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(QotttBll Httioerattg Cibtarg 
 
 ALEXANDER GRAY MEMORIAL 
 LIBRARY 
 
 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
TF 855.G68~" """•'™">' ^torary 
 ^?lilHMim.^S!i;i,';.:?.!!,^?y.«.!:Ono^ 
 
 3 1924 004 118 513 
 
The original of tiiis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004118513 
 
NOTES 
 
 ON 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS 
 
 AND 
 
 PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING 
 
 W C: GOTSHALL, 
 
 Member American Society op Civil Enginkers, Member American Thstitutb of Electukai. 
 Enoinbers, Pre^idrnt and Chiep Engineer New York at^td Port Chester R R. Tn, 
 
 SECOND EDITION, Corrected. 
 
 McGRAW-HII.1. BOOK COMPANY 
 
 239 West 39XH Street, New Yokk 
 
 6 Bouverie Street, London, E. C. 
 
 1904 
 
CopTBlGHTEl), 1903 anrl 1904, 
 
 • BY THE 
 
 MoGRAW PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 New Tork. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This book is based upon a series of lectures which I deliv- 
 ered at Lehigh University, last spring, the subject of which 
 dealt with the economics of the preliminary and other deter- 
 minations and of the construction and operating of high-speed 
 and heavy traction interurban electric railroads. After the 
 lectures had been delivered, some of the members of the 
 faculty of Lehigh University and others who had heard the 
 lectures, together with other men whose financial and other 
 interests are essentially railroads, including practicing en- 
 gineers, to whom the notes had been loaned, expressed the 
 desire to have them published, for the reason, as they stated, 
 that the treatment was novel and practical, and that no 
 discussion of the subject, as presented in the lectures, existed 
 in book form. I have, therefore, filled out the lecture notes, 
 in some places adding matter thereto, and have rearranged 
 the subjects so as to follow the order in which they would 
 be taken up in the investigation and construction of an elec- 
 tric railway undertaking of the kind herein considered. 
 
 With the exception of a few large general maps, prepared 
 
 for special cases, and some sets of railroad maps showing 
 
 alignments and profiles, and a few sets of colored Progress 
 
 Sheets, all of the full size original drawings and diagrams 
 
 which I used while delivering the lectures have been reduced 
 
 [iii] 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 and reproduced for this volume and appear at their proper 
 places in the following pages. 
 
 Some time prior to the delivery of these lectures a series of 
 hearings was held by the Eailroad Commissioners of 'New 
 York State to consider the application of the JSTew York and 
 Port Chester Eailroad Company for a charter, and during this 
 hearing the practicability from both an engineering and com- 
 mercial standpoint of interurban high-speed electric railways 
 was fully demonstrated. Although the New York and Port 
 Chester Eailroad is not yet in operation, I used considerable 
 of the engineering and other data placed in evidence at this 
 hearing, as well as much other data worked up in developing 
 and demonstrating the commercial and engineering details of 
 ■of the New York and Port Chester Eailroad in the Lehigh 
 University lectures, and have also employed some of the same 
 data in this book. 
 
 Neither the lectures, or this book, were or are given as a 
 treatise or exhaustive treatment of the subject as a whole, or 
 of the details as indicated in the chapter headings. The 
 lectures were intended to " point the way," and embody some 
 of the results of twelve years of practice and application. 
 This book is presented with the same object in view. 
 
 I desire to express my thanks to Mr. C. O. Mailloux, my 
 associate, and to Mr. H. W. Blake, Editor of the Street Eail- 
 way Journal, for the help they have given me in completing 
 this book. 
 
 W. C. GOTSHALL. 
 
 Nbw Tobk, August, 1908. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Chapteb I. Introductory 1 
 
 II. Prbliminart Office Determinations 6 
 
 III. Preliminary Field Survey 13 
 
 IV. Detailed Office Investigation of Track Loca- 
 
 tion 25 
 
 V V. Preliminary Determination of Schedules and 
 
 Equipment , 38 
 
 VI. Estimate of Earnings 56 
 
 \ VII. Estimate of Probable Operating Expenses. . 68 
 
 VIII. The Final Survey 78 
 
 i IX. Track Construction 85 
 
 I X. Overhead or Third-Rail Construction 101 
 
 XI. The Power Station 120 
 
 XII. Storage Batteries 136 
 
 I XIII. Rolling Stock and Motors 148 
 
 y. XIV. Securing Rights of Way 176 
 
 XV. Preparation of the Specifications 186 
 
 L-XVI. The Construction Period 190 
 
 XVII. The Organization of the Operating Depart- 
 ment 193 
 
 XVIII. Economic Considerations 301 
 
 Appendix I. Specifications ■ for Moderate- Sized Interurban 
 
 Railway 211 
 
 II. Bibliography 244 
 
 [V] 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS AND 
 PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 The purpose of this book is not to discuss in detail the in- 
 tricate electrical and other engineering problems connected 
 with the location and construction of interurban electric rail- 
 ways. While a knowledge of such details is of great import- 
 ance to the constructing engineer, indeed is essential to suc- 
 cess, their consideration exceeds the proposed scope of this 
 volume, and the reader is referred to the special, detail 
 works on civil, electrical, mechanical, and steam engineer- 
 ing. It is the intention here to consider rather the sub- 
 ject broadly and as a whole, to outline the work of 
 the electric railway engineer during the inaugurative and 
 constructive period of a proposed road, and to give in 
 a general way some bases upon which the costs of con- 
 struction, probable present and future traffic, and ul- 
 timate economic results of the proposed railway can be 
 gauged. In this discussion I will consider some of th'^ 
 technical details of interurban electric railroading which 
 are not now to be found in the text-books, and will also, for 
 the better imderstanding of the subject, take up certain 
 concrete examples of the different subjects treated. 
 
 Success in the inauguration, construction, and operation 
 of railways of the character discussed in these pages re- 
 quires, on the part of the railway engineer, a combination 
 of engineering and commercial skill. He must not only 
 be conversant with those purely technical matters required 
 of the civil and electrical engineer, but he must also bo 
 
 [1] 
 
2 ELECTRIC ItAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 thoroughly awake to and skilled in those commercial mat- 
 ters relating to finance, conditions affecting and gcveming 
 the securing of business, retention of business, cost of 
 handling a given volume of bu-iness, and the causes which 
 influence and determine traflSc. 
 
 The relations of the railway engineer to his clients are 
 essentially fiduciary. His responsibilities are precisely 
 those of trust company officers or trustees having in hand 
 the investment of the funds of others. The engineer is 
 expected to advise his clients whether the proposed enter- 
 prise will be a safe investment, and he is also expected to 
 give the reasons for his conclusions. Upon his opinion and 
 conclusions large sums will probably be staked, and for this 
 reason he has no right to recommend any investment which 
 will not pay either at once or in the near future. 
 
 The era of rapid transit, or high-speed electric roads, 
 operated at such speed and headway of train units that peo- 
 ple can live well beyond the congested commercial centers 
 and daily pass between their homes and the commercial 
 centers or places of their occupation or business without 
 suffering the prohibitive loss of time and inconvenience en- 
 tailed by the use of surface roads operating upon and along 
 public streets and highways, is now here. Populations in 
 our large cities have been increasing for years, but trans- 
 portation facilities have, by no means, kept pace with the 
 development. In consequence, the natural tendency to 
 spread out over larger areas has been checked, as evidenced 
 by the increase in the number and size of apartment and 
 tenement-houses in our large centers of population during 
 the past five or six years. Too much had been expected as 
 a transportation agent of electric street railways. The ac- 
 tual demonstration of their speed limitations, as shown by 
 their schedules, and rendered imperative by the paramount 
 consideration of public safety, has developed: 
 
 First. The interurban railway operating \ipon public 
 highways. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 3 
 
 Second. The high-speed interurban railroads operating 
 upon their own rights of ways, and, therefore, free to make 
 the fastest practicable schedulee. 
 
 Both of these have their province and both have come to 
 stay. The latter, however, will undoubtedly have the great- 
 est future and must receive that concentrated attention 
 always accorded to an indispensable economic necessity, for 
 such it certainly is. 
 
 The sun of the high-speed railroad, reaching out into the 
 country, is now risen, but, as yet, is far from its zenith. The 
 street surface or tramway systems will continue to do the 
 short-haul business in the cities and other population centers 
 for many years to come, while the suburban extensions of 
 these lines will supply a service for those so close to the large 
 cities that the element of time taken in the average trip does 
 not figure as a very large factor. Both classes of road will soon 
 be commonly recognized as feeders to the high-speed trunk 
 lines and systems. Each will be a necessary adjunct of 
 the other. The sun of the street surface railway is well 
 beyond its zenith and while some development may be ex- 
 pected in the suburban or rural railway on public highways, 
 its future is more or less limited. In the matter of those 
 transportation prerequisites, viz., speed and comfort, neither 
 class of road can offer much more than it is now giving on 
 account of conditions not within its control. 
 
 At the present time, the determination of railway projects 
 is essentially along the lines of heavy traction and interurban 
 development. The latest projects, both existing and pro- 
 posed, of interurban electric railway installations involve 
 not only features entering into their preliminary determina- 
 tions, but features of construction and operation differing 
 from those which have heretofore been controlling factors in 
 electric railways. 
 
 It is my purpose in this discussion to devote considerable 
 time to the investigation of preliminary conditions, as well 
 as to the determination of those characteristics of construe- 
 
4 ELECTRIC RAriWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 tion and operation which should be followed in the highest 
 class of interurban electric railway projects. 
 
 In approaching this subject, it will be taken up in the 
 following order: 
 
 I. Peeliminaey Detekminations. (Chap. II-III.) 
 
 (a) First or preliminary determinations of the probable 
 revenue and the general investigation of the physical char- 
 acteristics of the territory proposed to be served. 
 
 (b) Investigation of the commercial and other character- 
 istics of the territory proposed to be served. 
 
 (c) Preliminary surveys and fixing of preliminary lines 
 and data on which to base relative and ultimate deter- 
 minations. 
 
 (d) Prerequisites in connection with preliminary field 
 work. 
 
 II. Location of Line and Enginebeing. (Chaps. IV-VII.) 
 
 (a) Controlling considerations, such as connecting centers 
 of population, alignment and gradients, termini and stations, 
 and prerequisites for high speeds and safety of the public, 
 etc. 
 
 (b) Making of paper locations of probable routes, show- 
 ing approximate line and profile of each route. 
 
 (c) Estimates of cost of superstructure, etc. 
 
 (d) Determination of cost of equipment. Preliminary 
 plotting of schedules for the purpose of ascertaining ap- 
 proximate details of equipment. 
 
 (e) Determination of probable gross earnings. 
 
 (f) Determination of fixed charges and cost of operation 
 and maintenance upon schedules as proposed. 
 
 III. Final Engineeeing Wobk. (Chaps. VIII-XVI.) 
 
 (a) Final consideration of the details of construction of 
 superstructure, and details of engineering, such as power 
 stations, rolling stock, etc. 
 
INTKOnUCTORY. 5 
 
 (b) Securing right of way. 
 
 (c) Necessity for the provision of specifications clearly 
 defining required conditions. 
 
 (d) Remarks on what specifications should be; that is, 
 specifipations should be drawn to specify, essentially, per- 
 formance, and should only incorporate details of manufac- 
 ture where there are several methody of obtaining the same 
 object, one or more of which are recognized as better than 
 the others. 
 
 (e) Remarks about construction. 
 
 (f) Most propitious time for starting of any new road. 
 
 IV. Operation and Management. (Chaps. XVII, XVIII 
 and Appendix.) 
 
 (a) Organization of operating department. 
 
 (b) Economic considerations governing the construction 
 of an electric road. 
 
 (c) Specifications for a moderate-sized and high-speed 
 interurban railway. 
 
CHAPTER 11. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 
 
 The original idea to connect two or more centers of popu- 
 lation by an electric railway generally originates in the fertile 
 and never-tiring mind of one or more promoters. A promoter 
 is a prime mover of civilization. Before the promoters have 
 proceeded far, however, they recognize the necessity for com.- 
 petent technical advice and assistance, with the result that an 
 engineer is employed. 
 
 The iirst duty of the engineer should be to make a careful, 
 although general, investigation to determine approximately 
 the probable income or business of the proposed road, for the 
 purpose of advising his clients whether to proceed and incur 
 the relatively large expenses which further and especially a 
 conclusive investigation will require. 
 
 In order to determine this question, he should have re- 
 course to the United States census reports, as well as to such 
 school and other local census reports as he can obtain. Once, 
 in possession of these population statistics, he should next 
 ascertain the general characteristics of the population centers, 
 that is, are they of the manufacturing, mining, agricultural, 
 or other variety ? All of the foregoing can be secured without 
 visiting the proposed location, by having recourse to the statis- 
 tics just referred to and by questioning the originators or 
 promoters of the road. 
 
 The next recourse should be to existing statistics relating 
 to populations, as nearly similar as possible to those xmder 
 consideration. Such statistics show: 
 
 First. The population tributary to the line of road per mile 
 of road. 
 
 Second. The rides per capita per annum. 
 
 Third. The receipts per capita per annum. 
 
 Fourth. The receipts per mile of road per annum. 
 
 In making such comparisons care should be taken to select 
 
 [6] 
 
PRELIMIXARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 7 
 
 not only roads similar to the line proposed in length, char- 
 acter of equipment, and tributary population, but also in such 
 local conditions as will affect the riding per capita and per 
 car mile. Thus manufacturing communities will naturally 
 be found to show a larger number of rides per capita than 
 those of equal population where the pursuits are of an agri- 
 cultural character. Difference in the " riding habit " will 
 also produce large variations in statistics from cities or towns 
 which otherwise seem sufficiently similar for purposes of com- 
 parison. 
 
 Table I below contains some statistics of the kind referred 
 to: 
 
 TABLE I. 
 Approximate Earnings, Etc., for Different Interurlan Populations. 
 
 CASE NUMBER. 
 
 Tribu- 
 tary 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion per 
 Mile of 
 Track. 
 
 Gross 
 Earnings 
 per Mile 
 of Track 
 per An- 
 num. 
 
 Gross 
 Earnings 
 per Cap- 
 ita per 
 Annum. 
 
 Miles 
 Single 
 Track. 
 
 Times 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 Carried. 
 
 1 
 
 120,000 
 18,000 
 60,000 
 
 120,000 
 24,500 
 98.000 
 21,500 
 
 •275,000 
 54,000 
 81,000 
 53,000 
 36,000 
 60,000 
 79,000 
 
 1,764 
 1,200 
 1,463 
 
 732 
 1,114 
 1,750 
 
 936 
 1,100 
 1,200 
 1,884 
 1,205 
 
 667 
 2,857 
 1,197 
 
 $8,008 
 5,478 
 5,216 
 4,000 
 4,400 
 14,000 
 10,500 
 7,600 
 3,600 
 3,100 
 4,800 
 3,800 
 7,000 
 6,400 
 
 $4.54 
 4.56 
 
 -3.61- 
 5.46 
 4.00 
 8.00 
 
 11.23 
 6.91 
 3r00- 
 1.64 
 4.00 
 4.98 
 8.45 
 5.34 
 
 68 
 
 15 
 
 41 
 
 164 
 22 
 58 
 23 
 
 850 
 45 
 43 
 44 
 64 
 21 
 66 
 
 93 
 85 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 162 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 130 
 
 9 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 
 
 75 
 
 18 
 
 
 _43 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 In the foregoing table is shown some statistical informa- 
 tion, computed from data at hand, of interurban roads now 
 actually operating for a sufficient period of time to make the 
 data reliable. This table, or one like it, can very profitably 
 be used in the preliminary or office determinations of the 
 engineer, entered upon for the purpose of ascertaining 
 whether the proposed road possesses sufficient merit to war- 
 
8 ELEVTKIV RAILWAY EC0X0MIC8. 
 
 rant proceeding with the subsequent and costly engineering 
 work. 
 
 Cases ISTos. 3, 4, 6, Y approximate nearly the conditions of 
 the high-speed roads. The other cases are those of the high- 
 class intei'urban roads built upon public highways, the 
 average schedxile speeds of which are between 10 and 16 
 miles per hour. The schedule speeds of 3, 4, 5, 7 will average 
 nearer 20 miles per hour. Cases Nos. 9 to 14 are for groups 
 of roads in one of the ISTew England States. 
 
 It is imjjossible to give generally the minimum pay- 
 ing population per mile of track because, evidently, this 
 varies according to local conditions and is also being de- 
 creased as a result of changing conditions and constant and 
 more marked use of railways by the public. As a rule it 
 might be said that a tributary population of from 500 to 
 700 per mile of track will constitute the minimum, al- 
 though there are cases where a fairly profitable trafiic has 
 been built up, in connection with freight transportation, on a 
 basis of 400 inhabitants per mile of track. In calculating- 
 population tributary to a road radiating from a large city, it 
 is not customary to include the total population of this ter- 
 minal, otherwise a road with scarcely any population outside 
 of the large city would make a magnificent showing of popu- 
 lation per mile of track. 
 
 The effect upon the traffic of an interurban system, due to 
 n large city being situated at one of its termini, will un- 
 doubtedly be considerable, on account of the facility afforded 
 by high speed railroads for the distribution of urban popu- 
 lations along its lines. The latest installations of high-class 
 interurban railroads have already demonstrated this readi- 
 ness of urban populations to spread out where prooer trans- 
 portation facilities exist. In estimating upon earnings, etc., 
 for a proposed system I have always found it safe to take as 
 a tributary population to the proposed road, that which is 
 to be found within one-quarter mile to three-quarters of a 
 mile on each side of the line of the road. This practice has 
 been adhered to where the road passed through parts of large 
 
PRELIMINARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 
 
 cities and had a terminal in such large city. The engiiiee.': 
 must also not lose sight of the fact that relatively high-speed 
 interurban roads have at times completely altered the distribu- 
 tion of populations in and about cities and vi^ill probably do so 
 to a gTeater extent in the future on account of recent improve- 
 ments in the direction of increased safety, comfort, and speed. 
 Generally speaking, such systems should be credited with the 
 tributary population between and of their termini within 
 one-quarter mile to three-quarters of a mile on each side of the 
 road in making estimates, etc. This is, of course, on the as- 
 sumption that there exists no like road at the time serving the 
 territory properly or improperly, but where other transporta- 
 tion facilities, such as possibly steam or street surface elec- 
 tric may exist. Again, large termini have proved invaluable 
 supporters of pleasure and general recreation business. 
 
 It is also important in making comparisons between two 
 properties to follow the same method of obtaining, population 
 along the line. Thus, it is manifestly wrong to take the 1900 
 census in one case and count only the population of the in- 
 corporated towns and villages reached by the road, while in 
 another case to take the latest local estimate and add to it 
 the rural population within five or ten miles on each 
 side. It is also a notable fact that the less the population 
 per mile of track the greater will the earnings tisually be 
 per capita. In other words, a system operating through a 
 number of large towns will not get as much business from 
 each person in those places as it will per capita from the in- 
 habitants of smaller towns. 
 
 Practicing railway engineers should and generally do 
 have most extensive statistics of this kind. Those in 
 Table I relating essentially to interurban roads are given 
 partly for the purpose of indicating the form in which 
 such statistics can be compiled, and partly to show how 
 greatly the results from properties differently situated vary. 
 Any figures of this kind to be reliable should indicate the 
 latest obtainable data and these obviously are best attainable 
 from periodical publications. It might be said here that the 
 
10 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 annual reports of the Eailroad Comniiisioners of the states 
 of Xew York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut as well as the 
 census report on street railways and such financial annuals 
 as are devoted to street railway statistics, are invaluable for 
 detailed statistical information of all kinds relating to the 
 railroads which they contain. Too much emphasis, however, 
 cannot be laid upon the unwisdom of drawing specific con- 
 clusions from the results derived from roads operating under 
 entirely different conditions. Table II s;ives some statistics 
 for interurban railways for the year ending June 30, 1902 : 
 
 TABLE II. 
 Traffic on Different Interurban Railways. 
 
 Elgjin, Aurora & Southern 
 
 Union Traction, Anderson, Ind 
 
 Lewiston, Brunswick & Bath 
 
 Lexington & Boston 
 
 Old Colony Street Railway 
 
 Boston & Northern 
 
 Northampton & Amherst 
 
 Detroit, Yi)Silanti & Ann Arbor 
 
 Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon 
 Grand Rapids, Holland & Lake Michigan. 
 
 Houghton County Street Railway 
 
 Southwest Missouri Electric Railway 
 
 Albany and Hudson Railway & Power 
 
 Hudson Valley Railway 
 
 Rochester & Sodus Bay 
 
 Cincinnati, Dayton & Toledo 
 
 Cleveland, Elyria & Western 
 
 Cleveland, Painesville & Eastern 
 
 Northern Ohio Traction 
 
 Dayton, Springfield & Urbana 
 
 Dayton & Troy 
 
 Lake Shore 
 
 Youngstown-Sharon Railway & Light. . . . 
 
 Lehigh Valley Traction 
 
 Altoona & Logan Valley 
 
 Conestoga Traction 
 
 Pittsburg, McKeesport & Connellsville . . . 
 
 Wilkesbarre, Dallas & Harvey Lake 
 
 Northern Texas Traction 
 
 
 Fare Pas- 
 
 Fare Pas- 
 
 Miles of 
 
 sengers 
 per Mile 
 
 sengers 
 
 Track. 
 
 per Car 
 
 
 of Track. 
 
 Mile. 
 
 62.96 
 
 86,131 
 
 3.14 
 
 150.06 
 
 64,777 
 
 2.56 
 
 56.18 
 
 75,419 
 
 4.04 
 
 37.04 
 
 72,659 
 
 2.95 
 
 879.26 
 
 122,137 
 
 4.98 
 
 440.38 
 
 157,363 
 
 4.90 
 
 14.84 
 
 68,052 
 
 8.46 
 
 91.42 
 
 21,235 
 
 1.80 
 
 52.63 
 
 11,212 
 
 I.. 34 
 
 69.00 
 
 12,464 
 
 1.19 
 
 22.16 
 
 141,347 
 
 5.55 
 
 86.61 
 
 68,287 
 
 2.62 
 
 44.50 
 
 23,720 
 
 1.72 
 
 134.10 
 
 31,670 
 
 2.82 
 
 47.54 
 
 38,766 
 
 5.18 
 
 78.85 
 
 49.961 
 
 1.87 
 
 76.50 
 
 30,017 
 
 2.04 
 
 48.26 
 
 3.^,235 
 
 1.84 
 
 110.25 
 
 78,818 
 
 3.10 
 
 55.60 
 
 6,537 
 
 2.00 
 
 46.70 
 
 15,682 
 
 1.03 
 
 183.41 
 
 20,102 
 
 1.59 
 
 42.25 
 
 75,574 
 
 8.60 
 
 148.81 
 
 94,849 
 
 3.74 
 
 27.50 
 
 173,065 
 
 4.02 
 
 83.81 
 
 59,276 
 
 3.30 
 
 56.00 
 
 80,497 
 
 3.55 
 
 16.50 
 
 55,577 
 
 5.56 
 
 61.70 
 
 39,717 
 
 2.46 
 
 Fare Pas- 
 sengers 
 per Car 
 Hour. 
 
 29.13 
 2.J..32 
 46,07 
 
 45.71 
 44.45 
 30.74 
 37. 59 
 27.33 
 8^.91 
 40.32 
 
 26.58 
 
 16.71 
 22.62 
 
 31.16 
 33.30 
 33.12 
 
 69.79 
 13.32 
 
 This investigation of probable traffic will be con- 
 sidered more in detail in Chapter VI. Its treatment 
 at this time is only general and for the object only of reach- 
 
PBELIMIXABY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 11 
 
 iiig a rough approximation of the future earnings of the road. 
 With this in mind, and with the population and its distribu- 
 tion before him, together with the approximate length of the 
 proposed road, it is a matter of simple mutiplication and 
 division for the engineer to approximate the future traffic on 
 his proposed road. 
 
 For instance, suppose a number of centers of poptilation or 
 towns represented by the points A, B, C, D, E, F, are located 
 along a line. 
 
 Let 
 P = total population tributary to line of proposed railroad. 
 L = approximate length of proposed railroad between ter- 
 mini. 
 A = receipts per capita per annum for approximately similar 
 
 population and conditions. 
 M = receipts per mile of road per annum for approximately 
 similar population and conditions. 
 Then we have 
 AxP=probable gross receipts on per capita basis. 
 M X L = probable gross receipts on basis of population tribu- 
 tary to proposed line. 
 p 
 i- = tributary population per mile of line of proposed road, 
 
 which should be compared with that of successful 
 existing installations. 
 
 — = probable gross revenue per mile of the proposed 
 
 road, which should be compared with the re- 
 sults of approximately similar enterprises, as 
 shown in stich statistical data as Table I. 
 The probable gross earnings together with a knowledge of 
 the probable total cost of the road obtained by multiplying 
 the length of the proposed road in miles, by the known ap- 
 proximate cost per mile of road of similar enterprises, which 
 information will be found in the chapters on Track Con- 
 struction, Power Stations, etc., will determine whether the 
 
12 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 project is of sufficient merit to warrant proceeding further 
 with it, that is, it will show roughly whether the relations 
 between probable business and probable total cost are such 
 as will probably produce a proper return upon the invest- 
 ment probably required. 
 
 It is in these preliminary matters and determinations that 
 the value of conservative, experienced, and conscientious en- 
 gineering and railway engineers is realized. A competent 
 railway engineer will advise at once whether the enterprise 
 is worth proceeding with and expending the considerable 
 amount of money which will be required for the subsequent 
 engineering work. 
 
 Granting that these preliminary conclusions are favorable, 
 the engineer next proceeds to inform himself about the physi- 
 cal and more detailed characteristics of the proposed road and 
 territory. The first step in this direction is to secure the best 
 maps of the territory, such as those published by the United 
 States Government and the various states, cities, towns, and 
 counties which will be served by the proposed road. The maps 
 of theUnited States Coast and Geodetic Survey are invaluable 
 for use in connection with these preliminary determinations. 
 These maps show contours and are generally quite accurate. 
 By using them, a proposed line can be roughly sketched in 
 and an approximate line and profile obtained from the 
 contours, which can be checked by the use of such county 
 and other maps as may be accessible. These maps can also 
 be used with advantage by the preliminary surveying or field 
 parties, which will be referred to in the next chapter. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PBELIMINABY FIELD SURVEY. 
 
 We have assumed, now, that the engineer has carefully 
 compared the data supplied by the promoters with all local 
 and other sources of information wliich are available without 
 a personal visit to the locality, and that his office determina- 
 tion is such as to be generally favorable to the construction of 
 the road. "We also assume that he is stipplied with maps of 
 the locality and a roughly approximate line and profile 
 sketched on the general map mentioned in the last chapter. 
 He is now in a position to make a personal inspection of the 
 territory. 
 
 He should start at one of the termini and visit each of 
 the population centers in person, noting, carefully, the char- 
 acteristics of the people, the character of the population, the 
 number and kind of the industries, and their probable stabil- 
 ity. As this last consideration is ordinarily somewhat diffi- 
 cult to determine, it is best to obtain it by consulting the local 
 bankers, who are readily and easily approached through the 
 medium of introductory letters from bankers among the 
 engineer's business connections or associates at his place 
 of business. 
 
 Careful attention should also be paid on this personal 
 reconnaissance to all existing recreation points, that is, pic- 
 nic grounds, and other resorts which are likely to promote 
 traffic. If none exists, the engineer should note where Jt 
 would be possible and best to locate and develop them and 
 estimate their probable cost, as well as the probable siipport 
 which such a resort or resorts would receive. The recreation 
 business of any railroad is a most important branch of its 
 business. All of the revenue derived from such sources may 
 be said to be almost entirely profit, as such additional revenue 
 is obtained at a relatively insignificant cost for doing the 
 business. Recreation resorts along the lines of a great many 
 
 [13] 
 
14 ELECTRIC BAlL^YAY ECOXOMIC8. 
 
 railroads are the buoys which have for many years saved 
 them from financial sliipwreck. The importance of recre- 
 ation resorts will be better appreciated when it is remem- 
 bered that they attract traffic from probably the first of 
 Jmie until the first of September in northern climates, and 
 much longer in southern climates, and that in conjunction 
 with adequate and cheap transportation facilities, they af- 
 ford practically the only relaxation for by far the major 
 portion of every population, that is, the working men and 
 women and their families. 
 
 After the preliminary office work, already described, has 
 been done, the engineer should take no data which he him- 
 self has not verified as the basis for any conclusion. He now 
 has the entire responsibility to bear. His report will be 
 the basis for all the subsequent operations of the syndicate 
 or company. 
 
 The collateral obligations of the company issued to pro- 
 vide money to construct the road will be subscribed to and 
 sold largely upon his report as a basis or foundation. Pro- 
 moters, real estate speculators and town boomers will paint 
 eloquent portraits of the marvelous stability, development, 
 and Aladdin-like characteristics of the territory proposed 
 to be served by the road. It may do no harm to listen 
 to such eloquence, but none of it should be allowed to 
 creep into the report until it has been fully checked and 
 verified, if a verification be possible. 
 
 The object of the engineer's inspection, in addition to the 
 above, is to make a preliminary rough survey or reconnais- 
 sance of the proposed route which shall form the basis for 
 the running of the preliminary location lines by the field 
 parties or surveyors who will follow him. For this pur- 
 pose the engineer should take with him a few portable field 
 instruments, by the use of which he will determine approxi- 
 mate lines, directions, elevations, and conditions. The 
 instruments commonly used for such purposes are a port- 
 able compase, and hand-level or clinometer. 
 
rKtLIAlISARY FIELD SURVEY. 15 
 
 To do this reconnaissance work conscientiously the engi- 
 neer should walk over the possible routes. The word 
 routes is used because the reconnaissance should develop sev- 
 eral possible routes for consideration. A careful study 
 should also be made of all possible routes through the vari- 
 ous towns, cities, or other population centers. This detail 
 cannot be too strongly emphasized. There is not the least 
 doubt that disregard of the convenience of the public, 
 by locating a line and stations at inconvenient distances from 
 centers of populations, has been the cause of the unfor- 
 tunate culmination of more railroad enterprises than all 
 other causes combined. This does not mean that the line 
 nmst necessarily be located and constructed through the 
 centers of existing cities or towns. As a matter of fact 
 such a plan might and very probably often would load an 
 enterprise with such a heavy burden of fixed charges as to 
 make failure a certainty from the outset. A good prac- 
 tice is not only to locate as near an existing center of popu- 
 lation as possible, that is always well within the suburbs, 
 but also along a line which will, on account of the develop- 
 ment of the locality, be well through a center of popula- 
 tion within a given period, say three or five years after 
 commencing operation. 
 
 The engineer should always remember that railroads are 
 built for the convenience of the public, and that the rev- 
 enue of such enterprises will be an essential function of the 
 conveniences afforded. Transportation is a marketable com- 
 modity, the value of which may be made very great, or 
 relatively nothing, as the public convenience is catered to 
 or neglected by locating its route and stations so as to facili- 
 tate the public convenience, or in disregard of it. The 
 best route, as regards alignment and grades, may be the 
 worst possible route from a commercial standpoint. 
 
 Kailroads have been built which were technical en- 
 gineering ideals, and whereon the cost of operation per car 
 mile, or per ton mile, would have been ridiculously low for 
 
l(j JilLEUTHW RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 a fair volume of bxisiness. But, on account of lack of busi- 
 ness, due to a disregard of fundamental requisites, the roads 
 were lost to the original owners and passed into the hands 
 of others, under such conditions that they could be made 
 part of some connecting or adjoining systems, and be held 
 until the requisite business for the proper maintenance could 
 be developed. It is well always to bear in mind that every 
 business must be planned to pay, and that a railroad is no 
 exception to the rule. In fact, on account of the nature of its 
 business, that is always having a supply in excess of the de- 
 mand, in other words, an average carrying capacity in excess 
 of the passengers carried, it is a most exacting case de- 
 uianding the highest engineering and commercial thought, 
 sagacity, and consideration. 
 
 When the engineer has concluded his personal recon- 
 naissance, he will have, in addition to a personal knowledge 
 ■of the cities, to^vns, and other population centers, deter- 
 mined upon two or more probable routes, each of which is 
 to be investigated by the subsequent surveying parties, for 
 which matters are now ready. 
 
 The preliminary locating party is generally composed of 
 the following: 
 
 1 chief of party. 
 1 transitman. 
 
 1 recorder for the transit measurements. 
 
 2 flagmen or chainmen. 
 1 leveler. 
 
 1 recorder for the levels. 
 
 1 rodman. 
 
 1 topographer. 
 
 1 topographer's assistant. 
 
 2 laborers to clean any brush, etc., 
 or twelve men in all. 
 
 The chief of the party should, and generally does, accom- 
 pany the engineer in making the preliminary reconnaissance. 
 The preliminary locating corps commences at one of the 
 
PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY. 17 
 
 termini and determines or runs two or more routes, estab- 
 lisihing the line with the transit, and taking the levels at 
 the same time. The topographer follows the leveling party, 
 taking the elevations as they are marked on the stakes at 
 intervals as a basis, and sketching in on his map the char- 
 acteristics of the territory on each side of the transit line. 
 The map on which he works shows as yet simply the line 
 and transit stations and is prepared the night before from 
 the observations of the transit and level parties of the preced- 
 ing day, as explained, below. The topographer indicates on 
 this map: 
 
 1. Contours for each change of elevation of five feet. 
 
 2. Location and kind and approximate value of buildings 
 and other structures on each side of the transit line. 
 
 3. Character of surrounding soil, that is, whether the 
 appearance indicates rock or earth; character and stability 
 of all slopes. 
 
 4. Courses and characteristics of streams and water-ways. 
 
 For this purpose the topographer carries with him a hand- 
 level, portable compass, and a fifty-foot chain. The hand- 
 level easily determines the elevation and contours very 
 closely, by taking as the height of the instrument the eye, 
 which is generally about five feet, and noting with the 
 other eye where the sight-line through the hand-level strikes 
 the soil. This distance is then measured with the tape, 
 and sketched in and then noted on the sheet held on the 
 portable drawing-board carried by the topographer. This 
 portable drawing-board is about 24"xl8" with adjustable 
 rollers mounted on two opposite sides. ,The sketch, pre- 
 pared the evening before from the transit and level notes 
 of the preceding day's work, is adjusted on these rollers 
 and unrolled as the topographical party progresses. The 
 distance on each side of the transit line to which the topog- 
 raphy should be taken and shown varies with circumstances. 
 As a rule it will be found sufficient to take data for 500 
 feet on each side of the center line. In a case where both 
 
 2 
 
18 ELECTRIC RAILM'AY ECONOMICS. 
 
 sides of a ridge possess advantages, it may be taken for 
 1,000 feet on one side and 500 feet on the other. The tak- 
 ing of the data for 1,000 feet or more on one side often 
 obviates the necessity of running a second preliminary line 
 for part of the distance, practically paralleling the base line 
 on which the topographer has worked during the first sun^ey. 
 
 The chief of the party, as well as the transitman and lev- 
 eler, should always make careful mental notes of everything 
 along the line. 
 
 The day's work shovild always be plotted on cross-section 
 paper, in duplicate, each night. The transit and level notes 
 should also be transferred to another set of field-books each 
 night. One of these sets of records is kept in a safe place 
 at the base of operation, generally the hotel or inn. The 
 other is carried into the field. The object of duplicating 
 the records is to avoid the unfortunate and always expen- 
 sive consequences which the loss of field-books and records 
 involves. 
 
 It is while these preliminary investigations and surveys 
 are in progress, and which will form the basis for the sub- 
 sequent detail investigations and surveys, that attention 
 should be paid to those all-important matters of alignment 
 and grades. Long tangents should be sought for, and when 
 curves are necessary, their actual length should be made ez 
 short as possible, having regard to the proposed schedule 
 speed. In this respect electric road construction dif- 
 fers from that of steam railroad practice, as steam rail- 
 road engineers, as a rule, favor long curves. The principal 
 reasons for the difference are two in number, viz. : 
 
 The electric road operation will be in shorter train lengths, 
 hence, conversely, the headway will probably be shorter 
 and there is greater Reason for a clear view ahead. All 
 curves cause an appreciable loss of time. ISTo competent mo- 
 torman will take such chances as woiild be involved in 
 operating a train around a curve at fifty or sixty miles an 
 hour on a short headway service, with the view ahead of 
 
I'RELIillSARY FIELD SURVEY. 19 
 
 him obstructed for any considerable length of time. 
 The other reason is that the speed of the electric train 
 is better under control than that of the steam train. 
 It can consequently quickly accelerate to full speed after 
 passing a curve and make far better average time than on 
 a line built for steam traction with long curves and short 
 tangents. The object of the engineer should therefore be 
 to get the car or train on the straight track or tangent as 
 soon as possible. 
 
 As an illustration of the effect of introducing long curves 
 may be cited a recent application of opposing interests to the 
 Supreme Court of E"ew.York to compel the ISTevp York & 
 Port Chester Railroad to change its line and among other 
 things introduce a long curve. In opposing the change for the 
 Port Chester Company the writer showed, by comparative 
 run sheets and accompanying schedules, that the proposed 
 curve would entail a loss of six seconds per trip. As the 
 schedules provided for 200 trips each way per day, the total 
 time loss per day equalled 2,400 seconds or about 40 minutes. 
 As the estimated daily earnings were about $4,000 per day, 
 the loss of 40 minutes of the use of the system per day was 
 apparently a serious matter, and was so held by the court. In 
 addition there entered the paramount consideration of public 
 safety which was cited by the court as the most potent of 
 the Port Chester Company's contentions in its replies to the 
 proposed change of the line. 
 
 The reader should not understand from what has been said 
 that it is desirable to always use short radii curves. On the 
 contrary, the curve radii should be made as long as the 
 conditions will permit. The controlling conditions are the 
 angle between the tangents and the speeds which must be 
 made on the curve to maintain the schedules. There are 
 a number of tables giving safe speeds for different curves 
 and corresponding super-elevations of the outer rail. 
 Roughly, the speed in miles per hour which can be safely 
 made on a curve is equal to the square root of the radius 
 
20 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 of the cun^e, the radius being measured in feet. This will 
 give an ample factor of safety and is only given as a rough 
 general approximation. 
 
 Curves should be of the transition type and should prefer- 
 ably be at the stations or stopping places. When they are 
 at the stations they affect the schedules the least. 
 
 If rivers are to be crossed by the proposed line this fact 
 will usually affect the location. The banks of the river will 
 have to be examined for suitable locations for the bridge 
 foundations, and if the soil at all points is undesirable for 
 this purpoise the entire route may have to be altered so as 
 to cross at a place favorable for bridging. If the course 
 of a river is followed, the preliminary survey should include 
 an examination of both banks to determine which is the 
 more desirable, but if the river is easily bridged the route 
 may cross from one side to the other occasionally, depending- 
 on the favorable nature of each side for road construction. 
 
 In connection Avith the subject of railroad location, it is 
 pertinent to call attention to the inestimable advantages ac- 
 cruing from the keeping of accurate diaries. Not only should 
 the engineer keep a diary wherein should be recorded at 
 the end of each day, not only all occurrences, but some 
 of his impressions and conclusions as well, but he should re- 
 quire the chief of the field party, together with the transit- 
 man and leveler, to do likewise. It is a good plan to call 
 for these diaries at unexpected times. 
 
 Care should, however, always be taken to separate all 
 facts from the engineer's conclusions in keeping diaries. 
 While conclusions are sometimes valuable, the facts as they 
 are or were are often imperative. 
 
 The practice of keeping such diaries, it might be men- 
 tioned, is often of equal value in other kinds of engineering 
 work. In some important cases, upon the conclusion of the 
 work the writer has had his entire diary relating to the 
 construction typewritten, using a separate page for each 
 day, and has presented one copy to his clients. From the 
 
PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY. 21 
 
 letters which have always subsequently been received ac- 
 knowledging receipt of these books, it is evident that such 
 records are appreciated. 
 
 When the field party has run the preliminary lines, the 
 engineer has in his office, in connection with his personal 
 investigations, all the data required for the following 
 purposes: 
 
 1. Making an accurate paper location of the proposed 
 route. 
 
 2. Making an estimate of the cost of the proposed railway 
 upon which to base the financial scheme. 
 
 3. Making an estimate of the probable earnings of the 
 proposed railroad. 
 
 4. Making an estimate of the fixed charges, such as the 
 interest on the bonds, debentures, or other corporate obliga- 
 tions required, or money required to be borrowed or other- 
 wise obtained to construct the road, and of the costs of 
 operation and maintenance. 
 
 He is now ready to commence the Detail Investigations, 
 etc., in order to carefully develop the details of the project, 
 but before proceeding to do so, attention will be called to a 
 few other very important matters. 
 
 If an engineer would be a success he must recognize as 
 prerequisites of his intangible equipment: 
 
 First. The policy of Silence or Secrecy. Especially must 
 he adopt this policy in his operations in and about cities and 
 towns. His clients or the company employing him have 
 a perfect right to a policy which is none of the concern of 
 land boomers and real estate operators and speculators. 
 Until the requisite real estate for the right of way has been 
 acquired by the syndicate, secrecy is absolutely indispensable. 
 
 Second. The possession of Tact and Diplomacy. Both of 
 these attributes are indispensable in order to retain the 
 omnipotent public support and public confidence, and in 
 dealing with legislative, executive, judicial, and other tri- 
 
22 ELECTRIC RAlL^yA Y ECOSOMICS. 
 
 bunals, etc., such as common councils, town boards, various 
 comm.ssions, referee.:, arbitrators, etc., which the engineer- 
 ing and executive heads of railroads must do. He must 
 never lose his temper no matter how great the real or fancied 
 cause. Sound argument will generally prevail, and it should 
 not be forgotten that ridicule is not argument. 
 
 Third. TJprightnsis. If he cannot, for any reason of pol- 
 icy or otherwise, tell the truth, it is better to make no 
 statement whatever. He should cultivate habits of thought, 
 listening, and silence, always remembering that a good 
 listener is always welcome, and always carries away more 
 information than a talker. At all events, he should not 
 misrepresent or exaggerate. If he must and does talk, 
 let him tell the plain, unadulterated facts, and do it in as 
 few words as possible. 
 
 In carrying. out the policy of Secrecy in and about the 
 towns and population centers, it is often desirable to deter- 
 mine the preliminary field lines by the use of Stadia meas- 
 urements. Such measurements require a very small 
 number of men, who are generally mistaken for land meas- 
 uring parties. 
 
 Above all, the preliminary reconnaissance and field work 
 must be done in the most thorough and painstaking man- 
 ner. The engineer need not be afraid that he may get too 
 much data in regard to the distribution of the popvilations 
 or their characteristics, or that he may obtain too many 
 contours or too much other field information. The danger 
 of too little information is far greater. It is very incon- 
 venient as well as expensive to send a party back into the 
 field for additional data which could usually have been ob- 
 tained at the outset for a trifling additional cost. 
 
 One of the most effective resources at the disposal of 
 the engineer for reducing the cost of construction and sub- 
 sequent operation and maintenance is in the painstakillg 
 and detail consideration of the location of the line and the 
 
PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY. 23 
 
 exhaustive study of each and all of the elements which de- 
 velop in connection with the determination of the location. 
 
 A good corps organized, as has been outlined, will make, 
 on an average, about three-fourths mile per day for this 
 class of work and do good work. Many parties make as much 
 as three miles per day, but usually in relatively open country 
 with the population closely congested only at certain distant 
 points. 
 
 The cost of this preliminary field work, by which is meant 
 the salaries and wages and board and lodging of the men 
 and incidental expenses, will vary between $65 per mile 
 of line as a minimum, where conditions are favorable, and 
 $120 per mile of line, as a maximum. 
 
 The field engineering investigations and subsequent de- 
 velopment of a proposed railroad enterprise may be divided 
 as follows: 
 
 1. Eeconnaissance. 
 
 Proposal of various alternate routes. Approximate cost 
 of each, also approximate estimated earnings of each and 
 relative costs of operation and maintenance of each. 
 
 2. Preliminary survey and investigations. 
 
 Selection of the most practicable locations for preparation 
 of general maps. More reliable estimates of total cost and 
 cost of opeiration and probable revenue. Paper location 
 of lines, etc. 
 
 3. Detail investigations and office locations. 
 
 Preparation of maps and plotting data. Final office loca- 
 tion of line, showing final alignment and elevations, also soil 
 investigations, from which the approximate graduation cost 
 is determined. Detail special estimates of probable rev- 
 enue. Cost of construction and cost of operation. 
 
 4. Final field location, property maps, and office work. 
 
 (a) Cross-sectioning of the final line. 
 
 (b) Soundings or borings to accurately determine soil 
 characteristics. 
 
24 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 (c) Preparation of a complete detail continuous set and 
 all individual property maps. 
 
 (d) General and detail plans and specifications. 
 
 (e) Letting of contracts for construction and placing in 
 operation of the road. 
 
 There are cases Avhere the engineer can pass directly from 
 the reconnaissance to the detail investigations and surveys. 
 In many cases the preliminary and detail investigations and 
 surveys are not separated. It will usually be found far 
 more satisfactory, certainly for the inexperienced engineer, 
 to adhere to the subdivisions given above for the following 
 reasons: 
 
 First. It will teach him the details of the process and 
 accustom him to habits of accuracy and painstaking effort. 
 Theie is at present entirely too much slipshod engineer- 
 ing, as well as engineering by proxy. 
 
 Second. When he once thoroughly knows the details of 
 the processes he will then be qualified to determine himself 
 what to do, or, probably better, what not to do. 
 
 Third. It is always better to do too much work rather 
 than too little. A reputation for thoroughness, accuracy, 
 and experience is the epitome of an engineering reputation. 
 
 Fourth. Thorough and experienced engineering is always 
 ultimately profitable to both the capitalist and the engineer. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 DETAILED OFFICE INVESTIGATION OF TRACK LOCATION. 
 
 The engineer is now prepared to arrive at conckisions from 
 the data collected in his field survey. In doing this he 
 should remember that the controlling features required for 
 the success of high-speed interurban railways in the order 
 of their importance are : 
 
 First. Safety to the public and the employees of the rail- 
 road in the operation of the road. 
 
 Second. Reliability of operation. 
 
 Third. Convenience and comfort of the public. 
 
 Fourth. An installation which, while fuliilling the pre- 
 ceding conditions, shall be so installed as to have a minimum 
 cost for operation and maintenance. 
 
 The first condition will be most nearly approximated for 
 high speeds, by locating, constructing, and operating the 
 road on an individual or exclusive or a private right of way^ 
 by having no crossings at grade of any public streets, ave- 
 nues, or highways or other railroads, and above all having no 
 single track, with turn-outs or siding construction where 
 cars pass each other. Single-track railroads have been and 
 are the cause of the major portion of railroad casualties 
 and receiverships. If the prospective business will not sup- 
 port the relatively small additional cost of another track, it is 
 generally not worth going after. A large measure toward 
 the fulfillment of the second condition will likewise be at- 
 tained by the use of the private right of way, double track 
 or individual tracks for cars going in the same direction, and 
 the elimination of grade crossings throughout. 
 
 The convenience and comfort of the public will depend 
 upon the location of the line and stations and also upon the 
 equipment. 
 
 The fourth condition, and often the pivot about which the 
 commercial success of the enterprise revolves, depends en- 
 
 [25] 
 
2G ELEGTinV HAlL^YAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 tirely upon the character of the material used, the work done 
 in the construction and equipment, and the design, arrange- 
 ment, and disposition of the plant. There is no truer paradox 
 than that "A cheaply installed railway is a most expensive 
 one." It should never be forgotten or lost sight of in de- 
 termining u.pon any elements of design or construction that 
 railroads are built to be operated. 
 
 Fixed charges are absolute and determinable in advance 
 for any given character of installation. The operating and 
 maintenance costs of an installation poorly engineered and 
 poorly installed are not only uncertain and indeterminable 
 but unavoidably variable and cumulative. 
 
 The ideal commercial railroad line is not always, and in 
 fact is hardly ever, the most direct route between the ter- 
 mini. The commercially ideal line is the one having a maxi- 
 mum of paying population per mile of road immediately 
 tribiitary to its line. Centers of population are seldom in a 
 straight line connecting the first and last of a number of such 
 centers. The line miist reach those places where the busi- 
 ness will exist. It has repeatedly been proven that it is an 
 error to suppose that centers of population will immediately 
 extend or hasten to transfer themselves to accommodate a 
 railroad. From this the writer does not wish to be under- 
 stood as saying that increased transportation facilities will 
 not develop the territory served. As a matter of fact, they 
 certainly will, but the probability of competition which is 
 generally supported by public opinion, where the convenience 
 and comfort of the public are disregarded, should never be 
 lost sight of. The best way to head off any possible danger- 
 ous competition is to secure the most advantageous and im- 
 mediately remunerative location for the line and stations, 
 having regard to fixed charges on account of real estate, etc. 
 Consequently, from the preliminary data, routes should be 
 selected which will pass well within the bounds of each of 
 the population centers. Such routes should be carefully 
 studied for the purpose of ascertaining the relative earning 
 
OFFICE INVESTIGATION. 2T 
 
 and operating characteristics of these routes and the approxi- 
 mate costs of construction. 
 
 In some cases it is considered advisable to build the electric 
 railway along the highway, and many of the present inter- 
 urban roads have been constructed in this manner. This 
 plan of course precludes high speeds, but it has the occasional 
 advantage of locating the road where it is most convenient 
 of access, and occasionally franchises can be secured for the 
 use of a highway at a less first cost than if the right of way 
 be purchased outright. Very frequently, however, this ap- 
 parent advantage is more than obliterated by the annual 
 " compensation " exacted by the authorities for the use of 
 the street or highway. This " compensation " is nothing 
 more than a fixed charge and should always be so considered. 
 If this plan is followed the engineer must also be prepared 
 to sacrifice an ideal alignment and grade line. Nevertheless 
 grades and curves are not such serious obstacles to an electric 
 road as to steam roads, and the resulting advantages of fol- 
 lowing the path of beaten travel, particularly the highway 
 through a town or prosperous village community, are at times 
 too great to be disregarded. An excellent plan in passing 
 through such a town, where high speed is not a great 
 desideratum, is to enter as far as possible over a private 
 right of way parallel to and not too far from the main high- 
 way. If the railway is located, for instance, 300 to 400 
 feet from the highway it is sufiiciently far from it to clear 
 the houses and bams along the road and the entrances to 
 them, and at the same time is sufiiciently near to them to 
 afford convenient transportation. The railway can then be 
 turned into the highway when town limits are reached. 
 
 In determining upon a railroad installation it is entirely 
 probable that at some point, which may be four or five miles 
 or more from the main line as laid out, connecting the most 
 important centers of population, there will be another center 
 or centers of population, which it may be deemed desirable 
 or preferable to tap. Such instances occur, not only where 
 
28 ELECTIUG RAILM'AY ECOXOMICf^. 
 
 there exists a relatively large fixed population of say any« 
 where l)etwee]i 5.000 and 10,000 people, but also in eases 
 wliere noted recreation or summer resorts are already in exist- 
 ance. At first thought the tendency is to run a branch line to 
 t^'uch points, from the main line. 
 
 Generally speaking, branch lines are not desirable. The 
 reason for this is that trains running from the terminus of 
 the branch line to a point on the main line are really noth- 
 ing more than shuttle trains. The most desirable facilities 
 cannot lie given in such cases for the reason that, as a general 
 rule, it is not jDrofitable to run from either one, or both, of 
 the main line termini through to the branch line terminus 
 without change of cars. The result is that passengers are 
 compelled to get out of the branch line car and transfer in 
 order to reach their destination over the main line. 
 
 Again, the relative costs of operation per mile of branch 
 Kne are, generally, considerably in excess of similar costs for 
 main line operation. This is due, of course, to the fact that 
 over such branch line there is a relatively small traffic. ]N"ot- 
 withstanding this fact, trainmen, station agents, and other 
 standard items of expense are maintained throughout the 
 year, for the reason that the branch line must be kept in good 
 condition as a part of the general system. In all cases where 
 such relatively isolated centers of population or biTsiness 
 points may occur, tlie proper way is to try and get the main 
 line through such points, even if a slight detour is necessary, 
 if the business in the near future bids fair to v^arrant this 
 step. If such isolated business centers be, say five miles dis- 
 tant from the main line, the additional length of the main 
 line due to rimning to such isolated points will, by no means, 
 be increased by five miles. This statement will be apparent 
 without demonstration. 
 
 In all cases where such circumstances may arise, the scien- 
 tific method of procedure is to ascertain first what will be the 
 additional cost of causing the main line to deviate from its 
 course to such an extent as to take in the isolated center or 
 
OFFICE IXVESTIGATIOX. 29 
 
 centers. Suck additional cost^ that is, the fixed charges plus 
 the operating and maintenance costs of such additional mile- 
 age, should be balanced against the probable additional 
 revenue which w-ill result by deviating the line as indicated. 
 
 There are cases, of course, where branch lines can be shown 
 to be preferable to running the main line out of its course. 
 Such cases would occur, for instance, with large recreation 
 resorts where the business would exist for but two or three 
 months in the summer and where the company could cease to 
 operate the branch during the winter or nonproductive 
 period of each year. Under such circumstances, if the 
 main line be deviated to include such points, we will have 
 added for the remaining nine months of the year the cost of 
 operating the entire car service over what will probably be 
 an unproductive mileage. The determination of the advisa- 
 bility of deviating the main line or of constructing a branch 
 line must be a matter of individual and separate estimate, 
 determination, and judgment for each special case, and at- 
 tention is called simply to some of the considerations enter- 
 ing into such problems. 
 
 In connection with this subject, another factor might be 
 mentioned — that is, that a railroad company is liable at any 
 time to be ordered by the authorities to run through cars 
 from some branch line, should it build one, to one or both of 
 its termini. Such a condition might very seriously affect 
 its operating arrangement, and consequently the costs of 
 operation. 
 
 It must not be supposed that ruilroad companies can run 
 railroads entirely as they please at the present day. The 
 Railroad Commissions in most of the States are being vested 
 Avith greater and greater powers. Such powers include among 
 others the right to fix the schedules and even the routing of 
 cars. These rights, of course, are given the Railroad Commis- 
 sions for the purpose of facilitating public convenience and 
 protecting the interests of the public. At the present time 
 the public is an omnipotent entity which is making itself 
 
so 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 felt. Unfortunately, at times, public demands are not en- 
 tirely just, and some of these demands undoubtedly work 
 unnecessary liardsliips upon railroad corporations. In order 
 to avoid wliat may be a very material hardship in the event 
 of the necessity of changing the routing of cars and conse- 
 
 VIEW OSr THE WYOMING & LACKAWANiq-A VALLEY RAILWAY, 
 A THIRD BAIL ELECTRIC ROAD. 
 
 quently the schedules of the entire system due to the exist- 
 ence of one or two branch lines, this fact must be considered. 
 In other words, the advisability of constructing branch lines 
 or of deviating the main line so as to take in the isolated 
 centers or of paying no attention to such cases should be gone 
 
OFFICE INVESTIGATION. 31 
 
 into fully -with this contingency in mind and determined in 
 the original design. 
 
 Considering the actual work of laying out the line, each 
 of the preliminary routes surveyed as described in Chapter 
 III is now taken up in detail in the office of the engineer. 
 Each is plotted and those individual characteristics relating 
 to alignment and grades studied for the purpose of ascer- 
 taining whether any of the routes presents any relatively 
 serious or prohibitive construction or operative character- 
 istics. 
 
 In connection with this part of the work it will not be out 
 of place to say a few words with reference to the scales used in 
 plotting the preliminary lines. A small scale should not he 
 used on account of the difficulty which will be experienced 
 in satisfactorily plotting the houses, barns, and other build- 
 ings alonp; the line of route. It is always advisable to plot 
 these buildings and their immediate surroundings to scale, 
 and where many such buildings occur at any locality to use a 
 horizontal scale of 150 feet or 200 feet to the inch. In more 
 open country a scale of not over 400 feet per inch is tised. 
 The vertical scale (for the profile) is generally taken at 20 
 feet per inch. 
 
 In the preliminary field surveys as described in Chapter 
 III, the character of the soil and rocks was carefully noted, 
 especial attention having been paid to the matter of stability 
 for the purpose of determining the required rate of the side 
 slopes of the cuts and embankments. 
 
 In fixing the grade lines a study should also always be 
 made of the virtual or momentum profiles of each tentative 
 set of grade lines. A virtual profile is that obtained by 
 plotting vertically to scale, at each point along the road, the 
 height in feet to which the momentum of the train at such 
 point would raise it vertically. When those points are con- 
 nected by a line we have the virtual or operating profile. 
 Such a computation of course involves the question of speed. 
 For existing steam roads, as well as their successors — the 
 
to 
 
 :;2 ELECTRIC RAIL^yAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 heavy and higli-speed electric passenger or freight roads, 
 momentum profiles are of the utmost importance from the 
 point of view of operating costs, as such costs are affected 
 by the permissible length of trains and energy consumption. 
 
 Momentum profiles are also important factors in determin- 
 ing upon grade lines, and consequently the relative amount 
 of cut and fill. As they determine conditions and costs of 
 operation it is a matter of comparing an operating cost with a 
 fixed charge as represented by the interest on the cost of a 
 given cut or fill. 
 
 The grade lines in cross-country work are determined in 
 the usual manner by stretching a piece of thread between 
 points. In doing this the engineer should note that the line 
 of the thread is at the proper distance above or below the 
 existing grades of all i:)ublic highways or other railroads 
 crossed by the line of the road, if no grade crossings are to 
 be used, or at the proper level if the grade crossing has been, 
 adopted. 
 
 For all public highways, where the highway passes beneath 
 the subgrade of the proposed road, it is usual to set the line oi 
 the thread 18 feet above the grade of the highway where the 
 proposed railroad passes over the highway. With the tenta- 
 tive grade lines now penciled in, an approximate estimate is 
 made of the probable cut and fill. 
 
 It is especially desired here to call attention to the neces- 
 sity, in the desigii of high-speed interurban and other rapid 
 transit systems of this class, for the provision of subways 
 or under-crossings, where the grade of the tracks is beneath 
 the grade of the street or highway, or tunnels of ample 
 height and width. All such subways or tunnels should be 
 capable of permitting the standard steam railroad cars to 
 readily pass through them on accoimt of probable future 
 developments and traffic arrangements with steam roads. A 
 system designed with reference to steam road conditions will 
 undoubtedly have a far greater present and especially future 
 value than where such conditions are neglected or ignored. 
 
OFFICE mVESTIGATWN. 33 
 
 The cut on p. 34 represents part of a profile of a road and 
 shows the elevations of various points as well as the grade 
 line. Here the slopes were taken as 1^ to 1, that is, for each 
 vertical height of 1 foot the horizontal distance will be IJ 
 feet. For two-track construction, the width of the subgrade 
 should not be less than 26 feet. To determine approximately 
 the volume of earth to be removed, proceed as follows : 
 
 Measure the distance between the grade line and the line 
 of the profile for a number of points, as at a, b, c, d, etc., in 
 the profile, locating the successive points so that the slope of 
 the ground between any two adjacent points will be approxi- 
 mately uniform, or so that the surface of the ground between 
 adjacent points will be approximately in the same plane and, 
 if possible, approximately parallel to the proposed grade 
 line. At each point so located if we pass a plane at right 
 angles to the grade line, and assuming the side slopes as 
 already given (1^ to 1), and the subgrade as 26 feet wide 
 (for a double-track road), and further assuming that 
 the surface of the ground is approximately level and 
 parallel to the subbase, we have cut out by the plane 
 above referred to a polygon with two of its sides approxi- 
 mately parallel. Computing the volume of the solid between 
 two of the adjacent polygons gives us the approximate quan- 
 tity of excavation of embankment, as the grade line is below 
 or above the surface of the ground, for each pair of planes. 
 Where the ground is very uneven those sections or planes 
 must be taken very close together. In cases where the plane 
 of the profile deviates considerably from that of the grad3 
 line, the prismoidal formula must be used in determining the 
 volumes of cut and fill. 
 
 For the approximate conditions which we are now dis- 
 cussing, the polygon referred to in the foregoing paragraph 
 is iisually taken as a trapezoid, of which one of the parallel 
 sides is the proposed subbase of the road. Such approximate 
 computations are generally based upon sections or planes 
 taken 50 or 100 feet apart. For these approximations, where 
 3 
 
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 fo- 
 
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 Ti T 1"-^ T T T 
 
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 _ *^ _ 
 
 nl % 
 
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 hi 
 
 M 
 
 ft 
 
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 [34] 
 
OFFICE INVESTIGATION. 35 
 
 the section is that of a trapezoid, just referred to, a table or 
 set of tables kno^vn as earthwork tables must usually be 
 prepared for different side slopes and widths of bases, show- 
 ing the total quantity of earth cut or fill per 50 feet or 100 
 feet of length or distance between parallel planes for each 
 one foot or any given decimal part thereof, of increase in 
 the height or length of the line adjoining the two parallel 
 sides of the trapezoid and perpendicular thereto. Such tables 
 are also to be found in any of the numerous civil engineering 
 handbooks, and at times, occasionally, in works on civil en- 
 gineering. If it be found that the data used in compiling 
 any of the tables of the handbook, are the same as that for 
 any special case under consideration, there will, of course, 
 be no need for compiling a table. I have not often found 
 ST:ch printed tables applicable. 
 
 Each of these quantities is written on the profile and at the 
 same time indicated, as rock or earth cut, etc., from the data 
 taken by the preliminary field parties. At some convenient 
 place on the profile are grouped, under the heads of Earth 
 Cut, Rock Cut, and Embankment, the respective quantities 
 of each class of work. It should be noted that in fixing grade 
 lines, it is often very essential not only that the cuts and fills 
 be approximatelj' equal, especially in work in and around 
 towns and cities where earth for filling purposes has a value, 
 but that the cuts and fills should be so located as to enable 
 the product of the cuts to be used for embankments without 
 t?o mu.cli unnecessary expense in transportation. 
 
 Earthwork contracts generally provide that the earth or 
 other material taken from excavation shall be hauled or trans- 
 ported a given distance (from 1,000 to 3,000 feet) without 
 extra charge. Earth and rockwork contracts are generally 
 let on the basis of the cubic yard. 
 
 The foregoing method of computation is of course an ap- 
 proximation. The results will always be on the safe side if 
 reasonable care be used and the distance between parallel 
 planes be properly taken. This will certainly be done if the 
 
36 ELECTRIC SAJL^yAY ECOXOMICS. 
 
 estimates be made by and under the direction of the chief 
 of the preliminary surveying parties or the transitman or 
 leveler of the field corps, each of whom has impressed upon 
 his mind the characteristics of the surface of the country 
 throngh which the line has been located. 
 
 The ultimate or final earthwork determinations are matters 
 of much importance and detail and require careful and ex- 
 perienced work and computations. 
 
 The profile should be divided into sections, of two miles or 
 more in length, and the data relating to quantities, costs, etc., 
 for each section shown on the section. 
 
 The cost of grade crossings and culverts is now taken up for 
 each section from the number of such crossings and culverts 
 taken on the preliminary surveys, and the more detailed cost 
 of the enterprise to subgrade then determined. The determi- 
 nation of the costs of the rails, etc., ties, and ballast is only 
 a matter of simple multiplication and addition. 
 
 Careful attention should also be paid to all vertical curves, 
 by which are meant the curves connecting the consecutive 
 grade lines. In the case of train operation this is an im- 
 portant detail, especially where two descending grades meet, 
 for the reason that at the lowest point the rear cars may be 
 pushing or crowding upon the cars which have passed the 
 lowest point, and thereby, in cases of too sudden changes of 
 direction, cause disastrous results. 
 
 For vertical curves, the elevations may be determined by 
 taking the sum of the intersection gradients and dividing by 
 two for the ordinate of correction of the grade line or grade 
 curve from the point of intersection or apex of the two grade 
 lines, and then taking one-fourth of this quotient as the or- 
 dinate of correction for the next station, in both directions 
 from the intersection, and so on. Thus, with two grade lines, 
 of which one was 1.25 per cent, and the other 1.00 net, we 
 should have 
 
 1.25 — 1.00 
 
 = 1.12 = ordinate at the apex of the vertical 
 
 curve from the point of intersection of the grade lines ; 
 
OFFICE IXVESTWATIOX. 37 
 
 12 
 '■ ^= .28 = ordinate of correction for first station (100 
 
 feet distance) on each, side of the intersection of grade 
 
 lines ; 
 
 = . 07 = ordinate of cori'ection for the next two sta- 
 tions of 100 feet each from intersection of grade lines. 
 This procesis can be followed imtil the vertical curves 
 merge into the grade lines. 
 
 .2'^ 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 PRELIMINARY DETERMINATION OF SCHEDULES AND 
 EQUIPMENT. 
 
 We now come to the determination of the equipment, 
 such as number of cars, size and disposition of power sta- 
 tions, feeder conductors, etc. The determination of the 
 rolling stock, or cars, is the first step, and what is wanted 
 is the maximum number of cars required to properly do the 
 estimated maximum business. The number of people to be 
 moved in one direction in one hour generally determines the 
 capacity of the road. 
 
 On his preliminary investigation or reconnaissance, the 
 engineer has noted the occupations, character, and habits 
 of the people of the different population centers. Tie has 
 also noted the existing community of interest between the 
 respective cities, towns, villages, etc., as well as the rela- 
 tions and approximate travel between each of the centers 
 of populations and the terminus or termini. He. has ascer- 
 tained the time intervals as well as the amount of heavi- 
 est traffic. The rolling stock is usually determined by the 
 business accruing during a few hours of the morning and a 
 few hours of the evening. 
 
 Let 
 P = number of people required to be carried. 
 Q = time in hours during which business of P lasts. 
 M = number of people one car will hold. 
 S ^ schedule speed in miles per hour (including 15 or more 
 
 seconds for each stop). 
 H^ headway in minutes. 
 D = length of line in miles. 
 N = number of cars, if single cars be used, or train units, if 
 
 more than one car be used. 
 T = time in minutes occupied in running between the tet' 
 mini during one single trip. 
 [381 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 39 
 
 Then 
 
 ^ — numoer of people to be carried per hour. 
 
 P 
 
 •^^ — number of cars required, which if single cars be 
 
 ^ used = E". 
 
 Dx60 , ^ ^ 
 
 — =; — = schedule speed in miles per hour = S. 
 
 The formula connecting 'N, S, D and H is 
 120 X D 
 
 SxH 
 
 which by transposition is 
 
 -rr 120 xD „ 120 xD 
 
 ±i = or b = 
 
 SxK Hxl«r 
 
 The foregoing, together with the knowledge of the prob- 
 able amount of the heaviest business, will give at once the 
 number of cars or train units by assuming the schedule 
 speed, and headway, or if the number of train units be fixed 
 in advance, by assuming the schedule speed, the required 
 headway is at once shown. 
 
 We now have the number of cars or train units which is 
 required to do the estimated maximiim business, together with 
 the minimum headway. The next step is to determine the 
 time-table. This is necessary in order to arrive at a conclusion 
 as to the capacity of the power-house, substations, and 
 transmission system. The best way to do this is to do it 
 graphically, as shown in the diagram on the next page, which 
 was prepared to show the schedule of the ISTew York & Port 
 Chester Eailroad. The original sheet, of which this diagram 
 is a reproduction, is 60 inches long and 30 inches wide. The 
 sheet is simply a properly selected co-ordinate paper, mounted 
 on cloth to protect it by preventing it from being torn, ruled 
 horizontally and vertically. The paper used for this work 
 was millimetre paner. The vertical lines are one millimetre 
 approximately 1/25 of an inch apart, and every sixtieth 
 vertical line is a heavy line. The fine lines of the ho^W.^^^-^} 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 41 
 
 axis represent minutes and the heavy lines the hours. The 
 vertical axis is a representation of the stations of the com- 
 bined express and local schedules. Each station or stop is 
 represented on the vertical scale at its proper distance, to 
 scale, from the termini which are the first and last stations 
 shown on the vertical scale. 
 
 Commencing now at midnight and at the southern ter- 
 minus, a straight line is drawn from the zero or midnight 
 at such an angle with the axis of abscissse as to intersect the 
 line drawn throiigh the northern terminus (Port Chester) 
 31 of the small divisions farther to the right (for the express 
 service), as the express' schedule is 31 minutes. Each 
 of the other express runs, in the same direction, is repre- 
 sented by a line parallel to the first line, but each started 
 at its proper time on the axis of abscissse. The express runs 
 from the northern terminus are likewise represented by 
 lines drawn from the northern terminus and sloping to the 
 right. The same process is pursued for the local runs, not- 
 ing, however, that the time is 49 minutes for the lo- 
 cal trains. The express runs are represented by red lines 
 and the local runs by blue lines for convenience in distin- 
 guishing them. 
 
 The express stations on the axis of ordinates are shown 
 in red and the local in blue. These red and blue lines are 
 drawn through the stations, parallel to the time axis or 
 abscissse, to readily show the time at which any train leav- 
 ing either terminus, on any of the runs indicated by the 
 sloping lines I have just explained, will pass the stations, 
 which time is shown by the intersection of the line through 
 the station with the run lines. To make this chart abso- 
 lutely correct, the local and express run lines should each 
 show at each station a small break, equal to the allowed 
 time interval of each stop, that is, 15 seconds. This 
 detail is shown in the final charts.- In addition to this chart, 
 showing the combined local and express runs, separate 
 charts are prepared showing separately the local and ex- 
 press services for convenience. The chart of the total ser- 
 
42 ELECTRIC R.UL^yAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 vice is necessary to determine the total load curve of the 
 main power station, which will be taken up later. 
 
 If the road is a single-track line this form of time-table 
 will immediately show the proper location of the turnouts. 
 For instance, the cut on p. 43 shows a time-table for a 
 single-track railway. The express runs are shown by the 
 double lines and are two hours apart. The local runs are 
 indicated by the single lines, and turnouts must be pro- 
 vided at the points where these lines cross. As a matter 
 of fact, the time-table, which was prepared by Mr. Ernest Gon- 
 zenbach for a single-track electric railway, really shows three 
 classes of possible service, viz. : (1) The express service, 
 which takes 1 hour and 50 minutes to run the 62 miles be- 
 tween D and F; (2) A mixed local and express service which 
 can make the run in 2 hours and 25 minutes, and (3) a lo- 
 cal service stopping at all stations and requiring 3 hours 
 for the mn. Class (2) can be made up by running 2 or 
 more cars on the express (or double) line to the point E and 
 running 1 or more of them as an accommodation car or 
 train from that point. 
 
 Another instance of the use of such graphical time-table 
 is shown on p. 45. It will be noted that this cut shows 
 some of the details of the electrical distribution systems. 
 The instances given of this method of representing time- 
 tables as shown on p. 40, together with the two foregoing 
 illustrations are sufficient to indicate the value of this means 
 of determining the details of time-tables, distributions sys- 
 tems, etc. 
 
 The cut on p. 44 illustrates an extension of the foregoing 
 method. This diagram shows a comparison of trains running, 
 the comparison being made between the train services of the 
 ISTew York & Port Chester Railroad, express and local and 
 total train services, with the train service of its competitor, 
 the ISTew York, ISew Haven & Hartford Eailroad Company. 
 
 At this stage we are chiefly concerned to learn the 
 maximum load which will be on the main power station. 
 We can either determine this quite accurately by determin- 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 43 
 
 TEAIH" SCHEDULE FOB A SISTGLE TEACK EAILWAY. 
 
SNIVUJ. JO U3BWnN 
 
 (saxnNiM Ni) AvmavBH 
 
 [44] 
 
m 
 
 > 
 Si 
 
 Si 
 i> 
 
 td 
 O 
 W 
 
 5-1 
 
 >- 
 
 Q 
 
 03 
 O 
 SI 
 
 1-^ 
 
 Volte 
 
 c? o § g £ oocS 
 §o o o c> ^ oo» 
 
46 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 ing each individual load cim^e from such data or run curves 
 as are shewn in Plates I, II, etc. From such individiial 
 Tun sheets a total run sheet, that is a run sheet showing con- 
 tinuously instantaneous vakies and variations of energy for 
 the entire r\m between termini, can and in all exact work 
 should be prepared. From such a total run sheet the maxi- 
 mum energy or current consumption can readily be obtained 
 by superimposing or graphically adding the energy or cur- 
 rent curves at the time or times of maximum service. 
 
 The preparation and study of such individual run sheets 
 will be taken up in detail in Chapter XIII, on rolling stock 
 •and motors, but is referred to at this point because a prelim- 
 inary approximation of the maximum current requirement is 
 necessary at this stage of the investigation. On each of the 
 • cuts the horizontal axis represents time, while the vertical axis 
 represents speed in miles per hour and energy consumption ex- 
 pressed in kilowatts per car. At a convenient place, on each 
 of these diagrams, it is usual to tabulate the data for the dif- 
 ferent runs. The separate tentative runs are indicated by the 
 lines A, B, and C ; A and B being high-speed runs, and C 
 a slow-speed run. 
 
 The areas inclosed by the energy-time curves are shown 
 shaded, and where they are superimposed, the fact is indicated 
 by a finer shading, as well as by grouping the characteristic 
 letters, or A, B, C. Thus, the first part of each diagram, 
 showing the part of the car and its acceleration from full 
 stop to the particular maximum speed attained during the 
 first acceleration, being common to all the curves, has the 
 energy area finely shaded, and also marked with the let- 
 ters A, B, C, corresponding to all the curves. When points 
 .are reached at which the acceleration for any of the three 
 •curves. A, B, C, is discontinued, which point is also the 
 point at which the current is cut off from the electric motor, 
 the fact is readily indicated by the difference in the shading, 
 and the lettering of the shaded portion. 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 47 
 
 In all the charts, the data given at the lower portion of 
 the chart, in relation to curvature, grades, and fractional 
 distances of the run, are those which correspond to the local 
 train curve, C, in every case. 
 
 We will now compare the results of these runs. Taking 
 that on Plate I, for example, as shown, the time consumed 
 for run A is 2 minutes and 5 seconds; the time consumed 
 for ran B is 2 minutes 6 seconds, and the time consumed 
 for run C is 2 minutes 18 seconds. It will also be noticed 
 that for run A the energy consumption expressed in watt 
 hours per ton mile is 144.2, while for run B it is 122, and 
 for run C it is 89.4. In other words, for a difference in 
 time of only 13 seconds, as compared between run A and. 
 run C, over a distance of 1.448 miles, the difference in. 
 energy consumption per ton mile is 54.8 watt hours per' 
 ton mile. Assuming the line 25 miles long, which wouldi 
 give 50 miles for a round trip, and assuming the weight of 
 a loaded car for this service as 50 tons, the ton miles per 
 round trip would be 2,500; multiplying 2,500 by 54.8, 
 which is the increased watt hours per ton mile for a sched- 
 ule 13 seconds faster, we would have an increase of 137,000' 
 watt hours per round trip, or 137 kilowatts. A kilowatt 
 hour at the main station switchboard would cost about 6 
 mills. At the track it would cost about 1 cent, assuming 
 the very best conditions. At this rate the increased cost 
 per round trip on the road we have been assuming would 
 be $1.37. Assuming 150 round trips per day, which would 
 be the approximate service on a high-class road in relatively 
 densely populated territory, we would have an increased 
 cost of $215.50 per day due to the faster schedule, which 
 for the total length of the line would not make a difference 
 of 5 minutes in the running time per trip. 
 
 This actual increase in the cost of energy due to the 
 slight decrease in running time is not the only increased 
 cost which would accrue. There would be in addition an 
 
48 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 increase in cost due to the necessity for larger conductors 
 for the electrical transmission systems, as well as the prob- 
 ably additional increased cost due to the necessity for the 
 installation of additional storage battery capacity in the 
 substation to take what would be an increased peak load in 
 the case of the faster schedule. 
 
 Attention is called to a few of these considerations, in 
 order to show the value of a careful determination and most 
 careful study of speed time curves and run sheets for each 
 individual case, and the determination of the schedules 
 therefrom. The engineer should guard against a mistake 
 which has not infrequently been made, and which is that 
 of specifying in advance, without making this detail st\idy, 
 that a schedule speed, including station stops, of a given 
 number of miles per hour shall be made. A cautious en- 
 gineer will never do this. Perhaps one reason why it has 
 been done heretofore is the supposition that almost any- 
 thing could be obtained from an electrically propelled rail- 
 road system. This may be relatively true if the omnipotent 
 commercial considerations are not allowed to enter. 
 
 With the advent of heavy and high-speed electric traction 
 it has been found necessary to make a great number of such 
 individual run sheets for different cases for the purpose of 
 determining the energy consumption in watt hours per ton 
 mile for different schedules and conditions. The rea- 
 son for this was that there were no reliable data in exist- 
 ence upon which any estimate could be based. A great 
 number of these iim sheets have now been completed for 
 different cases, and where they have been carefully done 
 it has been found that the actual operating results coincide, 
 within a very few per cent., with the theoretical considera- 
 tions deduced from the run sheets. 
 
 The determination of the load diagram, by the use of total 
 run sheets as just outlined, is a long and laborious task, 
 and cannot be taken tip in detail in this book. The follow- 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 43 
 
 ing, however, is a method of approximation which can he 
 followed : 
 
 Let 
 W = maximum weight of loaded car, or train unit, in tons, 
 
 of 2,000 pounds each. 
 D = length of road. 
 T = time in minutes occupied in running between termini 
 
 = one single trip. 
 K = energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile. 
 N = number of cars or train units on the road during time 
 of maximum service of minimum headway. 
 Then we have 
 W X D = ton mile per trip = P. 
 
 PxK 
 
 -— — - = energy per tnp m kilowatt hours. 
 
 PxK 60 
 
 -■^ ^. X -™ = mean rate of energy mput per car or train 
 
 unit. 
 
 P X K^ 60 „ . ^ ^ , 
 
 ,^Q.. ^ -7p X IN = A = total maximum average energy re- 
 quired at the car motors for maxi- 
 mum service condition. 
 
 If to the foregoing 25 per cent, be added for transmission 
 losses and heat and light, we have : 
 
 eoxPxKxNxioo -. PxKxN 
 
 1000 X T X .75 = ^-^^ T maximum average 
 
 demand = E. 
 
 To E must be added the fluctuations, which will vary 
 from .2E to .33E, as the number of train units in regular 
 service are great and the average load consequently relatively 
 high, or as the number of train units in regular service are 
 few and far apart, and the consequent relative increase of 
 the load during certain hours relatively great. 
 
 In the foregoing, the quantity K is the important, in fact 
 the crucial, quantity. K will vary with the schedule and the 
 location'of and the distance between and consequently the 
 
50 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOtiOUICS. 
 
 number of stops or stations, as well as Avitli the alignment and 
 gradients. As this is of such importance, I have compiled la 
 the accompanying Table III, data showing relations between 
 schedule speed and energy consumption in watt hours per ton 
 mile. These fignires are based upon approximately straight 
 and level roads. As the effects of grades upon energy con- 
 sumption are, to a large extent, compensating, the data may be 
 used with safety. The compensating effect above referred to 
 is due to the fact that while a car going up-grade is consum- 
 ing more energy, per contra a car going down-gTade consumes 
 much less or none, thereby equalizing the effect of or com- 
 pensating for the gradients. 
 
 We now have determined the maximum load to be provided 
 for, and from this figure we determine the number and size 
 of the main generating station prime movers, such as the 
 turbines or reciprocating engines, and the accompanying di- 
 rect-connected electric generators. 
 
 Generally speaking, the fewer the machines the better, al- 
 ways bearing in mind the necessity for the provision for such 
 a number of units as will assure uninterrupted operation in 
 the event of the disability of any single unit. 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 III. 
 
 
 
 
 DISTA-NCE BETWEEN 
 
 Watt Hours per Ton Mile for Schedule Speeds of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STOPS. 
 
 40 Miles 
 
 35 Miles 
 
 30 Miles 
 
 25 Miles 
 
 20 Miles 
 
 15 Miles 
 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 per Hr. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 15,840 
 
 110 
 
 80 
 
 78 
 
 65 
 
 53 
 
 40 
 
 2H 
 
 13,200 
 
 121 
 
 90 
 
 83 
 
 74 
 
 54 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 10,560 
 
 142 
 
 99 
 
 86 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 41 
 
 1^ 
 
 7,920 
 
 
 123 
 
 95 
 
 85 
 
 68 
 
 43 
 
 1 
 
 5.280 
 
 
 
 128 
 
 90 
 
 74 
 
 60 
 
 )4 
 
 2,640 
 
 
 
 
 145 
 
 119 
 
 66 
 
 Vi 
 
 1,320 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 rrain friction in pounds 
 
 
 per ton 
 
 35 30 27.5 85 20 15 
 
 The braking effort or retardation is taken at 150 pounds per ton. 
 The stops are taken at 15 seconds each, except in the case of the 15- 
 mile per hour schedule, where 10 seconds is taken. 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 51 
 
 The foregoing figures are for eases of approximately level and approxi- 
 mately straight roads. 
 
 For a schedule of 40 miles per hour the speed attained will be between 
 CO and 65 miles per hour. A schedule of 25 miles will require speeds of 
 from 40 to 50 miles per hour, etc. 
 
 The rate of acceleration for the long runs varies from 75 to 110 pounds 
 per ton, going as high as 210 pounds per ton for short runs. 
 
 nie foregoing applies to single car units. If units of more than one 
 ear be used, the friction in pounds per ton will decrease and with it will 
 also decrease the energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile. 
 
 Some of the places have been left blank on account of the impracti- 
 cability, with existing apparatus, of making some of the high schedules 
 with the short distances between stops assumed in the table. 
 
 The figures are for the energy required at the motors. 
 
 Cost op CoNSTEucTioiir. 
 The engineer is now prepared to make up at least tenta- 
 tively his estimates of cost. To give definite figures which 
 will apply in every case is of course impossible, as prices for 
 nearly everything which enters into railway construction 
 vary not only with the market but also with the territory in 
 which the road is to be built. For instance, ties can be pur- 
 chased in the South and in many parts of the West for 40 
 per cent, of the ISTew York price; the cost of ballasting de- 
 pends largely and of bridging entirely on local conditions. 
 Jfevertheless the writer has compiled Table IV as giving 
 safe average figures for a double-track, high-speed inter- 
 urban line, such as called for by modern practice. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 Approximate Costs per Mile of Single Track. 
 
 ITEMS. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Rails, 80 lb. T. ($3S per ton delivered, including 
 
 splice plates, bolts, spikes, and drilling 
 
 ' Cost of labor for handling and laying 
 
 Track bonding 
 
 Ties, 6x8x8, white oak, at 70 cents each 
 
 Eock ballast, 10 inches deep, 11 feet wide, and 
 carried to top of tie 
 
 Graduation 
 
 $5,100 00 
 
 900 00 
 
 750 00 
 
 1,848 00 
 
 (2-foot-centers.) 
 
 4,125 00 
 
 (Crushed stone, 
 
 $1.50 per yard.) 
 
 6,000 00 
 
 (20,000 cubic yds. 
 
 per mi. of track.) 
 
 $4,460 00 
 
 900 00 
 
 400 00 
 
 1,474 00 
 
 (30-in. centers.) 
 
 2,062 50 
 (Crushed stone, 
 75cts. per yard.) 
 
 1,800 00 
 (10,000 cubic yds. 
 per mi. of track.) 
 
ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOXUillCS. 
 TABLE IV — Continued. 
 
 ITEMS. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 
 $7,000 00 
 
 2,500 00 
 
 12,000 00 
 
 400 00 
 
 8,000 00 
 (At five minute 
 headway. ) 
 
 18,000 00 
 
 4,000 00 
 20,000 00 
 
 $3,400 00 
 
 Copper or other electrical conductors, and in- 
 
 1,500 00 
 
 
 4,000 00 
 
 
 200 00 
 
 Eqtjipment. 
 
 Rolling stock, motors and equipment, from 
 ffilO 000 to %5 000 oer car 
 
 1,000 00 
 
 . Power-stations at ^100 per kw. ; substations at 
 1 fS-iO Ber kw etc 
 
 ( At one hour head- 
 way.) 
 
 4,000 00 
 
 y Incidentals, including block-signal system, 
 telephone and telegraph, fencing, etc 
 
 1,000 00 
 1,600 00 
 
 
 
 
 $90,633 00 
 
 $27,796 50 
 
 In the foregoing table are shown the approximate maxi- 
 mum and minimum costs per mile of road. The maximum 
 costs above given will prevail in and around large cities, such 
 as jSTew York, Boston, London, and Paris, where such items 
 as cartage, storage, labor, etc., are relatively high. Terminals 
 are not included. 
 
 The cost of bridges and culverts is probably the most in- 
 determinate item in the above list. As already indicated, it 
 is assumed that the road is built upon a private right of way, 
 and that grade-crossings are eliminated. 
 
 The estimates for construction are based upon mate- 
 rial and workmanship, upon which the subsequent mainte- 
 nance will be a minimum. 
 
 The estimates of Table IV for the bridges and culverts 
 arc all based upon concrete-steel structures. These struc- 
 tures, when once erected, require practically no further at- 
 tention, as they are simply monoliths. Their cost is no 
 greater than that of the best class of steel construction. 
 The average cost of one of these structures for four tracks, 
 having a clear width or span of about 60 feet, and a clear 
 height from the top of the street to the center of the under- 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 53 
 
 side of the structure, of about 16 feet, is about $9,000 where 
 no piling is necessary and where a foundation can be obtained 
 by excavating to a depth of not more than 5 or 6 feet. A two- 
 track structure is worth about 35 per cent. less. 
 
 If the item of bridges and culverts- be eliminated from 
 the total, and the sum of the figures set opposite the remain- 
 ing items be taken as the totals, the maximum and minimum 
 for any given special case can very readily be determined, by 
 roughly estimating the number of grade-crossings per mile, 
 and adding it to the above total. 
 
 TYPICAL WAITING STATION LACKAWANNA & WYOMING 
 
 VALLEY KAIL WAY. 
 
 The maxima of the foregoing estimates are based upon 
 the highest-class construction, and an operation providing 
 for headway of 5 and 10 minutes between the train units 
 during the morning and evening commercial hours on roads 
 having not over 100 miles of single track. The headway 
 throughout the day is about 20 minutes for the maximum 
 estimates. 
 
 The minimum estimates will allow headways of half an 
 
54 ELECTRIC RAIL^yAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 hour or more throughout the larger portion of the day, with 
 headways of probably 10 and 15 minutes during the morn- 
 ing and evening hours. 
 
 The character and amount of the equipment will be de- 
 termined entirely by the size, character, business and habits 
 of the population tributary to the line of the road. This 
 matter will be taken iip later. 
 
 The cost of real estate for right of way and terminals, and 
 other purpo^ses, mil vary from $100 per acre to $8,000 or 
 $9,000 per acre, or more. This item will also have to be 
 determined separately for each case, and it is simply given 
 in the foregoing table to show the difference between the 
 maximum and minimum costs as such costs now exist. 
 
 The following is an actual table of costs of an interurban 
 railway, taken from an article by Mr. Ernest Gonzenbach 
 in the Street Raihvay Journal of April 4, 1903. The road 
 from end to end is 62.5 miles long, but counting the mileage 
 of sidings and yard-tracks it has a single-track mileage of 
 66 miles. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 Cost of Interurhan Electric Railway 62.5 Miles Long. 
 
 ' Excavation and embankment $96,000 
 
 Bridges, abutments, and culverts 91,050 
 
 Two overhead railroad crossings, at $32,000 64,000 
 
 Ties, 2,640 per mile, at 55 ets 96,250 
 
 Ballast, 2,200 cubic yds. per mile, at 80 cts 116,000 
 
 Rail, 70 pounds per yard, at $31 per ton delivered 225,000 
 
 Joints, spikes, and bolts for 60-feet rails 29,500 
 
 Labor on track, 56 miles, at $600 per mile 33,600 
 
 ' Labor on street track, 6.5 miles at $1,800 per mile 11,700 
 
 Farm and highway crossings 9,500 
 
 Wire fences, 24,000 rods, at 73 cts. in place 17,500 
 
 , Switches, special work, etc , 21,000 
 
 Bonds, 24,000, at 61 cts. in place 14,650 
 
 Cross-bonds and special bonding at switches, etc 2,000 
 
 Third-rail, 70 pounds per yard, 56 miles, at $36 per ton de- 
 livered 131,000 
 
 Insulators, spikes, and bolts, at 62 ets. in place 18,000 
 
SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 O) 
 
 Joint-plates, bolts, and labor laying rail $9,800 
 
 Bonds, 15,000, at 73 cts. in place 10,950 
 
 Crossings and crossing-cables 13,500 
 
 Trolley in streets, single-track span construction 24,000 
 
 Power station, 1500 lew. at $120 per kilowatt 180,000 
 
 Power station building, $11 per kilowatt 16,500 
 
 Transmission line, 55 miles, at $1,400 77,000 
 
 Substation freight and depot buildings 24,500 
 
 Substation railway apparatus 65,000 
 
 Batteries 80,000 
 
 Telephone line 9,000 
 
 Block-signal system 35,000 
 
 Stations and platforms 5,250 
 
 Switch and platform-lighting circuit 4,000 
 
 General office building 8,000 
 
 Car shops, shop tools, etc 24,000 
 
 Car bodies and locomotive body 49,000 
 
 Trucks and air-brakes 27,500 
 
 Electrical car equipment 76,000 
 
 Lighting and power apparatus and supply systems 70,000 
 
 Accidents, contingencies, and insurance 5 per cent 89,000 
 
 Administration, superintendence, office expenses, engineering, 
 
 etc., 5 per cent 89,000 
 
 $1,963,750 
 
 The figures above do not include any allowance for right 
 of way, franchises, and legal expenses, nor for interest 
 during construction. It represents the construction cost 
 purely, which in this case amounts to $29,750 per mile of 
 single track. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ESTIMATE OF EARNTNGS. 
 
 We will now make a detailed estimate and statement of 
 the probable income or revenue of our proposed road. This 
 detail should show: 
 
 1. Estimate and money value of probable passenger busi- 
 ness between each of the centers of population and the prin- 
 cipal terminus or termini, if both be important places. 
 
 2. Estimate and money value of probable passenger busi- 
 ness between each of the centers of population between the 
 termini and each of the remainder of such centers of popu- 
 lation. 
 
 3. Estimate and money value of the probable annual ex- 
 cursion or recreation paissenger business. 
 
 4. Estimate and money value of the probable express 
 and freight business. 
 
 5. Rates of fare which are proposed to be charged. 
 Should an existing road or roads be occupying the terri- 
 tory proposed to be served, the relation between existing 
 rates of fare and the proposed rates is of course an impor- 
 tant factor in this latter consideration. 
 
 As a matter of fact, instances of totally unoccupied ter- 
 ritory are very rare. Trolley roads are almost certain to be 
 in operation and generally, in instances of most promise, 
 steam roads will be found serving the territory after a 
 fashion. 
 
 A knowledge of the business of the existing railroads op- 
 erating in the proposed territory is generally of value and 
 should be ascertained. 
 
 For steam roads this can be readily done by purchasing 
 one ticket, at each station within the territory to be served, 
 to every other station on a certain day of the month, and 
 then repeating the purchases at given intervals, say ten days 
 
 [56] 
 
ESTIMATE OF EARNINGS. 57 
 
 apart for some montlis. As each ticket has a serial number 
 the existing local and through passenger business for any 
 territory can be readily determined by noting the serial 
 numbers and subtracting the numbers on those first pur- 
 chased from those last purchased. This method will also 
 show the variations of the passenger traific. 
 
 The business of the surface trolley roads can be deter- 
 mined by stationing men at predetermined important places 
 along the routes and noting the car number, time of day 
 and number of passengers on each car as it passes a given 
 point. For this work some experience is neces&ary to esti- 
 mate the number of passengers on the car as it passes the 
 observer. It is remarkable how accurate a little experience 
 and care will make such observations. The difference in 
 the number of passengers on a car as shown by the observa- 
 tions of the consecutive observers will show, approximately, 
 the amount of local business or business between centers of 
 population. These observations will also ishow, approxi- 
 mately, the total trolley passenger business for the territory 
 and will provide data from and for the actual case in hand, 
 from which can be determined the rides per capita for the 
 territory as a whole as well as the rides per capita between 
 the different centers of population. It is needless to say 
 that the detailed data above noted will not be supplied by 
 the existing operating railroads, whence the necessity for 
 the relatively large expenditure of the time and money to 
 secure them. Should the proposed railroad be one of great 
 magnitude which will involve the expenditure of large sums 
 for its installation, it is best t6 extend the observations over 
 both the summer and winter months, as by so doing a more 
 reliable average will be obtained. 
 
 Having now the actual passenger traffic business between 
 each of the towns and the termini, ais well as the local 
 traffic between each of the towns, an estimate is made of 
 the probable increase of traffic due to the increased facili- 
 ties. Valuable statistical data relating to such increase 
 
58 ELECTRIC RAIL^yAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 will be found among the list of references given in Ap- 
 pendix II. Upon three branches of the New York, New 
 Haven & Hartford railroad which were changed from steam 
 to electric systems the following results were obtained: 
 
 Comparison of Passengers Carried Per Annum upon Changing from 
 Steam to Electric Operation. 
 
 Passengers carried per annum operating by 
 NAME OF ROAD. Steam Electric 
 
 Nantasket Branch 304,292 702,419 
 
 Highland Division 387,695 1,060,617 
 
 New Canaan Branch 98,302 184,728 
 
 The systems cited above were, at the time these results were 
 obtained, operating hourly and half-hourly schedules. The 
 difference would undoubtedly be much greater with shorter 
 headways; these figures, however, show nearly 100 per cent, 
 increase as a minimum and about 270 per cent, increase as 
 a maximum. 
 
 An estimate should now be made of the passenger traffic 
 which mil come to the new road. Let there be seven 
 towns, as A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, including the termini. 
 Determine upon the average fares between each place, and let 
 A', B', C, D', E', E', and G', be the respective populations 
 of which A is the main or principal terminus. Let the es- 
 timated rides per capita from G to A equal ]N" rides per 
 annum, and the rate of fare between A and G equal K, then 
 G' X ]Sr X R ^ S, which is the revenue which will accrue on 
 account of the community of interest between G, the minor 
 terminus, and A, the principal terminus. Proceeding in this 
 manner for each tovsna or population center, we obtain the 
 total estimated revenue. As a concrete instance will be 
 more impressive, attention is directed to Tables VI and VII 
 showing computations of this kind, which the writer worked 
 out for the New York & Port Chester Railroad. 
 
 Table VI is computed from data upon the earnings per 
 capita taken from interurban statistics, which data were, 
 
ESTIMATE OF EARNIXOS. 
 
 59 
 
 however, not used until the existing railway earnings per 
 capita for the case in hand had been determined by ascer- 
 taining the existing business. The railroad earnings of 
 places relatively remote from a large city are generally 
 greater per capita for interurban roads than those of the 
 nearer places. 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 Estimates of Earnings on Population Basis. 
 
 BETWEEN. 
 
 Population 
 
 Carried per 
 
 Year. 
 
 Average 
 
 Fare per 
 
 Trip. 
 
 Annual 
 Income. 
 
 Port Chester and New York 
 
 7,000x120 
 
 2,000X120 
 
 5,000x120 
 
 20,000X150 
 
 30,000x 60 
 
 28,000x150 
 
 35,000X 30 
 
 62,000x 20 
 
 100,000X 50 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 15 cents 
 15 cents 
 12 cents 
 10 cents 
 
 5 cents 
 
 6 cents 
 5 cents 
 
 7 cents 
 5 cents 
 
 15 cents 
 
 $126,000 
 
 
 36,000 
 
 
 72,000 
 
 New Rochelle, Larchmont and New York 
 
 300,000 
 90,000 
 
 
 253,000 
 
 
 52,500 
 
 
 86,800 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 Annual sununer and recreation business of 
 
 225,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 $1,490,300 
 
 
 
 The estimates of the earnings were made after a careful 
 study of existing conditions in the territory to be served 
 by the ISTew York & Port Chester Eailroad. These investi- 
 gations . extended over many months and had for their 
 objects: 
 
 1. A careful study, after personal observation, of the 
 habits of the people along the line; that is, ascertaining 
 how, when, and where they traveled. 
 
 2. The existing inducements which would cause people 
 to travel between the various cities and towns. 
 
 3. Ascertaining the occupations of the people and the 
 probable stability of their employment. 
 
 4. Examination of the national censuses, as well as of 
 the various ward, precinct, and school censuses. 
 
 5. Personal observations at the various points at which 
 
60 
 
 BLECTRIC RAILWAY ECOXOMICS. 
 
 the public boarded trolley cars, at all hours of the day and 
 night for many months, to count and ascertain the amount 
 and division of the existing travel. 
 
 A careful study of the business of the existing trolley 
 and elevated roads in the district was made, as well as of 
 the nearest existing approximations now obtaining elsewhere, 
 and all data thus derived were plotted, and therefrom the 
 deductions herein shown were drawn. 
 
 It was found that this estimate contemplates carrying the 
 population served approximately one hundred (100) times 
 per year. The business will include 18,000,00 fares per an- 
 mmi. As these 18,000,000 fares are based upon approximately 
 4,500,000 car miles, it ^vill be seen that there must be 
 carried but four passengers per car mile; 18,000,000 divided 
 by 365 ^ 49,300 passengers per day of 398 trips, or an aver 
 age -of 124 passengers per complete trip of about 22 miles. 
 There are 22 local stations and 12 express stations, which 
 would give, on an average, 6 passengers per station per trip 
 for the local service, and 10" passengers per station per trip 
 for the express service. 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 KsUmates of Earnings on Per Capita Basis ly Dividing Territory Into 
 
 Zones. 
 
 BETWEEN. 
 
 Popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Earnings 
 per Capita. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 30.000 
 
 45,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 $1S 00 
 15 00 
 15 00 
 12 00 
 10 00 
 3 00 
 8 00 
 1 50 
 8 00 
 
 $120,000 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 75,000 
 
 
 840,000 
 
 
 800,000 
 
 
 90,000 
 
 
 135,000 
 
 
 120,000 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 
 
 
 $1,410,000 
 
 Table VII was compiled upon the zone system and for 
 the purposes of checking the results given in Table VI. 
 Eoth methods can be used and should be in all cases of 
 
ESTIMATE OF EASXINGS. 61 
 
 this kind where a careful study of the question- of probable 
 traffic is important. The figures obtained differ slightly 
 from those reached on the population basis but approximate 
 so closely as to afford a satisfactory check. 
 
 In arriving at the probable earnings per capita, per annum, 
 in Table VII, a careful stiidy was made of the average railway 
 fare expenditures per capita as they now exist in this terri- 
 tory, that is, the approximate amount of money paid to the ex- 
 isting steam and trolley roads by the residents of the different 
 zones into which the district was divided for this purpose. 
 In following out this method the intersection of One Hun- 
 dred and Thirty-second street and Willis avenue was taken 
 as the center, and circles with One Hundred and Thirty-sec- 
 ond street and Willis avenue as a center, were drawn, the- 
 radius of each circle being one mile greater than the other.. 
 In this way 2.5 circles were obtained. Had the circles simpler 
 been carried to the State line, but 23 would have been, 
 obtained. Inasmuch, however, as there is quite an extensive 
 population immediately beyond Port Chester in Connecticut,, 
 all of which will have easy access to this road by using the 
 .existing trolley roads for a short distance, the Connecticut 
 population was taken into account for a distance of three 
 miles from what would be the end of this road. The popula- 
 tion for one-half of a mile on each side of this railroad 
 was obtained for each of the zones, that is, the distance be- 
 tween any two consecutive circles, and the riding data of this 
 population determined. For the purpose of arriving at this 
 information, a careful count during the summer and winter 
 was made for a period extending over six months, of the 
 number of passengers on the trolley cars at different points 
 in this territory, as well as the number of people using the 
 steam road at each of the stations in the territory under 
 consideration. This information was obtained in the way 
 already described in the first part of this chapter. 
 
 When it had been obtained, a series of curves were plot- 
 ted, showing the relations between receipts per capita and 
 
62 
 
 ELECTRIC R.UL^VAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 population served for different periods, and localities or 
 zones. From the curves so determined, the figures for the 
 receipts per capita given in this statement were summar- 
 ized. Of course the estimated earnings per capita given 
 5n this summary are less than the results actually obtained, 
 as the figures given are those estimated for the New York 
 & Port Chester Railroad portion of the business only. 
 
 TABLE yill. 
 Statistics of Large City Properties. 
 
 Interurban Street Railway Co., New York 
 Philadelphia E. T. Co., Philadelpliia, Pa. . 
 
 Brooklyn R. T. Co., Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 Boston Elevated Ry. Co , Boston, Mass. . . 
 Pittsburg Railways Co., Pittsburg, Pa — 
 •Chicago Union Traction Co., Chicago, HI.. 
 
 St. Louis Transit and Suburban Go's 
 
 Chicago City Railway Co., Chicago, 111 — 
 United Railways of San Francisco, San 
 
 Francisco, Cal 
 
 UnitedRys. & Electric Co., Baltimore, Md. 
 
 International Ry. Co., Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Twin City R. T. Co., Minneapolis, Minn... . 
 Detroit United Railway, Detroit, Mich — 
 Cincinnati Traction Co., Cincinnati, O — 
 Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Co., 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 M 
 
 
 is 
 
 M 
 
 
 a 
 
 ft 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 % 
 
 D 
 
 Mag 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ir 
 
 s 
 
 
 a; 
 
 a 
 
 403 
 
 2,050,600 
 
 $20,634,548 
 
 $51,202 
 
 475 
 
 1,29-^,697 
 
 14,006,915 
 
 29,492 
 
 533 
 
 1,166,582 
 
 12,510,622 
 
 23,931 
 
 387 
 
 744,062 
 
 11,060,385 
 
 28,5811 
 
 401 
 
 a750,000 
 
 8,276,565 
 
 30,640 
 
 303 
 
 1,698,575 
 
 7,825,120 
 
 25,825 
 
 455 
 
 a750,000 
 
 7,031,244 
 
 15,497 
 
 219 
 
 1,698,575 
 
 6,367,358 
 
 29,075 
 
 844 
 
 a375,000 
 
 5,553,904 
 
 22,762 
 
 354 
 
 508,967 
 
 5,041,275 
 
 14,241 
 
 353 
 
 a500,000 
 
 4,426,675 
 
 12,540 
 
 255 
 
 366,350 
 
 3,591,549 
 
 14,084 
 
 380 
 
 b303,120 
 
 3,501,754 
 
 9,215 
 
 210 
 
 325,902 
 
 3,315,751 
 
 15,789 
 
 146 
 
 285,315 
 
 2,302,514 
 
 15,770 
 
 o 
 
 $10 06 
 
 10 98 
 
 11 94 
 14 88 
 11 03 
 
 8 35 
 
 9 40 
 
 8 35 
 
 14 81 
 
 9 90 
 
 8 85 
 
 9 80 
 11 55 
 10 17 
 
 a Local estimate of city and suburbs 1903. 
 
 b Local estimate ICOl . 
 
 The above Table VIII shows some of the results which 
 now obtain upon a number of systems operating in and about 
 various large cities of the United States. They are all city 
 systems, and with the exception of the Interurban Street 
 Hailway Company, of ISTew York, all trolley roads. In most 
 cases the figures for traffic are for the fiscal year 1902, while 
 the population, unless otherwise indicated, is for 1900. The 
 population aiven is that of the city in which each company 
 operates. The column of gross receipts gives the entire re- 
 
ESTIMATE OF EARNINGS. G3. 
 
 ceipts from passengers of the respective companies, including 
 the receipts from branches extending outside of the city limits, 
 so that the " gross receipts per capita " are in some cases 
 slightly higher than they would be if they showed the receipts 
 of the actual population served. The Brooklyn and Boston 
 figures include the receipts from the elevated lines in those 
 cities, as these systems in each case are operated in conjunc- 
 tion with the surface systems, and their receipts cannot be 
 separated. Where there are two or more companies in the 
 same city, the " gross receipts per capita " show the gross 
 receipts of all of the surface street railways in the city. 
 
 In cases where there are no existing steam railroads serv- 
 ing the population to be connected by the electric railway, 
 it is advisable to count the traffic by vehicles and stages 
 between the different centers of population for periods suffi- 
 ciently long and at proper intervals to give a fair annual 
 average. From this information and by comparisons with 
 the traffic of existing roads in similar conditions a fairly sat- 
 isfactory estimate can be secured. In such comparisons 
 the "population served" may very properly be considered 
 to be that residing within about li miles on each side of the 
 proposed line, in cases, of course, where there is no other rail- 
 way serving them. The entire population of large terminal 
 cities, as has been already said, should not be added to the 
 total sought, as all the residents of such city will not be 
 probable patrons of the railway. In making per capita com- 
 parisons of this kind between a proposed and an existing 
 railway, it is often better, where both have a large terminal 
 city, to leave this city out of account in both instances. 
 An even better plan, where the riding between stations on 
 the operating road is known, is to make the comparison on 
 the zone system, as already described. 
 
 Thus far the method which should be followed in deter- 
 mining the probable gross passenger earnings only of any 
 interurban system has been described. The matter of deter- 
 mining the gross passenger earnings has been gone into some- 
 
■64 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 what in detail, for the reason tliat upon roads of this char- 
 acter the passenger earnings at present are by far the greater 
 portion of the total gross earnings. 
 
 In addition to passenger earnings, however, estimates 
 should be made of the probable gross revenue which will be 
 derived from the carrying of freight, express, and mail. 
 The data now available on this subject are not very complete 
 on account of the fact that this branch of the interurban 
 business has not yet been developed and systematized suffi- 
 ciently to be able to furnish accurate data. For any special 
 case, however, the gross freight and express business can be 
 worked out and determined by a process very similar to 
 that used in determining the gross passenger revenue. The 
 process consists, first, in ascertaining the amount of freight 
 iind express business coming into and going out by railroad 
 ■of each of the centers of population (in cases where an ex- 
 isting steam road is doing this business), and then determin- 
 ing what proportion could be secured by the electric road. 
 Should there be no existing steam railroad, the method of 
 procedure would be to ascertain the total production and 
 consumption of the territory proposed to be served, which 
 would include, of course, products of all kinds, that is, agri- 
 cultural products and manufacturing products. An esti- 
 mate of the gross tonnage from every point along the line 
 of the proposed road can then be made to the points at which 
 the freight would probably be carried, such as some large 
 city or some other connecting road. 
 
 In estimating freight traffic for towns where there is no 
 existing road supplying the population, and, consequently, 
 where no actual approximate railroad data can be obtained 
 fi;ir the probable ingoing and outgoing freight receipts of 
 any single or number of population centers, another way to 
 proceed is to ascertain the population of each of the popula- 
 tion centers, and then have recoiirse to statistical data pub- 
 lished by the United States and other governments, showing 
 consumption and production per capita for given localities. 
 
ESTIMATE OF EAByiSOS. 63 
 
 From suck data, an estimate can be made of the probable 
 railroad tonnage for the proposed road. Such an estimate 
 will, of course, show the tonnage which would accrue on 
 account of a service, such as is now in existence around the 
 country, that is, the ordinary steam railroad service. There 
 is no doubt, however, but that the actual tonnage for an 
 electric service operating f req^ient units - would be greater 
 than that enjoyed by existing steam roads. Instances often 
 exist also where freight and goods are taken out and into a 
 community by means of wagons plying to and from railroad 
 centers distant anywhere from 5 to 10 miles from the com- 
 munity. Where such cases exist fairly accurate data can be 
 obtained by ascertaining the business which is done by such 
 vragon service. 
 
 The freight and express traffic of existing interurban elec- 
 tric roads has been shown by the experience of the interur- 
 ban lines in Ohio, Michigan, and elsewhere, to be a profitable 
 portion of their business and one Avhich bids fair to develop 
 enormously. It is difficult yet to obtain any satisfactory 
 figures as to just what this business will amount to, but from 
 the information available from the roads investigated, a fair 
 present average on a good road shows that it is now from 
 $500 to $1,000 per anntim per mile of single track, depend- 
 ing upon local conditions and the extent to which the freight 
 and express business has been sought and developed. There 
 is no doubt that the same reasons which have developed 
 the passenger business on electric lines, that is, short head- 
 way, will be and is a large factor in developing the freight 
 and express business. "With steam railroads the object is to 
 make every freight train unit a self-supporting or paying unit, 
 which is also, as is well known, the process sought to be fol- 
 lowed by steam roads in their passenger business. Steam rail- 
 road operating economy now lies in the direction of long 
 trains, or in other words, in long headways, and the tendency 
 of modern steam railroad economy is toward building larger 
 and heavier freight engines, and cutting down grades and elim- 
 inating curves so as to reduce the cost of the " ton-mile," etc. 
 
66 
 
 ELECTIUG RA1L^YAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 In the case of electric roads the unit at present is not the 
 ton-mile, but the car-mile, and there is practically no ecou- 
 omy to be gained by running long trains. It has been demon- 
 strated that passengers can be carried for far less per mile on 
 interurban roads paralleling steam roads than the steam roads 
 have been able to carry such passengers for. This condition 
 is due to the fact that electric roads operate single cars or 
 trains at frequent intervals for the reason already pointed 
 out, and increase the " riding habit." The same law holds 
 good in freight transportation. If the commercial interests 
 
 EXPEESS AND FEEIGHT CAR OF THE SOUTHERN OHIO TEACTIOiN" 
 
 COMPAXY. 
 
 of a community realized that they could replenish their 
 stocks upon a day's notice, they would cease laying in sup23lie3 
 of goods of such quantity that would last them a week or 
 ten days, or possibly two weeks, as is now the case, and 
 through the saving thus secured in insurance, interest, ware- 
 house handling, etc., could afford and would pay a higher 
 rate to the electric road for the " express " handling of goods 
 
ESTIMATE OF EABNI'NGS. 07 
 
 than that now paid to steam railroad companies. In other 
 words, a rapid and frequent train service, such as electric 
 roads can give, will not only materially increase the freight 
 and express business, but by eliminating the economically 
 nonproductive conditions now existing between the producers 
 and the consumers will develop a most important landmark 
 in political economy. 
 
 There is no doubt that such relatively high-speed, high- 
 class interxirban electric railroad systems as I have been and 
 am essentially considering in this book, and which are to 
 play an important part in transportation economics, will soon 
 attain gross passenger earnings of from $12,000 to $15,000 
 per mile of single track per year and more, and will also 
 attain additional earnings from freight, express, and mail 
 business of from $2,000 to $3,000 per mile of single track 
 per year. I refer especially to roads operating at schedule 
 speeds of from 30 to 40 miles per hour and more, on private 
 rights of way, connecting large centers of population and hav- 
 ing stations or stops from a quarter of a mile to a mile or 
 more apart, running cars at frequent headway, and when 
 designed and installed by competent railway experts, fitted 
 by experience to judge of the present and future economic 
 activities of given conditions, and with special reference to 
 the economic considerations set forth in Chapter XVIII. 
 Already some of the better classes of electric interurban roads 
 are obtaining $10,000 to $12,000 per mile of single track 
 per year from passengers, and $1,000 to $1,200 per mile 
 of single track per year from freight and express, and this 
 in cases where the whole or the major part of the tracks are 
 on public highways, and where, consequently, the schedules 
 are limited to 16 or 20 miles per hour, which, as I have shown 
 elsewhere in this book, is a perpetual handicap to interurban 
 high-speed railroads so designed and installed. 
 
CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 ESTIMATE OE PROBABLE OPERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 The next step is the determination of the costs of operation 
 and maintenance, as well as the aniotint of the fixed charges. 
 
 In connection with electric railroad operation, an unfor- 
 tunate habit has developed of estimating the annual costs of 
 operation and maintenance as a percentage of the gross re- 
 ceipts. Estimates of this kind really mean nothing and have 
 no real value even for comparisons. They are even danger- 
 ous when used in such computations and determinations as 
 discussed here, on account of the difference in conditions, such 
 as number of cars operated, length of route, headway, average 
 distance each passenger is carried, and tributary population 
 per mile of track, and especially relative receipts, etc. 
 
 In order to use the percentage of the gi'oss receipts method 
 in making comparisons, some of the details of operation 
 should accompany the statement of the percentage of gross 
 receipts required to operate the road. Such accompanying 
 details should show : 
 
 1. The gross receipts. 
 
 2. The car mileage operated daily and yearly. 
 
 3. The average daily mileage per car. 
 
 4. The total number of miles of single track operated. 
 
 5. The amounts annually expended for maintenance of 
 way and structures, and maintenance of equipment, and the 
 amounts per car mile for these items. 
 
 6. The physical condition of the property. 
 
 7. The capital liabilities and fixed charges. 
 
 8. Trafiic density or passengers carried per car mile. 
 
 Of two roads having approximately the same amount of 
 track, the one operating at the larger percentage of the gross 
 receipts may have the larger net. Suppose one of two such 
 roads to have gross receipts of $1,500,000, and to be operat- 
 ing at 60 per cent, of its gross receipts. Suppose the second 
 
 [68] 
 
ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 69 
 
 of the two to have gross receipts of $900,000, and to be operat- 
 ing at 50 per cent, of its gross receipts. In the first case the 
 net will be $600,000 while in the second case it will be but 
 $450,000. If each has approximately the same amount of 
 track, the fixed charges will probably be nearly the same. 
 This instance will show the necessity for additional detail 
 if such data are used. 
 
 The only safe way to proceed is to determine the detail cost 
 of each item entering into the total cost of operation. The 
 subject is generally divided into four subdivisions, by exist- 
 ing steam and some electric systems, as follows: 
 
 1. Cost of maintenance of roadway and structures. 
 
 2. Cost of maintenance of equipment. 
 
 3. Cost of conducting transportation. 
 
 4. General expense. 
 
 Any item of operating costs can be classified under one of 
 the four heads above given. I find it more satisfactory to 
 iise the following subdivision for electric systems : 
 
 1. Cost of train crews. 
 
 2. Cost of station men, such as ticket agents, etc. 
 
 3. Maintenance and inspection of cars and equipment. 
 
 4. Maintenance of roadway and structures. 
 
 5. Cost of operating main power station, including fuel, 
 oil, waste, etc., and labor and repairs. 
 
 6. Cost of operating rotary stations. 
 
 7. Salaries of officers and clerks, etc. 
 
 Each factor of each of the foregoing items should be care- 
 fully computed and the total cost of operation and mainte- 
 nance thus ascertained. This is the only safe and true way 
 of arriving at a proper conclusion. 
 
 The fixed charges include the following items: 
 
 1. Interest on bonds or other interest-carrying obligations. 
 
 2. Cost of leaseholds or rentals. 
 
 3. State and other taxes. 
 
 Taxes are often placed under the head of operating ex- 
 penses. 
 
70 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 They are sometimes determined as a percentage (from 2 
 to 5 per cent. ) of the gross receipts. 
 
 For the reasons specified above, detail comparisons with 
 similar conditions of existing roads, as with the qiiestion of 
 gross receipts, offer the best method of determining the 
 operating expenses. The reader is recommended to use in 
 all cases the latest figures obtainable, as given in the reports 
 of the several properties themselves or in financial annuals 
 like "American Street Railway Investments," reports of the 
 State Railroad Commissioners of ISTew York, Massachusetts, 
 etc. 
 
 The detailed estimate of the operating cost of a proposed 
 electric railway, as recently prepared by the writer for a 96- 
 mile line, can be made up somewhat as follows : 
 
 Details of Operati^^g Cost of a High-Speed Interueban" 
 Eeecteic Railway. 
 
 Length, 96 miles of main single track (about 24 miles of 
 
 roadway). 
 124 local trains each way, trains of one car. 
 74 express trains each way, trains of two cars. 
 4,500,000 car miles per annum. 
 
 A. Train crews $84,080 89 
 
 B. Station men 80,300 00 
 
 C. Maintenance and inspection cf cars and 
 
 equipment 90,000 00 
 
 T). Maintenance of roadway and structures. .. 96,000 00 
 
 E. Cost of power '. 253,116 55 
 
 F. Rotary stations 16,425 00 
 
 G. Salaries of officers 50,000 00 
 
 $669,922 44 
 
ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPUNSES. 71 
 
 A. Train Crews. 
 
 124 local trains each way per day ; single trip time, 49 min- 
 utes. 
 74 express trains each way per day; single trip time, 31 
 minutes. 
 124 X 2 X 49 ^ 60 = 202.5 car hours per day of 24 hours for 
 local service. Local service to consist of one car hav- 
 ing a crew of : 
 
 1 motorman at $3 per day of 10 hours ; 
 1 conductor at $2.50 per day of 10 hours; 
 
 Total, $5.50 per day of 10 hours; or $0.55 per 
 car hour. 
 202.5 X $0.55x365 = $40,751,875, cost of local train ser- 
 vice per year. 
 74 X 2 X 31 -^ 60^ 76.4 train hours per day of 24 hours for 
 express service. Express service to consist of two-car units 
 carrying the following crew : 
 
 1 motorman at $3 per day of 10 hours; 
 1 conductor at $2.50 per day of 10 hours ; 
 1 conductor at $2.50 per day of 10 hours ; 
 $8 per day of 10 hours, or $0.80 per car hour. 
 76.4 X $0.80x365 = $22,308.80, cost of express train ser- 
 vice per year. 
 $40,751.875 + $22,308.80 = $63,060,675, total cost 
 Adding one-third of above for extra men — $21,020.22 — 
 we have $63,060.675 + $21,020.22= $84,080,895, total 
 cost trainmen, etc., per year. 
 
 B. Station Crews. 
 
 22 stations using 5 men each = 110 men at an average of 
 
 $2 per day each = $220 per day. 
 $220 X 365 — per year = $80,300. 
 
72 ELECTRIC RA1L^XAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 C. Maintenance and Inspection of Cars and Equipment. 
 
 Total car mileage equals 4,169,760 per year, and allowing for 
 extra occasions will equal 4,500,000, at $.02 per car mile 
 = $90,000. 
 
 D. Maintetmnce of Boadivay and Structures. 
 
 96 miles single track, including sidings, etc., at $1,000 per 
 mile per year = $96,000. 
 
 E. Cost of Power. 
 
 Local service, 124 x 2 x 21 = 5,208 local car miles per day. 
 At 160 watt hours per ton mile = 270,816 x 160 = 43,330,- 
 
 560 watt hours per day for local service. 
 Express service, 74 x 2 x 21 = 3,108 train miles per day for 
 
 express service. 
 3,108 X 2 = 6,216 car miles per day. 
 
 6,216 X 52 ^ 323,232 ton miles per day for express service. 
 323,232x130 = 42,020,160 watt hours per day for express 
 
 service. 
 42,020,160 + 43,330,560 = 85,350,720, total watt hoiTrs per 
 
 day of 24 hours, or 85,350.7 kw. hours. 
 Add 18 per cent, for loss from main station to third rail and 
 
 5 per cent, for heating and 2 per cent, for lighting; 25 
 
 per cent.= 21,337.7. 
 85,350.7 + 21,337.7 = 106,688.4 kw. hours. This at $.0065 
 
 per kilowatt hour ^$693.47 per day for producing the 
 
 power and maintaining the power station. 
 365 X $693.47 = $253,165.55 per year. 
 
 Power Statiow Detail. 
 
 1 chief engineer, per day $10 00 
 
 3 assistant engineers at $5 per day 15 00 
 
 30 oilers at $2.50 per day 75 00 
 
 3 switchboard men 10 50 
 
ESTIMATE OP OPERATING EXPENSES. 73 
 
 3 electric helpers $7 50 
 
 6 cleaners 9 qO 
 
 6 condenser men 15 OO 
 
 machinist and two helpers 9 00 
 
 24 boiler men at $2.50 per day 60 00 
 
 boiler cleaner and two helpers 600 
 
 4 laborers 6 00 
 
 $223 00 
 
 Coal at $2.40 per ton ; 106,684 kw. at 2| lbs. coal per kilo- 
 watt = 293,381 lbs., or 146.69 tons coal per day. 
 
 146.69 X $2.40 = $3^2.057, cost of coal per day. $223 + 
 $325,057 = $575,057, cost of labor and coal per day of 
 106,684 kw. hours. 
 
 $575,057 -^ 106,684 = $.00538 per kilowatt hour. $.0065 
 — $.00538 = $.00112, for repairs and maintenance per 
 kilowatt hour. 
 
 In arriving at the costs of the maintenance of way and 
 structures for the railroad considered in the foregoing esti- 
 mate, the following figures were taken as the annual cost per 
 mile of single track : 
 
 Eenewals of rails $256 00 
 
 Renewals of ties _ 108 00 
 
 Eenewals of ballast 35 00 
 
 Labor 364 00 
 
 Repairs and renewals of fencing 25 00 
 
 Total $882 00 
 
 There will be several other minor items entering into this 
 cost, such as the cost of occasionally changing the switches, 
 the cutting of weeds, and maintenance of the block-signal 
 system, which, however, would not' materially augment the 
 
74 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 above sum. In order, however, to be on the safe side of this, 
 matter, I have taken $1,000 per mile as the cost of mainte- 
 nance of way and structures, and have taken a total mileage 
 of 96 miles. 
 
 The cost of the rail splices, holts, and s-pikes is $5,092 
 per mile of single track. 
 
 The cost of the ties per mile of single track is taken at 
 $1,848. 
 
 The steam-trunk lines of the United States estimate the 
 life of their rails for main-line service at about 15 years, 
 after which they are replaced, and the old rails used for 
 sidings and other light and intermittent service. A service 
 of 15 years on trunk lines using the heaviest steam engines 
 is certainly equivalent to a service of 20 years for conditions 
 such as will prevail on the average high-speed electric line, 
 using rails as they are now made. A life of 20 years is 
 equivalent to 5 per cent, for renewals. 
 
 Applying the same reasoning to the item of tie renewals, 
 and allowing 6 per cent, for this item, will equal to $108 
 per mile of single track per year. 
 
 Eive per cent, per mile of single track per year has been 
 allowed for renewal of the rock ballast. 
 
 The cost of the labor item has been arrived at by dividing 
 
 the road into sections 3 miles in length, and allowing 5 
 
 trackman, at a total of $9 per day, and 2 linemen, at a total 
 
 of $5 per day per section. Sections 3 miles long of 4 tracks 
 
 each, or 12 miles of single track = $14 per day or $14 x 312 
 
 = $4,368 per 12 miles per year, or 
 
 4368 . , . , 
 
 =: $364 per mile of single track per year. 
 
 In the foregoing figures relating to the cost of power, as 
 shown at " E," the weight of the loaded motor car is taken 
 at 52 tons, divided as follows: 25 tons for the weight of the 
 car and trucks ; 17 tons for the weight of the equipment ; 10 
 tons for the weight of the passengers. This is probably 
 
ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 73 
 
 slightly in excess of that which would ultimately maintain. 
 The first sets of run sheets constructed showed for the local 
 service an energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile 
 varying between 138 and 160. The larger figures were taken 
 for the purpose of being on the safe side and are used above. 
 After the conditions had been thoroughly studied for some 
 months, the energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile, 
 for both the local and express schedules was very much re- 
 duced. 
 
 In the foregoing illustration of the method ptirsued in ar- 
 riving at some of the operating costs of the ISTew York & Port 
 Chester Eailroad, it will be noted that almost all of the 
 figures are essentially original, that is, they are not based 
 upon car mileage or other data obtained from the operating 
 records of other railroads. The reason for this is that at the 
 time these figures were made, there was absolutely no other 
 railroad in existence constructed according to the plans of 
 construction of the 'Sew York & Port Chester Eailroad Com- 
 pany, or operated as it was proposed to operate this road. 
 After completing the estimate shown above, I deemed it 
 advisable, if possible, to make an estimate based upon some 
 operating conditions. The nearest approach which could be 
 arrived at at the time was that of an elevated road in a large 
 city, operating at a schedule speed of about 16 miles per 
 hour. For the purpose of comparison, in what follows, the 
 elevated railroad will be referred to as the Elevated Road. 
 
 From the ofiicial records of the Elevated Road, the operat- 
 ing costs per car mile for the various items were worked out. 
 These costs are as follows : 
 
 (1) Train erews, telegraphers, couplers, and yard 
 
 men • $.0237 per car mile. 
 
 (2) Station men, agents, porters, and laborers.. .0072 " " " 
 
 (3) Maintenance, inspection, and up-keep of cars, 
 
 trucks, and motive power 0125 " " " 
 
 (4) Repairs of structure and roadway 0065 " " " 
 
 (5) Cost of power for transportation, lighting, 
 
 and braking 0123 
 
70 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 (6) Kotaries (none used). 
 
 (7) Miscellaneous expenses, supplies, etc $.0021 per car mile. 
 
 (8) G-eneral expenses, salaries, etc 0084 " " " 
 
 $.0727 " " " 
 
 (9) City tax on cars and other taxes 00648 " " " 
 
 (10) Legal expenses and injuries 00532 " " " 
 
 $.0845 " " " 
 
 For the purpose of making the comparison, or, rather, of 
 arriving at the operating cost of the Port Chester Road upon 
 a car mile basis, each of the foregoing items was considered 
 in detail as follows : 
 
 It was concluded that the New York & Port Chester Road 
 Avould use a maximum of about 9 kilowatt hours per car 
 mile at the central station, as against about 2 kilowatt hours 
 per car mile at the central station which the Elevated Road 
 "was using — an excess of 7 kilowatt hours. 
 
 At $.0065 per kilowatt hour, there would be 4.55 cents 
 excess cost per car mile for power for the ISTew York & Port 
 Chester Road, as compared with that of the Elevated Road. 
 
 The depreciation of the roadbed for the Port Chester 
 Road should not be any greater than that for the elevated 
 road. 
 
 The cost of maintenance of motors and cars will be in- 
 creased about 1 cent per car mile, on account of the use 
 of larger motors, etc. 
 
 The cost of the wages of trainmen, etc., per car mile, will 
 be less for the Port Chester Road, on account of the in- 
 creased schedule, the difference being about one-third — or 
 about $.0076. 
 
 The cost of the operation of the rotaries is an extra to be 
 added. This additional cost is estimated at $.0037 per car 
 mile. 
 
 The general expenses should not be increased. 
 
ESTIMATE OF OPERATIXO EXPENSES. 77 
 
 For unknown expenses and contingencies, there was added 
 $.0075 per car mile. 
 
 Apply these changes to the Kew York & Port Chester 
 Road, as follows: 
 
 By excluding items (9) and (10) of the table shown above, 
 we find that the cost of operation per car mile for the 
 
 elevated road is 7.27 cents.. 
 
 Add additional cost, for Port Chester road, for power 4.55 " 
 
 For maintenance of cars and motors 1.00 " 
 
 For rotaries 37 " 
 
 For unknown expenses and contingencies 75 
 
 13.94 " 
 Subtract — difl'erence for train crews, etc 76 
 
 Balance 13.18 
 
 Add — for legal expenses, injuries, and taxes (same as ele- 
 vated road) 1.18 
 
 Total per car mile 14.36 
 
 By comparing the results arrived at in the manner last 
 shown with the figures obtained by determining the detailed 
 cost of each and every item as shown in the preceding esti- 
 mate of operating costs, it will be noted that a fair check 
 is obtained. It will be noted, however, that the operating 
 costs obtained by the detailed method as shown are greater 
 than those obtained by the comparative method last shown, 
 which only serves to bear out the statement made elsewhere 
 in this book that the method of determining operating costs 
 for any given set of conditions by comparing them with other 
 as nearly as possible similar set of conditions, is not, by any 
 means, always reliable. I desire to repeat here again that 
 the only proper way to do is to determine the detailed cost 
 of each and every item for the proposed conditions. The 
 results may, of course, be checked by comparison with as 
 nearly as possible similar conditions as was done above. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE PINAL SXJBVEY. 
 
 Preparatory to the preparation of the ultimate specifica- 
 tions, the entire line must be finally inspected and the loca- 
 tion, length, and kind of each highway or other crossing 
 determined, together with all culverts and drainage systems. 
 A detail of each highway, railroad, water-way, or other cross- 
 ing, whether arch or subway, together with each culvert, 
 must be prepared. Such details show the quantities of all 
 materials of each of such structures, together with the cost 
 of construction. 
 
 If necessary the field parties are again sent out to take 
 cross-sectional measurements at such intervals as will enable 
 a final and accurate estimate to be made of the quantities 
 of earth and rock cut and fill. The accuracy of the earth 
 and rock work estimates will depend not so much upon 
 the number as upon the positions of the cross-sections taken. 
 Soundings or borings are also obtained to determine the 
 nature of the soil and the approximate locations of the earth 
 and rock, and the respective quantities of each. 
 
 As a general rule, the railroad companies, for such cases 
 as hei-ein indicated, let a contract to some individual or 
 company to furnish them with the data relating to the de- 
 tails of the soil beneath the surface of the earth, for the 
 distance desired, equal to the depth of the proposed grade 
 line below such surface. Siich contracts provide that the 
 contractor shall make borings or soundings at points indi- 
 cated by the railroad company along the line of its route. 
 The contract provides that the contractor shall produce a 
 sectional sample, to scale, for each of stich points. The 
 method of procedure consists in boring into the ground and 
 in taking a sample of each of the kinds of rock and earth 
 met with in the boring, and noting the depth and extent 
 of such rock or earth. A glass tube is then taken and 
 
 [78] 
 
THE FINAL SURVEY. 79 
 
 the earth or rock, as the case may be, placed in such a 
 glass tube in the exact relative positions in which it was 
 found in boring. The distance from the top part of the 
 earth or rock in the glass tube to the bottom is, to scale, 
 the distance from the surface to the bottom of the bor- 
 ing. Each of the subsoil materials is represented in this 
 glass tube to scale. Such contracts are generally given at 
 so much per foot of boring. The price ranges from 10 to 
 25 cents per vertical foot. The contractor furnishes all the 
 material and men for the work. 
 
 After the final line has been mapped out it is located on 
 the ground. Line stakes, which are wooden sticks about 
 li inches square and 15 inches long, pointed at one end,, 
 are carefully set. All alignment curves are finally run and 
 staked. All fences or other property boundaries are accu- 
 rately measured and taken together with the names of the 
 property-owners. 
 
 The stations or stopping places are finally determined. 
 
 The run sheets are compared again with the final survey 
 and are altered to accord with it, or if necessary the route 
 is altered to secure a better run sheet as each, of course, 
 depends on the other. A slight and almost immaterial change 
 in the route will occasionally improve the run sheet and 
 vice versa. The engineer at this time will settle the details 
 of the proposed schedules, which have, up to this point, 
 been determined only approximately, such as length of 
 stops at stations, laying over time at termini, permissible 
 limits of acceleration, maximum speed and its duration, 
 and, where required, the maximum current, as well as 
 the square root of the mean square of the current for the 
 different runs. 
 
 This last item, that is, the square root of the mean square 
 of the current, is essentially one of the details of design. 
 Its value as an element to be taken into consideration is 
 disputed. It has no intrinsic value to the consulting en- 
 gineer. In determining upon a motor equipment, the en- 
 
so ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOXOillCS. 
 
 gineer will do best to rely essentially upon the manufactur- 
 ers' data and guarantees, and upon the acceptance tests over 
 an equivalent run, ^vhich the engineer should lay out and 
 specify. The manufacturers are always in a better position . 
 to determine what factors shall enter into the design of a 
 motor than the consulting engineer, who is really only con- 
 cerned with the matter of performance. 
 
 With the schedules or time-tables plotted on cross-section 
 ])aper, as already described, the load diagram is ascertained 
 for the purpose of finally determining the details of the 
 jiower-houses, substations and transmission systems. 
 
 A load diagram can be obtained by calculating the vary- 
 ing loads at different periods of the 24 hours, as shown in 
 'Chapter V, and plotting the results. Where load curves 
 ;are calculated, an average, instead of an actual run is taken. 
 Motors, equipment, gear ratio, and energy consumption may 
 also be conveniently determined by taking average runs. 
 
 Plates I, II, and III show typical individual run sheets 
 between certain stations. As will be noticed, typical data 
 'of each run is given, and on the total sheet similar data 
 sliould also be shown for each total run curve. Such 
 data are determined by integration or computation after the 
 power curves or run sheets have been obtained, and con- 
 sist of: 
 
 1. Distance. 
 
 2. Ton miles per car. 
 
 3. Total kilowatt hours per run. 
 
 4. Kilowatt hours per car mile. 
 
 5. Watt hours per ton mile. 
 
 There is a point to which attention should be called in 
 connection with these run sheets, and which will appear 
 more in the detail in Chapter XIIT. This is, that the actual 
 initial, or accelerating line is not the smooth even line shown 
 on the total nm sheet, Plate III, or as shovsTi on the dia- 
 grams. Plates I and II. The actual line is serrated, while the 
 lines shown in the diagrams are the average lines. They are, 
 
TBE FINAL SURVEY. 81 
 
 however, accurate to within such a small percentage as to 
 make their use entirely proper. It should also be noted that 
 the line of braking cannot be straight, as shown. It is also 
 irregular in shape. The lines shown as the braking lines 
 are also the lines shelving the average effect. It is the lines 
 showing the average effect that are always used. 
 
 The maximum current, and all currents obtained by con- 
 structing the load diagrams, are those that are required at 
 the track, to which must be added the losses which will 
 occur between the track and the substation, in order to de- 
 termine the capacity of the substations and the sizes of the 
 units in them. 
 
 To the energy required at the substations must be added 
 the transmission losses between the substations and the main 
 or generating station, to determine the capacity of the main 
 station, and the sizes of the units in it. 
 
 The conductors used for conveying the energy from the 
 main station to the substations may be either aluminum or 
 copper. Aluminum is very widely used where the mres 
 are carried on overhead lines; copper is invariably employed 
 where the transmission is done by burying the conductors, 
 as in the case of cities and towns. 
 
 The elements, controlling the determination of the size 
 of the conductors for transmission systems, may be briefly 
 referred to at this point. 
 
 In the case of alternating current systems there is to be 
 considered, in determining the size of conductors, in addition 
 to the ohmic resistance, the element of reactance, which in 
 the case of high frequencies may be controlling. The the- 
 ory of the effects of reactance, together with its components, 
 is fully set forth in text-books on the alternating current, 
 and will not be taken up here as it only enters into the de- 
 termination of the size of the conductors connecting the 
 main station with the substations. 
 
 The direct current transmission system is determined by 
 dividing the road into sections, each a mile or more in length. 
 
82 ELECTRIC RAILVi'AY ECONOMICS. 
 
 dependiBg upon the load which will be on any section and 
 substation. Each section is insulated from the ones adjacent 
 to it, for the purpose of providing against a derangement of 
 the entire system in the event of an accident or a short circuit 
 at any given point or points. 
 
 The method of procedure is to make a diagrammatic repre- 
 sentation of the entire line to scale. All of the cars, during 
 the times or periods of maximum service should then be lo- 
 cated on this diagram, at their proper relative distances 
 apart on the diagram. With the cars so spaced the road 
 should be divided into sections. The loads and their dis- 
 tances from the feeding substation will, in this case, determine 
 the length of each section. The number, position, and, con- 
 sequently, the degree of motion of the cars of each section, 
 during the times of maximum service, will determine the 
 amount and distribution of the maximum current required 
 for each section. The next step is to ascertain from the 
 distribution of the current required for each section, the 
 point which is known as the electrical center of gravity of 
 the section, and to this point the feeder or feeders from the 
 proper substation should be run. Ohm's law and wiring- 
 tables will enable any one to determine the cross-sectional 
 area of the electrical conductors for any determined loss 
 from the substations to the point of tapping any section. 
 The modification of Ohm's law to be used is expressed by 
 the formula: 
 
 CxL 
 A = Kx.-^ 
 
 Where 
 A --= cross-sectional area of the current conductor in circular 
 
 mils. 
 = current in amperes. 
 E = loss in volts. 
 L = total length of circuit, that is, the distance to the point 
 
 of feeding plus the return distance. 
 
THE FINAL SURVEY. 83 
 
 K = constant depending upon the conductivity of the con- 
 ductor. 
 The formula, as commonly used, is expressed as follows: 
 
 DxC 
 circular mils ^ 21 . 12 x 
 
 E 
 Where 
 D = simply the distance from the substation to the feeding 
 point or the distance one way. 
 This is for copper wire having a conductivity of 98 per 
 cent. 
 
 Tor aluminum the formula is the same with a proper value 
 for K. 
 
 The resistance of 1 circular mil. foot of aluminum having 
 a conductivity of 51 per cent, at 05 degrees F. := 17.225 
 ohms. The formula for aluminum becomes: 
 
 circular mils = 34.45 x 
 
 E 
 
 The maximum losses between the main station and the 
 substation should not be over 6 or 7 per cent. The average 
 maximum losses between the substations and the car-col- 
 lecting devices should not be over 12 per cent. In Chapter 
 V attention has been called to the necessity of providing 
 for fluctuations which vary from 20 to 33 per cent, or more. 
 
 The best practice of to-day for the power-house installa- 
 tion for an extended interurban system consists of a high- 
 tension alternating current central station plant, the poten- 
 tial of distribution at the generators ranging between 10,000 
 and 30,000 volts. In some cases of very high voltage the 
 generator voltage is raised by means of step-up transformers, 
 instead of being developed directly in the generator. 
 
 The energy is then transmitted to the substations at the 
 high voltage, where the voltage is reduced by means of step- 
 down transformers, from where it passes through an alter- 
 nate current switchboard, and is then carried to the alter- 
 nate current side of the rotary converters, where the energy 
 
84 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 is transformed into direct current and taken from the 
 commutator of the rotary converter to the direct current 
 switchboard at 650 to 750 volts, from where it is carried to 
 the car-collecting devices through copper or other conductors. 
 
 In the event of a commercial alternating current motor 
 being brought out, the alternating current generating system 
 here described could be used by simply replacing the rotary 
 converter substations, with static transformers placed along 
 the line at properly determined intervals. The only financial 
 loss in the- event of the development of an alternating cur- 
 rent commercial motor and system would be that involved 
 in the motors and rotary converters, which will be. compara- 
 tively insignificant. 
 
 An alternating current system has many desirable charac- 
 teristics, among which are : 
 
 1. The ability to use much higher voltages and thereby 
 effect a considerable saving in the cost of the transmission 
 systems. 
 
 2. The use of induction motors, the simplicity of which 
 are very marked, eliminating, as they do, the necessity for 
 commutators. As they consist of nothing more than a com- 
 pact revolving mass of iron and copper, their mechanical con- 
 struction can be made all that could be desired. At the 
 present time induction motor control apparatus has not been 
 brought to a desirable state of simplicity, but there is no 
 reason why admirable results should not be expected in the 
 very near future. 
 
 In the case of direct current the voltage is limited by the 
 commutator. At the present time the large manufacturing 
 companies do not feel that they would care to guarantee a 
 direct current railway motor, operating at a potential in 
 excess of 700 volts. Again, a direct current substation will 
 generally transmit the direct current economically for about 
 a distance of from 8 to 10 miles on each side of the substa- 
 tions, for cases such as have been under discussion, the eco- 
 nomical distance depending upon the car service or loads. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TRACK CONSTUTJCTIOIT AND SUPERS mUCTXTBE. 
 
 The rail used in track construction for the class of electric 
 roads which is being considered differs from that required 
 by electric roads Avhose track or tracks lie in paved streets. 
 In the latter cases the authorities generally require a rail 
 to be used which will interfere as little as possible with 
 vehicular traffic. The track for the high-class, high-speed 
 interurban electric line does not differ materially from that 
 required for the best steam railroad construction, except in 
 the question of location, which has been thoroughly discussed 
 in a previous chapter, bonding, and the use of the rail for 
 the return circuit, both of which will be discussed later. 
 
 It is not the intention to take up minutely the questions of 
 ballast, ties, rail-sections, and composition, rail-joints and 
 other points in which an interurban electric railway track 
 is similar to that used for steam railroad work. These sub- 
 jects would require a book in themselves, and, in addition, 
 there are many excellent treatises upon them. It might be 
 stated, however, that as a rule the service imposed upon 
 electric railway track is not so severe as that imposed upon 
 a track for steam railroad service. The heaviest electric cars 
 of to-day, with their load and equipment, do not exceed 50 
 tons in weight, and the absence of reciprocating parts which 
 exist in steam locomotives makes the electric car much less 
 wearing on the track than in steam railroad service. It is 
 possible, for this reason, to use a lighter rail, and, as a rule, 
 an 80-pound T rail is amply sufficient for the service. The 
 matter of the proper width of the right of way for one, two, or 
 four tracks, together with the determination of the proper 
 slope of the earth in cuts or fills, is discussed in another 
 chapter. 
 
 Proper ballasting is most essential for the purposes of 
 drainage and for the additional purposes of preserving the 
 
 [85] 
 
86 ELECTRIC R.UL^yAY ECOyOMWS. 
 
 surface and alignment of the track. Practice differs as to 
 the amount of ballast required, but from six to ten inches 
 under the tie is usually ample if care is taken to have the 
 ballast well tamped under and between the ties. In good 
 practice, the ballast is brought up between the ties to the level 
 of the top of the ties. Broken stone to pass throiigh a two and 
 one-half inch ring is the size usually specified. Gravel and 
 cinders may be used, but are not as desirable as broken stone. 
 It is always advisable in selecting ballast to choose one which 
 will produce a minimum amount of dust in the operation of 
 the road, and broken stone is the best material which can be 
 used for this purpose. Where the ballast is deeper than six 
 or eight inches, it is sometimes customary to lay the bottom 
 course of larger stones to act as a foundation for the smaller 
 ones. While this course has been adopted, it is certainly 
 not to be recommended unless unusual care is taken in 
 laying the bottom or foundation stones. 
 
 The standard tie on the New York Central Railroad is 
 7"x 8"x 8', and very few of the larger steam roads use a tie 
 smaller than 6" x8" x 8'. At the present time, yellow pine 
 ties are being vers' extensively used for straight track work, 
 as are also cedar ties. Chestnut ties are also extensively used. 
 The best tie for lasting qualities is the white oak hewed tie. 
 Where pine or other ties are used for straight track work, 
 white oak should always be adopted for curves, on account 
 of the better holding power which a white oak tie furnishes 
 for the spikes. While white oak ties are considerably more 
 expensive than the others, their use will be found more 
 economical in the end, especially for high-speed installations 
 Avhere the spreading of the rail will be a most serious matter. 
 
 Ties are spaced anywhere from 15 to 30 inches apart be- 
 tween tie centers, depending upon the service conditions of 
 the road. Where a third rail is used, it is necessary to have 
 about every fifth tie from six inches to a foot longer to carry 
 the third-rail insulator. Third-rail ties are generally of oak 
 
Mi* 
 
 i?; 
 
 H 
 O 
 H 
 i-( 
 O 
 
 .^ 
 t> 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 s^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 t> 
 H 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 n 
 o 
 
 !> 
 
 1— ( 
 S! 
 
 H 
 W 
 
 
 
 ^ (100 lb. A.S.C.E 
 
 End View and Cross Section 
 
 [87] 
 
88 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 for the purpose of securing the necessary stability of the 
 third rail. 
 
 Modern practice on both steam and electric railroads tends 
 toward the use of a rail section known as the standard of the 
 American Society of Civil Engineers, and which is char- 
 acterized by a flat head with sides vertical or nearly vertical 
 and with the following distribution of metal: Head, 42 
 per cent.; web, 21 per cent.; base, 37 per cent. In electric 
 work the rails are now often laid in 60-foot lengths and 
 tie plates are usually employed. 
 
 The following table gives the allowance for expansion in 
 degrees T., at the time the rail is being laid, followed in 
 standard first-class construction where a 70-pound rail is 
 employed : 
 
 Degrees . 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Allowance 
 Inches. 
 
 Degrees 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Allcwance 
 Inches. 
 
 80 
 
 1/16 
 
 50 
 
 J. 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 i 
 
 40 
 
 5/16 
 
 60 
 
 3/16 
 
 30 
 
 f 
 
 Tables showing the proper allowance for expansion for 
 different temperatures can be found in any of the well-knoAvn 
 engineering hand-books. The proper joint space for any set 
 of conditions can also readily be calculated from data re- 
 lating to expansion coefficients, etc., to be found in almost 
 any work on civil engineering. 
 
 All interurban railway track should be bonded by a con- 
 cealed rail bond to protect the bond from accidental or in- 
 tentional injury. This construction requires the selection of 
 an angle plate which will not wear down so as to chafe or 
 wear out the head of the bond. Great care should be exer- 
 cised in installing the bonds, as any slight oxidation be- 
 tween the face of the bond and the interior surface of the 
 bond hole will create future trouble and expense. Bonding 
 should preferably be done in dry weather and the bond holes 
 should be freshly reamed before inserting the bond. 
 
C0:NSTRVCTWN and superstructure. 89 
 
 There is a variety of bonds on the market, any one of 
 which can be rendered practically worthless by carelessness 
 in installation, whereas almost any one of half a dozen dif- 
 ferent makes will give perfectly satisfactory results if prop- 
 erly installed. The chief desiderata in a bond after the most 
 important qiialification of good contact are area of contact 
 and ample carrying capacity. 
 
 The proper length of . angle bar depends upon whether 
 the suspended or supported joint is used. Practice differs 
 in this respect, but the suspended joint staggered is in the 
 opinion of the writer the most desirable to use in high-speed 
 service. With suspended joints the joint ties are usually 
 from 8 inches to 10 inches apart, while with the supported 
 joint, the joint tie is usually laid about 6 inches from the 
 two adjoining ties. 
 
 The two end bolt holes in the rail are usually punched 
 nearer the end in electric railway work than in steam rail- 
 way track, and the bond holes are punched midway between 
 the first and second bolt holes, counting from the ends of 
 the rails. A number of special bridge joints, such as the 
 " continuous," Weber, Churchill and Atlas have also 
 been and are being used very largely in electric track con- 
 struction. 
 
 Block signals are quite as important on high-speed electric 
 railways as on steam railroads, but the type of signal iisually 
 used in steam railroad work is not entirely applicable to elec- 
 tric railway conditions. In steam railroad work the track is 
 divided into sections, and the sections are insulated from 
 each other, as are also each line of rails. As only a low 
 voltage is used with the batteries which operate the block-sig- 
 nal system, no elaborate preparation has to be made for its 
 insulation, the only precaution taken being that insulating 
 blocks are inserted where the switch levers connect the rails 
 of each track. The axles of a steam train on any section of 
 track short-circuit the rails and thus operate the block signal, 
 indicating that the section is occupied by a train. 
 
90 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 With an electric railway line where the entire track has 
 to be very carefully bonded and cross-bonded, an arrange- 
 ment of this kind is not applicable. The only means avail- 
 able is to install a separate circuit, and on surface lines this 
 is usually accomplished by some modification of the simple 
 plan shown below. In this diagram, which indicates a 
 
 Trolley Wire 
 
 
 Ground 
 
 A 
 
 :i 
 
 ^^sJ 
 
 J 
 
 
 ^i^ 
 IWT 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ground 
 B 
 
 Ground 
 C 
 
 DIAGRAM ILLI'STRATING BLOCK-SIGNAL SYSTEM. 
 
 single-track line, A, B, and C are the turnouts. An auxiliary 
 wire connects the two turnouts and has at each end a double- 
 throw switch so that the line can be connected either to the 
 trolley wire or to the ground. With a 500-volt line five lamps 
 are used in series with this circuit, and these lamps are 
 grouped so that the two lamps, d, are in, say, the upper sec- 
 tion of the signal box at B, and the three lamps, e, are in 
 the lower half of the same box. As drawn, the sec- 
 tion B C is blocked, and the section A B is open, 
 the blocking being indicated by the lamps bui-ning, and 
 the open section being indicated by the lamps dark. A 
 car then traveling from C to B on reaching B clears the 
 section B C by thro^^■ing down the switch controlling 
 that block and closes the block A B by a movement 
 of the switch controlling the lamp block. It can easily be 
 seen that by this system the movement can be in either di- 
 rection, that is, an open block can be closed from either end, 
 and the o.^rs do not have to pass alternately in each direction 
 through the block. Modifications of this system have been 
 
COXSTBUCTION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 91 
 
 made by which the signals are operated automatically so 
 that the car does not have to be stopped to provide for manual 
 operation by the conductor. 
 
 The condition of block-signal systems, as they are now 
 adapted to interurban electric railways, is not by any means 
 satisfactory. The essential requisite, that is, reliability of 
 operation, appears to be lacking. On a number of inter- 
 rirban electric railways, operating overhead trolley systems 
 at relatively high speeds, the operations of the signals are 
 affected by the trolley wheel passing under and contacting 
 with a piece of metal attached to the trolley wire. Such 
 systems generally operate fairly well throughout the sum- 
 mer months, but there appears to have been a great deal of 
 difficulty with them during the winter months on account of 
 sleet and snow. At this time, judging by the number of ap- 
 plications for patents for block-signal systems for electric 
 railways, there appears to be little or no doubt that a 
 satisfactory system will be forthcoming in the near future. 
 In looking over the list of patents, one is struck by the 
 thought and the ingenuity put forth to devise safe and reli- 
 able systems for the condition of single-track roads using 
 turnouts. Some of the systems devised with this class of 
 roads in view would, in all probability, be applicable to 
 other conditions, such as double-track roads. It appears to 
 me that such well-meaning inventors overlook the fact that 
 the first requisite of safety in the operation of high-speed 
 electric roads must be at least a double-track road, and that 
 such inventors would do far better if they would devote their 
 energies to the development of block-signal systems for 
 double-track roads, which would probably not require nearly 
 the ingenuity of some of the proposed single-track turnout 
 systems, application for patents for which have recently been 
 filed in the patent office. 
 
 Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, on page 93, are a set of dia- 
 grams showing various arrangements of the " blocks," or 
 sections of block signal systems. Diagrams 1, 2, 5, and 6 
 
92 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOXOilWi^. 
 
 shovi- the arrangement where each block or section is pro- 
 vided with an " overlap,"' the object of which is to let a train 
 unit get well beyond a controlling signal before the signal 
 will move to danger. The amount of overlap for any given 
 installation will be determined by the maximum speed, the 
 safe distance in which a train can be brought to a stop from 
 the maximum speed and the headway of the train units. 
 
 Figures 3 and 4 show the arrangement of a block signal 
 system where no overlap is used. 
 
 Notwithstanding the apparent advantages of overlap, there 
 are many engineers who do not favor its use. The argu- 
 ment against its use generally is that it encourages careless 
 running, for the reason that a train operator always feels that, 
 should he pass a signal at danger, he has yet a considerable 
 distance to go before he can encounter any other train. 
 
 Consider, for a moment, diagrams 3 and 4. The moment 
 the train passes out of any block, as D, C, or B, both the 
 signals at the entrance of the block next entered at once go to 
 danger, while at the entrance of the block just vacated, the dis- 
 tance signal alone is at danger. It is well known that train- 
 men take liberties with " distance " or cautionary signals in 
 the matter of speeds, which they do not take with danger or 
 " home " signals. Inasmuch as the home or danger signal 
 (in no-lap systems) acts just as soon as a car or train is op- 
 posite the signal, it is evident that a following train might 
 not be able to avoid a disaster after seeing a danger signal 
 on accoimt of the train ahead being at rest practically at 
 the signal intended to warn the train behind it. 
 
 There is no reason why as good discipline should net be 
 maintained with an " overlap " system as with the " no-lap " 
 system. An overlap system is simply giving the traveling 
 public and the railroad company another chance against the 
 possible inadvertence, recklessness, or carelessness of its men. 
 
 The fact that in some recent instances where bad wrecks 
 have occurred, the existing '^ no-lap " systems have been 
 changed to properly designed " overlap " systems is probably 
 the best argument for the use of the overlap system. 
 
Fi^.6 Fig.5 
 
 Fig i Fig .3 
 
 Fig.2 
 
 [93] 
 
94 ELECTRIC RAlL^yAY ECO'NOMICii. 
 
 The Boston Elevated Railway Company uses on its ele- 
 vated lines a system somewhat similar to that used on steam 
 railroads, and secures the extra circuit necessary by insulat- 
 ing one of the rails. This is permissible on an elevated rail- 
 road, because the carrying capacity provided by both rails 
 is not necessary in the return circuit where the iron structure 
 of an elevated railway is available for this purpose. The 
 sacrifice of one line of rails on a surface road or some of the 
 I'ecently designed subway systems, is a serious matter, but 
 appears necessary in the present state of the block-signal sys- 
 tems now obtainable. In some cases the sacrifice of one of the 
 track-rails for signal purposes is impracticable. In Boston, 
 the additional precaution has been adopted of providing, in 
 -connection with the block signals, an automatic stop, consist- 
 ing of a small lever which is properly located near the track 
 rails, and which is raised by the movement of the semaphore 
 -apparatus. If the signal is disregarded, a projection on the 
 train in passing this signal strikes and trips a lever which 
 ■opens the air-brake line as well as the main circuit breaker, 
 thus cutting off all power and setting the brakes simultane- 
 ously. 
 
 The diagram on page 95 shows the electrical connections 
 of the track circuits of the electro-pneumatic block-signal sys- 
 tem of the Boston Elevated Railway, which was installed by 
 the Union Switch and Signal Company. The description of 
 the operation of the system is as follows: 
 
 The branch D from the main feed wire connects directly 
 to two cut-out switches. The right-hand switch controls the 
 current supply to the track circuit, which flows by wire 3 
 through the two resistance coils, and wire T C to the block 
 rail. These coils have 100 ohms in each, but only on the 
 shortest block sections is the full resistance permissible. 
 
 The left-hand switch controls the current to the signal 
 mechanism, which flows normally to the swinging magnets 
 of the polarized relay ; from thence it passes to the front con- 
 tact of the relay, through the contact bar to posts 2 and S, 
 where it divides and flows from 2 to a 16-e. p. lamp, and 
 
[95] 
 
90 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 thence to the commou return. From S it passes directly to 
 the magnet of the signal air-valve, and from that to the re- 
 turn. 
 
 A train short-circuiting the relay causes the front con- 
 tact to open, thus cutting all current from the signal and 
 lamp and permitting the signal to move by gravity to danger. 
 If, however, the relay should be excited by current from the 
 propulsion system under this condition, the closure of the 
 front contact would not be followed by a similar condition 
 of the rear one (S) because of the polarized feature of the 
 device. The lamp only, under these conditions, rerdains in 
 circuit with the swinging magnets. 
 
 Under normal conditions the signal circuit forms a shunt 
 on the lamp, the coils of the swinging magnets forming a 
 resistance common to both. By this arrangement any inter- 
 ruption of the current through the swinging magnets must 
 also interrupt that holding the signal at safety, and thus 
 cause the latter to move to danger. 
 
 The illustration on p. 97 shows one of the automatic 
 trippers used on the Boston Elevated for setting the air- 
 brakes of a train should the motorman attempt to pass the 
 signal while it is in the danger position. This tripper is con- 
 nected with the signal, and, when the latter goes to danger, is 
 brought in an erect position, as shown in the engraving. It 
 is then high enough to operate a valve in the train pipe 
 carried on the car and thereby caiise the air-brakes to be auto- 
 matically applied and the train brought to a stand still. A 
 system similar to that of the Boston Elevated Railway, which 
 has just been described, is now being designed for the Ifew 
 York Rapid Transit Subway by the Union Switch and Signal 
 Company. 
 
 The right of way of any railroad operating over a private 
 right of way should be fenced. This precaution is especially 
 necessary in the case of high-speed roads operating upon 
 private rights of way. A first-class set of right of way 
 fences can be installed for $1,000 per mile. As an invest- 
 ment, this is one of the best which a road can have. The 
 
COXaTBUCTION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 97 
 
 fences should be substantial and so designed and erected as 
 to make it exceedingly difficult for either persons or animals 
 to obtain access to the right of way between the stations or 
 st9pping places. The best fencing is made of wire and can 
 be obtained from any of the large wire manufacturing con- 
 
 TRIPPING DEVICE AND AIK-LINE VALVE AND EXTENSION AEM FOg 
 
 AUTOMATIC STOPPING BLOCK SIGNALS BOSTON ELEVATED 
 
 RAILWAY. 
 
 cerns. These concerns now make the fencing complete, that 
 is, they have designed and manufactured various types of 
 fencing posts. In addition, these large concerns will take 
 contracts for erecting the fencing for any road at an agreed 
 price of so much per foot of fencing erected. 
 
 r 
 
98 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 I have already referred to the increasing use of concrete 
 in railway bridge construction. 
 
 The strain sheet (shown in Plate X) is for a 100-foot 
 clear span, concrete-steel arch designed for the New York 
 & Port Chester Eailroad. All these strain sheets are worked 
 out by the same method, viz., by the elastic theory of solid 
 elastic arches, which, since the publication of the exhaustive 
 experiments made by the Austrian Society of Engineers and 
 Architects in 1895, has been fully demonstrated to be the 
 correct theory of the arch whatever may be the materials 
 used in its construction. The arches have been carefully 
 designed, the intrados having three centers^ and the curve 
 of the neutral line of the arch being such that it is similar 
 to the curve of the equilibrium polygon, so that the bending 
 moment imder dead load or under a full dead and live load 
 is very small, and seldom cuts any figure in the maximum 
 section required at any point of the arch. The arch is also 
 calculated under the condition that one-half the span carries 
 the maximum live load, while the other half is unloaded. 
 The table given on the strain sheet gives the maximum 
 thrust and bending moment under different conditions at the 
 governing points. The maximum stress allowed on concrete 
 is 500 pounds per square inch in compression, and 50 pounds 
 per square inch in tension; the maximum stress allowed on 
 steel is 10,000 poimds per tquare inch in compression and 
 1,000 pounds per square inch in tension, the stresses on con- 
 crete and steel being inversely proportioned to their moduli 
 of elasticity. By careful designing the tension on the con- 
 crete has been eliminated, and the compression falls consid- 
 erably short of the allowed limit. As the allowed tension 
 in the steel cannot under ordinary conditions exceed 1,000 
 pounds per square inch, there is a very large reserve 
 strength in the steel which can be brought into action if 
 required to satisfy any unusual conditions due to settlement 
 of foundations or other causes, which would not hold true 
 in any purely concrete bridge. 
 
CONSTRUCTION AND SOPERSTRVCTVBE. 99 
 
 The strength of hand-mixed concrete, 1 part cement, 
 2 parts sand, and 4 parts broken stone, according to careful 
 and reliable experiments made at Watertown Arsenal, was 
 found to be as follows: 1 month old, 2,400 pounds per square 
 inch; 3 months old, 2,900 pounds per square inch; 6 months 
 old, 3,700 pounds per square inch; and the strength con- 
 tinues to increase up to an age of 2 years or more. At the 
 age of 1 month the concrete would have a minimum factor 
 of safety of from 6 to 8 in the different spans; at the age 
 of 3 months it will have a factor of safety of from 7 to 10; 
 at the age of 6 months it will have a factor of safety of 
 from 9 to 12, and' at the age of 1 year it will have a factor 
 of safety of from 12 to 15, and will continue to improve 
 with time. 
 
 The factors of safety above given are based on hand- 
 mixed concrete, but in all probability concrete for these 
 bridges, if mixed by a machine, would give much bet- 
 ter strength. Experiments of a mixture of 1 cement, 
 2i sand, and 5 parts broken stone, which is a poor mixture, 
 from the experiments made at the Munderkingen Bridge 
 in Gennany, gave an average strength of 3,730 pounds per 
 square inch in twenty-eight days. Allomng for the dif- 
 ference in mixture, this strength would have been about 
 4,000 pounds per sqiiare inch, or 66 2-3 per cent, stronger 
 than the hand-mixed concrete at Watertown, increasing the 
 factors of safety above given to that extent. 
 
 The spandrel walls in all spans are provided with ex- 
 pansion joints at the ends and at frequent intemiediate 
 points, to avoid any cracks that might othenvise take place 
 due to settlement on the removal of the centering. More 
 than 100 spans of concrete steel bridges have already been 
 built in the Uni'ted States, and probably three times this 
 mimber in Europe, all of which have given the best of satis- 
 faction and are no longer an experiment. They are com- 
 mended highly by the best engineers in this country and 
 abroad, and are rapidly increasing in number, superseding 
 
100 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOXOillCS. 
 
 steel bridges to a great extent. They offer many advantages 
 over a steel bridge; they are more beautiful and graceful 
 in design; architectural ornamentation can be applied as 
 sparingly or as lavishly as desired ; they have vastly greater 
 durability and generally greater ultimate economy; they 
 r.re comparatively free from vibration and noise; they are 
 j)roof against tornadoes, high water or fire; the cost of main- 
 tenance to the pavements or track is no greater than any 
 other part of the street. Their cost, as a rule, does not much, 
 if any, exceed that of steel bridges carrying a pavement, and 
 in many cases, conditions being favorable, they can be built 
 at a less cost than steel bridges. The steel ribs used in the 
 arches are perfectly protected from oxidation, concrete being 
 the best possible preservative of iron and steel. 
 
 In these anchors of 50 feet width (four tracks at 12 feet 
 6 inches centers) there are 17 steel ribs; that is, the ribs 
 are about 3 feet centers. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 OVERHEAD OB, THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The next question which will be taken up in the construc- 
 tion of the proposed electric railway is whether to adopt a 
 third rail or an overhead trolley. The latter is the standard 
 for city railways, hut the third rail possesses a number of 
 advantages for heavy railway work over the trolley, and 
 is perfectly feasible where the company owns its own right 
 of way. It is, of course, necessary to interrupt the third 
 rail at all grade crossings, which can be passed over by 
 momentum, and also for such track as is laid in street*, or 
 where there is danger of persons coming in accidental con- 
 tact with the third rail without culpable negligence on their 
 part. 
 
 The principal advantages of the third rail over the trolley 
 may be summed up as follows: 
 
 1. Cheapness. — Taking current carrying capacity into con- 
 sideration, the third rail can in many cases be installed for 
 le;s cost than an overhead trolley line, even when we take 
 into consideration the fact that an extra pole line will have 
 to be erected for carrying the high-tension feeders. The 
 cost of third-rail construction and the comparative cost of 
 third-rail and overhead trolley constriiction is shown by the 
 following : 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 
 Cost of Protected Third Rail. 
 
 (Estimnte made by W. B. Potter; August, 1902.) 
 
 6"-Channel Iron Protection. 
 
 5,280' 75-lb. 3" x 2%" conductor rail, at $43 per ton (66 tons). $2,840 00 
 
 528 Keconstructed granite insulators, clamps a:nd lag screws, 
 
 at 40 cts. per set 211 00 
 
 352 No. 0000 6E 9" Form B bonds, at 38 cts 134 00 
 
 $3,185 00 
 [101] 
 
102 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 5,280' 31%-Ib. C" channel iron guard for conductor rail, at 
 
 $45 per ton (21.71 tons) $1,248 00 
 
 792 Malleable iron guard rail supports, at 36 ets 280 00 
 
 176 Malleable iron fish-plates and bolts, at 25 cts 44 00 
 
 $1,578 00 
 
 Approximate ■ labor for installation, including drilling rails 
 
 and channels 900 00 
 
 Total cost $5,603 OO 
 
 8"-Channel Iron Protection. 
 
 5,280' 75-lb. 3" x 21/2" conductor rail, at $43 per ton (66 tons) . $2,840 00 
 528 Reconstructed granite insulators, clamps and lag screws, 
 
 at 40 cts. per set 211 00 
 
 352 No. 0000 GE 9" Form B bonds, at 38 cts 134 00 
 
 $3,185 00 
 
 5,280' 48-lb. 8" channel iron guard for rail, at $45 per ton 
 
 (42.24 tons) $1,900 00 
 
 792 Malleable iron guard rail supports, at 36 cts 286 00 
 
 176 Malleable iron fish-plates and bolts, at 25 cts 44 00 
 
 $2,230 00 
 
 Approximate labor for installation, including drilling, rails, 
 
 and channels 900 00 
 
 Total cost $6,315 00 
 
 8"-\Vood Protection. 
 
 5,280' 75-lb. 3" x 2%" conductor rail, at $43 per ten (66 tons). $2,840 00 
 528 Reconstructed granite insulators, clamps and lag screws, 
 
 at 40 cts. per set 211 00 
 
 352 No. 0000 GE 9" Form B bonds, at 38 eta 134 00 
 
 $3,185 00 
 
OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 103 
 
 5,280' Ash plank W2" x 8", at $48 (M board feet) in the 
 
 rough, 5,280 board feet $253 00 
 
 792 Malleable iron guard rail supports for wooden guard 
 
 plank, at 39 cts 308 00 
 
 176 Malleable iron fish-plates and bolts, at 25 cts 44 00 
 
 $605 00 
 
 Approximate labor for installation, including drilling rails. . . 750 00 
 
 Total cost $4,540 00 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 Cost of Protected Third Rail. 
 
 (Estimate of Maurice Hoopes; September, 1901.) 
 
 Third Rail. 
 
 Extra length, 500 ties (9' 3" instead of 8' 0"), at 71/2 cts $37 50 
 
 500 insulators and fastenings, at 50 cts 250 00 
 
 62.86 tons 80-lb. low carbon rail, at ($35, $2 freight) 2,325 82 
 
 Splice-plates and bolts — 176 joints, at 60 cts 105 00 
 
 Bonds — 352 425,000 cir. mil bonds in place, at $1 352 00 
 
 Cable for crossings — 200' 1,000,000 cir. mil paper, lead and 
 
 jute, with terminals and installation, at $1.20 240 00 
 
 Erecting rail 100 00 
 
 $3,410 92 
 
 Trolley. 
 (Span construction and assuming one line of poles chargeable to trans- 
 mission line.) 
 
 Necessary bare copper trolley and feed wire to give .04025 
 ohms per mile, thus equaling 80-lb. rail — 1,413,600 cir. 
 
 mil.= 22,774 lbs., at 17 cts $3,871 58 
 
 50 30' X 8" chestnut poles erected, at $5 250 00 
 
 Labor and material for erection of above feeder and trolley 
 wire 300 00 
 
 Total cost of trolley construction $4,421 58 
 
 Total cost of third-rail construction 3,410 92 
 
 Saving, third rail over trolley $1,010 66 
 
 Or 23 per '^^^^ 
 
101 
 
 ELECTBW RAlL^yAr ECO\GMICf<. 
 
 In explanation of the foregoing comparative statement it should be 
 said that it is based upon the use of a rail having a resistance of 12.9 
 microhms per cubic centimeter, giving for an SO-lb. rail .04025 ohms 
 per mile. It also assumes the bonds and cable to have the same resist- 
 ance per unit of length as does the rail. From the above it will be 
 noted that a mile of third-rail construction costs, approximately, 23 
 per cent, less than a mile of trolley construction of equivalent con- 
 ducting capacity. 
 
 SECTION OF PROTECTED THIBD EAIL AND INSULATOR- 
 MORE & OHIO RAILROAD. 
 
 ■ BALTI- 
 
 Slant = 1 to 12 
 
 SECTION OF WOOD PROTECTED THIRD RAIL WILKESBARRE 
 
 & ITAZLETON RAILWAY. 
 
OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 105 
 
 The above ttatenaent of comparative cost, by Mr. Hoopes, 
 is probably true of some particular case in hand, but it is 
 very doubtful if the above comparison will hold if it be made 
 general, especially for light traffic, long-headway, cross-coun- 
 try roads. There are very few roads having a resistance 
 per mile equal to an 80-pound rail. Many suburban roads 
 operate with two Xo. 000 wires and no feeder copper, which 
 is equivalent to a resistance per mile of. 1632 ohms, or 
 
 CHANNEL IRON PEOTECTED THIED EAIL AND CONTACT SHOE ■ — ■ 
 YAKDS OF THE GENEEAL ELECTEIC COMPANY^ SCHENECTADY. 
 
 about four times the amount given as the resistance of the 
 80-pound rail. If, therefore, Y5 per cent, of the cost of 
 copper be taken out, that is, 75 per cent, of $3,8Y1.58, the 
 difference in cost vnll favor the overhead construction in- 
 stead of the third rail. For ordinary suburban roads haying 
 a very light equipment and operating at speeds not exceeding 
 40 miles per hour, the overhead trolley is probably, generally 
 speaking, a cheaper construction than the third rail. 
 
106 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 2. Better surface of contact. — A third rail can be more 
 easily aligned than can an overhead trolley line and presents 
 a practically level surface for the travel of the shoe without 
 
 Truck centers 76 " 
 
 «iO-^Ti6 
 
 SECTION OF THIED RAIL CONSTRUCTION GRAND RAPIDS, GRAND 
 
 HAVEN & MUSKEGON RAILWAY. 
 
 the horizontal and vertical variations unavoidable with the 
 trolley wire. These variations in an overhead line make lit- 
 tle difference when a car is running at a low rate of speed, 
 but with high speed there is difficulty in keeping the trolley 
 on the wire, and the effect of the jumping of the trolley 
 wheel is to bend and wear out the wire, both by arcing and 
 mechanical abrasion. 
 
OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 107 
 
 3. Durability. — The third rail, being of steel, is practi- 
 cally indestructible, and as the number and area of contact 
 of the shoes can be increased almost indefinitely without 
 trouble, sufficient contact can be insured to carry the enor- 
 mous current required in high-speed electric-car movement. 
 With the ordinai-y trolley wheel, from 150 to 200 amperes 
 is about the maximum which can be drawn from the wire 
 at speeds of from 30 to 40 miles an hour, without excessive 
 heating and wear of the wheel. It should be stated, how- 
 ever, that current ranging between 100 to 150 amperes is 
 being drawn from trolley wires at speeds approaching 50 
 miles per hour on roads in operation in this country 
 to-day. There are several trolley roads which use a current 
 of 200 amperes, and some at speeds of 35 to 40 miles per 
 hour. These roads report an average life of from 3,000 to 
 5,000 miles per trolley wheel before scrapping takes place. 
 A multiplicity of trolley poles, however, means trouble in 
 their manipulation and excessive wheel wear, while a sliding 
 contact of sufficient area involves wear to the overhead 
 structure and difficulty of securing continuous contact. The 
 cheapness of the ordinary cast-iron shoe, as com])ared with 
 a copper or bronze trolley wheel, is also a considerable factor. 
 
 In view of all these considerations the third rail has been 
 adopted as practicaUy the best standard by high-speed in- 
 terurban electric lines operating over their own right of way. 
 
 The third rail is usually carried outside of the outside i*ail 
 with its center a distance of about 20 inches from the gauge 
 line of the outside track rail and its top from 6 inches to 
 T inches above that of the track rail. The following table is 
 a list of some of the third-rail roads in the United States 
 and Europe, showing the location of the third rail in relation 
 to the track rails : 
 
108 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOyOMICS. 
 
 TABLE X. 
 List of Third-Rail Electric Systems, Giving Location of Third Rail. 
 
 B o 3 • « d 1,5 
 
 NAME OF RAILWAY. 
 
 
 J/ai« Z/hc railways. 
 
 Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (old location) 1% 24 
 
 Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (new location) 3% 30 
 
 New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad P^ Center. 
 
 Paris-Orleans Railway, France 7% 25% 
 
 Milan-Gallarate, Italy 7% 26% 
 
 Mersey Railway, Liverpool 4% 22 
 
 Northeastern Railway, Newcastle 19% 
 
 Paris- Versailles Railway, France 7% 25% 
 
 Fayet-Chamonix Railway, France 9 23 
 
 Wannseebahn, Berlin 12% 33% 
 
 Interurban railways, electric service only. 
 
 Albany & Hudson Railroad, New York 6 27 
 
 Aurora, Elgin & Cliieago, Illinois 6 5-16 20% 
 
 Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania. . . 6 20% 
 
 Grand Rapids, Grand Haven and Muskegon, Mich. . 5% 20% 
 
 Seattle-Tacoma Electric Railway, Washington 7% 20 
 
 Elevated and underground electric railways. 
 
 Metropolitan West Side Elevated, Chicago 61^, 20% 
 
 Lake Street Elevated, Chicago 61,^ 20% 
 
 South Side Elevated Railway, Chicago 6% 20% 
 
 Northwestern Elevated Railway, Chicago 6% 20% 
 
 Brooklyn Elevated Railway 6 22% 
 
 Kings County Elevated Railway, Brooklyn 5% 19% 
 
 Boston Elevated Railway Company 6 20% 
 
 Manhattan Railway, New York 7% 20% 
 
 Central London Railway, London 1% Center. 
 
 Liverpool Overhead Railway 1% Center. 
 
 Berlin Elevated, elevated portion 7 
 
 Berlin Elevated, underground portion 9 
 
 New York Rapid Transit Subway 4 26 
 
OVERHEAD OB THIBD-RAIL COXSTBUCTION. 
 
 lOiJ 
 
 Wliere the same track is used for steam trains, it is of 
 course necessary to adjust the height of the third rail so as 
 to clear the cylinder heads or any other projections of the 
 steam train. It is usually supported on every fifth tie, or at 
 distances about 10 feet apart, the ties being of proper length 
 in order to provide support. Where there are breaks in the 
 third rail, approaches must be provided, made either by bend- 
 ing down the end of the third rail and milling off the bot- 
 tom, or else bending down the end of the third rail slightly 
 
 THIRD RAIL TAP AND CABLE TERMINAL ■ 
 & CHICAGO RAILAVAY. 
 
 ■AURORA, ELGIN 
 
 and clamping to it an end piece of Avood or steel of section 
 similar to the third rail itself. It is customary to allow a 
 distance of 8 to 10 feet for the entire length of the approach. 
 The third-rail insulators are of vitrified clay, reconstructed 
 granite, wood, or composition. The insulator is made in 
 three parts, the iron clamp which holds the rail, the insu- 
 lator proper, and the stand or chair which is mounted on the 
 
110 ELECTRIC RAIUYAY EGOXOillCS. 
 
 tie. Some engineers believe in fitting these parts looselr 
 together so that the rail is kept in position by gravity only. 
 The argument in favor of this construction is that the weight 
 of the train in passing over the track will depress the ties 
 supporting the third-rail insulators, and it is not advisable 
 to throw the resulting strain on the insulating material con- 
 necting the third-rail cap and standard. 
 
 The third rail is generally of standard rail cross-section, 
 although any cross-section can be used and the first third- 
 rail roads employed a section similar to an inverted V, but 
 with a fiat head. The conducting -rail, however, must be 
 low in carbon and manganese, and compared with the track 
 Tails is exceedingly soft and would be entirely unfit for use 
 as a track rail. The composition used in the third rail of 
 the Manhattan Elevated Railway Company of New York 
 city, and that recommended by W. B. Potter, in the Street 
 Railway Journal for August 2, 1902, are as follows: 
 
 Carbon, not to exceed 
 
 Manganese, not to exceed 
 
 Sulphur, not to exceed 
 
 Phosphorus, not to exceed 
 
 The Manhattan rail is rolled in 60-foot lengths and weighs 
 100 pounds per yard. It has a cross-sectional area of 9 . 8 
 square inches and an electrical resistance of about eight times 
 that of copper of equivalent section, so that in conductivity it 
 is equivalent to about 1,560,000 cir. mils of copper. 
 
 As very little strain is brought upon the third rail, two or 
 four-bolt angle plates are usually ample to keep it in align- 
 ment. On the Manhattan Elevated Railway, to provide for 
 the expansion of the third rail it is divided into sections of 
 five-rail lengths, or 300 feet each. Each section is securely 
 anchored at the center and allowed to expand from that 
 point. Between the 300-foot sections a gap is allowed for ex- 
 
 Manhat'an, 
 per ceut. 
 
 Potter, 
 per cent, 
 
 .073 
 
 .12 
 
 .341 
 
 .15 
 
 .073 
 
 .05 
 
 .069 
 
 .10 
 
OVERHEAD OB THIRD-BAIL CONSTBUCTION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 pansion, depending on the temperature at the time the rail 
 was laid, and an expansion splice bar is used with an allow- 
 ance for a total variation of about 3 inches. 
 
 Opinions differ as to the advisability of hoiising the third 
 rail, but the latest opinion seems to be in favor of it. It not 
 only protects persons from accidental contact with the rail, 
 but also is a preventive of the interference with the road 
 
 ^^ 
 
 EquUizer Bar 
 
 :^ 
 
 V^ 
 
 sectiojS" of protected thied eail and contact shoe ■ 
 wilkesbaere & hazleton railway. 
 
 from sleet. This latter is the most serious obstacle vnth 
 which third-rail roads have to contend and is more trouble- 
 some than ice or snow. Ice and snow can be brushed or 
 scraped off, but the thin layer of sleet which forms when 
 the surrounding temperature is just about at the freezing 
 point is so thin that it defies the usual methods of scraping, 
 and clings to the rail somewhat like varnish. On exposes? 
 
112 
 
 ELECTRIC IfAHAVAY ECOXOMICfi. 
 
 tliii'il-rail roads it is iisiiallv removed by means of stiff-wire 
 scra]iing brushes carried mi frames set on the boxes, and it 
 can lie loosened by an a[iidication of brine. A thin oil spray 
 is also nseful in prerentinu' sleet from forming on the rail. 
 Sntficient ex))erience lias not yet l)een secured with a pro- 
 tected third rail in indicate whether the gnard carried over 
 the rail will be an absi:ilnte ju'cventive of the formation of 
 sleet, but it certainly reduces the trouble, although it may 
 
 SHOE FOK PROTECTi:!) Tllimi EAII, OPEItATION WILKESP.AEKE 
 
 A- IlAZLirrOX EAILWAY. 
 
 have a tendency to cause the snow to jjack between the head 
 uf tlie rail and the lower part of the j^rotecting plank. The 
 accompanying engravings show the protected third rail as 
 used on the Wilkesbarre it llazleton railway. 
 
 Several i:ither third-rail sliues in use are shown in the ac- 
 companying pages. They are all of cast iron and depend 
 upon their weight for contact. The shoes are usiially sus- 
 pended l)y two links and carry a llexible connection for carry- 
 ing the current from the shoe to the car wiring, bolted fast to 
 the shoe itself. The permissible range of movement of the 
 shoe depends of course on the height of the head of the third 
 rail above the track rail, and is usually from 3 to 5 inches. 
 
OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL COX,rrRUCTIOX. 113 
 
 The greater the clearance within certain limits the better, 
 except that the third rail must not be so high that it will be 
 hit by any part of the moving train. Cast iron has been 
 adopted for the material of shoes because copper or brass 
 will not stand the wear from friction. On the Baltimore & 
 Ohio Railroad, where especially heavy current has to be 
 taken, a renewable steel-faced shoe, copper riveted to the 
 body of the shoe support, is useil. 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF SHOE EOE PROTECTED THIRD RAIL — WILKES- 
 BAKKE & IIAZLETOX liAILWAY. 
 
 The end of the shr)e is tiu-ned iip so that it will take 
 smoothly the apj^roaches to the third-rail sections, and for 
 this reason the arrangement of links should be such that the 
 shoe will tilt at positions of this kind. The insulation of 
 the shoe must he exceptionally good as its breaking down 
 would constitute a short circuit through the shoe hanger to 
 the truck frame. Care must also be taken to pro^ade so 
 flexible a lead that the constant vibration to which the shoe 
 is subjected will not tend to crystallize the wire. Usually 
 two leads are used and the shoe hanger should be made ad- 
 justable in height to the journal boxes, to which it is usually 
 
114 
 
 ELECTRIC RAIL^YAY ECOyOMICS. 
 
 attached, so as to take up any variation in height of the 
 frame or third raiL With a protected third rail the shoe 
 necessarily has to project from the truck so as to extend 
 under the protecting guard, as shown in the cut on p. 111. 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION OF THIED-BAIL SHOE ■ 
 
 RAILWAY. 
 
 MANHATTAN ELEVATED 
 
 Trolley wire construction is so far standardized that it is 
 unnecessary to discuss the subject in detail, but a few points 
 in connection with overhead construction for high-speed roads 
 are worthy of consideration. 
 
 Special care must be taken to insure a good alignment 
 of the trolley Avire. Span construction is not generally used 
 on account of first Cost, but where brackets are used 
 they should be of the flexible type, as rigid suspension of 
 the hanger to the bracket, inadvisable under all conditions, 
 is absolutely out of the question in high-speed service. The 
 trolley wire should be at least 'So. 00 in size and should be 
 attached to the hanger by clips which embrace the upper 
 half only of the wire. The wire may be milled out at the 
 sides to receive the mechanical clip of the hanger, if a figure 
 " 8 " wire is not used. The ends of the ears should be long and 
 tapering to prevent a tendency of the trolley wheel to bend the 
 
OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 115 
 
 gtone'Foot 
 
 STANDARD INTEEUEBAN OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION DETROIT 
 
 UNITED RAILWAY. 
 
no 
 
 ELECTBIG RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 -4 Bare Copper 
 
 Pole 7 ft. in 
 Grouad 
 
 CROSS SECTION OF TRACK AND OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION — OLE^ 
 VALLEY RAILWAY^ READING^ PA. 
 
OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 117 
 
 S S^a.aiUBtnBuUtara High Potential. 
 
 Crua Arm Braces 30xl>^x ^., 
 r GfkrriagB Bolti for Braces 4^" x \^ 
 \ with Wuhers AQd NutB, 
 
 1 QImb losutator Low PotentUi: 
 r MMblne Bolts for Crosa Arms 
 
 STANDARD OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION WITH CENTER POLES - 
 BOSTON & WORCESTER RAILWAY. 
 
118 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LCOXOMIC'^. 
 
 wire at this point, and overhead frogs should be avoided 
 as far as possible. This is usually done in single-track roads 
 by carrying two trolley wires, one for the cars running in 
 each direction. As the current carrying capacity in each 
 trolley wire is available to supplement the direct-current 
 feeders, no extra expense is involved in the two trolley wires 
 other than that of the additional hangers. 
 
 The trolley wheel itself should be not less than 6 inches 
 in diameter, should contain plenty of material and have a 
 groove with a broad base, and the bearings should be espe- 
 cially large and self-oiling. Composite trolley wheels, or 
 those made up with a copper hub and steel side pieces, have 
 been tried for heavy high-speed roads and have been fairly 
 satisfactory, but no system of trolley construction has yet 
 been devised which will satisfactorily care for cars requir- 
 ing an average of 200 or more amperes and running at maxi- 
 ]num speeds of 50 or more miles per hour. For roads hav- 
 ing a very light equiiDment as has already been shown, over- 
 head trolley system can be installed cheaper than the third- 
 rail system. For this class of roads, that is, roads having a 
 very light equipment and a relatively great headway, the 
 limit of overhead trolley construction has certainly not yet 
 been reached. It is entirely probable that in the near future 
 some sort of single phase alternating current motor will be 
 brought out. With such a motor on the market using po- 
 tentials of 2,000 volts or more, the probability is that for 
 roads ha^dng a light equipment the overhead con-tructio;i 
 will predominate. The matter has, by no means, been 
 thrashed out, although considerable comparative data are now 
 in existence relating thereto. It is unfortunate that there are 
 no reliable comparative data on single phase alternating cur- 
 rent motor systems. 
 
 On some of the German 3-phase, high-tension, high-speed 
 roads a side overhead contact has been used in which the 
 current collectors are aluminum bars grooved on the edge 
 
OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 110 
 
 and filled with grease, and which are held against the wire 
 by springs, but the construction has not been adopted in this 
 
 
 
 SECTION OF OVERHEAD LINE AND TKACK GRAND RAPIDS, HOL- 
 LAND & LAKE MICHIGAN RAILWAY. 
 
 country, and being especially for the conditions presented 
 on those roads will not be considered in this connection. 
 
 In the accompanying pages are shown some standard ex- 
 amples of overhead trolley construction in the United States. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 POWER STATIONS. 
 
 The location and proper design of the main power station 
 for an interurban electric railway, or, in fact, for any elec- 
 tric railway, are among the most important factors in 
 the resulting economy of operation, and all points bear- 
 ing on the subject should be carefully considered before 
 any site for the main power station is finally deter- 
 mined upon. In approaching this subject the first question 
 to be determined is whether an alternating current or a 
 direct current distribution should be used. The determina- 
 tion of this matter will depend upon a number of circum- 
 stances, but generally and principally upon the energy which 
 will be required, and the length of the line which will have 
 to be served. The economical limit for direct current dis- 
 tribution, at the ordinary voltages now generally used foi* 
 direct current distribution, which is from 450 to 550 volts 
 at the motors, is from 8 to 10 miles as a maximum, in cases 
 of Avhat may be termed ordinary power distribution. As- 
 suming, therefore, one direct cun-ent power station, located 
 at approximately the center of the line, and assuming 
 the center of the line to be practically the electrical center 
 of gravity of- the system, the practical limiting length of line 
 which can be economically supplied with direct current will 
 be from 16 to 20 miles, that is, 8 to 10 miles on each side 
 of the central station. If boosters are used it is possible to 
 increase this length somewhat, but boosters are an uneco- 
 nomical method of power distribution, and should only be 
 employed under exceptional circumstances and for occa- 
 sional use, unless the load carried on them is trifling, com- 
 pared to the total output of the station. In other words, 
 they should only be used in such cases where the total am- 
 pere hour output passing through the boosters is small 
 compared with the total ampere hour output of the station. 
 
 [120] 
 
POWER STATIONS. 121 
 
 With alternating current machinery, the limits of economi- 
 cal power transmission are greatly increased, and, as a rule, 
 alternating current distribution will be found more economi- 
 cal for interurban railways exceeding 20 miles in length. It 
 is also generally safe to say that alternating current distri- 
 bution will be found more economical for lines under 20 
 miles in length, where the operating conditions demand 
 large energy consumption. Before any system of distribu- 
 tion is determined upon, and before the final plans for the 
 power station or stations are determined upon, careful esti- 
 mates should be made of the first cost of construction and 
 annual cost of operation, maintenance, and distribution from 
 the single alternating current station and the necessary sub- 
 stations, and also for two or more direct current stations 
 which would be required to do the same work. In making 
 this comparison, the disadvantages of the latter, from an 
 investment standpoint, that is, the extra buildings, greater 
 cost of attendance, and greater reserve capacity (as the re- 
 serve will have to be distributed between two or more 
 stations instead of concentrated in one), should be com- 
 pared with the greater initial cost for machinery for the 
 alternating current system, due to the transformers and 
 other station apparatus, and the various losses through con- 
 version on account of the use of the transformers, etc. .In this 
 comparison, as in all railway or other engineering determina- 
 tions, the possibility of future extensions and developments 
 should always be borne in mind. The power station will be, 
 next to the track, one of the most permanent features of 
 the railway system, and the engineer should, consequently, 
 formulate his plans, not for the immediate conditions, but 
 for those conditions which may properly be expected to de- 
 velop during the next 20 or 25 years' life of the enterprise. 
 
 Should direct current distribution be adopted, the import- 
 ance of locating the power station near the electrical center 
 of gravity of the system is much more important than if 
 alternating current distribution be used, and this fact may 
 
122 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 constitiite the determining factor in the selection of the sys- 
 tem of distribution, on account of the marked distance limi- 
 tations of direct current distribution. 
 
 Another factor in interurban railway power distribution, 
 which should be considered in selecting the type of the 
 power station, and one which, however, does not inherently 
 affect 'he economical aspect is the advantage possessed by 
 alternating current systems, of maintaining a higher volt- 
 age at distant sections of the line, at a relatively low cost. 
 With direct current distribution, a long grade or heavily 
 loaded cars at one end of the line, or both, will seriously 
 affect the speed of the cars, at the point which such grade 
 or loaded car or cars happen to be, and may, and generally 
 will, radically interfere with the schedules of the road, 
 thereby affecting not only the cost of operation, but the 
 earning capacity of the proposed system. This fact should 
 be considered in connection with the selection of the dis- 
 tribution system of an interurban railway system. The 
 inability to secure and maintain speed on distant sections 
 of the line may be, and, in fact, generally is, a far greater 
 disadvantage, than a slight difference in the cost of power 
 distribution. 
 
 At this point it may also be well to call attention to an- 
 other element in favor of the alternating current system 
 of distribution, and that is the possibility, at any time, of 
 the development of a satisfactory single phase or other al- 
 ternating current motor. Should such a motor, at any time, 
 come upon the market, an alternating current system would 
 have a considerable advantage over a direct current system 
 in adapting itself to the new requirements. 
 
 In addition to the matter of economical power distribu- 
 tion there is also that important consideration of economical 
 power generation in the selection of the power station and 
 location. This will depend largely on two circumstances: 
 First, the nearness to a desirable water siipply for the feed 
 water and condensing apparatus ; and, second, the cost of and 
 
POWER STATIONS. 123 
 
 tlie convenience for the receipt of fuel, such as existing rail- 
 way or dock facilities. The importance of condensing water 
 lies in the fact that the use of condensers will, in some cases, 
 decrease the cost of power generation anywhere from 15 to 20 
 per cent., if reciprocating steam engines are used, and to an 
 even greater extent if steam turbines are employed as power 
 generators. It is not intended here to advocate the use of 
 condensing steam engines wherever and whenever condens- 
 ing water can he obtained. There are numerous cases in 
 existence, where, on account of the. location of power sta- 
 tions near coal mines, and on account of the cheapness of 
 coal or other fuel, it can readily be shown that the installa- 
 tion of the high-class condensing steam plants would not 
 be either good engineering or economical, for the reason 
 that the saving which would be effected in the fviel account 
 would be more than offset by the greatfer aggregate cost 
 represented by the sum of the additional fixed charges and 
 maintenance of the high-class condensing plants. As a 
 general rule, high-class condensing plants should be installed 
 where the cost of fuel is relatively high. 
 
 In connection herewith it will not be amiss to call atten- 
 tion to one or two of the small details, such as the arrange- 
 ments for receiving the fuel. If coal is received by rail, 
 either a spur from a steam railroad should be run into or ad- 
 joining the boiler-room, or, if the interurban track is suit- 
 able for interchange of cars and the haulage of the coal, 
 these tracks can be connected with the tracks of some exist- 
 ing steam road in the vicinity, and the coal brought by elec- 
 tric power directly to the station. In no case should it be 
 necessary to break bulk and haul fuel by teams, as the cost 
 of labor, incident to the breaking of bulk where such condi- 
 tions exist, is always practically a fixed charge against the 
 power generation. Other circumstances to be considered in 
 the location of the power station are those of nearness to the 
 car-houses and general oflices of the company, and the prob- 
 able sale of current for lighting and power, and exhaust steam 
 
124 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 for heating purposes. The former are advantages often 
 overlooked in power station location. The benefits derived 
 consist principally in the accessibility of the power station 
 force to repair shop tools for making repairs, the feasibility 
 of heating the carhouses and other building with exhaust 
 steam from the power station, and the better supervision 
 of the entire force by the operating manager. The com- 
 mercial value of the ability to sell current for lighting and 
 power, or exhaust steam for heating purposes, is one which 
 will have to be settled in each individual case. Generally 
 speaking, a location which will admit of this will usually 
 necessitate a power station site well within the limits of a 
 fairly large-sized community, where land is apt to be more 
 expensive, and where the taxes will certainly be higher than 
 out in the country. The determination of this matter will 
 consist in balancing the interest on the increased cost of 
 real estate and other detail charges and costs, such as taxe«, 
 construction details, etc., against the probable additional 
 revenue which would be derived therefrom. 
 
 Having selected the site of the station, which we will as- 
 sume, for the present purposes, is a single alternating current 
 .station for the entire line, the next question is that of the 
 size of the station. 
 
 The proper final determination of the size of station can 
 only be arrived at by a detailed study of electric railway 
 train sheets and run sheets, such as those shown in the dia- 
 grams on Plates I, II, and III of this book. The size of 
 station will, of course, vary Avith the service given, grades, 
 etc. According to tests made on the lines of the Union 
 Traction Company, an account of which is contained in the 
 Street Railway Journal, for October 4, 1902, the average 
 power consumption on that line, measured at the car, is 
 given as from Y5 to 90 watt hours per ton mile for the 
 local service, and from 58 to Yl watt hours per ton mile 
 for the express service. If the higher figures be taken, and 
 assuming a loss of 30 per cent, between the cars and the high 
 
POWER STATIOyS. 125 
 
 potential busbars of the station, ^xe will get a consumption 
 of approximately 130 watt hours, and 100 watt hours per 
 ton mile in each case. If the equipment consist of 20 40-ton 
 cars in the local service, making a schedule of 30 miles pef 
 hour, and 10 express cars of the same weight for the ex- 
 press service when making a schedule speed of 50 miles per 
 hour, this would give an average demand at the power sta- 
 tion of 3,120 kilowatts for the local service, and 2,000 kilo- 
 watts for the express service, or a total of 5,120 kilowatts. 
 For this class of service, that is, a service operating relatively 
 infrequent units, a load factor greater than 60 per cent, 
 would probably not be obtained, so that it would be neces- 
 sary to install in the power station generating apparatus, 
 for a road of this kind, of a capacity of from 8,000 to 10,000 
 kilowatts, depending upon the extent to which storage bat- 
 teries are employed to equalize the load throughoiit the 
 day. The steam equipment would necessarily have to be 
 of a somewhat larger capacity than the electrical apparatus 
 to make up for the engine and tui'bine loss. If we asstmie 
 this at 10 per cent, for an 8,000 kilowatt power sta- 
 tion, we require about 12,000 horse power in steam engine 
 capacity. 
 
 Various methods have been, from time to time, and are 
 yet employed for the purpose of determining the proper 
 location of main power stations, as well as the proper num- 
 ber of and location of the various substations where alter- 
 nating current transmission is employed. Some of the 
 methods are extremely ingenious and interesting. It may 
 not be amiss to describe very generally and briefly the 
 method followed in determining the location of the main 
 power house and the substations for the New York & Port 
 Chester railroad. 
 
 For this railroad the line was laid out, as surveyed, on a 
 sheet of paper to a scale of -l-mile to the inch. As the 
 total length of the main road is about 25 miles, this gave a 
 drawing of about 50 inches in length. On each side of the 
 
120 ELECTRIC llAILWAY ECO'SOillCti. 
 
 center line, representing the surveyed line laid out as above 
 described, were drawn, to scale, the tracks of the road. As 
 the system is designed as a four-track railroad this meant 
 two lines on each side of the center line. At the proper place, 
 and to scale on this diagram, were located the express and 
 local stations, together with the probable location of the 
 storage yards and carbarns. A number of small pieces of 
 cardboard were then cut out to represent the train units of 
 the system. Various energy determinations, relating to dif- 
 ferent conditions of operation of the system, were then made 
 as follows: 
 
 First. A determination was made as to the amount and dis- 
 tribution of the load which would occur during the times of 
 maximum service. To do this reference was had to the graphi- 
 cal schedules or train sheets, and especially to the one repre- 
 senting the total train movement (see p. 40). From these 
 train sheets data was obtained which enabled the placing of 
 the small strips of cardboard, representing the train units, at 
 their proper places upon the express and local tracks as 
 drawn. From the train sheets information was also at once 
 ■obtained as to the operating condition of each and every 
 train unit. By reference then to the proper run sheet, the 
 energy consumption of each train unit, as located on the 
 diagram of the road as above described, was at once ascer- 
 tained. That is, the train sheet, in conjunction with the run 
 sheet, enable us to indicate, at the position of each car or train 
 unit, as shown on the diagram, the exact location and amount 
 of energy consumption of that car or train unit, which, of 
 course, would vary depending upon the position of the unit 
 upon the road, that is, whether it was at a station, starting out 
 from a station, or running between two stations, as well as 
 whether the unit consisted of one car or three or more 
 cars. The energy consumption of each unit was then 
 written along side of that unit, after which the elec- 
 trical center of gravity for the system, with the given load- 
 ing, was determined. The process followed in this deter- 
 mination is like that which would, ordinarily, be followed 
 
POWER STATIONS. 12r 
 
 in ascertaining any mechanical center of gravity for a sys- 
 tem of distributed loads. Ten or more of these determina- 
 tions were made and the electrical center of gravity for 
 each determination, representing collectively the ditferent 
 conditions of light, average, and maximum loads, ascer- 
 tained and noted on the sheet. It should be borne 
 in mind here that it may be very improper to as- 
 sume for the proper location of the main power-house 
 a point, obtained by taking the conditions and making the 
 determinations during the hours of maximum service, in 
 such cases where the average load, throughout the day, is 
 fairly heavy and uniform, and the maximum load maintained 
 but a relatively short time throughout the 24 hours, and 
 where the electrical center of gravity obtained by consider- 
 ing the average load differed considerably from that ob- 
 tained by reference to the maximum load alone. 
 
 After various points representing the electrical center of 
 gravity, for different conditions of loading of the system of 
 the New York & Port Chester Eailroad Company lines had 
 been determined, a point was finally settled upon by 
 considering three or four points representing average maxi- 
 mum conditions. This process is again similar to that of 
 obtaining the mechanical center of gravity of any system, 
 by considering a system of weights distributed at a number 
 of points, and thus obtaining the mechanical center of grav- 
 ity for the system of weights. The point so determined upon 
 for the New York & Port Chester Eailroad Company gave 
 a main power-house location well within the limits of a city 
 where real estate was relatively high, and where it would 
 not be possible easily and cheaply to obtain the water 
 requisite for the condensing prime movers. After further 
 investigation a point was selected at a distance approximately 
 a mile away from the center above referred to. It then 
 remained to determine the relative cost, all factors consid- 
 ered, of operating and maintaining these two stations. For 
 the point determined upon as the theoretical point well vsdthin 
 the limits of a large population center it would have been 
 
12S ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 necessary to expend considerable money in bringing water 
 to the power-house. Arrangements would also have to have 
 been made to get the fuel to the power-house. It was 
 also at once apparent that on account of the size of this 
 main station, which would require about 20,000 horse 
 power of boilers, the boilers would have to be placed in 
 tiers. The interest on the cost of the station located 
 at the point theoretically determined upon was then ascer- 
 tained, together with the additional cost of bringing the 
 water to the station, as well as the cost of making 
 proper arrangements to receive the fuel. On the other 
 hand^ the cost of locating the station on a water front, 
 the alternate plan under consideration, with the cost of pro- 
 viding proper docking facilities for the fuel, the cost 
 of the additional length of the transmission lines, and 
 the annual cost of transmitting the required energy over the 
 additional distance were ascertained, and the sum total of 
 these costs was compared with the sum total of the costs 
 obtained for the theoretically proper point. The results 
 showed a balance in favor of the station located on the 
 water front'. I regret that commercial and other considera- 
 tions are such at the present time that I cannot publicly in- 
 dicate the location of these two points, and thereby better 
 illustrate the determinations. I think, however, the process 
 above described will illustrate a methodical way of approach- 
 ing and solving problems connected vsdth the location of 
 central power stations. 
 
 The roadway having already been divided up into sections, 
 the matter of the location of the substations was approached 
 in the same manner, by obtaining the most advantageous 
 point after considering different conditions of loading of 
 the sections which would occur at different hours of the 
 day. We finally determined upon three substations. 
 
 Before all this had been done computations had been 
 made upon the first cost and the cost of maintenance and 
 transmission of two large direct current stations. The com- 
 putations indicated, at a very early stage of their progress. 
 
POWER STATIONS. 129 
 
 that recourse would have to be had to the alternating current 
 system of transmission. The determinations to use the al- 
 ternating current system was further influenced by the con- 
 viction that the day of the commercial alternating current 
 motor is not far oft', as well as by the fact that other systems 
 with which the company will probably have business rela- 
 tions were compelled to use the alternating current system 
 of transmission. 
 
 The load diagram for each of the substations as well as for 
 the main station should be prepared by having recourse to the 
 train sheets above referred to, and the run sheets. Another 
 blank sheet, similar to that used for the train sheets, or the 
 run sheets, is taken, and the energy consumption of each 
 run projected on this new sheet to scale. That is, if the 
 length of the run as represented on the train sheet between 
 termini is 2 inches, then the energy consumption for each 
 run reduced to that scale is projected on to this new sheet. 
 Each of the individual runs are superimposed upon the 
 one preceding it, or graphically added to it, and each 
 commenced at its proper place on the sheet. This process 
 will give a scientifically accurate load diagram, from which 
 the details of the substations and main power station, such 
 as size and number of units and size of storage batteries, if 
 their use be determined upon, are ascertained. 
 
 The question of the size and number of units for any 
 given total capacity of station is an interesting one, and one 
 which must be determined in each individual case. An in- 
 spection of a number of power stations, now in operation, 
 would indicate that, at the present time, a division of units 
 approximately, as follows, is being used: 
 
 Kw. Required. 
 
 Units in Use. 
 
 Units in Reserve. 
 
 1,000 
 
 2—500 
 
 1— 500 
 
 2,000 
 
 3— 800 
 
 1— 500 
 
 3,000 
 
 4—800 
 
 1—800 
 
 5,000 
 
 1— 800 ) 
 ' 3 — 1500 f 
 
 1 — 1500 
 
 7,000 
 
 2 — 3500 
 
 1 — 3500 
 
 10,000 
 
 3 — 3500 
 
 1 — 3500 
 
 9 
 
 
 
130 ELECTRIC l^AlL^YAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 For purposes of information, I have appended herewith a 
 table showing the results of the investigations of Dr. Chas. 
 E. Emerv. and giving the comparative cost of producing 
 power hy the use of different types of reciprocating steam en- 
 gines. This table is of value and interest. Personally, I 
 believe, it will very soon be superseded by the data which 
 will be produced on account of the use of steam turbines. 
 
 It is not the writer's intention to discuss in detail the 
 proper design of an electric railway power plant; but a few 
 suggestions on the main features of the plant may be consid- 
 ered in this connection. 
 
 The building should be of fire-proof construction. It is 
 usually of brick, with steel trusses, and with wooden roof, 
 covered with tar and gravel, and provision should always be 
 made for a traveling crane spanning the engine-room, for 
 use not only in installing engines and ganerators, but for 
 convenience in lifting heavy parts so as to get at the 
 machinery in case repairs are necessary. Plenty of room 
 should be provided around the different units for ease and 
 safety in inspection, and to permit the removal of piston rods, 
 if necessary, without lifting the cylinder from its founda- 
 tions. It is also advisable to so design the building that ex- 
 tensions to it can easily be made without interfering with the 
 general scheme of the plant. 
 
 Where real estate is valuable, the boilers are sometimes 
 located over the engines, but in most interurban power plants 
 it will be found entirely practicable to install them in an 
 adjoining bay, separated from the engine-room by a brick 
 Avail. As the engines must necessarily be at a higher level 
 than the condensers, if condensers are used, so as to prevent 
 the water of condensation setting back into the cylinders, 
 the engine floor is usually elevated 8 or 10 feet above the 
 ground level in preference to installing condensers in a pit. 
 The construction, however, depends upon the height of the' 
 condensers above the level of the water to be used for con- 
 densing purposes. 
 
POWER UTATIONS. 
 
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132 ELECTRIC RAIL^yAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 Commencing, first, with the steam generating part of the 
 equipment, boilers can be broadly divided into two classes, 
 fire-tube and water-tube boilers. As far as safety is con- 
 cerned, the water-tube boiler i=, of course, superior to the 
 fire-tube type; they are also quicker in steaming (an im- 
 portant advantage where fluctuating loads such as are en- 
 countered in railway work are concerned), and they are much 
 preferable when the pressures are as high as 150 pounds. 
 Fire-tube boilers, particularly return tubular boilers, are less 
 expensive in first cost, and when internally fired are probab-y 
 as economical as water-tube boilers, if not more so; but for 
 the reasons already mentioned, water-tube boilers are used 
 almost exclusively. In all cases the boilers and their fur- 
 naces should be designed to suit the kind of coal to be em- 
 ployed, as some coals require more grate surface than others. 
 As all boilers have to be cleaned, and as they have to be 
 cleaned frequently when scale-producing feed-water is used, 
 it is always desirable to have 1 or 2 batteries of boilers in 
 excess of those actually needed for operating the plant. 
 
 The type of engine to be adopted depends mainly iipon two 
 factors, the size of the unit and the cost of fuel. The latter 
 consideration affects the choice, from the fact that it would 
 be manifestly absurd to purchase an expensive and highly 
 efiicient engine for a plant where fuel is very cheap. 
 
 Where an engine is used only occasionally, as in case of a 
 booster engine, or one to carry the peak of the load, it is 
 not necessary to have so efficient, and hence so costly a 
 machine as where the engine is intended for continuous run- 
 ning. In all electric railway work it is desirable to have an 
 engine which can take fairly easily an overload, without great 
 loss of economy, and also an engine which will regulate 
 closely in speed. The speed regulation is usually specified 
 to be within 2 per cent, between full load and no load. 
 
 The piping should be designed, so that if any condensation 
 occurs the water will flow in the direction in which the steam 
 is moving, and will then be caught in traps or separators be- 
 
POWER STATIONS. 133 
 
 fore it can enter the cylinders. Stations are often provided 
 with a duplicate set of piping so that if any portion of the 
 piping gets out of order it will not involve a shutting down 
 of part of the station. This plan does not necessarily in- 
 volve parallel lines of main and branch piping, as the boiler 
 and engine piping can be arranged on a ring or loop system 
 so that the steam can flow in either one direction or an- 
 other as required. Some of the latest power stations, how- 
 ever, are not arranged on this plan, but are fitted with what 
 is known as the " individual-unit " system, by which a cer- 
 tain set of boilers is normally used only for generating 
 steam for a certain engine, but by cross-connections in the 
 boiler-room, steam from other batteries of boilers can be 
 utilized for this engine, if desired. 
 
 The condensers may be either of the jet, surface, or siphon 
 type. The two former require an air pump, and the jet con- 
 denser is the one most ganerally used. It requires a much 
 smaller surface than the surface condenser, and is much less 
 costly. The only advantage Avhich the surface condenser 
 possesses over the jet condenser is that as the condensed 
 steam does not come into contact with the circulating water, 
 the steam when condensed can be used again in the boilers. 
 The difficulties in the way of the removal of the cylinder 
 oil from the d::charged steam, either before or after it is 
 condensed, are eo great, however, that surface condensers are 
 not generally employed in power stations. But with the in- 
 troduction of steam turbines where no lubrication is required 
 in the steam chambers, surface condensers will imdoubtedly 
 come into more general favor. In the siphon condensers 
 the steam is led to a point about 34 feet above the surface 
 of the water in the hot well, and is there mingled with the 
 circulating water and condensed, producing a vacuum. 
 
 Feed-water heaters are used to heat the water fed to the 
 boilers, and utilize for this purpose the exhaust steam from 
 the engine or auxiliaries before it is led to the condenser. 
 They form a necessary part of the economical equipment of 
 
134 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 a power station. In some case^ two sets of feed-water heat- 
 ers are used — primary heaters for utilizing steam from the 
 engines, and the secondary, steam from the pumps. From 
 the heaters the feed water is often led to economizers, v/hich 
 consist of nests of tubes surrounding the flues at the base 
 of the stack. 
 
 Draft is provided either by a chimney or mechanically by 
 fans. Mechanical draft possesses many advantages over 
 natural draft, of which the most important is that the draft, 
 can be regulated according to the needs of the furnaces. In 
 some stations natural draft is depended upon for all times, 
 except to care for the peak of the load, when the capacity 
 of the stacks is increased by running the fans. 
 
 The cost of the main power station will vary from $78 to 
 $133 per rated kilowatt capacity of the station, divided as 
 follows: 
 
 TABLE XII. 
 
 Reciprocating Steam Engine Power-Station Costs Per Kiloioatt. 
 
 No. Item. Maximum. Minimum > 
 
 1. Buildings $15 00 $8 00 
 
 2. Foundations 3 50 1 50 
 
 3. Boilers and settings 17 00 9 00 
 
 4. Steam piping and covering, etc 12 00 4 00 
 
 5. Engines , 32 00 20 00 
 
 6. Generators 21 00 18 00 
 
 7. Pumps, etc 1 00 1 00 
 
 8. Switchboards, etc 4 00 1 50 
 
 9. Feed-water heaters, etc 2 00 1 00 
 
 10. Wiring conduits, wiring, etc C 00 3 00 
 
 11. Coal conveyors, and coal storage tanks 6 00 2 00 
 
 12. Smoke-stack and flues 2 00 1 00 
 
 13. Fuel economizers 4 50 2 50 
 
 14. Stokers 3 00 2 50 
 
 15. Ash conveyors 1 50 1 00 
 
 16. Incidentals, such as concrete flooring, etc. .. 2 00 2 00 
 
 $132 50 $78 00 
 
 A fair average cost for kilowatt will be b-Btween $100 and $110. 
 
POWER STATIONS. I35 
 
 The cost of an installation, using steam turbines as prime 
 movers, at the present time is about 70 per cent, of the maxi- 
 mum costs above given and probably will be much less than 
 this within a few years. The manifold advantages of a tur- 
 bine installation are too apparent to require much explana- 
 tion. In the order of their importance they may be summed 
 up as follows : 
 
 1. Simplicity. 
 
 2. Marked economy in fuel consumption over the recipro- 
 cating steam engine. 
 
 3. Lower cost of operation and maintenance. 
 
 4. Less floor space and consequently less real estate re- 
 quired. 
 
 5. Lower initial cost. 
 
 6. High efficiency over a wide range of loads. 
 
 The cost of substations using rotary converters will vary 
 from $45 per kilowatt as a maximum to $38 per kilowatt as 
 a minimum, including the building and wiring, etc. 
 
 The cost of the electrical conducting circuits will vary- 
 between $1,000 per mile of track for light traffic roads and 
 $3,500 per mile of track for fairly heavy service. This is 
 based upon a high voltage alternating current main station 
 with high voltage transmission to the substations, and about 
 600 volts at the rail. 
 
 The cost of the passenger stations will depend entirely 
 upon the disposition of the railroad company and may be 
 anywhere from $1,500 to $20,000 per station. 
 
 The diagrams on Plates VIT, VIII, and IX show wiring de- 
 tails of several stations in actual existence. There is shown 
 the wiring diagram of a main alternating high-tension gen- 
 erating station, together with the wiring diagram of a substa- 
 tion receiving alternating current at high potential and trans- 
 forming such alternating current by means of rotary con- 
 verters to low tension direct current, after wtich it is sent 
 out to the trolley wire or third rail, as herein described. 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 STORAGE BATTERIES. 
 
 Storage batteries have, during the last few years, been 
 used to an increasing extent in the equipment of electric gen- 
 erating stations and substations, more especially in cases 
 where the electric load is subject to fluctuations and 
 variations. 
 
 A comprehensive discussion and complete analysis of the 
 considerations which enter into the determination of the 
 size of battery installed, and the details of its operation, etc., 
 would require more space than can be devoted here to these 
 points. Many interesting and valuable articles, by special- 
 ists in storage battery engineering, have been made public 
 at different times in technical periodicals and publications. 
 The battery manufacturers, especially the Electric Storage 
 Battery Company, have also compiled and issued much valu- 
 able information on this subject. 
 
 I shall confine myself to a summary indication of the 
 principal applications and uses of storage batteries. 
 
 The advantages of storage batteries depend, primarily, 
 upon the fact that they enable the energy to be expended at 
 a different time from the time at which the said energy is 
 generated ; moreover, owing to the fact that they render the 
 time of the output independent of the time of the produc- 
 tion of energy, they incidentally render the rate of the out- 
 put independent of the rate of the production, since they 
 can supplement either the generators or the load. 
 
 The utility of the storage battery in a specific case may 
 hinge on either or both of two things: First, its total ca- 
 pacity as a reservoir of energy; second, the maximum rate 
 of charge and discharge which it can withstand. 
 
 In some cases it is the first of these qualities that is most 
 essential and useful; in other cases it is the second only, 
 while there are cases in which both qualities are desirable. 
 
 [136] 
 
STORAGE BATTERIES. 
 
 137 
 
 These points can be easily and clearly skown by means of 
 the accompanying load diagrams, for which I am indebted 
 to the Electric Storage Battery Company. 
 
 In the engraving on this page, the irregular line represents 
 a load diagram, such as is characteristic of an. ordinary cen- 
 tral electric generating station. It is well known that in such 
 stations the load falls down to its lowest point in the early 
 
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 LIGHTING BATTERY CAEEYING PEAK ON" EDISON THEEE-WIEE 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 morning hours, and that the heaviest load occurs in the after- 
 noon and early evening hours. In such cases a storage bat- 
 tery fulfills an important function, by enabling the load on 
 the plant to be increased during the early morning hours. 
 The shaded area in that portion of the diagram, represent- 
 ing the time interval between midnight and Y a. m., rep- 
 resents the amount of energy that is expended in charging 
 the batteries during that period. 
 
 In the particular case represented, the battery was al- 
 lowed to discharge so as to supplement the generating plant, 
 
138 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOyOMICS. 
 
 when the load increased between S and 9 a. m., but it was 
 again charged for a short time between 9 and 10 a. m. At 
 the time of the heavy load, namely, between 5 and 10 p. m., 
 the battery was made to discharge, so as to take care of the 
 " peak " of the load, as clearly indicated by the heavily- 
 shaded area in the diagram. 
 
 In the diagram below we have a similar condition, illus- 
 trating the use of a storage battery at a railway power-house. 
 
 liATTEEY AT EAILWAY POWER-HOUSE TAKING LOAD. POWER 
 DERIVED PARTLY FROM STEAM UNITS^ PARTLY FROM WATER 
 POWER THROUGH ROTARIES. 
 
 for the purpose of taking care of the larger " peaks " of the 
 load, and also of equalizing the smaller and more frequent 
 changes of the load, represented by the smaller " peaks " or 
 waves in the diagram. It will be seen that in this case the load 
 on the generating plant, between 7 a. m. and 7: 30 p. m., was 
 maintained imiformly at 4,150 amperes. As the actual load 
 between 7 a. m. and 9:15 a. m. was much higher than 4,150 
 amperes, being most of this time above 5,000 amperes, the 
 
STORAGE BATTERIES. 139 
 
 battery was allowed to discharge during that time so as to 
 " peak " the load, as indicated by the heavily-shaded area in 
 the corresponding portion of the diagram. About 9 : 15 a. ii. 
 the load had decreased to a point where it became less than 
 4,150 amperes, and it continued below 4,150 amperes until 
 5 p. M. During this period the battery was allowed to 
 charge, the energy stored in the battery being indicated by 
 the lightly-shaded area in that portion of the diagram. Be- 
 tween 5 and 6 : 40 p. m. the battery was again allowed to 
 discharge, so as to "peak" the load, which reached a maxi- 
 mum of 5,300 amperes. Between 6 : 40 and 7 : 30 p. ii. the 
 battery was again allowed to charge. At 7 : 30 the generating 
 capacity was reduced to 2,800 amperes, the storage battery 
 being allowed to discharge so as to take care of the excess 
 of the load above 2,800 amperes. Shortly after 9 p. m. the 
 load fell below 2,800 amperes, and the battery was again 
 allowed to charge. The load was maintained constant at 
 2,800 amperes until midnight,' at which time the total load 
 was allowed to decrease, this being done to prevent charg- 
 ing the battery at an excessive rate. At 1- a. m., the battery 
 being fully charged, it was cut out, and the generating plant 
 was run at a lower output, ranging between 500 and 700 
 amperes. The battery was again put on for charging at 
 5:30 A. M., so as to give a total load of 2,800 amperes on 
 the generating plant, this load being maintained constant 
 until about 7 a. m., notwithstanding the rise in the external 
 load; the difference between the power generated and that 
 required for the load being made up by allowing the battery 
 to discharge so as to carry the "peak,"' as indicated by the 
 heavily-shaded area of the corresponding portion of the 
 diagram, 
 
 The load curves thus far considered show changes of load 
 which lasted a considerable portion of time; the larger 
 " peak " in the first diagram lasted over five hours, and the 
 two larger " peaks " in the second lasted each one hour or 
 more. In each case the shaded portion, representing charge 
 
140 ELECTRIC RAIL^YAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 or discharge, according to the case, is a measure of the total 
 amount of energy which was charged into, or discharged 
 out of, the battery. The height of the shaded portion at 
 its highest point represents the maximum rate at which 
 the energy was charged or discharged. It is found in prac- 
 tice that the proportion of the " peak " for which the battery 
 can furnish the current in discharging depends upon the 
 maximum rate of discharge which the battery is able to 
 withstand. This maximum rate, itself, in turn depends upon 
 the length of time during which the discharge is required. 
 
 This brings us to the consideration of changes of load 
 of another kind, namely, the very sudden and severe, but 
 brief, instantaneous changes of load, which are usually desig- 
 nated by the term " fluctuations." These fluctuations, as is 
 well known, are due to the sudden starting and stopping of 
 cars, and the consequent variations in the current required 
 by the different cars. It is found that the number of these 
 fluctuations increases while their severity decreases with the 
 number of cars. This means that the range or extreme limit 
 attained by the fluctuations varies in some inverse propor- 
 tion with the number of cars in operation. In the case of a 
 small line, the fluctuations are very marked. There may be 
 times when the generators are running practically without 
 load for a few seconds, while a few seconds later they may 
 be greatly overloaded. In order to appreciate these varia- 
 tions in the load, the load line would have to be plotted 
 according to a larger scale of time values. 
 
 In the ciit on p. 141, the solid line shows the load diagram 
 obtained at an electric substation furnishing current for an 
 electric railroad system. In this case the readings were taken 
 every five seconds, and the diagram reproduces the corre- 
 sponding values. The dotted line represents the load imposed 
 tipon the generators, the current being, in this case, gen- 
 erated by rotary converters. It woiild seem that while the 
 mean load, as indicated by the dotted line, was a trifle over 
 200 amneres, the actual line-load fluctuated between 60 and 
 
STORAGE BATTERIES. 
 
 lil 
 
 630 amperes. It will be noticed that the most severe fluctu- 
 ations are of very brief duration. In such a case, the rate 
 of charge and discharge that would be allowable in the bat- 
 tery would be very much greater than would be allowable 
 if the fluctuation, instead of lasting a few seconds, were to 
 extend through several minutes, or were to constitute a 
 " peak " as large and lasting as long as those shown in the 
 two previous diagrams. In cases such as those just referred 
 to, a large storage capacity is of very great importance, 
 
 I0.5JA.I1 
 
 RAILWAY BATTERY AT ROTARY SUBSTATION TAKING FLUCTUA- 
 TIONS. 
 
 because the amount of energy stored and the length of time 
 during which it is to remain stored are both large, whereas 
 in cases where the fluctuations are brief and numerous, even 
 though they are severe, the storage capacity required is rela- 
 tively small and the battery serves, merely, so to speak, as- 
 a means of transferring a portion of the load from one 
 instant of time to another instant of time relatively close to 
 it. At one moment it gives out energy to supplement the 
 generators and to " peak " a certain fluctuation, due to a 
 sudden rise in the line current, while at the next moment 
 it may absorb current, owing to the fact that the load on the 
 
142 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOyOMICS. 
 
 line has suddenly fallen below the average generator load. 
 A battery working under those conditions is said to serve 
 as a regulator or equalizer. It has also been said to be 
 equivalent to an electrical " ballast " or electrical " fly- 
 wheel." The term " buffer-batteries " has also been used in 
 Europe to desig-nate batteries which are used as regulators 
 or equalizers in this manner. 
 
 CURVES SHOWING REGULATING EFFECT OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 
 
 The regulating effect of the battery will be more clearly 
 understood by reference to the diagram on this page, in which 
 are shown separately, first, the curve (middle line) showing 
 the total current consumed on the electric line; second, the 
 current curve of the battery, drawn with respect to the line 
 of zero current, the portions above said line being charges 
 and the portions below said line being discharges of current; 
 third, the curve (lowest line) showing the current sup- 
 
STORAGE BATTERIES. 143- 
 
 plied by the rotary converter. It is seen that the battery 
 cur^^e follows very closely the load curve. The generator 
 curve clearly indicates that the fluctuations of load have but 
 little eifect upon the generator load, which, in this case, 
 does not vary more than 25 amperes above or below the 
 mean load, notwithstanding the fact that the fluctuations 
 represent a range of nearly 300 amperes between the ex- 
 tremes of fluctuation. 
 
 Economy in cost of producing electric power requires that 
 attention be given to two important points. First, that the 
 machinery should Avork as many hours and as fully loaded 
 as possible; second, that it should work as efficiently as 
 possible. 
 
 The first point is related to the initial outlay required for 
 the generating plant, it being readily apparent that if a 
 given total output in hp or kw hours can be produced by 
 a smaller plant, the initial investment will be less than if 
 a larger plant were to be used. Referring again to the cut 
 on p. 137, it can be seen that if it were not for the battery 
 the generating plant would have to be of sufficient capacity 
 to carry 30,000 amperes, merely because the load reaches 
 that limit for a short period of time amounting to less than 
 one hour during each twenty-four hours. On the other 
 hand, with the use of a storage battery capable of furnish-- 
 ing current for a " peak " of the load, the maximum gener- 
 ating capacity required, as shown by the diagram, would 
 not exceed 24,000 amperes. 
 
 In a case, such as shown in the cut on p. 137, the battery 
 itself, of course, represents a certain initial outlay, which, 
 if the battery had not been installed, could have been ex- 
 pended for additional generators; consequently the advan- 
 tage of the storage battery would be doubtful If it served no ■ 
 other useful purpose than that of " peaking " the load. This 
 is more especially the' case since, in all probability, the bat- 
 tery for carrying a load " peak," siich as shown in the first 
 diagram, would cost more than the generating capacity re- 
 
144 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 quisite for carrj'ing tlie same " peak." The battery, how- 
 ever, subserves additional purposes. This brings to our at- 
 tention the second point, namely, the importance of operating 
 the plant at maximum efficiency. It is well known that there 
 is, for each generating unit, a certain definite load, at which 
 the said unit operates the most efficiently, the total cost of 
 power per unit being higher per hp or per kw when the 
 load is made either greater or less than this definite load. 
 In the case of fluctuating loads the falling off in efficiency 
 is very considerable. It is especially in such cases that the 
 storage battery has been found capable of rendering good 
 and effective service. In a case, STich as is shown in the 
 second diagram (p. 138), where the introduction of storage 
 batteries enables the load to be maintained at a substantially 
 uniform point diiring the greater portion of the working 
 day, it becomes possible to operate the generating luiits in 
 such manner as to obtain a relatively higher efficiency than 
 "would be the case without the battery. The result of this 
 improved efficiency would be manifested in the reduction 
 of fuel, supplies, and other items entering into the cost of 
 power. 
 
 Since there is a certain percentage of the energy gen- 
 erated that is lost in the storage battery itself, however, it is 
 evident that the total benefit from the improvement of the 
 generator efficiency is not obtained by the use of a storage 
 battery. Making allowance, however, for the energy lost in 
 the battery and for the extra amount of energy that would 
 have to be generated for a given electric train service, in 
 consequence of this loss, it may happen, and it frequently 
 does happen, that the total cost of the power required for a 
 given service is still lower than woiild be the case vsdthout 
 the battery. 
 
 From the standpoint of maximum economy and of lowest 
 cost of electric current production, the important question 
 is whether the savings effected by the use of a storage bat- 
 tery are greater than the losses incidental to its use. As 
 
STORAGE BATTERIES. 145 
 
 a matter of fact there would be no economic advantage re- 
 sulting from the use of a storage battery if the total cost 
 per unit of current generated, including all fixed charges 
 and operating expenses, were not brought down to a lower 
 figure with a storage battery than without it, so as to rep- 
 resent a certain margin of profit or saving. 
 
 The considerations which I have just outlined constitute 
 the criteria by means of which the applicability of storage 
 batteries to different cases is gauged, and by means of which 
 the size or importance of a storage battery equipment in 
 these cases is determined. There are many cases where 
 storage batteries have been introduced either in electric gen- 
 erating stations or in electric substations with substantial 
 and satisfactory economic results. There are other cases, 
 however, where they would not have been introduced or 
 retained if economy were the only criterion. This brings 
 us to consider another function of storage batteries as sup- 
 plemental portions of electric generating stations and sub- 
 stations, namely, their use for the purpose of diminishing 
 the chances of interruption and the losses incidental thereto, 
 in other words, their value as an additional factor of safety 
 or as an element of insurance against interruption and de- 
 rangement in the electric current supply. 
 
 It is unfortunately difficult to estimate in terms of money 
 the value of storage batteries as a factor of reliability or as 
 a preventive of interruptions, for the reason that this value 
 depends upon the frequency, character, and duration of the 
 interruptions, and the financial losses which result there- 
 from, which the storage battery may serve to obviate. In 
 some cases storage batteries in central stations have been 
 the means of preventing serious and very costly breakdowns 
 and interruptions of service. It is a fact worth noting, that 
 storage batteries now form an important portion of the 
 equipment of many important central stations furnishing 
 current for lighting and power, and that they also have been 
 introduced in a large number of stations and electric sub- 
 10 
 
148 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 stations furnishing current for electric railway service. 
 The opinion has been expressed by certain central station 
 engineers and managers that storage batteries were indis- 
 pensable portions of a generating station equipment and are 
 worth what they cost, on account of the extra safeguard and 
 reserve which they represent. In cases where they also in- 
 cidentally increase the station economy, their introduction 
 is all the more warranted; but even if they did not show 
 economic results of themselves their introduction would, in 
 the opinion of these engineers, be still warranted as addi- 
 tional factors of safety and as reserve for breakdowns and 
 emergencies. In electric railroad work the prospects are 
 better that storage batteries will have an economic value 
 in addition to their other value as insurance or reser^^e. The 
 reason for this is that a very much smaller storage capacity 
 may yet suffice to produce an important result in ballasting 
 or equalizing the generator load, thereby producing an in- 
 crease in the efficiency of the generating plant. The im- 
 provement in efficiency will, of course, depend upon and will 
 be governed by the peculiar specific conditions of each case. 
 The introduction of storage batteries in electric substa- 
 tions has been f oimd of benefit and of utility in another way, 
 namely, in enabling important savings to be made in the 
 cost of the feeder line as well as in the feeder loss. This is 
 ail immediate result of the fact that the load of the rotary 
 converters is equalized and that the current transmitted 
 from the generating to the receiving station is nearly con- 
 stant. With fluctuating loads the same amoimt of energy 
 is transmitted in a manner which causes a much greater 
 average drop, the consequence being that either the amount 
 and the Cost of copper must be increased or else the loss of 
 energy in the line will be greater. Incidentally, the storage 
 battery is an advantage in such cases by enabling a much 
 more uniform voltage to be maintained over the portion of ' 
 the system which is supplied from the substation. In many • 
 cases these considerations would have been sufficient to jus--' 
 
STORAGE BATTERIES. 147 
 
 tify the introduction of storage batteries in electric sub- 
 stations, even without the incidental economic results. 
 
 It is well nigh impossible, in the present state of our 
 knowledge, to lay down general rules by means of which it 
 may be possible to answer all questions concerning the ap- 
 plicability of storage batteries to a given case, regarding the 
 size required, the cost, etc. These questions can only be 
 answered by a careful special study of all the factors and 
 conditions which enter into each individual case. 
 
OHAPTEE XIII. 
 
 MOTOR EQUIPMEIirT AND ROLLING STOCK. 
 
 Judging by past practices, experiences, and results, it 
 would appear that the all-important details relating to the 
 selection of the motor equipments and rolling-stock for 
 interurban and other electric railway systems were those 
 which received the least consideration from railway engi- 
 neers and experts. In view of the fact that these are, in 
 general, the determining functions of not only the earn- 
 ing capacity of any system, but of the costs of operation 
 as wel], it certainly would seem that engineers should 
 recognize the necessity for, and devote the most painstaking 
 study, application, and efforts to the personal consideration 
 of these details. I know of cases where railway companies 
 having determined upon the use of electricity as a motive 
 power and having intrusted their affairs to civil engineers 
 there have appeared specifications clearly showing that the 
 subjects of electric motor performance as related to schedule 
 speeds and weights were sealed books to the authors of the 
 specifications. 
 
 Generally speaking, it is not only poor engineering but 
 absurd to determine a route between given termini, and then 
 prepare a most elaborate set of specifications relating to the 
 construction of the permanent "way, stations, and other civil 
 engineering details and then blindly specify that " the 
 schedule speed of the train units shall he — miles per hour, 
 allowing — seconds for stops at stations." It is unfortu- 
 nately true that men practicing as electrical engineers are 
 often guilty cf this offense, to characterize it mildly. 
 
 While it is true that high-speed railways are now 
 economic imperatives in and around large commercial centers 
 of population, it should never be forgotten that very high 
 schedule speeds with frequent stops are expensive, and, 
 therefore, only warranted in special cases. The schedule 
 
 [148] 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 149 
 
 speed affects not only the cost of the motor eqtdpment, but 
 also that of the main generating station, transmission sys- 
 tem, and substations. For this reason the matter of the 
 proper schedule speed should always be carefully and ex- 
 haustively investigated and determined before it is an- 
 nounced. 
 
 The scientific method of procedure consists in first making 
 a rough preliminary determination by assuming the line to be 
 straight and level and the stations or stops at equal distances 
 apart. By assuming certain safe and practically standard 
 data, such as tractive effort, braking effort, time of stops, and 
 train friction, and having the distance between stations, a set 
 of roughly approximate speed time, distance time, and energy 
 curves, can be calculated and therefrom approximations ob- 
 tained of the energy which will be required to maintain vari- 
 ous resulting schedules, and therefrom a set of approximate 
 conditions selected upon which to base the determination of an 
 accurate set of speed-time and energy curves in the construc- 
 tion of which are considered and represented and determined 
 the influence of all the details of alignment, gradients, and 
 stops of the line as surveyed. The engravings on pages 150 
 and 151, taken from Mr. A. H. Armstrong's paper read at 
 the fifteenth annual meeting of the American Institute of 
 Electrical Engineers, are representations of such first or pre- 
 liminary approximations. I recommend the study of 
 Mr. Armstrong's paper above referred to, and also the paper 
 entitled " Iv^otes on the Plotting of Speed-Time Curves," by 
 Mr. C. O. Mailloux, read at the nineteenth annual meeting of 
 the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, for detailed 
 information relative to some of the details of the processes 
 and considerations involved in such determinations. 
 
 Two or three accurate total run sheets, for runs in both 
 directions between termini, should be constructed before 
 attempting to arrive at a conclusion as to the most economic 
 schedule to adopt. Plates T, II, and III show examples of 
 sections of total runs or individual runs, between two sta- 
 
150 
 
 ELECTRIC EAIL^VAY ECOXOillCS. 
 
 lions, of such accurate determinations, made in connection 
 M'ith the development of the engineering details of the New 
 York ct Port Chester Railroad already referred to. 
 
 Such curves also give valuable information relating to 
 the proper gearing of any given equipment for the work 
 
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 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 
 
 TIME IN SECONDS 
 
 TYPICAL EUiSr CUEVE. 
 
 it will be called upon to do. Generally speaking, it will 
 be found that motors should be geared for the lowest maxi- 
 mum speed, allowing a fair margin for occasional required 
 increases due to the necessity of making up lost time, for 
 the making of the required schedule. A gear ratio giving 
 an unnecessarily high speed not only overheats the- motors, 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLIxa HTOGK. 
 
 151 
 
 but produces unneceasarily great demands upon the trans- 
 mission system and the generating and substations. 
 
 In determining upon a schedule, not only must the mat- 
 ter of motor heating be considered as affected by different 
 rates of acceleration, but there must also be considered and 
 
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 20 
 
 30 40 
 
 TIME IN SECONDS 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 TYPICAL cue'v:es showiwg different eneeCtY consumptions 
 
 FOR THE DIFFERENT WAYS OF RUNNING A GIVEN DISTANCE 
 IN A GIVEN time. --.i 
 
 determined the matters of the line fluctuations together with 
 those of energy, input land station loads. While rapid accel- 
 'efations effect marked energy savings it is entirely possible 
 
l.:2 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 to wipe out any advantage so obtained on account of the 
 poorer boiler^ engine, and generator economies due to irregu- 
 lar load curves and low power factors. 
 
 Table III, on page 50, of this volume shows, strikingly, 
 the relations existing between schedule speed, stops per 
 mile, and corresponding energy consumption. In the face 
 of the conditions shown in that table it is difficult to imagine 
 why the matter of schedule speeds has been handled so 
 recklessly by engineers and promoters inaugurating new en- 
 terprises. Don't make any public or other promises or state- 
 ments about the schedules which. will be maintained until 
 the matter for the special ca^e in hand has been thoroughly 
 investigated and scientifically determined, even if it is found 
 necessary to retain somebody competent and experienced 
 enough to make the necessary determinations scientifically 
 and accurately. Such determinations embody not only a 
 knowledge of the calculation and constriTction of " run 
 sheets," but the ability to determine the costs of operation 
 and probable earnings of a proposed system and then de- 
 termine upon such schedules, etc., as will cause a proper re- 
 lation to exist between the operating expenses on the one 
 hand, and the gross earnings on the other. 
 
 In view of the rapidly increasing maximum speeds at 
 which interurban systems are being operated, attention must 
 also be paid to those details of design which will reduce the 
 train resistance and more especially that element thereof 
 known as " wind resistance/' which is by far the greatest 
 component of train resistance. Smooth, flat sides with the 
 platform ends rounded or tapered and enclosed are among 
 the simple and effective methods employed. It is astonishing 
 what a saving in watt-hours per ton mile or per car mile the 
 application of the simple methods above suggested will pro- 
 duce as indicated by recent tests. 
 
 The problem of determining the total amount of mechani- 
 cal resistance opposed to the motion of a car or train is a 
 very difficult one, for which it may be said, in fact, that no 
 general solution applicable to all cases has thus far been 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 
 
 153 
 
 found. It has been generally admitted, for a long time, that 
 this resistance, to which the general term " Train Resist- 
 ance " has been applied, varies with the speed of a car or 
 train; but there is a wide divergence of opinion in regard 
 to the amount of variation to be expected at different speeds. 
 Many " formula " for calculating the train resistance as a 
 function of the speed have been proposed and used. Mr. J. 
 A. F. Aspinall, in his paper on " Train Resistance," read 
 before the Institution of Civil Engineers, in 1901, has tabu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Speed Resistance 
 
 
 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 and Train 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 FORMULA R-ii(s-|-^) 
 
 Engineering \ 
 Formula R = 
 
 B.L.W. 
 
 FORMUU R 
 
 = 3 + f 
 
 
 :s O.L. Barnes. 
 
 10- - :6 
 
 25 30 35 M a 50 55 tO 65 70 75 
 Soeed In lilies per Hour'^Y 
 
 DIAGEAM SHOWING CURVES OF TEAIN RESISTANCE. 
 
 lated no less than 55 such formulae. A complete list would 
 doubtless include twice that number. These formulae differ 
 greatly in their form and in the purpose for which they 
 are intended. In some cases the formula is intended to 
 give the total resistance, including that of the locomotive 
 and the cars constituting the train. In other cases the 
 formula gives only the resistance of the train. In some 
 cases the formula takes into account only the velocity of 
 the train : in other cases the formula takes into account the 
 
loi 
 
 ELECTRIC RAIL^\AT ECOXOillCS. 
 
 number of cars and the weight and the length of the cars 
 in the train. n, , ^;;.ii 
 
 The diagram on p. 153 shows four curves of train resist- 
 ance values, corresponding to four formulae, which are well 
 known, and which have been much used in steam railroad 
 work. The uppermost curve gives the values obtained by 
 the formula of D. K. Clark, one of the oldest formulae, and, 
 for a long time, the favorite and generally accepted formula. 
 
 40 50 00 
 
 Speed, miles per hour. 
 
 CURVES OF VARIOUS TRAIN RESISTANCE FORMULiE FOR TRAIN OF 
 
 FIVE CARS. 
 
 The other three lines represent the values obtained by the 
 so-called " Engineering News " formula, the Baldwin Loco- 
 motive Works formula, and the Barnes formula, respectively. 
 The Baldwin Locomotive Works formula is still looked upon 
 as a very satisfactory and reliable one in steam railto&d 
 work for long passenger trains. The Clark formula is no 
 longer considered reliable and satisfactory, especially. , at 
 high speeds, and for long trains. 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 155 
 
 It is seen that these formulae make no allowance for the 
 weight of train or the number of cars, both of which are now 
 recognized as important factors affecting the train resistance 
 values. The so-called Wellington formula, proposed by 
 Mr. A. M. Wellington, was one of the first formulse pro- 
 posed and used in this country, in which the number and 
 weight of cars were taken into consideration. Various for- 
 mulae have since been proposed and used, which include the 
 weight of train, and also the number of cars, or else, the 
 length of train. The most recent, and, perhaps, the most 
 authoritative of these formulae, is that of J. A. F. Aspinall, 
 given in his paper on train resistance, already referred to. 
 
 The development of high-speed electric train service has 
 called attention to the importance and desirability of for- 
 mulae which are more especially applicable to electric trains. 
 
 Of the formula? which have been proposed for eixpressing 
 the resistance of electric trains, the most interesting are 
 those of Davis, Blood, and Lundie. The diagrams on pp. 154 
 and 156 enable the results obtainable by these formulae to 
 be compared with each other, and also with the results ob- 
 tained by various other formulae. The two sets of curves 
 represent extreme cases. In that on p. 156 the curves are 
 those which correspond to a single car of relatively light 
 weight (25 tons). In this case the atmospheric resistance 
 is very large in proportion to the axle, track, or other re- 
 sistances. The curves in the diagram on p. 154 correspond 
 to a train of five cars of relatively large weight (45 tons). 
 In this case the atmospheric resistance represents a rela- 
 tively smaller proportion of the whole resistance. The curve 
 obtained by the Clark formula is the same in both those 
 on pp. 154 and 156. The curve obtained by all the other 
 formula is different in the two figures, the resistance values 
 in pounds per ton being, in all cases, lower for the case 
 represented in the diagram on p. 154, than for the case rep- 
 resented in that on p. 156. 
 
 The curve marked " proposed " in both diagrams is that 
 
15a 
 
 ELECTRIC RAIL^VAY ECO'biOMICS. 
 
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 130 
 
 120 
 
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 60 
 
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 '0 aO 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 
 
 Speed, miles per hour. 
 
 ' CURVES OF TRAIN RESISTANCE FORMULA FOR SINGLE CAR 
 :- - OPERATION. 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMEST A^'D BOLLIiS'G STOCK. 157 
 
 corresponding to a tentative or provisional formula sug- 
 gested by Mr. C. O. Mailloux. This formula has a form 
 resembling somewhat the Davis formula, and resembling 
 very closely the Wellington formiila. The term expressing 
 the portion of train resistance, which is due to atmospheric 
 resistance, is based wholly on the celebrated experiments of 
 Prof. W. F. M. Goss, with small car miodels enclosed in a 
 conduit, and subjected to the action of a rapidly moving cur- 
 rent or stream of air. In this formula the first tenu, instead 
 of being constant, varies with the weight per axle, and with 
 the condition of the track. 
 
 The formula proposed by Mr. Mailloux has the following 
 form: 
 
 ^ 4/w / Nw 
 
 in which 
 A ^ a constant depending upon and varying with the diame- 
 ter of car wheels and journals, 
 g = a constant depending upon the condition of the track. 
 ]S[ = number of cars per ton. 
 
 V = train velocity. 
 
 w = total weight of car in tons. 
 
 The value of A varies between 6 and 9. 
 
 The value of g varies between 2 and 5. 
 
 For approximate calculations corresponding to average 
 conditions, in the case of 8-wheel cars, the formula can take 
 the following simplified form: 
 
 in which 
 W = total weight of train. 
 N = number of cars per ton. 
 
 V ^= velocity of train. 
 
 Mr. Mailloux has also found that the train resistance 
 values, in any given case, can be expressed with a certain 
 degree of approximation by means of an empirical formula 
 of the form E = A-l-B V°. The objection to this formula 
 
loS 
 
 ELECTRIC RA1L^\'AY ECONOMICS. 
 
 is that the constant (A), the coefficient (B), and the exponent 
 (n) are not fixed^ but change in value with each case. 
 
 Below are a set of curves, showing the relation between 
 speed and train friction in pounds per ton used by the Gen- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 /' 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
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 ^B 
 
 
 
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 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 40 SO 
 
 LB8.PER-T0N - 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 CURVES SHOWING EELATIOITS BETWEEN SPEED AND TEAIN 
 
 FEICTION. 
 
 eral Electric Company of Schenectady, New York. These 
 curves represent the results of actual experiments made by 
 the General Electric Company. 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 359 
 
 The index to the curves is as follows: 
 A = the operatioii of 10 or more cars in a train. 
 B = the operation of 2 cars in a train. 
 C = the operation of a single car. 
 
 It is assumed that these cars weigh approximately 40 tons 
 each. Mr. A. H. Armstrong states that the curves are ac- 
 curate up to 60 miles per hour. 
 
 As the matter of determination of the most economical 
 schedule for any proposed installation can only be ascer- 
 tained by the construction of accurate run-curves, taking 
 into consideration all the elements of alignment, grade, etc., 
 I think it will be well to here indicate the processes in- 
 volved by showing the construction of an actual run-curve 
 of part of one of the express runs of the jSTew York and 
 Port Chester Railroad Co., between the city of ISTew Eo- 
 chelle and the village of Larchmont, N. Y., starting at 
 New Eochelle and stopping at Larchmont. This run is 
 shown in Plate II. 
 
 In order to construct a " run-curve " a set of computa- 
 tions are necessary. These are shown in Table XIII, which 
 shows some of the data ; but only that part relating to the run 
 between JSTew Rochelle and Larchmont is used for this 
 illustration. Prom Table XIII, it will be seen that the first 
 portion of the run, 0.107 mile in length, is on a 4° curve and 
 on a down-grade of 0.90 per cent. The data in the last 
 column, giving the " correction for curve," show that the 
 advantage of the down-grade is partly lost by the increase 
 in the train resistance resulting from the curve, the result 
 and effect being the same as if the line were straight and 
 had a down-grade of 0.Y2 per cent, instead of a down-grade 
 of 0.90 per cent. An acceleration curve corresponding to 
 a down-grade of 0.72 per cent., if plotted on the diagram 
 on p. 160, would evidently occupy a position between 
 the first and second upper dotted lines, that is to say, it 
 would come between the acceleration curves corresponding 
 
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SPEED IN MILES,(PER HOUR.) 
 
 DISTANCE, IN Mil 
 
 [101] 
 
162 ELECTRIC RAIL^YAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 respectively to down-grades of ^ per cent, and 1 per cent. 
 The most accurate way would be to calculate the data for 
 the curve, and to plot it out in the same manner as was done 
 for the curves shown on the diagram on p. 160. It Avas 
 found, however, that a new curve could be plotted out Avith 
 sufEcient accuracy by interpolation between the curves shown 
 on this sheet. 'Thus, if the net percentage had been O.TS 
 per cent, the curve could be plotted out at points exactly 
 half way between the second and third dotted lines. The 
 curve of 0.72 per cent, would, therefore, come a little 
 under the half-way points. The curve having been inter- 
 polated and drawn either on the original diagram or on a 
 piece of tracing cloth placed over the said sheet, the next 
 point was to determine the corresponding distance curve. 
 It is seen from the diagram on p. 160 that the various 
 distance curves are nearly equi-distant from each other. 
 The distance curves corresponding to intermediate percent- 
 ages could, therefore, be likewise obtained with sufficient 
 accuracy by interpolation. The distance curve correspond- 
 ing to the required percentage (0.72 per cent.) having been 
 also drawn either on the original sheet or on the tracing 
 sheet, it was cut off at the particular point corresponding 
 on the distance scale to the length of the first portion of 
 the run corresponding to the 4° curve, namely, 0.107 miles. 
 The acceleration curve was then cut off at a point in line 
 with the same time valu.e. The curve shows that the time 
 required by the train in covering this distance was 18.8 sec- 
 onds, and that the speed attained at the end of this time was 
 41.7 m. p. h. 
 
 The next step was to continue the acceleration curve over 
 the next portion of the run, which, according to the data 
 of Table XIII, is 0.347 mile in length, straight, with no curve, 
 and with a down-grade of 0.90 per cent. An acceleration 
 curve corresponding to a grade of 0.90 per cent, having been 
 interpolated on the diagram referred to, the portion of said 
 curve corresponding to speeds above 41.7 was added to the 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 163 
 
 first portion of the acceleration curve detennined in the 
 manner just described. This second portion was prolonged 
 until the area comprised thereby was equal to the length of 
 said portion, namely, 0.347 mile. The proper point at which 
 the curve should be cut oif was determined by reference to 
 the distance curve corresponding to this interpolated accelera- 
 tion curve, because the difference in ordinate values of the 
 distance curve corresponding to the beginning and the end 
 of the portion of the acceleration curve considered, should 
 be equal, when measured by the scale of miles, to the distance 
 covered. The next portion of the run, as shown in Table 
 XIII, was 0.521 mile in length, straight, and on an up-grade 
 of 0.364 per cent. In this case the interpolated curve would 
 come under the solid line curve in the diagram at a point 
 nearly three-quarters of the distance between the solid line 
 and the first dotted line (corresponding to -j- per cent, up- 
 grade). This curve was used in a like manner to continue 
 the run curve and was in like manner cut off at the proper 
 point, such that the distance covered dtiring this portion of 
 the curve, as shown by the distance curves, was equal to the 
 length of said portion, namely, 0.521 mile. The acceleration 
 curve for the next portion of the run was drawn and added 
 tc the preceding portion of the run cur\^e in substantially the 
 same manner. The acceleration was not continued, however, 
 for the entire distance of this portion of the run, the electric 
 power being shut off from the motors after the train had 
 covered a distance of only 0.152 mile on this portion of the 
 run. The relative flatness of the curve in the portion cor- 
 responding to the up-grade of 0.364 per cent., and its rela- 
 tive steepness in the succeeding portion (corresponding to a 
 down-grade of 0.433 per cent.), are both the result and the 
 indication of the effect of grades, the relative gain in speed 
 being, as should be expected, much less on an up-grade than 
 on a down-grade. The reason why the electric power is 
 turned off at the point just stated, instead of being continued 
 for a longer time, is that a certain distance must be allowed 
 
104 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 for in whicli to bring the car to a stoj). The car is usually 
 allowed to cover a portion of this distance by coasting, which 
 causes the speed to be reduced at a rate varying according 
 to the grade. In this case the coasting is on a dovsra-grade 
 and the coasting cun'e, corresponding to a down-grade of 
 0.433 i^er cent., was interjiolated in the diagram of drifting 
 and braking curves, p. 165. It comes close to, but a 
 trifle under, the first dotted line above the solid line which 
 corresponds to a 0.5 per cent, grade. Having drawn this 
 ctirve, it was added to the other portions of the rim curve 
 and cut off at such a point that the corresponding distance 
 covered was eqiial to 0.415 mile. The next portion of the 
 run, as seen from the data in Table XIII, is 0.183 mile 
 long, straight, on an up-grade of 0.122 per cent. The 
 run curve shows that the car was allowed to coast on the 
 first part of this portion of the run for a distance equal to 
 only 0.061 mile, after which the brakes were applied. The 
 remainder of this portion (0.121 mile) corresponds to the 
 first part of the braking curve, the rest of which curve corre- 
 sponds to the last two portions of the riin, which are, re- 
 spectively, 0.065 mile long, with 2° curve on 0.122 per cent, 
 up-grade, and 0.063 mile long, straight, on the same grade. 
 The various portions of the brake curve being each straight 
 lines, did not need to be interpolated, as they could be com- 
 puted, and could be plotted direct from the data thus ob- 
 tained. 
 
 The iiin curve being completed, the next step was to draw 
 the corresponding electrical energy input ctirve. This curve 
 is plotted by reference to the kilowatt values obtainable from 
 the input curve on the diagram on p. 166. This curve ends, 
 of course, at the point where the current is shut off from the 
 electric motors, which is the point of highest speed on the 
 curve, — the rest of the distance being traveled by means of 
 the -pi omentum of the car. 
 
 The area of the electrical input curve Is proportional to 
 the electrical energy, expressed In kilowatt-hours, required 
 
SPEED (IN MILES PER HOUS.) 
 8 S 
 
 DISTANCE, IN MILES, 
 CHART OF KETAEDATIOA'S. 
 [1651 
 
166 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 and consumed during this run. In the particular case under 
 consideration, this energy was found, for the run curve for 
 the Express run from jSTew Eochelle to Larchmont, to be 
 equal exactly to 11 kilowatt-hours. The distance of the run 
 being 1.853 miles, and the weight of the car being 52 tons, 
 
 Kilo 
 
 fatia 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 Traotive 
 
 Effort 
 
 
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 100(1 
 
 250 
 £40 
 230 
 220 
 
 
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 900 
 
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 60O 
 750 
 
 210 
 
 
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 100 
 
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 180 
 
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 m'500 
 
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 Speed. (Mil 
 
 !S per 
 
 HourJ 
 
 CTJKVES SHOWING EN'EEGY INTUT ATTD TRACTIVE EFFOET. 
 
 the number of ton-miles per ci;r for this portion of the run 
 would, therefore, be 
 
 1,853 X 52 = 96.4 ton-miles. 
 The energy consumption, when expressed in kilowatt-hours 
 jier mile, is equal to 
 
 11 -^ 1.853 = 5.94. 
 and when expressed in watt-hours per ton-mile, is equivalent 
 to 
 
 11,000-^96.4 = 114. 
 The process of drawing the run curves, and of making the 
 energy computations therefrom, was substantially the same 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 187 
 
 for all the other runs. The curves themselves, however, dif- 
 fered for some of the runs in general appearance. Thus, the 
 run curve (Plate III) for the run from Willis avenue to 
 149th street, also for the Express run from Mamaroneck 
 to Eye Neck (Plate IV), and from Eye to Port Chester 
 (Plate V), show peculiar notches in the middle portions. 
 These notches are due to the fact that there are track curves 
 in the line at various intermediate points between the be- 
 ginning and end of the run. There is usually a limit to 
 the speed allowable on these curves, which limit depends upon 
 the sharpness of the curve. It is therefore necessary to ar- 
 range matters in such manner, that the speed shall be allowed 
 to diminish either by coasting, or by braking, for some time 
 before reaching the curve, to such extent that the speed on 
 entering the curve shall be below the particular limit set for 
 said curve. In the run curve corresponding to the Express 
 run from East 149th street to Bronx park (Plate VI), the ac- 
 celeration is continued until a speed of over 60 m. p. h. has 
 been attained, at which point the brakes are applied, so as to 
 reduce the speed to a little over 40 m. p. h., at the point of 
 entering the track curve. The power is again applied, and ac- 
 celeration takes place until a speed of about 63 m. p. h. has 
 been attained, and the current is then shut off and the brakes 
 are immediately applied so as to bring the train to a full stop 
 at the end of the run. 
 
 In the run from Mamaroneck to Eye ITeck, the power is 
 shut off after accelerating to a speed of about 63 m. p. h., 
 and the speed is then reduced by coasting, the reduction being 
 such that the train enters the first (2°) track curve at a speed 
 of 55 m. p. h., and it continues to coast until the end of said 
 track curve, by which time the speed has fallen down to about 
 51 m. p. h. The power is then again applied, and acceleration 
 takes place until the speed rises again to 55 m. p. h., where- 
 upon the current is again cut off, and the train is allowed 
 to coast, to reduce the speed in anticipation of the next track 
 curve (4°). By the time this curve is reached, the speed 
 
JU3 ELECTRIC 7?.i7LlV.il' ECONOMICS. 
 
 has been reduced to about 4:3 m. p. li. The traiu continues 
 to coast until it passes out of this curve, at a speed of about 
 42 m. p. h., at which time the current is again turned on and 
 acceleration takes place to a speed of about 52 m. p. h., where- 
 upon the brakes are again applied so as to again reduce the 
 speed quickly, in anticipation of the next track curve (3°), 
 which is entered at a speed of about 49 ni. p. h., and run 
 over while coasting, after which the current is again put on 
 and acceleration takes place until the time comes for putting 
 on the brakes to make the final stop. 
 
 In the case of run curves, such as the preceding one, in 
 which the current is shut off and again put on two or more 
 times in succession, the energy input ci^rves will be made up 
 of different portions or sections, each of which sections cor- 
 responds to the time intervals during which acceleration takes 
 place. In the run from Mamaroneck to Rye ISTeck, the energy 
 input curve consists of four distinct portions. The first por- 
 tion of the energy input curve which corresponds to the initial 
 acceleration, or the acceleration taking place when the train 
 is leaving the station, has the usual form characteristic of the 
 energy input curve corresponding to the initial acceleration 
 curve of an ordinary run curve, namely, it rises abruptly to 
 the kilowatt value (480 kw. ), corresponding to the input 
 current with half the voltage, and remains at this value, as in- 
 dicated by the horizontal portion of the line, until the point 
 is reached at which the motors become connected in parallel, 
 when it instantly jumps to twice that value (960 kw.), at 
 which value it remains until the point is reached at which the 
 resistance is entirely cut ofi^ by the controller, whereupon 
 the values begin to diminish rapidly, as shown by the rapidly 
 descending curve line, — this diminution being due to the 
 reduction of the current as the motor speed increases. In 
 this particular case the descending portion of the curve ends 
 when the current is cut off for the first time at the end of 
 about 78 seconds after starting. The line of kilowatt values 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 109 
 
 Qien falls down to zero, indicating that there is no electric 
 current applied to the motors for a period of about 29 sec- 
 onds, during which time the train is coasting, after which it 
 rises again to the value (about 525 lew.) corresponding to a 
 speed of 50.5 m. p. h. At the end of the second acceleration 
 in this run, when the speed has reached 55 m. p. h., at which 
 time the current is again cut off, the kilowatt value of the 
 energy input curve again falls to zero, that is to say, the 
 energy input curve is again interrupted, — there being, of 
 course, no energy input during the interval of time that the 
 train again coasts (in this case about 35 seconds), in antici- 
 pation of entering the second curve and while passing over it. 
 When the train again accelerates after passing out of the 
 curve, electrical energy is again required and the energy input 
 value again instantly rises to the value (about 820 kw.), cor- 
 responding to the speed (41.6 m. p. h.) at the beginning of 
 the acceleration. The kilowatt values diminish as the speed 
 increases, same as before, and suddenly drop dovpn to zero at 
 the end of the third acceleration; they again rise at the be- 
 ginning of the fourth and last acceleration, the highest value 
 in this case being about 590 kilowatts, and the value again 
 drops down to zero at the end of the fourth acceleration, just 
 at the time that the brakes are applied. It is seen, therefore, 
 that the energy input curve in this case is really in four dis- 
 tinct sections, each corresponding to one of the four successive 
 accelerations taking place during this run. The area com- 
 prised in the time interval corresponding to each section is 
 usually compiited separately. In the run under consideration 
 these areas are as follows: 
 
 First acceleration 10.81 kilowatt-hours 
 
 Second " 1.90 
 
 Third " 1.83 
 
 Fourth " 1.76 
 
 Total 16.30 
 
 te 
 
170 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 The various portions or sections of the input curve cor- 
 responding respectively to the successive accelerations, serve 
 as a measure of the energy expenditure involved and made 
 necessary by these accelerations. 
 
 MT. VERNON 
 
 PELHAM 
 
 1100 es 
 
 ACTUAL HUN CUEVES SHOVl^ING DIFFERENCE IN ENEKGY CON- 
 SUMPTION FOR DIFFERENCE IN TIME IN MAKING A GIVEN EUN. 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 171 
 
 The above cases are sufficiently typical to indicate the fea- 
 tures of the general method of constructing the run cvirves 
 for the various requirements of the case. The amount of 
 time required for any given run is influenced by, and de- 
 pends upon, the maximum speed reached, and the amount of 
 coasting allovi'ed during that run. The aggregate time con- 
 sumed during all of the runs, plus the total time required for 
 stops, should be exactly equal to the schedule time. If, when 
 the run cur\^es have been made for every run, it is found that 
 the total time, including allowance for stops, is greater or 
 less than the schedxile time, then certain modifications must 
 be made in some of the run curves, as may be required to 
 comply with the schedule time requirement. Thus, if the run 
 curves indicate a total time greater than what is allowed for 
 the schedule time, the amount of coasting in some of the run 
 curves must be reduced, and the acceleration must be allowed 
 to bring the speed to a higher point and the braking must 
 begin at a higher speed. If, on the' contrary, the ciirve run 
 shows a total time less than the schedule time, the amount 
 of coasting may be increased, and the maximum speed re- 
 quired, as well as the speeds of braking, may be both reduced ; 
 the effect of such reduction being a material consequent re- 
 duction in the energy required for the corresponding run, 
 as might be expected from the fact that, when the amoimt of 
 coasting is increased, the time during which the power is 
 applied to the electric motors is correspondingly reduced. 
 
 Four sets of special run curves are here especially shown 
 for the purpose of showing the effect of coasting on the en- 
 ergy consumption expressed in watt-hours per ton-mile. 
 These curves correspond to four runs which happen to be 
 the same length for both Express and Local Trains, as 
 follows : 
 
 First: From Willis avenue to 149th street. See Plate 
 III. 
 
 Second : From Mt. Vernon to Pelham. See diagram on 
 
 p. 170. 
 
172 ELECTRIC RAlL^yAY ECOyOMICS. 
 
 Third: From Xew Eochelle to Larclimont. See Plate 
 II. 
 
 Fourth : From Rye iN'eck to Eye. See Plate I. 
 
 On Plates I, II, and III three run curves are superimposed 
 on the same chart. The corresponding energy curves are 
 drawn and shaded, and the areas corresponding thereto are 
 shaded in such manner as to clearly indicate to which par- 
 ticular run curve each belonged. These comparative curves 
 show clearly the great reduction in energy required when the 
 amount of coasting is increased and are most eloquent object 
 lessons of the relations of schedtile speeds and energy con- 
 sumption to the economies of operation. 
 
 When that part of a run curve corresponding to each in- 
 dividual run, between the stations, has been constructed, a 
 total run curve is made by selecting the desired individual 
 run curves and combining them, allowing the determined 
 time for stops at stations, varying from 10 to 20 seconds be- 
 tween each run. Of course separate individual and total run 
 curves must be made for the runs between termini in each 
 direction. 
 
 In determining upon the details of the car equipment and 
 trucks for a railroad system it should be always borne in 
 mind that the source of reventie of the railroad — the Public 
 — is essentially interested in the general appearance of the 
 cars and those elements of their design and construction 
 which will assure to it a maximum of safety and comfort. 
 To attract to themselves a maximu.m of patronage and 
 especially to secure and hold that powerful asset known as 
 public approval or public good-will, interurban systems must 
 look well to the details of their car equipment. I assume, 
 of course, that the plans contemplate first-class passenger 
 stations and roadbed and properly designed and conse- 
 quently rsliable transmission systems and sources of power. 
 
 In determining upon the finish of the cars, the items of 
 subsequent costs of operation and maintenance should never 
 be lost sight of. Excessive ornamentation, filigree work, and 
 fancy figure painting and fancy lettering should be avoided. 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AXD BOLLIXG STOCK. IT?. 
 
 Koomy cars, of first-class design, material and construction, 
 finished inside and outside in such manner as to be worthy 
 of the characterization of " simple elegance," will do as much 
 or more to make for good earnings as any other two elements 
 combined. 
 
 For interurban high-speed systems, having definite stop- 
 ping places at distances of a mile or more apart, relatively 
 long cars having bodies from 40 to 50 feet long, with 
 5-foot platforms, will be found desirable. It is not desir- 
 able to nm open-cai's of the existing type on such roads, on 
 account of the inconveniences which would result due to 
 maximum speeds of 45 miles an hour and over. For this 
 class of road, it will be found best to adopt a car having 
 large windows, with the frames so constructed that the sash 
 can be readily lowered or raised, thereby affording to pas- 
 sengers all the advantages of open cars. The question of 
 doors at the middle of the cars has also been discussed pro 
 and con. G-enerally speaking, middle doors are undesirable 
 for interurban cars, on account of the fact that they require 
 additional platform attendance and thereby increase the 
 operating costs, without affording any proportionate gain. 
 Their use is generally advocated on the plea that they facili- 
 tate loading and unloading. This contention is not borne out 
 by the results which have been obtained where they have been 
 tried. 
 
 With the advent of high speeds and hearier motors have 
 come the necessity for changes in truck construction. Motor 
 manufacturers will guarantee far more satisfactory results 
 if they be given a truck having a 6-foot 6' inches to T-foot 
 wheel base, with wheels 36 to 42 inches in diameter, than they 
 can guarantee with 6-foot wheel bases and 30 to 33-inch 
 wheels. The subject of trucks does not appear to have devel- 
 oped as rapidly, or risen to the new requirements as readily, 
 as have other details of the car equipment, more especially 
 those of motors and controllers. 
 
 In the matter of trucks as in the matter of permanent 
 way, much time and money will be saved if the engineers 
 
174 
 
 ELEGTRIG RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 of modem interurban systems will study the best steam- 
 road practice. A recent truck specification prepared by the 
 writer provided for the following dimensions : 
 
 Wheels — 36-inch diameter with steel tires. 
 
 Tread — 3:^ inches. 
 
 Flange — ■ 1 J inches. 
 
 Axles to be 7^ inches in diameter at wheel seat. 
 
 Axles to be 7^ inches in diameter at gear seat. 
 
 Journals to be 5 x 9 inches. 
 
 In addition to these dimensions, which indicate the increase 
 in dimensions, are specified the materials to be used and the 
 tests to which the product will be submitted. The standard 
 tests adopted by the Master Car Builders are, in general, 
 used. I believe that the best results will be obtained if the 
 Master Car Builders' requirements be followed for some 
 time to come, for the reason that traffic arrangements and 
 consequent interchange of equipment will soon exist on a 
 large scale between electrically operated and the present steam 
 Toads, to the mutual advantage of both the public and the 
 railroad companies. Such arrangements will be facilitated 
 and hastened if the electric systems will design their equip- 
 ments with that in mind. 
 
 TABLE XIII. 
 
 Grades, Curves, Etc., for Some Local and Express Runs Going fror,i 
 New York to Port Chester. 
 
 NEW ROCHELLE (Express Station). 
 
 ErN No 
 
 Length 
 
 IN 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Curva- 
 ture. 
 
 % OP Grade. 
 
 Correction for Curve. 
 
 Express. 
 
 Local. 
 
 Up. 
 
 Down. 
 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 .107 
 
 .347 
 .581 
 .567 
 .188 
 .065 
 
 .063 
 
 4° 
 Tangent 
 
 8° 
 Tangent 
 
 .364 
 
 .188 
 .182 
 
 .128 
 
 .90 
 .90 
 .433 
 
 @ .9 = 3.61bs.=-|-1.180«net 
 = - .90+.18 = -0.78« 
 
 @ .9 = 1.8 lbs. = +0.09^ net 
 + 0.182 + 0.090= -1-0.212^ 
 
 1.853 
 
 1.858 
 
 13.304 
 
 
 
 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 
 
 TABLE XIII —Continued. 
 LARCHMONT (Express Station). 
 
 175 
 
 WILLIS AVENUE STATION (Terminal). 
 
 EuN No. 
 
 Length 
 
 IN 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Curva- 
 ture. 
 
 % OF Grade. 
 
 Correction for Curve. 
 
 Express. 
 
 Local. 
 
 Up. 
 
 Do\vn. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0.111 
 .189 
 .189 
 .185 
 .208 
 
 .874 
 .118 
 
 -806 
 
 Tangent 
 
 7-10' 
 
 Tangent 
 1»80' 
 
 Tangent 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.288 
 
 ®. 0.9 lb. per deg. 6.45 lbs. 
 = + 0.3285s< equivalent 
 grade. Net efEect = + .04^ 
 grade. 
 
 @ .9+ .45 = 1.3520 = .0675^- 
 net + .288 - .0675 = - 0.215* 
 
 1.625 
 
 1.625 
 
 1.625 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 149th STREET STATION 
 
 (Express Station. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 .878 
 .110 
 .133 
 
 .088 
 .803 
 
 .017 
 
 Tangent 
 2° 52' 
 
 Tangent 
 1°23' 
 
 Tangent 
 
 0.348 
 
 
 @ .9 = 2.58 lbs. = + 0.129* 
 net = + 0.348 + 0,189 = 
 + 0.477* 
 
 @ .9 = 1.241b!. = + .062* net 
 = + .348+ .062 = +0.410*. 
 
 
 .979 
 
 2.604 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HUNTS POINT ROAD 
 
 (Local 
 
 Station). 
 
 
 3 
 
 .115 
 .114 
 
 .041 
 .265 
 .016 
 .107 
 
 Tangent 
 8° 
 
 Tangent 
 1-22' 
 
 0.348 
 
 0.286 
 
 @ .9 = 2.7 lbs. = + 0.185* net 
 = + 0.135 = 0.348 = + 0.483* 
 
 (a .9 = 1.23 lbs. =+0.62* 
 
 
 .658 
 
 8,262 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 WESTCHESTER AVENUE (Local Station). 
 
 
 4 
 
 .005 
 .060 
 .567 
 .396 
 .086 
 
 1°22' 
 Tangent 
 
 0.438 
 
 
 @. 9 = 1.23 lbs. = + .062* 
 
 2.751 
 
 1.114 
 
 4.376 
 
 
 
 
 
176 
 
 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 TABLE XIII — Continued. 
 BRONX PARK (Express Station). 
 
 Run No. 
 
 Length 
 
 IN 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Curva- 
 ture. 
 
 SS OF Grade. 
 
 Correction for Curve. 
 
 Express. 
 
 Local. 
 
 Up. 
 
 Down. 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 .226 
 .424 
 
 .034 
 .009 
 
 Tangent 
 1° 
 
 Tangent 
 
 0.65 
 0.65 
 
 0.65 
 0.475 
 
 
 @ .9 = 0.9 lbs. = + .045% net 
 = + 0.65 + .045 = + 0.695;S 
 
 
 .683 
 
 5.059 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 BEAR SWAMP ROAD. 
 
 .542 
 .204 
 
 Tangent 
 1° 
 
 0.475 
 0.475 
 
 .9 = 0.9 lbs. = + 0.045^ net 
 = +0.475 + 0. 045 = -|-0.52)« 
 
 BRONX AND PELHAM PARKWAY (Express Station). 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 .156 
 
 .314 
 .338 
 
 .125 
 .048 
 .166 
 
 1° 
 
 Tangent 
 1°9' 
 
 Tangent 
 
 l-SO' 
 
 0.168 
 
 0..561 
 
 @ .9 = 0.91bs. = + 0.045«net 
 = +0.163 + 0.045 = + 0.208^ 
 
 @ .9 = 1.03 lbs. = + 0.052i« net 
 = + 0.163 + 0.052 = + 0.215^ 
 
 @ .9 = 1.35 = + 0.0675^ net 
 = _ .561 + 0.068 = 0.0493iS 
 
 
 1.137 
 
 6.942 
 
 
 
 
 
 EASTCHESTER (Local Station). 
 
 8 
 
 .153 
 
 1°30' 
 
 
 5.61 
 
 
 .414 
 .197 
 .190 
 
 Tangent 
 1° 
 
 
 0.05 
 0.05 
 
 
 .016 
 
 Tangent 
 
 
 0.05 
 
 .870 
 
 7.812 
 
 
 
 
 ll,.9 = 1.35 lbs. = +0.068« net 
 = - .561 + 0.068 = - 0.493^ 
 
 @ .9 = 0.9 lbs. = + 0.045 net 
 = - 0.05 = 0.045 = - 0.005^ 
 
 BOSTON POST ROAD (Local Station). 
 
 
 9 
 
 .440 
 .012 
 
 .227 
 
 Tangent 
 2° 
 
 2' 
 
 
 0.05 
 1.52 
 
 @ .9 = 1.8 lbs. = + 0.(m net 
 = +.09-.05 = +0.04« 
 
 @ .9 = 1.8 lbs. = + 0.09!< net 
 = -1.52+0.09= -1.43^ 
 
 
 .679 
 
 8.491 
 
 
 
 
 
MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 
 
 TABLE XIII — Continued. 
 SOUTH MOUNT VERNON (Local Station). 
 
 177 
 
 EuN No. 
 
 Length 
 
 IN 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Curva- 
 ture. 
 
 % OP Grade. 
 
 
 Express. 
 
 TiOcal. 
 
 f' 
 
 Up. 
 
 Down. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 .092 
 
 .154 
 
 .188 
 
 2° 
 Tangent 
 
 
 1.52 
 0.18 
 
 @ 9.=1.8 lbs.= 4-0.09^net 
 = -1.524-0.09 = -1.43? 
 
 3.114 
 
 .428 
 
 8.919 
 
 
 
 
 
 MOUNT VERNON (Express Station). 
 
 The foregoing table is given to indicate, in a few instances, some of the 
 computations and determinations required in connection with the deter- 
 mination and construction of any special set of run curves. The table is 
 given, in part, as it was computed and used. The third column refers to 
 the distance, in miles, from the southern terminus. — W. C. G. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 RIGHT OF WAY. 
 
 In view of the character of the service which is being 
 exacted of modern interurban railroads, it is not easy to per- 
 ceive why those responsible for planning and laying out such 
 railways so often persist in selecting public highways for 
 the route, etc. The essential characteristics of' ^successful 
 interurban railways, as already shown, must be: 
 
 1. Safety to the public. 
 
 2. High schedule speed. 
 
 3. Minimum cost of operation and maintenance. 
 
 None of the foregoing conditions can be satisfactorily at- 
 tained where the cars are operated upon or along public high- 
 ways, upon which pedestrian and vehicular traffic also exists. 
 
 Individual or private rights of way are the solution of the 
 problem. The private right of way, however, should be an 
 individual roadway throughout, that is, it should be free 
 from grade crossings of all kinds, except at such special 
 points and places where the cars run onto other tracks over 
 which they are to operate. 
 
 Interurban road?, to be successful, must be capable of mak- 
 ing high speeds, safely and continuously, and this cannot 
 be accomplished where the roadway occupies the public high- 
 wav, or crosses intersecting highways at grade. 
 
 Furthermore, when a railroad owns its right of way it is 
 once and for all exempt from the demands, and continu- 
 ously increasing impositions of public officials in the matter 
 of annual payments to the local authorities as " compensa- 
 tion " for the use of the highways and of repairs to the 
 space between its outside rails, and for various and increas- 
 ing distances beyond the outside rails. In such matters it 
 has become the practice of some public officials to impose 
 additional burdens every time a given railroad seeks any 
 additional or other privileges in the matter of extensions, 
 track facilities, etc. 
 
 [178] 
 
BIGET OF WAY. 179 
 
 I recall several cases where interurban lines have been laid 
 on public highvs?ays for considerable distances, when they 
 could have purchased rights of way parallel to the highways 
 upon which they had laid their rails, and but a few hun- 
 dred feet from such highways, for merely nominal sums 
 ranging between $1,200 to $2,000 per mile. For a road 
 thirty miles in length, a private right of way costing as 
 much as $3,000 per mile will increase the cost but $90,000 
 for the right of way and (allowing the maximum of three 
 crossings per mile at an average cost of $5,000 each) about 
 $150,000 for the crossings, or a total of $240,000. At 5 per 
 cent, the interest on this cost is but $12,000 per annum. 
 As the items of operation and maintenance must be less for 
 the road using a private right of way, they can safely be left 
 x)ut. 
 
 Consider the relative marked advantages which a private 
 right of way 200 to 500 feet from the main road would 
 secure. In the first place a schedule speed three or four 
 times as great could safely be made, and as relatively high 
 speeds and large daily car mileage per car are necessary to 
 secure the best commercial results, for long haul business 
 this is all-important. In the second place the railroad would 
 be free from the petty annoyances, impositions, and demands 
 of ignorant, unjust, or corrupt local authorities. In the 
 third place its property must become more valuable each 
 year as the adjoining territory builds up and settles, and 
 within a comparatively short time it will probably have a 
 railroad through a thickly settled community, upon its own 
 property or right of way, subject to no annoyances, imposi- 
 tions, or charges, except the universal and open real estate 
 tax. In the fourth place it will be in a position to so ma- 
 nipulate and increase its schedules as to enable it to " get all 
 there is out of the territory," and it can also arrange for and 
 take care of any passenger or freight business of any existing 
 or future connecting road or roads. In the case assumed in 
 the preceding paragraph, the additional annual fixed charge 
 
180 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 for these advantages is $12,000, plus the annual real estate 
 tax against which must be placed, for the care of a good road 
 upon a public highway, the interest on the first cost of pav- 
 ing between the rails and for the required distance outside 
 of the rails, plus the annual cost of maintaining the road- 
 way as demanded by the local authorities to facilitate vehi- 
 cular traffic, and it should not be forgotten that the cost of 
 maintaining any roadway subject to vehicular traffic is ahvays 
 in excess of maintenance costs where vehicular traffic does 
 not occur on the railroad roadway. Consequently, we have 
 here two extra additional costs which are : First. That of 
 maintaining a paved or macadamized roadway for vehicular 
 traffic. Second. That extra cost of maintaining a roadway, 
 such as cost of surfacing, alignment, etc., due to the addi- 
 tional use of the roadway by all kinds of vehicles. To the 
 foregoing debits against the tracks upon public highways 
 must generally be added the annual payment exacted for 
 the use of the highway known as " compensation." In sev- 
 eral instances which I have investigated the two accounts 
 were about equal, leaving no doubt as to which scheme to 
 adopt, as in the one case the company would have nothing for 
 its money, while in the other it would have had a real estate 
 asset which would constantly increase in value. In several 
 operating properties which I have investigated I have been 
 able to show that it would pay the companies to buy their own 
 right of way and take up their tracks at the time on the pub- 
 lic streets and highways. By so doing they would eliminate 
 the costs of paving, maintaining the paving, etc., and could 
 obtain a far greater revenue per car on account of the far 
 greater daily car mileage per car obtainable on account of the 
 more rapid schedules permissible on a private right of way. 
 In addition there would be eliminated the uncertain, con- 
 stantly increasing and constantly more serious claims on ac- 
 count of accidents, due to collisions, etc., on accoimt of the 
 development of the territory and the constantly increasing 
 
RIOBT OF WAY. 181 
 
 use of the railroad by the public together with the conse- 
 quent greater use of the highways by the public. 
 
 In the matter of its roadway, the high-class electric in- 
 terurban cannot possibly do better than adhere to the prac- 
 tice of the best steam roads in this respect. The Pennsyl- 
 vania Railroad and the ISTew York Central Eailroad may be 
 cited as the best example of permanent way and roadway con- 
 struction. 
 
 The use of a right of way frequently involves the exercise 
 of the right of Eminent Domain, by which is meant the 
 right to condemn land. Wherever a railroad company pos- 
 sesses the right of eminent domain, it can and frequently 
 does condemn any piece of property, except that owned by 
 another railroad or a municipality, required for its railroad, 
 where the owner of such piece of land declines to sell the 
 land to the company, or where the price asked for the 
 land is unfair. Before the right of eminent domain can be 
 exercised, it is generally necessary to file with the proper 
 authorities what are known as " property maps," or " right- 
 of-way " maps. Such maps show the transit line, as having 
 been determined, together with a profile of the line showing 
 the proposed sub-grade, that is, the surface on which the bal- 
 last is laid, of the railroad. It is generally necessary that 
 such right-of-way maps shall show the last owner of each and 
 every piece of land which will be occupied by the railroad. 
 Such maps are best made to a scale of 200 to 300 feet per 
 inch for the transit line (that is, the horizontal scale). The 
 scale of profile, that is, the vertical scale, can be very well 
 taken as 20 feet to the inch. 
 
 The property maps can either be made on a continuous 
 sheet, as is very often done, or they can be divided into a 
 number of separate sheets, each approximately 30 inches by 
 48 inches. Where a number of separate sheets are used, 
 they are all arranged in proper sequential order, and se- 
 curely bound together. The maps which are filed are gener- 
 ally either sim prints or blue prints of such sheets. Such 
 
182 ELECTRIC RAIL^YAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 maps are generally required to be filed with the county clerk 
 of each county through which the line of the road passes, that 
 is, a map of that part of the line of the road passing through 
 a given county is required to be filed with the county clerk of 
 that county. 
 
 As the separate sheet system can more conveniently be 
 made and upon a very much larger scale, and as any part of 
 the line can be readily altered or changed, I prefer the sepa- 
 rate sheet system. 
 
 Eight-of-way maps are of the utmost importance, and 
 must be prepared with the greatest care. Absolute accuracy 
 is essential, as they are the bases upon which the right of 
 way will be acquired. It is also necessary from a legal point 
 of view that absolute accuracy be attained in the prepara- 
 tion of these right-of-way maps, for the reason that before 
 condemnation proceedings can be commenced, it is necessary 
 that each and every last owner or occupant of the land 
 which will be occupied by the line of the road shall be 
 served with a notice informing him that it is proposed to 
 take his land for railroad purposes. The person so served 
 has the right, at any time within fifteen days, under the 
 law of New York State, after having been served, to ap- 
 peal to the court, and ask that the line of the road be 
 changed. Such requests are generally not granted un- 
 less it can be shown that great and public good will 
 result by the proposed change. When these proceed- 
 ings have been consummated, all lands shown as occupied, or 
 to be occupied by the line of the proposed road are, at all 
 future times, subject to be taken for the use of the railroad, 
 the filed maps of which show that such lands will be re- 
 quired. In fact, a railroad after having filed its maps, upon 
 completing the legal proceedings indicated above, has prac- 
 tically a lien upon all lands which vpill be required for its 
 purpose, which are included in the route shown on such 
 maps. 
 
 When a piece of land is purchased by a railroad, the deed 
 
RIGHT OF WAY. 183 
 
 should be attached to or refer to a small map showing the 
 part taken. As a matter of factum purchasing land, it is 
 necessary that each and every part of land which will be af- 
 fected shall be individually surveyed. In this respect, the 
 acquisition of land by a railroad company is no different 
 from that involved in the acquisition of any piece of land 
 where great care is always taken to define accurately, the 
 property purchased. 
 
 The real estate or land department is a most important 
 part of the organization of a modem, steam railroad, and 
 will be of equally great import for such enterprises as are 
 here being discussed. 
 
 Many different kinds of maps are required for the proper 
 conduct of the real estate department of a railroad, among 
 which are: 
 
 1. Kight-of-way maps. 
 
 2. Station maps. 
 
 3. Land-grant maps. 
 
 4. Maps showing gravel pit and borrow pit privileges. 
 
 5. Crossing contract maps, showing crossings with other 
 
 roads. 
 
 6. Taxation maps, and numerous others. 
 
 The final or permanent right-of-way maps are never 
 made imtil the line is constructed on account of possible 
 changes in the line during the period of construction. 
 
 The procedure generally followed by the real estate 
 department of a railroad in purchasing railroad lands is as 
 follows : 
 
 1. An option is obtained from the owner. 
 
 2. A careful examination is made of the title. Should 
 the title be defective, the option money is returned. 
 
 3. A description of the land to be purchased is drawn, a 
 map thereof is made, and a deed prepared for execution. 
 
 4. After the execution of the deed, it is returned to the 
 real estate department, where it is checked and entered upon 
 the proper map or maps, after which it is entered in a 
 
1S4 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOSOillCH. 
 
 register of land purchases, wherein are shown the names of 
 grantee and grantor, together with a brief description of the 
 premises, the deed of purchase, and the price paid therefor. 
 
 Once in the hands of the real estate department, it is 
 filed in the proper files, where it is always readily accessible. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that all that has been said 
 about right of way applies to railroads constructed on 'pri- 
 vate lands, owned by the railroad company, except, where its 
 line or lines crosses public highways. 
 
 In many cases the right-of-way maps are prepared and 
 filed very early in the operations of the company. In cases 
 in and around large cities, where the filing of such maps 
 is apt to be taken, advantage of by real estate speculators 
 and others, I do not think it advisable to file such maps at 
 the outset. In this regard, I have always found it advan- 
 tageous to proceed with the determination of the project 
 to the extent of obtaining the required legal and other as- 
 sents for the crossing of the various highways, etc., which 
 will be crossed by the line of the road, and then, before 
 the maps are filed, proceed quietly and unostentatiously to 
 purchase such lands as will be required by the railroad. 
 
 When all the land which it is possible to purchase at fair 
 prices has been acquired, the right-of-way maps can then 
 be filed, and condemnation proceedings proceeded with for 
 such land as the owners will not part with for a fair value. 
 
 For the case of conditions such as we have been discussing, 
 the various States generally grant charters for the railroad 
 operating between termini, that is, the termini are specified, 
 and the railroad company is at liberty to make such reason- 
 able alterations in its route as it may deem proper from 
 time to time. Such alterations can always be made with 
 greater advantage to the railroad company before the filing 
 of the final maps. 
 
 In connection herewith should not be forgotten what 
 has been said about the right of any property-owner to 
 apply to the court for a change of route. In purchasing 
 
RIGET OF WAY. ISo 
 
 land for the railroad, as indicated immediately above, this 
 right of the property-owner must be borne in mind. It 
 can be seen that acting under that right a considerable por- 
 tion of the route may be changed, and, consequently, some 
 lands which may have been purchased by the railroad com- 
 pany before the filing of its maps will not be available for 
 its uses along the line which it had determined upon. I 
 think, however, that all things considered, it will be found 
 far better to acquire the right of way before the filing of the 
 final maps, or as much of the right of way as it is possible 
 to acquire before such maps are filed. 
 
 In cases where condemnation proceedings are necessary 
 the value of the land is generally determined by commis- 
 sions appointed by a court. Such commissions must be 
 guided, essentially, by the value of lands adjoining that 
 which is made the subject of condemnation, and of which 
 they are to fix the value. It is a good plan for a railroad 
 company or its operating syndicate to go along its proposed 
 line and purchase odd plots or pieces of land for the purpose 
 of thereby fixing the value of other surrounding property, 
 and thereby not only aid the condemnation commission, but 
 avoid the fixing of exorbitant values. In a very recent case 
 of this kind the railroad company followed this procedure 
 jauch to the final chagrin and surprise of a number of \va- 
 scrupulous real estate sharks, who had obtained options upon 
 property which the railroad would require, and then de- 
 manded many times the actual value of the property upon 
 which they held options. The speculators, in the case in 
 mind, were finally glad to surrender their claims for what 
 they had paid for them, and, in a number of instances, at an 
 actual loss. 
 
CHAPTEK XV. 
 
 PREPAHATION OP SPECIFICATIONS. 
 
 We are now ready to proceed with the preparation of 
 the general specifications, in the event of a decision to let 
 a contract for the construction and equipment and delivery 
 of the road in operation, to a contractor; or else the 
 preparation of each of the detail specifications should the 
 railroad company conclude to do the work of constniction 
 and equipment itself. Even should a contract be let to a 
 contractor for the entire work, such a contract, together 
 with the accompanying specifications, almost invariably re- 
 serves to the railroad company the right to approve any 
 design or apparatus which the contractor proposes to make 
 use of. This is especially the case where the contract pro- 
 vides that the contractor shall receive a percentage of the 
 total cost of construction and equipment of the proposed 
 enterprise as his profit. 
 
 Specifications have been, and often are yet, the cause of 
 much entirely unnecessary trouble, friction, and litigation. 
 Engineers are often prone to attempt to display their 
 technical erudition in specifications. They either do not 
 know, or else disregard the fact that the details of the 
 design and construction of prime movers, generators, trans- 
 formers, motors, and control apparatus are problems which 
 are receiving the constant application of the brightest de- 
 tail engineering minds which the large manufacturing 
 companies can secure. The details of the design, develop- 
 ment, and construction of electrical apparatus are a life 
 study in themselves. The matter of keeping abreast of and 
 securing for any enterprise the latest approved and most 
 eflficient construction and apparatus from the point of view 
 of developed results, is the function of the consulting 
 engineer. 
 
 Specifications should specify Performance, as it is the 
 
 [186] 
 
PREPARATION OF SPECIFICATIONS. 187 
 
 Results that are of essential interest to the owners of rail- 
 roads and kindred enterprises. Specifiations for prime 
 movers and generators should specify: 
 
 1. Type and general character (that is whether A. C, or 
 D. C.) 
 
 2. Capacity and overload. 
 
 3. Commercial efficiency at various loads. 
 
 4. Heating limits (for generators). 
 
 5. Excitation (whether separately or self excited and 
 at what voltage). 
 
 6. Speed, regulation, and compounding. 
 
 7. Approximate floor space. 
 
 8. Voltage. 
 
 9. Mechanical strength and mechanical features relating 
 to bearings, mountings, etc. 
 
 Motor specifications should specify: 
 
 1. Capacity and overload. 
 
 2. Heating limits. 
 
 3. Commutation (for direct current). 
 
 4. Maximum weight. 
 
 5. Efficiency at various loads. 
 
 6. Voltage which will be used. 
 
 7. Mechanical strength and mechanical features such as 
 characteristics of bearings, etc. 
 
 The development of controlling apparatus is along the 
 lines of the multiple unit type. There are now in use two 
 general types of multiple unit control apparatus. 
 
 1. Automatic control. 
 
 2. I^on-automatic control. 
 
 It should be stated that a multiple unit system of control 
 ia a system wherein the energy supplied to each or any 
 motor car of a train unit is controlled by an operator 
 (motorman) from any platform or control cab of any motor 
 car unit, or car not supplied with motors where such cars 
 are supplied with control apparatus. 
 
 In an automatic system of multiple unit car control, the 
 
laS ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 maximum rate of acceleration and, consequently, the cur- 
 rent limit is independent of the action or volition of the 
 operator or motorman, a condition which may be of im- 
 portance in the operation of high-speed systems, with rela- 
 tively short distances between stops. In a non-automatic 
 system the rate of acceleration is controlled by the rapidity 
 with which the controller handle is moved from the " OFF " 
 position to the position of maximum speed. 
 
 There are pros and cons for each system as well as in- 
 stances where one of the two systems is preferable. The 
 automatic system may be a saving safety valve where high 
 schedules with relatively frequent stops are required to be 
 naade vnth indifferent, careless, or ignorant motormen. On 
 the other hand, the non-automatic or hand control gives 
 greater flexibility and enables the motorman to make up 
 lost time by higher rates of acceleration if necessary. 
 
 It must not be supposed that a general specification is a 
 document merely skimming over the matter. Such speci- 
 fications specify essentially performance and only pre- 
 scribe methods and details where, among a number of dif- 
 ferent methods and details, certain ones of them are 
 recognized as the best. General specifications carefully pre- 
 pared by competent engineers and specifying essentially 
 performance and results required, absolutely safeguard the 
 interests of a railroad company about to let a contract 
 in toto. 
 
 In the appendix an actual specification for an inter- 
 urban electric road, prepared by the writer, is given. The 
 subject is there divided into the following sections : 
 
 1. General description of the line of the road. 
 
 2. General description of the plan of construction and 
 equipment. 
 
 3. Graduation. 
 
 4. Eoadbed. 
 
 5. Bridges and crossings. 
 
 6. Equipment. 
 
PREPARATION OF SPECIFICATIONS. 189 
 
 7. Stations (passenger). 
 
 8. General clauses. 
 
 Such specifications not only state the results which are 
 required, but in the case of important installations, as shown 
 in the specification of Appendix I, usually provide for a series 
 of tests to determine whether the requirements as to the 
 efiiciency, etc., of the integers such as motors, other ma- 
 chinery and the system as a whole have been complied with. 
 
 The details of the construction contract which is based 
 upon the specifications will not here be discussed except to 
 say that it should be drawn up by the best legal talent obtain- 
 able. The function of the engineer in its preparation is to 
 jirepare for the counsel a brief, setting forth what is desired 
 for such contract. With the digest or brief and the speci- 
 fications, the lawyer is fully equipped. The less meddling- 
 the engineer does with the legal part of such contracts the' 
 greater will be his ultimate peace of mind as well as that o£ 
 his employers. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE CONSTRUOnON PERIOD. 
 
 Before and during the construction the railroad company 
 establishes and maintains for the contractor the elevations 
 and alignment finally determined upon. On each stake there 
 should be marked the amount of cut or fill. As the con- 
 tractor reports on all work his figures should be promptly 
 checked by the railroad company's engineers. 
 
 A good plan is to employ a photographer and have a 
 number of photographs made of different places on and along 
 the line before the construction is commenced. On each 
 negative is written the locality together with the date of 
 taking. As the work progresses, photographs should be 
 constantly taken and each negative labeled as indicated. 
 This is done to retain a record of the progress of the work. 
 Such photographic records in connection with accurate 
 <iiaries may be of inestimable value years later. They are 
 -especially apt to attain value where the work is through 
 ■cities in the event of subaequent damage suits, often inten- 
 tionally long deferred. In the case of a large undertaking, 
 these photographs often number several thousand, and in 
 ■connection with a carefully kept diary of the work done, 
 ■constitute an invaluable record of the status of the con- 
 struction at all periods of it. 
 
 It is also very important that a daily knowledge of the 
 progress of the work should be constantly before the engi- 
 neer or manager of construction. The best method of keep- 
 ing and developing the progress of the details of construction 
 is by the use of what are knovsm as Progress Sheets. Such 
 sheets are either in one piece (like a continuous transit line 
 and profile sheet), or are made in sections for convenience in 
 handling and reference (as described in the sectional prop- 
 erty maps), and contain the transit line or simply the " line " 
 
 [190] 
 
THE CONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 191 
 
 as a starting point. A system of colors, are then arbitrarily 
 chosen to represent, among others, 
 
 1. Graduation started. 
 
 2. Graduation completed. 
 
 3. Eoadbed ballasted. 
 
 4. Ties distributed. 
 
 5. Track steel in place. 
 
 6. Track bonding completed. 
 
 7. Third rail insulators in place, etc. 
 f. Third rail in place. 
 
 9. Distributing system completed. 
 
 These daily construction operations are indicated by 
 drawing in its proper color adjacent to the existing colored 
 line or lines, the proper succeeding lines each day. The 
 data is taken each morning from the reports required to be 
 sent in by the assistant engineers at the close of each day's 
 work. The advantages of such continuous and complete 
 pictorial records over a system of written reports are too 
 apparent to require comment. Where structural steel work 
 is involved, or where much tunneling is required, or where 
 there are many arches and subways it is only necessary to 
 adapt the color system to these forms of construction which, 
 it is apparent, can be readily done. 
 
 Careful records .should be kept of the quantity and cost 
 of each kind of work and such costs reduced to a unit basis 
 at some convenient time. Such complete records and data 
 will show the cost per cubic yard for earth and rock ex- 
 cavation, etc.; the cost per foot of pile driven; the cost 
 per lineal foot of structure for concrete or steel structures 
 or both; the cost per unit for laying track and installing 
 third rail, etc. Such individual accurate data, taken in con- 
 nection with that already noted relating to earnings per 
 capita for different populations, etc., are the stock in trade 
 of the engineer. Contracting engineers or engineers repre- 
 senting contractors generally have the best facilities for 
 obtaining such detail data. 
 
192 ELEGTRW RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 The time for the starting of any new road is preferably 
 during the early months of the summer, or before the sum- 
 mer shall have so far advanced that the pleasure traffic vsdll 
 be lost. There is always an immense amount of pleasure 
 riding during the hot days and evenings of the summer 
 months. If a road can be started early, it is probable that 
 the riding habit can be largely developed during the sum- 
 mer months, a condition which will have a marked and 
 material effect upon the future receipts. Furthermore, the 
 always relatively heavy sunmier receipts are an agreeable 
 ■offset, in the minds of the stockholdei-s, to those additional 
 inaugural expenditures which sometimes occur before the 
 ■operatijon can be systematized and brought dovra to a stable 
 basis. The sunimer receipts also generally more than pro- 
 vide for the first interest payment. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE OBGANIZATION OF THE OPERATING DETAETMENT. 
 
 Before the work of the contractor is concluded, the rail- 
 way company will necessarily have to commence the organi- 
 zation of its operating department. The subsequent success 
 of any enterprise will depend essentially upon the capacity, 
 characteristics, and experience of the directing heads. Each 
 department should be presided over and the results thereof, as 
 well as every person connected therewith, should be entirely 
 subject to the head of such department. Competent one- 
 man power is always accompanied with good results. All 
 employees of any department should feel that they hold 
 their positions subject to the head of the department. The 
 successful discharge of the functions of any detail depart- 
 ment, viewed from the point of view of operating costs, 
 invariably requires men possessing more than technical 
 talents or attributes. A study and a knowledge of human 
 nature and a recognition of and respect for the feelings of 
 others, regardless of their station in life, are often the 
 real controlling factors where the best results are secured. 
 
 It is especially desirable to avoid too much organization 
 and especially divided authority. It is safe to say that 
 a majority of the failures in business enterprises are due to 
 either or both of these causes. 
 
 , It is also well not to forget that transportation systems, 
 and consequently the men in charge of such systems, are 
 the servants of the public, and dependent upon the public. 
 Any disregard of the public is almost certain to be succeeded 
 by some undesirable consequences. 
 
 In the operation, as well as during the construction of 
 a railroad, as stated in the preceding chapter, it is of the 
 utmost importance that the chief engineer, manager, or other 
 responsible head of the company should keep himself con- 
 stantly in touch with and informed as to the progress and 
 13 
 
104 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 cost of all of the details. In, order to do so, accurate detail 
 records must be kept, necessitating the employment of 
 clerks or assistants to daily segregate, reduce, and compile 
 the data. In the case of large roads, the proper keeping 
 of the detail records may require the employment and con- 
 stant application of a number of assistants for this purpose 
 alone. 
 
 One of the most advantageous investments any railroad 
 company can make is that required for the payment of 
 the cost of producing and keeping accurate detail data of 
 the operation of its property. The investment is, of course, 
 that involved in the salaries of the required assistants, to- 
 gether with the materials which will be used in the gather- 
 ing and reduction of the data. Whenever an engineer or 
 manager is heard to scoff at, and deride such detail data 
 and work, it is safe to say that it is but a question of a 
 short time before he will run his course. Such men are 
 generally too ignorant to appreciate the absurdity of try- 
 ing to successfully conduct a business without such informa^ 
 tion constantly before them as will enable them to pene- 
 trate each detail, and its variations. Without some detail 
 system, how is an engineer or manager to know where a 
 " leak " or unnecessary outlay is occurring? If a manager 
 does not know where a leak or leaks of a system exist or 
 are liable to develop, his retention is unfortunate for bis 
 employers, to say the least. The operating costs as a whole 
 are but the sum of the costs of the separate details, and it 
 is upon the details that attention must be centered in any, 
 attempt to affect the operating cost as a whole. 
 
 Operating costs are always reduced to a unit basis. For 
 steam roads certain costs are reduced among others to the 
 basis of: 
 
 1. Cost per ton mile, which means the cost of carrying 
 a ton of freight one mile. 
 
 2. Cost per passenger mile, which means the cost of carry- 
 ing a passenger one mile. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF THE OPERATINQ DEPARTMENT. 195 
 
 3. Cost per engine mile, whicli means the cost of labor, 
 fuel, repairs, etc., for each mile run by a locomotive. 
 
 4. Cost per annum per mile of road, or mile of track, as 
 a basis for reducing one of the items of cost of maintenance 
 of way and structures. 
 
 Steam roads have a vast amount of other statistical data, 
 such as passenger miles per mile of road; ton miles per mile 
 of road, vrhich are obtained by dividing the total number of 
 miles traveled by all passengers, that is, the " passenger- 
 miles " by the total length of road in single track ; or the total 
 number of " ton-miles " by the length of road in single track. 
 
 I have here indicated a few of the many units to which 
 operating costs are reduced by steam roadsi for purposes of 
 comparison, as well as to keep themselves posted about the 
 details of what they are doing. The freight and passenger 
 receipts are also reduced to unit bases, by steam roads. 
 
 For electric railroad operation the most serviceable unit, 
 and the one now generally used is the Car Mile Unit. Under 
 this system the separate details of the operating costs are re- 
 duced to the cost per ear mile. The process consists simply in 
 dividing the detail costs of the separate items for a given 
 period by the total car mileage operated for the same period. 
 The car mileage is obtained from the daily reports of the 
 motormen and conductors, which show: 
 
 1. The number of the car (or of each car, if trains are 
 operated). 
 
 2. The number of trips each car has made. 
 
 3. The division over which the car or cars have run. 
 
 As the length of each division or " run " is linown, from 
 this and with the total number of trips, it is an easy matter 
 to ascertain the daily mileage of each car, and therefrom the 
 total daily car mileage. Such car mileage data are tabulated 
 and entered in the ear mileage books each day by office assist- 
 ants, and this work requires but a short time each day. 
 
 To facilitate such work it is a good practice to prepare 
 curves, showing the relation between the number of trip.j 
 
196 
 
 ELECTRIC RAIL^VAY ECOSOMICH. 
 
 and corresponding miles run for each division or " run." 
 The data are all then readily taken from such curve sheets. 
 One who has never employed this method will be surprised 
 to find how simple and easy it is to keep iip such a system, 
 and far more surprised at the excellence of the results pro- 
 duced, and the value of such data, if the work is intelligently 
 and faithfully done. 
 
 For the purpose of facilitating reference to and compari- 
 son of such data, the diagram, Plate XI, is shown, on 
 which are graphically represented some such details, for a 
 road operated by the writer some years ago, that is the costs 
 per car mile for : 
 
 1. Operation and maintenance of power-houses. 
 
 2. The cost of motor repair. 
 
 3. The cost of car repair. 
 
 4. Costs of motormen and conductors. 
 
 5. The receipts per car mile. 
 
 These and other details were taken for each month and 
 plotted, using the horizontal axis or abscissa to represent 
 tim,e, while the vertical axis or ordinate was used to represent 
 the cost, in cents, per car mile. 
 
 For convenience the different lines of the actual charts, rep- 
 resenting the various items, were shown in different colored 
 inks. Such accurate pictorial representations are most ex- 
 cellent for use with boards of directors. They very soon 
 grasp the meaning of the rise or fall in receipts or expenses 
 as indicated by the rise or fall of the representative line. In 
 this manner the results being attained, as well as compari- 
 sons of such results, are apparent and readily comprehended. 
 This system is far preferable to the use of long rows of 
 figures in parallel columns. 
 
 The advantages of the graphical system of representation 
 are manifold. Such a system can be split up and applied to 
 every department of a street railroad, or even electric-light- 
 ing installation, and the various heads of departments 
 charged with the keeping of their records in this manner. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT. 197 
 
 The effect of compelling the keeping of such detailed graph- 
 ical records of each department, by the head of such depart- 
 ment, is remarkable and magical. 
 
 The value of a knowledge of such differences will be ap- 
 preciated when, as an instance, attention is called to the 
 fact that railway and lighting installations generally make 
 coal contracts for a period of a year or more. Such contracts 
 specify not only the amount of coal to be delivered within 
 given periods, but also invariably specify the minimum heat 
 value which such coal must have. For the purpose of check- 
 ing up such detail, as power-house coal consumption, a chart 
 can be prepared similar to that shown on Plate XI, repre- 
 senting various details of street railway operation, but show- 
 ing on it, by one line, the variations of the kilowatt hours dur- 
 ing given periods of time, and by another line, either directly 
 above or below it, the variation in pounds of coal burned 
 during the same periods. If the station efficiency be practi- 
 cally constant, that is, if the same number of pounds of 
 coal is burned to produce a kilowatt hour throughout the 
 period for which the chart is prepared, and, if all other 
 operating details of the plant remain practically the same, 
 then the kilowatt hours and the coal consumption line, 
 if plotted one above the other, will remain approximately the 
 same distance apart, notwithstanding that each will have 
 fluctuations depending upon the outpiit. If, however, 
 through the use of an inferior quality of coal, the station 
 performance becomes less efficient, the result is at once 
 shown by the coal consumption line approaching closer to 
 the energy line, if it is below the latter, or departing from 
 it, if it is the upper line. A graphical method, such as here 
 described, is an easy and apparent check upon such power- 
 house details. 
 
 The system can be farther extended to show the condition 
 of the transmission system. The method of procedure would 
 be to ascertain, by a series of dynamometer tests made upon 
 a number of cars, the watt hours required per car mile. 
 
103 ELECTRIC RAlL^yAY ECOXOMICS. 
 
 If the equipment be fairly uniform, such as regards length 
 and weignt of cars, which is generally the case, a suificiently 
 close approximation can be obtained for the total watt hours 
 required by the cars, for a given period, by simply multiply- 
 ing the total car mileage by the number of watt hours required 
 per car mile. On the same sheet, and immediately over this 
 line plot a curve representing the watt hour consumption per 
 car mile at the switchboard. These two lines should remain 
 approximately parallel to each other. In the event of their 
 deviating, it will be well to look to the transmission system, 
 such as the trolley-wire or third-rail connections, or the track 
 bonds. 
 
 Again, interesting information can be obtained by plotting 
 one line representing car miles run, another line representing 
 receipts per car mile, and another line passengers carried 
 per car mile. If the last item, that is, the passengers per 
 car mile, be again subdivided into the transfers per car mile 
 and revenue passengers per car mile, some interesting in- 
 formation of the operations of the given system will be 
 Fb.o\\n. If the subdivision, indicated in the last paragraph, 
 be applied to each division of some large system, most valu- 
 able information can be obtained, relating to transfer points, 
 etc. 
 
 In the construction or operation of a railroad I have always 
 adopted the practice of selecting a certain kind and size 
 ("usually 6" x 8" or 10" x 12") of co-ordinate paper for use 
 for such graphic records as I have just described. All of the 
 records relating to a given detail or set of items are then 
 arranged chronologically and bound together at intervals and 
 for given periods. Thus the annual records of the detail 
 cost of operation per car mile, for various items, and receipts 
 per car mile for the same period are incorporated in a bound 
 volume of thirteen sheets of which twelve are for the twelve 
 months of the year and the thirteenth is a summary of the 
 twelve, representing the variations per month and such 
 other additional items as can only be satisfactorily obtained 
 
ORGANIZATION OF THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT. 199 
 
 and represented for such periods as a month. Such bound 
 sets are then supplied to the officers and directors of the 
 company. 
 
 Considerable space has been given to some of the manifold 
 and important applications of the diagrammatic representa- 
 tion of the details of the engineering and operation of rail- 
 roads, on account of its great importance in connection with 
 work of this kind. The successful conduct or operation of a 
 railroad requires, simply: 
 
 Firsit. That education, knowledge, and training or experi 
 ence which enables a managing engineer to know the ap- 
 proximate conditions which should obtain in a properly 
 installed and properly operated railroad or railroads. 
 
 Second. That education, knowledge, and training or ex- 
 perience which enables him to penetrate the cause or causes, 
 as well as to know how to remedy any abnormal or improper 
 conditions so soon as they develop. 
 
 Third. A method of at once detecting abnormal or im- 
 proper conditions. 
 
 The first two conditions are acquired by study and experi- 
 ence. The third is an almost indispensable adjunct of the 
 other two, and is certainly best obtained by the use of the 
 diagrammatic or graphic methods we have been discussing. 
 As language is but an expression of thoughts, ideas, etc., 
 and as the science of mathematics is simply a language, so 
 such charts may be said to be a language, of the most terse 
 and lucid kind to those who will devote the small amount of 
 time required to understand it. 
 
 Reference should also be made to the necessity for peri- 
 odic, thorough, and comprehensive systems of tests compris- 
 ing every detail of the installation. As a stitch in time saves 
 nine, so incipient irregularities revealed by systematic tests 
 not only save expensive repairs, and avoid high operating 
 costs, but the unpleasantness of unlooked-for breakdowns 
 and casualties frequently causing cessation of operation, and 
 even loss of life. 
 
200 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 In these diagrams and charts the writer has given only 
 a few of the most interesting and commercially valuable 
 applications of a well-known and existing process. Hereto- 
 fore the process has been confined chiefly to mathematical, 
 laboratory, and other more technical applications, but he 
 trusts that the few valuable applications shown of this simple 
 system will demonstrate to the reader the value of develop- 
 ing habits of thought and research. The result of the proper 
 development of such habits is a Creative Mind, which is the 
 keystone of the successful engineer. The sides of the arch 
 which is maintained by such a keystone must rest on Thought 
 and Learning. Learning, without accomjDanying or subse- 
 quent thought, is labor lost. Thought unassisted, and not 
 directed by learning, is dangerous. Among the stones of 
 the figurative arch we are conceiving must be those of Hard 
 Work, Painstaking Effort, Determination, Application, Up- 
 rightness, and Prudence. If the materials for this arch be 
 good and allowed to season, the star of success will inevitably 
 be found firmly mounted upon the keystone. 
 
CHAPTER XVni. 
 
 ECONOHIC CONSIDERATIONS DETERMINING THE MAGNI- 
 TUDE AND DETAILS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 
 
 Among the most important and trying economic ques- 
 tions relating to the design, construction, and operation of 
 high-speed electric railways reaching well out of the con- 
 gested centers of population, which the designing and man- 
 aging engineers are called upon to decide, are those relating 
 to the character of construction and equipment to be 
 adopted, and the character and kind of service to be given. 
 
 These considerations may be stated as follows : 
 
 1. Number of tracks to be installed. 
 
 2. Speed, headway, and size of the train units. 
 
 3. Weight of rails and characteristics as affecting costs, 
 of ties, ballast, block system, and other details of permanent 
 way. 
 
 4. Character of rolling stock and power stations and trans- 
 mission system, together with the location and number and 
 character of the passenger stations. 
 
 All of the foregoing are functions of the estimated gross 
 earnings of the proposed installation. The earnings must 
 be taken as the starting point. At the present time the plans 
 of some proposed systems appear to indicate a tendency, in 
 some instances, to do too much. There appears to be in some 
 cases a lack of appreciation of the proper relations which 
 should obtain between fixed charges and the estimate^l 
 gross receipts. In some eases which I have investigated, the 
 fixed charges upon installations, as proposed, equal 40 per 
 cent, to 50 per cent, of the estimated gross receipts, a margin 
 far too close for safety. For the cases of a number of the 
 higher class steam roads in operation the fixed charges are 
 found to vary between 20 per cent, and 30 per cent, of their 
 actual receipts. On account of the demonstrated abilltv of 
 electric systems to develop business more rapidly than their 
 
 [201] 
 
202 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 Steam predecessors the above ratio of the steam lines may at 
 times be exceeded in such cases where the estimated earn- 
 ings have been conservatively made by experienced engi- 
 neers. It is always best, however, to keep on the safe side 
 and let the earnings, after the proposed system is oper- 
 ating, do something toward augmenting the installation. 
 If this latter course be followed it is safe to say that the 
 officers and stockholders of the company will not have nearly 
 as many sleepless nights as they otherwise may have should 
 they too ambitiously " reach out and lead." In addition, 
 there will probably be less doing in the receivership and 
 absorbing and reorganization businesses. 
 
 Generally speaking, the idea should be to install no more 
 tracks than can be kept busy safely and satisfactorily, taking 
 care of the business in sight and which apparently will ac- 
 crue from the first few years of development on account 
 of the increased or improved facilities proposed to be given. 
 
 In applying the foregoing statement, the question of speed 
 must never be lost sight of. Relatively high speed, being 
 the raison d'etre for these roads, must be maintained. Again, 
 in attempting to get as much out of a pair of tracks (single- 
 track roads being out of the question) as possible, it must 
 not be lost sight of that while the capacity of a given instal- 
 lation with a given schedule speed can be increased by grad- 
 ually adding train imits up to a certain point, a limit will be 
 reached, after which, on account of the headway require- 
 ments, any increase in the number of units will necessitate a 
 reduction of the schedule speed, and if carried far enough, 
 the carrying capacity will be actually reduced. Any material 
 reduction of schedule speed will probably also caiise a loss of 
 traffic. If a schedule speed of 30 miles per hour has been 
 determined upon as that which will be required for a given 
 territory, the idea should be to ascertain the maximum 
 capacity of say two tracks for the proposed road when operat- 
 ing at that schedule speed. If it be ascertained that the 
 two tracks will not be sufficient, at the determined schedule, 
 
ECONOMIC COXSIDERATIONIi OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 203 
 
 to carry the maximum estimated business, then a third track, 
 to be used for express trains going one way during the morn- 
 ing and the other way in the evening, should be estimated 
 upon. It will gejierally be found that wherever a third 
 track is warranted the conditions will generally admit of 
 the small additional outlay required for a fourth track. The 
 additional costs are those required for the relatively slight 
 additional graduation (earth and rock-work) and the addi- 
 tional rails, ties, and ballast, and the labor of installation. 
 In cases of supplying the suburbs of cities as IvTew York, 
 Boston, Paris, London, Berlin, Chicago, and San Francisco, 
 and similar cities, it will generally be a question of deter- 
 mining whether two tracks or four tracks should be installed, 
 and the safe and conservative solution will always be arrived 
 at by considering the comparative ratio of the different fixed 
 charges which two, three, or four tracks will impose to the 
 probable gross receipts, estimating the gross receipts for the 
 conditions which will exist when the road conmiences oper- 
 ation. In some instances, where a rapid growth and de- 
 velopment is apparent, as about ISTew York City and London, 
 such future development must be allowed for in the original 
 design. As an illustration of such comparisons, I shall as- 
 sume a set of conditions about as they will be found to arise, 
 as follows : 
 
 Suppose the estimated gross receipts of a proposed road 
 are $900,000 per annum. Suppose, furthermore, that a two- 
 track road could be installed to do this business for $5,000,- 
 000, and that a four-track road would cost $6,000,000. The 
 fixed charges for the two-track road, at 5 per cent., will be 
 $250,000 per- year, while on the same basis, those for the 
 four-track road will be $300,000. The annual operating 
 expenses, taxes, and insurance would be about $500,000 for 
 the conditions assumed for the two-track road, leaving for 
 the two-track road $400,000 for fixed charges, etc. Deduct- 
 ing the $250,000 fixed charges of the two-track road would 
 leave $150,000 annually to be applied to unforeseen contin- 
 gencies, betterments, and the sinking fund account. 
 
204 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 If we assume that we will run approximately the same 
 number of train units between the termini daily for the f our- 
 track road at the start, the operating costs will be about the 
 same. In order to justify such an assumption it would, of 
 course, be necessary to reduce slightly the schedule of the 
 two-track road, which can at times be done. 
 
 For the case of the four-track road we will then have left, 
 after deducting say $525,000 for the annual cost of oper- 
 ation, taxes, and insurance, the sum of $375,000 for fixed 
 charges, etc. If we now deduct the fixed charges of $300,- 
 000 we have left $75,000 for tmforeseen contingencies, bad 
 times, betterments, and sinking fund, a margin which is 
 somewhat too small for the solid comfort of the bondhold- 
 ers and the stockholders, especially that of the stockholders. 
 In fact, an enterprise starting upon its career upon the last 
 basis might well be called a " receiver's delight," a " re- 
 organizer's joy," or a " stockholder's obsequies " installation. 
 A four-track installation for the case we have assumed 
 would only be justified where a great immediate develop- 
 ment along the line of the road was apparent. Even then 
 the engineer should prepare statements of both conditions, 
 as above outlined, and submit them to the bankers or un- 
 derwriters so that they will have full knowledge of the 
 relative conditions and contingencies. 
 
 The development of large cities and the consequent ap- 
 parent exceeding of the capacity limits of some existing rapid 
 transit or urban rapid transit systems has offered oppor- 
 tunity for much lay, semi-professional, and even so-called 
 enis'ineering criticism of the shortsightedness of the origi- 
 nators of such transportation systems in not installing more 
 tracks at the time of the original construction. If such 
 critics will investigate they will ascertain that, generally 
 speaking, such roads have been hard pressed for many years 
 to make ends meet, and that they are only now reaping thoir 
 hard-earned fruits. A little thought will also show that had 
 such systems at the outset provided installations adequate 
 
ECONOMIC OONSIDERATIOyS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 205 
 
 to do the business they are now receiving, they would cer- 
 tainly, in years past, have suffered financial difiiculties to 
 state it mildly. As a general rule promoters and financiers 
 are fairly healthy, and in cases where they are not entirely 
 so there are other and milder means than that of placing 
 large amounts of money in relatively certain jeopardy, by 
 reaching out and leading, of recruiting their exhausted 
 energies. So much for the permanent way. 
 
 It is apparent that the matter of schedule speeds, as re- 
 lated to costs of operation, is not generally understood. 
 
 The schedule speed may be a large factor in determining 
 the commercial success or failure of an enterprise. As an 
 illustration, by referring to Table III, we see that the watt- 
 hours per ton-mile, allowing a stop every two miles, required 
 for a 40-mile per hour schedule, are 142, while for a 35-mile 
 per hour schedule there are required about 99 watt-hours 
 per ton-mile. If we assume, as an average, a road 30 miles 
 long, over which are made 100 round trips per day, with 
 cars weighing 45 tons each, and assuming a loss of 25 per 
 cent, between the motors and the main power station switch- 
 board and taking the cost of energy at $.006 per kilowatt 
 , , 100X30X3X45X0 006X365X142 <i>-< i ^ neo on 
 hour we have o 75 x lOOO ^$111,952.80 as 
 
 the cost of operating the 40-mile per hour schedule with 
 
 . T ., ,100X80X3X45X0.006X365X99 ^fro nei rr, 
 smgle car units and o 73 x lOOO =$78,051.60 
 
 as the cost -of operating the 35-mile per hour schedule with 
 single units. 
 
 The difference between these costs is $33,901.20, which, at 
 5 per cent., is the interest on $678,024. For a road 30 
 miles in length, the time between termini for the 35-mile' 
 schedule would be 51.4 minutes, while the time for the 40- 
 mile schedule would be 45 minutes; a difference per trip 
 of 6 . 4 minutes. This matter is also well brought out in the 
 " run curves " shown in preceding chapters and in the plates. 
 
 The very best materials and construction only should be 
 employed for the permanent way and the rolling stock, as it 
 
200 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 is only by so doing that the maximum safety can be assured 
 to the travehng public, which must always predominate in 
 considering costs of construction. Accidents are always 
 costly, as are also conditions of uncertain operation and 
 •delays. The public will not patronize a road upon which 
 accidents are frequent or whereon uncertainty of operation 
 or delay is at all marked. Inferior permanent way and 
 rolling stock is, therefore, equivalent to burning the candle 
 at both ends on account of the natural reduction of receipts, 
 for the reasons stated above, and the additional increase of 
 operating and maintenance costs which always maintain on 
 poorly engineered and poorly installed railways. 
 
 Regarding the determination of the details of the passen- 
 ger stations. Elsewhere in this book, it has been brought out 
 that the location of the stations may have a material in- 
 fluence upon the business which the road will do, depending 
 upon whether the stations are located so as to render them 
 easy of access or otherwise. The matters of the general 
 design, size, finish and specific details of the station will 
 have to be determined separately for each case. 
 
 In designing the stations, however, the object should be to 
 provide stations whereon the annual aggregate salaries of 
 ticket sellers and attendants will be a minimum. If ticket of- 
 fices be placed along each side of the roadway at each station 
 this will not be the case. The stations between the tracks on 
 some elevated systems, known as " island stations," are ex- 
 amples of minimum operation and maintenance cost idea. 
 About half the annual attendance is required for such sta- 
 tions as compared with those on each side of the tracks. The 
 objection sometimes urged against the " island station " 
 system is that people who are so disposed can ride back and 
 forth any number of times after paying a single fare. 
 
 In connection with the development of the engineering 
 details, of a road with which the writer has been connected, 
 the tracks of which will be upon a private right of way 
 throughout, and furthermore, upon earth or rock cuts or fills, 
 devised and recommended the following station plan. 
 
EC0:N0MIC CONSIDERATlOlSi^ OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 20T 
 
 Wherever tlie roadway is on an embankment and above 
 the grade of the streets, the station is to be constructed by- 
 providing under the roadway and approximately at right 
 angles to the tracks, a passage-way or tunnel extending en- 
 tirely across and under the railroad roadway and 50 feet or 
 more, as may be required, in width. The width of this pas- 
 s&,ge-way would, of course, be along the length of the tracks. 
 In the center of this passage-way is to be one ticket office, 
 provided with proper approaches, from each side of the road- 
 way; and inside of and beyond the ticket office are to be wait- 
 ing-rooms, etc., and the stairs ascending to the island plat- 
 forms between the tracks. This underground passage-way is 
 to be of the concrete-steel construction. Where the tracks are 
 in a cut, at station locations, and consequently beneath the 
 surface of the streets, the design provided for a concrete- 
 steel structure over and entirely across the tracks, wherein 
 is located one ticket office, as before, with waiting-rooms, 
 etc., inside the ticket office, and stairs descending to the 
 island platforms. Stations of this kind are worth about 
 $8,000 each. 
 
 It is evident that the same plan can readily be used for a 
 two-track road. 
 
 Where a high speed electric railway crosses a public high- 
 way or other railroad, either above or below the grade of the 
 other road, the design of such a crossing, especially where it 
 is below, and consists of a subway of greater or less length, 
 may exercise considerable effect upon the subsequent cost of 
 operation of the system as it may determine the limiting 
 length of the cars where train are used. Elsewhere in this 
 book I have stated that a high-speed road should be designed 
 throughout as to permit of the operation of any of the cars 
 now used by steam railroads and gave my reasons for such 
 a construction. There is, however, another reason of es- 
 sentially an economic kind. As an illustration, suppose 
 that upon a given road it has been found that on account 
 of the dimensions of part of the subways it will not be 
 possible to use a car more than forty feet in length, and 
 
:2i:^ ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
 
 tliat train units of three such cars will be required. It 
 is apparent that train units consisting of two sixty-foot 
 cars would cany the same number of people as the three- 
 iorty-foot cars, and, allowing one conductor or guard per 
 car, at an operating cost of one man per train unit less. 
 It is easy to see that if train units be operated for any con- 
 siderable part of the day, the length of the cars becomes a 
 most important consideration and economic factor of the sub- 
 sequent costs of operation. Mistakes of the kind have oc- 
 curred and are now practically the cause of considerable addi- 
 tional iixed costs of operation, which could have been avoided 
 had such apparently small details been given that thorough 
 and competent consideration at the outset which their econ- 
 joniic importance demands. 
 
 The marvelous activity for some years past in the various 
 ^branches of electric railroading and kindred engineering and 
 financial enterprises has required the frequent retention of 
 engineers and experts for the purposes of making investiga- 
 tions, reports and recommendations. Some of these reports 
 are remarkable for what they do not contain. When a banker, 
 financier, or investor employs an engineer to make a report, it 
 appears to me that while he may be interested to know exist- 
 ing conditions, and the statistics showing results from roads 
 approximately similar to the proposed enterprise he may have 
 ' in hand, he is essentially trying to find out " what to do." 
 That is, shall he reorganize an existing company, and if so, 
 how much money will be required to do it, and for what, and 
 what will be the commercial and economic result of such re- 
 organization and outlay, and what will be the best plan of re- 
 organization ? Or if it be a new enterprise the question 
 simply is : Shall he " go in " and is it " a good safe thing ? " 
 and if so, why ? 
 
 Engineers or experts in making reports often appear to 
 forget or ignore the fact that the essential value of their 
 reports lie in the conclusions, and a brief statement of the 
 bases for these conclusions. The body of a report may con- 
 
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 209 
 
 tain as much statistical detail and general data as may be 
 required to pad out the document to make its outward ap- 
 pearance justify the fee, but the client, upon receiving thf 
 document will generally search the index for that part of the 
 report giving the conclusions, and the bases therefor. Often 
 the search is in vain. 
 
 Among some reports which have recently been submitted 
 to me for analysis was one consisting of 9Y pages of legal 
 cap size paper, and literally bristling with statistics, etc., but 
 which did not contain one positive conclusion or recommenda- 
 tion. The expressions " it would appear " and " U seems " 
 which have so long and so faithfully served the members of 
 the legal profession have no business in the vocabulary of men 
 representing themselves as railway engineers or experts. 
 14 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 The following specifications prepared by the author for a high-speed 
 electric road between New York and Port Chester have been added: 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS. 
 
 The work to be done consists in supplying all of the material and 
 labor necessary for the construction and equipment of the railroad of the 
 7}}ew York & Port Chester Railroad Company, as provided in the fol- 
 lowing specifications. 
 
 The specifications are grouped in subdivisions, as follows: 
 
 PAQB. 
 
 1. General Description of the Line of the Road 211 
 
 2. General Description of the Plan of Construction and Equip- 
 
 ment 213 
 
 3. Graduation 214 
 
 4. Koadbed 217 
 
 5. Bridges and crossings 222 
 
 6. Equipment 226 
 
 7. Stations 232 
 
 8. General Clauses 234 
 
 I. General Descbiption. 
 
 The railroad to be built commences at a point in the Borough of the 
 Bronx, at or near the intersection of the elevated railroad with One 
 Hundred and Forty-third street, and runs thence easterly, approxi- 
 mately paralleling One Hundred and Forty-third street, to the easterly 
 side of the Southern boulevard in the Borough of the Bronx; from this 
 point curving, and thence continuing in a northeasterly direction, ap- 
 proximately paralleling Whitlock avenue, of the borough of the Bronx, 
 to the intersection of said Whitlock avenue with Westchester avenue, 
 also in the borough of the Bronx, continuing thence northeasterly and 
 approximately paralleling West Farms road (on the west side, however, 
 of West Farms road), to Rodman place, also in the Borough of the 
 Bronx; curving thence to the right, crossing West Farms road, con- 
 tinuing northeasterly and approximately paralleling Morris Park 
 
 [211] 
 
212 APPENDIX. 
 
 avenue in the Borough of the Bronx, to Bear Swamp Road; continuing 
 thence northeasterly through the Borough of the Bronx to a point near 
 the intersection of Kingsbridge Eoad and Fifth avenue, of Mount 
 Vernon; continuing thence northeasterly through the city of Mount 
 Vernon, village of Pelham, city of New Rochelle, village of Larchmont, 
 village of Mamaroneck, town of Rye, through the village of Port 
 Chester, all in Westchester County, State of New York, to a point on 
 State line, between the States of New York and Connecticut, all as 
 shown on map accompanying this specification, marked Exhibit No. 1. 
 
 The railroad is to be built upon a private right of way to be owned by 
 the company, except along such portions of its route where public and 
 existing streets, avenues, and highways will be crossed, at which points 
 the crossings are to be made over or under the grades of such streets, 
 avenues, and highways, as shown on the profile forming a part of these 
 specifications. 
 
 The crossings of streets, avenues, and highways are to be made with ^ 
 concrete-steel arch bridges where the tracks are overhead. Where the 
 tracks are underneath, the crossings are to be made of the concrete-steel 
 slab construction, concrete-steel columns being erected between each of 
 the tracks and the outside of the roadway, upon which and the abut- 
 ments the concrete slabs are to be laid. Should it, for any reason, be 
 found impracticable or undesirable to use the concrete-steel slab con- 
 struction the concrete-arch construction may be used for the over grade 
 crossings. 
 
 Commencing at the southern terminus at or near One Hundred and 
 Forty-third street, as above defined, the roadway shall consist of four 
 tracks, which four tracks shall be carried easterly and northeasterly, as 
 above described, to a, point at or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
 Park, in the Borough of the Bronx. Continuing thence from a point at 
 or near the southeast corner of Bronx Park, in the Borough of the Bronx, 
 four tracks will be built on the line as heretofore described, and shown 
 on accompanying drawings, to the terminal station, at or near the inter- 
 section of Poningo and King streets, in the village of Port Chester, in 
 the town of Rye, Westchester county. New York State. 
 
 A two-track branch line is to be run from the main line from a, point 
 at or near the southeast corner of Bronx Park, and running in a south- 
 easterly direction to a point at or near Clason's Point, situate on the 
 East river, in the Borough of the Bronx. The total length of the road- 
 way, including the main and branch lines, will be about twenty-four 
 and nine-tenths (24.9) miles. 
 
 There will be, approximately, 17.37 miles of main line, four-track 
 construction, extending from or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
 
APPENDIX. 213 
 
 Park, in the Borough of the Bronx, northeasterly to the terminal 
 station at or near Poningo and King streets, in Port Chester. 
 
 There will be, approximately, 3.51 miles of main line, four-track 
 construction, extending from or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
 Park, in the Borough of the Bronx, southwesterly in the Borough of the 
 Bronx, to the terminal at or near One Hundred and Forty-third street, 
 as above described. 
 
 There will be, approximately, 2.8 miles of branch line, double-track 
 construction, extending from or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
 Park, to the terminal of the Clason's Point branch. 
 
 The total length of roadway from the Bronx terminal to the State 
 line, including the branch line, will be about 24.9 miles. 
 
 There will be, approximately, 91 miles of single track, 84.8 miles 
 of which will be on the main line, and 5.6 miles of which will be on the 
 branch line. 
 
 There will be about five miles of additional single track for use as 
 third and fourth tracks about the terminals and some of the stations, 
 and in and about the storage yards, car-barns, etc. 
 
 2. Geneeai. Descbiption of the Plan of Construction and Equip- 
 ment. 
 
 As already stated, the tracks are to be laid upon a private right of 
 way to be owned by the company. The tracks are to be laid having a 
 distance between centers of tracks of thirteen (13) feet. The gauge of 
 the tracks is to be the standard gauge, that is, four feet eight and one- 
 half inches. The rails to be used shall weigh not less than ninety (90) 
 pounds per lineal yard, and shall be of the standard section adopted 
 by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The rail shall be laid 
 upon the best white oak or pine ties, spaced not more than two feet 
 between the centers. The ties shall be laid on ten inches of crushed 
 stone or ballast, and the crushed stone shall be brought up between the 
 ties to a point not less than two inches from the top thereof. The 
 ballast shall be evenly distributed under each track. For two-track 
 construction the subgrade shall be not less than twenty-six (26) feet 
 in width, and for four-track construction the subgrade shall be not 
 less than fifty-two (52) feet in width. 
 
 Proper means shall be employed to drain the roadway throughout, 
 and proper provision shall be made along the line of the roadway by 
 the erection of culverts of proper size to provide for the flow of water 
 of any existing or necessary additional water-ways or streams, which 
 shall be crossed by the line of the road. 
 
214 APFEyDIX. 
 
 There shall be installed along the line of the road a block-signal 
 system of the most approved design, preference being given to such a 
 system as will automatically arrest the motion of the train in the 
 event of the operator inadvertently or otherwise passing the signal at 
 danger. The blocks shall be of such length as will be most conducive 
 to the best results of operation under the schedules as herein described. 
 
 Telephone lines shall be installed en the co-npany's right of way 
 with the latest improved instruments at every station. A third rail 
 of ample cross section, and the ends of which shall be properly 
 electrically connected, shall be installed along the side of, and at a 
 proper distance from, each of the tracks. 
 
 The equipment for this road shall consist of seventy-five passenger 
 cars, fifty-five of which shall be motor cars — the rest to be equipped 
 for use as trailers or intermediate cars. 
 
 In addition to the seventy-five passenger cars, the equipment shall 
 include ten box cars for carrying express and freight shipments, five 
 of which shall be motor cars. 
 
 3. Graduation. 
 
 The graduation shall include all excavations, embankments and other 
 work required for the formation of the roadbed, station grounds, yard and 
 supply works, ditches and drains about or contiguous to the road, the 
 foundation pits of culverts and bridges, for reconstructing public or 
 private highways or roads where the same are destroyed, changed, or 
 crossed by the formation of the railroad; changing the direction of 
 channels and streams, or water-ways, and all other excavations and 
 embankments connected with or incident to the construction of the 
 road. 
 
 All work shall be done in a neat and workmanlike manner, and at 
 all times subject to the direction and authority of the New York and 
 Port Chester Railroad Company and its agents or representatives. 
 
 Materials from all excavations shall usually be deposited in embank- 
 ments. 
 
 In rock excavations, material shall be taken out to one foot below 
 subgrade, and filled in again to subgrade with selected rock. 
 
 Where embankments are made on side hills or upon space of old fills 
 or embankments, steps or benches shall be cut in slopes to prevent the 
 new embankment from slipping, and wherever quick sand, swamps, or 
 springs exist under proposed embankments, the material must be ex- 
 cavated, and the embankment started from firm foundation. 
 
 Emhankmenl s. — Embankments shall be made from the excavated 
 
APPENDIX. 215 
 
 material as herein specified, and, as far as possible, started at the 
 base — the full width indicated by the slope stakes — and built to the 
 slope in layers, each not exceeding three feet in thickness. 
 
 In depositing filling material against abutments, piers, or walls, 
 such filling material shall always be dumped away from the masonry, 
 never toward it; as the shrinkage of the material is always in the 
 direction in which it fiows when dumped, especial care must always 
 be taken to cause the shrinkage thrust to be away from the masonry 
 structures. Where material is tamped or rammed after dumping, the 
 ramming shall be done by vertical blows. 
 
 Where there is any special choice of material, the best material 
 should be used at the foot of slopes, on slopes, and on tops of embank- 
 ments. 
 
 Borrow pits. — Borrow pits, when used, shall be confined to such 
 forms as the railroad company may direct, and in all cases a berme of 
 not less than ten feet shall be left outside of the foot of an embank- 
 ment, and one of not less than three feet wide inside of the railroad 
 comprny's property line. Side slopes of borrow pits shall be subject 
 to the direction of the railroad company. 
 
 The borrow pits shall be uniform in width and regular in form, 
 with provisions for sufficient fall, and for proper drainage to the next 
 borrow pit or nearest water course adjoining the railroad land. Borrow 
 pits shall not be gouged out so as to unnecessarily disfigure the land. 
 
 No borrow pit shall be made in or around the stations or railroad 
 yards. 
 
 Excavation. — ■ The contractor will be permitted to adopt the open 
 cut or such other methods of excavation as he may prefer, with the 
 following conditions : 
 
 1st. Ready access must at all times be given to all fire alarm boxes 
 and fire hydrants along the line of this work. . 
 
 2d. No two consecutive streets shall be closed at the same time. 
 
 3d. Through the tract of land now known as Morris Park, situated 
 between Bear Swamp road and Williamsbridge road, in the Borough of 
 the Bronx, New York City, the contractor must have the tracks upon 
 which the horses run, to the extent of the full width of such tracks 
 which will be crossed by the line of this railroad, as such tracks now 
 exist, in condition that the Spring and Autumn races can be carried 
 on as they now are carried on. That is, there shall be no interrup- 
 tion of the races on account of the prosecution of this work. The 
 contractor shall also leave each race track in Morris Park, crossed 
 by the line of this road, in as good condition as such tracks now 
 are for racing purposes, when the work shall be completed, by providing 
 
210 APPENDIX. 
 
 under crossings, as herein provided, and back filling with the same 
 material as is now there. The work of crossing the race tracks and 
 finishing the work upon the said tracks shall be done to the satis- 
 faction of the owners thereof. 
 
 Such portions of the Quintard and Palmer estates as are located on 
 South Main street, in the village of Port Chester, shall be left as they 
 now are when the work is completed, that is, should an open-cut ex- 
 cavation be there employed, the roadway shall be constructed and com- 
 pleted and the cut then back filled and the surface left as found. The 
 contractor may tunnel through the Quintard and Palmer estates and 
 under the Morris Park track should he desire. 
 
 In all cases of tunnels, the space for the passage of the cars shall 
 be fifty-four feet wide (clear inside width), by eighteen feet in height, 
 from the top of the subgrade to the lowest part of the roof, in the 
 event of the arch construction being employed. 
 
 The construction of any and all tunnels shall be like that of the 
 under crossings as herein provided. 
 
 Slopes. — The character of the ground shall determine the side slopes 
 on embankments and excavations. The slopes must, in all cases, be 
 such as to provide a, firm, solid bank, which will not break loose or 
 slide or slip on account of vibrations, or rains, or other causes. In all 
 eases of loose or uncertain embankments or excavating, the contractor 
 shall give the sides such slopes and employ such retaining walls as 
 will produce a structure of the most stable and substantial kind. 
 
 Removal of material. — All excavated material not required for em- 
 bankments or otherwise, in connection with this work, shall be removed 
 by the contractor. Such removal shall be done as the work progresses 
 and all dumping, etc., shall be done in conformity with all municipal 
 or other local and United States regulations, relating to the disposal 
 of such materiaJs within the territory within the jurisdiction of such 
 municipalities or local bodies or the United States government. 
 
 Piling. — ■ Wherever piles are used, whether in foundations, or for the 
 purpose of sustaining any part of the roadway or structures, the piles 
 shall be of good quality of sound white oak or other acceptable timber. 
 The piles must be straight, and be not less than ten inches in diameter 
 at the small end, and fourteen inches in diameter at the large end. 
 The piles shall be of such length, as to, in all cases, form a safe and 
 solid foundation for any structure which may be built upon them. 
 
 Piles shall be driven with a 2,000-pound hammer, with a fall of 
 twenty-five feet, and must be driven to refusal, or until the total settle- 
 ment under the last two blows does not exceed one inch. 
 
 Wherever pile shoes are necessary, they must be provided by the 
 contractor. 
 
APPENDIX. 217 
 
 4. Roadbed. 
 
 When the graduation is completed to subgrade, the ballast shall 
 then be deposited upon the subgrade. 
 
 Ballast. — The ballast shall be of the best crushed stone or other ma- 
 terial equally as good. The right is reserved to the contractor to obtain 
 the ballast by crushing such stone as may be required to be excavated 
 for the construction of the railroad vrherever such excavated stone shall 
 be of such quality as will produce a ballast equal to the best crushed 
 stone ballast as herein provided for. Such stone, however, shall be 
 crushed so that no stone shall have a greater diameter than three inches 
 in any direction. The contractor shall not use in the construction of this 
 road any ballast which will produce clouds of dust in the operation of 
 the road. 
 
 Cross ties. — The standard cross ties are to be eight ( 8 ) feet long, 
 six (6) inches wide, and eight (8) inches deep, and to be laid as here- 
 tofore provided, with not more than two feet between the centers of 
 ties. All cross ties are to be laid at right angles to the center line of 
 the track. All ties are to be evenly spaced, and the line must be kept 
 on the east ends of the ties. At all joints, selected ties shall be used. 
 
 On all viaducts, or in cases where ballast is not used directly under 
 the ties, the ties shall be sawed, having the opposite faces exactly 
 parallel. The dimensions of said sawed ties shall be six (6) inches, 
 by eight (8) inches by eight (8) feet. 
 
 Exact length ties shall be used in all eases where special work of 
 any kind is required or installed. In all cases where special work shall 
 be required, extra length ties shall be used to such extent and shall be 
 of such quality as to produce a construction equal to that of the 
 highest class railroad construction used in this country. 
 
 The contractor shall also provide extra ties of ample length to pro- 
 vide for the proper mounting or anchoring of the third-rail insulators 
 or pedestals. 
 
 The ties used in this construction shall be either the best white oak 
 hewed ties, or the best quality of heart yellow pine tie. Should yellow 
 pine be used, they will only be permitted on the tangent or straight 
 portions of the track. On all curves, and in and about all special 
 work, the best white oak ties shall be used. 
 
 Rail composition, length, etc. — The rails shall be of a, uniform length, 
 which shall not be less than thirty-three feet at a temperature of sixty 
 degrees (60°) Fahrenheit. 
 
 Short rails, to an amount not exceeding 10 per cent, of each ship- 
 ment, the length of which, however, shall not be less than twenty-four 
 feet, may be used. 
 
 All ]Sio. 1 rails shall be entirely free from flaws and other defects, 
 
218 APPENDIX. 
 
 and must be sawed square at the ends, and all burrs made by the saw- 
 shall be carefully removed by filing or otherwise, particularly under 
 the head and on top of the flange. All No. 1 rails shall be shipped in 
 ears by themselves, and shall be identified by some characteristic mark. 
 
 " Seconds," or Xo. 2 rails, to the extent of 5 per cent, of the order 
 will be received. All seconds shall be kept separate from No. 1 rails, 
 and shall be shipped in separate cars and be marked with an individual 
 or characteristic mark. 
 
 The requirements for all seconds shall be the same as for No. 1 
 rails, except that they may be accepted with a flaw in the head not 
 exceeding one-quarter of an inch. The company reserves the right to 
 have all rails loaded in the presence of its inspectors. 
 
 In all places where it shall be necessary to bend or curve the rail, 
 all such bending shall be done with an approved bender, and in the 
 most approved and workmanlike manner. No springing of rails will 
 be allowed, and wherever necessary to cut the rail, such cutting shall 
 be done with a saw and the ends thereof afterward filed down to a 
 smooth surface so as to avoid all burrs, etc. The rails shall be set 
 throughout on a tie plate placed on each tie, and the said tie plate 
 havir.g ribs running longitudinally with the cross tie. All ra-ls shall 
 be 1 id with the proper opening at the joints. 
 
 \\'here\er rails are laid during the extreme heat of summer all joints 
 shall be laid tight; and if laid during the extreme cold of winter, they 
 shall be laid one-fourth inch open. When the temperature of the air 
 is at the freezing point, joints shall be laid open three-sixteenths inch; 
 at fifty degrees, open one-eighth inch; at seventy-five degrees, open one- 
 sixteenth inch, and for all intermediate temperatures, the figures above 
 given corresponding to the nearest temperature. Rails shall be laid 
 so as to have a. firm bearing on each tie, and shall stand plum on the 
 tie. Each splice must be spiked to the ties through the slots provided 
 for that purpose. Each joint shall have not less than six (6) bolt 
 holes, and all nut locks shall be properly applied. 
 
 The composition of the steel used for the rails shall be subject to 
 the approval of the railroad company; qualitative and quantitative 
 analyses of the composition of all steel used for the rails for this rail- 
 road shall be submitted to the railroad company when demanded by 
 the railroad company. 
 
 Spiking. — The rails shall be spiked to each tie by four spikes, the 
 inside spikes shall be opposite to each other, and the outside spikes 
 diagonally opposite to the inside spikes. All spikes shall be driven 
 straight and firm, so that the heads will have a good bearing on the 
 rail base. Care shall be taken in spiking not to hit the rail with the 
 
APPENDIX. 219 
 
 spiking hammer; neither shall the rail be hit with the hammer to 
 drive it into position. All tracks shall be laid with broken joints, not 
 less than twelve feet apart. All joints shall be suspended joints. 
 
 Gauges. — All track gauges must be correct, and make the gauge 
 exactly four feet eight and one-half inches. The gauge line on the rail 
 is the point on the head, where the curve on the top surface of the rail 
 joins the side of the head. On curves of over four degrees, the gauge 
 of the track shall be widened to one-thirty-second inch for each degree 
 of curvature over four degrees. 
 
 Line. — The line shall be perfectly straight on tangents, and all 
 curves shall be of the logarithmic, spiral, or transition type. On all 
 curves an approved design of guard rail shall be used on both sides 
 of each rail, which guard rail shall commence at least fifty feet from 
 each end of the curve, and extend completely around the curve. 
 
 In general the elevation of the outer rail on curves shall be one 
 inch for every degree of curvature, with a maximum elevation of seven 
 inches. The full elevation of the curve should not be given at the 
 P. C. or P. T. The point at which to commence the full elevation is 
 approximately where the tangent offset from the tangents at each end 
 of the curves equals one inch. 
 
 Surfaoing. — In surfacing the track, the ties shall be tamped one 
 shovel width inside of the rail. The ends of the ties outside of the 
 rail shall be uniformly tamped to a solid and uniform bearing. On 
 tangents, the tops of the rails must be exactly level, except in approach- 
 ing curves, where the rail leading to the outer rail on the curve must 
 be made higher than the inner rail, at the rate of one inch to every 
 thirty-three feet, so as to meet the full elevation given in the curve. 
 
 Special work. — Trailing crossovers shall be installed at points 
 approximately five miles apart at each set of tracks, but at such points 
 as the railroad company may direct. At all the principal stations, 
 such as New Rochelle, Mount Vernon, Mamaroneck, and the termini, 
 trailing branch-offs shall be installed connecting the main line with 
 such branch line tracks as may be determined upon, which, however, 
 shall not exceed two extra tracks at each of the principal stations, 
 and four extra tracks at each of the termini. 
 
 All special work used for crossovers, turnouts, and side tracks in 
 and about the yards, car-barns, etc., shall be of the best material and 
 workmanship equal to that of the best manufacture in the country. 
 No cast iron frogs, joints, or mates shall be used. All special work, 
 such as crossovers, branch-offs, spurs, etc., shall be protected by heavy 
 wooden stringer guard rails, braced and anchored and fastened to the 
 ties in the most substantial and approved manner. 
 
21:0 APPEyOIJ. 
 
 An extra track, connected to the south-bound track of either the 
 local or express tracks, as may be determined by the railroad com- 
 pany, having a capacity for twenty cars, shall be constructed imme- 
 diately north of the station locates and constructed in Morris Park, 
 as herein defined. 
 
 An extra track, having a capacity of not less than six ears, shall be 
 constructed at each express station. 
 
 Loops at terminals. — At each of the terminals on the main line, 
 together with the terminal of the branch line, the contractor shall 
 install loops of ample radii to permit easy passage of the train units. 
 These loops shall be so installed as to facilitate to the utmost the 
 moving of the train units in and about the termini. The contractor 
 shall install at each terminus in such manner as will most facilitate 
 the operation, additional tracks sufficient to store at least three trains 
 of four cars each. These storage tracks shall be so designed and 
 installed that the extra trains may be safely, quickly, and easily run 
 out and placed in service whenever it shall be necessary. 
 
 Rapid Transit Subioay connections. — At or near the southeast corner 
 of Bronx park, at the point finally determined upon by the railroad 
 company, the contractor shall make provision for the depression or 
 elevation of such of the tracks of the New York and Port Chester 
 Railroad, as will be finally determined upon for use for the express 
 service. The object thereof is to provide for the connection, avoiding 
 crossing at the grades thereof the remaining tracks of the railroad as 
 herein provided, of the two express tracks of the New York and Port 
 Chester railroad with the tracks of the New York Rapid Transit Sub- 
 way, at or near the crossing of the said Rapid Transit tracks with One 
 Hundred and Seventy-seventh street in the Borough of the Bronx. 
 
 The Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company will install two 
 extra tracks on its structure for the purpose of making this con- 
 nection. These tracks will be installed by commencing at a point ap- 
 proximately One Hundred and Seventy-fifth street, and running thence 
 northwardly on a gradual descending grade, so that the two extra 
 tracks will pass under the Rapid Transit Subway structure at or about 
 One Hundred and Seventy-seventh street. Provision shall be made by 
 the contractor and he shall connect two of the tracks of the New York 
 and Port Chester railroad with the rapid transit subway tracks at or 
 near One Hundred and Seventy-seventh street, where the two extra rapid 
 transit tracks terminate, as herein above stated. Provision shall also 
 be made by the contractor to enable the New York and Port Chester 
 Railroad Company to connect its tracks with the proposed east side 
 branch of the New York Rapid Transit Subway. The contractor, how- 
 
APPENDIX. 221 
 
 ever, will not be expected or required to make any provision for the 
 connection of the proposed east side branch extending beyond the 
 terminus at One Hundred and Forty-third street, as herein provided. 
 He will be expected and required to make such provision that this con- 
 nection can be made when the east side branch of the New York 
 Rapid Transit Subway shall be under construction. 
 
 The contractor will also provide and make a physical connection 
 between the tracks of the New York and Port Chester Railroad Com- 
 pany at some point to be determined upon between East One Hundred 
 and Forty-first street and East One Hundred and Forty-third street, in 
 the borough of the Bronx, and the tracks of the Manhattan Elevated 
 Railroad Company, where such tracks of the Manhattan Elevated 
 Railroad Company cross East One Hundred and Forty-first street and. 
 East One Hundred and Forty-third street, in the Borough of the Bronx.. 
 This physical connection between the tracks of the New York and Port 
 Chester Railroad Company and the tracks of the ilanhattan Elevated 
 Railroad Company to be independent of the terminal and terminal tracks 
 of the New York and Port Chester Railroad Company to be provided by 
 the contractor, in the Borough of the Bronx, at some point between 
 East One Hundred and Forty-first street and East One Hundred and 
 Forty-third street as herein provided and as sho^^Ti en the accom- 
 panying map, Exhibit I. 
 
 The details of the design and construction of the connections with the 
 Rapid Transit Subway, and the Manhattan Elevated Railroad as herein 
 provided, shall be submitted to and approved by the New York and Port 
 Chester Railroad Company before any work shall be commenced thereon. 
 Avoidance of crossing all tracks at grade. — In and about junction 
 points and at all termini, the contractor shall so design and install 
 the work that the express and local tracks will not cross each other 
 at grade. In all such cases, one set of tracks shall be depressed or 
 elevated should it be necessary to pass across the other .set of tracks. 
 As the express tracks are to be connected with the tracks of the 
 Rapid Transit Subway Company at or near One Hundred and Seventy- 
 seventh street and Boston Post Road, in the Borough of the Bronx, and 
 as the express tracks are to be continued southward to the southern 
 terminal, the contractor shall, at a point on the express tracks between 
 One Hundred and Seventy-seventh street and Bear Swamp road, pro- 
 vide for the extension of the express tracks southwardly beyond the 
 connection with the Rapid Transit Subway tracks at or near One Hun- 
 dred and Seventy-seventh street, as herein provided, by constructing 
 two extra tracks, connecting with the express tracks, and carrying these 
 two extra tracks at the same grade as the local tracks to the southern 
 terminus, and thereby allowing the two express tracks, connecting with 
 
222 APPENDIX. 
 
 the Rapid Transit Subway tracks at or near One Hundred and Seventy- 
 seventh street and Boston Post Road, as herein provided, to pass over or 
 under the express tracks continued southwardly to the southern 
 terminus in the same manner as the two said tracks will pass over 
 or under the local tracks, as herein provided. 
 
 The connection of the branch line to Clason's Point, as herein pro- 
 Tided, with the express or local tracks, as may be finally determined, 
 shall be made without crossing any of the other tracks at grade. 
 
 The tracks of the branch line shall be connected with the main line 
 tracks with a Y connection so as to provide for a continuous service 
 from either the northern or southern terminus of the main lines to the 
 end of the branch line. 
 
 All designs for connections and crossings, avoiding grade crossings, 
 shall be approved by the railroad company before the work thereon is 
 commenced. 
 
 Bonding. — The track and third rail shall be bonded with the best 
 "bonds obtainable, such bonds to be of a size sufficient, and so made and 
 installed that one square inch of radiating surface shall be allowed for 
 ■each 800 amperes passing through the bond. 
 
 Fencing. — The entire right of way shall be fenced in. The fencing 
 shall be of a strong construction and of such kind as will keep the 
 general public off of the right of way. The fencing in of the right of 
 ■way does not, of course, include that part of it occupied by stations. 
 
 Wooden trestles, etc. — As the object of these specifications is to pro- 
 vide a roadbed and structure of the most substantial construction, and 
 whereon the cost of maintenance of way and structures shall be a 
 minimum, no wooden trestles, bridges, or spans will be allowed. The 
 tracks and structures shall be located and constructed upon the most 
 substantial earth, rock, steel, and masonry beds, structures, and 
 foundations. Where absolutely necessary, steel viaducts of the most 
 approved design and construction may be used. The permission, in 
 writing, of the railroad company shall be obtained in each case where 
 rsteel viaducts are proposed before the commencement of the construc- 
 iiion thereof. This clause is not intended to prevent the use of any 
 -temporary wooden structures erected for the purpose of facilitating 
 "the work, but such temporary structures shall be removed when the 
 Toad is tendered for acceptance to the railroad company. 
 
 5. Bridges and Ceossings. 
 As already indicated in the general description above, the crossings, 
 either over or beneath the grade thereof, of all public streets, avenues. 
 
APPENDIX. 223: 
 
 and highways, shall be made with concrete-steel bridges. All bridging of 
 streams shall also be made with the concrete-steel structure. 
 
 It is, of course, possible that in some instances, where the crossing 
 of a highway will have to be made on a long skew and where, on 
 account of such a condition, the angle of repose will be too closely 
 approximated, it will be more desirable to insert a, steel crossing. It 
 is understood that this may be done in eases where it shall be abso- 
 lutely necessary, but in no case shall a steel crossing be inserted 
 without the express permission, in writing, of the railroad company. 
 
 Concrete. — All concrete shall be made of the best quality of Port- 
 land cement, sand, and broken stone. The proportions will generally 
 be one part of cement, three of sand, and five of broken stone. The 
 stone shall be of such size that the largest stone shall pass through a. 
 two-inch ring. Before any stone shall be used in this work, it shall be 
 entirely freed from dust by being screened or washed out. All stone 
 used for concrete shall be hard and durable and free from seams and. 
 shall be at all times subject to the approval and rejection of the rail- 
 road company. All concrete shall be thoroughly mixed and well made,, 
 and well rammed before any initial set of cement takes place. 
 
 All concrete shall be deposited in regular layers of not over six 
 inches thick and rammed, and the surface of each layer shall be kept 
 clean for the deposit of the next superior layer. 
 
 In laying the concrete and in ramming the same, the ramming shall 
 continue until the water flushes to the surface. In all cases, before 
 laying any concrete on rock surfaces, the rock shall be swept clean of 
 all debris and dirt, and wherever it shall become necessary to lay 
 fresh concrete next to, or on top of, concrete in which the mortar has 
 already set, the surface of the old concrete shall be well washed and a 
 thin layer of clean cement shall then be spread over it immediately 
 previous to the laying of the fresh concrete. 
 
 All sand used in the preparation of concrete or elsewhere in this 
 work shall be coarse, clean, sharp sand, free from loam or foreign 
 matter, and shall, at all times, be subject to the approval of the rail- 
 road company. 
 
 In cases where the crossing of any street, avenue, or highway shall 
 be beneath the surface of the street, that is, shall be an under-crossing, 
 such crossings shall be made as shown on the general plan accompany- 
 ing these specifications, entitled " General Plan for Crossings Beneath 
 the Surface of any Public Highway.'' In general, this plan contem- 
 plates the erection of concrete-steel columns between each pair of tracks, 
 together with concrete-steel abutments at such a distance from the out- 
 side rail of the two outside tracks, as is shown on the drawing above re- 
 
224 APPENDIX. 
 
 ferred to. All these columns are to be proportioned to can-y the live 
 and dead loads which they will have to sustain. 
 
 Under street crossings for four track construction shall be fifty-four 
 (54) feet clear inside width, that is, the distance betvpeen the inner sur- 
 faces of the outside walls shall be not less than fifty-four (54) feet, and 
 eighteen (18) feet in height from the subgrade to the lowest part of the 
 under side of the roof. 
 
 Under street crossings for two track construction shall be not less 
 than twenty-eight (28) feet in width, and eighteen (18) feet in height 
 from the subgrade to the lowest part of the under side of the roof. 
 
 All metal used for any of the steel structures of this work before 
 leaving the shops, shall be thoroughly cleaned with wire brushes and 
 have all loose rust or scale removed, and be given one coat of pure red 
 lead, and pure boiled linseed oil, mixed in proportion with thirty pounds 
 of red lead to a gallon of oil. After erection, the metal shall again be 
 cleaned from dirt and objectionable matter that may be found thereon, 
 and then thoi-oughly and evenly painted with two additional coats of 
 paint. 
 
 All metal used for concrete-steel structures must be free from paint 
 and oil and all scale and rust must be removed before imbedding in 
 the concrete. 
 
 All overhead crossings of highways, streams, and in fact wherever 
 such crossings shall be used, shall be approved concrete-steel structures, 
 the general design and appearance of which is shown on drawing ac- 
 companying these specifications, marked " General Drawing for Over- 
 head Crossings." All such structures shall be constructed in the most 
 substantial and workmanlike manner and of the very best materials 
 obtainable. All designs shall at all times be subject to the approval- of 
 the railroad company. 
 
 After the forms shall have been removed, the structure shall be 
 carefully gone over and all inequalities carefully filled out in such 
 manner as to produce a final structure of the neatest possible appear- 
 ance. In all cases where forms are used, every precaution shall be 
 taken in setting the forms. Before any concrete is placed therein, they 
 shall be carefully cleaned of all cement and dirt, so as to present to 
 the concrete on the surface afterward exposed to sight, a perfectly 
 smooth surface. The forms shall be made of wood, kept smooth and 
 coated with soap or other suitable substances approved by the rail- 
 road company. No sheet metal-covered forms are to be used on the 
 work. All forms shall be set true to the line, and be so tight as not 
 to allow mortar and the water to escape. Forms shall always remain 
 in place until the concrete is thoroughly set; in the event of any 
 
APPENDIX. 225 
 
 pressure coming at once on the concrete, such time as the railroad 
 company may direct. In no case of an exposed surface of the concrete, 
 shall the joints of any component bases of the form or joints of. the 
 wood be visible. Should any voids or irregularities appear after the 
 removal of the form, such defective work shall be cut out and filled 
 with a rich concrete or mortar of such proportion, and done in such 
 manner as may be directed by the railroad company. 
 
 Parapets, spandrels, arches, etc. — For all subways or over-grade 
 structures, concrete parapets of the form and dimensions shown on 
 plans shall be brought true to the line and be firmly fastened in the 
 position shown. These- parapets shall be erected on each side of 
 structure along the property lines of the street, and extend from end 
 to end of retaining walls. For all arches or under-grade structures, 
 no parapets will be required. The spandrel walls shall be carried up 
 to the elevation of base of rail, and shall be provided with expansion 
 joints over the springing lines of the arches, at the points of contra- 
 flexure, and at, such other points, if anj', as are shown on plans. The 
 spandrel walls shall have a thickness of not less than eighteen inches 
 at any point, and a thickness at bottom of not less than four-tenths of 
 the height of the wall. Steel ribs or rods of proper and approved 
 design, dimensions, construction, and spacing shall be imbedded in the 
 concrete of all arches. 
 
 Each spandrel in arch bridges shall be provided with one or more 
 pieces of wrought-iron pipe for the conveyance of such electric light 
 conductors as shall be required for such lights as the railroad com- 
 pany shall order installed on the arches. 
 
 In all cases where new concrete shall be joined to old concrete, the 
 old concrete shall first be thoroughly washed and then covered with a 
 layer of clean cement upon which the new concrete shall be placed. All 
 concrete shall be kept moist by sprinkling and every precaution taken 
 to prevent it from cracking. 
 
 Cement. — No cement will be allowed to be used except established 
 brands of high-grade Portland cement which has been in successful 
 use under similar conditions to the work proposed for at least three 
 years, and has been seasoned or subjected to aeration for at least thirty 
 days before leaving the factory. All cement shall be dry and free from 
 lumps, and immediately upon receipt shall be stored in a dry, well- 
 covered, and ventilated place, thoroughly protected from the weather. 
 If required, the contractor shall furnish a certified statement of the 
 chemical composition of the cement, and of the raw material from 
 which it is manufactured. 
 
 The fineness of the cement shall be such that at least 90 per cent. 
 
 15 
 
226 APPESDIX. 
 
 shall pass through a sieve of No. 40 wire, Stubba gauge, having 10,000 
 openings per square inch, and at least 75 per cent, will pass through a 
 sieve of No. 45 wire, Stubbs gauge, having 40,000 openings per square 
 inch. 
 
 Samples for testing may be taken from every bag or barrel, but 
 usually for tests of 100 barrels a sample will be taken from every tenth 
 barrel. The samples will be mixed thoroughly together while dry and 
 the mixture be taken as the sample for test. 
 
 Tensile tests will be made on specimens prepared and maintained 
 until tested at a temperature not less than sixty degrees Fahrenheit. 
 Each specimen will have an area of one square inch at the breaking 
 section, and after being allowed to harden in moist air for twenty-four 
 hours will be immersed and maintained under water until tested. 
 
 The sand used in preparing test specimens shall be clean, sharp- 
 crushed quartz retained on sieve of thirty meshes per lineal inch, and 
 passing through a sieve of twenty meshes per lineal inch. In test 
 specimens of one cement and three sand, no more than 12 per cent, of 
 water by weight shall be used. Specimens prepared from a mixture of 
 one part cement and three parts sand, parts by weight, shall, after 
 seven days, develop a tensile strength of not less than 170 pounds per 
 square inch, and not less than 240 pounds per square inch after twenty- 
 eight days. Cement mixed neat with from 20 to 25 per cent, of water 
 to form a stiff paste shall, after thirty minutes, be appreciably in- 
 dented by the end of a wire one-twelfth inch in diameter loaded to 
 weigh one-quarter pound. Cement made into thin pats on glass plates 
 shall not crack, scale, or warp under the following treatment: Three 
 pats will be made and allowed to harden in moist air at from sixty to 
 seventy degrees Fahrenheit; one of these will be placed in fresh water 
 for twenty-eight days, another will be placed in water which will be 
 raised to the boiling point for six hours and then allowed to cool, and 
 the third is to be kept in air of the prevailing outdoor temperature. 
 
 C. Equipment. 
 
 The equipment shall be of the very best design and workmanship, and 
 subject throughout to the approval of the railroad company. 
 
 The equipment shall include all rolling stock, motors, boilers, en- 
 gines, wires, conduits, mechanisms, tools and implements, and devices 
 of every nature whatsoever which may be necessary for use in the 
 transmission of the motive power, and operation and most economical 
 maintenance and conduct of the railroad as proposed, and including all 
 power-houses, ear shops, repair shops, terminals, and real estate neees- 
 
APPENDIX. 227 
 
 sary therefor, and all apparatus for signaling, and any and all appa- 
 ratus whatsoever, of whatsoever kind and nature which may be re- 
 quired for the best operation of the railroad as designed and as 
 provided or implied in these specifications. 
 
 The passenger car rolling stock provided shall consist of seventy-five 
 passenger cars, fifty-five of which shall be motor cars, and each motor car 
 shall be equipped with four motors, that is, one on each axle, and of such 
 capacity as will enable it to make, when drawing one of the trail cars, 
 and both ears together carrying 200 passengers, a schedule speed of 
 not less than thirty miles per hour, for the express service, when 
 such express service shall be operated as now designed, making ten 
 stops between the termini, and allowing fifteen seconds for each stop. 
 In addition to the above seventy-five passenger cars, the contractor 
 shall provide ten additional freight and express cars as herein pro- 
 vided, making eighty-five cars in all. 
 
 The passenger-car equipment provided by the contractor shall be of 
 ample capacity to enable it to make, with units consisting of one motor 
 and one express car, for the local service, a schedule speed of not less 
 than twenty-five miles an hour, making twenty-one stops between 
 termini, and allowing fifteen seconds for each stop. 
 
 Each of the motors provided by the contractor for this equipment, 
 as herein provided, shall be of such a capacity that each or any of 
 them will carry a, current of 350 amperes at 600 volts continually for 
 two hours, with a rise of temperature by thermometer not exceeding 
 seventy-five degrees Cent. The weight of each of the motors provided 
 by the contractor for this equipment shall not exceed 6,000 pounds per 
 motor, including the weight of gear pinion and gear case. 
 
 Brakes, etc. — All the cars provided by the contractor for this rail- 
 road shall be provided with the latest and most approved automatic 
 power braking apparatus. All braking apparatus used on any part of 
 this equipment shall be equal to that of the best manufacture in the 
 United States, and shall be submitted to and approved by the railroad 
 company before its adoption or use by the contractor. 
 
 The braking apparatus shall be such that all of the brake shoes of a 
 train of any length will be instantly applied by the application of the 
 brakes from any platform of any car. 
 
 Unity of eqmpment. — In the selection of the motor and car control 
 equipments for the performances of the express and local train services, 
 as herein provided, the equipments adopted shall be such that all 
 motors and motor-car units shall be the same as regards capacity, 
 weight, size, and dimensions, that is, there shall be no mixing of motor 
 or control equipments or braking equipments. 
 
223 APPENDIX. 
 
 The motive power shall be electricity, of either the direct or the 
 alternating current system,— whichever system shall be determined 
 upon by the contractor and approved by the railroad company. The 
 details of the motors, controlling devices, and primary and sub- 
 stations shall be submitted to the railroad company, and shall receive 
 the approval of the said company before their adoption by the con- 
 tractor. The railroad company shall have the right to adopt such 
 improved designs, devices, paraphernalia, in connection with this 
 equipment, as it shall desire, and all such devices and designs so 
 ordered by the railroad company shall be adopted and used by the con- 
 tractor if ordered to do so prior to the acceptance of such apparatus 
 as the contractor may submit. 
 
 The cars used shall be neat and attractive in appearance, both within 
 and without. All material and workmanship shall be of the very best 
 and latest design, and special care shall be taken to avoid any device 
 which might work loose or produce noises. The cars shall be provided 
 with approved spring buffers of such design that there shall be abso- 
 lutely no jerking between the separate units upon the starting of the 
 train. All designs for ears, trucks, and devices shall be submitted to 
 and approved by the railroad company. ' 
 
 The essential characteristic of this railroad will be its speed, where- 
 fore the rolling stock shall be so designed and constructed that high 
 speeds shall be attained and maintained with the utmost comfort and 
 safety to the traveling public, and with a minimum possible cost of 
 maintenance for wear and tear upon the equipment. The electrical 
 equipment provided shall be such that the train units can be operated 
 from any platform of any motor car in any train unit. 
 
 All intermediate or trail cars (cars not supplied with motors, as 
 herein provided), shall be wired and supplied with connection plugs 
 and devices to enable all motor cars to be connected, and the train 
 operated from any platform of any motor car regardless of its position 
 in any train unit. 
 
 The length of each of the ears shall be such that the clear inside length 
 shall not be less than forty-five feet. The seats shall be arranged in such 
 manner as to provide a maximum carrying capacity per car and pro- 
 duce the utmost comfort to the traveling public, and the cars shall be 
 of a width, not less than eight feet six inches, inside dimensions, as 
 will most facilitate the passage up and down the aisles. The design, 
 material, and general arrangement of the inside of the car, including 
 the distribution of lights therein, as well as the design and arrange-- 
 ment of the outside of the car shall be subject to the approval of the 
 railroad company. 
 
APPENDIX. 229 
 
 As the element of wind resistance at the speeds which will be at- 
 tained in the operation of this railroad upon the ^schedules as pro- 
 vided, will be an important consideration in the power required to 
 operate the trains, the contractor shall adopt such a design and con- 
 struction as will, without rendering the cars impracticable or 
 objectionable to be used in connection with standard cars of possible 
 connecting railroads, or of operating upon the tracks of other railroads, 
 or without causing any discomfort or risk to the traveling public, pro- 
 duce the lowest amount of resistance. Such designs shall be subject 
 to the approval of the railroad company. 
 
 Generating plant. — ^The sizes and designs of the steam generators, 
 prime movers and electric generators used in any of the stations of 
 this company shall be subject to the approval of the railroad company. 
 
 The main generating station shall be of such design and construc- 
 tion, and shall be supplied with such apparatus as will produce results 
 equal to the best results now obtained in the costs of energy per 
 kilowatt hour. 
 
 The railroad company reserves the right herein to especially o:der 
 the contractor to install steam turbines as the prime movers, should it 
 finally conclude to do so upon the more mature investigation of the 
 details of such machines, and, in the event of the railroad company so 
 ordering, the contractor shall install such turbines as may be directed. 
 The main station shall have a capacity of not less than 12,000 kilowatts, 
 with an additional overload capacity, for a period of time not exceed- 
 ing two hours, of 25 per cent. 
 
 All of the steam generators shall be the latest and most approved 
 water-tube boilers. The plant shall be divided into such a number of 
 units as will produce a minimum cost of production when the items 
 of interest, maintenance, or depreciation and operation are all con- 
 sidered together. 
 
 The condensers shall be of the surface condenser types. 
 
 The generating stations throughout shall be equipped with such 
 devices as superheaters, fuel economizers, feed-water heaters, etc., as 
 will produce the largest quantity of energy at the switchboard per 
 pound of coal consumed. 
 
 All bends or curves in the steam or water-piping systems shall be 
 long radii curves and all such bends shall be of copper piping. 
 
 All steam and hot-water pipes shall be covered with the most ap- 
 proved and substantial heat insulation. 
 
 The main steam and main water lines of piping shall be in duplicate 
 with connections from each line to the boilers, pumps, prime movers, 
 etc. 
 
 All steam and hot-water pipe lines shall be provided with the latest 
 
230 APPENDIX. 
 
 expansion devices for taking up the variations in length due to changes 
 of temperature. 
 
 Each of the substations, which shall be located and so interconnected 
 as to best subserve the condition of reliability of operation, and reduce 
 to a minimum liability of shut-down, shall be supplied with accumu- 
 lators of the best malce, and of capacity sufficient to take the peak of 
 the load curves. 
 
 Water, water-ways, docks, etc. — The main power station, as herein 
 provided for, shall be installed at such a point where there will be 
 ample water for use in the boilers, as well as for the purpose of con- 
 densing the steam, after it shall have been used in steam prime movers. 
 The stations shall be so located that the coal and other fuel required 
 for the generation of the steam can be brought up to the company's 
 property and wharves or docks, to be erected by the contractor, on 
 barges or vessels without the necessity of trans-shipping or lightering 
 or reloading such barges or vessels in any harbor or water-way in or 
 about New York City or Westchester County. 
 
 If necessary, the contractor will dredge a channel sufficiently deep to 
 enable any and all barges or vessels to be brought up to and anchored 
 alongside the company's property where the main power-house or 
 generating station will be located. 
 
 All necessary dredging, construction of docks, etc., required for the 
 provision of the water-ways and unloading facilities, as herein indi- 
 cated, shall be done by the contractor at his expense and without any 
 extra cost to the railroad company. 
 
 Transmitting circuits. — The design of the transmitting circuits shall 
 be such that the maximum loss, under maximum average conditions, 
 between the main generating station and any substation shall not be 
 more than 5 per cent. The loss between any of the substations and any 
 point along the line of the road where current may be required, shall 
 be such that the loss, under maximum average conditions, shall not be 
 more than 10 per cent. 
 
 The installation shall provide for not less than 575, nor more than 
 630 volts, at the car-collecting device at any point along the line under 
 maximum average conditions. The third-rail installation shall be of 
 the latest design and construction and of such kind as will, as far as 
 possible, eliminate the element of liability of accident to persons on 
 the roadway. The design and construction of the third rail shall be 
 such as will, within reasonable limits, avoid all possibility of shut 
 down due to sleet, frost or snow storms. The design and construction of 
 the third rail shall be subject to the approval of the railroad company. 
 The contractor phall erect along the line of the roadway at such points as 
 
APPENDIX. 231 
 
 shall be designated by the railroad company electric lights of such 
 kind and power as shall be designated by the railroad company. The 
 total number of such lights shall not be more than 500 lights. 
 
 The design and construction of the third rail or circuits conveying 
 energy to the car contacts or car current collectors, shall be such that 
 the collectors or contacts of each motor car of each train unit will be 
 in contact with the third rail or energy-conveying circuit no matter 
 where the car may be on any part of the main or branch lines in or 
 about the termini or stations, or in or about the car yards or storage 
 yards, etc., or in crossing over or passing across any switch, cross- 
 over or other special work. There shall be no " dead " places or places 
 where a car or each motor car of a train unit cannot be moved with its 
 own motors taking current from the line. 
 
 Buildings for power-houses, carhouses, and stations, etc. — The 
 buildings for all power-houses, carhouses, substations, oar-barns, machine 
 shops, paint and repair shops, and express stations (wherever build- 
 ings shall be required for express stations ) , shall be the most substan- 
 tial brick or stone masonry structures. The brick or stone in all 
 cases shall be laid with a mortar composed of Portland cement in the 
 proportion of one part of cement to three parts of sand. The brick 
 or stone used shall be in all cases of the best quality brick or stone. 
 As already provided, the buildings for the power-houses, carhouses, and 
 machine shops shall be constructed to provide for the installation of 
 traveling cranes of ample capacity to handle the heaviest piece of 
 machinery or equipment which might ever be required in said buildings, 
 as herein specified. 
 
 All power-houses, power-stations, carhouses, substations, car-barns, 
 machine, paint and repair shops, and express stations, shall be abso- 
 lutely fire-proof. 
 
 Express and freight cars. — The contractor shall provide, in addition 
 to the seventy-five passenger ears, herein provided, ten closed boxcars, 
 to be used for the transportation of freight, express, etc. Five of these 
 ten cars shall be equipped with four motors each, which motors shall 
 be identical with those used for the passenger equipment. 
 
 The painting and outside finish of these cars shall be like that of the 
 passenger cars. The interior of these cars shall be neatly finished and 
 such partitions and lights provided as shall be directed by the railroad 
 company. The contractor shall submit the design of these cars to the 
 railroad company and receive the approval of such design before he 
 shall adopt any car. 
 
 The inside dimensions of the express and freight cars shall be not 
 less than forty -five (45) feet in length by eight (8) feet six (6) inches in 
 width by nine (9) feet high at the lowest point. 
 
232 APPENDIX. 
 
 All ears provided by the contractor for this equipment shall be so 
 designed as to permit of their miming safely over any and all parts of 
 the tracks of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company now 
 being erected in the city of New York. 
 
 Car signals and lights. — Each of the cars of this company shall be 
 provided with proper receptacles for the reception of marker or indi- 
 cator lamps at each end of the car. Each of the cars shall be provided 
 with an electric headlight of the latest and most apporved design and 
 manufacture; each car shall also be provided with complete equip- 
 ments of indicator lamps and day signals or markers of the latest, most 
 approved design and manufacture. 
 
 7. Stations. 
 
 The contractor shall provide in all, including the terminals, twenty- 
 four stations. Twenty-two of the twenty-four stations shall be located 
 on the main line, at the points shown on Exhibit No. 1. The remain- 
 ing two stations shall be located on the branch line at points shown on 
 Exhibit No. 1. The station at the end of the branch line shall be a 
 brick structure located and designed to directly connect with a ferry 
 landing at Clason's Point, that is, the ferry landing and station plat- 
 forms shall join. The terminal stations shall be adequate, and shall 
 be so designed and equipped as to comfortably provide, not only for 
 the passenger traffic, estimated to be about 50,000 passengers per day, 
 with a maximum of 10,000 per hour, but also an express and parcel 
 business. There shall be provided at some place, subject to the ap- 
 proval of the railroad company, in and about the terminal stations, 
 properly designed rooms for the receipt and disposal of light freight, 
 parcel, and express shipments. As the plans of the company contem- 
 plate the receipt of express parcels from other connecting lines, the 
 contractor shall locate the receiving rooms in such manner that this 
 express and parcel business may be handled in the most expeditious 
 manner. The terminal and express stations shall be substantial ma- 
 sonry, brick, or stone structures, finished in a neat and workmanlike 
 manner, and all the forms of design, construction, and finish shall be 
 subject to the approval of the railroad company. 
 
 The station located at or near the southeast corner of Bronx Park, at 
 the junction of the tracks connecting the express tracks of the New 
 York and Port Chester Eailroad Company with the tracks of the Rapid 
 Transit Subway Company, shall be a spacious brick or stone structure, 
 of ample capacity to handle the immense traffic and business which will 
 maintain at this station. This station shall be designed and constructed 
 
APPENDIX. 233 
 
 to provide for a, quick, safe, and easy interchange between the express, 
 local, and branch line services. 
 
 The intermediate stations along the line of the road shall be so de- 
 signed as to provide for a minimum number of men in the conduct and 
 operation thereof. The preference of the company is that vfhere the 
 tracks of its road are on an embankment, the stations shall be con- 
 structed by building an underground passage at right angles to the line 
 of the road and extending completely across the road. This passage 
 shall be of such width, not less than fifty feet, as will permit the 
 erection of the necessary ticket booths and waiting-rooms therein. The 
 plan of operation contemplates trains running in the same direction on 
 the tracks adjacent to the outside tracks, while trains on the outside 
 tracks shall run in opposite directions, wherefore the designs of the 
 company contemplate two sets of stairways for each station other than 
 the terminal station, and where four tracks are used, each set terminat- 
 ing between those tracks upon which trains are running in the same 
 direction, and coming up on to the platforms between the two tracks on 
 which trains will run in the same direction. The terminal and express 
 stations shall be fire-proof stations throughout. For two-track con- 
 struction the station or platform shall be between the tracks. 
 
 Between each set of tracks upon which trains are running in the 
 same direction as above indicated, there shall be erected platforms of 
 substantial design and construction and of such length as will enable 
 trains of not less than six cars to load and unload from any platform 
 in the train. 
 
 The stations and platforms between tracks shall be covered with a 
 roof of such design and construction as will protect the passengers 
 from the elements. The ends of the stations shall be protected by 
 suitable guards. The skeleton of the roofs of the intermediate stations 
 shall be of steel. 
 
 Wherever the tracks of the company are beneath the existing street 
 grades, etc., the preference of the company will be for the stafon 
 design as immediately heretofore provided, with the exception that in 
 the latter case the entire station will be above the roadway and ex- 
 tend across the roadway, and shall be completely enclosed and roofed 
 in to provide proper shelter for the ticket booths, waiting-rooms, etc. 
 
 The company will provide for the contractor general designs of the 
 stations as above indicated, which shall be adopted by the contractor. 
 
 All stations shall be thoroughly ventilated, lighted, and provided 
 with running water, and such retiring and other apartments as the 
 company may direct, and shall be connected to the nearest sewers in such 
 a manner as to produce the best sanitary results, and in all cases in con- 
 formity with any existing local ordinances or regulations. 
 
234 APPENDIX. 
 
 The local stations, as well as the station along the two-track portion 
 of the road at Clason's Point, need not be masonry structures. If con- 
 structed of wood, the construction shall be of the steel-frame type, with 
 an appropriate and substantial wood construction and finish. For two- 
 track construction, the stations shall be erected upon the island plat- 
 forms between the tracks, and provided with the ticket booths and 
 passage-ways so located as to best provide for the collection of the fares 
 and the safe and rapid handling of the traffic. A general drawing for 
 the two-track stations will be furnished. 
 
 All the stations on both the main and the branch line running to 
 Clason's Point shall be located as shown on the plans forming part of 
 this specification, furnished by the railroad company. 
 
 Station grounds, approaches, etc. — The contractor shall acquire and 
 deliver to the railroad company sufficient real estate at each station on 
 both sides of the tracks of the railroad company, to provide ample 
 grounds for approaches. Such grounds shall be of ample area, and so 
 divided as to provide for the driving in and out of teams carrying 
 persons and goods. 
 
 The vehicular roads for approaches in and about the stations shall 
 all be of the loop form in order to permit the continuous passage of the 
 vehicular traffic. Provision shall be made to enable vehicles carrying 
 express and light freight parcels to drive up to the stations and re- 
 ceive or discharge any goods in a manner which will not, in any manner, 
 interfere with the passenger traffic. 
 
 8. General Clauses. 
 
 The intention of these specifications is to provide, and the intention 
 of the railroad company is to install and the contractor shall, at his 
 own expense, construct, equip, provide and deliver to the railroad com- 
 pany a railroad of the latest and best type. The essential idea of the 
 construction is to provide: 
 
 First. Safety to the pullic. 
 
 Second. Reliahility of operation. 
 
 Third. Eigh schedule and running speeds. 
 
 Fourth. Minimum cost of operation and maintenance. 
 
 The essential characteristic of this railroad will be its speed, where- 
 fore all material and workmanship must be of the best class in every 
 respect. Nothing of an untried nature shall be used on this Installation 
 without the express permission of the railroad company, which per- 
 mission shall, in all cases, be given in writing. 
 
 The contractor shall at all times conduct the work so that there shall 
 be a minimum of inconvenience to the public, and all the streets and 
 
APPENDIX. 235 
 
 public places occupied by the contractor shall be cleared of all refuse 
 and rubbish at its own expense as rapidly as possible. 
 
 The right is reserved to the railroad company to order the contractor 
 to, at any time, clear away all refuse and rubbish whenever, in the 
 opinion of the railroad company, the public convenience may demand it, 
 or whenever the contractor may not show, in the estimation of the 
 railroad company, due diligence in doing so. 
 
 The principal lines and grades will be as shown on the profile which 
 will be part of these specifications. 
 
 The railroad company, however, reserves the right to change any 
 line or grade, when, in its opinion, it may be deemed expedient to do 
 so, and the contractor shall adopt any such change. In all cases of a 
 change of line or grade, the contractor shall be reimbursed for any 
 additional expense which he m.ay be put to on account of such change. 
 In case, however, of the change of such lines and grades in such man- 
 ner as to reduce the amount of work, an amount shall be deducted from 
 the contractor's total consideration. The manner and method of arriv- 
 ing at any determination of any additional consideration or any de- 
 duction to be made from the contractor, shall be provided in the contract 
 between the contractor and the railroad company. 
 
 The railroad company reserves the right, and the contractor shall 
 agree to the right of the railroad company at all times, to inspect any 
 and all material entering into the construction of this work. Agents 
 of the railroad company shall, at all times, have access to any part of 
 the work or any material used thereon, or in connection therewith, and 
 any imperfect work or material which may be discovered before the 
 final acceptance of the work shall be corrected by the contractor, not- 
 withstanding that it may have been overlooked previously by an 
 inspector. 
 
 The contractor shall erect, satisfactory to the railroad company, all 
 necessary conveniences, in conformity with local ordinances and sanitary 
 regulations, properly secluded from public observation, for the use of 
 all laborers and others employed on the work. 
 
 In all operations connected with this work, all local and other ordi- 
 nances of the cities, towns, villages, counties, etc., which shall be 
 operative and valid with respect to this work, must be respected and 
 strictly complied with by the contractor. 
 
 If, in the prosecution of this work, any material has been brought 
 on the ground for use in the work or selected for use in the work, which 
 shall have been condemned by the railroad company as unsatisfactory 
 or not in conformity with the specifications, the contractor shall im- 
 mediately remove such materials from the work, and remedy any sach 
 work in such manner as may be directed by the railroad company. 
 
23S APPENDIX. 
 
 The contractor shall employ none but the most competent, skillful, 
 and faithful men to do the work. Whenever, in the opinion of the 
 railroad company, any man or men employed by the contractor shall be 
 incompetent, or, for any reason, the railroad company shall deem him 
 or them not the proper person or persons to be connected with the work, 
 such man or men shall be discharged from the work, and shall not 
 again be employed on it. 
 
 Draifings forming part of these specifications. — The railroad com- 
 pany will furn:sh to the contractor, as part of these specifications, 
 blueprints marked as Exhibits, as follows: 
 
 Exhibit No. 1. General map showing generally the line of the route 
 between the southern terminus and the State line at Port Chester. 
 Also showing the general course of the branch line to the East River. 
 
 Exhibit No. 2. Being a set of drawings comprising fourteen sheets 
 in all, showing accurately the proposed route and the' right of way 
 real estate, being a strip 100 feet wide, as herein provided, to be ac- 
 quired by the contractor and delivered to the railroad company, ex- 
 tending from the southern terminus, to the State line at Port Chester ; 
 also showing the right of way real estate, the same being also a strip 
 100 feet wide, to be acquired by the contractor for the railroad com- 
 pany, on the branch line. These maps also show the grade lines and 
 the existing contour or elevation of the ground which will be traversed 
 by the center line of the road. The transit lines and grades shown on 
 these maps must be strictly adhered to by the contractor. Provision 
 for any unforeseen or imperative changes will be made in the contract 
 of which this specification will be a part. 
 
 Exhibit No. 3. Continuous plan and profile showing transit lines and 
 gradients, also showing approximate cuts and fills. The railroad com- 
 pany assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of the quantity or 
 quality of the excavations or embankments as shown on Exhibits 
 No. 2 and No. 3. 
 
 Exhibit No. 4. General drawings showing concrete spans and con- 
 crete subways for crossing public highways as herein provided. 
 
 Exhibit No. 5. General drawings showing plan of stations and track 
 platforms for four-track roadway as herein provided. 
 
 Exhibit No. G. General drawings showing plan of station for two- 
 track roadway, as herein provided. 
 
 Exhibit No. 7. Drawing showing distance of center of third rail 
 from center between track rails of the Rapid Transit Subway Com- 
 pany system, to guide the contractor in so designing the equipment of 
 the New York and Port Chester Railroad Company, so that its cars can 
 be run from its tracks on to the tracks of the Rapid Transit Subway 
 
APPENDIX. 237 
 
 system and operated on the Rapid Transit Subway system with- 
 out altering or changing the car-current collecting devices after 
 leaving the New York and Port Chester tracks. This drawing is only 
 intended as a guide and the contractor must assure himself about the 
 final design adopted by the Rapid Transit -Subway Construction 
 Company and the Manhattan Elevated Eaihoad Company. 
 
 Right of way, real estate, etc. — The plans of the ra.hoad company 
 are intended to provide for a, right of way one hundred (100) feet wide 
 throughout, and the contractor shall acquire and deliver to the railroad 
 company a right of way 100 feet wide throughout, except in such abso- 
 lutely necessary instances where a strip 100 feet wide cannot be ob- 
 tained without ruining valuable residence or other property, in which 
 case a lesser width may be authorized by the railroad company in 
 writing, but in no case shall such width be less than sixty-five feet. 
 In any case where a width less than one hundred (100) feet may be 
 imperative, the contractor shall first obtain the consent in writing of 
 the railroad company for such lesser or decreased width. The con- 
 tractor shall provide and deliver to the railroad company a right of 
 way extending from the southern terminus of the New York & Port- 
 chester Railroad in the Borough of Bronx, to the State line between 
 the States of New York and Connecticut, together with the right of way 
 extending from the East river at or near Clason's Point, for the branch 
 line, to the intersection of said branch line with the main line or lines 
 at or near Bronx Park, all of which is shown on the drawings forming 
 Exhibit No. 2 of this specification. The line and grades shown on 
 Exhibit No. 2 shall be strictly adhered to by the contractor. In all 
 places where are to be located stations, storage yards, car-barns, ma- 
 chine shops, power-houses, substations, and repair shops, the real estate 
 shall be ample for the purposes for which it shall be required. Before 
 commencing the work of construction, the contractor shall prepare a 
 plan showing the width of the proposed right of way for the main and 
 branch lines throughout, together with the dimensions of the real estate 
 for all the additional purposes herein provided. This plan shall be 
 approved by the railroad company in writing. 
 
 The contractor shall build, in a most substantial and workmanlike 
 manner, all tracks, pits, and transfer tables which shall be necessary 
 for the purposes of storage yards, repair, and inspection purposes. He 
 shall install in the power-house, substations, and car and repair shops, 
 such traveling and other cranes or devices as may be most applicable 
 for the expeditious and economical inspection, repair, and maintenance 
 of the machinery, ears, motors, or other details of the equipment. All 
 designs for the storage yards, power and carhouses, substations and the 
 
23S APPENDIX. 
 
 -equipment thereof, shall be submitted to and approved by the railroad 
 company. 
 
 The contractor shall also provide a place for the storage of coal, where 
 or wherein shall be capacity sufficient for the storage of 10,000 tons of 
 coal. 
 
 The boiler-rooms shall be provided with the most modern methods for 
 the measurement of all fuel and water used in the operation of the 
 plant, and the handling of all fuel and ashes shall be done throughout 
 by the use of the most approved machinery now employed for such 
 purposes, the designs for all of which, together with the designs for the 
 arrangement of which shall be submitted to and approved by the rail- 
 road company. 
 
 The express trains of this railroad will be run on a minimum head- 
 way of ten minutes, with a minimum headway of five minutes for the 
 local services, for about four hours of each day. The design of the 
 block signal system must be such, that the express and local services 
 upon the minimum headways, as above stated, can be readily and safely 
 made, without eliminating the automatic features of the block signal 
 .system as heretofore stated. 
 
 The contractor shall provide the most approved receptacles located 
 ■over the tops of the boilers, which shall have a capacity for the storage 
 •of 4,000 tons of coal. The storage bin shall be provided and con- 
 Tiected to proper conveying apparatus for the transportation of the coal 
 from the place of unloading or receiving to the storage bin as provided 
 lierein. 
 
 Progress, etc. — All materials, appliances, and apparatus required to 
 he provided, and all labor requisite for the proper installation of the 
 same, in accordance with the specifications and plans for the construc- 
 tion and equipment, shall Be furnished in ample quantity and time to 
 obviate any delay in any work to be done in the building. 
 
 The contractor .shall proceed with the different and various portions 
 ■of the work in the order and at the times necessary and proper for 
 insuring thorough workmanship, due co-operation, between the work- 
 Tnen of the various trades, for obviating delays, and for other legitimate 
 Teasons. 
 
 All night work or overtime work requisite to meet properly the re- 
 quirements herein stated as to " progress " and " completion " shall be 
 done by the contractor without cost to the railroad company. 
 
 Acceptance. — The railroad may be tendered for acceptance only after 
 the trial tests have been made and completed and after all defects 
 shall have been removed, so as to make the same complete and satis- 
 factory in every respect to the railroad company. 
 
APPENDIX. 239- 
 
 The acceptance or rejection of any one of the separately-specified 
 portions of the work, material, or equipment shall not imply or entail 
 the acceptance or rejection of the remaining portions. 
 
 Scope of specifications. — ^It is the intent and purpose of these specifi- 
 cations to cover and include, under each section, all apparatus, appli- 
 ances, materials, or labor, necessary to properly install, equip, adjust,, 
 and put into the best working condition the respective portions of the- 
 railroad and equipment specified. Any apparatus, appliances, material,., 
 or labor, not hereinabove specifically mentioned or included, that may- 
 be found necessary to complete or perfect any portion of the herein: 
 specified railroad or equipment in substantial manner and in com- 
 pliance with the requirements implied in this specification, shall be 
 furnished by the contractor just as if specifically mentioned in this, 
 specification, and without extra cost to the railroad company. 
 
 Approval of details. — All details of the construction and installation: 
 of machinery and appliances required for the railroad and equipment, 
 or portion thereof, specified or implied in these specifications, shall be 
 subject to the approval of the railroad company in respect to design,., 
 proportion, materials, workmanship, finish, setting up, adjustments, ete_ 
 
 All details pertaining to the construction of machinery, apparatus, or 
 appliances, specified or implied in these specifications, shall be sub- 
 mitted to, and approved by, the railroad company, in writing, before the^ 
 work of construction is begun. 
 
 All details pertaining to the installation thereof shall likewise he- 
 submitted, and approved in writing, before the said machinery, appa- 
 ratus, or appliances are delivered or installed. 
 
 Materials. — In the case of all materials or appliances described in 
 the specifications under a specific name, the said name shall be under- 
 stood as defining and fixing a standard whereby the character and tha 
 adequacy of the said material or appliance shall be judged and de- 
 termined by the railroad company. 
 
 All materials or appliances not specifically named in the specifica- 
 tions shall be of the best of their respective kinds, and shall be subject- 
 to the approval of the railroad company. 
 
 Samples of all materials or appliances, or of finish, requiring to be? 
 approved, shall be submitted whenever called for by the railroad com- 
 pany; and no such material or appliance shall be installed until it. 
 shall have been duly approved by the railroad company. 
 
 The materials and appliances installed shall be in every respect thft- 
 full equivalent of the samples selected and approved. 
 
 Safety appliances and devices. — The contractor shall throughout iit 
 the building and equipment of the railroad, install the latest and most 
 
240 APPENDIX. 
 
 improved devices whicli will conduce to the safety of the employees of 
 the company who may be required to be on and about the roadway, as 
 well as conduce to the safety of the public. The third rail, the high 
 tension and other transmitting circuits, and all devices connected 
 therewith, shall be covered or protected in a, manner so as to best 
 accomplish this object. The contractor shall employ the latest and 
 most improved devices for rendering the cars fire-proof. All fire- 
 proofing designs and devices shall be subject to the approval of the 
 railroad company. 
 
 Completion. — The word " completion " shall mean full and exact 
 compliance and conformity with the provisions and requirements, ex- 
 pressed or implied, in these specifications and the plans accompanying 
 and forming part of the same, including all amendments, revisions, 
 ■corrections, or additions, duly authorized, as provided. 
 
 Deputies, etc. — The contractor shall be responsible for any and all 
 parties deputized or employed for furnishing or doing any portion of 
 the equipment or work contracted for. 
 
 All concerns, firms, individuals, employed by the contractor must be 
 of good standing and reputation in their respective lines, and must be 
 acceptable to the railroad company. 
 
 The said concerns, firms, or individuals, shall be required to comply 
 with all the requirements of the specifications and all general or 
 specific conditions and stipulations of the contract in precisely the 
 same manner and to the same degree that would be required of the 
 contractor himself. 
 
 Time of completion.— The contractor is to prosecute the herein- 
 specified work and equipment to completion within the term stated in 
 the contract. 
 
 Tests.— When the contractor shall have finished all and singular all 
 of the work and supplied and erected all and singular all material 
 required for the construction and commencement of operation of the 
 railroad, as herein provided, he shall, at his own expense, make a series 
 d trial runs and tests extending over a period of not less than two 
 Teeks, which tests shall determine the performance of the individual 
 parts of the installation, such as the boilers, prime movers, electric 
 generators, transmission circuits, track and third rail, car motors, and 
 car equipments, and shall report in detail the results of such tests to 
 the railroad company. The railroad company shall have the right to 
 verify such results, at its own proper cost and expense should it desire 
 to do so, and in such case shall notify the contractor, in writing, 
 within ten days after the receipt of the results, as above provided, of 
 
APPENDIX. 241 
 
 its intention to so verify, and shall complete its investigations and 
 report its results to the contractor within thirty days after the re- 
 cieipt of the result of the tests from the contractor. Should no notifica- 
 tion or protest be given or made to the contractor within ten days 
 after the receipt of the contractor's tests, it shall be construed as an 
 acceptance of the results as satisfactory to the railroad company. 
 
 The railroad company reserves the right, and the contractor agrees 
 it shall have the right to have its authorized representatives present 
 at all tests made by the contractor, made either during the con- 
 struction or upon completion thereof, as provided. 
 
 The railroad company shall have the right to test at its own ex- 
 pense, any material entering into the construction, or equipment of 
 this railroad, at any time during the construction or after the com- 
 pletion thereof, and every facility to make any and all tests shall ba 
 supplied to the railroad company by the contractor when and as 
 demanded of the contractor by the railroad company. 
 
 Drawings and designs to be furnished by the contractor, — The con- 
 tractor shall prepare at his own cost and expense all detail and other 
 drawings required in connection with the construction and equipment 
 of this railroad, or in connection with any and all detail specifications 
 issued or used in connection with the construction and equipment, and 
 shall also at his own cost and expense, prepare all detail specifications, 
 and the contractor shall, at his own cost and expense, prepare and de- 
 liver to the railroad company, at the same time that the results cf 
 the tests are delivered to it, one complete original set of tracing draw- 
 ings, and two sets of blueprints on cloth, showing the final construc- 
 tion as installed of every detail of the railroad, together with all 
 general or assembly drawings thereof as installed. This set of draw- 
 ings shall include the detail and assembly of each and every highway 
 crossing (including the strain sheets thereof), as well as the detail 
 and assembly of all of the equipment, stations, and other buildings, 
 etc., and the cross sections of the roadway, together with a final set 
 of property maps, equal to or superior to Exhibit No. 2, of this 
 specifications, showing accurately the width of the right of way 
 throughout, and the station grounds, etc., together with all other real 
 estate, water fronts, etc. The object of this clause is to enable the 
 railroad company to possess absolutely accurate records of its property 
 at the time of its acceptance. 
 
 Condition of streets and highways.— When the contractor shall 
 have finished his work, all streets, avenues, and public highways crossed 
 by the line of the road shall be left by the contractor in as good con- 
 dition as he found them. The conditions of the streets, avenues, and 
 
 16 
 
242 APPENDIX. 
 
 highways at the conclusion of the work by the contractor shall be 
 satisfactory to the local or other authorities having jurisdiction there- 
 over, and all work in connection with the railroad involving the dis- 
 turbance of any street, avenue, or highway along the line of the road, 
 shall be conducted in accordance with all local ordinances and regula- 
 tions, and to the satisfaction of the local or other authorities having 
 jurisdiction over such crossings and as herein provided. 
 
 Otlter railroad crossings. — Attention is called to the fact that under 
 the general plans furnished herewith and forming part of this specifica- 
 tion, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company s 
 tracks will be crossed four times by the line of the New York and Port 
 Chester Railroad. Such crossings must be made by the contractor in 
 such manner as not to disturb the New York, New Haven and Hart- 
 ford Railroad Companj', and in a manner satisfactory to the said 
 New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company. 
 
 Attention is also called to the crossing of the Port Morris branch of 
 the New York Central Railroad near One Hundred and Forty-third 
 street, and the Southern boulevard. This crossing must also be made 
 BO as not to disturb the operations of the railroad crossed, and in a 
 manner satisfactory to the owners thereof. 
 
 "Wherever other railroads whose tracks are upon or along public 
 streets or highways are crossed, such crossings are considered simply 
 as highway crossings, and no further notice is taken thereof. 
 
 New or additional devices. — When and wherever the railroad com- 
 pany shall order the contractor to install any device not now in use 
 as a recognized standard device, and when and wherever the cost of 
 such device shall be in excess of the cost of the best standard devices 
 now in existence, the contractor shall be reimbursed for such excess 
 cost in a manner to be provided in the contract between the railroad 
 company and the contractor. 
 
 Contractor must provide all tools, construction plant, etc. — The con- 
 tractor shall provide, at his own expense, all tools, implem«nts, and all 
 construction material of whatsoever kind and nature, such as material 
 for temporary or false work, cribbing, staging, centering, casing, and 
 all conveyors, dredges, mixing machines, engines, pumps, derricks, pile- 
 drivers, or other appliances requisite for the expeditious construction 
 of the railroad as provided. The contractor shall take all necessary 
 precautions to maintain and protect all property, sewers, trees, and 
 other structures, and shall repair any damage occasioned by his work, 
 and shall provide the necessary watchmen, signal lights at night, and 
 fences, and provide and take such measures as shall be necessary for 
 the protection of persons and property, and shall provide such 
 
APPENDIX. 243 
 
 temporary street crossings as local and special requirements and con- 
 ditions may require. The contractor shall assume and be responsible 
 for all losses by fire, water, or other causes, during the construction 
 of the work and until its acceptance by the railroad company. 
 
 Cleaning up. — The contractor shall remove all temporary structures, 
 rubbish, and unused material after he shall have completed the work, 
 as herein provided, and place the roadway, stations, and the environs 
 thereof in a neat, clean condition. This cleaning up shall be completed 
 before the commencement of the trial tests, as herein provided. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 The following is a list of some articles bearing on the subject of 
 interurban railway work: 
 
 Earnings and expenses of electric railiowys: 
 
 Population Carried on Massachusetts St. Ry 
 
 Roads. 
 Financial Results of Interurban Railways 
 
 near Boston [Higgins]. 
 Receipts per Mile of Track. 
 
 Surface Railway Operation in Man- 
 hattan. 
 
 Freight Business on Electric Railways 
 [Hawks]. 
 
 Interurban Railway Company, Des 
 Moines, Iowa. 
 
 Journal, May, 1897, 
 
 page 283. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Sept., 1398, 
 
 page 471. 
 St. Ry. Journal, April, 1899, 
 
 page 227. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 21, 
 
 1903, page 293. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 23, 
 
 1903, page 771. 
 St. Ry. Journal, June 20, 
 
 1903, page 896. 
 
 Concrete bridge construction: 
 
 Concrete Arch Bridge Construction Engineering News, Aug. 1, 
 
 [Douglas]. 1901. 
 
 Concrete Steel Bridges in Porto Rico Engineering News, Aug. 1, 
 
 [Thacher]. 1901. 
 
 Third-rail construction : 
 
 Collectors for Heavy Traction [Han- 
 
 chett]. 
 The Electric Third Rail [Potter]. 
 
 Third-Rail Electric Traction in Italy. 
 
 Third-Rail Operation on Aurora, Elgin 
 
 & Chicago Railway. 
 Protected Third Rail on Wilkesbarre & 
 
 Hazleton Railway. 
 
 Wooden Blocks as Insulators for Third 
 Rail on Albany & Hudson Railway 
 ILeavittl. 
 
 Wooden Blocks as Insulators for Third 
 Rail [Gonzenbaeh]. 
 
 [244] 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, July 5, 1902, 
 
 page 13. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 2, 1902, 
 
 page 150. 
 St. Ry Journal, Dec. 6, 1902, 
 
 page 896. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 14, 
 
 1903, page 268. 
 St. Ry. Journal, March 7, 
 
 1903, page 344; May 16, 
 
 1903, page 743. 
 St. Rv. Journal, April 18, 
 
 1903", page 599. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, April 25, 
 1903, page 635. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 245 
 
 Train acceleration and hraking: 
 Train Acceleration and Braking [Pot- 
 ter]. 
 Eapid Transit Service, Power Consump- 
 tion [Armstrong]. 
 
 Advantages of Eapid Acceleration 
 
 [Lundie]. 
 Acceleration of Electric Cars [Morse]. 
 
 Automatic Braking. 
 
 Tripper System of Automatic Braking 
 [Neff]. 
 
 Relation of Energy and Motor Capacity 
 to Schedule Speed in the Moving of 
 Trains by Electricity [Hutchinson]. 
 
 Acceleration and Movement of Heavy 
 and High-Speed Electric Trains [Got- 
 shall]. 
 
 Method of Ascertaining by Means of a 
 Dynamometer Car the Power Required 
 to Operate the Trains of the N. Y. C. 
 & H. E. E. R. between Mott Haven 
 Junction and Grand Central Station 
 and the Eelative Cost of Operation by 
 Steam and Electricity [Arnold] . 
 
 Tests on Energy Consumption of Electric 
 Cars in Interurban Service around 
 Detroit. 
 
 Train Unit Control System of the Berlin 
 Elevated Railway. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct., 1897, 
 
 page 670. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1898, page 
 
 363; St. Ry. Journal, June, 
 
 July, Aug., and Sept., 1898, 
 
 pages 312, 376, 432, 539. 
 St. Ry. Journal, April, 1899, 
 
 page 228. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 2, 1901, 
 
 page 171. 
 Railroad Gazette, Oct. 11, 
 
 1901. 
 Eailroad Gazette, Jan. 24, 
 
 1902. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 129; St. Ey. Journal, Feb. 
 
 1, 1902, page 157. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 210; St. Ey. Journal, April 
 
 5, 1902, page 429. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 865; St. Ey. Journal, June 
 
 28, 1902, page 809. 
 
 St. Ey. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 page 474. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Jan. 5, 1903, 
 page 28. 
 
 Train resistance: 
 Train Resistance [Davis]. 
 
 Mr. Davis' Formula on Train Resistance 
 
 [Lundie]. 
 Mr. Davis' Formula on Train Resistance 
 
 [Bell]. 
 Mr. Davis' Formula on Train Resistance 
 
 [Willie] . 
 Train Resistance [Davis]. 
 
 Results of Tests for Air Resistance on 
 the Berlin-Zossen Experimental High- 
 Speed Line. 
 
 Train Resistance [Armstrong]. 
 
 Results of the Tests on the Berlin-Zossen 
 Experimental High-Speed Line. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 
 
 page 554. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 
 
 page 556. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 
 
 page 559. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 
 
 page 560. 
 St. Ev. Journal, June 7, 
 
 1902,' page 724. 
 St. Ey. Journal, June 7, 
 
 1902, page 726. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, July 5, 1902, 
 
 page 21. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 2, 1902, 
 
 page 145. 
 
243 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Plotting speed-time curves: 
 Plotting Speed-Time Curves [Mailloux]. 
 
 Motors and motor rating: 
 
 Selection of Electric Motors for Railway 
 Service [Potter]. 
 
 Consideration of the Inertia of the Rotat- 
 ing Parts of a Train [Storer]. 
 
 Relation of Energy and Motor Capacity 
 to Schedule Speed in the Moving of 
 Trains by Electricity [Hutchinson]. 
 
 Discussion of the Relation of Energy and 
 Motor Capacity to Schedule Speed in 
 Moving Trains by Electricity. 
 
 Stopping time at stations: 
 Stopping Time at Stations [Gerry]. 
 
 Buildings and equipment: 
 
 Tnterurban Electric Railway Car Equip- 
 ment [Potter], 
 
 Trucks for Interurban Service [Uebe- 
 lacker] . 
 
 Cars for High-Speed Interurban Service. 
 
 Modern Switchboard Practice [Davis]. 
 
 Rolling Stock of Manhattan Railway 
 
 Company. 
 Car-House Construction. 
 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 901; St. Ry. Journal, 1902, 
 July 5, page 51 ; July 26, 
 page 121 ; Aug. 9, page 199; 
 Aug. 16, page 231 ; Aug. 
 23, page 255; Aug. 30, page 
 275. 
 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 169; St, Ry. Journal, April 
 
 5, 1902, page 422. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 165: St. Ry. Journal, April 
 
 5, 1902, page 436. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 129; St. Ry. Journal, April 
 
 5, 1902, page 437. 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
 
 193; St. Ry. Journal, April 
 
 19, 1902, page 478. 
 
 Trans. A. I. E. E., 1897, page 
 353; St. Ry. Journal, Aug., 
 1897, page' 471. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 
 page 514. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 
 page 517. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 
 page 539. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 1, 1902, 
 
 page 751. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Dec. 6, 1902, 
 
 page 907. 
 St. Ry. Journal, March 14, 
 
 1903, page 408. 
 
 Application of electricity to steam railroads : 
 
 N. Y.. N. H. & Hartford Electric Rail- 
 roading [Heft] . 
 
 Application of Electricity to Steam Rail- 
 roads [Heft]. 
 
 Increased Business Due to Changing from 
 Steam to Electric Traction [Heft]. 
 
 Electric Cars on Steam Railroads 
 
 [Evan=l. 
 Heavy Electric Traction near Paris. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, June, 1897, 
 
 page 329. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Nov., 1897, 
 
 page 777. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 25, 
 
 1900, page 786; Sept. 8, 
 
 1900, page 857. 
 St. Ry. Journal, June 28, 
 
 1902, page 805. 
 St. Ry, Journal, Nov. 15, 
 
 1902^ page 807. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 241 
 
 Electric Locomotives on the Western 
 Railway of France. 
 
 Third Rail on the Baltimore & Ohio Rail- 
 road [Young]. 
 
 High-Speed Electric Traction in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Three-Phase Electric Railway at Valtel- 
 lina. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 28, 
 
 1903, page 314. 
 St. Ry. Journal, March 14, 
 
 1903, page 398. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 16, 
 
 1903, page 736. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 30, 
 
 1903, page 788. 
 
 Description of high-speed roads: 
 
 Grand Rapids, Holland & Lake Michigan 
 Rapid Railway [Damon & Ray]. 
 
 Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muske- 
 gon Railway. 
 
 Motive Power and Rolling Stock of the 
 Detroit United Railway [Farmer]. 
 
 Power Distribution and Operating Points 
 on the Detroit, Ypsilanti, Ann Arbor 
 & Jackson Railway. 
 
 Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Railway. 
 
 Electric Road from Fayet to Chamonix. 
 Wilkesbarre & Hazelton Railway. 
 Seattle-Tacoma Interurban Railway. 
 Appleyard Syndicate Interurban System. 
 
 Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley Rail- 
 way. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, March 15, 
 
 1902, page 330. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, July 5, 1902, 
 
 page 1. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 
 page 144. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 
 page 485. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 
 page 565. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 7, 1903, 
 
 page 206. 
 St. Ry. Journal, March 7, 
 
 1903, page 344. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 2, 1903, 
 
 page 646. 
 St. Ry. Journal, May 16, 
 
 1902, page 728; May 23, 
 
 1902, page 758. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, June 13, 
 
 1903, page 864. 
 
 Descriptions of elevated and underground railicays: 
 
 Electrical Equipment of the Manhattan 
 Elevated Railway [Pegram, Baker, 
 Stillwell]. 
 
 Tube Railways in London [MoMahon]. 
 
 Metropolitan Railway of Paris. 
 
 Rolling Stock, Third-Rail Shoe, etc., Man- 
 hattan Elevated Railway. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Jan. 5, 1901, 
 page 1. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 16, 
 
 1902, page 228. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Sept. 1, 
 
 1903, page 797; Sept. 6, 
 1902, page 305. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Dec. 6, 1902, 
 page 907. 
 
 Tests of interurian equipment: 
 
 Analysis of the Operation of an Inter- St. Ry. Journal, May, 1899, 
 
 urban Railway. page 265. 
 
 New York & Port Chester Railway St. Ry. Journal, Jan. 4, 1902, 
 
 Hearing. page 45. 
 
248 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tests of Interurban Cars of Union 
 Traction Company of Indiana [Ren- 
 sliaw] . 
 
 Performance of the Dayton & Troy Elec- 
 tric Railway Power House. 
 
 Test of Subway Motors. 
 
 Test of station and equipment: 
 Rockford, Beloit & Janesville Railway. 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 Graphical Representation of Street Rail- 
 way Statistics [Gotshall], 
 
 Specifications for Road Bed and Over- 
 head Construction. 
 
 Table of Third-Rail Roads. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
 page 522. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 28, 
 
 1903, page 320. 
 St. Ry. Journal, March 21, 
 
 1903, page 446. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, April 25, 
 1903, page 623. 
 
 St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 1, 1902, 
 
 page 751. 
 St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 22, 
 
 1902, page 841. 
 St. Ry. Journal, July 4, 1903, 
 
 page 43. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Acceleration and Distance Curves. 160 
 Alternating Current Systems, Ad- 
 vantages of 84 
 
 Ballast, Practice as to Amount of. 86 
 Ballasting, Advantages of Good 
 
 Work in 85 
 
 Bibliography 244 
 
 Block Signals 89 
 
 Diagrams of 90, 93, 95 
 
 Bonding, Considerations Relating 
 
 to 88 
 
 Booster, Applications of 120 
 
 Boston Elevated Railway, Signal 
 
 System of 94 
 
 Braking and Distance Curve 165 
 
 Branch Lines, Considerations Re- 
 lating to 27 
 
 Capacity of System, Conditions 
 
 Governing 202 
 
 Car Mile, Determination of Cost 
 
 of 75 
 
 Unit, Reduction to 195 
 
 Cars and Trucks, Details of, for 
 
 High Speeds 175 
 
 Cars, Formula for Numl)er of 39 
 
 Center of Gravity, Use of Electri- 
 cal Center of Gravity 126 
 
 Character of Construction, Deter- 
 mination Relating to 201 
 
 Chart of Costs, etc.. Keeping of. . 197 
 
 Coasting Curves 165 
 
 Commercially Ideal Railroad 26 
 
 Compensation for Use of High- 
 ways 27, 178 
 
 , Nature of Charge 179 
 
 Competition, Remedy for 26 
 
 Concrete Bridges, Cost of 52 
 
 Concrete Steel-Bridge Construc- 
 
 • tion 97 
 
 Condemnation of Land, etc 181 
 
 , Points About Fixing Value 
 
 of 185 
 
 Condensers, Types of 133 
 
 Conductors, Elements Controlling 
 
 in Design of 81 
 
 , Formulae for Size of 82 
 
 Construction, Economic Consider- 
 ations relating to 201 
 
 Construction Costs, Table of 51 
 
 Construction Period, Points Relat- 
 ing to 190 
 
 Costs, Chart Showing Representa- 
 tion of Plate XI 
 
 Costs of Installation, Illustration 
 
 of Permissible Limit of 203 
 
 Cost of Operation, Units of 194 
 
 Cost of Power, Table of 131 
 
 Cost of Preliminary Field Work]'. 23 
 Costs of Reciprocating Steam En- 
 gine Power Stations 134 
 
 Costs, Simplicity and Advantages 
 of Graphical Representation of. . 196 
 
 Curves and Tangents is 
 
 Curves, Illustration of Effect of 
 
 Long Curves is 
 
 , Reasons for Short Length of. 18 
 
 Diaries, Advantages of 20 
 
 Diplomacy, Function of 21 
 
 Direct Current, Limitations of, for 
 
 Railway Units 120 
 
 Direct vs. Alternating Current. . . 120 
 
 Earnings, Computation of, for New 
 York & Port Chester Rail- 
 road 59, 
 
 , Considerations Relating to 
 
 Detail of 56 
 
 , Data and Formula for Com- 
 putation of 11, 
 
 , Increase of. Due to Introduc- 
 tion of Electric Traction. 
 
 , Table of, for Electric Sys- 
 tem of Large Cities 
 
 , Table Showing Relation of, to 
 
 Population, etc 7-10 
 
 , Tributary Population to be 
 
 Taken in Determining.. 8, 
 
 Earthwork Contracts, Bases of . . . . 
 
 Earthwork, Slopes of Sides 
 
 ■, Determination of 
 
 , Tables to be Prepared for. .. 
 
 Economies of Design and Construc- 
 tion 201 
 
 Efficiency of Plant, Keeping Rec- 
 ord and Checking of 197 
 
 Eminent Domain, Definition and 
 Exercise of 
 
 Energy Consumption, Comparison 
 of, for Ditterent Schedules. 
 
 , Formula for Computation of. 
 
 , Table Showing Relation of, to 
 
 Schedule Speed, etc 
 
 Energy Input, Curve of 166 
 
 Equipment 148 
 
 , Controlling Considerations... 38 
 
 Engineer, Relations of, to Client.. 2 
 
 Engineering, Preliminary Maps Re- 
 quired for 12 
 
 Engines, Considerations Controll- 
 ing Selection of 132 
 
 , Scope of Specification for... 187 
 
 Expansion of Rail, Allowance for. 88 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 35 
 33 
 33 
 35 
 
 180 
 
 47 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 [249] 
 
250 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Fencing Right of Way, Cost of.. 96 
 Field Engineering Corps, Composi- 
 tion of 16 
 
 Fieid Engineering Worls, Division 
 
 of 23 
 
 Fieid Notes, Plotting of 31 
 
 Fieid Worls and Records, Keeping 
 
 of 18 
 
 Final Survey 78 
 
 Fix«d Cliarges, Ratio of, to Re- 
 ceipts 201 
 
 Fiuetuations. Effect of, on Energy 
 
 Consumption 49 
 
 Freiglit Earnings 64 
 
 Freiglit Traffic 65 
 
 Generators, Scope of Specification 
 
 for 187 
 
 Grade Lines, Determination of... 32 
 Gradients, Controlling Consider- 
 ations 31 
 
 Graduation, Determination of 33 
 
 Grapliic Schedules,. Application of, 
 
 for Location of Turnouts. 42 
 , Description of 41 
 
 Headway, Economic Advantages 
 
 of Short Ones 66 
 
 , Formula for 39 
 
 Highways, Advantages of Locat- 
 ing Railway Tracks On or Near. 27 
 Highway Crossings, Considerations 
 
 Relating to 32 
 
 , Dimensions of 32 
 
 Highways and Streets, Limitations 
 of Railways Located on 27 
 
 Installation, Considerations Relat- 
 ing to Magnitude of 202 
 
 Interurban Railways, Development 
 
 of 2 
 
 , Requisites of 2.'» 
 
 Lap in Design of Block Signal Sys- 
 tems !.. 92 
 
 Load on Power Station, Determina- 
 tion of 42 
 
 Location, Commercial Consider- 
 ations Relating to and 
 Controlling 13 
 
 . Preliminary Data, etc., to be 
 
 Obtained 21 
 
 Location of Lines, Preliminary 
 Work of 1?. 
 
 Maintenance and Inspection of 
 Cars and Equipment, Cost of. . . 72 
 
 Maintenance of Way and Struc- 
 tures, Details of Computation of 
 Cost of 73 
 
 Management, Requisites for Suc- 
 cess of 199 
 
 Maps, Filing of, with Local Au- 
 thorities 184 
 
 , Kind of. Required by Rail- 
 roads 183 
 
 . Scales of 31 
 
 Momentum Profiles 31 
 
 PAQE. 
 
 Motor Equipment and Rolling 
 
 Stock 148 
 
 Multiple Unit Control, Kind of. . . 187 
 
 OfiBce Investigation and Work... 2a 
 Operating Cost, Determination, 
 Danger of Using Percentage of 
 
 Gross Receipt Basis 08 
 
 Operating Cost Details, Table of. . 70 
 
 Operating Costs, Details of 68 
 
 , Details of. Computation of.. 71 
 
 Operating Department, Organiza- 
 tion of 193 
 
 Operating Expenses 68 
 
 Operation Costs, Determination 
 and Representation of, De- 
 tails of 196 
 
 , Units of 194 
 
 Operation, Determination of Cost 
 
 per Car Mile 75 
 
 Overhead or Trolley Construction. 101 
 
 Passenger Stations, Permits Relat- 
 ing to Design of 206 
 
 Paying Populations, Minimum per 
 
 Mile of Track 8 
 
 Photographic Records During Con- 
 struction, Advantages of 190 
 
 Pipinc, Design of 132 
 
 Population, Minimum per Mile of 
 
 Track 8 
 
 , Proportion of, Considered in 
 
 Estimating Earnings 8 
 
 . Served, Radius of 63 
 
 Power and Substation Location, 
 
 Details of Determination of.... 123 
 Power, Detail of Computation of 
 
 Cost of 72 
 
 Power Maintenance Costs, Table 
 
 of 131 
 
 Power Stations 120 
 
 , Consideration Controliinsc Lo- 
 cation and other Details of. 122 
 
 , Design of 130 
 
 , Division of Units of 129 
 
 Preliminary Data, Kind Required. 6 
 Preliminary Surveys and Loca- 
 tions, Data Required when Com- 
 pleted ?1 
 
 Private Right of Way 179 
 
 Profiles, Considerations Relating 
 
 to 31 
 
 , Data of, to be Shown 35 
 
 , Typical Section of 34 
 
 Progress Sheets, Preparation and 
 
 Keeping of 190 
 
 Promoter, Definition of 6 
 
 Property Maps, Preparation of. . . . 1^1 
 Protected Third Rail 105, 111 
 
 Rail, Distribution of Metal of 88 
 
 , Life of 74 
 
 Records of Costs, Graphical Rep- 
 resentation and Keeping of 196 
 
 References, List of 244 
 
 Reports of Engineers, etc., What 
 
 Should Contain 208 
 
 Retardation Curves 165 
 
INDEX. 
 
 251 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Eight of Way 1,0 
 
 , Maps lov 
 
 , Proceeaing and Details of 
 
 Purcliase of 182 
 
 ■ ■ Real Estate, Cost of hi 
 
 Rolliug Stock 14b 
 
 liun Uui-ve Computations, Table 
 
 Showing Detail of 173 
 
 Run Curve, Detail of Construction 
 
 of 159 
 
 , Application of 47, 48 
 
 , Application of, in Determin- 
 ing Size of Power Stations 12-t 
 
 Run Sheets, Comparison of DiCEer- 
 ent Schedules by Construc- 
 tion of . . .Plates I, II, III, IX, etc. 
 
 Schedule Speeds. Computation 
 
 Showing Relative Costs of. 205 
 
 , Danger of Inconsiderate 
 
 Specification of 148 
 
 , Formulae Showing Relation 
 
 of, to Headway and Num- 
 ber of Cars 39 
 
 , Considerations Relating to 
 
 Determination of 151 
 
 Schedules, Economic Consideration 
 
 Relating to 47 
 
 , Graphic Representation of . . 39 
 
 , Preliminary Determination 
 
 of 38 
 
 Secrecy, Application of 21 
 
 Silence, Value of 21 
 
 Single Track Railroad, Folly of.. 25 
 Size of Subways, etc.. Points on. 207 
 
 Specification, Typical Set of 211 
 
 Specifications, What Should con- 
 tain 186 
 
 Speed Time Curves, Preliminary 
 Determinations and Computa- 
 tion 149 
 
 Stadia Measurements, Where Use- 
 ful 22 
 
 Starting New Railroad, Best Time 
 
 for 192 
 
 Steam Engines, Type to be 
 
 Adopted 132 
 
 Stops at Stations, Time of 41 
 
 Storage Batteries 136 
 
 Street and Highways, Disadvan- 
 tages of Railroads on 179 
 
 Substations, Location of 128 
 
 Subways, Dimensions of, as Re- 
 lated to Costs of Operation 207 
 
 Success, Characteristics of, for 
 Railway Work 21 
 
 Tact, Necessity of 21 
 
 Terminals, Relations of, to Esti- 
 mates of Earnings 8 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Third Rail, Anchoring and Expan- 
 sion of 110 
 
 , Composiuon of 110 
 
 , How supported 109 
 
 , Table Showing Distances 
 
 Above and From Track Rails. . 108 
 Third Rail Construction, Compari- 
 son with Cost of Trolley 
 
 Construction 103 
 
 , Cost and Advantages of loi 
 
 —~, Diagram of 104-106 
 
 Third Kail Shoes, Cuts of. Ill, 113 II4 
 
 Ties, Kinds of Wood Used for 86 
 
 Ton-Mile, iinergy Consumption for. 50 
 
 Topographer, Duties of 17 
 
 Topographical Records, Data Re- 
 quired Yi 
 
 Track Construction '...'. ' '. '. '. '. '. 85 
 
 Track Joints, Suspended and siiu- 
 
 ported ; fj9 
 
 Tracks, Proper Number of.. 202 
 
 Tractive Effort, Curve of '.'.'. I6G 
 
 Traffic Interchange, Necessity for 
 
 Provision for 207 
 
 Train Friction, Curves of... '.'153, 154 
 
 m • T. ■ . 156, 158 
 
 Train Resistance, Formula for... 157 
 
 Transmission, Losses of 83 
 
 Tripper, Automatic Block Signal 
 
 System gg^ 97 
 
 Trolley Construction, Diagrams 
 
 of 115-117 
 
 , Probably Cheaper for Light 
 
 Schediiles 105 
 
 . Requirements of, for High 
 
 Speeds 114 
 
 Trolley Roads, Ascertaining Prob- 
 able Business of 57 
 
 Trolley Systems, Speeds and Cur- 
 rents Used 107 
 
 Trolley Wheels, Life of 107 
 
 Turbines, Costs and Advantages 
 
 of Steam Turbines 135 
 
 Typical Run Curves 150, 151 
 
 Units of Power Stations 129 
 
 Vertical Curves, Computation for, 
 etc 3G 
 
 Voltage, Limitations of, for Direct 
 Current 84 
 
 Wind Resistance, Devices and De- 
 sign for Reduction of 152 
 
 Wiring Diagrams of Plates VII, 
 
 VIII, IX 
 Watt-Hours per Ton-Mile 50, 124 
 
 Zone System of Determination of 
 Earnings 61 
 
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 Dktanee, (i lilea). 
 Ttm-miUi per Cmr, 
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 Plate III.— Actual Run Cun-es of the New York and Port Chester Railroad between Willis Avenue and 149th Street, 
 New York City. Showing EfFect upon Energj- Consumption in Watt-Hours per Ton Mile due to varying the 
 Time Occupied in Covering a Given Distance. See Table in Upper Right Corner. 
 
 NEW ROCHELLE 
 
 LARCHMONT 
 
 0' w zi" 31" 4W ' 50" 1' HI- ai" ai" w 50" 2' 
 
 Plate II. — Actual Run Curves of the Xew York and Port Chester Railroad between New Rochelle and 
 Larchmont, for different Schedule Speeds, showing Effect upon Energy Consumption of Schedule 
 Speed. See Table in Center. 
 
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