Cornell University Library SF 263.M75 1905 A. B. C. in butter making; for yo""9 "ja 3 1924 003 008 772 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003008772 AN INVESTMENT; NOT AN EXPENSE w user. 1 HEN a man puts his good money into Dairy Appar- atus he owes it to himself to investigate its earning capacity. Good dairy equipme'nt is not an expense" but an investirient; the vital consideration is not first cost but capacity for earning dividends for the We build our apparatus for this purpose. Out position as the Reading Dairy Supply House has been at- , tained by furnishing the dairymen with dividend earning dairy apparatus and supplies. ; We spend' more money inventing and developing new apparatus: and new methods than, all other concerns co;n- bined. Practically all the machinery and apparatus T\^hich is today 'recognized as standard and necessary in modern dairying has been invented, developed and put info .use by us. Our goods are today the recognized standard by which others are compared. SOME or OUR SPECIALTIES: FARRINQTON DUPLEX PASTEURIZER VICTOR STARTER CAN FARRINQTON CREAM RIPENER WIZARD AGITATOR ACME BUTTER PRINTER CURTIS CHANNEL BOTTOM VAT WIZARD TURBINE BABCOCK TESTER TWENTIETH CENTURY HAND TESTER OFFICIAL HAND BABCOCK TESTER General Agents De Laval Separators- — v^— Disbrow Combined Churn and Butter Worker 3N buyint o( us' you are dealing with headquarters. Manufac- turing the greater part of the goods we eeJU., and selling nothing which Is not of pr6ven value, we are able to stand back of every article we sell. Whether you oper9,te a Creamery, Cheese Factory, MUk Distributing Plant or Private Dairy, we believ* If will be to your :advantage to trade with us. Your orders, whether large or small, will receive our best attention. ISfo order top small tor our careful attention and none too large for our capacity^ OUR CATALOQUES ARE FREE. WRITE FOR ONE Creamery TacKage Mfg, Company Complete Outfitters of' all Plants Yor Handling Milfi Troduets 182 TO 188 EAST KINZIE STREET CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Brancbes: Kansas City, Ma.,, Omaha, Neb., Waterloa. la., Mlnieapolls, Minn., Cowansvllle.Oiie. -IN- BUTTER MAKING For Yoving Creamery Butter MaKers, Creamery Managers and Private Dairymen BY J. H. /VIONRAD 173 CHAMBERS STREET NEW YORK Second Edition Price 50 CenU A DANISH CO-OPERATIVE CREAMERY. • • • I 11 1^ • • « Grand Prize at the World's Fair, St. Louis, 1904, has been added to our long list of some 130 awards obtained at expositions all over the world. tPatiish t^ennet Ej^tPagt Danish Cheese CoIop Danish Bgtteir ColoP iRennet Tablets and Cheese Goloir Tablets Pop Cheess IVIaking on the Pavzxi Ltactie Peirment Poi' filpenlng Cveatn and daiik The mapshall fiennet Test A'll first-class preparations for use in Butter and Cheese Making. Manufactured and Put Up Only By Chr. Hansen's Laboratory Box 1043. Little Falls, N. Y. T o Fir st Edition. •ijr do^ not pretend to fill a "long-felt want" by publishing *Y tliJs little book. Indeed, 1 realize how absurd it is for a mani who denounces the so-called "general pur- pose" cow to the dairymen, to publish a small "gen- eral purpose" book. ISTiefverthelessi, I hope many private dairymen as well asi creamery men will find pointers in it which will make it worth their while to read it. If I only succeed in making the reader eager for more in- formation, I shall have accomplished one of my purposes, and the other, to make some money for myself, I trust a quick sale of this edition will realize. J. H. MONRAD. WiNNETKA, III., September, 1899. To Second Edition. Five years in this age of continuous inventions make it necessary to change and add a good deal to the first edition. Though I have been asked why I used an illustration of a Danish CTeamery instead of an American one on the front page, I have retained it in order to induce other States to follow, as Minnesota has, the Danish plan of having good permanent brick buildings with cement or flagstone floor-. J. H. MONRAD, 173 Chambers St., New York. January, 1905. CHAPTER 1. THE MILK PRODUCTION. WHICH COW DO TOU MILK? "First, catch your hare" is the instruction given by a certain authority in cooking, and the buttermaSer, tO make a success of his profession, must first of all see to it that his raw material — milk — is produced as cheaply as pos- sible. This is the duty not only of the farm buttermaker, but of the creamery buttermaker as well. No creamery can DIDO. succeed in the long rum where the patrons produce milk at a loss ; and milk is made at a loss firstly, by milking the wrong cows, secondly, by wrong feeding and care, and, thirdly, by careless uncleanly) handling of the milk. The question then is Which coio do you milk? Do you milk the blocky, plump Dido, who, though she gave 5,562i lbs. of milk, or 216 lbs. of butter, produced the latter at a food cost of 18.2 cents per pound, or do you milk the "spare, angular cow with a deep body," like "Houston," who produced the butter at a food cost of 10.8 cents per pound? Ini this question of Dairy Form (compare illustrations), first raised by W. D. Hoard, lies the main secret of profitable or unprofitable mdlk production and, consequently, butter- makinig. Tfhere is no roomi in this little treatise to go further into details of the interesting experiments reported by Prof. T. L. Haecker, in Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin 35, from which the illustrations, have been taken. Some tests have also been made in Denmark, in which the cost of production fromi 200 cows varied from 15.1 cents to 78.5 cents per pound of butter. These experiments show that the profitable dairy cow is found not only b/ selecting a, particular breed, but also by paying strict attention to each individual cow. The "aver- age" cow is the curse of dairying. It requires no great in- telligence to see! that it is better to milk six cows giving a good profit than to milk ten, four of which reduce if they "^-^ "■/*w?Br ~"p^^i \ ) i''rf -IV HOUSTON. do not annihilate the profit of the other six. But this is what is being done on, seven or eight farms out of ten. If it is important to test the individual cows of the dairy breeds, how much more with the so-called general purpose er dual purpose cows. In my opinion it is possible for a breeder of beef cattle to produce a fair lot of milk "on the side" at a profit, but it is folly to attempt producing steers from dairy cows, though possibly baby beef may be made to pay. Yet some splendid milkers may be found among so- called dual purpose cows and if they stand the test, why not use them? It must also be remembered that it takes a dairyman to care for a dairy cow, and the best cow alive may be unprofltable in the hands of an unskillful, careless man. TEST ASSOCIATIONS. If the individual, milk producers do not like to taike the trouble to test their cows and keep an account with them, ten or twelve may oo-operate and hire a young man to do it. Such a Ttest Association was started in 1895 in Denmark, and in 1903 that country boasted 308 such. If desired, the selection and buying of pure-bred bulls may also bei made the object of such an Association. Co-operation is the only way in which the farmers can hold up fheir end of the line. I cannot too strongly urge the formaytion of these asso- ciations, and the State or National government might well encourage them by subsidies, if proper reports are made an- nually. It is, however, very little work to^ weigh the milk from each cow once a week and test it with a Baboock Tester. If there is no creamery nearby willing to do it cheaply, a good four or eight-bottle tester can be bought for |8.00 to 110.00. (Figure 1 shows one made by the D. H. Burrell Co.) and, all our leading firms now make good ones. The spindle-legged cheap tester should be avoided. But testing^ill not be treated here in detail, as Professors Par- rington and Woll, in their book on Milk Testing, (see list of books) treat the sub- ject in an exhaustive and practical manner, and every dairyman should buy this book as well as a tester. "(Figrij As to keeping track of the cost of food, there is no need of weighing it out to each cow; but it is enough to make a memorandum now and then and note the dates when changes are made, so as to give a fair idea of what has been consumed during the year. As a beginning let creamery men and patrons co-operate and keep track of the number of cows fed (not milked) by each patron, so as to know the average milk yield on each farm at the end of the year. The difference revealed' will be an eye-opener and prove the necessity of testing each in- dividual cow. WHAT FEED TO USE. It would be absurd here to attempt to reply to this question, which Prof.,W. A. Henry, of Madison, Wis., hasi treated in his' 600-page book "Feeds and Feeding," but it can- not be dodged altogether in discussing the economical pro- duction of milk. All food consists of various elements that are grouped mainly as proteids, muscle producing elements, and carbohy- drates, fat and heat producing elements.' Various experi- ments have shown that the best result is obtained when these are present in the food in a certain proportion and 'that it is vastly waste when either is given in too great ex- cess. What this proportion should be, is a mooted question, and the Germans proposed to vary it according to the quan- tity of milk given. Prof. Woll suggested 24.5 lbs. (dry mat- ter) with a proportion of 1 lb. protein to 6.9 lbs. of carbohy- drates. This ratio wasi based on the actual rations given by 128 succeSiSfur American dairymen, — but it seems to me that the economical ratio (proportion) will depend somewhat on oircumstahces, that is, on the local price of the various feeds. Judgment must be used to decide whether, for instance, to sell oats and corn and buy bran and oil meal or not, and cost of freight and hauling both ways Aust also be con- sidered. In our western states the carbohydrates are produced in excess and consequently the mistake of feeding too much of them is often made, as when corn is given in excess. The rations should be balanced up by adding bran, peas, linseed or cotton seed meal, the latter containing over three times as much protein as com and only half the amount of carbo- hydrates. The very latest and most conscientious compendium of various experiments in feeding is the Wisconsin bulletin, No. 116, by Prof. F. W. Woll, and I can do no better than quote him: "The general trend of the results of feeding experiments with milch cows is in the direction of showing that protein feeds possess a somewhat higher value for milk production than feeding stuffs of a more carbonaceous character, but the profitable extent of feeding such feeds must be deter- 8 mined largely by local conditions. With a fair amount of protein in the ration supplied of farm-grown foods, the nar- rowing of the ration fed, by the addition of protein foods, is not a matter of prime importance. The testimony fur- nished by studies of the feeding practices conducted under a variety of conditions plainly shows that excellent results may be obtained by the use of quite wide ratios; a liberal supply of digestible matter in the rations of cows that are good producers is of importance, irrespective of the propor- tion of nitrogenous nutrients found therein, if the rations contain a minimum of protein, which may be placed for dif- ferent cows at from 1.3 to 1.5 lbs. At the same time it should be borne in mind that the cows are most likely to produce milk of the best quality of which they are capable, on rations that contain a fair amount of protein, and have nutritive ratios not wider than about 1.7, for cows in full flow of milk; under ordinary conditions in the north central states a somewhat narrower nutritive ratio than this will, generally speaking, prove profitable, where the permanent effect on the production of the herd is kept in view." It is with great satisfaction that I note how the scien- tists are nearing the view of practical feeders. It behooves «very dairyman to take stock of his avail- able feedstuffs and inform himself as to the cost of various commercial feeds andi then calculate the most economical ration for his cows, under his conditions. Until the youmger generation of farmers is educated up to the necessary calculations, it is a simple matter tO' write to your Etxperiment Station and state what feed stuffs you have and their selling value as well as local prices of bran, oil- meal, etc., and ask for suggestions as to proper rations. Or, if you are— as you ought to be —a subscribers to Hoard's Dairyman — you simply write to that paper. But, and a very large BUT, we must always bear in mind that chemical analysis of feeds are averages and may not fit your case exactly, and that the practical farmer, while taking hints from the chemist, will feed his cows with one eye on the milk pail and the other on the excrements. Give your cows a variety of sound feed, and if stabled, pro- vide a succulent food, either roots or silage, and remem- 9 ber that where corn will grow no cheaper food Ixisis eocists than icell-preserved silage. In summer the most common mistake, which increases the cost of production, is to allow the cows to shrink in yield when pasitures are getting poor, instead of supplementing them at once with some sort of a soiling crop. Any dairy farmer deserving the name should have a few acres planted for this purpose. If not needed it is not lost. Silage is also used for helping out pastures by such men as H. B. Gurler. Finally let me put in a word for cutting hay early and curing it as hay and not as straw, and for the making of oat-hay. These general outlines being observed and the feeding and watering being done at regular hourp, we have done what is possible to produce cheap milk as far as feeding is concerned. I mention six daily rations which Prof. Woll recommends as good examples. 1. Corn silage 40 lbs., clover hay 8 lbs., wheat bran 6 lbs. and corn-meal 3 lbs. 2. Corn fodder 20 lbs., hay 6 lbs., oats 4 lbs., shorts 4 lbs., oil^ meal 2 lbs. 3. Corn silage 50 lbs., corn stover 6 lbs., oats 6 lbs., malt .sprouts 4 lbs., corn-meal 2 lbs. 4. Corn silage 30 lbs., hay 15 lbs., wheat bran 3 lbs., corn-meal 3 lbs., cotton seed meal 2 lbs. 5. Timothy hay 10 lbs., clover hay 8 lbs., wheat bran 6 libs., oats 6 lbs. 6. Corn fodder 20 lbs., clover hay 8 lbs., oats 6 lbs., oil meal 3 lbs. INFLUENCE OP FEED ON THE RICHNESS OF MILK. Most farmers as well as scientists labored for years, under the delusion that an increase in the feed, and especially in that rich in fat, would increase the percentage of fat in the milk. Later experiments, have proven that this is not true to any extent worth mentioning. Feeding to excess or feed- ing very rich food may for a short time increase the richness, but it soon drops into the percentage normal for each cow and the ambitious breeder who "tests" his cows that way has a fair chance of ruining them, for life. Why, starving a cow will make her give abnormally rich milk, though less of it. 10 Increasing the feed of a cow, not fed up to her full capacity, will increase the milk yield — the total amount of butterfat produced' — but not the percentage of fat in. the milk. If this old belief were correct, we should be able to make "Holsteins" give "Jersey" milk! We want to feed all a cow will pay for — no more, no less. WHAT CARE DO YOU GIVE YOUR COWS? The right cows being secured and the right feed given at regular hours, we may yet lose the advantages gained' if the cows, are kept shivering in the lea of a strawstack or suflfocat- ing in a dark, close stable. If she is. left tp shiver in fall rains and snow, the cow will not only utilize a large amount of her feed as a fuel to keep warm, (an expensive firewood, indeed), but as experi- ments in. Denmark have shown, she will change the comiposi- tion of the butterfat in her milk so much that the butter is liable to be mistaken for oleomargarine ! I have no doubt this is the real cause of that lack of flavor every fall, for which our butter merchants blame the "frozen grass." Tlhere is' no need of providing fiancy stables. We may even make fairly good ones with a clay floor and the walls and roof of straw, if we only provide ventilation and' light. The latter calls for the heaviest cash outlay, but sashes are now SO' cheap and the value of light of so great importance tO' the health of the cows there is no excuse for not having plenty of it. As to ventilation, I give in Fig. stable 14 feet by 36 and 8 feet high. v-^^ (Fig. 2.) 2 a cross section of a A wooden flue (A A) is placed along one wall and made high enough to give some draft or at least four feet above the ridge of the roof. On the opposite wall are inserted two or three fluesi like B B', or, if the wall is a double 11 boarded one, the air may be taken in by leaving a board out between two studs on the outside at K (on the piece of wall shown) and another one on the inside at M, but in that case a board N should be nailed in a slanting position with end pieces on either side so as to give the air a slant in direction of the ceiling. As toi the size of the flues, Prof. King, of Madison, Wis., (whose excellent book, "Physics of Agriculture," every farmer ought tOi have) considers that for 20 cows, they should have a, cross-section 2 feet by 2 feet. The intake of fresh air need not be nearly so large, as there are always leaks at windows and doors andi it is better to have several small intakes to prevent draught. This principle' — air circulation without draught on the cows — can be applied to a straw stable as well as to> the most expensive one. Comfort is an important element in cheap milk produc- tion, and while fixed' stanchion may make it easier to keep the cows clean, we need only observe them when lying in the pasture to know how cruel and unnatural their position must be in those "animal stocks." Somewhat better are the vari- ous swinging stanchions, but tying them, or — if it can be afforded — one of the modern stalls like the "Bid.weir'or the "Drown" are the only right systems, and a liberal supply of bedding will not only help to keep them clean and make them comfortable, but increase the manure heap, which the Danish farmers call their "gold mine." To keep a cow tied up all winter is in no way a, natural treatment, and though it is done by many good dairymen (thus universally in Holland and Denmark), the trend is now to do' as Mr. H. B. Gurler recommends in his "American Dairying," give them lukewarm water outside, and if the weather is fairly mild let them, remain there an hour or twoi at their option. This advice should not be misunderstood as a defense for those farmers who turn their cows out to drink through a hole in the ice on the watering trough. The more the cow is deprived of exercise, the greater the need of keeping the pores of the skin open by daily carding and brushing. Indeeid, this is not only a question of health (cheap milk production), but also of cleanliness (pure milk). It is a wonder to me that the farmer who will give his time willingly to keep his horse clean, begrudges it to his cows. 12 It is a question of health in both cases, but in the latter it is also, a question of health to his own family and those who may drink the milk, not to speak of the quality of the butter. Either on the farm or in the creamery, cleanliness means dollars and cents. MILKING. The manner in which the milking is done has also an in- fluence on the cost of productiou. Regular hours are all-im- portant and so is kindness. Indeed, I do not believe any one quite a success as a milker unless he (or she} can make the cow look upon him] (or her) as an adopted calf. The importance of vnlking the very last drop is due not only to the fact that the last pint is many times more valuable (richer in butterfat) than the first, but also to the fact that it helps toi keep up the flow of milk and extend the milking period. T!his is especially important in developing heifers. The money lost all over the United States by poor milking can hardly be overestimated. Cleanliness in milking means quality in the butter. If the cows are cleaned and brushed an hour or so before milk- ing, so as to let the dust settle, the only precaution needed is dampening the udder with a wet cloth so as to prevent scales and dus^t from falling into the pail. M&ny milkers have the bad habit to let their fingers get wet, sometimes de- liberately dipping them, into the milk, so as to make them slide down the. teats. The proper way is to milk with per- fectly dry hands, by squeezing, not by sliding. Only in "strip- ping" to start the flow and to get the last drops of milk, it may be preferable to slide 'the fingers down the teats. It is hardly necessary to say that hands and fingernails must be clean and that all utensils must first be rinsed with cold water and then carefully washed and scrubbed — using soda, the excellent "Wyandottes Cleaner and Cleanser," "Savogram," or "Gold Dust" (never common soap) when needed— and finally rinsed with boiling (not 190 or 200, but 212 deg. Fah.) water. The pails and cans should be easy to cleani and the seams soldered perfectly smooth as any little unevenness in the surface makes them more difficult to clean. These rules for producing clean milk are not new, over a hundred years ago they were observed by the good butter 13 makers, but it remained for the laist decade of last century to explain the reason "why," and thus make the tedious work easy. Souring of milk, and indeed most of the taints from which milk may suffer, have been shown by our scientists to be due to various bacteria. These bacteria thrive in the ex- crements and dirt, and they float on the dust and drop into the pail while milking; they abound in the little specks of dried milk left in the; crevices in ba(Jly soldered cans, in poorly cleaned strainers, in rags used for wiping the cans after washing (which should never be done), in dust gathered on the cow's hide, under the fingernails of the man who milks, in fact everywhere. / When we know this, we understand) the necessity of the precautions hinted at, and when we know that these bacteria will multiply in the warm milk much more rapidly than in cold, we understand the value of cooling the milk or cream as much as possible at once in order tO' deliver it in the best condition to the creamery. Every bacterium which is in the milk as it leaves the stables will multiply 28 times; in two hours at 95 deg., 215 times in four hours and 3,800 times in six hours. But if the milk is cooled to 55 deg. they will multiply only 4 times in twO' hours, 8 times in four hours and 435 times in six .hours, while if the milk is chilled in ice, they- will hardli/ increase at all. BETTER CARE NEEDED FOR MILK AND CREAM. It is not so hard to convince the private dairyman of the need of all these precautions, he will at omce see their value in a better product — better price. Bnt the farmer should also be willing to acknowledge their need when sending the milk or cream to be made into butter, at the creamery. He is just as much interested in the final result whether the creamery be run on a strictly co-operative basis or by an in- dividual. Indeed, as the milk has to be transported before being separated and the bacteria get a better chance to de- velop than if the butter is made on the farm^ handling the milk for the creamery requires more care. If patrons un- derstand this and act accordingly, it will be easyto' increase the valuei of our creamery butter from 1 to 2 cents a pound, or, for the United States, say from three to six million dollars. 14 COOLING AND AERATING.. Etsperience has shown that the very best way of prepar- ing milk for hauling is toi run it over one of the combinedl aeratorsi and coolers. TOie three best styles are represented by Fig. 3, the "Star Cooler," by Fig 4, the "Champion Cooler," and Fig. 5, the Schmith System. The first and the third arei arranged so as to have water, or, better still, iced water, flowing in the opposite direction from the milk and will cool the milk in the most economical manner. Other manufacturers, such as A. H. Reid Creamery and Dairy Sup- ply Co., Vt. Farmi Machine Co., Creamery Package Mfg. Co., etc., made: similar coolers. The second is preferable where water is scarce and ice is available. (Fig. 3.) (Fig. 4.) The compromise of aeration without cooling more than the temperature of the air will allow, will be far better than straining directly into the shipping can, and for this purpose the simple apparatus shown in Fig. 6 is satisfactory. It consists simply of a pail with perforated bottom into which the milk is strained and fpom^ there drops into the receiving funnel. It is made by D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y. Setting the can in cold water and aerat- ing by dipping is, if conscientiously done, a great help, but the way it is usually done it is a delusion and a snare. Nor must it be forgotten that aeration in anything but abso- lutely pure air is bound to prove detrimental instead of beneficial. 15 A NEW MILK CAN. Attention has been drawn to the im- ^ portance, ini buying cans and pails, of see- ing that the soldering' is smooth and even, but even if it is, the seams remain the danger point. In Fig. 7, I illustrate a | Danish imiprovement. The cans are made of two pieces, pressed out of the very best EtQglishi steel plate, joined in the middle of , the side and heavily tinned. T!he cover Is of one piece and the handles only are riv- eted. Prof. Boeggild strongly recommended . this can in "MaelJceritidende," and it has given C good satisfaction in the past six years. The ' ^^'^' '^"•' price for the S-galion size is $3.00 in Denmark, but if it is durable it would be cheap at $5.00. Now they even make 5-gallon cans stamped out of one piece of steel. STRAINING. The strainers on the market are innumerable, but most of themi are delusions and snares. "Prevention is far better than cure." In the .first place all 'the fine metal strainers only keep the coarse dirt and chafE out, moreover nearly all of them allow the milk to rinse the spores and bacteria off the. dirt as it lies caught in the meshes. Fine muslin is better, and light flannel is the best, as long as it is kept clean, and renewedi when felted, so as not to delay the work too much. I am not in favor of the so-called sanitary milk pail, with a small opening in the top to admit a strainer, in which the 'milking is done, the diflSiculty in keeping it clean counter- balances, in my opinion, the advantage. Far better will it be to cover the pail with a piece of light flannel or double muslin, allowing it to sag in the middle; four cloth pins will keep it in place. For straining into the shipping can or separator tank, I also prefer the strainers that are easy to clean, having no nooks and corners. KEEPING ACCOUNT. I simply suggest the following ruling for the record of the individual cows. It requires two pages with 26 lines for each cow. In the column "For Week" you insert the "Total" 16 daily milk yieldl multiplied by seven, and in that of "Pounds- Butter Fat" the result multiplied by the percentage of fat and', divided by 100'. To calculate butter yield add one-sixth to- the butter fat. Weekly Record of Cow No Bom . . . . . Served Due The calf dropped' MILK IN POUNDS . Babcock Test Founds Butter Pat Bemarks Morn- ing Even- ing Total For Week In testing cows they should be milked at exactly the same hour im the evening on the test day as on the day before. The total milk should be weighed or measured daily in order to control the production, and sio should that used in the house or for the calves. The last pointer I desire to give in this chapter is to suggest either the offering of premiums, as Mr. Gurler does, to those milkers (be they hired men or your own boys and girls) whose cows keep up. the milk flow best, or making themi co-partners by giving them a certain share- in whatever the cows yield during the year over a certain amount. If you do this* and let the milking be* counted as work and not as a little extra "chore" to be done after dark (sooner or later, as the field work may allow), you will find.. the cows will respond and the cost of production will be re- duced.. .'V -jir=gM3»ii!ggli- . if ' fl - . ^^Z'iiu-'w.'ii: ■■;"-!!« Prof. Haecker's Ideal Calf, "Young Houston." CHAPTER n. RECEIVING MILK AT THE CREAMERY. THE GREATEST TRIAL. The greatest trials of a creamery buttermaker are at the weighcan. It is there he must show his experience of human nature, his diplomacy and his sense of justice. We will pre- sume that the proprietors (individual or co-operative) have given him the strong moral backing of a well-built, neatly painted creamery with neat surroundings!, as well as full authority to reject poor milk. We will also presume that he has recognized the same principle by keeping the platform^ the scales, the wall and his person perfectly neat and clean. (This presupjwses, also that he is not expected to be on a jump between the boiler and the receiving can). All this given, he has yet to show his diplomacy by treat- ing the various patrons m a way to suit their individual idiocracies, so as tO' obtain the desired result — ^pure, clean milk. He has yet to show his backbone and sense of justice by refus.ing to accept tainted milk, which he knows will de- teriorate the quality of butter, even if it belongs tO' the owner or one of the directors. He has yet to learn that the patron's interests are identical with his own. Etvery patron delivering milk should back up such a milk receiver, he is fighting in their interest, as they would lose by the acceptance of the tainted milk. TESTING MILK. Tto run a creamery on the pooling- system is so absurd that it requires no mention. I am in reality in favor of having an outsider — at best — a woman, receive, and' take the samples and test the milk, but in any case the testing should be done openly and fairly to all and no one S'hould do this work who has not carefully studied Professors Farrington and WoU's book on "Milk Testing." Suffice it here to say that the better the milk has been cared for, the easier it is to secure a uniformi fair sample. 'No maker can afford to juggle 2- 17 18 with the test or the scale either to favor certain patrons or to make a showing of paying more for butterfat than' does a neighboring creamery by reading the test low or giving short weight. In the first case he steals from some patrons in favor of others ; in the second case, he is simply helping his employers or his patrons to fool themselves and others. ' In testing it must be remembered that the taking of a correct sample is the most important part of the work and that when milk is left at rest only for a few minutes, the cream will commence to rise and it will make a difference whether the sample is taken from the top, the bottom or the center. With small lots, as for instance when sampling single cow's mdlk, it is easy enough to get a fair sample by pouring the milk from/ one bucket to another a few times, but this must not be done so violently as to make it foam too much. 3Qf close work is desired for composite samples (the collecting of two or more samples for testing at once) the "Sicovell" tube is safest to. use. By this, if the sample is taken from a cylindrical vessel, a proportionate amount is secured each time. Thus, if a cow should give 30 lbs. of 3 per cent milk in one milking and 15 lbs. of 5 per cent milk in the next (to quote an exaggerated example) the result would be exactly correct; whereas, if we took equal samples, the result would be too high. But the difflculty in getting a good sample is greatly in- creased when we come to large quantities of milk as delivered at the creameries. It is true that, if the milk is delivered every day, and has been stirred while cooling, the pouring into the weigh can and a few vigorous strokes with a long- handled dipper will enable us to get a fair sample. Yet patrons don't seem to realize the advantage of taMng good care of the milk and the result is that cream clots will float on top; in tailing the sample, these' must be avoided and the former get a lower test. The Scovell tube is J to 1 inch in diameter, with three openings and has a cap at the bottom. The tube is pushed gently to the bottom of the can and pressed so as to push the cap above the openings and thus a column of milk ex- actly like that in the can is secured. 19 For creamery -work the objection is that too large a sample; isi secured' and also that in doing the work — as must be — in a hurry, milk is apt to« adhere to the outside and if there is any cream on top this will naturally hang on and part of it get mixed with the samiple. Of course this can be avoided by holding a cloth round the tube in one hand while pulling it out with the other. An improved or modified sampler is patented by Messrs. Kolarik & Werder. This consists of a tube connected with a small faucet at the bottom, of the weigh can, and provided with a series of narrow openings, forming virtually a slit on oift side. A rod with a handle fits tight into this tube and has a groove not larger than will hold a suitable sample. The rod is set so that the groove corresponds to the slit in the tube and the milk fills the groove. A twist of the rod shuts the slit in the tube and allows the milk in the groove to run out of the: faucet. An.other system has been used, namely, to have a very fine hole or drip-cock in the conductor from the weigh can to the receiving vat to catch the drip. Experiments at Wis- consin Dairy School have shown this method to be very exact. THE FERMENTATION TEST. The test for fat is, however, simply a question of a little care and absolute honesty, while the test for taint is far more difficult. When milk arrives at a temperature between 70 and 90 degrees and the receiver's nose is in good working order, it is comparatively easy to discover taint, but when the milk ar- rives ice cold it has to be badly tainted to be detected at once. The receiver should take the cover off the cans personally so as to get the very first \^hiff. He should first see that the outside of the can is clean and when pouring the milk into the weigh can he should watch the bottom and the seams of the can. The patron should not get huffy, but rather be pleased when he sees such a close examination. The truth is that the patron— if he does his duty— is more likely to know when the milk is bad and should draw the re- 20 ceiver's attention to it, instead of being "tickled" if he suc- ceeds in getting a bad lot of milk passed into the receiving vat. Even with the greatest care, tainted milk will be taken in and the only way to locate thei trouble is to use the Fer- mentation Test. When it is located, visit the farm, and if the combined efforts of farmer and buttermaker cannot dis- cover the cause, then the same test should be applied to each oow. This test i^ simply to sterilize (by boiling) some glass tubes 5x1 inch (or else the "common sense" half pint bottles) and take a sample of milk in each. Keep these covered %t a temperature from 90 to 110 degrees, by keeping in warm water. After five or six hours observe them, without shak- ing, every hour of so, note the time of coagulation and, after 9 to 12 hours, see how the curd acts. If it remains 'one solid column like pure marble and, on being shaken up, has a pleasant, clean acid smell and taste, the milk is first-class. If, on the other hand, the curd has a large number more or less (Fis- 8) irregular holes, it will, as a rule, when shaken, have a stench which will convince the most skeptical patron. In Pig. 8 I illustrate the original "Gerber" test, in which a lamp heats the water bath. This test will also help the private dairyman in trouble and indeed it is thei duty of every farmer who receives a com- plaint from the creamery to' attempt to find the cause, and, in the last instance, mate this test. I should not be afraid of guaranteeing my butter at a' creamery if the farmers kept a sample of their milk under this test and only sent me such as their wives were willing" to drink at the end of the test. As to acidity, I am not so afraid of that, as long as the jeparator does n6t get clogged, and, unless I wanted to pas- teurize it, the nose and tongue is guide enough without the aid of the Acid Ttest. Bait if we want to pasteurize or per- 21 chance ship the milk to a city, then the add test is of great value. At the weigh can is the weak point of co-operative dairy- ing, be the factory run by an individual or by the farmers, and not until patrons have the moral conviction that to deliver tamted mUk at a creamery is not only to steal from the creamery- man, hut also front their fellow patrons, not until then, I say, have we any hope of a perfect product from= our creameries. It has been suggested to pay for milk not only according to fat percentage', but also according to grade, and that the milk be "scored" each day. Though this has been practiced in one creamery in Denmark, I do' not believe it to be prac- tical. But I do believe in surprise scorings of the milk once a month and posting the results at the weigh can. Cans in transit should be protected against sun and dust, and in very hot weather it will be found, a good thing to cover them with a wet blanket, as the evaporation of the water will cool the cans. To secure the desired co-operation, it is much to be pre- ferred that the patrons take turns in delivery insteaid' of hav- ing regular milk haulers. If these have to be employed, as great care should be used in selecting thern as by our Presi- 'dent in selecting an embassador. Unless the milk receiver knows thei hauler to be a man of discretion, he had better not complain about the milk to him, but, if possible, call on the farmer in person, or ask him to call at the creamery. CHAPTER ni. RAISING THE CREAM. COMPOSITION OF MILK CONDITIONS AFFECTING ITS CREAMING. In 100 lbs. of milk is found an average of 87.5 lbs. water, in which) is diissolved 3.75 lbs. casein and albumen, 4.5 lbs. of milk sugar, and 0.75 lbs. of ash. In this watery solution — "serum" — ^3.5 lbs. of butterfat, more or less, exists in emul- sion. The specific gravity of the butter globules is less than that of the serumi (skim milk), that is, if a certain measure of water at 60 deg. weighs 1,000 lbs., the same measure of skim milk will weigh about 1,034 lbs. of new milk, about 1,030 lbs. of creami holding 25 per cent of fat, 1,002 lbs. of pure but- terfat (at 100 deg.) about 867 lbs. These facts explain the process of creaming, which goes on if milk is left at rest. The fat globules together with some serum rise to the top and form a layer of cream while the skim milk retains m'ore or less of the fat. Various conditions affect this separation, notably the depth of the layer of milk and the temperature. It is evident that the thinner^ the layer of milk the sooner will the butter globules make theii*way to the top. Cto'oling will, as the late Prof. Arnold pointed out, affect the serum and make it shrink faster than the butterfat, and thus increase the difference in the specific gravity and cause the cream- to rise sooner. But while milk is being heated the opposite result is obtained and the cream will rise more slowly. If, on the other hand, the temperaturei is stationary, the higher temperature is the more favorable as the butterfat expands more (though more slowly) than does the serum. These facts explain why the "practical" dairymen often report various results and demonstrate the necessity of vary- ing the system! of setting according to the conditions ruling. 22 ^ ^ ' 23 SETTING SHALLOW. This used to be the common system in most countries, whether in the large Scandinavian and German shallow wood- en tub, the French and English earthenware dishes, f he large enameled cast-iron pans (Destinon), the Dntch copper basins or thei modern tinned steel milk pan. Tlie depth at which the milk is set should vary according to the temperature in the room, and if very warm I have seen it set as shallow as 1^ inches, but if the temperature is 60 deg., the depth may be from 2 to 3 inches. The cream should be skimmed while the milk is sweet, but I have also got good results by doing it just before or at the very minute the milk is coagulated, and, if set in a clean room, free from odors, the resultant butter may be as fine as from any other system. Coagulation stops the rising of the cream. The cream is best removed with a flat, finely perforated skimmer. Fig.. 9. DEEP SETTING. The Orange County (N. Y.) system was, I believe, the first by which the milk was set in cans about 20 inches deep andl from 8 to 15 inches in diameter — round (Fig. 10) or oval. They (Fig. 9.) (Pig. 10.) (Fig. 11.) were placed in running water from springs holding a temper- ature of 48 to 50 deg. This is satisfactory, and wherever such water is obtainable the dairy should be built with a tank of wood or preferably of cement, arranged as shown in Fig. 11, letting the water enter at the bottom at one end and flow out at the top at the other. It was soon adopted in Sweden and elsewhere, and in 1864 Mr. Swartz suggested the use of ice water ; and in that case. 24 unless tainted by spilt milk, the water need not be renewed more than once or twice a month. This system soon gained ^,-_. - _ M ^ar*'-^ "round, and its applica- ^ Jfc^ I on is very simple as long s a stock of ice (or snow) 1 available. (See Pig. 12). Prof. Fjord made ex- 1 sriments which showed I hat the very best results ere obtained with cans 8 iches in diameter, and by I sing plenty of crushed ice as to e"nsure a very luick cooling. Later Dr. Babcock, of Wisconsin, reported the following average analyses of skimi milk from deep (Fig. 12.) Per 100 lbs. oJ milk set loss by not using ice 065 " 514 " 717 setting at different temperatures: Ice water 35 degrees— 45 degrees Fh 232 48 degrees » ... .287 " 54— 56 degrees 746 " 08 degrees 949 And also how an average loss of .086 per 100 lbs. of milk may be caused by not setting the milk immediately after milking. Meanwhile Mr. C'ooley invented his cans (Fig. 13). The cover, like an inverted tin pan, allows the can to be fully sub- merged in the water while it lets the condensed vapor escape into the latter. The advantage of this system is the exclu- sion of tainted air. Fine insulated tanks, some of themi pro- vided with elevatorsi, are sold for these cans, but if that is too expensive, a barrel containing such a can may be set in anywhere, if no special dairy room is provided. These cans are sold with and without a tube by which the skim milk is removed from, the cream. The advantage of the tube to the one-cow dairy is, obvi- ous, as the good wife may at any time withdraw a little milk without materially disturbing the creaming process. More exact separation of the cream is also possible than with the regular conical skimmer used for all deep setting cans. Yet, 25 if there sbauld be any "sediment'' it would be better to skim (from the top. Experiments have shown that these cans are 3X0 better than the common shot-gun cans OS far as the cream raising is concerned, tem- peratures being the same. A good many other fancy cabinet cream- •ers are on the market in which the ioc' water cools the cans in the upper compartment •and refrigerates the lower one, where cream and butter may be stored. Moseley & Pritchard's and the "Crystal" in the West, "Stoddard's" and "A. H. Keid's" in the East, are among these. It is simply a matter of first cost, neat- (Fig. is.) ness, convenience and insulation. Pro'vided the temperature maintained is the same, as good skimming can be done in the 60 or 75 cents shot-gun can, placed in a sawed^ofE whiskey barrel as in the finest cabinet creamer in the market. While thus ice water or running water not warmer than 50 deg., makes this system, a comparative success, it must not be forgotten that where warmer water than this is used, the result may be a loss of from IJ to 2^ lbs. of butter (or nearly half) per 100 lbs. of milk. Another drawback never emphasized enough in America is the fact demonstrated by Prof. Fjord that where all the milk is from cows in their last period of lactation (say from 7 to 10 mon,ths after calving), all the chilling in the world would not raise all the cream, and in that case the shallow system seems to be better. By heating the milk to about 100 deg. just before setting (done in many cases by adding hot water), this trouble is partly avoided. SET ACCORDING TO CONDITIONS. By keeping the conditions mentioned for these two sys- tems in mind, we are led to modify them as the French dairy- men do when they set their milk 10 to 12 inches deep in crocks, placed in running water, of about 55 to 60 deg. Thus, in the south, where' ice is scarce and a running spring of that temperature', or even 65 or 70 deg., is available, the shallow tin pans shpuld be placed in a trough through which the water is led, the depth of the milk depending on the temperature. It 26 must be remembered with both the shallow and deep-setting system that /the best result is obtained by "setting" the milk as quickly as possible after milking. Delay, hauling or shak- ing in any way will prevent creaming. Nor will cold air do the same work as water of the same temperature; and stone crocks or glass jars will not conduct the cold (or heat) as quickly as tinned steel or copper. THE DEVONSHIEB SYSTEM. As another distinct system, must be mentioned that of Devonshire, where the milk is set in pans from 4 to 6 inches deep for 12 hours. The pans are then placed on the stove (or better still, provided with a double bottom: for hat water) and the temperature raised to 190 deg. or not quite boiling, after which the pans are set in the air for another 12 hours. The result is a thick, heavy cream that may be removed in blocks — the so-called Devonshire cream. PEINCIPLE OP CREAMING BY CENTRIFUGAL FOECE. • Mr. J. D. Prederiksen, in "The Dairy Messenger," ex- plains the principles of the process in such a clear, condensed manner, that I quote: "Tie a stone to. the end of a string, take hold of the other end of the string and swing it around at a rapid rate. As the speed increases, the force with which the stone will pull the string increases at a much greater rate than the speed, and the weight of the stone seems to increase a hundred fold. Ttiis is due to the centrifugal force, so-oalled, the tendency of the stone to fly away from the center of revolution. "When a particle of matter is swinging round a central point, the force by which it presses outward from the center of revolution depends upon the gravity, the speed and the distance from the center. Supposing a weight of one pound, w, toi revolve around an axis, the distance from the center (the radius) being r feet, and the number of revolutions s hundred a minute, then the centrifugal force f=3.4xE.xWsS^. Ctvnsequently, if r is one foot, the centrifugal force will be: For 100 revolutions a minute 3.4x 1 3.4 pounds. ■ 200 •' •• 3.4x 4 13.6 " ' ' *00 " ■• 3.4x IB 54.4 " 1000 " " a.4x 100 340 " 5000 " " 3.4x2500 8500 "In other words, for 1,000' revolutions a minute, the dis- tance from the center (r) being 1 foot, the centrifugal force 27 is 340 times the weight of tlie matter; r being 2 feet, it is 680 times; r being 3 feet, it is 1,020 times the weight, etc. Supposing the weight of a particle of fat in the milk toi be 10 weight-unitS^, and that of an equally large particle of milk serum, to be 11 weight-units, then the force by which the fat is naturally driven towards the surface by gravity only will be 11 — 10=1, while in the^ centrifugal machine making 1,000 revolutions a minute, with an average radius of 1 ft., the force will be 340x11^340x10=340. Thus the tendency of separation is increased 340 times by the centrifugal forces, and if the speed is 5,000 revolutions per minute, the increase will be 8,500 times. This gives an idea of the efficacy of centrifugal creaming as compared with any gravity process, and also suggests the enormousi strain to which the drum of a separator is subjected. Supposig a stick to make a thous- and revolutions a minute around its center in the horizontal plane, at each end carrying a pail with milk weighing 60 pounds, and supposing the average radius to be 2 feet, then the force with which each pail will pull the stick is 340x2x60 =40,800 lbs., or about 20 toius." CONDENSED HISTORr OF THE CEBAM SEPARATOR. Prof. Fuchs, of Carlsruhe, in 1859 suggested the testing of milk by swinging it in test tubes. In 1864 Mr. A. Prandtl, of Munich, experimented with hanging cylindrical buckets with milk on a revolving, spindle. In 1870, Rev. H. T. Bond, of Massachusetts, had two glass jars fixed on a spindle, re- volving only 200 times per minute. In 1873 Mr. Jensen, of Denmark, had two pails revolving 400 times a min.ute. In 1872 Prof. Moser showed a model in Wien, and in 1874, Le- feldt, of Bfaunschweig, showed the first large separator. It consisted of a druin provided with a partial cover and four vertical partitions. It was encased in a heavy mantle. The drumi revolving 800 times a minute would keep the milk (220 lbs.) in a vertical position. It took o or 10 minutes to get up full speed, 20 to 30 minutes to separate and 25 to 30 minutes to come to a standstill again. When the milk had resumed its horizontal position, the cream floated in a heavy layer on top. The milk was removed with a siphon and the cream drawn through a valve in the bottom of the drum, which was refilled and the operation repeated. In 'iup«^ 28 1878 the writer learnt to operate this at the Kiel City cream- ery, with the view of using it where ice could not be obtained and found the eflSoiency in skimming depended on the' temper- ature, the speed and the time run. It did not take long to improve on this crude process and the first move was to arrange for crowding out the oream when separated (as shown in Pig. 14), to the right; to the left the drum is shown at rest. This allowed the stopping of the drum by a brake, and thus short- ened the opera- - tion. But, Mr. (Pig 14 ) Lefeldt continued until in 1883 he had a machine receiving the milk and dis- charging the skim' milk and; cream continuously. Meanwhile other inventors did not remain idle, and as early as 1878 and 1879, the "Danish Weston" (so-called here) in Denmark and the DeLaval separators in Sweden were put on the market. The first had a plate just below the cover, with openings near the wall, and this forced the skim milk into the upper space, where a tube caught and discharged' it, while another tube caught the cream be- low the plate. (Fig. 15.) TOiis machine was run at from' 2500 for the large one to 4500 revolutions per minute , for the small size pow- '^'^•^•' er machine. It had the great advantage of being able to elevate the cream, if so desired, 7 to 8 feet. The DeLaval Separator, on the othef hand, had a smaller drum with a neck. Pig. 16, and there the slpm milk was conducted through a tube (b) and thrown on a plate cover (B), while the cream rose along the neck (Fig. 16.) 29 and was thrown through an opening (e) on the plate (C). A small screw (f) regulated) the amiount of cream tO' be taken. The speed of this separator was 7000 revolutions per minute, but operators often run it up to 9000 and above. Among the numerous other machines that have been con- structed, I mention a Danish one called the "Alexandra," in England, the "Balance" in Germany and France and "Jumbo" in America. The bowl rests loose on the spindle and thus balances itself. Fig. 17 represents the latest Danish make, which now, since the original "Alpha'' patents have expired. (Fig. 18.) (Fig. 17.) has been provided with plates simi- lar to those used in the "Alpha," In Elngland the Yictoria dis- charges the skim milk at the bottom of the bowl. In America Sharpies first copied the DeLaval, and later constructed the "Russian," in which the bowl is provided with a steami turbine attachment, and is rotated by steam directly. Lately he has introduced his "Tubular" (Fig. 18), in which the bowl, nearly 2 feet long and only four inches in diameter, revolves about 22,000 times a minute, and he ,has now also put in an "insert" somewhat like the "Simplex" but with the blades screwed together. The original Danish Weston were modified and greatly improved by Messrs. A. H. Reid, Springer and A. H. Barber & Oo., but are not sold now. 30 In 1891, the DeLaval Company adopted an improvement which consists of a seriesi of discs (Fig. 19) which diyide the millc into thin layers and this increases the efficiency of the machine, soi as to place it at the head of all in amount of miilk skimmed per horse power used and in close skimming. (Figr. 19.) It was introduced under the name of "Alpha," and the work- ing is nicely illustrated in Fig. 20. The milk and cream have, so to say, each their own "side- walk," the milk along the under side and the cream along the upper side of the plates as indicated by the arrows; and thus reach their respective destination without jostling each other as in the case of the old hol- low bowl separator. It is true, the price is somewhat higher and cleaning may take a little longer, but the fact remains ' that with the same power no hollow bowl machine has ever done as good work. (pjg 21.) (Fig. 20.) 31 FIG.I msji VIBS The discarding of the old ideas that the capacity of a separator depended exclusively on the temperature, speed, diameter and depth of the bowl, set many inventors to work experimenting to find a substitute for the Alpha Discs. Thus Melotte, of France, in- serted a number of polygonal vertical partitions in the bowl, but later changed this to the Insert shown in Fig. 21 and the capacity of the U. S. Sep- arator was increased by divid- ing the bowl into compart- ments with two inner bowls, which caused a' sort of triple current, and later the inserts were changed as shown in Fig. The milk is fed into the top of the cover (Fig. 1) where tubes conduct it to the inner cup (Fig. 2) in which are wings that cause the milk to revolve with it. From here the milk passes into the intermediate cup (Fig. 3) and from there into the main bowl (Fig. 4), so that before the milk leaves the bowl at the bottomi it has passed through three different compartments. JLefeldt filled his bowl with curious celluloid tubes; The "National" used cylindrical partitions indented like a pine- apple, and A. H. Eeid used corrugated cylinders. (Fig. 9&.) Lately D. H. Bnrrell & Co., of Little Falls, N. Y., have introduced the "Simplex" Link blade, called the "Globe," and other names in Europe. In these the milk pursues a straight course from the bottom: of the bowl, where it is (Fig. 22.) 32 delivered by the feed tube, shown to the right in Fig. 23^ to the top where it is thrown out as separated cream and. skiin milk. (Fig. 23.) The linkblades consist of a series of curved steel blades hinged om bronze rings, so that when taken out of the bowl they may be washed on both sides as shown in the center of Pig. 23. Elach space between adjacent blades acts as an entirely independent separating chamber; all these spaces are fed uniformly at the bottom, and as the milk passes up it is gradually separated into cream and skim milk, the heavier skim milk particles following the concave side of the blades in their upward and outward direction, and the cream par- ticles following the convex side in their progress upward and inward to the cream out- let. In Fig. 24 I illustrate the No. 3 turbine "Simplex" with a capacity of 1,800 lbs. The "Crown" Separator made in Sweden hais perforated deca- gon inserts as shown in Fig. 125, but the latest power ma- chines have pyramidisi remind- ing of the Alpha system, but the plates are deeper and have small openings near the top' of each angle. (Fig. 24.) '1 '1 33 (Fig. 25.)' The "Empire," made in Bloomfleld, N. Y., is virtually the same as the Crown shown in Fig. 25. CHOOSING A SEPARATOR. As to the choice of separators, no absiolute rules can be laid down. Most of the hollow bowls skim so as to lea.ve not more tham 0.2, possibly 0.3 per cent of fat in the skim milk, while those with inserts skim to. between 0.1 and 0.2, by chemical analysis, and 0.05 to "trace" by the Babcock. The extra loss of 0.1 to 0.2 per cent means the loss of from 1 to 2 lbs. of butter for every thousand pounds of milk; if the amount skimmed is so small that the dif- ference in the interest on the original cost isi enough to equal the loss of fat, then there would be nothing gained ini paying a high price) for a close skimming machine. But in creameries, where the difference between the close-skimming of the separators on the market may make a difference of from 500 to 3,000 lbs. of butterfat, or, say, from $75 up to |600 a year, it is cheaper to buy the very best, even, if the old ones must be thrown away. Nor must it be forgotten that there also may be a difference in the individual machines of the same make. But there are also other considerations, the durability of - the machine, cost of repairs, ease of cleaning and power re- quired. Nor is a test of the skim milk enough. If the con- struction is such as to retain part of the cream in the bowl in a more or less unavailable shape, this loss should be cal- culated. Again, if all the skim milk is to be used for cheese or for human consumption, the fat left in it will have its full value and it matters less, whether the separator leaves 0.05 or 0.25 per cent of fat in it. If the milk is pasteurized (heated to 160 deg.) and run hot through the machine, the difference between the hollow bowl machines and the others will be re- duced to a, minimum as far as close skimming is concerned. Whenever agents of rival machines are making compara- tive tests, care should be taken to see that the milk has the same temperature that the speed and the amount of milk run in a certain time is exactly as claimed, and that no juggling 3- 34 is done with the test. The double-neck Ohlson or the Wagner test bottle should be used, not the common Babcoek. If yon have a mechanical expert you can rely on, get his opinion as to durability of the competing machines. COMPARING THE VARIOUS CREAMING SYSTEMS. Tlhere is not a centrifugal separator on the market that is not far ahead of either shallow or deep-setting, even though these, under favorable conditions, for a short time each season, may leave as little fat in the skim milk as do the poorest sepiarators; the "average" vv^ill, at best, be about 0.5 per cent and under unfavonable comditions go as high as 1 per cent. Experiments ncuade by Prof. Fjord shiovred that even the original, self-skimming but crude, Lefeldt machine (vi^ith hollow bowl) gave more butter in per cent as follows : • Ice System — Maj-, 8.3; June, 7.3; July, 4.5; August, 3.1; September, 3.7; October, 18.1; November, 28.0; December, 17.8; January, 7.6; February, 3.8; March, 3.7; April, 4.1. Shallow Tubs — May, 10.4; June, 9.6; July, 13.8; August, 11.0; September, 16.0; October, 14.9; November, 15.6; Decem- ber, 13.1; January, 8.8; February, 5.4; March, 6.0; April, 6.4. It is perfectly safe to calculate an increase of 10 per cent on the yearly butter yield whenever a sepai'ator is used in- stead of the other systems, even under the most favorable conditions. With either the other systems the cream will not rise as well, if the setting is delayed or the milk shaken by transpor- tation, but with the separator it does not matter nearly as much, nor will the period of lactation affect the separator much. We may have to reduce the flow a little — that is all. It may be pertinent here to refer to the- fact, shown by Dr. Barthel, that if milk has been agitated violently by runming through a heater with fast revolving dashers or by being pumped up or elevated by a steam jet, the separators will not skim it as close as usual. Tests have proved that cream and milk is purified by the separation which leaves a sediment on the bowl and in this may be found not only dirt and scales, which pass through the strainers, but also a considerable proportion of germs and bacteria, notably those of tuberculosis. 35 Add to this the increased value of skim milk, when we are able toi feed it warm, as it comes from the cow, and it is evident that noi private dairyman having 5 to 10 good cows can afford to be without a separator. CREAMING SYSTEMS THAT ARE FAILURES. It would not be necessary to mention these if it were not for the fact that several otherwise respectable agricultural papers have run the advertisement of several such, and that even dairy papers are sometimes induced to give them space; Thus we had, some years ago, the vacuum system, by which a small air pump exhausted the air from the milk can. This, like creaming by an electric current, was, how- ever, a short-lived delusion, and so was the famous Berrigan Separator, in which the air pump was used to create a press- ure in the milk can and the milk diluted with 20 per cent of water. Thei Cornell and Wisconsin Universities disposed) of this. The former reported the tests showing the percentage of f afini the skim milk to be : Laval Baby N2. 0.09 Oooley, set at 40 deg 0.20 Berrigan Separator 0.59 Not only was it a failure, but it was an attempt to de- ceive by using the word "Separator." Creaming by dilution was attempted 36 years ago in Den~ mark and Germany, and many "practical" farmers reported good results, but that was in the ante-Babcock days. Drs. Martini and Peters (Germany) tried it in 1869, and found that while apparently more cream was raised the cream contained less butterfat than that from undiluted milk, thus explaining the fallacious result claimed. Every mow and then during the last twenty years our agricultural papers have passed around notices of the won- derful benefit of dilution, various exjteriment stations took up the experiments, and while not all in accord, the results were not favorable t6 the process. Indeed the only experi- ments favorable to dilution that I recall are those reported in Bulletin 79, Cornell, which seems to indicate that while there is no benefit from diluting with cold water, some gain was pbserved from diluting with 25 per cent of water at 135 deg. But, as there was a considerable difference in the 36 temperature of the diluted and undiluted milk when "set" and the latter had the beiieflt of the higher temperature, those experiments are of but little value. When we want to make am experiment comparing two methods, we must have all conditions alike, but the one to be tested; this is where so many "practical," and, I regret to say, even some of the scientific experiments fail. Theoretically, the addition of water, temperatures being kept the same, should rather delay the creaming, as it reduces the difference in the specific gravity, but if there sometimes is a benefit a possible explanation may lie in its preventing or delaying the coagulation of the fibrin discovered by Dr. iBaboock. The advertisements referred to are those of the "Hy- draulic," the "Aquatic" and other "Separators" [sic) which all profess to be patented and consist of a large can with a faucet into which the dilution water is introduced at the bottom through a funnel or otherwise. The whole apparatus is soldi for about four times its actual cost and farmers are misled by the term separator into comparing the low (?) price 6f |10 to |2i0, with that of |65 for the centrifugal sep- arator. They have no more right to the name of separator than a shot-gun can. To this class belongs also the "Auto- matic" separator, which is a tube for distributing the water at the bottom of a can. A patent on this process is not worth the paper it is written on, and can only apply to some pe- culiar shape of the can, which has no influence. Any one may use a common can, and if he wants to introduce the water at the bottom, have a loose funnel and pii)e made at the tinner's. But, I presume, that this and other frauds will, like the "gold brick," succeed time and again among the "practical" farmers who won't read "Hoard's Dairyman," or any other paper. While most of these frauds are driven out of the mar- ket, there are still advertised in many of our agricultural papers so-called (or rather "mis-called") "separators" and "extractors," which simply consist of a peculiar shaped can inserted in another of galvanized iron and connected by a faucet. I illustrate in Pig. 26 the cross-sections of some of these cans and while they may not be called frauds my read- 37 (Fig. 26.) ers will notice at a glance that a common round can set in a barrel or in another round can with ice water will do equally good! work and be easier to^ clean, while the cost is only one-third or one-fourth. If ,we want something neat and good and cam afford it, the old style cabinet creamers referred to on page 26 are far better. CHAPTER IV. H EATI NG THE MILK. PREPARING THE MILKi FOR SEPARATION. On the farmi the milk is in its very best condition for sep- aration immediately after milking, and the warm skim milk is then at its best for feeding purposes. Indeed, where' con- venient and where the separator is not too' far from the stable it may be started as soon as the milkers are far enough ahead toi keep it going and the milk may thus be strained directly into the separator tank, and thus save the cleaning of an extra vessel. But the separation should never be done in the stable or anywhere where smells and dust may contam- inate the cream. If, by some accident, the supply of milk should not be kejit up, a little water or skim milk should be run through the separator to drive out the cream. If the night's milk is not separated till morning it should be warm- ed toi 80' or 90 deg. This is essential with all hollow bowl separators, audi only in a less degree with the others. At the creameries the heating of the milk is an important function and is but seldom done in a satisfactory, uniform manner. The two principal systems used are, either heating the milkl in a large body in the receiving vat, or passing it through some heating apparatus on its way from there to the separator. The danger of the first lies in the keeping of the — already old — milk at a high temperature and thus souring and developing bad flavors, and of the second, in the fact that the fat does not take the heat as quickly as the "serum?' and thus the true temperature desired is not obtained, and also in the fact that no automatic regulator has been employed that wonld keep the milk from varying considerable. I have thus, even in good.creamejries, observed a variation of 10 deg. with heaters like Fig. 27. THE HEATERS. Most of the heaters used in our American creameries were similar to Fig. 27, which represents an improvement on the so-called "Danish Weston" heaters, but unless they are made 38 39 large enough, tliey are not at all satisfactory. I presume their popularity lay in the fact that it re- -^ quires only a few "■"SiSv^^^^ inches drop from the I ^ I receiving vat tO' the •f^ ^ \ Separator. Similarly ^ the "Larkin's" heat- er, a (Fig. 27.) direct steam heater on the pipe conducting the milk from the vat to the separator, requiresHao drop, at all and has been endorsed by many good makers. I cannot say that I like the application of direct steam in any manner. Tliere is always a certaini risk of contamina- tion, even if no boiler compound makes it a certainty. Far better to use the heaters! — even if more expensive — as represented by the Fjord Heater. Fig. 28. This consists of a strong wooden; barrel d in which a tinned copper vessel c is in- serted. A stirring appar- atus K prevents the milk, which enters at m through H, from scorching on the side. Steam is introduced^ by F if exhaust, and e if direct steam is used. Oon- d e n s e d water escapes through G. Tlie milk outlet (not shown in the illustra- tion) is above the wood. This, with modifications and improvements, has been the common heater used in Etirope and now elevates the milk to the separator, but the dashers must not revolve too fast so as to lessen the "skimability" of the milk. ' • (Fig. 28.) 40. The DeLaval Company have a neat little turbine heater, and so have the Jensen Mfg. Co., of Topeka, Kan., and Mr. A. H. Beid has copied the imp^roved • ^ Danish. (Fig. 66). D. H. Burrell & Co. have put on the market a very good heater, and in Fig. 29 I show it taken apart for cleaning. This is claimed to heat up to 7,500 lbs. per hour. The Creamery ^ Package Mfg. Co. ^B have in their 20th ' century heater (Fig. 30) an evolution of the Streckeisen open air milk condenser. Indeed it may be said that all pasteurizing heaters make good heaters for separat- (Fig. 29.) (Fig. 30.) ing, but I hope to see the day when automatic heat-regula- torsi will be used in connection with all heaters. I illustrate the one made by F. Casse which gives satis- faction. 41 S^F Fig. 31 shows a horizontal and two vertical cross-sec- , tions — cross-section CD and E-F. A piece of the pipe by£| which the milk or" cream is ele- vated from the pasteurizing heater is cut and the larger pipe (a) is substituted, so that the milk comes from the heater at (6) and leaves at (c). In this way the warm milk in rising surrounds the copper tube (d); this tube contains a mix- ture of ether and glycerin.; the former floating on top being evaporated by the heat from the milk and the pressure thus (Fig. si.) created (which is correlative to the temperature of the milk) acts oni glycerin and, through this, on the rubber diaphragm (g) and the piston (p). Froih this piston Jhe pressure is carried through the lever (q) to the spiral spring in the com- partment (h). This spring may be loosened or tightened by the wheel (i) and thus the resistance of the piston (p) against the ether pressure may be regulated. Tlie lower part (r) of the piston (p) forms a valve whieh, when the piston, is pressed down, shuts off the steam which enters! at (o) and leaves for the heater at (m). In order that the regulator shall not weigh down the steam pipe a pipe support is screwed) into the lower part (fc). When the rub-' ber diaphragm has to be renewed! (which Mir. Ciasse claims is only a few times a year) the piece (e) is removed, allowing the ether and glycerin to run out, the old rubber diaphragm (g) is removed and the piston (p) taken out and wiped off. The valve is cleaned and the piston replaced, the new dia- phragm put in and the piece (e) is held with the opening up (f, Fig.; 2i) so that it may be filled first with a small quantity of pure glycerin a;nd then with ether. The opening (f) is closed with a small cork so as to hold the ether and glycerin, while the piece, (e) is replaced and bolted. When the regu- lator is heated up the bolts should be tightened, if neces- sary. Asi soon as the ether expands the little oork is forced out and the* glycerin runs out and presses on the diaphragm. 42 It musi: be observed that it is necessary, to insure good work, that the copper tube [d] is cleaned every day and kepi free from, the inevitable film of dried-on milk. To do this is easy as the elevating pipe (a) is easily removed by loosen- ing the union (J). M. Sondergaard, of Hutchinsion, Minn., will soom have a new regulator on the market. - FILTERING MILK FOR SEPARATION. Thei milk is generally strained into the receiving vat in a miore or less, generally less, effective manner, through mus- ■ lin, and if all the patrons sent absolutely clean milk, even this might be omitted, yet the average condition of the milk I have seen received at our creameries has led me to consider the advisability of filtering it. For this purpose the "Inter- national" Filter would be the best of those I know of, but whatever is used, strainer or filter, it will be a delusion and a snare if not kept absolutely clean. In running the milk from the hea ters tO' the separator it is a very bad practice to use rubber hose, and even common galvanized pipes should be condemned. Take exact measures and have copper or- brass tubing, heavily tinned, made to^ fit the distance, joined with unions, and do not have any one piece longer than 4 feet, so as to make cleaning easy. The extra cost will be as nothing compared with the advantage. CHAPTEE V. CREAM RIPENING If cream is churned! perfectly sweet it will have a very faint aroma and an insipid taste, and the demand for such butter is very limited. For this reason, all those whO' have no special orders for it should ripen the cream before churn- ing. NO UNIFORM RULES POSSIBLE. It is evident that if we desire to churn the cream at a cer- tain, degree of acidity (and age) our treatment of the cream must vary according to the system by which it was raised. It stands to reason that cream which hasi been raised for 36 hours in a shallow pan, audi perhaps not skimmed until the milk was loppered, need not the same treatment as that whiled out of a separator within an hour of milking time,. Then, again, that raised in ice water needs a modification in its treatment, just as cream in a separator creamery must be treated differently from that in a gathered cream creamery. A difference must also be made if we chumi every day or only every other day or once a week. BUTTER FLAVOR AND COMPOSITION OP BUTTERFAT. As indicated', the object of ripening is to develop that peculiar aromatic flavor which is characteristic of all fine butter. But what really causes this flavor is as yet a mooted question among scientists. Years ago when the chemists ruled the roost, the flavor in butter was credited exclusively to the so-called volatile fatty acids. Butterfat, it must be understood, consists main- ly of Palmdtin, Stearin and Olein, wMch may be found, more or less, in nearly all animal fats; butter contains, however, six other substances. Some of the "fatty acids" are volatile, and it was main- tained by chemists that the action of the casein and milch sugar, in the butter on these "fatty acids" developed various; fine odors which soon turned into the disagreeable, rancid odor and taste. 43 44 Later the bacteriologists claimed that the aromatic flavor was simply due to certain microbes, and at one time the hope was held forth that the dairymen could be supplied a "pure culture" which would provide the desired flavor. In this we have been disappointed up to date, and it proved true that the question was not quite so simple, and that flavor de^pends on more than one breed of microbes. This isi, inl my opinion, a good thing for the dairymen, be- cause if the development of flavor could be made such simple and exact science the creameries might as well leave butter- maMuig in the hands of the packers. To me' — as a layman — the theories of the chemists and bacteriologists seem to supplement each other and confirm my practical experience in buttermaking. It matters not to me whether the flavor is the result of the action of certain microbes or that of their chemical products on certain parts of the butterfat, but practical experience tells us that the chemistsi must be right in so far that the desired flavor is developed in the manufacture. Pure butter oil has little or no flavor, sweet cream butter but a trifle more and the more we ripen the cream (up to a certain point) the more we in- crease this flavor. On the other hand we also know that feed and external conditions have some influence on the flavor and that June and July butter isi ahead of winter butter. I Analyses have shown (Fleischmann quoting Bussingault) that summer butter contains 40 per cent hard fats and 60 per cent soft, while winter butter contains 65 as against 35; hence, the latter is much firmer and stands up better. Other chemists have also shown that, for instance, feed- ing an excess of cotton seed meal will increase tjie percentage of hard fats (Palmitin and Stearin) and linseed meal will de- crease them. Hence the now well-known variation in churn- ing temperatures, and firmness of the butter. Danish experiments have shown that leaving cows out in the fields in stormy and rainy fall weather will have the result that, even if they are fed exactly the same as those comfort- ably stabled, the percentage of volatile fatty acids is reduced to such an extent that English chemists suspected the butter to be adulterated and practical butter experts scored it low in ■flavor even if the cream had been ripened to the same degree 45 in both cases. (Hence, the genral complaint in fall of "win- try"' flavor on our markets): It seems to me that the theories of the chemists agree perfectly with the experience of the practical buttermakers. The chemists attempted to produce a "butter flavor," but they have not been able to provide oleomargarine with the desired aromatic flavor any mo're than the bacteriologists. Nevertheless!,, the latter have— by combining more than one breed of bacteria — succeeded in producing commercial "start- ers" which', when made by reliable flrmsi, give a uniform and satisfactory result, but in no way better than that obtained from good ho'me-made "starters." Where uniformity is of importance the commercial starters are to be recommended. We have' Hansen's Lactic Ferment, Douglas Butter Culture, Bi 41, Keith's and Ericsson's Cultures in the market here. While introducing these, a great deal of educational work has been done by the various firms, showing the butter- makers the great importance of the ripening process, and thus in reality reducing the variation in flavor caused by feed, climate and period of lactation, but only in one case (Iowa Experiment Station) have tests been made resulting in the assertion that the difference may be wiped out alto- gether by careful high ripening, that, in other words, just as fine flavored butter can be made from strippers milk as from that of fresih milking cows; but these results have, as far as I know, not been confirmed. Yet, the fact remains that creamrripening is the' most important part of buttermaking, and that, as I said years ago about cheesemaking, "Acidity — like salt and charity — covers a multitude of sins." RIPENING CREAM ON THE FARM. Let us now come down' to the practical handling of cream on a small farm. A common way is to keep the cream in a stone jar, and, if any attempt is made at ripening, to place it near the kitchen stove. Stone jars, if there are no cracks in the glazing, arei all right, but nbt very convenient to handle, and especially troublesome when it is desired to change the temperature. Take it all in all, there is nothing better than a clean, heavily-tinned and smoothly soldered steel or copper can. In this the temperature of the cream may easily be 46 chaiig;ed by piaoingi the can in a larger one or in a tub with water. Tlie warmer the water the more important it is to stir the cream so as not to overheat part of it. It is safest not to have the water more than 120 or 140 deg. When the right temperature- is obtained the can should be placed ini a box or barrel large enough to have about six inches insulating material (hay will do) round the can so that the temperature! may be. kept from falling much, even if we have to keep thei can in a very cold room, kitchen, damp cel- lars and living rooms being barred. When it is dfesired to cool it, the can is simply placed in a barrel of cold water and kept there, cbangiiig the water or adding 'ice as needed. Tliis is the simplest and cheapest way which any one can desire, but if we can afford it the hay box may be re- placed by one into which a can (large enough to hold the cream can) is permanetly fixed keeping the insulating ma- terial in place and having an insulated cover. Or, in a larger dairy, the Boyd farm creams vat (Fig. 32) may be used. The vat is insulated with felting and the . temperature is changed by swing- ing a tinpail (with either hot or cold water) in the cream. Or we may have a little square or round vat made on the plan of cream- ery vats, all according to our means, as long as we keep in mind the necessity of being able to change the temperature at will and maintain it without too much trouble. If ohurning only twice or three times a week, the object must be to keep the cream as cool as possible, up toi within 12 or 18 hmm of churning time. The warm separator cream should be cooled before adding it to the previous lot in the can. Another way, where there is plenty of ice at hand, is to let the cream become nearly ripe and then cool it down to 45 deg;. and keep it there,, when it may safely be kept for 24 hours. (Fig. 32.) 47 If shallow pan cream is used the cream will bei nearly ripe and, as a rule, will be ready to oburn 12 hours after adding the last batch without raising the temperature. It may indeed rather be necessary to provide for oooling it so as to secure the desired churning temperature. C'ream of different ages should never be churned together without hav- ing been mixed together for at least 6, better 12, hours, and it should be well stirred as each batch is added. If cold water or ice deepi-setting cream is used, it may be Ikept in the samei cold water tank until 12 hours before churn- ing and then the temperature should be raised to 60 or 70 deg. either in the manner before siuggested or by heating the last cream (but not higher than 100 deg.) before adding it. If thisi is done, it is well to do a little calculating. Let us say that we have the cream from three mill:ings, in all 30 lbs., and find the temperature to be 50 deg. and that we have to raise it 15 •deg. Tlhis is 15x30, or 450 heat units. Divide them, with the weight of the last cream (10 lbs.) and we find that there must be heated 45 deg. above 65 deg. or to 110 deg. in order to get all to' 65 deg. E/emember toi make sure of the temperature by reading the thermometer twice with 5 or 10 minutes in- terval. With separator cream the last batch should be added 20 to 24 hours before churning, and, as a rule, a little higher temperature shouldi be used, say 65 to 75 deg. If we use a "starter" 60 to 65 deg. may be enough. It will then be seen that no fixed temperature can be given. We ,wanit to reach a certain degree of acidity and if the original acidity (system of raising or age of cream or ad- >dition of a "starter") is the same then the temperature tO' be used depends, within certain limits, on the time we desire to devote to it. Personally, I prefer the given temperature for farm work so as to get the cream ripe for churning in 6 to 12 "hours for sihallow and deep-setting and 18 to 22 hours for sep- arator cream. CEEAM-RIPBNING IN CEEAMBBIES. It will, however, also' depend on the facilities we have for ■cooling the cream just before churning. Thus I know cream- series that use 48 hours and a temperature of only 50 to 55 •deg. with good success, and while I consider that temperature •conducive to development of poor flavors, there are cream- 48 eries where the practical exigencies demand it on account of lack of oooling facilities. Where' the very best cooling facilities exist, I would much prefer toi hasten (he ripening and use even a higher tempera- ture tham mentioned above, let us say between 75 ahdi 85 deg., which, together with a "starter," will nearly ripen the cream in from 6 to 7 hours and thus allow it to be cooled to 60' or 55 deg. before bed time, and then ripen fully while cooling further during the night. As a rule one hour's cooling in the morning will then bring it down to the lowest desired churn- ing temperature. The commoni cream vats used in American creameries up to six or eight years ago were the rectangular tin vats hung in a wooden', watertight tank, which allow for a space witb hot or cold water. SOme of them are provided with space (Fig. 33.) into which to put ice. Some are made U shaped and these are better still, and others, the twin vats, have two narrow vats in one jacket. (Fig. 33). It is evident that a large body of creami is only slowly heated or cooled in these and that constant stirring is necessary, hence we find that many makers are obliged^ — often against their better conviction — < to* use ice directly in the cream. If perfectly pure ice (made from distilled water) is used, and it is crushed fine and Ikept stirred until dissolved or nearly so', there is no harm done. But pond and stagnant river ice is a fearful source of all kinds of contamination and, if it is left in large lumps, with- out stirring, the cream will be unevenly ripened, so that this system of cooling should be discouraged. The fact is that the question of giving the creamery but- termaker complete and quick control of the temperature in ■ his cream has not as yet been solved satisfactorily, but since 49 the introduction ol refrigerator machines a very great step ahead has been taken. Thus the cream room itself can now be kept at a uniform temperature of 50 to 60 deg. (instead of 70 to 90) and there the temperature of a large' vat of oream will not rise or fall much during the night. As to the cooling in the vat various systems have been tried. In one creamery they tried to cool it with the air by having the vats without jackett, but experi- ence taught them what they might have known, that air does not conduct the heat (or cold) as well as water. Others have placed ammonia coils m the water space of the jacketed vats, and that has done fairly well, though it were better still to have the vats; of tinned cop- per in which case brine could be circulated and the cooling done much quicker, but the cream must be stirred in both cases until the desired temperature is reached. Cooling the creani to ripening tempera- ture, even if as low as 60 degrees, is the simplest matter and can best be done by substituting an improved Baer Cooler for the conductor from the separator to the vat. In this way hundreds of creameries could cool and aerate the cream sufficiently even with water. If it is made of copper the brine system may also be applied. In Fig. 34 the cross-section shows the corrugated surface which compels the milk to run in (Fig. 34.) the little gutters and increases the cooling surface, as well as the partitions (p) w&ich turn the current of the water which flows as the arrows show on the exposed part of the sketch. The oream flows, of course, in the opposite direction and on a length of 8 feet, 2 inches drop is fully enough ; indeed, they may be placed near- ly level. I cannot recommend these coolers too^ much where the cream is not too rich, and where the air is pure. The great trouble is to change the temperature in a large vat of ripened or nearly ripened cream with reasonable dis- patch. —i 50 It is done in some creameries by having an extra cream vat and pumping the cream to be cooled over a direct Ex- pansion (or brine) cooler. ^ I have suggested (Chicago Produce, Sept. 25, 1S97,) the use vats (holding one churning, only, say 1,500 lbs.) on large <:astors. See C. V. Fig. 35. These vats are in a refrigerated cream-room, cross-section of which the 'illustration repre- sents. The cream being cooled to ripening temperature on its way from the separa- IIJ- ^j tor, is, when nearly ripe, ele- vated on a large elevator and run over a cooler L into an extra vat. * When churning time comes the vat is again elevated and the cream run through, a conductor to the ad- jacent churn room. The ad- vantage is to have no pumps, and yet have everything on aone floor, the. disadvantage is the cost of elevator. The system has not been tested in practice. Of other cream vats should be mentioned the Boyd vat. Fig. 36, in which a coil moves slowly back and forth. (Mr. H. B. Gurler, I believe, first construct- ed , and uses even now, one in which the ooil, hung by its four corners, is lifted up and down, and that style is now sold under the name of the McAreavy --i^ Cream Cooler.) Hot or cold (Fig., se.) water on brine' is passed through the coil. .Mr. Boyd has no water space, but insulating felt around the vat; he also made "Starter" or Fermenting cans as shown in Fig. 32, and part of his system is to close up the cream air-tight and not stir at all -vyhil© ripening. With perfect milk this is all right, but at our creameries where the milk is often far from perfect, I prefer stirring and aeration, especially during the first hours. » (Fig. 35.) 51 Another cream-ripener, as these vats are miscalled, is the, "Farrington," Fig. 37. This is aa evolution of the "Potts" Pasteurizer and has been used extensively, though I confess to a preference for those vats which are more "get-at-able." Tonally we' have the Jensen and the Miller vats. Control of temperature and ease of keeping everything most scrupnlously clean are the most important requis- ites, and, if an acid test is used, the maker should have (Fig- 37.) no diflQculty in securing uniform' results in ripening. As soon as all the cream is in the vat see that the tem- perature is right and take the degree of acidity of the cream and of the "Starter" if such is used, also the temperature in the room. Add starter as experience has taught you will be needed and stir thoroughly. Stir every half hour jor so for the first 3 or 4 hours. In the evening before leaving it for the night, take the temperatures in cream and room as well as the acidity of the cream. If needed, raise or lower the tem- perature' so as to have it right next morning. After some practice you will soon be able so to regulate matters that you will not only have the right acidity but also nearly the right temperature within half an hour or so of the time you want it. ^ SIGNS OP RIPENESS. To tell in printer's ink when cream is ripe is very hard, the nearest I can get is that it should have a clean, pleasant acid taste and smell and a smooth, even, syruppy consistency, so as toi run evenly and smoothly from the stirring paddle and have a peculiar, glossy surface. But even the finest nose and palate may get ont of order, and hence the Mann's (Fig. 38) or Prof. F'arringtoni's acid test should be used in cream- eries. In, dairies I do not recommend it for other than experimental purposes. To get the highest flavor. Prof. Mc- Kay, of Ames, has found that 35 to 38 cc. is the best, and I have hsid good results between 33 and 39 cc. The former is about 0.65 to 0.68 per cent acid, whereas Prof. Farrington recommends 0.6 per cent. 52 When we speak about cc. it means that it takes so many cubic centimeters of 1-10 normal alkali to bring out a pink color in 50 cc. milk or cream, to which has been added a few drops "indicator." I refer to the book on "Milk Testing" and shall only lay stress on the fact that the test can be used only as a guide for comparing our own work, and even then we must look out for two causes for vari- ation — richness of the cream and the weakening of the normal. In compar- ing with others we have these troubles as well as that of the variation in the eyesight. Hence, no rules can be laid down any more than for temi)erature used. The Mann's test might well be modi- fied to use only 10 cc. and thus not use so much cream, and to read oflE the per cent acid at once. (Fig. 38.) STARTBKS. Commercial starters have been mentioned before and the manufacturers give full directions for use. Remains only to suggest the making of a good! home-made one. Thei milk used should be from a fresh-mdlking, healthy cow and; extra care taken to> secure it in a cleanly manner. Run it through the separator before the other milk (so as to have the machine clean), condemn the first quart or so run through and gather as much as needed in a carefully- cleaned and l)oiled can. Or, set it in ice water for 12 hours in a "boiled" can, skim the cream, and dip out what's needed without disturbing the bottom layer, for fear there might be some sediment. Skim milk thus secured is better than new milk, but if either of these two skimming systems cannot be used it is better to use new milk. Regulate the temperature (in a hot water bath) to 85 or 90 dieig. and place the can in a hay box, or where the tempera- ture will not drop below 75 deg. and leave it undisturbed until 53 loppered. It should be watched so that when loppered it may be used' soon after, or removed at once to a refrigerator or hung in ice water. Oare should be taken not to shake or dis- turb it, SO! asi to break the curd and let out whey. If thus: chilled at once it may be kept in good condition if undis- turbed for 24 hoursi or more. When it- is wanted for use, skim an inch of the top (as this may have become contaminated), dip out all but the bot- tom layer, and stir it up well so as to have a homogeneous, smooth mass, which should have a clean, sharp acid taste, and a pleasant aroma, and, if, when cut, it showed a delan, ^ solid face without bubbles or pinholes, it should be all right. If it is in any way tainted, condemn it and ripen thei cream at a higher temperature without starter. In creameries where they cannot get enough "perfect" ^milk toi maJie the starter, it iSi better to get a quart or two from two or three of the best patrons, and thus prepare two or three "mother" starters and, when coagulated, select the best toi usei in developing the starter by taking sufficient of the regular skim' milk and heating it to 180 or 190 deg., keeping it so for 20 minutes and cool- ing it to about 90 deg. and adding 5 to 10 per cent of "mother starter" prepared as above described. In ,24 hours there will be enough "starter" besides ten per cent to develop enough' for next day's use with another batch of pasteurized skim mill^, and so on. For creamery use there are now in the market several "starter" cans of j| more or less merit. They are really %^J^- a sort of pasteurizers where the cool- ing is rather Slow. ^^'^- ^^'^ I mention the "Haugdahl," the "Jensen" and illustrate the""Victor" in Fig. 39. Take care iiot to fall into a rut and use the starter auto- matically. This refers to all starters. Add thei desired amount to the cream^ and stir well, per- haps a littlei more during the first honr or so than when no starter is used. 54 If today's butter is perfect it is. safe to preserve some buttermilk free from salt and water (by chilling in ice water immediately after churning), and use that as a starter; but, it is evident that if there is any fault in today's butter the buttermilk will perpetuate that fault even if next day's creami is perfect. There is the same objection to using part of today's ripen- ed cream as a starter for the next batch, nor do I believe that cream' makes as nice flavored a starter as skim milk. Ttiusi "many roads lead toi Rome" even in the matter of "starters," and judgment must be used. I do not believe in using morel than 3 or 4 per cent for unpasteurized' cream, and ' 8 to 10 for pasteurized, but I should always use more starter for a very rich cream than for a thin one, and still more when trying to' improve gathered cream. The Canadians have lately claimed a great deal for a new system of cream ripening or rather butter ripening where- by the starter isi prepared the day before arid addedj to the cream (as soon as it hasi been skimmedl and cooled to churn- ing tempieraturei) when put in the chum. This has the ad- vantage of saving the work in watching the cream from one day toi the other, but I confess to some dread lest we lose control of the ripening if we rely on its progress in the butter. I shall require' more evidence before I am converted to that system. CHAPTER VI. CHURNS AND CHURNING THE THEORY OP CHURNING. The oldest theoryi of" the churniiig process was that the little fat globules im the milk were covered with a membrane which had to be torn before the globules would adhere to- gether and form.! butter granules (pellets). This should be done' in the churn and it was also claimed (Eomianets) that the souring of the aream would dissolve this membrane ot skin. Tlhis theO'ry wasi upheld to the last by the late Prof. Arnold.' Later it was disproved in several ways by various scien- tists, while the practical makeirs went on and found that hav- ing the cream of a certain ripeness and temperature, they could, as a rule, rely on the butter "coming" on time. (Speak- ing of temperatures it is amusing to notice how in olden time the "wise women" used to drive the witches out of the cream by putting a red hot horseshoe in it.) Later, again, Dr. Storeh (Denmark) published the result of a long series of investigations, and concludes as follows: "If the old theory of a membrane round the glotoules is not adopted, then the only explanation is that the serum in the cream is split up in two parts during churning, one, contain- ing morie! albuminates, going into the butter, andl the other, containing less, forming the serum of the buttermilk." . But we need not bother our brainsi about these theories, it matters not whether a meimbrane exists or whether simply the serum adhering to the globules is of a different composi- tion, though it seems to me the latter theory is indirectly confirmed by Dr. Babcock, who asserts that the small amount of flbrini in the milk has a tendency to adhere to the globules and delay the creaming. CHURNING TEMPERATURES. The various conditions which have influence on the choice of the churning temperature may be classed as follows : 56 (1.) The composition of the lutterfat. (a.) DifEerent breeds seem to produce butter of diilerent firmness, thus the Jerseys give the firmest butter and require a higher churning temperature— all other conditions being equal, (b.) The longer the cow has been in calf the more firm becomes the butterfat and hence the churning temperature must be higher, (c.) Effect of feed is illustrated In the cotton belt where ex- cessive feeding of cotton: seed makes a churning temperature of 70 to 72 degrees not uncommon, (d.) Different seasons. (2.) The acidity of cream. Prof. Fjord demonstrated years ago that sweet cream must be churned at a lower tem- perature than that ripened — all other conditions being the same. (3.) The richness of the cream has also an influence in so far that a rich cream (say with 25 to 35 pen cent fat) may be churned at a much lower temperature than a thin one (below 20 per cient) and thus reduce the loss in buttermilk. This. Mr. H. B. Gurler demonstrated first, churning the former as low as 46 to 50 deg., while the latter cannot be churned much below 56 deg.; if too cold it will foam. (4.) Construction of the churn as well as speed and am'ount of cream in the churn should also be considered in determining the starting temperature, as the heat produced by the different mechanical actions may vary greatly. (5.) The temperature in the room should also be considered in choosing the starting temperature of the cream, and not only made a trifle lower in a warm room than in a. cold one, but the churm itself must either be cooled or warmed or else f the difference' in the starting temperature must be made greater. It is indeed also necessary to have the finishing temperature vary a little according to that of the room. It is thus shown that no fixed rules can be laid down, yet the limits may be said to be from 56 to 70 degs. for cream testing 20 per cent or below, and from 48 to 60 degs. for rich cream. I believe that when it is found necessary to use the highest temperatures the butter will be "steariny" and, as a rule, deficient in flavor. Experience will soon teach us the right one and as a general proposition churning should be finished in from) 20 to 60 minutes to get the best result. The thermometer may 6e wrong, indeed I have -found them to vary 10 deg., and hence the necessity of finding the right 57 temperature by the thermoraeter in use. It is well — ^if it can be afforded to buy a standard certified thieTnuometer at $1 or $1.50, and hang in the parlor in order to compare the cheap ones in use at various temperatures. But it should mot be exposed to repeated and violent changes as that will spoil the best one ii\ the course of time. 01 the cheap one!s X prefer a plain glass one (floating)' to those fixed on wood or metal — they are easier to clean. CHURNS. I doubt if there is any other implement on which more patents have been taken than on the churn, thus in the United States 2,955 were taken out from 180O ta ^. 1904, and yet how few new principles have been developed! About 2,000 years ago, Pliny described an up and down dash churn very much the same as the one yet made and sold in most countries (Fig. 40) in which just as good butter can be made asi in the very latest "patent," even though it does take more work, and leaves more fat in the buttermilk. The Old Russian Chum (Fig. 41) (from Martini's "Kirne und Girbe"); which is a stone jar in which the stirrer, provided (Fig. 40'.) with anchor- like prongs, is .twirled round and round between (Fig. 41.) (Fig. 42.) the hands, may yet be found in northern Europe, and may be said to represent our modern revolving dash 58 (Pig. 43.) churns, of which the Danish (Fig. 42) represents the vertical and the "Blanchard" the horizontal system. Another development was the revolving barrels with various kinds of fixed dashers, such as the old -Sfwiss "Grind- stone" churn. But evolution reduced and simplified these: to" the end over revolving barrel. (Fig. 43), and the Curtis rectangular churn, which may be said tO' be the two most popular dairy chums ia the West. The old Arabiaji churn, made out of the skin of a goat (Fig. 44), which still holds its own among many tribes in Africa, and the hollow log (Fig. 45) used in Asia Minor are both prototypes of the modern Davis Swing churn (Fig. 46) which is quite popular in the Elastern States. While in Europe the creameries generally adhere to the vertical (Fig. 44.) (Fig. 45.) (Fig. 4().) churn with revolving dashers (Fig. i'l), the large box churn (Fig. 47), of which some are made to open like a trunk, (easier to clean and aerate, but harder to keep from leaking while churning), have kept their ground here until lately, when the combined churns have taken their place to a great extent, especially in the Western States. In 1840 Mr. Clifton introduced air through a hollow up and down dasher and in 1890 or '97, a Mr. "Norcross inlro- duced it through a hollow revolving shaft with a kind of (Fig. 47.) turbine attachment, as something new and wonderful. Neith- er has any morel value than the innumerable patent (?) light- ning chums. Next must be mientioned churning with air bubbles forced) into the cream- by an air pump, first proposed by Doehn, of Berlin, in 1887, and in 1889 by Walter Cole, of Melbourne, Australia, I illustrate this system in Fig. 48, Rolands (France), and, while noi special ad- vantage has been demon- strated as to the me- chanical effect of this ^ system, (rather the re- verse)' I believe, that for certain purposes (churning cream more or less tainted), it might have some effect in improving the quality. Experi- ments made in Illinois prove it to be impracticable on a large scale. Combined churns and butter workers will be' discussed in a later chapter. CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING A CHUEN. In buying a churn the following points should be consid- ered: (1.) Ease with which it is cleaned, (a.) Close grained hard-wood is better than any softer wood, hence white-beech (Fig. 48.) GO and oak or ash is preferable to pine but in large box churns the element of warping must be considered, (b.) The fewer corners and projections, (flxtutes), and the more air and light that can be had (large openings) the better it is. (c.) Glass peepHoles, fixed thermometers and putty should not be toler- ated, with a little experience there is no need of looking very often, and then the cover may be removed, (d.) Of dash churns those with movable dashers are preferable to those having them fixed. (2.) Exliaustiveness in churning. Con- ditions being right for the churn and cream in question the exhaustiveness will as a rule be nJearly the same, provided the time used is not less than 15 or 20 minutes. In all so-called lightning churns claiming to finish in from 2 to 5 minutes the loss of fat in buttermilk will be great, and the quality of the butter infeirior. If you want to test the exhaustiveness of a churn, use it exactly as the manufacturer tells you and then test the buttermilk. If it does not show more than Q.2 for thin cream and 0.1 i>er cent for rich cream, churned at a low temperature, you may be satisfied. (3.) Power required to chum a given quantity should also be considered, but should give way to the other points. (4.) Solidity in con- struction. (5.) Condition in which the butter comes. If you have followed the manufacturer's instructions, the but- ter should come in nice, regular granules, and not too soft. Yet, if you otherwise like the churn, you may, by lowering the temperature or othervdse changing the conditions (speed), find it satisfactory, even if the time used is longer than claimed. (6.) The last thing to be considered is the cost. COMBINKD SEPARATORS AND CHURXS. Mr. Johnson, of Sweden, first invent- ed the "Extractor," (Fig. 49), a separa- tor inside of which a churn apparatus (c) churned the sweet cream as tasi as separated and consequently produced sweet cream butter. Later Mr. WaWin, also a Swede, constructed the "Accu- mulator," a similar combination^ and) the latest is the "Radiator," a wonder- fully perfect machine, with a separat- ing room in the lower, and a cooling device and a churn in the upper part of the bowl, but the product — "sweet cream butter" — does not seem to take well on the English market, according, to the last report .of the Swedis^Ji Dairy Agent. Even if the product did sell well, it seems absurd to try to combinei two (Fig. 49.) machines which require a different 61 temperature to^ do good work, and the several attempts made to introduce it here havel as yet been in vain. COMBINED CHURNS AND WORKERS. In this casei the temperature desired is about the same and indeed in a warm room the advantage of being able to work the' butter without exposing it to the air is considerable. Various constructions have been made. The first I saw (in 1893) was the "Owen," in which the working part was remov- ed, while churning. This does not seem to have come intO' use, and later the "Disbrow," the "Wizard," the "Victor," the "Barber's" and the "Queen," all having fixed rollers, ap- peared. When there is trouble it is. generally because a beginner neglects to follow the directions for use strictly. The standard churn and the most popular in the West is undoubtedly as yet the "Disbrow," which is "illustrated in Fig. 50. The rollers are in the cen- ter, while, for instance, in the "Vic- tor," they are hear the periphery of the churn. Another construction altogether is the Sharpless "Squeezer," shown (Fig. 50.) (Pig. 51.) in a cross-section. (Fig. 51.) It consists of a revolving drum provided with 6 shelves which are pivoted so that when used as a churn, they are converging to the center of the drum, thus serving as fixed dashers. When working the butter a set of cranks shift their position, squeezing the but- ter against the drum as it slowly revolves. I have not seen it work or got the opinion) of those whoi have used it, but believe the "action" should be very good, though the power required in working must be considerable. 62 The "Queen" drum has a corru- gated wooden roller on a heavy steel shaft which hangs on a hinged arm in the churn drum provided with nar- row shelves. When churning the roller, hangs straight down, while, when working, it is carried up the side of the drum in such a way that the further it is carried, the greater is the distance ^^^' ^^'^ between the roller and the side of the drum, as illustrated by the manufacturer in a cross-section, Fig. 52. The weight of the roller is sufficient, to squeeze the butter. These last __ two churns do not fjLx^*' ' ' I -^1^1 seem to have gained much foothold. The last candidate for public favor, which is becoming popular, is the "Sim- plex" combined churn which I illus^ trate closed for churning in Fig. 53, and the removable working gear in Fig. (Fig. 53.) 54. This is • an adaption of old "National" butterworker and it has the great advan- tage that the working gear may be removed, cleaned and dried, and that the whole churn is more "get-at-able." The condition of the butter may also be observed while working. HANDLING THE CHURNS. With a new churn, there is always a danger of the wood imparting a flavor to the first batches of butter. Various ways are taken to prepare it. I have used the following with (Fig 54.) 63 pretty good success: Sbak for 24 hours with cold water, changing it two' or three' times, churn for half an hour with hot water and some lyei soda or other alkali. (Unleached wood ashes are verj- good toio). This lye must not be too strong so as to soften the wood. Rinse and churn with hot water. In, doing this don't forget to ventilate by opening the cover or the plugi a little as otherwise you may have an explosion. Soak with sour milk or buttermilk, rinse with cold water, churn again with alkaline water and finally with hot and cold water. Just beforei churning always rinse it with hot and cold wa,ter, and in cleaning it rinse with cold water, then warm, and finally boiling water, using alkaline water now and then as needed. Lime water is a splendid thing to use and the small churns may be filled up with it after scalding and left with the small utensils in it to soak up to time of churning. In casei of large churns, churn with 3 or 4 bucketsfuls for 5 or 10 min- utes and draw. There is noi need of further rinsing, what little adheres will not hurt the cream. The Danes now white- wash the churns and leave them for a couple of hours, when it isi scrubbed off. , In creameries steam should be used instead of boiling water and long enough to make the wood hot enough to dry itself, but combined churns should, according to instructions from the Owatonna Mfg. Oo., not be steamed, as it will hurt them. Oovers should be left open and small churns placed in open air to dry unless filled with lime' water. A churn con- tinually damp will soon smell musty and that is the great danger with our large creamery churns compared with the small Danish ones. Never fill the churn too full, as a rule it is safest to put in less than the manufacturers t^ll you. End over barrel and box churns should not be filled more than half, but it really depemds on the "fall" that is left, that is, if a churn 24 inches deep may be half filled, one only 18 inches should not be filled so full, as that would give the cream a 9-inch instead of a 12- inch drop. It is always safest to strain the cream into the churn and the coloring should be calculated according to the butter ex- 04 pected. It is easy tO' keep track of how much milk each cream vat represents and use yesterday's yield for an estimate. There are two kinds oif color in the market among those most usedl Tk> one belongs "Ghr. Hansen's Danish," an abso- lutely pure Annatto' color, and "Thatcher's," a pure vegetable color. The other is one into the composition of which tar colors enter. (Wells and Eiichardson's, Hansen's Columbian andi "Alderney.") The advantages of the latter three are strength, no sediment and cheapness. Some countries (as Denmark) prohibit the use of tar col- ors, but that is done to make their butter above suspicion, not because it is deemed dangerous. There are various kinds of tar colors, and if selected by a reliable manufacturer it is absurd to talk of danger. The quality of oil used in the color should also be con- sidered as well as the brightness of the shade imparted. HAND CHURNING. Start the churn, and doi not forget to velitilate it once op twice during the first minutes and then make sure of the temperature. After this, strite the, right gait '(given by the manufac- turer), keep it going steadily — do not get curious and stop to look at it until the regular time has elapsed or the change in the sound warns you that the cream is "broken." If you are musical a song may help you to keep time. If it should not come on time^ stop and take the temperature, and if that is wrong correct it by adding hot or cold water. It is also a good plan tO' take the temperature and regulate if necessary when it is "broken." Then chum again a little slower, but with a steady motion till the! granules are of the right size. Some makers prefer them 1-16, others I of an inch in diam- eter. I think the latter a little too large and prefer the size between the two. Sometimes, if thei butter does not come, the cream may foam and nearly fill the churn. This may be caused by (1), the creami being too cold (especially if a thin cream), (2) the churn being too full to start with, (3) too high speed being used in starting, and (4) the milk being delivered from cows just i calved (biestings), from strippers or sick cows;. Some- times it will mend itself by allowing the cream to stand quiet 65 for an hour or so, but the safest in the first cases is to divide it into two ehumings and start fresh at the right tempera- ture. DRAWING THE BUTTERMILK AND WASHING. When the granules are of the right size, and if salt in the buttermilk is not objectionable, the addition of this will make it draw better, but I have seldom been troubled that way and there is no need of losing a single granule, as a strainer, or better, a hair sieve, should be usied in drawing. When this is done, about the same amount of water of from 50 to 55 deg. should replace the buttermilk (if the granules, seem' very soft 45 deg. may be allowed) ; the churn should be turned a few times. Unless it is desired to harden the granules the water should be drawn at once. It is a big mistake to leave the butter to soak in water for hours. As ai rule two rinsings should be enough and indeed some of the finest butter is made without rinsing at all, relying on the working to remove the buttermilk. The Danes used to do this, but now they rinse the granules by dipping them from the buttermdlk 'with a hair sieve and then moving this, gently in a tub of cold water, thus washing the butter only once and only for a minute: or so. As in most other matters the best road lies in the middle course. Too much care cannot be exercised in securing pure water for washing the butter, and I am convinced that in many cases the. butter is spoiled by impure water. If we have deep artesian wells, where no surface water is possible, the water is all right unless indeedi it contains too much iron or other mineral impurities. Yet it is often customary to pump the water directly into the ohurn in order to get it as cold as possible, and sometimes this may lead to a most disagreeable result, that is when sand is sucked up with the water and it happens now and then that a whole churning is thus spoiled. But with dug wells it would really be best to boil, cool and filter the water used for washing, and I believe it might even pay, at least in large creameries, to distill the water to ensure absolute purity and freedom from germs. If this is too much troublei, at least filter it, and for this purpose: the International filter is to be recommended if a smaller size is placed on the market (the one now sold for $110 will filter from 800 to 1,000 gallons per hour). Dug wells into which the creamery or stable drainage has a chance to leak should be condemned, and indeed no creamery should be built without first providing the water supply and have it analyzed chemically and bacteriologically even if it cost from $25 to —5 OHAPTEB VII. SALTING AND WORKING. Brine salting is popular with many private dairymen. After draining the buttermilk or after the first washing a strong brine is poured over the granules, the churn revolved, the brine drawn and a fresh lot of brine added. When this is drained, the granules are packed directly into the tub, pail or croek by simply pressing it with the butter ladle. This is a very nice way of selling brine for butterfat and if private customers are satisfied so much the beitter, but it is' not an advisable systemi selling on the open market, and if the per- centage of water left exceeid's 16, there is now danger of be- ing heavily fined. First it is difficult to get it salty enough and if this is dome by adding some dry salt it is very hard to salt it uniformly. The object of salting is to preserve the butter and improve the taste. This is generally understood, but less so its action in drawing out the buttermilk from the butter granules ap- parently washed clean. In churning, the microscopical fat globules are joined together into the little visible granules and these contain a great deal of "serum" — buttermilk. The dry salt sprinkled over the drained granules will, in melting, absorb part of the serum, chiefly the milk sugar solution, leaving most of the albuminuous matter, and the moisture is thus reduced with less working tham is otherwise needed. APPLYING THE- SALT. Some makers sprinkle half the salt in the churn, revolve it once, sprinkle the other half, and after a while, work it once. In this way it is rather difficult to get uniform re- sults, asi it is hard to. estimate the amount of moisture and the consequent loss by drainagei. Nevertheless, many makers manage to do good work that way and while tbey use from IJ to 2 ounces of salt, the butter will only retain from 4 to f ounces— and in this connection we must also consider the 66 67 solubility of the salt used. If lumpy, the salt should be crushed and sifted. In Denmark they work the granules very lightly and then weigh the butter, add) the salt and work lightly and leaye the butter in lumps of 5 to 10 lbs. floating in water at a tem- perature of 44 to 46 degsi.; after 2 to 4 hours they work it the second time. I prefer now simply to weigh the granules and as the weight of the butter is known approcdmately, a fair idea is given of the moisture and more or less salt may accordingly be added to the granules. After stirring it in with a light touch, — the granules should be firm enough to stand this without adhering — leave the salt to dissolve part- ly for half an honr or so and work it lightly the first time. Alter 2 to 4 hours work it the second time and there will seldom be complaints of mottled butter. Indeed I believe it to be a fact that wel are getting back from the once fashionable "wash, wash, no working" system to that of the good old "working twice." In creameries this weighing of the granules is impracticablel, and, where com- bined ohums are used:, impossible, and we must rely on our judgment, comtrolled by a knowledge of the amount of but- terfat in the chum. The trouble is that few makers under- stand that it isi far better to work several times a little at aj time than, to work once. They forget that the danger of getting salvy butter is greater in the latter case, where the mechanical heat developed by the conitinnous working makes the butter soft, whereas the butter regains its elasticity if we give it a rest before working it again. The temperature is all important. If too cold the fric- tion, in softening it while working will make it greasy. If too' warm it will not stand working and the moisture will be worked intO' instead of out of the butter. Between 50 and 60 deg. (according to the composition of the fat) will be found right and creameries should have their worker (as well as chum.) in a room which can be kept at that temperature. If the butter is left between workings in a too cold (or too hot) room, say in 60 lb. tubs, there is danger of the outside becoming too firm (or too sioft) before the center is cooled enough and the result will be streal^y butter. For this reason the Danesi prefer to leave it in lumps of 5 to 10 lbs. at that stage. 68 SALT TO USE. Years ago good dairy salt was much harder to get than no-?^. Then, indeed, it had to be imported, and 'CALshton," "Higgins," (and "Luneborg" used in Denmark) ruled the roost, but now there are several excellent dairy salts made in the States, notably "Diamond Crystal," "Worcester," "Cadillac" and "Colonial" and a few others. The main thing is never to use coarse, impure salt, by impure I do not refer to chemical purity, which does not always insure it being the best. But even the very best brand may have been exposed in transit and absorbed odors or black specks may have got inta it, so that it is* safest to test it by dissolving in water and see if it leaves any sediment or giveis a milky solution. Mr. Gurler, in his "American Dairying," recommends dissolving the salt in hot water to detect taints. As salt absorbs odor it must be stored in a clean place and the careful dairyman will keep an eye on where his dealer keeps it. We often hear creamery men say: "W& use such and such a salt (mentioning a cheap brand) generally, but when we put up butter for cold storage we use so and so (mention- ing an expensive salt). How is this? Is it all imagination? If not, why can't they see that if the expensive salts are bet- ter for cold stoirage they are also better for eveiry-day use. There may be good salts among the cheaper brands, but until manufacturers have proven their ability to make them uni- formly alike, it is safest to' use those, year in and year out, which have been proved by years of practical tests. I confess that I like a salt with a grain to it, so that when sprinkled on the butter it does not mush like fine sugar on berries. I also prefer a salt which doeis not dis- solve too quickly, as I advocate working twice. Bight here therei is a common clap trap device' used by salt agents when they talk about the special "make-weight" or the clear brine of their brand. A good maker will always study his salt and act accordingly, leaving more or less moisture, according to whether the salt is less or morel soluble. 69 THE WORKERS. G'Ood butter has been made by working it with the hands and if the dainty dairymaid washes her hands and arms care^ fully first in hot and then in cold water, there is really no more objection than to the neat housewife kneading hen bread or cake, but, to be on the safe side, the watchword is now giiven: . "Never touch the lutter with your hands." In small quantities butter may be worked manipulating it with two paddles, like Fig. 55, preBsing the lump flat in a wooden bowl, and then rolling it up and ' pressing, it endwise, never rubbing it, but a small lever worker like Fig. 56 (Fig. 55.) does not cost very much, and if the lever is not rolled or rubbed over- the butter but used for pressing it, the result is very satisfactory. Another simple worker not sold here, but easily made, consists of a wide board with two strips of wood on either side and a corrugated roller on a wooden shaft long enough to form handles and two round pieces of wood which keep the roller about half an inch off the board. The roller presses the butter into a flat oor- (^'^- ^^-^ rugated piece, which isi roiled up with thie ladle and turned at a right angle and worked again as shown in Fig. 57. This also represents the way to work butter on the rotary worker, which is illus- (Fi&. 57.) (Fig. 58.) (Pig. 59.) 70 trated by the "Embree" (58) and oiie of the latest Elupopeau modifications made by Konstantini, Hansen & Slchroe- der, of Kolding, Denmark, (Fig. 59). The one mostly used in the westesrn creameries before the advent of the combined chums and workers, was the "Mason," but it wasi not nearly as good as either of those illustrated. Similar workers ^are made by the various manufacturers and have kept their ground in spite of hun- dreds of modifications which found favor as la^ bor savers for a short time. In buying these workers in which the table revolves one way and the rollers the other it is necessary that their surface speed correspond exactly, if not, there will be a rubbing motion, making the butter greasy. To describe wheui butter is worked enough is next to im- possible. There sihould not be more than between 12 and 14 per cent water left; wheiu a piece is broken it should show a graniular construction like coarse cast iron, and when pressed with the ladle a few drops of clear brine should show. Tfliis is the nearest I can get, but experience will soon teach and thei object is to avoid too much moisture on one side— selling water for butter — (laws regulating this are being enacted in various states and countries) and too little on the other sidei making the butter diflSoult to sprelad and losing weight. USING COMBINED CHURNS AND WORKEES. • The popularity gained by these in our western cream- eries and lately alsoi in the East and even in conservative Europe, is undteniablei and the reasons are evident; (1.) Saving of labor in removing thei butter from chum to work- er. (2.) Asi most creameiries are not provided with a spe- cial fly-proof room, where the right temperature can' be main- tained, thei keeping of the butter shut up in the churn and 71 worker until ready to pack is an evident advantage. (3.) The saving of space is another great advantage. Objections have been raised (1) that they are difficult to clean; (2) that it is very difficult to get the salt elvenly dis- tributed and hence there is a liability to mottles; (3) that the butter would retain too much moisture; (4) that the maker cannot watch it to remove specks if there are any, nor stop just at thei right moment; (5) that some of the constructions would grease up several pounds of butter at each end of the inside gearing; (6) that they are expensive, and unless re- newed often, would be impossible to keep sweet. I have but little practical e:fperience with these chums, and did not at first encourage their introduction, preferring to preach the providing of chum and working room so that the- only advamtage remaining would be that of paving labor and' space. On the othfilr hand a close observation of the ways in which it has been used by some of our best makers and the resultant butter has .convinced me that most of the objections must be negatived. (1.) If they are, treated as suggested for the other churns they can be kept sweet, at least as long as age has not made the woodi too' soft. (2.) By adding the salt (sifting it so as to have no lumps) carefully, distributing it elvenly and letting the churn revolve a few times at the slow speed before setting the rollers going, an even salting can be secured, though a little more salt may be comsumed. (8.) By having the granules of the right temperature and by working the butter twice or three times, the moisture can be sufficiently expelled, especially if it is given 10 or 15 minutels for every 6 or 7 revolutions and allowed to drain. If necessary the temperature can be lowered between work- ings by placing some blocks of ice on the rollers. (4.) Prac- tice will soon teach the maker to stop in time, and if ehurn> cream- and salt are clean, there can be no specks or flies to remove. (5.) This is true to a greater or lesser extent, but when 500 or 900 lbs. are worked at once the Loss is not great if care is taken not to'pack the greasy butter with the rest. The shelves should also' be watched so that no lumps of butter remain permanently there (escaping salting), as, if incorporated later on, they will produce mottles. (6.) 72 They may become; expensive if renewed often, but that is a small matter compared with the saving of labor. While personally I ami perhaps too much of an "old fogy" to adopt the new system in a small creamery, it would be unfair not to acknowledge that with careful work virtually all objec- tions must be dropped while the advantages remain, and in a large, creamery they are absolutely to be reoommend^d. "THE' OVEKRUN." The "Overrun" is the difference in the weight of the Ibutterfat found by the test in milk (or cream) and that of the 'marketable butter made. Butter is composed of fat, water, salt and casein. The proportion of these elements may vary oonsiderably, even without the conscious intention of the maker. The average composition of American butter has been placed as being 83 per cent fat, 13 per cent water, 1 per cent casein and 3 per cent salt. The analysis of eight hundred and twO' samples of show butter varied in water from 7.2 per cent toi 17.6 per cent, with an average of 11.78. Danish butter averages about 14 per cent water with a tendency tO' a slight increase. It will thus be seen that the "overrun" may vary nearly 10 per cent simply by incorporating more or less water in the butter. Casein may vary from 0.5 pet cent to 2 per cent and salt, of course, fromi nothing to 2.5 per cent or 3 per cent, exceptionally more. But in addition to this cause in variation, the butterfat lost in separation, in handling milk and cream and in, churn- ing, may make oonsiderable difference. Let us say that, with milk testing 3.8 per cent fat, the loss in skim milk is 0.1 per cent, and that we take about 11 per cent cream* and lose in handling it and in churning 0.4 per cent. Let us further say that we make! a butter .containing 83 per cent fat, then we have an "overrun" of 16 per cent. But if we lose 0.2 in the skim milk and 0.8 in the butter- milk andi handling the cream and the butter still contains 83 per ceint fat, then the "overrun" will only be 11 per cent. Nor is this variation anything extraordinary in practical, every-day creamery work, and it shows the value of a good buttermaker, who, by careful work, day in, day out, may 73 easily save the patrons, say 3 per cent, ini this way and an- other 3i per cent by incorporating just about the right amount of water. Tlhis will, in a creamery with 10,000 lbs. of milk peri day, amounitto 26 lbs. of butter per day, or at least 15.00, and yet many patrons will hesitate about pay- ing him' a monthly salary of $100.00 or $125.00. CONTKOLLING THE WATER PERCENTAGE. The above shows the importance of being able to control the percentage of moisture in butter from a financial stand- point, but there is also a moral reason,, as it is evidently dis- honest to incorporate too much water and sell as butter and finally there is now the legal reason as our National govern- ment (and other countries) have established a maximum standard of 16 per cent water, and if we exceed that the but- ter will be deemed adulterated and the maker fined heavily. While I havet nothing to say against the buttermalcers try- ing to put in a reasonable amount of water — say 14 per cent, I cannot too strongly warn them to be very careful in going too close toi the margin, as we have — as far as I know — na rules whereby we can absolutely control the' water contents within 2 per cent. Before discussing this question further I must draw attention to the old, old fraud, which reappears under new names. An enormous increase, in the butter yield is se- cured by addition of rennet, or similar stuff, which coagu- lates thei casein, and this, with or without the addition of extra melted butter, is incorporated with the butterfat, making what might possibly be called a very rich cream cheese, but which has noi right to the name of butter. Fif- teen years ago! it was pushed under the name of "Guiness" process butter, and a large creamery was run in Chicago which was used as a decoy to sell county rights. Later "Black Pepsin" was advertised for the same purpose, and now I notice that it is sold as "Richards Butter Eennet." As soon as the papers get onto the fraud the name is changed, and, no doubt, it will appear under a new name again and again. Remember, if 100 lbs. of milk contains 4 lb®, of fat and you do yonr very best with the very best modern implements, you can never make more than 4.6 to 4.T lbs. honest butter. 74 and never hope toi fool any buyer with more than 5 lbs., be the increase obtaineld with water or casein. The elements which influence the amount of water in butter lie chiefly in churning and working. If we chum at a tooi high temperaturel and churn too long or even sim- ply so as to get large granules, we increase the moisture; or, if we churn at a How temperature and use warm wash water and overchurn it, then wei will increase the moisture. Even so in working, if it is done at a too high temperature we work the moisture in instead of out. If we drain the granules oaref ully before adding thel salt, the salt will, in dissolving, draw moisture from the granules and help t6 reduce the moisture. Assuming the churning to be normal, then it "may be said that we best refgulate the moisture by raising or lower- ing the temperature of the wash water, which means the initial temperature of the working, and by draining the gran- ules, more or lessi before adding the salt. It is true Prof. Storch claims another influence on the moisture contents of butter— cream ripening — but I have not been able to understand it or to find any confirmation in practical work. Tihei overrun is influenced by cream ripening only in soi far that it may influence the churnability of the cream and leave more or le&st fat in the buttermilk. OHA.PTER VIII. PACKAGES AND PACKING. (Fig. 62.) (Fig. 60.) FOR THE PRIVATE DAIRY. For the dairies th,ei Bradley Boxes (Fig. 60), holding 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10' Iba and packed in cra,tes (Fig. 61) arei used a great deal, as well as the bail boxes (Fig. -62), holding 5, TJ, 9 and 10 lbs. They are very good and practical packages, accepted by the! trade, the .latter chiefly in the West. One poun^ rectangular prints wrapped in parchment paper and sent in re- turn boxes provided with an ice chamber (Fig. 63) is very popu- (Fig. 61.) lar in the East, and (packed solid) is fast gaining ground in the West. Indeled prints put up in cartonsi under somie special brand are being pushed by many creameries and dealers and the sale®, both East and West, have increased enormously. With the return boxes the diflSculty is to keep the trays perfectly sweet, but this trouble may be overlooked when a good price is secured. If packed solid the 54-lb. cubical or 50-lb. rec- tanigular box isi mostly used. There are numerous other packages, such as the "Record" tinlined; package, the "Otys- tal," a glass jar in a galvanized pail, paper boxes round (the "Gem") and square, etc., etc., not to forget the old stone jars, but these are not popular among the mfein, who handle the butter in the large markets and should be used only for local trade or for private customers. Bound and square prints are also suitable and are made: with the hand moulds shown in Figs. 64 and 65. They should be wrapped in jparcbmiemt paper or neio miuslin, never in the cabbage leaves or linen clothsi of suspicious origin. 75 76 In printing it is also important to be sure that there is full weight and whatever printer is used, the weight should be tried now and then, even if each lump is not weighed (Fig. 64.) (Pig. 63.) fFig. 65.; before printing. A neat scale for this purpose is made, with a porcelain plate. The parchment should be soaked in brine. FOR, CREAMERIES AND LARGE DAIRIES. When more: work is desired we have a great many de- vices—the "Nesbit," the "Bapps Automatic," the "I. X, L.," etc. Some of the most popular ones of this class -^.,. — "single" printers — be- THE LAFAVEITS BDTT£K FSINTEB. (Fig. 66.) (Fig. 67.) ing those similar to the "Lafayette," shown in Fig. 06, or the "Eureka" in Fig. 67. The former is fixed on a table (in- dicated in dotted lines) and with a little practice very fast work can be done with either. Quite another system is illustrated in Fig. 68, the ^'Acme," originally called the "Lusted," in which 25 1-lb. or 77 50 |-lb. prints are made at one impression. This system has gained ground and been modified and improved by various manufacturers. Special devices for cutting up tub butter (Fig. 68.) into prints are also in the market, notably the "Standard." Finally in Fig. 69, I illustrate the mold used- for the Oali- (Fig. 69.) fomia two-pound roll, the standard size in that mar- , ket. Larger private dairies ' sending to the open market (Big. 70.) may safely use 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60 lbs. tubs, same as the creameries. Creameries in Europe nearly all use the Danish 56 and 1121 lbs. beeob flrkin (Fig. 70), though in some countries the heavier oak may be seen. In America the standard cream- ery package is the 60-lb. tub (Fig. 71), made of white ash, with, five black ash hoops. Indeed, so wedded is the trade 78 (Fig. 71.) to this package that any divergency, even the least, may cause a reduction in price. Thus it would be nearly im- possible to sell Eilgin butter at the market price even in ash tuba, if there were six hoops on them. Nor is this kind of prejudice altogether without a reasonable ex- planation, as the six-hoop tubs had been used largely by gathered cream creameries, and hencei Elgin, butter would at once be suspected of being such, and each tub would have to be examined as to quality. Nor would it look well in a carload to have some five-hoop tubs amd some with six hoops. These tubs are made in sizes to hold 10, 20, 25, 30, 40, 56 and 60 lbs., the latter being the one roost used by creameries. A handmade tub is generally pre- ferred, and though the machine madte (staves tongued and grooved) are neater in appearance, they are not nearly so popular. The New York oak tubs are hooped with galvan- ized) iron hoops. Boston, will take spruce tubis, but they are not very popular in thei othen large markerts, they look very neat in- deed when new, but do not come out of cold storage in good shape. The tub covers are fastened with various fasteners, but the trade endorses only Nos. I and II, Fig. 72, tin straps fastened with half-inch -wire nails, and the ones mark- ed in, IV, V, should never be used. For export to England neat oak 110-lb. firkins used to be the package, but now the ^ f Australian square box is the (Fig. 72.) standard. It is made of poplar and spruce and measures inside 12 xl2ixl2 inches and exactly 56 lb®, should be packed in it, or rather a little more, so as to make it hold that on arrival in England, no more, no less. The English trade custom de- mands' this and will not pay for any oveirweigh't while an- 79 derweight will cause no end of trouble. Various boxes have been made with, groovesi in the wood and with slats nailed on so as to secure air circulation between thei boxes when cold stored. For export to South America and other warm climes tin cans carefully soldered and packed in boxes with rice sheils or dry saw dust are the best. Wooden packages should be kept in a clean, d'ry place, a damp storeroom may cause moldy tubs. PREPARING THE PACKAGE. Stone and glass jars as well as tin- cans need of course onily to be clean in a "dairyological," not to say bacteriologi- oal sense, but wooden packages require more than this. Tubs and pailsi strong enough to stand it should be scrubbed in- side with hot water or steamed and them sbalted for 12 hours with cold water or weak brine and again scrubbed with fresh cold water or brine just before using. The water should be as pure as that used for washing the butter. The outside should be kept as dry as possible. If thoroughly steamed and then rubbed with salt it is said that 2 hours soaking is all suflflcient. The use of parchment paper lining is now quite general. In tubs only the bottom and side should be lined and the very best paper soalfed in strong brine for a few, if not 12 hours, shO'uld be useld, and the tub should always be prepared as described above, as otherwise mold may appear. I confess toi a partiality for the system of steaming the tub in a steamibox and then at once give it a coating of parafflne. I believe there is less danger of mold, and' cer- tainly less soakage of brine into the wood. PACKING. Packing should be done while the butter is pliable and by pressing with a ladle or (in tubs) ramming with a "packer" (one kind may be seen in Fig. 70). Too much should not be put in the tubs — never more than 5 to 10 lbs. at a time, and each' lot should be carefully rammed so as to get it solid and leave no air spaces. To do this, use the packer with a slight so slant from 'the center to the sides of the tub. This is all im- portant, not only in order to exclu'de the air (which reduces the keeping quality), but also because it is foolish to pack four to five pounds (?is- '3) (F'fiT- '*•> less in a tub than it will hold, as was done in the tub shown in Fig»73. The New York Produce Review kindly sent me this illustration from an article on packing, one of the many interesting ones pub- lished by that enterprising paper. In Fig. 74 is shown a tub packed in a nearly perfect flianner, though there is one place defective. Earn the butter so as to more than fill the tub and strike it off level with the edge. Some use a wire to cut it with. If you want to smooth it do it by pressing with the ladle, mot by rubbing, which makes the butter greasy. line bottom and sides with good parohment paper, leaving an even edge of about one inch, to be folded neatly over the top before putting on the cloth circle,, then dampen this with brine and sprinkle a thin layer of salt on top of it. Fasten the cover with 4 equirdistant tin straps, using half-inch wire nails. Stencil uniformly without getting finger marks on tub, weigh the tub before filling and after, marking the gros® and tare in pencil. Eeweigh the day of shipping and you may save your- self from being unjust to your com- mission man. If the butter has not too much water, if the tub has been properly soaked, if you allow i lb. to i lb. per 60 lb. tub for shrinkage, and if your scales are correct, you need not fear any de-, ductions from your weights by honest commission' men. In this connection it must be said that scales, especially platform. 81 scales, are liable to get out of order, brine will soon rust them; hence one similar toi the one shown in Fig. 75 is pre- ferable for weighing buttelr. SHIPPING AND MARKETING. In the open market dealers prefer to have no private stencil or trade mark on the package, and especially do they object tOi the nam© and adflfess. If you use these and your butter is not up to the standard, leave them off, and, in any case, alwaysi notify your receiver if for some reason a ship- ment or part of one is not as good as usual. Tbo much stress cannot be laid on keeping the packages cleian and protected from heat and dust in hauling to market or to the railway, and while waiting for the train. Too' of- ten have I seen tubs exposed for hours to the sun on the station platform, and if the creamery man cannot attend to it himself he ought to arrange with thei agent to have the tubs protected and not soiled in loading. Never contract your butter for a whole year at the quota- tions of a certain market. Whenever a large number of creameries do that, it is a temptation for the buyer to' manip- ulate that market. Indeed, some of the Boards of Trade! be- come more or less of a farce, when less than one-tenth of the butter fromi the members is put up and sold on thei open board. If you sell at all, sell at a fixed price. Never ship a "sample shipment to an unknown house" which offers to buy it at a cent or two above the market. If they do not fleece you the first time, they will do so when they get a large shipment. They often send circulars giving well-known names as references without authority. Never try to pit two commission houses in the same city against each other by dividing a shipment, especially if you use your own stencil. If you have a good commission house, stick to it so as to give it a chance to work up a trade on your butter. Always insist on a prompt account of sale and remit- tance. The lack of this shows either lack of good business systemi, or a desire to run their business with your money. Instead of getting offended when your commission house draws your attention to some fault in your butter, insist on -6 82 it doing so; follow its advice closely as to the amount and quality of salt, color and style of package. Selling direct to consumers is- another matter, and is to 'be advised, as a rule, only in case the producer can comfort- •ably deliver it once a week from his own wagon. T!he price should then be fixed, say foi* each month, or at least for the six summer and the six winter months. To contract at a uniform price for the year is not advisable, as in most cases the consumer will be willing enough to take the. regular quan- tity in winter; but in summer, when hiel can buy it elsewhere for six to eight cents lessi, there is danger of trouble. In this case it is alsoi wise to remember that "short accounts make long friendships," and make the collections regularly at least once a month and better once a week. To' sell direct to consumers, who live at a, distance:, is less satisfactory, as there often is occasion for, misunder- standing; yet it can be done in exceptional casesi with' great profit, and for this kind of trade some of the different fancy packages may be used with advantage, though as* a general proposition I cannot endorse any return package. But, in selling direct it is well to remember the extra cost, trouble and risk incurred, and) in order to do as well as selling the whole make for cash to a dealer or through a commission house, it is certainly, tiecessary to get at least five cents more a pound at the creamery. THE FUTTJEB, BUTTER AUCTIONS. Tihe! greatest defect in our present system of marketing is the lack of an equitable payment according to quality. It is true some of our dealers have made an attempt to in- troduce it, but I have no faith in it until a comprehensive general system is adopted. We are not yet ready for such a system, which is simply an extension of co-operation, but I shall shortly refer to it here. Let us assume that 400 Minnesota co-operative cream- eries or, if you please, 1,000 Minnesota, Iowa and Wisconsin co-operative creameries join together in a "Northwestern Butter Auction Association." They hire or build oold storage room in Chicago or New York, as may be deemed best, and secure the services of a competent and honest man- ager. 83 Shipments are arramged so that a regular number of tubs (or nearly so) arrive each day amd these are then graded by well-paid expeirt judges, who must not be interested in the buying' or selling of butter; each lot is then sold, accord- ing to grade, by auction, after having been branded with a registered trademark, petums are made in a daily print- ed bulletin, so that the makers will know the result prompt- ly. No need to go into detail here. The system is as old .as the Cork butter market and is also used by some of the German, creamery associations. CO-OPBEAIION. I cannot, in- this connection, refrain from' urging an earnest considteiration of extended co-operation among the farmers. It is my conviction that only in this way can the farmers save themselves from being fleecied both in selling their products and buying supplies and implements. We should aim to educate ourselves on that line and follow the example of Denmark and Belgium, where co- operative stores, co-operative egg collecting and export, co- operative selling and buying of seeds, fertilizers, fuel and whatnot, co-operative insurance and co-operative slaughter- houses obtain. CHAPTER IX. ICE HOUSE AND REFRIGERATORS. EVBRYBODT OUGHT TO PUT UP ICE. Eveni though ice is not as important in these days of separators, no buttermaker, be it on the farm or in the cream- ery, ought to be without a stock of ice or snow, so as to have complete control of temperature. Nor can the value of ice to the farmer^s wife and family be overestimated, and when- ever the winteri is cold enough it is not a very great job for a few neigihbors to join together and scoop out a pood if no river or lake is within reasonable distance. Etven if such pond ice is not fit to use in cream directly, it will cool as well as the best, and if there is plenty of snow, and it is packed solid by wetting it a little and trampling it, about the same cooling effect can be obtained from a cubic foot as from ioei. It makesi a difference only of about 5 per cent whether ice is gathered in thawing or freezing weather, but in stack- ing it is important to pack as solid as possible and fill the spaces with crushed ice. THE ICE HOUSE. The cost of an ice house need not prevent any on© from having one. I have preserved ice by stacking it on a two-foot layer of sawdust and covering it in the same manner. I even left a small chamber in the center of the pile, the entrance being protected by two feet of straw packed between boards. There I could keep meat fresh for a week or more. Stich an ice vault should not be opened more than two or threei times a week, as otherwise' the ice will melt too fast. This is not the best way and houses may be built toi suit each one's purse. In this, as in other matters, co-operation between three or four neighbors, is the thing. If the floor is absolutely tight and laid on a layer of saw- 84 85 dust, that is, tbe best, but it will do very well to pile it on a thick lajnetr of sawdust or even straw provided good drainage is secured. (Not necessarily direct drainage, but, for,instajtice, a layer of gravel.) The walls (both inner and outer) should, to get the best result, be made! of matched boards and! be two feet apart and this space should be filled with closely packed insulating material. The inner wall map be dispensed with and the in- sulating done as the ice is piled up, but this will waste more material. Siuch a wall filled with dry sawdust or chaff will stop the air circulation even better than a whole lot of board and paper partitions and will, as a rule, be much cheaper in the country. A series of air spaces allows circulation in each and unless there are many of them the insulation will not be per- ifect, but they are cleaner and not so apt tO' get damp and musty as the solid sawdust or chaff which every few years must be taken omt and dried. Ai combination of the two systems might possibly be the best; say 12 or 18 inches solid in the center and an inch air space on either side. The floor should slant toward the center so that the ice will lean that way and not, in melting, press on the walls. It is enough to cover the ice with a foot or so of the insulating material, but above this free circulation of the air should be allowed. If exposed to the sun it isi a good thing to have a sort of tent roof above! the regular roof so as. tO' provide shade. The value of various insulating material may be ranked in the following order. Cotton, husks of barley, wheat or oats, leaves, chaff, husks of rice, wheat straw, sawdust and peat. All losing value if not dry. Ohaff, leaves and husks should not be used under the ice in the bottom, as, when damp, they easily ferment and develop heat. As tO' the unavoidable loss during the year by melting in the ice' house', it is estimated that in December it amounts to about 45 lbs. for every square foot of the inside surface and hence the percentage of loss is much greater in a small ice house than in a larger one. Refrigerating machines have been hinted at before and 86 where a new creamiery.isi built and where ice can not be se- cured virtually at the door of the creamery, a refrigerator machine* seems to me to be advisable, but we must be pre- pared to spend at least $1,000 on it, as a too small machine is a delusioni and a snare. We should have a brine tank in the cold storage room to hold the temperature during the night. There are various systems in the market, but for creamery use it seems the direct expansion ammonia system is the best, provided the coiling is done by experts so that there shall be no leakage. Liquid air has not yet been made practicable, but it has great possibilities. REFRIGERATORS. Small double boxes may be constructed on the farm with from 2 to 4 inches thickness of felting or 6 inches sawdust, and will do nicely, though refrigerators can now be bought at reasonable prices. Refrigerating rooms, like good ice houses, may be built either way, but, as a rule, the air space system is the simpler and is effective enough if there are at least five air spaces, and if all circulation of air from wajl to ceiling and floor and from wall to wall is effectually stopped. Careless builders often make the partition a delusion anid a snare by knocking holes in the paper when putting it up. The studs are placed at a distance that will allow the paper to lap over an inch or so and a 1 inch thick strip is then nailed firmly over the seam on the studs, the next paper put on, and so on until from^ 5 to 7 air spaces arei built up. The inner and outer walls are made of matched boarding. The paper should be close and air- tight andJ should not swell. Prof. King recommends the 3- ply giant paper made by the Standard Paper Company, this is acid proof. The 'wood used should not have a strong smell, like pine. ThQ biggest danger is at the joining of walls, ceiling and floor. It is safest to fill the lower six inches of the air spaces with mineral wool, as it must be remembered that a leakage of air at the bottom is far more detrimental than at the top. The floor should be insulated as carefully as the sides and should be water tight. The door is a difficult problem and requires a good car- S7 penter to construct it so as to fit tight and yet not swell and stick too hard. It is always better to have a sort of entry room, or at least two doors so far apart that one may be shut before! the other opens. Good doors with frames may be bought ready made. It will be seen that even a refrigerator may be construct- ed cheaply, but in creameries it is. well to employ an expert and secure perfection, as the'danger from mould, not to speak |of wastei of ice, is considerable. SiuflQce' it here to draw attention to a few more points. The ice shelf or chamber or the refrigerator coils should be placed near the ceiling and insulated so that no moisture will c(ondense underneath and drop on the floor, but be condensed on the ice and be removed with the water from the, ice tray fthrough a pipe with a water lock. Circulation should be insured by a partition or false wall and ceiling, which if there is only one ice shelf should ex- tend nearly to the floor on one side and to the opposite end of the ceiling at the otheir side. If there is an ice shelf at both sides it should nearly reach the floor on either side and exteind from both to nearly the center of the ceiling. In the Ijatter case the hot air will pass up in the center over the iceJ which dries and purifies it, letting the cold air drop down at both endsi of the room. Thie very best insulation^ if we can afford it, is secured by filling space with mineral wool. Prof. Robertson says that 100 lbs. will pack about 20 square feet of space six inches wide. I.' , i CHAPTER X. PASTEURIZATION FOR BUTTERMAKING. NOT THE SAME AS FOR CITY USE. When pasteurizing for butteramking it is not necessary to keep the milk or cream at the, temperature of 160 deg. for twenty, or even five minutes, unless indeed it be intended to hold the cream for a day or more or ship it a long distance before' setting the cream for ripening, in which case the keep- ing of it hot for a longer period may be desirable. And this is easily explained. If the heated and recooled cream Is inoculated, at once, with a good "starter" these good flavor bacteria (or ferments) get a start of the few possible bad germs that may have survived the short heating. In any case it must be remembered that only "sterilization" or heat- ing to 215 deg. can give us absolute security and that this temperature is incompatible' with fine butter. On a large scale, in a creamery, the short time heating, which allows the use of a continuous heater, is the only prac- tical one. ON THE DAIRY FARM. For buttermaking on the dairy farm I can hardly imagine any conditions that would make pasteurization desirable as a regular practice for buttermaJiing, and yet there might lae cases (where weeds may taint the milk), when it should be tried as a remedy. Or, when vefy small quantities of cream' make churning once a week desirable, pasteurization may be resorted to. Even so may it be used as a temporary relief until you discover the cause of "slimy" or "ropy" milk, which is generally due to lack of cleanliness somewhere. It is true pasteurization will not cure milk of a very strong, leeky flavor, but it will reduce that and remove many minor taints. In the gathered cream systelmi where there is no ice or very cold water at command, or where it is desired toi keep the cream for gathering only twice a week, I have a good 88 89 deal of faith in the future application of this system of pre- servation. But, once and for all, understand that pasteurization is noi panacea for all evils m)v any excuse for lack of cleanliness. Indeed, it requires a high standard of cleanliness if it is not to turn out a delusion and a snare. Any clean tin can, free from rust, preferably of a similar shape ^f the' shot-gun can, will do. A stirrer made of smooth, clean hardwood, but preferable — a tinned iron rod with a little dasher, and a boiler of suitable size com- pletes the outfit required'. Fig. 76 shows such a boiler for three regular shot-gun cans with the stirrer to the (B'ig. 76.) left. Place the boiler over the fire and when the water is about 120 deg. set the; can with the cream in the water and stir con- tinuously until the cream is 160 deg., remove the cream can, reduce the temperature of the water ija the boiler to 165 or 170 (if warmer) by adding cold watei", replace the cream can with the cover on and keep the boiler where the water will not drop beloTv 160 deg. Another way to maintain the tempera- ture is to have an insulated box as mentioned in the chapter about starters and to place the cream can there. Keep the temperature for 20 or 30 minutes and remove the can for cool- ing, or, if you want to make buttei* soon, cool it at once to 70 or 75 deg. and add the starter. If the crelam is to be shipped a quick intensive cooling is desirable, if cooked flavor is to be avoided, and for this reason we must either have something like the Champion or Star cooler, or else have a can or tub with ice water in which to plunge the cream can and cool quickly to 40 or below by stir- ring the cream with one hand and the water with the other. Thus the keeping quality of thei cream .will be greatly in- areased and thisi practice is commended to patrons of gather- ed cream creameries. But if we have no ice and cannot cool to 40 degs. or I prefer to cool only to 60 degs. rather than any intermediate degree, as that is more apt to develop bad flavors. IN THE CREAMERIES. The first pasteurizing heaters used weire those devised by the late Ptof. Fjord, of Denmark, mentioned in the chapter on heating milk for separation (See fig. 28). These have been 90 greatly improved by the government experts of that country. In flg. 77 I illusr trate one of these modern Danish! heaters. It is hung on pivots u on a neat iron frame scrdw^ed on to the floor and ceiling. The steam' is let into the well insijlat- ed jacket n from the pipe m, which is easily discon- nected by a union. The condensed water leaves through the waterlock, hav- ing an air cock r. The tin- ned copper cylinder v is pro- vided with drip-rings or flanges o o, and the dasher c with foam-killing plates. The milk enters at a and leaves through the lower opening e and , what little foam^ which is not de- stroyed in the room d k leaves by 1. (Fig. 77.) On this side the water, the one made by A. H. Eeid (fig. 78) and alsio the one made by Jensen M'f'g. Co. represent this type. Of other heaters I refer tO' the "20th Century^' (See flg. 30), which is sold as a pasteurizer under the name of "Farrington," having cooling disks in another compartment, (Flg. 78.) (Fig. 7!l.) 91 while the "Miller" which I show wi>th cooler attached in fig. 79, and the "Sturges. & Burn" differ in using hot water in- stead of steam, and in having the milk flow between, two re- volving heating surfaces. T!hen we have the "Eegenerative" heaters J direct steam, experience has taught us that the mdlk is liable to foam, overflowing the tank and preventing the filling of the cans in a satisfactory manner. ^ The simplest device to overcome this (Fig. 82.) trouble, recommended by Prof.' B. Boeggild, of Denmark, is that patented by C. Mikkelsen. The skim milk vat is made of heavy tinned steel plates with angle iron, round the top edge. This allowsi the clamping of the cover firmly and tightly. In. the cover is an open- ing into which fits the half cyliniier (Fig. 83) which is provided, with two dashers revolving on a shaft driven with a cord pulley. The skim' milk enters the vat through a closed (Fig. si) pipe and; the foam' rises against the cover, where it is caught by the dashers and thrown against the cylinder, thus releasing the air which escapes through the ventilating pipe. This foam killer is not needed when the latest Fjord style pasteur- izers (see Fig. 77) is used. To secure full protection against tuberculosis, the milk should be heated to at least 185 deg. This is now compulsory in the Danish creameries. A test has been invented by Dr. Storch, by which the authorities can quickly and easily de- termine whether this has been done. The residue in the sep- arator must also be burned. CHAPTER XII. RUNNING BOILERS, ENGINES AND SEPARATORS. Most of our dairy schools, dairy papers' and books are) lall very weak on these points. The best book I know of is Prof. Michel's Creamery Buttermaking (see book list.) There are handbooks on engines and boilers, but none popular enough written with special reference tO' creiameries. I do not feel competent to fill this want. It would take a 300-page book to treat the subject exhaustively. I just give a few hints. BOILERS. Always have the boiler of neiarly double the capacity -of the engine and do not grudge at a few dollars extra, but get ~ the best. For creanir eries the old standby, "the built-in tubular," likei Fig. 84, is the best. If the smoke- stack is built in front the top should be in- sulated, but if it is desired to have the smokestack at the oth- er end, it costs but little more to lead the (Fig. 84.) smoke back over the top, andi this will act as an effective covering. In small skim stations and dairies the tubular upright (Fig. 85) is the one to choose, though it is much more difficult toi keep clean. Never buy a secomd-hand boiler without having it exam- ined by an expert. Before starting a boiler examine the safety valve andl steam gauge (which should be at zero whem the water is cold), the try cocks and the glass gauge. 7 97 98 Never pump cold water into a hot boiler or blow it o£E under pressure. If the water should be low (which it never ought to be) find .out if it is below the, flues, and then bank or cover the fire with ashes or fresh coal if no ashes are at hand, or draw at once. Don't touch safety or any other valves, and under no cir- cumstance turn on the feed until the boiler is partly cooled. The water having been analyzed, consult an expert as to boiler compound, but potatoes or rice will, as a rule, be good enough, and not hurt the boiler as many (Fig. 85.) compounds do. To keep it clean let out about 2 inches of water every morning before starting the fire and wash out at least once a month. If flues gather scale scrape off. It is said that 1-16 inch loses J5 per cent and -J inch 60 per cent of the fuel value. ^ Leaks should be stopped at once tO' prevent corrosion even so leaking valves where the drip hits the boiler. As soon as blisters' appear, examine carefully and have them patched or trimmed. All parts of the boiler expoised tO' the lire should be kept perfectly cleain and flueis well swept, especially where wood or soft ooal is used. Mr. Krebs saysi in the "Dairy Messenger :" "In firing with fine coal a thickness of three or four inches is ample; when greater the oomibustion is imperfect, wasting fuel and pre- venting the full power of the boiler from being developed. A thin fire, sparing and frequently renewed, isi attended in every way by the best results. The fuel should be heaviest at the sides, they having a greateir supply of air, on account of the spaces unavoidably left between the fuel and the walls. Do 9