NA 2,700 Strata, SJew lark COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE LIBRARY Gift of Prof. C. W. Martin Cornell University Library NA 2700.L92 Over the drawing board; a draftsmen's han 3 1924 015 429 750 DATE DUE ^mA WA D^or 3374 n oT A iQftl out '6 _ OOL 1 ! CArLOKD PRINTED INU. 5. A. The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924015429750 Over the Drawing Board Over the Drawing Board A Draftsmen's Hand Book by BEN J. jJjUBSCHEZ Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. Author of "Perspective, an Elementary Tert Book." PUBLISHED BY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS THE OCTAGON, WASHINGTON. D. C. 1918 AT^I(^ i Copyright, igii By BEN J. LUBSCHEZ JRIKTED BY GEORGE I. WILSON & SONS, Inc. 150 Lafayette St., New York PREFACE It was a quite common custom in the West during the early nineties for draftsmen to visit each other's boards and discuss their work and methods, or during the noon hour while eating lunch at the board or at the big detail table which was used only occasionally, to talk over past ex- periences in other offices and tell about little short- cuts and methods of other draftsmen — that is how I first heard and learned of the work of Harvey Ellis and D. A. Gregg. Again perhaps one of the older men was working on a particularly interesting drawing and the student and some of the younger men were allowed to look on for a few minutes and even to ask a question or two. All these things did not help the orderly working of the drafting room but they contributed mightily to the education of the draftsman, particularly if he were anxious to learn. I can recall no ex- periences of my "cub" days with greater pleasure. ' Through years of rubbing elbows with, drafts- men all over the country I have been enabled to learn a host of better ways of doing both common- place and unusual things. Many of these methods will be new to readers while others will as surely be old, and this book, a gathering of things learned from experience and chats "Over the Drawing Board," is sent forth with the hope that its contents will help others as it has helped the author and that it will serve as a good friend in the pocket or on the board. B. J. L. New York December 13 th, 191 7 vl. CONTENTS PAGE I. Introductory i 11. Drafting Room, Equipment, Instruments. ... 3 III. Mounting of Paper and Drawings 13 IV. Tracing Paper and Tracing Cloth 29 V. Geometrical Short-Cuts 39 VI. Lettering, Titling, Numbering 54 VII. Working Drawings, Indication, Lines 63 VIII. Sketches, Exhibition Drawings, Water Colors, Perspective 80 IX. Filing of Drawings and Plates loi X. Photography io8 XI. The Reproductive Processes, Photo- Engraving, Etching, Wood Engraving, Lithography 114 Index 123 vil. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 1. Mitered Borders and Mats 27 2. Mr. Piatt's Rendering in Charcoal, Quarter Size after 32 3. Mr. Piatt's Rendering in Charcoal, Full Size before 33 4. Dividing a Line into Equal Parts 40 5. Elliptical Arch by Approximation 43 6. Rake Ellipse by Approximation 45 7. Egg-Oval by Approximation 47 8. Drawing True Ellipse by String Method 48 9. Drawing True Ellipse by Straight-Edge Method 49 10. Method of Drawing Plan of Scroll Newel 53 n. Method of Drawing Plan of Scroll Newel 53 12. Method of Drawing Plan of Scroll Newel 53 13. Guide Lines in Lettering 55 14. A Method of Free-Hand Lettering 56 15. Suggestion for Form of Title 59 16. Indication at Various Scales 66 17. Chart of Suggested Indication of Materials. ... 75 18. Chart for Experiments in Color 84 19. Diagonals and Perspective Centers 92 20. Even Divisions in Perspective '. .. . 93 ix. FIGURE PAGE 21. Odd Divisions in Perspective 93 23. Diagonals for Measuring in Perspective 94 23. Laying Out a Free-Hand Perspective 96 24. Inverting the Process of Perspective 98 25. Pictorial Photography, Washington Square, New York facing 108 26. Pictorial Photography, The Capitol, Wash- ington facing 109 27. "Painting with Light," Lower Broadway, New York facing 1 12 28. Detail Enlargement of Part of Small Nega- tive facing 113 29. Half -Tone Reproduction of Etching. . . .facing 116 30. Line-Cut Reproduction of Wood-Engrav- ing facing 118 31. Half -Tone Reproduction of Lithograph, .facing 120 z. I. INTRODUCTORY The administration of an architect's or engi- neer's office may quite naturally be divided, broad- ly, into two parts, which may be called — rather inadequately it is feared — the business branch of the office and the drafting branch. Under the business branch come all the busi- ness and contractual dealings of the office: inter- views and agreements with clients; the framing of contracts; accounting; to some extent, super- vision ; the keeping of records ; correspondence and its filing. Architects are usually accused of a lack of business efficiency, yet most of the larger architect's offices all over the country, have model business organizations. The second branch has to do with planning, designing, and their study; preparation of the documents with the guidance of which structures are built, or by means of which the architect's or engineer's ideas are presented to his client, and therefore has to do mostly with drawing, for it is mainly with drawing and by drawings that planning and design are studied, that the ideas of the designer are conveyed to the craftsman who works them out, that the dreams and thoughts OVER THE DRAWING BOARD of the designer are brought before the client for his consideration and criticism. Drawing is a language, the oldest one, the simplest one and the universal one, as may be seen by the Indian signs and the hieroglyphics of Egypt. To acquire its rudiments, is a com- paratively easy task. Like every language, how- ever, drawing has its idioms. As a master of any language is the master of its idioms, so the master draftsman is the master of the idioms of drawing, and it is hoped, in what follows, to present at least a few of these. The two branches overlap somewhat, but as far as possible, these pages deal only with the second branch, drafting room practice and draw- ing. II. DRAFTING ROOM, EQUIPMENT, INSTRUMENTS Instruments and Materials Most books on drafting begin with a discus- sion of instruments and materials that the student should buy before he begins work — and the list is usually quite formidable I Really excellent drawings have been made with a cheap pencil and inexpensive compass. The excellence of the drawing was not on account of the cheap tools, to be sure; it was rather in spite of them, but it only goes to show that a good workman does not "quarrel with his tools." It is pretty true that the clever draftsman is rarely as fussy about instruments, his paper or his media as the poor one, who usually devotes much time which might better be used for the strengthening of his abilities as draftsman, to puttering over his instruments. Quality of Paper, Instruments, and other Media Of course, it is not true that quality in the paper, instruments and other media is of no im- portance. It is of great importance, but the capable draftsman who knows how, will stamp the mark of his ability on the sketch he makes OVER THE DRAWING BOARD on a piece of strawboard with a lumber crayon while the poor bungling draftsman will make a weak smudge with the finest instruments on the best sheet of paper. To be sure, it is much more pleasant to work on good paper, with ac- curate instruments and reliable tools, and the beginner, particularly, should not handicap him- self with poor material and untrustworthy tools for although the best tools and materials never in themselves made good drawings, he should have no opportunity to blame poor results on the quality of tools or paper, but rather on himself alone. As we go along, tools and materials will be discussed in a broad way more to guide the drafts- man's discrimination when he buys them, than to give him specific lists of things to buy. He should buy what he needs as he needs it and ex- perience must guide him to a great extent. The draftsman should never forego an opportunity to learn from those around him, nearly every drafts- man has some way of doing some little thing which is better than the customary way. Keep your eyes open and be watchful, "get acquainted with your neighbor, you might like him" and he may know more than you do! Drafting Room The arrangement of the drafting room, its lighting and ventilation have a profound influence DRAFTING ROOM AND EQUIPMENT on the health of the draftsman and consequently on the quality of his work. What is said below may be as appropriately applied to the conditions around the student's single drafting board in his own home as to the large room in the office of the architect or engineer who employs many men. Ventilation in Drafting Room The room should be well ventilated — ^many a headache caused by foul air has been mistaken for one caused by eyestrain, under the illusion that eye-strain is the most natural thing for a draftsman! The ventilation should be such as to avoid drafts and gusts of wind which blow papers around in an annoying way. Electric fans, although often a very necessary evil and excel- lent for many things such as quick drying of paper or ink lines, are a great nuisance in the drafting room, nevertheless. The patent sash ventilating devices are excellent. Many improvised ones are as good. A five or six inch board placed be- tween jambs of the window and held in place on the sill by the bottom rail of the lower sash, sepa- rates the meeting-rails and gives efficient ventila- tion in winter time at practically no expense. To keep the head clear and the hand steady, there must be fresh air around the worker. Light in Drafting Room Too much light is as bad as too little. The OVER THE DRAWING BOARD light should be even and should always come from the left side. One should never work facing the source of light — it will speedily strain and weaken the eyes. There is always considerable light reflected from the drawing. If one faces the window, this reflected light will shine directly into the eyes, and also whenever one looks up, the glare of light is met. This is all very injuri- ous. The source of light, as has been said, should always be at the left side — if the worker is left- handed, then the right side — so the working edges of instruments like the T-square and triangle will be properly lighted and the light will be kept out of the eyes; it should be on the work instead. The eyes should be shaded. There should be sufficient light but not too much and direct sun- light should be avoided. Looking up from the work occasionally is a good habit — it relieves the strain, and the readjustment of the eye-focus ex- ercises the eye-muscles and prevents their stiffen- ing. Equipment of Drafting Room The furniture in the drafting room should be simple and strong. Trestles and tables should be quite rigid — a shaky, wobbly drawing board is extremely annoying. Some provision, such as a' case of drawers or a vertical filing case, should DRAFTING ROOM AND EQUIPMENT be made for keeping drawings — a rolled drawing is an obstinate abomination. Full-size Scales in Drafting Room Full-size scales, horizontal and vertical, marked off on the walls of the drafting room are very convenient to the draftsman for comparative study of dimensions on his drawings and to show the client actual dimensions of things. Drawing Tables The proper height of the drawing table de- pends entirely on the individual using it. 30 inches at front is a good average. The board should be of such height as to enable the draftsman to work on every part of it in comfort. The trestle or table might well be adjustable in height and the top should be so that it can be tilted at an angle of ten to thirty degrees with the horizontal, if necessary. Drawing Boards The size of the board for ordinary work is from 30" X 42" to 36" X 48", the latter preferred. It is well to use the board on a table somewhat longer than itself so as to leave a space at the right for reference drawings, instruments and so on. A regular trestle with a separate side table is also satisfactory. The board itself should be of white pine with cleats on bottom, and preferably unfinished, that is, free from shellac or varnish. OVER THE DRAWING BOARD The furnishing of the drafting room is a great deal a matter of personal preference — suffice it to say that in the ideal drafting room there should be a convenient, accessible place for everything used in the room and everything should be kept in its place. Water in Drafting Room Every drafting room should have running water, easily accessible. Covers for Tables There should be covers for the drafting tables, of water-proofed cloth if possible, but closely woven muslin or sheeting is excellent. T-Squares Perhaps the best T-squares are those with transparent edges and split heads — one side rigidly fastened, the other with a swivel so as to be adjustable. T-squares should never be left on the board over night — ^this causes them to warp and become crooked — they should be hung up instead. They should never be used for trimming paper or as guides in cutting — a cheap straight edge will do as well and will save the square from being cut or nicked. Triangles Triangles of transparent composition are to be preferred, for besides the great convenience of DRAFTING ROOM AND EQUIPMENT their transparency, they retain their edges and accuracy much longer than wooden ones. Scales Scales should have white edges. Flat scales are preferable to triangular ones and it is better to have several scales for the different graduations than to try to get everything on one scale. To have to turn and turn the scale around every time it is picked up to find the correct graduation is very annoying and besides furnishes a chance for serious error. Compasses and Dividers Compasses and dividers should be strong and accurate. Instrument catalogs have valuable data on the merits of the various forms of instruments and their construction. When the draftsman knows just what he wants to do with any particu- lar instrument, he can easily find several forms for the purpose described explicitly in the catalog, and can judge of the merits for himself. Ruling Pens The ruling pen is perhaps the most important and most used instrument. It should be of the very best quality even at the sacrifice of quality in other instruments. It should be of the type which may be easily cleaned carefully before put- ting away or laying down for any length of time. OVER THE DRAWING BOARD It needs sharpening occasionally as the nibs wear down withjjse. Sharpening of Ruling Pens Every draftsman should learn how to sharpen his own pen, so that he may always keep it in good condition. The best way to learn the sharp- ening process is to watch an expert do it once or twice, but a few directions and practice on an old pen may help. First adjust the nibs so they just touch. .Then on a fine carborundum or oil stone, run the pen back and forth with a side-ways rocking motion so as to shape the nibs to a rather pointed oval. They will now be very dull; sepa- rate the nibs and sharpen each one separately by rubbing the outside with a rocking motion on the stone so that the oval point is just sharp and the bright flat spots disappear. The pen should not be sharp enough to cut the paper and if it becomes too sharp it may be run back and forth on rough drawing paper as in first shaping the points, until it is slightly dulled. Pencils The choice of pens, pencils, ink and paper for the different kinds of work is discussed under the various processes described. One word about pencils, ink and erasers, however: the draftsman with a good touch, the one who puts real quality 10 DRAFTING ROOM AND EQUIPMENT and feeling Into his work, has very little use or tolerance for the hard pencil. Of course, the hardness depends a great deal on the surface of the paper worked on but rarely if ever will any- thing harder than 3H be needed and for most work softer ones are to be preferred. Watered or Diluted Ink As to ink, we are apt to overlook the possibili- ties of watered ink, the ordinary Indian drawing ink thinned with water so that it just misses being opaque. It is more easily used, flowing better from the pen, erases easily, far more easily than the full black ink, and in combination with black ink doubles the possibilities of indication on line drawings. More of its advantages will be pointed out as we go along. Watered ink doubles the possibility of making a blue-print legible — ^without it there is only the variation in thickness or weight of line, with it we have also the variation in tone or distinctness, doubling the latitude of expression of every kind of line. Erasers The less erasing of any kind there is done on a drawing, the better for the drawing, but erasing must sometimes be done. For pencil, charcoal or crayon, there are erasers varying from 11 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD the very soft "kneaded rubber" and "Art Gum" to the hard rubber varieties. The kind to use depends on the character of the mark to be erased , as well as on the character of the paper on which it is made. The draftsman should have both a soft and a hard eraser. For Ink lines the so- called typewriter eraser (rubber charged witih fine emery) is excellent. The erasing can be advan- tageously finished off or cleaned up with a hard pencil rubber. A sharp knife is also very useful. On tracing cloth, the new erasers made of spun glass threads are wonderfully eificient. Erasing Shield The erasing shield, a thin metal plate with various sizes of slots and openings, is an extremely useful tool. Its use will suggest itself after a brief acquaintance. Among draftsmen it is fam- iliarly called the "slot-machine" and it often proves itself a friend indeed. Light Rubbing In erasing, light rubbing usually gives bettter results than hard rubbing. Ideal erasing consists in rubbing hard enough merely to remove the mark from the surface of the paper, which should be disturbed as little as possible. 12 III. MOUNTING OF PAPER AND DRAWINGS Stretch Mounting vs. Thumbtacks When it is attempted to make a really good, clean-cut and accurate drawing on paper that is merely thumb-tacked to the board, the draftsman is immediately handicapped by many difficulties, the paper seems imbued :with a lazy sort of life — it stretches, it shrinks, it crawls and it misbehaves generally. When it is attempted to make a tracing over such a drawing, the tracer is doubly handi- capped and the results are apt to be doubly in- accurate. Thumb-tacks have their place, of course. Small drawings and rough drawings at large scale that require but a few hours to com- plete may well be made on paper that is merely tacked down. Tracing linen is usually tacked down because it cannot be mounted or stretched on the ordinary board successfully. It is often most convenient to tack paper tracings, but for a good working surface, for a surface on which is to be made an accurate drawing of considerable size and which will take considerable time to com- 13 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD plete, the paper should be stretch-mounted or else it should be mounted solid on heavy card-board or wall board. Stretch-Mounting, General The general process of stretch-mounting paper on a drawing board consists of; first, moistening the paper so that it swells and expands; second, while the paper is in this condition, sticking the edges to the board with thick strong paste so that, third, on drying the shrinkage of the paper will stretch it taut and smooth. This is the general process, but the details are different for different kinds and qualities of paper. Thin transparent tracing paper must be handled quite differently from the heavier opaque drawing papers. Stretch-Mounting, Heavy Paper We shall begin with the opaque drawing papers. Cut to size the sheet to be mounted, making the edges straight and square. Now moisten the sur- face all over to the edges with a wet sponge and allow to soak for a minute or two until the paper is limp and flat. Moistening on both sides may be easily accomplished by laying the paper face down on the clean drawing board and moistening the back first, letting the water soak in for a minute or two, then turning the paper over and moistening the face side. Paste should be distri- 14 MOUNTING buted rather thickly, about H or 5-2 Inch wide from the edge all around on the back. Higgins' Draw- ing Board Paste is made especially for this pur- pose and is excellent. There are various ways of applying the paste on the edge and one's in- genuity should lead him to the best; the edge may be lifted and the paste applied to the back, or the whole sheet may be reversed for the ap- plication. The edges of the sheet should now be rubbed down on the board — a putty knife or wall-scraper is an excellent tool for this and it is also useful for cleaning the board later. When the edges are pasted down securely, the paper should be allowed to dry, when it will be found taut and smooth. Stretch-Mounting, Very Heavy Paper Different weight papers require more or less wetting and soaking — ^the thicker and denser the paper, the more thorough wetting is required. Small sheets of heavy Whatman or similar paper may well be soaked in a tray until limp, when the surplus water may be blotted off just before past- ing. On very heavy, dense paper, it is well to punch, before mounting, a few pin-holes in each corner to allow the air underneath the paper to escape when the paper is flattening. Even 5-ply bristol board may be mounted if this precaution Is taken. 15 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Stretch-Mounting, Very Thin Paper Very thin papers like tracing paper or bond paper should be mounted dry and then moistened. These are usually mounted over other paper upon which has been made the drawing to be traced br which Is merely used as a ground. ■ The paste is applied thickly in a narrow band about Ys" or J^" wide on the ground paper or on the board just ouside of it. A piece of the paper to be mounted is cut about one inch larger than the paste line and rolled up. One end of this roll is then applied to the line of paste on the board and the paper is gradually unrolled with one hand while the two side edges are simultaneously pasted down with the other hand — always rubbing from center to edge — and finally the end is pasted. After setting a few minutes, the surface is moistened with a sponge, carefully, so as not to tear or injure the paper. On drying, the shrinkage will have drawn the paper taut with a delightful work- ing surface. Thin soft drawing papers like char- coal paper may also be easily mounted in this way. Solid Mounting of Paper Many draftsmen prefer making sketches and rendered drawings on paper solidly mounted on 16 MOUNTING card-board or wall-board. Many prefer making the outline drawing on ordinary weight paper then solidly mounting this outline drawing on card- board or wall-board for the rendering. This requires no especial instructions — it is merely pasting down one piece of paper on another. A rubber photographic print-roller is very conveni- ent to bring the papers in contact, the roller should be used from the center of the sheet out- ward toward the edges and the edges and corners lifted if necessary to prevent buckling and creas- ing, until the rolling is complete. The dryer and stiffer the paste used, the less curling and warping of mount will result. Pasting paper (not neces- sarily drawing paper) on the back of the mount will also keep the mount straight. Cleaning of Boards on Removal of Mounted Paper The most serious objection to the stretching of paper for drawing purposes is one born of lazi- ness — "it is too much trouble." The cleaning up of boards after removal of the drawing is a mussy operation if not done in the right way and has contributed much to the objection. The drawing is removed by cutting with a knife just within the pasted edge. All of the pasted edge that can be is then torn away. The edges are then wet thoroughly with a sponge and allowed to soak a 17 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD few minutes, when the paper may be easily scraped away with a putty knife or wall-scraper. The use of the putty knife or scraper will save about fifteen minutes soaking and considerable muss. The board should now be wiped off and allowed to dry. Several boards may be cleaned in little more time than one by allowing one to soak while scraping the other and so on. Trimming and Mounting Drawings After having made a drawing to show the client, or for public exhibition, it is necessary to trim it and mount it properly. This is quite im- portant and will either enhance or mar the effect. The drawing may be framed under glass or with- out, or it may be left entirely unframed. It is always advantageous to mount even small sketches on some support to facilitate their handling. These need not be permanently mounted, how- ever, as will be shown later. Sticking Down Corners Dividing drawings into classes as to the paper on which they are made, we shall consider, first the mounting of those made on paper having con- siderable body and then those made on thin or tracing papers. The simplest way to mount a drawing, if it is not too large, is to stick it down at its corners and a point or two between on each 18 MOUNTING edge, on an ordinary piece of card-board or other support of suitable color and texture. Ail-Over Mounting The next simplest method is all-over mounting on a similar support. The drawing is trimmed properly and laid on the mount in proper position and its comers lightly marked on the mount. The drawing is then laid face down on a clean piece of paper or, better yet, a clean sheet of glass. Rather thick paste is now applied sparingly and evenly to the back of the drawing — many use wall- paper paste on account of its cheapness — and the sheet is lifted carefully and placed on the mount in proper position according to the corner marks made. It should now be covered with a clean piece of paper and rubbed into contact with the hands, always beginning in the middle and rub- bing toward the edges, the better way, however, is to use a photographic print roller, rolling from the middle toward the edges. If too much paste has been used it will ooze out from under the edges of the drawing but even if the paste has been applied sparingly it may ooze out a little. The surplus paste may be removed with a damp sponge. Curling of Mount, Prevention Unless the mount is a very heavy one, and the paste used quite stiff, it will curl on drying. This 19 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD curling may be counteracted very simply. It is necessary only to mount a piece of paper the same size as the 'drawing and approximately the same weight, on the back of the mount. The curl- ing tendency will thus be balanced and the whole will dry quite flat. Mounting: on Stretchers The objection to all-over mounting is that the drawing cannot be removed when necessary — that it must always be kept with the mount, which may be rather bulky, especially" f or large drawings. There are two ways of overcoming this objection. One is to mount the drawing on a stretcher. A stretcher is simply a light wooden frame with muslin or sheeting stretched and tacked over the edges. The frame may be made of plain strips or may be put together of dovetailed and cleated strips made for the purpose and which may be had in various lengths. After the muslin is stretched and tacked on the frame the draw- ing may be pasted just as it was before. It must be laid face down on a clean surface, however, and rubbed into contact from the back. If a mat or border is desired, the stretcher must be larger than the drawing and then paper of the desired color may be pasted around to form the mat, this paper lapping over the edges of the drawing a little. Another way ii to mount the 20 MOUNTING colored paper — ingrain or oatmeal wall-paper is excellent — all over the stretcher and when dry, to mount the trimmed drawing on this. Either way allows the removal of the drawing, now mounted on muslin, at any time by simply remov- ing the tacks on the edges of the frame. Mounting on Compo-Board Beside the stretcher method, drawings may be mounted on heavy mat-board, wall board or best of all, "compo-board" so as to be easily remov- able. This is simply done by first stretch-mount- ing a piece of paper on the compo-board just as we would on the drawing board, pasting only the edges. This paper should be strong but not too thick — ^heavy tracing paper is excellent. When this stretched paper is dry the drawing may be mounted solidly on it, only keeping back from the pasted edges. Borders or mats may now be improvised as was done for the stretcher and as will be more explicitly explained later. If at any time it is desired to remove the drawing it is only necessary to cut through just within the pasted edges of the original stretched paper and the whole will come off. The mounting board may be used many times in this way. These methods are especially valuable in school work or when only temporary mounting for exhibition or judgment is needed. 21 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Mounting Drawings Made on Tracing Paper Tracing paper may be mounted by pasting the corners and points on the edges as were heavier drawings, but being rather flimsy it is thus subject to tearing and other damage. Tracing-paper may be mounted solidly on any paper or board that may be desirable. If the paper on which it is to be mounted is rather light in weight — that is, not card-board — it should be stretched first for best results. To one who has never tried it in the right way, the attempt to paste down solidly a piece of tracing paper, which even when dry is rather fragile, seems a hopeless task. First, we take a sheet of glass, somewhat larger than the tracing we wish to mount, if this is more than eighteen inches, we should have plate glass. Place the tracing face down on this sheet of glass. Reduce some clean white paste with water to the con- sistency of cream. Apply the paste with a good brush — a small varnish brush is excellent — ^to the back of the drawing and brush back and forth until the paste is thinly and evenly distributed and the paper lies quite flat. With a damp sponge now wipe off the surplus paste on the glass be- yond the edges of the drawing. Have the mount, whether it is paper, stretched 'or unstretched, 22 MOUNTING card-board or wall-board, ready on a table. Now lift the sheet of glass with the drawing on it — enough paste will have worked just under the edges to make the drawing adhere temporarily to the glass — and place, drawing first, in correct position on the mount. Press the glass down so as to bring the drawing into more or less contact. The glass may now be lifted off, leaving the drawing on the mount. It should be rolled into perfect contact with a photographic print roller as directed before for other mounting, rolling from the center to the edges, using clean paper or blotting paper under the roller. Any surplus paste at the edges may be removed with a damp sponge. Advantages of Mounted Tracings Tracings mounted in this way may be handled and exhibited with the same ease and with the same resistence to wear and tear as drawings made on heavy papers, but give the draftsman all the advantage of having been made on tracing paper. Demounting Tracings Tracings mounted solidly are usually considered permanently so, but with patience and care they may be removed from the mounts, although it is rather a delicate undertaking. The tracing should 23 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD be moistened with a damp sponge until the tracing paper is quite moist, then by beginning at one corner and using great care it may be pulled off the mount. It is not advisable to try this for the first time if the tracing is valuable and must be preserved. If only the re-use of the mount is de- sired, tearing the tracing is of no moment. Stretch-Mounting Tracings The method of stretch-mounting tracing paper for drawing purposes has already been described. In a similar way a tracing may be mounted for exhibition. The properly trimmed tracing is laid on the mount and the edges are marked. A narrow band of paste is now applied just within the line on the mount marking the edges of the tracing and the edges of this are now rubbed down. If the paste is applied one edge at the time and the rubbing done from center of sheet toward edge, there will be less liability to form wrinkles and creases. After the edges are all pasted, the surface of the tracing should be dampened, if possible, with a sponge or wet blotter and on drying it will be found stretched smooth and tight. It will look quite presentable without dampening and stretching, however, if this is im- practical. Ordinary paper drawings may be mounted in the same way if the paper is not too heavy. They 24 MOUNTING may be dampened on the back before pasting if it is dangerous to wet the face. Modification by Color of Mount The appearance of a drawing on tracing paper may be changed considerably by the color of the surface upon which it is mounted. It may be warmed considerably by mounting on buff or even yellow paper. It may be subdued by mounting on gray paper. Experiments in this direction are well worth while. Tinted Glass Some interesting results can be had by framing drawings under tinted glass. Borders and Mats It is often necessary to put a border or mat on a drawing. The simplest way to do this is to take a piece of paper or mat board the outside size necessary and cut an opening in it the size of the picture, and pasting this down in the proper place. Draw the outline of the opening necessary and whenever possible cut through the mat in one cutting. A well sharpened, sturdy knife is best for the purpose. There are excellent special mat- cutting knives on the market. It is often impractical to use the cut out mat on a drawing. Mat board is limited in size and 25 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD therefore sometimes it is not large enough. Again it may not, be possible to use it on account of the character of the mount used and it may be that thin paper of more desirable color or texture is wanted. Mitered Borders and Mats It is quite easy to apply a mitered border or mat made of strips of paper. Cut four strips of paper the length of the edges of the mount and about two inches wider than the desired mat or border. Apply paste on the back of one of these strips and stick down meeting the border line of the drawing with one edge and folding the other edge over the edge of the mount and pasting it to the back. Now cover the corner of this strip a little more than its own width from the corner of the mount with any sort of paper, a piece of newspaper will do, and quickly paste the adjoining strip of border on as before. With a sharp knife now cut through from inside corner of border strips to outside corner of mount, cutting clear through to the mount. Now by lifting the ends of the two border strips and removing the news- paper cover and the superfluous triangles of paper and again pasting down the ends, we have a per- fect, almost invisible mitering of the strips. The newspaper was used merely to avoid soiling the first strip with the pasted end of the second. 26 M OUNT ING Figure i will make the stages of this process clearer, perhaps. 1st lOlDEl STItIP Ml.TEE CUT •:•;;;. yc:i ZfiiiBocniiMRi? Uii.in\i Ntwspapeii PlCTUHE ^ -•■•1 '.' PlCTUtl i^^ 4 Fl/IMHtD MlTCe, JOIDT ^.■■■.'■) ■ \ • • ■" J _■ 1 PiCIUtE 5 Figure i Mitered Borders and Mats The other corners should be done the same way. All this should be done quickly so that the paste does not dry at any place where the paper has to be lifted in order to remove the surplus. To expedite matters, everything should be gotten in readiness before beginning the application of any of the strips. ^ Applied Bands ' It is often advantageous to separate the draw- ing from the mount by a band of gold or silver or black. This may be done by using sheet-paper 27 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD cut into strips or by using narrow passe-partout paper and pasting it on. Ragged edges on the drawing may be covered up and the whole thing given a finished appearance by this kind of an applied band. The gold band is especially effica- cious, for gold harmonizes with all colors. 28 IV. TRACING PAPER AND TRACING CLOTH Tracing Paper, General Uses No one thing that the draftsman employs is so widely useful as tracing paper. Upon it may be made the whole gamut of drawing from the merest "short-hand" sketch to the most finished render- ing and working drawing. As a help in drafting, such as transferring, "frothing" and so on, its uses are well nigh unlimited. One can almost judge the ability and efiiciency of a draftsman by the methods and extent of his using tracing paper. Tracing Paper in Studying For studying or developing a design or plan or detail, nothing is as convenient or useful as thin transparent paper with a good tooth or surface for pencil. The draftsman can use layer upon layer of the paper, each successive layer showing a new development, and at any stage of the work he can -lay out before him all the progressive studies. He may discover that at a certain point he wandered off on a tangent and that his six- teenth sketch is not as promising as his ninth, say. 29 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD AH he has to do is to be^n again at his ninth sketch and try a new path of development. There is a wonderful fascination about this. There is a wonderful interest in a group of such sketches — they present an intensely human and graphic history of whatever one was studying. Now for the mechanical details — the "modus operandi." Tracing Paper, How to Use in Studying To begin with, a substantial piece of paper should be stretched on the board and on this paper should be outlined in strong lines the fixed general dimensions, axes if any, and all important and mandatory lines of what is to be drawn or de- signed. Now on tracing paper over this skeleton one proceeds — mostly free hand — with a soft pencil, crayon or charcoal, to sketch and study to his heart's content. The tracing paper may be tacked over the stretched paper, it may be pasted at the corners or it may be stretch-mounted. Short Rolls of Tracing Paper The draftsmen should have at hand a generous supply of pieces of paper cut to size, or what is still more convenient, a narrow roll of paper sawed off from the regular roll. A 36" or 40" roll sawed into three equal lengths is very con- venient or a 36" roll cut into 10", 12" and 14" lengths is useful. From these, pieces of the right length may be easily torn by holding a 30 TRACING PAPER AND CLOTH straight-edge, T-square or triangle, at the right point and tearing away the paper. Rendering on Tracing Paper Sketches on tracing paper may be rendered in soft pencil or pen and ink; if the paper is stretched, they may be tinted in water color. Beautifully soft sketches may be made by rendering in soft pencil and then tintmg rather broadly on the back of the tracing paper with colored crayons. By laying the drawing face down on clean paper the outline or pencil rendering is strongly visible as a guide to the tinting. Further interesting effects may be had by mounting these finished trac- ing paper sketches on tinted papers. Perspectives Rendered on Tracing Paper In making rendered perspectives it is of great advantage to do the rendering on tracing paper. The outline perspective may be made on any good paper and as completely as wanted. Tracing paper may now be stretched or tacked over this outline and the rendering made as freely as the draftsman desires with the assurance that no frag- ments of outline or working lines will disturb his finished drawing and that no cleaning will be necessary. Mr. Piatt's Charcoal Drawings Mr. Charles A. Piatt's rendered drawings in 31 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD charcoal on Manilla tracing paper are in a class by themselves. They are made simply and quickly by working over an outline drawing on detail paper. The shades and shadows are then put in with charcoal on the manilla tracing paper stretched over the outline drawing. The edges are all drawn mechanically with aid of T-square and triangle. Stumps and chamois are used for blending the charcoal. The results are wonder- fully realistic, almost photographic drawings that are nearly as valuable as models in study- ing details. Figure 2 shows a part of one of these drawings reproduced at one-fourth the scale of the original, while Figure 3 shows a detail of the same drawing reproduced full size. "Squared" or Cross-Section Paper in Sketching or Measured Drawing In sketching and preliminary studying, "squared" or cross-section paper may be used to great advantage. This paper is faintly ruled in squares of eighths or tenths of an inch. These squares may be assumed to represent any dimen- sion and the free-hand sketch so made approxi- mately to scale. The same result may be attained by using thin tracing paper over the "squared" paper. For free-hand drawing preliminary to measured drawings of existing work, "squared" paper is 32 Figure a Mr. Piatt's Rendering in Charcoal, Quarter Size Reproduction Figure 3 Mr. Piatt's Rendering in Charcoal, Full Size Reproduction TRACING PAPER AND CLOTH very useful as it enables the draftsman to make his free-hand sketch approximately to scale and in proper proportion both easily and quickly. The ruled lines also serve as guides for the drawn ones. "Squaring" in Copying In copying or reproducing a drawing at differ- ent scale, "squaring" is a useful device. The drawing to be reproduced is either ruled into small squares or covered with a piece of transparent tracing cloth so ruled. The paper on which the drawing is to be reproduced is now ruled lightly into squares bearing the same ratio to the squares on the original as the scale of the reproduction bears to the scale of the original. By noting the intersections of the lines of the original drawing with the ruled lines on it and properly placing these intersections on the reproduction, it may be easily and accurately made to any scale. This is most useful in pictorial drawing and the drawing of ornament. Tracing Paper vs. Cloth Tracing paper plays or may play a very im- portant part in the preparation of working draw- ings as we shall see later. Many draftsmen especially the older ones, do not begin io realize its many possibilities. Although it has not the strength or wearing and handling possibilities of tracing linen or cloth nor the resistence to erasure, 33 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD it presents a much pleasanter surface on which to work, behaves much better on the board, it may be easily stretched and mounted and is withal much cheaper, ranging from i/io to >4 the cost of the cloth. Transferring with Tracing Paper Tracing paper is very useful as an auxiliary to drawing on other paper — in transferring or "frothing." By its use the whole or any part of a drawing may be reproduced, without actual re- drawing, on the same or any other sheet of paper. A drawing may be carefully studied on tracing paper and the final result transferred to a clean sheet of paper for inking-in or rendering without actual redrawing. For small details such as the profile of a moulding, the transferring process is the more convenient. The outline is simply traced with a soft pencil on a piece of thin tracing paper. This traced outline is then gone over with a soft pencil on the back of the tracing paper (if the outline is symmetrical this second tracing is un- necessary). By placing this tracing in the proper position on the drawing paper and going over the outline with a pencil, the design will be found dis- tinctly transferred to the paper, "Frothing" with Tracing Paper More elaborate and larger drawings are more 34 TRACING PAPER AND CLOTH easily transferred by the "frothing" process. We shall assume that we have a drawing on tracing paper which we wish to transfer to water-color paper — if it isn't on tracing paper we can easily make such a tracing. The tracing should be with rather strong lines and made with soft pencil. If the drawing is symmetrical this is all that is necessary, if not symmetrical then we must make a reversed tracing of it on the back of the original tracing or on another sheet. The latter tracing should then be put in the proper place on the blank sheet of paper, pencil lines down. The trac- ing may be held in position by thumb-tacks or, if the tack holes are objectionable, by slight touches of paste in the corners, the paste being easily re- moved later with a damp sponge. Over this trac- ing must be laid a clean sheet of tracing paper or better yet, tracing linen, and the whole rubbed, us- ing considerable pressure, with some smooth rounded object like a round edged glass or marble paper weight, the rounded handle of a pocket knife or some similar object. After the whole has been gone over carefully and the tracing removed, the drawing will be found distinctly transferred to the paper and may now be inked in or pencilled in. This process is not nearly as formidable as it sounds, is a great time saver and really very con- venient and useful. 36 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Tracing Linen or Cloth Tracing linen or cloth is exceedingly useful material to the draftsman and it is perhaps un- grateful to say ajiything disparaging about it though it has many peculiarities that give its users constant grief. Its surface is rather difficult to work on, it rebels violently at moisture and even a damp atmosphere will cause it to cut all sorts of capers. It is very strong however, quite trans- parent, stands much erasure, and can be cleaned easily with benzine or gasoline. Function of the Tracing For the preparation of the transparency or tracing from which blue prints are to be made, tracing cloth is still the most popular and most widely used material. Tracing paper is supplant- ing it however and will probably do so more and more as the years go by. In the old days before the blue printing process was commercial- ized, the original drawings on paper were care- fully inked in and finished on paper for the office set and one or more sets were then made on trac- ing cloth to be used on the work. Then the tracings were in themselves the end, now tracings are merely the means to the end, the blue print. This has greatly changed the process of drafts- manship and has lessened the necessity and de- sirability of using cloth. 36 TRACING PAPER AND CLOTH Handling of Tracing Cloth There are a few things to know about working on tracing cloth which make its use much pleas- anter and which make the work much more efficient. A piece of tr'acing cloth should be stretched as firmly as it is possible to do so with thumb-tacks. One corner should first be tacked down, stretching the edges with the palm of the hand towards the next tack to be put in. Folding the corners about Yz" prevents tearing of the cloth at the tack hole. Long edges should have one or more intermediate tacks. In damp or humid weather it is well to tack down the cloth, stretching it as tightly as possible, and leave it for an hour or more without working on it. It will then be found considerably expanded and buckled up. If it is now stretched out and re- tacked it will stay in place much better. Powdering Surface of Cloth The architect usually uses the dull side of the cloth and it is much to be preferred for it takes pencil well and erasures on it do not remove the glazing varnish. This surface, however, as it comes from the factory se6ms slightly greasy and does not take ink well. It should be rubbed lightly with precipitated chalk, flour of pumice or the prepared powder sold for the purpose, the latter being preferable. The surface thus rubbed will take ink perfectly. 37 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Tacking Tracings to he Left Over Night On drawings which take considerable time to trace and where the uncompleted tracing must be left on the board for any length of time, as over night, if the tracing is left fastened down at the corners, the next morning is apt to find it all buckled up. It will be well nigh impossible to register the tracing accurately over the drawing. Especially will this be true if the weather turns damp in the interval. All this may be easily avoided by simply putting a thumb-tack in the center of each edge of the cloth, then removing all other thumb-tacks. The tracing will be found to have held its place perfectly in register and no buckling will be in evidence. The corner tacks may be replaced and the work continued. In fact, it is better to work on tracing cloth with tacks in the centers of the edges only if possible, but for large sheets this is not convenient. This peculiarity of tracing cloth Is due to Its weave. When the tacks are In the corners there is no resistance to pulling, the little squares of the mesh rack in any direction upon expansion of the cloth by the absorption of dampness. When the tacks are in the center of the edges, however, pull and movement are resisted by the threads themselves. 38 GEOMETRICAL SHORT-CUTS Value of Geometry Any draftsman who Is not familiar with Plane and Descriptive Geometry is seriously handi- capped in the making of mechanical drawings. The fact is that most draftsmen are familiar with these subjects to some extent and do not know it simply because they have not studied them in the abstract. As a matter of fact, all problems in drawing involving the construction of angles and curves and projection, — and nearly all do — and all the problems of perspective, shades and shad- ows and stereotomy are based on Plane and De- scriptive Geometry. If the draftsman is not familiar with these subjects and has a liking for mathematics, he can acquire them by home study, and the time will be well spent. To the student of Geometry many short-cuts in laying out his draw- ing will occur. Dividing a Line into Equal Parts Any line may be divided into any number of equal parts with a scale or rule quickly and ac- 39 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD curately., (Figure 4). In Figure 4, let A-B be the line which it is desired to divide in, say, seven equal parts. At B draw a line B-C with the triangle or T-square, as necessary, to make an angle with A-B. With the zero point of any convenient scale at A, swing the scale until the proper division point, in this case the seventh. Figure 4 Dividing a Line into Equal Parts ( any multiple of the seventh would do as well, of course) is on the line B-C, mark the division points off on the paper and through these points draw lines with the triangle or T-square parallel to B-C. These parallel lines will intersect A-B at equal distances and in number as laid off by scale. 40 GEOMETRICAL SHORT-CUTS Laying-Of Equal Distances This method is extremely useful in laying off equal distances like stair treads for example, which should not be laid off successively by scaling each one. Besides being laborious, this is very in- accurate. The total distance occupied by the equal divisions should be laid off and then divided into the required number of equal parts. If lO treads of ii" each are to be drawn, the distance, no inches, is to be laid off and then divided into ten equal parts. 30°-60°, 45° and Adjustable Triangles It will pay the draftsman to experiment with his 30°-6o° triangles in the drawing of equilateral triangles, hexagons and so on. The combined use of the 30°-6o° and 45° triangles will give many useful angles. There is also an adjustable triangle on the market which is very useful. Its right angle is rigid but the sloping edge is adjustable to any angle. Being reversible the use of this triangle in drawing roof slopes and other such lines is prac- tically unlimited. It is also very advantageous to use the 45° triangle with its hypothenuse next the T-square. This gives a 45 ° line, sloping either way and saves much reversing of the instrument. Ellipse and Oval The ellipse and the egg-oval are constantly 41 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD recurring curves, especially in architectural draw- ings, yet few draftsmen know how to draw either one correctly, or approximately with the compasses. Both the ellipse and the egg-oval may be closely approximated with a pleasing curve drawn with the compasses and although in laying out the work actual size the curves should be drawn with mathe- matical exactness, the approximate curve suffices very well on scale drawings and is the most prac- tical to use on these. Tangency of Arcs If a law of the tangency of circles with each other and with straight lines is remembered almost any curve may be approximated by combining tangent arcs. If two circular arcs are tangent, the point of tangency and the centers of both arcs must lie on the same straight line and if an arc of a circle is tangent to a straight line, the point of tangency and the center of the arc must lie in a line perpendicular to the original straight line at the point of tangency. Bearing these conditions in mind arcs may be combined at will to approximate any curve. Figures 5, 6 and 7 give methods of drawing approximations of ellipses and ovals with the compass, using three or more centers and com- bining the arcs of cu/rves. 42 GEOMETRICAL SHORT-CUTS Elliptical Arch by Approximation In Fig. 5 is given a very useful method of approximating an elliptical arch or semi-ellipse (of course the whole ellipse may be just as readily drawn) . This method gives a pleasing curve and a very close approximation of a true ellipse. 19 Figure 5 Elliptical Arch by Approximation In Fig. 5, AC IS half the major diameter and BC half the minor diameter of the arch. Draw the line AB. Lay off BM from B equal to AC less CB. NO bisects AM and is drawn perpen- dicular to it and gives P, the center of the arc AN, at its intersection with AC, and O, the center of the arc NB — , at its intersection with BC continued. 43 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Draw the arc AN with P as center and PA as radius and the arc NB with O as center and ON as radius. Proof To show that OB equals ON requires too long a proof and must here be taken for granted but it is easy to show that the laws of tangency are obeyed. The arc AN is tangent to EA at A be- cause A, the point of tangency and P, the center are in AP, perpendicular to EA at A. The arcs AN and NB are tangent at N because N, the point of tangency, P, the center of AN, and O, the center of NB, are in the same straight line. NB is tangent to EB at B because B, the point of tangency and O the center of the arc are in BO perpendicular to EB at B. Rake Ellipse by Approximation In Fig. 6 an approximate; elliptical arch is drawn on the rake, as it might occur under a flight of stairs. The rake line ACD is the rake major diameter of the curve and the vertical line BC half the minor diameter. BC is in the center between EA and E'D. We should now sketch free hand, a curve tangent to EA at A, to EE' at B and to E'D at D. Now draw line AP perpendicular to EA at A, and on this line locate, by trial, point P which 44 GEOMETRICAL SHORT-CUTS Figure 6 Rake Ellipse by Approximation may be used as center with AP as radius in de- scribing arc AN, fitting closely the sketched in curve. Next, at B draw a line BO' perpendicular to EB. Lay off BB' equal to AP, and draw MO bi- secting PB' and perpendicular to it. 45 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD MO will intersect BO' at O. Draw OPN through O and P giving the point of tangency, N, on the arc AN. Draw arc NB with O as center and OB as radius. Next draw P'D perpendicular to E'D at D and locate F by trial so that the arc N'D drawn with P as center and P'D as radius fits closely this part of sketched in curve. As before, lay off BB" equal to P'D and find where the perpendicular bisector of B"P', N"0', cuts BO' at O'. Draw O'P' — through N', the point of tangency on N'D and draw arc BN' with O' as center and O'N' as radius. This completes the curve and it is obvious that the laws of tangency have been followed and that when these are thoroughly understood any curve may be approximated by a combination of arcs. Egg-Oval by Approximation Figure 7 shows an egg-oval, whose extreme diameters, AB and CD, are given, constructed of arcs. AP is made equal to one half CD, and CD then drawn perpendicular to AB at P. Draw the semi-circle CAD. Lay off OB on AB, less than AP. The variation of OB deter- mines the shape of the oval, the shorter it is, the more pointed the oval becomes. 46 GEOMETRICAL SHORT CUTS Draw a circle with O as center and OB as radius. Draw OD' parallel to OPD intersecting the smaller circle at D'. Figure 7 Egg-Oval by Approximation Draw DD' through to M on the smaller circle. Draw MON to N on CD continued. Draw an arc with N as center and ND or NM as radius, on each side. This completes the oval. All the laws of tangency have been observed and the geometrical proof of the equality of ND 47 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD and NM is quite easy: NDM and D'OM are similar triangles, D'OM is isosceles since OD' equals OM, hence DNM is isosceles and DN equals NM. -t- Figure 8 Drawing True Ellipse by String Method Drawing a True Ellipse — Two Methods It is often necessary to draw a true ellipse on a large scale drawing or for a full size tem- plate. This is usually done by one of two methods — ^by the aid of a string or by the use of straight-edges. We shall give both methods al- though the straight-edge method is far the more convenient and the more accurate. The String Method The major and minor axes of the ellipse are given, AOA and BOB, Figure 8. 48 GEOMETRICAL SHORT-CUTS 1^ Figure 9 Drawing True Ellipse by Straight-Edge Method Find the foci of the ellipse, F and F', by making BF and BF' equal to AG or OA-^striking an arc with B as center and AO as radius cutting AG and GA in F and F'. Place pins or brads at F and F' and fasten a string to these brads whose length FPF' is equal to AGA. A pencil, P, holding the string taut will de- scribe true ellipse APBA. 49 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD The Straight-Edge Method In Figure 9, straight-edges SS and S'S' are fastened or tacked along the major and minor axes of the ellipse to be drawn. Another straight edge is then arranged with a pencil or crayon at P and brads at M and N, making MP equal to BO and NP equal to AG. If this straight edge is moved with the brads at M and N bearing against the edges SS and S'S' the pencil at point P will describe the true quarter ellipse APB. It is evident that the length of SS or S'S' must at least be equal to MPN or half the sum of the major and minor axes of the ellipse. A contrivance such as this may be easily ar- ranged in the drafting room, shop or field and a true ellipse quickly and accurately drawn. Spiral Curves by Approximation The laws of tangency previously explained en- able us to approximate a spiral curve with the compass. In fact it is these laws of tangency which underlie the various methods of drawing the Ionic volute with a compass. Figures 10, 11 and 1 2, show the method of drawing simple scrolls and their application to the drawing of a scroll stair newel. Scroll Newels — Method of Drawing Figure 10 shows a scroll composed of six arcs 50 GEOMETRICAL SHORT-CUTS and using six centers; Figure ii shows another composed of five arcs and using five centers while Figure 12 shows a still simpler one composed of four arcs and using only four centers. ' The prin- ciple of laying them out is the same for all, the dotted lines on Figure 10 show how Figures 11 and 12 are merely parts of Figure 10. The following directions are for drawing the curves only as shown, which are pleasing, but which may be varied infinitely at will. Begin by drawing a circle whose radius is two- thirds of the width of the hand rail. At the center of this circle draw a square whose side is equal to one-third the diameter of circle. By dividing the sides of this square into six equal parts and drawing the cross lines, we divide the original square into thirty-six small squares. We may now locate centers i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 as shown. Draw a line from i through C to p on the circle, p is the point of tangency for the first arc. With I as center and ip as radius, draw an arc intersecting 2-1 extended, at q, the point of tangency for the second arc. With 2 as center and 2q as radius, draw an arc intersecting 3-2 extended, at r, the point of tangency for the third arc. With 3 as center and 3r as radius, draw an 61 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD arc intersecting 4-3 extended, at s, the point of tangency for the fourth arc. With 4 as center and 4s as radius, draw an arc intersecting 5-4 extended at t, the point of tangency for the fifth arc. With 5 as center and 5t as radius, draw an arc intersecting 6-5 extended at u, the point of tangency for the sixth arc. With 6 as center and 6u as radius, draw a quarter circle intersecting 6v, perpendicular to 6u at 6, at v, the point of tangency for the straight rail. The inner line is drawn in the same way using the same centers but radii in each case shorter by the width of the rail, y'v, than the radii of the outer arcs. The other scrolls are drawn in exactly the same way but the tangent straight rail is drawn at the points u and t respectively, utilizing only parts of the whole scroll. It will be seen that in every case the point of tangency and the respective centers of tangent arcs lie in the same straight line. Also that the point of tangency of the straight line ^nd the last arc ^nd the center of the arc lie in a line perpendicular to the straight line at the point of tangency. The proportions and number of centers may be varied at will if only these principles are kept in mind. g2 iO "E ev >H / u ^r ,/_ »i •< VI. LETTERING, TITLING, NUMBERING Lettering The importance of lettering on a drawing is not recognized as much as it should be. The finest drawing may be utterly spoiled by poor lettering on it — poorly drawn or poorly spaced. In the composition of the sheet, the lettering is a vital element. No draftsman is competent unless he can do lettering, from the most informal free- hand to the most formal mechanically drawn, neatly and quickly. The whole subject of letter- ing is too important and too large to be treated here minutely. For those who care to study the subject — arid every draftsman should — ^there are many valuable texts. Guide Lines and Spacing It is well to remember that in free-hand letter- ing, which is used almost exclusively on working drawings, rather faint guide lines top and bottom should be used. These lines tie the letters of the line together and tend to give it a more prim and proper appearance. The individual letters should be rather narrow and generously spaced. The generous spacing reduces the contrast between 54 LETTERING letters and thus minimizes the evidence of irregu- larities. A line of lettering, generously spaced and between guide lines, though very hastily done will look much more ship-shape than a similar /lAO/yw A/iD yyiiiM.y .nk(\r -Ul WU WI IH yiD h I 1177 "=" _^vj-lK±j/ MaHp ^n<:l Vpt^ V./f./vL ; WITHOUT GviDE umf- uoDim : COMBINATlOHWdemd Mrrov.: Figure 13 Guide Lines in Lettering line without the guide lines and closely spaced, though very slowly and painstakingly done. ( Fig. 13)- Free-Hand Lettering, A Method Lettering, even free-hand, is drawn and not written. Each stroke, as made, determines to a great extent the direction and position of the following strokes, hence the appearance and style of each letter depends somewhat on the sequence and directions of the several single strokes com- posing it. 5S TT s in JL S E Hi X n X E h: 1^ 15 U, E "T Z IE 31 3t X X X CS M ffi n u X X G K X X X M a K z: I n s: w X X z z 'za: X ;5; s s X X H X ABCDE FGHUK. LMNOP aiUTT UVWX YZ 1234367 890 abcde fqhijkl m^opq r*rtuvw xyz 5 rz n. n J£ SI s E HI E S 21 5zs: w £1 Figure 14 A Method of Free-Hand Lettering 66 JH e: 311 ZC zr in: ic w: x: z: LETTERING Of course, lettering will with practice, like handwriting, show the individuality of the letterer, but the individuality expressed is usually a subtle one and may be more evident in the composition of the words and the lines rather than in the Individual letters, and the lettering will always resemble a model prototype more closely than handwriting. Figure 14 shows an upper and lower case alpha- bet and numerals with each character in the suc- cessive stages of its construction and finally with its finishing touches. A little practice on this' will convince the student how much more easily the letters can be constructed neatly and quickly by making the various strokes in the order and directions as indicated. Take any letter, for in- stance "e." It makes a great deal of difference whether the letter is attempted in one or two strokes of the pen as usually done, or whether it is made in three strokes as shown: first, the top curve to the right, then the rest of the curve downward and to the right, and finally the cross bar. A single trial will probably convince the draftsman of the desirability of drawing the curved part in two strokes rather than one. The same is true for the "c" and the "s." With practice some of the strokes may be combined, especially in small letters. 57 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Style and Spacing As for style, the letters may be varied from the extremely attenuated type to the very broad and rounded. Spacing may be varied at will, but a well spaced line of lettering v/hen seen at some distance should appear of uniform color, not spotty with conspicuous light and dark spaces. Charming line composition may be obtained by a proper combination of the attenuated and broad types of letters used side by side. Lettering Backwards to Facilitate Spacing Quite often in working to a right-hand margin or in filling a given space with a line of- lettering, it is very convenient to work backwards from the right margin or end of the line. For instance in lettering the word, "ELEVATION" in the right- hand corner of a sheet, it is far more accurate to place the "N" at the right margin, then in suc- cession the "O," "I," "T," "A," etc., ending with the "E," than to do it in the ordinary way from left to right and trusting to hit the right margin or end by instinct. Again assuming that we want to place the legend, "DINING ROOM PLAN" in a line four inches long and in the center of the sheet, we mark off the four inch space in the center as we want it and letter "DINING" from left to right in the usual way and beginning at the left end of the line. We then letter "PLAN" 58 LETTERING backwards from right to left and beginning at the right end of the line. It is then comparatively- easy to place "ROOM" in the center of the re- maining space. Titling and Numbering Drawings by Tracing In these days when sets of drawings sometimes number a hundred sheets or more, the uniform titling of these sheets becomes an overwhelming task if done individually by hand. Various schemes and devices are used to lessen this labor. The simplest scheme for small jobs where there are not over fifteen or twenty tracings, is to letter carefully a title on a piece of paper, putting on it guide lines so that it may be properly registered .rvkit ran, k I.K i lun I nrKi\ nit gy- KUILIIIilt. »llll lltlir lit MWBrtt. RICHARD EWlLDELJt/ ARCKI ZOOn/lLDINGIANE yiONEVIUZm Figure 15 Suggestion foi Form of Title 15 under each tracing. The title may then be traced easily and quickly on each sheet. The numbering of each tracing may be neatly and quickly done by placing a suitable calendar leaf under the num- ber space and tracing the number therefrom. It is well to adopt a standard form of title, (see 59 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Figure 15), leaving the owner's name, the date, number and so on, blank, filling in these spaces properly in each case. Rubber Stamps for Titling In some offices rubber stamps are used for the title form and the various spaces are filled in by hand or a rubber stamp is made for each job and used on the tracings. Rubber stamps are not satisfactory, however. No stamping ink is on the market which when used on tracing cloth gives a satisfactory impression on the blue print. Again it is extremely difficult to get a clear, clean im- pression from a rubber stamp. Printing Titles from Zinc-Cuts A far better device is used in many offices, especially for large sets of drawings. The title is carefully lettered at large scale on white draw- ing paper in black ink. From this, at small cost, a zinc etching or cut is made. This cut or printing block is then inserted in a wooden frame or box with a hinged cover, so that the cover, which has an opening in it a little larger than the cut, when closed down is flush with the printing sur- face of the block. The tracing is now tacked to the cover, face down, with the title space over the opening, black printing ink is applied to the cut with a regular ink roller, the cover with tracing is closed down and the back of the tracing is 60 LETTERING rubbed over the inked cut. A clear, clean-cut imprint is the result. This is by far the easiest and best way to title a number of sheets uniformly. Sytetns of Numbering The system of numbering is also capable of considerable variation. The simplest thing to do is to number consecutively. It is better, however, to separate the drawings into classes, which allows for insertion of drawings without breaking the chain of numbers and also serves as an index to the character of the drawing. The following table will illustrate the point: I — 99, General Drawings 100 — 199, Scale Details 200 — upward. Full size details or a more elaborate subdivision for very large sets: I — 99, General floor plans 100 — 199, General sectional drawings 200 — 299, General elevations 300 — 399, Scale details, exterior 400 — 499, Scale details, interior 500 — 599, Full size details, exterior 600 — 699, Full size details, interior These tables may be varied in many ways but it is well to adopt a system and use it for all sets of drawings, however small. 61 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Numbering in All Corners It is also convenient to number sheets in all four corners. This makes it much easier to identify drawings on the work where it is hardly to be expected that the sheets will be kept in any sort of order. Preparing Sheets with Border Line and Title It is always well to cut and prepare in advance, with border line and title, the necessary sheets for" any particular set of drawings. This niay be done by the assistant or student in the drafting room. For drawing the border lines it is con- venient and time-saving to use a template drawn on paper showing the border line and outside trimming line with guide or register mark for the title. The sheets of tracing cloth or paper may then be placed over this successively and the neces- sary lines traced off. Titling Originals It is well to title original drawings as they are made so that the record of dates and draftsmen may be kept upon them. A rubber stamp with outline of suggested or similar title form is ex- cellent for this. This title form should be stamped in one corner of the sheet of paper before the drawing is begun. 62 VII. WORKING DRAWINGS, INDICA- TION, LINES Function of Working Drawings Just how is the function of the working draw- ing best fulfilled on the actual work? A working drawing is first of all a message to the workman, a record of the facts, data and information neces- sary for him to be able to do a certain piece of work in accordance with a certain scheme and idea, usually of another. The working drawing fails in its mission unless this message is delivered without the least ambiguity. The message itself should be clear and the lines presenting it should be clean-cut and distinct. Again the working drawing should look well for no drawing should ever leave the architect's office that doesn't look well. A slovenly drawing is reflected in slovenly work which is done under its guidance and the designer can hardly expect neat workmanlike re- sults, beautiful results, from a drawing which is neither clear nor beautiful. Tracing and Blue-Print The draftsman should remember that neither the original drawing, nor the tracing, these days, does duty on the work, but that the print made 63 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD from the tracing is the form of the message from him to the workman. The problem then be- comes to make an original which may be traced accurately and intelligently by some one other than himself, if necessary, and then to make a tracing which will produce a good, easily read blue-print. This is the really important thing — the making of a tracing from which a perfect blue-print may be made. No matter how legible and beautiful a tracing may be if it does not pro- duce a legible and beautiful print it is well nigh useless as a working drawing. Original Drawings The original paper drawing is being gradually eliminated, especially on small work. Where the same draftsman makes the original and traces it, he may employ many short-cuts. The original may be merely blocked out on paper then finished on the tracing itself or it may be made on the tracing cloth or paper and when finished simply inked in and cleaned. It is always safer to have a penciled original fairly complete before tracing is begun. A good way is to make on drawing paper, say, the most important floor plan and elevation, then to develop the other plans and elevations in pencil on tracing paper laid over these first drawings, thus saving much scaling and measuring. The whole job may then be traced, 64 WORKING DRAWINGS with the added advantage of being able to as- semble several of the loose sheets for tracing on larger sheets. This is very convenient where standard size .sheets are used for all work. The important idea in working drawings re- mains, that the blue-print is what is used by the workman in the shop and the field, that it is the form in which he receives the message from the designer. The tracing is not the end but merely the means to the end and if the means are to best fulfill their function, the end must be kept in view constantly and it will be in all suggestions that follow". Scales of Working Drawings The first thing to be considered in a working drawing is the scale. The drawing, especially the general drawing to be used on the work, should not be so large as to be unwieldy. On very large work the scheme adopted by Messrs. McKim, Mead, and White on the New York Municipal Building is an excellent one. In this case the general drawings were made in sections at a large enough scale to be quite legible and on each partial drawing was an index diagram or key drawing at very small scale with the part which was the par- ticular subject of the sheet, clearly indicated. It is a mistake to crowd in too much drawing at small scale. 65 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Indication vs. Representation Clear indication is far more valuable than com- plete representation. Broadly speaking, the smaller the scale the less actual represenl^ation must be indulged in and the more indication must Figure i6 Indication at Various Scales 66 WORKING DRAWINGS be relied on. It must be remembered that the function of general workmg drawings at small scale is to show general dimensions and general relations of parts and enough drawing to show this, is enough. Figure i6 shows some examples of indication at various scales. Silhouette Lines While we are talking of lines we must not forget the value of the silhouette line. In draw- ing elevations, especially, this is extremely useful. We simply take the important masses or parts which, although they may actually be in widely separated planes, appear in one plane on our drawing, and differentiate them by outlining them with a stronger and more prominent line. This may be done by using a black ink line on a watered ink drawing or by making the line wider. Aside from its pictorial value in adding brilliancy to the drawing it makes the drawing much more easily read. Corners and Intersections of Lines If you want to know something of the char- acter of the draftsman who made a drawing, look at the corners where lines intersect but do not run through. If the lines just miss intersection, the draftsman is slovenly or afraid of himself, if they meet very precisely and exactly, he is prob- ably very painstaking and slow, if they cross at 67 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD the corners, he is probably very efficient and quite sure of himself. It is certain that nothing will hurt the appearance of a drawing more than open corners, lines that should intersect, remaining apart, while hardly anything adds so much snap, vigor and the appearance of certainty to a draw- ing as the slight crossing of lines at corners. This crossing at corners also saves much time, for the draftsman is not held down by the psychological handicap of being afraid that he will carry his line too far. The instant he crosses his line he lifts his pen or pencil, he does not have to worry about slowing up to meet the other line exactly. Studying Scale Drawings In making a scale drawing it Is very often of great advantage to study parts of it at a very large scale or even full size. The indication on the smaller scale drawing can then be made much clearer and more vivid. Indication on a working drawing is after all a process of elimination, of leaving out rather than putting in. The smaller the scale the more must necessarily be left out — and one, must learn to leave out wisely. For general working drawings the scale of 1/4" to the foot is mostly used in this country. On large work this scale may be reduced to 1/8" or even 1/16". On small work it may well be enlarged to 1/2" or 3/4". For detail work, the scales of 3/8", 68 WORKING DRAWINGS 3/4", 1-1/2", and 3" to the foot are much to be preferred over the scales of 1/2", i", etc., for with the former, distances may be accurately scaled off with an ordinary rule for the inch divisions are 1/32", 1/16", 1/8", and 1/4" respec- tively. This is a great advantage on the work or in the shop. Much compactness may be gained in making detail drawings at the scale of 1-1/2" or 3" to the foot and showing the profiles of mould- ings,, ornaments and other important details at full size in conjunction with the scale drawings. General and Detail Drawings It has already been said that the real function of the general working drawings at small scale is to show the general disposition of the parts of the work and the relations between them. It remains for the detail drawings to show more clearly the character of these parts — first the scale detail drawings showing the relations and layout of the individual minor parts which go to compose each major part and then the full size details which show the precise character of the important individual minor parts. For example, the general drawings would show the width and height of a window, the general character of its design, its position in the wall, — the scale detail would take that window without relation to other windows or other features perhaps and show the 69 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD relation of its parts, more clearly than the general drawing could show it; the full size detail drawings would then show the section of the sill, the profile of the architrave moldings and so on. Making Detail Drawings — the Old Way The ways and means of making detail draw- ings have undergone a greater change than any other phase of drafting room practice. By the character of his detail drawings, an architect must either rise or fall. If carefully worked detail is to be had, the drawings which direct the work- men must be worthy of the details. Not so many years ago, detail drawings were made, almost universally, on heavy drawing paper, these originals were turned over to the workman in the shop who, when the shop-work was finished, sent the drawing to the building with his material or part of the work. A paper tracing in pencil was usually kept as the office copy. This system has many faults. For a detail drawing of some- thing which was to be made by one craftsman it was fairly adequate, for almost any other pur- pose it was entirely inadequate. The making of the office copy was usually relegated to the office boy or "cub" with more or less accurate results, usually less. By the time it reached the building, the original drawing was often illegible and partly worn out. It was rarely possible to confine each 70 WORKING DRAWINGS detail drawing to one craft only with the result that there was usually a scramble for the "details" by two or more craftsmen whose work overlapped and had to be illustrated on one sheet. This system is quite inadequate and impractical now and has little reason for its existence. Making Detail Drawings — the New Way The original detail drawings may be just as easily made on tracing paper in pencil, or ink if necessary occasionally, and as many blue prints, actual accurate copies, as needed made from the tracing paper original. Where much erasing and handling is apt to be required, tracing linen may be used, but usually the paper is sufficient and preferable. The best paper for this purpose is a white paper of medium weight similar to "Economy." Full Size Details Much effort and time can be wasted in the making of a full size detail. For instance, let us consider an entablature ten feet high. It would be absurd to make a full size detail of this in its entirety although it is often done. The work- man does not need it. On the other hand it is quite essential that the architect study the en- tablature full size in its entirety either in the drawing, in the model or both. After the study- ing is complete, the workman can get along more 71 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD conveniently with a scale detail of the entablature with the principal dimensions marked and full size details of essential parts and profile, carefully indexed and referred to the scale drawings, all on a sheet probably three by four feet. Again, after the entablature has been care- fully studied in Its entirety the parts may be re- arranged and assembled on a much more compact sheet, using a scale index drawing if necessary — with practically no loss of legibility and clearness and much gain of convenience to both draftsman and craftsman. Shrinkage of Blue-Prints It is often well to dimension full size details because blue-prints shrink on drying after the developing process. This shrinkage is sometimes insignificant but often important. In precise work it is therefore better to put on at least general dimensions on full size details especially if they are not accompanied by fully dimensioned scale or index drawings. Symmetrical Details In a detail of a symmetrical object the work- man needs a drawing of only one-half or less, depending on the number of repeated units about the axis or axes. This may save a great deal of time. Although it is often desirable to study the 72 WORKING DRAWINGS whole of a symmetrical object, in charcoal or by drawing half and using a mirror, or drawing half and roughly transferring the other half or similar unit, it is entirely unnecessary to show more than one of the repeating units in the actual/ working drawing. Studying Details In the preliminary study of details by the drafts- man, is the field where he may most forcibly show his ability and training. This preliminary study may be very conveniently done on tracing paper as already mentioned. It ,may be done with soft pencil or charcoal — charcoal has the ad- vantage of being easily wiped out — and may con- sist of any one or all stages between the crudest free hand sketch and the elaborately rendered drawings of Mr. Piatt's office previously mention- ed. For the study of ornament or moulding pro- files it is often convenient to stand the drawing board vertically — in fact it is difiicult to judge de- tails at large scale or full size unless the board is placed vertically and the observer can get a rea- sonable distance away. Mirror in Symmetrical Drawings In studying symmetrical details, such as capitals or balusters, only one-half need be sketched, the effect of the whole may then be seen by holding 13 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD a mirror with its edge on the axis of the detail and its surface perpendicular to the surface of the paper — this is a very useful and time saving ex- pedient. Color to Indicate Materials In the days when the original drawings or original tracings were used on the work it was the common practice to indicate various materials by different colors. When the blue-print came into common use color was still used as the index to different materials — the blue prints being colored by hand, one by one. This, besides being quite unsatisfactory, entailed an immense amount of labor and involved a great chance of error. It was highly improbable in several copies of a com- plex drawing, that every copy would be colored exactly alike. Hatching to Indicate Material — Standard Indications On this account, the practice grew to use hatch- ing and cross hatching of various designs on the tracing to indicate the different materials and this method has almost entirely supplanted coloring. There is urgent need for standard symbols of in- dication of materials on working drawings and such standards are now being compiled and con- sidered by committees of various technical so- 74 WORKING DRAWINGS INDICATION OP MATERIAL/: J'tCTION ILEVATOf .Brick Face Brick JT;one Ma/oriTy Concrete t/lucco I I I 3 . .. ■ . I _'■ ■ ■ ... ■■ I ' ■ ■■ ''•' ' • '• • • ■ "I MowTi/e. \ □□q?^ r c. I Cut Jlone Hollow Tile Terra Cbtta Marble Jlab . Wood or Frame I ^^^<^ I Un 'J'X Iron Jleel Metal I E 3 S MateriaLr are often indicated by name, ejpeciallyin Elevation, as followj".— Jiding : JTiinglar: Bronze: C£)pper:Tiri Lead: Glajy: Galvanized Iron:Civft lion etc. Figure 17 Chart of Suggested Indication of Materials 7S OVER THE DRAWING BOARD cietles. Each drawing should have an Index showing small panels of the indications used with the name of the material indicated, beside it. Figure 17 is a chart of indications of material which have been found useful and easy to draw. Watered and Colored Inks in Indicating Material This hatching and indication is best done in watered ink on ink tracings or in gray pencil lines on pencil drawings. The structural lines enclos- ing this indication are made in black ink or strong pencil lines. The resulting blue-print is then snappy and very legible, the important lines stand- ing out in clear brilliant white while the hatching comes out in a subdued pale blue. The only ad- vantage in using colored inks for hatching — ^they show up in, the blue-print about the same as watered ink — is that the draftsman is less liable to error in making a complicated drawing when he has the added differentiation of color at his command. This is particularly true of dimension lines which are almost invariably drawn In red or green ink. Scale of Indication It should be remembered that the smaller the scale of the drawing, the smaller In scale and finer the hatching and indication should be, while the larger the scale of the drawing, the larger in scale and coarser this indication may be. 76 WORKING DRAWINGS Dimensioning! of Drawings The dimensioning of a drawing should be most carefully studied. There is much danger of underdoing it and almost as much of overdoing it. The dimensions should be put on logically and in conformity with the methods of the work- men so as to relieve them as much as possible of the necessity of calculation. For instance, a carpenter usually sets window frames and other units by their centers, it therefore burdens him with calculation and exposes him to error if the dimensions for windows say, are given in distance apart and width. It would be much better for him if the windows were figured center to center and width. Again, studding partitions should always be figured center to center or to one side, for variation in thickness of plaster and dimension of lumber makes their finished width a somewhat uncertain and variable quantity. So practical limi- tations and requirements must always be borne in mind in putting working dimensions on drawings. Accuracy is a most important requirement. An incorrect dimension is far worse than one omitted entirely. The omitted dimension simply compels the workman to depend on scaling but the in- correct figure misleads him and may cause him much trouble before it is discovered. 77 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD It IS advantageous to have the dimension figures all read one way, that is, even when the dimension lines are vertical, to have the inset figures read horizontally. This adds to the convenience of using the drawing. Notes on Dravitngs; Specifications Explanatory notes are a very necessary and important part of working drawings. Most archi- tects depend too much on specifications. These should supplement and reinforce the working plans rather than be a part of them. In other words, the working drawings should be so care- fully made with ample indication of materials and explanatory notes that they should in themselves furnish sufficient data for the proper doing of the work they illustrate. The specifications should be merely a supplementary brief of what the draw- ings tell, a summary and index, calling attention to features of the work. Original Tracings Not To Be Used As Office Copies Original tracings of working drawings should never be used as office copies especially on im- portant work. We must recall that tracings are made only as a means toward the end of produc- ing the blue prints which actually do service as working drawings and they should be kept in good condition for this purpose — the making of prints. 78 WORKING DRAWINGS The tracings should be filed carefully and safely so that clear prints may be made at any time, years after the work is completed, if necessary. If the tracings are used for office reference they become dirty and crumpled and it is practically impossible to make legible prints from them. Blue-Prints for Office Copy One or more extra sets of blue prints should always be made for office use — if the work is important and the drawings require much handl- ing, these prints should be made on cloth. Photographs of Drawings for Reference On work where tTie drawings are numerous and the sheets large it is well to have a set of photo- graphs of convenient size of all the drawings. Very often general questions may be settled by examination of the photographs alone but the greatest convenience of these is their use as an index to the complete set. When any question is to be looked up it is extremely convenient to run through the photographs and find quickly the particular drawing pertaining to the question at hand, this may then be found in the regular set without the handling and thumbing over of dozens of cumbersome prints. 79 VIII. SKETCHES, EXHIBITION DRAW- INGS, WATER COLORS, PERSPECTIVE Studies and Sketches, Character of Studies and sketches are of two distinct kinds; those made by the draftsman as steps in his de- velopment of the solution of a problem, his notes as it were, and those which are intended as a preliminary presentation of the idea after con- siderable study and after its principal features have been determined. The first are usually not intended for the client — the second usually are made for the client, for exhibition or publication. Paper and Media for Sketches When the uses and advantages of tracing paper were described, we discussed study sketches fully and also touched on the other kind. Finished sketches may- be made in almost any medium and on almost any kind of paper, in lead pencil, char- coal, colored crayon, ink, both black and colored, water-color, both transparent wash and opaque and even oil-color. All kinds of tracing paper, tracing cloth, every kind of drawing "paper, mat- 80 SKETCHES board, straw-board and various kinds of cover papers and wrapping papers have furnished the backgrounds for these media. Soft Pencil and Tinting Soft pencil has already been spoken of as used on tracing paper, its possibilities in combination with crayon tinting and water-color are unlimited. A drawing may be completely rendered in soft pencil — if large, in charcoal — and then judiciously tinted in water-color, or entirely painted over using the original drawing simply as a guide to values. All of Mr. F. Hopkinson Smith's de- lightful water colors were made in just this way- — finished in charcoal and fixed — then the shadows colored with transparent water color and the lights and high lights done with opaque color, that is, color having a base of Chinese White. Paper for Pencil For drawings to be left in pencil, besides the various grades of tracing paper which are so useful and so pleasant to work on, there is the English Metallic Sketching paper, a smooth paper with powdered glass in its composition making it a delight for pencil work. A paper of similar surface and quality is the "Cameo" paper used by printers. This comes in several tmts and many weights, is quite easy to 81 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD get and is less expensive than the English Metallic paper. Its surface is nearly as good. Lead pencil is probably the medium of the widest lati- tude for architectural drawing. Pen and Ink One cannot look upon the drawings of D. A. Gregg, Harvey Ellis, Joseph Pennell, Bertram Goodhue and many others without realizing the wonderful possibilities of pen and ink for archi- tectural rendering and sketching. A good pen and ink drawing may have all the good qualities of an etching. It may be made on tracing paper or cloth over an outline drawing just as the soft pencil drawing may. A pen and ink drawing made on cream colored tracing paper, trimmed and mounted, has the rare quality of an India proof. Brown Ink A pen and ink sketch may be made with brown ink and then washed over with weak tea or coffee or water color. This softens the ink lines some- what and gives the richness and mellowness of an old etching, Photo-Enlargement of Drawing A pen and ink or pencil drawing made at small scale may be photographed and enlarged to two, three or even four times the scale of the original. S2 SKETCHES The enlargement may be toned a stpia. The result is of surprising vigor. The lines show a boldness and strength that few draftsmen dare to put into an original except perhaps when work- ing with crayon or charcoal. By this means of photo-enlargement a small sketch may often be made into an exhibition picture of great strength and carrying power. Water Colors Water colors may be used in many different ways by the dra/tsmen. Most draftsmen make the mistake of using too many colors and not becoming acquainted with the possibilities of their color box before trying to use color as a medium of expression. To cultivate a method of acquaint- ing oneself with tolor pigments, an eight-pan school color box which costs twenty-five cents is very useful. These boxes usually contain standard red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet and a black and a white. Experiments in Color On a piece of white paper draw five rows of seven half-inch squares or triangles in each row — Figure i8. The squares of the first row are to be filled in with the six colors and black as strong as they can be mixed with water, that is, using the colors at their fullest intensity. 83 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD The squares in the second row are to be filled in by tints of the colors made by reducing each color with water. EachCbfor FullJ'treJglh .Mixed with Vfeter . Mixed with White 00: nn: nni Mixed with 1 f ' Black2^White| I. Mixed with Gbmpteineiilaiy. nni EHH □□n nnn ;nnn Figure i8 Chart for Experiments in Color The squares of the third row are to be filled in by tints of the colors made by reducing each with white. For the fourth row we reduce each color by adding black and white — this tends to neutralize or gray the colors. 84 SKETCHES For the last row we try to neutralize each color by adding its complementary, that is, to the red we add green; to the orange, blue; to the yellow, violet; to the green, red; to the blue, orange; to the violet, yellow; and to the black, white. This gives us a series of modified grays. Experiments should now be made, placing colors next to each other or one around another to note the modification thus possible, also by putting various colors around spots of neutral gray and noting the effect on the gray — the gray will tend towards the complementary of the color around it. Such experiments will show some of the possibilities of a color box. A set of a few colors with its possibilities known thoroughly, is much better than a set containing many and used haphazardly. Selection of Pigments Very few water-colorists use the same selection of pigments for their work. Some use only six colors while others as many as eighteen or twenty. Harpignie, the eminent French water-colorist who first rendered his paintings in monochrome, using neutral tint for the purpose, and then colored them, used a palette of eighteen colors. The architectural draftsman can get along with six and should certainly find twelve or fourteen 85 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD enough for all his needs. It is surprising how much can be done with the following six colors: Yellow Ochre Gamboge Carmine Light Red Cobalt Prussian Blue The addition of the following: Chinese White Aliziran Crimson or Vermillion Vandyke Brown Emerald or Viridian Green Mauve Neutral tint or Charcoal Gray will make an excellent color box which may be used for almost any purpose and with which the six standards may be closely approximated, if desired. Tinted Outline vs. Painting A sketch, where the outline is well and snappily drawn needs but very light washes of color to give it much additional interest and life. Here the outline drawing itself remains the important thing. This must be distinguished from the real water-color rendering where the outline is merely 86 SKETCHES the edge of an area of color and not a drawn line. Architectural draftsmen often fail as water color- ists because of being handicapped by their reliance on the drawn outline. A drawing may be colored or tinted effectively but it should remain a draw- ing, the drawn lines being of major importance. A painting Is a mosaic of areas of color and the drawn outline is merely a guide to the proper placing of these areas — and should have no prom- inence in the finished result. Transparent and Opaque Colors As to whether transparent washes or opaque colors should be used is a matter of taste. Beauti- ful results have been obtained with either and with a combination of both. Mr. F. Hopkinson Smith's rule to use transparent washes for the shadows and opaque color for the high lights, surfaces which reflect light, is a logical one. Composition As a foundation for pictorial work the drafts- man should study composition. He should grasp every opportunity to see and analyze good pictures and drawings. When he likes a picture he should always ask himself why he likes it and try his best to find the answer. When he is dissatisfied with his own work he should always ask himself why he doesn't like it. If we know why a thing is not good, we can usually make it better. 87 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Essentials of Composition A few things are essential in composing a draw- ing — ^there should be a principal point of interest, there may be minor points of interest and their arrangement should be a balanced one. The principal point of interest should not be in the exact center but rather to one side and above or below the center. No point of interest should ever come near the edges and particularly not in the corners. More pictorial drawings have been ruined by not following this one little rule than in any other way — interest and attraction should be kept out of the corners of a picture. Formal Studies Studies are often much more formal in char- acter than the sketches already described. Compe- tition and exhibition drawings often show a vast amount of labor. No draftsman could help being inspired by such masterly drawings as those made by Mr. Eggers and Mr. Jules Guerin for the Lincoln Memorial. Shades and Shadows On formal drawings, it is customary to cast shadows with mathematical correctness and every draftsman should familiarize himself with the methods of doing this accurately and quickly. Shadows at once add the third dimension to a two-dimensional drawing and nothing perhaps will 88 SKETCHES add brilliancy to an architectural drawing with less effort than the shades and shadows accurately drawn. A mere outline drawing, when the shadows are accurately and snappily outlined and then washed in lightly so as to be just visible, becomes a pictorial presentation of quality. Monochrome Drawings Competition drawings are now nearly always rendered in monochrome and often in Indian Ink. Where water-color is permissible a monochrome drawing may be given much warmth and life if the paper is first given a thin wash of yellow ochre and the drawing rendered in Ivory black or Sepia. The yellow ochre foundation blends and warms and harmonizes the whole work. Ivory black also has the quality of settling beautifully and giving an interesting texture. Settlement in Water Color To obtain settlement in a water-color wash, the color should be laid on plentifully with a full brush and the wash, when once laid on, not dis- turbed until dry. It is the taking advantage of the peculiarities of the medium used that lifts a drawing above the commonplace, and shows the skill of the draftsman. Brush Technique The possibilities of the brush and its technique 89 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD should also be studied, and painting either from copy or from nature such subjects as simple flowers and leaves with little or even no drawn outline as guide, will develop a much to be desired ability to use the brush properly. Perspective, Geometric A thorough knowledge of Geometric perspec- tive is also of great value to the draftsman and designer. Next to the model, the perspective drawing best illustrates the appearance of an ob- ject. With many draftsmen the making of a perspective is a tedious and much disliked task. It need not be if he understands thoroughly the few essential principles underlying the science. The author's text book, "Perspective," is a con- cise, simple book boiled down to the essentials and presented after the manner of modern teach- ing and written particularly for the home student. Careful studying of this or some other text on the subject is the only way to learn it and it is worth while for every draftsman. Perspective, Free-Hand Free-hand perspective is of two kinds, that drawn from Nature and that built up after the manner of geometric perspective but without the actual mechanical laying out of the points and projections. A knowledge of geometric perspec- tive is less necessary to the first than to the second 90 SKETCHES but is helpful in both. To draw from nature, training of the eye to observe properly and train- ing of the hand to follow the eye instinctively are necessary. These come from plentiful prac- tice. For the second, a sort of impromptu laying out of perspectives, a thorough knowledge and long practice of the geometric science are quite necessary. In fact, it is only after many years of practice of geometric perspective and practice at drawing from Nature that any one can hope to lay out a perspective free-hand with truth and accuracy in the result. Aids in Free-Hand Perspective There are many aids to this. The best of these helps is the dividing up of the subject into convenient rectangles and blocks. It is easy to learn to draw a rectangle or block in any position. If we divide our object, a building for instance, into a number of convenient rectangles and blocks, it simplifies the drawing very much. This will be shown in Figure 23 after some of the peculiarities of rectangles in perspective have been described. Diagonals and Centers In the perspective of rectangles, the use of diag- onals is of the utmost value in finding centers and dividing spaces. Figure 19 shows the method of finding the perspective center of any rectangle in perspective by simply drawing the diagonals, 91 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD The lines AD and BC are the perspectives of the diagonals and their intersection must be the per- spective of the center. (See "Perspective," Page 53)- h Figure 19 Diagonals and Perspective Centers Even Divisions By this method a space may be divided correctly into2, 4, 8, 16 .... parts by first finding the center and then the center of each half and so on. (Fig. 20). Odd Divisions A space may be divided into any number of equal parts by another simple method illustrated in Fig. 21. To divide the perspective rectangle ABCD into five equal perspective parts, we may divide the verticals AB and CD, each into five equal parts connecting the division points by hori- zontal lines in perspective. If we now draw 92 SKETCHES Figure zo Even Divisions in Perspective either diagonal, the diagonal will intersect the horizontal lines in points through which verticals may be drawn dividing the rectangle into five parts. A Figure ai Odd Divisions in Perspective 93 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Figure 2S Diagonals for Measuring in Perspective 94 SKETCHES Diagonals for Measuring Diagonals are also useful in drawing a series of equal spaces in perspective without the use of vanishing or measuring points. In Figure 22, the block AB-CD-EF is drawn in perspective. We may easily lay off any number of spaces perspec- tively equal to DB or BF by means of diagonals. If we continue BA to A', making A'A equal to AB, and continue DC to C, making C'C equal to DC, the rectangle A'ACC will be perspective- ly equal to ABCD. Continuing its diagonal, A'C, to H and drawing the vertical HG, we get GC and HD, perspectively equal to each other and to CA and DB. In the same manner we may continue and find HL and GK and, on the other side, EM and FN. It will be noticed that A'CH is really the diag- onal of a rectangle of which C is the center. Laying Out a Perspective Free-Hand Figure 23 shows the application of these de- vices to the laying out of a small perspective, free- hand. It will be noticed how the centers for the gable end and for the location of windows were found by means of intersecting diagonals and how some of the measurements were made with a sys- tem of diagonals. ' It is all really applying the short-cuts of geo- metric perspective with a great deal left to judg- es OVER THE DRAWING BOARD I n \\ j\ j- -i ^ n rt H 1 1 1 — I — 1 — 1 — 1 1 — \ Figure 23 Laying Out a Free-Hand Perspective 96 SKETCHES ment and the eye. With practice, the results will be pleasing and fairly accurate but never so sure as if carefully laid out, which is necessary if the perspective is to be of value in study of design, for in free-hand work we are very apt to draw things as we should like to have them look rather than as they will look and this brings us to a valuable dodge. Inverting the Process of Perspective We may draw an object in free hand perspec- tive as we should like it to look and by an inverse process of perspective derive the plan and eleva- tions af the object from this perspective. By continuing the converging lines we may find the vanishing points. We may assume the nearest corner as the vertical line of measures, find the measuring points in the usual way, project the perspective distances back to the front line in plan and knowing one or more of the principal dimen- sions, we may construct a scale by which we may measure the others. It is simply the inverted process — given a perspective we find the working points and actual dimensions instead of being given the actual dimensions, we find the working points and the perspective. Figure 24 illustrates this process applied to the perspective of a rec- tangular block, and the points are numbered in the order in which they are found. 97 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Figure 24 Inverting the Process of Perspective 98 SKETCHES Example of Inverted Perspective In Figure 24, we first find V and V by con- tinuing the converging lines and then draw the horizon line connecting them. Below we then draw another horizontal line and project V, V and C, the nearest A)rner, on it. We find 6, the center of VV and draw a semi-circle with 6 as center and 6V or 6V' as radius. On this semi- circle we project 7, the point of station, under C. With V and V as centers and V-7 and V'-y as radii, we strike arcs and find M and M', the measuring points. Assume 10 anywhei-e on C5-7 and draw through 10, a horizontal line. From 10 draw lines to V and V. On these lines we may project any point of the perspective, like 11, and by drawing from M' through 11 to 13, find 10-13, the true length at the scale of the vertical line of measures, of the perspective line lo-ii or G-i i' of the perspective picture. This is mere- ly the converse of making a perspective as de- scribed in the third chapter of the "Perspective." Constructing Plans and Elevations from Photo- graphs The same process of inverted perspective may be even more usefully applied to photographs. By continuing the converging horizontals we find the vanishing points. Assuming the nearest corner as the vertical line of measures we may find other 99 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD working points and, at the scale of the photo- graph, construct the plan and elevations in so far as indicated in the photograph. If one or more of the actual dimensions are known, we may make a scale with which any dimension may be measured off the constructed plan and elevations. 100 IX. FILING OF DRAWINGS AND PLATES Standard Size Sheets The method of filing and keeping working drawings should receive serious consideration. The rolled drawing should be banished from the office. It is an all around nuisance. Drawings of miscellaneous sizes are also a nuisance and it is becoming customary to standardize the size of drawings. When a standard size sheet is adopted it is sometimes necessary to use a multiple of that size for an occasional large detail. These large sheets may then be folded to match the standard in size. For instance, 24" x 36" is very convenient, when necessary 36" x 48" is used. By folding the large sheets once they may be con- veniently filed with the others. Filing and Storing of Drawings For filing, chests of drawers are the simplest but not the most convenient. Vertical-filing cases containing folders, envelopes or merely hangers for the bound drawings are very convenient and very compact. They may be obtained in many 101 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD forms. For the storing of drawings in closets or vaults the best method is to use a hanger or binder for the edges of the drawings and to support the ends of these binders on rods run- ning from wall to wall in the vault or closet. The binders may vary from the simple stick or strip of wood with the drawings fastened to it in some simple manner, to the clamp arrangement somewhat on the order of the device used for the filing of newspapers in libraries and clubs. The drawings may also be provided with eyelets and hung on S hooks which slide on rods. Advantages of Vertical Filing When it is considered that drawings may be filed in this way in two or three tiers and quite closely compacted, we see how the capacity of the ordinary closet or vault may become much en- larged. Above all things, this method in one form or another keeps the drawings flat, clean and easily accessible. The whole filing and storing question becomes much complicated if the drawings vary greatly in size But the vertical system is flexible enough to allow considerable variation. One Dimension of Sheets, Standard The important thing to remember when using the binding strip and hanger method of storing 102 FILING and filing is to adopt a strip long enough to take the short dimension of the largest drawing to be filed. This, although wasting space when smaller drawings are stored, allows extreme variation in size when necessary. It is well, even when varia- tion in size of drawings is necessary, to have one dimension of all drawings a definite size, say 30" or 36". This simplifies the buying of paper or cloth as well as the filing and storing while allow- ing adequate variation in size of the sheets them- selves. Treatment of Old Rolled Drawings The most serious trouble is in the older offices where there is usually an accumulation of old drawings, stored long before the days of vertical filing, of every conceivable size, usually rolled tightly and extremely kinky and cranky. Tracing cloth will usually flatten itself out if laid flat on a board or table for a few days. Paper drawings and blue prints may be flattened by spreading out face down on a board, tacking the corners if neces- sary and then moistening the back with a sponge — they will dry quite flat. By sorting and folding, these old drawings may be conveniently filed ver- tically if not in the best manner, at least far better than if rolled. Filing Plates, Photographs, Etc. JEvery draftsman sooner or later runs into the 103 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD problem of taking care of magazine plates, photo- graphs, clippings and other reference material The problem is two-fold. First we need a con- venient, compact file, easy to use, and then a good index system which is expansive and simple. After personal experience with many systems of filing, such as small drawers, pigeon-hole cases with slid- ing shelves, portfolios and folders, loose leaf binders and others, the author has come to the conclusion that the large drawer, vertical file such as is used in the modern business office for corre- spondence and other purposes, is by far the best. It is very compact, perfectly flexible and may be indexed as elaborately as desired. It is some- what difllcult, as yet, to get cases with drawers large enough for the usual size plate ( 1 1" x 14") but they may be had or they may be made quite cheaply. Instead of chests of drawers, boxes made of wood or compo-board may be used. A sheet metal book-end such as is used in libraries may be used successfully for the "follower block." Small pictures or clippings may be grouped and mounted on sheets of thin card-board the same size as the plates and then filed with them. Direct Index In these drawers, the groups of plates are separated by pieces of cardboard having an index tab on top. These tabs may be indexed directly 104 FILING with the name of the subject matter of the group and arranged alphabetically or they may be num- bered after some system and then referred to by means of a card-index. Dewey Decimal System A very comprehensive scheme of indexing is the Dewey Decimal System, amply explained by Dr. Dewey's own book. A bulletin of the Uni- versity of Illinois — "An Extension of the Dewey Decimal System of Classification Applied to Architecture and Building" by N. Clifford Ricker is extremely valuable for the classification of all literature, from catalogs to photographs, usually found about the architect's office. The system is adaptable to the smallest as well as the largest collection. Briefly described, the Dewey System divides all science, art arid literature into ten classes as follows : o to I GO General works 100 to 200 Philosophy 200 to 300 Religion 300 to 400 Sociology and so on up to 1000, 700 to 800 covering Art. Each one of these classes or centuries is divided into ten classes as under Art, 700; 710 is for 105 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Landscape Architecture, 720 is for architecture, 730 for Sculpture, and so on. Each one of these subdivisions or decades is then divided into ten classes, as under 720, archi- tecture; 721 represents construction; 722, Ancient; 723, Mediaeval; 724, Modern; 725, Public, and so on. Example Each one of these unit divisions may be further divided into tenths, hundredths and on so that the very nicest classification is possible, at the same time avoiding any confusion. For instance, 725,824 would signify a vaudeville theatre: 725 representing a public building of modern archi- tecture, .8 qualifying this by denoting a recreation building and .02 further qualifying the recreation building as a theatre land .004 qualifying the theatre as a vaudeville house. There is no limit to the extension of this classification as the in- ventor's book or Dr. Ricker's bulletin will show. Use To use this classification to advantage each item to be filed must be numbered according to the system and filed numerically. When a certain subject is wanted, it needs only to be looked up in an alphabetical index, its characteristic number found and then all items pertaining to it may be readily picked from the numerically arranged files. 106 FILING The numbers being characteristic for different subjects, they are soon memorized with use and the index becomes a direct one, that is, requiring no supplementary reference index beyond the tabs on the guide 6r separation cards. It would be a boon if all plates published in architectural magazines and all pamphlets sent out by manufacturers would have the Dewey sys- tem number printed in one corner. The system if once tried will probably never be dropped for it is well nigh limitless in its scbpe and almost fool-proof. 107 X. PHOTOGRAPHY Usefulness and Possibilities Photography is extremely useful to the drafts- man in many ways. Its pictorial possibilities are limited only by the knowledge of what a picture should be and the technical ability of the u§er. Two Kinds of Photography Its field readily divides itself into two parts: record photography, in which may be included photographs of detail and landscape accessories to be used later in the study of design or rendering, and pictorial photography, by means of which pic- tures may be made having much of the quality of etchings and fine lithographs. (Figures 25 and 26). Record Photography Record photography has been popularized so that anyone may indulge in it without inconveni- ence or muss — a dark room is no longer necessary for any of the ordinary processes of photography. Exposure has been simplified so that it has become automatic to give the right time. All the rest 108 9 C CO « a be > ■"I .a a. o {From the Journal of the A. I. A.) Figure 36 Pictorial Photography— The Capitol, Washington PHOTOGRAPHY may be easily done at home by means of auto- matic tanks and the very-easy-to-use gaslight papers or it may be turned over to commercial finishers who do the work quite cheaply. General Recommendations To him who wants to rise above mere record photography, we must recommend the doing of all his own finishing. The work will be a fascinat- ing diversion from the routine of the drafting room and will prove profitable in many ways. Small negatives from which enlarged prints of various sizes may be made are recommended and all suggestions for apparatus and processes will be made on this basis. The Camera Unquestionably the ideal camera for the archi- tectural student or draftsman is the so-called miniature one making a negative 2" x 3" or less in size on roll or pack film. These may be ob- tained with excellent lenses for from ten dollars up. As to lenses, extreme speed is not necessary. The only advantage of speed is the increased field of work — the faster the lens the less limited are the conditions under which one may work. For a negative from which enlargements are to be made, good definition is essential and a lens cor- rected for astigmatism is desirable. 109 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Exposure, Experiments The best guide to exposure is experience and the best guide to experimenting is one of the many good exposure-meters on the market. If you want to get some real pictures, experiment on one sub- ject — exposing not only as the riieter directs but for one-fourth, one-half, twice and three times the time given by the meter. Compare the resulting negatives. A few such experiments will not be a waste of material but will provide an education in exposure and save many a film later. Developing the Film or Plate Developing of films and plates has been reduced to a very simple process. The tank method is practically automatic, does away with the dark room entirely when roll film is used and with pack films or plates it is only necessary to load the tank in the dark and any darkened room or closet serves the purpose. Tank development will get more out of 95 per cent of photographic exposures than any other treatment. It is the least mussy and the most convenient, besides as the manufacturer's say: "the experience is in the tank." Minor Processes The fixing, washing and drying of negatives need not be considered here. They are mere me- 110 PHOTOGRAPHY chanical processes explained thoroughly in the circulars accompanying every package of films or plates and in the booklets published by the several manufacturers. Making the Print by Contact Contact printing is a very simple process and need not be discussed here at length. The possi- bilities of the so-called "gas-light papers" like "Velox," "Cyko," "Azo," etc., are unlimited. Manufacturer's booklets explain the use of these papers very carefully. Experiments like the fol- lowing will prove very interesting and instructive. Valuable Experiments Take a normal negative and ascertain the time it takes to make a good print frorii it, using normal developer and any standard brand of "gas-light" paper. Now make three prints exposing half the normal time, three prints exposing the normal time, and still three others exposing twice the normal time. Prepare three batches of develop- ing solution, one normal, one half-strength and one double-strength. Develop one of each group of prints in each strength of developer. The nine different results will show some of the possi- bilities, using the same negative with one brand of paper and developer. Ill OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Making the Print by Projection The use of the enlarging lantern or stereopticon for making positive prints greatly enlarges the pictorial possibilities of photography. Briefly, the physical process of photographic enlargement is quite the same as that of showing a large picture on a screen by means of a lantern slide. The apparatus to be used is constructed in essentially the same way. Instead of the lantern slide we use the photographic negative, at the screen we use a sheet of sensitized paper, the light parts of the negative image on the paper darken its sensitized surface and on development we have the positive print. Experiments in exposure and development may be made exactly as we did in contact printing. "Gas-light" paper may be used but oftener the so-called "Bromide" papers, which are much faster, are preferable. Advantages of Projection; "Painting with Light" The advantages of printing by projection are numerous: prints of varying sizes and much en- larged may be made from the same negative which may be quite small ; the print may be of any part of the original negative, a general and several detail prints may be made from the same negative ; the definition may be varied at will and as much softness or "fuzziness" as desired may be had by simply changing the focus on the screen; the 112 {From the Journal of the A. I, A.) Figure 37 "Painting with Light" — Lower Broadway, New York Figure 28 A Detail Enlargement of a Part of a 3"x2" Negative P HOTOGRAPH Y image may be controlled by shading parts of it during exposure — these are only a few of the advantages and as one progresses he begins to realize that photography may be made a process of painting with lighj: with the lens doing the drawing both mechanically and faithfully. (Fig- ures 27 and 28). Bibliography It must be quite evident that the foregoing paragraphs were not intended as instruction in the science of photography, but rather as a few sug- gestions In the art of photography and its helpful- ness to the draftsman and perhaps therefore to create interest and enthusiasm in that helpful art. The literature of photography is extensive. The catalogs, pamphlets, and instruction leaflets of the manufacturers of photographic apparatus and pro- ducts are easily available and a very important part of this literature. Beginners will find "How to Make Good Pictures" published by the East- man Kodak Co., a very useful little book. The "Exposure Meter and Photographic Diary," pub- lished annually by the Burroughs-Wellcome Co., is universally valuable. For more specialized in- formation the "Photo Miniature" series of book- lets on every phase of photography afford detailed instruction. 113 XI. THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES, PHOTO-ENGRAVING, ETCHING, WOOD ENGRAVING, LITHOGRAPHY Every draftsman sometimes makes a drawing which is to be reproduced by printing. This is done from a plate made by what is called photo- engraving. Before the development of this method of graphic reproduction, drawings could be duplicated only by printing from metal plates as in copper and steel engraving and etching, or from wooden blocks produced by cutting or en- graving, or from specially prepared stones as in lithography. Some of these processes, which will be briefly described, offer tempting diversions for the draftsman and it is interesting to note that many of the best draftsmen of all times have been engravers, etchers or lithographers. The processes are of three classes: first, where the printing is to be done from lines and areas in type form or relief as in the photo-mechanical processes and wood cutting or engraving; second, where the printing is done from a plane surface as in lithography; and third, where the ink is 114 REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES drawn from a grooved line as in etching and line engraving. Photo-Engraving, Half'Tone and Line Cuts To be used in a printing press, a block repro- ducing a drawing or picture must be in the nature of type, it must consist of a series of lines or dots or areas in relief, which may be inked and printed from on paper. Such blocks are produced by a combination of photography and the corrosion or etching of metal by means of acid solutions or other mordants. Where the original drawing is in black ink on white p^per and has no gradations or washes, it may be reproduced with a line cut, but where there are gradations or washes or where the lines are very fine, the half-tone cut must be used. To make a half-tone cut, the photographic negative is made with the aid of a screen interposed be- tween the lens and the sensitive plate. This screen is transparent and cross ruled or cross hatched with opaque lines and renders the image of the original in masses or groups of dots of varying sizes and propinquity — small and widely spaced for the light tints, larger and more closely spaced for the darker areas, and practically in a continu- ous surface for the blacks. Drawings in pencil, charcoal or crayon may be reproduced by the half- tone process with a most charming softness. 115 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Drawings in color or on tinted or yellow paper do not make good half-tone cuts except by first making a photograph of the drawing on a color- sensitive plate, which reduces it to a monochrome with relatively correct tonal values. The half- tone may then be made successfully by using the photograph as the original. Colored drawings may be reproduced in color by using the half-tone color process. In the three color process, half-tone plates or cuts are made from three negatives of the original, one taken through a violet screen, one through a green and one through an orange screen. Each one of these half-tone cuts is printed in ink whose color is the complementary of the color in the screen used for making the negative, that is, the first is printed in yellow ink, the second in red ink, and the third in blue. These printings are over each other and the colors combine to reproduce the colors of the original. From three to eight cuts and different colors of ink may be used — ^the more used, the more faithfully the colors of the original are reproduced. Etching In etching, a copper plate is prepared with an acid resisting coating. On this plate, the picture is scratched through to the metal. The back and the edges are coated and the whole immersed 116 (By Permission of the Journal of the A. I. A.) Figure 29 Half-Tone Cut of Part of an Etching By F. L. Griggs (Same Size as Original) REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES in an acid or other corrosive solution. The scratched lines where the bare metal is exposed, are attacked by the mordant and eaten out to the desired depth after which the plate is cleaned, washed and dried and is ready for inking. It is inked with a dauber and wiped with tarlatan, which removes the ink from the surface but forces it into the etched lines. Printing is accomplished by placing a piece of dampened paper over the inked plate, covering with a pad and rolling through an etching press with considerable pres- sure. This forces the softened paper into the grooved lines of the plate, thus taking up the ink. The small quantity of ink remaining on the surface of the plate tones the ground of the print and considerable variation is possible through variation in inking, in the amount of ink left on various parts of the surface of the plate and the pressure used. The etched lines are subject to wear from the repeated wiping and pressure ap- plied and after the first few impressions, the quality of the lines in the print deteriorates gradually. (See Figure 29). In dry point etching, the picture is scratched directly on the copper surface and is printed from the burr raised by the scratching or etching needle. In this process no mordant is used. 117 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD Wood Cutting and Engraving The earliest printing was from wood. It is obvious that a square block of wood may be coated with black printing ink and a black square printed therefrom on paper. Instead of square, the edge of the block may be cut to any shape. A line scratched or engraved on the printing surface of this block will show white on the im- print. On these simple principles, wood cutting and engraving depend. Early wood cuts were in line only, with occasional masses of solid black. It meant simply making a drawing on the smooth surface of the wood and cutting away this surface except where the lines were, these being left in relief could be printed from in the ordinary way. Of course, this cutting was at times a very delicate operation. Wood cuts were made with a knife on a comparatively soft wooden block whose surface was cut with the grain. About 1 820 wood engraving was invented. It differed from wood cutting in that the work was done with a graver on the cross-grain surface of a block of hard wood. Just before the perfection of the photo-me- chanical processes, wood engraving was most widely used for book and magazine illustra- tions. It became highly developed and really overreached itself, going beyond the natural 118 (By Courtesy of John Lane Co.) Figure 30 Line Cut of Part of a Wood Engraving By Clemence Housman (Same Size as Original) REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES Umits of its own technique. It is quite easily seen that to print a black cross-hatch from a wooden block, the lines of the hatching must be left in relief on the block while the numberless little lozenges which show white between the lines on the print must be carefully cut out, one by one. This is obviously working counter to the nature of the process. Quite as obviously, the more natural technique is where the white line on the print, resulting from the engraved line on the block, is used to the utmost both for its own sake and to break up black areas into grays of more or less depth. Wood cutting is a most interesting art, simple and within the reach of any draftsman. (See Figure 30). Lithography Perhaps the most fascinating of all the repro- ductive processes is lithography. The principle is extremely simple, depending on the fact that water and grease repel each other. On a fine- grained slab of a special kind of limestone, the drawing to be reproduced, and which was made with greasy crayon or ink, is either drawn directly or transferred from paper. The stone absorbs the grease from the crayon or ink so applied and is next thoroughly dampened, the greasy marks, of course, repelling the water. The whole is now 119 OVER THE DRAWING BOARD inked several times with an ink roller. The greasy ink sticks to the greasy marks but is re- pelled by the wet surfaces. An impression in ink may be made on paper by pressing it in contact with the inked stone in a lithographic press. Instead of drawing directly on the stone, the picture may be drawn on prepared transfer paper and by pressure transferred to the stone, thus having the advantage of not needing to be drawn in reverse. After the image is on the stone, it is flooded with dilute acid and gum solution for a time. This is erroneously called etching but really serves only to clean the unmarked surfaces of the stone and to dissolve certain ingredients of the ink or crayon used. Before inking all the coloring matter in the marks is washed off, the pigment being used only to make the marks on the stone or transfer paper discernible while drawing. Alum- inum and zinc plates are also used for litho- graphy, but the finest work is done on stone. (See Figure 31.) Another method, much used for map work, is akin to engraving. The smooth surface of the stone is coated with gum solution and then black- ened. When dry, the lines are scratched through this black coating, exposing the bare surface of the stone, which is then rubbed with grease, this being absorbed only by the bare lines and not 120 ig-^-> 1. 1 i Figure 31 Half-Tone Cut of Part of a Lithograph By Richard Parkes Bonington (Same Size as Original) REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES penetrating the coating. The coating is washed off and the stone thoroughly dampened, the greased lines repelling the water. The ink which is now applied, sticks only to the greasy lines as in regular lithography. Bibliography Horgan's Half-Tone and Photo-Mechani- cal Processes by Stephen H. Horgan. In- land Printer Co., Chicago, 111. The Graphic Arts by Philip Gilbert Hamerton. Seeley, Jackson and Halliday, London and MacMillan Co., New York. This book, as its name implies, covers drawing, painting and all the reproductive processes except photo-mechanical ones. Etching and Etchers by Philip Gilbert Ham- erton. MacMillan & Co., London and Roberts Bros., Boston, Mass. Lithography and Lithographers by Eliza- beth Robins and Joseph Pennell. MacMillan Co., New York. Engraving and Etching by Dr. F. Lippmann. H. Grevel & Co., London. The International Encyclopedia. The Encyclopedia Britannica. 121 INDEX PAGE A Adjustable Triangles 3* Tangency of Arcs 42 Thumb-tacks, Stretch Mounting vs 13 Tinted Glass 25 Tinted Outline vs. Painting 86 Titling of Drawings 59 Titling of Originals 63 Titles and Numbers, Tracing of 59 Titles, Printing from Zinc-cuts 60 Titles, Rubber Stamps for 60 Tracing and Blue-print , 63 Tracing Cloth, Handling of 37 Tracing Cloth or Linen 36 Tracing Cloth, Powdering Surface of 37 Tracing Cloth, Tacking of 37, 38 Tracing, Function of 3S Tracing of Titles and Numbers 59 Tracing Paper, All-over or Solid Mounting of 23 Tracing Paper, "Frothing" with 34 Tracing Paper, General Uses of 29 Tracing Paper, How to Use in Studying 29, 30 Tracing Paper, Rendering on 31 Tracing Paper, Short Rolls of 30 130 PAGE Tracing Paper, Stretch-Mounting of 24 Tracing Paper, Transferring with 34. Tracing Paper vs. Cloth 33 Tracings, Advantage of Mounted 23 Tracings, Demounting of 23 Tracings Not to be Used as Office Copies, Original 78 Transferring with Tracing Paper 34 Transparent and Opaque Colors 87 Triangles 8 Triangles, Adjustable 4t Triangles, 45° 41 Triangles, 30° and 60° 41 Trimming and Mounting Drawings 18 T-Squares 8 V Ventilation of Drafting Room 5 Vertical Filing of Drawings, Advantage of 102 Vertical Filing of Plates and Photographs 103 W Wall Scraper, Use of 17 Water Colors 83 Water Colors, Settlement in 89 Watered and Colored Inks to Indicate Materials 76 Watered or Diluted Ink 11 Water in Drafting Room 8 Wood Cutting , ■ "8 Wood Engraving 118 Working Drawings, Function of 63 Working Drawings, Scales of 65 z Zinc-cuts for Printing Titles 60 m :i&':' ' W^: