtain any of the fresh grass from which the above hays 
 were made, an excellent specimen of green hay from an adjoining 
 rick, made from the same field and at the same time, was also 
 examined. It was found to possess only 8'3 per cent, of " ash " 
 or mineral salts ; and as this would be a constant quantity, the 
 presence of 9'43 per cent, of " ash " in the fermented hay made 
 it evident that this apparent rise was occasioned by a loss of 
 organic substance equal to 13 per cent, of the whole dry matter. 
 
 The indigestible fibre was likewise 29 per cent, in the greenish 
 sample of good quality, as contrasted with 33 '75 in the brown 
 sample, or an increase of 16 per cent., thus showing that the loss by 
 fermentation in the case of hay falls chiefly on the most nutritious 
 constituents and renders the final product less digestible. 
 
 The Neilson system of haymaking, whereby the hay is stacked 
 damp, and the air drawn from, the centre of the rick by an exhaust 
 fan, depends for its success on the heat given out during fermenta- 
 tion. One is, in fact, burning up one part of the hay to dry the 
 other. As pointed out by me in the Haymaking articles of this 
 series, this is a defect in principle that is open to grave objections. 
 
 The yellow and brown samples above mentioned were taken from 
 a Neilson rick, the green was sun-dried in the ordinary way. In 
 order to prove conclusively that organic matter is dissipated by 
 this process, it appears of interest, not only to examine the hay, 
 but the products that were being drawn out by the fan. If the 
 carbonic acid, nitrogen, organic acids, &c., thus given off be 
 collected, it would be found to fully account for the actual loss 
 estimated by analysing the hay. It is not, of course, possible to 
 
 * A substance was here classed as a sugar if it reduced the PehKng sugar test, 
 was soluble in alcohol, and was not precipitated by a solution of acetate of lead. 
 
The Chemistry of Ensilage. 193 
 
 go quite so far as this with a haystack ; but Dr Percy Frankland, 
 experimenting on small quantities of grass, has shown that, in the 
 presence of air, oxygen is absorbed and large amounts of carbonic 
 acid evolved. Nitrogen is also liberated from fermenting grass, 
 showing a destruction of albumenoids. Small quantities of hydrogen 
 and other combustible gases were evolved at the same time. 
 
 I have myself had the good fortune to procure from a ISTeilson 
 stack three samples of water that had condensed in the fan-box 
 outside the rick. The liquids, in addition to a small amount of 
 waxy matter (probably mechanically carried out of hay by the 
 steam), contained also minute quantities of acetic acid and alcohol. 
 One thus sees not only that soUd matter disappears, but in what 
 fashion it may escape into the atmosphere : 
 
 Alcohol. Acetic Acid. 
 
 Oct. 16. Water condensed from steam drawn by exhaust 
 fan out of a rick of meadow grass, recently stacked in a 
 green and dripping wet condition, contained per cent. .. . trace ... O'Ol 
 
 Nov. 1. Water from same stack. Temperature of rick, 
 150° to 160° Pahr. ; ditto of exhanst tube in centre of 
 rick, 135° Fahr. ; vacuum, 221b. per square foot 0-21 ... 021 
 
 Nov. 10. Water from same rick. Temperature, 155° to 
 170° Fahr. ; ditto of exhaust tube, 140° Fahr. ; vacuum, 
 221b. per square foot 0-08 ... 0-31 
 
 From the above facts it will be evident that neither ensilage nor 
 hay can be in any way held up as a perfect process ; but, as the 
 good points of the one often come out most conspicuously under 
 circumstances when its competitor is at its worst, it will probably 
 be found most difficult to frame any conclusion likely to be 
 universally applicable. Many of those who experimented last year 
 with ensilage seemed abundantly satisfied when they turned out a 
 something that was not a mass of corruption, but a substance that 
 animals relished and throve on. Prom this point of view, the 
 year's experiments have certainly been most successful. Having 
 had the opportunity of inspecting some couple of score of 
 specimens sent at various times to the Field, I can speak with 
 confidence of the large proportion of excellent samples produced, 
 and the very small percentage of failures. These experiments 
 also confirm all previous warnings as to the advantages of heavy 
 weights and well-constructed silos. It is to be hoped that the 
 experiments of the coming season will not only show that ensilage 
 is easy to make, but will answer the questions. What does it cost, 
 
 and what is it worth ? 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 THE SILO OF THE VIOOMTE DE OHEZELLES. 
 
 [This silo — ^wHoh is, we believe, the largest single silo in the world — was first 
 brought to the notice of English readers by an article in the Field, aooom- 
 panied by a woodcut, here reproduced. Mr. H. Kains-Jackson has returned 
 to the subject on several occasions ; and from his various articles we make 
 the following selections.] 
 
 By the courtesy of M. le Vicomte de Chezelles, I am enabled to give the 
 following particulars as to his large and practical working of the system : 
 Under date, July 31, 1882, the Viscount writes me, from near Ohaumont-en- 
 Vesin, Oise, that harvest work is in full swing on his estate, and so he has 
 time to send only an account of the principal features of his mode of 
 ensilage. A large photograph accompanies the letter, and the illustration 
 given is on a reduced scale, but sufficiently indicates the construction of 
 the sUo. M. de ChezeUes writes : 
 
 " I cut aU sorts of forage with one of Wood's mowers, and five men 
 follow the machine to load the carts, which at once convey the crop to the 
 sUo, vrhere a powerful chaff-cutter cuts up the forage as fast as three men 
 can feed it, whilst two other men unload the carts. The above ten men 
 work together, being paid by the job, their wages being commonly about 
 8s. per hectare (about 2i acres), the pay varying according to the nature 
 of the crop. 
 
 " I so arrange the number of carts and horses, reckoning the distances 
 of the fields from the silo, that there may be a continuous supply 
 furnished to the chaff-cutter, which should work on without interruption, 
 as by this means the ensilage is made regularly and economically in a very 
 few days. As a matter of fact, in this way I have cut, carried, and 
 formed into ensilage the produce of about 170 acres of trifolium, sainfoin, 
 lucerne, tares, and artificial grasses. 
 
 " For the silo two men are wanted to level and stow the cut forage as it 
 falls from the chaff-cutter. Twice a day a couple of bullocks or horses 
 are driven over the ensilage, so that it may be trodden down evenly. This 
 work is better done by animals than by men. An occasional sprinkle of 
 salt gives a savour that animals appreciate. 
 
 " My sUo is 72 yards long by 6^ yards wide, and 4^ yards high. It is 
 desirable to raise the layers of forage a yard above the top level of the 
 
 * The articles in this Appendix are mostly reprinted, in a more or less con- 
 densed form, from the Field, or have been specially written for this book. When 
 quotations are made from other publications, the name of the paper is given. 
 
 o 2 
 
196 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 silo, and this quantity above the surface is inclosed with boarding. By- 
 shrinkage and settlement the ensilage soon sinks to the pit level. Directly 
 the silo is full, I at once have it covered as soon as possible with a bed of 
 earth about a foot thick, and the forage is then left for some three months, 
 to become ripe for feeding of stock. 
 
 " For two years I have now successfully fed all my farm animals, con- 
 sisting of 20 horses, 36 buUocks, 120 milch cows, 1000 to 1200 sheep and 
 lambs, with this ensilage, mixed with straw and roots ; in the feeding of 
 horses 1 mix carrots or potatoes with the forage. All the stock have been 
 kept in thriving condition — indeed, they have been wonderfully well 
 whilst fed on this green food stored in pits." 
 
 One of the first impressions in reading the above letter was that the 
 scale — nearly 200 acres of crops being saved — brings the subject at once 
 under practical agriculture ; and next that horses can be fed with as much 
 advantage as cows upon ensilage. Hitherto I had regarded the process as 
 more interesting to dairymen than to ordinary farmers. Lastly, in point 
 of expense, reckoning lOd. to Is. 3d. per ton for reaping, carrying, and 
 cutting (the chaff-cutter should be driven by a steam engine), makes 
 the system the most economical of any. 
 
 I have just visited (October, 1882), probably the largest silo in Europe 
 — that of the Viscount Arthur de Ohezelles, of Chateau Boulleaume, 
 Oise, France. It is really a fine yet most economical structure — an 
 excellent barn and perfect silo ; a great oblong shed, roofed with tiles, 
 72 yards long, 6^ yards wide, 4J yards high from the ground level — an 
 immense cover for the cereal crops of a large farm. The floor is sunk 
 some 12ft., and is paved and drained. The side walls and one end wall 
 are lined with rough stones set in mortar, whilst the front is partly walled 
 up, and a wide door allows the entrance of trucks on rails to come and be 
 filled. This great basement suggested comparison with the hold of a big 
 ship ; and in it at present is stowed away the produce of 170 acres of 
 various sorts of forage — cut, carried, and made into green chafE last 
 July — which fills the whole space, excepting where a remnant of last 
 year's ensilage occupies some 16ft. at one end. 
 
 The forage was cut by English mowing machines ; five men followed 
 them and loaded into carts, which delivered the green stufE at the side of 
 the silo, upon the carriers of a powerful " Albaret " chafE-cutting machine, 
 two men unloading and three men feeding; so that ten men were 
 employed, and these were paid 8s. to 16s. per hectare (2| acres), accord- 
 ing as the crops were light or heavy. The whole business was so arranged 
 in relays that the work went on uninterruptedly, and the chafE-cutter, 
 driven by 7 h.p. engine, poured out a green stream of food that, like 
 water, soon became level through being trimmed and stowed by a couple 
 of workmen. Twice a day bullocks' (here much used for farm work) 
 walked over the mass and gave it compactness. A little salt was 
 
Vicomte de Chezelles' Silo. 197 
 
 -occasionally sprinkled on the layers, more to give the fodder an appetising 
 flavour than for any other purpose. When, in a few days, the silo was 
 filled — swallowing up all and whatever the farm could give it — the forage 
 was covered up, without any layer of straw or boards, by a stratum of the 
 light sandy soil, some foot and a half thick. Naturally the mass subsided 
 under the weight of earth, and became nicely compressed, but scarcely 
 more than is hay in a large stack. 
 
 At this period, to all intents and purposes, the superstructure became 
 and looked simply a great shed with a nice even sandy floor ; just the place 
 to invite the reception of the cereal crops which — wheat, oats, and some 
 barley — were ripening in the fields. In a short time, from floor to the 
 -angles of the roof, the building was filled. 
 
 I fancy there are not three farmers in England who would have had as 
 much faith as had the proprietor of this estate, when he confided the 
 produce of 170 acres of land to this great pit in such conditions ; but two 
 years' previous experiments gave confidence, and a large and valuable bulk 
 of property was left in the full expectation that for this coming winter a 
 wholesome and nutritious store of animal food would be available for his 
 stock. That such expectation was fairly fulfilled I went to see for myself. 
 
 Previous to my arrival at Liancourt St. Pierre, I had received a letter 
 from M. Georges, the manager of the farm, to say that, owing to the 
 abundance of green keep still in the fields, the opening of the silo would be 
 postponed untU November. However, upon the day I had come to see 
 the actual opening, the sUo, by the courtesy of the Vicomte, was opened, 
 and on the 12th of October, 1882, I had for the first time a block of new 
 ensilage in my hands. I took it at once to a yoke of Charolaise oxen that 
 happened to be within a short distance, looking, with the great cart loaded 
 with beetroot pulp, a picture from out the canvas of Rosa Bonheur. These 
 bullocks took the ensilage, eating it with relish, as a horse takes a mouthful 
 of hay from the hands. All doubt as to the food being freely taken was 
 therefore at an end. To reach the ensilage, a load or two of the super- 
 imposed com had to be removed ; next the stratum of earth was shovelled 
 aside, and the brown-black mass of ensilage below was laid bare. Without 
 the loss of a minute I jumped down into the pit, thrust my hands between 
 the substance with some difficulty, from its compressed state, and found 
 the temperature decidedly high, certainly of blood heat, whilst a smell 
 rather agreeable than otherwise, such as comes from breweries — sweet, 
 alcoholic, and condimental — made itself observed. The heat gave no 
 apprehension, and was not considered objectionable, previous years' 
 experiments proving such condition was unattended by danger. Without 
 further delay, I took, as a geologist takes a f ossU. specimen from a freshly 
 cut rock-section, three samples of the new ensilage, and a fourth sample 
 of the old (1881) stock, and placed them in separate tin cases, which were 
 only closed with string, since I feared to have them soldered down on 
 .account of possible difficulties with the Custom House authorities. The 
 work so far was complete, and the opening of the silo that Thursday 
 
198 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 afternoon was a success; the food stored there was good provender for the 
 coming winter. The instance, in this pi-esent case, is all the more notable, 
 because, whilst different experimentalists have advocated various plans as 
 to method of covering, necessary weight, time and manner of opening, and 
 divers details, here there was an absence of all niceties ; here was a 
 working example that all practical farmers could easily follow. Simplicity, 
 efficiency, and economy were the characteristics of the silo-work at 
 Chateau "BouUeaume. 
 
 I next put forward a supposed difficulty — namely: that the bulk of 
 ensilage, from which a portion was cut away, must on each occasion be 
 protected afresh, and such portion taken away must be consumed in 
 twenty-four hours, or it would become worthless. Nothing of the sort 
 was to be feared, as I was told, from the experience of last season. The 
 ensUage is simply cut away as wanted, just as a few trusses of hay would 
 be cut from an ordinary stack. After a lapse of eighteen days, one of 
 the samples on view in the Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, on Mr. Gripper's 
 stand, retains sweetness and savour, as many visitors attested. An 
 analysis has been made, and why it was not made before was told the 
 readers of the Field — our Custom House sentinels stopped and 
 challenged the new visitor I had sent to England, and thought he was 
 " tobacco " in disguise. Invicta. 
 
 Analysis op Vioomte de Ohezelles' Ensilage. 
 The following tabular statement represents the percentage composition 
 of the samples of fodder, consisting of tref oU, lucerne, tares, and grass, 
 cured on the ensilage system by the Vicomte de Chezelles. 
 
 Volatile Matter : 
 
 Water 50-30 percent. 
 
 Free acetic acid 1-20 „ 
 
 Alcohol 1-80 „ 
 
 Solid Matter : 
 
 Albumenoids* 9-12 ,, 
 
 Ammonia 0-06 „ 
 
 Fatty matter 2'07 
 
 Soluble carbo-hydrates : 
 
 Sugar (maltose) 2'94 
 
 Starch and digestible cellulose . , . ' 2-23 
 
 Pectous substances (gum, mucilage, &c.)... 10'32 
 
 15-49 
 
 Insoluble carbo-hydrates (fibre) 14'35 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 5-01 
 
 * Containing nitrogen, 1'44 per cent. 
 The following represents the composition of the substance (when dry) 
 contrasted with two samples of dry lucerne analysed by Dr. Von Wolff, 
 of the Hohenheim Imperial Experimental Station, Germany. The first 
 sample was dried with care on a bam floor ; the other (a poi-tion from the 
 same crop) was dried in the field in the ordinary way. During the first 
 two of the four days to which the latter sample was exposed to the 
 
Vicomte de Ohezelles' Silo. 199 
 
 atmosphere, it became subjected to the action of a slight shower of rain 
 and to a thunderstorm : 
 
 t;, ., Carefully-dried Field-dried 
 
 Ensilage. Lucerne. Lucerne. 
 
 Albumenoids 18-35 17-00 14-94 
 
 Fibre 28-87 31-81 33-90 
 
 Fat Soluble Carbo-bydrates, I g ^g.gO ^.^^ 
 
 and Aloohol (if any) J 
 
 Asb 11-29 7-39 .6-94 
 
 The above figures so clearly show the high feeding value of this sample 
 of ensilage, that they may be allowed to speak for themselves. I wish 
 only to point out that, contrary to generally accepted opinion, my experi- 
 ments led me to believe that the sugar formed by the fermentation of 
 ensilage is not " grape sugar " or " glucose," but sugar of malt, or 
 " maltose." The acetic acid, although of course indicative of the loss of 
 nutritious feeding material, is probably not without value as a condiment. 
 Its amount in the above sample is much less thau in the specimen of 
 highly fermented hay, the analysis of which was given in my " Chemical 
 Investigation of Hays " (The Field, Oct. 14, 1882). 
 
 F. Woodland Toms, F.O.S. 
 
 7, Busby-place, Camden-road, London, Nov. 2, 1882. 
 
 [A careful botanical examination of the above sample of ensilage after- 
 wards showed that, although various crops, as already stated, were 
 stored in the silo, they were by no means equally distributed, and that the 
 sample analysed consisted mainly of clover (Trifolium pratense), -with a 
 small admixture of barley and some of the common grasses, such as 
 Alopecurus pratensis, Agrostis albus, Bromus mollis, &c., all cut up into 
 chafE before being put into the pit.] 
 
 Statement of Cost op Vicomte de Chezblles' Silo. 
 
 I give below the detailed cost of the silo at Chateau BouUeaume, Oise, 
 France, the particulars and figures being copied from a statement affixed 
 in the Paris Show at the Paris Exhibition of Ensilage, made by Vicomte 
 Arthur de Ohezelles, and appended to drawings and photographs : 
 
 Silo of 1475 tona capacity, suitable for containing the produce of 
 250 acres of forage, costing 2fr. 70o. for each ton, or 3989fr. 48o., 
 
 say sterling ^6160 
 
 Fr. ct. 
 Excavating and carting earth (1368-80 metres), at 65c. ... 889 72 
 
 Concrete for foundations and floor 86 40 
 
 Masons' work, 4fr. the m^tre — 435-56 metres 1742 24 
 
 Cartage of stones (dug out from the estate), lime, and 
 
 sand, 2fr. the mfetre 871 12 
 
 Wood around the pit, 5 ateres, at 60fr 300 
 
 Fixings of iron, and Eoman cement 100 
 
 Fr. 3989 48 ^160 
 
200 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Bakn STTPEKSTKTJCTTjKii;, to shelter about 20,000 sheaves : 
 
 Fr. ot. 
 
 Elm posts, 11-865, at 86fr. the cubic m^tre 1008 52 
 
 Woodwork of Norwegian pine 2050 43 
 
 Carpenter's labour 750 
 
 Bolts and nails 400 
 
 Blacksmith's work 180 75 
 
 Tiles and laths 1629 
 
 Laying tiles 235 
 
 6253 70 
 
 Total cost Fr. 10,243 18 say ^6410 
 
 Estimate for a silo that would hold the produce of 125 acres, and with- 
 out superstructure, 801. 
 
 Specification for BriLDiNG a Chezelles' Silo. 
 
 In the specification of the " Chezelles Shed and Silo," the plan is simply- 
 reduced in size from the large one previously given, in order to make it 
 suitable to most English farmers. As will be readily seen, the eaves 
 could easily be extended, and the sides inclosed, so as to form a roomy 
 stable or dairy and cow shed at very small cost. This building conmiends 
 itself as economical and adaptable to most farm purposes. 
 
 Sheo for grain 
 
 STRAW &c 
 
 -IS.oFt—- 
 
 Chbzelles' Silo and Grain Shed. 
 
 SPECiriCATiON OF WoEKS required to be done in the erection of a grain 
 shed and of a silo for storage of grass, clover, and other green forage. 
 
 Excavator. — Excavate to a depth of 9ft. and cart away the soil 
 excavated to such place as shall be directed. The earth in the founda- 
 
Vicomte de Chezelles' Silo. 201 
 
 tion is to be well rammed down, so as to form a solid level flooring, in a 
 natural bed, and not made up of loose earth. Sand, if found, is to be 
 allowed for by the contractor. 
 
 Bricklayer, &c. — Build in Flemish bond the walls and piers, as shown, 
 of best hard well-burnt grey stocks, laid in good cement composed of one 
 part of approved cement and three of clean sharp sand, with footiugs 
 composed of four courses of brickwork. Lay the bottom of the pit with 
 concrete 1ft. in depth, with a layer of asphalte lin. in thickness on top. 
 Form a drain in the asphalte, and concrete through the centre of the pit 
 the entire length, with a fall from either side of the walls, and a fall of 
 6in. from the centre towards each end. Provide and lay a damp course, 
 consisting of two courses of unbroken slates, laid, breaking join in cement 
 above footings. 
 
 Carpenter and Joiner. — Timbers are to be supplied and fixed of the 
 following scantlings, well seasoned, free from large or dead knots, decay 
 and all other imperfections : Tie beam Sin. by 2in. ; kiag post. Gin. by 4in. ; 
 common rafter, Sin. by l^in. ; struts, 4in. by 2in. ; ridge plate. Sin. by 
 2jin. ; purlins, 4ui. by 4iii. ; principal rafters. Sin. by Sin. Uprights 
 (posts). Bin. by 6in., are to be placed at distances of 8ft. apart, and to be 
 tenoned into waU-plate as shown. An oak wall-plate to be provided and 
 fixed, size Sin. by Sin., to run entire length of wall. 
 
 Slater. — Slate the whole roof, as shown, with sound Bangor Countess 
 slating, on, fir laths, and fixed with galvanised nails. Provide and fix a 
 slate ridge. 
 
 Founder and Smith. — ^Provide and fix a cast-iron ogee eaves gutter on 
 each side of building, with a fall towards two cast-iron rain-water pipes at 
 either end, as shown. Provide iron ties where shown. 
 
 General Bemarhs. — The whole of the work is to be carried out and 
 finished completely from the time that it is commenced, without stoppage 
 (through the fault of the contractor), and in case anything may have been 
 omitted in this specification, that may or may not be shown in the drawing 
 that is absolutely necessary for the stability of the erection, the same shall 
 be executed by the contractor on written authority being given him. 
 
 Inticta. 
 
€ 
 
 MM 
 
 \h 
 
 Iz; 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 H 
 B 
 
Appendix. 203 
 
 MR. COPLEY'S SILO AT EAST COWTON, YORKSHIRE. 
 
 [Me. Thos. Easdalb, dating from the Pepper Arden Hall Estate Office, East 
 Cowton, Northallerton, wrote several letters on this subject in the FielA of 
 December, 1882, and January, 1883, the particulars of which we here bring 
 together.] 
 
 The preservation of green food for the use of cattle during winter 
 having engaged a considerable amount of public attention for some time 
 past, I feel silre that many of your readers will be interested to learn that 
 a most successful experiment has been carried out close to this place by a 
 neighbour of mine, who cordially permits the leading facts to be stated. 
 They are as follows : 
 
 Some time in the early part of 1882, a copy of Mr. Bailey's (American) 
 book on ensilage came to hand, which, after a careful perusal, was sub- 
 jected to a searching discussion, in which it was my privilege to join. 
 After all the pros and cons were well thrashed out, it was decided that a 
 thorough trial should be given to the system so eloquently advocated by 
 Mr. Bailey. It was also resolved that to this trial all possible intelligence 
 should be appKed, and that no reasonable trouble or expense should be 
 spared. 
 
 The silo-7-the plan of which is a simple oblong, 12ft. in length, 7ft. wide, 
 and 8ft. deep — was built during the month of June and early part of July, 
 and was filled with grass during the latter part of August and beginning 
 of September. 
 
 After sufficient additions had been made to the contents and the 
 arrangements for compressing the grass were carefully adjusted, the 
 whole thing was closed up on the 14th of September. 
 
 It was the intention at that time that the silo should not be opened until 
 Christmas ; but a friend, who was deeply interested in the experiment, 
 called on the 25th of November, and would hear of nothing else but that 
 the pit should be opened while he was here. My neighbour having con- 
 sented, the thing was done ; the result being — even to those of us who 
 were believers throughout — a most agreeable surprise. The whole mass 
 of ensilage was found to be in a perfect state of preservation, and gave 
 forth a most pleasant aroma not easily described. 
 
 The cattle, on the first day of being offered it, were, as was expected, 
 rather dainty, but on the second day took it eagerly, and by the end of the 
 first week they had become as fond of it as they are of the best oilcake — 
 in fact, they now eat it ravenously. 
 
 Both milk and butter have increased in quantity during the short 
 time the cows have been fed with ensilage ; while the quality of milk, 
 butter, and cream continues all that can be desired. 
 
 The quantity of ensilage given to each cow per day is about 451b. weighty 
 plus the ordinary rations of the usual feeding meals or cake. 
 
204 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Chopping the grass was dispensed with. A man with a horse and cart 
 followed two scythes ; he forked the grass into the cart from the swath, 
 and from this cart the grass was again simply forJied into the silo. 
 
 My letter on this subject having brought forth very numerous inquiries 
 from all parts of the country, including Scotland and Ireland, I have 
 endeavoured as far as possible to cover the various questions put. 
 
 1. Kind of grass used. — Commenced with ordinary grass from roadside ; 
 then some of a stalky nature, and finished with strong aftermath. 
 
 2. State of grass when put in silo. — Some dry, other portions wet with 
 dew, and other portions partially wet with rain. 
 
 3. How put in ? — Thrown in with a fork, then shaken out, in order as 
 far as possible to maintain a level surface ; and the grass well trodden 
 down. 
 
 4. How much put in at each filling. — Two feet depth, when trodden solid, 
 6. Use of the weighting apparatus. ^Aitev each filling, the planks and 
 
 weights were put on with the greatest care. 
 
 6. Kiiid of weights. — The weights were the same throughout the 
 whole operation — viz., wooden boxes, 12in. square and 15in. high. They 
 were filled with puddled clay, and weighed 1001b. each. The boxes are 
 placed close together, and always so as to cover the junctions of planks, 
 but without any idea of their excluding air by overlapping or otherwise. 
 
 7. Covering boards. — One inch and a quarter thick ; their length equals 
 the breadth of silo. 
 
 8. Straw between planlcs and grass. — No straw or any other material 
 was placed between the grass and the covering planks. 
 
 9. Hoiv long between each filling. — Three days, with the weights on; 
 
 10. Amount of sinhage. — Not yet exactly ascertained, but probably a 
 little more than one-half ; or, in other words, 14ft. was put in, and the 
 depth of the ensilage now is 6ft. 4in. 
 
 11. Foreign substances mixed with grass. — Prom 141b. to 161b. of 
 common salt was supplied to each filling, but no other substance of any 
 kind was added to the grass. Whether the salt is actually necessary 
 remains to be seen : and next year one silo will be filled without it. 
 
 12. If airtight and how ? — No means other than the weighting apparatus 
 were used to make the silo airtight ; nor was any attempt made in any 
 way to hermetically close it. 
 
 13. How is air excluded ? — By compression only. 
 
 14. Heating. — Not the slightest appearance of heating has been at any 
 time observable in the mass. 
 
 15. Chopping of material. — This was dispensed with, because it would 
 save labour and implements, and was considered unnecessary. We cannot 
 think that any loss of space is occasioned thereby. 
 
 16. How long closed ? — The silo was closed for two months and eleven 
 days. 
 
East Cowton Silo. 206 
 
 17. Colour of ensilage. — The colour of ensilage when taken out of silo 
 was a "pale yeUow green." 
 
 18. Sow much removed at once ? — Just sufficient for a day's consump- 
 tion is taken out of the silo at once, and no change of colour or smell has 
 been noticed, even after being exposed for three or four days. 
 
 19. Sow left after cutting ? — The silo is cut into for each supply, and 
 the cut face left as you would that of a haystack. 
 
 20. Quantity of grass put in. — About fourteen cartloads — that is, two 
 at each filling. 
 
 21. What quality of grass should he used, and at what stage of growth 
 should it he cut ? — From experience here, we say, " The better quality the 
 grass, the better the ensilage ; " and, as the aftermath portion has come 
 out as good as the other, it should follow that grass of any age may be 
 successfully used. 
 
 22. Other crops. — My neighbour intends to operate (in a second silo) 
 next year, on tares, oats, and prickly comfrey. 
 
 23. Material for huilding silo. — The walls (14in. thick) of silo are built 
 with good bricks and mortar, and faced with a coating of cement. The 
 floor is made of bricks covered with cement. 
 
 24. is the silo sunk or not ? — The silo here is 8ft. deep, 7ft. of which 
 are below the surface of the ground. Our experience has, however, 
 suggested several important improvements, a description of which, to be 
 clearly understood, should be accompanied with plans to illustrate. 
 
 25. Sow drained ? — The silo was well drained all round, and under, but 
 not " into." 
 
 26. Should floor he level ? — Give it a fall of lin. for its whole length, 
 and at one corner of lowest end make a small shallow well, 9in. square by 
 Sin. deep, from the bottom of which take a small pipe to a tap outside. 
 
 27. Sow covered in ? — With a simple roof resting on the silo walls. 
 
 28. Cost of construction. — This can be easily ascertained, and would 
 depend to some extent on local circumstances. There would be so many 
 cubic yards of excavating, so many yards of brickwork and cement 
 plastering, and lastly, a plain substantial roof of some kind. It has been 
 determined that the next silo erected here shall be roofed over, and an 
 arrangement made whereby the weights can be raised and lowered with a 
 block and pulley, so as to ease the manual labour. An improvement in 
 the weights is also contemplated. 
 
 29. Cost of filing. — This will depend very much on how far the land 
 on which the grass grows is from the silo. After this it is only a 
 matter of carting to the silo and filling in as mentioned under heads 
 2, 3, 4. 
 
 30. Ration for each cow. — ^From 351b. to 501b. per day, according to 
 size of beast and quantity of other food given. 
 
 31. Quality of butter and cream, and condition of cattle. — The butter 
 and cream continue of the very best quality, while the improvement in 
 the general appearance of cows is most decided. 
 
206 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 32. TJUlity of silo.—li is obvious tliat sUos Tirtually perform at once 
 the functions of the three existing operations— viz., first, hay-drying; 
 secondly, stacking ; and thirdly, that of a stacking barn. Moreover, they 
 will, when fairly well built, last fifty years or more ; so that, practically, 
 no future expense need be incurred beyond that of filling them annually. 
 
 33. Analysis. — This is beyond my province, but I shall be glad to 
 forward a sample to Professor Toelcker or any other analytical chemist for 
 analysis. 
 
 34. Weight of ensilage. — One cubic foot was put on a scale, and it 
 weighed 4341b., thus showing that our silo contained, when opened, rather 
 over 10 tons. Comparing this with head No. 20 shows that little or no 
 loss of weight can have taken place under the operation. 
 
 There can be no doubt of the great importance of this subject to every 
 agriculturist, more especially to grass farmers. One of my correspondents 
 in Ireland says that he and his father had 300 acres of meadow to save 
 last summer ; and, owing to the extraordinary wetness of the season, a 
 great portion was lost. To such gentlemen silos wUl be the greatest boon 
 imaginable. They can cart to them all the grass from shady and damp 
 places round woods, &c., leaving that on the more open and upland places 
 to be made into hay. 
 
 Being urged by some friends to ofEer my services in connection with 
 this question as far as my duties here will permit, I shall be glad to 
 arrange for furnishing plans and particulars for silos, and also to give 
 instructions and personal superintendence when required. 
 
 Thos. Easdale. 
 
 Estate Oflce, Pepper Arden Hall, East Cowton, Northallerton. 
 
 Since the foregoing particulars were published, Mr. Copley has con- 
 siderably added to and altered his silo, as will be seen by comparing the 
 plan given on page 202 with that of the improved structure shown in 
 the chapter on Silos, in the early part of the volume. A second and 
 larger pit has been made and a new roof erected, extending 3ft. beyond 
 the edge of the pits on each side, thus forming a bench or platform 
 whereon the weights can be placed when taken ofE the ensilage ; and at 
 other times the space is found convenient for various purposes. One side 
 and the two ends are enclosed with feather-edged boards, and at the front 
 are double doors made of the same material ; so that the building besides 
 acting as a roof for the sUos, forms an excellent store shed. 
 
 The smaE pit (the original sUo) is 12ft. long, and the new one ISft. 
 long ; both are 7ft. wide, and 10ft. in depth, 8ft. being below and 2ft. 
 above the surface of the ground. 
 
Appendix. 207 
 
 MR. STOBART'S SILOS AT PEPPER ARDEN, NORTH- 
 ALLERTON, YORKSHIRE. 
 
 [The following contains the most material parts of several letters from Mr. 
 Easdale wHcli have appeared in the Field during the latter part of 1883 and 
 the beginning of 1884. A plan of Mr. Stohart'a double silo (which has been 
 converted out of a large seldom-used building in a corner of the farmyard) 
 is given in the chapter on silos in the earlier part of this volume.] 
 
 The large silo at this place — of 100 tons capacity — was opened on 
 Oct. 22, and tlie improved " Cowton" silo on Nov. 10, and in both cases 
 the contents were found to he in an excellent state of preservation. 
 
 We cannot any longer allow the question to be considered problemati- 
 cal as to whether " the thing can be done," since with us it is an accom- 
 plished fact in two successive years. Both at Cowton and here (within 
 one mile of each other) can be seen ensilage chopped and unchopped — 
 made of meadow grass, oats, clover and rye grass, tares, and prickly 
 comfrey, and all well converted. 
 
 The silos at this place are each fitted with a small pipe, from their 
 lowest part inside to a tap outside, for the purpose of drawing off whatever 
 juice may have collected at the bottom. This juice is of the consistency 
 of oil, and comes from the tap of a bright amber colour. It has been 
 drawn regularly since the last week in September, and given to the pigs, 
 mixed with their ordinary food. These animals have become so exceed- 
 ingly fond of it, that some of them do not care to take their food unless 
 they have with it their " gill of juice ; " it has, moreover, proved of 
 undoubted benefit to their general health and appearance. A litter of 
 sucking pigs, immediately they were able to feed from a trough, took to 
 this juice with avidity, and their attendant states positively that a skin 
 irritation, which at the time troubled them, disappeared within a week, 
 and they are now (Nov. 17) the picture of health, and doing well. 
 
 The entire cost connected with the work this year has been carefully 
 calculated, and we find that the labour portion (including weighting 
 operations) will not exceed 3s. per ton; the charge on the cost of 
 adapting the building, 6d. per ton ; and the charge on the cost of iron 
 weights, 9(i. per ton ; making the whole cost per ton to be not more than 
 4s. 3c?. 
 
 We cannot speak too highly of the convenience and adaptability of 
 t;he iron weights that are used to obtain the compressive power. They 
 were cast to 'a model specially designed by ourselves with a view to secure 
 even pressure throughout the entire surface and convenience of handling, 
 both of which objects have been obtained to the entire satisfaction of the 
 owners. 
 
 Mr. Stobart's large pit (27|ft. long and llift. wide) is being pressed 
 with twenty-four tons of iron weights. With the assistance of three 
 
208 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 men and our patent hoist, we lifted these 480 blocks a height of ten feet, 
 and packed them away carefully in three hours and a quarter ; and after 
 a day's filling, these same blocks were removed from their places, lowered 
 a depth of six feet, and placed in position in one hour and five minutes. 
 In other words, each ton was raised in eight minutes, and lowered in two 
 and a half minutes. 
 
 Mr. Stobart, having taken a great practical interest in the question, 
 was anxious to obtain, by experiment, a trustworthy test of the value of 
 ensilage as food for fatting cattle. For this purpose, twelve beasts were 
 taken (eight steers, two cows, and two heifers) ; four steers and two cows 
 were placed on one side, and four steers and two heifers on the other side. 
 All alike were given the same quantity of meal and cake : plus this, one 
 lot received daily for each beast 2441b. of best quality hay and 951b. of 
 turnips, while each beast on the other side received, besides meal and cake, 
 751b. of ensilage. No other food than what is mentioned was given. 
 This diet was commenced on Nov. 10, and on the 17th the cattle were 
 weighed separately. They were again weighed on Dec. 8 with the 
 following result: 
 
 No. 
 1. Steer 
 
 N 
 cwt. 
 
 ... 10 
 ... 9 
 
 Hat 
 
 ov. 17. 
 qr. lb. 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 AND Turnips. 
 
 Dec. 8. 
 cwt. ar. lb. 
 
 11 .... 
 
 Advance, 
 cwt. qr. lb. 
 
 10 
 
 2. „ 
 
 10 2 14 .... 
 
 3 14 
 
 3. 
 
 9 
 
 9 3 7 .... 
 
 .. .. 2 7 
 
 4. „ 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 ...0 3 
 
 5. Cow 
 
 ... 11 
 ... 11 
 
 11 2 14 .... 
 
 2 14 
 
 6. ,, 
 
 12 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 No. 
 
 1. Steer 
 
 ... 59 
 
 Nov. 17. 
 c\vt. qr. lb. 
 
 ... 12 2 
 .. 12 
 
 ... 10 2 14 
 .. 11 1 7 
 .. 10 
 ..927 
 
 63 1 7 
 
 Ensilage. 
 
 Dec. s. 
 cwt. qr. lb. 
 13 2 
 
 4 17 
 
 Advance. 
 
 cwt. qr. lb. 
 
 10 
 
 2. „ 
 
 12 3 7 .... 
 
 3 7 
 
 3. „ 
 
 11 2 7 .... 
 
 3 21 
 
 4. „ 
 
 12 14 
 
 ..037 
 
 5. Heifer 
 
 10 2 7 .... 
 
 2 7 
 
 6. „ 
 
 10 21 .... 
 
 .. .. 2 14 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 .. 66 
 
 
 
 70 3 
 
 4 3 
 
 Showing a balance of 491b. in favour of ensilage. It will thus be seen 
 that ensilage can supply the place of both hay and turnips, and have a 
 considerable something to spare. The cows and heifers did not do so 
 well as the steers ; this may be accounted for in the fact that the cows 
 5 and 6 in the first lot were already well up in condition, and, being 
 older, would not lay on so fast as the young animals. The heifer 5 in the 
 second lot was suffering from a cold when housed, and has been dosep 
 with medicine several times since ; while her mate No. 6 has aU along 
 partly refused to eat her oilcake. 
 
Pepper Arden Silos. 209 
 
 TMrty-six stalled and sixty -seven lean cattle are getting ensUige as a 
 portion of their food every day, and it is calculated that the two pits hold 
 sufficient to last, at the same rate of consumption, until the middle of 
 April. 
 
 The experience of others as well as ourselves shows conclusively that, 
 besides meadow grass, clover and rye grass, tares and oats by this method 
 of preservation make excellent cattle food. That being so, I would take 
 the liberty to call the earnest attention of all owners and occupiers of 
 heavy or clay land to the subject. Let them take note of the experiment 
 recorded in this letter, and let them feel assured that every one of them 
 (unless their land is rotten with water, and consists of nothing but barren 
 clay to the very surface) can grow in abundance the same kind of 
 material, and quite as good, as that by which these results were obtained. 
 
 Mr. Stobart's flock of Cheviot in-lamb ewes have been getting a small 
 daily allowance of ensilage since the middle of November, the object 
 aimed at being to get the animals used to the new food before the severe 
 weather set in or the lambing season came about. So far, the effect on the 
 sheep has been most excellent, their health being everything that could 
 be wished, with bright eyes and springy gait, and that nervous alertness 
 so indicative of vigour. They wiU not touch the hay in the racks above 
 so long as there is any ensilage in the troughs below. It may be added 
 that a small quantity of oats is mixed with the ensilage, in the proportion 
 of 101b. of the former to 601b. of the latter. 
 
 A letter has been received from Mr. John Nettleton, of Northallerton, 
 the veterinary Surgeon who has professional charge of the entire collection 
 of Mr. Stobart's live stock, and he says, under date of Feb. 4, 1884 : — 
 " I am happy to say we have had far less disease amongst the cattle at 
 Pepper Arden since they have been fed on ensilage than at any time pre- 
 viously whilst they have been under my charge ; in fact, we have not had 
 a single case of indigestion, constipation, or any disease that could be 
 attributed to feeding — which is very remarkable, considering the large 
 number of stock." 
 
 The many comments made on the subject of compressing ensilage 
 since Mr. Jenkins's visit to the " silos of the north " show that consider- 
 able interest has been excited in connection therewith ; and as the " iron 
 blocks " so frequently referred to originated here, you will perhaps allow 
 me to offier a few remarks illustrative of their practical application. 
 These weights are reported as "huge blocks;" but, seeing that each of 
 them contain no more than the merest fraction above one quarter of a 
 cubic foot, I venture to think the term " huge " is calculated to convey 
 an exaggerated idea of their size. Their dimensions are ISin. long by 
 Sin. deep and 5in. broad, and they are as nearly as possible lewt. each. 
 This weight does not exceed that of pig iron bars, which, as is well 
 known, are handled by thousands of men daily, monthly, and yearly with- 
 out complaint ; whereas in silo work these blocks need not be raised and 
 lowered on more than six separate occasions in any one season. Note 
 
 P 
 
210 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 also that one layer of them (not two as reported) gives the desired 
 pressure. 
 
 The manual labour, moreover, is with us much diminished by the use 
 of the excellent patent hoist, which is peculiarly well adapted for the 
 wort ; in fact, the assistance of this hoist is essential. It is to be feared, 
 however, that those practitioners who complain of excessive clumsiness 
 and laboriousness in the matter should really, in some degree, blame 
 themselves for a want of foresight in not providing suitable convenience. 
 All those gentlemen who have visited the silos at Cowton and Pepper 
 Arden wiU have noticed that a bench or platform is provided at one or 
 both sides of the pits, on which all weights rest while filling operations 
 are being carried on, so that when wanted they are close to that part of 
 the pit on which they are to be laid, and, with the hoist mentioned above, 
 they can be lifted and laid with comparative ease. The result of this 
 arrangement here is that the entire labour of moving the weights off and 
 on the large pit (holding from eighty -five to ninety tons of ensilage) did 
 not cost Mr. Stobart more than 30s. from first to last. 
 
 Under the searching examination of Mr. Jenkins and other gentle- 
 men who accompanied him, it was satisfactorily proved that the cost of 
 Mr. Stobart's ensilage when ready for feeding, and inclusive of rent and 
 taxes and every other charge against it, did not exceed 14s. per ton, and 
 that its feeding value was from SSs. to 40s. per ton. Considering this in 
 conjunction with the other generally admitted fact that the quality of the 
 ensilage here is second to none in the country, it may, I think, be reason- 
 ably claimed that the method by which this end was obtained has been 
 fairly successful. Thos. Easdale. 
 
 Pepper Arden, Northallerton. 
 
 MR. C. G. JOHNSON'S LEYER-PRBSSUEE SILO. 
 
 The bmlding is of brick, aU above ground, with slated roof. It is 28ft. 
 high up to the eaves, 10ft. by 18ft. inside, 9in. walls, with the exception 
 of the front end, around doorway, which is 14in. work ; and is designed 
 to be filled to 22ft. high of ensilage, leaving the remainder for working 
 room. 
 
 I began to buUd about the 1st of September, and the fodder intended 
 to be saved (second crop seeds and clover) must be all in before, say, the 
 second week in October, consequently there was no time for lime to dry ; 
 and being ignorant also as to the amount of lateral pressure to be 
 expected from within, I thought it safer to have the walls up to 22ft. 
 from the ground set in cement. Experience proved there was no lateral 
 pressure observable. My next silo wiU therefore be either sheet iron, 
 wood, or 9in. brickwork set in lime. 
 
Mr. Johnson's Lever- Pressttre Silo. 211 
 
 The bottom of the silo consists of a framework of rough wood, upon 
 which the ensilage rests, and which, taken hold of by two rods communi- 
 cating with one end of the lever -beam, enables the weight of the ensilage 
 to be used as the fulcrum from which to inflict the pressure upon itself — 
 thereby giTing it a double squeeze from both top and bottom, and saving 
 the necessity of heavy masonry, which would otherwise have to be pro- 
 vided to keep down the short end of th^ lever. 
 
 The crop is at first thrown in through the large folding doors at the 
 bottom, which are made wide enough to admit a cart to back into the silo 
 
 to remove the ensUage. As the grass rises, this space is made up by 
 loose boards (in my case old railway sleepers), one on the other edgeways. 
 When it has risen above this aperture, it is forked off the cart by one 
 man on to a scaffold, and from thence by one man standing thereon 
 through the long-shaped window, which, as the grass rises, is also made 
 up with loose boards as before described — ^the latter being in this case to- 
 save unnecessary forking until the stack has risen. I may here mention 
 that, though I did not fill up the interstices between the boards (which I 
 could easily have done), the ensilage was just as free from mould as at 
 any other part of the wall sides; and further, it may be mentioned that 
 
V 
 
 212 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
Mr. Johnson's Lever-Fressure Silo. 213^ 
 
 u 
 
 z 
 3 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 p 
 u 
 111 
 
 CO 
 
 I '\ I 
 
 "-U 
 
214 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 when the pressure was first applied from aboTe, the air could be heard 
 hissing out through these spaces. 
 
 When the day's filling is complete, the top covering of boards is laid 
 on with longitudinal and transverse timbers to receive the pressure ; the 
 hydraulic jack (which it may be seen is at the weighted end of the lever) 
 then comes into play, and lowers the wrought iron cradle and transverse 
 timbers, which are attached by chains to the lever beam on to the longi- 
 tudinal timbers, and a strong round iron bolt is then adjusted into one of 
 the holes in the cradle according to the height of the ensilage. The 
 whole force of the weight of the boxes full of stones at the out end of the 
 lever — ^which is about four and a half tons multiplied by the length of the 
 lever — then comes on and inflicts a pressure of about 2 cwt. per square 
 foot (including weight of beam, cradle, boards, and everything) ; this at 
 once presses down the grass about two feet, which is the extent of travel 
 the lever gives at the point of pressure. The hydraulic jack is then 
 worked by one man or very easily by two, and, having a stroke of about 
 six feet, quickly raises the weighted lever ; the pin in the cradle is with- 
 drawn, and put in so many holes higher, say two feet. On comes the 
 pressure again, and this time, the grass having become so far solidified as 
 to be able to bear the weight, the beam is kept up at, say, half stroke, 
 and there hangs the weighted lever, preserving a continuous pressure of 
 about sixteen tons resting upon the grass. Or, if the attendant is not 
 satisfied, and has reason to fear that there is not sufiicient travel left to 
 allow for the sinking of the grass .before he comes again next morning, 
 he raises it again to full stroke ; and it is found that this is ample to last 
 well into the next day, and thus secure continuous pressure. Next 
 morning we generally found the ensilage sunk about another foot ; the 
 lever is raised by one man in a few minutes, and the weight left hanging 
 in such a position that it must sink about two feet before it need agaiu be 
 adjusted. This is not generally for some days ; and shortly, as it becomes 
 settled, need not be looked to for weeks. 
 
 It will be seen in the accompanying sketch that the cradle upon which 
 the beam rests its pressure does not appear long enough to reach the 
 grass when only a small first day's work may have been put in. This, 
 however, is provided for, as, though not easily shown on so small a scale, 
 it is made telescopic, and lengthens out to follow the ensilage. It will 
 also be observed that the chains which are attached to the cradle and 
 transverse timbers are carried over two pulHes at top of beam, and thence, 
 after passing through two snatch-blocks fastened to the wall, can be 
 hooked on to the lever beam, and then, by working the jack through its 
 full travel of 6ft., they are raised about 8ft. out of the way of the people 
 treading the grass. 
 
 When it is desired to remove the ensilage for consumption, the 
 hydraulic jack raises the cradle, boards are taken ofP as far as required, 
 and the weight put on again — ^the cradle retiring towards the out-end of 
 the lever as each section is cut. Thus the same uniform continuous 
 
Mr. Johnson^s Lever-Fressure Silo. 215 
 
 pressure is maintained, the weight on the cradle being reduced by the 
 shortening of the leverage in proportion as the area to be pressed is 
 diminished. 
 
 Near the top of the silo there is a shelf which is for the piling away of 
 the coTering boards, and for the man to stand on to work the jack. 
 
 I believe my silo when full holds 90 to 100 tons. The weight of a 
 cubic foot of ensilage 6ft. from the bottom was 601b. 
 
 Of course, the somewhat unusual height of the building is to save first 
 cost, as the expense of pressure is the same for a high silo as a low one. 
 Also, the deeper the ensilage, the more pressure from its own weight, and 
 tthe more f uU days' work at filling — not so much time being lost in starting 
 and stopping as is the case with the small fillings for so many toppings 
 •out. This, to my mind, more than compensates for the wages of the man 
 who forts ofE the scaffold, or for an elevator, if the latter be preferred. 
 
 I prefer silos above ground because it saves excavating ; and, after 
 all, you cannot have less than 9in. work, and in most cases the earth 
 would require more to keep it up. Again it is much cheaper to fork off a 
 <3art in the long days of summer than out of a deep hole every time you 
 fodder the cattle in winter, as will be found when this new feed gets into 
 the wholesale scale of every-day practice. Besides, there is the risk 
 •of water oozing through your cemented walls and making tea-leaves of 
 the ensilage. 
 
 I may add that for the last two months I have been feeding sixteen 
 bullocks and heifers of the largest size on nothing but ensilage and 61b. 
 daily of cake and meal ; and the result is, I consider, at least a dead heat 
 between them and similar bullocks on the same allowance of cake and 
 meal, and turnips and hay ad lib., instead of ensilage. 
 
 I hope to put up another silo of about 100 tons to be ready for the 
 spring. 
 
 Like you, I at present do not believe in light pressure or no pressure. 
 The weight of evidence goes to prove, the greater the pressure the better 
 the ensilage — the limit being that point at which the juices begin to 
 squeeze out. Up to that weight it pays in quality of product, and 
 quantity stored in given space. C. G. Johnson. 
 
 Oakwood, Croft, Darlington, Jan. 18, 1884. 
 
 [Mr. Johnson subsequently informed us that the total cost, including 
 roof, windows, covering boards, &c., was about 1601. ; of which sum 651. 
 was for the masonry of the building, and 40Z. for the pressing apparatus. 
 " At this figure," he remarks, " I have no reason to be dissatisfied, as I 
 believe it compares favourably with the cheapest construction on the dead 
 weight principle, even where only stones are used for weighting." The 
 weighting apparatus, however, would have cost more had an engineer 
 been engaged to do the work, but Mr. Johnson employed men under his 
 own supervision. — Ed.] 
 
216 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MESSRS. BRODERICK'S SILOS, AT HAWES, N. YORKSHIRE. 
 
 (Agricultural Gazette, Feb. 12, 1883.) 
 
 The foUowing is an account of an experiment made by my brother and 
 myseK last summer, hoping thus to help in deciding the real value of the 
 system. I had long looked for some discovery which should insure the 
 farmer against the heavy losses sustained by the bad harvesting of forage 
 crops consequent on our uncertain climate, and some ten or twelve years 
 since I made some small experiments by hermetically sealing grass pressed 
 into tins, but was discouraged by the condition in which it came out, and 
 the bad smell given ofE, though I now find that it had some resemblance 
 to ensilage. When I heard of M. GofEart's trials and success in Prance, 
 and those of his followers in America, I determined to try it at once. 
 
 Last year (1882) the Earl of WharnclifEe kindly offered to buUd us a 
 silo, and we came to the conclusion that the easiest and cheapest method 
 would be to make it an existing stone barn. We selected rather an old 
 one, and excavated the rock to about 6ft., in order to get sufficient depth for 
 the pit. From the bottom of this excavation we built thin inner walls — 
 excepting in the front, which was very bad and was rebuilt — filled with 
 grout or thin mortar, our object laeing to get solid air and waterproof wall, 
 and also straight and perpendicular ones, as the old ones were not so. We 
 thus saved the expense of building an entirely new barn and roof, and 
 cattle shed or lean-to which is attached. The walls are faced with cement, 
 nd the floor is constructed by laying a thin cover of 2in. or 3in. of lime 
 concrete coated with cement, and the whole white-washed two or three 
 times with cement without sand. This is important, as it gives a very 
 hard, smooth, waterproof surface. 
 
 The silo thus constructed would have been 29ft. long by 14ft. wide, but 
 we thought it best to divide it, for convenience in fillin g, by a partition 
 wall a foot wide — of course faced with cement on both sides. This gives 
 us two pits, each 14ft. square by 15ft. deep. 
 
 On Aug. 12 (a dry day) we put in as it was mown, unchopped, a very 
 heavy crop of natural meadow from about five acres of land. We had 
 three or four men inside tramping and spreading the grass evenly ; it 
 however, fiUed both pits to the top. On this we placed some bad hay, 
 and then weighted with about 30 tons of stone (equal to 12 or 13 cwt. per 
 square yard) without boards or planks. Next morning it had sunk about 
 6ft., and went on sinking for about a fortnight. In about a week after 
 filling it had begun to ferment, and was slightly warm, but never 
 attained a high temperature. 
 
 We opened it in the beginning of January, and, except a few inches on 
 the top, it is perfectly preserved quite to the wall sides and bottom, some 
 near the wall sides being nearly as green as when put in. The bulk of it 
 
Yorkshire Silos. 217 
 
 is about the colour that slightly sweated hay would be if wetted. It is 
 perfectly clear of mould, or any signs of putrefaction, and quite cold ; but 
 if lightened and exposed long to the air, will again begin to ferment and 
 heat. Thus, if the weight is taken ofE the edge where it has been cut 
 away from, it will begin to heat and smeU like sweating hay, and the 
 cattle seem to like it well when warm ; but it will shortly begin to dry, 
 and mould. 
 
 We are feeding it to seven cows which calve early in the spring, and 
 are therefore naturally fast losing their milk ; yet they improved consider- 
 ably for three weeks after coming from hay. The milk has a slightly 
 altered flavour from that of hay ; but the butter is very good in flavour and 
 colour, much better than hay butter. The cattle are extremely fond of it, 
 and this is a good test of its quality. They all ate it without hesitation 
 from the first. Horses will generally eat it at once, and sheep after a 
 short time. I think it at any rate equal to, if not better than, the best hay, 
 though I should certainly hesitate to say that it is as good as green grass. 
 
 With our ordinary horses, hands, and machinery, we put in silos about 
 five acres of heavy grass, and did some haymaking as well in a day. The 
 rest of our hay, about 100 acres, took us five weeks, and a lot of it got 
 spoiled into the bargain, though last hay harvest time was considered 
 better than an average. At the rate of ensilage we should have done in 
 less than three weeks, as most of our land had much lighter crops. Other 
 things equal, the saving of labour, and loss by bad weather would 
 certainly be a very great saving in favour of ensilage. 
 
 I do not think it at all necessary for the silos to be entirely sunk in the 
 ground; and they would be quite as effective if entirely out of it, if 
 strongly built and cemented. Nor is any concrete necessary; and I 
 should say that nothing would make a better floor than bricks paved in 
 mortar and coated with cement ; stone or flags would also do. A great 
 advantage may be gained for filling thein by building them in hiH sides, 
 so as to bring the top level with the ground at the back side, and it also 
 affords fall for drainage of the walls. Many existing stone bams can be 
 converted into silos by simply cementing the walls and laying down 
 fioors. 
 
 It is also quite unnecessary to chop grass for ensilage ; a little more 
 pressure will do just as well. The object of chopping is only to make it 
 pack closer, or, in the case of maize, to make it more eatable. 
 Hawes, North Yorkshire, Feb., 1883. Geo. Beoderick. 
 
 Since I wrote on the subject of ensilage last year, my brothers and I 
 have had two more barns converted into silos, and we thus have had this 
 year the experience of four silos, with an estimated weight of between 
 200 and 300 tons of grass. 
 
 Through having existing barns, the investment has been small in com- 
 parison with those who have built entirely new silos ; yet the result may 
 
218 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 be interesting to those wlio, like oiirselTes, have stone or other barns, and 
 may think of converting them. The two we had made in 1882, with a 
 capacity to hold about 150 tons, cost about 50Z. ; the second one, capable 
 of holding about 70 tons, about 20Z. ; and a third one, with a similar 
 capacity, about lOL 
 
 I beUeve many of the experimental silos I have seen have been made 
 to cost a great deal more than necessary, through want of a proper know- 
 ledge of what was really required. This is necessarily the case with 
 anything in an experimental stage, and therefore any estimates of costs, 
 whether of building sUos or filling them, at present made, though very 
 instructive and useful, ought not to be regarded as correctly representing 
 the cost of the system when the experience of a few more years may have 
 brought it much nearer perfection. 
 
 There seems to be the most room for improvement in the methods of 
 weighting, and for experiment on the amount of weight, or other manner 
 of compression, required to obtain the best result. The latter point is of 
 special importance, but does not seem yet to have been satisfactorily 
 solved. It would make a considerable difEerence in the cost of filling if 
 it were found that a comparatively light weight will make as good 
 ensilage as a heavy one. There have been various methods of mechanical 
 pressure tried with varying success, but we have as yet mainly used 
 stone, iron, and other manufactured dead weights, costing, in some cases, 
 as much as the silo itseK, being far too costly for general use. A great 
 point is to have the silo deep, since the same weight presses a quantity of 
 ensilage varying in proportion to the depth. One hears of silos from 7ft. 
 to 12ft. deep, with lateral dimensions of perhaps 17ft. by 40ft. This is 
 altogether out of proportion, and would take three times as much 
 weighting as one, say, 15ft. by 20ft. by 25ft. deep, which would hold 
 more ensilage and would have far less waste on the top and sides. Of 
 course a good deal depends on the nature of the ground as to the depth 
 they can conveniently be made. If a steep hillside can be taken advan- 
 tage of, a sUo can easUy be made 30ft. deep. 
 
 It is stated by some that the weights should be put on every night 
 whilst filling ; but this entails a lot of labour, especially where the process 
 is slow ; and we have not found it at all necessary. If grass be filled in 
 to a depth of 8ft. or 10ft. one day, it will not take any harm before next 
 morning, when the filling can be recommenced, and another depth of 8ft! 
 or 10ft. put in — which is sufficiently heavy to press that previously put in ; 
 and so on till the pit is full. Of course, if the filling is interrupted for 
 more than a day, the weights wiU have to be put on. When the weights 
 are put on, a great shrinkage takes place, making room for more fodder. 
 But where dead weights are used, it seems questionable whether it would 
 not be cheaper in the end to make the silo large enough to hold the whole 
 crop at one filling and weighting, saving the labour of handling the 
 weights so often. It may look an easy matter enough to people experi- 
 menting with 10 or 20 tons of ensilage in a small silo to toss a few tons 
 
Yorkshire Silos. 219 
 
 of weights on and off half a dozen iimes ; but in practice, where 200 or 
 300 acres have to be siloed, it would become a serious matter. 
 
 The best shape for a silo, I fancy, is long, or oval, with the door for 
 emptying at one end, so that the least amount of surface wiU be exposed 
 while cuttiag away. It is often stated that exposure to the air does not 
 afEect the cut face of the ensilage ; but if anyone will take the pains to 
 cut a slice 2in. thick from a face that has been exposed a few weeks, and 
 perhaps become mouldy, he will find that it has become darker coloured 
 and of an insipid smell, showing a considerable deterioration in quality. 
 
 To save the expense and trouble of having a mason to wall up and 
 cement the doorways each year, we have had loose wooden doors made, 
 which fit the doorways, and are placed flush with the cemented wall 
 inside. They are then supported behind by two upright doorposts, 
 which are held firmly in their places by wedging top and bottom pieces 
 tightly in between them. The crevice left between the door and the 
 cement is then plastered up with cement or good clay. All that is 
 required to open the door is to strike out the top and bottom pieces from 
 between the upright doorposts, and the whole thing will come out. It is 
 not necessary that the doors should be so very strongly fixed, as there is 
 practically no lateral pressure in ensilage [when the grass is not chaffed. 
 —Ed.] 
 
 It is not necessary to chaff the finer grasses for ensUage, but those who 
 have power and machinery may do so if they choose. 
 
 We have pitted grass in dry weather when it was free from external 
 moisture, and also when it was dripping wet, with no material difference 
 in the preservation resulting, except that when it is put in wet there is 
 more soakage at the bottom — which should not be wasted — and less 
 heating during fermentation. With ordinary grass I think it is better 
 to err on the wet side, if either. If it is allowed to dry in the sun for a 
 feWrhours, the heating in the silo wiU be much greater. 
 
 The cost of stomg green crops may be anywhere between ten and 
 twenty shillings per acre, according to crop and circumstances ; but, on 
 the whole, I am inclined to think it is cheaper than making hay. The 
 question of emancipation from the effects of the weather in securing 
 forage crops, which has so long exercised men's minds, has been abso- 
 lutely solved by this system : and this, I dare say, is its main advantage, 
 though I think it has others. 
 
 Meadow grass will lose from 76 to 80 per cent, of its weight by drying 
 to hay.* How much it will lose by conversion to ensilage I cannot say, 
 but it cannot be much, since by artificially drying ensilage I find that it 
 loses over 75 per cent, of its weight. Now, I have been feeding milk 
 
 * The amount of water in grass varies considerably in different localities, and 
 in North TorksMre the percentage is evidently very high. "We hear there of 
 ensilage weighing from 581b, to 601b. per cubic foot ; whereas, from drier parts 
 of the kingdom, we have received samples weighing only about 301b. per cubic 
 foot, so little moisture did they contain. — Bn. 
 
 Q 2 
 
220 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 cows entirely on ensilage, and others of similar age and size entirely on 
 hay, and I find that those on hay eat on an average 281b. per day each, 
 and those on ensilage eat 661b. per day, and thriTO better than those on 
 hay. The 281b. of hay on the above calculation represents 1121b. of 
 grass, and the ensilage, I should think, at the outside, not more than 
 701b., showing a gain of over 30 per cent. These figui-es are rather 
 startling, but they seem to be fuUy borne out by the extra number of 
 cows that will winter per acreage on ensilage. 
 
 It may seem incredible at first that the same material can produce such 
 different results by diflrerent methods of preservation. But it should be 
 remembered that the chemical analysis of a feeding stuff is not a true 
 guide to its value as a food ; for a succulent food is more readily assimi- 
 lated than a dry one, and will therefore produce a better result, though 
 it may not show a higher analysis. Also that, in the conversion to 
 ensilage, certain woody substances are rendered more digestible ; but, by 
 a process of drying, they are rendered less so. Certain stimulants are 
 also formed by fermentation, as alcohol, aldehyde, &c., which probably 
 assist, to some extent, the process of digestion. If anyone will take 
 notice of a grass crop mown before it is ripe, he will find that, during the 
 few days that it is drying, a very rapid ripening process takes place, and 
 probably a considerable portion of the nutrient constituents of the plant 
 are converted into woody fibre, or transferred to the seeds, which, when 
 the hay is dry, appear to be quite ripe, and in great part shake out. 
 "When all these things are taken into account, it becomes apparent that 
 it may be quite possible for a diiference of 30 per cent, to exist in the 
 value of the two products. 
 
 Some chemists will tell us that, by the conversion of grass into good 
 hay, practically all the nutritious substances are preserved. But the 
 practical farmer knows that a very considerable part of the feeding value 
 is lost. It is not diificult to prepare cattle for the butcher on a good 
 pasture without the assistance of any artificial food. But who would 
 think of doing so on hay, even on the very best quality P And it is only 
 necessary to look at the diflierence of the milk yield and the quality of 
 butter, between hay and grass feeding, to convince one whether grass 
 loses value by desiccation. This settled, it follows that, i£ ensilage is a 
 nearer approach to grass than hay, it is of more value per acre ; and this 
 it evidently is, though it is far from proved that it is equal to green 
 grass. Perhaps it approaches nearest to grass iu the quantity and 
 quality of milk and butter produced from it. 
 
 There are a few other minor points of advantage over hay. Along 
 with being placed independent of the weather, one can cut the crop when 
 in the best condition, which was not always the case by the old method. 
 Being able to get the crop ofE the land at once, the aftermath, or second 
 crop, can begin growing at once, without being interfered with, which 
 it could not always do with hay. In fact, it is sometimes very seriously 
 damaged by the hay being tossed about on it for perhaps a fortnight or 
 
Yorkshire Silos. 221 
 
 three weeks. Though I have not tried it, ensilage might be expected to 
 be good for horses that have bad teeth or are broken-winded. 
 
 The most disagreeable feature about it is the smell, which, though not 
 offensive, hangs about a good deal, and might not be pleasant about a 
 homestead. 
 
 On the whole, however, we are so well satisfied with it that we shall 
 probably build three or four more silos this year. There is a considerable 
 outlay in the first place, and this will no doubt be a serious question with 
 many tenant-farmers and others wishing to adopt the system. Our land- 
 lord, the Earl of Whamclifie, very kindly buUt us those we have on his 
 property ; and it is probable that many landowners will be very willuig to 
 facilitate the adoption on their estates of a system which promises to be 
 so very beneficial to the occupiers. It is, at any rate, a good invest- 
 ment, and one which will bear good interest; and I believe the land 
 loan companies will now advance money for the building of sUos. 
 
 Hawes, North Yorkshire, March 3, 1884. Geo. Beodeeick. 
 
 REV. C. H. FORD'S SILO, BISHOPTOF, CO. DURHAM. 
 
 [As tlie cost of Mr. Ford's silo was considerably increased, owing to the 
 
 troubles arising from its being built in ground liable to the invasion of 
 
 water, we repeat the original estimate, for comparison with the statement of 
 
 actual outlay.] 
 
 Estimates for building a silo must vary, to a certain extent, in every 
 
 locality, and must necessarily depend on the cheapness or dearness 
 
 of materials. The land in this neighbourhood consists principally of 
 
 strong clay, and ironworks exist where slag can be generally obtained 
 
 gratis. I have obtained estimates which I think may be useful to those 
 
 situated, as I am, within reach of such material. 
 
 The size I have fixed upon is 15ft. in length, 7ft. in width, and 8ft. in 
 depth, but arranged in such a manner as to be able easily to double it if 
 necessary. The contract price is as follows : 
 
 1. If Built of EtrBBLE Slag, Sand, and Cement. £ s. d. 
 
 55i cubic yards excavating, Is. per yard 2 15 6 
 
 49 superficial yards of slag rubble, mortar composed of fine cement 
 
 and ground slag provided by contractor, 2s. Gd. per yard 6 2 6 
 
 llj floor, lOin. thick, 2s. per yard 13 4 
 
 50i yards of skimming to walls and floor, with cement plaster, 8(Z. ... 1 13 5 
 
 105 square feet 2in. battens, to cover ensilage 1 15 
 
 Eoof, including wall plates, 187 square feet, 6d. per foot 4 13 6 
 
 Concrete blocks for weighing ensilage, bolt and eye to each block, 
 
 12 tons weight 11 
 
 Patent block and sheave running on iron rail ^ *' n 
 
 Cartage of materials ° ^ *' 
 
 40 3 3 
 
 If excavating and carting be done by owner, less 8 15 
 
 Total ^31 8 3 
 
222 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 2. If Built op Concrete Wails 15in. Thick, akb Flooe 
 
 12iN. Thick. £ s. d. 
 
 Concrete walls and floor 9 2 6 
 
 " (The other charges the same) 
 
 Total cost in concrete ^£34 4 11 
 
 3. If Built in Bbick. £ s. d. 
 
 Excavating less quantity owing to thinner walls 2 3 
 
 62f yards Gin. brickwork inside course, walled in cement, at 4s. 6d. 
 
 pSr yard, including bricks 14 2 
 
 50 yards in cement plastering, at 6d 1 5 
 
 Boards to cover ensilage, carrying weights 1 15 
 
 Eoof 4 13 6 
 
 Concrete blocks 11 
 
 Sheave, patent block, and iron rail 5 
 
 Cartage 4 
 
 43 18 6 
 Less excavating and cartage 6 3 
 
 Total .£37 15 6 
 
 That these prices are not imaginary, I may mention that the contractor 
 will build a silo for any one at the price given above. 
 
 Having studied the difficulties of weighting, and the expense thereof, 
 I have determined to make my weights of concrete. At the ironworks 
 you can always get what are known here as " runners " — that is, where 
 there is a large mixture of iron in the slag. These lumps are very 
 heavy. I intend to put one or two of these into each square of concrete. 
 I shall have each weight made about 5cwt. They wiU have an eye let iu 
 below the surface of concrete block so as not to protrude. Over the 
 centre of the sUo, say 6ft. high, I shall fix a common railway rail double 
 the length of pit, on which will run a sheave, to which wiU be attached a 
 patent block. Bach weight, when raised above bank, will be run along 
 iron plate on sheave clear of silo, and packed one on the top of another 
 out of the way. The roof will rest on brick wall on the top of one side 
 of silo, raised say 3ft., and will incline like a cucimiber frame, so as to 
 keep its water at a safe distance from sUo. Ohas. Henet Ford. 
 
 Bishopston Yicarage, Ferry Hill, Co. Durham, Jan. 27, 1883. 
 
 On the Srd of April I commenced bnUding a sUo, 6ft. below ground, 
 4ft. above ; soil, stiff and tenacious clay. Owing to interruption caused 
 by sowing spring corn, the excavation was not completed untU April 11. 
 Depth, 6ft. 4in.; length, 18ft.; width, 12ft. 4in. ; total cost, 11. 15s. 3d. 
 A field drain 4ft. deep was cut across ; this was taken up and diverted ; 
 not a sign of water was visible — not even a dampness at 6ft. 4in. 
 
 April IV, began concreting the bottom of pit with 12iQ. of concrete. 
 April 26, finished concretiag wall, ISin. thick. April 30, mason came, 
 and began walling on the top of concrete ; finished walling May 3 ; roof 
 
The Bishopton Silo. 223 
 
 put on. May 4, fixed crane to lift weight ; cemented inside of sUo, 2in. 
 on sides. Sin. on floor. 
 
 May 8, after a wet nigM, water spurted through the concrete floor 
 17in. thick. May 9, water standing several inches deep on floor; 
 immediately set men to work to expose the walls of concrete below the 
 foundation, and filled all round the outside walls with 2ft. well-puddled 
 clay, at a cost of 21. 18s. Hd.; re-cemented the floor with an additional 
 l^in. of cement. I hoped for the best, and that my troubles vjere now 
 over. Futile hope ! May 29, water again came in ; so I determined to sink 
 a well 6ft. below the foundations, on the N.E. angle of the silo; completed 
 the well June .5, at a cost of 11. 2s., and drove a channel into and under 
 the foundation of silo. This relieved the water supply, and diverted it 
 into my weU. No sign of water till June 28, when I was about to fill 
 the pit with cut grass. Lo and behold ! the water reappeared in sma^ 
 quantities ; so at all hazards I determined to cure it. I therefore broke 
 up the floor so as to admit a 2in. pipe, and made a drain communicating 
 with the well right under the foundation, with a branch to each corner 
 of pit, filled it with stones, and re-cemented it. July 2, the well was 
 walled at a cost of 14s. for labour, and on the following day (July 3) 
 water again reappeared. Perseverance is the motto of every Englishman ; 
 so I broke up floor under south and north end walls below the foundations 
 and put in a 2in. drain, communicating with the draias already put in. 
 This has cured it — at last. 
 
 Strange to say, my troubles were not yet over. I colbo ed myself with 
 the thought that I had at, any rate got a good supply uf water for the 
 cottage at my buildings, when, lo and behold, I find that the liquor from 
 the ensilage has found its way through the cement into the drains, and so 
 into the well, and makes it smell very unpleasantly. At any rate, my silo 
 is dry. 
 
 Tour readers will exclaim, " "What a fool you were not to drain the pit 
 first ! " The configuration of the ground was such that I should have had 
 to cut a drain 9ft. deep, through a field drained 4ft. deep, for 300 yards, 
 before I could get an outlet, the drains of which would, of course, be 
 injured ; so I preferred the well as the least costly. 
 
 I engaged a professional concrete maker, and I think that there can be 
 no mistake about the concrete being good. It consisted of seven con- 
 tractor's barrows of broken slag and sand, both quite clean, and 2cwt. of 
 best cement. No pains were spared to produce the very best article, and 
 the man who made it is one of the most experienced practical working 
 men in concrete work in this county. 
 
 On reviewing the cause of the water coming in, I am inclined to think 
 that it arose thus : On April 18 the fioor of siLo was laid; on the follow- 
 ing day the concrete walls were commenced. Did the. concrete of the 
 walls, and that of the floor, become homogeneous; or was there an 
 interstice left ? The hardness of the concrete was so great that it was 
 only broken through with immense labour. Steel wedges, held by black- 
 
224 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 smitli's tongs, and driven by a sledge hammer, accompanied by a heavy 
 iron bar, sharpened at the point, just chipped it away. 
 
 Owing to the invasion of water my silo has cost 10/. 4s. more than I 
 estimated in your pages last spring ; but it is a foot more in breadth and 
 depth than I at first intended. It is now 16ft. by 8ft. and 9ft. deep. 
 
 Labour, including exoavationa, concrete, exposing walla, 2ft. puddled £. s. d. 
 
 clay, sinking well 12ft., walling ditto, levelling, &o 13 17 4 
 
 Crane and carriage 3 2 8 
 
 Sand 12 
 
 Mason 4 3 10 
 
 Feltforroof 15 7 
 
 Joiner 11 10 7 
 
 Cement, with carriage 10 15 8 
 
 Blacksmitli ironwork 18 4 
 
 Pump, lead pipe, and fixing 2 13 3 
 
 WeUbrioks 18 
 
 Total ^£50 7 3 
 
 I think it right to say that this sum does not include the services of my 
 farm man and two carts and horses, nor any charge for superintendence. 
 
 I filled the silo on July 5, up to 9ft., with grass not out into chafF. In 
 three days the mass had sunk 4ft., having been loaded with 2001b. to 
 square foot. July 12, filled it again with grass to the top, 9ft. On 
 July 23 I reopened and refilled, and find that I have now 6ft. of ensilage. 
 Filled up again to the top, and have now about 3ft., which wiU, I believe, 
 hold at two cuttings and weightings my second crop of clover — a poor 
 crop. 
 
 The cost of making ensilage I have found to be about 10s. an acre, I 
 have kept a strict account of the men's time and the wages of each. I 
 have used no salt and no chaff cutter ; and, now that the men are getting 
 accustomed to the work, the shifting 10 tons dead weight took exactly 
 fifty minutes. 
 
 I calculate that I have put into my silo about twenty tons of fresh- 
 cut grass and clover. It was not possible in my case to weigh it as it 
 went in ; and if two cubic yards of ensilage weighs a ton, I must have 
 nineteen tons of ensilage, which Mr. Jenkins, secretary to the " Royal," 
 pronounces to be a first-rate sample. Chas. Hbnet Ford. 
 
 Bishopton Yicarage, Ferryhill, Durham, Aug. 28, 1883. 
 
 From the 6th to the 13th of November I fed my three cows on grass in 
 a good pasture, with the addition of hay, cotton cake, and poUard. The 
 average produce for the above time was 11 quarts in the morning and 
 9 quarts in the evening. The quality, as ascertained by analysis on the 
 I3th, was that of fair average country milk. 
 
 From Nov. 20 to Dec. 10 the cows were fed on hay, cotton cake, and 
 about two stones of ensilage each daily. Ensilage was first offered to the 
 cows on Nov. 13. One ate it from the first, the other two ate very little, 
 
The Bishopton Silo. 225 
 
 and it was not till the 20tli that they could he said to eat it clean up 
 without waste; so I calculate this experiment did not fairly begin till the 
 20th of November. The milk, to my astonishment, sank to 10 quarts in 
 the morning, but still remained at 9 quarts in the evening. This may 
 have been caused, first, by change of food ; secondly, by the weather pre- 
 venting their grazing in the pasture ; but such was the fact. The butter 
 made from their produce was excellent in colour and taste, with a marked 
 improvement in both. The analysis showed also an improvement in fatty 
 matter. 
 
 Prom Deo. 10 to Dec. 17 the cows were fed on ensilage and cake only. 
 They ate as much as they chose, no waste being allowed. The quantity 
 of milk was maintained, not increased, as I expected : the cream and 
 butter were excellent, and the analysis showed an increase of fatty matter, 
 and, not to use technical terms, the quality was improved. 
 
 From Dec. 17 to Dec. 31 the cows were fed on hay, mangolds, and cake, 
 the mangolds as much as they could consume. The quantity of milk was 
 still maintained, but the analysis showed an increase of one-fourth in 
 the fat. 
 
 I may here state that my cows are bred by myself, and are useful, 
 common country cows. I consider a severe test of the several experi- 
 ments that one cow has calved twice (the last calf dropped on May 8), 
 and the other two calved their first calves respectively on June 3 and 
 Sept. 10. Consequently they might be expected to drop their milk very 
 much at this time of the year. 
 
 The result of these experiences, to my mind, is to show that ensilage 
 has not increased the quantity of milk as I expected, but that it has 
 maintained the quantity given by two heifers during the depth of winter, 
 and improved the quality of their produce at a period of the year when 
 one might reasonably expect them to fail considerably. 
 
 It is to my mind very unusual to see cream, at this time of the year, so 
 thick as, to be clotted and to leave the cream jug with difficulty; and, if 
 you calculate the cost of ensilage, it will show a favourable comparison 
 with any other food whatever. My five calves, living on ensilage and hay 
 only, are in remarkably good, healthy, and thriving condition ; and the 
 other animals, fed in a similar manner, are in a better condition than I 
 had them on this clay glebe farm during twenty-five years' experience. 
 
 Chas. Hbnet Foed. 
 
 Bishopton Vicarage, Ferry Hill, Jan. 15, 1884. 
 
226 Silos for' Fodder Crops. 
 
 MB. A. H. GRANT'S EXPEEIEIsrOES IN HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 [In the following article, Mr. Grant has supplemented the information contained 
 in his letter published in the first edition of this book, by adding thereto the 
 results of his experiences during the past season.] 
 
 Hating read of the ensilage system, as practised in France and America, 
 I thongM that, as gooseberries are preserved in bottles of water, so grass 
 under pressure in cemented tanks would practically be under water, 
 on aooount of the quantity of water pressed out of it, and filling the 
 space between each blade. This, I beHeve, is really what occurs in 
 ensilage. 
 
 In the autumn of 1881 1 ensilaged 4| acres of hop clover and Italian 
 rye grass. It was a miserable third cut, but it made capital fodder after 
 preservation in a small experimental silo, 6ft. by 6|ft. by 6|ft. deep. I 
 think it weighed about 6 tons. 
 
 Encouraged by this success, I ensilaged, in the summer of 1882, about 
 70 tons of meadow grass with perfect success ; of this quantity, the 
 produce of 5 acres was cut and carried in very heavy rain, purposely for 
 experiment. This portion was perfectly preserved, but it came out of a 
 much darker colour than that ensilaged in fine weather. The stock con- 
 sumed it all, but I fancy they preferred the fine-weather sample. 
 
 I likewise pitted a few loads of Trifolium incarnatum. Some of this 
 was carried in rain. The cattle ate it all, but it was put in my small pit 
 and with insufficient weight upon it, and therefore was not as good as my 
 other samples. 
 
 My pits are oblong, and of the following dimensions : 
 
 6ft by 6ift 
 
 15 „ 11 
 
 15 „ 11 
 
 20 „ 15 
 
 16 „ 15 
 
 and I am building others which wiU be : 
 
 20ft by 15ft 
 
 20 „ 15 
 
 21 „ 18 
 
 9 „ 9 
 
 by .... 
 
 ... 6Jft. deep. 
 
 )J 
 
 ... 10 
 
 J) 
 
 ... 10 
 
 3J 
 
 ... 10 
 
 )j 
 
 ... 10 
 
 by ... 
 
 .... 10ft. deep. 
 
 3, ... 
 
 ... 10 „ 
 
 J, 
 
 • • 10 
 
 I prefer a depth of 10ft. to a greater or less depth ; 10ft. gives depth 
 sufficient to store a large quantity, and is not too great in depth for a man 
 to pitch the grass out with a pitchfork. I also doubt if ensilage of a 
 greater thickness is as good at bottom as higher up. 
 
 The various sizes are to suit the " mows " of old barns, &c. ; and the 
 two small silos are made out of disused liquid-manure tanks, and wiU 
 chiefly be kept for experimental purposes. 
 
 My soil is gravel. This gravel is of considerable value when dug, and 
 it requires only a very slight retaining waU, thus greatly reducing the cost 
 of digging and building. 
 
Sampshire Silos. 227 
 
 The walls wMct I put up are of 4Jiiicli brickwork, run over very 
 thickly with cement — cross walls between two pits are of 9in. work. 
 
 The roof is of corrugated iron, built in one case as a lean-to to the cow- 
 house wall ; a door leads into the feeding passage in front of the cow- 
 staUs. Two of my pits are roofed with " WiUesden " paper roofing, but 
 I do not care about it — it is perfectly water tight, but in filling a silo men 
 are apt to strike the roof with their prongs, and the paper, of course, will 
 not stand rough treatment. Two of my new pits will be placed under the 
 thatched roof of. a barn. 
 
 My weights are chiefly rectangular blocks of concrete, 9ui. by 9in. by 
 18in. (but Sin. by Sin. by 12in. would be more handy). Mine weigh from 
 about 1001b. to 1201b. each. Before commencbig to fill a pit I build the 
 blocks aU round on the top of the walls to a height of, say, 3ft., so that I 
 get that much additional pit-room at merely the cost of the time and 
 trouble spent in stacking the blocks. 
 
 I then fin the pit as fast as possible with fresh-cut grass to the top of 
 this temporary wall. My pit is 10ft. deep ; the temporary wall 3ft. I 
 thus get a depth of 13ft. I then lay on a few planks and some weights, 
 say 301b., to the superficial foot, but merely thrown on as quickly as possible. 
 Next morning I find the grass will have sunk about 4ft. I again fill to 
 the top of my temporary wall, but securing a total depth of grass, 
 altogether of, say, 17ft. 
 
 I now place on the top of the grass about 3 inches of fern, straw, 
 hedge-row trimmings, &c., &c. The surface is sure to decompose, and 
 you may as well lose refuse as good fodder. On this refuse I place 
 2-inch boards, each as long as the pit is broad. This use is merely to give 
 the weights a level bearing. I carefully place a row or two of weights aU 
 round the outside of the boards, and throw on earth, iron, stones, and 
 anything to make weight. The mass at once begins to sink, and as soon 
 as the surface of the weights sinks below a tier of blocks in my tem- 
 porary wall I roll that tier on to the boards as additional weight, and so on 
 until I have about 1501b. to 2001b., and in the corners 3001b., to the super- 
 ficial foot. The 17ft. of grass will sink to about 7ft. 
 
 In perhaps two months, if I have a later cut of grass to ensilage, I 
 remove the weights and boards and proceed as before, getting in as much 
 as possible. 
 
 In cutting out the fodder, I remove, say, a width of 2ft. of boards and 
 weights, and then proceed to cut a vertical slice from top to bottom, as in 
 a hayrick, and with a hay knife. The surface of a cut will keep sound 
 about a fortnight, but this depends somewhat on the amount of weight 
 used, and consequent solidity. 
 
 I will again borrow Mr. Easdale's tabular arrangement of questions and 
 
 answers. n xj. t 
 
 1. Kind of grass.— I have ensilaged (1) hop clover and Itahan rye- 
 grass ; (2) meadow grass ; (3) trif olium incamatum ; (4) spring vetches 
 and oats. I have now growing, for 1S84 ensilage, hop clover and Italian 
 
228 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 rye, common rye, ■winter vetches, and oats, and I shall probably try green 
 buckwheat. Spring vetches and oats make perfect ensilage, but I prefer 
 Italian rye-grass, either with or without hop clover, to anything else. 
 I believe that anything green wiU make ensilage. (See also remarks about 
 maize in No. 16.) 
 
 2. State of grass when put in pits. — Generally dry, but some very wet. 
 I prefer it dry. 
 
 3, 4. Sow put in and how much at once. — I tip the carts and let the 
 grass fall into the pits, carrying as much as I possibly can in the day, and 
 treading it well, especially close to the walls and in the corners. 
 
 5. Use of weights. — 1 put on some whenever I stop work, and, when the 
 pit is full, as much weight as possible. I think I can scarcely have too 
 much. 
 
 6. Kind of weight. — Concrete blocks 9in. by 9in. by ISin., also earth, 
 sand, both loose and in boxes, old iron, paving stones, bricks, &c. 
 For the future 1 shall make my weights Sin. by Sin. by 12iu. They wiU 
 be handier. 
 
 7. Covering boards. — Common deals or Scotch firs 2in. thick ; in length 
 they equal the breadth of the pit. The moisture from the ensilage very 
 soon destroys these boards. I think they will not last above three 
 seasons. 1 shall therefore split with a steam^saw a number of small 
 Scotch firs, of the size one generally sells for pit-props ; these will be 
 cheaper than boards. 
 
 8. Straw between grass and boards. — As above stated, I think some 
 straw saves some fodder, as the surface is sure to become mouldy. 
 
 9. Hoiv long between each filling ? — Immaterial, if the weights are on. 
 
 10. Amount of sinhage. — Yery great — nearly two-thirds. 
 
 11. Foreign substances. — I have tried bran, but I thought it useless. It 
 came out apparently the same as when mixed with the grass, though, of 
 course, wet. I now mix nothing at all with the grass. I have tried 
 sprinkling the ensilage with salt, after cutting it out from the pit and 
 shaking it up, but without any appai'ent effect on the cattle. My cattle, 
 however, always have a lump of rock salt in each manger. 
 
 12. 13. If airtight and how is air excluded ? — There is nothing to make 
 the pit airtight, except compression by the weights'. 
 
 14. Heating. — None observable, but there must be a little at first, as 
 there undoubtedly is fermentation — ^probably before the compression is 
 complete. 
 
 15. Chopping of material. — Chaff-cutting is certainly unnecessary, and 
 therefore a useless expense, with all the grasses, &c., which I have men- 
 tioned above. It is probably necessary with maize and other woody foods, 
 from which the generality of American and French ensilage has been 
 made. Even in the mild climate of Hampshire I cannot make maize a 
 success. On wonderfully rich and carefully -worked soil, saturated with 
 manure, I have grown maize seven feet high, and with very thick strong 
 stems, but the first heavy wind from the south-west blew it all down, and 
 
Sampshire Silos. 229 
 
 in the fields it grew fairly well, say five feet higli, and very thick, but the 
 same fate overtook it. A neighbour of mine tried it in a fairly good 
 field, but it was useless as a crop. I may mention that my seed was 
 specially sent over from America by Mr. John M. Bailey, of Massa- 
 chusetts and Virginia, U.S.A., one of the earliest ensilagists, if not the 
 earliest, in the States. 
 
 16. How long closed? — Various times — from two months to eight 
 months. 
 
 12. Colour. — Pale yellowish green ; that carried in rain is dark greenish 
 brown, almost black. The flowers of hop clover remain bright yellow ; 
 the red of Trifolium inoarnatum turns dark purple. The smell is much 
 like that of a brewhouse, and wiU cling to one's boots, clothes, hands, 
 &c. 
 
 18. How much removed at once 7 — When I had only a few cows I cut 
 enough for, say, three days' use ; now, with a large herd, I cut every day, 
 except Sunday. 
 
 19. How left after cutting ? — Just like a hayrick. 
 
 20. Quantity of grass put in. — I cut and carry as fast as possible. 
 
 21. Quality of grass. — I have always had a very good quality of grass, 
 as I cut it when very young (even for hay), long before it begins to get 
 woody. 
 
 23. Construction and material of buildings. — ^Pour and a half inch 
 brickwork, and, for very small silos, bi'ioks set on edge, run over with very 
 thin cement. The floor must be strong, to prevent, as happens in some 
 soils, an accumulation of water beneath the floor, which, exerting an 
 upward thrust, bursts the floor and floods the silo. I have had this happen 
 in two silos, to the great detriment of the water-logged ensilage. To 
 prevent this, I now brick the floor of my silos, dishing them so as to form 
 an inverted arch, and I lay these bricks in mortar, " grouting " them in 
 with cement. 
 
 24. Is the silo sunk 1 — Mine are altogether beneath the level of the 
 ground, for convenience in tipping the grass out of the carts. 
 
 25. I have no drainage at all. — It is, I think, essential to keep outside 
 water out, and to keep the nxitural moisture of the grass in. These 
 points and heavy weights are, I think, the three essentials to really good 
 ensilage. Ensilage which cattle, especially dry cattle, wiU eat, may be 
 made without attending to these points; but the best ensilage to make 
 reaUy high-class butter, and plenty of it, cannot, in my opinion, be made 
 without the greatest care in these three particulars. I particularly draw 
 t Je reader's attention to this point, as in my letter published in the first 
 edition of the " Silos for Preserving British Fodder Crops " (published in 
 1883), I said, "I should drain into a dead well if the nature of the soil 
 permitted." I meant to have said, " I should drain the soil surrounding 
 and outside of the walls of the silo into a dead weU, if the nature of the 
 soil permitted." On reading over the proofs of my letter I carelessly over- 
 looked this omission, which I afterwards noticed when writing a later 
 
230 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 letter to The Field. I am draining the ground surrounding a new sUo as 
 in tlie annexed drawing, this, of course, only suits particular localities. 
 
 a. Dead well, to collect water 
 from the surronnding soil, 
 with no connection with 
 the silo. 
 
 hole into the sand nnder 
 the gravel. 
 
 26. Should the floor he level ? — I now make the floors of my silos 
 dished to give the strength of an inverted arch in case of water 
 collecting beneath, and I give them a slight run towards one end ; and I 
 make a small dipping place near that end, as shown in the section 
 lengthwise. I find that a certain amount of ooze comes out of the 
 ensilage, and if it is collected in a dipping place it will save some incon- 
 
 venience to the men who cut the ensilage. Otherwise the portions of the 
 fodder which fall to the floor in the process of cutting out get very moist, 
 and then the men's clothes become wet in throwing the grass out of the pit 
 with the fork. 18 inches deep by 20 inches square is quite large enough 
 for this dipping place; in fact, it should be just large enough to receive a 
 bucket. 
 
 27. How covered in ? — I prefer corrugated iron. 
 
Hampshire Silos. 231 
 
 28. Cost of construction. — I do not know how muoli my silos cost, as 
 the men were continually taken off for other work ; and the cost much 
 depends on the local price of labour, the nature of the soil, and the thick- 
 ness of the wall necessary to retain the soil. I am now making a silo in 
 a bam. I shall not therefore have to charge for the cost of a roof, as the 
 barn, when the silo is filled, will be just as useful for storage of com, &c., 
 as before. The gravel which I have dug out (about 6L worth) just 
 iDalances the cost of digging. It has been used for roads, &o., and some 
 of it, being of very good quality, for garden purposes. The silo will be 
 about 21ft. long by 16ft. wide by 10ft. deep — of which depth 7ft. will be 
 excavated, 3ft. filled up to the level of the old bam floor. Bricks and 
 bricklayer's labour, cement, and lime, will cost about 152., and weights 
 perhaps 8L more ; rough fir slabs 2Z. I thus get a large silo complete 
 for 25Z. ; but this cheap construction can only be obtained under very 
 favourable circumstances. 
 
 29. Cost of filling. — I cut and carried in 1881 five acres at 7s. 2(£. per 
 acre. In such a season as 1881 was in Hampshire haymaking a like crop 
 would have cost \l. per acre. I thus saved a rent on this rather poor land. 
 In 1883 I cut and ensilaged a rather light crop for 7s. QA. per acre. 
 
 30. Rations per cow. — ^About 501b. — that is, roughly, one cubic foot. 
 
 31. Quality of butter. — Very good, and wonderfully good colour. I 
 tried once three cows, feeding on crushed oats, linseed cake, and particu- 
 larly good hay. When fed on half the quantity of oats, and ensilage 
 ad lib., but no cake, they gave 25 per cent, more butter. 
 
 32. As stated by Mr. Easdale, of Pepper Arden, near Northallerton, 
 silos perform three operations — making hay, stacking, and thatching hay. 
 I find the buildings very useful, whether empty or not, for storing chaff, 
 lay, straw, com, &c. 
 
 33. Analysis. — Mr. F. Woodland Toms sent me the following analysis 
 and notes : 
 
 Volatile Matters ; 
 
 Water 70-37 per cent. 
 
 Aoetio acid (free) 0'20 „ 
 
 Alooliol 0-08 „ 
 
 Solid Matters : 
 
 Albumenoids* 4'14 „ 
 
 Patty matter 0"80 „ 
 
 Soluble Carbo-liydrates : 
 
 Sugars 0'55 „ 
 
 Starchy matters 3'58 „ 
 
 Peotoua oomponnds (gum, mucilage, &c.) 8'56 „ 
 
 Insoluble Carbo-hydrates (fibre) 9'49 ,. 
 
 Ash 2-23 
 
 100-00 
 * Equal nitrogen (all calculated as albumenoids), -654 per cent. 
 
 Mr. Woodland Toms remarks that "This Romsey ensilage is, like the 
 French, a very valuable feeding stuff. In composition, its dry matter 
 
232 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 closely resembles that of hay of good quality; indeed, the albumenoids, 
 or flesh-formers, are considerably higher than in Dr. Voelcker's averaged 
 analyses of hay — doubtless owing to the fact that it was cut so young." In 
 the following table, furnished by Mr. Woodland Toms, is stated the 
 average composition, as given by Dr. Voelcker, of absolutely dry hay 
 deduced from twenty-five analyses ; and Mr. Toms compares it with the 
 Romsey ensilage from my pits, and also with some from those of the 
 Vicomte de Chezelles, iu France. The three columns show the com- 
 positions of the dry substance in each case : 
 
 Albumenoids 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Non-nitrogenons extractive matter., 
 viz., Acetic acid 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 Sngara 
 
 Starchy matters 
 
 Gum, mucilage, &o 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Fatty matter 
 
 Ash 
 
 Hay, 
 average of 
 25 samples. 
 
 9-88 
 
 48-09 
 
 31-80 
 2-99 
 
 7-24 
 
 100-00 
 
 Grass ensilage, 
 
 grown 
 
 at Eomsey. 
 
 13-97 
 
 (43-77) 
 
 0-67' 
 
 0-27 
 
 1-86 
 
 12-08 
 
 28-89 
 
 32-03 
 
 2-70 
 
 7-53 
 
 100-00 
 
 Clover and 
 grass ensilage, 
 
 from the 
 "S^icomte de 
 Chezelles. 
 
 18-35 
 0-12 
 (37-22) 
 2-41~ 
 3-62 
 5-92 
 4-49 
 
 20-78^ 
 
 28-87 
 4-15 
 
 11-29 
 
 100-00 
 
 Such are, in my opinion and practice, the details of ensUage and the 
 method pursued in making it. From a more general point of view, I 
 would point out the great utility of the system in securing late second 
 cuts of various green foods, such as lucerne, giant sainfoin, seeds, &c., &c., 
 at a season of the year when there is little chance of successful hay- 
 making. 
 
 There is also the very great advantage of clearing the ground at once. 
 There is no fear of the second crop of, say, Italian rye-grass gro-vring up 
 through the rows of the mown grass, as we sometimes see in a showery 
 haymaking time. Neither shall we see the long lines of yellow grass 
 from which the mown grass, after remaining some time in the rows, has 
 been turned. I seize a favourable chance one fine day, and I cut a certain 
 acreage ; by nightfall that amount of my winter fodder is safe under 
 cover. I have no turning, and turning, and turning again of grass, only 
 to see it damaged every time in a greater degree by successive showers, 
 each one of which seems to fall just when the hay is fit to carry. In a 
 word, the anxiety, trouble, and, I may add, beer-drinking, usually con- 
 nected -with the saving of the grass crops, are by the system of ensilage 
 very greatly reduced. 
 
 I would also notice the increased time the system of ensilage gives to 
 get in, fairly early, a second snatch crop. For instance, I have now (Feb. 
 
Hampshire Silos. 233 
 
 1884) 25 acres of winter Tetches and oats, sown early in October, 1883, 
 and now looking very well. If tlie season proves an average one I shall 
 mow these 25 acres for ensilage about the 15th of May. I shall then have 
 plenty of time to plough the ground and sow it with buckwheat (which 
 grows well on my poor gravel soil, and makes capital pig-food when 
 ground). "With the buckwheat I shall sow Italian rye-grass for ensilage 
 in 1885, manuring during next winter. 
 
 Again, I have 30 acres of rye. This probably wiU be ensilaged about 
 the middle or end of April. Some of the land will be sown with swedes, 
 kohl-rabi, and turnips in succession ; some of it, like the vetch ground, 
 sown with buckwheat and Italian rye-grass. 
 
 Even on my "seeds," some of which I shall cut only once and then 
 plough up, I find the advantage of ensilage, as I can get the ploughs to 
 work at least a week earlier than if I made the crop into hay. 
 
 As I have said before, both in the columns of The Field and else- 
 where, ensilage is by no means a royal road to agricultural success. 
 It is a great help to our previous ways of securing our grass crops ; but 
 it demands care, attention, "trouble," a considerable outlay of capital, 
 and a great amount of over-loooking at the time of cutting and 
 carrying. 
 
 The American estimates of ensilage may be true enough as regards that 
 country. Ensilage cannot, in my opinion, be of equal importance ia 
 England. The demand for good hay in England is enormous, and as our 
 towns iacrease it is likely to grow. I have had some correspondence with 
 gentlemen who wish to make ensilage into saleable bales or trusses ; but I 
 cannot say I think the project feasible. There is to be contended with 
 a great ignorance of ensilage; and, when first seen, the smell and 
 appearance of ensUage are not always in its favour. 
 
 Horses, as far as my experience goes, will eat rye-grass ensilage readily, 
 but not vetch ensilage — ^why, I cannot say. ^ 
 
 A truss of hay will keep any reasonable time; a truss of ensilage 
 would, I think, heat in a short time ; and a truss of ensilage, if cut the 
 same size as an ordinary truss of hay, would be very heavy and awkward 
 to handle. 
 
 On a farm, conducted as mine is, seUing nothing but butter and meat, 
 consuming all the grass crops, the straw, roots, and corn on the land, and, 
 indeed, buying straw and cake in considerable quantities, ensilage is an 
 unmixed boon; but to those who have a good market (with a reasonable 
 certainty of getting their money) for their hay and straw and com, I 
 would say " do not meddle with ensilage." 
 
 If you have ensilage you must have cattle to eat it, and this (say you 
 farm a moderate extent— 200 acres) means a large expenditure of capital 
 in buying those cattle. If you make hay, you can seU it to the neigh- 
 bouring towns and bring back manure ; saving the labour, anxiety, and, 
 in these days of imported foreign disease, the risks of a considerable herd 
 of cattle. 
 
234 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 I may add that I have never had any diflBcxilty in getting cattle to eat 
 ensilage, and I have never found any liad effects from its use. I think 
 some nitrogenous food, such as crushed oats, cake, &c., ought to be given 
 with it. ' A. H. Gbant. 
 
 Abbotswood, Romsey, Hants, Feb., 1884. 
 
 MR. WILLAN'S SILO, THORNHILL PARK, HAISTTS. 
 
 Sib, — As the question of what a silo may cost to construct in different 
 localities is one of general interest at the present time, you may think that 
 the actual cost of one I have just completed may be worthy of publication 
 in the columns of the Field. 
 
 I excavated, at the beginning of March, in the bay of a roomy barn, a 
 pit of the cubic capacity of 76 yards, Two of my labourers undertook 
 the job at 8d. per yard, and I carted the greater part of the gravel which 
 came from it with my own farm carts. We were fortunate enough to 
 begin with about 2ft. of sharp gravel, which was put on one side to make 
 concrete blocks, to be used as weights. We then came on a quantity of 
 red gravel, which continued to the bottom of the pit, and which, though 
 rather sticky, with too large a proportion of clay, was of fine binding 
 quality, and was certainly worth more than the trouble of carting a short 
 distance, to cover a yard and several paths which needed repair. 
 
 I had by me a quantity of old bricks from some cottages which I had 
 puUed down, and with these I commenced to build the walls of my silo. 
 The pit was dug at one end of the bam, leaving room for a similar pit 
 alongside of it ; and, with a view to its future construction, I had the 
 inside built of 9-inch work, and perpendicular, in order that it might 
 serve as the parting wall of two pits. The other three walls were of only 
 4i-inch work, which was considered quite sufficient, as the sides were so 
 sound and solid ; and they were constructed with a slope or batter of 2in. 
 in the depth of the pit, which was 10ft. It wiU be seen, therefore, that 
 in length the pit was 4in. shorter at the bottom than the top, and in width 
 it was 2ft. narrower. 
 
 The bottom was covered with a layer of four inches of rough stones, 
 which had been screened from the concrete gravel first excavated, and 
 this was again covered with a layer of bricks. This floor was then grouted 
 in and covered with cement, the sides also of the pit being cemented up 
 to the top. The total cost has been : 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Excavation, 76 yards, at 8d 2 18 
 
 Bricklayer, 12 J days, at 6s 3 15 
 
 Labourer, 18 days, at 3s. 3(Z 2 18 6 
 
 7 casks 1 bushel cement 5 5 
 
 7 loada of sharp washed sand 2 16 
 
 6 loads of pit sand 18 
 
 Total .£18 10 6 
 
Sampshire Silos. 235 
 
 The dimensions of the sUo now that it is completed are (at the top) 
 16ft. 4m. long, lift. 4in. wide, and 10ft. 2in. deep, and the capacity is 
 within a small fraction of 1850 cubic feet. This capacity will, at 50ft. to 
 a ton, be 37 tons, and the cost comes to 10s. per ton, and a little oyer 251^. 
 per cubic foot. The work is good and solid, and the pit gives every 
 promise of being perfectly dry. 
 
 I have procured twenty deal battens, 9in. by 2in., with which to cover 
 the ensilage, and their cost was 50?. These have been screwed together 
 with coach screws, and divided at intervals of 18 inches with pieces of 
 board ; and being placed on the barn floor, we have just completed our 
 first batch of concrete blocks in them. These blocks measure IBin. by 
 9in., by 9in., and weigh, when dry and hard, just 1201b. 
 
 I have given you my experience in making this pit for what it is worth, 
 but of course a similar pit in a different locality may cost more or less. 
 At any rate it is not likely, 1 think, being Well buUt, to suffer much from 
 decay ; and the small sum chargeable annually as interest on the outlay 
 and for depreciation will be amply compensated for by the saving in the 
 labour of turning the green fodder into ensilage instead of hay. 
 
 ThornhUl Park, Bitterne, April 18, 1883. Tkank Willan. 
 
 MR. SCOTT'S SILO, ROTHERFIELD PARK, HANTS. 
 
 SiE, — I inclose you the analyses made by Dr. Voeloker, F.R.S., of the 
 produce of the same field of clover and rye-grass. The hay was made in 
 the beginning of July from the first cut, the ensilage in the beginning of 
 September from the second cut. The hay was got up in showery weather, 
 and was consequently not of first-class quality. The ensilage was cut and 
 pitted the same day without being chopped, and I have been feeding it to 
 <attle for a month. They eat it greedily. 
 
 CompoBition of a Sample of Clover Hay- 
 made July, 1882 (first cut). 
 
 Moisture IS'Ol 
 
 *Albumiiioua compounds (flesh- 
 forming matters) 13'01 
 
 Acetic Acid '60 
 
 MncUage, extractive matters, 
 
 digestible fibre, &c 40-25 
 
 Indigestible woody fibre (cellu- 
 lose) 22-01 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 6-12 
 
 Composition of a Sample of Ensilage, 
 made September, 1882, from same 
 field as clover hay (second cut) . 
 
 Moisture 79-05 
 
 *Albuminous compounds (flesh- 
 forming matters) 2-21 
 
 Lactic acid 1-20 
 
 Mucilage, extractive matter, 
 
 digestible fibre, &o 9-33 
 
 Indigestible woody fibre (cel- 
 lulose) 6-35 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 1-86 
 
 100-00 
 *Contaimng nitrogen -35 
 
 100-00 
 ♦Containing nitrogen 2-08 
 
 Eoughly speaking, one ton hay equals four tons of ensilage. A. Voblckeb, 
 
 E 2 
 
236 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 I have now been trying experiments witli ensilage for seven years, and 
 I believe it to be a good fodder when made of the proper materials. 
 
 Abthuk J. Scott. 
 Rotherfield Park, Alton, Hants, Jan. 16, 1883. 
 
 [To compare analyes of fodders, as here, where one contains about 
 80 per cent, and the other 18 per cent, of moisture, is not easy, unless the 
 results are re-calculated, after omitting the water. This being done, the 
 percentages stand as follows : 
 
 Hat. 
 
 *AllDiiiiieiioids 15'87 
 
 Acetic Acid 0-73 
 
 Mucilage, digestible fibre, &c.... 49"10 
 
 Indigestible fibre 26'84 
 
 Ash 7-46 
 
 100-00 
 
 Ensilaqe. 
 
 *Albiimeiioidg lO'SS 
 
 Lactic Acid 5'73 
 
 MncUage, digestible fibre, &e. 44'53 
 
 Indigestible fibre 30-31 
 
 Ash 8-88 
 
 100-00 
 
 ♦Containing nitrogen 2-54 *Containing nitrogen 1-69 
 
 From the very large amount of acid that had been formed, and the 
 altered proportions ia other respects, it looked as if an undue amount of 
 fermentation had been going on in the silo. We accordingly requested 
 particulars as to the weighting, and Mr. Scott informed us that the 
 weight was applied at the end of a lever, and when the fodder had sunk 
 in the pit the weight rested on the ground, and ceased to act. This 
 would account for an admission of air, such as would produce the undue 
 fermentation. — ^Ed.] 
 
 FOUR DORSETSHIRE SILOS. 
 Dtteing a recent visit to Dorsetshire, I went to see some silos which 
 have been made and filled during the last summer. Three of them 
 belong to Mr. Miller, an enterprising agriculturist near Sherborne, a 
 brother of Mr. MUler so celebrated in the annals of coursing. Hearing 
 that Mr. Miller very kindly allows his silos to be inspected by those 
 interested in the matter, I drove over, but was not so fortunate as to find 
 him at home. An intelligent man of his, however, attended, and gave me 
 every information ; and I venture to send you an account of what I saw 
 in the West. 
 
 Mr. MUler began his silos by excavatiag a straight channel about 60ft. 
 long, 12ft. wide, and 12ft. deep, through a mound of loose limestone 
 rock. This channel he lined, and divided into three silos with mortar 
 walls, each silo being 20ft. long by 12ft. deep, and 12ft. wide. The 
 bottom of the silo I saw was not paved, and it seemed to me that, with a 
 succulent crop, the superincumbent pressure must squeeze out a con- 
 siderable quantity of valuable fluid, which would in this case inevitably 
 be wasted by draiuing away through the porous limestone rock. The 
 three silos are roofed with light deal rafters, covered with thatched 
 
Dorsetshire Silos. 237 
 
 hurdles. The whole thing was carried out well (with the exception of 
 the absence of a paved floor), but at the same time with due regard to 
 economy. 
 
 SUo No. 1 was filled with rye-grass, older than it ought to be for 
 making ensilage. It was out into chaff and well trodden by horses. It 
 was then covered, with boards and weighted with the limestone taken 
 from the channel — ^the weight, so far as I could judge, not exceeding 
 501b. to the square foot. An expert in ensilage would not have con- 
 sidered this as by any means a good sample ; but Mr. Miller's man told 
 me that the cows eat it with great relish, that they would leave good hay 
 for it, that they had increased their milk about 10 per cent, over the yield 
 of the year preceding, and that the man who bought the milk had made 
 no complaint as to its quality. 
 
 Silo No. 2 was filled with vetches, rye-grass, and hop clover. This silo, 
 not being accessible to horses, was only trampled by the workmen. It was 
 weighted in the same manner as No. 1. When opened, the thermometer 
 showed 87° at 3ft. from the top. The hop, clover, and rye made a, fair 
 sample, and I hear the stock did well on it. The vetches were not so 
 good; the smell of the sample sent me was very unpleasant. There is 
 evidently much yet to be learnt about the pitting of vetches. Mixed with 
 rye or green oats, they seem invariably to do well, but by themselves 
 seem a very uncertain crop. 
 
 Silo No. 3 was filled with meadow grass chaffed. It was opened last 
 week, and the sample of ensilage sent is a good one, rather dark in 
 colour, but aromatic in smell, and one which the stock will be sure 
 to like. 
 
 It was very public spirited of Mr. MiUer to make three silos as an 
 example to the neighbourhood, and he wiU surely find them a most 
 useful adjunct to his farm for many years to come. 
 
 Silo No. 4. While in Dorset I was also present at the opening of a 
 sUo at Leweston, near Sherborne, the residence of Sir Richard Glyn. 
 Being anxious last [summer to give the ensilage system a _fair trial, he 
 pitted some meadow grass and lawn mowings in a sawpit, which is under 
 a covered shed. The grass was put in unchaffed, was covered with 
 straw, and weighted with heavy flags of Kineton stone, which seemed of 
 ample weight. The grass was put in. very wet, and the thermometer 
 when the silo was opened, showed 72°. The sample of ensilage was good, 
 both in colour and smell. If it had a fault, it was a little too acid. The 
 cows took to it at once, and Sir Richard Glym's bailiff writes : " The 
 cows have become so fond of the ensilage that they do not care to eat 
 their hay unless we mix some with it. We have some liquor in the 
 bottom of the sUo, which is given to the pigs ; they like it very much. 
 I shall be quite sorry when it is done, and so wiU be the animals. I am 
 quite sure it increases and improves the milk." — From a letter by Major 
 TiTZCtBEALD [Meld, Jan. 12, 1884). 
 
238 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MR. HARRIS'S SILO AT HALL WILL, DEYON. 
 
 Between four and five hundred agriculturists, hailing from all quartera 
 of DeYonshire availed themselves, on Nov. 29, of the invitation of 
 Mr. W. J. Harris, of Hallwill Manor, near Holsworthy, to come and see, 
 and judge for themselves, of the experiment which he had carried out. 
 In these parts the farmers have an up-hiU fight to grow anything and to 
 succeed at aU, for the land is poor, almost on a level with Dartmoor 
 itself, and the rainfall is very heavy. It is a cold, exposed, and bleak 
 district, wherein everything is late to ripen. 
 
 Mr. Harris, well known in his connection with the London corn trade, 
 became lord of the manor of Hallwill about twelve years since, and is 
 the owner of a large territory, of which he has about 1000 acres in 
 hand. It is essentially mixed, rough, grazing land, the only com raised 
 being consumed on the farm, and gl'own chiefly for the sake of the straw. 
 Impressed with the advantages of ensilage and of its special suitability 
 to the district, Mr. Harris determined to try the making of some for 
 himself. His silo was extemporised out of a disused manure shed. It is 
 35ft. long, 18ft. wide, and lOJft. deep, partly above and partly below 
 ground, and standing on the side of a hill, it has one end 2ft. below the 
 surface, and the other about 6ft. below. Drains are laid round the 
 foundations, the walls are built of stone, and are 2ft. thick. The floor 
 and sides are cemented, and the place is covered with a substantial slate 
 roof. 
 
 The filling of the silo was commenced on July 9. A waggon load of 
 rough grass or rushes from a marsh was first spread over the bottom, 
 then twelve loads of good meadow grass, out and carried within an hour 
 or two, were thrown in, and well trodden down. These twelve loads, 
 the produce of 1 acre, were computed to weigh about 1 ton each. Two 
 days after a heavy shear of clover and rye grass was cut, and seventeen 
 loads, the produce of 2 acres, together with four loads of same sort from 
 a third field, were carried to the silo, which now became full. Planks cut 
 to the breadth of the silo were placed on the grass, and iron rails, blocks 
 of stone, bags of sand, &c., to the extent of five tons were placed on them. 
 On July 13, it having sunk at least 3 ft., the weighting was removed, 
 and twenty-one waggon loads of clover and rye grass added, some of 
 which was cut and carried during rain. On July 16 sixteen loads more 
 of good. meadow grass again filled the silo, and the surface was once more 
 boarded over and compressed with weights, giving a pressure of, say^ 
 701b. to the square foot ; this was afterwai-ds increased to 1301b. The 
 silo was now closed, and the bulk rapidly sank from 10ft. 6iii. to exactly 
 half that height. Whilst the sUo was being filled, the grass was well 
 trodden down, and about 61b. or 71b. of salt were sprinkled over each 
 waggon load as it was thrown in. 
 
Devonshire Silos. 239 
 
 In September the weights were removed, and the top was uncoTered in 
 order to allow of a second crop of clover buds being added. It was then 
 found that from 2 to 4 inches of the top surface of the ensilage were 
 rotten, but all below seemed sound and good. The greater part of this 
 spoilt portion was removed before the clover buds (13 tons) were put in. 
 More would have been carried had not the weather been so wet. Some of 
 the first crops had been carried in a wet state, and with no bad result, 
 as it turned out, but it was considered undesirable to imperil the 
 experiment by carrying in so much rain water. After this second filling 
 (which, by the way, proved a mistake) the silo was again boarded and 
 covered with sand (not in bags now), and virtually and finally closed up 
 and sealed, all air being as far as possible excluded. 
 
 On Dec. 15 the silo, which was estimated to contain about 90 tons of 
 ensilage, was cut into sectionally at one end. The material was of a dark, 
 yellowish-brown colour, lighter in some strata than others, moist even to 
 wetness, and possesses a strong, penetrating, vinous smell. It has a 
 sweetish, and by no means unpleasant, taste. There was no liquid at the 
 bottom of the silo, and the top portions of the good ensilage were as wet 
 as those at the bottom, showing that the moisture was evenly distributed 
 by the pressure throughout the bulk. A cubic foot weighed rather 
 over 401b. 
 
 The cattle liked it, as the visitors had ample means of seeing. Calves 
 were shown living well on it, and to horses and bullocks were offered at 
 the same time oats, hay, and ensilage, the result being that the latter was 
 preferred, and that so long as any remained the oats and hay were 
 untouched. 
 
 After the sUo had been inspected, Mr. Harris proceeded to explain to 
 the visitors the cost, advantages, and other details of the production of 
 ensilage. Although he did not regard this experiment as completely 
 successful, he did claim for it more than a partial success, and quite 
 enough to enable him to see his way to making it perfect another year. 
 As to the construction of the pit, he admitted that there were obvious 
 faults which would not have ocoiirred if the building had been specially 
 built and designed for the purpose to which it had been put. He had, 
 however, an estimate prepared for him by a builder, by which it was 
 found that a more perfect sUo than this, of exactly the same size and 
 shape, could be constructed, with top boards and all complete (with the 
 exception of the weights), for llOL The interest on this outlay at 
 5 per cent, per annum on 110 tons of ensilage, which is about the quantity 
 it would contain, would be Is. per ton. There were various ways in 
 which this cost might be lessened. The upper part of the silo could be 
 utilised for other purposes, and a clay bottom might take the place of 
 cement. 
 
 It would be noticed that the upper layer of clover in the silo was 
 imperfect. There might be several reasons for the failure of this portion, 
 but he had given them the benefit of his experience, and had shown them 
 
240 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 the experiment in its entirety, so that they could judge for themselves. 
 He determined that they should see the bad as well as the good, and he 
 had not endeavoured to hide from them the mouldiness whioh they saw in 
 the upper portion. T. L. A. 
 
 A later account from Hallwill Manor informed us that, as the silo was 
 cut into and a greater distance from the door reached, the quality 
 improved, and that there was hardly any, even at the top, which the cattle 
 would not readily eat. 
 
 Mr Harris intends, we understand, to make ensilage on a much larger 
 scale next season — probably to the extent of 1000 tons. 
 
 EARL FORTESCUB'S EXPERIMENTS. 
 At the annual meeting of the Devonshire Chamber of Agriculture at 
 Exeter, in January, 1884, Viscount Bbriugton, M.P., read a paper on 
 " Ensilage," especially in regard to the experiments at Castle Hill, Earl 
 Fortescue's seat near Southmolton, Devon. The silo is above ground, 
 the interior surface of the walls and the floor cemented, and the roof of 
 corrugated iron. The dimensions are 19ft. long by 6ft. 9in. wide, and 
 6ft. Sin. deep, giving a cubic capacity of 673ft. There is no drain at the 
 bottom. 
 
 On July 25 the silo was filled with the grass of about an acre of 
 unwatered meadow, which was cut with a chaff-cutter into lengths of 
 about three-quarters of an inch, and put into the silo the same afternoon, 
 nearly l|cwt. of salt being mixed with it. Ploughed and tongued 
 boards were placed on the mass, and sawdust and big stones on them, till 
 a pressure was obtained of about 501b. to the square foot. Ten days 
 later, the ensilage having subsided, some grass was cut in an orchard and 
 put in as a second filling to the depth of a foot or so. The weights and 
 roof were then replaced, and the silo was not opened tiU Dec. 20. 
 
 It was reckoned that they put into the silo the produce of IJ acre of 
 ground, which, under other treatment, would have yielded about 2 tons of 
 rather coarse hay. The entire expense of cutting, filling, &e., was 37s., 
 or a little over 28s. an acre, the odd 8s. being the cost of the chafBng, 
 which he did not think paid for doing. 
 
 When they opened the silo, they found that the' contents occupied 
 513 cubic feet out of the 673, the capacity of the silo. The weight per 
 cubic foot was 361b., so that they had secured over 8 tons of forage at a 
 cost of barely 4s. &d. per ton. At first the stufE looked only fit for the 
 dungheap, and the cattle did not seem inclined to take it. Within forty- 
 eight hours, however, nearly all the cattle were eating the new food 
 readily, and did not even turn up their noses at the rather highly- 
 coloured second filling. After allowing a few days for the cattle to get 
 accustomed to the new food, experiments were instituted with a view to 
 testing its value for dairy purposes. 
 
Devonshire Silos. 241 
 
 Nine DeTon cows were selected and divided into three sets, the milk of 
 each set being carefully measured. They were then put on different 
 diets, the butter was weighed eTery day, and again at the end of the 
 experiment. The three cows in class A. were fed, between Dec. 26 and 
 Jan. 16, on the following daily diet., viz., 61b. decorticated cotton cake, 
 61b. undecorticated ditto, 61b. oilcake, 61b. pollard, 161b. wheaten straw 
 chaff, and 361b. hay. Class B. received the same as Class A., with the 
 exception that 1001b. of ensilage was substituted for the hay. Class C. 
 (experimented upon to Jan. 7 only) received the same as A. and B., but 
 with 1601b. of ensilage in lieu of chaff and hay. 
 
 The results showed, in his opinion, that ensilage might be used to a 
 considerable extent as a food for dairy cows without detriment, if not 
 indeed with advantage, to the production of milk and butter. The 
 average yield of butter per day during the period of experimenting was : 
 Class A., lib. foz. ; B., lib. lljoz. ; 0., lib. lOJlb. It was found that, if 
 used too freely, the ensilage gave a flavour to the butter, and they had 
 therefore not found the experiment with 0. cows a success. The animals 
 lost condition, and there was a distinct falling off in the results as 
 compared with B. 
 
 As to comparative value, their experiment showed that, in round 
 numbers, the grass that would make one ton of hay would make, at less 
 cost, four tons of ensilage, which were equivalent, for feeding purposes, 
 to a ton and a third of hay or straw chaff. It seemed that, with cotton 
 cake alone, ensilage would not do, but with the" mixture of cake and 
 pollard it appeared quite fit to take the place of hay or straw, or both ; 
 lor the B cows kept their condition very well all through. 
 
 Ah to the silo, heavy weighting paid, they would get more into the 
 silo and check excessive fermentation and dampness. With regard to 
 the question of salt, the balance of opinion seemed to be in favour of add- 
 ing a proportion of salt ; he did not believe it to be necessary, however, 
 but it probably improved the flavour and made the ensilage more 
 palatable. 
 
 ME. H. QUAETLET'S SILO AT HOLLAND, N". DEVON. 
 In the North Devon Herald Mr. H. Quartly, of Holland, Southmolton, 
 gave the following particulars of a plan which, he says, could be adopted 
 by the smallest farmer, with very little help from his landlord : 
 
 " On July 19 I commenced making the silo, and on the 23rd I had it 
 completed and ready for fiUing in. Its dimensions were — 30ft. long, 9ft. 
 wide, 9ft. deep. The plan adopted was to sink out a trench parallel with 
 a dry fence, which formed a wall on one side, and the rubbish from the 
 trench formed a wall on the opposite side, also one end, the other end 
 being open, and the whole sunk to the same level as the ground outside 
 ihe entrance. The cost of this did not exceed 11., and in the silo 
 thus formed I put four acres of grass from a watered meadow, and a 
 
242 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 heavy crop. I commenced filling on the 24th. July, and completed it on 
 the 26th, carting the grass away after the scythe, and treading every 
 layer of about two cai-tloads down tightly with a horse, sprinkling a little 
 salt over each layer. On the 27th I had the open end banked up with 
 sods and earth, and the whole covered, first with hedge prunings and 
 coarse grass, then with a layer of earth about six or eight inches in thick- 
 ness, after which it was roofed over and thatched. 
 
 " On Nov. 1 opened it from the top, merely to test it, and am pleased 
 to say it is highly satisfactory, and has far exceeded my expectation. On 
 removing the earth I found that the hedge pruning and coarse grass was 
 mouldy to a depth of about eight inches, after which the ensilage came 
 out perfecty sweet, with a peculiar aromatic smell, and, on giving it to the 
 stock, both horses and cattle ate it readily. I do not intend opening the 
 silo for feeding purposes until after Christmas." 
 
 MB. CUBITT'S SILO AT FALLAPIT, S. DEVON. 
 Me. W. Cubitt, of Fallapit, East Allington, invited the leading agri- 
 culturists of the neighbourhood to his farm on Jan. 31, for the purpose of 
 witnessing the opening of his silo. It contained about 70 tons of fodder 
 (the produce of 7 or 8 acres), and is about 15ft. 2in. square, and 15ft. 
 deep. The grass wa» stored in June and July, newly cut, and, for the 
 most part, in a wet condition, for rain was falling at the time. A small 
 quantity of salt was mixed with the grass as it was being placed in the 
 silo, and, after being trodden down well, heavy stones were placed over 
 it, giving a pressure of about 1501b. to the' square foot. On opening the 
 silo, about 4in. of the top portion of the ensilage was damaged. The 
 ensilage taken from the silo was given to the buUocks— and Mr. Cubitt 
 has some two hundred on his estate — and by many of them it was eaten 
 very freely ; others, however, seemed indiif ereut about it. 
 
 In thanking Mr. Cubitt for affording agriculturists the opportunity of 
 witnessing the experiments, Mr. Ilbert said he considered the new mode 
 of feeding cattle was not only most useful, but most practical, when they 
 had regard to the nature of their changeable climate. And, in reply, Mr. 
 Cubitt said he believed they had the natural facilities for producing beef 
 and butter to a much larger extent than in any county in England ; and 
 he thought, if they were successful in making ensilage a profitable food, 
 the advantages they possessed would be greatly augmented. 
 
 We received from Mr. Cubitt's steward a sample of the ensilage, 
 consisting of water-meadow grass that had been carried in heavy rain. 
 The exterior of the sample had a rather pungent odour that is charac- 
 teristic of ensilage of coarse wet grass; but the centre of the mass, 
 that had not been exposed to the atmosphere, was free from this smell, 
 and seemed very well preserved. 
 
Comisli Silo. 
 
 243 
 
 MR. JOHN MEAD'S SILO, FALMOUTH, CORNWALL. 
 This silo (of whieli tlie sketch and particulars were sent by Mr. G. Olver) 
 is about 8ft. deep, and 6ft. diameter, perfectly round, and lined with fin. 
 ploughed and tongued flooring ; the bottom and the cover are of the same- 
 material. The two upright bars marked A A are screws ; the stout 
 crosspiece B has two holes bored in to admit of these passing up through 
 these holes, and large nuts are then screwed or turned around until they 
 press tightly on the beam. 
 
 A A 
 
 4U. 
 
 :ti 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^g 
 
 y^ 
 
 "7 r-XTT ? !!- 
 
 
 .L>J.'U 
 
 r 
 I, 
 
 The silo was filled with coarse grass in October, 1883, and the beam 
 screwed down daily for about three weeks. What was the pressure put 
 on it is not known with any certainty, but when the silo was opened, in 
 the second week of January, the ensilage was found "as hard as a 
 cheese." Next to the sawdust about half an inch of the grass was a 
 bright, green ; this smelt very strongly, and was thrown away. This was 
 the only waste. Cattle and horses did not seem to care about the very top^ 
 but eventually every animal to which the ensilage was offered ate it freely, 
 especially the cows ; and the horses seem to do very well indeed on it. 
 
244 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MR. WILLS'S SILO, BLAGDON, SOMERSET. 
 Mk. "W. H. Wills, of Coombe Lodge, Blagdon, writing to the Agri- 
 cultural Gazette, says : " I built a silo, 14ft. by 12ft., and 13ft. deep. The 
 ground was a natural slope, causing 8ft. of excavation at one end. This 
 inTolved a little quarrying, owing to the outcrop of a bed of limestone. 
 We made the walls 2ft. thick of rubble masonry in brown lime. The 
 floor was made watertight, and covered with rough flagging from my 
 own quarry. The walls were topped with an A roof, covered with tiles. 
 The cost of all this, done by my own men, I estimate at 361. for labour 
 and materials. On July 3 we began to cut 44 acres of clover, which we 
 reckoned would have given about If ton of clover-hay to the acre, as the 
 crop was not a heavy one. As the clover was cut it was hauled to the 
 bam, which adjoins the sUo, and there cut by steam into Ifin. lengths, 
 thrown into the silo, and firmly trodden in successive layers by half a 
 dozen labourers. On July 5 the silo was entirely full, though sinking a 
 little daily. "We then covered it with a layer of straw, Sin. thick, over 
 which were laid common deals close together, but with lin. space at each 
 end. Above these was piled quarry rubble, about 3owt. to the square 
 foot. The mass continued to sink until the solid material was reduced to 
 a little over 7ft. On Nov. 3, after four months packing, we opened the 
 sUo, and, with the exception of a very small quantity, perhaps 2cwt. (just 
 inside the doorway, which had been bricked up, leaving a recess of 1ft.), 
 the whole mass was perfectly sweet and good. The colour was something 
 between grass and hay, and the smell rather like fresh grains. "We have 
 been giving it daily both to young stock and to milch cows, aU of whom 
 eat it with great relish." 
 
 MR. KEMBLB'S SILO, EAST HARPTEEE, BRISTOL. 
 
 On Sept. 9, 1882, 1 commenced cutting twenty-five acres of oats (Black 
 Tartars). Owing to the wet season, I was unable to harvest this crop, 
 and therefore determined to adapt and fiU. a silo with oat-sheaf chaff. 
 On Nov. 6 I began to fill the pit, cutting the straw to chaff about lin. in 
 length. By this time the oat sheaves were in a thoroughly sodden con- 
 dition, and the corn in them had so generally " sprouted," that apparently 
 all was worthless except as manure. "We continued cutting and filling at 
 intervals, and trod in the final chop on Nov. 11. Nine loads were cut up 
 in this way, which I estimate at 13i tons. "While filling the pit I mixed 
 with this wet chaff 3cwt. of salt and 1001b. of " Simpson's spice." 
 Having filled the pit, I had a layer of dry straw laid on the chaff, then 
 boards, over which I spread layers of sawdust and oat cavings to exclude 
 the air, then, by way of pressure, I placed several tons of freestone on 
 
Somerset Silos. 245 
 
 the top. The silo in which I made this experiment is a stone and brick- 
 walled room with concrete floor, measuring 16ft. by 9ft. by 10ft. 
 
 East Harptree, Bristol. 0. A. Kbmble. 
 
 On March 14, 1883, this silo was opened ; and, after the coyering 
 boards, &c., had been removed, it was found that a little of the preserved 
 fodder was fusty, and this only so slightly that it need not be wasted. 
 Breaking further into the pit, a fragrant odour soon pervaded the home- 
 stead in which the experiment was tested, for a cloud of hot vapour 
 escaped from the ensilage, and reminded one, by its smell, of a newly 
 heated hayrick. A thermometer was plunged as far as a man's arm 
 could reach towards the centre of the mass, and registered 110°. Some 
 of the ensilage was immediately carried to cattle and horses, and was 
 readily eaten by them. 
 
 An average sample was drawn by Mr. Kemble, and immediately packed 
 in an air-tight tin and sent for analysis to Mr. Bernard Dyer, P.C.S. 
 The ensilage, Mr. Dyer states, had a pleasant aromatic smell and a 
 pleasant, though very distinctly acid, taste. Its percentage composition 
 was as follows : 
 
 Water 48-08 
 
 Oil 2-13 
 
 *All3uminouB oompounds 3'15 
 
 Sugar (glucose) 0'50 
 
 Free acid (calculated as acetic acid) 0'83 
 
 Mucilage and digestible fibre 26-34 
 
 Indigestible woody fibre 15-70 
 
 fMineral matter (ash) 3'27 
 
 100-00 
 
 *ContainiD.g nitrogen 0-50 
 
 f Containing silica 1-66 
 
 Mr. Dyer adds an expression of regret that he had not an opportunity 
 of analysing a sample of wet chafi before it was put iato the pit, as the 
 analysis of the ensilage alone throws, at the best, but an uncertain light 
 on the question of the loss that may have occurred by fermentation in 
 the sUo. — Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 SILO AT NORTH CURRT, SOMERSET. 
 The Rev. R. 0. Lathom-Browne had an experimental silo constructed in 
 the side of a shed, all being above ground. Its dimensions are 9ft. by 
 9ft. by 7ft. ; two sides are rough walling, and the other two sides are 
 made of liin. pine planking, tarred at the joints. The grass was taken 
 from a rough orchard, carried dripping wet in July ; the time occupied in 
 filling was about ten days. The pressure was about lacwt. of large rough 
 stones per square foot. When opened in January the ensilage was not badly 
 preserved for such coarse wet grass, though rather unpleasant in smell. 
 
246 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 LORD TOLLEMACHE'S SILOS AT PEOKPOBTON. 
 
 Lord Tollemachb of Hblmingham being impressed witli tlie value of 
 ■ensilage as food for dairy cattle, and believing tliat it would be of 
 considerable- advantage to bis tenantry, determined to carry out some 
 experiments on his Peckf orton estate, wMeb is situate in tbe heart of the 
 cheese-making district of Cheshire. Accordingly he had an open bam 
 converted into four silos by bricking up the spaces between the pillars, 
 as shown in the plan already given in the chapter on sUos. 
 
 Three of these silos are 8ft. deep, 15ft. long, and 12ft. broad ; No. 4 
 is lift. deep, and goes 3ft. underground — this being for the purpose of 
 testing the difference of effect of the earth on the ensilage. In each case 
 the wall is lined with cement, the floors being of concrete. Inside each 
 sUo there is a mark entirely around it at every 2ft. of its height, so that 
 at any time it can be seen what is the height of the fodder within. About 
 ten yards from the corner of No. 4 silo, an engine of 4 horse-power 
 nominal is stationed, and beside it a chaff-cutter. 
 
 Closely adjoiniug the silos are two pieces of common meadow land, 
 which usually produce about 80 tons of hay, and the machine was put 
 into one of these on the 13th June. As soon as mown the grass was 
 carried to the cutter, and cut into chaff, and while this operation was on, 
 21b. of common salt per cwt. was mixed with it. The chaff was then 
 wheeled through the doorways (a) into the silos, as much as possible 
 being got in in this manner, after which the shutters above (6) were 
 opened and the doors fastened by being screwed to the jambs, and 
 afterwards bricked up on the outside. The grass chaff was frequently 
 levelled and rammed down. On the silos beco'miug filled np to the level 
 of the shutters (shown by the mark d), ten wooden shutters, each three 
 feet wide and six feet long, were placed on the top of the ensilage, and 
 the whole then covered with bran. Lord Tollemache having at hand a 
 number of boxes which had contained tins of gaseoline (used for lighting 
 Peckforton Castle), these boxes were filled with gravel and used for 
 weighting the silos. The quantities of forage put into the silos were as 
 follows : 
 
 No. of 
 Silo. 
 
 Date of 
 flUing. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Acreage. 
 
 
 Sinkage 
 
 when 
 re-flUed. 
 
 Weight 
 put in 
 to refill. 
 
 Total 
 Weight. 
 
 
 
 
 tons. cwt. 
 
 a. .- p. 
 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 tns. cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 Jnne 20 
 
 f Upland ■) 
 \ Grass J 
 
 17 
 
 3 2 
 
 July 25 
 
 2 6 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 June 27 
 
 do. 
 
 17 3 
 
 2 2 20 
 
 „ 25 
 
 2 1 
 
 7 
 
 24 3 
 
 3 
 
 July 3 
 
 do. 
 
 18 10 
 
 2 2 
 
 „ 26 
 
 1 8i 
 
 6J 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 July 4, 5 
 
 fOataandl 
 iVetolies.J 
 
 35 6 
 
 2 3 37 
 
 „ 26 
 
 1 9i 
 
 8 
 
 43 6 
 
 Land mown for refilling silos 
 
 4 
 
 Total weight... 
 
 
 Total acreage 
 
 15 2 17 
 
 117 9 
 
Lord TollemacJie' s Silo. 247 
 
 The grass put into No. 1 silo at tlie first filling was a light crop of 
 a,bout 4f tons per acre, mown and carried two hours after a night's rain ; 
 K"o. 2 was filled with a fair crop of about 6i tons to the acre ; that in 
 No. 3 was a good crop of about 7^ tons to the acre ; and that used for 
 refilling also weighed about 7^ tons to the acre. The oats and vetches put 
 in No. 4 silo weighed about llf tons to the acre. The capacity of silos 1, 
 2, and 3, is 1440 cubic feet each ; No. 4, being 3ft. deeper, has 2060ft. 
 capacity. 
 
 On the 28th of NoTember one of the silos was opened, and in order that 
 visitors might see the result of the experiment in the best possible manner, 
 a pathway the width of the door, and from the bottom to the top of the silo, 
 was cut through the mass of ensilage. Several visitors were thus able to 
 get in the sUo at once, and abundant opportunity was given everyone for 
 .judging the contents. The ensilage had the appearance of a compact 
 mass of dark, yet bright, brown colour, and it had a fresh, slightly 
 pungent, and rather agreeable odour. There was considerable moisture 
 in the mass, but it was evenly distributed, and was not more apparent at 
 the bottom than at the top. The ensilage had sunk two feet from the 
 point at which the shutters were placed upon it, and for about an inch and 
 a half below the shutters the ensUage was black and discoloured; but 
 beyond this, there was nothing in the experiment that could be described 
 as unfavourable. Lord ToUemache told his visitors that he expected a 
 thicker layer than this to have been spoilt, as the part nearest the external 
 atmosphere usually went wrong. The same thing were found in Lord 
 Walsingham's silos at Merton, in Norfolk. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the large number of persons present agreed that 
 the experiment must be put down as a great success. " But," it was said 
 by some of the farmers, " wiU the cattle and horses eat it P" Here Lord 
 ToUemache took a handful of the ensilage and offered it. to a young, pure- 
 blooded mare that he had di-iven from the castle. This animal, fed with 
 the best com in the Peckforton stables, took the ensilage greedily, and 
 some young cows in the yard were also offered the new food, and ate it up 
 with great relish. 
 
 After this, however, " No. 3" silo was, by Lord Tollemache's direction, 
 bored. This silo was filled on a dry day, and thus contained only the 
 natural moisture of the grasses, plus the salt used. The whole mass was 
 much drier than the one opened, and its contents were not so well liked by 
 the farmers present. 
 
 During the morning Lord ToUemache made some explanatory speeches 
 on the general subject of ensilage, and his own in particular. His 
 lordship said that undoubtedly ensilage was spreading. La-st year 
 a friend of his had made 40 tons, and this year he had preserved 120 
 tons. In the Peckforton silos the contents were got off land yielding 
 between seven and eight tons per acre, for he found that a cubic foot of 
 his own ensilage weighed 481b. In estimating his silos as containing 118 
 tons, he had only reckoned on 421b. per cubic foot, so that he had saved 
 
248 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 more from Ms land than lie had expected. He was convinced that in 
 preserving ensilage great regard must be had to the quality of the food to 
 be made, and therefore care must be taken in its preservation. A great 
 thing was to exclude all external air from the sUo, and to allow the internal 
 air to be expelled by weighting properly. To help this operation it was 
 much better to cut the grass into small pieces at the time it was packed 
 in the silo, as by this means less room was taken up, and the mass was 
 likely to assume a compact form sooner than if the grass had been put in 
 without being made into chaff ; and when this was done there was not so 
 much internal air to be expelled. Although the mass was so moist, not a 
 drop of water was found in the pit — it was so evenly distributed iu the 
 ensilage. On the future of ensilage Lord Tollemache said that his object 
 had been to demonstrate its practicability on ordinary farms, and he 
 thought he had shown them enough to make farmers persevere further in 
 utilising this agency in stock feeding. 
 
 Subsequently, when the cows came to be fed regularly upon the ensilage 
 it was found that the large amount of salt mixed with the grass had the 
 effect of diminishing the milk supply considerably; and the quantity of 
 of ensilage given to the animals was accordingly reduced from 301b. to 
 161b. per day, and mixed with chaffed hay. Upon this being done, the 
 cows again began to give their usual supply of milk. 
 
 About three months after the opening of the silo Lord Tollemache 
 issued to his tenantry a circular giving a series of "questions and 
 answers" somewhat similar to those appearing on page 172, relative to 
 silos and ensilage, and embodying the results of his personal experience. 
 He afterwards invited his tenants to meet him at Peckf orton Castle on 
 the 17th of March, so that he might learn their opinions on the subject, 
 and their wishes as to the construction of silos upon their farms. At this 
 meeting he proposed to build silos for all those who wished to have them, 
 on the condition that if the making of ensilage proved of advantage, they 
 should pay 5 per cent, on the outlay; but if it proved the reverse, 
 notwithstanding every care had been taken in the filling of the sUos and 
 properly weighting them, they should pay nothing ; and in case of any 
 difference of opinion arising on the subject, it should be left to arbitra- 
 tion. This offer was at once accepted by a number of the tenantry, one 
 of whom, in returning thanks, described it as the most liberal offer it was 
 possible to conceive. 
 
 On April 2 Lord Tollemache opened his sUo which had been filled in 
 the previous June with wet grass. Rain had been falling heavily during 
 the night, and the grass was taken to the chaff-cutter full of moisture. 
 An American, who had been present at the filling of sUos in America 
 under similar conditions, told Lord ToUemaohe that his ensilage would 
 be worthless, as it would turn out to be rotten. His predictions have 
 been falsiRed, for when the silo was opened it revealed the ensilage in a 
 sweet and sound condition, and, in the opinion of the practical farmers 
 present, better adapted for dairy stock, from the moisture it ' contained. 
 
Cheshire Silos. 249 
 
 than either of the other silos. In the course of conversation, Lord 
 Tollemache said that he had given orders for the construction of two 
 silos on each of his ten farms in Cheshire. His lordship added that he 
 should now have no hesitancy in filling these silos in any weather ; if at 
 all, he would undoubtedly give preference to grass containing moisture. 
 
 LORD EGERTON'S SILO IN TATTON PARK. 
 
 The opening of this silo, which had been filled in July, 1883, took place 
 on the I2th of February, 1884, in the presence of a considerable 
 assemblage. The following sketch of the silo and details of the 
 experiment have been supplied by Mr. J. T. Smith, Lord Egerton's agent. 
 The original drawing gave several views of the silo at different stages ; 
 but it will suffice here to reproduce the one representing the pit at the 
 end of the second day's filling (July 5). On July 27, the contents having 
 sunk to 8ift., a further filling took place, again raising the height to 
 about 12ft. On Aug. 20, the level of ensilage stood at 9ft. 6in., having 
 sunk 2ft. Sin. since last filling. When opened on Feb. 12 it had sunk 
 1ft. Gin. more, being then 8ft. in height. 
 
 An old icehouse in the park was chosen for the experiment. The walls 
 on the inside were plastered with cement, the original entrance being 
 blocked up, and a new entrance made in centre of dome, as shown by the 
 plan. The size of the house is : Diameter, lift. 6in. ; height to square, 
 12ft. 6in. ; area, 104 square feet. 
 
 A portion of the park, fenced in and near icehouse, and which had 
 often been mown without a fair return of keep, was chosen as suitable to 
 supply the crop, and, though amongst it there was a proportion of fine 
 grass, the greater quantity was rough and coarse. 
 
 On July 3, the portable engine, chafE cutter, and aU other necessaries 
 were on the ground. On July 4, at 8.15, the mowing machine started, 
 and at nine the first load of grass left for the sUo, the chafEcutter being 
 got to work at 9.15. State of grass when put in silo was as follows : first 
 2ft. wet with dew; next 4ft. sun-dried; and last 2ft. wet with rain. The 
 first hamper when cut weighed 431b. ; the same hamper, when filled with 
 whole grass weighed 381b. This quantity took forty seconds to chop. If 
 the grass were cut wet the weight of hamper would be 661b. This day 
 370 hampers were fiUed in, and our average weight was 531b., giving a 
 total of 8 tons 16cwt. Iqr. 101b. put in sUo. In addition to this, salt was 
 added at lib. to the cwt., 176ilb., or Icwt. 2qr. S^lb. Every tenth 
 hamper of cut grass was weighed. The grass was cut into lengths from 
 half to one inch. One man and two horses were employed in mowing ; 
 one man sharpening and assisting to fill carts ; two men, carts, and two 
 horses carting grass from field to silo ; two men and two women in field 
 
 S 
 
250 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 
Lord JSgerton's Silo. 251 
 
 TaMng and clearing ground and loading carts. At the sUo, man driTuig 
 «ngine ; one man feeding chafE cutter, one man supplying him ; three 
 men treading cut grass in sUo; one man spreading grass and salting; 
 two men and one boy fiUing hampers and removing same from chaff 
 cutter, weighing same, and also salt, and lowering all into silo. Stopped 
 work at 7 p.m., 8ft. of grass having been put in silo, and weighed to 
 8 tons 16 cwt, Iqr. 101b. During the day stopped three hours for meals, 
 and the work aU day proceeded only slowly, as all information had to be 
 accurately taken, and much time was therefore lost. Trom 7 to 8 p.m. 
 the weights were put on, a|ter covering the surface with IJin. boards. 
 The weights were thirty boxes, made of l^in. wood, with handles of rope, 
 each box being 1ft. lOin. long, 1ft. Sin. wide, 1ft. 5in. high, and contained 
 "thirty bricks, each box and bricks being in weight about 2icwt. ; total 
 weight, with boards, about 4 tons. 2^ acres of grass were mown this 
 day. 
 
 July 5. Weights lifted out of silo in half an hour ; mowing commenced 
 at eight ; first load of grass at sUo at 8.20. This morning we found the 
 ensilage had sunk during the night and with the weights a foot. Refilling 
 therefore began at 7ft. ; same mode of operation as before, 169 
 hampers, averaging 581b., being put in silo, and giving a total of 
 4 tons 7cwt. Oqr. 181b., which added to July 4 total, gives total weight of 
 grass in silo 13 tons 3cwt. 2qr. Salt used this day lib. to the cwt. of 
 grass — 871b., added to 1761b. put in on the 4th, gives a total of 2631b., or 
 2cwt. Iqr. 111b. Mowing machine stopped at noon, and chaffcutter at 
 8 p.m. ; li acres mown this day ; same number of hands employed at 
 silo, but three extra hands in field loading grass ; boards put on as 
 before, afterwards 6in. bran, costing 31. 10s., and then the boxes of 
 weights. Crops realised about 3 tons Icwt. per acre, and if made 
 into hay it would have realised about IScwt. per acre. Total weight 
 in silo — grass, 13 tons 3cwt. 2qr. : salt, 2cwt. Iqr. 111b. ; total, 13 
 tons 5cwt. Sqr. 111b. 
 
 July 6. At noon grass level was 10ft., showing a sinkage of 2ft. 6in. 
 On July 7, at 8.30 a.m., it was 9ft. 6in. ; and on 14th it was 8ft. 6in., 
 having then sunk 4ft. 
 
 July 27. Boxes of weights and bran cleared out of sUo ; mowing again 
 commenced at 9.30 ; ensilage was found to be brown and quite sweet, 
 tjiough it was slightly warm ; same mode of operation as before ; grass 
 mown, about li acres ; weight put in silo, 3 tons 5cwt. 2qr. 61b., and fib. 
 salt to each cwt.— 331b. ; 151 hampers, averaging 481b. The first portion 
 of the grass put in this day was quite dry, and the remainder strong and 
 juicy, and damp with dew. 
 
 The total weight of grass now in silo was 16 tons 9cwt. 61b. ; salt, 
 2cwt. 2qr. 161b., making altogether 16 tons llcwt. 2qr. 221b. The total 
 acreage mown: July 4, 24 acres; 5th, li acres; 27th, li acres— 5i 
 acres. 
 
 s 2 
 
252 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Cost of riLLiNO Silo, Tatton Park. 
 
 July 4, 1883. _ £ s. A. 
 
 One man driving, and hire of engine 13 6 
 
 One man feeding chafE-eutter 3 6 
 
 One man supplying liim 3 6 
 
 Three men in silo treading and ramming 12 
 
 One man in silo spreading and salting 4 
 
 Two men and one boy placing and removing hampers, 7 16 
 
 weighing grass and salt, and filling silo )0 7 
 
 One man and two horses mowing, and machine 15 
 
 Two men and two horses leading grass from field 14 
 
 Two men getting grass together in field 7 
 
 Two women raking, &o., in field 4 6 
 
 July 5. 
 
 One man and engine 13 6 
 
 One man haK a day feeding chaff-cutter 16 
 
 One man half a day supplying him 16 
 
 Three men in silo three-quarters of a day 6 9 
 
 One man in silo spreading and salting 2 3 
 
 Two men and one boy as ahove ■<„ . 
 
 One man and two horses mowing, and machines Jialf a day ... 7 6 
 
 Two horses and two men carting 7 
 
 Two men loading grass field 3 
 
 Two women ditto 4 
 
 Three men ditto, and rating , 4 6 
 
 291b. cheese, at 84d.,lL Os. ep.; 561b. bread, at l^d., 7s. ... 1 7 64 
 
 36 gallons beer, at 8d 14 
 
 July 27. 
 
 Engine and driver 12 
 
 Four men in sHo 14 
 
 Seven men in field 110 
 
 14ilb. cheese, 10s. 3i(J. ; 281b. bread, 3s. 6* 13 9^ 
 
 Beer, 12 gallons 8 
 
 Mowing machine half a day 7 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 Total ^13 10 54 
 
 Wten the silo was filled in July the side entrance vras blocked up as 
 already stated, but the side door was opened in February for the removal 
 of the ensilage, which was out with a hay knife, taken out in baskets, and 
 portions of it handed round amongst those present, and a number of 
 horses attached to the carriages and gigs were tried with it, and most of 
 them ate it readily. To the depth of from six to nine inches it was 
 clogged and mouldy, but the ensilage below was found firm, moist, and 
 sweet, giving forth a pleasant odour. Owing to an unfortunate outbreak 
 of foot and mouth disease in the neighbourhood, no cattle were on the 
 ground ; but. Lord Egerton's agent announced that for the purpose of 
 thoroughly testing the nutritive qualities of the ensilage eighteen feeding 
 bullocks of average size^ind quality had been set apart, and carefully 
 weighed, half of which it was iutended to feed with ensilage in addition 
 to the ordinary com and cake, and the remainder with hay and turnips in 
 place of the ensilage. 
 
Cheshire and Derbyshire Silos. 253 
 
 SILO ON THE OREWB SEWAGE FARM. 
 On tlie recommendation of the Earm Committee, the Corporation of 
 Crewe determined to test the value of the ensilage system for the pre- 
 servation of fodder. Use was made of an old unoccupied building, 
 which, after some alteration, was adapted for the end in view. Its internal 
 dimensions are — length, 18ft.; width and depth, 12ft. The bottom 
 is 9ft. below ground. The walls are of nine-inch brickwork, and the inside 
 lined with cement. The bottom has been drained, and is formed of con- 
 crete. The operation of fiEing began on Aug. 14, 1883. The grass used 
 was a second crop of Italian rye-grass in seed, and free from any moisture 
 except its own sap. Twenty tons of grass were chopped and deposited. 
 In the topmost layers Icwt. of salt was sprinkled. The grass was then 
 covered with IJin. boards, without bran or straw, and weighted with nine 
 tons of stone, the pressure being about 1201b. to the square foot. In a 
 week it had sunk a yard, and a few weeks later the silo was again filled 
 to the top with chopped rye-grass and covered and weighted in a eimUar 
 manner. A wooden roof protected the ensilage from rain. 
 
 On New Tear's Day the sUo was opened. The Mayor and most of the 
 members and officers of the Town Council were present, accompanied by 
 numerous visitors. After a careful inspection, it seemed to be the 
 general opinion that the experiment had been highly successful. The 
 discolouration only extended for a few inches from the top. The mass 
 was perfectly sweet, and emitted an odour far from unpleasant. The 
 only apparent effect of the use of the salt was that the portion in which 
 it had been used seemed somewhat more humid than the rest..— Crewe 
 Guard/ian. 
 
 MR. LOWE'S SILO, CHAPEL-EN-LE-ERITH, DERBYSHIRE. 
 A LAEGE number of landowners, farmers, and others were present at the 
 opening of a silo on the premises of Mr. J. W. Lowe, Ridge Hall, Chapel- 
 en-le-Prith, on Feb. 25. The silo is 27ft. long, 17ft. wide, and 10ft. deep, 
 all above ground, being formed of the stone walls of a bam, coated with 
 cement. About three weeks were taken in the filling of the silo, during 
 intervals of haymaking, a few loads being put in every day, and no 
 ■covering or weights applied until completed. Mr. Lowe explained that 
 "the ensilage was eaten greedily by his dairy cows, and also by the pigs. 
 He said it was unnecessary either to chop the grass, to use salt, or to 
 cover with bran, each of these being a needless element of expense. He 
 weighted heavily with pig iron. Judging from his own experiences, he 
 was quite confident that the system would eventually prove a grand success. 
 He hoped landlords would construct silos for their tenants, as by doing 
 so they would benefit their own interests as well. The farmers present 
 expressed their opinion that the experiment was a substantial success. 
 
254 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 TWO STAPPORDSHIRE SILOS. 
 Me. Bouene, of Hilderstone Hall, near Stone, had a silo constructed in 
 a Dutch barn. An excavation was made 31ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 12ft. 
 deep. It was walled and double-bottomed with bricks and mortar, the 
 sides and bottom being cemented. Being under a Dutch bam no roof 
 was required. The cost of making it, including the planks to cover the 
 ensilage, was 48L 13s. The silo not being completed earlier, it could not 
 be fiUed until July 31, by which time the crop had become older than it 
 should be. It was chaffed until the spiudle of the chaff-cutter broke, 
 when three loads of long grass were put in to fill the silo. Planks were 
 then laid over it, and heavy stones put on to the amount of 1201b. to the 
 square foot. In fourteen days the grass sank 5ft. Vin., when the stones, 
 planks, &«., were removed, the sUo filled up, replanked, and weighted. 
 This process was gone through a third time, after which strong planks 
 were laid across the walls of the silo, and three corn stacks were built on 
 them. One of the com stacks having been threshed, this silo was opened 
 on Dec. 118. The temperature on Dec. 24 was 56°. The sample of 
 ensilage sent to me is good in colour, and has a vinous smell. The cows 
 took to it from the first, and Mr. Bourne's bailiff writes : " "We give the 
 cows 601b. each per day ; they are very fond of it, and are much improved 
 in themselves, as well as give more milk. One barren cow gives five 
 pints per day more than she did with hay. We have tried the cart 
 horses with it, and they seem as fond of it as the cows are. I am sure 
 our silo will prove a boon both to them and our cows." 
 
 A silo was also made by Mr. John Bourne, a son of the gentlemen 
 who built that mentioned above. A space 30ft. long by 15ft. wide, and 
 9ft. deep, was excavated in rocky marl on high ground. This cost 51. 
 Over this excavation a light wooden frame was covered with corrugated 
 iron, at an expense of 61. ; the total cost therefore of making the sUo 
 was 161. Mr. John Bourne commenced filling it with long grass in the 
 beginning of July. It was three times fiUed up, and was finally closed 
 at the end of that month. It was covered with 2in. boards, small spaces 
 being left between them to emit the air. On the boards were placed soap 
 boxes filled with marl, well pressed in, and placed so close together as to 
 entirely cover the sUo. The weight per square foot was 601b. This silo 
 was opened on Dec. 1, the temperature being 80°; the animals took to it 
 readily. The sample sent to me was far above the average, and, after 
 being in my room for more than a fortnight, still continues good. It was 
 not so wet as the general run of ensilage, but its smell was, and still is, 
 like very sweet hay. I look upon the sHo as one of great interest, as it 
 proves that first class ensilage can be in an inexpensive earth sUo. No 
 bricks and mortar, no masons' bill, no expenses beyond the excavation of 
 the ground, and the erection over it of some cheap covering to throw the 
 wet off.— From a letter by Major Fitzgebald {Field, Jan. 12, 1884). 
 
Warwichshire Silos. 255 
 
 THE EARL OF WARWICK'S PRIZE ENSILAGE AT THE 
 DAIRY SHOW, 1883. 
 
 The honour belongs to the British Dairy Farmers' Association of 
 having first devoted a prize in London to the best sample of ensilage 
 exhibited in competition. In doing this, the management have shown 
 spirit and discernment, recognising the value of ensilage for dairy cattle. 
 The silver medal at the Agricultural HaU has been awarded to the 
 specimen eent to the show by the Earl of Warwick from Heathcote Farm, 
 Warwick, through his farm manager, Mr. Tough, from whom I had a 
 verbal description of the successful experiment which resulted in pro- 
 ducing so excellent a specimen truss of ensilage, that would be fit and 
 welcome to the cattle of any stockyard in the kingdom. The forage was 
 sound, of good colour, and had the right appetising smell which should 
 belong to properly-made ensilage, and which is altogether distinct from 
 the rank, fetid eflB.uvium that emanates from those foul masses of spoiled 
 forage which sometimes pass under the name. 
 
 The Earl of Warwick's Exhibit, No. 702 in the catalogue, was made 
 from second-cut clover and a mixture of rye grass, furnished by Messrs. 
 Carter, of Holbom, for a two-years' lay ; and here I may note that such 
 a mixture of herbage and strong artificial grasses appears one of the most 
 suitable for making into ensilage. The prize sample has not been chaffed. 
 The ensilage exhibits attracted much attention and comment, and hand- 
 fuls were asked for, to be sent offi by parcels post. 
 
 The class for silos and ensUage, may be here given as a guide to other 
 associations making up their prize list: "The entry must consist of a 
 sample of ensilage (weighing about 561b.) the cohtents of a silo being the 
 property of the exhibitor ; together with a model or drawing of the silo 
 from which it is obtained, with a description of the method employed, 
 time of harvesting, condition of season, &c., for insertion in the catalogue." 
 Better terms than these could scarcely be put in a short paragraph. 
 
 The entry from the Earl of Warwick, had a rough but complete draw- 
 ing of the silos, with written description. They were constructed out of 
 an old bam, the walls of which were strengthened where required by 
 buttresses, and cross walls were built in 14in. brickwork. Across one bay 
 thus formed, a 9in. wall made the division. Thus three silos were 
 formed, the undivided bay holding 45 tons ensilage, reckoning 401b. to 
 2520 cubic feet; whilst the opposite bay, divided, would hold about half 
 in each section. The centre of the silo would be the threshing floor of 
 the bam. The interior walls were built 10ft. high, and cemented fin. 
 thick. The large silo was floored with brick, the smaller silos had six 
 inches of concrete in one case, bricks in the other. The large silo was 
 fiUed in June with sewage-grovra rye grass, and not yet opened. No. 3 
 silo was unfilled. 
 
256 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 No. 2 silo was filled July 23, 24, in overcast weather, but with tempera- 
 ture at 70°, from a crop cut on the 23rd, and from this the prize sample 
 was taken. On the first day 13 tons 7 cwt. of forage were put in ; on the 
 second day SJ tons were added to fill the silo. The total weight of green 
 clover was 18 tons 17cwt., and the cost (exclusive of horses) was 
 "32 12s. 3d. — for machine man, 2s. 7(£. ; three men loading, 6s. Id. ; four 
 boys driving, 3s. 7d. ; eight men treading 16s. ; three women raking clover 
 together, 3s. ; labour in filling 13s. ; two sacks bran to cover top, 12s. ; Jib. 
 salt to each 1 cwt. of grass Is. &d. ; beer, 9s. ; labour in placing weights, 
 5s., which were 1 cwt. to square foot. — Invicta, in the Field). 
 
 Ensilage Feeding Expeeiment. 
 
 SlE, — AU questions connected with the uses of ensilage have now so 
 much iuterest for agriculturists, that I need not apologise for troubling 
 you with the result of an experiment which has just been completed on 
 the Earl of Warwick's Heathcote farm. 
 
 At this farm there is a dairy of fifty cows, and we were anxious to 
 ascertain what effect a certain proportion of ensilage with their food 
 would have upon the milk. In order to test the matter fairly, Mr. Tough, 
 who manages the farm, selected two lots of four cows each. The milk 
 from each cow had been weighed daily beforehand, and the cows were 
 put in two lots, so that the total yield from each lot should be as nearly 
 as possible the same. 
 
 The whole of the cows were receiving daily 401b. of mangold pulped, 
 and mixed with 151b. of hay chaff, and 61b. of palm-nut cake and bean 
 flour mixed. 
 
 No. 1 lot were kept on this food for the three weeks the trial lasted. 
 
 No. 2 lot had from 201b. to 301b. of ensilage in the place of roots. 
 This was the only difference. 
 
 We found that the cows on each ensUage varied a good deal in their 
 appetite for it, some days eating 301b. and others only 201b. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 No. 1 Lot. 
 
 MDk. 
 
 of Cream. 
 
 No. 2 Lot. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 of Cream. 
 
 First week , . 
 
 791ilb. 
 
 69i 
 
 rirat week . 
 
 . 9751b. . 
 
 .... 53 
 
 Second „ .. 
 
 Sllilb. 
 
 56 
 
 Second „ 
 
 .. 9941t. . 
 
 .... 51J 
 
 Third „ .. 
 
 767ilb. 
 
 56f 
 
 Third „ . 
 
 . lOOOilb. . 
 
 .... 53J 
 
 Samples of the milk were sent to Dr. Bostock Hill, of Birmingham, 
 the county analyst, to test. He reports thereon : — 
 
 The following are the results of my analysis of the two samples of milk 
 received : No. 1 Lot. No. 2 Lot. 
 
 Solids, not fat 9'62 9-40 
 
 Fat 3-81 !!!.'." 3-94 
 
 13-43 13-34 
 
 Ash 0-76 0-72 
 
 Both samples are of excellent quality. 
 
TFarwicksMre Silos. 257 
 
 I may mention that the ensilage was made from rough meadow grass. 
 It was put in long, with Jib. of salt to the hundredweight. It came out 
 in excellent condition. After several experiments, I prefer this propor- 
 tion of salt to a larger one. The ensilage was chaffed along with the 
 lay, which will be found to prevent the clogging of the knives, of which 
 some have complained. 
 
 The trial promises well for the future of ensilage, and when the 
 relative cost of this and roots is taken into account, the result is even 
 more satisfactory than appears at first sight. 
 
 "Wm. T. E. Fosbeet, 
 
 Warwick, April 9, 1884. Agent to the Barl of Warwick. 
 
 MESSRS. TBEPPLIN'S SILOS IN WARWiCKSHIEE. 
 Messes. Teepplin farm something over three thousand acres, which for 
 the greater part lie round the picturesque old ruin of KenUworth. The 
 land is split up into twelve holdings, the buildings of which are 
 antiquated and decidedly inferior. It is necessary to mention this to 
 show that the appliances which have here been used to produce ensilage 
 are within the reach of any agriculturist. The Messrs. Trepplin, at a 
 very small outlay, have utilised the present buildings to the best advan- 
 tage. In 1883 they comme'nced to build three brick sUos — two dug out 
 of the side of slopes, and one erected against the end of a barn. In 
 building one of the former they unfortunately dug to water, and, as time 
 was pressing, the task was relinquished, and the bays and floors of the 
 bams were requisitioned. Thus these gentlemen have preserved over 
 Jive thousand tons of fodder. 
 
 At ViUiers Hill the barn was filled with rough meadow grass, clover, 
 and sewage grass, carried at different intervals, and in all weather, even 
 when it was raining hard. The grass was not passed through a chafE- 
 cntter, but unloaded into the sUo as it came from the fields, the mowing 
 machine going round the crops and the carts following it. The means 
 adopted to prepare the bam for its contents were very simple. There 
 were no drains inserted, nor was the floor, brick or soil, meddled with; in 
 fact, nothing was done except to fill up the cracks in the walls where it 
 was thought necessary. These were shored on the outside ; but this was 
 found to be unnecessary. Horses were used to tread the grass as it was 
 thrown in. The grass was stacked at harvest time, and as it subsided 
 was fiUed tip again for a period of a week or more. Notwithstanding 
 this it sank fully 5ft. after the weights (which consisted of boards and 
 stones) were placed upon it for the last time. The side at one end was 
 open, yet it presented no material difference from the sides close to the 
 ■ wall. There was but little mould apparent, certainly not an inch thick at 
 ■the edge, about a couple of inches or more at the top, while the bottom 
 appeared to be sound. That which had been carried wet was black, where 
 
258 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 it had been carted dry it was brown, while some of the sewage grass was 
 a f aiat green. The smell was by no means unpleasant, strong and vinous,, 
 and not sour. The mass was still hot and moist almost to wetness. 
 Everything upon the farm partakes of ensilage, it being cut up into chaff" 
 with straw which somewhat dilutes its pungency of aroma and renders it 
 most appetising. Mr. Trepplin states that the feeding stock on first 
 being brought in from the fields were greatly given to scouring, a 
 complaint which ensilage has entirely eradicated. 
 
 At the East Ohase farm was perhaps one of the best samples of 
 ensilage. It was clover of a light brown colour, and appeared to be very 
 sweet. It was in the bay of a barn and had been subjected to great 
 pressure. The front was left bare ; but the top had been covered with 
 loose sand. There was very little mould observable. The other side of 
 the barn was occupied with more ensilage, but in this case no pressure 
 had been resorted to beyond that which the filling necessitated. Tet the 
 mass had sunk eight feet. It was merely covered up with straw, though 
 the side which under ordinary circumstances would have been bare was 
 boarded up. On trying to get a sample from the top we found a few 
 inches had rotted. Underneath was a faint green coloured sample, of 
 good odour. This was meadow grass, and was ricked early in September. 
 
 At the Eernhill homestead the thrashing floor of the bam had been 
 filled, together with the bays, and a section was cut from the doors; 
 consequently one side had been exposed to the air for nearly a month. 
 This had rotted to the extent of a few inches, but beyond that was 
 perfectly sound, and although quite black was eaten. It was clover got 
 in July, and carried on some of the most rainy days. Nevertheless even 
 in this state the part exposed to the air will not decompose or become 
 mouldy for quite a week. 
 
 At Goodrest there was just a truss left on the threshing floor of the 
 bam. This was meadow grass gathered in September. It had had no 
 pressure placed upon it, and was, as the sample under similar conditions 
 above, of a faint green colour. Even this smaU portion stiU retained its. 
 moisture, and was highly scented. 
 
 Mr. Trepplin has demonstrated that many a crop of grass which in 
 September is practically worthless, and which more often than not is 
 trodden into the ground, can with little labour be converted into valuable 
 fodder. In his case no expensive silos have been erected, but the ordinary 
 buildings of every farm have been found sufficient for the purpose. 
 
 Messrs. Trepplin milk two hundred cows and they are all fed with- 
 ensilage, as also are the cart horses. Their condition testifies that it does 
 not disagree with them, but as said before it is given them with straw as 
 chaff. 
 
 [The above is condensed from a long article in a local journal, the 
 name of which was not mentioned on the extract sent to us. A question 
 having been asked in The Field as to the ensilage made without being- 
 weighted, Mr. C. Trepplin replied that, " The herbage was short grass,. 
 
Gloucestershire, Sfc. 259 
 
 cut in September, in meadows shut oJBE late. Being carried damp, it 
 settled down qiiickly, and, after being coTered with some old hay or a few 
 boards, it turned out as good as the ensilage made in the summer and 
 weighted heavily." — Ed.] 
 
 LORD PITZHARDINGE'S SILOS AT BBEKELET. 
 LOBD ElTZHAEDlNGtB and a large company of gentlemen and tenantry 
 assembled on Dec. 12 at the home farm, Berkeley Castle, to witness 
 the opening of one of three silos which his lordship has had constructed. 
 The silo was built of brick in a barn, cemented inside ; it is 12ft. Sin. 
 long, by 7ft. 6in. wide, and 10ft. lOin. deep. On June 9, 15 tons of newly- 
 mown grass was cut up with the ohafC-cutter and placed in the sUo, 
 21b. of salt to the cwt. being added, and sprinkled over the grass 
 as it was being put in. This was closed up till Aug. 13, when it was 
 opened and filled up with 12 tons of clover, put in green in the same way 
 as the grass. It was then planked on the top and pressed down by 
 placing 2 tons 12 cwt. of bricks on the top (about 631b. to the square 
 foot), after placing a layer of bran all over to keep it free from air, and 
 was not opened tiU Wednesday. On being cut, the top layer of the 
 ensilage was found to have a strong and very unpleasant odour, but lower 
 down where the density of the ensilage had increased, the unpleasant 
 odour diminished. With this exception it was perfectly fresh. Mr. J. 
 Peter, the farm stewa,rd, gave some to the cows, who ate it freely, but th» 
 horses would not eat it. A good many expressions of opinion were given 
 both in favour of and adverse to the use of ensUage. — The Farmer. 
 
 At a meeting of the Gloucestershire Chamber of Agriculture, on Jan. 
 12, 1884, Lord Fitzhardinge said he believed he was the only person in 
 the county who had carried out the system of ensilage, and he read a 
 short report of the results. The food of the dairy cows had been varied, 
 ensilage being given with and without dry hay chaff and certain quan- 
 tities of oatmeal, and records kept of the yield of milk. The result 
 appeared to be that there was little, if any, difference in the quantity of 
 milk produced; but his lordship said the cream was a good rich colour, 
 and the butter excellent, when the cows were fed on ensilage. — Live Stock 
 Jcmrnal. 
 
 MR. CUNARD'S SILO, KEVILL HOLT, MARKET HARBORO'. 
 Mk. Cttnaed had a sUo formed by walling ofE a portion of an old barn, 
 and cementing the inside. It was filled with clover, carried immediately 
 on its being cut, chopped up with a chaff cutter, and mixed with 21b. of 
 salt to every Icwt. of grass. After being well trodden down, shutters 
 were put on the top, and weighted with large blocks of stone. When 
 opened in January it was in good condition, and the beasts ate it greedily.. 
 
260 Silos for -Fodder Crops. 
 
 LORD WALSINGHAM'S SILOS AT MERTOJST. 
 
 [In the Wayland Hall, Watton, Norfolk, on Feb. 5, 1873, Mr. Henry Woods, of 
 Merton, delivered a lecture on " Ensilage : its Origin, History, and 
 Practice," * to a large assemblage of landowners and tenant farmers. After 
 speaking on the origin and history of the process, and what had been done 
 in other countries, and in various parts of England, Mr. Woods related what 
 had occurred within his own experience :] 
 In the montli of July, 1881, we had a small silo constructed on the 
 ground floor of a granary. Its internal measurements were 8ft. 4in. long, 
 4ft. wide, 4ft. 4in. deep. In August we made our first experiment, which 
 was a sharp and trying one. The chaff with which I experimented was 
 made in equal parts from second-crop red clover and rank-grown succu- 
 lent grass, out from a pasture which had been heavily folded with cake- 
 fed sheep. The grass and clover were both cut and carted in a drizzling 
 rain. The chaff when made was at once put into the silo. It was salted 
 at the rate of lib. of common field salt to Icwt. of grass chaff, and was 
 trodden down as firmly as possible. A layer of salt, in thickness about 
 an inch, was placed on the top of the mass. It was covered with two 
 wood shutters, upon which we spread a layer of bran, 9in. in depth. The 
 whole was weighted with large stones, weighing together about three- 
 quarters of a ton. After the lapse of about three months we opened our 
 little silo. We found some of the contents to be useless. The upper 
 portions of the ensilage, to the extent of a third of a foot, were in a state 
 of decomposition, and unfit for feeding purposes. Decomposition was also 
 at work at the bottom of the silo. Its extent was some four or five inches, 
 But beyond these upper and lower layers, although so wet that water 
 could be squeezed out of it very easily, the chaff was quite green and fresh, 
 and had a strong aromatic and acid-like smell. At the outset the cows 
 when offered the food did not take kindly to it ; but in the course of two 
 or three days they manifested a fondness for it, and ate it freely. Our 
 success was only partial ; but other experiments, on a much larger scale 
 and somewhat different plan, w ere arranged, and we determined to profit 
 by the lessons of our first trial. 
 
 We converted one bay of a clay- built barn, at Merton, into sUos. 
 Across the bay front we put up a 14in. brick wall to within 3ft. lOin. of 
 the tie beam, and two division walls of the same description, which gave 
 us three silos, each 14ft. 4in. in length, 6ft. Sin. in width, and Oft. Sin. m 
 depth. The barn floor was laid with asphalte some years ago, and there- 
 fore the silos required no new bottom. We covered the walls with cement 
 plaster, composed of Portland cement and well-washed road sUt, in the 
 proportion of three of cement to one of sUt. This coating, which was 
 
 * This lecture has since been published with additions, and plana of the 
 buildings, by Messrs. Stevenson and Co., Market Place, Norwich. 
 
Lord Walsingham^s Experiments. 261 
 
 about half an inch in thickness, answered well in every respect, and 
 showed, I think, that even clay-huilt bams are easily convertible into good 
 silos. To prevent the brickwork being displaced in the filling process, a 
 2iin. plank, 14in. wide, was properly secured to the wall tops, and to 
 facilitate the emptying of the silos a well-made l^in. boarded door, pro- 
 tected by a coating of hot tar and pitch, was inserted in one corner of the 
 front wall of each silo. The frames of the doors were set on the inside, 
 so that the doors opened inwards to the partition walls, and the apertures 
 were hermetically sealed by means of 4in. brickwork on the front sides. 
 The total cost of these three silos did not exceed 30?. 
 
 It was my serious intention that the experiments we made should not 
 err on the side of leniency. With this object I used coarse common grass 
 for the test. (Referred to in the Analysis as No. 1.) Two of the silos I 
 directed to be filled vrith grass taken from an oak wood, known as Merton 
 Wood. For some years I was in the habit of giving the grass to any 
 respectable person who liked to cut it for litter. During the past few 
 years no one has cared to have it. They have said, " It is such poor 
 stufE, if it once gets wet after being cut there is little chance of getting 
 it dry again ; it is then useless even as litter." Tou may therefore con- 
 clude that if the ensilage system, when applied to grass of this coarse and 
 common character, has been at all successful, much greater things are to 
 be gained from a finer and better sort of material. The ensilage in the 
 third silo, I may add, was from grass grown in a rough meadow. (Referred 
 to in the Analysis as No. 2.) 
 
 The silos were filled uninterruptedly, in the course of three or four days, 
 early in July. Although the weather was dull and sunless, there was no 
 rain. The grass was loaded on to waggons as it was cut, and conveyed 
 direct to the chaff-cutter. Amongst each cwt. of chafE 21b. of common 
 field salt was distributed.* Let me here say, once for aU, that a great deal 
 depends upon the treading and ramming process. The more effectually 
 this is done the better will be the ensilage. When the silos were quite 
 filled, the chaff having been as well-trodden and rammed down as possible, 
 the contents were covered with wood shutters, and over these we spread 
 a bed of coarse bran, about eight inches deep. For weights we used a 
 lot of clean flint stones, in wicker skeps, which cost a shilling apiece, and 
 which win last for years before requiring to be renewed. The pressure, 
 which we carefully distributed over the whole surface, was little more 
 than a ton and a half in each sUo, which contained about fourteen or 
 fifteen tons of cut grass. Three weeks after the filling of the silos the 
 ensilage had shrunk to about a third of its original depth. We then 
 removed the weighted baskets and bran covering, again fiUed the silos to 
 the top, and replaced. the boards, bran, and skep-weights. Little labour 
 and no difficulty attended this operation. The skeps were lifted on to the 
 partition walls, while the bran was put temporarily into sacks. An 
 accurate and detailed account of aU the expenses incurred for the filling 
 * Mr. Woods has since reduced the salt to about fib. per owt. 
 
262 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 was kept by the farm bailifE. The amount did not exceed 8s. 6d. per ton, 
 or 12s. 9d. per acre, the crop averaging about one and a half tons per 
 acre. There was but slight heat, and no mouldiness visible when the 
 shutters were removed to refill the silos ; and it is also a fact worthy of 
 notice that in the ensilage now used from them there is nothing to 
 indicate where the later filling began. With regard to the cost of making 
 ensilage of grass, as compared with that for the same weight of hay, we 
 had no actual data to guide us to a definite conclusion. But I was desirous 
 of getting some reliable practical estimate, and through the kindness of 
 Mr. W. BiddeU, M.P., of Lavenham HaU, Suffolk, and Mr. T. Gayford, 
 of Wretham, Norfolk, gentlemen of great experience and ability as 
 valuers, I have received particulars which enable me to state that in tfa 
 average season the cost of making one and a haH tons of grass into hay, 
 stacking, and afterwards cutting into chaff, is from 25s. to 26s. per acre. 
 From this it will be seen that our ensilage was produced at a saving of 
 60 per cent, on the cost of ordinary haymaking and chaff cutting. 
 
 Five months elapsed (Dec. 11) before we opened No. 1 silo. On 
 removing the covering the thermometer registered 61°. This temperature 
 obtained to a depth of about two feet, when there was a considerable fall, 
 and still lower down it was quite cold. We fetched the ensilage over the 
 top, untU we had cut down a section sufficiently large to admit of the 
 sealed door being opened; after which it was carried out through the 
 doorway in the usual manner. 
 
 Now, as to the quality of the ensilage. The grass we packed was very 
 inferior to that used for the small Trial Silo in 1881-82 ; yet there was such 
 a marked superiority in the quality as to strike aU of us with surprise. 
 This improvement I attribute to three causes, viz. — ^not having cut or 
 carted the grass in a wet state ; using about 21b. of salt instead of lib. to 
 each owt. of grass ; not putting a layer of salt beneath the shutters 
 before closing the silos. This year the ensilage is nicely moist ; but no 
 water can be squeezed from it, and it is quite free from mould. Whegi 
 first given them, the horses, cows, and young stock ate it readily, and 
 have since continued to do so. The horses, to which we give one-third 
 ensUage to two-thirds chaff, are doing remarkably well. 
 
 Value op Ensilage' toe. Daiey Cows. 
 In order to ascertain the effect of ensilage on the cows. Lord Walsingham 
 suggested, shortly before opening the silos, that the milk and cream, 
 before and after the ensilage feeding, should be carefully tested, and the 
 results tabulated. For this purpose 1 selected five pedigree shorthorn 
 cows, which dropped calves on July 27, Oct. 27, Nov. 24, and two on 
 Nov. 30, 1882. Previous to giving ensilage, each cow was daily fed with 
 61b. of crushed oats and 31b. of bran, mixed with chaff (composed two- 
 thirds of barley straw and one-third hay). The five animals yielded, on 
 Dec. 10, 68 quarts of milk, which the lactometer showed contained 
 12 degrees of cream. We commenced feeding with ensilage on Dec. 11, 
 
Lord Walsingham's Experiments. 
 
 263 
 
 And the following tables give the daily diet and yield from Deo. 14 to 
 Jan. 10. Besides the proportions of ensilage and chaff, the oats and bran 
 were given as before in each instance. 
 
 i Ensilage, | Oliafl. 
 
 J Ensilage, J Chaff. 
 
 f Hhsilage, i Chaff. 
 
 1 Ensilage, i Chaff. 
 
 S 
 
 .hi 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 -3 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 •H 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 fl 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 1882. 
 
 Qts. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Qts. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Qts. 
 
 De^. 
 
 1883. 
 
 Qts. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Deo. 14 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 Deo. 21 
 
 71 
 
 14 
 
 Dec. 28 
 
 72 
 
 15 
 
 Jan. 4 
 
 78 
 
 16 
 
 „ 15 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 „ 22 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 „ 29 
 
 72 
 
 15 
 
 „ 5 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 „ 16 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 „ 23 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 „ 30 
 
 74 
 
 15 
 
 „ 6 
 
 80 
 
 16 
 
 „ 17 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 „ 24 
 
 71 
 
 14 
 
 „ 31 
 1883. 
 
 74 
 
 15 
 
 „ 7 
 
 81 
 
 16 
 
 „ 18 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 „ 25 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 76 
 
 16 
 
 ,. 8 
 
 82 
 
 16 
 
 „ 19 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 „ 26 
 
 70 
 
 14 
 
 „ 2 
 
 76 
 
 16 
 
 „ 9 
 
 82 
 
 16 
 
 „ 20 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 „ 27 
 
 71 
 
 15 
 
 „ 3 
 
 77 
 
 16 
 
 „ 10 
 
 82 
 
 16 
 
 I will be observed that on Deo. 14, three days after the ensilage was 
 first given, the nulkhad increjdeed by two quarts with a rise of one degree 
 in the cream. This went on until the 20th. On the 21st the cows gave 
 seventy-one quarts of milk with fourteen degrees of cream, the latter 
 showing another rise of one degree. On the 22nd and 23rd, and the 25th 
 and 26th, they seem to have fallen back to the extent of a quart of milk 
 per day, which was probably owing to the cold wet weather which we 
 experienced at that time ; but, on the 27th, the lost quart was recovered, 
 "the supply again reaching seventy-one quarts and the cream making a 
 further advance to fifteen degrees. The quantity rose on the 28th another 
 qujart (seventy -two quarts), and on the 30th and 81st seventy-four quarts 
 -were registered, with no change noted in the state of the cream. New 
 Tear's day brought us seventy-six quarts and sixteen degrees of cream. 
 On Jan. 4 another quart was gained ; on the 5th and 6th eighty quarts 
 vrere given ; on the 7th, the return rose to eighty-one quarts : and on the 
 8th to eighty -two ; these figures continuing to be recorded down to Jan. 10, 
 when the test ended, and when the greatly improved quality of the 
 cream had undergone no change. When the month's trial concluded we 
 had raised the milk return by fourteen quarts per day, and the quality of 
 the cream to the remarkable extent of four degrees. The tables also show 
 that the increase in the quantity of milk and improvement in the quality 
 of the cream correspond witt an increased amount of ensilage given to 
 the cows. 
 
 Milk Analysis. 
 
 We were naturally anxious to test the quality of our ensilage milk by 
 analysis, and on Jan. 9 we sent two samples to Mr. Francis Sutton, P.O.S., 
 of Norwich, who, besides holding the position of County Analyst, is 
 Analyst to the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, and whose high attain- 
 ments are bo widely known that I need not say another word about his 
 
264 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 qualifications. No. 1 sample was the milk of cows not ensilage-fed ; No. 
 2 came from the five cows, the subjects of the test. The following is Mr. 
 Sutton's report : — 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 PTirefat 2-76 .... 
 
 Sugar, casein, albumen, &c 9 '37 
 
 "Water 87-87 .... 
 
 No. 2. 
 311 
 
 9-82 
 87-07 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Mineral matters (ash) 0-70 
 
 0-75 
 
 Specific gravity at 60° 10-30 
 
 10-32 
 
 This analysis, you will observe, is in favour of the No. 2 (ensilage) milk 
 in every respect. Whilst in pure fat there was an increase of 0-35, and in 
 sugar, casein, albumen, &c., of 0'45, there was a decrease of '80 water. 
 Mr. Sutton also -writes to me as follows : " From my examination of the 
 ensilage, so far as it has now gone, I should be quite prepared to beheve 
 in its value as a milk-producing food owing to the great proportion of 
 soluble nutrition in it. These results have fairly surprised me, and when 
 you get them I feel sure they will have the same effect upon yourself." 
 
 It is a striking fact, not to be passed over, that two cows which had 
 been fed with ensilage, on being deprived of the food for a couple of days, 
 gave three quarts of mUk less each day. 
 
 Analyses of the Ensilage. 
 As to the constituent properties of our ensilage, it would be beyond the 
 pro-vince, and also the competency, of a layman to speak. Lord Walsing- 
 ham, gratified as he might well be with the milk -pail returns of the cows, 
 was extremely anxious to get as full and exhaustive analyses of the ensilage 
 as possible. We therefore sent two sets of samples of the food to Mr. 
 Sutton, and samples of hay made from grass of the same description as the 
 ensilage, for the purposes of comparison. The first set (Nos. 1) consisted 
 of ensilage made from grass, which I have described as grown in the wood, 
 and hay from the same kind of grass. The second set (Nos. 2) comprised 
 ensilage made from the coarse grass grown in the meadow near the wood, 
 and hay made from grass cut in the same meadow. The results of the 
 analyses are set out in the following table : 
 
 General Composition— Natural State. 
 
 Dried at 212° Fato. 
 
 
 Hay 
 No.l. 
 
 Hay 
 No. 2. 
 
 Ensi- 
 lage. 
 No.l. 
 
 Ensi- 
 lage. 
 No. 2. 
 
 Hay 
 No. 1. 
 
 Hay 
 No. 2. 
 
 Ensi- 
 lage. 
 No. 1. 
 
 Ensi- 
 lage. 
 No. 2. 
 
 ■Water 
 
 22-20 
 8-21 
 4-05 
 
 61-04 
 4-50 
 
 24-90 
 9-75 
 8-16 
 
 58-50 
 3-70 
 
 74-80 
 6-24 
 1-78 
 
 16-91 
 0-77 
 
 6S-95 
 9-17 
 1-88 
 
 22-18 
 
 0-82 
 
 10-56 
 5-20 
 
 78-50 
 6-75 
 
 13-00 
 4-20 
 
 77-85 
 4-95 
 
 24-28 
 6-92 
 
 65-80 
 300 
 
 
 Soluble organic matter 
 
 27-00 
 5-55 
 
 65-06 
 2-40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
Jbord IV alsing ham* 8 J^xperiments. 
 
 
 265 
 
 Detailed Composition— Natural State. 
 
 Dried at 212° Fahr. 
 
 ^ater 
 
 22-20 
 
 0-78 
 603 
 
 7-48 
 1-29 
 20-80 
 33-92 
 4-OS 
 4-50 
 
 24-90 
 
 0-88 
 7-09 
 
 8-87 
 1-34 
 19-80 
 30-27 
 3-15 
 8-70 
 
 74-30 
 
 1-60 
 1-41 
 
 4-64 
 0-72 
 8-28 
 6-50 
 1-78 
 0-77 
 
 65-95 
 
 2-12 
 1-43 
 
 7-06 
 0-89 
 10-62 
 9-24 
 1-88 
 0-82 
 
 0-94 
 6-46 
 
 9-61 
 1-54 
 26-73 
 43-74 
 6-20 
 5-78 
 
 1-17 
 9-46 
 
 11-85 
 1-80 
 26-85 
 40-25 
 4-20 
 4-93 
 
 6-32 
 6-49 
 
 18-06 
 
 2-80 
 
 32-24 
 
 25-26 
 
 6-93 
 
 8-00 
 
 
 Albumen and protein Bubstances 
 
 soluble in water* 
 
 Insoluble protein compoundsf... 
 Sugar,gum,and extractive matter 
 
 6-23 
 4-20 
 
 20-73 
 
 Oil, wax, and chlorophyll, Ac. ... 
 
 2-60 
 31-17 
 
 Indigestible woody fibre 
 
 27-14 
 
 
 6-63 
 
 
 2-40 
 
 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 
 0-115 
 0-796 
 0-910 
 6-760 
 
 0-140 
 1-120 
 1-260 
 7-970 
 
 0-256 
 0-221 
 0-476 
 3-010 
 
 0-336 
 0-226 
 0-562 
 3-557 
 
 0-149 
 1-020 
 1-169 
 7-400 
 
 0-186 
 
 1-490 
 
 1-676 
 
 10-63 
 
 0-992 
 0-860 
 1-862 
 11-72 
 
 0-990 
 
 
 0-66S 
 
 Total percentage of nitrogen . . . 
 Equal to total protein compounds 
 
 1-656 
 10-47 
 
 I take it that the satisfactory nature of these results is plaiu to the 
 meanest capacity. But Mr. Sutton has rendered us, and I may say the 
 whole agricultural community, essential service by appending a singularly 
 lucid and able report to his analyses. The importance of his conclusions, 
 in their probable bearing upon the ensilage controversy, could scarcely be 
 over-rated. As to what those scientists who have formed hasty and dog- 
 matic opinions upon confessedly insufficient data may have to say to it, 
 and how far they may hereafter be constrained, by the hard logic of facts, 
 to modify their views, we have nothing to do. They are matters into 
 which it is not needful, nor would it be profitable, for us to enter now. 
 In giving publicity to this report, all I would venture to observe, by way 
 of note or comment, is that my practical experience in the management 
 of live stock, extending beyond a generation of time, thoroughly confirms 
 what Mr. Sutton has so intelligently expressed. 
 
 "Rbpoet on the Analyses of Hat and Ensilage. 
 
 " County Analyst's Office, Eastern Counties Laboratory, 
 London-street, Norwich, Jan. 17, 1883. 
 
 " The two samples of hay consisted of a variety of grasses, many of 
 them of a coarse description and of poor quality, and were destitute of 
 the sweet smeU and taste which always accompanies weU-made meadow 
 hay of good quality. 
 
 " The texture of No. 2 was, however, preferable to No. 1, and the grass 
 of a somewhat finer description. 
 
 " Both specimens of ensilage were, on the contrary, highly odoriferous 
 from the development of the essential oils peculiar to the various grasses, 
 and had also a vinous smeU accompanied -with a slight but pleasant 
 acidity. 
 
 " The smell of essential oils was so persistent that after handling the 
 ensilage for some time it became very difficult to remove the smell by 
 washing. On distilling some of the material with water, these essential 
 flavours were carried over into the distillate, but, though powerful, the 
 quantity of actual oil was too small to be separated. 
 
266 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 " The hay treated in precisely the same maimer gave no trace of essential 
 oils, or any flaYour whatever except that of decaying grass. 
 
 " In addition to the detailed analyses recorded in the tables, the 
 ensilage Nos. 1 and 2 were both examined for the amount of acidity; this 
 was found to be very much the same in both samples, and, taking it as 
 acetic acid, the proportion was found to be respectively 0'34 and' 0'36, or 
 about one-third of a per cent. 
 
 " The alcohol was estimated in No. 2 ensilage, and amounted to 0055 
 per cent, by weight, or about one-tenth of a per cent, of proof spirit. 
 
 " These proportions are very small, and they arise, of course, from the 
 conversion of a small proportion of saccharine matter in the original 
 grass, but their development is open to no objection when kept withia 
 moderate limits ; on the contrary, they add to the fragrancy and taste o 
 the substance, and undoubtedly render it more acceptable and probably 
 more digestible as a food. 
 
 " If the effects of the silo were only to render what would otherwise 
 be a tasteless, dry forage into a fragrant, appetising, and succulent food 
 it would be a decided step in advance ; but the analyses will show tha 
 much greater changes of a beneficial nature occur during the process. 
 These changes are especially shown in the large proportions of soluble 
 flesh-formers and fat-producers as compared with the hay. 
 
 " For instance, in the case of No. 1 ensilage, the soluble albumenoids 
 (or flesh-formers) are increased more than six times, and in No. 2 more 
 than five times ; while, in the case of sugar, gum, and extractive matters, 
 the proportion is nearly doubled in both instances. The digestible fibre is 
 also increased fully 20 per cent, in both samples of ensilage. 
 
 " These facts are of great importance, and well worth the attention of 
 all stock feeders, as it is evident that the occurrence of these nutritious 
 constituents in a really soluble form is so much labour of mastication and 
 digestion saved to the animals who are fed on such food, as compared with 
 dry hay. 
 
 " The change induced by the silo is, in fact, a partial digestion or 
 limited fermentation ; and undoubtedly such food will prove much easier 
 of digestion and assimilation than crude hay. 
 
 " There are apjparently two anomalies in the figures of analysis which 
 it may be proper to notice. The first is the apparent increase in fatty 
 matters in the ensilages as against the hays ; this probably arises from 
 matters like chlorophyll, &c., which are converted into a less soluble form 
 in the process of drying through which the hay has passed. The second 
 is the amount of nitrogen in No. 1 ensilage as compared with its hay. 
 
 " The total protein compounds (flesh-formers) are recorded as beiag 
 4 per cent, higher. This can hardly be the fact, as, of course, the silo has 
 no power to originate nitrogenous constituents ; it can only modify them. 
 The difference probably arises from one of two things — either that the 
 sample of ensilage taken for analysis contained rather more of the seed 
 vessels or other richer nitrogenous portions of the plant than the corre- 
 
Lord Walsingham' s Experiments. 267 
 
 spending sample of hay, or it may be due entirely to tlie dijEBerent periods 
 of growth. 
 
 " In conclusion, it is abundantly evident, so far as these analyses can 
 show, that the sUo has produced a succulent, easUy digestible food, fuU of 
 aroma and nutrition, from a very poor quality of grass. 
 
 " Peancis Sittton, 
 " Chemist to the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture." 
 
 A Teiai, with Ewes. 
 [A few weeks later Mr. Woods sent the following letter to the Meld.'] 
 
 Desiring that the independent opinion of some reliable person should be 
 obtained as to the effect of the ensUage on in-lamb ewes, I induced Mr. 
 Thomas G-ayf ord, of "Wretham, near Thetf ord, who is widely known as a 
 thorough man of business and as an eminently practical flockmaster, to 
 undertake a trial on ten ewes, which were, with one exception, taken 
 indiscriminately from a lot which had been selected from the general 
 flock because they were low in condition. The ewe which formed the 
 exception referred to was a notoriously bad milter, and it was desired to 
 see what efPect the eusUage would have on this particular ewe. 
 
 I am glad to be able to report that the result of the trial has been most 
 satisfactory; and I venture to think that it would be almost impossible, 
 judging by the facts elicited by Mr. Gayf ord's experiment, to over-estimate 
 the importance of ensilage to flockmasters, and particularly in a severe 
 winter, or in a late sterile spring, when ewes urgently need a succulent, 
 palatable food. Writing one day last week, Mr. Gayford says : 
 
 " The effect of the ensilage food on the miLfc of the ewes is most decided. 
 The two which first lambed were (to use the shepherd's own words) 
 ' smothered with milk ' ; and another, which I examined just after she had 
 lambed, had a famous bag ; and the milk was as golden in colour and as 
 rich looking as if it came from the udder of a fresh-calved Alderney cow. 
 The remainder of the ewes under trial all did weU, and it is particularly 
 noteworthy that the ewe which had always given so little milk on her 
 previous lambings improved so much under the ensilage food as to give as 
 much mUk as any ewe in the general flock fed in the usual way. 
 
 " The extremely satisfactory result of feeding the ten trial ewes on 
 ensilage, as regards their milking condition, has made me, as a flockmaster 
 of thirty years' standing, to feel what a boon this new food will undoubtedly 
 prove to be to flocks of breeding ewes on large tracts of light land in the 
 eastern counties, and doubtless in other counties also. The large quantity 
 and rich quality of the milk of the ewes under trial, after the past excep- 
 tionally mild winter, surely indicates how great will be the value of 
 ensUage in a severe winter, when we are at our wits' end to j)rocure a 
 minimum supply of succulent food for our ewes. I have known many 
 winters and springs when there has been unavoidably heavy loss and 
 expense incurred from the impossibility of providing any succulent food, 
 and outU now nothing has been foimd to supply this indispensable 
 
 T 2 
 
268 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 requirement for nursing ewes. It appears to me that this introduction of 
 ensilage comes most opportunely, for never, during the present century, 
 has the success of light-land farming depended so much upon sheep as 
 now, nor have sheep ever been of more, if of so g^eat, value." 
 
 With regard to the financial side of the question, my practical corre- 
 spondent writes : " When the fact is generally understood that ensilage 
 can be secured at about two-thirds of the cost of hay, that its production 
 is almost wholly independent of the weather, and that the grass on the 
 parts of the fields near the fences may be converted into ensilage, leaving 
 the better drying portions and centre for hay, surely it will be true 
 wisdom for flockmasters at least to give the matter a fair trial during 
 the coming season." On the cost of sUos Mr. Gayford adds : " I was 
 talking yesterday at Bury St. Edmunds market with a very practical 
 man, who held, like many others, the erroneous idea that sUos must be 
 made either underground, or vrith very strong thick walls to withstand 
 the swelling from the supposed fermentation. This is one of the errors 
 that lead farmers to suppose that sUos are extremely costly in their con- 
 struction, and the more widely your pamphlet is read and this nonsense 
 dispelled, the better." 
 
 Seeing that breeding sheep are the sheet anchor of the light-land 
 farmers, that it is only on these they can rely with any hope of success 
 in these most disastrous times for agriculture, the foregoing testimony of 
 Buch an experienced flockmaster to the merits of ensilage as a succulent 
 food for sheep seems to me to be of great importance. 
 
 Merton, Thetford, Norfolk, March 20, 1883. Hbnet Woods. 
 
 On Monday, March 17, 1884, a lecture was delivered by Mr. H. 
 Woods, at South Kensington Museum, on the influence of ensilage on 
 British agriculture. The lecture, which was one of a series arranged 
 by the OounoU of the Institute of Agriculture, was honoured by 
 the presence of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, who took the chair 
 on the occasion. After some remarks on the depression of the 
 agricultural interest, and the ever-increasing importation of wheat 
 from foreign countries, the fact that the poor lands now going out 
 of cultivation were growing nothing but coarse grasses that could 
 only be profitably utilised in the silo was insisted on, Mr. Woods 
 stating that the grass from under the trees in an oak wood, which 
 in the recent state was useless as food for either horses, cattle, or 
 sheep, made excellent ensilage, which was advantageously used for milch 
 cows in November. The employment of a movable super sUo 30in. in 
 depth, to obviate the necessity for re-opening the silo to make good 
 the loss of bulk through shrinkage, was described. And a great 
 reduction in the amount of salt originally advocated by Mr. Woods 
 was now insisted on. The lecturer stUl advocated the employment of 
 bran as a covering to boards placed on the ensilage. The amount 
 of weight used at Merton was stated to be 701b. to the square foot, 
 
Lord Walsingham's JExperiments. 269 
 
 being applied by means of boxes filled with gravel, each box being 
 24in. by lOin., and ISin. in depth. These hold about 2cwt. of stones, 
 The desirability of chaffing the materials employed was strongly 
 urged by the lecturer. 
 
 With regard to the relative value of ensilage and hay, the follow- 
 ing were the remarks of the lecturer : " To test the relative weight 
 and value of grass as ensilage and hay, we put into the silo an acre 
 of heavy meadow grass. It weighed 12f tons and- produced 12 tons 
 of ensilage. An acre of the same made into hay weighed 2 tons 7cwt. 
 Take the value of the ensilage at 11. 6s. ^d. per ton, only one-third 
 the value of hay, which I am aware is much too low an estimate, but 
 I have adopted it in this and the other calculations which I am 
 about to bring under your notice, being desirous of keeping well 
 within the mark and of allowing, beyond all question, a margin 
 sufficient to meet any possible contentions on the part of sceptics ; 
 then deduct the incidental expenses, including an aUowanoe of 
 6L 12s. 4:d. per cent, on the cost of building a silo, and of 35s. an 
 acre for rent and tithe, together amounting to SI. 4s. 9A., and we 
 have a balance to our credit of lOZ. 15s. 3d. Deducting from the 
 return of the 2 tons 7cwt. of hay (valued at 91. 8s.) Zl. 8s. 2d. for 
 mowing, making, stacking, chaffing, and rent and tithe, we have a 
 net balance of 6Z. 19s. Kid., showing a sum of U. 15s. 6d. per 
 acre in favour of the ensilage as against the hay." 
 
 In the case of buckwheat, the balance was regarded as 2Z. 8s. Zd. 
 per acre in favour of the ensilage. In the case of green oats out in 
 July, the balance in favour of the ensiled crop, was regarded aa 
 4L 19s. lid. per acre in excess of the grain and straw if harvested 
 when ripe. The cultivation of spurrey as an ensilage plant for light 
 sandy soils was strongly insisted on as being adapted for soils which 
 are otherwise perfectly sterile, not growing either grass or clover. 
 
 Spurrey (Spergula arvensis) is an annual plant of the pink family 
 (OaryophyUacese), and is largely cultivated in different parts of the 
 Continent. It yields a rapid crop of succulent herbage. "When ripe, the 
 pods burst, and shed a great number of black seeds, which are said to be 
 equal in nutritive value to rape cake. These seeds are bruised and given 
 to horses and mUch crows, and have the effect of increasing the quantity 
 and improving the quality of the mUk. Abounding on inferior light 
 soils, the plant is greedily eaten by sheep and cattle, and is described as 
 an eminently nutritious herbage, yielding a better pasture than red or 
 white clover; the cows giving more and better milk. The experimental 
 crop of spurrey at Merton yielded most excellent food for sheep and 
 cattle, although grown on blowing sand, so poor that its cultivation had 
 been abandoned. When cut it yielded 5i tons per acre, and produced 
 such exceUent ensilage that 120 acres are to be grown this year. The 
 seed cost 45s. per cwt., which is at the rate of 5s. lU. per acre ; and the 
 total expenditure per acre on account of seed, cultivating, ensiling, and 
 
270 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 all other incidental expenses, including interest on silo building, 
 amounted to 2L 8s. 6d. In its natural state the spurrey weighed 
 5i tons, and when ensiled 5 tons per acre. On the already adopted basis 
 of one-third the value of hay at 4?. per ton, it produced 6L 13s. 4(Z. per 
 acre. Deducting the incidental expenditure, allowing for rent 3s. (the 
 price at which the land, now unlet, was valued to a tenant some years 
 ago), the net profit amounted to 4:1. 4s. lOd. per acre. 
 
 The utility of maize ensHage, and its high value as compared with 
 swedes was then insisted on. A test of the relative feeding value of maize 
 compared with swedes showed important results. The trial made with 
 two cows extended over a month. One cow had a daily aUowance of 
 421b. of ensiled maize, with 101b. of straw chafE, 81b. of maize meal, and 
 2Ib. of bran, and the other precisely the same allowance of food, except 
 that 701b. of swedes were substituted for the ensilage. While in the 
 former case the supply of milk rose from a daily average of 11| quarts to 
 14 quarts, and the cream from 11° to 13f ° ; in the latter case the increase 
 of milk was only from 11 quarts to 12^, and the cream from 11° to 12f°. 
 The ensilage-fed cow also gained 4st. in weight, the other but 2st. A 
 similar improvement in condition having been noted in the case of the 
 other cows fed with ensilage, the bailiff reduced their daily allowance of 
 maize meal by 21b. each. Equally satisfactory evidence was given of 
 the suitability of ensilage as a food for sheep. 
 
 The employment of cask-made ensilage for cowkeepers in town and on 
 ship board was recommended. A 60-gallon cask will contain 31st. of 
 ensilage ; a quantity sufficient, with a little hay or chaff, and maize meal, 
 to feed a cow nine or ten days, and the animal would require much less 
 water than when fed on dry food — a most important consideration on 
 board ship. 
 
 The complete lecture, together with analyses, &c., has since been 
 published by Messrs Hamilton, Adams, and Co., Paternoster-row, 
 London. 
 
 MARQUIS OF BRISTOL'S SILO, lOKWORTH, SUFFOLK. 
 The silo was built with 14in. brickwork, with piers and stout oak planks, 
 and iron rods to prevent the building from bulging by lateral pressure. 
 It is in two compartments, each 18ft. long, by 9ft. wide, and 10ft. deep ; 
 rendered inside by Portland cement fin. thick, and the floors are con- 
 crete rendered with Portland cement |in. thick. It was filled on July 19 
 and following days with rough grass cut into fin. lengths. The grass was 
 very wet, as it was raining heavily at the time. It was rammed down 
 close by manual labour, covered with 6in. of bran, and weighted by 
 planks upon which bricks were laid. The doors were closed and bricked 
 up with 9in. brickwork on July 23. Salt was applied in the proportion 
 of lib. of salt to Icwt. of grass. On being opened on Jan. 18, there was 
 no mould, with the exception of a very small quantity by one door-post,, 
 and the mass of ensilage appeared in an excellent state. 
 
Suffolh Silos. 271 
 
 THE DUKE OF HAMILTON'S SILOS AT GREAT 
 GLENHAM. 
 The Pound Farm, consisting of about 320 acres, is hired and literally 
 worked, in so far as giving orders and finding tlie money are concerned, 
 by the Duchess of Hamilton. Two silos have been built ; one was filled 
 in the early part of the summer and the other in September, the former 
 being first opened. A field had been laid down with rye-grass, clover, 
 and a few other seeds. The crop was carted direct to the bam, cut into 
 chaff, placed in the silo forthwith, and rammed down with wooden 
 rammers, l^lb. or 21b. of salt being added to each cwt. of stuff. When 
 feeding experiments were commenced the results were eminently satis- 
 factory. The cattle ate ensilage greedily, mixed with beet-root. The 
 com with which they had been previously fed was taken off, and the 
 animals have since thrived on this ensilage, apparently none the worse — 
 on the contrary, if there is any difference it is for the better. Mr. Smith 
 found the quantity of salt excessive, the tendency being to cause the 
 animals to drink too freely, and it is his intention to reduce the quantity 
 of salt in future. — Ipswich Journal. 
 
 COLONEL TOMLINE'S SILO, ORWELL PARK, SUFFOLK. 
 Mk. Henby Woods, in his Norfolk lecture, gave the following particu- 
 lars of Colonel Tomline's silo: "In the early part of 1882 a sUo, 26ft. in 
 length, and 12ft. in width and height, was built under the side of a hiU, 
 with an opening at each end ; one for filling, on the ground level, and the 
 other for extracting the fodder. The walls and floor were of concrete 
 (the former a foot or more in thickness). In July, the produce of eleven 
 acres of oates, in the green state, was passed through the chaffcutter, and 
 stored in the sUo; eight men being engaged in the work, which was 
 carried on in showery weather, and completed on Aug. 12. The covering 
 consisted of three loads of grass and one of straw, and planks weighted 
 with boxes filled with stones, bricks, and shingle— about 15 tons altogether. 
 On Dec. 1 the silo was opened. The outer coating of the ensilage was 
 mouldy and rotten, but beneath it was bright, cool, and moist, and gave 
 off a strong alcoholic odour." Mr. H. Stevenson, thefai-m baUifl, reports 
 as follows : " The ensilage was given to the milch cows mixed with a 
 small portion of chaff. The quantity of milk very much increased, 
 cream thicker, and the butter a rich colour and a fine flavour. I had two 
 beasts feeding upon the ensilage ; commenced giving them 71b. each per 
 day, mixed with 61b. of cut clover hay, each per day, and increased the 
 ensilage to 3^ stones each per day mixed with 61b. of cut clover hay, each 
 per day. By the end of April they were fat without cake or roots. The 
 horses did well upon it, and also the sheep. The crops were considerably 
 better where the ensilage was eaten upon the land by the sheep. 
 
272 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 SILO AT HEATH FARM, LITTLE LIYERMBRE, 
 SUFFOLK. 
 Feom a report made by Mr. William BiddeU, M.P., upon the erection 
 and working of a sUo, placed by direction of the Hon. J. St. Vincent 
 Saumarez on his estate at Heath Farm, Little Livermere it appears that 
 the structure is one of LasceUes' " portable concrete silos," measuring 24ft. 
 by 18ft., and 12ft. high, made of concrete slabs, 3ft. by 2ft., and l^in. thick, 
 kept in position by timber uprights, 4fin. by Sin. The floor is of similar 
 slabs, and the roof of corrugated iron ; the cost, including 9Z. for carriage, 
 was a trifle under 501. From June 25 to June 30 it was filled with green 
 sainfoin, three-fourths being cut into chaff and the remainder unchopped ; 
 some of it being well trod in the same day as cut, the other the day after. 
 The ensilage was covered with boards, weighted with bricks, amounting 
 to 1201b. pressure to the square foot. Subsequently, the sides bulged, 
 and had to be strengthened by props. On Oct. 18 the silo was opened, 
 and some of the ensilage was offered to horses and cattle, which readily 
 ate it ; pigs did not care about it. The sides and top were decayed and 
 mouldy to the depth of 6in. to 9in. The ensilage, originally 12ft. deep, 
 had sunk down to 74ft., and weighed 351b. to the foot ; 60J tons being the 
 calculated weight of ensilage arising from what was estimated to weigh 
 21 tons if converted into hay. 
 
 The portions from the chaffed sainfoin and that from the unchopped 
 portion were equally well preserved, emitting a sweet, and, to some extent, 
 spirituous odour. On Dec. 18 the sUo was again examined (there was stfll 
 heat in it), when the face of the cut made for testing it on Oct. 18 was 
 in a most unsatisfactory state, as mould and decay had penetrated a foot 
 into it, rendering a considerable portion useless except for manure. 
 
 From the fact of the cut being so decayed, Mr. BiddeU is of opinion 
 that the less exposure after cutting is begun the better, hence a long sflo 
 would be preferable, though a square one is less costly, proportionate to 
 its capacity. Where easily drained, he thinks the sUo had better be half 
 underground, the 6ft. of earth from below supporting the sides above; 
 thus arranged, probably 9in. brickwork, with griers every 6ft., would be 
 sufficiently strong. It woiUd be easily fiUed, and less affected by changes 
 of temperature. On the cost of this sUo there should be a gross return 
 of 6 per cent., or SI. per annum, as rent, which, calculated up in its 50 
 tons capacity, gives Uid. per ton. As to comparative cost, he thinks that 
 the saving of sUoing has been greatly over-estimated. In haying, the 
 cost of cutting (in the eastern counties) is 4s. ; making, 7s. ; carting, say, 
 half a mile, and stacking, 8s. ; thatching and straw, 4s. In sUoing the 
 cutting is 4s. ; carting and weighting, say, 4 tons, lis. ; rent of sUo, say, 
 4s. ; in aU, 19s. per acre, nearly the same as in haymaking. 
 
 Mr. BiddeU considers the value may be taken as foUows, calculating 
 upon, say, one ton of hay crop per acre : Value, if favourably hayed, 70s. ; 
 less 15 per cent, for depreciation by bad weather, 10s. 6d. ; net value of 
 
Essex Silos. 273 
 
 hay, 59s. 6d. The value if siloed, being 10 per cent, more than if well 
 hayed, is 77s., the difference thus working out to the result that, in 
 siloing, a crop may be secured of more value by 2S per cent, than if 
 hayed in average seasons. 
 
 Pursuing these calculations on a farm of, say, 300 acres, where 33 tons 
 of hay or stover are generally made, and that is worth 3Z. 6s. 8(i. a ton 
 to the farmer, there is an increased value amounting to him of 25 per 
 cent. On lOOZ. it amounts to 25i., that is, if his landlord wiU build him 
 silos which will hold 100 tons of ensilage, which, it must be borne in 
 mind, is not a saleable commodity like hay. This scheme, Mr. Biddell 
 adds, looks remarkably weU on paper, but should not advise any tenant 
 farmer going too far with it, though we have most abundant evidence 
 to justify small experiments. 
 
 MR. B. GIBSON'S SILOS, SAPFRON WAIDBN, ESSEX. 
 A COVEEED yard, in itself one of the best agricultural economies of recent 
 adoption, is, in the instance to which we are about to refer (as an example 
 of a still more recently advocated economy) inclosed on two adjoining 
 sides by a cow byre ; and immediately adjoining this, along one side of 
 the square which we are describing, there are a succession of five cubic 
 tanks, made of concrete, each of them 12ft. by 14ft., and 12ft. deep. They 
 cost ISOZ. altogether. The concrete, some 6in. thick, provides a ceiling 
 as well as walls and floor, and there is a manhole in the centre over each. 
 These tanks are so many silos. 
 
 A crop of rye, just coming into ear in June, about 80 tons in all, was 
 cut into chaff (about fin. stuff) in the field, bagged and brought to these 
 tanks, there filled in as rapidly as possible, and trampled down by man 
 and boy as the work was going on. The whole took seven days to do, and 
 the manholes were well covered up with puddled clay, after as much as 
 possible had been crammed into the sUos. 
 
 When we visited the farm last Tuesday (Nov. 14, 1882), one of the silos 
 had been emptied. Twenty-four cows had been having a bushel a day 
 apiece of the ensilage, along with a couple of cartloads of white turnips, 
 spread on the pasture where they were daily turned, and a truss of hay to 
 every four in the covered yard where they lay at night. The cows looked 
 well, and were doing well, yielding various quantities of milk, from fifty- 
 two pints a day (P) just newly-calved, to little more than a gallon as they 
 were drying off, after being nine months at the paU. The second silo — 
 there is a doorway in the separating wall of concrete — was then being 
 used, each being gradually emptied over its whole surface from the top 
 downward. 
 
 The day's portion had been taken out, and was lying on the fioor of silo 
 No. 1, as we could see by the light through its manhole, which had been 
 opened. It looked like chop of rather heated hay : it handled as straw- 
 chaff which had been damped, and got nearly dry again, might handle : it 
 
274i Silos for Fodder Qrops. 
 
 smelt most disagreeably of the slight fermentation it had undergone ; and 
 it tasted — well ! — the cattle had just had their feed, but they were stiU 
 standing before their well-cleaned troughs, and a step of the stufE being 
 placed before them they readily, after an experimental sniff, and greedily 
 attacked it. The whole contents of the tank, except about Gin. of the top 
 layer, when first opened is good fodder. That and some 2in. or Sin. round 
 the waU was mouldy : the rest was wholesome, palatable fodder. There 
 was no heat in the mass, though any quantity of it loosely thrown together 
 heated readily enough. 
 
 Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the ensilage in this case shows that there is 
 rather more than 72 per cent, of water still present in the stuff, and only 
 2'13 per cent, of ash ; thus indicating that no great loss had taken place 
 since the month of June, when the pits were filled. The presence of 8 per 
 cent. (? 0'8) of lactic acid was, we presume, the most noteworthy illustra- 
 tion of the change of composition that had been experienced. There was 
 2 per cent, of albuminous compounds containing 0'3 of nitrogen, and there 
 was 12-8 per cent, of mucilage and digestible fibre, and 9'7 per cent, of 
 woody fibre. — Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 Mr. E. Gibson writes, Oct. 15, 1883 : — " I opened one section of my 
 largest silo last week in the presence of Mr. H. M. Jenkins, secretary to 
 the R.A.S. It contained chaffed clover, and, with the exception of about 
 2in. on the surface and somewhat more immediately round the sides, 
 for a short distance downwards, it proved to be perfectly preserved. I 
 only find it necessary to use sufficient weight upon the surface of the 
 battens which cover the ensilage to insure close contact with the fodder, 
 as it is cut with chaff and well trodden at the time of filling. About fifty 
 head of cattle, chiefly milch cows, are now eating the ensilage. It is, I 
 consider, much better to cut the green food into chaff at the time of 
 filling, as less fermentation takes place than when put in whole. I have 
 used 15 acres of rye for ensilage this summer in addition to 35 acres of 
 clover, sainfoin, and grass, making in all about 400 tons. Of course, the 
 clover, &c., is much superior to the rye; we mix them together." — 
 Farmers' Almanac. 
 
 MR. BATEMAN'S SILOS, BRIGHTLINGSEA, ESSEX. 
 At the Lodge Farm, Brightlingsea, three silos (or, rather, one sUo in 
 three divisions) were constructed last year for Mr. John Bateman, 
 the builder being Mr. E. Olark, of Great Bentley ; and on the 30th of 
 January, 1884, at Mr. Bateman's invitation, a large number of persons 
 assembled to witness the opening. The silo is solidly built of concrete, 
 and separated by concrete walls into three distinct compartments. The 
 total length is 47ft., the width 17ft., and the depth 134ft., the length 
 being divided by two transverse internal walls. The general structure is, 
 
Essex Silos. 275 
 
 very similar to that silo represented under the title of "The Kentish 
 Silo," in a previous chapter. The cost of the silo was 160?. ; and this 
 might have been reduced somewhat had it been built origiually without 
 the divisions, which, we understand, Mr. Bateman intends to have 
 removed. 
 
 The first compartment — ^that farthest from the entrance — was filled on 
 June 18 with red clover, partly in chafE, partly unchopped, the latter 
 forming the upper layer. The clover was very wet when pitted, and it 
 was weighted by means of a stack of hay, built on the top of two or three 
 layers of bricks, placed in the usual manner on transverse boards, the 
 pressure being estimated about 1001b. per square foot. The clover, 
 although cut when the intermixed grass was rather woody, was a very 
 fair sample of ensilage. 
 
 The second division, or sUo was filled with coarse, marsh grass, which 
 was pitted partly very wet and partly dry. This was salted, but the 
 addition is regarded by Mr. Bateman as quite unnecessary, and conse- 
 quently useless. The silo was filled on July 6, and the contents were 
 pressed with 1301b. per square foot. The resulting ensilage was a most 
 admirable sample— very sweet and fragrant. 
 
 The third division was filled with chopped maize, which was cut and pitted 
 on Sept. 6. A biting gale on Sept. 1 had stopped the growth and withered 
 the tops, and when about 701b. pressure was put on the chopped maize, 
 floods of juice exuded from the sUo ; and when the silo was opened the 
 ensilage had passed into the acetous stage, evidently from iusufficient 
 expulsion of the air. This maize ensilage was not used for the horned 
 cattle, but kept exclusively for the breeding ewes on the farm. 
 
 The stock generally have been for some time fed on ensilage from other 
 silos, which they eat greedily, and it is found that the cows so fed yield a 
 larger quantity and better quality of milk. The butter from the farm was 
 on view and was rapidly bought up by the visitors at Is. Id. per pound ; it 
 was excellent both in colour and flavour. 
 
 Mr. Bateman is so satisfied with the result on the Lodge Farm that he 
 intends building larger silos on two other farms. The experience gained 
 during the past season wiU lead to improvements in the future arrange- 
 ments ; it is proposed to substitute for the heavy sliding iron roofs, which 
 are now used, lighter and consequently less expensive constructions 
 covered with WiUesden paper ; and in place of the concrete barrels now 
 employed to produce the requisite pressure, it is contemplated to utilise 
 Potter's hydraulic jacks and channel standards built into the inner waUa 
 of the silos . 
 
 The attendance, despite the exceedingly unfavourable weather, was 
 large, and the general impression produced was one strongly in favour of 
 the system. The coarse grasses which are produced by the low-lying, 
 salt marshy land of the district, were admirably preserved, and afforded a 
 good sample o£ the value of the process of ensilage. 
 
276 
 
 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 ENSILAGE AT THE ST. ALBAPT'S DAIRY FARM. 
 
 (rrom the Live Stock Journal.) 
 In the year 1882 I erected two pits for storing grains, and filled them 
 last year with 100 tons of grains, which came out first rate ; this year, 
 wishing to be in the fashion, I re -named the said grain pits, and they are 
 now called sUos. 
 
 The two sUos are made of bricks, cemented inside, and roofed with 
 galvanised iron, and they cost a few shillings under 50Z. I inclose a 
 
 £.oi}f C(yveyid vjith 
 Comtgated Iron. 
 
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 GKOrND PLAN. 
 
 plan and section, which will give the size, &c. They drain into a small 
 cesspit outside. One silo would therefore cost 25Z., and this amount, 
 to be repaid within twenty-five years by equal annual payments of 
 principal and interest at 5 per cent., would incur an annual payment 
 of \l. 16s. Si. 
 
St. Allan's Dairy Farm. 277 
 
 Three years ago I laid down 30 acres of arable land with grass seeds. 
 The crop this year was very poor, not more than one load to the acre, 
 and almost entirely bents, there being very little undergrass. I decided 
 to fill one of the silos with this grass, and accordingly commenced 
 cutting on the 14th June with two mowing machines, and on the 
 15th the grass was carted and cut into chafE by a steam engine. The 
 work was commenced at 9.30 a.m., but in consequence of a severe 
 storm, the machine was stopped at 11.30 a.m., the sUo being not 
 quite half f uU ; the 16th was wet aU day, and therefore the machiue 
 was not started; the 17th was Sunday; and on the Monday, the 18th, 
 the machine commenced at 9.30 a.m., and the sUo was completely filled 
 by 2 p.m. 
 
 Twenty-three men were engaged, both on the 15th and 18th, as 
 follows : — 1 men treading silo ; 7 filling sacks and carrying to pit (about 
 10 yards) ; 1 unloading the cart ; 2 feeding chafE machine ; 1 engine 
 driver; 1 waterman; 7 loading carts and dragging. The men were 
 engaged for three hours on the 15th and four and a half hours on the 18th 
 at id. per hour. Three horses and carts were employed. 
 
 It took 64 acres of the grass to fill the silo, and the grass weighed 
 15 tons 5 cwt., 21b. of salt being added to each cwt. of grass. 
 
 Cost of Fillino and WEioHTrNa the Silo. 
 
 June 14, 1883. £ s. 3,. 
 
 Mowing 6i acres of grass with machine, including beer for 
 
 men, but exclusive of horaea, Is. 8ci. per acre 10 10 
 
 Baking three rowa into one, putting into small cooks for 
 carting, and breaking salt, including beer for men, 2s. S<J. 
 
 per acre 15 8j 
 
 June 15. 
 
 Twenty-three men, three hours each at Zd. per hour, carting, 
 cutting chaff, and pitting, including beer (but exclusive of 
 
 10 2 
 
 June 18, 
 
 Twenty -three men, 4i hours, at 3d. per hour, ditto 110 8 
 
 Paid for steam engine and chaff-cutter, 74 hours, at 3e. per 
 
 hour 12 6 
 
 Five cwt. of coal 4 4i 
 
 Five and a half cwt. of salt 6 
 
 £5 10 3 
 
 Average per acre, 17s. 
 
 The top of the grass in the silo was covered with thick wooden doors, 
 on the top of which was placed 1 ton 3 cwt. of old iron gas pipes, and 
 twenty American flour tubs fiUed with the same description of chaff as in 
 the silo, each tub weighing 851b. The doors weigh about 2cwt., thus 
 making a total weight of 2 tons. 
 
 My object in using the flour tubs was to ascertain if the grass would 
 keep good in them; because, if so, the weights to be placed on the sUo 
 will not only be easily obtained, but at the same time will be serviceable 
 
278 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 and cheap. Following is an account of tlie cost of the covering and 
 
 "weights on the top of the grass in silo, viz. ; 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 Doors 15 
 
 Twenty tubs, at Is. 4d 16 8 
 
 One ton 3cwt. of iron 2 6 
 
 .£4 7 8 
 The above to be repaid within five years by equal annual payments of 
 principal and interest at 5 per cent, would incur an annual payment of \l. 
 
 Heat and Sinkino as Gbass in Silo. 
 I placed a thermometer on the top of the boards under the iron roof, and 
 examined it daily, and at the same time ascertained the sioldng of the grass. 
 
 June Therm. 
 
 Sinking. 
 
 Jnne Therm. 
 
 Sinking. 
 
 19 ... 64° .. 
 
 . None. 
 
 25 ... 74° .. 
 
 . 1 inch in centre. 
 
 20 ... 60 .. 
 
 . A little in centre. 
 
 26 ... 72 .. 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 21 ... 62 .. 
 
 . 3 inches in centre. 
 
 27 ... 68 .. 
 
 None. 
 
 22 ... 72 .. 
 
 . Do. do. 
 
 28 ... 69 .. 
 
 . None. 
 
 23... 72 .. 
 
 . 1 inch in centre. 
 
 29 ... 70 .. 
 
 lin. in centre and lin 
 
 24 ... 74 .. 
 
 . lin. in centre and lin. 
 
 
 ontsides. 
 
 
 ontsides. 
 
 30 ... 69 .. 
 
 . None. 
 
 Total, llin. in centre, and 2in. on the ontsides. 
 
 Cost of Haymaking. 
 The remainder of the grass was made into hay, namely, 23^ acres. 
 
 June 14, 15, and 16, 1883. £ „. A. 
 Mowing 23i acres with machine, including heer for men 
 (but exclusive of horses) ; all men were paid 3(J. per hour 
 
 whileatwork 1 19 2 
 
 19. Eleven men haymaking, including beer 15 8i 
 
 20. Nine men „ „ 4 9 
 
 22. Sixteen men haymaking and carting, including beer (but 
 
 exclusive of horses) 17 9 
 
 Fifty faggots for bottom of rick 7 6 
 
 Six truss of straw for rick bottom 5 
 
 23. Twenty men haymaking and carting, including beer 2 18 8 
 
 25. Nineteen men „ „ , 1 9 7-S- 
 
 26. Four men haymaking 5 4"" 
 
 27. One „ „ .'.".'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'," 3 
 
 28. One „ „ 1 4| 
 
 29. Nine „ „ and carting 13 7 
 
 30. Men pulling riok and making good for rough thatching ... 7 6 
 
 Paid for rough thatching and beer 5 
 
 1 J load straw 2 14 
 
 Thatching for good 10 
 
 Wear and tear of riok cloths and elevator 10 
 
 Insurance of hayrick 5 
 
 Estimated cost of cutting 23i loads of hay into chaff by steam, 
 
 including men, beer and coal 
 
 Eleven cwt. of salt ' 
 
 26 7 5i 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 m 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
St. Alban's Dairy Farm. 
 
 279 
 
 Cost peb Aceb — Silo vEEStrs HATMAKiNa. 
 
 Silo. & s. d. 
 
 ■Cost of filling silo as per 
 
 aooount per acre 17 
 
 Moiety of cost of building two 
 silos, including interest at 
 5 per cent., principal and 
 interest to be repaid in 25 
 years (per acre) 5 5 
 
 Cost of covering and weights 
 on the top of grass, including 
 interest at 5 per cent., prin- 
 cipal and interest to be re- 
 paid in 5 years (per acre)... 3 1 
 
 Total per acre 15 6 
 
 Hatmaxing. £ s. (J. 
 
 Haymaking as per account per 
 
 acre 13 9 
 
 Estimated cost of cutting the 
 said hay into chaff, and 
 storing as per account per 
 acre 8 8* 
 
 Totalperaore 1 2 5j 
 
 I have not included any charge in the above for horses, as they are kept 
 on the farm all the year round, but if charged the amount would have 
 
 been as follows : 
 
 SUo Haymaking 
 
 per acre. per acre. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 Horses charged at Gd. per hour while at work mowing, per 
 
 acre , •. 18 18 
 
 Carting, draggiug, and using elevator for hay, per acre ... 14 2 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 6 
 
 The Weatheb dueino the Peeiod. 
 
 June 23 Pine all day. 
 
 „ 24 Rain at 8 a.m. and 11 p.m. 
 „ 25 Dull momitig. Eaiu from 
 
 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. 
 „ 26 Showers all day. 
 „ 27 Dull morning. Showers from 
 
 1 p.m. 
 „ 28 Showers all the morning. 
 „ 29 Fiue all day, but a severe 
 
 thunderstorm at night. 
 
 June 14 Pine all day. 
 
 „ 15 DuU ; began to rain at 10.30. 
 
 A storm at 11.30. 
 „ 16 Showers all day. 
 „ 17 Slight showers at intervals. 
 „ 18 DuU, but no rain. 
 ,, 19 Ditto. 
 „ 20 Piue up tin 11 a.m. ; then 
 
 showers all day. 
 „ 21 Showers all day. 
 „ 22 Pine up to 3 p.m., and then 
 
 rain for rest of day. 
 
 From the above it wUl be seen that I was blessed with the usual wet 
 ■weather, namely, out of sixteen days eleven were wet. 
 
 Although the cost per acre is a Uttle more for the silo than for hay- 
 making, the silo being independent of the weather will more than counter- 
 balance the difEerence, provided the grass in the silo turns out well. 
 
 Isaac N. Edwards. 
 
 "Westminster Lodge, St. Alban's, July 13, 1883. 
 
 SiE,— In accordance with my promise of July 13 last, I have the pleasure 
 of informing you that I opened my silo yesterday (.Dec. 4) in the presence 
 of Sir J. B. Lawes, Dr. GUbert, Dr. Yoelcker, Messrs. Walter Gilbey, John 
 Thornton, H. M. Jenkins, Jas. Macdonald, Thomas Nuttall, 0. WooUam, 
 
280 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Gr. M. Marten, 0. C. Hayward, and others. On removing the corrugated 
 iron roofing, we found that the wet had heen entirely kept out, and on 
 taking away the boarding, we discovered that the surface of the ensilage for 
 a depth of six inches was rotten, that the next twelve inches were mouldy, 
 and that the ensilage from that depth was good, and gave off a pleasant 
 aroma. The grass having consisted entirely of bents, it was not so moist 
 as is usual for ensilage, and I think the bents when cut must have been 
 a little too ripe to insure perfect ensilage. However, I loot upon the 
 experiment as a success, and I hope from the lesson I have learnt to 
 benefit by it next season. A portion of the rotten and mouldy ensilage, 
 and a portion of the good, were given to the cows, and they ate with a 
 relish which astonished all present. 
 
 Having now obtained the ensilage, I intend to test its milking qualities, 
 and also its nutritive value as compared with roots. Sir J. B. Lawes has 
 very kindly consented to take charge of this experiment, and under his 
 able guidance I have no doubt we shall be able to ascertain the true value 
 of the ensilage. When the experiment is concluded I wUl give you the 
 result. Isaac N. Edwards. 
 
 Westminster Lodge, St. Alban's, December 6, 1883. 
 
 [We have not yet (April) seen any report of the feeding experiments.! 
 
 MR. WHITBREAD'S SILO, OARDINGTON, BEDFORD. 
 Last summer a silo was built by Mr. Whitbread on his farm at Hillfoot, 
 parish of Cardington. It is a substantial brick building, entirely above 
 ground, and divided by brick partitions into four rooms, each measuring 
 18ft. deep, 18ft. long and 9ft. wide, cemented on the inside walls and 
 floors. Two of them were filled last season. The one which had been 
 opened was fiUed with the produce of about 2 acres of tares and 8 acres 
 of red clover passed through the chaff-cutter. The other was filled with 
 green oats cut up in the same way. These materials were trodden hard 
 in the process of fiUiug, and on the top thick boards were laid, weighted 
 with 12 tons of granite, being a little more than IJcvrt. to the square foot. 
 Only the clover has yet been tested, and it proves equal to the highest 
 expectations formed of it, and is being daily served up to the bullocks 
 and calves— a half bushel to a bushel per day, according to the size of the 
 animal. They are also fed with barley straw and chaff, with a little flour 
 and cake. The stock also get barley straw once a day, and take about 
 the same quantity of water as when fed with chaff and pulped turnips. 
 From IJin. to 2in. were found moulded on the top of the silo below the 
 boards, and a trace of the same at the corners of the wall. Some 
 moisture appears to have escaped at the bottom of the wall from the silo 
 in which the green oats were stored, but very little from the clover.— 
 Bedfordshire^ Times. 
 
Middlesex Silos. 281 
 
 ME. MOUFLET'S WOODEN SILO, SOUTHALL. 
 
 Sib, — In June last I had a silo built of wood, the construction of 
 which, and the result of the ensilage, may prove of interest to some of 
 your readers. 
 
 The sUo is erected on a platform of concrete upon the surface of the 
 ground. The sides and ends are constructed with 4in. fir quarters, 
 properly framed, and having struts and braces ; the sides are tied in by 
 the roof principals. The sides and ends are further stifEened, and tied 
 by angle-ties. The quartering on the outside is covered with weather 
 boarding coated with tar, and on the inside it is lined with lin. boardiug 
 laid vertically. A doorway is formed at one end to open outwards. The 
 iaterspace between the quarters and the inside and outside boarding is 
 filled in with puddled clay, also at the doorway (the silo being filled at 
 the top before the roof was completed). Around the sides of the silo, 
 externally, a luting or skirting of clay is put. The roof is covered with 
 corrugated iron, segmental in form, supported on two principals. The 
 rain is conveyed from the roof by eaves, guttering, and rain pipes. The 
 end of the silo having the door was strutted externally by temporary 
 struts, which was the only strutting that was necessary. The ensilage 
 was weighted by l^in. deal boarding covered with five courses of bricks 
 laid over same. The size of the silo is 24ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 10ft. 
 high, aU in the clear. The cost complete was 631., exclusive of the 
 bricks for weighting. The framing of the silo was constructed in the 
 above manner as an experiment, and bolted together so as to be easy of 
 removal. 
 
 We began filling on Sept. 7 with clover (second cut), mown and 
 carried the same day in a very wet state. We put in about four tons 
 daily, well treading the same, especially at the sides ; but, not having 
 sufficient clover to fill the sUo, we made it up with meadow grass (second 
 cut), and estimate the amount of clover at sixty tons, and grass fifteen 
 tons. On the top we placed five trusses of straw, then the boards across 
 the silo, and weighted with 4650 patent bricks, weighing 71b. ea«h, or 
 fifteen tons in all, equal to about 1001b. to the square' foot. The corru- 
 gated iron roof was then put on, the whole being completed on Oct. 4. 
 
 When the sUo was haK filled, the temperature 6in. from the surface 
 was 120°, and 3ft. down 90°- Nearly the same heat was observed on 
 the top. 
 
 The silo was opened on Jan. 1, and found to have sunk 4ft., leaving 
 6ft. of ensilage tightly compressed. With the exception of the straw on 
 the top and against the door, there was no appearance of any mould 
 whatever. I have sent you a sample of both the clover and grass 
 ensilage for your inspection. The cows did not appear to relish the 
 clover, so we chafCed it with hay and straw, and they seem to like it 
 better each day ; the grass ensilage they took to more readUy. 
 
 U 
 
282 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 If any of your readers lite to inspect the silo, I shall be glad to see 
 them at the farm. The nearest station is Southall on the Great Western 
 Railway. F. C. M. 
 
 Waxlow Manor Farm, Southall, Middlesex, Jan. 16, 1884. 
 
 [The grass ensilage was first-rate — one of the Tery best samples we 
 hare seen. The clover, which was sodden with wet and very dark- 
 coloured, was not so good. Apparently it had been left till it was rather 
 old before it was cut. — Ed.] 
 
 CROYDON SEWAGE FARM. 
 
 The experimental silos on Croydon Sewage Farm are two. One of these 
 was built by the Farm Committee, and the other by Messrs. Lascelles, of 
 BunhiU-row, Finsbury. The former is of concrete, erected against the 
 brick wall of a shed. Its dimensions are 15ft. by 8ft., and 10ft. in depth, 
 a lean-to roof being placed from under the eaves of the shed. The cost 
 of this was about 121. The silo sunk is about 3ft. in the ground ; but, as 
 it has a concrete bottom, it is quite dry. 
 
 The other silo is 16ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 12ft. in height, the whole 
 standing on the surface. This is constructed of Lascelles' concrete slabs, 
 fixed and made watertight by means of uprights and caulking with 
 coarse hempen tow, or other similiar compressible fibre. This silo is 
 portable, and its parts are readily fixed by farm labourers. Its cost was 
 about 251. 
 
 But it is the quality of the ensilage in the two silos that is of special 
 interest. The silos were fiUed with green grass, sewage grown in June 
 and July. In the home-made silo the grass was chopped into lengths of 
 about two inches. The covering and weighting consisted of old railway 
 sleepers and about four tons of bricks, and other heavy material at hand. 
 The weight of the ensilage in this pit was about 401b. to the cubic foot. 
 
 Lascelles' silo was fiUed with long grass, just as it came from the 
 scythe. This was weighted with a layer of railway- sleepers only. The 
 ensilage in both silos was a little fusty on the top, the lightly weighted 
 being a little more so than the heavier weighted. 
 
 These silos were opened on Deo. 26, and when I saw them after a week 
 there was not the slightest sign of mould on the surface where the 
 ensilage had been cut from, nor was there any apparent change in the 
 loose heap that lay at the bottom of the square which had been cut out. 
 
 From these points of observation I conclude that ensilaged sewage 
 grass is a satisfactory success. On the strength of this, too, I was 
 pleased to hear that some influential members of the farm committee 
 intend to propose that silos of Lascelles' pattern, to hold ten or twelve 
 times the capacity of the one above-mentioned, shall be erected in the 
 coming spring. -^^ yf^ q 
 
Kent Silos. 283 
 
 MR. BRASSET'S SILO AT ATLESPORD, KENT. 
 On the invitation of Mr. H. A. Brassey, M.P., on Dec. 17, 1883, a 
 number of agriculturists assembled at Preston Hall Farm, to witness the 
 opening of a silo. For the purpose one of the farm buildings had been 
 utilised, and the green stufB stored in it had been cut in fine weather, 
 although it was carried while coTered with dew. On June 12, twenty- 
 tons of grass was cut and carried straight into the silo, 2in. planks were 
 put on the top of it, and these were weighted down with concrete blocks, 
 the pressure being about 281b. to the square foot. The silo was opened 
 on June 23, and it was found that the contents had sunk 5ft., the depth 
 having before been 10ft. ; the top portion was mouldy, but when that was 
 removed, the food was brown and sweet. Fourteen tons of grass were 
 placed on it, and it was then covered up and weighted as before. On 
 Aug. 24, the silo was opened again, and the ensilage had sunk slightly 
 over 4ft., the top part being mouldy, and the building emitting a strong 
 sour smell. The mouldy portion was removed, and the silo was refilled 
 with about 12 tons of rye grass. It was then covered over and weighted 
 as before, and the building, which was 20ft. by 13ft. by 10ft., in 
 dimensions, was bricked up. On Monday, Dec. 17, it was again opened, 
 and the results were viewed with a great amount of interest. A large 
 cut was made right into the ensilage, which was found to be of a dark 
 brown colour, with somewhat of a greenish tint, and the odour was far 
 from pleasant. Eight inches from the surface was mouldy and of no good ; 
 but as for the rest the general opinion was that the experiment had been 
 tolerably successful, although more weight might have been applied with 
 advantageous results. The silo is said to contain about 30 tons of good 
 feeding stuff. — The Farmer. 
 
 MR. KIRBT'S SILO AT BROMLEY, KENT. 
 At the Dairy Show at Islington, in October, 1883, a small wooden model 
 of two sUos was exhibited by Mr. Thomas Kirby, of Hook Farm, 
 Bromley, Kent, who also exhibited a very solid small truss of un- 
 chopped grass ensilage, computed to weigh 491b. per cubic foot. Of 
 his experiment Mr. Kirby wrote as follows : " Having a herd of 130 
 cows to supply with forage, I thought I would try ensilage. I built my 
 pits (two in number) during the latter end of April ; they were com- 
 posed of 14ui. brickwork, well cemented inside, and buUt 6ft. in the 
 ground and 6ft. out. They were 24ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 12ft. deep. 
 During the first week in May I cut my grass, a piece of three-year-old 
 permanent pasture, which I reckoned was about 9 tons of grass per acre. 
 I put the grass into the pits directly after it was mown, and did not cut it 
 into chaff ; but it was well trod in the pits by about a dozen men, and 
 
 U 2 
 
284 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 afterwards by a horse. When the pit was nearly filled, the grass was 
 covered with 3ia. deals, and weighted with bags of sand and gravel ; in 
 two days it sank to within 4ft. from the bottom of the pit, when the sand 
 and deals were taken off, and each pit fiUed up again. They were filled 
 and pressed in this way three times. The third and last time of filling, 
 the grass was covered with a Sin. layer of straw, when the deals were 
 placed on and covered with a Sin. layer of earth. It was then pressed 
 down with the bags of sand and gravel and lot of stones, making about 
 twenty tons weight on each pit. When the pits had been pressed in this 
 way aljout a fortnight, we put all the stones on one pit for a fortnight, 
 and then shifted them all back again, so that each pit in turn had all the 
 weight on it. The pits were opened on Sept. 3. When opened, I found 
 the ensilage round the doorway and sides slightly mildewed, and darker 
 in colour than the bulk, and I also noticed an unpleasant smell, which was 
 very pungent : but for all that, the cows and cart-horses ate it greedily 
 when given to them. The part which was mildewed I had taken out to 
 some cows in a field, where it was well shaken about, and in twenty 
 minutes they had picked it over and eaten nearly all of it. I started 
 feeding my cows upon it at once, and have done so ever since. I find 
 they give as much milk, and of better quality, than they do on the best 
 artificial food, and also that the butter made from the milk contains that 
 nice fiavour and colour which has only been obtainable when cows have 
 been turned out in fresh green grass." 
 
 MR. HOARE'S SILO, STAPLBHURST, KENT. 
 Messes. Oabtee and Co., of High Holborn, wrote to the Agricultural 
 Gazette of Jan. 29, 1883, as follows: "A few days since we visited' Mr. 
 Hoare's sUo at Pagehurst Farm, Staplehurst, and had some interesting 
 conversation with Mr. Austen, the bailiff, a thoroughly practical and well- 
 informed man. The capacity of the silo may be described as two 10ft. 
 cubes, separated by a wall of the same material as the surrounding walls, 
 the contents being about 50 tons of trifolium, the produce of three acres. 
 The crop was carted straight to the chaff-cutter, and, being chaffed, was 
 trodden well down in the silo, no interval being allowed. There is a drain 
 from the silo, but Mr. Austen has never seen anything come from it, nor 
 has he observed any sign of heating. The ensilage is cut out with a hay 
 knife, and cuts like a good solid hayrick. It comes put nice and moist, and 
 no cattle have yet refused it, although, if fed upon it exclusively for a 
 considerable time, they are apt to tire of it, so that it is mixed with chaffed 
 hay, and makes very good feed. Mr. Austen thinks there is certainly 
 more fodder in the ensilage than in the same crop made into hay. If 
 such a succulent plant as Trifolium incarnatum can be made into good 
 ensilage, there seems but little reason for doubting that any of our forage 
 crops may be as successfully treated." 
 
Kent Silos. 286 
 
 EAETHEN SILOS. 
 
 Me. Solomon's, at Ifield, Kent. 
 Sib, — Having made up my mind to try the making of ensilage, I send 
 you the result of my experience. My plan was a very primitive one, for 
 I did not feel disposed to go to any great expense about the matter. 
 I simply dug a hole in the ground and buried my haystack. I selected a 
 spot of ground where I would get the greatest depth of soil most easily 
 moved, and dug a hole 21ft. long by 12ft. wide, and, by the aid of some 
 9in. by Sin. deals laid on edge round the hole, the soil thrown out thus 
 helped to increase the depth of the silo, which I made altogether 9ft. 6in. 
 deep. 
 
 On June 1, I commenced cutting trifolium, and carted it, as it was cut, 
 direct to the silo, threw it in and trod it down. When nearly full I 
 induced a horse to walk in and tread it down, and found that helped con- 
 siderably to increase the quantity we got in. When full, we ceased for 
 the day. Next morning it had sunk about a foot. I had it filled again, 
 and repeated the operation on the third day; but it did not take much 
 more that time. Then we proceeded to cover it up. I laid some 2in. 
 battens on the trifolium with intervals of about Gin. between them 
 (because I had not enough to go closer) and shovelled on the earth regu- 
 larly all over to the depth of about 2ft. This quickly caused the contents 
 to sink till we could remove the whole of the deals forming the temporary 
 top of the silo. At intervals of a few days I increased the earth on the 
 top to about 3ft. thick all over, and then left it without any further 
 protection. ' 
 
 On Monday, Dec. 24, I opened one end, and removed two battens, so 
 that we could cut down a piece about a truss wide. The top, for about 
 two inches, was slightly mouldy and black, and the outside, next the 
 earth was the same for about six inches ; but the inside I should consider 
 excellent. It is of a bright green colour — almost, one might say, 
 yellowish-green — and the red blossom almost as bright as when put in. 
 There was not the slightest heat, or appearance of having been any, and 
 the smell — well, there are about as many different descriptions of that as 
 there are people who smell it, some complimentary, some the reverse. 
 
 But the main point is, will stock eat it and thrive on it ? I found that, 
 on giving it to both buUocks and horses, they looked very shy at it at 
 first, and did not care much about it ; but by the third day the bullocks 
 and cows ate it greedily. The pigs were not so nice, but ate it from the 
 first as readily as if it had been fresh-cut green-meat. 
 
 I do not find that there would be much difference in cost between 
 putting into silo and making into hay, as the cost of turning and making 
 into hay would be counterbalanced by the extra weight of green stuff 
 (five times) to be. carted to the silo. Mine was quite dry when cut, as 
 the weather was then very fine. It does not appear at aU necessary to 
 chafE it before pitting. 
 
286 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 I put the produce of 4J acres into my silo, and calculated it at 27 tons. 
 The thickness now averages about 4ft. 6in., which would show about 
 42 cubic feet per ton, and that the contents were compressed to rather 
 less than half the original thickness. 
 
 I consider the result of my trial very satisfactory, as the outlay was 
 small and the ensilage good. It cost me about 30s. to dig the silo, and 
 my battens, which are not much the worse for my temporary burial, say, 
 depreciated one-third in value, 10s. more. This would represent all the 
 expense in my case over making into hay. In the one case, however, you 
 are pretty sure of getting a uniformly good article, but in the other you 
 may get a good haystack, or you may not ; and my own experience of 
 trif olium for hay is that you get three very indifferent stacks to one good 
 one, and therefore, if only for that reason, this is one of the best crops 
 that can be grown for ensilage. 
 
 My statement of cost shows Is. Qd. per ton as the outlay, but this 
 amount would be even less another year, as I should only slightly enlarge 
 the old silo ; and the fact that I think of so doing wiU. prove to you that 
 I feel satisfied with the result of my little experiment. 
 
 Ifield, Gravesend, Dec. 29, 1883. Joseph Solomon. 
 
 P.S. — Since writing the above, I have come to the bottom of the first 
 cut in the silo, and I do not find that there is the slightest injury caused 
 by its being in contact with the earth at the bottom ; and the damage at 
 the sides, which I spoke of as being about six inches, we found was less 
 and less as we got nearer the bottom. Then, again, the damaged (?) 
 outside was pared off as we cut the ensilage out, and, being considered 
 comparatively worthless, was thrown into the cattle yard as waste, but 
 the beasts (some large steers) immediately ate it all up clean ; so that 
 there really is no waste at all. The colour changes with exposure to the 
 iair ; t gets darker and duller quickly. 
 
 Mb. Haegebaves's, Bacup. 
 
 SlE, — I send you by parcel post a sample of ensilage, and shall be glad 
 if you will give a report of it. I may say that the silo is 12ft. by 6ft., 
 and 9ft. deep, dug out in the ground, and weighted with pig iron, nine 
 tons being placed upon it. We put it in about the first week in August, 
 cut it with the mowing machine, and trod it well in and allowed it to 
 settle three times, and the last time we thought it could not possibly get 
 lower. However, we find it has settled 24in. 
 
 The silo, I consider, is a success. Our cattle wiU pick it out of the 
 hay, and I hope soon to know the effect it has on the milking capabilities 
 of the cows. J. Haegeeaves. 
 
 Greenock House, Bacup, Jan. 21, 1884. 
 
 [For so simple a sUo, we consider this to be a remarkably good sample 
 — attributable, in aU probability, to the ample weight, which amounts to 
 2Jewt. per square foot. — Ed.] 
 
JEarthen Silo. 287 
 
 Db. Foulis's, Otjpae, Fife. 
 
 Dr. Foulis, of Oairnie Lodge, had last year a very luxuriant crop of 
 aftermath — i.e., second cutting of clover and rye grass hay — and, stock 
 having been dear and ill to get, he resolved to convert it into ensUage. 
 But he did not build a silo ; he dug into the soil in a slope to a depth of 
 7ft. at one end. The excavations were used to make up the other end 
 until he had a pit all below the surface of 7ft. in depth, Oft. in width, and 
 14ft. long. In the made-up part the soil was lined with battens. No 
 buildina: or cement was used, so that the cost of the silo was almost nil 
 beyond the labour. A drain was run along the floor about 18in. deep, and 
 at each side there was a 3ft. drain to keep out surface water. 
 
 The forage used was entirely aftermath clover, except one load of 
 tares, which was put into a corner. The first layer was put in in 
 September. Eight tons, in spite of hard trampling, filled up 6ft. A 
 week's pressure reduced this to 3ft. Then seven tons were deposited, 
 and filled the silo level with the surface. Another week's weighting 
 reduced the mass to 5ft. Then six tons were laid in, and this raised the 
 heap 2ft. above the level. It sank these 2ft., however, in the course of 
 a week, and, two more tons having been added, the silo was finally 
 closed early in October. Railway sleepers were placed over the fodder to 
 the weight of a ton, and these were uniformly covered with two tons of 
 pig iron. Guano bags were laid over the iron, and topped by about 15in. 
 of soil. 
 
 The grass was not chopped ; no salt was used. The first consignment 
 was dry when deposited, the second very wet, and the third damp. The 
 silo was protected from the weather by means of sheep-flakes covered 
 with guano bags, taking something of a tent-like shape. The silo was 
 opened on Jan. 2, when it was found that the mass, which when put in 
 amounted in all to 14ft., had subsided to 5ft. The covering, excepting 
 the roof canvas, was wholly removed at once, and the mass cut into at 
 one end in the usual way. The ensilage was found to be in good order. 
 Dairy cows ate it readily, and have been fed on it since Jan. 2, each cow 
 getting about a cubic foot, or 481b., daily. The flow of milk from the 
 cows fed on ensilage increased about 15 per cent., and the quality of the 
 butter was first-class. 
 
 On Jan. 22 about a hundred landlords and farmers, on the invitation 
 of Dr. Foulis, assembled at Oairnie Lodge to inspect the silo and its 
 contents, and taste the milk and butter from the ensilage-fed cows. The 
 company were favourably impressed with the success of Dr. Foulis's 
 experiments, especially with the great economy practised in the construc- 
 tion of the silo. It was observed that the clover deposited in a dry state 
 made the best ensilage. What was put in very wet did not yield so 
 satisfactorily to treatment. The mass sunk more in the middle than at 
 the sides. For a few inches down at the sides, where the pressure had 
 not been sufficient, the ensilage was not good, but the rest of it was 
 excellent, sweet in flavour, and evidently palatable to stock. 
 
288 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 LASOELLES' PORTABLE CONCRETE SILOS. 
 Mb. Eable's, Hayton, Livebpool. 
 
 SlE, — I opened one of Lascelles' portable silos to-day, and have sent 
 yon a sample by rail, about wMcb I shall be glad to baTe your opinion. 
 The silo measures 15ft. by 12ft. by 10ft. It stands in a large barn, on a 
 stone floor. There is no drain, nor have I noticed the necessity for any. 
 We commenced filling Sept. 11 with second crop green clover, passed 
 through a lai-ge hay cutter driven by steam, and the silo was finally 
 closed Sept. 18, being covered with planks Sin. wide by 2in. thick ; over 
 the whole was evenly distributed 9f tons of iron ballast. The clover 
 when put in weighed 29 tons, and has sunk 2ft. 6in. No straw, bran, 
 or chaff, or salt was used. 
 
 About four inches on the top was discoloured and mouldy, and about 
 two inches at the sides. A good many farmers from this district were 
 present, and expressed themselves much satisfied with the result. 
 
 Febdeeio W. Eaele. 
 
 Bdenhurst, Hayton, Liverpool, Jan. 4, 1884. 
 
 [The sample sent was in excellent condition, and very pleasant in 
 flavour. — Ed.] 
 
 Me. Caedwell's, Hobstbd Keynes, Susses. 
 The silo, 16ft. by 9ft. by 3ft., was put up in one of the bays of a wooden 
 barn, upon a concrete floor, and was filled in June with a crop of 
 unchafired green oats up to within two feet of the top. It was then filled 
 up to the top with rough grass. The operation of filling was extended 
 over a week, not more than two feet being put in at a time, no weights 
 being put on until the silo was full. The fodder was weighted with 3000 
 bricks, the weight per square foot being a little over 1401b. The fodder 
 was covered with a layer of bran, and over the bran we placed some rough 
 canvas to keep out any brick dust, but no planks were used. The total 
 sinkage when the silo was opened was exactly four feet, or half the depth 
 of the silo. 
 
 In opening the silo we removed the bricks for a space of about three 
 feet square in one corner, and cut straight down with an ordinary hay 
 cutter. Having got out the first cutting, we then unscrewed a row of 
 slabs and fixed on the door. I estimate the amount of ensilage at 11 tons, 
 but if the weights had been taken off and the silo refilled, we should have 
 had nearly double the quantity, and I think 20 tons would be a fair 
 estimate of its capacity. 
 
 The silo shows no signs of being affected by the lateral pressure, but I 
 must remind you that the sill plates and head plates are 9in. by Sin. 
 instead of 4iin. by 8ui., although on the other hand we have no tie rod 
 
Portable Concrete Silos, 289 
 
 across the centre. I think the tie rod would be found ineonYenient in 
 practice, while the extra width of the head plates is very conyenient 
 for the men to stand on, and for resting the weights upon when not 
 in use. 
 
 The sides of the silo appear to be quite watertight, but a certain 
 amount of liquid oozed out between the sill board and the concrete floor. 
 This, however, does not appear to have efEected the quality of the ensilage, 
 which is in good condition. Some of the cattle were rather doubtful 
 about eating it at first, but now they are all very fond of it, and the 
 cows prefer it to hay. Aethub M. Oabdwell. 
 
 Valley Home, Horsted Keynes, Sussex, Oct. 19, 1883. 
 
 [A sample of this ensilage sent to us was in excellent condition. — Ed.J 
 
 Me. Lascellbs', G-loucbstee Road, Ceovdon. 
 
 The cost of this sUo (15ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 10ft. high) is 16L in 
 London, the carriage was 2L, and fixing 2L — or 20Z. in all. To this 
 would have to be added the cost of the covering boards, which might be 
 3d. or 4cZ. per square foot, according to the thickness of the boards used : 
 or, if concrete slabs were adopted instead, they also would cost 4<d. per 
 square foot ; and this, on 180ft. of surface, would amount to 3L The 
 cost of the roof and weights would also vary with the material used. In 
 this case the ensilage was weighted with lumps of concrete, stone, tUes, 
 iron, and any available lumber ; and the pressure was estimated at about 
 IJcwt. per square foot. 
 
 The quantity of grass put into the silo consisted of twenty-three two- 
 horse loads, which were estimated to weigh 50 tons — an estimate, how- 
 ever, which looks rather excessive. It was rye grass, produced on 
 4f acres of the sewage farm belonging to the Croydon Corporation, and 
 was purchased by Mr. Lascelles for this experiment, and carted to an 
 iaclosure of his in Gloucester-road, Croydon. A previous experiment 
 with a Lascelles silo on a smaller scale had been made on the sewage 
 farm, but the result was not altogether satisfactory, for a partition was 
 put in the silo to separate two crops, and the boards and weights were 
 laid over this, so that they could not sink properly when the grass settled 
 down, and the ensilage was damaged accordingly. In the present 
 instance, the ensilage, we understand, is sold to a dairyman in the neigh- 
 bourhood, whose cowf we saw eating some of it with evident relish. 
 The total weight of the contents of the silo, when opened, was estimated 
 at about 30 tons, so that, if the two estimates be correct, there would be 
 a loss of about 20 tons. No doubt a considerable reduction iu weight has 
 arisen from moisture draining away into the soil or into a shallow trench 
 cut around the sUo ; for it stood upon the bare soil, and Mr. Lascelles 
 says he preferred not to make the bottom water-tight, thinking the great 
 amount of moisture might possibly spoil the ensilage if the whole were 
 kept in. The drainage, however, must have been very considerable to 
 
290 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 account for the difference between the estimates. The cubic contents of 
 the sUo are 1800ft., and 50 tons in this space would amount to 62Jlb. 
 per cubic foot ; hence the estimated weight of the grass put in was as 
 much as if the sUo were filled with water up to the very brim ; and grass 
 sodden as it may be, never can weigh so much as this. Possibly, 
 however, some of the loss may be accounted for by water draiuing away 
 during the process of carting and filling. The filling extended over a 
 fortnight or three weeks (no weights beiug put on in the interval), so the 
 grass would settle down considerably in the interval, and there would be 
 ample time for some of the water to leak out. 
 
 When the silo was opened, on March 15, the ensilage at the surface 
 weighed about 401b. to the cubic foot ; two or three feet lower down it 
 weighed about 501b., and at the bottom it wiU doubtless weigh some pounds 
 heavier. Probably owing to the draining off of the moisture, the grass at 
 the upper part had shrunk away from the sides, so that one's hand might 
 be thrust dovm between the ensilage and the concrete slabs, showiag that 
 there evidently could be no lateral pressure there. But, jilthough there 
 was this vacant space, thei'e was very little indication of mouldiness. 
 Some ensilage had been cut out at one end, several days before, and we 
 were told that, after the cutting, the part exposed to the atmosphere 
 heated so much that it " smoked," and mouldiness to the depth of about 
 an inch was found in the course of a couple of days. There was also 
 some acidity in the upper part of the silo. The ensilg,ge that we saw cut 
 out two or three feet from the top seemed well preserved. Of course, 
 from the character of the material, it could not be expected to compare in 
 quality with that made from good meadow grass ; but the result was 
 very satisfactory, considering the unfavourable nature of the herbage from 
 which the ensilage was made. 
 
 One arrangement might have been improved upon. The sile was opened 
 from above, and visitors ascended to a wooden stage, and looked over into 
 the interior ; while the ensilage cut out had to be lifted over the top on to 
 the stage before being carried down. It would have been much more 
 advantageous if provision had been made for unscrewing a few slabs at 
 the end of the silo, so as to form a kind of door for cutting out the ensi- 
 lage. A sectional view of the contents would have been far preferable to 
 a surface view ; there would have been less uncovering and removal of 
 weights, and less deterioration would be likely to result from the smaller 
 amount of surface exposed ; while the labour of taking out the ensilage 
 would be reduced. 
 
 Me. Prasee's, Aengomeey, Stielingshiee. 
 Sib, — I have made a very successful experiment this year with one of 
 Lascelles' Concrete Slab Silos. On the 4th of July last I put 20 tons 
 of ordinary pasture grass into this silo, loading it with about 20 tons of 
 stones ; and on opening it on Nov. 13, in presence of a number of farmers, 
 they unanimously declared the ensilage to be in capital condition, with 
 
Portable Concrete Silos. 291 
 
 only an infinitesimal amount of waste on the top and sides, and on placing^ 
 it before several cows they all ate, and seemed to relish it. My loading 
 was unusually heavy, to which I attribute the small amount of waste. 
 
 With regard to the chopping or non-chopping of long grass, or any 
 other article which is to be put into a silo, I feel satisfied that the labour 
 or power necessary for the chopping will be more than repaid by the extra 
 amount which can be put into the silo, the great saving of labour in 
 tramping, and the decreased loading which would be necessary for its 
 compression. 
 
 I herewith send you sample of my ensilage as made in one of 
 Lascelles' silos from pasture grass of poor quality, and shall be glad to 
 have your report thereon. I feel satisfied that the question of waste is 
 very much one of weighting, as where I have applied a pressure of some- 
 thing like 6001b. to the square foot I have no waste at either top, bottom, 
 or sides. R. H. F. 
 
 [This sample, which is of very fine grass, is in excellent condition. 
 —Ed.]. 
 
 Me. Philpott's, Cosham, Hants. 
 
 SiE, — I send you my experience with one of Lascelles' portable silos, 
 The dimensions are 12ft. by 9ft., and height 10ft. ; the cost of 23Z. 7s., 
 including railway freight and putting together. 
 
 From information about American silos, gleaned from the Field last 
 year, I decided to fill my silo in layers of 6in. to 12in. thick, putting in 
 successive layers at intervals of one or two days. I began with rye — ■ 
 become too tough for cows to eat^ — and put in four layers between June 
 14 and 19, not chafEed. Between June 21 and 25, I put in four layers of 
 clover and rye-grass ; and, between June 26 and Aug. 2, 1 put in twenty 
 layers of meadow grass. On Aug. 3 I weighted it with boxes of stones, 
 giving about 701b. to the square foot. The ensilage sank down 2ft. the 
 first day, and 2ft. more subsequently. When I began using the ensilage 
 on Nov. 6, I found it in good order, with the exception of 4in. on the to]p 
 and about 1ft. at the sides and ends, and the rye at the bottom. 
 
 The failure at the sides was due, no doubt, to my not using weights to 
 press it down at the sides duiing the process of filling. The grass in the 
 middle of the silo always sank down more than at the sides, and this 
 tendency was exaggerated by the use of so many layers. To counteract 
 this tendency, I intend to use old iron rails or pig iron to weight the 
 sides down equally with the middle, Ajiother failure was the rye. This, 
 being old and unchaffed, retained so much air as to spoil the layer of 
 clover and rye-grass next to it. My chief object in contributing my 
 experience is to emphasise the necessity for pressure at the sides. 
 
 Closewood, Cosham, Hants, Jan. 15, 1884. O. P. 
 
 [Other experiments with Lascelles' silos are described on page 272 
 (bUo at Heath Farm), and page 282 (the Croydon Sewage Farm).] 
 
292 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 SILO AT GRAFTON UNDERWOOD, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 
 A SILO, constructed for the Rev. Hon. 0. J. Vernon, on the Lodge Farm 
 at Grafton Underwood, was built from plans prepared by Mr. T. Easdale, 
 of Pepper Arden, Northallerton, steward to Mr. Stobart. Mr. Daven- 
 port, of Kettering, executed the work last September in a very sub- 
 stantial way. The silo was constructed to hold 25 tons, and the work of 
 filling it occupied several weeks. Rough grass which the cattle had left 
 was put in first, and some aftermath was also used. The filling of the 
 sUo was completed on the 29th September. On the silo being opened in 
 January it was found that the contents had sunk down about 3ft. 6in., 
 leaving 6ft. 6in. of solid ensilage. The first three or four inches was 
 rather mouldy, and not fit to use ; but below this it was of excellent 
 colour and odour. When put before some cows, although they had their 
 ordinary quantity of food, they ate it greedily, and the carriage horses 
 there took to it in a like manner. — Live Stock Journal. 
 
 REV. E. J. BIROH'S SILO, OVERSTONE, NORTHAMPTON. 
 A NTJMBEE of agriculturists met on the Rectory Farm, Overstone, to 
 witness the opening of a silo which Mr. Birch, the rector, had constructed 
 last summer. The mixed seeds of 3i acres of heavy soil were placed in 
 the silo early in July, and the aftermath on the 26th of August. On 
 Deo. 21 the ensilage was found to be in a very satisfactory condition, and 
 almost entirely free from mouldiness. — The Farmer. 
 
 MR. J. SWAN'S SILOS, STONEFIELD, LINCOLN. 
 These silos are two in number, underground, 27ft. long by 7ft. wide, and 
 14ft. deep. The first 8ft. of excavating was through marl, and the last 
 6ft. through solid rock. The walls are built of 14in. brickwork in 
 hydraulic lime mortar, and are faced with Portland cement. The cost 
 (including lin. boards, for covering the ensilage before weighting, and a 
 set of 3in. boards to make iioor above the pits) was lOOZ. 10s. 3(2., after 
 deducting the price of stone sold. 
 
 The filling of No. 1 commenced on June 19, and the floor boards being 
 used to raise the sides 2ft. 3in. above the floor, it was filled with grass up 
 to 16ft. 3in. on June 23, when it was covered with the inch boards, and 
 bricks put on to the weight of 1201b. per square foot. The grass was not 
 cut into chaff, nor any salt put in, nor any straw or bran on the top of the 
 grass. By July 9 the contents had sunk down 8ft. 7in. from the top, or 
 more than half, and on the covering being removed, the grass appeared 
 to be fresh up to the very boards. This time the sides of the silo were 
 temporarily raised 4ft. above the floor line, and, when filled up, the cover 
 and weight were put on for the second and last time. The cows fed on 
 the ensUage have kept in capital condition, and the quantity and quality 
 of milk and butter have been highly satisfactory. 
 
Lancashire Silos. 
 
 293 
 
 SILO AT POOL FOOT FARM, SINGLETON PARK. 
 
 The building, of which the foUowing is a ground plan, was formerly- 
 used as a cart house, but is now made into a silo. The walls are cemented 
 
 
 18ft. lOin. 
 
 •1 
 
 1-1 
 
 .g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1—1 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 i-( 
 
 
 
 
 14ft. SiJtt. 
 
 
 inside up to 8ft. ; the floor, which is level with the ground, is also cemented. 
 The roof is slated, and there is no drain. 
 
 On June 25, put in 6 tons 5cwt. of meadow grass (quite wet), covered 
 up at night with Jin. boards, and weighted with 100 bags of sand, 1261b. 
 each. On the 27th, put in 8 tons 15cwt. of meadow grass (fairly dry), 
 covered up and weighted as before. On the 28th, put in 6 tons 3ewt. of 
 rye grass and clover (quite wet), covered up and weighted as before. 
 
 On July 2, put in 4 tons 6cwt. of rye grass and clover (wet), covered 
 up and weighted with 200 bags, 1261b. each, and 6 sacks of sand, Scwt. 
 each. On the 9th, put in 5 tons Scwt. of rye grass and clover (fairly dry), 
 covered up and weighted as before. On the 10th, put in haM a ton of rye 
 grass and clover in part where most settled. N.B. — None of the above 
 were chopped, but put in same day as mowed. On the 2'7th, put in 
 4 tons IScwt. of green oats chopped, covered up and weighted as before. 
 No salt was used. 
 
 The quantity put in was, meadow grass, 15 tons ; rye grass and clover, 
 15 tons 4owt. ; oats chopped, 4 tons 15cwt. ; total 34 tons 19cwt. 
 
 The silo was opened on Dec. 7, when one cubic yard was measured 
 and cut out, which weighed 80st. 121b., or 421b. to the cubic foot. A 
 large quantity besides was also cut out. The weights were 1261b. to the 
 square foot. 
 
 The chopped oats were the last put in, and there was nothing between 
 them and the boards. Tou will see the top of the oats is a little darker 
 in colour, but stiU good ; and there was no mould on the top of the oats and 
 the boards. There was no more moisture at the bottom of the silo than 
 in the middle. The ensilage I have sent you in a box is cut right 
 
294 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 from the top, the topmost portion being chopped oats, the middle portion 
 rye grass and clover, put in whole, and the bottom portion being meadow- 
 grass, also put in whole, just in the same way as it came out of silo. My 
 cows are now eating it greedily. T. H. MiLLEE. 
 
 Singleton Part, Poulton-le-Pylde, Lancashire, Deo. 10, 1883. 
 
 [The sample sent was in excellent condition, and developed a most 
 pleasant odour after some hours' exposure to the atmosphere. — Ed.] 
 
 MR. ECKERSLET'S SILOS AT STAFDISH HALL, WIGAN. 
 In the summer of 1883, two silos were erected inside the old barn at 
 Standish Hall, each 18ft. long, 10ft. wide, and 9ft. deep. The inside of 
 the walls and the surface of the bottoms were plastered with a coating of 
 Portland cement left smooth, and the corners were rounded ofl. The 
 bottoms had a slight inclination from the sides to a channel in the centre. 
 The channel also incHued slightly from the back to the front wall, where 
 a small cesspool was formed, 12in, by 3in., and from this a lead pipe, 
 lin. in diameter, was inserted to convey the liquid which exuded from 
 the ensilage through the front wall into a small well. At the commence- 
 ment this lead pipe was plugged up. 
 
 Ten acres, statute measure, of second-crop clover and rye grass yielded 
 80 tons in eighty cart-loads of 1 ton each. Cutting commenced on 
 Sept. 16, and continued at intervals until Sept. 29. The silos were fiUed 
 alternately. One ton of old dry clover hay was spread at the bottom of 
 each silo, in the expectation that it would absorb all the liquid which 
 drained from the ensilage. 
 
 No. 1 silo was filled and pressed down as follows : On Sept. 15, fourteen 
 loads clover and rye grass filled it to the top, and it was then left to 
 subside: on the 18th, ten loads: 22nd, four loads; 26th, six loads; 28th, 
 four loads ; 29th, two loads — ^total, forty loads. 
 
 Between the dates, No. 2 silo was filled with forty loads in the same 
 manner. The clover and rye grass was carted to the sUos immediately 
 after it had been cut. The cost in wages of cutting, carting, raking, 
 filling, covering, and weighing, was 4s. d^d. per load. The whole of the 
 clover and rye grass was cut and put into the sUos when the weather was 
 fine, except one day when it was showery. 
 
 On Sept. 29 a layer of dry straw, about 3in. in thickness, was spread 
 on the top of the clover on each silo. The straw was then covered with 
 boards, and about 16 tons of stone were placed on the top of each sUo. 
 During the intervals of filling, each silo, when left to subside, was 
 covered with boards and weighted with about 5 tons of stone. The 
 ensilage gradually subsided, and at the expiration of fourteen days it had 
 sunk in each pit from 9ft. in depth to an average depth of 6ft. 9in. At 
 this time it was evident that the old hay at the bottom of each silo was 
 not absorbing all the liquid which drained from the ensilage, and then 
 
Lancashire Silos. 296 
 
 the plugs in the lead pipes were withdrawn, and about 40 gallons of 
 liquid extracted from each silo. The liquid has been drawn off daily 
 since then, but the quantity gradually lessened, and at the date of this 
 memorandum very little drains ofE. There has been no further subsidence 
 in either of the silos since Oct. 13. 
 
 On Oct. 29, No. 1 silo was opened, and the quality found to be good. 
 Forty-two head of cattle (milch cows, in-calf heifers, feeding stock, and 
 stirks) are consuming it, and aU doing well. It is estimated that each 
 silo win contain 30 tons of ensilage fit for use, besides the liquid. 
 
 The following analyses were prepared by Mr. Ralph Betley, the public 
 analyst to the borough of "Wigan. The samples of clover hay and 
 ensilage which were analysed were both grown on the same field this 
 year, the hay being the first crop cut at the end of June, and the ensilage 
 the second crop cut in September. 
 
 Analyses. ?5'^d ^t 212° F. 
 
 Hay. Ensilage. 
 
 *Albiiinenoid substances soluble in water 2-87 7'55 
 
 fAlbumenoid substances insoluble in water ... 7'83 4'89 
 
 Sugar, gum, and extractive matters ,... 47"31 53'44 
 
 Fatty matters, oMorophyU, &e 2'96 3-11 
 
 Indigestible woody fibre 32-84 22-16 
 
 Mineral matter soluble 2-51 5-71 
 
 Mineral matter insoluble 3-68 3-14 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 *Containing nitrogen 0'46 0-28 
 
 tContaining nitrogen 1-25 0-75 
 
 Eepoet. 
 The hay had all the characteristics of good clover and rye grass hay ; the 
 ensilage was much darker in colour than the hay, and was very odoriferous, 
 having a faintly acid smell, accompanied by a very persistent smell of essential 
 oils. The smell was entirely absent from the hay, and this difference will form 
 one reason why the ensilage is so liked by the cattle. The analyses show, how- 
 ever, that besides this, a change is produced in the silo, due in great measure 
 no doubt to the partial fermentation which is set up there, and which bene- 
 ficially affects the food value of the product as compared with hay. This change 
 results in : 
 
 1. An increase in the amount of soluhle albumenoid substances or flesh- 
 forming compounds. 
 
 2. A decrease in the amount of iadigestible woody fibre, which of course 
 means an increase in the total amount of digestible matter as compared with hay. 
 
 The liquid which drained from the ensilage was glutinous, slightly acid, and 
 possessed a smell of essential oils, Hke the ensilage did. It may be mixed with 
 food or drink for cattle or calves. — (Signed) Ealph Betlet. 
 
 It is e-vident, from the results already ascertained, that the produce of 
 an acre of clover and rye grass converted into ensilage will considerably 
 exceed in value that which the same produce would if converted into hay. 
 The system deserves the attention of the agriculturists of the United 
 Kingdom. N. ECKEESLET. 
 
 Standish Hall, Wigan, Nov. 26, 1883. 
 
296 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 FARM OF THE COUNTY LUNATIC ASYLUM, MORPETH. 
 Bating an exceptionally good second crop of clover, and the weather 
 being very broken at the time it was ready to cut, Mr. Anderson, the farm 
 bailiff, thought of storing part of it in a silo. He used for this purpose 
 a small, oblong-shaped house, 14ft. by 74ft., with walls about 9ft. high, 
 and a cement floor, but the walls were left in their rough condition. He 
 began to cut the clover on the 4th of October, with a fine morning, but 
 afterwards it settled down into a wet day ; the carting was proceeded 
 with, however, and by evening twelve loads of wet clover were packed in 
 the silo, covered vrith l^in. boards, and weighted with 3 tons 12cwt. of 
 pig lead. In four days, when it had sunk about 2ft., the boards were 
 taken off, and the surface was found to be slightly hotter than the hand ; 
 but on piercing the mass with rods, the heat was nowhere found greater 
 than at the surface. Seven loads of the same material, but in a dry state, 
 were added and weighted as before. On Oct. 16 the weights were again 
 removed, and four loads of clover, in which there was a good deal of rye- 
 grass, were brought in direct from the scythe and placed in the sUo. The 
 whole was now re-covered, the pig-lead laid on, with an additional weight 
 of blue-stone blocks, making in aU 6 tons 4owt., or 1321b. to the superficial 
 foot. When the silo was opened on Jan. 2, the sinkage was found to be 
 even from end to end, and that the mass of ensilage was just about 6ft. 
 deep. A block measuring about a cubic yard of ensilage was removed. 
 About 4ui. on the top was found to be mouldy, but not much worse than 
 is sometimes seen in hay badly got. The colour was everything that 
 could be wished, and all were satisfied that, as far as look and odour went, 
 the experiment was quite as successful as any they had read of. Most 
 of the cows took it without hesitation, but some declined it ; and only one 
 horse would eat it. Mr. Anderson said he was satisfied with the result so 
 far, and he would test its milk-giving qualities. — Scotsman. 
 
 MR. MASON'S SILO, KIRKBY STEPHEN. 
 Me. Mason says : " The silo is a converted ' sink mow,' measuring 
 18ft. by lift., and 12ft. deep. The doorway from the cowhouse to the 
 sUo was closed with flags, and the whole surface of the walls and doorway 
 covered with a coating of Portland cement about half an inch thick. 
 The bottom of the silo is not cemented, but has a covering of straw. On 
 the 31st July, about 3 acres of grass was cut and stored, a part being cut 
 when it was raining. On the 2nd of August another acre was cut and 
 stored, the first storage having settled about 3ft. The surface was then 
 covered with eight lids, 4ft. 6in. by 5ft. 6in., made out of IJin. boards, 
 and stones to the weight of 1501b. to the superficial foot distributed over 
 the lids. In the course of ten days the grass had subsided to about 
 
Lancashire Silos. 297 
 
 7ft. On the IStli of December tlie stones were removed from tlie lid 
 next the doorway, and a section 18in. wide was cut down. The top and 
 sides of the ensilage were found to be mouldy about Gin. deep. This I 
 attribute to the weight being heavier on the edge of the lid furthest from 
 the walls, causing it to tilt, and so admitting air. We have been fodder- 
 ing ten animals on the ensilage for the past ten days, and -with the most 
 satisfactory result, the cattle eating it greedily." — Live Stock Journal. 
 
 MB. "WILSON'S SILO, EIGMADEN PARK, OARKFORTH. 
 
 SiE, — ^I send you two samples of ensilage — one of chopped green oats, 
 and the other of chopped meadow grass ; and I shotdd like to have your 
 opinion on it, and to know how it compares with other samples, as mine 
 was cut and put into the silo on as wet a day as ever rained on the face 
 of the earth. It was a perfect wet squash when put in. 
 
 I first of all put a layer of grass, then a layer of oats, then another 
 layer of grass, then oats, then grass. The top layer of oats and grass 
 were not quite so wet as the others. I opened my silo the day before 
 Christmas Day, and every beast I gave it to ate it greedily from the very 
 first, although they had just been fed with their pulped turnips, chopped 
 straw, and Indian meal : and they would not go on with their food until 
 we left the place with the ensilage. I fed one lot of milch cows with it 
 for a week, and they absolutely licked the flags perfectly clean, not 
 leaving a single particle. I have put them back on to their old food, 
 meaning to keep the ensilage until my turnips are done ; and I shall find 
 it very useful. I feed all my calves on it, and they eat it much better 
 and more greedily than they used to do their usual food, and I am sure 
 no calves can look better. 
 
 I have seen several samples of ensilage, but I have seen none so free 
 from smell as mj own, and shall be glad to hear your opinion. I believe 
 the wetter it is put down, and the more weight put on it, the better it 
 will be. I had no drain in my silo, and there is no liquid at the bottom. 
 There is only about IJin. to 2in. on the top not fit for cattle, but the pigs 
 eat it readily, and about 2in. along one wall not quite so good, simply 
 because we could not get at it to tread it properly. Along the other walls 
 the ensilage is as good as the middle, so that there is literally no waste. 
 
 I intend to build silos for all my tenants who wish for them, on being 
 paid a certain percentage on the outlay. Tenants cannot be expected to 
 build them for themselves. I am so satisfied with mine that I am just 
 starting to put up four silos under one roof, to hold over 200 tons each. 
 
 Rigmaden Park, Carnforth, Jan. 22, 1884. 0. W. Wilson. 
 
 [Both samples were very good, and kept remarkably well; for there 
 was nothing unpleasant in the smeU and but very little mouldiness, after 
 more than a month had elapsed. — Ed.] 
 
 X 
 
298 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 THE ROTAIi AGBICULTTJRAL SOCIETT'S INSPECTION OF 
 SILOS IN DURHAM AND NORTH YORKSHIRE. 
 
 [In tie month of January last notioea were published in the newspapers 
 announcing that Mr. H. M. Jenkins, the secretary of the Eoyal Agricultural 
 Society, would pay a visit of inspection to various silos in the North of 
 England, and inviting those interested in the subject to accompany him. 
 Lengthy reports of these visits appeared in the local journals, from which we 
 extract the principal features — omitting, however, such details as are 
 more fully given in the communications which had already appeared in the 
 Field, and which are here reprinted at pp. 203 §t seg.] 
 
 Mb. Stobart's Silo at Peppek Aeden. 
 On Monday, Jan. 21, in response to the invitation, about iif ty gentlemen 
 met Mr. Jenkins on the estate of Mr. W. Stobart, Pepper Arden, near 
 Northallerton. In addressing those present Mr. Stobart said that it 
 was not necessary to go to any great expense in making silos, for on most 
 farms there were old and disused buildings which could be easily adapted. 
 Even limekilns might be turned to account. The building he used as a 
 silo had been employed for holding straw and other things, and was 12ft. 
 deep, and, having been adapted, was not an example of a building made 
 for the purpose. He might say, however, that, if he were building a silo, 
 he should put it above-ground, for that would be an advantage, inasmuch 
 as, when you have to fill it, and it is necessary to lose as little time as 
 possible, you have long days, and when you make use of the food the days 
 are the shortest. Under the direction of Mr. Easdale 120 tons had been 
 stored, and there was no waste of any description. It was chaffed before 
 being put into the pit. He was satisfied as to the utility of this plan of 
 storing food, more especially on strong land where turnips could not be 
 grown. Of course he preferred a mixed food, and the beasts themselves 
 preferred their food mixed. All that he wanted to do was to demonstrate 
 that stock would do well on this kind of food without turnips. 
 
 A long and interesting conversation ensued, chiefly in the form of 
 question and answer. Mr. Stobart said the temperature of the grass in 
 the silo was never above 80° The weight of the pitted food there was 
 671b. per cubic foot. On the question being asked whether there was any 
 drainage, Mr. Stobart explained that there was a little pit on the outside 
 from which they had drawn off between fifty and sixty gallons of fluid, 
 which was highly relished by the pigs, so much so that they would not 
 have their dinner without it. They did not take wet days in preference 
 to dry days in filling the pit, but the pit had been filled regardless of the 
 weather, and it rained during the whole of the three days the men were 
 at work. The fact was the crop must go in with all the juices in it, for 
 when the fibre got comparatively dry it would not pack so closely together, 
 and it should therefore be cut before it was dead ripe. Mr. Jenkins 
 remarked that that was the universal experience; and Mr. Easdale 
 
R. A. S. Inspection. 299 
 
 explained, in reply to an inquiry, that salt was not needed for the 
 preservation of the food, which, he said was not pickled. 
 
 The preparation of the silo and the nature of the contents having been 
 discussed, the question arose as to the comparative cost. It was estimated 
 that X ton of ensilage cost from 12s. to 14s., including rent ; and that 
 751h. of ensilage went as far as 951b. of turnips and 251b. of hay, in 
 combination with equal quantities of cake and meal. Mr. Easdale, in 
 reply to Mr. Jenkins, stated that what would cost 20s. in the cutting of 
 hay would cost 24s. to cut, chop, and put it into a silo. On the other 
 hand, the estimated value of the pitted food would be Sd. per stone, 
 2Z. a ton, and to be equivalent hay should be lOZ. a ton, so that there was 
 a very great increase of value for the slight additional cost of pitted food. 
 — Mr. Jenkins : Have you noticed any injurious effect upon the milk ? — 
 Mr. Stobart : None whatever — nothing like the taste you sometimes get 
 from turnips. Besides this, we find the cows keep their milk better. I 
 never found any taste whatever, and the butter also was unexceptionable. 
 — Newcastle Journal. 
 
 Me. Copley's Silo at Cowton. 
 
 The party next proceeded to Oowton to inspect Mr. Copley's silo. There 
 is no drainage from the inside, but Mr. Copley stated that when they had 
 cut down to within 3ft. of the bottom they found more liquid than they 
 expected. A well was dug in one corner to the bottom of the silo, and from 
 it 100 to 150 gallons of liquid was baled, and most of it given to the pigs. 
 The silo contained about 16 tons, and an adjoining one, which had not 
 been opened, 20 tons. The ensilage weighed 461b. per cubic foot, and 
 consisted of tares, clover with an admixture of wheat, clover fogg, 
 meadow fogg, comfrey, and oats. They ate it with relish, except the 
 large stalks, but did not like the comfrey. He gave the cows l|cwt. per 
 day and 101b. of boiled meal, equal to about Sflb. of dry meal. The yield 
 of milk was improved, and the butter was both better in quantity and 
 richness. The same system of weighting, &c., had been adopted as that 
 used at Pepper Arden, but the materal was not chopped, and the ensilage 
 had evidently been subject to a much greater degree of fermentation, the 
 result being regarded as considerably less satisfactory. — York Herald. 
 
 Me. Johnson's Silos at Cboft. 
 On Tuesday, Jan. 22, Mr. Jenkins visited two farms, the first being that 
 of Mr. 0. G. Johnson, of Oroft. In the first place Mr. Johnson conducted 
 his guests to an old barn, 12ft. by 15ft., which he had experimentally 
 converted into a silo. In July he filled this with meadow grass, which 
 he compressed by means of a weighted lever beam, acted upon by an 
 hydraulic jack. Finding his experiment successful, he determined to 
 develop the scheme on a large scale, and vrith this view he erected a 
 building specially for the purpose of a silo. [The details of structure of 
 
 X 2 
 
300 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 the building and pressing apparatus are given more fully, with illustra- 
 tions, in Mr. Johnson's letter on page 210.] Mr. Johnson showed the 
 company two animals which, on the 14th of November, were very poor in 
 condition, and which had been since fed on as much ensilage as they 
 would take and a mixture of cake and meal, and these were compared 
 with two of the same class of animals which were tied the same day, and 
 which had been fed on the same mixture of cake and meal, and hay and 
 turnips ad lib. Most people, he said, considered that the former were 
 fatter than the latter, while they considered that of two lots of four that 
 lot which was fed on hay and turnips were fatter than those fed on 
 ensilage. He could not say that ensilage was superior to turnips and hay 
 in fattening properties, but it was recommended by its cheapness as 
 compared with the other class of food. — Newcastle Journal. 
 
 Silo on the Daklington Sewage Fabm. 
 The Darlington Corporation Sewage Farm was next visited, and informa- 
 tion respecting the silo was given by Mr. J. Bumside, the manager. It 
 was constructed by erecting a partition wall across a barn, the wall being 
 pierced by a door by which the ensilage could be removed as required. 
 Its dimensions are 17ft. square; the floor and sides were cemented. 
 Grass was put in to a height of 6ft. ; the first portion was 19 tons, and a 
 week after 12 tons were added. Yery little heating could be discovered, 
 and on opening the silo for the purposes of this inspection the ensilage 
 was found to be in most satisfactory condition. Drainage arrangements 
 were made, but Mr. Bumside said that not a quart of liquid escaped. 
 The ensilage was not wet, but contained sufficient moisture and possessed 
 an agreeable odour. The mode of weighting adopted is similar to that 
 used at Pepper Arden ; 19 tons were put on, or nearly If cwt. per square 
 foot. Mr. Burnside regards the labour of weighting as a great drawback. 
 The grass put in the silo was the produce of 7 acres, and would, according to 
 Mr. Bumside's estimate, have averaged 11 tons of hay per acre. It was 
 cut in fine weather and placed in the silo unchopped and in capital 
 condition. The grass was not ofi sewaged land. A little mould was 
 perceptible along the outside. Some of the ensilage was given to the 
 dairy cows, most of them ate it eagerly, while one or two refused. — 
 Yo7-Je Herald. 
 
 Uev. 0. H. Foed's Silo at Bishopton. 
 On Wednesday Mr. Jenkins and other gentlemen visited Bishopton, 
 Stockton, for the purpose of inspecting the Rev. 0. H. Ford's silo on 
 the Glebe Farm, near the village. The silo [particulars of which are 
 given at page 221] was constructed between April and June last, and cost 
 60L 9s. 2d. This, however, was considerably more than the original 
 estimate, the additional expense having been brought about by the 
 incursion of water, which necessitated the digging of a well, and the 
 tearing up of the concrete and cement floor of the silo, and the laying of 
 
B,. A. S. Inspection. 301 
 
 a drain thence to the well. The silo was filled between the Sth of July 
 and the 30th of August, with about forty-three tons of good old-land 
 grass, and in filling it Mr. Ford made use of neither salt nor bran, nor 
 did he chaff the grass. The silo was opened in November, and Mr. Tord 
 then commenced experiments in feeding cows. [Details of these experi- 
 ments are given at page 224] . The conclusion come to by Mr. Ford was, not 
 that ensilage was superior to hay, cake, and mangolds for feeding, but its 
 principal virtue lay in its being so much cheaper than the latter mode of 
 feeding, its cost being about one-half of a hay, cake, and mangold diet. 
 Mr. Jenkins complimented Mr. Ford on the success of his operations, and 
 said he observed less waste in this silo than in any other he had inspected. 
 This he attributed to the careful manner in which the grass had been 
 packed in the silo. The quality of the ensilage, he added, left nothing to 
 be desired. — Newcastle Journal. 
 
 Mb. Hunting's Silo at South Hetton. 
 The party next proceeded to the South Hetton Colliery Farm, which is 
 held on long lease by Mr. Charles Hunting, the well-known veterinary 
 surgeon. The farm belongs to the CoUiery Company, and they use a 
 large portion of the laud for their ponies and horses, leaving about 240 
 acres under cultivation by Mr. Hunting. The land is cold clay, and the 
 district is swept by the keen easterly winds blowing from the sea, a few 
 miles away, so that the place does not favour the production of late 
 ripening crops. The silo was commenced in May, and was built at the 
 cost of the owners of the soil, the tenant paying interest on the capital 
 expended over it. The materials used for the walls are rough " post," or 
 sandstone lumps, from the adjoining beds, laid in cement, whilst the inside 
 is faced with a lining of brick. It was thought necessary to make the 
 waUs of great thickness, the other (or eastern) one is two feet thick, and 
 the western side, against which it is intended to build a second silo 
 chamber, is 2ft. 8iu. in thickness. The walls are capped with sheets of 
 corrugated iron, about four feet in height, and the roof is of that material. 
 The silo is entirely above ground, and is 40ft. in length, 12ft. in breadth, 
 and 10ft. in height from the floor to the top of the walls. In order to 
 secure a good gradient for the transit of the ensilage between the chamber 
 and the cattle house (a distance of about ten yards), the foundations were 
 dug out 4ft., and the floor was laid down of heavy stones, over which a 
 cemented top was placed. A line of rails is laid from the door of the silo 
 to the cattle house, through which it runs by the central passage between 
 two long rows of stalls. By means of a light waggon running on the rails, 
 the ensilage can be supplied to the beasts with the greatest ease. A drain 
 is run round the base of the silo, and a channel was made close to the door 
 to receive the liquor which it was supposed would exude from the com- 
 pressed grasses. The process of flUing the chamber was provided for by 
 means of a light wooden platform erected to the height of the brick wall 
 on the eastern side of the building. The crops were carted to the side of 
 
302 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 this platform direct from the fields, and were thrown into a chaff-cutter 
 driven with a belt worked by pulleys, the power being supplied by a 
 portable engine stationed fifty yards distant. As the clover, peas, &c., 
 were reduced by the chafE-cutter, they were sent down a spout laid over 
 the brick wall into the chamber, a section of the corrugated iron being 
 removed for the purpose of making the opening. 
 
 Mr. Hunting commenced filling the chamber on Sept. 23 with the 
 second clover crop from sixteen acres of land. The crop was a fair one, 
 and was cut in dry weather. One day and a half was spent in the work, 
 and the silo was filled to a depth of eight feet. As the cut clover was 
 poured into the chamber, a draught horse, weighing 16cwt. was ridden 
 about on the top of the stuff by a boy of six stones weight, in order that 
 the clover might be thoroughly trampled down ; but the animal could not 
 be moved close to the walls or in the comers, and here a heavy man and 
 three women were employed. When the clover had all been packed 
 down, it was covered crosswise by a series of planks two inches in thick- 
 ness and nine inches wide. Iron blocks, to the weight of twenty-two tons, 
 were then distributed over the planks. The clover filled the silo to the 
 height of 8ft. when the weights were placed in position, and it was 
 then left for seven days, at the end of which period it had settled down to 
 the extent of fourteen inches only. The weights and planks were then 
 removed, and a second instalment of the charge was poured upon the top 
 of that first put into the chamber. This material was twenty cartloads of 
 beans, peas, and tares, which had been grown upon four and a half acres 
 of land, together with the produce of a six-acre field of second-crop clover. 
 The beans, peas, and tares were in wretched condition when put into the 
 silo. The crop had been cut early in September for stacking ; but wet 
 weather set in, and it was soaked week after week, and so seriously 
 damaged that Mr. Hunting elected to take his chance with it in the silo. 
 The last of the clover was out on a wet day, and taken direct to the silo, 
 lu all seventy tons of crops were placed in the chamber, and when 
 the planks had been finally replaced on the top of the mass, they were 
 covered with the twenty-two tons of iron blocks, and, in addition, with 
 eight tons of sand, contained in guano bags, making altogether thirty tons, 
 or 1401b. per square foot. The door of the silo was bricked up as soon as 
 the weighing process had been accomplished. The expenses of carrying 
 out the entire operation were as follows : — 
 
 At the silo — £ s. d. 
 
 Cutting the material, treading it down, and packing it 2 15 6 
 
 Weighting the silo wltli 30 tons of iron and sand; placing the 
 
 weights twice on and taking them twice off 2 
 
 Fixing and fitting the chaff-cutter on the platform and taking it 
 
 back to its original position 14 
 
 Enginemen and coals for driving chaff-cutter 1 2 
 
 In the field — 
 
 Cutting, raking, and leading the crop to the silo (ten men and 
 
 two women) 9 2 
 
 Total coat of the procedure .£15 13 6 
 
M. A. S. Inspection. 303 
 
 The aboTe sum, apportioned to a total of 70 tons of green crops, shows 
 a cost of 4s. 6d. per ton. The operation of filling was concluded on 
 Oct. 2, and the sUo was sealed up the same day. It was opened on 
 Dec. 19, and the contents gave out a strong but not unpleasant smeU. 
 The face of the ensilage was found to be grown with mould : and as the 
 cutting allowed the two front corners and sections at the walls to be seen, 
 it was discovered that in these parts the damage from mould extended 
 from four to six inches into the material. The contents had sunk — almost 
 entirely the second instalment of the crop — to the extent of 2ft. lOin. 
 
 There was a marked diSerence between the quality of the two layers of 
 ensilage. Both were dark green in colour, soft, and full of juice; but, 
 whilst the last instalment was but slightly aromatic and had an acid 
 odour, the first instalment — that at the bottom of the silo — was very 
 sweet, and exhaled also a decidedly alcoholic aroma. A square foot of 
 the second instalment weighed .401b., whilst a square foot of the first 
 weighed 501b. About six feet of the face has been removed, and the 
 extent of moulded substance at the sides remains the same as at first. 
 There is no mould, at the top. When the receptacle provided for the 
 leakage of liquor from the ensilage was opened, it was found to contain 
 a very small quantity, somewhere about three gallons, of liquor. 
 
 As soon as the chamber was opened, 101b. per diem of the ensilage was 
 given to each of thirty-six fatting cattle. Six milk cows received 281b. 
 each per day, and twelve head of yearling cattle were supplied with the 
 moulded and inferior material from the front and sides of the stack. 
 The refuse ensilage was thrown indiscriminately to the young stock, and 
 they ate of it about 101b. each per diem, or about two-thirds of the 
 quantity supplied. They did not fancy it at first, but ' nothing else was 
 given to them, and they quickly took to it. They have had nothing else 
 since, and they have continued to do very well. 
 
 The experiment with the milk cows bore at first a very disastrous 
 appearance. They received 281b. each of ensilage (from the last 
 instalment, it should be noted) with their usual crowdies twice a day. 
 They became seriously constipated in their bowels, and by the fifth day of 
 the new feeding the supply of milk given by each cow had fallen off to 
 the extent of one-half, whilst the milk remaining was no richer than it 
 had been before. Forthwith the quantity of ensilage given to each cow 
 was reduced to 141b. per day, and to the diet was added 141b. of pulped 
 turnips. The effect of this step was marked. In two days the milk 
 given by each of the cows was brought back to the quantity yielded 
 previously to the introduction of the full ensilage diet. The mixture of 
 one-haE ensilage and one-half pulped turnips was given to the cows until 
 a week ago, when the proportions of the feed were altered to two-thirds 
 ensUage and one third pulped turnips. The stock have continued to do 
 perfectly well on this mixture, and the milk yielded is the usual quantity, 
 whilst in its quality not the smallest difference can be detected as 
 compared with the pre-ensilage period. It is neither richer nor poorer. 
 
304 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Perhaps the most interesting of the feeding experiments is that 
 conducted with six in-caK heifers, kept free in a stook-yard, and two 
 tied up in stall. These heifers get nothing but ensilage, and a little 
 whole oat straw at nights. They were put upon this diet on Dec. 19, and 
 they have all along heen in very fine condition. The six in the open 
 yard show good coats, bright eyes, and active motion in moving about. 
 The two in the stalls have done, if possible, a shade better than the six 
 outside. One noticeable feature of the change of habit in the six heifers 
 induced by the all-ensilage diet may be mentioned, although the feature 
 is demonstrated in some degree with all the stock fed on the substance in 
 part, namely, a strong tendency to drink considerable quantities of water. 
 Directly the six heifers are let out of the yard each morning, they march 
 direct to the pond and drink their fill. The stall-fed animals also clearly 
 enjoy a good drink of water, and slight thirst and constipation evidently 
 proceed, in this case, side by side with the ensilage feeding. The thirty- 
 six fatting cattle receive only one feed of ensilage per diem, namely, their 
 morning meal, supplied at six o'clock. This consists of 141b. of ensilage, 
 and the animals also receive afterwards pulped turnips, straw, and meal. 
 They did not do very well for the first few days of the change, but they 
 quickly picked up their leeway, and learnt to eat the ensilage with evident 
 relish. Their progress has been highly satisfactory. The horses have 
 steadily refused, so far, to have anything to do with the ensilage, and the 
 sheep on the farm have been quite satisfied with a mouthful of the 
 substance. — Newcastle Journal. 
 
 Messes. Beodeeick's Silos in Wenslbydaie. 
 
 On Thursday Mr Jenkins intended to have visited both Hawes and 
 Harrogate, but, owing to a communication having been received stating 
 that the silo at the latter place had not been opened, the party did not 
 proceed thither. On arriving at Hawes the visitors were welcomed by 
 Mr. G. Broderick, one of three brothers who are among the first tenant 
 farmers who have constructed sUos. Mr. Broderick has long been known 
 as a scientific farmer, and four years ago he was chosen as one of a depu- 
 tation to visit Canada and report upon it as a field for emigration. Mr. 
 J. L. Broderick, who is in partnership with his brother at Hawes, and 
 Mr. Luther Broderick, of Summer Lodge, Swaledale, shortly afterwards 
 joined the party. 
 
 Before proceeding to inspect the silo at Hawes, Mr. Luther Broderick 
 exhibited a specimen of ensilage which he had brought from Summer 
 Lodge. The silo from which it had been taken was made out of an old 
 bam which stood on a hillside — it measures 16ft. high by 14ft. square, and 
 its construction did not cost more than 101. or HI. In August this silo 
 was filled with meadow grass, the produce of about eight acres. The 
 work of depositing the grass occupied two days, after which turf or grass 
 sods were placed on the top — the gTass side downwards — and upon these 
 were placed stones weighing a little more than a hundredweight to the 
 
JR. A. S. Inspection, 305 
 
 square foot. The silo was not opened until November, when the ensilage 
 was found to be in capital condition. Since that time the cattle have 
 been constantly fed on it, and have appeared to thoroughly enjoy it. 
 They were mostly young animals, and the result has been very satisfactory. 
 The grass was unchafEed and dry when put in the silo, and there was a 
 small quantity of liquid at the bottom of the silo, and the effect of that 
 was that the cattle did not eat so much of that ensilage as of the dryer, nor 
 did they show the same desire for water. Upon examining the sample of 
 ensilage produced, all agreed that it was in a very good state of preserva- 
 tion. Mr. Jenkins said the success of the experiment appeared to him to 
 depend upon preventing the alteration of the fodder, for when they got it 
 into a sodden state they, of course, made it into a sort of pickle. The 
 sample produced was damper than hay would be, but otherwise it was not 
 very much altered. He had seen dryer ensilage, but none less changed in 
 condition. Mr. L. Broderick remarked that there was about three inches 
 waste on the top — next to the grass sods — and about six inches waste next 
 to the walls. It appeared to have kept best against the dampest wall. 
 
 The party then proceeded to the silo belonging to Messrs. J. L. and G-. 
 Broderick, which was situated on the side of the hills about half a mile 
 from Hawes station. Like that in Swaledale, this building had formerly 
 been an old barn, but had been converted into a silo at a cost of about 
 601. [Details are given in Mr. G. Broderick's letters, pp. 216 and 217.] 
 
 The produce of about fourteen acres of grass land was deposited 
 unchaffed in this silo in July. Only one half of the silo had been 
 opened, and upon examining the ensilage it was found that there was 
 more waste at the ends of the boards than next to the side wall, and this 
 was thought to have arisen from the fact that the boards, not fitting close 
 up to the walls, allowed the grass to rise a little and admit the air. Mr. 
 Jenkins drew attention to the wet state of the ensilage, which he said was 
 a little .remarkable. Mr. G. Broderick remarked that there was a lot of 
 water in the grass when it was good. Mr. Jenkins said the ensilage in 
 the centre of the silo was much dryer than at the sides. Mr. G-. Brode- 
 rick said that was somewhat difficult to explain. While trying to weight 
 all the ensilage in that silo to the same extent they had taken care to put 
 the heaviest weights at the sides. In some instances, however, they 
 found it rather hollow in the middle, and that had allowed the ends to be 
 drawn away from the wall, and thus space was left by which the air 
 penetrated. 
 
 The company were then shown nine cattle — five milk cows and four in 
 calf, and which are expected to calve in spring — aU of which had for 
 some time been fed only on ensilage. On that food they had improved 
 considerably. In answer to Mr. Jenkins, Mr. G. Broderick said he was 
 at present trying the experiment as to the merits of ensilage as cattle 
 food, but after he had satisfied himself on the subject he would give the 
 cattle a mixture of food, because he thought it preferable to feeding them 
 continually on one kind of fodder. — York Herald. 
 
306 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Majoe Oocheane's Silo, at Aldwakk Manoe. 
 On Friday, Mr. Jenkins visited AJdwark Manor, where Major Ooclirane 
 has erected a brick silo, the interior dimensions of which are 24ft. by Oft. 
 Into this grass was put on the 1st of August, to the depth of 13ft. The 
 grass was gathered in fine weather, and after being trodden was covered 
 by a layer of straw, on which were put boards and pig iron weights as at 
 Pepper Arden. The ensilage out out was in good condition, though there 
 was some waste at the sides of the silo. The pressure was 1681b. to the 
 square foot, and the weight of the ensilage per cubic foot was about 601b. 
 average. There was a little salt put in, but Major Cochrane thought this 
 was not desirable, as it made the cattle unnaturally thirsty. 
 
 Me. Wood's Silos, at Olipton, Toek. 
 The party then went to Clifton, to inspect Mr. Wood's silos. These 
 are 16ft. by 10ft., and lift. deep. One was empty and the other had only 
 been recently opened. The material put in was grass and clover, and the 
 ensilage was weighted with several layers of bricks, the pressure being 
 nearly l|ewt. to the square foot. Mr. Wood stated that he put salt in the 
 grass, and also the clover in one of the sUos, but not in the clover of the 
 other, and he found the latter equally as good as the salted clover. There 
 was very little that was bad on the sides, and about 2in. on the top. The 
 silo was not drained, but he had pumped about 20 bucketfuls of liquor out 
 of it. The grass was gathered in fine weather, and he estimated that it 
 cost him 34s. an acre to put in the silos, and that the yield was 6 tons per 
 acre. Some of the ensilage was given to the cows, which ate it with 
 evident relish, and Mr. Wood said they throve on it. — Yorh Herald. 
 
 Loed Londbsboeough's Silo. 
 The silo that was next visited was that of Lord Londesborough, at 
 Londesborough Park Farm, near Market Weighton. The party was con- 
 ducted by Mr. Toung, and special attention was called to the butter made 
 from ensilage fed cows, and this was pronounced excellent. The silo was 
 made in July last, in the end of the barn. Its dimensions are 13ft. by 
 8ft. wide, and 10ft. Gin. deep ; calculated when f uU to hold about 15 tons 
 of ensilage, and the cost of brickwork and cement was 12J. Arrangements 
 were made to drain any liquid from the sUo, and a tap was carried through 
 the wall to the outside of the barn, but this proved unnecessary, as nothing 
 has drained from the ensilage since it was put in. The silo was filled with 
 grass from the cricket ground adjoining, from the 20th to the 30th of 
 August, stored dry and well trodden down as it was put in. The weights 
 consisted of pig iron blocks Icwt. each, laid on l|iu. boards, hollowed at 
 the joints ; these were removed when next filled and replaced as before. 
 The weight used averaged about IJcwt. per square foot. About 3 stone 
 of salt was sprinkled over every ton of grass. On the 17th of November 
 
-B. A. S. Inspection. 307 
 
 the silo was opened, and the contents were fonnd to be in a satisfactory 
 condition, with but little waste on the top. The cattle, pigs, and horses 
 that had the ensilage given to them ate it readily. 
 
 To test the value of ensilage as compared with other foods, four cows 
 were selected and tied up in the same house, and from the 1st of Jan. to 
 the 10th, each had 181b. hay, 31b. choppy, 101b. ground oats, 141b. man- 
 gold, and 31b. cotton cake, or 481b. each cow. The milk was weighed 
 after every meal, morniag and evening, with a total result from the four 
 cows of 10951b. of milk for the ten days. 
 
 From the 11th to the 20th of January the same cows had 281b. 
 ensilage, 141b. mangolds, 31b. cotton cake, 101b. ground oats (551b. each 
 cow), and the total weight of milk given by the four cows at the end of the 
 ten days was 11161b. showing an increase of 211b. in favour of the 
 ensilage. 
 
 It was thought better to do away with the roots altogether, as one of 
 the cows was slightly purged ; consequently from the 21st to the 2Sth the 
 following food had been given: — 101b. ground oats, 31b. cotton cake, 
 51b. maize meal, 321b. ensilage (601b. each cow), with very satisfactory 
 results ; in five days 5781b. of milk, which, if continued for the ten days, 
 would give an increase of 611b. over the first ten days. A cubic foot of 
 the ensilage had been weighed and found to average 311b. — Yorh Herald. 
 
 Me. Ashfoeth's Silo, Lonulet Hail, Sheffield. 
 On Saturday, Jan. 26, Mr. Jenkins paid a visit to Longley Hall, to 
 iaspect Mr. Ashforth's silo. It is formed out of an old shed, built of 
 stone, on the side of a hill, and is 14ft. long, 8ft. wide, and 9ft. deep, with 
 cemented walls and flag-stone floor ; the cost of ^Iteration amountuig to 
 9i. It was filled on three days in August, at intervals of a week, a little 
 salt being added (about 41b. to the ton), and the boards and weights put 
 on each time. The weights were 10 tons of steel ingots, of 501b. each 
 (brought from Mr. Ashforth's works), giving a pressure of about 2cwt. 
 per square foot. Some chopped vetches that had been siloed came out in 
 capital condition. 
 
 MR. NEVILE'S SILO, SKELBEOOKE, DONCASTER. 
 
 The dimensions of the silo which Mr. Percy Nevile has had constructed 
 in Skelbrooke Park are 15ft. by lift. lOin. It is plastered with Portland 
 cement, and has no drainage. It was filled on August 22, 1883, with 
 second crop rye-grass and clover, sixty-seven cartloads being put into the 
 sUo. It was three times filled to the top, and when opened, on Jan. 4, 
 it had sunk 3ft. 6in. It was covered with boards l^in. grooved and 
 battened, and weighted with 16 tons of rough stone. There was very 
 little mould at the top, and none at either sides or corners. All the stock 
 ate it most greedily the first day it was opened. 
 
808 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 THREE TEABS' EXPERIENCES IN "WALES. 
 
 [Under the head of " Experiences of a Tyro," Mr. Kenyon gave in the Field of 
 July 22, 1882, the following account of his first year's doings. He is now 
 one of oTir " veterans," and has supplemented his early experiences by the 
 results of two seasons' further practice. — Ed.] 
 
 My attention was first called to the subject by reading aeeoimts of its 
 successful practice in the United States, as described by various correspon- 
 dents of the Farmers' Review, a capital little paper published at Chicago, 
 and sent to me by a friend in Illinois. Accordingly, while waiting for the 
 weather to clear up for haymakiiig last summer, the men were set to work 
 to dig a large and deep pit in the stackyard, near the edge of a bank which 
 dipped abruptly down to a stream below. The subsoil here appeared to 
 be a stiff clay, and this, ui addition to the favourable situation for 
 drainage, constituted one of the chief reasons for selecting the spot as the 
 site of my sUo, as it is called. 
 
 I hoped that the clay might prove sufficiently firm and cohesive to enable 
 me to dispense with a lining of stone or brickwork. Such, however, was 
 not the case ; for, after getting down to a depth of eight or nine feet, the 
 sides, owing probably to the heavy and continued fall of rain, commenced 
 to slip in here and there. A facing of brick or stone work was absolutely 
 necessary, and accordingly two or three truck-loads of common red bricks 
 were procured, and masons engaged to lay them in cement and sand, mixed 
 to a proper consistency with water. The facing was only one brick thick 
 on two sides and part of the third, but where the sides showed the greatest 
 inclination to cave in, two courses of bricks were laid. Great care was 
 "taken to form the pit perfectly rectangular, and to carry the walls up 
 plumb, in order that the lid, to be described presently, might not be 
 prevented from moving evenly downward as the contents subsided. At 
 each of the four corners the brickwork was continued upwards in the form 
 of pillars, to support a light roof. Wben completed, the dimensions of the 
 silo or vault (inside measurement) were as follows : Length, lift. 9in. ; 
 width, 10ft. ; and depth, lift. 
 
 I ought to mention that, a little water having been met with near the 
 bottom of the pit, the foundations of the four walls were made to do duty 
 as drains likewise, by the expedient of placing the bricks of the lowest 
 courses on their edges, so as to leave a space of about 2iin. between 
 them. The next course being |laid over, and at right angles to them, 
 formed a cover to the narrow gutter or drain thus created, and on this the 
 brick wall or facing was built. An outlet for the water was made by 
 -cutting a short drain (afterwards tiled and refiUed) from the stream 
 abeady mentioned to the lowest corner of the foundation. Slate flags 
 laid on mortar, and joined together with cement, formed a good floor to 
 the pit, which by this means was kept quite free from water, without 
 
Welsh Silos. 309 
 
 allowing any air to leak in from the drain — a most important matter ; 
 indeed, my excuse for entering so minutely and at such length on tlie 
 construction of the silo, is the paramount necessity of making it thoroughly 
 air-tight ; in fact, this is one of the main conditions of success. 
 
 At last, on the 24th of September, 1881, after many interruptions to the 
 work by reason of the very unsettled weather, which caused the hay harvest 
 to " drag its slow length along " from the beginning of July to the end of 
 September, aU. was ready, and we commenced to fill the large tank-like 
 receptacle with cut grass from some four or five acres of good meadow, 
 which had been reserved for the purpose, and which, from being shut up so 
 long, was a very heavy crop. The grass was mostly cut by a two-horse 
 mowing machine, and at once collected into heaps or cocks and carted 
 home. Here it was cut up by a Bentall's chaff-cutter, geared to one inch 
 cut and driven by water power, as fast as three or four men could feed and 
 clear away from it. Other men, provided with large baskets or hampers, 
 carried the cut stuff away to the silo, where it was spread evenly about and 
 well trampled down by a woman and three or four boys, with now and then 
 the assistance of an extra man or two when the grass was being thrown in 
 very rapidly. In this manner about nineteen cartloads of grass were 
 stored away. The lid or cover was then put on. This is constructed of 
 Igin, planks, and made in sections of about 3ft. lOin. in width ; the planks 
 ploughed and grooved and strongly battened, with the battens projecting, 
 so as to overlap and cause aU the sections, under equally distributed 
 weight, to move downward together. A quantity of spare bricks were 
 deposited equally over the surface of the lid, and the whole left to settle 
 down. In a couple of days the green stuff had subsided considerably, and 
 by filing up a sort of movable frame of planks around the top of, and 
 flush with, the brickwork, we were able to cram in seven loads more grass. 
 The lid was then finally put on, and brickbats and stones heaped on top to 
 a considerable depth — probably three tons weight. When the mass had 
 settled down below the level of the pit mouth, the temporary frame was 
 removed. Thus, twenty-six cartloads of grass, estimated to weigh from 
 twenty to twenty-four tons, were pitted by Oct. 4. 
 
 Although most of my friends took a kindly and even enthusiastic 
 interest in the experiment, such an unusual method of preserving grass 
 for winter consumption was looked upon by many of my less educated 
 neighbours as the height of f oUy, and their remarks on the whole proceed- 
 ing were far from flattering or encouraging. It was not without some 
 display of firmness even, that my own men could be induced to commence 
 digging the pit — partly, no doubt from a laudable desire to save their 
 master's credit, and partly, perhaps, from fear of themselves sharing in 
 the ridicule which the project would be likely to excite. Curiously 
 enough, though the prophets of evil all predicted the certain failure of 
 the experiment, they were by no means so unanimous as to the cause of 
 failure; for while some maintained that the grass would be sure to heat 
 and take fire, others as confidently asserted that it would be sure to rot 
 
310 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 and tnrn to manure. One of the extra hands, who was assisting to throw 
 in the cut stufp, remarked to the foreman that " he was not very well off, 
 hut he dare bet the master all the money he had that the grass would all 
 he found perfectly rotten when the pit was opened in winter !" 
 
 As it was so late in autumn when the silo was filled, we did not open 
 it until Feb. 6, 1882, an interval of rather more than four months, in 
 order to give the plan a thorough trial. At last the eventful moment 
 arrived, and as the men commenced to raise the section of the cover, we 
 noticed some dark mouldy -looking stuff round the edges ; whereupon my 
 honest Welsh foreman, who had hold of one corner of the lid, ceased 
 lifting, and at once began to bring to my remembrance how he had always 
 warned me that the grass would be sure to " spooil." " It certainly does 
 not look very encouraging, so far," I said ; " but lift the lid right off, 
 and then we shall see what has happened to it." In a few moments the 
 heavy section was completely removed, and then a loud exclamation of 
 " Well, diawh ! " from the man expressively announced his astonishment 
 at perceiving the true state of affairs. Except for a little distance round 
 the sides and about the edges, at top, the grass was perfectly preserved, 
 and little change in appearance from what it was when pitted. On being 
 handled it gave out a strong though not unpleasant odour, reminding one 
 of the smell of steamed hay, only more pungent. Cattle quickly took to 
 it, and, as they became more accustomed to its peculiar flavour and smell, 
 appeared to relish it greatly. 
 
 Although no trial was made of the feeding value of ensilage in com- 
 parison with hay or other fodder, we were satisfied that it was a whole- 
 some and useful kind of food for cattle of any age. A lot of yearling 
 calves were particularly fond of it, and seemed to thrive well on the 
 preserved grass. Milk cows were found to require a little cotton cake, 
 bean meal, or other concentrated food in addition, to keep up the quality 
 of the milk and make rich cream. On the other hand, the butter had 
 more of the colour, if not flavour, of that from grass-fed cows, than was 
 the case before using ensilage. 
 
 There was one drawback to the complete success of the experiment ; 
 the edges of the mass of cut grass were mouldy and unfit for food, for a 
 thickness of several inches from top to bottom of the pit. In some parts 
 not more than an inch or so next the brickwork was spoilt, while in other 
 places the damage extended to a foot in width. There are two theories 
 which might perhaps be advanced to account for this state of things. 
 First, that the pit is in too damp a situation ; and, secondly, that the 
 brickwork, being only pointed and not covered with Portland cement, may 
 not possess a sufficiently smooth surface to insure the regular settlement 
 of the contents. I incline to the latter as the most plausible conjecture, 
 and it is borne out by a statement of M. H. Cottu's (of Indre-et-Loire, 
 Prance) in the Agricultural Gazette last year. He says, in describing 
 his pit, " the sides are perfectly vertical, the four corners being slightly 
 rounded; the whole is coated with Portland cement, thus insuring a 
 
Welsh Silos. 311 
 
 3)erfect settlement of the contents, upon whicli depends the preserTation 
 of the fodder." Probably, however, it is the two defects above-mentioned, 
 conjointly, that cause the mischief in this case. To remedy one of them, 
 at all events, I purpose having the brickwork coated with cement before 
 proceeding to refill the pit. Unless a perfectly dry gravel or sand bank 
 is to be found in a convenient situation for the proposed sUo, I am con- 
 vinced that it would be better, in a comparatively damp climate like ours, 
 to construct it entirely above ground. I will only remark in conclusion, 
 that, as the process becomes better understood, it must prove of consider- 
 able advantage to owners of stock in Great Britain, as it has already done 
 elsewhere. When it is considered that, by such a simple process, the 
 heaviest grass or other forage crops can be preserved for winter use in 
 the wettest of seasons, its value is plainly perceived C. R. Kenton. 
 Brynllwydwyn, Machynlleth, July, 1882. 
 
 Sib, — Two season's further experience of ensilage has more than ever 
 "impressed me with its value, not only as a cheap and effectual method of 
 securing forage crops in any weather, wet or dry, but also of providing 
 wholesome and succulent food for stock, and one which they greatly 
 relish. 
 
 In order to perfect my silo, and, if possible, avoid the waste which had 
 taken place around the walls — as described in the account of my first 
 experiences {The Field, July 22, 1882) — I had the inside coated with 
 cement before proceeding to refiU the pit in 1882. The result was most 
 satisfactory, for, although the grass was nearly all mown, carted, and 
 pitted in extremely wet weather, there was scarcely any mould to be seen 
 when the shutters were removed on the 12th of January following. Hay- 
 making, on the other hand, had, during that same season, been a most 
 tedious and expensive business. It is said that an ounce of fact is worth 
 a bushel of theory; I will therefore append a few facts which afford a 
 striking illustration of the value of ensilage in comparison with the usual 
 method of harvesting in a bad season like that of 1882. 
 
 At the same time that the silo was being filled with coarse herbage 
 from a poor sideland field, we were endeavouring to save a crop of hay 
 from an upland meadow, very favourably situated for drying in ordinary 
 seasons. When the sun shone out for a brief season, all hands repaired to 
 the hayfield ; when clouds and rain prevailed, they resorted to making 
 ensilage. In the one case, in fact, we " improved each shining hour;" in 
 the other we utilised each wet and cloudy one. Yet, strange to say, the 
 measure of success was in precisely inverse ratio to the care and expense 
 bestowed. The hay — ^badly weathered in spite of all our efforts — was only 
 used, because only fit, for bedding the cattle, which were actually fed 
 upon the ensilage already described, ensilage composed of the coarsest 
 kind of herbage, and carried cut into chaff, and pitted regardless of the 
 rain. And, what is perhaps quite as remarkable, the animals grew and 
 throve remarkably well during the three months they wwe fed upon this 
 
312 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 rough description of ensilage. Sheep, however, would not eat it unless 
 starved to it, although horned stock would take it in preference to hay. 
 So much for my second (1882-3) experiment. 
 
 My third and latest trial was conducted on somewhat different lines. 
 Hitherto I had always cut the grass into chaif before packing it into the 
 silo ; but last year (1883) I pitted it long, just as it came from the field. 
 This plan, than which nothing could be more simple, has answered 
 perfectly. The ensilage, although mostly put in wet, like the i^revious 
 years, is, to say the least, quite as good as any that has gone before it. 
 Cattle eat it greedily, and even sheep will take it in preference to good 
 hay. Until this last year I had never succeeded in getting the latter 
 class of stock to take freely to ensilage. ISTow, however, both breeding 
 ewes and yearling sheep, Shropshire Downs and cross-breeds, eat it 
 readily. 
 
 There is a decided gain in not cutting the grass into chafE, as it saves 
 unnecessary handling, which means increased cost of manufacture ; 
 although in cases where the proper machinery already exists, and where 
 the chafB-cutter can be placed directly over the silo, it might be econo- 
 mical to chop up the fodder on account of its packing closer at the time, 
 as much grass can be packed into a silo of any given dimensions when 
 thrown in long as when out into chaff, but it will require the operation of 
 filling to be oftener repeated in the former than in the latter case. For 
 my own part, although I have water power and chaff-cutters, I don't 
 intend to chop up my grass in future ; for, besides the saving of expense, 
 there is less waste in handling the unchaffed ensilage. In this condition, 
 too, it can be supplied to stock in either racks or troughs, whichever may 
 be most convenient. 
 
 "With respect to salt, a good deal of misapprehension seems to exist. 
 Its liberal use is evidently regarded by some as indispensable to the pro- 
 duction of good ensilage. I held much the same opinion three years ago, 
 but it has been dispelled by experience. I should say that if this sub- 
 stance exerts any influence at aU on the process, it is certainly not a 
 beneficial one. As a condiment or a corrective I believe it is a good 
 thing for stock, but I prefer to give it them separately, in the form of 
 rocksalt, which they can lick or not, as their tastes or instincts prompt 
 them. In 1881 1 mixed a considerable quantity of salt with the grass as 
 it was thrown into the silo ; in 1882 I only did so with about half of the 
 ensilage ; and last year I discarded it altogether. If the quality of my 
 ensilage is no better in consequence, it has certainly suffered no deterio- 
 ration by the omission. 
 
 When as much as 21b. of salt is recommended to be added to each 
 hundredweight of fodder, it is time to cry. Hold ! At that rate, in eating 
 501b. or 601b. of ensilage, a beast would daily consume lib. of salt — a 
 quantity almost sufficient to form a brisk purgative. This must surely be 
 too much of a good thing. Charles R. Kenyon. 
 
 Brynllwydwyn, Machynlleth, Feb. 28, 1884. 
 
Welsh Silos. 313 
 
 MR. OAKELET'S SILOS, TAif-T-BWLOH, MERIONETHSHIRE. 
 
 The home farm of Mr. W. E. Oakeley, of Plas Tan-y-Bwleh, is situate 
 in tlie far-famed " Vale of Eestiniog," on the banks of the river Dwrydd, 
 and has, during the last fourteen years, been much improved by embanking 
 and underdraining, thus converting the originally poor and peaty soil into 
 sound pasture and arable land, chiefly the former. A few years ago the 
 soil was so soft that it was with difficulty cultivated ; but, by thorough 
 draining, it has become comparatively firm and sound, producing good 
 crops of hay, oats, and roots. Being determined to give ensilage a fair 
 trial, Mr. Oakeley instructed his farm bailiff (James Maitland) to prepare 
 three silos on difEerent principles, under his personal supervision. 
 
 Silo No. 1 was formerly a mixing bin in the barn, 7ft. square by 7ft. 
 deep, formed with slate slabs to the height of 5ft., with an addition of 
 2ft. of deal boarding. On June 2 this was filled with grass from the 
 lawn m front of the mansion, well shaken and trodden evenly over the 
 sUo, then covered with rough slabs from the saw mill, and afterwards 
 weighted with common stones to the extent of 1901b. to the square foot. 
 In two days it sank about two -thirds. The weights were then removed 
 and the silo refilled ; the slabs and stones were replaced, and the sUo 
 closed up at a cost of less than 20s. 
 
 Silo No. 2 was foriHed at the back of an existing cattle shed, and 
 excavated along the same 24ft. by a width of 13ft., and to a depth of 
 10ft. The waUs were of rough masonry, and lined with concrete fin. 
 thick at the sides, and 4in. at the bottom, the whole covered over 
 with a wooden roof resting on six pillars, Sjin. in height from the coping 
 of the walls. This was executed at a total cost of 4&1. 16s. id., including 
 weighting and cartage. This silo was filled, on June 29, with grass from 
 part of the pasture land before described to tha height of 2ift. above 
 the coping stones ; a layer of heather was then put over the grass and 
 covered with wooden slabs, then weighted with waste blocks of slate to 
 the extent of 1721b. to the square foot. The grass sank in four days 
 over two-thirds. The weights were then removed, and stacked on top of 
 one side and end of silo walls. The silo was then refilled, and under- 
 went a similar operation, which was repeated eight days afterwards, this 
 being the third and last time the sUo was filled. There were seventy- 
 two cartloads of grass (weighing about IScwt. to the load), or S4 tons, 
 put into this silo. The process of lifting the 24 tons of slate blocks by 
 nine men took forty -five minutes each time, and the whole cost, including 
 horse labour for mowing and carting, came to 4L 8s. M., or Is. 1%A. per 
 ton. The second time this sUo was fiUed it was raining hard ; the grass 
 was quite wet, and was put into the sUo during weather in which nothing 
 could be done at haymaking. The grass was carted direct from the field 
 to the sUo, and was not chopped; neither was bran, straw, salt, nor any- 
 thing else mixed with it. 
 
 Y 
 
314i Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Silo No. 3 is an excavation in tlie stack-yard, 10ft. long by 5ft. broad 
 and 10ft. deep, dug from a marl subsoil, with no other preparation what- 
 ever. The digging was done at a cost of 12s. This silo, or rather hole, 
 was filled in September with fourteen or fifteen loads of coarse grass, 
 which the cattle would not depasture, then covered with rough slabs and 
 weighted with common stones to the extent of 2151b. to the square foot, 
 and covered over with a temporaty thatched roof. 
 
 On Dec. 8 the stones were removed from part of No. 1 silo. The 
 ensUage was cut from top to bottom, and the quality proved excellent ; 
 some 6in. at the top and at the sides was of inferior quality, but it is here 
 worth recording that where the ensilage was encased by the slate slabs 
 the condition was perfect. I witnessed the ensilage given to Mr. 
 Oakeley's herd of pedigree Welsh cattle, and nine out of every ten cows 
 ate it with avidity. The horses were at work during the opening of the 
 silo, but the baUifi: informs me that when they returned three out of five 
 ate it at once, and the other two have since taken it readily, mixed with 
 chaff. The ensilage has every appearance of being very wholesome, 
 nutritious food, having all the healthy feeding succulent properties of 
 midsummer grass, with a pleasant and appetising flavour. 
 
 On Dec. 11, No. 2 silo was partially opened for the purpose of ascer- 
 taining the quality of the ensilage, for our guidance in dealing with the 
 question of spring food for the cattle. This I also witnessed ; and 
 within a few inches from the surface -covering of heather the ensilage 
 was in a perfect state of preservation, and sent forth a most pleasant 
 aroma. The cattle also ate the contents of this silo very greedily 
 the moment it was put before them. Success being assured, this silo was 
 ■ closed up for spring food. A. M. Dtjnlop. 
 
 3, Old Palace-yard, Westminster Abbey, Dec. 12, 1883. 
 
 James Maitland, the bailiff, has since kept a very correct record 
 of the milk and butter produced during the consumption of the 
 ensilage from No. 1 silo, and he informs me that the quantity and 
 quality were both very considerably improved, especially the colour of 
 the butter ; and this became more visible when the ensilage was exhausted, 
 and the cows put back to their usual food. 
 
 Silo No. 3 was opened on January 9, the result being that the coarse 
 grass in this primitive silo was rendered fit food for cattle. It was 
 no doubt of a more rancid nature than the ensilage in sUos Nos. 1 
 or 2, but when cut and mixed with hay the cattle ate it very well. 
 
 As wUl be observed, No. 2 silo was only partially opened on Dec. 11, 
 and, as stated above, was closed and left for spring food. To-day 
 (March 1) the ensilage was cut from top to bottom, the result being that 
 the quality of the same throughout was highly satisfactory. Within a 
 few inches from the heather the ensilage gave forth a most pleasant 
 aroma, perhaps a little strong, but when it was cut down two or three 
 
Welsh Silos. 315 
 
 feet it became perfectly sweet. At about four feet from the top a 
 layer of vetches 9iii. thick was cut through; the smell from this was 
 rather strong, and the cattle did not seem to care for it. Immediately 
 below this, and down to the bottom of the silo, the quality of the hay 
 ensilage remained sweet and succulent, and the stock ate it with avidity. 
 A curious feature presented itself from 5ft. to 10ft. down ; the white 
 clover had not lost its bloom, nor the buttercup its yellow tinge. The 
 ensilage is of good quality close up to both sides and ends. 
 
 One hundred and eight gallons of liquid were drawn from this silo by 
 means of a common tap during the first ten days it was being filled. 
 The liquid resembled strong tea, and was given to the cart horses, 
 mixed with hay chaff, and they seemed to like it very much. 
 
 Tan-y-Bwleh, Merionethshire, March 1, 1884. A. M. Dunlop. 
 
 MR. EVANS'S SILO, PWLLHELI, OARNAEVONSHIRE. 
 An experimental silo on a small scale has been built in South Carnarvon- 
 shire, by Mr. Owen Evans, of Brownhall, Pwllheli. It was of plain 
 stone work, 12ft. by 9ft. inside, and 10ft. to the corbel, the floor of 
 concrete, and walls cemented 8ft. from the ground ; so that it is 
 thoroughly watertight, with no opening except in the upper part of the 
 gable end (I5ft. by 4ft.), it being let into a sloping side land convenient 
 to the grass. The walls of the building are 2ft. thick, with slate roof. 
 
 Between July 24 and 28 there was carried into it eight cartloads of 
 coarse grass grown under trees, and what was cut along the fences of the 
 hay fields ; also some rough refuse pasture, and over a cartload of green 
 nettles. The whole was carted wet or dry as soon as cut, and carefully 
 trodden down by two men as it was brought in ; and, there being no 
 room to lay in any more, it was closed in by laying 2iin. planks of home 
 timber placed across the building, and weighted with from 6 tons to 
 6 tons of stone. The silo was again opened on Aug. 9, as it had subsided 
 to about 3ft. of the bottom, and from that to the 13th seven additional 
 cartloads were put in, when it was finally closed upon fifteen cartloads. 
 
 When opened on the 3rd of March the ensilage proved fuUy equal to 
 anticipations ; the cattle, young and old ate it with avidity, and the 
 cowman says they prefer it to the best of hay. 
 
 COLONEL LAMBTON'S SILO, BROWNSLADE, PEMBROKE. 
 Colonel Lambton, of Brownslade, near Pembroke, opened a " silo" on 
 Dec 19 The sUo was 12ft. by 9ft., in two compartments. The contents 
 had been carried in very wet weather last June, and were half meadow 
 grass and half clover. The temperature when the place was entered was 
 found to be 92°, and the ensilage was in splendid condition, particularly 
 the clover.— DaiZi/ Telegraph. 
 
 T 2 
 
316 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MR. POCHIN'S SILOS, BODNANT. 
 Two silos have been erected at the home farm of Mr. H. D. Pochin, of 
 Bodnant Hall. The site chosen was near the farm buildings, where the 
 ground forms a steep gradient, so that the upper ends of the silos are 
 level with the ground, which greatly facilitates the work of filling. Each 
 silo measures 24ft. long, 9ft. wide, and 12ft. deep ; the walls 
 are 2ft. thick, and built of stone and mortar, lined with cement. 
 A doorway 4ft. wide leads into each silo, and before being filled 
 with grass both doorways were made up with railway sleepers, and 
 the Joints filled with clay and moss. A 2ft. wall separates the two 
 silos. At present the silos are roofed temporarily, so that the exact total 
 cost cannot be given, but the sum will be about 85?. The construction 
 and filling of the silos were superintended by Mr. Stewart. From 
 Aug. 10 to 20 both silos were filled with newly-cut grass, trodden by cart- 
 horses. A thin layer of straw was placed on the grass, and then old 
 railvray sleepers, laid crossways and closely packed together, were 
 weighted with stones to the extent of 2001b. per square foot. The highest 
 temperature registered was 120°. On Nov. 10 one of the sUos was 
 opened, and 15 tons of mangold and swede tops put in, and again sealed 
 down as before. Fermentation rapidly set in, and the smell given ofE was 
 most ofi:ensive. 
 
 On Jan. 5 the silos were opened. In No. 1, a piece 3ft. wide was cut 
 right down, so that a complete section could be examined from top to 
 bottom. About nine inches under the layer of straw was mouldy, and 
 unfit for food, and nearly the same quantity at the sides. All the rest is 
 excellent fodder and eagerly eaten by horses, cattle, and sheep. 
 
 No. 2 silo, in which the mangold tops were put, was then opened. 
 This part of the experiment proved a complete failure, the tops being 
 nothing more or less than a mass of corruption, and grubs innumerable, in 
 various stages of development, swarmed amongst them. The ensilage 
 under the mangold tops is in capital condition from top to bottom. It 
 weighs 52ilb. per cubic foot. — Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 SILOS AT BLAENGAWE, FARM, ABERDARE. 
 
 In the early part of July Messrs. D. Davis and Sons had two silos 
 (measuring each 15ft. long, 14ft. high, 8ft. Gin. wide) filled with green 
 meadow grass, covered with a layer of straw, then l^in. planks, and 
 weighted with Jcwt. iron weights one to a, foot area. On Dec. 3 they 
 opened one of them, and found about three inches of the layer of straw 
 under the covering planks slightly mildewed. Under this it was free 
 from mildew, with the exception of about an inch nearest the side wall, 
 and the ensilage, on the whole, was of excellent quality. 
 
Scottish Silos. 317 
 
 MR. IMRIB'S SILO, WHITEHILL, LAiTARKSHIRB. 
 
 The experiment at Wliiteliill was, we believe, the first that was made 
 in Scotland, and Mr. Imrie invited the members of the Glasgow Agri- 
 cultural Society to be present at the opening of his silo on Saturday, 
 Feb. 7, 1883. Mr. Imrie had seen various references to ensilage, and being 
 of an experimental turn of mind, thought he would try what he could do 
 in a rough way. He had previously arranged to build a pit to hold draff 
 for the use of the cattle during the winter months, and this he 
 determined to utilise for a trial of the ensilage process. The silo is about 
 lift, long, 9ft. broad, and 10ft. deep, and is partly under ground. It is 
 buUt of brick and lime and pointed with cement, and at the bottom there 
 is a drain with a sort of trap. On a rainy day at the end of September or 
 beginning of October, 1882, Mr. Imrie cut down a quantity of fully half 
 ripe vetches, corn, and beans, put them through the chaff cutter, and 
 converted them into what is known as " mashlam." Dripping wet, he 
 put the material into the pit, and tramped it all down firmly. As the 
 " mashlam " was not sufficient to fill the silo, he placed on the top a 
 layer of beans and com, which were fully ripe, and had been dried and 
 stacked before being put through the chaff-cutter. He also mixed about 
 half a hundredweight of salt with the forage. After the mixture had 
 undergone a thorough tramping, a covering of about two feet of clay was 
 put on, and the silo closed. From some cause, the ensilage became 
 depressed all round the side of the pit, leaving a slight cone in the 
 centre. 
 
 When opened, on Feb. 17, 1883, the top layer, which was that of ripe 
 com and beans cut up by the chaff-cutter, had a strong sour odour, but 
 after that was removed, and the layers of half ripe mashlam were reached, 
 there was a perceptible diminution in the strength of the odour, and it was 
 admitted that the ensilage was pretty fresh. Some of the farmers present 
 thought the flavour was that of English hay, while others thought it was 
 rather stronger, and more resembled draff. At one of the sides there 
 were signs of heating, and it seemed as if, somehow or other, moisture had 
 managed to find its way through the clay into the pit. Mr. Imrie 
 explained that the material was placed in the pit in the worst possible 
 condition. Unfortunately the servants had given the cows their midday 
 meal, and it was a question whether any of them would look at it. A 
 portion was placed before several cows, and though one or two did not 
 seem to relish it, others ate it at once, and seemed to like it. 
 
 It was admitted that Mr. Imrie had placed insufficient weight on the 
 silo, and the drain in the bottom of the pit was deemed to be an evil, as 
 through it air may have reached the stored material. Another thing 
 against the ensilage was that the vetches, beans, and corn were half ripe 
 before being cut. Under the circumstances in which Mr. Imrie made his 
 attempt, the result was considered very satisfactory.— GZasjfow Herald. 
 
318 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 SIR T. E. OOLBBEOOKE'S SILOS IN LAJSTARKSHIEE. 
 In the Upper Ward of Lanarksliire Sir T. E. Colebroke, Bart., M.P., 
 got two of Ms tenants to give the system a trial, on condition that he 
 defrayed the cost of erecting the silos. On Nov. 24, 1883, the farm of 
 Nether Abington, tenanted by Mr John Morton, was opened. The silo, built 
 of stone and lime, is 15ft. long by 12ft. broad, the depth 12ft., and the 
 thickness of waU 18in. The floor and sides were laid with cement. On 
 Aug. 3 (this is a late high district) Mr Morton had 17 tons of meadow 
 grass cnt and deposited in the silo. The grass was pretty dry, and Iflb. 
 of salt per hundredweight was added. Wooden battens were placed on 
 the top, and sis tons of stones (about 701b. per square foot). After three 
 weeks these were removed, and 4 tons of green oats, with 5 tons of 
 rough pasture grass, were added to the mass, and the pressure was 
 resumed as before. None of the stuff was chopped. Cost of the silo 
 was 38Z., exclusive of cartages, and the expense of filling was estimated 
 at about IL per acre. After three months the ensilage was sampled. The 
 rough grass was found to have kept admirably. A little overheating was 
 apparent at the top of the oats, and the same at the junction with 
 timothy grass and the oats on the lower side of the latter. On the whole, 
 however, the fodder had retained wonderfully green flavour. The 
 experiment, taking everything into account, has been regarded as 
 successful; but chopping of the ranker fodder, and more pressure for 
 such green stuff as the oats, were recommended, and will probably be 
 attended to in future. 
 
 The sUo on Mr. Hunter's farm, of Kirkton, also erected by Sir T. E. 
 Oolebrooke, on much the same principle, is proving satisfactory. 
 
 MB. HAMILTON'S SILO, DALZBLL, LANARKSHIRE. 
 
 At the home farm of Dalzell, Lanarkshire, the property of Mr. 
 Hamilton, M.P., a silo has been erected and conducted by Mr. W. 0. 
 BonaRo, land steward. The silo is wholly above ground, 13ft. long, 13ft. 
 deep, and 10ft. broad, and cost only 22L The walls are of 14in. brickwork, 
 coated with cement, and the floor of concrete, and to facilitate emptying 
 a boarded door is inserted at one corner, but was hermetically sealed 
 outside by means of 4in. brickwork coated with cement. The silo was filled 
 on the 16th July, and four following days, with grass grown in orchards 
 and pleasure grounds. The grass was cut into chaff, and about 21b. of 
 salt was added for every cwt. The stuff was covered with doors, 
 then by four inches of bran, and about 2 tons concrete blocks, affording 
 pressure equal to 351b. to the square foot. In the course of a fortnight 
 the flooring and bran were removed, and more fodder deposited. The 
 pressure was again applied for three months, after which the cows wera 
 fed daily, and seemed to relish the ensilage. 
 
Scottish Silos. 319 
 
 LORD BLANTTEE'S SILO, FREELANDS ERSKINE, 
 RENFREWSHIRE. 
 
 One of the largest and most expensively buUt silos in Scotland was 
 opened on Jan. 8, on the property of Lord Blantyre at Freelands Erskine, 
 near Glasgow. The sUo (an ordinary house in appearance) is built on a 
 piece of level land, with the floor sunk 3ft. below the surface. It is 54ft. 
 long, 20ft. 4in. wide, and has walls 12ft. high. The walls, 14in. thick, 
 are built of sound red brick, pointed on the outside, and plastered inside 
 with cement. The house is divided into four equal divisions by 14in. 
 cross walls. The two end compartments are entered by two doors in each 
 gable, the lower door being on a level with the surface, and the other, 
 which is smaller, having its door sill on a level with the wall plate. The 
 two centre divisions are not intended to be emptied until the end ones 
 are cleared out, as doors enter through the division walls into the centre 
 silos. The cost was as follows : — Digging, carting, and carriage, 
 32Z. 4s. Qd. ; ironwork, 62Z. 16s. 2d. ; stones, bricks, and cement, 
 \m. 12s. 8d. ; slater and plumber work, 38Z. Is.— total, 273L 14s. 9d. 
 The work was done during June and July, and the building was barely 
 finished when it was commenced to be filled. 
 
 On Aug. 23 about 25 tons of grass were put chaffed, into the first 
 division. This grass was cut principally from under trees, or from 
 land long pastured with sheep, the herbage of which they had not been 
 eating, and had never been grass of other than a second-rate quality. 
 Two-inch battens were placed on the top, and weights to the extent of 
 621b. per square foot. On Sept. 7 boards and weights were removed, and 
 19 tons of oats, chopped into half -inch lengths, put in. These oats had 
 grown principally under trees, and had been much lodged. The whole 
 was again covered with battens — no intermediate material, such as bran 
 or straw being used — and weighted with about 5 tons of old ferry chains 
 and a few 561b. weights, equal to about 621b. per superficial foot. 
 
 On Aug. 31, 45 tons of chopped lodged oats were put in the second 
 division ; and between Sept. 24 and 28, 43 tons of beans and oats, chopped, 
 were put into the fourth division, the third being left empty. During the 
 fillin g of all the silos the weather was good. 
 
 On being opened, it was found that about 4 inches immediately under 
 the planks were more or less decomposed and permeated with mould, and 
 not of much, if any, use. The next foot in depth was free of evidences 
 of decomposition or mould, but was quite dry, and had a musty smell, 
 like overheated hay or manure ; it, however, would be of some value for 
 food, though not perfect in preservation. Below this layer (and each 
 layer was very distinctly marked) the fodder was in a perfect state of 
 preservation. The straw was moist, had a pleasant smell, and appeared 
 to be relished by horses and cattle. — North British Agricultwist. 
 
320 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 LORD SEAPIELD'S SILOS AT WOODSIDB AifD TOOHINEAL. 
 The opening of two silos on tlie farms of Woodside and Tochineal, near 
 Oullen House, Banff, on Feb. 19, was the first occasion of the kind north 
 of the Dee, and over 200 persons connected with farming, from the lord 
 to the crofter, assembled to satisfy themselves as to the result of Lord 
 Seafield's experiments. 
 
 The silo at Woodside, under the charge of Mr. Charles TJrquhart, is of 
 the simplest possible construction, made so intentionally that it might be 
 adopted by the poorest class of tenants. It is simply an excavation in a 
 dry bank close to the steading, a wall of which forms one side of the silo, 
 the other three sides being the earth cut 6ft. down to the level of the 
 floor of the steading, and with a slight slope to allow any water to run 
 off. The top of the solid earth walls was made up three additional feet, 
 making the entire height 9ft. This additional height was made by first 
 facing it up with turf, as in building a turf dyke, and backing it behind 
 with the excavations to a breadth of 4ft. or thereby. The size of the pit 
 or silo was 16ft. by 16ft., and 9ft deep. 
 
 The silo was filled at three operations, viz., on Oct. 6 were deposited 
 26 tons of green oats off moss land, cut into an average length of 4in. 
 with scythe blades. This crop had been sown a second time, the original 
 crop having been destroyed by grub. Ten days after 12 tons were 
 added, and at the expiry of eight days 10 tons more, making in all 
 48 tons. It was tramped down firm by several men as it was put in, 
 covered over with inch boards, on which about two feet of sandy earth was 
 laid and closely tramped and smoothed over with the back of the spade. 
 Above the covering a taupauHn was laid upon a few rough poles, and 
 some poles were also laid above it to keep it from blowing off with the 
 wind. It was estimated that 26 tons of earth were put on, giving a 
 pressure of about 2cwt. to the square foot. Four days after the first 
 operation this pressure caused an avei-age sinking of 5ft. Previous to the 
 third operation the contents subsided 4ft. and became very hot. Total 
 expense of making silo, 31. 8s. ; of preparing, filling, &o., 61. 10s. 
 
 On opening the silo — that is, on removing a part of the earth covering 
 — ^the extreme surface next the earth was dark and slightly rotten to a 
 depth of about an inch ; below this about six inches was quite white and 
 mouldy ; beyond this upper layer there was nothing mouldy or in any 
 way injured down to the bottom. The upper part was comparatively 
 dry, while the lower part was moist, and smelled more acid than the top. 
 Some of the oats, which had been nearly ripe when put in, were as sound 
 and sweet as if preserved in the dry state. The milch cows were fondest 
 of the ensilage. The sheep also ate it freely. The horses did not relish 
 it much, and the fat cattle refused it with few exceptions. 
 
 The sUo at Tochiaeal, under the charge of Mr. Kemp, was formed in a 
 disused building, and consisted of two compartments, each measuring 
 
Scottish Silos. 321 
 
 16ft. by 134ft., and 15ft. high, a concrete wall 12in. thick separating the 
 two. The interior is cemented. The silo has three doors and two sky- 
 lights, and is erected against a bank of earth, the principal door, used for 
 filling the sUo, being on the bank side, 10ft. from the floor. The other 
 two doors are on a level with the floor — one for each compartment — to be 
 Tised for removing the ensilage. Only one compartment is in use this 
 season. On Oct. 23, 20 tons 3cwt. Iqr. of ripe aftermath, slightly 
 touched by frost, average length 9in., were stored in one operation, and 
 covered over with a sprinkling of straw ; battens ISJft. long and 2|in. 
 thick were then laid on, and weighted with 18 tons of bricks, giving a 
 pressure of about 1901b. to the square foot. The cost of building sUo 
 amounted to 80Z., and the expense of filling, &o., SI. The ensilage was 
 well preserved, and, except being a little mouldy on the top to a depth 
 of 4in. or so, the stuff came out beautifully fresh. The silos are termed 
 a thorough success. — Farmers' Gazette. 
 
 MR. G. TOUNG'S SILO, AT BLAOKADDER, BERWICKSHIRE. 
 On Friday, Jan. 4, a large assemblage of landed proprietors, agricul- 
 turists, and others, took place on the farm of Blackadder West, the 
 property of Sir Geo. Houstoun Boswall, Bart., and tenanted by Mr. Geo. 
 Young, to inspect a silo and the ensilage therein contained. The silo 
 measured 60ft. long by 10ft. wide and 10ft. deep. It was on sloping 
 ground sunk 5ft. into the ground, the sides and ends being made of 
 wooden planks 2|iu. thick, 10ft. long, set on end and strengthened on the 
 top by battens nailed round. A drain was brought up deep enough to 
 remove any water from the bottom, and the bottom was lined with 2in. 
 planks. When filled, 2in. planks were laid on the top, and it was 
 weighted with stones to the extent of 1701b. per square foot, and thatched 
 with straw for protection from the weather. The proprietor having given 
 the timber, the cost to the tenant amounted only to about 15Z. 
 
 On Aug. 23, four carts led tares from one reaper for half a day ; on the 
 24th, eight carts led all day from two reapers, one on tares and the other 
 on rye grass and clover, and it was then weighted. On the 27th, it having 
 sunk about one-half, the sUo was again filled, and also on the 31st, each 
 time with a mixture of tares and grass ; and lastly, on Sept. 13, it was 
 filled with aftermath, and finally closed. 
 
 On opening the silo, the ensilage was very compact, 441b. per cubic 
 foot. There was hardly any mould, only about an inch on top and along 
 -the sides, and in some places not even so much. No salt was put into the 
 sUo, but in practice Mr. Toung mixes the ensilage with chaff and a little 
 meal, and puts a little salt into the mixture, which he allows to lie and 
 ferment for twelve or twenty -four hours. The cattle are fed twice a day 
 irom this mash, receiving a foddering of turnips the first thing in the 
 morning. 
 
322 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MR. MELROSE'S SILO, MONTNUT, BERWICKSHIRE. 
 Me. Jonathan Mbleosb, President of the East Berwickshire A^i- 
 cnltural Society, last season converted a concrete water tank into a 
 silo at Monynut, and had it filled at different times with about thirty 
 tons of first and second cuttings of clover. The dimensions were 27ft. 
 long, 7ft. broad, and 6ft. deep. It was weighted by means of cast-iron 
 blocks, giving a pressure of about 1601b. per superficial foot. When 
 opened, on the 20th of September, the silo emitted a strong aroma, and 
 the ensilage was of a very dark brown hue. Cattle, however, ate it 
 greedily, but horses only partially. It was generally considered by the 
 practical men present at the opening that the experiment had been 
 a success. 
 
 MR. DUDGEON'S SILO, WOODHOTJSELESS, DUMFRIES. 
 
 The silo is built of stone and lime, and plastered with cement ; the floor 
 is also cemented, and the roof is of corrugated iron. It is 16ft. long, 
 12ft. wide, and lift. deep. The filling commenced on the 4th of August, 
 and was resumed on four different occasions tiU the 22nd of September, 
 when it was finally closed. The bulk of the stuff used was coarse rough 
 pasture grass, with a few loads of clover and green oats on the top. The 
 grass was mostly put in in a wet state. The weighting was by means of 
 pig iron, and amounted to about 1701b. per square foot. A cubic foot of 
 the ensilage was found to weigh 4141b., and it was in grand order when 
 opened, and it was eaten readily by cattle. There was no mouldiuess 
 on the top ; the ensilage was good from top to bottom. 
 
 MR. RAMSAY'S SILO, CANTOSTANES, AYRSHIRE. 
 The silo is in a slope, fuUy 4ft. below the surface at the lowest end ; the 
 floor laid with lime, the walls of double bricks cemented, and roofed with 
 wood and slate. The dimensions are 28ft. 6in. long, 14ft. 6in. wide, and 
 15ft. deep. Drains were put in round the sides of the sUo. The cost 
 was about 401, exclusive of cartage. The fiUiog occupied about a fort- 
 night ; all the grass was put on before the weighting was applied, care 
 being taken to trample the mass well as it was laid in. Meadow grass in 
 a rather damp state was put in in the last week of July; and in the first 
 week of August the produce of six acres of lea hay was deposited uncut, 
 with some salt, and a weight of 801b. to the square foot was applied. The 
 silo was not touched from the first week of August tiE January, when 
 the ensilage was found in good state, and cattle consumed it with an 
 evident relish. The mass had sunk about 5ft., and there was a little 
 liquid in the bottom. 
 
Scottish Silos. 323 
 
 MR. M'OONNEL'S SILOS, KNOCKDOLIAN, AYRSHIRE. 
 At Knockdolian, Girvan, Mr. M'Connel has two silos, each. 20ft. feet 
 long, 10ft. wide, and 12ft. deep, built of masonry lined with cement, each 
 covered with a low corrugated iron roof. The ensilage, which consisted 
 of meadow and old grass, of growing com, and vetch, was put into the 
 silos in July and August, 1883. No. 1 silo was filled with chaffed ensilage. 
 No. 2 with grass, &c., direct from the fields. Mr. M'Connel does not 
 intend this year to chaff before siloing ; it is troublesome and expensive ; 
 he has not experienced the difficulties which others seem to have done in 
 chaffing ensilage, and the mixing of hay and straw with it is much more 
 effectually done when they are all chaffed together. After filling the silo, 
 a thin layer of straw was spread on the surface ; on this were placed 
 boards about 40in. long by llin. wide and IJin. thick, laid about half an 
 inch asunder, thus permitting the escape of air through the intervening 
 spaces; and for weighting, three pieces of pig iron 561b. each were 
 placed on each board, Mr. M'Oonnel's object being to have equal pres- 
 sure over the whole surface. He found, however, that the ensilage in 
 the middle of the silo sank much more than at the sides, so he moved 
 some of the weight from the middle to the sides. With No. 2 silo, in 
 which the ensilage was not chaffed, he increased the surface weight by 
 about 201b. per foot, and this extra pressure may have been one cause 
 why the unchaffed ensilage was more appreciated than that which was 
 chaffed. Mr. M'Connel is intending this season to increase the surface 
 weight to about 751b. in the centre of the silo, and about 1001b. at the 
 walls ; not so much to improve the quality of the ensilage, for the cattle 
 ate it with avidity, though the vetch and the oaten hay was slightly in- 
 clined to acidity, but the weight per cubic foot did not exceed 431b., 
 and by having heavier surface weights the silo would hold more. 
 
 A great deal has been said about the inconvenience of moving the 
 weights whilst in the process of filling, and some ingenious plans have 
 been proposed to use machinery for the purpose, which no doubt would save 
 some trouble ; but machinery costs money, and no tenant in the Scotch 
 system of nineteen years leases, and much less no yearly tenant, would 
 like to go to any expense not absolutely necessary which would outlive 
 his tenancy ; and Mr. M'Connel gives as his experience that the cost of 
 putting on the weights and boards and moving them again, say three 
 times, did not exceed 4d. per ton of ensilage. Mr. M'Connel found the iron 
 weights and small boards very handy to deal with whilst cutting out the 
 ensilage, as one, two, or three boards could be removed just as wanted, 
 without disturbing the rest of the silo. His sUos were built into a hiU, 
 the ensilage was put in from carts at the top and taken out at the bottom, 
 through a doorway level with the road— the door being bricked up before 
 the silo was filled, the bricks being removed when the fodder was wanted. 
 The walls were covered with flat tiles, so that the roof, by the help of 
 small rollers which were let into the frame wood-work of the roof, could, 
 be easily moved endways, whilst the silo was being filled. 
 
324i Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 SILO ON THE MASQUIS OF BUTE'S HOME FARM. 
 A SILO on the Marquis of Bute's home farm in Bute had been constructed 
 and carried On under the eye of his lordship's factor, Mr. J. Windsor 
 Stuart. It was formed in a part barn, and the dimensions were 18ft. long, 
 6ft. wide, and 8ft. deep. The partitioning was of brick, 14in. thick. The 
 floor and walls were carefully cemented, and the cost was only 101. 16s. 
 On July 18 and 19, about twenty-one tons of grass, fully one-half natural 
 and the rest clover were deposited, and bricks to the weight of 571b. to 
 the superficial foot were applied. To each cwt. of grass, IJlb. of common 
 salt was allowed. On Aug. 10 the silo was opened, and the mass had sunk 
 2ft. Pour tons more grass was put in, and the silo closed. Bran was 
 placed over the ensilage, but Mr. Stuart does not consider this necessary, 
 and does not mean to repeat the bran covering. The grass was chopped. 
 When the silo was opened, about three inches on the top was in bad order, 
 a sort of cake, but the rest of it was in grand condition, and horses and 
 cattle ate it readily. It is intended next year to apply greater weight. 
 
 Ensilage from this silo was supplied to three farmers in the Island of 
 Bute — Messrs. Hugh Duncan, of Longalcorad ; Hugh M'Lean, of Ascog ; 
 and John Martin, of Ardnahoe — who conducted experiments in the feed- 
 ing of dairy cows. A week's food was taken away at a time. Messrs. 
 Martin and Duncan had no diflBculty in keeping it sweet throughout that 
 time, but Mr. M'Lean had. The cows seemed to relish it, and improved 
 in condition under it ; while the milk and butter at the same time 
 improved in quantity and quality. 
 
 Mr. Duncan had two cows that calved in July and August, fed for 
 fourteen days on 561b. hay and chalf, 751b. turnips, 81b. oilcake, 91b. bean- 
 meal. The average daily yield of milk was two and a half imperial 
 gallons ; butter from mUk of last seven days, 61b. The next fourteen 
 days Mr. Duncan gave his cows 141b. hay, 401b. ensilage, 61b. oilcake, and 
 81b. bean meal. The daily yield of milk was three gallons, and the butter 
 from last seven days' milk; 71b. ; being an increase of half a gallon of 
 milk per day, and a pound of butter per week. 
 
 Mr. Martin had two cows that calved in April last fattened for a 
 fortnight on 101b. hay, 751b. turnips, 61b. oilcake, and 61b. of bean meal 
 daUy. Their milk produced 4lb. of butter the first week, and the second 
 45lb. Instead of the hay he gave 241b. ensilage the next fortnight, with the 
 resxdt that the butter increased to 4Jlb. the first week, and 51b. the second. 
 The increase of milk per cow on the ensilage was three imperial pints. 
 
 Mr. McLean's two cows had calved on the 21st and 28th of November. 
 Having calved more recently, their flow of milk, of course, was heavier. 
 For fourteen days they got 341b. hay, 1601b. turnips, and 121b. beanmeal ; 
 and the average yield of milk was five and a half gallons per day. The 
 next fortnight the hay was dropped, and 901b. ensilage, 661b. turnips, and 
 121b. beanmeal were given. The first week of this fortnight was signalised 
 by an increase in the milk ; but it fell off a little the last week, through the 
 ensilage not keeping perfectly. 
 
Scottish Silos. 325 
 
 ME. LANG'S SILO AT ANNETHILL, NEW MOKKLAND. 
 A SILO made at New Monkland, in the West of Scotland, by Mr. Wm. 
 Lang, farmer, Annethill, consisted of a hole dug near the steading, with 
 side walls built roughly of stone, and no roofing. On Oct. 23 the pit was 
 fiUed with 25 tons of clover and tares, and about the average pressure 
 applied. It was not disturbed till the end of February, when it was. 
 opened and a small cut was taken out. Though the odour was strong, 
 cattle ate the ensilage readily ; but it was found to be more palatable 
 after it had laia a day. The quantity and quality of both butter and milk 
 increased when the cows were fed with ensilage. 
 
 WAVERLET HYDROPATHIC ESTABLISHMENT. 
 On the grounds attached to the Waverley Hydropathic Establishment 
 a silo was formed out of a disused gas tank. It was 21ft. in diameter, 
 with concrete walls 18in. thick, the floor being of the same material, 
 74ft. below the surface of the ground. Into this tank about 11 ton's of 
 grass was placed during the second week of August, each load being 
 carefully trodden down. A closely fitting cover was made, cut into four 
 segments. This was weighted with iron and stones to the extent of 1001b. 
 to the square foot, in addition to which two beams were bolted down to 
 the top of the walls, from which a long iron screw was fitted in connection 
 with a weight placed in the centre of each segment. These, by being 
 turned daily, materially assisted ia driving out the air and the compression 
 of the mass. When opened, on Jan. 24, not a particle of mould was 
 found at the top; and the quality of the ensilage and the manner in 
 which it has turned out were deemed by those present to be a complete 
 success. — Hawick Express. 
 
 MR. OLIVER'S SILO, HOUPASLET, HAWICK. 
 At a recent meeting of the Teviotdale Farmers' Club at Hawick, 
 Mr. Oliver, of Houpasley, described his experience. His silo was built 
 under ground about 6ft. square, with side walls formed roughly of brick 
 4^m. thick. It was filled with natural grass at three different stages in 
 August, and for the first month the weighting applied was about 2cwt. 
 per square foot. Latterly only about one-third of that weight was 
 brought to bear. When opened, no mould was discovered on the top, but 
 the sides had done badly, presumably owing to the roughness and open- 
 ness of the walls. At first aU stock fought shy of the ensilage. Latterly, 
 however, dairy cows consumed it, and the result was a visible increase in 
 the yield of milk and weight of butter. Since the silo has been opened,, 
 the decay and fermentation at the sides have increased and spread over the 
 top. It cannot, therefore, be said that the Houpasley silo of 1883 has 
 been a success ; but its comparative failure is understood to be due to. 
 defective treatment which experience can avoid. 
 
326 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 ME. MACKENZIE'S SILOS, PORTMORE, PEEBLESSHIRE. 
 
 The most important of the experiments hitherto carried out north of the 
 Tweed have heen those conducted by Mr. Mackenzie, of Portmore, 
 Peeblesshire, under the auspices of the Highland and Agricultural 
 Society. Mr. Mackenzie, who has for several years been one of the most 
 serviceable and popular directors of this society, visited America in 1882, 
 and was so much convinced of the value of ensilage that he laid the matter 
 before the directorate. There was a difficulty in the society's way, in 
 ihat there was no farm at its command on which to make experiments. 
 Mr. Mackenzie accordingly offered to carry them out on his own farms, and 
 to bear the expense, it being understood that they should have all the 
 ■eclat that a connection with the Highland and Agricultural Society could 
 give them, and that the society's popular chemist. Dr. Aitken, should 
 render his advice and, in the matter of subsequent analysis, services. 
 The society readily accepted this generous offer, and arrangements were 
 made for the erection of two silos — one at Harcus Farm, and the other at 
 Early Pier Farm. 
 
 The Harcus silo was constructed between May 15 and June 16. The 
 ground sloped, but not so much as to enable the base at either end to be 
 level with the surface ; it was 5ft. below. The dimensions were 30ft. 
 long, 12ft. wide, and 13ft. deep ; the walls at the bank end and at the 
 sides, which were supported to some extent by the excavations, were 12in. 
 thick ; at the exposed end the wall was 15in. ; both walls and floor were 
 of concrete, consisting of seven parts of gravel and sand to one part of 
 best Portland cement ; eleven piUars 5ft. high, 1ft. square, and 5ft. apart 
 support the roof, which is of home-grown fir, with a covering of roofing 
 felt, projecting sufficiently to throw off the rain water. The door for 
 taking out the ensilage is level with the ground at the more exposed end. 
 The cost, including excavations, building, cement, roofing, and cartage, 
 was 791. The cost of planking and of weighting apparatus (which con- 
 sisted of square boxes, filled with shingle) amounted to 12Z. 10s. 
 
 Filling commenced on July 30, and by Aug. 8 there had been deposited 
 6 tons of clover and rye grass, 4^ tons of coarse plantation grass, 7i tons 
 of oats after green crop sown out, 3 tons rough plantation grass, 19 tons 
 oats after lea, and 4 tons of plantation grass — in all 44 tons. By Aug. 16 
 the mass had subsided Sift, under a pressure of about 601b. per super- 
 ficial foot. Thereafter the sUo was uncovered, and 24 tons of oats with 
 peas, grown together, were put in, and the pressure was increased to 
 about 1501b. per square foot. By Sept. 5 the bulk was reduced by about 
 44ft., when the heap was uncovered, and 6 tons of plantation grass, with 
 3 tons of oats and peas, were added. The silo was closed on Sept. 11, and 
 sunk Sfft. more before it was opened in December. 
 
 From the first filling till well through autumn a heating test was 
 carried on by the introduction of an iron rod nearly 9ft. long. Little 
 more than the mere clull was off the rod, however, at any period. 
 
Scottish Silos. 327 
 
 When tte silo was opened on Dee. 8, about six inches in front of the 
 door and some three inches on the top were mouldy; otherwise the 
 ensilage was found in good order. There was no chance of escape for the 
 liquid pressed out of the green forage, the floor having been laid with 
 concrete ; and on the 20th, when the public inspection took place, there 
 was about two inches of liquid in the bottom of the silo, which it is pro- 
 posed to utilise as feeding material by mixing it with bran. The odour 
 was very powerful, the silo having then been open for nearly a fortnight 
 and some tons removed. The ensilage seemed very dark in colour, espe- 
 ciaHy the oats portion, but cattle, as well as horses, ate it readily. The 
 old grass seemed to have produced the best ensilage. The oats, it was 
 thought by some, might have been better if chopped before being 
 deposited ; and the ensilage had so decayed an appearance that the com- 
 pany were not captivated by it ; but they could not forget that stock 
 consumed it, and were wUling to await the feeding tests and analysis. 
 
 The silo at Early Pier Farm was constructed similarly to the one just 
 described. It was, however, in a deeper slope, with the result that the 
 base and door on the one end were on a level with the surface. The 
 dimensions were 24ft. Sin. long, 12ft. wide, and ISJft. deep, and the cost 
 87Z. 4s. Id. The pressure was applied in the same way as before. The 
 silo was filled on Aug. 8, 9, and 10, in wet weather, with 42 tons of a 
 heavy crop of clover and rye grass, the stufE being quite saturated. It 
 sank about seven feet by Aug. 25, when 28 tons, cut off an old grass field, 
 were lodged in the sUo. The 1601b. per superficial foot pressure was then 
 applied, and the silo closed. A little liquid oozed out at the door, but the 
 odour was not so strong as at Harcus. When the silo was opened on 
 Dec. 20 about three inches on the surface were not so good as could have 
 been desired. Below that, however, the old grass seemed to have been 
 very finely preserved. It cut up beautifully, and cattle ate it readily ; it 
 was delicious in flavour. The clover and rye grass below was not reached. 
 
 The general impression which the " (demonstration " left on the minds 
 of the visitors was, that so far it had been a success ; that old grass in 
 plantations or mansion house grounds was best adapted for the sUo ; that 
 ranker forage, such as green or partially ripened oats, should be chopped ; 
 and that the system requires a little further elucidation and test before a 
 silo can be looked for at every farm. At the same time all admitted that 
 the success of this system, notably on landowners' home farms, or on hiU 
 grazings occupied by tenants, where there is plenty of rough grass, was, 
 as far as a year's work could do it, established. 
 
 It should be explained that the Portmore silos, with the view of demon- 
 strating the system as favourably as possible, have been constructed on 
 an expensive scale, possibly about one-third beyond what is really neces- 
 sary. The buildings are ornaments as well as subjects of utility. 
 
 About three months after the Portmore silos were opened it was stated 
 that they were turning out beyond the anticipations formed at and shortly 
 after the opening, and that both cattle and sheep were doing well. 
 
328 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 SILO AT YOUNG'S PARAFFIlSr WORKS. 
 Mb. M'Moeran, farm manager to Young's Paraffin LigM Company, 
 opened a silo at the company's Burngrange Farm on Feb. 14. The silo 
 is 20ft. long, 8ft. wide, by 7ft. deep. The side walls and one end wall 
 are brick, 14in. thick, the inner course laid in a mortar composed of lime 
 and Portland cement ; the front end is tightly closed by Sin. planks, 
 fitting edge to edge, and secured to the side walls by strong bolts, 
 screwed on the outside to upright wooden bai-s, which reach from the 
 bottom to the top of each wall. The floor, which was raised about 6in. 
 in the centre, sloped gradually to the sides, and was covered with coarse 
 engine ashes. A drain, about 6in. below the floor, passes round the 
 building about 6in. from the wall, the openings being led into a field 
 drain. The silo is mostly below the surface, the portion of the walls 
 above being backed up with the clay dug out, and not more than about 
 2ft. being bare. The whole is covered in by a wooden roof. 
 
 The crop operated upon was principally a mixed one — com and 
 vetches — with a layer of soft grass from an irrigated field. The silo was 
 filled, in the first week in September, to a height of about 2ft. above the 
 top of the wall. In about ten days the weights were taken off, and it 
 was again filled up to about the same height over the walls, when it was 
 finally loaded. The top was covered by a platform of Sin. planks, laid 
 closely together and secured by two strong transverse bars. On this 
 platform cast iron plates, uniform in size and thickness, were laid to 
 about Ifcwt. to the superficial foot. The platform had lin. of space 
 between the end of the planks and walls. 
 
 The crop was left uncut until it had attained its full growth, by which 
 time the com stalks were considerably hardened, and a large number of 
 the vetch pods quite filled and ripened. This made proper compression 
 more difiicult, and showed that it would be better to cut earlier, as, even 
 under the great weight applied, the corn stalks remained hollow, owing 
 to the strength of the fibres. The layer of soft grass was quite firm, and 
 almost as green as when it was put . in. Whether owing to a want of 
 compression at the sides (for, the floor being highest in the centre, the 
 planks could not settle evenly), or to the rigid nature of the crop, or 
 perhaps a little to botli, a great amount of waste occurred, fully a foot 
 near the wall being rotted. Mr. M'Morran calculated the weight put m 
 at 13 tons. When opened, the compressed food measured 4|ft. deep ; a 
 cubic foot, taken 18in. from the top and from the side, weighed 501b. 
 
 A lot of young cattle in an adjoining shed had some of the ensilage 
 given them, and, although it was the afternoon and they had got their 
 usual allowance of oilcake and roots, they ate it freely. Next morning, 
 after being fed in the same way, the ensilage was again given; and, 
 although their racks were fuU of dry fodder, they cleaned out their 
 trough after a second supply. The young horses at the farm are also 
 eating ensilage freely. Six two-year-olds, shut in for stall-feeding at 
 Burngrange, broke from their yard on the second morning after the 
 
Scottish Silos. 329 
 
 opening of the silo, and, to Mr. M'Morran's surprise, he found them 
 eating greedily a quantity of the ensilage that he had thrown aside as 
 refuse, haTing been dressed ofE from the front and sides of the heap. 
 To Young's Company, who farm a large tract of land and keep large 
 herds of cattle, the silo will be of great advantage, as immense quantities 
 of good green stuff wiU thereby be saved for winter use which otherwise 
 would rot in the fields. 
 
 The cost of erection, not including cartage of material, was 26Z. 15s., 
 being about h^d. per cubic foot of space. 
 
 MR. EBNNIE'S SILO AT ALLAJSTPAULD, STIRLINGSHIRE. 
 Me. Jas. Rennib, of Allanfauld Farm, Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, on the 
 property of Sir William Edmonston, Bart., opened at the beginning of 
 January a silo on his farm, which possesses peculiar interest, in so far 
 as the fodder was solely of the hill-grazing order. The silo is 32ft. long, 
 9ft. deep, and 9ft. wide, and is 5ft. below the ground. An 18in. drain 
 was below the walls, to keep away damp. The walls are 2ft. thick, 
 built of common stone and Ume, well pointed. The bottom is laid with 
 engine ashes, and then covered with wood pitched with tar. The cost, 
 including the boards for covering, was 30i!. 
 
 On the 24th of August fifty cartloads of rough grass and sproats, cut 
 that day, were put into the silo in a rather damp state. On the 
 18th of September thirty loads were put in, also a little wet. The fodder 
 was well shaken and trampled when put in, and was weighted with 
 12 tons of stone (about 901b. to the square foot). ]fVhen opened the sUo 
 showed indifferently along by the side of the waUs. The fodder was 
 somewhat spoiled there, which was attributed to the rough state of the 
 walls having allowed of the admission of air. The walls should have 
 been cemented : and Mr. Rennie means to have this done by next year. 
 The main body of the mass, however, was very sweet, and in capital 
 order. Samples of the ensilage were given to cattle, and they partook 
 of it with an evident relish. The success of Mr. Ronnie's experiment 
 tends to confirm the belief that rough hill grass can be advantageously 
 converted into ensilage. In that case the silo cannot fail to be a great 
 boon to hill or stock farmers, who are often in such straits in winter and 
 spring for food for stock. 
 
 MR. MONTEITH'S SILO AT CARSTAIRS. 
 An experimental sUo, constructed for Mr. J. Monteith, of Oarstairs 
 House, was opened on Nov. 29, 1883. It was filled and closed on Aug 1, 
 about eleven tons being put in and a pressure of 2501b. to the square foot 
 applied. Rye and timothy were placed in the lower part of the silo, and 
 on the top was plantation grass, cut from among trees and put in very 
 wet. When opened the ensilage came out in good condition ; both horses 
 and cattle took to it readily, and the sheep seemed exceedingly fond of it. 
 
 Z 
 
330 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MR. DUNOAJST'S SILOS, BENMORB AND BLAIRMORE. 
 
 Theee is probably no more energetic landed proprietor in the West o£ 
 Scotland tban Mr. Duncan, of Benmore and Blairmore. He has planted 
 trees extensively and reclaimed a great deal of land, and he owns a 
 valuable herd of Highland cattle, as well as a select stock of black-faced 
 sheep. Mr. Duncan gave instructions to his manager, Mr. Wood, to erect 
 a large silo at the home farm of Blairmore, and another at the home farm 
 of Benmore. The work was accomplished last spring, and both sUos 
 were pretty nearly filled in autumn with natural grasses and green oats. 
 
 The Blairmore silo is divided into sections of 20ft. square, with a 
 similar depth. The side walls are of concrete, llin. thick, and the 
 dividing walls of the same material, but only 7in. thick. The roof is of 
 wood, coated with tar. Fifteen feet are below the ground, on a slope, and 
 the roof is 5ft. above the walls. The cost of the silo was 160i., of which 
 SSL 13s. 6d. were for labour, and 711. 13s. lOd. for materials. There was 
 not grass and oats enough to fill it ; but 280 tons were put in — grass and 
 corn as they grow carted direct to the pit in both wet and dry weather. 
 Weighting was applied, about ten tons of boulder stones affording a 
 pressure of 661b. to the square foot. When the sUo was opened the 
 ensilage was found in good order, and stock are fond of it. A cubic 
 yard weighed 12cwt. About 120 cattle were fed on ensilage. Ayrshire 
 cows got daily 451b. corn ensilage, 341b. turnips, 51b. of draff, and 61b. 
 of straw or chaff. Those not giving milk were getting too fat on this 
 fare, and the ensilage had to be reduced. 
 
 The Benmore silo is similar to the other, except that it is only 16ft. 
 deep, of which 9ft. are below the surface. No liquid has been observed 
 in the bottom of the pits. 
 
 The following is a copy of the analysis of a sample of meadow grass 
 ensilage from Benmore, made by Mr. John Newlands, F.I.C, F.O.S., 
 9, Mincing-lane, London : 
 
 Per owt. 
 
 "Water 78-42 . 
 
 Albiiniiiiona matter* 2'22 
 
 Sugar, gum, and extractive matter, soluble in water 2-36 
 
 Oil, was, chlorophyll, &c I'll 
 
 Digestive fibre 795 
 
 Indigestible woody fibre 6'14 
 
 Mineral matter 1-81 
 
 100-00 
 * Containing nitrogen, 0-35 ; equal to ammonia, 0-42. 
 
 After the dairy cows had been fed on meadow hay ensilage for three or 
 four months, it was stated that the animals maintained condition, gave 
 mUk heavily, and that both mUk and butter were delicious, being quite 
 as palatable as when the cows were grass fed. Sheep also fed on the 
 ensilage with an evident relish, preferring it to good sound hay. 
 Mr. Wood, manager at Blairmore, believes that more attention is neces- 
 sary to protect the sides of the silos from moulding or decay. 
 
Scottish Silos. 331 
 
 ENSILAGE OF TURNIP TOPS AT CULDUTHAL. 
 
 [Mb. W. Brougham, of Culduthal House, near Inverness, gave in the Field a 
 lengthy account of his ezperiments in 1882 and 1883, from which the 
 following particulars are extracted.] 
 
 I OEDEBED aU the turnip tops as they were out from the roots to be 
 carefully and cleanly put in heaps, and then to be carted to the silo which 
 I set about constructing. At a convenient distance from the steading a 
 pit was dug, 10ft. deep and 14ft. by 15ft. wide. But this was a matter of 
 no little difficulty, as the sand was so sharp and dry that it was necessary 
 to prop up the sides strongly while the excavation was going on. When 
 this was accomplished, the sand and gravel were found to be the very 
 thing wanted to mix with Portland cement, and a wall 12in. thick was run 
 up, and a roof of corrugated iron put on. Sandy gravel formed the 
 bottom of the pit, on which was placed rough boards ; above this a few 
 inches of straw. Two feet of turnip tops were then placed in the sUo, 
 when three men with sharp spades quickly did the work of the proper 
 ensilage knife, while the tramping reduced the tops to an equal surface. 
 This was now freely sprinkled with salt, and then a 6ui. layer of straw 
 spread evenly over the surface, on which 2ft. of the turnip tops were 
 again placed and sliced as before, and the process continued until 
 the pit was full. This was completed on Nov. 22, 1882. It was 
 estimated that twelve tons of turnip tops were introduced into the pit, 
 and that probably there was a loss of two tons by the juices passing into 
 the gravel. This is, however, quite conjectural. The surface was covered 
 with good strong boards, over which 2ft. of clay from a pond was placed. 
 In addition, the turnip crop was placed as far as possible within the 
 building, where the roots, covered with straw, were preserved in most 
 beautiful condition to the end of the season. When the hungry beasts 
 were feeling the greatest want of green meat, the silo was opened. To 
 the great satisfaction of all concerned, the experiment was found to be a 
 perfect success. Oattle and pigs ate of it greedily, so that from April 10 
 to May 12 we were amply provided with succulent food. The cattle 
 would always leave their nice spring grass and turn to the turnip 
 ■ensilage, even when the herb was ankle deep. 
 
 After the success with the turnip tops, Mr. Johnston and the writer had 
 a severe attack of " Ensilage on the brain " and the result showed itself 
 in the construction of two other sUos, somewhat larger than the first ; and 
 being prepared fully for the work to be done before commencing the 
 campaign, there was no difficulty in fixing the sandy soil. In fact though 
 only a few feet removed from the first silo, the second did not give nearly 
 as much trouble, so we were quite ready with our pits when required. But 
 other things were necessary as well as pits, and one of the first was 
 a proper engine and cutter. I therefore looked about for a nice handy 
 
 Z 2 
 
332 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 engine, and selected a Buckett's Caloric, 12 h.-p.; and, after considerable 
 delay, it was erected. In the meantime the clover and seeds were losing 
 ground, and we had to begin haymaking, and a proper undertaking it was. 
 I think I never experienced a more vexatious season. At last we got the 
 engine to work, and a glance was sufficient to prove success was sure. 
 Three good mowers, three carts, three men at the pit, with women and 
 children, were kept in steady and constant work. Oh, such a relief to 
 the hay-making process to which we had been subjected. And thus we 
 walked through 60 tons, as one may say, right off. The mowers worked 
 for five hours, and then ensilaged the cut in the afternoon, so secure did 
 everyone feel, and so independent of the weather. Then as to comparative 
 expense. That of ■converting grass into ensilage is estimated to be Is. 
 per ton, exclusive of interest on capital required for machinery and 
 buildings. To turn the same quantity of grass into hay, 3s. is the usual 
 cost in a good season ; but what in a bad P 
 
 On the 20th of October, No. 1 ensilage pit was opened. It was then 
 evident that the clay (the weight used was 1661b. to the superficial foot) 
 had not pressed equally on the grass. At the edges there was a margin 
 of musty or mouldy grass, caused seemingly by want of equal pressure. 
 The settlement of the clay had caused it to act as a wedge in the silo, so 
 that it formed a roof over the ensilage, rather than acting as a dead 
 weight. From not foreseeing this natural action of the clay, a smaE 
 portion of the grass was consequently lost ; but this being removed, the 
 whole was as good as it could possibly be. All the cattle ate it greedily ; 
 and the milk improved just one degree in value (by lactometer) very 
 shortly after it was given to the cows. 
 
 With this I forward three specimens of No. 1 pit, as taken from the 
 top, middle, and bottom of the silo. Tou wiU at once see there is a 
 considerable difference. The top weighs 281b. to the cubic, foot, the 
 centre 30Jlb., the bottom 341b. ; there is therefore a difEerence of 61b. 
 
 As far as inspection leads one to a conclusion, I am quite unable to 
 perceive that there is any filtering of fluid from the mass. We endeavour 
 to keep the cut surface as free from exposure as possible. I notice the 
 grieve is very careful in this respect, and he is quite right, for clearly an 
 active fermentation is going on, as evidenced by a stronger vinous odour, 
 even more distinct than when the pit was opened. 
 
 [The three samples sent were all of chopped grass and clover, varying 
 from one to two inches in length ; the whole of them were good, but we 
 preferred the lowest and heaviest. Considering their light weight, their- 
 condition was remarkable, as they were by no means so compact as the 
 majority of good samples we have met with ; and we conclude that the 
 herbage was rather dry when pitted. That a portion was spoilt, is in 
 accordance with previous experience, when clay has been used as a 
 covering. M. GofPart relates that when he used clay as a covering he 
 invariably found a space between the clay and the ensilage, and that 
 deterioration had residted. — Ed.] 
 
Scottish Silos. 333 
 
 SIR D. BAIRD'S SILO AT NEWBTTH, EAST LOTHIAN. 
 The silo was constructed out of the remains of an old brick-kiln, and 
 measured about 12ft. by 12ft., with a depth of about 9ft. On Oct. 1 
 some 16 tons of lawn grass, cut wet, was put into the silo, each layer 
 receiving a slight sprinkling of salt, the whole covered with inch boards, 
 and over all a coating of sawdust 2in. thick. The weights used were 
 common rubble stones put into small bags. On opening the silo at the 
 end of January the grass, although highly coloured, smelt quite fresh, 
 there being neither mould nor waste of any kind. — Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 SILO AT CRAIG PARK, MIDLOTHIAN'. 
 Ou the property of Mr. Firman, at Craigpark, Ratho, Midlothian, a sUo, 
 10ft. long, 10ft. wide, and 10ft. deep, was opened at the beginning of 
 February. The walls and bottoms are of concrete (one part of cement to 
 four of sand, and four of clean gravel with loose stones buried in it), and 
 the roof of corrugated iron. It cost 36?. Filling took place in the second 
 week of October, and eight acres second growth of clover and rye grass 
 hay was put in fresh. It was well trampled by horses, and, with 
 planking and stones, a pressure of about 1301b. to the square foot was 
 applied. A few inches at the top when opened was inferior, but the great 
 bulk was in first-class trim. Cattle ate it greedily and so did pigs. 
 Horses also partook of it, but not so readily. The cost of filling and 
 carting was estimated at 2Z. The contents of the silo of really good food 
 are about ten tons. The experiment is considered a success, and, indeed, 
 as representing a clear gain, seeing that the weather was very unfavourable 
 last autumn, and the aftermath could not otherwise have been saved in 
 good condition. 
 
 SILOS AT FINLATSTONE, PORT-GLASGOW. 
 Mr. Alex. Smith, Burnside, Finlaystone, Port-Glasgow, opened in 
 February, a silo erected for him by his landlord, Ool. D. 0. R. 0. 
 Buchanan, of Drumpellier. The silo (which is capable of containing 
 about thirty tons, with arrangements for enlargement if successful) is 
 built to the back of the stable, and inclosed by a concrete wall, about lift, 
 high, all under the roof of the court. It was filled at two different times 
 with ryegrass and clover, and on the top with grass out from plantations. 
 Wlien opened, there was noticeable a slight tendency to waste round the 
 upper edges at the ends of the cross boards, which were cut an inch short 
 to allow them to fall down easily with the pressure of stones above ; but, 
 with this exception, the ensilage came out quite fresh, and cattle, horses, 
 ajid pigs, ate it with great relish. Mr. Smith intends to enlarge the silo, 
 and is perfectly sure that by next season he will be able to preserve a 
 large quantity of green food. Col. Buchanan has also erected a silo on 
 the farm of Auchinbothie, which will be filled next season.— The Farmer. 
 
334 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 MR. STIRLING'S SILO, KIPPENDAVIE, PERTHSHIRE. 
 On the liome farm of Kippenda-vie, Perthshire, the proprietor, Mr. 
 Stirling, erected a silo 12ft. long by the same width and lO^ft. deep. 
 The walls were built of 9in. bricks and Jin. cement, and the floor was laid 
 with concrete. Some 16 tons were put in on Aug. 21 and 22, consisting 
 of twenty cartloads of coarse grass, cut in the plantations, one load of 
 good second-cutting of clover, and four loads of green oats — four cart- 
 loads of grass alternating with one of the oats. About ilb. of salt was 
 applied to each cut of grass. The mass was then trodden and pressed, 
 and was not touched till Nov. 30, when the silo was opened. The top 
 and sides were in bad condition ; the rest, however, was in splendid order, 
 and cattle as well as horses ate it readily. The cost of the filling and the 
 material was estimated at about 201. So well pleased is Mr Stirling with 
 the experiment, that he intends next year to erect a silo capable of 
 containing 100 tons. 
 
 DR. BARKIE'S SILO, TANKERNESS, ORKNEY. 
 An ensilage experiment has been conducted by Mr. Johnston, factor to 
 Dr. Barkie of Tankerness. The silo is wholly above ground, and consists 
 of a portion of a large hall at the home farm, measuring 17ft. in length, 
 lift, in width, and 13ft. in height. The floor was laid with flags pointed 
 with cement, and the side walls, two-thirds up, were plastered with cement. 
 At one end there was only a wooden partition, l|in. thick, battened and 
 cemented. On the 18th of July the silo was about two-thirds filled with 
 sown grasses. Boards were laid on the top, with a blending of soil and 
 about 2ft. deep of stone. The mass sunk from 9ft. to 4fft., which it was 
 when opened the other day. About 2in. on the surface was mouldy and 
 decayed-looking, and so was a considerable portion next the wooden end, 
 which had not been sufficient to keep out the air. The rest of the 
 ensilage, however, was good, and is being freely partaken of by cattle 
 daily. 
 
 MR. HENDERSON'S SILO, ROSEBANK, WIOK. 
 Last summer, Mr Henderson had a small silo made, the bottom, and sides 
 being lined with stone and cemented, and a wooden roof covered with felt. 
 It was filled with rough pasture grass about the middle of July, and 
 weighted to about 1001b. per square foot. In two months it had subsided 
 about one-third of the depth, when it was refilled with the same kind of 
 grass. On being open in January, the grass last put in was very dark in 
 colour, and had a very disagreeable strong smell ; but on getting down to 
 the grass first put in, it seemed to be quite sound, and the cattle ate 
 it freely. At the bottom of the silo there was such a quantity of liquid 
 that it required to be frequently baled out. 
 
Irish Silos. 335 
 
 MR. E. J. SMITH'S SILO AT CLONARD, DUNDRUM, 
 00. DUBLIN. 
 
 Me. Smith has had an old building formerly used as a coach house and 
 stable turned into a silo, the diTiding wall being remov^ed and doors and 
 windows shut up. The silo is 24ft. long, 12ft. wide, and 13ft. Sin. deep. 
 The floor was sunk about 2ft., then laid with 9 inches of concrete and 
 flushed with cement. The old walls were scraped and lined with 
 concrete and cement, to make them perfectly Smooth and air-tight. At 
 one end a new 18in. wall was built of concrete, and at the other end the 
 old coach-house door was built up in a similar way. The corners were 
 rounded off with concrete to insure close packing. In the new concrete 
 wall a door was made, but it was temporarily buUt up with bricks (lined 
 inside with cement), so as to be picked out and the doorway opened when 
 the silo is emptied. For filling the silo, an opening nearly 5ft. square 
 was formed at the top of the old end wall, about 14ft. from the ground. 
 To lessen the difficulty in pitching the fodder through so high an open- 
 ing, an embankment has been formed oiitside. Upon this embankment 
 the loads of fodder are turned over, and it is easy for a man to throw the 
 fodder into the silo with the ordinary fork. 
 
 The filling of the silo commenced on the 11th, and was finished on the 
 18th of July. The only material put in was the produce of 4f Irish 
 acres of old meadow grass, taken to the sUo just, as it was cut, and most 
 of it was too ripe to make good fodder. On July 11 fourteen loads were 
 put in, work being stopped early in the afternoon by an excessive fall of 
 rain. On the next day, which was also showery, twenty-one loads were 
 put in ; while on July 13, which was exceedingly wet, twenty- four loads 
 were carried. On the third day the rain at times feU in torrents, but 
 Mr. Smith decided to persist with the fiUing operations. The grass was 
 so wet that when lifted on the fork the water ran out of it. 
 
 While the grass was being put into the sUo, one man was constantly 
 employed spreading the material evenly, and one boy and four -or five 
 women were kept tramping. By the evening of the 13th about 30 tons 
 were put in, filling the silo to a depth of lift. ; the grass was then 
 covered with planks and weighted with about 9 tons of stones. On the 
 18th the silo was opened, and 15 tons of grass were added, the grass 
 being now about a foot above the waUs of the silo. The planks were 
 replaced and weighted with 27 tons of stone, or about 2101b. to the 
 square foot. For this purpose large stones were used, of which there 
 was an abundant supply close at hand. In a small loft in a building 
 attached to the silo provision was made for holding the stones, and the 
 arrangements devised to assist in moving the stones from the loft to the 
 silo and from the silo to the loft are exceedingly simple and efficient. A 
 line of light rails resting on medium planks has been erected along above 
 the sUo and loft, being, for the sake of strength, attached both to the 
 
336 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 cross-bars of tlie rafters and to the top of the roof. On these rails there 
 is placed a small square block with four wheels, so made that they cannot 
 slip off the rail. To this block, by a bolt passing through the centre, a 
 " differential " pulley is fixed. The chains of the pulley are put round 
 the large stones, and in this way granite blocks weighing more than 
 4owt. are moved with the gi-eatest ease from the one end of the silo to 
 the other and on to the storing loft. For the smaller stones a board is 
 hung from the pulley. When the silo was opened on the mornhig of the 
 18th twenty-five tons of stones lying on the planks were removed in three 
 hours by six men and two boys. 
 
 The whole of the work connected with the forming of the silo and 
 putting up the 27 tons of stones for weighting, as well as the outside 
 embankment, was let by contract, and the entire cost was rather less 
 than 50Z. The concrete work was made, perhaps, rather more sub- 
 stantial than was really necessary, the quantity of cement used being 
 3 tons 14 cwt. The roof of the building was strengthened, and skylights 
 were put in. The silo contained 45 tons of fodder, but from 20 to 
 30 tons more might be stored in it. 
 
 When the silo was opened, on Dec. 27, the results were exceedingly 
 satisfactory. The fodder was found in excellent condition, and samples 
 of it were eaten readily by cattle. A number of agriculturists witnessed 
 the opening of the silo, and with the appearance of the ensilage they 
 were agreeably surprised. In the company there were sceptics, and yet 
 they had little fault to find. When the stones and boards were removed 
 the smell was barely perceptible. On the surface a layer, 2 or 3in. 
 in thickness, was black and mouldy — almost unfit for consumption. 
 Beneath this the grass came out in admirable condition, in colour not 
 unlike grass withered by exposure, and with a faint yellowish tinge. Six 
 inches below the surface the mass was found to be warm, and it gave off a 
 heavy smell, not quite so keenly alcoholic as we had expected. Neither the 
 smell nor the flavour were discouraging, and the acidity of the latter was 
 not strong, but decided. Mr. Smith is to be congratulated on the 
 success of his experiment. — Irish Farmers' Gazette. 
 
 EXPERIMENT AT BESSBROOK. 
 
 The silo constructed by the Bessbrook Spinning Company at Bessbrook, 
 in July last, and filled with 20 tons of newly-mown grass, was opened on 
 Dec. 14. The ensilage was found to be in a good state of preservation, 
 though that taken from the top of the silo was not quite as good as that 
 from the middle or bottom. A quantity of the ensilage was given to a 
 dozen cows which had never previously tasted such food, and it was at 
 once eaten with apparent relish. A number of gentlemen farmers near 
 the neighbourhood contemplate erecting permanent silos during the 
 ensuing year. — Irish Farmers' Gazette. 
 
Irish Silos. 337 
 
 SIR J. C. KENNEDY'S SILO AT JOHNSTOWN KENNEDY, 
 CO. DUBLIN. 
 
 Sib J. C. Kennedy's steward gave the following particulars : — " On one 
 side of Sir J. Kennedy's farmyard there is an excavation under the same 
 roof with one of the cowsheds, and known as 'the turnip hole.' It is 
 about 20ft. long, 10ft. wide, and 10ft. deep. The walls are rough and 
 unplastered. Into this the produce of a couple of acres of coarse grass, 
 ^rown under trees, and which usually went to loss, was thrown. After 
 being well packed in, blocks of timber, cut in lengths suitable for paling- 
 posts, and for which a place of storage was required, were placed in 
 fiufficient quantity to insure ample weight. There were no boards used 
 for the top, no sealing up of the place of storage — no trouble whatever 
 taken, in fact. In due time the sUo was opened, and the ensilage is such 
 ihat the cattle eat greedily and thrive well on what otherwise would have 
 iDeen a lot of useless stuff, except as manure, and which would have cost 
 nearly as much to remove to a manure pit — which would have been its 
 destination, owing to the wetness of the season — as to make into a lot of 
 iealthy, nutritious food, on which we have been partially feeding twenty 
 milch cows, without noticing any ill-effects on their produce, and with 
 ocular demonstration that they relish and thrive on it. About a foot and 
 ■a, half of the sides are bad, as well as a small portion on top." 
 
 COL. CLEMENTS' SILO AT LOUGH RYNN DEMESNE, 
 DBOMOBE, CO. LEITRIM. 
 The filling of the silo was commenced on Aug. 6, 1883, and consisted of 
 •coarse old meadow grass, carted direct from the mowing machine in a wet 
 .state (the night before having rained heavily), and was forked into the 
 silo by three men ; after which it was shaken evenly and tramped by nine 
 men while being put into silo. It was filled to a height of 15ft., and 
 immediately covered with Sin. planks, and weighted in the proportion of 
 251b. per superficial foot, by means of a simple lever arrangement, which 
 was found very convenient during the time of filling. In this state 
 it remained for seventeen days, during which time it subsided 7ft., when 
 it was opened, re-filled, and weighted as before. After a lapse of twenty- 
 five days it was found to have sunk 4ft., and when opened about six 
 inches of the top part was partially decomposed and unfit for food. This 
 being removed, the sUo was again refilled with a fine description of old 
 meadow grass in a dry state, and finally covered with the planks, over 
 ■which 18in. deep of clay was put, and (with the levers) gave a gross 
 weight of 12i tons, or 1811b. per superficial foot. During the six weeks 
 following, the mass subsided 6ift., but since that scarcely anything per- 
 ceptible. After each filling, a marked descent was observed for the first 
 two or three days. 
 
338 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 When the silo was opened in December, the ensilage at first presented 
 a black rotten appearance ; but when two inches deep was taken off the 
 top, and about four off the side, the remainder afforded a pleasing pros- 
 pect. The colour was rather a brownish-green, and the ensilage smelt 
 Tery strong of malt or brewers' grains, and no difference was observed 
 between the coarse grass which was put in wet at the first filling, and the 
 fine grass put in dry at the last, each being equally well preserved, which 
 convinced those present that the undertaking was a decided success. 
 
 The silo was constructed in part of an ordinary farm out-office, by 
 taking off lift, at one end by means of a partition. This was formed 
 by three upright beams of timber, the height of the side walls, and 9in. 
 square, placed one at each wall, and one in the centre, which divided the 
 partition iuto two parts, each 6ft. Sin. wide ; two laths lin. square were 
 nailed on each upright, between which a double sheeting was placed (as 
 the grass was put in), leaving a space of Sin. between, which was tightly 
 packed with sawdust ; the sheeting next the ensilage was lin. thick, and 
 the outside 2in. This compartment measured 14 X 11 X 15 = 2310 
 cubic feet. 
 
 The measurement of ensilage when the silo was opened was 14 X 11 
 X 8i ^ 1309 cubic feet, and weight 401b. per cubic foot^equal tO' 
 23 tons 8cwt. ; this gives a decrease in weight since the grass was put in 
 of 1 ton 2cwt. (24 tons lOcwt. being put into silo). Cost of storing, not 
 including mowing or fitting up of silo, Is. 6d. per ton. The number of 
 acres mown was three, the average produce of hay being estimated at 2 
 tons per acre, equal to 6 tons when stored. 
 
 R. C. EOBBETS, 
 
 Agriculturist to Ool. H. T. Clements, D.L., J.P. 
 
 MR. G. BOLSTER'S SILO, CURRABOWBR. 
 The silo was a house 14ft. long by 8ft. wide, and 9ft. in height. On the- 
 1st of July Mr. Bolster commenced to fiU this chamber with long rank 
 grass cut from a lawn overshadowed by trees. The grass was cut into 
 2in. lengths, and planks were laid and sufficient stones to weigh 1001b. 
 to the square foot. The planks and stones were taken off, and more grass 
 added four times. Mr. Bolster states that he only went to the silo on wet 
 days when he could not carry on the ordinary hay-making operations, and 
 that he invariably put in the layers of grass in a thoroughly wet state, and 
 on the last layer being completed he doubled the weight at first laid on. 
 Thus the silo and its contents remained until Dec. 1st, when the mass 
 was found in a very satisfactory state of preservation. At first the cows 
 partook of it sparingly, but, after a few days, took to it with a keen 
 relish; their milk has increased since they have been fed upon the ensil- 
 age, and they look in excellent healih.— Irish Farmers' Gazette. 
 
Irish Silos. 339 
 
 ENSILAGE AT THE MUNSTER DAIRY SCHOOL. 
 The experiment at the Munster Dairy School was of the simplest char- 
 acter, but it has not on that account proved the less successful. The silo 
 consisted of a house, 12ft. by 9ft., which Mr. Smith, the superintendent 
 of the Dairy Farm, got ready by boarding up the window and doorway, 
 the stuff being put over the wall on one side, which is 9ft. 6in. high, and 
 does not reach the roof. The silo was filled between the 1st and 4th of 
 Aug. with 1 ton 14cwt. of vetches, and 4 tons 16cwt. of old meadow grass, 
 freshly cut, and some of which was taken in quite wet. The vetches were 
 passed through the chaif-cutter and put in first around the walls, which 
 are very rough, in order to facilitate sinking. The grass was not cut, but 
 was well tramped as it was put in. When the house was filled, boards 
 were laid on, and on these metal corn stands giving a pressure of 901b. to 
 the square foot, which had the effect in fifteen days of reducing the mass 
 from 9ft. 6in. to 4ft. 6in. Mr. Smith, however, did not re-fill, as he con- 
 sidered the quantity of stuff put in sufficient for the purposes of his. 
 experiment, and in this condition it was allowed to remain until the end 
 of December. The expense of filling, fixing weights, &c., was but 22s. 
 When the door was removed the odour coming from the silo was found to 
 be similar to that which proceeds from a brewery vat. The ensilage was 
 of a brownish colour, quite damp and perfectly sweet ; quantities of it 
 were at once distributed amongst the cattle in their stalls close by, and 
 they attacked it without hesitation, and with an apparently keen relish. 
 A horse which had been regaling on some dry hay immediately rejected 
 that provender on being presented with a wisp of the ensilage. All 
 present pronounced the experiment an unqualified success, and were 
 highly pleased at the result, notwithstanding that the experiment was of 
 the roughest description. Owing to the roughness of the walls, one or 
 two of the boards got caught at one side ; this admitted the air and a 
 small patch, a few handsful of vetches, at this point suffered from rot. 
 The remainder of the vetches, however, notwithstanding that they occu- 
 pied the most unfavourable position in the silo, turned out perfectly 
 sweet. So satisfied were the committee with this, that they have it in 
 contemplation to next year experiment in a like manner upon grass and 
 mangel tops mixed, mangold tops alone, and other green food. — The 
 Farmer. 
 
 SIR J. F. DILLON'S ENSILAGE FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. 
 Sib, — I am stall-feeding twenty-four head of cattle on the contents of' 
 a silo erected principally from information obtained from your book. The 
 size is 40ft. by 10ft. by 10ft., and cost just 72?., 14L of which was for a 
 travelling winch and box for lifting the weights, 36 tons of stones. I can 
 extend it to double the size for 301. more. I put in Italian rye grass, old 
 meadow grass, oats, beans, and vetches (all uncut), covered with boards 
 lin. thick, and weighted 2001b. per square foot. I opened it Nov. 26, and 
 
34)0 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 fotmd the comers at tlie door bad, and about |in. at tbe top, bottom, and 
 •sides, rather musty, but still eaten by the cattle. On being opened the 
 temperature was 60°. I have the ensilage cut in the morning, shaken up 
 and packed into a heap, enough being cut for that evening and next 
 morning, and find the temperature about 57° when given to the cattle. 
 They get ensilage first in the morning, then cake, about noon a little 
 hay — which they do not care about, although very good — cake again, and 
 ensilage last in the evening ; and are doing very well. 
 
 Do cattle getting similar feeding to mine drink much water P I find 
 mine very thirsty, no salt having been used. I made no floor, only drained 
 it well, and have no loss at the bottom. John F. Dillon. 
 
 LismuUen, Navan, co. Meath, Dec. 17, 1883. 
 
 [When ensilage is substitxited for roots, cattle will drink much more 
 freely ; for, in 1001b. weight of roots there is about nine gallons of water, 
 and in ensilage giving an equal amount of nutriment there would only be 
 about a couple of gallons of water, so the animals must drink to make up 
 "the deficiency. — Ed.] 
 
 Sir, — I send yon by post a sample of ensilage from my sUo, and shall be 
 obliged if you will give me your opinion on it. I have stall-fed twenty- 
 five heifers on it, with 81b. of cake per day and 21b. of hay, and sold them 
 out fat at the end of about nine weeks. I also sold one fat that never got 
 anything but ensilage and 21b. of hay. These cattle went into the stalls 
 i;hin, after foot-and-mouth disease, and never had a root of any kind. For 
 about a fortnight at last they got, in place of cake, the same weight of 
 Indian corn or oats. John F. Dillon. 
 
 LismuUen, Navan, Meath, Ireland, April 2, 1884. 
 
 [The ensilage was of coarse grass, in very moist condition, and un- 
 chaffed, and considering the nature of the herbage, was a very good 
 .sample. — Ed.] 
 
 OHEMIOO-AGRIOULTURAL SOCIETY OF ULSTER. 
 At the monthly meeting of this society on Dec. 21, 1883, some par- 
 ticulars were given with respect to a small experiment on the saving of 
 grass in sUo. Mr. Walker, whose farm adjoins the school farm, and who 
 has a small silo, put in it on June 30 two loads of upland grass cut and 
 -stored on the same day. The grass was well tramped, a little dry straw 
 shaken over the top, then covered with boards and weighted down with 
 field stones ; the whole being finished by a light covering of earth to keep 
 out the air. When opened on Dee. 19, the appearance was not enticing, 
 but the grass, although discoloured, was quite sound and without musti- 
 ness. When it was first offered to the cows only one ate it, but when 
 given at the usual meal time all ate it with evident relish, and on the 
 following day Mr. Walker said that all his cattle, young and old, ate it as 
 they would fresh grass. — Irish Farmers' Gazette. 
 
Irish Silos. 341 
 
 LORD HARLICH'S SILO, DERRTARND, CO. ANTRIM. 
 The building was a disused ice-house, in form a cylinder of 12ft. in 
 diameter by 14ft. deep, built forty-seven years ago, with brick set in 
 Roman cement. The grass, from an old meadow, much shaded by trees, 
 was evenly spread, and tramped down by five men till the entire structure 
 was filled. Planks were then put on, and weighted with about five tons 
 of rough stones. In nine days the planks, &c., were removed, and the 
 silo filled up with fresh grass, on which some heavy showers of rain fell 
 while carrying. This was repeated at the end of another nine days, when 
 it was fiUed again with grass that was tedded and remained on the 
 meadow the greater part of a dry day. The planks were finally put on, 
 and covered with a foot of dry sawdust, and weighted with about seven 
 tons of stones, and was left so tiU Dec. 8. On removing the planks about 
 Sin. of the ensilage was found in a mouldy state. When the first truss 
 was cut out, notwithstanding its yellow colour and potent smell, it was 
 pronounced a complete success, an opinion afterwards fully borne out by 
 the avidity with which both cows and horses consumed the ensilage when 
 placed before them. The herdsman said " he thought they would choke 
 themselves eating it." — Irish Fariners' Gazette. 
 
 COST OF A SILO IN IRELAND. 
 
 Sir, — Having used ensilage with seventy cattle in stalls since the 8tk 
 of November, I can add my testimony to that of others as to the 
 advantages of it. I think these cattle have made more progress, for the 
 time, than any others previously fed by me ; and consequently I am quite 
 satisfied with the result. But I never depend upon any one kind of food ; 
 therefore, I use ensilage in conjunction with others. For the first 
 month, each animal got nearly SJst. of ensilage per day, with a like 
 quantity of turnips, and about 71b. of straw. Since then, 3|st. of ensilage, 
 2st. of turnips, 361b. of Indian meal stirabout, and a few pounds of straw. 
 I have not heard of a silo constructed exactly as mine is ; I therefore give 
 you the details of it. 
 
 I cut into a dry gravelly hiU, 70ft. in length by 15ft. wide, and 16ft. 
 deep. I bought ten old iron rails, 24ft. long, which raised the structure 
 4ft. above the surface (being sunk 4ft. into the ground at the bottom of 
 the pit) ; then I put on wall plates, rafters, and a covering of light boards, 
 and felt. In place of walls, I used boards l^in. thick, filling in the earth, 
 and packing it behind the boards. Finding the pressure of the earth too 
 strong, I added eleven wooden posts, and then tied all (both wood and iron 
 posts) with old cart tyres to short posts sunk in the ground, and not 
 appearing above the surface. The front is buUt of mason work, with a 
 double door, wide enough to admit a cart. 
 
 The silo is divided into five compartments, each 14ft. by 15ft., as it 
 
342 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 appeared to me it would be more convenient in that way to fill, and that 
 difEerent qualities of feeding could be kept separate. Three compartments 
 have been filled with first class meadow grass, the remaining two with a 
 Tery bad Mad of marshy grass, to which some salt and spice was added. 
 This will be for the use of newly-bought cattle in spring. 
 
 I now give you the cost of the silo, premising that labourers' wages are 
 
 low in the locality : 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Excavating and removing earth and gravel 15 15 8 
 
 Filling in and levelling ditto 1 16 2 
 
 Timber 31 12 11 
 
 Carriage of ditto 7 1 3 
 
 Home-grown timber 2 6 
 
 Tenoldrails 11 7 2 
 
 Carriage of ditto 4 8 
 
 Eoofingfelt 2 10 
 
 Pelt varnish, IZ. IBs. id. ; men applying same, 7s 2 4 
 
 Building stones, and men carting same 4 6 6 
 
 Lime, 11. 9s. 9(i. ; cement, 16s 2 5 9 
 
 Mason and attendance 9 14 8 
 
 Carpenter and attendance 11 2 
 
 Blacksmith and attendance 2 7 5 
 
 Nails, 61. 17s. 3d.; bolts and nuts, 19s. 6d 7 16 9 
 
 143 spikes, 11 iron tires, and 24 straps 110 
 
 Paint for door, and man applying 9 4 
 
 Gastar 6 2 
 
 ^114 3 9 
 
 The account is slightly deficient in this, that there was some irregular 
 excavation for gravel already done ; but, this having caused some extra 
 trouble in filling, I think 5L would be a fair estimate for it. I did not 
 charge anything for horses, only the men's wages working them. 
 
 The silo is constructed square, the corners being merely cut off by a 
 board. The sides of the boards next to the earth have been coated with 
 gas tar, but nothing has been applied to the sides next to the ensilage. 
 The floor is paved, consequently it absorbs aU liquid which might other- 
 wise run off by the door, but the ensilage is quite moist, and, without any 
 waste to the bottom ; nor was there any worth speaking of on the top, 
 only about four or five hundredweight at the door. I put in five or six 
 tons of thistles, and the cattle eat them as freely as the other ensilage. 
 Not so, however, a second cutting of rye grass and clover ; this has a 
 stronger smeU, and they are not so fond of it. Irishman. 
 
 SiE, — A correspondent in The Field of Jan. 6, signing himself 
 " Irishman," gives an account of his experiences with a silo, which, in 
 every particular, even to putting some tons of thistles in the bottom, 
 almost exactly agrees with my own. 
 
 I ran an excavation of 60ft. into a gravel bank. Of this, the furthest 
 18ft. was formed into a silo 14ft. wide and 12ft. deep. The frame was 
 made of larch poles Sin. diameter at small end, and 18ft. long, sawn in 
 
Irish Silos. 343 
 
 half. These were sunk 2ft. below the level of the floor, and so projected 
 4ft. above the surface of the surrounding soil. A waU-plate of similar 
 material connected them along each side and end, and stretchers of larch 
 poles notched to drop on the wall -plate completed the frame. This to the 
 surface of surrounding soil was then boarded with 2in. plank of home- 
 grown timber, principally spruce and Scotch fir, fastened on with oak 
 tree-nails. The whole of this timber was prepared by steeping in a 
 solution of lime for about two months, a process which " Irishman '' will 
 find a cheap and effective preservation of home-grown timber, both against 
 wet, rat, and the attacks of the little beetle which so speedily destroys 
 sapwood of any kind. The four feet above the permanent planking was 
 filled with movable shutters, to admit of the grass being thrown in from 
 each side as it suited. The filling was done twice. The weights were 
 stones, which were laid down for Is. Qd. per ton. Twenty tons was the 
 quantity used for final weighting. The grass was cut from an old meadow 
 much shaded by trees, and which could only be saved as hay by being 
 drawn to another more open field. 
 
 We are using about two cubic yards per day, which is drawn to the 
 cattle sheds every morning at ten o'clock, and sprinkled with salt — 
 one feed given at 3 p.m. and one at 7 a.m. next day. The results in the 
 produce of milk and cream are being carefully noted. Aquaeius. 
 
 SILOS IF CO. MEATS. 
 
 Sib, — It may interest some of your readers to know what sort of trial 
 the system of ensilage is having in this county. There are several silos 
 in this neighbourhood of various capacities, from eighty to four hundred 
 tons, and all have turned out completely successful. 
 
 Beans, vetches, oats, rye grass, and old meadow grass have aU been 
 tried without a single failure. In one case over eighty head of cattle have 
 been fed on ensilage for the last six weeks, and are fattening in a 
 remarkable manner. My beasts, though fed with hay and cake in good 
 aftergrass, will pick up every atom of the coarsest grass ensilage thrown 
 to them. 
 
 A correspondent asks for information as to the disposal of grass cut by 
 a lawn mower in sUos. Having ensOaged in May last grass of this 
 description under a pressure of 1201b. to the square foot, I am happy to 
 say I have been able to produce a food very palatable to cattle, but not 
 very tempting in appearance, and with a peculiarly acid smeU. I presume 
 that, as in the case of comfrey, the very watery nature of the material is 
 the cause of the darkish colour, but, nevertheless, milch cows like it, and 
 give an increased flow of richer' milk when fed upon it. There was 
 absolutely no loss in the silo, and all the liquid part had been absorbed. 
 It was somewhat remarkable that in this silo the heating had quite 
 disappeared, and the ensilage when taken out was quite cold. 
 
 Randlestown, Navan, co. Meath, Dec. 10, 1883. N. T. Bteeaed. 
 
344 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 OAPT. McBRIDE'S EXPERIMENTS, CO. CORK. 
 
 [At a special meeting of the County Cork Agrionltural Society, Capt. McBride 
 laid before the members the following account of his experiments.] 
 
 My silo consists of part of a slied built for fattening-stalls. I divided 
 this building with a brick waU, and thus formed a silo 30ft. by 15ft. by 
 10ft. I left the feeding passage, which runs 4ft. above the bottom of the 
 pit and is 4ft. wide, though I was aware that this must more or less 
 interfere with the making of ensilage. The walls were cemented. 
 
 On June 18 I commenced cutting and carting new grass and clover, 
 which was immediately thrown into the pit and trampled by about five 
 men. This went on daily till the 23rd, when the silo was covered with 
 IJin. boards, and weighted with twenty-one loads of stones, giving a 
 pressure of 771b. to the square foot. The grass was sometimes wet with 
 rain and sometimes dry. On Sept. 23 I opened the silo and put in more 
 grass and clover (mixed seeds for permanent pasture sown in spring with- 
 out corn crop), moving boards and stones from one part to another as ■ 
 required, and replacing as quickly as possible. 
 
 On Dec. 7 I commenced giving to each of twenty-six milking cows, as 
 her daily ration, 601b. white turnips, 501b. cabbage, 101b. oat straw, and 
 best hay as much as she could consume. The cows were turned out 
 during the day. My cows are numbered, the even numbers standing on 
 the left of the house, the odd on the right. 
 
 On Dec. 14 I opened the silo and found the contents good, except some 
 inches on the top and sides, which were mouldy and unfit for use. Some 
 was also bad at bottom angle of feeding passage. The September 
 ensilage was not so good, however, as that made in June. The grass and 
 clover were not so good when put in, and the boards and weights were, in 
 my opinion, put on too quickly, thus preventing the escape of air. Some 
 of the cows at first refused to eat this, but in a few days ate any part of the 
 ensilage greedily. 
 
 On Dec. 14 1 weighed the milk of the cows, and tested it for butter fat 
 on 12th and 14th. The result was that the fifteen cows with odd numbers 
 gave 2071b. milk (average, 13-8); the eleven with even numbers gave 
 1531b. milk (average 13-9). 
 
 On Dec. 12 the evening's milk of odd numbers gave 2-56 per cent, 
 butter fat ; and on the 14th their morning's mUk gave 2'77 per cent, 
 (average, 2-66). On Dec. 12 the evening's mUk of even numbers gave 
 226 per cent, butter fat ; and on the 14th their morning's 2-46 per cent, 
 (average, 2-36). Showing that the odd numbers gave less than the even, 
 but that their milk was of better quality. 
 
 I now instructed my steward to feed the odd numbers as before, but to 
 give even numbers 201b. ensilage and only half former supply of roots 
 and cabbage, straw as before and no hay, and to increase ensilage daUy 
 and reduce green food gradually till Deo. 21. For the first two or three 
 
Irish Silos. 345 
 
 days the cows got more ensilage than I intended, but on the whole I 
 believe the experiment to have been fairly carried out. 
 
 On Dec. 21 I weighed the milk, and tested it for butter fat on the 19th 
 and 21st. The result was that fifteen odd numbers gave 2141b. milk 
 (average, 1426); eleven even numbers gave 1611b. milk (average, 14-63). 
 On Dec. 19, evening's milk of odd numbers gave 2-36 per cent, butter 
 fat, and on the 21st their morning's milk gave 2'66 per cent, (average, 
 , 2-51). On Dec. 19, evening's milk of even numbers gave 2'56 per cent, 
 butter fat, and on the 21st their morning's milk gave 2-87 per cent, 
 (average, 2'71). Showing that odd numbers gave still less milk than even, 
 and that even numbers gave richer milk than odd instead of poorer, as 
 they did before getting ensilage. Of the fifteen odd numbers (getting 
 no ensilage) five decreased in quantity, seven increased, three gave same 
 amount as preceding week. Of the eleven even numbers (getting ensilage) 
 one decreased in quantity, six increased, four gave same amount as pre- 
 ceding week. 
 
 From Deo. 21 to 28 each cow got half a cubic foot (about 201b.) of 
 ensilage, 501b. green food, 81b. oat straw. On the 28th the milk gave an 
 average per cow of 13'181b. Three cows WQre allowed to go dry, but in 
 the above calculation they are included as having given the same quantity 
 as preceding week. The evening's milk of Deo. 29 gave 2'56 per cent, 
 butter fat ; the morning's ipilk of Dec. 31 gave 2'77 per cent, butter fat 
 (average, 2'66). Showing that for feeding purposes half a cubic foot of 
 ensilage (or 201b.) is equal to 501b. of roots and cabbage, 21b. of straw, and 
 101b. of hay ; for, by giving this amount of ensilage, I save all the hay, half 
 the roots, and 21b. of straw per day for each cow, and yet get as much milk 
 as before (allowing for the natural decrease at this time of year), and that 
 of a better quality than on Dec. 14, when the cows had been fed on 1001b. 
 green food, 101b. of straw, and hay as much as they could eat. This hay 
 I estimate at 101b. The cows were each getting from 21b. to 31b. unde- 
 corticated cotton cake daily during these experiments. 
 G-lendonagh, Midleton, Jan. 3, 1884. B. B. McBeide. 
 
 SILOS IN KING'S COUNTY. 
 Me. "W. p. H. Llotd-Vaughan, D.L., of Golden Grove, constructed 
 last spring two silos, each 16ft. long, 6ft. wide, and 8ft. high. A cow- 
 house, the roof and outside walls of which were in good repair, was used 
 for the purpose, and divided by a partition built of concrete 9in. thick. 
 On the 11th of July Mr. Vanghan commenced to fill the silos with wet 
 grass, cut during heavy rain. On the first day 3ft. of grass was put in, 
 and on the two succeeding days 18in. When the silos were filled, boards 
 IJin. thick, and a little short of the breadth of the silos were placed 
 across the top, and on these boards weight to the amount of 1121b. to the 
 
 A A 
 
346 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 square foot. After three days more grass was added to the mass, and on 
 the sixth day the same operation was repeated. There was then placed 
 a covering of Sin. of heather, and on this the boards and weights, the 
 latter being increased to 2cwt. to the square foot. In about a month, the 
 fodder having sunk 2ft., it was filled with an additional quantity as 
 before. The silos were then left until the close of November, when they 
 were opened. The ensilage was in a very perfect state, moist, but no 
 water could be squeezed from it. At the extreme top of the silos it was 
 not as good as the middle or bottom of the pit. Mr. Vaughan gave three 
 stone of the ensilage per day to four of his milch cows. They ate it 
 greedily and appeared to thrive on it, and gave more milk than before. 
 The quantity of grass siloed was 30 tons, 15 tons in each silo. 
 
 The result, highly satisfactory as it is, did not in any way surpass in 
 success that of a similar experiment made at the farmyard of Oharle- 
 ville Forrest, TuUamore, by Mr. Lammon, steward to Capt. Kenneth 
 Howard, D.L. This silo, which was opened on Dec. 3, was constructed 
 entirely above ground, an existing building being used for the purpose. 
 The pit was filled with coarse wood grass, green oats, and vetches. It 
 could scarcely be anticipated that this material, which could not ordi- 
 narily be turned to any profitable account, would make good ensilage ; 
 yet the experiment, carried out under difficulties likely to militate against 
 success, was pronounced a signal success. The preservation of all the 
 ensilage was perfect, and on a portion of it being given to a cow that had 
 never previously tasted such food, it was at once eaten with apparent 
 relish. Capt. Kenneth Howard meditates erecting extensive and per- 
 manent silos during the ensuing year, to be worked under the supervision 
 of his steward. — Irish Times. 
 
 ALBERT MODEL :FARM, GLASNEVIN. 
 
 [PBorBSSOR Carroll, in accordance with the desire of the Lord Lieutenant of 
 Ireland (Earl Spencer), carried out some ensilage experiments in 1882 on the 
 model farm of the Albert institution, and at the beginning of 1883 his official 
 report was issued, from which the following are extracts.] 
 
 I AM of opinion that the successes of the Continental and American 
 farmers are sufficient to warrant our trying it on an extensive scale in 
 these countries, and the measure of success of our experiments at the 
 Albert Farm strengthens my opinion on this point. 
 
 Referring to the opinions adverse to its adoption here, I would suggest, 
 First, as regards our cultivated plants not being suited for ensilage. There 
 can be no doubt that grasses of various kinds are well adapted to the pro- 
 cess, and on a large range of soils — especially peat — Italian rye-grass 
 yields a large produce. Rye, too — a crop which may be profitably 
 cultivated on our poor, cold soils — ^is well suited to the system. I believe 
 
Irish Silos. 347 
 
 that many of the indigenous grasses — notably florin (Agrostis stolonifera) 
 — will be found to yield a large quantity of suitable fodder, and that if the 
 system were adopted much green fodder now lost would find its way into 
 the silo, to be profitably consumed by cattle. Doubtless, too, we should 
 find that if the silo became an institution a large introduction of forage 
 plants would take place^many varieties of the sorghum being particularly 
 suited to the system — and more attention might also be given to the 
 cultivation of maize in the districts suited by climate for its growth. 
 
 Again, it may be found by future experiment that the costly system of 
 root-growing may give way before a less expensive system of growing 
 other provender for ensilage, and that the produce of grass or other 
 ensilaged fodders may exceed in nutritive matter a much heavier crop of 
 roots. These are matters for future experiment, to be carried out under 
 the direction of practical and scientific men. 
 
 Respecting the opinion that the chemical changes which take place 
 durino- the slight fermentation of the fodder are injurious to it as food, I 
 cannot help thinking that this opinion has been arrived at in too summary 
 a manner. 
 
 I may say that I consider the matter has the largest interest for the 
 dairy farmer, foreign experience having shown that ensilage has increased 
 the yield of milk in dairy cows very considerably, and that the objection- 
 able flavouring of milk and butter which results from the consumption of 
 roots is avoided where ensilage is substituted. 
 
 [The information as to the modus opercmdi, given below, is not so complete as is 
 desirable. There is nothing to show what, if any, weight was put on the fodder ; 
 yet it is difficult to see how the silo could otherwise he made air-tight. The 
 experiments were as follows :] 
 
 On the 25th of July the fodder was cut. 
 
 No. 1. Lucerne and straw chaffed and put into a silo about flve feet 
 deep, and lined with boards, so as to make it air-tight and water-tight. 
 
 2. Oomfrey and lucerne chaffed, with a very small proportion of oat 
 straw, and put into a similar sUo. 
 
 3. Italian rye-grass, not chaffed, packed tightly into a silo. 
 
 4. Italian rye-grass, not chaffed, packed tightly into a silo which was 
 simply a pit dug in the ground, without any protecting casing or lining. 
 
 5. Italian rye-grass, packed tightly on the surface of the ground, and 
 covered with about eighteen inches of earth in a manner similar to a 
 
 "potato pit." » 11 • AX. 
 
 On the 9th of October the silos were opened, and the following was the 
 
 In numbers 1, 3, and 4 the fodder had a temperature of about 75° 
 Pahr ■ it was apparently in good condition, having a smeU somewhat like 
 fresh brewers' grains. The cows on pasture, as weU as those which were 
 being house-fed, ate this food with avidity. 
 
 In number 2 the comfrey and lucerne were quite spoUed ; the colon 
 
 A A 2 
 
348 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 had not been much altered, but the smell was most offensive, and the mass 
 appeared to be quite putrid. 
 
 No. 5, the Italian rye-grass, was quite dry, but mouldy, and perfectly 
 unfit for food. 
 
 [The particulars of the analysis are not so clear as could be wished, the two 
 specimens of ensilage not being identified with the experiments to which they 
 belong. Thus, ensilage N"o. 1 and No. 2 cannot have come from siloa No. 1 and 
 2, and would appear to be samples of the Italian rye-grass from sUos 3 and 4. 
 The difference between them as regards water and other constituents probably 
 arises from the one having been kept in a water-tight silo, and the other in an 
 unlined hole dug in the ground, but there is no evidence to show which is which. 
 Dr. Cameron says :] 
 
 The specimens of ensilage were in a state of fermentation when they 
 were brought for analysis. The specimens were at once subjected to a 
 temperature of 212°, and kept thereat till dried, which prevented further 
 fermentation. 
 
 It is noticeable, first, that the albumenoids are less in the ensilage than 
 in the original grass ; that the water is much the same in quantity in all 
 the samples ; that the amount of soluble non -nitrogenous matter is greater 
 in the ensilage than in the grass from which they had been prepared ; that 
 the amount of ash is greater in the ensilage than in the grass. 
 
 Composition op Ensilase and of the Gkass peom which it was made. 
 
 100 parts contain — 
 
 Water 68-20 
 
 Albumenoids (nitrogenous substances) 
 
 Non-nitrogenous substances, soluble i iq.^o TK-on id,-S9 
 
 in acids and alkaline solutions . . . j 
 
 Insoluble in ditto 11-73 11-37 10-13 
 
 Fats.... 0-76 0-77 0-75 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 3-06 3-40 3-60 
 
 Grass 
 when eut. 
 
 Ensilage 
 No.l. 
 
 Ensilage 
 No. 2. 
 
 68-20 . 
 
 66-50 .. 
 
 .... 68-10 
 
 2-83 . 
 
 2-76 .. 
 
 .... 2-60 
 
 100-00 100-00 100-00 
 
 [As it may interest sonie of our readers to compare these analyses with those 
 which appear in other pages, we have recalculated the percentage on the dry 
 substance only, when the variation in the solid matter will be more readily seen 
 than when the differing quantities of water are included.] 
 
 Grass Ensilage Ensilage 
 
 100 parts of dry substance contain — when cut. No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 Albumenoids 8-90 8-24 8-15 
 
 Non-nitrogenous substances : 
 
 Soluble 42-20 45-37 46-46 
 
 Insoluble 36-89 33-94 31-76 
 
 Fats 2-39 2-30 2-35 
 
 Ash 9-62. 10-15 11-28 
 
Fermentation in Silos. 349 
 
 FERMENTATION IN SILOS. 
 
 [Mr. Geokge Fby, F.L.S., of The Warren, Chobham, Surrey, has given in the 
 Agricultural Gazette and In the Farmers' Almanac some interesting particulars 
 with respect to the temperatures in his silos, and we comhine several letters 
 so as to make the information consecutive, but omit some of the less 
 important portions, in order to save space.] 
 
 Mt first experiment with ensilage was made in 1882. I grew a few rods 
 of maize stems on some headlands. I then dug a hole in the ground in a 
 dry sandy hillside. It was about 6ft. by 12ft. by 8ft. deep, I cut the 
 maize stems just as they were blooming, out them into chaff about half an 
 inch long, and threw it into the hole, covered the ensilage with planks 
 2in. thick, and filled up the hole with sand. After three months I threw 
 out the sand and found sour ensilage perfectly sound and good. I fed 
 my milch cows entirely on it for a fortnight, and found it increased the 
 milk about 25 per cent. 
 
 This year (1883) I fiUed two similar holes of the same size, 6ft. by 12ft. 
 by 8ft. deep, with chaffed green rye, covering with 2in. planks and sand 
 as before. When they had been covered for about four months I opened 
 them, and found sour ensilage perfectly sound and good. I fed it to 
 cattle and sheep with good results. There were at least 20 tons of this 
 rye ensilage. 
 
 In the meantime I had built three silos in concrete, each 12ft. by 12ft. 
 by ISft. deep. Tliey have solid walls, 9in. thick, of Portland cement 
 concrete, and the bottoms are of the same material ; 9ft. 6in. of the walls 
 are above ground, and 5ft. 6in. under ground. On the front side each 
 sUo has a door of red fir 2in. in thickness, which is closed and made 
 secure before the filling of the silo is commenced. The silos are filled 
 from the top. 
 
 The green crop was mown, carried at once from the field, and pitched 
 from the cart into the sUo, spread as evenly as possible, and well trodden, 
 especially round the edges. The sUo was not filled up at once, but a fresh 
 layer of fodder about 2ft. thick put in every day (as recommended by 
 M. Goffart). When the ensilage began to reach the top of the silo, the 
 mass sank considerably in twenty-four hours, so that complete filling was 
 a work of some days. The fiUing of No. 1 silo was commenced on June 7, 
 1883, with Trif olium incarnatum, of which about 15 tons were put in ; 
 then about 3 tons of rough grass, then another ton of trifolium, filling up 
 with clover and rye-grass. On June 30 the silo was full. 
 
 By means of a perforated iron tube with a sharp steel point, driven into 
 the centre of the mass, I ascertained the temperature to be on June 30, at 
 2ft. from the top surface, 31^ 0. (89° Fahr.) ; at 3ft., 431° 0. (110° 
 Fahr.) ; at 4ft., 46° C. (115° Fahr.) ; at 5ft., 53° 0. (128° Fahr.) ; at 6ft., 
 56° C. (133° Fahr.) 
 
 This silo was then covered with paper, and with 2in. planks laid closely 
 together, sand being thrown on to the planks to the depth of about 12in. 
 
350 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 Oil July 11 thie mass had sunk about 6ft. ; it was therefore uncovered, 
 and the temperature at 6ft. from the surface found to be 60° 0. (140° 
 Fahr.) The silo was fiUed up with meadow grass, covered, and weighted 
 as before. The operation of uncovering and filling up with meadow grass 
 was repeated on July 17, and this silo was finally closed and weighted 
 with 2ft. of sand on July 21, when I ascertained the temperature at 6ft. 
 from the surface to be still 60° 0. 
 
 The filling of No. 2 silo was commenced on June 30 with clover and 
 rye-grass, and proceeded somewhat more rapidly than that of No. 1. 
 When the height reached was 9ft. from the bottom, I ascertained the 
 temperature at 6ft. from the surface to be 36° 0. (97° Fahr.) After this 
 meadow grass of good quality was put into this sUo. On July 7 the 
 temperature at 6ft. from the surface had risen to 65° 0. (149° Fahr.) On 
 July 11 this silo was fuU, and was covered up and weighted. On July 14 
 it was again uncovered (having sunk fully 6ft.), and the temperature then 
 at 6ft. from the surface was 70° 0. (158° Fahr.) 
 
 From these observations it will be evident that the temperature in the 
 interior of these silos was maintained for a very considerable period at 
 from 60° 0. to 70° 0. (from 140° to 158° Fahr.) The escape of heat 
 from so dense a mass is very slow. On July 1 the temperature of the 
 sand covering No. 1 silo was 20° 0. (68° Fahr.), and on July 7 it had 
 risen only to 30° 0. (86° Fahr.) 
 
 Silo No. 1 was opened on Oct. 25, after having been closed four months, 
 and its contents were found to be precisely similar to a sample taken 
 immediately before the final weighting. But this ensilage differs entirely 
 in character from the results of my previous experiments (made with 
 chaffed green maize stems, and chaffed green rye). I have already (Nov. 
 27 ) used about 20 tons of the ensilage for sheep and cattle. It is excellent 
 fodder, and the animals thrive well on it. This is brown sweet ensilage. 
 
 The other two silos have not yet been opened, but I know from the tem- 
 perature that the second silo wiU be a brown sweet ensilage, and the third 
 (whole green maize stems) will be sour ensilage. 
 
 This year (1883) I have about 120 tons of ensilage, and next year I 
 intend to have at least 150 tons. 
 
 My neighbour, Mr. B. J. Halsey, of Pirbright, has built two silos 
 12ft. by 12ft. by 12ft. deep. He has filled one partly with green rye and 
 partly with trifolium. His experiment has been perfectly successful ; his 
 ensilage is of the sour type, but of excellent quality. 
 
 It is quite clear from my own observations, and also from statements 
 which have been published, that so high a temperature as 50° 0. (122° 
 Fahr.) is by no means general ; the maximum temperature in silos. 
 apparently ranging from 20° 0. (68° Fahr.), to 70° 0. (158° Fahr.) 
 according to the nature of the crop and the conditions under which it is 
 stored. 
 
 It appears to me quite evident that there are two distinct types of 
 ensilage, either of which may be produced at wUl. This fact explains the 
 
Fermentation in Silos. 351 
 
 very different opinions which have been expressed as to this mode of 
 preserving green crops, and also the very material variations in the 
 analyses which have been published. In order that the difference in these 
 two types of ensilage, and the conditions necessary to produce them may 
 be understood, it will be necessary to consider briefly the laws which 
 govern fermentations of the class to which those of the silo belong. 
 
 To Gay Lussac we owe the discovery of the first two laws (which have 
 since been confirmed by M. L. Pasteur, and, as far as I know, have 
 received general acceptance) : — (1) Free oxygen is a necessary agent at 
 the commencement of fermentation ; (2) When fermentation has become 
 active, a supply of free oxygen is no longer necessary to its progress. 
 
 Oxygen exists among the green plants packed in a silo, consequently 
 some kind of fermentation is always set up. This fact I have ascertained 
 by direct experiment, and it is confirmed by all the analyses of ensilage 
 which have been published, for they show the presence of considerable 
 quantities of organic acids, products of fermentation. In accordance 
 with law 2, the fermentation once begun would continue indefinitely even 
 in an airtight silo. 
 
 Pasteur discovered another law. (3) Active fermentation continues, in 
 accordance with law 2, only within certain limits of temperature. A 
 temperature exceeding 50° C. (122° Fahr.) destroys the vitality of 
 ferments, and the germs remain inert until again excited by free oxygen. 
 The kind of fermentation to which grasses and clover are most readily 
 subject when exposed to the air is that commonly known as " haying." 
 Its progress is sufiiciently indicated by the sweet, aromatic odour which is 
 characteristic of its products. The temperature in the interior of a rick 
 of well-got meadow hay reaches (in my experience) a maximum between 
 60° and 70° C. (140° and 158° Fahr.) But if similar green crops be 
 protected from the atmosphere, "haying" does not take place; they 
 appear under these conditions most readily to undergo lactic fermentation, 
 which is indicated by a sour and rather repulsive odour. The temperature 
 most favourable for this fermentation lies between 20° 0. and 40° C. 
 (68° and 104° Fahr.)— 45° C. (113° Fahr.) appearing to be the extreme 
 limit. 
 
 Now, if grass or clover be mown and thrown into a silo in small 
 quantities daily, so that considerable exposure to the atmosphere is allowed 
 (as, for instance, in the case I have before cited, where a silo 12ft. by 12ft. 
 by 15ft. deep was filled gradually in a period extending over several 
 weeks), a brisk " haying " fermentation will be excited. The temperature 
 rises rapidly until it exceeds 60° C. (reaching in the one case cited 60° C, 
 and in the other 70° C.) 
 
 This temperature (in accordance with law 3) arrests and destroys the 
 vitality of the ferment. Consequently, if the silo be maintained perfectly 
 air-tight (the smallest crevice does considerable damage), the ensilage wiU 
 be preserved without apparent change from the condition in which it was 
 when finally covered up and weighted. 
 
352 Silos for Fodder Crops. • 
 
 The ensilage produced by this process is of a brown colour, and of a 
 sweet, luscious odour, free from acidity, very much resembling that of 
 ordinary hay. Practical farmers say it smells like " mow-burnt " hay. 
 It is very compact and dense, a cubic foot weighing from 451b. to 501b. 
 Cattle, sheep, and horses eat it at once with apparent relish. It is difficult 
 to conceive how ensilage of this type can differ very widely in feeding 
 properties from ordinary hay. One would also suppose that its exposure 
 for months to a high temperature would render it easily digestible. It 
 seems to me that it will be convenient to distinguish this type as hrown 
 ensilage. 
 
 On the other hand, if a silo be filled with chaff, green rye, or green 
 maize stems, or with clover or meadow-grass in such a manner as to 
 prevent the access of the atmosphere — for instance, if it be filled as 
 rapidly as possible, well trodden, and covered every night so as to exclude 
 the air, then ensilage of a totally different character wiU be produced. 
 The temperature will rise only slightly, probably never exceeding 20° 0. 
 (68° Fahr.) On opening the silo, after having been closed for several 
 months, the ensilage will be found to be of a pale greenish-yellow colour, 
 and the flowers of trifolium iucarnatnm will still retain a dull purple hue. 
 It will have the peculiar acid smell (very persistent and not very agreeable) 
 characteristic of vegetable substances which have undergone lactic 
 fermentation (resembling the " sauerkraut " of the Germans). It will be 
 convenient to designate this type as sour ensilage. 
 
 On entering silos containuig sour ensilage of chaffed green rye a very 
 strong odour of aldehyde is observable — a substance which does not 
 appear in this case to have been formed by the oxidation of alcohol (for I 
 have as yet seen no indications of alcoholic fermentation in silos). It 
 is probably either formed from the decomposition of lactic acid or is a 
 bye-product during the fermentation. If such ensilage be exposed to the 
 air, the smell of aldehyde soon disappears, and a new fermentation begins, 
 with a rise of temperature, and the production of a slightly vinous odour. 
 Although to human beings this kind of ensilage may be to some 
 extent repulsive, animals seem to have considerable predilection for it ; 
 they eat it readily and thrive well on it. A cubic foot of sour ensilage 
 weighs generally somewhat less than the same volume of the other type. 
 
 Brown ensilage can be easily produced from trifolium incarnatum, 
 from clover and rye-grass, and from meadow-grass, but I have not yet 
 obtained it from green maize nor from green rye. 
 
 Sour ensilage can be produced from any green crop. Both the kinds 
 of ensilage which I have described appear to me to be sound and whole- 
 some food (I have used many tons of both kinds). I am unable to say 
 which sort is preferable. Perhaps sour ensilage will be found most suit- 
 able for animals producing milk, and brown ensilage for fatting stock. 
 
 I can only hope that the publication of my remarks on this interesting 
 subject may induce agriculturists who are experimenting to ascertain and 
 to record the temperature of their silos (at not less than 4ft. from the 
 
Fermentation in Silos. 
 
 353 
 
 surface), as well as the type to which their ensilage belongs, in order that 
 hefore long we may make some well-defined principles to guide us in 
 obtaining the best possible result from the preservation of our green crops 
 as ensilage. . . . 
 
 Sir J. B. Lawes endorses the statement of Professor Brown that " no 
 one had yet been able to produce untainted fodder by this method," 
 &c. If this be the case in America, it is not so here ! To those of 
 your readers who have followed my remarks with attention it will be 
 evident that " sour " ensilage must always contain the products of the 
 lower forms of fermentation, to a greater or less degree, and therefore 
 may be said to be tainted. Consequently, it has happened, in my own 
 experience, and also in that of some of my correspondents, that, when this 
 kind of ensilage has been given to cows, a disagreeable flavour has been 
 imparted to the milk, cream, or butter. But this is by no means generally 
 the case. One of my neighbours has given " sour " ensilage to his cows 
 during the whole of the past winter, and he teUs me that his dairy pro- 
 ducts have been in every way excellent. From the conditions under which 
 Mr. Henry Woods, of Merton, prepares his ensilage, I know that it is of 
 the " sour " type ; but we know from his published experience that the 
 dairy products at Merton have been free from taint or disagreeable 
 flavour. A mass of other evidence has also been published to the same 
 effect. Therefore I think that even vrith " sour " ensilage the sweeping 
 assertion of Professor Brown should be taken only in a modified sense. 
 
 But in the case of " brown " ensilage, I have succeeded in producing 
 it absolutely free from taint. I have just received (J^.prU 7, 1884) from 
 Dr. Voelcker the following results of the analysis of two samples 
 of ensilage — No. 1 from clover and rye-grass, and No. 2 from meadow- 
 grass : — 
 
 Water 
 
 *Albuininous compomids 
 
 Crude Fibre..., 
 
 Extractive matter 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 
 
 *Containiiig nitrogen 
 
 Acidity (reckoned as acetic acid). 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 75-80 
 2-53 
 
 18-31 
 1-42 
 1-94 
 
 74-40 
 2-56 
 
 17-90 
 2-99 
 2-15 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 -406 
 -027 
 
 -414 
 -073 
 
 I am aware that a short analysis like this conveys little information on 
 the general question of the feeding value of the ensilage, but the excep- 
 tionally small amount of acidity conveys, as I think, a complete answer to 
 the question of taint. 
 
 Moreover I sent similar samples of ensilage to my friends, Messrs. 
 
354 Silos Jor Fodder Crops. 
 
 0. F. Oross and E. J. Bevan, and asked for information on specific points, 
 to wMeli I have received the following replies : — " Neither ensilage 
 contains soluble aromatic bodies (tannins)." "No furfurol present." 
 "Acetaldehyde could not be detected." 
 
 In the above analyses " crude fibre " includes other substances besides 
 insoluble cellulose. This substance (cellulose) forms (as I learn from 
 Messrs. Cross and Bevan) in the case of No. 1, 30'90 per cent, of the 
 entire dry substance, and in the case of No. 2, 34'15 per cent. In the one 
 case, therefore, the crude fibre (18'31) would contain about 7'47 of 
 cellulose, and in the other 1790 of crude fibre would include about 8'74 
 of cellulose. The mineral matter (ash) of course includes the common 
 salt added at the time of pitting. 
 
 The crops (and their conditions), with which I have been most success- 
 ful have been meadow-grass and clover and rye-grass. These crops- 
 mature in June and July ; and, consequently, in ordinary seasons do not 
 contain so large a percentage of moisture as the crops which are ready to 
 cut in May or early June. The proportion of water in the crop should 
 not be so great that any portion of it should be expressed when moderate 
 pressure is applied in the silo; and I think that it should not be more 
 than 75 per cent., nor less than 50 per cent. A crop of good meadow- 
 grass, in full bloom and fit to cut for hay, in the middle of a warm, bright 
 July day, appears to me to be the standard of perfection. As to green 
 rye and Trifolinm incarnatum (both cut in May), it seems to me probable 
 that they may require slight drying before ensiling (at any rate when 
 beginning to flU a silo), as I wiU hereafter explain. 
 
 When the plant is in full bloom is no doubt the best time to cut in all 
 cases. As to maize, the large flat (horse-tooth) maize appears to me the 
 best kind to sow. Great care must be exercised in the choice of seed, for 
 its germinating power is apt to be very low, owing mainly I suppose, 
 to heating during its long journey. But the difficulty I have found 
 with this plant is to protect it in its early stage from the ravages of the 
 birds. When the young shoot has appeared aboveground, rooks and other 
 birds dig up the plant, in order to obtaui the soft, sweet seed at the root. 
 In this way I have seen thousands of my maize plants destroyed in a day, 
 I do not recommend the cultivation of maize as an ensilage crop. 
 
 Ensiling, or filling the silo, is the crucial operation of the whole 
 business. It will always require judgment and intelligence, and at 
 present we have little experience to guide us. We must try to keep 
 certain well-defined principles in view, and gradually perfect our practice 
 by exact and careful observation. 
 
 A brisk fermentation must raise the temperature of the whole of the 
 contents of the silo above 50° 0. (122° Eahr.). As the silo is an air-tight 
 chamber, we need have no fear of the temperature rising too high, 
 because, as I have shown, as soon as the temperature exceeds 50° C. 
 (122° Pahr.) it begins to destroy the vitality of the ferment. The tem- 
 perature acts, therefore, as an automatic governor of the fermentation. 
 
Fermentation in Silos. 355 
 
 Tte temperature may exceed even 70° C. (158° Fahr.) without doing 
 the least harm. As heat ascends, if we are careful to obtain the necessary 
 heat at the bottom of the silo, we need have no fear of the top. Air must 
 be present among the fodder in sufficient quantity to excite this necessary 
 brisk fermentation. If we fill the silo too quickly, or if we chafE the 
 fodder, the air will be forced out of the lower layers by the weight of the 
 superincumbent mass, and we shall have either all sour ensilage, or soar 
 ensilage at the bottom of the ensilage, and a good brown ensilage at the 
 top. If the fodder contain too much water it will rapidly fall together in 
 a cold sodden mass. 
 
 It will now be seen how difficult it is to fulfil these necessary conditions 
 with the thick, hard stems of maize. If we put them in whole, the air 
 has little action on them fon account of their large size and hard cuticle), 
 the temperature will gradually rise to about 20° C. (68° Fahr.), and then 
 it will begin to fall — we shall have a disagreeable mass of sour ensilage. 
 If, on the other hand, we chaff the maize, it falls together very quickly 
 and produces very good sovir ensilage; but I have not succeeded in 
 obtaining the necessary heat to produce brown ensilage. M. Goffart 
 insists on the advantage of filling small quantities of chaffed maize at a 
 time, but whether he really succeeded in obtaining the desired tempera- 
 ture has not been recorded. It is clear that he knew that a brisk fermen- 
 tation was an advantage, but he did not know why. 
 
 Filling the Silo. 
 
 With these principles in view the following is the precise method I 
 propose to adopt in filling a silo : — 
 
 Mow about a couple of cartloads of grass, and half -make it into hay. 
 As soon as it develops the characteristic smell of hay (before it is dry) 
 cart it to the silo and spread it lightly over the bottom. On to this at 
 once put about two feet deep of the fodder to be ensiled, mown and 
 carried direct from the field. Do not trample it, but spread it even and 
 lightly. The next day add another 2ft. of fodder, mown, carried, and put 
 in in the same way. Proceed in this way for a few days until the surface 
 of the mass has risen more than 6ft. from the bottom of the silo. Now 
 drive into the mass the iron tube (which I wiU hereafter describe), and 
 with the thermometer ascertain the temperature at a foot or two from 
 the bottom of the silo. If this reaches 45° 0. (or 113° F.) you may 
 proceed more rapidly and fill up the silo in one, two, or more days, tread- 
 ing it round the sides so as to insure the even settling of the- fodder near 
 the walls. If the temperature at the bottom is found to be below 45° 0., 
 the top layer of fodder must be shaken up, and the filling continued 
 gradually, the fodder being put in as lightly as possible. When the 
 temperature increases to 45° C, the silo may be fiUed up more quickly. 
 As the sinking of the mass makes room at the top of the silo, fill up with 
 more fodder every day or two. If Sunday or a very wet day intervene at 
 any stage of the operations, so as to stop the work, it will be of no con- 
 
356 Silos for Fodder Crops. 
 
 sequence ; but the interval between leaving off filling and beginning 
 again should not exceed four clear days. It will be better to shake up an 
 inch or two of the surface before adding fresh fodder. 
 
 Neither covering nor weighting is to be put on during the progress of 
 the filling (of course rain is to be kept out). When the mass sinks so 
 slowly as to leave little space for fresh fodder after an interval of two or 
 three days, the silo may be filled up with fodder, well trodden, so as to get 
 in as much as possible, and finally covered up and weighted. In a 
 week or two the mass will sink probably about one-fourth of the total 
 depth. If a temporary top has been added to the silo, this may then be 
 removed. 
 
 If desired, the covering may be removed, and the silo again filled up ; 
 but I consider it preferable to have sufficient silo-room, that the necessity 
 for this may be avoided. The labour is considerable, and a layer of taint 
 wiU always be found whei-e the covering has been. As will have been 
 observed, the speed with which the silo can be filled will depend much 
 upon the condition of the crop. If it be succulent and watery, the fiUiug 
 must proceed slowly (at any rate at the commencement), and the fodder 
 must be spread lightly. If the crop be ripe and dry, the filling may 
 proceed rapidly, and the fodder be trodden in. 
 
 From time to time the testing tube should be driven in ; whenever a 
 temperature of 45° 0. (113° F.) is shown at 3 or 4 feet from the snrfaiCe, 
 the filling may go on rapidly. In some cases (especially when beginning 
 to fill a silo), when the crop is green and succulent, it may be found 
 desirable to dry the fodder in the sun for a few hours, in order to avoid 
 the introduction of too large a percentage of moisture. 
 
 The testing tube I have constructed in the following manner : — A piece 
 of common iron gas pipe, lin. in diameter (internal) and about 6ft. long, 
 is shod at one end with a solid steel point, and just above this a few holes 
 about one-eighth of an inch in diameter are drilled, so that air or gas may 
 pass in within a foot of the point. On to the other end a ferrule, to which 
 two strong arms have been welded, is screwed. This tube is driven into 
 the ensilage with a wooden mallet, and is withdrawn by means of a chain 
 wound round the ferrule. As the ensilage holds the tube vei-y tightly 
 it will be found necessary to use a wooden lever attached to the chain to 
 withdraw it ; it can also be twisted by means of the arms to loosen it. 
 
 When the tube has been in its place for ten minutes or more (the top 
 being plugged) the temperature may be observed by dropping down inside 
 it an ordinary glass thermometer attached to a string, and after a few 
 seconds rapidly pulling it up. These thermometers may be obtained 
 graduated either to Centigrade or Fahrenheit scale. I prefer the former. 
 
 A small piece of wool or other similar substance should be ]pushed down 
 to the bottom of the iron tube in order that the glass thermometer, when 
 let down, may not be broken by coming in contact with the iron. 
 
INDEX TO SILOS. 
 
 [The following does not profess to be a complete list of those who have 
 had sUos constructed in Great Britain and Ireland ; but, inasmuch as 
 many silos were known to be in eidstence in the United Kingdom 
 besides such as are particularised in the foregoing pages, it was 
 thought probable that it might be of intei-est to the reader to have 
 the Index to this volume supplemented by the names of owners of 
 sUos not included therein, even though there may be no further 
 particulars. 
 
 Where figures are given, they refer to the pages of this book. 
 Where the letters R.A.S. are inserted, they indicate that particulars 
 will be found in the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England" for April, 1884; and B. & W.B., in like manner, indicate 
 the " Journal of the Bath and West of England Society " for February 
 1884. Where neither figures nor letters are given, it means that 
 those who are named are owners of silos, but that further information 
 about them is wanting.] 
 
 Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland , 
 347 
 
 Ashbnrton, Lord, The Grange, Aires- 
 ford, Hants, 57 ; also B. & W. B. 
 
 Aahforth, Mr. J., Longley Hall, Shef- 
 field, 307; alaoB,.A.S. 
 
 Bainbridge, Mr. E. S., Eaverstone, 
 Staindrop, Darlington 
 
 Baird, Sir D., Newbyth, East Lothian, 
 333 
 
 Baring, Mr. B. C, Otterton, Devon. 
 
 Barkie, Dr., Tankerness, Orkney, 334 
 
 Bateman, Mr. J. A., Brightlingaea, 
 Essex, 274 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Beacook, Mr. Josh., Winterton, Lin- 
 colnshire 
 
 Beard, Mr. F., Horton, Kent. 
 
 Beanohamp, Earl of, Madresfield Court, 
 Worcestershire 
 
 BentaU, Messrs. E. and Co., Heybridge, 
 Maldon, Essex, 70 
 
 Bessbrook Spinning Company, Bess- 
 brook, Ireland, 336 
 
 Birch, Eev. E. J., Overstone, North. 
 
 ampton, 292 
 Blantyre, Lord, Preelands Erskine. 
 
 Eenfrewshire, 319 
 Bolster, Mr. G., Currabower, Ireland, 
 
 338 
 Bourne, Mr., Hilderstone Hall, Staf' 
 
 fordshire, 254 
 Bourne, Mr. John, Staffordshire, 254 
 Braasey, Mr. H. A., M.P., Aylesford. 
 
 Maidstone, Kent, 283 
 Brewster, Mr. J. A., Hatherley Hall, 
 
 Cheltenham 
 Bristol, Marquis of, lokworth, Suffolk. 
 
 270 
 Brocklehurst, Lieut.-Colonel, Henbury 
 
 Park, Cheshire. 
 Broderick, Messrs., Hawes, N. York 
 
 shire, 216 ; also E.A.S. 
 Brougham, Mr. W., Culduthal House. 
 
 Inverness, 331 
 Brown, Mr. Jas., Donaghmore, Tyrone 
 Browne, Eev. E. Lathom, N'orth 
 
 Curry, Taunton, 245 
 
358 
 
 Index to Silos. 
 
 Bute, Marquis of, "Rothesay, 324 
 Byrd, Mr. C, Littlewood, Stafford. 
 
 Cardwell, Mr. A. J., Valley Holme, 
 Horsted Keyues, Sussex, 228 
 
 Children's Home, MOford, GraTeseud, 
 Kent. 
 
 Clements, Colonel, Lough Eyun, 
 Dromod, co. Leitrim, 337 
 
 Cochrane, Major, Aldwark Manor, 
 Yorkshire, 306 
 
 Colehrooke, Sir T. E., M.P., Abington, 
 Lanarkshire, 318 
 
 Coote, Mr. H., Oatlanda, St. Ives. 
 
 Copley, Mr. A., Bast Cowton, York- 
 shire, 203 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Crewe Sewage Farm, 253 
 
 Crowther and Co., Messrs., Cope Farm, 
 Stourport 
 
 Croydon Sewage Farm, 282 
 
 Cubitt, Mr. W., Pallapit, Bast AUing- 
 ton, Devon, 242 
 
 Cunard, Mr., Neville Holt, Market 
 Harboro', 259 
 
 Darlington Sewage Farm, 300 ; also 
 
 E.A.S. 
 Davis, Messrs. Blengawr Farm, Aber- 
 
 dare, 316 
 De Salis, Mr. H. J., Portnall Park, 
 
 Ascot 
 Dillon, Sir J. F., Bart., LismuUen, 
 
 Navan, oo. Meath, 339 
 Doubleday, Mr. H., Coggeshall, Essex, 
 
 32 
 Dudgeon, Mr., Woodhouselees, Dum- 
 fries, 322 
 Duncan, Mr. J., Benmore, Argyllshire, 
 
 330 
 
 Bade, Mr. A. W. F., Brafferton, Dar- 
 lington, E.A.S. 
 Earle, Mr. F. W., Edenhurst, Hayton, 
 
 Liverpool, 288 ; also E.A.S. 
 Eokersley, Mr. N., M.P., Standish Hall, 
 
 Wigan, Lancashire, 294 ; also E.A.S. 
 Edwards, Mr. Isaac N., Westminster 
 
 Lodge, St. Albans, Herts, 276 ; also 
 
 E.A.S. 
 Egerton, Lord, Tatton Park, Knuts- 
 
 ford, Cheshire, 249 ; also E.A.S. 
 Evans, Mr. Owen, BrownhiU, Pwllheli, 
 
 Carnarvonshire, 315 
 Bverard, Mr. N. T., Eandlestown, 
 
 Navan, oo. Meath, 343 
 
 Eraser, Mr. E. H., Arngomery, Stirling- 
 shire, 291 
 
 Firman, Mr. Craigpark. Eatho, Mid- 
 lothian, 333 
 
 Fitzhardinge, Lord, Berkeley Castle, 
 G-louoestershire, 259 
 
 Ford, Eev. C. H., Bishopton, Perry 
 Hill, Durham, 221 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Fortescue, Earl, Castle Hill, South 
 Moltou, Devon, 240 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Foulis, Dr., Cairnie Lodge, Fife, 287 
 
 Pry, Mr. G., The Warren, Chobham, 
 Surrey, 360 
 
 Fryer, Mr. H. C, Lodge Park, Glan- 
 dovey, Cardiganshire, E.A.S. 
 
 Gathorne-Hardy, Hon. J. S., Brandfold, 
 
 Staplehurst, Kent 
 Gibson, Mr. E. B., Saffron Walden, 
 
 Essex, 273; also E.A.S. 
 Glyn, Sir E. C, Bart., Lewestone, 
 
 Sherborne, Dorset, 237 
 Godmau, Mr. A. P., Smeaton Manor, 
 
 Northallerton. 
 Gorse, Mr. J. D., Eadoliffe-on-Trent, 
 
 Nottingham 
 Grant, Mr. A. H., Abbotswood, Eomsey, 
 
 Hants, 226; also E.A.S. 
 Green, Mr. J. W., Langthorpe, Kirby 
 
 HiU, Yorkshu'e 
 
 Halsey, Mr. E. J., Pirbright, Surrey 
 
 Hamilton, Duke of, Easton Park, Wick- 
 ham Market, Suffolk, 271; also 
 E.A.S. 
 
 Hamilton, Mr. J. G. C, M.P., Dalzell, 
 Lanarkshire, 318 
 
 Hanbury, Mr. E. W., Ilam Hall, Ash- 
 bourne, Derbyshire 
 
 Hardy, Mr. J. A., Upper Heyford, 
 Weedon 
 
 Hargreaves, Mr. J., Greenock House, 
 Bacup, 286 
 
 Harlich, Lord, Derryarne, co. Antrim, 
 341 
 
 Harris, Mr. W., Halwill Manor, High- 
 ampton, Devon, 238 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 HaiTOgate Irrigation Farm 
 
 Hawley, Mr. H. W., Turnby Hall, 
 Boston 
 
 Henderson, Mr., Eosebank, Wick, 
 Caithness, 334 
 
 Henry, Mr. Matthew, Ankerville, 
 Nigg, Eoss-shire 
 
 Hioks, Mr. E., M.P., Wilbraham 
 Temple, Cambridge 
 
 Hoare, Mr. H., Pagehurst Farm, Staple- 
 hurst, Kent, 284 
 
 Holmes, Mr. Bancroft, Gawdy Hall, 
 Harleston, Norfolk 
 
Index to Silos. 
 
 359 
 
 Hopkins, Mr. G., The Hayes, CardifC ; 
 E.A.S. 
 
 Howman, Mr. H., Halloughton, Coles- 
 hill, Warwickshire 
 
 Hulbert, Mr. T. E., North Cerney, 
 Gloucestershire 
 
 Hunting, Mr. C, Sonth Hetton, Dur- 
 ham, 301 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Imrie, Mr., Whitehill, MaryhiU, Lanark- 
 shire, 317 
 
 Jennings, Mr. John, The Scales, 
 
 Lorton, Cookermouth 
 Johnson, Mr. C. G., Croft, Darlington, 
 
 210; alsoE.A.S. 
 
 Kemble, Mr. C. A., Bast Harptree, 
 Bristol, 244 
 
 Kemp, Mr., Tochineal, Banffshire, 320 
 
 Biennedy, Sir J. C, Johnstown Ken- 
 nedy, 00. Dublin, 337 
 
 Kent, Mr. AKred, Great Wilbraham, 
 Cambridgeshire 
 
 -Kenyon, Mr. C. E., Brynllwydwyn, 
 Machynlleth, 308 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Kirby, Mr. T., Hook Farm, Bromley, 
 Kent, 283; also E.A.S. 
 
 Lambton, Colonel, Brownslade, Pem- 
 broke, 315 
 
 Lang, Mr "W., AnnethiU, New Monk- 
 land, Scotland, 325 
 
 Lasoelles, Mr. W. H., Croydon, 289 
 
 Leyoester, Mr., Toff, Knuteford, 
 Cheshire 
 
 Limiell, Mr. J. E., Paulerspury, near 
 Towoester 
 
 Londesborough, Lord, Londesborough 
 Park, Yorkshire, 306 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Lowe, Mr J. W., Chapel-en-le-Frith, 
 Derbyshire, 253 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Mackay, Mr John, Herriesdale, Dal- 
 beattie, 21 
 
 Mackenzie, Mr. C. J., Portmore, Peebles- 
 shire, 326 
 
 Manchester,Duke of, Kimbolton Castle, 
 Huntingdonshire 
 
 Marshall, Major-General, Broadwater, 
 Godalming 
 
 Mason, Mr., Kirkby Stephen, 297 
 
 McBride, Capt., Glendonagh, Midleton, 
 CO. Cork, 344 
 
 MoConuel, Mr., Knookdolian, Girvan, 
 Ayrshire, 323 
 
 Mead, Mr. John, Falmouth, Cornwall, 
 243 
 
 Melrose, Mr. J., Monynut, Berwick- 
 shire, 322 
 Middleton, Lord, Appleoross, Eoss- 
 
 shire, E.A.S. 
 Miller, Mr., Sherborne, Dorset, 236 
 Miller, Mr. T. H., Singleton Park, 
 
 Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire, 293 
 Monteith, Mr. J., Carstairs House, 
 
 Lancashire, 329 
 Moraut, Major G. F., Blackerton, 
 
 Dulverton, Somerset 
 Moray, Mr. Home Drummond, Inch- 
 
 brakie, Crieff, Perthshire 
 Morpeth Lunatic Asylum, 296 
 Morton, Mr. John, Nether Abington, 
 
 Lanarkshire, 318 
 Mouflet, Mr. F. C, Waxlow Manor 
 
 Farm, Southall, Middlesex, 281 
 Munster Dairy School, 339 
 
 Negus, Mr. T. A., Lynn, near Walsall 
 Nevile, Mr., Skelbrooke, Doncaster, 307 
 
 Oakeley, Mr. W. E., Plas Tan-y-Bwlch, 
 
 Merionethshire, 313 
 OliTer, Mr., Houpasley, Hawick, 325 
 
 Pease's, Mr. E. H., Pierremont, Dar- 
 lington 
 Philpotts, Mr. O., Closewood, Cosham, 
 
 Hants, 291 
 Pilcher, Mr. M., Didcot, Berks 
 Pochin, Mr. H. D., Bodnant Hall, 316 
 Preston, Capt., Flashy Hall, Gargrave, 
 Torkshire 
 
 Quartley's, Mr. H., MoUand, N. Devon, 
 241 
 
 Eamsay, Mr.Cantostanes, Ayrshire, 322 
 Eatcliff, Mr. E., Newton Park, Burton- 
 
 on-Trent 
 Eennie, Mr. J., AUanfauld, Kilsyth, 
 
 Stirlingshire, 329 
 
 Saumarez, Hon. J. St. Vincent, Heath 
 Farm, Little Livermere, Suffolk, 272 
 Saxby, Mr. J., Wivelsfield, Sussex 
 Scott, Mr. A. J., Eotherfleld Park, 
 
 Alton, Hants, 235 ; also E.A.S. 
 Seafield, Lord, CuUen House, Banff- 
 shire, 320 
 Shaw, Mr. A. W., Limerick 
 Sinclair, Mr. W. Drumheg, Donegal 
 Smith, Mr., The Hollies, Wilmslow, 
 
 Cheshire, E.A.S. 
 Smith, Mr. Alexander, Burnside, Fin- 
 laystone. Port Glasgow, 338 
 
360 
 
 Index to Silos. 
 
 Smith, Mr. E. J., Clonard, Dundriim, 
 CO. Dublin, 335 
 
 Solomon, Mr. J., Ifield, Kent, 285 
 
 Stirling, Mr., Kippeudavie, Perth- 
 shire, 334 
 
 Stobart, Mr. W., Pepper Arden, York- 
 shire, 207 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Stocks, Mr. S. H., Cleokheaton, Nor- 
 manton, Yorkshire, 77 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Sutherland, Duke of, E.A.S. 
 
 Swan, Mr. J., Stonefield, Lincoln, 292 ; 
 also E.A.S. 
 
 Taylor, Mr. Garrett, Trowse House, 
 Norwich, E.A.S. 
 
 Thompson, Mr. John, Ballymaglasson 
 House, Batterstown, co. Meath 
 
 ToUemache, Lord, Peckforton Castle, 
 Cheshire, 246; also E.A.S. (Ten 
 silos likewise for tenantry.) 
 
 ToUemache, Hon. Wilbraham, M.P., 
 Tilston Lodge, Tarporley 
 
 Tomline, Colonel, Orwell Park, Ipswich, 
 271 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Trepplin, Messrs., Kenilworth, War- 
 wickshire, 257 ; also E.A.S. 
 
 Turner, Mr. J. H., Little Horrington 
 Hall, Bury St. Edmund's 
 
 Ulster Chemico-Agricultural Society, 
 340 
 
 TTrquhart, Mr. C, Woodside, Banff- 
 shire, 320 
 
 Vaughan, Mr. W. H. P. Lloyd, Golden 
 
 Grove, King's County 
 Vernon, EeT. Hon. C. J., Grafton 
 
 Underwood, Northamptonshire, 292 
 
 Walsingham's Lord, Merton, Norfolk, 
 
 260 
 Warwick, Barl of, Heathcote Farm, 
 
 Warwick, 255 
 Warerley Hydropathic Institution, 
 
 Melrose, 325 
 Whitbread's, Mr., HiUfoot, Carding- 
 
 ton, Bedford, 280 
 White, Dr., Yapton, Arundel 
 Wigan, Mr. W. L., Larkfield House, 
 
 near Maidstone, Kent 
 Willan, Mr. P., Thornhill Park, Bit- 
 
 terne, Hants, 234 
 Wills, Mr. W. H., M.P., Coombe Lodge, 
 
 Blagdon, Somerset, 244 ; also E.A.S. 
 Wilson, Mr. C. W., Eigmaden Park, 
 
 Carnforth, 297 
 Wilson, Mr. W., Horsleygate Hall, 
 
 Chesterfield 
 Wilkinson, Mr. P. S., Mount Oswald, 
 
 Durham 
 Wood, Mr. W., Clifton, York, 306, 
 
 and E.A.S. 
 
 Young, Mr. G., Blaokadder, Berwick- 
 shire, 321 
 Young's ParafBn Works, 328 
 Yorstoun, Capt. C, Canonbie, N.B. 
 
 There are doubtless many other silos in existence of which we have no 
 particulars ; and certainly many more will be constructed in the course of 
 the present year. We shall be glad to receive the names of any owners 
 of silos not in this list. 
 
Ili^DEX. 
 
 Acids caused by fermentation, 54, 163, 
 168 ; advantages and disadvantages, 
 170, 171 ; excess of, afEects quality 
 of milk and tiatter, 143 ; amount 
 of, in samples of silage, 198, 232, 
 353; in hay, 191 
 
 Acidity, if excessive, may be counter- 
 acted by powdered chalk, 170 
 
 Africa, silos in, 5, 8 
 
 Aftermaths, ensilage of, 149 ; not good 
 for covering contents of pit, 126 
 
 Air, causes heating in ensilage, 141 ; 
 necessity of expelling from silo, 
 126 ; should be excluded by weight, 
 not by clay, 129 
 
 Albumenoids, value of, 149, 155 
 
 Alcohol, flavour attractive to cattle, 
 170; when strong, it is indicative 
 of waste, 143 ; amount in samples 
 of silage, 198, 232 ; in hay, 193 
 
 Aldehyde, produced by oxydation, 
 191 
 
 American silos, 49, 59 ; great depth of, 
 130 ; report on silos and ensilage, 
 see Department of Agriculture 
 
 Analyses of hays, green fodders, and 
 silage, 154-5; Vicomte de Chezelles' 
 clover silage, 198 ; Mr. Scott's 
 clover hay and silage, 231 ; Mr. 
 Grant's grass silage, 232 ; Mr. 
 Eokersley's clover hay and silage, 
 295 ; Mr. Duncan's grass silage, 
 330; Mr. Kemble's oats, 245; 
 Mr. Fry's clover and grass silage, 
 353 ; Lord Walsingham's grass 
 silage and hay, 265 ; of rye- 
 grass and silage (Glasnevin), 348 ; 
 fresh maize and badly made silage 
 (Austria), 180 ; fresh maize and 
 good silage (M. Goffart's) , 181 ; fresh 
 sainfoin and silage (Germany), 181 ; 
 milk from cows fed with and 
 without silage, 256, 264 ; pasture 
 grasses after digestion, 173 
 
 Ancients, silos among the, 5 
 
 Angles in silos obstruct the settle- 
 ment of the contents, 53, 55 
 
 Artichokes, Jerusalem, ensilage of, 35 ; 
 analyses and value, 154 
 
 Barn silos, 43 to 48 
 
 Barral, M., on fermentation in ensilage, 
 
 167,181 
 Barrels, ensilage in, 86 ; of earth, &o., 
 
 used as weights, 132 
 Bedfordshire, experiment in, 280 
 Beetroot, ensilage of, 33; pulp, 35; 
 
 when very acid, produces poor milk 
 
 and butter, 143 ; analyses and value 
 
 of, 185 
 Bible, reference to silos in the, 6 
 Boards for covering, 127 
 Books on ensilage, viii. ; on concrete 
 
 building, 58 
 Bricks, closing doors with, 56, 128; 
 
 suitable as weights, 132 ; cost, 95, 
 
 135 
 Buckwheat, ensilage of, 30 ; value, 154 
 Butter, quality of, a test of quality of 
 
 silage, 160n 
 
 Cabbage, analysis and value, 154 
 Cameron, Dr., analyses of rye grass 
 
 and silage, 348 
 Capacity of silo, estimation of, 90 
 Carbonic aoid gas, effect in preventing 
 
 putrefaction, 166 
 Cattle feeding experiments, 156, 175 
 Cementing inside of brick silos, 105 
 Chaff, dry, not necessary to absorb 
 
 moisture in silage, 110 
 Chalk, silos in, cost of, 99 
 Cheshire, experiments in, 246 to 253 
 Chezelles', Vicomte de, description and 
 illustration of silo, 66, 195 ; cost, 
 199 ; analyses of silage, 198 
 Chopping fodder before pitting, 113 ; 
 
 not necessary with grass, 114 
 Clay, unsuited for excluding air from 
 silo, 129, 142 ; boxes of, for weight- 
 ing, 133 
 Clovers, ensilage of, 19; analyses of, 
 154, 198, 231, 295, 353; feeding 
 experiments with, 160 c ; pitting of, 
 in wet weather, 20, 111 ; value, 154 
 Combustion, slow, of material pro- 
 duced by fermentation, 141. 
 Comfrey, prickly, not well suited for 
 ensilage, 33 
 
 B B 
 
362 
 
 Index. 
 
 Concrete, silos of, 57, 59, 60 ; portable 
 
 slabs for silos, 75 
 Corners of siloa, rounding off, 55 
 Cornwall, experiment in, 243 
 Cost of silos, 89 ; special struotnres, 
 
 92 ; converted buildings, 99 ; con- 
 crete slabs, 102 ; wooden silos, 104 ; 
 
 French silos, 104 ; roofs, 109 ; 
 
 boards, 127 ; weights, 133 
 Covering up the silo, 125 
 Cows, feeding experiments with, 1 59 
 Cream, increase of, from feeding on 
 
 ensilage, 160 a, 190j 
 Crops for the silo, 17 ; should be cut 
 
 young, 13; should be put in silo 
 
 as soon as cut, 110 
 Curbs or super-silos, 121 
 Cutting out the silage, 139 ; weights 
 
 important during the cutting, 139 ; 
 
 cutting up fodder, unnecessary 
 
 with grass, 113 
 
 Department of Agriculture, American, 
 report on ensilage, 39, 119, 160 N, 
 176 
 Derbyshire, experiment in, 253 
 Devonshire, experiments in, 239 to 242 
 Digestibility of vegetable fibre in- 
 creased by ensilage process, 183 ; 
 proportion of hay, grasses, Ac, 
 digested, 173 
 Door, should be at the end of the silo, 
 
 56 ; modes of closing, 128 
 Dorsetshire, experiments in, 236 
 Drainage of sUos, 47, 131, 207 
 Dry material, mixture of, with green 
 fodder, needless for preservation, 
 110, 163 ; loss resulting from addi- 
 tion of, 185 
 Drying of crops before ensilage is 
 
 deleterious, 110, 162 
 Durham, experiments in, 221 
 
 Earth silos, 38, 41, 285 
 
 Easdale, Mr. T., account of experi- 
 ment at Cowton, 203 ; at Pepper 
 Arden, 207 
 
 Ensilage, chemical theory of, 161 ; may 
 be carried out when haymaking is 
 impossible, 112 
 
 Essex, experiments in, 273 to 275 
 
 Excavation, cost of, 98 
 
 Ewes, feeding experiments with, 209, 
 267 
 
 Feeding experiments, Mr. Stobart's,' 
 silage V. turnips, 156 ; Lord Wal- 
 
 singham's, maize silage v. swedes, 
 159; M. Nivifere's, clover silage, 
 160c ; Mr. Edwards's, silage v. 
 mangold, 160d ; Professor Henry's, 
 with sUage and dry fodder, 174; 
 Professor McBryde's, with clover 
 silage and other foods, 175 ; Eeport 
 of U. S. Department of Agriculture 
 on, 176 
 Fermentation, when beneficial, 172 ; 
 when destructive, 171 ; checked by 
 addition of fresh fodder, 116 ; pro- 
 duced by exposure of silage to the 
 air after removal from the pit, 54, 
 143 ; waste of material by, in de- 
 fective processes, 144 ; compen- 
 sation in well-made silage, 183 ; 
 Mr. Fry on, 349 
 Filberts, preserving underground, 36 
 Filling the silo, 111; slow v. quick, 115 
 Fodders used for the silo, 17 ; should 
 be cut young, 14 ; should be evenly 
 spread in pit, 125 ; effect of en- 
 silage on, 140 
 French silos, 51, 66 ; cost of, 104 
 Fry's, Mr., experiments in fermenta- 
 tion, 120, 148, 449 
 
 Gloucestershire, experiments in, 259 
 GofEart's triple silo, 51; cost of, 105; 
 book on ensilage, viii. For his 
 general advice, see Chaps. I. to XII. 
 Gorse, ensilage of, 36 ; useful for 
 covering silo, 126 ; analysis and 
 value of, 154 
 Grain, storage of, in ancient silos, 5 
 Grains, brewers', ensilage of, 36 
 Grandeau's, Professor, analyses of 
 
 fresh maize and ensilage, 181 
 Grass, ensilage of, 17; need not be 
 chopped before pitting, 114 ; diges- 
 tibility of, 173; analyses of, 154, 
 232, 330, 353 
 Green fodders, value as compared with 
 silage, 154 ; mixture of dry material 
 with, 110 
 
 Hampshire, experiments in, 226 to 236, 
 291 
 
 Hay and silage, comparative feeding 
 value of, 154, 176 ; chemical con- 
 stituents in, 184 
 
 Hay-barns and sUos, relative capacity 
 of, 106 
 
 Heather for covering silos, 126 
 
 Heating of silage when exposed to air, 
 143 
 
Index. 
 
 363 
 
 Henry, Prof., feeding experiments with 
 silage and dry fodder, 174 
 
 Hertfordshire, experiments in, 276 to 
 280 
 
 Horses, feeding on silage, 160 m 
 
 Hot weather, effect of, on silage, 50, 
 134 
 
 Icehouses tamed into silos, 48, 251 
 Ireland, experiments in, 335 to 348 
 Iron weights for silos, 132, 183, 207, 
 323 
 
 Jackson, Mr. Kains, 3 ; on the Vioomte 
 de Chezelles' silo, 195 ; the Kentish 
 silo, 64 
 
 Juice, when pressed out of fodders, 
 180 
 
 Kent, experiments in, 283 to 286 
 Kentish silo, 63 ; plan of, 64 
 Klapmeyer's brown hay, 9, 12 
 Kohi-rabi, analysis and value of, 154 
 
 Lactic acid, effect in digesting food, 
 160a 
 
 Lancashire, experiments in, 288, 293 
 to 295, 297 
 
 Lascelles, Mr., on portable concrete 
 silos, 78; estimate of cost, 102 
 
 Lawes, Sir J., on losses produced by 
 fermentation, 144; on quaUty of 
 butter, 353; on feeding experi- 
 ment with Mr. Edwards's cows, 
 160 D 
 
 Leohartier's, Professor, experiments on 
 fermentation in ensilage, 165 
 
 Leoouteux, M., on ensilage of clover 
 in wet seasons, 20 ; on ensilage of 
 green rye, 28 ; root crops, 34 ; on 
 earthen silos, 39, 41 ; plan of barn 
 silo, 43; on the fiUiug of silos, 
 116-7; book on ensilage, viii. 
 
 Lincolnshire, experiments in, 292 
 
 Liquor from silos, 131 ; composition of, 
 185 ; from haystack, 193 
 
 Loring's, Commissioner, report of U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture, 39, 
 119, 160n, 176 
 
 Losses by excessive fermentation, 186 
 
 Lucerne, ensilage of, 21 ; analyses of, 
 199 ; value of, 154 
 
 Maize, advantages and disadvantages 
 of, 29; great proportion of water, 
 25 ; analyses of, 154 ; kept four 
 years in a pit, 41 
 
 Marcker's, Dr., experiments on loss 
 by fermentation, 184 
 
 Mangold, sliced, ensilage of, 34 ; 
 analyses of, 154 ; feeding experi- 
 ment with, V. silage, 160d 
 
 McBryde, Professor, experiments in 
 breeding cattle, 175 
 
 Merton, experiments at, 260 
 
 Middlesex, experiments in, 281 
 
 Milk production, by cows fed on silage, 
 159, 160d ; analysis , 264 ; decrease 
 of when silage stopped, 264 ; effect 
 of silage on quality, 160 N 
 
 Moisture required in crops for en- 
 silage, 163 
 
 Morris's, Mr. Francis, experiments in 
 America, 2, 40 
 
 Moser, Professor, experiments with 
 pitted maize, 179 
 
 Nitrogenous matters, apparent increase 
 
 in ensilage, caused by decrease of 
 
 other constituents, 182 
 Norfolk, experiments in, 260 to 270 
 Northamptonshire, experiments in, 
 
 202 
 Northumberland, experiment in, 296 
 Nutritive value of silage, 151, 155, 
 
 168 
 
 Oats, green, ensilage of, 28 ; analyses 
 
 and value, 154, 245, 
 Opening the pit, precautions in, 138 
 
 Paper, waterproof, for roofing, 109, 
 
 Peas, ensilage of, 36 
 
 Pine-needles, use of, for covering sUos, 
 
 125 
 Potatoes analyses and value of, 154 
 Potter, Mr. T., on cost of silos, 99 ; 
 
 method of compression, 135 ; book 
 
 on concrete building, 58 
 Pressure, see Weighting. 
 
 Eain, effect of, on silage, 111 ; need 
 not stop fiUing of sUo, 118 
 
 Rape, analysis and value of, 1 5 
 
 Reeds for covering sUo, 126 
 
 Eoofs over sUos, 109 
 
 Boots, sliced, ensilage of, 33 
 
 Eye-grass, ensilage of, 347 ; analyses, 
 154, 348 
 
 Eye, green, ensilage of, 27 ; analyses 
 of, 154, 155 
 
 Sainfoin, ensilage of, 21 ; analyses of, 
 154, 181 ; value, 155 
 
364 
 
 Index, 
 
 Salt, not neoeesary for preserving 
 fodder, 122, 163 ; moderate supply- 
 useful for cattle, 122 ; bad results 
 with large quantity, 123, 163 
 
 Scotland, experiments in, 287, 290, 
 317 to 334 
 
 Screws as substitutes for weights, 138 
 
 Serradella, ensilage of, 22 ; analyses 
 and value, 154 
 
 Silo, bad kind of, 36 ; simple forms of, 
 38 ; best kind, 50 ; large better 
 than small, 54; concrete, 57, 59, 60 ; 
 wooden, 49, 77, %6, 103, 281; 
 portable, 73 ; cost of, 89 ; origin 
 of name, 5 
 
 Silos, list of, 357 
 
 Slate for silos, 76 
 
 Slow filliug advantageous, 115 
 
 Somerset, experiments in, 245 
 
 Sour fodder, made in Germany and 
 Hungary, 164 : Mr. Pry on sour 
 ensilage, 352 
 
 Spurrey, ensilage of, 29 ; analyses and 
 value, 154 
 
 Stacks, ensilage, 84 
 
 Staffordshire, experiments in, 254 
 
 Straw, layer of under boards, 125 ; 
 use of, in earthen pits, 39; un- 
 necessary to absorb moisture in 
 silage, 110; is rendered digestible 
 by mixing. 111 
 
 Suffolk, experiments in, 270 to 273 
 
 Summer, liability of silage to increased 
 fermentation in, 50, 134 ; well- 
 made silage has kept throughout 
 the, 143 
 
 Super-silos, use of, 121 
 
 Surrey, experiments in, 282, 289, 349 
 
 Sussex, experiment in, 289 
 
 Sutton, Mr. Francis, F.C.S., analyses 
 of grass and maize silage, 25 ; 
 grass silage and hay, 265 ; of milk 
 from cows fed on silage, 264 
 
 Swede turnips, feeding experiment 
 with, V. silage, 159 ; value of, 154 
 
 Tares, ensilage of, 21 
 
 Temperature, effect of, on silage, 50 ; 
 
 records of, 188, 349 ; decreased by 
 
 addition of fresh fodder, 116 
 Thistles, ensilage of, 36 ; analysis and 
 
 value of, 154 
 Toms, Mr. F. Woodland, F.C.S., on the 
 
 chemistry of ensilage, 161 ; analyses 
 
 of silage, 199, 232 ; of fermented 
 
 hays, 191 
 Treading down fodder, 119 ; insufficient 
 
 without weight, 124, 129 ; most 
 
 necessary close to the walls, 53, 124 
 Trenches used as silos, 40 
 Trifolium incaruatum, ensilage of, 20 ; 
 
 value of, 154 
 Turnip-tops, ensilage of, 35 ; value of, 
 
 154 
 
 Vetches, ensilage of, 21 ; analyses, and 
 
 value, 154 
 Voelcker, Dr., analyses by, 149, 155, 
 
 235, 453 
 
 Wales, experiments in, 308 to 316 
 
 Walls, deterioration of silage near the, 
 54, 117 ; should be smooth and up- 
 right, 53, 162 ; strength necessary, 55 
 
 Warwickshire, experiments in, 255 to 
 258 
 
 Waste, produced by bad processes, 145; 
 often unobserved, 147 ; in well-made 
 ensilage is compensated by greater 
 digestibility, 183 
 
 Water should be kept out of silo, 50,, 
 105 ; pressure of, breaking through 
 floor of silo, 131, 223, 229 
 
 Weighting the silo, 129 ; most requisite 
 close to walls, 53 ; materials used 
 for, 132 ; removal of weights, 138 ; 
 mechanical substitutes for, 134; 
 concrete blocks, 228 ; effect of 
 weight of mass of silage, 130 ; less 
 weight will do with wet fodder, 259 
 
 Weiske's, Professor, experiments with 
 fresh sainfoin and sOage, 180 
 
 Westmoreland, experiment in, 297 
 
 Wet weather, storing fodder in. 111, 
 163, 259 
 
 WUlesden paper for roofing, 109 
 
 Wolff, Professor von, estimation of 
 food values, 153 ; experiments in 
 digestion of fodders, 173 
 
 Wooden silos, 49 ; Mr. Mouflet's, 96, 
 281 ; patent, 77, 103 
 
 Woods', Mr. H., lectures on ensilage, 
 260 ; feeding experiments with 
 cows, 159, 177, 263; with ewes, 
 267,270 
 
 Yorkshire, experiments in, 203 to 221, 
 298 to 307 
 
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 CLOVERS, &c., consisting of a proper proportion of the 
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 XXII. — Kingstown Boats. 
 XXIII.— Small Racing Yacht . 
 XXIV.— Types of Sailing Vessels : 
 Penzance Lugger, Coble, 
 Galway Hooker and Pook- 
 haun, Belfast, &c., Yawls, 
 Norwegian Pilot Boats, 
 Block Island Boats, Ber. 
 mudian Boats, Ballenera, &c. 
 XXVI.— Double Boats. 
 XXVII.— Steam Yachting. 
 XXVIII.— Ice Yachting. 
 XXIX.— Canoeing. 
 XXX. — Amateur Canoe Building (in 
 America). 
 
 Appendix — Contains complete instruc- 
 tions as to Practical Boat Building. 
 This section is arranged alphabetically in the form 
 of a dictionary, and embodies a variety of informa- 
 tion connected with Yachts, Boats, &c. 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
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A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS DRAWN PRINCIPALLY FROM 
 LIFE BY HARRISON WEIR. 
 
 In Imperial d^to., bevelled boards, gilt edges, price x'is. 
 
 THE 
 
 CATTLE OF GEEAT BEITAIN: 
 
 BEING 
 
 A SERIES OF ARTICLES 
 
 VARIOUS BREEDS OP GATTLE OP THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 
 THEIR HISTORY, lAIAGEIENT, &e. 
 
 Edited by J. COLEMAN, 
 
 Editor of the Farm Department o£ " The Field," and formerly Professor of Agriculture atthe Royal 
 Agricultural College, Cirencester^ 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The General Management of Cattle. 
 
 Chap. 
 I. — Introductory. 
 II. — Bleeding and General Manige- 
 
 ment. 
 III. — Principles of Feeding — Nature 
 and Value of Different Kinds 
 of Food. 
 IV. — Buildings, and the Manufacture 
 
 of Manure. 
 V. — Dairy Management, the Milk 
 Trade, &c. 
 
 The Various Breeds of CAnlE. 
 
 By John Thornton. 
 By Thomas Duck- 
 
 Tanner 
 
 ENGLISH GROUP. 
 Chap. 
 
 VI.— Shorthorns. 
 VII.— Herefords. 
 
 ham. 
 VIII.— Devons. By Capt. 
 Davey. 
 IX. — The Longhorns. By Gilbert 
 
 Murray and the Editor. 
 X. — Sussex Cattle. By A. Heasman. 
 XI.— Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled 
 Cattle. By Thomas Fulcher. 
 
 SCOTCH GROUP. 
 Chap. 
 XII.— Polled Galloway Cattle. By 
 Gilbert Murray. 
 „ Polled Angus or Aberdeenshire 
 Cattle. By " Scotus." 
 XIII.— The Ayrshire Breed of CattlS. 
 
 By Gilbert Murray. 
 XIV.— West Highland Cattle. By 
 John Robertson. 
 
 WELSH AND IRISH GROUP. 
 Chap. 
 XV.— The Glamorgan Breed of Cattle. 
 
 By Morgan Evans. 
 XVI. — Pembrokeshire or Castlemartin 
 
 Cattle. By Morgan Evans. 
 XVII.-^The Anglesea Cattle. By Mor- 
 
 gan Evans. 
 XVIII.— The Kerry Breed of Cattle. By 
 R. O. Pringle. 
 
 CHANNEL ISLANDS GROUP, 
 Chap. 
 XIX.--The Alderney Breed of Cattle. 
 
 By " An Amateur Breeder." 
 XX.— The Breton Breed of Cattle. 
 By J. C. W. Douglas and 
 Others. 
 XXI.— The Guernsey Breed of Cattle. 
 By " A Native." 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
 ^Jy 
 
^^ 
 
 PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH FULL-PACE ENGRAVINGS DRAWN PRINCIPALLY FROM 
 LIFE BY HARRISON WEIR, 
 
 In Imperial ^to., bevelled boards, gilt edges, price i8j. 
 
 THE 
 
 SHEEP AND PIGS OF GREAT BRITAIN : 
 
 BEING 
 
 A SEEIES OF AKTICLES 
 
 ON THE VARIOUS 
 
 BREEDS OF 8HBEP AHD PI6§ OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
 THEIR HISTORY. lAKAGEMEKT. &e. 
 
 Edjtep by J. COLEMAN, 
 
 Editor o! the Farm Department of " The Field," and formerly Professor of Agriculture at the Royal 
 Agricultural College, Cirencester. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SHZEEIP. 
 
 The Cenlral NIanacement of Sheep 
 
 Chan, 
 
 l.- 
 
 II.- 
 
 of Ewes up to 
 
 -Introductory. 
 ■Management 
 Lambing. 
 HI.— Preparations for and Attention 
 
 during La,mbing. 
 IV.— Management from Birth to 
 
 Weaning, 
 v.— From Weaning to Market. 
 N VI.— On Wool. 
 
 The Breeds of Sheep. 
 
 L— Leicester Sheep. By the Editor. 
 II.— Border Leicesters. By John 
 
 Usher, 
 in.— Cotswold Sheep. By the Editor. 
 rV. — Long-W'ooled Lincoln Sheep, 
 v.— The Devon Long-Wools. By 
 
 Joseph Darby. 
 VI.— Romney Marsh Sheep. By the 
 
 Editor. 
 
 VII.— Southdown Sheep. Bythe Editor. 
 
 VIII.— The Hampshire, or West Country 
 
 Down Sheep. By E. P. Squarey, 
 
 IX.— Shropshire Sheep. By the Editor. 
 
 JC,-T.OxfoAdshire Doijvn Sheep. By 
 
 Messrs. Druce and C, Hphbs. 
 
 Chap., 
 XL- 
 
 XII.- 
 XIIL- 
 XIV.- 
 
 XV.- 
 XVI.- 
 
 XVII.- 
 
 XVIII.- 
 
 XIX.- 
 
 XX. 
 
 -The Roscommon Sheep. By 
 
 R. O. Pringle. 
 -Negrette Merino Sheep. 
 -Exmoor Sheep. 
 -The Blackfaced or Scotch 
 
 Mountain Sheep. 
 -Cheviot Sheep. By John Usher. 
 -Dorset Horned Sheep. By 
 
 John Darby. 
 -Welsh Mountain Sheep. By 
 
 Morgan Evans. 
 -The Radnor Sheep. By Morgan 
 
 Evans. 
 -Herdwick Sheep. By. H. A. 
 
 Spedding. 
 
 -Sheep Farming in Queensland, 
 By John Sidijey. 
 
 Chap. , _, 
 
 I. — General Management of Pigs. 
 IL--The Berkshire Pig. By the Editor. 
 III.— Black Suffolk Pigs. 
 IV.— Large White Pigs. By the Editor, 
 v.— Small White Pigs. Bythe Editor. 
 VI.— Middle-bred White Pigs. By the 
 
 Editor. 
 VII.— The Black Dorset Pig, Py A- 
 Benjafield. 
 
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 FOURTH EDITION NOW READY. 
 
 Re-written, with additions and new full-page engravings. In one 
 volume J bevelled boards, gilt edges, price \^s. 
 
 THE 
 
 A SERIES OF ARTICLES 
 
 ON 
 
 THE POINTS OF THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS, 
 
 AND 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES TO WHICH 
 THEY ARE SUBJECT. 
 
 REPRINTED FROM "THE FIELD" NEWSPAPER. 
 
 BY J. H. WALSH, 
 
 " Stonehenge," Editor of " The Field." 
 (WITH THE AID OF SEVERAL EXPERIENCED BREEDERS.^ 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Book I Book 
 
 I. — Management of Dogs in Health. 
 II. — Drugs Commonly Used for the 
 
 Diseases of Dogs, and their Modes 
 
 of Administration. 
 
 III. — The Ordinary Diseases of the Dog 
 
 and their Treatment. 
 IV. — ^Judging at Dog Shows and Field 
 
 Trials. 
 
 SI=OE,TIIsrC3- I30C3-S. 
 
 Book I Book 
 
 I. — Dogs Used with the Gun. I II. — Hounds and their Allies. 
 
 ifroDN"-s:poiaTiiiT(3- zdoo-s. 
 
 Book I Book 
 
 I.— Watch Dogs. III.— Terriers (other than Fox and Toy). 
 
 II.— Sheep and Cattle Dogs. I IV.— Toy Dogs. 
 
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 THIS WORK CONTAINS ABOVE 700 PAGES, AND NEARLY 
 400 ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
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 3 1 J. ifd., cloth gilt. 
 
 Shifts and Expedients 
 
 OP 
 
 Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 
 
 W. B. LORD and T. BAINES. 
 
 (Royal Artillery:^ {F.R.G.S.) 
 
 Introduction. 
 Chap. , , , 
 
 I. — Outfit to take abroad. 
 11.— Boats, Rafts,and Makeshift Floats. 
 III. — Working in Metal. 
 IV. — Huts and Houses. 
 V. — Extempore Bridges and Make- 
 shifts for Crossing Rivers and 
 Ravines. 
 VI. — ^Timber and its Utilisation. 
 VII.— Sledges and Sledge Travelling. 
 VIII.— Boots, Shoes, and Sandals. 
 IX.— Waggons and other Wheeled 
 
 Vehicles. 
 X. — Harness and Pack Animals. 
 XI.— Camels. 
 XII.— Cattle Marking. 
 XIII.— Water, and the Sap of Plants. 
 XIV.— Camp Cookery. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 XV.- 
 XVI.- 
 
 XVII.- 
 
 XVIII.- 
 
 XIX.- 
 
 XX.- 
 
 XXI.- 
 
 XXII.- 
 XXIII.- 
 
 s. 
 
 -Fish and Amphibious Animals. 
 
 -Poisoned Weapons, Arrows, 
 Spears, &c. 
 
 -Tracking, Hunting, and Trap- 
 ping. 
 
 -Palanquins, Stretchers, Ambu- 
 lances, &c. 
 
 -On Sketching and Painting 
 under the Ordinary Difficulties 
 of Travel. 
 
 -The Estimation of Distances 
 and Hints on Field Observing. 
 
 -Hints to Explorers on Collect- 
 ing and Preserving Objects of 
 Natural History. 
 
 -Ropes and Twines. 
 
 -Bush Veterinary Surgery and 
 Medicine. 
 
 Extract from the Introduction. 
 Like two voyagers returned from a long cruise in far-ofE seas, we throw together 
 our joint gleanings in many lands. These do not consist of jewels, gems, gold, or 
 furs- no piles of costly merchandise do we lay at the reader's feet as offerings from 
 distant climes, but simply the experiences of two roving Englishmen who have 
 " roughed it " By those who have to pass through a campaign, travel wild countries, 
 or explore little known regions, shifts must be made, and expedients of many kinds 
 had recourse to, of which the inexperienced in such matters would but little dream. 
 In our travels and adventures we have not been associated, the paths trodden 
 by us being widely separated. Whilst one was exploring the wilds of North Australia, 
 the other las dwelling in a canvas-covered hole in the ear h before Sebastopol. The 
 scenes change : Southern and Tropical Africa is visited by the late Australian traveller, 
 whilst the Crimea, with its rugged hills and wild ravmes, is exchanged for the jungles 
 of Central India by the other. 
 
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 THE 
 
 MODERN SPORTSMAN'S 
 GUN AND RIFLE, 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 GAME AND WILDFOWL GUNS, SPOETING AND 
 MATCH EIFLES, AND EEVOLVEES. 
 
 Vol. I.— GAME ANi) W^ILDFOWL GUNS, 
 
 By J. H. Walsh, 
 
 " Stonehenge," Editor of " The Field," 
 
 Author of "Dogs of the British Islands,'' "The Greyhound," "British Rural 
 
 Sports," &c. 
 
 " A perusal of Mr. Walsh's book has forced upon us the conclusion, one that will . 
 be shared by nearly every reader, that it is indisputably the standard work on the 
 subject, and is likely long to remain so — a position it richly merits. Sporlshien will 
 anxiously look forward to the second volume of the work, for there is every reason to 
 anticipate that the same high standard will be maintained, and that the rifle will 
 receive as complete an exposition as the ' Game and Wildfowl Guns.' We are only 
 fulfilling a duty to the public when we say that no man connected in any way with 
 guns and gunnery should be without a copy of Mr. Walsh's masterly volume." — The 
 Birmingham Paily Gazette, Nov. 21, 1882. 
 
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 intending purchasers of guns, so that we can confidently recommend an intelligent 
 glance through it as likely to save money and prevent disappointment." — Saturday 
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 guns, shot, and kindred topics." — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 " The most complete work that has yet been written on sporting guns." — St. 
 James's Gazette. 
 
 " For breadth of view and completeness this treatise could hardly be excelled. It 
 has, moreover, the advantage of reporting authoritatively on the very latest improve- 
 ments, both as regards weapons and powder and shot, all which objects of a sports- 
 man's consideration seem to be susceptible of indefinite progress." — Daily News. 
 
 • " With such a guide as this, all who appreciate sport will be able to enjoy it fully, 
 and what is of importance, will be able to avoid much of the danger attending the use 
 of imperfect weapons." — The Era, 
 
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 In a few days. Demy %vo.,pp. 500, with 200 Illustrations, price \^s., 
 
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 GAME AND WILDEOWL GUNS, SPORTING AND 
 MATCH RIELE8, AND EEVOLVEES. 
 
 Vol. II.— THE RIFLE AND REVOLVER. 
 
 By J. H. Walsh, 
 
 " Stonehenge," Editor of " The Field," 
 
 Author of "Dogs of the British Islands," "The Greyhound," "British Rural 
 
 Sports," &c. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Definitions, &c. — Theory of Projectiles — The Mechanical Construction 
 of the Sporting Rifle and its Ammunition — Modern Rifled Pistols— The 
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 I> 
 
 VI ^wmw€^ 
 
 PEN AND PENCIL. 
 
 FRANCIS FRANCIS and A. W. COOPER. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The First of September. 
 
 A Day in a Punt. 
 
 Mark Cock ! 
 
 Treating. 
 
 Long Tails and Short Ones. 
 
 Paying the Pike. 
 
 Rabbit Shooting, 
 Roaching. 
 Grouse Shooting. 
 Salmon Fishing. 
 Snipe Shooting. 
 Grayling Fishing. 
 
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 COMPRISING A DIGEST OF ITS 
 
 ORIGIN, CHARACTER, HISTORY, AND PROGRESS, 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 AN EXPOSITION OF ITS LAWS AND LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES BOX, 
 
 Author of " The Cricketers' Manual," " Reminiscences of Celebrated Players," Essays on the Game, 
 " Songs and Poems," "Theory and Practice of Cricket," &c. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. 
 TO > Introductoiy. \ 
 
 V1.3 
 
 CLANCES AT THE PAST AND PRESENT STATE 
 OF COUNTY CRICKET. 
 VII.— Middlesex. 
 VIII.— Public School Matches. 
 IX.— Kent. 
 X. — Hampshire. 
 XI. — Surrey. 
 XII. — Sussex. 
 XIII. — Nottinghamshire. 
 XIV.— Yorkshire. 
 
 • Intercolonial Matches. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 XV. — Warwickshire and Derbyshire. 
 XVI. — Gloucestershire. 
 XVII. — Lancashire and Leicestershire. 
 XVIII.— The Eastern Counties. 
 XIX. ■) 
 XX.) 
 
 XXI.— School and Village Matches. 
 XXII. — Curiosities of Cricket. 
 XXIII.— Cricket Grounds. 
 XXIV. — Laws of the Game. 
 XXV.^ — Poems, Songs, and Ballads. 
 XXVI. — Glossary of Words and Phrases. 
 Postscript. — Shakespeare and Cricket 
 — An Enforced Dissertation. 
 
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 " The best work on cricket that has yet come under our notice." — Nottingham 
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 .A. n^ O- Xj I IST C3-- 
 
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 Preface. 
 
 Chap. 
 I.— The Art of Angling. 
 II.— Mid-Water Fishing. 
 III.— Surface or Fly Fishing. 
 IV.— The Gudgeon, the Pope or Ruff, 
 the Bleak, the Roach, the Rudd, 
 the Dace, the Chub, the Barbel, 
 the Bream, the Carp, the 
 Tench, the Perch. 
 
 Chap, 
 v.— The Pike. 
 
 VI. — Trout Fishing with Bait. 
 VII.— Fly Fishing for Trout. 
 VIII.— Trout Flies. 
 IX. — Grayling Fishing. 
 X. — Salmon Fishing. 
 XI.— Salmon Flies. 
 XII.— On Tackle Making. 
 Addenda. 
 
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 MODERN 
 WILDFOAA^LING. 
 
 BY 
 
 LEWIS CLEMENT, 
 
 " WiLDFOWLER." 
 
 Punting. — Introduction. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 III.) 
 
 Muzzle-loading Punt Guns 
 (Flint, Percussion and Copper 
 Tube Ignition. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. 
 XXVII 
 XXVIII 
 XXIX, 
 
 III 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. [ Breechloading Punt Guns. 
 VI.) 
 
 VII.— 
 VIII.- 
 X. 
 XI.— 
 
 Loading Punt Guns. 
 Aiming and Firing Punt Guns. 
 The Setting of Punt Guns. 
 Recoil and After-recoil Appa- 
 ratuses. 
 
 XII. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 XVIII.— 
 
 XIX.- 
 
 XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 XXIV.- 
 
 Punts. 
 
 XXV. 
 XXVI 
 
 :] 
 
 Launching Punts and Canoes. 
 Punting Accessories. 
 
 Punting. 
 
 ■My First Single-handed Punting 
 
 Trip. 
 Amateoir and Professional Punts- 
 
 XXX 
 
 XXXI 
 
 XXXII 
 
 XXXIII, 
 
 XXXIV, 
 
 XXXV 
 
 XXXVI.- 
 
 XXXVII 
 
 ;l 
 
 Shoulder Guns. 
 
 •Flapper Shooting. 
 . — Inland Duck Shooting. 
 . — Sailing to Fowl. 
 
 > Decoying to the Gun. 
 
 , — Decoying in America. 
 . — American Blinds. 
 
 •American Canvas - back 
 Shooting. 
 XXXVIII.— Shore Shooting. 
 XXXIX.— Flighting. 
 
 XL. ■) Curious Wildfowl and Sea- 
 
 XLI. 5 fowl Shooting Expedients. 
 
 XLII.— Close Time and Wildfowl 
 
 and Sea-fowl Acts. 
 XLIII.— " Wildfowler's " Table of 
 
 Loads. 
 XLIV. — Netting Plovers and Snipe 
 
 Snaring. 
 XLV. — Snaring and Hooking Sea- 
 fowl on the Continent. 
 XLVI. — Decoying into the "Pipes." 
 XLVII.— Flight Ponds and Rock 
 
 Fowling. 
 XLVIII. — Concluding Remarks. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 . "An excellent work indeed, and full of capital illustrations, is 'Modern Wildfowline;' to recommend 
 It anght I should have, if I were clever enough, and it did not already exist, to invent the famous phrase, 
 
 a book no gentleman s horary should be without. — Truths March 17, 1881. 
 
 , ," This book deals not only with the various modes of approaching, or decoying, and killine wildfowl 
 of all kinds, but enters into minute details upon the construction of punts, both single and double handed-, 
 sails; punt pns, muzzle-loading as well as breechloading; recoil apparatus; and shoulder guns of all 
 patterns, with the varying loads required for different bores. In addition to this are several chanters devoted 
 to a narration of the adventures of the author while in pursuit of wildfowl, both at home and abroad— which 
 are very pleasant reading. . . . . .With the addition of a good index, sportsmen will have in this work a 
 
 capital 'uade mecum on the art or wildiowhng. — The Zoologist for November, 1880. 
 
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 VII.- 
 
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 IX.- 
 
 X.- 
 
 XI.- 
 
 XII.- 
 
 XIII.- 
 
 XIV.- 
 
 XV.—: 
 
 -Agricultural Labourers. 
 
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 ■Whistle and Whip. 
 
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 ■Expecting Brown. 
 
 coisTTEisrars. 
 
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 XVII.- 
 
 XVIII.- 
 
 XIX.- 
 
 XX.- 
 
 XXI.- 
 
 XXII.- 
 
 XXIII.- 
 
 XXIV.- 
 
 XXV.- 
 
 XXVI.- 
 
 XXVII.- 
 
 XXVIII.- 
 
 XXIX.- 
 
 XXX.- 
 
 XXXI.- 
 
 -Brown in the Country. 
 
 -The Earthstoppers' Feast. 
 
 -The White Snipe. 
 
 ■Swans and Eagles. 
 
 -The Philosophy of Missing. 
 
 -Shooting in Alderney. 
 
 -Shirkers. 
 
 ■Our Black Heath. 
 
 Traps and Calls. 
 
 ■Northward. 
 
 ■A Bright October. 
 
 ■Varied Shooting. 
 
 ■The End of the Season. 
 
 ■On Beating for Game. 
 
 ■Land Valuers and Stewards. 
 
 -Snipe Shooting. 
 
 This work is admirably adapted for use as a Sporting Tourist's 
 Handbook, while it is of absorbing interest to the general reader. 
 
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 Rev. M. R. BARNARD, B.A., 
 
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 CONTENTS : 
 
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 Santiago— Andacollo, Lima, Panama, Jamaica— Country Sports and Life in Chile — Shooting in Chile — Two 
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 THEIR PAGILITIEg, GHARAGTER, AND REQUIREMENTS. 
 
 A GUIDE TO HUNTING MEN. 
 
 By "BROOKSBY." 
 
 COnSTTZBIsTTS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 The Belvoir. 
 The South Wold. 
 
 The North Warwickshire. 
 
 The Pytchley. 
 
 The Woodland Pytchley. 
 
 The Atherstone. 
 
 The Billesdon or South Quorn. 
 
 The MeynelL [Hunt. 
 
 The Bicester and Warden Hill 
 
 The Dulverton. 
 
 The Stars of the West. 
 
 Mr. Luttrell's. 
 
 Lord Portsmouth's. 
 
 The Essex and the Essex Union. 
 
 The Hertfordshire. 
 
 The Whaddon Chase. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 The Brockleshy. 
 
 The Burton and The Blankney. 
 
 The Fitzwilliam. 
 
 The Quorn. 
 
 PAKT II. 
 
 The Heythrop. 
 
 The Old Berkshire. 
 
 The South Oxfordshire. 
 
 The South Nottinghamshire. 
 
 The East Kent. 
 
 The Tickham. 
 
 The Vine. 
 
 PART in. 
 
 The Vale of White Horse. 
 The Cheshire and South Che- 
 shire. 
 The Blackmoor Vale. 
 The Cambridgeshire. 
 The Duke of Grafton's. 
 The Holderness. 
 
 The Cottesmore. 
 The Puckeridge. 
 The Old Berkeley. 
 
 The South Berkshire. 
 Mr. Garth's. 
 The H. H. 
 The Tedworth. 
 Lord Ferrers'. 
 The Warwickshire. 
 
 The Oakley. 
 
 The North Herefordshire. 
 
 The Duke of Buccleuch's. 
 
 The Tynedale. 
 
 Lord Percy's. 
 
 The Morpeth, 
 
 The Rufford. 
 
 Also now ready (VOLUME II.). 
 
 The Badsworth. 
 The Southdown. 
 The East Essex. 
 The Bramham Moor. 
 The East Sussex. 
 The Essex and Suffolk. 
 The York and Ainsty. 
 
 The Old Surrey. 
 Mr. Richard Combe's. 
 The Burstow. 
 The Hurworth, 
 The Cattistock. 
 The Suffolk. 
 The Shropshire. 
 
 Lord Middleton's. 
 The Sinnington, 
 The Wheatland. 
 The United Pack. 
 The CJiiddiqgfdld. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 Lord Fitzwilliam'S. 
 
 The Crawley and Horsham. 
 
 The West Kent. 
 
 Sir Watkin Wynn s. 
 
 The Hursley. 
 
 The Hambledon. 
 
 Lord Coventry's. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 The Earl of Radnor's. 
 Capt. Hon. F. Johnstone s. 
 The South Durham. 
 The Worcestershire. 
 The Ledbury. 
 The South Herefordshire. 
 The South Staffordshire. 
 
 PART VI. 
 
 Lord Fitzhardinge's. 
 Hon. Mark RoUe's. 
 South-and-West Wilts. 
 Lord Portman's. 
 The Cleveland. 
 
 The Grove. 
 
 The West Norfolk. 
 
 The Bedale. 
 
 Lord Zetland's. 
 
 'The Craven. 
 
 The Surrey Union. 
 
 The North StaSordshire. 
 The Duke of Beaufort's. 
 The Cotswold. 
 The Dumfriesshire. 
 The Albrighton. 
 The North Cotswold. 
 
 The North Durham. 
 
 Braes of Derwent. 
 
 The Radnorshire and 
 
 Hereford. 
 The Monmouthsliire. 
 
 West 
 
 Each part is published separately, price 2s. 6d. 
 
 ?THE field" office, 346, STRAND,. W.C. 
 
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 Now ready, royal &io, price los. 6d., by post lis. 
 
 HOESE BREEDING RECOLLECTIONS. 
 
 BY 
 
 COUNT G. LEHNDORFF, 
 
 Containing Notes on the Breeding of Tlioroughbreds — In-breeding and Out-crossing 
 
 — Pedigrees of all the Principal Sires — and Genealogical Tables of 
 
 Celebrated Thoroughbreds. 
 
 Post 8vo., price js. 6d., by post 8x. 
 
 J10SS torn a E0Umfl %imt : 
 
 OR, 
 
 MOORISH WANDERINGS AND RAMBLING 
 REMINISCENCES. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES A. PAYTON, 
 
 " Sarcelle" of "The Field," Author of "The Diamond Diggings of South 
 
 Africa." &c. 
 
 Price Si. cloth, by post S*. A^- 
 
 A Year of Lilberty ; or, Salmon Angling in Ireland. 
 
 BY 
 
 Large post i/vo., price Ss. 6d., by post gs. 
 
 By Lake and River « 
 
 AN ANGLER'S RAMBLES IN THE NORTH OF 
 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 BY 
 
 B^ 12/ jIL 2Sr O I S IFIS/JLITOIS. 
 
 Author of " A Book on Angling" 6fc. 
 "THE field" office, 346, STRAND, W.C. ^ 
 
PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 
 
 Third Edition. , Large post ivo., price ys. 6d. cloth, by post ys. lod. 
 
 FACTS AND USEFUL HINTS 
 
 RELATING TO 
 
 FISHING AND SHOOTING 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED 
 
 A List of Recipes for the Management and Cure of Dogs 
 IN Disease. 
 
 Edited by I. E. B. C, 
 
 Editor o£ "The Gamekeeper's and Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary," &c. 
 
 FISHING. 
 
 Baits— Fish— Fish Hatching— Flies and Fly Making— Flights— Floats— Gut— Lines 
 
 Miscellaneous— Nets— Ponds and Streams — Pcds — Wading Boots — Wax. 
 
 SHOOTING. 
 
 Birds and Beasts— Breeding— Coverts— Deer— Dogs— Ferrets — Foxes— Guns- 
 Kennel— Miscellaneous— Nets— Preserving— Rabbits— Rifles— 
 Traps — Vermin. 
 
 Appendix. — Diseases of Dogs. 
 
 In post 8vo., with Illustrations, price 3s. 6d. 
 
 The Ppaotioal Management of Plsherieg. 
 
 A BOOK FOR PROPRIETORS AND KEEPERS. 
 By FRANCIS FRANCIS. 
 
 Author of "Fish Culture," "A Book on Angling," "Reports on Salmon Ladders," &c. 
 
 COIsTTElNrTS. 
 
 Chap. . „. , „ 1 
 
 L— Fish and Fish Food. 
 II.— How to Grow Fish Food and how 
 
 to Make Fishes' Homes. 
 III. — On the Management of Weeds and 
 
 the Economy of Fishing. 
 IV.— The Enemies of Trout and how to 
 
 Circumvent them, 
 v.— The Artificial Incubation of Ova. 
 
 VL— On the Rearing of Fry and 
 the Conduct of Ponds, Stews, 
 &c. 
 VII.— Some Hatcheries. 
 VIII.— Coarse Fish. 
 IX.— On Salmon and Trout Ladders 
 and Passes. 
 Appendix. — Notes, &c. 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, 
 
 W.C. 
 
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 Now ready, quarto, price ^s., by post 5s. 6d. 
 THE 
 
 GAMEKEEPER'S AND GAME PRESERVER'S 
 
 att0unt 3S00ft antr JStarg. 
 
 By I. E. B. C, 
 
 Editor d£ " Facts and Useful Hints relating to Fishing and ShooUng," " The Ar^ler*s Diary," &c. 
 
 Its Sections comprise— 
 
 The Shooting and Its Guardians. 
 
 Memorandum of Agreement. 
 
 Receipts and Payments. 
 
 Vermin Diary — 
 
 General Summary. 
 
 Poultry Diary — 
 
 Receipts and Payments. 
 General Balance Sheet. 
 
 Pheasant Diary — 
 
 Receipts and Expenses. 
 General Balance Sheet. 
 
 Dog Diary — 
 
 Kennel Names, Ages, Value, &c. 
 
 Kennel Occupants at the beginning of each 
 
 Quarter of the Year, 
 Produce Register— Bitches. 
 Stud Register. 
 Pedi^ees. 
 
 Receipts and Expenses. 
 General Balance Sheet. 
 
 Game Diary — 
 
 Total Summary of the Season. 
 Produce of the Beats or Coverts. 
 Tenants, &c., to whom game should be given. 
 Inventory of Appliances, &c. 
 
 Stock Valuation. 
 
 General Balance Sheet for the Year. 
 
 In handy pocket sisse, price is, 6d.j by post is, 'jd, 
 THE 
 
 Gamekeeper's Shooting Memorandum Book 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 Registering of Game Shot, Memoranda of Sale, &c. 
 
 By I. E. B. C, 
 
 Editor of "Facts and Useful Hints relating to Fishing and Shooting," "The Gamekeeper's and Game 
 Preserver's Account Book and Diary. &c. 
 
 Crown 8vo., price is. 6d., by post 2s. gd. 
 
 PUBLIC SHOOTING QUARTERS 
 
 IN 
 
 ENGLAND, WALES, SCOTLAND, IRELAND, AND ON 
 THE CONTINENT. 
 
 B -g- " "W I li !D IF O "W Ij E la." 
 
 Author of " Shooting and Fishing Trips," " Modem Wildfowling," "Table of Loads," &c. 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
.17^^^-- ■ fe^^" 
 
 , PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 21 '^ 
 
 Third Edition, Enlarged and Revised. Large post 8vo., with Illustrations, 
 price 5i. cloth, by post ^s. 4^. 
 
 THE COUNTRY HOUSE: 
 
 A Collection of Useful Information and Recipes, 
 
 Adapted to the Country Gentleman and his household, and of the greatest 
 utility to the housekeeper generally. 
 
 By I. E. B. C, 
 
 Editor of " Facts and Useful Hints relating to Fishing and Shooting," and " The Gamekeeper's and 
 Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary." 
 
 Published Annually. In post ^0., price is. 6d., by post is. Sd. 
 
 THE ANGLER^S DIARY 
 
 and 
 
 TOURIST FISHERMAN'S GAZETTEER 
 
 contains 
 
 A Record of the Rivers and Lakes of the World, to which are added a List of Rivers 
 
 of Great Britain, with their nearest Railway Stations. 
 
 Also Forms for Registering the Fish taken during the year ; as well as the 
 
 Time of the Close Seasons and Angling Licences. 
 
 By I. E. B. C, 
 
 Editor of " The Gamekeeper's and Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary," &c. 
 Fourth EditK)N. Infcap. 8vo., price is., by post is. id. 
 
 GROUND GAME ACT, 1880, 
 
 WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES, 
 
 Indicating the various periods at which the law comes into force under different 
 conditions, its effect on existing contracts between owners and occupiers of land, and 
 the lessees of sporting rights, the limitations placed upon the killing and selling of 
 ground game, and other matters included in the Act. 
 ' " Will be a great convenience to magistrates, and to all persons affected by the 
 Act." — Saturday Keview. 
 
 Third Edition. Infcap. Svo., price is., by post is. id. 
 
 WILD BIRDS' PROTECTION ACT, 1880, 
 
 WITH COMMENTS ON THE RESPECTIVE SECTIONS 
 
 Explanatory of their bearing as regards owners and occupiers of land, sportsmen, bird 
 p catchers, bird dealers, &c. ; together with Notes on the Birds named in the Schedule, 
 their provincial names, &c. 
 
 " An accurate exposition of and commentary on the recent measure, and will dispel 
 many misconceptions of its scope." — Quarterly Review. 
 
 " A capital annotated edition of the Act." — Saturday Review. 
 
 "THE field" office, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 Second Edition. In demy 8vo., price los. 6d., by post lis. 
 
 Estate Management: 
 
 ^ Practical l^anUfiooft for ILanUlortis, Stctoar&g, antr ^Pupils, 
 
 WITH A 
 
 LEGAL SUPPLEMENT BY A BARRISTER, 
 
 ALSO 
 
 Tenant Right from a Landlord's Point of View. 
 BY CHARLES E. CURTIS. 
 
 Extract from Preface. — " He who intends to qualify himself for such interesting and 
 responsible work as the care and oversight of landed property must, in these days of 
 keen competition, give up the idea that he need only abandon himself to the pleasures 
 of a country life, and that all needful information will be picked up by the wa^." * 
 
 COIfJ"TEIsra?S. 
 
 Chap, 
 I. — Letting and Leases, 
 n. — Farm Valuations. 
 III. — Forestry. 
 IV. — Underwood. 
 V, — Fences. 
 VI. — Grasses suitable for Woods and 
 
 Plantations. 
 VII.— The Home Farm. 
 
 Chap. 
 
 jjr' t Repairs and Materials. 
 
 X.— The Blights of Wheat and other 
 
 Cereals. 
 XI. — Accounts. 
 XII. — Useful Rules of Arithmetic and 
 Mensuration. 
 
 In crown &vo., price is. 
 
 CATECHISM OF ESTATE MAMGEMENT. 
 
 SECTION L 
 
 LETTING AND LEASES. 
 
 By CHAS. E. CURTIS, F.S.I., 
 
 -Wanagement at the Colli 
 Management, Author ( 
 
 Professor oE Estate Management at the College of Agriculture, Principal of the School of EsUte 
 
 r of" Estate Management, &c. 
 
 Price 6d.j by post 'jd, ; or 2s. 6d. the half-dosen. 
 
 "THE FIELD" 
 DUPLICATE JUDGING BOOK 
 
 Facilitates the work of the Judges at Poultry and other Shows, by a very simple 
 method of entering and preserving a duplicate judging list. 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 
 
 NEAAT EDITION, ENLARGED. " 
 
 Jud published, 400 pp., demy %vo.. Illustrated, price ds., by post ds. 6d. 
 
 SILOS 
 
 FOR 
 
 PEESEEVING BEITISH FODDEE CE0P8 STOEED 
 IN A GEEEN STATE. 
 
 NOTES ON THE ENSILAGE OF GRASSES, CLOVERS, VETCHES, &C. 
 
 Compiled from Various Sources 
 
 BY THE 
 
 STJB-BDITOB OF "THE FIELD." 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Introductory — Summary of Practice — Crops for the Silos — Filling the Silo — 
 
 Covering up and Closing the Silo — Weighting the Silo — Opening the Silo — 
 Effect of Ensilage on Fodders — Feeding Qualities of Silage, &c. 
 
 The Chemistry of Ensilage. By F. Woodland Toms, F.I.C., F.C.S. 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 Now ready, price 6d. 
 
 Harvesting Crops Independently of Weather: 
 
 PRACTICAL NOTES on the WEILSON SYSTEM of HARVESTIITG. 
 
 By "AGRICOLA," 
 
 And other Contributors to "The Field." 
 
 COlTTBlirTS: 
 
 Losses from Wet Seasons— How to Build Stacks on the Neilson System— The Underground Air-passages— 
 The Exhaust Fan— Regulating Rick Temperature— Treatment of Hay Crops before Stacking— Expe- 
 riences of Mr. Neilson's Disciples— Grain and Seed Crops— The Cost of adopting the Neilson Process- 
 Quality of Hay and Corn Crops cured by this System— Mr. Neilson's Early Experiments— Previous 
 Inventions for Drying Crops — Concluding Remarks. 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 Illustrated ■with numerous Woodcuts, post Sivo., price ^s., by post ^s. ^d, 
 
 THE 
 
 INTERNAL PARASITES OF OUR DOMESTICATED 
 
 ANIMALS; 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ENTOZOA OF THE OX, SHEEP, 
 DOG, HORSE, PIG, AND CAT. 
 
 By T. SPBITCEB, COBBOLD, M.D., F.R.S., P.L.S. 
 
 In crown Sua,, price 2s. 6d., hy post zs. 8d. 
 
 MANURES : 
 
 Theip Respeetive Merits fpom an Economical Point of View. 
 
 By A. W. CREWS, 
 
 Author of " Guano : its Origin, History, and Virtues," " The Potato and its Cultivation," &c. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. — Definition of the Word " Manure " — Nature's Modes of Applying 
 Fertilisers — History — Classification. 
 
 PART II. — The Value of Ploughing Down Green Crops — Weeds — Sea-weed — 
 Straw — Sawdust — Tanners' Bark — Wood Ashes — Peat — Rape Cake — Hemp — Poppy, 
 Cotton, and Cocoa-nut Cakes — Bran — Malt Dust — Brewers' Grains — Coal — Soot — 
 Charcoal. 
 
 PART III. — Dead Animals — Fish — Blood — Animalised Charcoal — Bones — Horn 
 — Woollen Rags, Hairs, Feathers, &c. — Night-soil — Farm-yard Manure — Guano. 
 
 PART IV. — Salts of Ammonia — Salts of Magnesia — Salts of Potash — Salts of 
 Soda — Common Salt — Lime and its Compounds — " Ooze." 
 
 In crown 8vo., price 2s., by post 2s. 2d. 
 
 THE POTATO AND ITS CULTIVATIOlf. 
 
 By A. W. CREWS, 
 
 Author of " Guano ; its Origin, History, and Virtues," " IManures : their Respective Merits," &c. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Derivation — History — Constituents — Varieties — Sprouting — Soils — Planting- 
 Manures— Earthing up— Disease— Scab— Storing— Forcing— Producing New 
 Varieties— Substitutes for the " Potato "—Miscellaneous Information. 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
\~w^ 
 
 PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 
 
 Demy 8vo., price 3s. 6d., by post 34. gd.. Illustrated with several Diagrams. 
 
 THE 
 
 PRACTICAL SURVEYOR: 
 
 A TREATISE UPON SURVEYING. 
 
 SPECIALLY ARRANGED FOR THE GUIDANCE OF PUPILS, 
 
 STEWARDS, THE SCHOLASTIC PROFESSION, AND 
 
 INTENDING EMIGRANTS. 
 
 By THOMAS HOLLOW^AY. 
 
 C03STTE3SrTS- 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I.— The Man and his Outfit, 
 II.— The Chain — Cautions to Beginners — Best 
 
 Figure for Chain Surveying. 
 Ill .—Boundaries. 
 IV.— Setting-out Lines by the Eye and passing 
 
 Obstructions, 
 v.— Division of the Circle and Use of Box 
 Sextant — Chain Angles Condemned — Cross 
 Staff Condemned-vThe Optical Square — 
 Measuring Inaccessible Distances. 
 VI.— The Theodolite— Setting-out Lines with the 
 
 Theodolite. 
 VII. — Reduction of the Measure of Undulating 
 Ground to Horizontal Measures and Table 
 of Vertical Angles. 
 VIII.— Measuring Lines — The Ofjset Staff and 
 taking Offsets. 
 IX.— To Prove the Correctness of Observations 
 taken with the Sextant — Single Fields 
 Measured with the Chain and Optical 
 Square, so that the Areas can be directly 
 Calculated. 
 X.— To Set-out a Right Angle with the Chain- 
 Figures of the Lines of Measurement best 
 adapted to Irregular Fields. 
 XI.— Equalising Boundaries, and Drawing a 
 
 Triangle equal to a given Figure. 
 XII.— Computation of Arrears of Irregular Fields. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 XIIL- 
 
 XIV.- 
 
 -Example of a Survey of several Fields 
 together, and the Field Book. 
 
 ■Reference Numbers to Maps — To put 
 Detached Buildings in correct Positions 
 on a Plan by Means of Unmeasured 
 Lines— Lines Measured on the Work^ 
 Making Stations. 
 
 -Plotting — Selection and Management of 
 Paper — Inking In. 
 
 -Surveys made for the puri)ose of Dividing 
 Land into Stated Quantities. 
 
 -Setting-out Allotments and Building Plots. 
 
 ■Angles and Bearings, and Use and Adjust- 
 ment of Circular Protractor. 
 
 -Traverse Surveys. 
 
 -Trespass. 
 
 ■Quality Lines— Superstructures and Works 
 Underground — Harvest and Coppice 
 Work — Reducing Plans from a Large 
 Plan to a Small One. 
 
 -To Copy a Map— Colouring, Penmanship, 
 &c. 
 
 ■Commencement of a Parish Survey— Sur- 
 veying to a Scale of Feet. 
 
 -Town Surveying. 
 
 -Testing the Accuracy of a Survey — General 
 Remarks. 
 XXVI.— In Memory of the Past. 
 
 XV.^ 
 
 XVI.- 
 
 XVIL- 
 XVIII.- 
 
 XIX.- 
 XX. 
 XXI.- 
 
 XXIL- 
 XXIIL- 
 
 XXIV. 
 XXV. 
 
 In crown Svo., with Thirteen full-page Plates, price 2s. 6d., by post 2s. gd. 
 
 The Swimming Instructor : 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE ARTS OF SWIMMING 
 AND DIVING. 
 
 By WILLIAM WILSON, 
 
 Author of " Swimming, Diving, and How to Save Life," "The Bather's Manual," 
 " Hints on Swimming." 
 
 "THE field" office, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
 ■<f25(g:^ 
 
A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 Second Edition. In Three Parts, large post S^io., price 5s,, by post 5s. 4d. 
 
 each Part. 
 
 THE 
 
 Farm, Garden, and Stable. 
 
 By I. E. B. C, 
 
 Editor of "The Gamekeeper's and Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary." 
 
 CQ^sTTEISrTS. 
 Part I —The Farni. 5s. 4d. by Post. 
 
 Cattle — Crops — Dairy — Diseases — -Fencing — Food for Stock — Manures — 
 Miscellaneous — Pigs-^Sheep^rSoils-^Weeds^-^Woo.ds, 
 
 Part II.— The G-arden. 5s. 4d. by Post. 
 
 Flowers — Fruit — Houses — Lawns — Manures — Miscellaneous — Seeds — Trees and 
 Shrubs — Vegetables — r Vermin — Weeds. 
 
 Part III -The Stable. 5s. 4c|. by Post. 
 
 Carriages — Diseases-r-Feeding — Harness, &c. — Miscellaneousn^Stable Management. 
 
 Published Annually. Demy ^o., price is., by post is. z^ 
 
 SPORTSMAN'S ILLUSTRATED CALENDAR FOR 1884. 
 
 ANGLING. — Notes on the Fisheries Exhibition- 
 Sea Fishing Stations around the Coast, with 
 description of Sport bbtainabler^Abstract of Bye- 
 Laws under the Salmon Acts—Fishery Districts 
 in England and Wales, their Coast Limits, Sec- 
 Close Seasons for Salmon, Trout, and other Fish 
 — The Thames Fishery Bye-laws — Cost of Rod 
 Licences for Salmon and Trout in different 
 Fishery Districts. 
 
 ATHLETICS.—Summary of the Season of 1883— 
 Bests on Record, Sec. 
 
 BICYCLING AND TRICYCLING.-Best Per^ 
 formances up to 100 miles. 
 
 CATTLE. — Cattle Breeders' Prospects— Portraits 
 of Norfolk and Suffolk Polled Cattle^List of 
 Herd Books and Stud Books— List of Fairs, 
 showing where the different Breeds of Cattle, 
 Sheep, and Pigs may be purchased. 
 
 CRICKET.— The Cricket Season of 1883-^English 
 Cricketers in Australia. 
 
 FAIRS AND MARKETS.— List oE Fairs and 
 Markets, showing where the different Breeds 
 of Horses and Ponies, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs 
 may be Purchased. 
 
 HORSES— Breeding and Breaking Nag Horses for 
 Sale— List of Stud Books, &c,^Retrospect of 1883 
 —Turf Notes, Spc— List of Fairs, showing lyhere 
 the different Breeds of Horses and Ponies may 
 be purchased. 
 
 COlsTT'EniTTS, 
 
 HUNTING.— Changes and Prospects in Hunting 
 
 Countries— Packs of Hounds; their Masters, 
 
 Huntsmen, Whips, Kennels, &c. 
 LAWN TENNIS.— Notes on the Tournaments of 
 
 1883, with Lists of Winner^ of the Various 
 
 Championships. 
 RACQUETS AND TENNIS. -r- Results of the 
 
 Oxford and Cambridge Matches, and the Public 
 
 Schools Racquets Challenge Cup, from their 
 
 Commencement to the Present Time. 
 ROWING.— Boat Racing in 1883. 
 
 Results of the Oxford and Cambridge Matches 
 
 from the Commencement to the Present Time. 
 
 SKATING.— Best Amateur Performances up to 
 
 so Miles. 
 SHOOTING.— Notes on Partridge Shooting— The 
 Field" Trial of Rifles, "vrith Diagrams aijd 
 
 Tables-rThe Legal SeaJso^is for KUIing Game, 
 
 Wildfowl, &c. 
 
 THE TURF.- Notes on Racing in 1883— Race and 
 Steeplechase Fixtures of 1884. 
 
 YACHTING. — Yacht Racing in 1883— Summary 
 of Matches Sailed, with List of Winners, amount 
 of Prizes, &g.— Steam Yachting, with Plan of the 
 Gitana, and Comparative Table of twelve of the 
 largest Steam Yachts— Notes on the Tide Ts^les. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS.-Calendar of the Month, &c. 
 —Parcel Post Regulations. 
 
 ^THE FIELD '' OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 
 
 Published HaLf-Yeael*. Ii'cap. 8«()., prici ios. '6d., by post los. lod. 
 
 THE 
 
 COURSING CALENDAR. 
 
 It contains 
 
 RETURNS OF ALL THE PUBLIC COURSES RUN IN GREAT 
 BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 
 
 REVISED LIST OF ADDRESSES OF COURSING SECRETARIES, 
 
 Judges, slippers, and TkAiNERS ; 
 LIST OP MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CLUBi REPORTS OP THE MEETINGS, 
 
 AND 
 
 A COMPLETE LIST OF WATERLOO CUP WINNERS. 
 
 Edited by " STONEHENGE," 
 
 EDITOR OF " THE FIELD," 
 
 Author of "'the Dogs of the British Islands,'' "The Modern Sportsman's 
 Gun and Rifle," &C\ 
 
 Published Annuallyi In large post Smo. 
 THE 
 
 KENNEL CLUB STUD BOOK: 
 
 containing a Complete 
 
 RECORD OF DOG SHOWS AND FIELD TRIALS, 
 
 WITH V 
 
 I PEDiaEEES OF SPORTING AND NON-SPOETINa DOGS. 
 VoL I., from 18B9 to 1873, pride 12s. 6d., by jpost 13s. 
 
 Frice lOs. 6d., by post lOs. lOd. each— 
 
 Vol. ii., 1874; VoL III, 1875; Vol iv., 1876; Vol v., 1877; 
 
 Vol. VI., 1878; VoL VII., 1879; VoL VIII., 1880; 
 if' Vol, IX., 1881; VoL X., 1882; Vol. XL, 1883, nearly ready. 
 Vols. VIII. to X. are also pulilished in Four Parts, as follows : 
 PART T— rnntainins the Dog Show Rules, Reports of Shows, and Pedigrees of the followins Dogs: 
 Bloodhounds, Deerhounds, GreyhSunds, Foxhounds, Otterhounds, Harriers, Beagles, Mastiffs, St. Bernards, 
 Newfoundlands, Dalmatians, and CoUeys. Price V- 
 r PART Il.-Containing the Dog Show Rules, Reports of Shows, and Pedigrees of Fox Terriers, Wire- 
 l' -Mired Terriers, and Dachshunds. Price +i. 
 
 PART Ill.-Containing the Field Trial Rules, Reports of Shows, Reports of Field Trials, and Pedigrees 
 of Pointers, Setters, Retrievers, and Spaniels. Price ^s. 
 
 PART IV -Containing the Dog Show Rules, Reports of Shows, and Pedigrees of Bulldogs, Bull Terriers, 
 Black and Tan Terriers Dandie Dmrnont Terriers, fiedlington Terriers, Skye Terriers, Enghsh and Smooth- 
 coated Terrier" Broken-haired Terriers, Pomeranians, Maltese, Ualian dreirhounds, Pugs, B^nheim Spaniels, 
 Kfnl Chlries SpanwirPoodles, Smooth and Rough-coated Toy Terriers, Insh Terriers, and Foreign, fnce 4i. 
 
 OFFICE, 346, STRAWD, W.C. 
 
3^l^s5 
 
 28 A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
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 FIGURE SKATING; 
 
 BEING 
 
 The Theory and Ppaetiee of the Apt as Developed in England, 
 
 WITH 
 
 A GLANCE AT ITS ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 By H. C. VANDERVELL and T. MAXWELL WITHAM 
 
 (members of the LONDON SKATING CLUb). 
 
 There are thousands of skaters who attain a small amount of skill in Figure 
 Skating, and there stop, because they neither know what to do or how to do it, A 
 reference to this, the acknowledge Text Book of Figure Skating will solve any 
 difficulty that may have stopped progress for years. 
 
 Fourth Edition. In post 8vo., limp cloth, gilt, price 2s. 6d., ly post 2s. 8d. 
 
 THE ART OF SKATING; 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS, AND PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR THE 
 
 ACQUIREMENT OF THE MOST DIFFICULT AND GRACEFUL 
 
 MOVEMENTS. 
 
 By GEORGE ANDERSON (" Cycles"), 
 
 Vice-President of the Crystal Palace SkaUng Club, and for many years President of the 
 Glasgow Skating Club. 
 
 ^usi Published, price 55., by post 55. 2d, 
 
 "COMBINED FIGURE SKATING;" 
 
 A COLLECTION OF 300 COMBINED FIGURES, AS SKATED BY THE SKATING CLUB, 
 LONDON, THE WIMBLEDON SKATING CLUB, ic. 
 
 Illustrated by 130 scaled diagrams, showing the correct direction of every curve 
 executed by the skater, and the recognised amount of circling round the centre: 
 together with a progressive series of alternate "calls." 
 
 The figures are named in accordance with the revised system of nomenclature 
 and rules of combined figure skating, compiled by the Skating Club, London, Sept. 11, 
 1882. 
 
 Diagrams of the combined figures in the first and second class tests of the 
 National Skating Association are included. 
 
 By MONTAGU S. F, MONIER-WlLLIAMS AND STANLEY F. MONIER-WlLLIAMS 
 
 (Members of the Wimbledon Skating Club). 
 
 "THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C. 
 
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 PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX, 
 
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 BOAT-RACING; 
 
 OR, 
 
 The ARTS of ROWLING and TRAINING. 
 
 EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD. 
 
 (ex-amateur champion of the THAMES.) 
 
 C03SrTE3^TS. 
 
 ROWING. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 I.— Introduction : Past and Present Condition of 
 
 Boatracing. 
 ir.-^Racing Boats : Their History and Fittings. 
 III.-rThe Sliding Seat : Its Invention, Adoption, 
 
 and Theory. 
 IV.— How to Use an Oar, and Sculls, 
 v.— Faults and Errors : What to avoid. 
 VI.— Steering : CoxswEun and Non-co;xswain. 
 - VII. — ^Teaching Beginners. 
 
 Vin.— Coaching for Races^ and Selection of Crews. 
 IX.— The Vaneties and Conduct of Boatraces. 
 X.— The Laws of Boatracing. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 XI.— The Qualifications of Amateurs. 
 XII. — Boat Clubs : Their Organisation and 
 Administration. 
 XIII.— Historical Records, a.d. 1715 to 1838. 
 XIV. „ „ a.d. 1839 to 1855. 
 
 XV. „ „ A.D. 1856 to 1875. 
 
 TRAINING. 
 
 XVI.— Its Principles. 
 XVII.— Its Practice. 
 XVIII.— Prohibitions, Ailments, &c. 
 Appendix.— Rules for Betting. 
 Index. 
 
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 Thames Navigation Rules. 
 
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 BY H. F. WILKINSON, OF THE LONDON ATHLETIC CLUB. 
 
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 II.— The Rise of Modern Athletics. 
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 VI. — Running. 
 
 VII.— Jumping. ,,,,.,„ . 
 
 VHL— Hammer Throwing and Weight Putting. 
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 X.— Statistics. 
 XI.— The Best Performances on Record. 
 
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