CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY FROM The University Library (in exchange) Date Due LC 243.843™^" ""'™'*'*>"-""-3T lmmSmX,'!!}.±:y °' American The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924008160602 CONTENTS i- — Miller.- — The-acadamy .Byctem of tho Stato of Ko w Yerfe; — iSSS-a.^ i ^wtotfedi K»u t,\athic groups, though sometimes differing in central tendencies, frequently show overlapping with each other and with the normal. ECraepelin " expresses the situation as follows : The associations of our patients, in so far as we are not concerned with iifferences in the formation, deviate in general remarkably little from those >f the healthy. This is explained especially by the predominating role which the speech maintains for the fate of the experiment. , What , is jxpressed in it is chiefly the crystallization of the habits of speech, which are little influenced for the most part by disease, comparatively speaking. Of ;ourse, it can be shown naturally that, in the demented patients, a greater poverty of ideas and uniformity in the results of experiments occurs, so that frequently senseless answers, repetition of the stimulus word, misunder- standings and denials occur, also adherence to the same answer is seen. A^pparently the only disorder in which the associations show a characteristic :hange is the manic excitement. In these cases for the most part the :endency to clang associations comes out very distinctly, especially rhymes, :itations, and word completions, which may finally surpass all other forms. Evidently certain relations with the pressure to talk exists, which moves the speech elements of the ideas into the foreground. PROBLEM. The successes of the association-type method, together with its failures, present a very complicated situation in which it seems " The Signs of Mental Disorder, Alienist and Neurologist, Vol. 40, 1919. (Translation by H. I. Gosline, M. D., from " Clinical Psychiatry.") GARDNER MURPHY 5 desirable to make a very extensive study of types of word- association in at least one or two common mental disorders, com- paring these with the normal, and using a mass of material suffi- ciently large to make clear whether the method has any usefulness beyond that recognized by such authorities as Kraepelin. In par- ticular, a comparison of cases classified as " dementia prsecox " or " schizophrenia," with cases classified as " manic-depressive psy- chosis " or " benign affective psychosis," seems needed. The present study is an application of the association-test to three groups: normal, dementia prsecox, and manic-depressive. A preliminary attack upon this problem was offered by the pres- ent writer in the American Journal of Insanity, Vol. LXXVII, No. 4, April, 1921. Three fairly consistent differences between a group of dementia praecox cases and a group of manic-depressives were named. These differences were of the " overlapping " type, and were moreover based on such a small quantity of material that the writer expressed great uncertainty as to whether these differ- ences were really characteristic of the psychotic groups, or due merely to accidental distribution of a small number of cases : " Whether or not the apparent differences between dementia prsecox and manic-depressive psychosis noted in this paper are of genuine significance can best be determined by further study with the Kent-Rosanoff list. Other differences may be found with other lists, and the same differences might appear using other comparable stimuli ; but the next step, it is believed, should be the application of these methods, with the Kent-Rosanoff list, to larger groups." Accordingly, much more extensive data have been collected, the methods of the former study being followed, and new methods added as well. The main results of the previous study will be reviewed in connection with the results from the larger material to be presented in the present study. The pathological data comprise 51 cases of manic-depressive psychosis and 48 cases of dementia prsecox, distributed as follows : Dementia Precox. Paranoid form 34 Hebephrenic form 7 Simple form i Unspecified 6 b types of word-association in dementia piuecox Manic-Depressive Psychosis. Manic form 25 Depressed form 8 Mixed forms 1 1 Perplexity i Circular 2 Unspecified 4 It will be noted that the dementia praecox group is overweighted with paranoid cases, that no cases of catatonia are included, and that the number of manic-depressive depressions is small in comparison with the number of manic cases. These defects are due to the fact that the association-test requires patients who will co-operate to some extent — a condition less frequently fulfilled in depressions and catatonia — and that paranoid forms prove to be especially com- mon in the institutions visited. The pathological cases were studied at the following institutions : Manhattan State Hospital, New York City (slightly over half the material coming from this source) ; Brooklyn State Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Kings Park State Hospital, Kings Park, N. Y. ; Essex County Hospital, Cedar Grove, N. J., and the Boston Psychopathic Hospital, Boston, Mass. In each of these institutions the co-operation of the hospital staff was gladly given, constituting m indispensable condition to success. In all cases the official hos- pital classification was accepted, cases of uncertain classification being excluded. The normal cases were as follows : 39 female nurses in training It the Manhattan State Hospital ; 20 male attendants at Worcester State Hospital, Worcester, Mass., and 2 male attendants at other institutions; 18 boys from the Concord High School, Concord, Mass.; 15 girls from the Washington Irving High School, New York City ; 2 male and 2 female students at Columbia University ; md 2 male students from Union Theological Seminary, New York City. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In addition to the acknowledgment of such large obligation to the above institutions and organizations, I wish to make acknowledg- ment of the great help given me in collection of data by the follow- ing persons: Dr. M. W. Raynor, Dr. C. A. Waterman, Dr. H. W. GARDNER MURPHY 7 Rogers, Miss F. Witte, and Miss J. I. Baxter of the Manhattan State Hospital ; Dr. A. J. Rosanoff of Kings Park State Hospital ; Dr. F. L. Wells of the Boston Psychopathic Hospital ; Dr. W. A. Bryan and Mr. Maurice Scannell of the Worcester State Hospital : and Dr. F. Edith Carothers of the Washington Irving High School. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to Mr. H. E. Jones, Mr. E. B. Greene, Mr. W. S. McCulloch, and Mr. J. O. Chassell of Columbia University, for help in the classification of associa- tions ; to Miss Katharine Harkness, Mrs. June K. Heald, and my mother, for great assistance in the tabulation of the material. PROCEDURE. The procedure may be summarized as follows : The " subject " was brought to the experiment room and seated himself at or near the table at which the experimenter sat. The experimenter ex- plained the experiment as follows (more or less variation in phraseology being of course needed to suit particular cases, espe- cially pathological cases, but no essential changes being made) : " I am making a study of the use of words. I am going to read a list of words to you, and after each one, I wish you would let me have the first word that comes to your mind. For example, if I should read dog, }ou might say cat or hark or bite or any other word ; or, if I should read watch, you might say clock or tick or second or any other word. It isn't a question of right or wrong, because any word is as good as any other word. Do you understand?" Then after any necessary explanations, a series of from five to twenty practice words was used, the experimenter endeavoring to eliminate any tendency to repeat the stimulus-word or to reply with more than one word. When he judged that the instructions were grasped and the subject ready to start, he proceeded to a hst of one hundred stimulus-words, recording the answers, whether they followed the instructions or not. In a few cases where it was clear that the subject had simply " lost his cue,"' and was capable of following instructions, he was reminded of them ; but most cases of faulty reactions were those in which the tendency to reply with a sentence or a series of words seemed practically ineradicable. The subject was allowed 20 seconds for response. If he made no response or signified desire to pass on to 8 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PRECOX the next word, the experimenter passed the word and came back to it at the end of the list, allowing an additional 20 seconds for each case, but no third trial was allowed. If, however, he reacted to the stimulus on the first trial, the response was recorded no matter what form it took, and no second trial was given. ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL. It has been very generally admitted that a serious difficulty in study of types of word-association is the frequency of the associa- tions which do not clearly fall into any assignable group. If, for example, the stimulus-word light evokes the response lamp, we have no means of telling whether to regard this as a " subordination " in which lamp is taken as a kind of light, or as a " verb-object " association in which lam,p is the direct object of the word light. Similarly, house-mouse may be a mere rhyme, but it may also be an association founded in the subject's experience. Introsp)ections have been used in some published investigations, but this is especi- ally undependable in pathological cases. There are two practical methods of coping with this difficulty. The first is rigidly to exclude all associations open to serious doubt. If the student is very careful indeed, he can get fair results. But how are we to know that he is right in regarding an association as doubtful? Perhaps some which he excludes would be regarded as practically clear-cut by an enormous majority of investigators, and the exclu- sion of them may seriously affect the totals. The second method is to have more than one judge in the classification of the associations, and to require unanimity before including any association. Neither method is perfect, but the combination of the two methods certainly helps toward dependable measurement, and is distinctly better than the usual method of leaving all to the' judgment of a single classifier, who must find place for all, or nearly all,:of the associations under the heading of certain fixed categories. Another expedient which makes for accuracy in classification is the avoiding of all stimulus- words which are vague or ambiguous, or which have been found in experience to give rise to a large number of doubtful associations. This is as much as to say that the problem of classification really begins with the choice of the stimulus-words. GARDNER MURPHY With these principles in mind, the following method was adopted : (i) To preserve continuity with earlier work, the list of stimulus-words was based on the list used by Kent and Rosanoff . But there are in the Kent-Rosanoff list a number of ambiguous words (words which may be taken either as nouns or verbs, and the like), and a number of words which regularly give rise to vague responses. There are, nevertheless, 53 nouns which un- equivocally name objective things, persons, or animals. These, together with 22 unambiguous adjectives, were chosen for use. To this total of 75 were added 25 verbs (admitting no forms which are also in use as nouns). This gives a total of 100 words divided between nouns, verbs, and adjectives, presented in the following order : I— table 21 — sweet 41— high 2 — dark 22 — appear 42 — deserve 3 — punish 23 — woman 43 — sour 4 — believe 24 — accuse 44 — earth 5 — man 25 — slow 45 — receive ' 6 — deep 26 — prefer 46 — soldier 7— soft 27 — river 47 — cabbage 8 — excite 28 — white 48 — hard 9 — mountain 29 — beautiful 49— eagle 10 — house 30 — window SO — stomach II — enjoy 31— rough 51 — ^stem 12 — mutton 32 — citizen 52 — lamp 13-— give 33— foot 53 — condemn 14 — hand 34— spider 54— bring IS— short 35— needle 55— bread 16 — fruit 36— red 56 — deny 17— butterfly 37— come 57— boy 18 — smooth 38 — admire 58— insult * 19 — amuse 39— carpet 59— dig 20 — chair 40— girl 60— Bible 61 — send 62— sheep 63 — bath 64 — cottage 65 — swift 66 — blue 67 — hungry 68 — priest 69 — ocean 70 — head 71 — stove 72 — long 73— join 74 — whiskey 75— child ■jd — bitter TJ — hammer 78 — thirsty 79 — city 80 — begin 81— butter 82 — doctor 83— loud 84— thief 85— lion 86 — injure 87— bed 88— heavy 89 — tobacco 90 — ^baby 91 — moon 92 — scissors 93 — use * 94 — perish 95- salt 96 — street 97— king 98 — cheese 99 — blossom 100 — forget CLASSIFICATION. After much experimentation with various systems of classifica- tion, I came to feel that there is real value in the time-honored system of classification according to logical relations between stimuli and responses, and that, using the precautions named above, * The words insiilt and use, though in the printed form either nouns or verbs, are recognizable as verbs when pronounced. 10 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PR/ECOX extensive use could be made of a system in which types of associa- tion are thus clearly marked oflf. The following system was adopted : 1. Contiguity (both stimulus and response naming objective things). a. Stimulus and response name separate things contiguous in space : table-plate, man-hat, butterfly-daisy. b. Response names part of object named by stimulus: hand-finger, butterfly-wing, chair-rung. c. Stimulus names part of object named by response: hand-body, window-house, foot-animal. d. Response localizes the stimulus : table-house, lion-forest, woman- Barnard. 2. Similarity (not including co-ordinates, subordinates, and supraordinates). a. Stimulus and response are synonyms belonging to the same part of speech : deep-profound, soft-fluffy, blossom-flower. b. Stimulus and response are synonyms belonging to different parts of speech (mere changes in word-form are admitted) : hungry- hunger, thirsty-dryness, woman-feminine. c. Stimulus and response have distinct similarity of meaning, but not close enough to be called synonyms : smooth-easy, rough-bold, high-above. 3. Co-ordinates (stimulus and response name objects which are members of a common category ; stimulus and response must be nouns) : mutton-pork, needle-nail, lion-bear. 4. Contrasts (stimulus and response name or imply contrasting qualities ; parts of speech are immaterial) ; soft-hard, sour-sugar, moun- tain-lowland. 5. Pairs (stimulus and response are nouns paired in common usage, and not clearly classifiable under I, 3, or 4, but containing elements of at least two of these types. Kent-Rosanoff frequency must be 25 or more) : man-woman, hammer-tongs, soldier-sailor. 6. Subordinates (stimulus and response must be nouns) : man-janitor, girl- Annie, mountain-Alps. 7. Supraordinates (stimulus and response must be nouns) : mutton-food, needle-implement, priest-clergy. 8. Adjective-noun associations (noun-response names object to which stimulus-adjective is applicable as a modifier) : soft-bed, short- speech, heavy-dope. 9. Generalizations (noun-response names abstract idea of which noun- stimulus is a concrete representation) : Bible-religion, hammer- geology, moon-astronomy. ID. Substance (response names substance of which the stimulus object is composed) : river- water, chair-mahogany, table-timber. II. Qualifiers (noun-stimuli only). a. Adjective-response qualifies noun-stimulus: hand-small, mutton- nice, spider-ugly. GARDNER MURPHY II b. Qualifying adjective changed to noun-form (no response admitted here except abstract nouns formed from adjectives) : woman- goodness, hand-usefulness, city-greatness. c. Present participle qualifies noun-stimulus : butter-melting, scissors- cutting. d. Past participle qualifies noun-stimulus : doctor-needed, baby-loved. 12. Verb-predicates (verb-response as predicate of stimulus-noun) : eagle- fly, thief-ran, scissors-cut. 13. Verb-responses take stimulus-noun as direct-object (any form of the verb admitted) ; butter-eat, fruit-have, fruit-eating. NOTES.* 1. If you are not sure about an association, ask yourself whether your degree of certainty as to the main class (disregarding letter sub-heads) is better than 50-50. If so, classify it, otherwise mark it U (unclassi- fied). Then, if you are better than 50-50 sure as to a sub-head, record it, otherwise simply leave it blank. The main classes are much more important than sub-heads. 2. No account is taken of speech-habits or verbo-motor forms. If an asso- ciation can be classed in the named categories, it makes no difference how mechanical the association may be. Even Mutt-Jefif and bath-tub are contiguities, while sour-grapes is an adjective-noun association. But associations in which the response merely completes a compound word or a proper name, e. g., black-board, Rocky-Mountains, are excluded. The same exclusion applies in the occasional cases where the response is the iirst part of a compound word or proper name, e. g., House- White. Mere additions of suffixes, e. g., excite-ment, are ex- cluded, while cases in which the stimulus is repeated together with some change in word-form, e. g., excite-excitement, are classed under 2-b. The decision as to whether a word is compound or not is some- times arbitrary; the practice here followed is to consider hyphenated words as two words, and therefore to include responses which, together with their stimuli, form hyphenated words, when the asso- ciation-type permits. 3. Class i-d includes all those vague contiguities in which the response, instead of naming a specific adjacent object, seems rather to tell where the stimulus object is. Woman-dress is i-a, but woman-Barnard is i-d, because we could scarcely say that woman and Barnard are adjacent; Barnard rather tells where woman is. * These notes were presented to Dr. F. L. Wells of the Boston Psycho- pathic Hospital with the request that he classify for me 600 words taken by a random sampling from my material. His disagreement — approximately 7 per cent — is somewhat higher than that of judges referred to in the text. This set of notes is intended as a standardization of procedure. 12 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PRECOX 4. Class S is meant to include that host of common pairs in which elements of contrast, contiguity, and similarity blend in various combinations — to an extent making necessary their exclusion from all such classes. Hammer-tongs, for example, has some elements of co-ordination, but equally clear elements of contiguity, while man-woman not only includes these elements but a contrast element as well. The rule is to put an association in one of the other classes if possible ; but if it is a "common pair" (showing 25 or more on the "frequency tables") and not otherwise classifiable, put it here. 5. The difference between classes 7 and 9 is that in a supraordination the response names a class of things more inclusive than the stimulus, whereas in Class 9 the response names an abstract idea. Bible-book is a true supraordinate ; but in Bible-religion we cannot say that Bible is a sort of religion ; religion is the appropriate general idea associated with the specific stimulus. 6. The difference between classes 9 and 11 -b is that in the latter class the abstract noun is a modifier showing the attribution of a certain quality to the stimulus ; whereas Bible-religion is Class 9, Bible-holi- ness is Class li-b. 7. When a noun-stimulus leads to an adjective-response which is not a true modifier, but merely a change of wording, e. g., feeble-weakness, the association is classed not under 8, but under 2-b. In the same way, weakness-feeble, would not be ii-a, but 2-b. 8. When a noun-stimulus provokes a. noun-response naming a substance, it is always put under Class 10, never under ii-a, even when popular speech uses such a noun-response as an adjective, e. g., scissors-metal. The first step in the classification of associations was to go through the Kent-Rosanoff " frequency tables," " taking all the responses given by 1000 normal persons to those 75 words of the Kent-RosanofT list which are used in the present study, and assign- ing these associations to the above classes, or eliminating them as " unclassified." Words which seemed to me open to serious doubt were eliminated, only those words being classified which seemed clearly to belong to the categories named. The next step was to go through the list again with the assistance of two other judges.* These judges made a decision as to each of the associations which " Op. cit. * In the first half of the work, with nouns and adjectives, the judges were instructors in psychology, Department of Extension Teaching, Columbia University. In the second half of the work, one of these judges was unable to continue, and a graduate student of psychology was substituted for him. The number of judges was always three. GARDNER MURPMY 1 3 the writer had classified.* In an attempt to measure the rehabihty of my own original decision, a sampling of looo associations, taken at equal intervals throughout the total tabulation, showed that in 932 cases the other two judges concurred in my original judgment, and that in 28 cases they agreed as to the main type {c. g., one, four, eleven, etc.), but one or both disagreed as to the sub-type {e. g., i-b, 2-c, etc.). The next step was to throw out all associations upon which unanimity was not reached as to the main types. (Cases of agree- ment as to main type, with disagreement as to sub-type, were admitted ; it will be seen from what follows that very little attention need be paid to sub-types, the scores in main types being the most important measure.) This elimination of cases of uncertain asso- ciation-type i-esulted in a situation in which a few of the stimulus- words were found to have evoked responses over 50 per cent of which had been excluded, either because of my own uncertainty or because of disagreement of the judges. It is clear that in such cases the stimulus-words themselves are of doubtful value. From the 75 Kent-Rosanoff words, those 25 which produced the smallest number clearly and unanimously classified, were eliminated al- together from use by the classification method. A rough measure of the usefulness of the 50 words retained is given in the fact that the poorest of the 50 — the one which gave the smallest number of associations clearly classified — produced, from the normal thousand persons, 615 associations which are thus reasonably certain as to classification, the remaining associations being, of course, excluded. In the case of the 25 verb-stimuli, also, judgments were made as to each association,! 100 normal persons having given the associa- tions from which similar " frequency tables " were drawn up. The following classification for verbs was used : 14. Verb-subject (noun or pronoun response is subject of stimulus-verb) : come-passenger, perish-soldier, injure-weapon. * The judges were not informed of my decision until their own had been expressed; but in some cases of disagreement the judges were urged to give their reasons for classification and the various points of view were expressed. This led to unanimity in a few cases, but in most cases no winning-over was possible, the judges holding out for their original decision. t Two of the three judges had taken part in all of the work with nouns and adjectives; the third was an instructor in psychology in the Columbia Summer Session. 14 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PRECOX 15. Verb-object (noun or pronoun response is direct object of stimulus- verb) : begin-work, deserve-praise, forget-me. 16. Verb-adverb (adverb response modifies stimulus-verb) : accuse-falsely, come-away, use-now, bring-forth. Verb-stimuli may, of course, also give rise to Class 2 associations (in all three sub-heads) and to Class 4 associations (as described on page 10). A sampling of 1000 cases of association with verb-stimuli showed that my own judgment was concurred in by the other judges in 949 cases, and agreement as to main types with disagree- ment as to sub-types was reached in an additional 15 cases. Of the 25 verb-stimuli used, 17 led to clear and unanimous classification of over 50 per cent of the responses received, and all of these stimuli were retained for use in the present study; the remaining verb- stimuli were excluded. The above procedure cuts down the number of stimuli available for use by the classification method to the following: Nouns. Nouns (cont'd). Adjectives. Verbs. man bath dark believe fruit cottage deep excite butterfly priest soft enjoy woman ocean short give river head smooth appear spider stove sweet prefer needle child slow come carpet butter white admire girl thief beautiful receive earth lion rough bring soldier baby high insult cabbage scissors sour join eagle salt hard begin stem king swift injure bread cheese long use boy blossom loud perish Bible — heavy forget 33 17 17 Every association given by a manic-depressive or dementia prsecox case can now be classified according to the tables prepared or excluded in cases where no definite judgment was reached, or GARDNER MURPHY 15 where the word was given by no normal person. (A separate analysis of these " individual reactions," associations not given by any normal person, appears below.) We can now tabulate the total number of associations of each type given by each person, in order to ascertain whether certain types of association are more common in one pathological group or in the other. In this part of the work a comparison with the normal is also indispensable. For this purpose the associations of 250 normal persons from the original Kent-Rosanoff records were used, counting, of course, only the associations from the 50 stimulus-words which appear also in my own list. In the case of responses to verbs, my own 100 normal cases were used for the comparison. TYPES OF ASSOCIATION. The following figures indicate the number of associations falling within the various types, in so far as these associations had appeared and had been classified in the frequency tables of normals as de- scribed above. t (This first procedure includes therefore only the " common reactions," i. e., cases which had already been reviewed by three judges and agreed upon as to classification.) lb ic Id 2a* 2b* 2C 3* 4 5 6 7 48 dementia praecox cases. . 89* 14 • 33 • 15 ,. 161* . 47* ■ 90 SI manic- depressive cases. 271 83 46 189 127* 18 33 16 132* 86* 72 122* 279 98 46 168 8* 9 10 iia* lib lie iid 12* 13 14 IS* 16 48 dementia simanic- prascox depressive cases. 121* 3 45 65* 3 o I 21* 20 6 22* II cases. 171* 3 44 75* I 6 3 39* 18 6 57* 19 t The total number of responses equals theoretically 99 (number of cases) times 67 (number of words used in this method), or 6633. It will be seen that about 58 per cent of this number are actually included, the remainder being unclassified responses, faulty responses, failures to respond, and instances of misunderstanding the stimulus-word. The number of valid reactions is almost exactly the same in the two psychoses. l6 TYI'KS OK WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PRMCOX It will be observed that the differences between the groups are of little or no significance except, possibly, in types la, 2a, 2b, 3, 8, iia, 12, and 15, against which I have asterisks (*). To ascertain whether these are of real significance, I added all the " individual reactions " (words which had been given by no normal persons, and in the classification of which I had to rely on my own judgment alone) . I also studied these same types of association in the patho- logical material collected by Kent and Rosanofif (the records of 31 manic-depressive cases and 72 dementia prsecox cases f being used) . A comparison of the two psychotic groups on the basis of this larger material (82 manic-depressives and 120 dementia prsecox cases) gave the following results : (praecox scores being reduced to make totals comparable.) Dementia Manic- Dementia Manic- prfficox. depressive. praecox. depressive. la 224 255 2a 242 igo 2b 123 15s 3 195 217 8 371 361 11 195 236 12 49 52 Class 15, a category in which verb-stimuli are followed by their direct objects, cannot be effectively used in the Kent-Rosanoff material because of a lack of unambiguous verb-stimuli, but a study of the individual reactions from my own cases shows approximately an equal number of Class 15 associations in the two groups: 52 in dementia praecox and 56 in manic-depressive psychosis. This com- parison based on larger material tends to show that the differences indicated by the smaller material are really of little or no signifi- cance. It may be that we have in Class 15 a genuine difference, for we have in the manic-depressive group of 51 cases a total of 115 such associations against 72 for 48 cases of dementia praecox. J But in this case and in every other in the whole comparison, the indi- vidual variations within the groups are enormous — many cases of dementia praecox giving, for example, more Class 15 associations than certain cases of manic-depressive psychosis. The extent of tThe Kent-Rosanoff dementia precox cases are arranged in ascending order of individual reactions. I had thus a total of 120 dementia praecox cases, omitting those with a very large number of individual reactions. :!: The corresponding total for normals is 294 (147 for 50 cases). GARDNER MURPHY 17 i8 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCTATION IN DEMENTIA PRECOX n C o ■rt +> OS •rt O O m -»; iM o u 1 1 1 _ _ OJ ■H (0 A CM v9 I 1 * S-O (0 > ( -9 ) 1.2 (1.8 1 2.4 (8.2 10.9 ( .3 > 4 (0 (S.2 > 6.9 (0 ; ( .1 ) .1 ( .9 ► 1.2 ( -5 1 .7 (0 » (2.3 ) 31 (7.3 ) 9.8 (I.I 1 14 (48.2 >48.2 In the columns headed Dementia Praecox and Mahic-Depressive I have given in parentheses the actual percentages. In view of the fact, however, that my own word list contains 17 verbs out of the total of 67 words, while no verb-stimuli are to be considered in the data on normal adults and children, I add a corrected figure outside the paj-entheses, which is more directly comparable to the first two columns. It will be noted that in the percentages given above, normal adults and children are close together, deviating in some cases from psychotics by considerable margins. The psychotic groups, in turn, are in most cases close together. The only figures * Including what Kent and Rosanoflf call " doubtful reactions " — in which a variant of the word appears in the tables, but not the word itself. GARDNER MURPHY 29 deserving a special note appear to be those under Class 2-b, in which the tendency of psychotics to give changes in word-form are mainly responsible for the result — manic-depressives taking the lead by a slight margin In passing, it may be noted that the total number of individual reactions from 51 manic-depressives is 789, against 684 for 48 cases of dementia praecox. This greater fre- quency of individual reactions in manic-depressive psychosis, so contrary to our expectations from the work of Kent and Rosanoff, is almost certainly due to the fact that my cases of dementia praecox presented in general only slight deterioration, while the larger material under this diagnosis in the earlier work comprised a large number of very deteriorated cases. I hazard the suggestion that individual reactions are characteristic not of the disorder itself but of the deterioration appearing in many cases. The question cannot be settled until data are at hand for a direct comparison of early and late praecox cases, showing various definitely ascertained shades of deterioration. It must, of course, be conceded that the lack of catatonic patients in my own material may be responsible for the findings; I think that it may justly be replied that individual reac- tions are not to be accepted as really characteristic of dementia praecox, unless they are proved to be characteristic of paranoid and hebephrenic forms — characteristic, in fact, of all common forms. CORRELATION METHODS. In the earlier study above referred to,^ I offered the suggestion that although no one type of association is clearly associated with either psychosis, nevertheless, high correlations existed between certain types of association in one psychosis, which did not exist in the other. The correlation, for example, between Classes 8 and 1 1 in manic-depressive excitements was stated to be -I- .72 — mean- ing that the manic patient who gives many adjective-noun associa- tions is very likely to give many noun-adjective associations, while the manic who gives few of one class will, in general, give few of the other ; the correlation of these in dementia precox was found to be only -|- .28. The correlations offered were based on only 13 dementia praecox cases, 12 manic-depressive excitements, and 21 '^ Amer. Jour, of Insanity, Vol. 77. 30 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PR/ECOX manic-depressive depressions, and are therefore all very unreliable. I give below the original findings, together with similar correla- tions obtained for 250 normal, 120 dementia pra;cox,* and 82 manic-depressive cases ;* and also correlations for a group of 25 manic-depressive manics, a group of 12 manic-depressive depres- sions,! and a group of 14 manic-depressives of mixed type. Correlations of Classes. present findings. 1 with 8 with 8. II 250 Normals 23 .33 120 D. P 34 .19 25 M.-D. manic 52 .46 12 M.-D. depr 54 .53 14 M.-D. mixed 73 .55 82 M.-D 44 -27 EARLIER FINDINGS. I with 8. 8 with II. 20 Normals 24 .25 13 D. P 68 .28 12 M.-D. manic 22 .72 21 M.-D. depr 20 .66 The above citation of earlier findings is roughly, but only roughly, comparable with present findings because rank-difference correla- tions were used in the former, and Pearson correlations in the latter. In all cases but that of the manic-depressive depressions, the present findings are much more reliable ; at this point, however, my present group is even smaller than the earlier group. My two main conclusions from the earlier data were, first, that the correla- tion of Class I with Class 8 is higher in dementia prsecox than in manic-depressive excitements, manic-depressive depressions, or normals ; and second, that the correlation between 8 and 1 1 is higher in manic-depressive excitements and depressions than in dementia praecox or normal. The present data seem definitely to negative the first conclusion, and rather clearly to confirm the second conclusion. It is true that the peculiar distribution of manic-depressive cases causes the disappearance in the whole group (82 cases) of the high correlation found when each of the three types of manic-depres- sives is studied. This does not, of course, invalidate the char- acteristic relation of Qasses 8 and 11 within the sub-types.J A * Includes much Kent-Rosanoff material, t Includes 4 Kent-Rosanoff cases. t It would be highly desirable to make a similar study of sub-types in dementia praecox. My small number of hebephrenics has prevented this. GARDNER MURPHY 31 much more serious defect in such data, from the standpoint, at least, of appHcation, is that they do not present conclusions making for clear prediction in individual cases. A high correlation means in the long run a small difference between two variables ; and in the long run a smaller difference between the total of Class 8 and the total of Class ii is to be expected in manic-depressives than in dementia prsecox cases. An attempt, however, to devise a " trick method " by which a certain difference between these totals is to be considered a sign of dementia prascox or manic-depressive psychosis is of very little value ; the correlations and differences, to be useful in this way, would have to be much larger. The attempt to devise such a method, offered in my previous study, seems to me to have been very shortsighted. The factors underlying these curious differences in correlation are so exceedingly intricate and elusive, that vastly more work would have to be done to enable us to see why a certain type of association goes with another, or why these relations vary from one psychosis to another. The psychotic groups would also have to be larger (in the case of the manic-depressive sub-types) to make us absolutely sure that chance factors are not responsible for the figures. In addition to this very risky application of findings in the field of correlation, my earlier tentative repnart made use of a criterion to the effect that " four or more individual reactions which are con- tiguities " are on the whole a sign of dementia prsecox, and a criterion to the effect that " to give eight or more noun-adjective associations seems atypical of dementia prsecox." It is true that the present study finds more noun-adjective associations in manic- depressives than in dementia prascox, but the margin is not large enough to justify any such criterion as the one just mentioned ; and the number of " individual reactions which are contiguities " is actually higher in the present data from manic-depressives than in those from dementia prsecox — the criterion based on " individual contiguities " perhaps being derived from the fact that the earlier prsecox group contained several very deteriorated cases. The pre- mature attempts at " criteria " for aid in differential diagnosis are therefore withdrawn. The earlier study, in offering the criteria, used the phrase " if the methods hit upon do not owe their success 32 TYPES OF WORD-ASSOCIATION IN DEMENTIA PRECOX to the accidental distribution of this small dementia praecox group." The " if " appears to have been of special significance. CONCLUSIONS, (i) The study of 250 normal, 120 dementia praecox, and 82 manic-depressive cases, by the method of classifying associations according to logical relationship between stimulus and response, shows in every case overlapping of the groups, and in most cases no significant differences in central tendencies. The normal group gives far fewer " co-ordinates " and far more adjective-noun asso- ciations and noun-adjective associations than either of the patho- logicfil groups, but the latter groups do not differ significantly from each other. (2) Rhymes and sound associations appear to be sUghtly more characteristic of the manic-depressive group than of dementia praecox. (3) Responses in the form of proper names and responses using the first personal pronoun do not appear to be particularly char- acteristic of either disorder. (4) Responses of the " value-judgment " type appear with equal frequency in samplings taken from the two main groups. (5) Responses which consist in merely changing the word-form of the stimulus, as from a singular to a plural, an adjective to an adverb, etc. — including the addition or dropping of suffixes — appear to be definitely characteristic of very excited manics, but not so definitely characteristic of all manics or of the manic-depressive group. (6) The associations of both pathological groups resemble the associations of normal adults very much more than they resemble the associations of children, whether measured by the Kent- Rosanoff " frequency " inethod, or by computing the number of associations falling within various types. A special study of " individual " reactions shows no striking difference between their logical classification in children and in adults, and no striking difference in theii^ classification in the two pathological groups ; in a few cases, the two normal groups vary in the same direction from the pathological groups. (7) In all three of the common sub-types of the manic-deipres- sive psychosis, a Pearson correlation of approximately .50 appears GARDNER MURPHY 33 between the adjective-noun and the noun-adjective types of asso- ciation, while the dementia praecox group presents a correlation ( for 120 cases) of only .19. (8) The above conclusions, and constant comparison of indi- vidual records with others, seem decidedly to confirm the con- clusion of Kent and Rosanoff that " a large collection of material shows a gradual and not an abrupt transition from the normal state to pathological states " ; and, further, the conclusion of Kraepelin that " the associations of our patients .... deviate in general remarkably little from those of the healthy." So far as the present data go, they confirm the Kraepelinian view that the experiment strikes chiefly at " the crystallization of the habits of speech, which are little influenced for the most part by disease, comparatively speaking." This very disappointing result attaches, however, to relatively simple and direct methods of comparison ; the present data justify no conclusion as to the pwssibilities of the association experiment in the field of detailed analysis of particular associations, the psycho-galvanic method, or the statistical analysis of associa- tion-times. The suggestion is offered that types of word-associa- tion, as such, are but little related to the fundamental attitudes and adaptations to life underlying the mental disorders which are here compared. VITA. 189s July 8 1912 June 1915 February 1916 March 1916 June 1917 June 1919 September 1920 September 1 92 1 September 1917 April 1921 April Born at Chillicothe, Ohio. Graduated from the Hotchkiss School, Lakeville, Conn. Elected to Phi Beta Kappa, Yale University. Elected to Sigma Xi, Yale University. B. A., Yale University. A. M. (Psychology), Harvard University. Columbia University. Instructor in Psychology, Extension Teaching, Columbia University. Lecturer in Psychology, Columbia University. PUBLICATIONS. An Experimental Study of Literary vs. Scientific Types, American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 28. A Comparison of Manic-Depressive and Dementia Prsecox Cases by the Free Association Method, Amem- CAN Journal of Insanity, Vol. yj. EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE A study of the value of vocational instruction in agriculture in secondary schools as indicated by the occupa- tional distribution of former students BY ' CHARLES EVERETT MYERS Submitted in partial fulfillment of the require- ments for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, Coiumbia University stailE college, pa. 1923 BULLETIN No. 82 Agriculture Series No. 13 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE A study of the value of vocational instruction in agriculture in secondary schools as indicated by the occupa- tional distribution of former students MAY, 1923 Issued by the Federal Board for Vocational Education Washington, D. C. WASHINQTON : GOVERNMENT PRIHTINQ OFFICE : l«2S FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. MEMBERS. James J. Davis, Chairman, Secretary of Labor. Jenkt C. Wallace, Habbt L. F1D1.EB, \ice Chairman, Secretary of Agriculture. Labor. BteBBEBT C. Hoover, Calvin F. McIntosh, Secretary of Conmierce. Agriculture. fOHN J. TI6EBT, Edwaed T. Fbanes, Commissioner of Education, Manufacture and Commerce. E. Joseph Abonoff, Secretary and Chief Clerk. EXECUTIVE STAFF. J. C. Weight, Director. 1 H. Lane, Chief, Fbank Cushman, Chief, Agricultural Education Service. Industrial Education Service. Adelaide S. Batlob, Chief, Home Economics Education Service. Sabl W. Babnhabt, Chief, John Aubel Kkaxz, Chief, Commercial Education Service. Civilian Vocational RehahiUtatton Division. John Cumminos, Editor and Statistician. Cketipicati; : This publication la Issued pursuant to the^ provisidns ' of tlie Vocational CONTENTS. Page. Toreword v PABT I. Introduction 1 PAST n. Plan for the study . 3 Questionnaire carefully developed 3 Information collected through the Federal board 3 Data turned over to the agent in charge of the study 5 PART m. Interpretation of data 7 Section 1. A brief statement of the general facts obtained from the questionnaire 7 Number and percentage of schools responding large 7 Schools representative as to enrollment 7 Few students reported previous to' 1918 10 Brief description of former students 10 Section 2. Influence of vocational instruction in agriculture upon high-school mortality and graduation 11 Expected "output" estimated 11 Actual " output " estimated 12 " Output " is divided between graduation and mortality 13 Preceding estimates justified 14 Sections. Occupations followed by former students of vocational agriculture 14 Fifty-four per cent of the students who have left school 'are reported to be now farming 14 Fifteen per cent are now in occupations other than farming 16 Section 4. Miscellaneous factors affecting the farming status of former students of vocational agriculture 19 Probability of farming is not affected by length of course 19 Graduates are attracted to the farm _ 22 Percentage of partners has been increasing rapidly 22 Few specialties are reported — - — 25 Fewer agricultural students go to college ., 26 Section 5. Tendencies In the development of vocational Instruction In agriculture 28 The average time students remain in agricultural classes has not markedly increased 28 The percentage of students engagirig in farming has steadily increased ! '. ■ 30 Section 6. Extent to which ex-high%chool students who have not studied agriculture engage In farming ;_ 32 The New York rural survey data are conclusive 32 Data from schools in Pennsylvania support the findings in New York — 34 Vocational instruction in agriculture Is a selective and a direc- tive agency 34 Who are the beginning farmers 3.5 Section 7. Returns from Indiana and Virginia 36 The Indiana study '■ 38 The Virginia study 41 III y CONTENTS. PABT IV. Fast ^Conclusions 41 APPENDIX. Section 1. Dependability of data 4! Error due to inadequate sampling 5( Error in tabulation ; 5: Section 2. Tables of totals from the original tabulations 5J DIAGBAMS. I. Representative cTiaracter of data. — ^Percentage reporting of agri- cultural all-day schools in the United States and in the 35 States participating in this survey { II. Orowth of vocational education in agriculture. — Number of students going out from secondary schools with one or more years of vocational instruction in agriculture : 1904 to 1921 i III. Low mortality among students of vocational agriculture. — ^Percent- age reenrolling and not reenroUing for students of vocational agriculture and for all high-school students . 16 rv. Occupational distribution of former students of vocational agricul- ture. — Percentage, in specified occupational status, of Individuals who left school with one or more years of vocational Instruction in agriculture 18 ' V. Length of course and choice of vocation. — Time «Sevoted to the voca- tional study of agriculture as a determining factor In the elec- tion of farming as a vocation, showing that the percentage choosing farming as a vocation is not affected by the number of years devoted to the study of agriculture 20 VI. Farm status. — Of 4,488 student farmers In eight States, per- centage classified as owners, partners, managers, renters, and laborers, by States '-. 24 VII. Farm specialties. — Number and percentage of students for whom farm specialties were reported . '. 26 HI. Types of colleges entered by students of vocational agridulture. — Percentage entering specified type of college for the United States and for four States 1 27 IX. Influence of time spent in high school upon time devoted to the study of agriculture.-T-Ayer&ee years in high school and in voca- tional agriculture course, per student, by year of leaving school- 29 X. Trend in managerial status of sohooUtrained farmers. — Percent- age in each managerial class for students leaving school in year specified, hy years : 1915 to 1921 31 XI. Influence of vocational instruction in agriouUure in directing high- school students to the farm. — ^Percentage now farming and not now farming for students and graduates of vocational agricul- ture courses and for graduates of 271 rural high schools who did not study vocational agriculture 33 .TTollahlo rvllhHpnHnna nf flio ITorloral ■RAnvrt fni* 'Vnna^•\nna^ 1^i1iiAa4-4.^n FOREWORD. After five years of development of vocational education in agri- culture under the terms of the Federal vocational educational act it seemed wise to undertake an investigation to determine what occupa- tions were followed by students who had received vocational instruc- tion in agriculture, and to gather certain other relevant facts which would tend to show the vocational value of the instruction given. The writer of this bulletin, Prof. Charles Everett Myers, Department of Rural Life of the Pennsylvania State College, who had organized such a study in the State of Pennsylvania, received an appointment as a special agent for agricultural education with the Federal Board for Vocational Education on February 16, 1922, for the purpose of extending the study so as to include all the States which saw fit to cooperate in it. This bulletin is the report based upon the data collected from 37 States. The very nature of the data collected required the active cooperation of the State supervisors of agricultural education and individual research upon the part of over 800 high-school teachers of agricul- ture. In large and well-established schools teachers found it neces- sary to spend many hours over a period of several weeks and in some cases to travel at their own expense. The personal effort of these hundreds of teachers constitutes a tribute to the professional attitude of the high-school teachers of agriculture. The cooperative nature of this report does not stop with the collection of the data, for the writer has called upon a wide circle of friends for advice and criticism concerning the interpretation of almost each item treated. Mrs. W. A. Broyles, Miss Mabel A. Myers, and Mrs. Olive G. Myers completed the tabulations after the Federal appropriation for clerical help had been exhausted. The unusual accuracy of the work, as shown by the sampling in the appendix, is largely due to their in- terest in, and comprehension of, the problem. Dr. John Cummings, Dr. Milo B. HiUegas, and Dr. W. C. Bagley have read the manu- script and have made invaluable suggestions concerning the form of presentation and clarity of expression. Dr. David Snedden has been consulted constantly, and has always responded with helpful criticism and advice. J. C. Wkioht, Director. EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE. A STUDY OF THE VALUE OF VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS AS INDICATED BY THE OCCUPATIONAL DISTRI- BUTION OF FORMER STUDENTS. Paet I. INTRODUCTION. One outstanding criticism of the value of vocational instruction in agriculture in our secondary schools is based on the assumption that but few of the students become farmers. From this premise the unsympathetic critic reasons that the subject is not worth what it costs. In the widespread demand for public economy secondary vocational agriculture has not been overlooked, and educational leaders and legislative committees have asked pertinent questions concerning the value of the instruction given at such a comparatively great cost. When this study was undertaken no one knew to what extent the boys who studied vocational agriculture engaged in farming after leaving school, or in what capacity they worked on the farms, or whether the boys devoting the more time to the study of agriculture were more likely to engage in farming, or whether the high-school graduates or the ones who dropped out before graduating were more likely to farm. It is true that a few persons could answer some of these questions for a particular school and that a few States have systems of " follow-up " records, but little of consequence has been made public in answer to the questions. The writer believes it to be a fair proposal that the workers in vocational education in agriculture be asked to justify their work, and he submits herewith the answer to the first question in the logi- cal series of questions which must be answered before the complete story can be told as to the extent to which vocational instruction in agriculture serves to improve farm practice and increase the wealth and happiness of agricultural people. In addition, it is believed 1 I EFFECTIVENESS OP VOCATIONAIi ;hat the study will be found to contain much information of value o the administrator and the curriculum builder. The reader should find it practical to follow the procedure and iheck the interpretations and conclusions of this study. The sum- nary results of the first-hand tabulations from the original data ire given in State totals, and the dependability of these totals has )een worked out in detail and included in the appendix. An effort las been made to present the facts obtained in such a manner that lU who care to do so may work out their own conclusions. The lata here presented do not justify an attempt to rank the State* iccording to their efficiency in training farmers. Where there ap- pear to be ratings or comparisons, they are made to clarify the )rocedure or to support the interpretations made. Before students )f these data attempt a rating of the States they should familiarize hemselves with all the data here presented — ^including those given n the appendix — and obtain such information concerning local State londitions as will be found essential. Part II. PLAN FOR THE STUDY. QUESTIONNAIRE CAREFULLT DEVELOPED. A questionnaire seeking information upon the occupational dis- tribution of former students of vocational agriculture had been in process of development in the State of Pennsylvania since the sum- mer of 1921. The first draft was altered after being criticized by the staff of the Eural Life Department of the Pennsylvania State College, and was then sent to 14 teachers in the State. After these copies were filled out and returned, the form was again revised in the light of the difficulties of tabulation and the criticism and sug- gestions of the teachers filling it out. This second revision was submitted to several specialists in agricultural education and scien- tific students of education for criticism. The form as finally adopted and used is reproduced below. INFORMATION COLLECTED THROUGH THE FEDERAL BOARD. On March 3, 1922, the chief of the agricultural education service of the Federal Board for Vocational Education sent mimeographed copies of this form, together with the following letter, to each State supervisor of agricultural education: 4801&— 23 2 3 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL, :3 ^1 51' ::2;o I p^ -g .a -o a ^\ §■&«' bo ® 60 - li^f ... ^ ^ > bo i^^^al , »^ ■« ^ ?;j3 (»« i>a * •" S eft's .go orl o Em — — , -; , , ■-.' '(-,. ^ — i — - — - SI = ■9 2-5 •S0 1 nU ■§|s §11 III III ■go EDUCATION IJSr AGRIOULTUEE. 5 This [Agricultural Education] service of the board has acted upon one of the recommendations of the several regional conferences concerning research work in agricultural education and has made arrangements with Prof. 0. E. Myers, of the Pennsylvania State College, to make a study of " The functioning of vocational instruction in farming." The scope of his investigationj as per the Inclosed questionnaire (Form 1) is nation-wide and 100 per cent replies are asked so that each student who has gone out from the high schools with as much as one year's instruction in voca- tional agriculture may be accounted for. Professoi; Myers will also investigate the college records of such students on a national basis, and will make sectional or case studies of the functioning of such instruction in farming. Under separate cover you will receive sufficient questionnaires and envelopes to send one to each school receiving aid for agriculture last year in your State. I trust that you will include a personal letter of your own with the question- naire and forcibly call the attention of your teachers to the importance of this matter and the necessity of having the reports in the Washington office as soon as possible. An addressed return envelope should also be sent each teacher along with the questionnaire. It is hoped the teachers will not permit routine work to delay their report, and their attention may be called to the fact that the filling out of certain portions of the questionnaire will make an interesting class exercise. I assure you that your cooperation in securing 100 per cent returns from your State will be thoroughly appreciated. The original data for your State will be returned to you if you so desire. DATA TURNED OVER TO THE AGENT IN CHARGE OF THE STUDY. The information was tabulated by competent clerks, as described hereafter, under the direction of the special agent for agricultural education appointed to make the study. The original data were returned to those States which requested it, with the hope that they would see fit to continue the study and develop inferences from the data which one not thoroughly conversant with local conditions could not fairly formulate. The data were organized as follows: (1) Separate tabulations made: A. Complete data by State ; by school ; by year. B. For students having studied vocational agriculture for three and four years, by year ; by State ; by schooL C. For graduates for the States of Arkansas, Illinois, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. D. For occupations other than farming, showing number in each State. E. For farm specialties and numbers in each, by State. F. For graduates going to college, by State and type of college. G. For schools not reporting former students out of school, by year; by State. < EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL 12) Summaries made : I. Totals of "A," by year ; by State. II. Totals of "A" and " B," by State, subtracting " B " from "A," show- ing totals for former students who had had one and two yean of Instruction in agriculture. III. Totals (or specified States for "A" and " C," subtracting "O" from "A," showing totals for nongraduatea in Arkansas, Illinois, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. IV. List of occupations other than farming and totals in each, classified as related and unrelated. ((S) Correlations made : a. Farming and rating for success. b. Farming and number of years' instruction in agriculture. Part III. INTERPRETATION OF DATA. SECTION 1. A BRIEF STATEMENT OP THE GENERAL FACTS OBTAINED FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE. NXTMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS RESPONDING LARGE. Eeports on the questionnaire were received from 35 States. The reports were tabulated for a total of 722 schools,^ or practically 62 per cent of the all-day schools in these States which offer a full program in vocational agriculture. These 722 schools represent 47.8 per cent of all agricultural schools federally aided under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act, according to the annual report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education for the year ended June 30, 1921. Table 1 of the appendix shows in detail how these per- centages were computed, and Diagram I represents graphically by States the completeness of the returns. Schools started later than April, 1921, could not have given stud- ents vocational instruction for one year or more, and reports fromi these schools were therefore excluded from the study. A few reporta were received too late to be included in the tabulations. These re- ports would have raised the percentage of schools reporting foir sev- eral of the States very materially, and might have varied the results- by 1 or 2 per cent in a few States. But the results for the coun- try as a whole would not have been appreciably affected if these re- ports had been included. SCHOOLS REPRESENTATIVE AS TO ENROLLMENT. After the information was tabulated a list of the schools report- ing from each State was sent to the State supervisor with a request that he -indicate what the enrollment was in the named schools for the year ended June 30, 1921. Total enrollments for the several' States were obtained from the Federal board's report, deductions being made for the negro schools and negro enipollments in the > Negro schools in the Southern States have not participated in this study, and the figures In ithe Federal board's report have been altered to eliminate the negro schools andi negro enrollment wherever they appear. T. 8 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL. Southern States. Due to an apparent discrepancy between the schools reporting and the number accredited to three States by the board's report, the figures obtained by special reports from these States (Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania) were used instead of the DiAOBAM I. — Representative charaoter of data. — ^Percentage reporting of agri- cultural all-day schools in the United States and in the 35 States participating in this survey. Black percentage reporting. White , : , percentage not reporting. figures given in the board's report. Two other States (Arkansas and Idaho) sent in reports for a total of seven schools more than they were accredited with, due in Arkansas to schools being discontinue for small enrollment, and in Idaho to Confused records due to change ing officials. All these figures are given in detail in Table 1 of the appendix. The data were tabulated from 61.8 per cent of the Schools from the 35 States reporting, these schools enrpUing 59 per ♦Schools reporting Include 2 in Arkansas and 5 in Idaho in excess of the number credited to these States In the report of the Federal Board lor Vocational Education. EDUCATION IN AGRICTJLTUEE. cent of the students studying vocational agriculture in these 35 States. The 61.8 per cent of the schools in the 35 States consti- tutes 47.8 per cent of all schools federally aided for teaching voca- DiAGEAM II. — Growth of vocational education in agriculture. — ^Number of students going out from secondary schools with one or more years of voca- tional instruction in agriculture : 1904 to 1921. FEDLIiiiLmmLi [DI)C&TIDNIkGT:|<)l7 zm mm wm^s 26 s^ 79 u/ m m 4JI mmmwmh WMWMII m 1913 m 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 m WM 10 EFFECTTVENBSS OF VOOATIONAL tional agriculture, and these schools enroll 45 per cent of aU stu- dents studying vocational agriculture in federally aided schools.- The small variation between the peEcentage of schools and the percent- age of students would be practically eliminated if the same cor- rections for total' enrollments were made for all States as were made for Arkansas, Illinois, New Jersey, Ohio, and. Pennsylvania. Such corrections woul^ floake the " total enrollments " and the " en- rollments in the schools reporting " entirely comparable. There can be no reasonable] question, therefore, in respect to enrollment, as to the fairly representative character of the schools reporting, when either the S5 Staties as group or the entire country is taken as the unit. |. TEW STUDENTS EEPOETED PKEVEOITS TO 1918. A scho(|t in Wisconsin reported 1 student, with two years' in- struction in vocational agriculture, leaving that school in 1904; and for 'each succeeding year, until and including 1911, one or more schools inlthis State reported from 1 to 3 students leaving school with one ©r more years' vocational instruction in agriculture. For 1 908 a school in Calif ornia|, reported 1 student, and for 1909 one schqpl |n New York reported 8 students. For 1912 New York re- ported -24 students, and North Dakota reported ^. ' In 1913 Illinois and Vermont were added to|the list of States, and in 1914 Pennsyl- vania was added with 3 students going out with one or more years' vocational; instruction in apiculture. By 1917 only 13 of the 35 States had reported student^ leaving school with training in voca- tional agriculture. These were -Calif ©rnia, Colorado, Illinois, Loia- siana. New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. For 1917, i.l2 of the 13 St|tes (California reported no students) reported but 297 students leaving school who had had vocational instruction for farming. By 1918, 28 of the 35 States participat- ing in this study were sending out students; in 1912, 32 States^ arid in 1920 and 1921 all 35 States were sending out students instructed in vocational growth. agriculture. Dia^rah II gives a graphic picture of this BRIEF DESCRTPTIOlir OF FOEMEK STUDENTS. "«"-»■«»*•'■ {i'' ^ A total iof 8,340 individuals were reported out of school witK'8'ne or more years of vocational instruction in agriculture.^ These in- dividuals have had, on; the average, two and seven-tenths years in high school and one and. seven-tenths years of instruction in agricul- tuife. Of the total, 15.7 per cent have had three or, four yeaicf of 'One year of instruction In some States is accredltPd as one-fourth of a year's work in high school and in other StatRS.as qae-ha,lf of a year's work, In yery rare Instances is lull time np.minally devoted to agriculture to the exclusion of (tther subjects. The writer has been unable to detect any definite tendencies due to this variation. instruction in agriculture and 84.3 per cent have had not exceeding one or two years of such instruction. Of those having had three or four years of instruction in agriculture, 80 per cent have graduated ; and of those with one or two years of such instruction, 45.1 per cent have graduated. Of the total number, 50.4 per cent have graduated. Of the total, 22 per cent have gone to college; and of the number who have graduated, 44 per cent. Of those who have gone to college, 36.5 per cent have gone to agricultural colleges. Fifty-four per cent of all these students are reported to be now on farms — 10 per cent of these farmers being owners, 6 per cent managers, 7 per cent renters, 48 per cent partners, and 29 per cent laborers. Table 4 of the appendix gives the State totals for each item of the questionnaire. The percentage now on farms, if calculated on the basis of reports specifying present occupation (i. e., omitting the no-report cases), becomes 59, instead of 54. The ratings for scholarship appear Jo corroborate common obser- vation. The 7,860 rated for scholarship were classed about as we should expect any one group to be classed — 27.3 per cent were rated high, 53.4 per cent average, and 19.3 per cent low. It is safe to assume that these ratings represent the standing of these students within the group of all high-school students with whom they were associated ; and with such an assumption, Ave are justified in conclud- ing that the vocational instruction has not selected a group of students on the basis of scholastic ability as indicated by teachers' marks. SECTION 2. INFLUENCE OF VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE UPON HIGH-SCHOOL MORTALITY AND GRADUATION. EXPECTED " OUTPUT " * ESTIMATED. According to the United States Bureau of Education statistics on high-school mortality and graduation, found in Bulletin, 1920, No. 34, 37.2 per cent of the total number of students * enrolled in the high ° The term "output" is used to designate the total number of students leaving school In any one year and includes graduates as well as those who drop oiit before graduating. ' This iigure may fairly be taken as representing expected " output " for agricultural students only on the assumption that the students enrolled in vocational agi'iculture are distributed among the four high-school classes, as are all high-school students. The writer has reason to believe that three-fourths or more of the agricultural enrollment is in the first and second years of high school, where the mortality is 27.4 per cent an- nually. The mortality for the third and fourth years is only 12.7 per cent; but 41.9 per cent of the third and fourth year students graduate, making an " output " of 54.6 per cent for these two years. If we were to make the correction on this assumption of unequal division of the agricultural enrollment, the mortality among this group of stu- dents would be over 2 per cent less than it has been estimated in the accompanying text. Any other weighting of the enrollment toward the first and second years would propor- tionally lower the mortality figure. This is additional evidence of the eonservativeness of the above estimate. 48019—23—3 12 EFFKCTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL, schools of the country in any one year fail to reenroU for the suc- ceeding year's work. For the four years ending June 30, 1918, 1919, 1920, 1921, the summation enrollment in " all-day " schools feder- ally -aided for teaching agriculture (negro enrollment excluded) was 99,306. The expected "output" would be 37.2 per cent of 99,306, or 36,942. In other words, if the high-school " output " were the same for agricultural students as it is for all high-school stu- dents, we would have 36,942 students who had quit school and who had had one or more years of vocational instruction in agriculture. ACTUAJ, "output" estimated. For the four yeare under consideration 47.8 per cent of the schools federally aided reported an "output" of 7,023 students. One hun- dred pei- cent of the actual " output " therefore may be estimated to be 14,692 students, or only 39.8 per cent. of the expected "output" of 86,942 students." Tlii's might" mean one of three things: First, that onjy 39.8 per cent of the students actually leaving school were re- ported by the teachers; or, second, that 60.2 per cent of the students who ordinarily .leave school have remained after enrolling in agricul- ture; or, thirds both factors may operate. The first premise is not tenable, for the reports as a whole bear every evidence that they were compiled from the school record's on this item. However, 100 per cent accuracy can not be claimed, for occasionally school records have been burned, are inaccurate, or are not available. An occa- sional teacher reported graduates only, and a very few teachers reported no students except those who had left school during their tenure. On the other hand, we know that 50.4 per cent of the students with one or more years of vocational instruction in agri- culture graduate as against 40.6 per cent of high-school students as a group. This is a gain in favor of the agricultural students of 9.8 in the percentage graduating. But, though this is a very marked difference, vocational instruction in . agriculture has not been in operation long enough for the full effects of its holding power to be manifested in the percentage graduating. Only one set of first-year students has had an opportunity to be represented in this study as graduates, while four sets of first-year, students are represented after three-fourths of a year, one and three- fourths years, two and three- fourths years, and, three and thjee-fourths years, respectively. One school starting vocational instruction in agriculture in 1918 reported that it had retained all of its agricultural students to graduate in 1922. Twelve schools started in 1919, 17 schools started in 1920, and 44 started in 1921 had lost no students who had enrolled in agriculture. It was a very common remark made by the teachers EDUCATION IN AGEICULTUEE, 13 on the reports that " Very few of the students starting the work have left school. Most of the strong students remain to complete the course." The agent making the study is of the opinion that the teachers have not missed 10 per cent of the students actually leaving school, but granting this liberal error of 10 per cent and adding 1,469 to the 14,692 output as figured above, we have in the United States to-day 16,161 former high-school students now out of school who have had one or more years of vocational instruction in agriculture, and this number is only 43.7 per cent of the number we should expect to find if the mortality rate for students of agriculture were as high as that determined for high-school students as a group. " OUTPUT " IS DIVIDED BETWEEK GRADUATION AND MOETALITT. Of the expected " output" of 36,942 students (from a total enroll- ment of 99,306) , 40.6 per cent, or 14,998, would represent the expected graduates and the remaining 21,944 would represent the expected mortality. Of the actual estimated " output " of 16,161, 50.4 per cent, or 8,145, are graduates, and the remainder, or 8,016, represents the actual mox'tality. (These figures add emphasis to two facts previously mentioned : First, that a large proportion of the agricul- tural students are enrolled in the first two years of high school ; and, second, that there has been just one freshman cla?s to reach gradua- tion since the passage of the Federal vocational education act. Time might be expected to eliminate the graduation factor, but continued rapid increase of enrollment in the first two years of the high-school course may make predictions as to the exact amounts of expected graduation or mortality unsafe. The figures here are deduced from what has taken place under defined conditions.) Instead of a mor- tality of 21,944 students, which represents the expected mortality for all high-school students, we have had a mortality of 8,016 students for those who have completed one or more year's work in vocational agriculture. We have lost but 36.5 per cent of the students who usually drop out of high school before completing the work; or, in other words, vocational instruction in agriculture appears^ to be responsible for reducing the mortality of its students by 63.5 per cent. • It is known that some portion of this lessened mortality of students of agriculture ia due to the lower mortality rate for rural high schools, and can not all be accredited to vocational instruction in agriculture. Just how much the rural high-school mortality rate is below the urban rate is not known. A comparison of the data in the Bureau of Education Bulletins, 1920, Nos. 24 and 34, pp. 91 and 29, respectiTely, will show that a difference exists. This is probably due to the fact that only about 16 per cent of rural chil- dren enter high' school, as against 60 per cent of urban children. Hence, the rural sec- ondary school student is a much more highly selected individual than the urban secondary seliool student. 14 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL PRECEDING ESTIMATES JtTSTIFIED. The data compiled by the Bureau of Education represented the status of the enrollment in 1918 and included approximately 90 per cent of the high-school students of the country. The data here pre- sented include approximately one-half of the enrollment in agricul- ture for the year 1918 and the three succeeding years. These data are adequate and comparable and the conclusion incontestable. The mortality among high-school students studying vocational agricul- ture is much less than that among all high-school students, the data indicating that it is about two-fifths as great. Diagram III graphi- cally shows this smaller mprtality. SECTION 3. OCCUPATIONS FOLLOWED BY FORMER STUDENTS OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. FIFTY-FOUE PEE CENT OF THE STUDENTS WHO HAVE LEFT SCHOOL ABE EEPOETED TO BE NOW FARMING. Of the 8,340 students reported as having left school with one or more years of vocational instruction in agriculture, 4,488 were reported as now farming. Of this number, 48.3 per cent were re- ported as " partners," 29.4 per cent as " laborers," 9.5 per cent as "owners." 7.2 per cent as "renters," and 5.6 per cent as "managers." These terms were not defined on the questionnaire for the reason that practically all of the teachers who were to fill out the forms Were college graduates and had had these terms uniformly; defined in courses in farm management. The discrimination with which the students were distributed on this portion of the questionnaire has largely justified faith in the definiteness of the terms. Owner and partner Were often checked for the same individual, and renter and partner occasionally; The term manager was all but iuniversally used to denote a man working for a salary. In the tabulation of data, partner was given precedence, and when the < same individual ■was listed as an "owner" ori" renter" and also as a "partner" he Avas counted as a "partner." There was a typographical error on the questionnaire which confused some of the teachers in reporting the " farm laborers," and in these instances the tabulator was com- pelled to judge whether or hot the teacher intended to indicate that the man was a general common laborer; Fortunately^ three other items on the questionnaire, namely, "Date left high school," "What occupations has he worked at besides farming," and " Number of months farmed since leaving high school," gave an almost perfect check upon the accuracy of the report on this item. EDUCATION IN AGRICULTUKE. 15 The terms " partner " and " laborer " were more often confused. There was some tendency for the teachers to reserve the term " part- ner " to indicate the more equal partnership relations between father and son or between brother and brother. In this study the term " part- Diagram' III. — Low mortality among students of vocational agriculture. — Per- centage reenrolling and not reenrolling for students of vocational agriculture and for all high-scliool students. %%U1&U SCHOOL r[»™t nORTALlTY 16 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL ner " has been interpreted to mean legal or actual partnerships, with equal rights and responsibilities, and also, ," minor partnerships " where the " minor partner " is taken into counsel concerning the management of the farm or is given definite responsibilities of man- agement. Where the tabulator found unmistakable evidence on the report that the ,teacher had hot given thi^ interpretation to the term, corrections were made where possible. The tabulators were alliof the opinion that many more teachers reported the men as " laborers " when. they should have been reported as ," partners," than vice versa. A personal check " on the ground " in , 12 communities in Pennsyl- vania found this uniformly true. FIFTEEN PER CENT ARE NOW IN OCCUPATIONS OTHER THAN FARMING. The following list is a detailed classification of the occupations in which 2,848 former students had engaged, and the numbers which had engaged in each. Total t 2, 348 Clerk-^__. * Teacher _. Laborer _. ♦Mechanic . 312 310 118 111 Factory 110 *Auto mechanic Merchant Miner Auto driver Railroad ♦Carpenter Salesman , Postal' service :. *Cow tester ♦Lumberman Banker Bookkeeper Electrician ♦Dairy manufacturing. Drayman Navy Housekeeper Road construction Army Oil field Shop Druggist Miller Loafer Engineer Printing office 93 74 59 55 54 51 51 50 46 45 41 41 36 33 33 31 25 25 24 22 22 19 19 17 16 15 Wire service Job worker Stenographer . ♦Stock dealer ♦Blacksmith ^i-^^ ♦Buipher ♦Extension worker ♦(Jreenhouse Nurse Minister Paijiter ♦Agricultural teacher ♦Feed dealer ♦Officer, farmers' organization. Oil station Musician Plumber Undertaker Ball player Barber Fisherman Hospital Insurance Baker Business Buyer ♦Cannery Mason Moving-pictui-e operator __„_ Rubber worker_i , ; ♦Veterinarian Aviator Chemist 15 12 12 12 hi 10 10 10 10 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 6 6 ■ 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 EDUCATION IN AGRICtTLTURE. 17 Concrete worker Dentist Draftsman Janitor Missionary Newspaper Public works Restaurant *Tlle ditcher Cobbler Cook Expressman *Herdsman Hotel ♦Milkman *Nursery Plasterer Radio service Real estate Sanitation Surveyor* Tailor Chautauqua Circus Clock worker Elevator man ♦Landscape gardner Laundry Law office 2 ♦Livery stable 2 Packing house 2 Sign painter 2 *Trapper 2 ♦Tree surgery . 2 Actor 1 Artist 1 Auctioneer 1 Bacteriologist 1 Bell hop 1 Cartoonist 1 Coast guard 1 Detective 1 Doctor 1 Editor ^ 1 Fireman 1 Lawyer 1 Milliner - 1 Newsboy 1 Photographer 1 Pool hall 1 Sheriff - - 1 Shoe shiner 1 Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation ^ 1 Other 21 The questionnaire on this point read: "^\1iat occupations has he worked at besides farming? " The list shows 117 occupations re- ported for 2,348 former students. ' Deducting 1,128 duplicated in the number who are now on farms or who have gone to college, we have 1,220 former students, or 15 per cent of the total number reported, who apparently are now working in the occupations listed for them. One-third of all the former students now working at occupations other than farming are listed in the occupations starred — the writer considering these to be" related occupations." He belives that voca- tional instruction in agriculture has a direct vocational or prevoca- tional value in each of the vocations starred. It is true that some of the vocations, such as auto mechanic, mechanic, and carpenter, if followed in urban communities or in a highly specialized in- dustrial environment, might be benefited but slightly by vocational instruction in agriculture. But when we consider that around 80 per cent of the rural boys remain in rural districts, the vocational sig- nificance of the agricultural instruction in " farm shop " and " farm mechanics " deserves consideration. Teachers are second to clerks in leading the list of other occupiations. Practically all these teachers are rural teachers and are required by law to teach agri- culture. There are 25 " related occupations," and they have at- 18 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL, tr acted 803 former students, 276, or 43.6 per cent of whom are now farming. To the remaining 92 (^ccupations 1,545 former students have been attracted, and 346 of these students, or 22.4 per cent, are now farming. The fact that over, twice as large a proportion go back to farming from the related occupations as go back to farming from the other occupations seems tp indicate some very positive rela- DiAGBAM IV. — Occupational Mstribution of former students of vocational agri~ culture. — Percentage, in specified dccup^tional- status, of individuals wHo left school with one or more years of vocational instruction in agriculture. T4«~ Percentages based upon total of known status (7,552 out of 8,340 former studehts). tions. Of all former students who are now farming 13.6 per cent have worked at occupations other than farming. The total of 8,340 former students of vocational agriculture are accounted for in the reports as follows.: Fifty-four per cent are now farming, 5 per cent are in related occupations, 8 per cent have gone * It may be assumed that those of unknoxwi ot unreported occupational status are dis- tributed occupationally in the same prjapo^ti<)ne as are shown for those of known statu a. EDUCATION IN AGRIOTJLTUKE. 19 to agricultural colleges, 14 per cent have gone to nonagricultural col- leges, 10 per cent are in nonagricultural occupations, and 9 per cent are unaccounted for. If each of the above six percentages had a true value of 0.4 per cent higher than the whole numbers given, there would be a duplication of 2.4 per cent, for the numbers would then total 102.4 per cent; but by carrying the percentages to the second decimal place the actual duplication was found to be less than I'per cent. This negligible duplication represents the number of students who have gone to college, but who are now farming. It can not be assumed that all of the students who were reported as going to col- lege are now in college. The data do not justify any further analysis on this point beyond the fact that less than 8 per cent of those going to college have had time to graduate. It might be claimed (from common knowledge of college mortality) that about one-third of these students have left coUege. If such an assumption is justified, and an estimate of the.number of these students who are " now in col- lege " is attempted, the 22 per cent of all former vocational agricul- tural stud&nts who have gone to college might be^ interpreted to indicate that 14 or 15 per cent of all former vocational agricultural students are " now in college." The data-would justify the conclusion that a majority of the students who have left college would fall in the " unaccounted for " groiip. Diagram IV is a fair graphic presen- tation of the known facts. In. this graph the percentages are baSfed upon the total number of former students for whom an occupational status was reported, and the size of the group unaccounted for is shown in the central white area. The position in the diagram of this unaccounted for group implies the assumption that these former stu- dents are distributed among the various occupations in the same proportions as are shown for the stiidents whose occupational status is known. SECTIOlir 4. MISCELLANEOUS FACTORS AFFECTING THE FARMING STATUS OF FORMER STUDENTS OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. PEOBABILITT OF FARMING IS NOT AFEECTED BY LENGTH OF COURSE. In order to determine whether number of yfears devoted to the study of agriculture was correlated in any definite way with the boy's choice of a vocation, the percentage of boys studying agricul- ture three and four years and also the percentage of school-trained farmers who had studied agriculture for three and four years in secondary schools were computed for each State. The same per- centages were computed for those who h^d studied agriculture for one and two years. These percentages are shown graphically in Diagram V. If the correlation between the time devoted to the 4801&— 23 1 20 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL study of agriculture and the probability of choosing to farm were zero in each State, each pair of solid and broken lines would coin- cide. If more years devoted to the study of agriculture increased the probability of the boy choosing to farm, and fewer decreased the probability, the broken line representing the percentage of farmers having had three and four years of instruction in vocational agri- culture would tend to rise above its solid-line mate according to the strength of the probability, and conversely : the broken line repre- senting farmers of one or two years would drop below its solid line mate to the same degree. It is readily seen that for each pair the lines tend to keep very close together^ The mathematical expression Diagram V. — Length of course and choice of vocation. — Time devoted to the vo- cational study of agriculture as a determining factor in the election of farm- ing as a vocation, showing that the percentage choosing farming as a voca- tion Is not affected by the number of years devoted to the study of agriculture. for this tendency of the lines of each pair to coincide (or the Pear- son coefficient of correlation between "the percentage of boys who have studied agriculture in high schools for three or four years " and "the percentage of high-school trained farmers who have studied agriculture for three or four years ") is +0.94. The correla- tion between " the percentage of. boys who jiave studied agriculture in high school for three or four years " and " the percentage of all high-school students who have studied agriculture one or more years, and who are now farming " is —0.05. It is very evident from Diagram V that the percentages of stu- dents studying vocational agriculture for three and four years were insignificant in most of the States, and that is probably one of the greatest values of the graph. The lack of influence of the longer time given to the study of agriculture upon the probability of choos- EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE. 21 ing to farm may be seen also, by studying the following table, which gives summary totals for all States reporting combined: Length of course and choice of farming as a vocation. Length of agricultural course, in years. Former students of vocational agri- culture. Total. Now farming. other. Number. Total . . . 8,340 4,488 3,852 1,307 7,033 684 3,804 623 1 and 2 years 3,229 Percentage distribution by length of course. Total 100 100 100 16 84 15 85 16 84 Percentage distribution by present status. Total 100 54 46 100 100 52 54 48 1 and 2 years '. 46 Diiferences of 4 or 5 in the correlated percentages shown in Dia- gram V may be significant as concerns the conditions in any one State, when the number of students reported from that State is deemed large enough to be representative. The figures needed for such a study may be had from Tables 4 and 5 of the appendix. The most pro- nounced variations in Diagram V are for the States of Louisiana, New Hampshire, Maine, and Pennsylvania. In the first two States, the differences are negative, but there were reported just 33 and 44 students, respectively, who had had three or four years in agri- culture. The percentages for Maine were based upon 64 students and for Pennsylvania on 273 students who had had three or four years in agriculture. Pennsylvania has 37 community vocational schools which require all boys to take two full years of agriculture, and offer two additional years in agriculture as electives. All students in these communities who desire a secondary education must follow the vocational curriculum for two years in the community vocational school, or else leave home for their education. Naturally, a great many boys, who would not elect agriculture if they were free to choose, are forced into the agricultural classes during the first two years. A similar effect will be noted in the case of Pennsyl- ^^^" -h former agricultural rTr\ r>r\mcf 1/^oT" ^-Vm 4"trir\a r\-f nr\t lacrci 22 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL students enter. The evidence is conclusive that whether or not a boy farms is determined by factors which have little influence upon the amount of time (beyond one or two years) which he devotes to the study of agriculture. The complete tabulation summary by States for students studying agriculture three or four years is included in the appendix as Table 5. GRADUATES ARE ATTRACTED TO THE FARM. A separate tabulation was made for graduates from the reports from Arkansas, Illinois, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The complete totals from this tabulation may be found in Table 6 of the appendix. The six States reported 2,076 graduates with 942, or 45.6 per cent, of them engaged in farming. The percentage of all former students now on farms in these States is 49.2. In three States, namely, Illinois, New Hampshire, and Qhio, the percentage of graduates now on farms equals or exceeds the percentage of all former students now on farms. The graduates in these States average 1.1 more years in high school than do the nongraduates, and average 0.4 of one year more time devoted to tiie Study of agriculture. The graduates from the six States are attracted to the farm in practically the same proportion as are all former students of agriculture, though local conditions "ttfjlliin States generally may markedly affect these proportions. PERCENTAGE OF PARTNERS HAS BEEN INCREASING RAPIDLY. , Of the, 1915 output o,| students reported as now farming 29 per c^Pjt were given the, partnership staitiis. . Of the 1920 and 1921 outputs, .^1 per cept of the students reported as farming were given this status. t)iagram X shows, this increase by year, graphically, and in cppi- parison with tendencies fpr^ farm laborers, owners, managers, and renters, piagram. ,yi shows the present managerial status of school- trained farmers, and the prominence of the partner group. The extent to' which boys ari^' taken into partnership oh the farin has iboiiied up, rather unexpectedly, to magnificent jproportiohs. This is a he'Vv institutipn in American fdrni economy, and practically an ''about f k'ce " from the custom! prevalent through the generatioli^ in which the typical farrQ^ir Was a dominating, and' "often the domineering, personality in' the farm home. The change has not tkken place without cduse. Ecohbmic and social changes have been preparing €he Way, and variola's influences have been at work for nearly a generation. The farmers' institutes in the early part of this century emphasized the need of keeping the boy on the farm and advised giving' the boy a pig or a calf.' Later the boys' and girls' club work started a systematic and continuous campaign for the recognition of the importance' of the) boys and' girls on the' farm; knd combated the practice of " boy's calf and father's steer. ^'v With EDUCATION IN AGEICULTUEE. 23 the beginning of vocational instruction in agriculture and the home project, we had thousands of written agreements between father and son and many other thousands of verbal agreements concerning the product of certain portions of the son's labor as it pertained to his project work. The amount of suasion, tact, skill, and wakeful- ness these agreements demanded of teachers of agriculture will never be known, but in retrospect hundreds of teachers look upon this work as the most difficult of their many duties. During all this time the farm papers have been broadcasting ideals of " son participa- tion " in the farm business, and State supervisors and college teachers have been emphasizing, through addresses and teaching, the necessity of letting the son have responsibilities and a share in the returns from the farm in order that he may become interested in agricultural production and have suitable conditions for developing his best self. There has been little glamour and less publicity to the results from all these efforts to educate the farmer in this essential; but the quiet, earnest efforts of thousands of individuals over a period of years have had their effect, and this study brings out, in a measure at least, the extensiveness of this new institution. The types of partnerships prevalent in Pennsylvania are indicated by the following illustrations. These illustrations were obtained while the writer was interviewing the former students who were reported as " now farming " in 10 selected communities in the State. The communities were selected because of their efficiency in training boys who farm after leaving school. 1. The father is eccentric and domineering ; but to interest the son and retain him on the farm, he has deeded the farm to the boy, and makes a clumsy effort to let the son have a real voice in the management of the farm. However, the father is proud of the son's mechanical ability and gives him actual responsibility, for this end of the farm work. The son has a farm shop with " every tool that they have at the vocational school." 2. The father has moved to town and has deeded the farm to his three sons. They run the farm as equal partners, the youngest son being a graduate from the agricultural course in the community vocational school. 3. The oldest son of a widowed mother is a graduate from the vocational school and is responsible for the labor on the farm. He has more nearly the status of a superintendent, the mother being the real manager. He says he receives " All the money I need." 4. The only son is on comradeship relations with his father. They have a common bank account and a farm large enough for each to do what he pleases when the two do not have common interests. The son had one year of vocational instruction in agriculture. 24 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL 5. The father recognizes his son's greater ability and knowledge, and says with pride, " I'm his hired hand." The father owns the farm. The son is very capable and recognizes the value of his father's experience and wisely seeks his counsel. VI. — Fdrvi status. — Of 4,488 student farmers in eight States, percentage classi- fied as owners, partners, managers, renters, and laborers, by States. CLi\88 PLRCLNTAGL IN LACU CLA55 10 so 30 40 «0 60 TOTAL i. managers s.rcntcrs 3.owne:rs 4wl.ABORCRS S. PARTNERS 100.0 5.6 t.« as 24.4 A8.S *«»»*< TOTAL. EIGHT STATES COMBINEP TOTAl. I. MANACaOnS e RCNTcns A. OWNCQA A UABOnCflS ARKANSAS TOTAi- I MANA&CRa e OtNTCRS , 0.0'\«/NCRa , •- , 4i U ABORCRd J. PARTNC«a IDAUO 6.8 3 O.S ■4 2 . T TOTAL. L MAN AOC R6 ?. R[lN-rCR3 ■iOV^ IMCR d .A.U AbORCRa ^ p ARTNcn a ILLINOIS I oo.o I 4.3 T.* TOTAL. I. MAN A&Cn 6 aRCNTcRa AOWNCRd 4.1-A&ORCRe O.PARTNC.RS NCW HAMPSHIRE. TO T AU J. MANACjCRS' aRCNTcna' A L- AbD RCRO J. p Aff-rrsJc Ra NEW JERSEY -TOTAL. I. MANACaCRS e.RE NTCRS •3.0WNCRS '4'. l-AbORElRa tI.PARTNE.BO NEW YORK TO TAU I. MANACvElRd e.RCNTCRa , O. OV/ N C R O I 4L.A&ORCR6 O'. PARTNER a OMIO BWt J *.t.>-'.'-i :^ , ;; s:; y -s-w^ i 1. MANAOC Ra 2. RENTCHS AOVs/NCRa -^L l_AaORCR< A-«66 1,1 19 lOT iqt I -42 101 a9 2 It the school-trained farmers are specializing to a far greater extent than are farmers as a group. As there is no way to check the teach- ers' definitions of specialization, due to the faulty questionnaire, the writer does not consider the data on this item conclusive. FEWER AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS GO TO COLLEGE, According to the Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1920, No. 34, 52 per cent of all high-school graduates go to college. This percentage ^ is based upon data iox 1917-18. Since then college registration has been increasing at a remarkable rate, with several States show- ing a freshman college enrollment considerably larger than the number of high-school graduates for that year. The data collected for this study are subject to the influence of this increased interest in college education, and show 44 per cent of the graduates with vocational instruction going to college. A corresponding figure for air high-school students during these same years must be consider- ably higher than 52 per cent, or the figure for 1917-]^. Even with EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE, 27 this low figure of 52 per cent, it is seen that the percentage for vocational students who go to college is, significantly, below that for all high-school graduates. When we remember that the vocational DiAGKAM VIII. — Types of colleges entered ly students of vocational agricul- ture. — Percentage entering specified type of college for tlie United States and for four States. TYPL OF college: PERCLMTAGL [ERimrfflTYPLorciLffi 10 20 .30 40 5C JNITED 6W[5 IO0%=IM4§TU0ENT5 AGRICULTURAL ART6 ENQNLLRING BUSINESS NORMAL UNCLA65iriCD A&RtCULTURAL ARTS ENGINCCRiNG BUSINESS NORMAL UNCLASSIFIED 18 8 O SI ILLINOIS 100% = Itf STUDENTS E] 4.zza AGRICULTURAL ARTS engine: EIRING BUSINESS NORMAL UNCLASSiriED NElW YORK I00%=24S5TU£>ENTS AGRICULTURAL ARTS ENGINEERING BUSINESS NORMAL UNCLASSIFIED 31 SI 8 12 13 AGRICULTURAL ARTS ENGINEERING BUSINESS NORMAL UNCLASSIFIED £0 16 IS I I 12 26 OHIO 100%' IS5 STUDENTS PENNSYLVANIA ioo%=i85 students groups graduate practically 10 per cent (9.8 per cent) more of their students than all high schools graduate, we may conclude that the college is not making an effective appeal to the vocational stu- dents who are retained in high school through lessened mortality. The schools having vocational instruction graduate 502 of every 1,000 48019^23 5 28 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL entrants who study agriculture one or more years, as against 406 for high-school students as a group. Out of a gain of 96 graduates for each 1,000 high-school entrants, the college gains but 10 fresh- men, or 10.4 per cent of the increase. The types of colleges attracting graduates who have received voca- tional instruction are shown in Table 7 of the appendix. Diagram VIII gives a picture of the situation in the 35 States as a group, and in certain States separately. The few States are shown separately to give an idea as to how uniform the situation is in the various States. In one State, Pennsylvania, the situation is notably excep- tional. The explanation given on page — concerning three-year and four-year students is sufficient to show the cause of this variation. A student was counted as going to college whenever he continued his education in any sort of a school after graduation from high school. Many of these schools, such as tractor schools, so-called commercial colleges, and nursing schools, were not of the degree-granting type. A few types of colleges mentioned a few times each may be identified by referring to Table 7 of the appendix, which gives a more detailed classification of these institutions than that shown on the graph. SECTION 5. TENDENCIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE. THE AVERAGE TIME STUDENTS REMAIN IN AGRICTTLTURAL CLASSES HAS NOT MARKEDLY INCREASED. The average time which a student devoted to the study of agri- culture, according to the reports of all students, was 1.7 years, and the corresponding figure for time spent in high school was 2.7 years. The variation by years has been as follows : Year of leaving school. Number of students. Average time in agricul- ture (years). Average time in high school (years). 1904-17 811 471 925 2,066 2,912 506 649 1.65 2.01 1.65 1.68 X.77 1.84 1.55 2 56 1918 2 71 1919 2 76 1920 2 82 1921 2 93 1922 tJnfenown 1 65 The 506 students reported for 1922 represent mid-year graduy ates ajid mortality for the year 1921-22 up to April, 1922. The last item above is included to show the nature of the error in this com- parison, and that 649 students should be distributed among the six preceding periods, although we have no evidence to show how this distribution should be made. ""'t^"+^"^ +i--" o™„ti ;„„ ;_ EDUCATION IX AGRICULTURE. 29 the amount of time devoted to the study of agriculture indicates an optimum which is likely to remain around one and three-fourths to Diagram IX. — Influence of time spent in high school upon time devoted to the study of agriculture. — Average years in high school and in vocational agricul- ture course, per student, by year of leaving school. YCAR or LEAVING SCHOOL mM \w m m m \% m m r") m m m m m SCHOOL Total years in high, school solid line. Years in vocational agriculture broken line. two years, or whether it is the result of the rapid extension of the work into new schools, is at least partially answered by the figures 30 EFFEdTlVENESS OF VOCATIONAL from a few States which have reported students for 8 or ^ 10 years. The increases and comparisons are shown in Diagram IX. The data show that, the- time devoted to the study of agriculture has remained practically constant, while the time spent in high school has slowly but graduUy increased. Wisconsin appears to be an exception, but only , graduates were reported from there before 1914. The curve for Pennsylvania again shows the effect of the community vocational schools and the requirement that all students take agriculture for two years. If conditions continue as in the past we may confidently expect the average student to take only two years of instruction in agriculture, even if he remains in high school for a longer period. Apparently a practical maximum was struck in the beginning, but whether this is an optimum is another question. THE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ENGAGING IN FARMING HAS STEADILY INCREASED. Of all former students reported, 54 per cent were listed as " now farming." The percentage now farming of students leaving school each year gradually increases year by year, as shown in the following table : Year of leaving' school. Total number of former students. Percent- age now farming. Percent- age now farming ol3 or 4 year students. Number of 3 or 4 year students. Percent- age 3 or4 year students are of total number. 1915 131 173 297 471 926 2,066 2,912 39.9 45.1 46.9 49.4 53.7 55.1 59.2 34.9 41.3 47.6 51.2 53.4 50.7 53.0 26 29 42 117 118 296 511 19.8 1916 16 8 1917 14.1 1918 1919 12 8 1920 14.3 1921 17 5 It will be noticed from the above table that the percentage of students studying agriculture three or four years has fluctuated somewhat ; but tha,t the percentages of these students now on farms has followed rather closely the percentages for all students now on farms. The careful reader may raise a question as to whether this increase from 39.9 per cent of the schools' " output " for 1915 now on farms to 59.2 per, cent of the " output" for 1921 now on farms necessarily proves that there has been a permanent gain in the effi- ciency of the vocational instruction in agriculture in causing stu- dents to farm. It might be suggested that it may only represent a sociological condition of rural life. May not the boys be retained on the farm for a season because of immaturity, parental influence, isolation, or numerous other similar factors, and their numbers de- crease as the years go by? The writer ^ can not answer this question for the country as a whole, but he can give a partial answer for 10 EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE. 31 communities in Pennsylvania. The farms in this State are in such proximity to cities and industrial activities that the urge to wage earning is very strong. Farm wages do not appeal to the man working for hire. Practically all of the school-trained farm oper- ators interviewed in the 10 communities in Pennsylvania expected to continue farming, but the men worMng for hire were almost as uniformly set on getting away from the farm. However, many farms were being taken over by men who had been away from home working for a number of years. When the home farms came into their hands, either through inheritance or because of the advanced DiAGEAM X. — Trend in managerial status of school-trained farmers. — Percent- age In each managerial class for students leaving school in year specified, by years : 1915 to 1921. €0% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% ^„.— — ''■ OTAL ONI ARM ^ y PARTNER 5 _,,.—- >-<:-: ,-■--'' LABORER r" ^^siSB5 ■^•^.^ OWNERS -HaSaSei s~ - iqis "ik niT 1418 no YEAR or LEAVING SCHOOL neo 1421 (922 age of their parents, they returned to take charge. * Some boys who go to agricultural college expect to return to the farm, and many of the boys who leave home for wage earning hope to be able to take up farming at a future date when their services on the home farm will be more adequately recognized or when they can obtain a farm to manage. These factors are all working in the 10 communities above referred to, and the writer's experience leads him to believe that they are sufficiently strong to be felt generally in other sections, and may possibly increase the percentage on farms as the years go by rather than decrease it. Certainly there will be some migrations in both directions (see pp. 34 and 35). The only means of get- ting at the truth concerning the permanency of the constant increase 32 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL in number of former students engaging in farming will be to keep permanent individual records over a period of years. The bare data show a very healthy development in the possible vocational signifi- cance of agricultural instruction since 1915, and the writer is in- clined to accept this growth as a mark of gradual and constant progress in the attainment of the ideal of effective vocational edu- cation through the schools, and believes that the data should be accepted for their face value until their true worth can be scientifi- cally determined. Diagram X shows the amount and direction of the change in the percentage of all former students on farms and the percentages now farming listed as owners, managers, renters, partners, and laborers for the years 1915 to 1922. SECTION 6. EXTENT TO WHICH EX=HIQH.SCHOOL STUDENTS WHO HAVE NOT STUDIED AGRICULTURE ENGAGE IN FARMING. The large percentage of high-school students who have studied vocational agriculture, and who are now farming, would have less significance if it could be shown that other high-school students simi- larly situated, but without the opportunity to study agriculture, engage in farming in about the same proportions. An attempt was made to get extensive data on this question in eight States, but the attempt was successful only in New York and partially successful in Pennsylvania. THE NEW TOEK RURAL SURVEY DATA ARE CONCLUSIVE. ° Reports were obtained from 271 rural high schools in the State of New York, representing over 2,350 high-school graduates who had not studied vocational agriculture. Of this number only 3.6 per cent are now engaged in farming. The New York survey found that 45.2 per cent of the graduates from the vocational courses in agri- culture (reports«on 910 ex-students who had studied agriculture in 32 of the 75 schools of the State offering vocational instruction in agriculture) are now farming. The present study under the Fed- eral board (representing 1,115 ex-students who had studied agricul- ture in 46 of the above-mentioned 75 schools) shows that 48 per cent of all students who had studied agriculture for three or four years are now engaged in farming. There is a difference of over 40 in the percentage of students going from school to the' farm when we compare high-school graduates who have not studied agri- « The figures here quoted are not taken frO'in the published report. Doctor Baton, author of the report, gave the writer this information on a. form prepared by the writer in order that the data might be as nearly comparable as possible. EDUCATION IN AGRICULTUKE. 33 :x oe ^ > 32 U O Ct UJ — r < z > UJ u- > UJ iC it! y— oe cx Z U- ct o b-l UJ Z ^7 UJ 11 3 o Ill UJ 1- ^ 3 < S « ^^ «»D ^ ^ UJ 1- Z =3. Z UJ 5? z 3 (^ UJ 3 1— Z _ WD Si 3C S E IH^^^H uJ O > —1 HH —J 3 ■ ^5 ■ *^ j^H ^H (.9 > ^^^1 > ^B _ o cc ^ ^^^1 z ^^H (— N is 3 H^n e.|^B| UJ ^^Hj u_ I^HB fe g ^ ^^^H 1 ^~ ■ < ^ IWl 34 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL culture with graduates from the vocational courses. The percentage of vocational school graduates engaged in farming is over twelve times as great as is the percentage for rural high-school graduates who did not study vocational agriculture. It can not be successfully main- tained that the conditions in the 75 communities or schools in which vocational agriculture is taught are sufficiently different from the conditions in 196 to 271 other communities or schools where voca- tional agriculture is not taught, to account for even a small fraction of this wide variation in the percentage of their students who en- gage in farming after leaving school. Certainly the 75 rural high schools do not select the potential farmers from 271 communities, nor would the sociologist or economist be unable to duplicate the 75 communities in the State of New York in so far as conditions favor- able to high-school students engaging in farming are concerned. DATA FROM SCHOOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA SUPPORT THE FINDINGS IN NEW YORK. In 10 communities in Pennsylvania where vocational agriculture is taught, only 3 academic high-school graduates under 25 years of age were found farming, while there were 225 ex-students farming who had studied vocational agriculture. In 8 other communities in Pennsylvania where vocational agriculture was offered, 5.4 per cent of all male students (129 in number) entering the schools in the fall of 1917 and not studying agriculture are now on farms, and in 5 additiohal communities where 412 entering students (in the fall of 1917) had no opportunity to study agriculture, 2.1 per cent were re- ported as now engaged in farming. These last five communities were served by first-class high schools 'which- were carried on the eligible list to receive Smith-Hughes aid as soon as it was available. The number of boys without high-school training found farming with any marked degree of managerial duties in the 10 communities which the writer visited was the same as the number found farming who had had an academic high-school education. It is evident that in New York and Pennsylvania boys with high- school training without agricultural instruction do not generally engage in farming after leaving school. Diagram XI gives a graphic picture of the data. 'i , VOCATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE IS A SELECTIVE AND A DIREC- TIVE AGENCY. From the foregoing data one can but conclude that vocational instruction in agriculture in the rural high schools is not only a great selective agency (as any special type of instruction will likely EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE. 35 function), but is also a great directive agency, sending young men into farming early in life. If academic high-school students go into farming to any appreciable extent, it is after they have been at other work for a period of years, at least long enough to be beyond the ken of school authorities. The gain in vocational efficiency due to an early start in an occupation where success is so largely dependent upon acquired skills, attitudes, and abilities which can be obtained only through long practice is very evident. Espe- cially is this so when the young farmer is taken into the coimcils of management as has been shown to be the casg with over half of the school-trained farmers. Even the unsympathetic must admit that vocational instruction in agriculture in communities where it is found has already taken a prominent place in the preparation of the coming generation of farmers. It is also evident, in the light of the New York rural survey and the data from 23 Pennsylvania com- munities, that if farmers with a secondary education are to be secured to man the farms the rural secondary schools will not meet the demand unless they offer vocational instruction in agriculture. WHO AKE THE BEGINNrNTG FAEMERS? As vocational instruction in agriculture is a comparatively rare thing in rural communities, and as the data of this study seem fairly to indicate that the young men who go to academic rural high schools do not remain on the farms, it is relevant to ask: How are the farms taken over in the communities where the vocational work does not now reach ? Data are available for Jefferson County, N. Y., in a survey made by Prof. G. F. Warren, of Cornell University. The following comparisons of how 670 farmers in Jefferson County, N. Y., began and how the 4,488 school-trained farmers (who aver- age about 20 years of age and two and one-half years on the farm since leaving high school) are now employed on the farm is sug- gestive of many advantages accruing to the school-trained farmer. One should bear in mind, however, that the farmers of Jeffer- son County are an unselected group of present owners, while the school-trained farmers represent a selected group of beginners, as only about 16 per cent of rural children ever enter high school. There are other discrepancies between the two groups which make the comparisons interesting and suggestive rather than scientifically dependable. 36 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL Hoio farmers gain experience. Farmers on 670 farms in Jefferson County, N. Y. 4,488 school-trained farmers averaging 2J years on the farm. Percentage of cases in which the farmer began as: Owner 2.7 Renter (tenant) 5. 8 Laborer (hired man) 12. 8 Hired man, then tenant. 41. 6 ■ 54.4 Other labor ^ 36.7 Other labor, then owner 4.9 I Other labor, then tenant 4.2 Other' labor, then hired man, then owner 6.9 Other labor, then tenant, then owner 5.7 Other labor, then hired man, then tenant....... 9.3 Other labor, then hired man, then tenant, then owner 5. 7 Partner Manager Total 100.0 Average age became, owner, 35 years. (Average age farmers became owners in Livingston County, 36 years.) . . Average age became tenant, 29 yeajs. Percentage now employed as: Owner 9.5 Renter (tenant) 7.2 Laborer (hired man) 29. 4 Other labor (13.6 per cent of these farm- ers had worked at occupations other than farming.) Partner 48. 3 Manager 5.6 Total 100.0 Average age of these farmers, 20 years. The above figurbs show that 36.7 per cent of the farmers of Jeffer- son County began at other labor than farm labor, and though, we can not expect the group of 25 per cent to 40 per cent of all students who study agriculture and fail to engage in agricultural work imme- diately after leaving school to return to the farm, nevertheless it is pertinent evidence that "some of them will return and so have an opportunity to benefit from their vocational instruction. SECTION 7. RETURNS FROM INDIANA AND VIRGINIA. As this, manuscript was being put into final form data were received from the States of Indiana and Virginia. These data came in too late to be included in the totals and percentages of this study, and are included here as received.'' These returns serve as examples of ' Table 2 of the Indiana report is a ranlsing of the schools In the State and is omitted because It has no particular bearing upon this study. EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE. 37 what each State should do in the way of summarizing data on " folloAv-up " records of former students. The returns corroborate the conclusions and data for the 35 States. They make the percentage of schools and the percentage of the total enrollment which are represented by " follow-up " data well over 50 per cent of the schools and enrollment in the United States. The 35 States reported 8,340 former students of vocational agriculture out of school and 4,488 of these as actual farmers, the data from the States of Indiana and Virginia increas3 the former figure to 10,005 and the latter figure to 5,446. The inclusion of the data from these States changes the percentage of former students who engage in farming after leaving school by only five-tenths of 1 per cent, and in no case would the inclusion of the results from thesj two States change the data sufficiently to call into question any of the con- clusions of this study. Director Wreidt finds that 76 per cent of the students who have left school for work are engaged in the work for which they were prepared. In comparing this figure with the 54 per cent of former students who are now farming, the reader should bear in mind that the 54 per cent is based upon all former students of vocational agri- culture who have left school, and includes only actual farmers. On this basis Director Wreidt's figures show 61 per cent of all former students engaged in farming. This is the same percentage as obtains in the State of Ohio. Some persons may be inclined to suggest that Director Wreidt's phraseology " At work for which they were pre- pared " is ambiguous enough to account for a large number of stu- dents not in strictly agricultural work; but a quotation from a per- sonal letter from Director Wreidt will clear away any doubts regard- ing his classification. " You ask liow we considered such related occupations as cow testing and teaching agriculture. The table shows a total of 711 boys who had had one year or more of the vocational course in agriculture and who were at work. Of this number, 542, or 76 per cent, were at work in the occupation for which they were trained. All but 14 of the 542 were unquestionably at work on the farm. The remaining 14 were engaged in what we call " related occupations." These related occupations were defined as occupations so closely related to farming that the training received in the vocational course had a very definite vocational value in the related occupation. The 14 are completely accounted for, as follows: 1 selling Fordson tractor. 1 cream tester for a creamery company. 1 buys farm produce. 1 tests milk in a milk testers' association. 1 does cow testing for a cow-testing association. 1 is in the poultry business, raising and selling poultry. 1 is a florist. 1 works In a drug store and raises and sells poultry. 38 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL 1 teaches country school for eight months,, but farms* four months and Saturdays and holidays. 1 teaches vocational agriculture. 1 teaches agricultural in elementary schools. 3 teach agriculture, but we do not know whether it is vocational agricul- ture or whether it is in high school or in elementary school. " We used what we caEed a • cross-section method ' of tabulating our results. If a boy had been out of school for three years and worked on a farm for the first two and one-half years, but was clerking in a grocery store at the time the study was made, he was not recorded as at work on the farm. The figures therefore present a cross-section view of what the boys are doing at the par- ticular time when the study was made. " If there was any doubt in our minds as to the proper interpretation to be made, we did not record the boy as working on the farm. For example, three boys were attending Wabash College in Crawfordsville, which is near their home farm. They had had the vocational agriculture course in the Crawfords- ville High School. While attending college they were at work on their home farms just outside of Crawfordsville all summer and from time to time through- out the college sessions. We recorded these boys as attending college in a non- agricultural course." Wlien we consider that these results were checked by Director Wreidt personally by conference with the teachers compiling the records, we can justly place great dependability upon their accuracy. State Supervisor Eason, of Virginia, concludes that "Apparently the more education a pupil receives the less likely is he to follow farming as a means of earning a livelihood." The results from a number of States indicated that this conclusion was justified, but other States made the reverse showing. The mathematical expres- sion for the correlation in the 35 States was found to be — .05 dz .12 as regards the advantages of three or four years devoted to the study of agriculture over one or two years. Hence we are justified in con- cluding that any pronounced showing in either direction in any particular State is not due to inherent tendencies chargeable to schooling but due to local conditions. The only data given in this study concerning negro schools are contained in the tables submitted by Supervisor Eason for the eight negro schools of Virginia which, it will be remarked, make, as com- pared with the white schools, a very poor showing. There is cer- tainly a field for further investigation and constructive work in increasing the vocational efficiency of these schools. As negro seconds ary education is in its infancy, the conditions ought to be ideal for developing the type of school or method of instruction which would give the greatest possible vocational returns. THE INDIANA STUDY. The compilations of the data for Indiana were distributed in the State under the following covering letter by the State director of vocational education: EDUCATION IN AGRICTJLTUKE. 39 To trustees, superintendents, principals, and teachers of agriculture: The attached Tables 1, 2, and 3 are submitted for such use as you may be able to make of them. The figures show what becomes of the boys who have had one year or more of the approved course in vocational agriculture in Indiana. - i The facts were obtained last spring from the vocational teachers and were carefully checked by the undersigned in personal conference with the teach- ers. We have the names of all but a few of the 711 boys listed in column 11. Of these 711 boys in Indiana who have had one year or more of vocational training in agriculture in high school, and who have left school for work, 76 per cent are engaged in farming, the occupation for which they were trained. To the writer these figures show that for the State as a whole the vocational agriculture course is performing one of the functions it is intended to per- form, namely, to give vocational training to future farm workers. You will be interested in finding how your school compares with other schools in the State. Let me urge every agriculture school to try to raise the average for the State by being as careful as possible in selecting pupils for admission to the course. The course in vocational agriculture misses its distinctive aim unless a large portion of the boys become farmers. Table 1.- -Boys iclio have had one year or more of vocational agriculture in Indiana, May, 192$. City. ■P2 g.2 3 . O O 12 t. o o 13 Total, 60 cities.. - Angola Aubum Aurora Battle Ground.. Brazil Bremen Brookston Charlestowu Clay City Columbia City.. Columbus Cory don CrawfordsviUe.. Dayton Delphi DepauWi . . Elwood Forest Frankfort. Garrett 2,531 1,422 248 104 68 169 Aug., 1920 Aug., 1919 June, 1920 Sept.,1920 Jan., 1917 Sept., 1919 Aug., 1920 JulT, 1920 Sept.,1919 Sept., 1917 Sept., 1914 Sept., 1918 ...do Sept., 1920 Sept.,1916 Sept., 1919 June, 1919 Sept., 1919 Sept., 1918 Sept., 1920 32 44 18 28 81 145 56 75 20 59 19 33 41 51 20 7 11 4 10 54 103 13 23 IS 19 35 76.2 100 10b 100 100 100 100 76 67 58 100 85 100 loe 40 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL. Table 1. — Boys who have had one pear or more of vocational agriculture in Indiana, May, 1922 — Continued. 11 Eg OR ■1 1! P o o.a *> .g •a h si 1 1 1 1 as II 2; Lelt high, school 1 . 11 a 1 3 O In college. At work. City. If 1 a> br 3 ■w ■Si So do" & a •s a S b" ^1 a < 1° 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 . 12 13 14 Gosport Sept., 1920 Aug., 1919 Sept., 1916 Sept., 1917 Sept., 1920 Sept., 1915 Sept., 1919 June,. 1920 Sept., 1916 Aug., 1920 Jan., 1920 Sept., 1916 do 26 33 76 65 19 54 24 27 40 32 55 18 29 65 38 44 34 33 27 51 56 28 82 25 14 26 44 93 46 48 33 36 50 97 35 15 20 30 19 20 17 21 47 23 16 16 11 21 14 15 33 ""ie" 29 24 36 24 17 22 32 25 22 35 23 11 21 35 28 29 38 23 35 22 37 23 13 18 28 16 14 1 8 5 5 16 2 1 3 3 20 8 1 12 3 1 ....„ S 5 2 1 1 ■■■"4" 2 3 2 ""is" 9 1 2 1 3 4 . 8 4 24 27 3 22 11 5 23 14 2 10 12 24 11 7 10 16 2 19 26 1 45 1 3 4 9 61 15 7 8 1 28 47 3 1 1 1 7 4 23 20 2 15 6 3 18 12 2 7 10 22 9 5 5 9 2 19 23 1 39 1 3 4 8 49 12 7 8 1 22 36 3 1 6 4 18 16 2 9 4 3 18 11 2 6 9 14 9 4 5 7 1 14 20 1 32 ""3 4 8 22 5 4 8 19 21 2 1 ...... 4 6 2 ...... ...... 1 8 1 ....„ 1 5 3 ....„ 1 ■'27' 7 3 ...... 3 15 1 1 86 Greenfield 100 Greensburg 1 3 ...... 3 78 Hanover.... Hillsboto.. Indianapolis Jackson Town- ship, Tippeca- noe County Kingman.,, MamSa.!!'/.::::; Marion 7 1 4 5 1 2 2 "i' 1 4 1 2 1 7 3 1 ..... 80 100 60 67 100 100 92 100 Matthews 1 Metz ""2 1 2 2 5 3 3 86 90 Monticello MooresHill...... Mooresville Sept., 1915 Sept., 1918 Sept., 1915 Sept., 1919 Sept., 1917 Aug., 1920 Sept., 1918 Sept., 1916 Sept., 1920 , 191S Sept., 1920 Aug., 1920 Aug., 1919 1 2 1 2 64 100 80 Morristown Mount Summit. . Mount Vernon... 3 2 2 1 1 1 100 77 50 New Salisbury. . 74 OwensvlUe...... 3 2 1 87 100 PencUeton PlainviUe 4 2 2 82 EeelsviUe 100 Bichland 100 Scottsburg '■■■3' 1 9 3 "3 1 9 100 45 42 57 Seymour Shelby ville Spencer Sept., 1916 May, 1917 Sept., 1919 June, 1917 Aug., 1918 Sept., 1916 Sept., 1917 Aug., 1920 ...do Sept., 1920 Stockwell 100 SummitTiUe Union Township, Johnson County 6 11 "2 6 9 86 58 67 jWaterloo... !...... West Lafayette.. West Lebanon... Westpoint 1 1 1 100 Winchester ...do Worthlngton... ..do ... 2 1 1 1 1 > Discontinued May, 1921. Table 2, ranking cities on the basis of percentages, shown in the last column of Table 1, and Table- 3, repeating the totals of Table 1, are omitted. EDUCATION IN AGKIOULTUEE. 41 Table 1 shows that of the 711 boys in Indiana who have had one year or more of vocational training in agriculture in high school and who' are at work 76 per cent are engaged at farming, the occu- pation for which they were trained. In 22 agriculture schools all (100 per cent) of the boys who have had oiie year or more of the vocational course in high school and who are at work are engaged at farming. This involves 102 boys in the 22 agriculture schools. These figures show that the Indiana vocational schools in agri- culture are performing one of the functions they are intended to perform, namely, to give vocational training to future farm workers. It is also interesting to note that boys who have taken the voca- tional course in agriculture which prepares them to be farmers are also able to' meet college entrance requirements. As shown in Ta- ble 1, 104 boys who have had one year or more of the vocational course in agriculture were in college; 36 of these boys were in the college agriculture course and 68 in other courses. THE VIRGINIA STUDT. Following is an extract from the annual report to the Federal Board for Vocational Education by J. D. Eason, State supervisor for agricultural education : A study of the follow-up records presented below brings out some very striking situations, situations which may necessitate revolutionary changes In the whole scheme of vocational education. The data have not been collected for a long enough period for the board to justify now any radical changes, but a study of the data forces some serious questions concerning our procedure In training young men for the business of farming. The tabulations show (1) that 40 per cent of all pupils who have left (by graduation and otherwise) the agricultural departments are now engaged In farming, a percentage higher than the most sanguine had hoped for; (2) the percentage of high-school graduates who pursued courses in vocational agri- culture now farming is far less than those who left school before finishing the course. Apparently the more education a pupil receives the less likely is he to follow farming as a means of earning a livelihood. (3) More of the grad- uates of agricultural high schools attend the Virginia Polytechnic Institute than any other college, and more of them are specializing in agriculture- than in anything else, but the total number of graduates from agricultural depart- ments who are enrolled in academic colleges is in excess of the number enrolled In the college of agriculture. Detail for the Virginia schools is given in the four tables follow- ing — for white schools in Tables 1 and 2, and for colored schools in Tables 3 and 4. 42 EITECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL Table 1. — Virginia white schools of vocational agricultwre: the period, 1911-1922. [Compiled February, 1922.] General data -for Depart- ment of agri- oulture estab- lished. Num- ber years in op- era- tion. Enrollment. Pupils vrho have left school. School. Total all years. Aver- age. Totsl indi- vid- ual. Pres- ent. Grad- uates. Non- grad- uates. Total. Num- ber. farm- ing. -Per cent (arm- ing. Total 2,991 1,823 1,019 300 504 814 320 40 1919r20 1917-18 1919-20 1918-19 1919-20 1918-19 1919-20 1919-20 1917-18 1921-22 1917-18 1917-18 1917-18 1917-18 1919-20 1919-20 1919-20 1920-21 1918-19 1919-20 1917-18 1917-18 1919-20 1917-18. 1'918-19 1919-2B' 19^0-21 1920-21 1921-22 1921-22 1917-18 1919-20 1917-18 1917-18 1919-20 19i9-^20 1917-18 1920-21 1921-22 . 1919-20 3 3 3 4 3 , 4 3 3 5 1 5 5 6 I 3 3 2 ' 5 3 5' 5 3 5 4. 3 . 2 2 1 1 5 3 5 5 3 3 B ■I 3 3 2, 4 ,2, 1 ^ 3. ■ ' 5' 3 5 4 4 3 6 30 89 62 110 31 68 44 62 67 17 - 82, 92 .75 45 68 75> 61 32 102 33 63 59 39 93 -34 '" 62' 40 32 18 17 86 64 92 79 47 61 68 60 22 : ®^ ' 34- 31 38' 27 U 44 57' 65 74 56, 46 62 124 10 18 17 27 10 17 15 17 13 , 17' 16 18 15 9 19 25' 17 16 ,20, 11 13 12 13 18 • 8 20 20 16 18 17 17 21 18 16 16 ■ 14 ,.30 22 ,,,20 U 15 14 13 11 . 14 11 21 13 ,14 '12' 20 25 18 64 32 67 24 38 26 42 51 17 60 41 48 33 36 . 45 37 21 ,62' 20 39 3& 23' 41 28 36 23 18 18 17 , 43 40 48 60 32 ' 38 46 39 22 , 44 26 , 23 ' 29 18 11 . 26 31 36 37 39 31 i ,38 46 10 21 IB 38 18 19 15 29 21 17 16 19 21 13 17 '28 17 19 29 14 19 16 13 20 14 ■ ''27 ' 22 17 18 17 17 18 25 21 19 "''15 .10 ,16 „ 18 16 17 13 11 18 16 27 18 24 ' 1"9 23 20 2 10 8 11 2 11 8 ...... 6 22 6 18 4 S 3 13 19 8 32 14 29 6 19 11 13 30 4 12 7 5 2 5 6 7 8 50 ^rpomattox , 38 Atlee.l.w.-. SO 17 33 26 35 54 Burfcrille... 27 Burke's Garden Gharlotte Court House. ..:.... CMseCity ,8 6 12 8 10 5 2 ....„ 10' 12 & 6 6 ...... 24 17 11 9 12 18 2 17 6 10 10 5 'I 9 ...... 32 23 27 20 19 17 20 2 23 6 ■20 22 10 21 14 9 1 1 9 5 6 5 8 7 9 28 22 Chester..! 22 Clarexaont ,* 25 Climax 42 Cobbs Creek 41 Courtland 45 Critz .. . 4 9 6 2 14 1 5 43 Cumtierlliid 67 i)inwiddi^.<7 45 Driver. . . . 23 Eastville 20 Elk Creek , EM6'g ':. ■ ■ ' ■ .. ; ■" 67 7 li'mcastle 56 Tloris. * Great Bridge 1 100 6 9 4 28 2 14 10 . 2 1 20 13 19 11 11 9 26 2 26 22 23 39 13 23 36 4. 14 9 '.5 10 6 3 8 ,, 2 64 Lincoln ^ 40 Ma'ijassas . .. ^'. ■.. .' ;. 22 28 Mount 'Jackson ... 46 13 New London i 22 50 Poquoson ^. 20 ...... * 8 8 7 7 1 28 8 7 12 6 2 2 2 5 2 7 1919-20 1920-21 1918-19 1920-21 1921-2i2 1919-20 1917-18' 1919-20 1917-18 1918-19 1917-18 1919-20 1917-18 25 Salem , . 28 41 Syringa 40 I'emperanceville 1 3 3 8' 4 5 7 25 7 12 6 11 11 7 8 1 8 15 1? 15 12 15 26 2 9 I 11 4 , 8 13 26 fefctfriiie. :.:... ::.... : 60 Varina 66 Wakefield 37 78 33 Windsor...:. V.,..;. 53 EDUCATION IN, A6EICULTUEE. 43 Table 2. — Virginia white schools of vocational affriculture: Detailed occupa- tional dist7-ibution of pupils who have left school in the period 1917-1022. School. a 1 1 h II .15 > 1 ai ll > 1 i d i > s 1. > id 1 o i 103 '1 s 13 1 168 1 St M i 1 a 00 19 be 26 OS s 7 M & 1-1 18 1 1 n 14 t 1 5 CO 3 1 1 s '23 to la 6 1 1 S 3 ei d S d es P5 t^ 10 > P d M 00 39 1 1 a M S 43 d 1 .5 1 1 2 > 1 d OS Atlee 3 -- 2 Blaoksburg .... 4 3 5 8 1 4 3 1 ... 1 3 1 1 ■••J 2 "i 'i 1 n Boyce 1 1 Bridgewatar 1 1 "i BrownsbuTg 3 'i 1 ■-i '2 Buckingham 1 Burke ville 5 .... 2 7 e 12 2 Burkes Garden . . . Charlotte C.H.... 9 5 6 S 8 7 9 1 1 1 1 2 6 5 2 1 5 2 3 7 6 4 I 6 2 4 2 1 1 3 •3 -■••( 2 4 1 1 '3 "i 1 "i 1. Chase City 1 1 "2 1 1 s Chester 2 2 1 1 n Claremont "5 -•• 3 2 A ClimftT,. , — "i : "3 1 5 .... 1 i '2 '2 1 Cobhs Creek ? Courtland 1 1 4 Critz 1 1 Culpeper 10 4 9 5 2 14 1 5 1 1 2 3 1 ? Cumberland 1 Dinwiddle ""i 2 2 3 1 1 4 3 2 3 4 9 2 2 1 5 13 5 4 4 1 2 1 Driver 1 Eastville 1 1 Elk Creek .... 1 1 4 1 Ewing 1 2 Fincastle 1 1 ... - .... 1 Floris 1 Great Bridge 1 Ivy Depot Lawrenceville ........ Lebanon 14 9 5 10 6 3 8 2 1 1 '"i 1 1 '"i 3 1 4 2 2 6 2 4 2 4 4 2 8 4 1 2 2 1 2 1 3 3 - "i 1 'i '2 1 Lincoln -• 1 1 1 S Manassas Middle town 2 ""2 ""i 1 1 "i 1, 1 2 1 1 3 14 Mount Jackson 2 7 "'"i ■■ 1 1 2 1 2 2 I 1 1 "i ...: 1 1, 1 ... 1 1 "}. New London 1 1.') 1 1 Pearisburg Poquoson 2 2 2 5 2 2 2 1 6 • -•: 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 'i !■> Pnwhfttan 3 RalflTTi I 2 .. 1 Sparta 3 1 4 .... 4 1 1 Syringa 1 1 1 j 2 9 6 6 11 4 8 13 1 3 2 3 1 1 " -■ i Turbeville 1 1 .... 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :::: Wakefield 2 1 2 5 3 1 6 4 1 8 1 1 .... 6l.... 7;.... 2i.... 1 1 Whitmell 1 "5 1 ::: 1 Williamsburg 1 1 1 3 1 ? Windsor .... 2 ::.v; 5 44 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL Table 3. — Virginia colored' gohooig of vocational agriculture! General data for* ■ ', the period, 1917-^1932. [Compiled February, 1922.] Depart- ment of Agri- culture estab- Ushed. Num- ber years in op- era- tion. Enrollment. Pupils who have left school. School. Total aU years. Aver- age. Total indi- vid- ual. Pres- ent. Grad- uates. Non- grad- uates. Total. Num- ber farm- ing. Per cent fann- ing. Total 419 18 225 155 24 47 71 12 17 1918-19 1918-19 1918-19 1921-22 1921-22 1918-19 1921-22 1918-19 Albemarle County Training School. ; 121 59 62 12 21 50 9 85 , 30 14 18 12 21 12 » 17 S2 34 27 12 21 .27 r 9 *3 43 1* 21 12 21 18. 9 17 7 2 20 6 9 20 5 2 5 1 22 Caroline County Training School 25 Charles City County Training School 20 Halifax Comity Training School Middlesex County Training School . . Nottoway County Training School. 3 6 9 2. 22 Sussex Comity Training School Virginia Normal and Indus- i tml listlitute;. 14 14 2& 2 7 Table 4. — Virginia colored schools of vocational agriculture: Detailed occupa- tional distriliution of piipils who have left school in the period 1917-19S2. R OS a ig| a-op > - : ;.B rS o ^ ■?>^ n o a 5 Total i ,.j. 10 AlbeBiarle Comity Training SehooL Caroline County Training School Charles City County Training School Halifax County Training School Middlesex County Training School Nottoway County Training School— Sussex County Training School Virginia Norioal and Industrial Institute.. 13 17 Part IV. CONCLUSIONS. 1. From 60 to 75 per cent of the students given vocational instruc- tion in agriculture are now in agricultural work. With 54 per cent farming, 5 per cent in related occupations, 8 per cent in agricultural college, and 9 per cent unaccounted for, we have a possible 76 per cent for the high figure in the above estimate. On the other hand, 67 per cent might be justified for the low figure, but the writer prefers to keep his estimates of fact well within the field of reasonable criticism. Opinion is divided upon the question of the functioning of vocational instruction in agriculture as a prepa- ration for agricultural college, but there seems to be a large degree of accord among teacher-trainers that the college student prepared in the vocational classes of the high school makes the best possible material for the teacher-training classes. It has been shown that the students in the Pennsylvania State College' who have had their preparatory work in the vocational classes make as good grades as do their classniates, and it is possible to make at least a plausible argument that the vocational instruction in the high school will func- tion to improve farming through the agricultural college graduate or other college men who farm. 2. The vocational classes in agriculture in the States of New York and Pennsylvania are sending from ten to twenty times as large a proportion of their students directly into' farming as do the academic high schools. The writer knows of no evidence which would lead one to expect large variations from this estimate in the other States. The low and high figures in this estimate are far apart, but the low figure is as low as anyone could reasonably set in the light of the data of this study, and the writer believes that the high figure -is well within the realm of the probable. 3. The number of students going out annually from the secondary schools with vocational instruction in agriculture has increased tenfold since the passage of the Federal vocational education (Smith- Hughes) act. In 1917 the number reported was 297 and in 1921 it was reported as 2,912. 8 Unpublished data. 45 46 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL 4. The mortality rate for students of vocational agriculture is only two-fifths as great as is the mortality rate for all high-school students. Whether this lessened mortality is a condition under which the work is carried on or a result of the work is yet to be determined. The fact that vocational instruction in agriculture is subject to but two-fifths of the usual educational and financial loss due to mortality is well worth knowing and using. 5. The low mortality rate and the high graduation rate for students of vocational agriculture do not increase college enrollment pro- portionately. As the colleges enroll a sniall proportion of the larger number of graduates, among students of vocational agriculture, a larger propor- tion must be attr^ptjcci to the vocations. The returns from a number of States show thg^t a larger percentage of high-school graduates from the vpcationa,! courses engage in farming than of those leaving school before graduating. 6. W^ieth^r a student devotes one or two years or three or four years to the study of agriculture seems not to affect the probability that he will farm. The results, from: a few States show some tendency for either a, positive or negative correlation, and the time element is probably a real factor in causing boys to farm in some localities and under some conditions; but there is, no correlation when the country as a whole is considered^ the unit. 7. There is np tendency for the average amount of time which students devote to the study of vocational agriculture to be increased or, lessened. In the State of Pennsylvania the two-year requirement in the 3T community vocational schools brings the average up with a tendency to remain between two and one-half and two and three-fourths years. Between 1915 and 1918 Wisconsin's average fluctuated be- tween two and two and one-half years, but for the last three years the average has stayed close to the two-year mark. With such a con- stant average for the country as a whole from 1904 to the present, one should confidently expect an equally constant reason or set of reasons.® 8. Students who receive vocational instruction in agriculture are being given a partnership interest in the home farm, and this part- nership status has increased rapidly since the passage of the Smith- Hughes Act. Of the ^students, reported on farms in 1916, 29 per cent » The rapid growth of Tocational instruction in agriculture and the Influence of college entrance requirements may go a long way toward explaining this fact; but the reasons should be scientifically determined, and if they are found to be illegitimate they should be made IneCfectire and the condition righted. EDUCATION" IN AGEICULTURE. • 47 Avere classed as partners. In 1918 the percentage of partners had gone up to 45, and in 1920 and 1921 the percentage of partners was 51. 9. Though the data show a fairly high degree of efficiency for the vocational instruction in agriculture as regards the above conclu- sions, the data also show how far from universal this instruction is for all boys who are to take charge of farms or who are to work upon farms. The rural economists say that the productive managerial life of a farmer is 20 years, which means that one-twentieth of the farms of the country must be taken over by beginners each year. If each of these new farm operators is to have the advantage of a secondary education, with vocational instruction, it will be necessary to turn out each year one-twentieth as many graduates as there are farms. The six and one-half million farms of the country would need 325,000 recruits each year. In 1921 the secondary schools sent 3,900 students (estimate based upon percentage of schools reporting) onto the farm with one or more years' vocational instruction in agricul- ture. This is but 1.2 per cent of the number actually needed, and many of these had very meager training. To insure each beginning farm operator a four-year secondary education, with vocational instruction, it will be necessary to graduate each year one hundred times as many students as went onto the farm from vocational agri- cultural classes during the year 1920-21. If the ideal of universal secondary and vocational education for farmers is maintained, it is well tO' recognize the fact that at present just about 1 per cent of the job is being done. If ideals are to be made realities, and if it is to be possible for each future farmer to secure a secondary education, Avith vocational instruction, it will be necessary to plan to work on a much larger scale. Before such expansion is justifiable, much research must be done. The next move is to determine how the organization, methods, and materials of vocational education in agriculture all function and, when the value of the product is assured, to expand the work with all energies to make it universal and democratic. 10. The writer considers that this study is but a beginning step in determining the extent to which vocational instruction functions in farming. He believes that each State should keep informed con- cerning the various items of this study as they apply to each school in the State. The next step will be to determine the farm practice of the school product, and then whether or not the school instruc- tion is responsible for any improvement that might be found. Under present conditions the indirect or community value of vocational in- struction in agriculture is a vital question that needs study. 11. The results from this study show conclusively that vocational instruction in agriculture has been in operation long enough to 48 ^EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL, justify intensive researches for the purpose of determining its effi- ciency in improving the various phases of farm practice. A national program for research should be formulated and carried forward with the full support of State and Federal organizations for voca- tional education in agriculture. 12. The interpretations and conclusions of this study are sup- ported by the results of the New York rural survey and by similar studies in Indiana and Virginia. The data for the New York rural survey were obtained through an entirely separate study and by methods different from those used in gathering the data here presented. The schools studied were in part the same, and the State averages on the comparable points based upon 32 and 46 schools, respectively, correspond with all but mathematical accuracy. The data from Indiana and Virginia were obtained, tabulated, verified, and interpreted as Director Wreidt and Supervisor Eason thought best. This study does not present data for the States of Indiana and Virginia to compare with their results, but it does pre- sent data for neighboring States with very similar results. When four persons working separately get approximately identical or harmonious results, the truth can not be very far off. 13. When it becomes desirable to repeat this study, a 15 per cent random sample of the schools will give dependable results for the country as a whole. APPENDIX. SECTION" 1. DEPENDABILITY OF DATA. The preceding pages have necessarily contained much information concerning the extensiveness and accuracy of thei data upon which this study is based. The following pages are intended, primarily, for the student who wants to check the procedure or make a more detailed study of certain items or certain localities. This study should be an incentive for numerous local studies by persons in direct contact with local conditions, so that highly dependable results may be had for an individual school. Such students will have no difficulty in comparing their results with the totals given here, and in the light of their knowledge of local conditions make de- tailed interpretations. The summaries for the original tabulations are all that can be included here), for the next step in detail would fill a large volume. As such detail could not be used with a desirable degree of accuracy by any except those closely connected with the situations concerned, its publication is not justified. Table 1.- -Representative character of data — "All-day " agricultural schools, with separate schools for negroes excluded. State. Number of schools. Enrollment. Percentage of total. Total." Eeport- ing. Total. In schools report- Schools report- mg. Enroll- ment In schools reporting. 23 11 357 138 48 39' 44 «46 <940 940 100 100 39 15 1,097 478 38 44, 21 11 548 217 52 40 5 5 77 77 100 100 18 11 283 168 61 59 14 10 264 213 71 84 '30 14 1,403 S19 47 37 14 '19 1,053 1,053 100 100 !115 66 < 2,717 1,609 57 59 45 15 733 235 33 32 30 15 1,040 377 50 36 22 15 688 247 68 36 18 16 331 315 89 95 47 19 716 302 40 42 74 37 1,949 912 50 47 38 19 586 360 50 61 10 10 143 143 100 100 15 15 <712 712 100 100 75 46 1,938 803 61 41 Arizona Arkansas Cahtornia Colorado Connecticut. Delaware.. Florida.... Georgia. . . Idaho Illinois Iowa Kentucky.. Louisiana.. Maine Minnesota.. Missouri Nebraska New Hampshire. New Jersey New York ' Figm'es in this column, except as noted, were taken from the report of th? Federal Board for Vocational Education for the year ending June 30, 1921. ' All figures in this column, excepting those for Idaho, were obtained by special reports from the State supervisors. ' Reports for Arkansas include 2, and reports tor Idaho 5 schools m excess of the number reported to the Federal board. < These figures, also, were obtained by special reports. I This figure is for 1920, as the 1921 figure was not available. 49 50 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL. Table 1. — Representative character of data, etc. — Continued. Number of schools. Enrollment. Percentage of total. state. Total. Eeport- ing. Total. In schools re_port- ^'chools report- ing. Enroll- ment in schools reporting. North Carolina 35 13 *63 27 16 <53 37 18 40 81 22 1 31 14 10 61 16 5 63 22 11 30 29 11 1 24 764 293 n,401 580 460 « 1,213 768 357 917 1,035 893 60 1,222 250 267 1,330 207 113 1,213 428 214 655 460 366 60 853 40 77 97 S9 31 100 59 61 75 36 50 100 77 33 North Dakota 91 Ohio 95 34 25 Pennsylvania , 100 South Carolina 66 South Dalsota 60 TnTinp.wefi- ^ 71 Texas 44 Utah 41 100 Wisconsin 70 Total, 33 States. :. 1,134 32 6 702 16 4 27,528 688 (») 16,234 ^*\08 61.79 50 80 sa94 Wyoming United States 1,512 722 37,082 16,686 47.8 45 * These figures, also, were obtained by special reports. • No report. ERROR DUE TO INADEQUATE SAMPLING. To obtain some idea as to the number of schools which must report in order to secure a fair sampling of the schools of a State, the reports from the Pennsylvania schools were checked for the percentage of former students now on farms and the percentage going to college when 25, 40, 60, and 90 per cent of the schools of the State had reported. Twenty-five per cent of the schools indi- cated results about 6 per cent below what the complete returns for the State gave, 40 and 60 per cent of the schools indicated results for the State almost identical 'with the complete returns, and 90 per ceiht of the schools indicated results about 8 per cent above what the complete returns gave. We must conclude that the 40 and 60 per cent samples only chanced to be representative. When so few as 53 schools are being considered, the failure of even a few schools to report may develop a considerable margin of error. But after weighing the 35 States according to the lumber of students reported out of school, we may confidently expect errors in the separate States to be largely offset and neutralized. Table 1 shows that the percentage of schools reporting in the group of 31 States represents practically an equal percentage of the total enrollment in those States. It should be remembered, how- EDUCATION IN AGRICULTUEE. 51 ever, that there is a rather wide variation between these percentages in some of the States and that this factor will make State compari- sons or interpretations treacherous for those who are not conversant with the local conditions. EREOK IN TABULATION. In checking the reports to eliminate duplicates in occupations for the State of Illinois, two unusual reports were noticed. These two reports listed 31 students which the writer thought should not have been counted. The tabulator had failed to note the evidence (though not positive evidence) that these students were still in school. The reports for the entire State (66 in number) were retabulated with great care. The writer made all decisions, personally, concerning each questionable item. The results of this retabulation are given in Table 2. It will be observed that 65 fewer students were counted in this retabulation. Forty-six of these students were thrown out by four decisions (22 thrown out in one decision) . Over half the error all the way through these items is due to 36 graduates (in various of the 66 reports) which one tabulator considered were mid-year graduates and should be counted; but on checking evidence was found on the reports indicating that these students would graduate in May or June of this year (1922), though the evidence was not conclusive in all cases. It will be seen from the table that one of the most important items, namely, the number of former students now on farms, had an error of less than 1 per cent. In most of the items about three- fourths of the error here shown was due to interpretation and the one-fourth due to mistakes in arithmetic; but as four per- sons did the work, both of these errors must be variable and are negligible for the study as a whole. The totals from the original tabulation for Illinois are used in this study. The reports from Tllinois were the last reports to come in and were received in June, : whereas they were supposed to have been filled out as of March or April. Hence there was a tendency on the part of the teachers to report students who were scheduled to gradu- ate within a week or so and to report students who had planned to quit school at the end of the year. The reports from other States filled out in Marchior April were not subject to any great error of interpretation in this respect. This is shown to be a fact by Table 3, where a 15 per cent random sample of the 722 schools, retabulated under the same conditions as the 12J per cent sample, which the 66 schools of Illinois represents, gave an error in count of number of students of 1.1 per cent, as against 6.2 per cent for Illinois. Again, &2 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL for the same reasons stated above, the decisions were more liable to error in the case of Illinois.! State Supervisor Carl Colvin, of Illinois, reviewed the questionable reports from his State and was able to determine from his personal knowledge that the writer had been too severe in his decisions and thought that the true count would faU between 1,000 and 1,030, or within a variation of 30 instead of 65, as shown in Table 2. The writer holds this opinion also, and these data are submitted here to represent an extreme case of the greatest possible variation in results at all compatible with rational judgment, and that even this extreme case does not show error sufficient to affect the results for the study as a whole. Tabi^e 2. — Showing numerical divergence and percentage of error resulting from two separate tabulations of the data submitted by the State of Illinois. Item of questionnaire. Divergence of second tabulation from first tabulation. Percentage error based upon first tabulation (1,030 boys). Number of students Aggregate years these students studied vocational agriculture Aggregate years in high school Number of graduates Number rated for scholarship: High Average ; ..: Low Number going to college...' Number mnonagricultural occupations Number of farm owners Number of farm managers Number of renters : Number of partners Number of farm laborers » i... Aggregate months farmed Nmnber specializing ». Number rated for success: High Average Low 6.19 1.80 £.19 3 5 1 2 g 10 9 4 8 i 2 13 5 1 The work, of tabulation was done by unusually well-qualified per- sons : A senior in commerce and finance with a reputation for care and accuracy in tabulating for the Pennsylvania State College Ex- periment Station, three former high-school teachers thoroughly con- versant with rural high-school conditions and the purpose and method of this study, and an advanced student in agricultural edu-- Cation who had collected original data for the study in a Pennsyl- vania school and community.; During the first few days the writer gave detailed supervision to the work of tabulating, and after that he was available as needed. The personal error in tabulation was determined as follows: The States were arranged in alphabetical order, and the reports from each EDUCATION IN AGRICULTUKE. 53 State arranged by chance within the State. Every twentieth report was then selected and retabulated with the greatest of care, and suc- cessive 5 per cent samplings were taken in like manner until the results remained as constant as could be expected from the data. Table 3 gives the results for a 5, 10, and 15 per cent sample. A fourth 5 per cent sample was taken, and the 20 per cent sample so obtained decreased the error of the 15 per cent sample by less than one-tenth of 1 per cent as to the number of students involved. This table shows that the personal error due to retabulation and error due to unrepresentative sampling combined is 1.1 per cent for a 15 per cent sample for number of students and 3.3 per cent for number going to college. (That is, the estimated 100 per cent on the basis of 15 per cent results would vary from the actual 100 per cent by 1.1 per cent and 3.3 per cent, respectively.) An actual complete recount of these items showed eight-tenths per cent error for number of students and 3 per cent error for number going to college. Table 3. — Five, ten, and fifteen per cent random samples of the reports from„ 722 schools, shoioing error due to tabulation and what constitutes a fair sample of the reports. Number ot students. Number years studied voca- tional agri- culture, aggre- gate. Number years In high school, aggre- gate. Number graduat- ing. Scholarship. Item. Number high. Number average. Number low. Ten per cent of total tabulation 834 916 846 833 853 &40 2.87 1.10 1,447 1,710 i;774 1,563 1,436 10.31 10.13 10.16 2,290 2,532 2,,532 2,067 2,134 ■0.29 10.25 10.02 421 444 488 381 346 2.76 4.79 3.28 215 274 238 247 255 7.07 3.93 3.28 420 430 440 393 380 1.20 3.24 5.60 152 Five _per cent random sample niuTtiplled by 2: Original tabulation .... . 114 Corrected tabulation Ten per cent random sample: OrlginLal tabulation 124 165 Corrected tabulation Degree to which 5 per cent cor- rected sample is not rep- resentative, per cent error Degree to whlcn 10 per cent cor- rected sample is not rep- resentative, per cent error Degree to which IS per cent corrected sample is not rep- resentative, per cent error 154 4.56 1.56 0.09 54 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL Table 3.— Five, ten, and fifteen per cent random sa/fnples of the reports from 722 schools, etc. — Continued. Item. Since leaving blgb school. Num- ber going to col- Num- ber having worked at occu- pations other than {arm- ing. Number now farming a Own- er. Man ager. Rent- er. Part- ner. La- borer. Num- ber montlis (armed, g^te. Num- ber farm spe- cialties report- ed. Success rating. Num- ber high. Num- ber aver- Num- ber Idw. Ten per cent of total tabulation (basis of study) Five per cent random sample multiplied byz: '• , Original tabu- latlOTi... :... Corrected , tabu- . latlon.il........ Ten per cent random sample: Original t a b u - lation Corrected tabu- ' lation Degree to which 6 per cent corrected sam- ple is not represent- ative, per cent error. Begree to which 10 per cent corrected sam- ple is not represent- ative, per cent error. Degree to which 15 per cent corrected sanaplels notcepre- sentative, per, cent error 184 240 234 197 201 S.58 1.56 3.30 235 256 272 224 223 2.52 1.32 0.06 42 0.71 0.48 0.23 30 1.19 A 59, 0.47 32 2.63 0.S4< 216 244 238 197 184 3.36 2^20 1.67 132 180 1«2 155 5.75 2.76 3.83 5,04fl 5,818 5,978 5,336 4,:^66 10.92 '0.34 10.14 100 72 91 2.63 3. SI 162 226 228 181 177 7.67 2.20 .:'! .'J 3.83 332 340 270 249 4.07 2.23 50 64 42- 32- 0.71. 1.68 1.69 1 These figures are not percentages, but ntunerlcal differences in the averages obtained in years or months- (or each student in school or on (arm. ' A IB per cent sample represents the data fairly,, aiid practically £1,11 the errors iRpted are variable errors due to perspnjiil^ judgBaeiit and clei-ical mistake^; persbial judgment being ,faj the greatfei;,, The items causing th§ most trouble were: Number 'of graduates,, number going to college, number of farm laborers, and number specializing. Each of these items required decisions on the part of; the tabulator, and these decisions often made arithmetical accuracy very difficult. However, even the larger errors here, noted are negligi- ble so far as the conclusions reached in tliis study are concerned.. The retabulations gave larger numbers of graduates and college- entrants than are considered in the interpretation of the data. Th&- estimates are conservative and the conclusions would be unaffected by errors several times as great. The writer spent several weeks verifying, checking, sampling, retabulating, seeking further infor- mation, computing error, and comparing results. The longer and more critically he worked the more convinced he became that the data here presented are dependable within 1 or 2 per cent for the country as the unit, and that they should not vary more than 8 to 10- per cent for any one State. EDUCATION IN AGRICtTLTUKE. 55 One point needs emphasis: What has been called a questionnaire was in reality a form for an official report. It was sent out strictly through official channels, and the returns gave unmistakable evi- dence that the teachers considered the collection of the data as an official duty. This attitude of the teachers certainly has been reflected in the large number of returns and in the completeness and accuracy of those returns. SECTION 2. TABLES OF TOTALS FROM THE ORIGINAL TABULATIONS. TABI.E 4. — Record of -former students who have left secondary school with 1 or more years' toork in vocational agriculture; data by States and by years. Number of students. Number years studied voca- tional agricul- ture, aggre- gate. Number years in higb school, aggre- gate. Number graduat- ing. Scholarship. State or year of leaving school. Number high. Number average. Number low. Total, 35 States 8,340 14,471 22,899 4,206 2,148 4,195 1,517 147 33 378 88 105 70 73 89 162 271 1,030 128 133 120 158 215 198 153 130 255 1,115 154 HI 650 76 75 805 226 47 231 232 125 131 364 72 250 48 489 122 146 94 95 122 294 405 1,607 199 236 233 378 337 263 228 275 402 2,163 327 222 1,085 106 99 1,911 338 62 332 310 226 227 754 86 350 93 616 182 283 112 138 187 401 781 3,252 400 425 322 510 492 662 443 388 418 3,216 380 361 2,225 210 167 1,983 539 126 562 600 418 225 1,223 209 56 14 93 18 50 15 18 33 56 104 554 73 103 67 97 73 135 75 61 65 423 66 78 478 40 21 480 83 23 84 148 79 121 288 34 47 4 89 10 22 4 7 27 34 70 239 28 45 38 53 77 77 44 14 79 206 39 49 186 14 24 201 66 20 58 90 24 44 106 13 62 21 181 .51 46 29 34 44 89 137 568 68 74 40 73 94 96 71 67 114 639 63 49 319 49 40 362 120 12 110 94 78 56 209 46 38 Arizona 7 Ark*^nsHS . . . , , 72 27 Colorado 23 Connecticut 4 29 Florida 18 Georgia 22 Idaho 58 Illinois 219 16 14 T^oiiisianft 25 20 Minn wot?* 40 Missouri: 25 Nebraska 30 Now TT^tT'p'Thire 41 48 New York 183 North Carolina North Dakota 25 11 Ohio 130 Oklahoma 11 10 122 South CTarolina 33 15 Tennessee 61 28 •Utah IS 30 51 Wycaning 13 8,340 14,471 22,899 4,206 2,148 4,195 1,517 23 26 82 79 131 173 297 471 926 2,066 2,912 506 648 39 41 149 130 240 318 524 948 1,652 3,473 5,134 933 990 52 62 222 212 392 477 659 1,277 2,549 5,815 8,414 1,695 1,073 16 8 S3 40 75 83 118 239 459 1,081 1,657 252 125 2 4 24 21 26 37 51 115 252 484 871 116 145 21 17 45 37 73 98 166 245 423 1,089 1,397 256 330 5 1913 11 1914 18 1915 27 1916 33 63 1918 76 176 1920 386 1921 507 1922 115 110 56 EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL Tabeb 4^ — Record of former stufl-ewts who hme left secondary soiiodl with 1 or more years' work in,voeBitioA.al agriculturej. etc. — Continued. ■ ' t . . 1 ■ i ! ■ '■ 1 . Since leSvlng high sehool. ,..: , '■','.'■■ .-, ''■ Nupi- ber going to col- lege. Num- ber having worked at occu- pations other than farm- ing. ', ■ ■ ■ ' / ' . ' ■ ■ 1 Number now farming as— ! . . ■ Num- ber months farmed, aggre- gate -■■', Num- ber farm spe- cial- ties re^ ported. Success rating. State or year of leaving school. Own- er. Man- ■agee. Kent- ' er. Part- ner La- borer. Num- hl& Num- ber B/rec- age. Num- ber low. Total, 35 States- 1,844 2,348 428 254 328 2,169 1,311 50,459 1,226 1,612 2,972 669 28 10 48 7 22 11 10 12 22 -68- 177 25 63 36 16 34 54 24 39 30 243 39 29 155 28 5 185 90 10 50 . 102 53 62 6 123 18 25 14 15 26 '25 62 242 i 12 ' 63 ".■■47 ;(32 IT 16 , ;;■ 39 ! , 19 47 ',;_57 421 26 33 175 19 ■;27 336 54 26 .:m '62 ■-'•- 25 14 1,: 24 9 3 7 1 15 8 13 43 2 9 20 2, 5 13 1 3 19 36 9 IS 15, 5 '"ix 14' i4 3 8 3 2 1 1 9 '..7 14 25 7 6 ...... 3 6 ...... 4 35 11 "'ie' 1 4 31 9 13 2 38 2 3 1 2 1 ■ 1. - 9 S8 10 -4 9 3 , :'■■■? ""■■3" .27 15 3 16 11 7 2 19 17 ■8 ; 1 ■;8 55 10 107 18 41 6 : 14 25 21 82 243 26 33 14 45 118 72 24 18 125 169 50 32 226 18; 14 171 69 7 80 31 57 45 84 19 24 7 40 39 14 13 5 - 8 ■ -.1 -.-.74. 196 26 1 •'■• 1 31 ; 34 -.22 ': 39 25 53 181 4 14 ,,123 .;' 6 ','24 118 16 .'. » 21 19 6 41 65 16 1,371 320 1,698. 478 ', 768 1,287 167 911 .867 .-1,737 4,'016 699 683. 266 1,127 l,-683 8ra 316 665 2,232 6,.673 2,355. .889 3,470 510 217 7,054- 852 107 924 896 880 "3,'643' 489 15 4 33 26 40 14 2 39 6 49 " 254 11 9 5. 41 54 32 10 14 144 .82. . 17. 37 72 6 3 69 15 .. 5 31 26 30 2 37 2 30 3 59 : 20' 21 13 5 23 -23 68 . 174 20 26 .18 28 76 42 25 30 86. 166 32 .29 145 18 20 185 30 .. 10 .S3'T 42 23 8 77 ' 5' 64 15 142 33 46 16 16 29 , 22, 127 339: 49 23 43 66 ■ 84' 64 • 32 28 . 108 362 65 45 233 27 21 295 90 .. 11 !. 86. 43 . 74 119 132 33 28 Arizona 1 Arkansas 37 ' 14 Colorado.....,..., 10 4 Delaware 7 Florida 18 Georfda 1 Idaho Illinois i 25 .i .98 • -18 Kentucky . '. : : Jioulsiana.i , Maine 4 23 8 ''■ '15 iMissouri 13 Nebraska 14 New Hampshire . . ■New Jersey .- 2 12 New York.r 43 N orth Carolina North Dakota ; .Ohio . 9 6 49 Oklahoma. 4 Oregon 5 Peun'sylvania South Caroliiia 'South Dakota 35 9 1 Tennessee.. 9 31 15 28 18 2 4 ,:. 4 8 12 9 1 17 11 Utah : ■Wisconsin.. ,; Wyoming .'.' 101 - 13 120 23 26 ■ 2 Total, 35 States.., 1,844 2,348 428 254 326 2,169 ijSll 50,459 1,226 1,612 2,972 ■:^ 1904-19U J. 6 3 8 10 38 34 49 108 242 S24 717 45 60 12 12 22 :29 72 ■"74 126. 169 318 628 731 66 89 10 3 14 6 16 17 30 27 48 91 ; 134 22 10 1 2 10 U 15 ' 25 67 104 233 577 875 145 104 3 2 12 17 11 19 29 60 148 327 517 . 106 60 1,572 268 288 271 798 1,360 3,672 5,574 8,619 12,664 13,202 1,218 933 6 2 8 6. 22. 22 54 61 136 303 454 102 60 8 3 12 8 24 31 69 . 98 210 401 604 88 66 15 . .8 42 37( 40 ,69 111 163 348 744. 1,054 164 177 1912 , 2 7 3 4 ' 7 U 22 34 66 71 16 11 2 1 3 5 10 10 20 34 77 128 15 23 ■ , 3 3 m3 •. 1914 i 1915 4 1 6 14 ■.:f.ai ;.'«5 .131 240 :■** 48 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 ji Year of leaving school not known J EDUCATION IS AGEICULTUBB. 57 Table 5. — Students having had three or four years' instruction in vocational agriculturey hy States. Number of schools. Number of students. Number, years studied , voca- tional culture, aggre- gate. Number years in high school, aggre- gate- Number grad- uating. Scholarship. State. Number high. Number average. Number low. Total, 30 States. 233 1,307 4,573 4,646 1,032, "423 662 141 6 1 8 2 2 3 6 5 20 9 6 9 6 1 1 8 10 35 7 6 30 1 1 26 4 8 2 3 10 1 27 9 6 2 7 7 34 29 82 36 33 64 12 2 1 44 36 274 48 32 105 2 3 273 9 22 7 10 89 2 88 28 19 6 22 22 118 93 251 115 119 ^7 37 6 3 158 116 964 169 99 337 6 9 1,073 27 68 21 30 326 6 100 17 23 8 26 25 131 92 316 137 130 267 42 8 4 172 63 ■ 993 178 127 407 8' 11 824 29 81 25 39 365 8 22 4 6 2 5 4 27 21 65 34 31 53 7 2 1 36 8 163 40 29 95 2 2 243 8 16 7 ' 10 '■ 87 2 11 4 2 15 5 2 1 3 3 17 18 45 13 12 23 5 1 1 28 16 173 32 14 40 1 I 110 7 13 5 6 51 1 1 Arkansas.. California 1 1 Connecticut 2 3 9 8 25 17 17 32 3 1 1 Florida 1 Georgia 6 Idabo 2 Tllinn1=! 11 Kentucky 6 Tin^ilRlnriA , , , , , 10 Minnesota 3 Miroduction for Southern Schools. ' Bulletin No. 67. (Industriai Behabilitatldn Series, No. 1.) Industrial Rehabilita- tion — A Statement of Policies to be Observed in the Administration of the Industrial Eehabllitation Act. Btllletin No. 68. (Trade Industrial Series, No. 16.) Trade and Industrial Educa- tion for (}irls and Women. Bulletin No. 60. (Trade and Industrial Series, No. 16.) Foremanship Courses vs. Instructor Training Courses. Bulletin No. 61. (Trade and Industrial Series, No. 17.) Improving Foreman- ship. Trade Intension Courses for Foremen. Bulletin No. 62. (Trade and Industrial Series, No. 18.) Instructor Training. Bulletin No. 63. (Agricultural Series, No. 8.) A Unit Course in Poultry Hus- bandry. On sale by Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 6c per copy. Bulletin No. 64. (Industrial Behabillta- tlon Series, No. 2.) Industrial Re- habilitation — General Administration and C!ase Procedure. Bulletin No. 65. (Home Economics Series, No. 6.) Oilid Care and Cliild Wel- fare. 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On sale by Superin- tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 6e per copy. Bulletin No. 79. (Home Economics Se- ries, No. 7.) A study of Home Eco- nomics Education in Teacher Training Institutions for Negroes. On sale by Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office. 15e per copy. EDUCATION IN AGKICTJLrURE. 63 Bulletin No. 80. (Vocational Rehabilita- tion Series, No. 7.) Vocational Ee- habllitation — Its Purpose, Scope, and Methods, with Illustrative Cases. On sale by Superintendent of Documente, Government Printing Office. 10c per copy. Bulletin No. 81. (Agriculture Series, No. 12.) Rooms and Equipment for the Teaching of Vocational Agriculture in Secondary Schools. On sale by Suppr- Intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 10c per copy. Bulletin No. 82. (Agricultural Series, No. 13.) Effectiveness of Vocational Edu- cation in Agriculture. A study of the Value of Vocational Instruction in Agriculture in Secondary Schools as Indicated by the Occupational Distri- bution of Former Students. On sale by Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office. 10c per copy. Report of Proceedings of the First Na- tional Conference on Vocational Re- habilitation of Persons Disabled in In- dustry or Otherwise. St. Louis, Mo., May 15, 16, 17, 1922. ADDITIONAL COPIES Of THIS PUBLICATION MAV BE PKOCnEBD PEOM THE SnPKKINTBNDENT OF DOCUMENTS OOVEENMBNT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPT PUBCHASEB AGBBES NOT TO BESBLL OB DISTBIBUTE THIS COPY FOE PROFIT. ^PUB. EDS. 67, APPROVED MAT 11, 1922. VITA The author of this disertation, Charles Everett Myers, was born in Wayne County, West Virginia, on July 6, 1888. He re- ceived his early education in the one-teacher schools of the county and in Oakview Academy located at Wayne,, West Vir- ginia. He attended the West Liberty State Normal School,. West Liberty, West Virginia in 1907, and the following year entered Marshall College State Normal, Huntington, West Virginia, receiving a Normal School Diploma from the latter institution in June, I9I0. He received the degree of Bachelor' of Arts from the University of Illinois in June, 1913, and the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture from the West Vir- ginia University in June, 1914. He attended Teachers College, Columbia University, for the Summer Sessions of 1916 and 1917. He graduated from the Fourth Officers Training School, Camp Lee, Virginia in November, 1918. In June, 1919, he re- ceived the degree of Master of Arts from Teachers College, Columbia University, and attended the Summer Session for that year. During the summer of 1920, he attended The George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee. During the year 1922-1923, he was in attendance at Teachers College, Columbia University. Between 1905 and 1911, he taught four terms in the rural schools of Wayne and Mingo counties. West Virginia. --He was Assistant in Agriculture in the West Virginia University during the year 1913-1914. was principal of The Nicholas County High School, West Virginia, four years, was Assistant Professor of Vocational Education in the North Car- olina S+at-? Colleee of Agriculture and Engineering during 1919- 20, and Associate Professor the next vear. In January, 1921, he went to The Pennsvlvania State College as Associate Pro- ;fessor of Agricultural Education. POLITIAN An Unfinished Tragedy BY EDGAR A. POE EDITED FROM THE ORIGINAL SOURCES, INCLUDING THE AUTOGRAPH MS IN THE PIERPONT MORGAN LIBRARY WITH NOTES AND A COMMENTARY BY THOMAS OLLIVE MABBOTT A THESIS, SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OP DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY V Siift (Solbgiste Press fiEOEGEBANTA PDBUSHING COMPANY MENASHA, WIS. 1923 POLITIAN An Unfinished Tragedy BY EDGAR A. POE EDITED FROM THE ORIGINAL SOURCES, INCLUDING THE AUTOGRAPH MS IN THE PIERPONT MORGAN LIBRARY WITH NOTES AND A COMMENTARY BY THOMAS OLLIVE MABBOTT A THESIS, SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, ■ COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ZItic Gliilksiatc Vnee GEOEGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY MENASHA, Wia 1923 Of the second edition of Politian 150 copies have been printed Copyright 1923 by Thomas Ollive Mabbott Sllf (SnlUgltitt Vr«« GEORGE BANTA FtJBLISHINQ COMPANY MENASHA. WIS. 1923 PREFACE In preparing this, the first edition of the one important imaginative work of Edgar Allan Poe which has been suffered to remain partly in manuscript, I have been animated by the belief that all the verse of so great a poet should be easily accessible to the public. Though a prolific prose writer, Poe wrote a very small amount of verse, and even when all the cancelled passages are collected, there are only about 5000 lines in the most complete edition of his works. Politian was Poe's one serious attempt at drama, and it has excited much curiosity, yet though many scholars of the first rank have ex- pressed a desire to study it, Poe's biographers and editors, the late Mr. Ingram excepted, have been unable to examine the unpublished portions, and even Ingram seems never to have seen the ending. Late in his life, Poe gave the original MS to Mrs. Sarah Anna Lewis — from her most of it passed to Mr. Ingram, and from him indirectly into the Pierpont Morgan Library, where, among so many treasures, it was singled out for special com- ment in Mr. E. V. Lucas' Roving East and Roving West (page 1 20) — and it is through the generosity of Mr. Morgan that I am enabled to do for the play even more than W. M. Rossetti for Shelley's Charles I, since Politian is almost complete. During the poet's lifetime, five scenes were published and a few selections from other parts have been printed posthu- mously, but about a third of what is here given is wholly new. The two breaks in the MS carry away many lines, but fortu- nately most of these are in scenes Poe published so that probably only about one hundred lines have been lost. When it is considered how large a portion of Poe's blank verse is here first given to the world — nay even of all his verse, rhymed and unrhymed, the importance of this material, if only to students of metrics, must be evident at once, while examination of the IV Preface text sets at naught some theories which have been published abo^ut the probable ending of the play. Those who seek only for dramatic excellence may be dis- appointed — one experiment seems to have convinced Poe that he was not quite at home in this province; yet as the late Dr. Richard Garnett remarked in connection with the dramas of Dryden and Byron, it is not well to slight any work of a great man. Again, a few of the scenes show far more dramatic ability than some writers have recognized. The sixth scene is pleasing — the delicately suggested influence of Fate in the words of Lalage's song seems very effective, and at least one student of Poe has felt in Lalage's speech at the close of the seventh scene "distinct dramatic quality of the old sort." Monsieur William Little Hughes who first translated the old selections from the drama into French (in Contes inSdits d'Edgar Poe, Paris, [1862] pp. 249-281) characterizes them as "an admirable fragment of romantic drama, wherein live truly human char- acters" (p. iii) and on the basis of them Hughes expresses the belief that Poe could have supplied the lack of an important American dramatist, had he turned his attention more to that field (pp. 249-250) ; while G. Edmund Giindel {Edgar Allan Poe, Freiberg, 1895, P- ^^) expressed regret that portions of the play remained unpublished. The humorous scenes, Poe's only real attempt at comic verse, are curious and Scene x shows his perculiar bitter humor at a level with that in his best tales of the grotesque. Those who love poetry will find in the serious scenes passages of beauty and pathos, and those who study Poe can watch how, working in a new field, he strove to embody those fancies that haunted his brain, and can compare the first efforts (sometimes crude) with the perfected expressions in his later tales and poems. Finally, there is in this play "much of Poe's soul," and the student of Poe's literary genius, and of his tragic career may find new light both in the play, and in my notes which have been made as full as possible with the aid of the chief Poe specialists in this country. The imperfections of Politian are apparent enough, but the qualities of sincerity and earnestness, together with flashes of the true fire through- out, have made my task of editing not only a labor of love but Preface v a pleasure. It is no less a pleasure to thank those who have aided me in my work, and to whom I would now express my gratitude. First and most deeply I am indebted to Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan for permission to use the original MS upon which my text is so largely based, and to his librarians, Miss Greene and Miss Thurston for their unfailing courtesy. I am also grateful to Mr. Thos. F. Madigan who showed me and permits me to use the printed transcript of the one MS leaf not in the Pier- pont Morgan Library. Professor Wm. P. Trent has supervised my work, and helped me by constant good counsel, and two of the foremost Poe specialists, my friends Mr. J. H. Whitty and Professor Killis Campbell, have read my MS, granted me permission to use what I liked from their excellent editions of Poe's poems, and in addition have given me other valuable suggestions. Professor Geo. E. Woodberry and Mr. Whitty also consented to read my proof-sheets, an honor of which I am deeply sensible. Through the kindness of Professor Brander Matthews and Professor W. W. Lawrence I obtained access to the J. Lorimer Graham copy of Poe's 1845 volume at the Century Club, New York, and through the courtesy of Miss Elizabeth Cloud Seip, the owner of the unique file of the Baltimore Visiter I have examined the Poe texts of that paper. My indebtedness to many others is great — Miss Mary E. Phillips sent me her notes on the play, as did Professor C. Al- phonso Smith his, and I am thankful also for aid received from correspondents and friends, who have replied to queries or col- lected items for me — Mrs. Ruth Shearin, Miss Caroline Ticknor, Mrs. Chase (literary executor of Sarah Helen Whitman) and Mr. L. F. Johnson deserve special mention, as do my sometime fellow students at Columbia, the Misses Anna Reubenia Dubach and Margaret A. Nolan, Messrs. Henry W. Wells, and Ralph Marcus. Last but not least come the various members of the faculty of Columbia University, especially of the Departments of English and Comparative Literature, and of Classical Philol- vi Preface ogy — and the officials of the great libraries wherein I have worked, or had work done, especially The New York Public Library; the Library of Congress; the British Museum;- The American Antiquarian Society; The Ridgway Library, Phila- delphia; The Boston Public Library; The libraries of Brown, Columbia, Harvard, Transylvania, and Yale Universities, of the Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wis- consin Historical Societies; the Valentine Museum at Rich- mond; and the libraries of Mr. Henry E. Huntington; of the Curtis Publishing Co.; and of the Supreme Council of the 23° at Washington. To all I express my sincere gratitude. Thomas Ollive Mabbott. Columbia University, May 28, 1923. POLITIAN A Tragedy Scene — Rome in the [i6th] Century. Characters. Lalage, an orphan ward of Di Broglio. Alessandra, niece of Di Broglio, and betrothed to Castiglione. Jacinta, servant maid to Lalage» Duke Di Broglio. Castiglione, his son and heir. San Ozzo, companion of Castiglione. POLITIAN. Baldazzar, his friend. A Monk. Ugo \ Benito \ servants in the family of Di Broglio. Rupert ; I. \An apartment in the Palazzo of Di Broglio. Traces of a protracted revel. On a wine-table some candles burnt to the socket. Masks, a lute, a lady's slipper, cards and broken bottles are strewn about the floor and on the table. Enter Benito meeting Ugo intoxicated.] Ugo. Oh! is that you Benito (hiccup) are they gone? Benito. Faith that's a question, Ugo, hard to answer. But are the bottles empty? — then they're gone. As for the Count San Ozzo who knocked me down Just now on the staircase as I came up hither, 5 I can with more precision speak of him — He's gone, I'm sure of that — pretty far gone. Ugo. Is the bravo gone? (hiccup) where is the buffo-singer? Did you say his Excellency had departed? Are all the fiddlers off (hiccup) the devil go with them ! 10 I'm positively stupid for want of sleep! 2 PoHHan Benito [eyeing him.] Oh you are right — quite right — being as you say Ugo, a most confounded stupid man. Ugo. Sirrah ! I said not so, or else I (hiccup) lied. Benito. I have no doubt, good Ugo, that you lied 15 Being, as you observe, a most notorious liar — [Ugo sits and helps himself to wine. Enter Rupert.] Well, master Rupert, what have you done with the count ? Rupert. What should I do with any drunken man? I pulled him from under the table where he lay And tumbled him into bed. \ Benito. I say, good Rupert! 20 Can it be the Duke di Broglio is acquainted With these untimely revels of his son ? It is a pity in so proper a man Is't not a pity in so young a man And of so gentle blood ? Here is a change 25 I had not looked to see — he is sadly altered! Ugo. He is drunk, Benito, — did you not say so, Rupert? Most men are sadly altered when they're drunk Oh, I £tm sadly altered when I'm (hiccup) drunk Rupert [to Benito.] You think the Count Castiglione al- tered — 30 I think so too. He was, not long ago. Barring some trivial improprieties A very nobleman in heart and deed. Benito. Now I've no faith in him, poor Lady Lalage! So beautiful and kind. Rupert. Truly Benito 35 His conduct there has damned him in my eyes. O villain! villain! she his plighted wife And his own father's ward. I have noticed well That we may date his ruin — so I call it — His low debaucheries — his gambling habits 40 And all his numerous vices from the time Of that most base seduction and abandonment. Politian 3 Benito. We may: the sin sits heavy on his soul And goads him to these courses. They say the Duke Pardons his son, but is most wroth with her 45 And treats her with such marked severity As humbles her to the dust. Rupert. She sits alone Continually in her chamber with clasped hands ( Jacinta tells me this) Benito. Ah Noble lady! I saw her yester eve, thro' the lattice-work 50 Of her chamber window sobbing upon her knees, And ever and anon amid her sobs She murmured forth Castiglione's name Rupert, she loves him still ! Rupert. How will she bear. Think you, the consummation of these nuptials? 55 To-morrow week are they not ? Benito. Most true! they are. Tomorrow week Castiglione weds His cousin Alessandra. She was the friend. The bosom friend of the fair lady Lalage Ere this mischance. I cannot bear to think 60 On the despair of the young lady Lalage. Ugo. This wine's not bad! gentlemen why d'ye blame My master in this matter? very good (hiccup) wine! Who is my lady Lalage? God knows! I don't, a super (hiccup) ciliary somebody 65 Who play'd on the guitar! most excellent wine! And pride should have a fall. The count's a rake Or was, that's very sure, but he's reforming And drinks none but the very (hiccup!) best of wine. Rupert. Let us to bed! the man is steeped in liquor. 70 [to Benito.] Come let us to bed. [Exeunt Rupert and Ben- ito.] Ugo [arousing.] What did they say? to bed! Is it so late ? is it all gone ? very well ! I will to bed anon [Enter Jacinta] ah ! bless my eyes ! Jacinta, is it you ? 4 Politian Jacinta. Why, yes it is And yet it isn't, Ugo, there's a riddle! 75 I was Jacinta yesternight, but now Madam Jacinta if you please. Sir Ugo ! Ugo. Sweetheart, I fear me (hiccup!) very much (hiccup!) that you Have been at the bottle — a pretty madam truly! Jacinta. You may well say that Sir Ugo — very pretty! 80 At all events the Count Castiglione Tells me I'm pretty — drunken dolt look here ! [showing some jewels.] Ugo. (Hiccup!) where? Jacinta. Here! — look here! Ugo. Jacinta! (hiccup!) why Jacinta! You do not mean to say the count my master Gave you those jewels! Jacinta. What if he did friend Ugo ? 85 What if he did? Ugo. Look here! — I'll take my oath I saw that very ring upon the finger The middle — the fore — no on the little finger Of the Count. I'm (hiccup!) done with you Jacinta! 89 O you vile wretch! I'll (hiccup!) not have you Jacinta! I'm in despair! I'll (hiccup!) do some desperate deed! I'm desperate. Jacinta. You're drunk! Ugo. Fm going to cut — Jacinta. Your throat! Heaven! Ugo. To cut you altogether! I'm gone Jacinta. [going.] Jacinta. [pulling him back.] Stop! you snivelling fool! Will you not see the jewels — look you here! 95 This broach — these pearls — these rubies — don't you see? Ugo [sulkily.] I see. Jacinta. These emeralds and this topaz! — won't you see? Ugo. I see. Politian 5 Jacinta. You see! you see! can I get nothing more 100 Out of your ugly mouth but "I see, I see"? Dolt, I'm not sure you see — or if you see You certainly see double. Here's a cross A cross of rubies, you oaf! a cross of rubies! D'ye hear — a cross which never cost a zecchin 105 Less than five thousand crowns! Ugo. I see, oh I (hiccup) see it all. [looking knowing.] Jacinta. You see it all! You do not see it all [mocking him] you do not see That I'm the richest waiting maid in Rome The richest vintner's daughter owning these jewels! no You do not see, I say, that my mistress Lalage Who gave them to me, d'ye hear ? who gave them to me As a free gift, and for a marriage present (All of her jewels! — every one of them!) Is certainly gone mad! Ugo. The lady Lalage 115 Gave you those jewels! How (hiccup!) came you by the ring? Jacinta. The count Castiglione, your sweet master Gave it her as a token of his love Last year — she gave it to me — d'ye see? Ugo. Jacinta. [with a leer.] Jacinta. Ugo\ [returning it.] Ugo. What, dear Jacinta? Jacinta. Do you see? 120 Ugo. Oh, nonsense sweet Jacinta, let me look! Again (hiccup!) at the jewels! Jacinta. D'ye see? Ugo. Pshaw! — let me look! Jacinta. D'ye see? [going and holding up the jewels.] Ugo. Sweet dear Jacinta, madame Jacinta! Jacinta. Oh I see. [Puts them up and exit followed by Ugo staggering.] Politian II. [CasHglione's dressing room. Castiglione (in dishabille) and San Ozzo.] San Ozzo. An excellent joke! I' faith an excellent joke! Ha! ha! ha! ha! — a most superlative joke! I shall die, Castiglione, I shall die! Ha! ha! ha! ha! — Oh, I shall die of laughing! I shall die, I shall die. Castiglione \sullenly.\ I meant it for no joke 5 San Ozzo. Oh no! oh no! — you meant it for no joke. Not you— ha! ha! ha! ha!— I'll die, I'll die! It's a very serious business I assure you To get drunk — a very serious business — excellent! So you've turned penitent at last — bravo! 10 Why, Cas! I've got a string of beads at home (I'll send them to you) — a bundle of paternosters (You shall have them all) a robe of sackcloth too I used at a masquerade — you shall have it, you shall have it! And I'll go home and send you in a trice 15 A tub of excellent ashes ! Castiglione. San Ozzo! have done for — \hesitating?[ San Ozzo. Oh! I am — I am done for — completely done for— I'll die! I shall die of laughing — yes! I'm done for — I'm done for! Castiglione \sternly\ San Ozzo! San Ozzo. Sir? Castiglione. I am serious. San Ozzo. I know it — very! Castiglione. Why then do you worry me with these ribald jests — 20 I've the headach, and besides I am not well Either in body or soul. When saw you last The lady — Lalage ? San Ozzo. Not for eleven months What could have put that creature in your head? Politian 7 Castiglione [fiercely.] San Ozzo! San Ozzo [calmly.] Sir? Castiglione [after a pause.] Nothing. When did you say 2^ You spoke to the lady Lalage? San Ozzo. Sir Count, I have not seen her for eleven months The Duke your father, as you very well know, Keeps her secluded from society And between you and I, he's right in it: 30 Ha! ha! you understand? Castiglione. Not I, San Ozzo! I do not understand. San Ozzo. Well! well! no matter! [sings.] Birds of so fine a feather And of so wanton eye Should be caged — should be caged 35 Should be caged in all weather Lest they fly! Castiglione. San Ozzo! you do her wrong — unmanly wrong Never in woman's breast enthroned sat A purer heart! If ever woman fell 40 With an excuse for falling it was she! If ever plighted vows most sacredly Solemnly sworn perfidiously broken Will damn a man, that damned villain am I! Young, ardent, beautiful and loving well 45 And pure as beautiful, how could she think — How could she dream, being herself all truth Of my black perfidy? Oh that I were not Castiglione but some peasant hind The humble tiller of some humble field 50 That I might dare be honest! San Ozzo. Exceeding fine ! I never heard a better speech in my life. Besides you're right — Oh! honesty's the thing! 8 Politian Honesty, poverty, and true content. With the unutterable extacies 55 Of butter, verily, gingerbread, and milk and water. Castiglione [trying to suppress a smile.] San Ozzo you are a fool! San Ozzo. He's right again. My lord, I'm going home. Ere I be tainted with your wisdomship Good day! — I crave your patronage however 60 When you become a cardinal: meantime I'll take the opportunity of sending The sackcloth and the ashes. [Exit.] Castiglione. Get you gone You merry devil! ha! ha! he makes me laugh Spite of myself. One can't be angry with him 65 For the life of one. After all I don't see why I should so grieve about this little matter This every-day occurrence. Marry her — no ! ^ Castiglione wed him with a wanton! Never! — oh never! — what would they say at the club ? 70 ^ What would San Ozzo think? I have no right Had I the will, to bring such foul disgrace Upon my family — Di Broglio's line Di Broglio's haughty and time-honoured line ! No right at all to do it. Am I not bound too 75 By the most sacred ties of honor bound To my cousin Alessandra? Honor's the thing! I can not pawn my honor! and Lalage Is lowly born — I can not pawn my honor. — ; My honor — my honor. Pshaw ! Pshaw ! 'tis but the headach 80 The consequence of yestereve's debauch — Gives me these qualms of conscience. Be a man ! A man, Castiglione, be a man! A glass of wine will put you all to rights. Ugo! — do you hear there? — ^wine! [Enter Ugo bearing a bundle and a basket full of bottles^ What the devil's that? 85 Politian 9 Ugo [hesitatingly.] My lord! Castiglione. What's that I say? — where is the wine? Ugo. My lord ! — the wine ? — here is some wine my lord — A dozen bottles, my lord. Castiglione. A dozen fools! Bring me a glass of wine. Ugo. a dozen bottles So please you, Sir, of best Salermo brand 90 Sent as a present by his reverence The Count San Ozzo. Castiglione. Really, I'm much obliged [smiling.] To his reverence — did you not say his rever- ence? Uncork a bottle, Ugo, and let me see What it is made of. Ugo. No, Sir, you can't have any. 95 Castiglione. How, Sir! — not have it?- — what do you mean by that? Ugo. Not a drop. Sir, — not a drop. Castiglione. And why? you ass. Ugo. Why, Sir, you see, the servant who brings it says Your're not to have the wine, only your choice. Castiglione. What does the idiot mean? Ugo. There's another present 100 Down in the hall. Sir, you're to have your choice Of the wine or of that. Castiglione. Blockhead! why don't you bring The other present in ? Ugo. Eh?— Sir? Castiglione. Dolt! dunderhead! why don't you bring me up The other present and let me see it ? Ugo. I can't 105 Castiglione. You can't! you villain? I'll try and make you then! [in a passion.] Scoundrel bring it up! What's that you have on your shoulder? lo Politian Ugo. Sir? — it's the sackcloth and that down below [throwing down the bundle.] 'S a monstrous tub of ashes — I can't lift it. Castiglione. a monstrous tub of ashes! San Ozzo's a fool ! I lo Ha! ha! ha! ha! too bad upon my soul! A tub of ashes! too bad! I can't be angry If I should die for it — to have my choice The wine or the ashes ! Ugo, send word to the Count Ha! ha! ha! ha! — Ugo send word to the Count 115 I'll keep the wine, and he may have the ashes. Stay! — tell him I've been thinking — I've been thinking Of what he said — he knows — and that I'll meet him At the masquerade, and afterwards crack a bottle [Exit Ugo.] With him and the buffo-singer. Ha! ha! ha! 120 Only to think of that! a tub of ashes! Ha! ha! ha! ha! I can't be angry with him! He's a fine fellow after all, San Ozzo! [Exit] III. [i.] [A Hall in a Palace. Alessandra and Castig- lione.] Alessandra. Thou art sad, Castiglione. Castiglione. Sad! — not I. Oh, I'm the happiest, happiest man in Rome! A few days more, thou knowest, my Alessandra, Will make thee mine. Oh, I am very happy! Alessandra. Methinks thou hast a singular way of showing ^ Thy happiness ! — what ails thee, cousin of mine ? Why didst thou sigh so deeply? Castiglione. Did I sigh? I was not conscious of it. It is a fashion, A silly — a most silly fashion I have 'When I am fifry happy. Did I sigh ? [j/g-A<«|-.] 10 Politian 1 1 Alessandra. Thou didst. Thou art not well. Thou hast indulged Too much of late, and I am vexed to see it. Late hours and wine, Castiglione, — these Will ruin thee! Thou art already altered — Thy looks are haggard — nothing so wears away 15 The constitution as late hours and wine. Castiglione [musing.] Nothing, fair cousin, nothing — not even deep sorrow — Wears it away like evil hours and wine. I will amend. Alessandra. Do it! I would have thee drop Thy riotous company, too — fellows low born — 20 111 suit the like with old Di Broglio's heir And Alessandra's husband. Castiglione. I will drop them. Alessandra. Thou wilt — thou must. Attend thou also more To thy dress and equipage — they are over plain For thy lofty rank and fashion — much depends 25 Upon appearances. Castiglione. I'll see to it. Alessandra. Then see to it! — pay more attention, sir, To a becoming carriage — much thou wantest In dignity. Castiglione. Much, much, oh much I want In proper dignity. Alessandra [haughtily.] Thou mockest me, sir! 30 Castiglione [abstractedly .] Sweet, gentle Lalage! Alessandra. Heard I aright? I speak to him — he speaks of Lalage ! Sir Count ! [places her hand on his shoulder] what art thou dreaming ? he's not well ! What ails thee, sir? Castiglione [starting?^ Cousin! fair cousin! — madam! I crave thy pardon — indeed I am not well — 35 Your hand from off my shoulder, if you please. 1 2 Politian This air is most oppressive! — Madam — the Duke! [Enter Di Broglio.] Di Broglio. My son, I've news for thee! — hey? — what's the matter? [o^je-mw^ Alessandra.] r the pouts? Kiss her, Castiglione! kiss her. You dog! and make it up, I say, this minute! 40 I've news for you both. Politian is expected Hourly in Rome — Politian, Earl of Leicester! We'll have him at the wedding. 'Tis his first visit To the imperial city. Alessandra. What! Politian Of Britain, Earl of Leicester? Di Broglio. The same, my love. 45 We'll have him at the wedding. A man quite young In years, but grey in fame. I have not seen him, But Rumour speaks of him as of a prodigy Pre-eminent in arts and arms, and wealth. And high descent. We'll have him at the wedding. 50 Alessandra. I have heard much of this Politian. Gay, volatile and giddy — is he not? And little given to thinking. Di Broglio. Far from it, love. No branch, they say, of all philosophy So deep abstruse he has not mastered it. 55 Learned as few are learned. Alessandra. 'Tis very strange! I have known men have seen Politian And sought his company. They speak of him As of one who entered madly into life, Drinking the cup of pleasure to the dregs. 60 Castiglione. Ridiculous! now / have seen Politian And know him well — nor learned nor mirthful he. He is a dreamer and a man shut out From common passions. Di Broglio. Children, we disagree. Let us go forth and taste the fragrant air 65 Of the garden. Did I dream, or did I hear Politian was a melancholy man? [Exeunt.] Politian 13 IV. [II.] [A Lady^s apartment, with a window open and looking into a garden. Lalage, in deep mourning, reading at a table on which lie some books and a hand mirror. In the back ground Jacinta {a servant maid) leans carelessly upon a chair.] Lalage. Jacinta! is it thou? Jacinta [pertly.] Yes, Ma'am, I'm here. Lalage. I did not know, Jacinta, you were in waiting. Sit down ! — let not my presence trouble you — Sit down ! — for I am humble, most humble. Jacinta [aside.] 'Tis time. [Jacinta seats herself in a side-long manner upon the chair, resting her elbows upon the back, and re- garding her mistress with a contemptuous look. Lalage continues to read.] Lalage. "It in another climate, so he said, 5 "Bore a bright golden flower, but not i' this soil!" [pauses — turns over some leaves, and resumes \ "No lingering winters there, nor snow, nor shower — "But Ocean ever to refresh mankind "Breathes the shrill spirit of the western wind." Oh, beautiful! — most beautiful! — how like 10 To what my fevered soul doth dream of Heaven! O happy land! [pauses^ She died! — the maiden died! O still more happy maiden who couldst die! Jacinta! [Jacinta returns no answer, and 'Lai.ag^ presently resumes.] Again ! — a similar tale Told of a beauteous dame beyond the sea! 15 Thus speaketh one Ferdinand in the words of the play— "She died full young" — one Bossola answers him — "I think not so — her infelicity "Seemed to have years too many" — ^Ah luckless lady! 14 Politian Jacinta! [Still no answer.] Here's a far sterner story 20 But like — oh, very like in its despair — Of that Egyptian queen, winning so easily A thousand hearts — losing at length her own. She died. Thus endeth the history — and her maids Lean over her and weep — two gentle maids 25 ^ With gentle names — Eiros and Charmion ! Rainbow and Dove! — ^Jacinta! Jacinta [pettishly.] Madam, what is it? Lalage. Wilt thou, my good Jacinta, be so kind As go down in the library and bring me The Holy Evangelists. Jacinta. Pshaw! [Exit.] Lalage. If there be balm 30 For the wounded spirit in Gilead it is there I Dew in the night time of my bitter trouble Will there be found — "dew sweeter far than that Which hangs like chains of pearl on Hermon Hill." [re-enter Jacinta, and throws a volume on the table.] Jacinta. There, ma'am,'s the book. Indeed she is very troublesome, [aside.] 35 Lalage [astonished.] What didst thou say, Jacinta ? Have I done aught To grieve thee or to vex thee ? — I am sorry. For thou hast served me long and ever been Trust-worthy and respectful, [resumes her reading.] Jacinta. I can't believe She has any more jewels — no — no — she gave me all. [aside.] 40 Lalage. What didst thou say, Jacinta? Now I bethink me Thou hast not spoken lately of thy wedding. How fares good Ugo? — and when is it to be? Can I do aught? — is there no farther aid Thou needest, Jacinta? Politian 1 5 Jacinta. Is there no /ar/A^r aid! 45 That's meant for me. [aside.] I'm sure, Madam, you need not Be always throwing those jewels in my teeth. Lalage. Jewels! Jacinta, — now indeed, Jacinta, I thought not of the jewels. Jacinta. Oh! perhaps not! But then I might have sworn it. After all, 50 There's Ugo says the ring is only paste, For he's sure the Count Castiglione never Would have given a real diamond to such as you; And at the best I'm certain. Madam, you cannot Have use for jewels now. But I might have sworn it. [exit.] 55 [Lalage bursts into tears and leans her head upon the table — after a short pause raises it\ Lalage. Poor Lalage! — and is it come to this? Thy servant maid ! — but courage ! — 'tis but a viper Whom thou hast cherished to sting thee to the soul! \taking up the mirror^ Ha ! here at least's a friend — too much a friend In earlier days — a friend will not deceive thee. 60 Fair mirror and true! now tell me (for thou canst) A tale — a pretty tale — and heed thou not Though it be rife with woe. It answers me. It speaks of sunken eyes, and wasted cheeks, And Beauty long deceased — remembers me 65 Of Joy departed — Hope, the Seraph Hope, ^- Inurned and entombed! — now, in a tone Low, sad, and solemn, but most audible. Whispers of early grave untimely yawning For ruined maid. Fair mirror and true! — thou liest not ! 70 Thou hast no end to gain — no heart to break — Castiglione lied who said he loved — Thou true — he false! — false! — false! [while she speaks, a monk enters her apartment, and ap- proaches unobserved^ 1 6 Politian Monk. Refuge thou hast. Sweet daughter! in Heaven. Think of eternal things ! Give up thy soul to penitence, and pray! 75 Lalage [arising hurriedly.] I cannot pray! — my soul is at war with God! The frightful sounds of merriment below Disturb my senses — go ! I cannot pray — The sweet airs from the garden worry me ! Thy presence grieves me — go! — thy priestly raiment 80 Fills me with dread — thy ebony crucifix With horror and awe! Monk. Think of thy precious soul! Lalage. Think of my early days! — think of my father And mother in Heaven ! think of our quiet home, And the rivulet that ran before the door! 85 Think of my little sisters ! — think of them ! And think of me ! — think of my trusting love And confidence — his vows — my ruin — think — think Of my unspeakable misery! — begone! Yet stay! yet stay! — what was it thou saidst of prayer 90 And penitence? Didst thou not speak of faith And vows before the throne? Monk. I did. Lalage. 'Tis well. There is a vow were fitting should be made — A sacred vow, imperative, and urgent, A solemn vow! Monk. Daughter, this zeal is well! 95 Lalage. Father, this zeal is anything but well! Hast thou a crucifix fit for this thing? A crucifix whereon to register This sacred vow [he hands her his own.] Not that — Oh ! no ! — no ! — no ! [shuddering] Not that! Not that! — I tell thee, holy man, 100 Thy raiments and thy ebony cross affright me ! Politian 17 Stand back! I have a crucifix myself, — / have a crucifix! Methinks 'twere fitting The deed — the vow — the symbol of the deed — And the deed's register should tally, father! 105 [draws a cross-handled dagger and raises it on high.] Behold the cross wherewith a vow like mine Is written in Heaven ! Monk. Thy words are madness, daughter. And speak a purpose unholy — thy lips are livid — Thine eyes are wild — tempt not the wrath divine! Pause ere too late! — oh be not — be not rash! no Swear not the oath — oh swear it not ! Lalage. 'Tis sworn! V. [Aroom in the palace ofT)i Broglio. Di Broglio, and Castiglione.] [Castiglione.] Undoubtedly. Duke. Why do you laugh.'' Castiglione. Indeed I hardly know myself. Stay! was it not On yesterday we were speaking of the Earl .'' Of the Earl Politian ? Yes it was yesterday. Alessandra, you and I, you must remember! 5 We were walking in the garden. Duke. Perfectly I do remember it — what of it — what then? — Castiglione. O nothing — nothing at all. Duke. Nothing at all ! It is most singular now that you should laugh At nothing at all! Castiglione. Most singular — singular! 10 Duke. Look you, Castiglione, be so kind As tell me. Sir, at once what is't you mean. What are you talking of? Castiglione, Was it not so? We differed in opinion touching him. 1 8 Politian Duke. Him! — whom? Castiglione. Why, Sir, the Earl Politian, 15 Duke. The Earl of Leicester! — yes! — is it he you mean? We differed indeed. If I now recollect The words you used were that the Earl you knew Was neither learned nor mirthful. Castiglione. Ha! ha! — now did I? Duke. That did you, Sir, and well I knew at the time 20 You were wrong — it being not the character Of the Earl — whom all the world allows to be A most hilarious man. Be not, my son, Too positive again. Castiglione. 'Tis singular! Most singular! I could not think it possible 25 So little time could so alter one. To say the truth, about an hour ago As I was walking with the Count San Ozzo All arm in arm we met this very man The Earl — he with his friend Baldazzar 30 Having just arrived in Rome. Ha! ha! he is altered ! Such an account he gave me of his journey! 'Twould have made you die with laughter — such tales he told Of his caprices and his merry freaks Along the road — such oddity — such humour 35 Such wit — such whim — such flashes of wild merri- ment Set off too in such full relief by the grave Demeanor of his friend — who to speak the truth Was gravity itself — Duke. Did I not tell you ? Castiglione. You did — and yet 'tis strange! but true as strange. 40 How much I was mistaken ! I always thought The Earl a gloomy man. Duke. So, so, you see. Politian 19 Be not too positive. Whom have we here? It cannot be the Earl? Castiglione. The Earl — oh no! 'Tis not the Earl — but yet it is — and leaning 45 Upon his friend Baldazzar. Ah! welcome. Sir! [enter Politian and Baldazzar.] My lord, a second welcome let me give you To Rome — his Grace the Duke of Broglio Father! this is the Earl Politian, — Earl Of Leicester in Great Britain, [Politian bows haughtily] this his friend 50 Baldazzar, Duke of Surrey. The Earl has letters, So please you for your Grace. Duke. Ah! ha! Most welcome To Rome and to our palace Earl Politian ! And you most noble Duke! am glad to see you! I knew your father well, my lord Politian. 55 Castiglione, call your cousin hither And let me make the noble Earl acquainted With your betrothed. You come. Sir, at a time Most seasonable. The wedding — Politian. Touching those letters. Sir Your son made mention of — (your son is he not?) 60 Touching those letters. Sir, I wot not of them. If such there be, my friend Baldazzar here — Baldazzar! — ah! — my friend Baldazzar here Will hand them to your Grace. I would retire. Duke. Retire! — So soon? Castiglione. What ho! Benito! Rupert! 65 His lordship's chambers — show his lordship to them! His lordship is unwell! [Enter Benito.] Benito. This way, my lord ! [Exit, followed by Voia.tia.n.] Duke. Retire! — unwell! Baldazzar. So please you. Sir, I fear me 'Tis as you say — his lordship is unwell. The damp air of the evening — the fatigue 70 20 Politian Of a long journey — the — indeed I had better Follow his lordship. He must be unwell. I will return anon. Duke. Return anon! Now this is strange! Castiglione! This way, my son, I wish to speak, with thee. 75 You surely were mistaken in what you said Of the Earl, mirthful indeed! — which of us said Politian was a melancholy man ? [Exeunt.] VI. [ill.] [An apartment in a Palace. Politian and Baldaz- ZAR.] BaldazZar. Arouse thee now, Politian! Thou must not — nay indeed, indeed, thou shalt not Give way unto these humours. Be thyself! Shake off the idle fancies that beset thee, And live, for now thou diest ! Politian. Not so, Baldazzar! 5 Surely I live. Baldazzar. Politian, it doth grieve me To see thee thus. Politian. Baldazzar, it doth grieve me To give thee cause for grief, my honoured friend. Command me, sir! what wouldst thou have me do? At thy behest I will shake off that nature 10 Which from my forefathers I did inherit. Which with my mother's milk I did imbibe. And be no more Politian, but some other. Command me, sir! Baldazzar, To the field then — to the field — To the senate or the field. Politian. Alas! alas! 15 There is an imp would follow me even there! There is an imp hath followed me even there ! There is — what voice was that? Politian ii Baldazzar. I heard it not. I heard not any voice except thine own, And the echo of thine own. Politian. Then I but dreamed. 20 Baldazzar. Give not thy soul to dreams: the camp — the court Befit thee — Fame awaits thee — Glory calls — And her the trumpet-tongued thou wilt not hear In hearkening to imaginary sounds And phantom voices. Politian. It ?j a phantom voice! 25 Didst thou not hear it then? Baldazzar. I heard it not. Politian. Thou heardst it not! — Baldazzar, speak no more To me, Politian, of thy camps and courts. Oh ! I am sick, sick, sick, even unto death, Of the hollow and high-sounding vanities 30 Of the populous Earth! Bear with me yet awhile! We have been boys together — school-fellows — And now are friends — yet shall not be so long — For in the eternal city thou shalt do me A kind and gentle office, and a Power — 35 A Power august, benignant and supreme — Shall then absolve thee of all farther duties Unto thy friend. Baldazzar. Thou speakest a fearful riddle I will not understand. Politian. Yet now as Fate Approaches, and the Hours are breathing low,^,^ 40 The sands of Time are changed to golden grains. And dazzle me, Baldazzar. Alas! alas! I cannot die, having within my heart So keen a relish for the beautiful As hath been kindled within it. Methinks the air 45 Is balmier now than it was wont to be — 1 Rich melodies are floating in the winds — I A rarer loveliness bedecks the earth — \ 22 Politian And with a holier lustre the quiet moon Sitteth in Heaven. — Hist! hist! thou canst not say 50 Thou hearest not now, Baldazzar? Baldazzar. Indeed I hear not. Politian. Not hear it ! — listen now — listen ! — the faintest sound And yet the sweetest that ear ever heard! A lady's voice! — and sorrow in the tone! Baldazzar, it oppresses me like a spell! 55 Again ! — again ! — how solemnly it falls Into my heart of hearts ! that eloquent voice Surely I never heard — yet it were well Had I but heard it with its thrilling tones In earlier days! Baldazzar. I myself hear it now. 60 Be still! — the voice, if I mistake not greatly. Proceeds from yonder lattice — ^which you may see Very plainly through the window — it belongs, Does it not? unto this palace of the Duke. The singer is undoubtedly beneath 65 The roof of his Excellency — and perhaps Is even that Alessandra of whom he spoke As the betrothed of Castiglione, His son and heir. Politian. Be still ! — it comes again ! Voice [very faintly .] "And is thy heart so strong 70 As for to leave me thus Who hath loved thee so long In wealth and wo among? And is thy heart so strong As for to leave me thus? 75 Say nay — say nay!" Baldazzar. The song is English, and I oft have heard it In merry England — never so plaintively — Hist ! hist ! it comes again ! Voice [more loudly.] "Is it so strong As for to leave me thus 80 Politian 23 Who hath loved thee so long In wealth and wo among? And is thy heart so strong As for to leave me thus ? Say nay — say nay!" 85 Baldazzar. 'Tis hushed and all is still! Politian. All is not still. Baldazzar. Let us go down. Politian. Go down, Baldazzar, go! Baldazzar. The hour is growing late — The Duke awaits us, — Thy presence is expected in the hall Below. What ails thee, Earl Politian? 90 Voice \distinctly \ "Who hath loved thee so long. In wealth and wo among, And is thy heart so strong? Say nay — say nay!" Baldazzar. Let us descend ! — 'tis time. Politian, give 95 These fancies to the wind. Remember, pray. Your bearing lately savoured much of rudeness Unto the Duke. Arouse thee! and remember! Politian. Remember? I do. Lead on! \ do remember! \going\ Let us descend. Believe me I would give, 100 Freely would give the broad lands of my earldom To look upon the face hidden by yon lattice — "To gaze upon that veiled face, and hear Once more that silent tongue." Baldazzar. Let me beg you, sir. Descend with me — the Duke may be offended. 105 Let us go down, I pray you. Voice [loudly.] Say nay! — say nay! Politian [aside.] 'Tis strange! — 'tis very strange — me- thought the voice Chimed in with my desires and bade me stay! [approaching the window.] Sweet voice ! I heed thee, and will surely stay. Now be this Fancy, by Heaven, or be it Fate, 1 10 24 PoliHan Still will I not descend. Baldazzar, make Apology unto the Duke for me; I go not down to-night. Baldazzar. Your lordship's pleasure Shall be attended to. Good night, Politian. PoLiTiAN. Good night, my friend, good night. 115 VII. [IV.] [The gardens of a palace — Moonlight. Lalage and Politian.] Lalage. And dost thou speak of love To me, Politian ? — dost thou speak of love To Lalage ? — ah wo — ah wo is me ! This mockery is most cruel — most cruel indeed ! Politian. Weep not! oh, sob not thus! — thy bitter tears 5 Will madden me. Oh mourn not, Lalage — Be comforted! I know — I know it all. And still I speak of love. Look at me, brightest, And beautiful Lalage! — turn here thine eyes! Thou askest me if I could speak of love, 10 Knowing what I know, and seeing what I hdve seen. Thou askest me that — and thus I answer thee — Thus on my bended knee I answer thee, [kneeling^ Sweet Lalage, I love thee — love thee — love thee; Thro' good and ill — thro' weal and wo I love thee. 15 Not mother, with her first born on her knee. Thrills with intenser love than I for thee. Not on God's altar, in any time or clime. Burned there a holier fire than burneth now Within my spirit for /A^(?. And do I love? [«m;«^.] 20 Even for thy woes I love thee — even for thy woes — Thy beauty and thy woes. Lalage. Alas, proud Earl, Thou dost forget thyself, remembering me! How, in thy father's halls, among the maidens Pure and reproachless of thy princely line, 25 Politian 25 Could the dishonoured Lalage abide ? Thy wife, and with a tainted memory — My seared and blighted name, how would it tally '''' With the ancestral honours of thy house. And with thy glory? Politian. Speak not to me of glory! 30 I hate — I loathe the name; I do abhor The unsatisfactory and ideal thing. Art thou not Lalage and I Politian ? Do I not love — art thou not beautiful — What need we more? Ha! glory! — now speak not of it! 35 By all I hold most sacred and most solemn — By all my wishes now — my fears hereafter — By all I scorn on earth and hope in heaven — There is no deed I would more glory in. Than in thy cause to scoff at this same glory 40 And trample it under foot. What matters it — What matters it, my fairest, and my best. That we go down unhonoured and forgotten Into the dust — so we descend together. Descend together — and then — and then per- chance — . 45 Lalage. Why dost thou pause, Politian? Politian. And then perchance Arise together, Lalage, and roam The starry and quiet dwellings of the blest. And still — Lalage. Why dost thou pause, Politian? Politian. And still together — together. Lalage. Now Earl of Leicester! 50 Thou lovest me, and in my heart of hearts I feel thou lovest me truly. Politian. Oh, Lalage! [throwing himself upon his knee.] And lovest thou me? Lalage. Hist! hush! within the gloom Of yonder trees methought a figure past — /" A spectral figure, solemn, and slow, and noiseless — 55 26 Politian Like the grim shadow Conscience, solemn and noiseless. [walks across and returns.] I was mistaken — 'twas but a giant bough Stirred by the autumn wind. Politian! Politian. My Lalage — my love! why art thou moved? Why dost thou turn so pale? Not Conscience' self, 60 Far less a shadow which thou likenest to it. Should shake the firm spirit thus. But the night wind Is chilly — and these melancholy boughs Throw over all things a gloom. Lalage. Politian! Thou speakest to me of love. Knowest thou the land 6^ With which all tongues are busy — a land new found — Miraculously found by one of Genoa — A thousand leagues within the golden west ? A fairy land of flowers, and fruit, and sunshine. And crystal lakes, and over-arching forests, 70 And mountains, around whose towering summits the winds Of Heaven untrammeled flow — which air to breathe Is Happiness now, and will be Freedom hereafter In days that are to come? Politian. O, wilt thou — ^wilt thou Fly to that Paradise — my Lalage, wilt thou 75 Fly thither with me? There Care shall be forgotten. And Sorrow shall be no more, and Eros be all. And life shall then be mine, for I will live For thee, and in thine eyes — and thou shalt be No more a mourner — but the radiant Joys 80 Shall wait upon thee, and the angel Hope Attend thee ever; and I will kneel to thee And worship thee, and call thee my beloved. My own, my beautiful, my love, my wife. Politian Tj My all; — oh, wilt thou — ^wilt thou, Lalage, 85 Fly thither with me ? Lalage. A deed is to be done — Castiglione lives ! Politian. And he shall die! [Exit.] Lalage [after a pause.] And — he — shall — die! alas! Castiglione die? Who spoke the words? Where am I? — what was it he said? — Politian! 90 Thou art not gone — thou art not gone, Politian ! I feel thou art not gone — yet dare not look, Lest I behold thee not; thou couldst not go With those words upon thy lips — O, speak to me! And let me hear thy voice — one word — one word, 95 To say thou art not gone, — one little sentence. To say how thou dost scorn — how thou dost hate My womanly weakness. Ha! ha! thou art not gone— speak to me! I knew thou wouldst not go! 1 knew thou wouldst not, couldst not, durst not go. 100 Villain, thou art not gone — thou mockest me ! And thus I clutch thee — thus! He is gone, he is gone- Gone— gone. Where am I? 'tis well — 'tis very well! So that the blade be keen — the blow be sure, 'Tis well, 'tis very well — alas! alas! [Exit.] 105 VIIL [A street near a Palace. Bells ringing and shouts heard in the distance. Several persons cross and recross the stage rapidly. Enter Benito walking quickly, and followed by Rupert at the same pace.] Rupert. What ho! Benito! did you say to-night? Is it to-night — the wedding? Benito. To-night I believe. [Exeunt.] [Enter Jacinta fantastically dressed, and bearing a flat band-box. She enters at first quickly — then 28 Politian saunteringly — and finally stops near the middle of the stage, and is lost in the contemplation of the jewels upon one of her hands, which is ungloved. She at length sets down the band-box and looks at a watch hanging by her side.] Jacinta. It is not late — o no! it is not late — What need is there of hurry? I'll answer for it There's time enough to spare — now let me see! 5 The wedding is to be at dark, and here The day's not half done, — stay I can tell To a minute how many hours there are between This time and dark — one, two, three, four, five, six! Six hours! why I can very easily do 10 The whole of my errands in two hours at farthest ! Who'd be without a watch? — these are pretty gloves ! I will not walk myself to death at all — I won't — I'll take my time. [Seats herself on a bank and kicks the bandbox to and fro with an air of nonchalance. Benito re- crosses the stage rapidly with a bundle?^ Look you Benito! Benito! I say — Benito! — don't you hear? 15 The impudent varlet not to answer me! The wretch not even to deign to condescend To see me, as I sit upon the bank Looking so like a lady ! Tm a lady ! I am indeed! — but after all I think 20 There is a difference between some ladies And others — the ignorant, stupid, villain ! — Between my former mistress, Lalage, For instance, and my present noble mistress The lady Alessandra. I made a change 25 For the better I think — indeed I'm sure of it — Besides, you know it was impossible When such reports have been in circulation ■ To stay with her now — She'd nothing of the lady About her — not a tittle ! One would have thought 30 Politian 29 She was a peasant girl, she was so humble. ' I hate all humble people! — and then she talked To one with such an air of condescension. And she had not common sense — of that I'm sure Or would she, now — I ask you now, Jacinta, 35 Do you, or do you not suppose your mistress Had common sense or understanding when She gave you all these jewels? [Rupert recrosses the stage rapidly and without noticing Jacinta.] That man's a fool Or he would not be in a hurry — he would have stopped — If he had not been a. fool he would have stopped — 40 Took off his hat, and, making a low bow. Said "I am most superlatively happy To see you. Madam Jacinta." Well I don't know Some people are fools by nature — some have a talent For being stupid — look at that ass now, Ugo, 45 He thinks I'll have him — but oh no! — I couldn't. He might as well, for all the use he makes of it. Have been born without a head. Heigho ! what's this? Oh ! it's the paper that my lady gave me. With the list of articles she wants — ten yards 50 Of taffeta — sixteen of gold brocade — And ten of Genoa velvet — one two — three, [As she counts, she tears a slip from the paper at each number, and arranges it on the floor in an ab- stracted manner^ Four, five, six, seven — that's it — now eight, nine, ten. Ten yards — I can't forget it now — ten yards Ten yards of velvet — I must try and get me 55 A dress of Genoa velvet — 'tis becoming. And I would look so like my lady in it! Methinks I see her now — Oh ! she's a lady JO Politian Worth serving indeed — oh she has airs and graces And dignity — yes ! she has dignity 60 [Arises and struts affectedly across the stage.] And then she has a voice. Heavens! what a voice! So loud, so lady-like, and so commanding! "Jacinta, get me this"— "D'ye hear?— bring that!" "And tell the Count Castiglione I want him." Then "yes ma'am" I reply, and curtsy thus 65 Meekly and daintily thus, [curtsies affectedly.] Oh! I'm a maid One in a thousand for a dainty curtsey. But when I get to be a lady — ^when I wed the apothecary — oh then it will be A different thing — a different thing indeed! 70 I'll play my lady to a T, that will I. I'll be all dignity, and I'll talk, thus "Ugo, you villain" (Ugo shall be my servant) [During this part of the soliloquy Ugo enters un- perceived and in his astonishment treads upon the bandbox and remains with his foot in it, as if stupi- fied.] "Ugo you villain! — look you here, you rascal! "You good for nothing, idle, lazy scoundrel! 75 "What are you doing here? Begone you ugly "You silly, sulky, dirty, stupid idiot "Begone I say this minute — get out you viper. "Get out you jackass! — out you vagabond!" And then if he's not gone in half a moment 80 I'll turn about and let him have it [seeing Ugo whom she encounters in turning round.] — who's this? It's he, by all that's good, it is himself! I'll turn about and let him have it so — [striking him.] It's as well now as any other time — Thus — thus — I'll let him have it thus — thus — thus. 85 You wretch ! what are you doing with your foot Stuffed in that bandbox? I'll let him have it thus — Thus — thus — [Exit Ugo followed by Jacinta who throws the bandbox after him.] Politian 3 1 IX. [v.] [The suburbs. Politian a/ow^.] Politian. This weakness grows upon me. I am faint, And much I fear me ill — it will not do To die ere I have lived! — Stay — stay thy hand, O Azrael, yet awhile!— Prince of the Powers Of Darkness and the Tomb, O pity me ! 5 O pity me! let me not perish now. In the budding of my Paradisal Hope ! Give me to live yet — yet a little while: 'Tis I who pray for life — I who so late Demanded but to die! — what sayeth the Count? 10 [Enter Baldazzar.] Baldazzar. That knowing no cause of quarrel or of feud '^ Between the Earl Politian and himself. He doth decline your cartel. Politian. What didst thou say? What answer was it you brought me, good Baldazzar? With what excessive fragrance the zephyr comes 15 Laden from yonder bowers! — a fairer day. Or one more worthy Italy, methinks No mortal eyes have seen ! — what said the Count ? Baldazzar. That he, Castiglione, not being aware Of any feud existing, or any cause 20 Of quarrel between your lordship and himself Cannot accept the challenge. Politian. It is most true — All this is very true. When saw you, sir. When saw you now, Baldazzar, in the frigid Ungenial Britain which we left so lately, 25 A heaven so calm as this — so utterly free From the evil taint of clouds? — and he did say? Baldazzar. No more, my lord, than I have told you, sir: The Count Castiglione will not fight, Having no cause for quarrel. Politian. Now this is true — 30 32 Politian All very true. Thou art my friend, Baldazzar, And I have not forgotten it — thou'lt do me A piece of service; wilt thou go back and say Unto this man, that I, the Earl of Leicester, Hold him a villain? — thus much, I pry thee, say 35 Unto the Count — it is exceeding just He should have cause for quarrel. Baldazzar. My lord! — my friend! Politian [aside.] 'Tis he — he comes himself! [aloud.] . thou reasonest well. I know what thou wouldst say — not send the mes- sage- Well ! — I will think of it — I will not send it. 40 Now prythee, leave me — hither doth come a person With whom affairs of a most private nature I would adjust. Baldazzar. I go — to-morrow we meet. Do we not? — at the Vatican. Politian. At the Vatican. [Exit Baldazzar.] [Enter Castiglione.] Castiglione. The Earl of Leicester here! 45 Politian. I am the Earl of Leicester, and thou seest. Dost thou not? that I am here. Castiglione. My lord, some strange. Some singular mistake — misunderstanding — Hath without doubt arisen: thou hast been urged Thereby, in heat of anger, to address 50 Some words most unaccountable, in writing. To me, Castiglione; the bearer being Baldazzar, Duke of Surrey. I am aware Of nothing which might warrant thee in this thing, Having given thee no offense. Ha! — am I right? 55 'Twas a mistake ? — undoubtedly — we all Do err at times. Politian. Draw, villain, and prate no more! Castiglione. Ha! — draw? — and villain? have at thee then at once, Proud Earl ! [draws.] Politian ^3 Politian [drawing.] Thus to the expiatory tomb, Untimely sepulchre, I do devote thee 60 In the name of Lalage ! Castiglione [letting fall his sword and recoiling to the extremity of the stage.} Of Lalage! Hold off — thy sacred hand! — a vaunt I say! Avaunt — I will not fight thee — indeed I dare not. Politian. Thou wilt not fight with me didst say, Sir Count? Shall I be baffled thus? — now this is well; 65 Didst say thou darest not ? Ha ! Castiglione. I dare not — dare not — Hold off thy hand — with that beloved name So fresh upon thy lips I will not fight thee — I cannot — dare not. Politian. Now by my halidom I do believe thee! — coward, I do believe thee! 70 Castiglione. Ha! — coward! — this may not be! [clutches his sword and staggers towards Politian, but his ■purpose is changed before reaching him, and he falls upon his knee at the feet of the Earl.] Alas ! my lord. It is — it is — most true. In such a cause I am the veriest coward. O pity me! Politian [^eatly softened.] Alas! — I do — indeed I pity thee. Castiglione. And Lalage Politian. Scoundrel! — arise and die! 75 Castiglione. It needeth not be — thus — thus — O let me die Thus on my bended knee. It were most fitting That in this deep humiliation I perish. For in the fight I will not raise a hand Against thee. Earl of Leicester. Strike thou, home — [baring his bosom \ 80 Here is no let or hindrance to thy weapon — Strike home. I will not fight thee. 34 Politian PoLiTiAN. Now s'Death and Hell ! Am I not — am I not sorely — grievously tempted To take thee at thy word? But mark me, sir! Think not to fly me thus. Do thou prepare 85 For public insult in the streets — before The eyes of the citizens. I'll follow thee — Like an avenging spirit I'll follow thee Even unto death. Before those whom thou lovest — Before all Rome I'll taunt thee, villain, — I'll taunt thee, 90 Dost hear? with cowardice — thou wilt not fight me? Thou liest! thou j^fl/A' [Exit.] Castiglione. Now this indeed is just! Most righteous, and most just, avenging Heaven! X. [The Scene is evidently the Hall of Di Broglio's Palace. Ugo and San Ozzo.] San Ozzo. D — d if he does that's flat! why — yes, that's flat. Extremely flat, and candid, and so forth And sociable, and. all that sort of thing Damned if you do? — look you, you ignoramus What is it you mean ? is it your fixed intention 5 To be all day in that especial manner If so pray let me know! Ugo. I'll let you know Nothing about it, and for the best of reasons In the first place. Sir, I did not hear a word Your honour said, and in the second, Sir, 10 I cannot talk at all. It's very strange You can't perceive I'm dead! San Ozzo. It's very strange I can't perceive you're dead? soho! I see! [aside.] I've heard before that such ideas as these Have seized on human brains, still not believing 15 Politian 35 The matter possible. Ha! ha! I have it! I wish to see the Count — he'll not admit me — Being in the dumps about this little matter Touching Politian, who in the public streets Called him a coward on yesterday forenoon, ao Set him a laughing once, and he'll forget Both the Earl and himself. I'll bet a trifle now I'll make this idiot go and tell the Count That he's deceased — if so the game is up. [aloud.] So — so — you're dead eh? come now — come now, Ugo ! 25 Be candid with me — is it indeed a fact And are you really dead? Ugo. Not, Sir, exactly Dead, so to say, but having just committed Felo de se, I'm what they call deceased. San Ozzo. Ah ! I perceive — it's positively so 30 Poor soul he's gone! But now I think of it Deceased is not the word. What say you, Ugo? Deceased is not the proper word to express Your case with due exactitude. Perhaps Defunct would suit it better. Ugo. Sir! — I'm defunct. ^c, San Ozzo. Ah — very well! — then I shall tell your master That you're defunct — or stop suppose I say — I think there would be more of dignity In saying "Sir Count, your worthy servant Ugo Not being dead, nor yet to say deceased, 40 Nor yet defunct, but having unluckily Made way with himself — that's felo de se you know — Hath now departed this life." Ugo. Say that. Sir, say that! For now, upon consideration, I think I have — departed this life. San Ozzo. I will — I'll say it! 45 I will inform the Count — but not so fast — I'm wrong — I must not do it — it were against 36 Politian All rules of etiquette. This is a matter Demanding due consideration, Ugo, One of the last importance. — Do you not think 50 (You see I yield unto your better judgment) Do you not think it were more fitting, Sir, More decorous, you know, — you understand me? More delicate, more proper, and all that — That you should tell the circumstance yourself 55 Unto the Count — ha! — do you take me Sir? 'Tis the better plan, is it not? Ugo. Why yes, it is. San Ozzo. Undoubtedly — it is — you are right — get up! And lose no time about it — be quick — get up! Ugo. Get up? I can't — Sir, I've been dead an hour 60 And am stiff as you perceive. San Ozzo. Well yes, I do. You are a little — stiff — all very true. I most sincerely pity you — but. Sir, Could you not, think you, by a desperate effort, Contrive to stir a little ? let me help you ? 6^ Paugh ! this will never do ! — why, bless me. Sir, Perhaps you're not aware that — that — in short The day is very sultry — and that a corpse In very hot weather won't — keep, you take me. Sir? My nose is delicate, and to be plain 70 You smell. Sir, yes you smell — come now be quick ! Indeed I cannot will not answer for The consequence of any longer stay. Sir! you may drop to pieces! Ugo. Good God! that's true! Lend me your hand. Sir, do ! San Ozzo. Ah that is well! 75 Extremely well attempted ! — Sir I am glad To see you on your legs, — a little stiff No matter! — not ungraceful in a corpse. Now Sir, this leg — a little farther — that's it! Most excellent! — ah! that is exquisite! 80 Politian 37 Now Sir, the left — you have a genius, Ugo, For putting out a leg! pray Sir proceed! Superlative ! — now that's what I call walking ! Magnificent! — a little farther. Sir! Farewell! — now recollect you tell 85 The Count as I directed — you've departed This life — you're dead, deceased, defunct. And all that sort of thing — ha! ha! ha! ha! XL [Interior of the Coliseum. Politian entering from behind — moonlight.} Politian. Shall meet me here within the Coliseum! Type of the antique Rome — rich reliquary Of lofty contemplation left to Time By buried centuries of pomp and power! At length at length after so many days 5 Of weary pilgrimage and burning thirst (Thirst for the springs of lore that in thee lie) I stand, an altered and an humble man Amid thy shadows, and so drink within My very soul thy grandeur, gloom and glory! 10 She comes not, and the spirit of the place Oppresses me ! Vastness and Age and Memories of Eld, Silence, and Desolation and dim Night Gaunt vestibules, and phantom-peopled aisles, 1 5 I feel ye now! I feel ye in your strength! O spells more sure then e'er Judean king Taught in the gardens of Gethsemane ! O spells more potent than the rapt Chaldee Ever drew down from out the quiet stars! 20 She comes not and the moon is high in Heaven ! Here where the hero fell, a column falls, Here where the mimic eagle glared in gold A secret vigil holds the swarthy bat, Here where the dames of Rome their yellow hair 25 38 Politian Waved to the wind, now wave the reed and thistle; Here where on ivory couch the Caesar sate On bed of moss lies gloating the foul adder; Here where on golden throne the monarch lolled Glides spectre-like into his marble home, 30 Lit by the wan light of the horned moon, The swift and silent lizard of the stones. These crumbling walls, these tottering arcades, These mouldering plinths, these sad and blackened shafts. These vague entablatures, this broken frieze, 35 These shattered cornices, this wreck, this ruin. These stones, alas ! these grey stones are they all. All of the great and the colossal left By the corrosive hours to Fate and me ? "Not all," the echoes answer me, — "not all; 40 Prophetic sounds and loud arise forever From us and from all ruin unto the wise. As from the granite Memnon to the sun. We rule the hearts of mightiest men; we rule With a despotic sway all giant minds. 45 We are not desolate, we pallid stones. Not all our power is gone, — not all our Fame, Not all the magic of our high renown. Not all the wonder that encircles us, Not all the mysteries that in us lie, 50 Not all the memories that hang upon And cling around about us as a garment Clothing us in a robe of more than glory." [Enter Lalage wildly.] She comes. Lalage I come. And now the hour is come For vengeance or will never. So the priest 55 Is standing by the altar, — the robed priest! And by him — the bride — the bride And in a bride's array! and by the bride The bridegroom — where art thou ? Politian 39 PoLiTiAN. 'Tis true where am I? Not where I should be? By the God of Heaven 60 I'll mar this bridal if at the altar's foot The bridegroom dies. [Exit.] Lalage. Away, — away, — farewell ! Farewell Castiglione and farewell My hope in Heaven ! [Exit.] ABBREVIATIONS Certain rather simple abbreviations, in the main familiar to Poe students, are used in the Notes. B.J. = Broadway Jour- nal; B.S.Y.= Baltimore Saturday Visiter; J.L.G. =The J. Lorimer Graham copy of Poe's 1845 volume, with his own MS corrections; MS=manuscipt; MS cane. =cancelled readings of the MS; 'P.O. = Poet's Offering; F.P.h.= Poets and Poetry of America; P.S.= Poetry of the Sentiments; S.^.V.= Saturday Evening Post; ^.1^.^..= Southern Literary Messenger; S.M. = Saturday Museum. Books published by Poe are referred to sometimes by date only, standard editions, like those of Camp- bell, Whitty (2nd edition of Complete Poems) and Harrison, are referred to by editor's names alone, Harrison contracted to "H." Woodberry refers to Mr. Woodberry's two volume Life of Poe. The familiar Library abbreviations N. Y. H.[istoricaI] S[ociety]; N. Y. P[ublic] L[ibrary] and L[ibrary of] C[ongressJ are self-explanatory. All titles of books, articles, poems, etc., are italicized, Roman numerals refer to volumes, chapters, acts or scenes; Arabic to pages or lines. Authors of all poems and articles cited are named except works of Poe, of Shakespeare, and books of the Bible, but there may be a few exceptions unrecorded. References consisting wholly of numerals are of course to scenes and lines of Politian itself. SOURCES AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE TEXT The text of the play here given is based on a thorough collation of the remaining portions of Poe's original MS, and of all printed versions of the play known to have appeared during the poet's lifetime. The latest text certainly authorized by the poet has been in all cases adopted, as Poe's corrections were made with great care in all his works. There has been no trouble in deciding just what should be held the final text — for the scenes printed in The Raven and other Poems (1845), ^'^ J. Lorimer Graham copy of that volume with Poe's own pencil corrections has been followed; the other scenes follow the MS. The last scene is in part the same as Poe's poem The Coliseum, but the MS has been followed because the changes made in the separate publications of the poem may not have been intended for the version in the drama — the versions of Poe's To One in Paradise as a separate poem and as incorporated in his tale The Assignation differ. All known verbal variations of the different texts and cancelled readings are however collected in the Notes following. The editing of the actual text of the play has been very conservative, and while all abbreviations of names and words have been fully expanded, stage directions put in italics, and names of characters in small capitals, in the interest of uni- formity and the reader's convenience, as little change has been made in the text as possible. For the portions of the play given in 1845, Poe's punctuation has been followed exactly — in the scenes edited from the MS alone, a few corrections of spelling and punctuation have been made, but these changes, even the addition of periods at the ends of speeches, have been listed in the Notes. The editor has scrupled less to make these changes in view of Poe's confession in a letter to T. W. White, June 22, 1835 (H. xvii, p. 9) that he had been previously careless of his pointing, and the Politian MS antedates this. I have not however attempted to introduce any uniformity into the text. 42 Politian and have retained everything which Poe might possibly have kept. In one thing only I could not follow Poe, and I have wholly abandoned the division into acts. Poe seems to have changed his purpose regarding this in the MS, and since the MS is imperfect at places where it alone could show his final intentions, I have concluded to number the scenes con- secutively i-xi, adding in brackets the numbers given them in Poe's old selection, since references are made at times to these. All that can be made out of Poe's changes is recorded in the Notes, and Ingram's proposed arrangement is also given. The question might be raised whether Poe intended to omit any scenes altogether — certainly he drew his pen carelessly across one or two of the pages, but probably this was done to indicate what the printer should omit in setting up the selections in the Messenger. I have rpade no formal bibliography of my sources, but have described all the uncommon books cited where first men- tioned. An Index of persons mentioned is given. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF "POLITIAN" (All versions before 1850 are listed — thereafter only first printings and first incorporations in editions of the poems are given.) 1833. Baltimore Saturday Visiter (Baltimore, Cloud and Pouder) October 16, contains the Coliseum (vol. iii, n. s. No. 39, page i, column i). 1835. The original MS dates from about this period, and includes as preserved. Scenes i; ii; iii; iv, 1-23; v (incomplete); vi; vii; viii; ix, 1-54; x, (incomplete); xi. It now consists of eleven sheets, of which the first ten are in the Pierpont Morgan Library, all with writing on both sides of the page — the other sheet which was clearly the last has writing on one side only. Two sheets only seem to have been lost. The Southern Literary Messenger (Richmond, Va., T. W. White) August contains the Coliseum (vol. i, p. 706) as "Selected Poetry," and December, Scenes iv; vi; vii (vol. ii, pp. 13-16). 1836. The Southern Literary Messenger for January contains Scenes iii; ix, (vol. ii, pp. 106-108). 1841. The Saturday Evening Post (Philadelphia, George R. Graham) June 12 contains The Coliseum (vol. xxi. No. 1037, p. i, col. i.) 1842. The Poets and Poetry of America, [edited] by Rufus W. Griswold (Philadelphia, Carey and Hart), ist edition, contains the Coliseum at pages 387-388, as also in the following editions: — 2nd (1842); 3rd (1843); 4*^ (1843); 5th (1844?); 6th (1845); 7th (1846); and at pages 431-432 in the 8th (1847) ^"d 9th (1848) editions. From the loth (1850) and subsequent editions the Coliseum is excluded. 1843. The Saturday Museum (Philadelphia, T. C. Clarke) Feb. 25 contained the Coliseum in the article on Poe by Henry B. Hirst, reprinted by the same paper, March 4. This exists only in clippings. 1845. The Broadway Journal (New York, John Bisco) March 29 con- tains iv, 5-27, 56-1 1 1 (vol. I, p. 197.) The same periodical, July 12, contains The Coliseum (vol. ii, p. 14 ("41").) The Raven and other Poems, by Edgar A. Poe (New York, Wiley and Putnam) contains The Coliseum, (pp. 12-13); and iii; iv; vi; vii; ix (pp. 31- 1846. The Raven volume was issued with this date (London, Wiley and Putnam.) The Poetry of the Sentiments, edited by R. W. Griswold (Philadelphia, U. Hunt & Son) contains the Coliseum (pp. 53-54.) 1846-49. Poe's MS revisions of the J. Lorimer Graham copy of The Raven volume belong to this period — there are revisions only in the Coliseum (p. 13) and iv (p. 34.) 1849. The Poet's Offering edited by Mrs. Sarah Josepha Hale (Phila- delphia, Grigg, Elliot & Co., "1850," copyright 1849) contains under the heading Ruins, the Coliseum, 11. i^-ii, 33-39, (p. 460.) 44 Politian 18S0. The Works of the Late Edgar A. Foe (New York, J. S. Redfield) contains iii; iv; vi; vii; ix (vol. ii, pp. 54-74) and The Coliseum (vol. ii, pp. 15-16.) These are mere reprints of The Raven volume versions, but the misprint in the Coliseum is corrected. 1875. The Southern Magazine (Baltimore, TurnbuU Brothers) for November contains Ingram's article Poe's "Politian" where are first printed (in slightly garbled form) i, 31, 2Z, 36-45. 58-60, 113; ii, 34-57, 75; v, 35- 36, 41-42; X 14-15, 19-20 (vol. X pp. 588-594.) 1888. The Poetical Works of Poe edited by John H. Ingram, "The Chandos Classics" (London, Frederick Warne & Co.; also issued in New York) contains Scene V, garbled, in a note at pp. 96-99. This portion is reprinted in Whitty's 2nd edition, but not by Stedman & Woodberry, Harrison, nor Campbell. 1909. The Bibliophile (London) for May gives, (vol. iii. No. 3, p. 136) a facsimile of the MS of xi, 1-9 in an article by Ingram called Variations in Edgar Poe's Poetry. 1911. The Complete Poems of Edgar Allan Poe, edited by J[ames] H[oward] Whitty (Boston, Houghton Mifflin) reprints most of the Southern Magazine material (pages 228-230). 1912. The Autograph (New York, P. F. Madigan) November-Decem- ber issue contains xi, 15-end (vol. i. No. 8, p. 196), 11. 15-32 later appeared in an auction catalogue of the Anderson Galleries. 1917. The Complete Poems, ed. Whitty, and ed. reprints v from Ingram's 1888 note (pp. 325-327) and xi, 15-32 (pp. 327-328) from the auction catalogue. EDITORIAL EMENDATIONS The text has been edited conservatively, but it seemed pedantic to reproduce certain abbreviations and very obvious errors, which are listed below, while the stage directions have been handled with some freedom. All abbreviations have been expanded, the names of all characters put in sm^l capitals, followed by a period, and all "directions" placed in italics, followed by a period and enclosed in square brackets. Exceptions to this rule are, first, the omission of the period after a speaker's name where it is immedi- ately followed by a direction; second, the omission of the period where a direction is inserted within a sentence. The capitalization of Enter, Exit and Exeunt has been made uniform. The division into lines is ultimately Poe's, but since he "justified" the beginning of each speech, the arrangement of lines spoken by two or more characters, is, like the numbering, due to the editor. See Notes on the Verse. Obsolete spellings are retained, absolutely wrong spellings have been corrected, and a very few marks of punctuation added. Except for silent expansions of the symbol "&" all intentional changes are listed below. In the Scene "l6th" is added to fill a blank in the MS; in the Cast "neice" after Alessandra has been corrected; and a comma added after Baldazzar. That the date is shortly after 1492 is shown by the allusion to Columbus in vii 65 f. I. The words in italics of 92-93 are not underlined in the MS but are in a different script which seems to demand italics. Periods are added in 92, 94 and 119; interrogation points in 96 and 98, and a comma and exclama- tion point in 123. II. 35-36, MS has "shd"; 2i9t accent added; 56, the reading of the third word is uncertain; Ingram printed the line "of bread and milk and water" (!); 63, Stage directions added. III. See Variorum for omission of ROME at head of this Scene. V. 19, Period added; 54, See Variorum. VIII. 14, and 41, see Variorum; 77, Poe has "ideot"; 82, Poe has "Its." X. 35, period added at end; 60, Poe has "Ive"; 77, no tail is visible in comma after "legs." XI. 54, 59, 62, Speakers' names not given in the Autograph, where the changes are indicated by quotation marks only. Quotation marks added in 1. 40. VARIORUM [The following list of changes etc. made by Poe himself is verbally as complete as possible, but some erasures, if made with a penknife may have escaped detection.] Title. The title is from the MS. Poe wrote above IV, in pencil "Scenes from Politian. An Unpublished Drama, by Edgar A. Poe" but in the printed version of the S. L. M. called his selections "Scenes from an Unpublished Drama, by Edgar A. Poe" and in 1845 the heading is "Scenes from "PoUtian;" an Unpublished Drama." The last title is adopted by Griswold. Scene and List or Characters. Text from MS. In the description of Lalage after orphan are the cancelled words of illustrious family, last of her race, and, After San Ozza MS cancels a. Politian was first called a young and noble Roman but this was cancelled. I. Text from MS — there headed Act I, Scene i which Ingram adopts. 49. After this MS cancels and listens aghast To the frightful sounds of merriment below Which she must never more share in. 49. Ah inserted later in MS. 83. After the first Here! MS cancels here! — 86. Look is written over a cancelled word now illegible. 94. gone is changed in MS from going 98. this inserted later in MS. 111. For my mistress MS earlier reading was the lady. n. Text, MS; there called Scene 2d, by Ingram Act I, Scene ii. 80. The second Pshaw added later by Poe. 104. Before this line MS cancels I say. 107. Before this line Ugo {as speaker's name) is cancelled. 110. After that MS cancels there. 115. After \t MS cancels znA\. 119. The second I've inserted later. in. This scene is complete in MS where it was first called Scene 3d then changed to Act 2d, Sc. ist. Ingram called it Act i. Hi. The scene was printed in S. L. M., Jan. 1836, numbered I and again in 184.S as I. The text follows 1845 except that the word ROME there given at the beginning of the Stage directions is omitted as unnecessary , since it does not occur in MS and the place of action has already been given in this edition. 3 . After this' line MS adds Oh! I am very happy! — sad? — not I. Variorum a^-j 4. MS adds stage direction (sighs heavily). 23. MS and S. L. M. omit thou wilt Also substituted in MS for cancelled somewhat. 24. For dress and equipage MS cane, reads habiliments. 26. I'll changed in MS from I will. 31. After gtntle MS cancels \m.mh\t. 35. For thy MS cane, reads your. 39. For i' MS reads in. 39-40. For kiss her. You dog MS cane, reads you dog, kiss her. Kiss her. 46. For a man quite MS cane, reads Politian's. 47. For fame MS cane, reads reputation. For have not seen MS reads never saw. IV. Of this scene the MS includes only the first 2J lines. It was first called Act 2nd Scene ist, then Scene 4th, then Scene 3d. Ingram calls it Act II, Scene i. It was published in S. L. M. for December l8js as I and in 184^ as II. The quotations in B.J., March 2p, 184^ are without title. The text follows 184^ ( J. Larimer Graham copy). At the beginning of the stage directions S. L. M. and 184.5 insert ROME but this is cancelled in J. L. G. copy, which also expands the abbreviation before the first two speeches from Lai. and Jac. In these stage directions the phrase with. . . .garden is inserted later in the MS. For upon MS reads upon the back of, and B. J. on the back of. MS and B. J. omit a servant maid. 4. For 'Tis MS reads It's. 6. Stage directions, for and B.J. reads and then. 14. For again MS cane, reads La! again. 15. For beyond the sea MS cane, reads in Albion. 16. one inserted later in MS. 17. For In B.J. reads V. 20. For Here's MS cane, reads This is. 55. Stage directions. B.J. reads here "[Jacinta finally in a discussion about certain jewels, insults her mistress, who bursts into tears.]" 76. Stage directions moved to end of line in B.J. 99. For This sacred S. L. M. reads A vow — a and B.J. A pious. 106. Stage direction moved to end of 108 in B.J. V. This scene lacks the heading and opening lines, it is called by Ingram Act 2 Scene ii. The text follows MS. 7. For what of it MS cane, reads decidedly. 39. itself changed in MS from himself. 54. There is space for I before am but no mark appears in the MS, and I hesitate to add the word. 88. After me MS cane, reads very much. VI. Complete in MS, and there called first Scene 2d then Scene 3d — and by Ingram Act II, Scene Hi. Published in S. L. M. for December i8j5 as II and in 1845 as III. Text, 1845. 4§. Politian Stage directions S. L. M. inserts ROME at beginning and after Baldazzar S. L. M. adds his friend. 6. For surely MS and S. L. M. read I live. 57. For that eloquent MS and S. L. M. read that voice— that. 58. For Surely I MS and S. L. M. read I surely. For were MS cane, reads had been. 62. For which you may see MS cane, reads this way you can see it. 63. For it MS and S. L. M. read that lattice though a pencil note in the MS indicates the change. 79-END. Originally the Scene closed simply as follows 'Tis hushed and all is still. Politian. What didst thou say ? That all is still? Alas, all is not stilll Baldazzar. Let us go down— for it is getting late And they wait for us below — Politian give These fancies to the winds. Remember, pray Your bearing lately savoured much of rudeness Unto the Duke — Arouse thee! and remember! Politian. Remember! I do — I do — lead on! — remember! Poe then wrote Scene 3d but before proceeding changed his mind fastened a piece of paper over the above lines, and continued to the end of the scene as it now stands. 100. For Believe me MS and S. L. M. read Baldazzar! oh. VII. Complete in MS, called Act 3rd Sc. [illegible] and by Ingram Act III, i. It was published in S. L. M. Dec. iSjj as III and in 184.5 as IV. Text 184.5. Stage directions MS omits Lalage and Politian. 5. For sob MS and S. L. M. read weep. 6. For mourn MS and S. L. M. read weep. 9. For turn here thine eyes MS and S. L. M. read and listen to me. 16. For knee MS cane, reads bosom. 20. For love MS reads love thee. 30. For to me MS and S. L. M. read — speak not. 54. figure written in MS over an erased word which may have been spectral. 58. For Stirred MS cane, reads Moved. 60. For turn so pale MS cane, reads tremble thus. 63. For boughs MS reads bowers. 64. For gloom MS cane, reads shade. 65. For speakest M>y rifac/j spokest. 66. For With MS reads Oi;for busy MS reads speaking. VIII. Complete in MS, there first called Sc. 2nd then Act 4th Sc. I [or 2, the figure is uncertain]. Ingram calls it Act III, Scene it. Text follows MS. Stage directions, for a Palace MS cane, reads the Palace. 3. After late is a stage direction [turns the back of the watch] cancelled in pencil in MS. Variorum 49 14. The word nonchalance is cancelled in -pencil in the MS, but I retain it since Poe did not substitute any other word. 24. For instance MS cane, reads example. 38. For these MS cane, reads, them. 41. Poe indicated his dissatisfaction with the word took in pencil, but did not change to taken. 54. At end MS cane, reads of velvet. 55. At one time Poe changed ten yards of to Of Genoese in pencil, but later erased the new reading. 83. For so MS cane, reads thus. IX. The MS contains only the first 5^ lines of this scene which is there headed first Scene 3d then Scene 2d then simply 1. Ingram calls it Act III, Scene Hi. Published in S. L. M., January l8j6 as II and in 1845 as V. Text follows 184^. Stage directions, for alone MS reads solus. 7. For In MS reads V and for Paradisal Hope! MS and S. L. M. read hopes — give me to live. 44. After this line MS adds: If that we meet at all it were as well That I should meet him in the Vatican — r the Vatican — within the holy walls Of the Vatican. S. L. M. follows this but changes V to In. 58. For then at once S. L. M. reads have at thee then. 61. Stage directions, for letting fall 6'. L. M. reads dropping. 62. For Hold off— thy S. L. M. reads Hold off— hold ofF thy. 63 . For dare not S. L. M. reads dare not — dare not. 65. After this line S. L. M. adds Exceeding well! — thou darest not fight with me? 70. After this line S. L. M. »dds Thou darest not! 71. For Alas! my lord S. L. M. reads Alas! alas! 73 . For I am the veriest S. L. M. reads I am — I am — a. 92. For "Thou liest! thou shalt!" S. L. M. reads "By Godt thou shalt!" 93. For Now this indeed S. L. M. reads Now this — now this. X. This scene lacks the heading and several of the opening lines. Ingram calls it Act IV Scene ii, believing a whole scene before it was lost, though without grounds in my opinion. At the end of the scene "135" is written — probably the number of lines in the scene when complete. Since nobody knows whether Poe counted half lines or not, little can be judged as to what is lost. Text follows MS which is without change. XI. This scene is headed in the MS Scene 3rd and is called Act IV, Scene Hi by Ingram. While the MS is preserved, Mrs. Lewis some- time during the sixties gave the last sheet to an autograph collector, and for all the text after I. /J I have been forced to rely on the transcript of this sheet, printed by Mr. Madigan in the Autograph of November- December jgi2. The scene is largely made up from The Coliseum, 50 Politian which Poe published as a separate poem, and I include the variants of all authorized texts below — those oj the Baltimore Saturday Visiter,^ Oct. 26, 1833; S. L. M., August 1835; Philadelphia Saturday Evening Post, June 12, 1841; Griswold's Poets and Poetry of America {/St — pth editions, 1842-184.8); Philadelphia Saturday Museum February 2^, and March 4, 184.3; ^-J- 7"b ^^t ^^45' '^45i "'"^ J. L. G. revisions. The texts in Griswold's Poetry of the Sentiments, 1846, and in Mrs. Hale's Poets' Offering for i8jO are probably de- rived from the P. P. A. without special authorization from Poe, but they have been collated for the sake of completeness. Stage directions and speaker's name omitted in all save MS. The other versions, except the P. 0. fragments, have a title The Coli- seum, which S. L. M. and S. E. P. expand to The Coliseum, a Prize Poem, and P. P. A and P. S. contract to Coliseum. 7. B. S. V. misprints love/or lore. 8. All others read kneel /or stand. 9. For Amid .J. E. P. reads Among P. P. A. and P. S. read Within. 11-12. All others omit. 12. MS cane, adds at end with woe — ye memories! [The second word cancelled being uncertain, perhaps should be read more.] 13. For Eld P. S. reads old. IS. Omitted by S. E. P., P. P. A., P. S., S. M., B. J., 1845. 19. For spells all others read charms. 21. All others omit. 22. For ^t all others read a.. 24. For secret all others read midnight. 25. For yellow, S. E. P., P. P. A., P. S., P. 0., S.M., B. J., 1845 read gilded. 27. For ivory couch P. P. A., P. S., and P. 0. read golden throne. 27-28. Omitted by S. E. P., S.M., B.J., 1845. 29. For golden throne P. P. A., and P. S., read ivory couch. 30. For into all others read unto. 31. 1845 misprints wanlight which is corrected in ink in J. L. G. copy. 33. S. E. P., S. M., B. J., and 1845 read But stay! — these walls — these ivy-clad arcades P. P. A., P. S., and P. 0., read But hold! — these dark, these perishing arcades. 35. For broken, S. E. P., S. M., B. J., 1845 read crumbling. For great S. E. P. reads grand, P. P. A., P. S. and P. 0. proud and S. M., B. J., and 1845 famed. 42. For to P. P. A., and P. S. read unto. 43. B. S. V. and S. L. M. read As in old days from Memnon to the Sun S. E. P., P. P. A., P.S., S.M., B.J., 1845 read As melody from Memnon to the Sun. 46. For desolate S. E. P., P. P. A., P. S., S. M., B. J., and 1845 read impotent. 52. For as a garment B. S. V. reads now and ever. 53. For Clothing B. S. V. reads And clothe. 54-END. All other texts omit. THE SOURCE OF THE PLOT As Ingram pointed out, Poe's play is founded on the inci- dents of the celebrated murder of Sharp by Beauchamp in 1825. The facts were briefly as follows. Col. Solomon P. Sharp, an influential Kentucky politician betrayed a lady of good family, Miss Ann Cook, to whom, some years later, a young lawyer of Glasgow, Ky., named Jereboam O. Beauchamp became attached.^ The lady in consequence of the stain upon her reputation lived very much retired, and rfefused to receive the addresses of Beauchamp until he had repeatedly tendered his hand in marriage. She finally consented to wed him solely upon condition he would kill Sharp before the wedding. He pledged himself, and at once challenged Sharp, but the latter refused to meet him. Miss Cook from that moment got the "womanish whim" (as her husband called it) to be herself the destroyer of her seducer. Beauchamp married her, prevailed upon her to resign the kill- ing to him, and when Sharp added slander (of a most base character) to his former misdeeds, Beauchamp called him to the door at 2 A.M. on the morning of November 7, 1825, and "plunged a dagger in his heart." Beauchamp was later arrested, convicted, and on May 19, 1826, sentenced to death. His wife was acquitted of complicity in the crime, but was lodged in jail with him, and the two attempted suicide together shortly before the date set for his execution. She died of her wounds, but Beauchamp recovered and was hanged July 7, 1826. The two were buried in one grave, at Bloomfield, Ky., where a marble slab records that Beauchamp was born Sept. 24, 1802, and his wife Feb. 7, 1786. Sharp was born about 1787, had been an attorney at Bowling Green, Ky., and a member of the legislature from about 18 10, a member of 'Beauchamp's first name is sometimes given as Jereboam, sometimes Jeroboam. The maiden name of his wife is given as Cook and Cooke in- differently, both forms sometimes occurring on one page of the Confession, though her Letters use Cook. 52 Politian Congress 1818-1819, of the legislature again (1820) and Attorney General of the state 1 821-1825, but had resigned that post to make the race for Representative of Franklin County. About 1 819 he married Miss Eliza T. Scott, who died January 4, 1844 in her forty-sixth year. Poe's attention was probably first called to the story by the newspapers or by the account given in Charles Fenno Hoff- man's Winter in the West (N. Y. 1835, vol ii, p. 161 and note K, pp- 2Z'^~'iA^ but it is clear enough from the play that he was familiar with two pamphlets on the murder to be described as follows: — 1. The Confession of Jereboam O. Beauchamp. Who was executed at Frankfort, Ky., on the 7th of July, 1826. For the murder of Col. Solomon P. Sharp, a member of the Legislature, and late Attorney General of Ky. — Written by himself and containing the only authentic account of the murder, and the causes which induced it. — ^To which is added. Some Poetical Pieces, written by Mrs. Ann Beauchamp, who voluntarily put an end to her existence, on the day of the execution of her husband, and was buried in the same grave with him. — Bloom- field, Ky. printed for the publisher. [Gervis S. Hammond. — 1826. i2mo., pp. 134. [Sabin4i59]N.Y.H.S. [The authen- ticity of this remarkable document is proved by facts brought out in the damage suit of P. H. Darby v. Jeroboam Beauchamp, uncle of the assassin. References, in my notes by pages: to Confession are to the first edition of this work.] 2. Letters of Ann Cook, late Mrs. Beauchamp, to her friend in Maryland. Containing [a] short history of the life of that remarkable woman. Washington: 1826. 12 mo. pp. 91, [Sabin 4161]. Published by W— R— n of Charles Co. Md., the letters are addressed to his wife Ellen from Loudon C/., Va., Laurenceburg, and "Franklin Ct.," Ky. Mr. Wilberforce Eames believes the book was printed at Washington, D.C.; not Wash- ington, Ky. The authenticity of the letters is not certain, but they seem to be genuine — in any case I believe Poe used them. My references are to the pages of these as Letters \ Copies: — N.Y.H.S. The Source of the Plot 53 Several other books devoted to the crime are known as follows : 3. Beauchamp's trial. A report of the trial of Jeroboam O. Beauchamp, before the Franklin circuit court, in May, 1826, upon an indictment for the murder of Col. Solomon P. Sharp, a member of the House of Representatives, and late attorney general of Kentucky. From short hand notes taken during the trial, by J. G. Dana and R. S. Thomas, Frankfort, printed by Albert G. Hodges [1826] 153 pp. [Sabin 79848 — copy in L.C., and Edward Everett's copy in the Boston Public Library.] 4. The Life of Jeroboam O. Beauchamp, who was hung at Frankfort, Kentucky, for the murder of Col. Solomon P. Sharp; comprising, a full and complete history of his inter- course and marriage etc., etc. Compiled from the memoir written by himself. Illustrated with engravings. Frankfort, Ky., Published by D'Unger & Co., 1850 pp. 28. Copy at N.Y.- H.S. has yellow paper covers with title The Avengers' Doom etc. and imprint "Louisville, Ky.: Published by E. E. Barclay, A. R. Orton& Co. 1851." 5. The Confession etc. Published by H. T. Goodsell, Kentucky [1854] 100 pp. [L.C., N.Y.H.S.] 6. The Beauchamp tragedy in Kentucky, as detailed in the Confession etc. . . . N. Y. Dinsmore & Co. 1858, x, 134 pp., I pi., 16 mo, Sabin 4160 [L.C.] 7. Kentucky Tragedy. A full and particular account of the Lives and Tragical Deaths of Jeroboam O. Beauchamp, and Ann, his wife, the Murderers of Col. Sharp. Philadelphia, n. d., 18 mo. pp. 32, Sabin 4162. 8. Beauchamp's Confession. Jeroboam O. Beauchamp was executed at Frankfort, Ky., on July 7, 1826, for the mur- der of Col. Sharp. His wife died one hour after the execution from the effects of poison. — Price 50 cents, pp. 144 — cover title— n.p.n.d. [N.Y.H.S.] 9. Vindication of the character of the late Col. Solomon P. Sharp, from the Calumnies published against him since his murder, by Patrick Darby & Jeroboam O. Beauchamp. By » 54 Politian L[eander] J. Sharp. Frankfort: printed by Amos Kendall and Company — 1827. 8vo. pp. 140 [Suppressed for 50 years — 25 copies discovered 1877, Sabin 79846, N.Y.H.S.] The trial of Beauchamp was reported in The Patriot, Frankfort, May i^-ig, June 5, and further discussed July 17, 1826. Other Kentucky papers probably contain similar ac- counts about the same peViod. A statement To the Public by Mrs. Eliza T. Sharp occupies five and a half columns in the Frankfort, Ky. Argus, March 22, 1826, and was reprinted in The Patriot (Frankfort, April 3) at p. 81, and also in the Rus- sellville, Ky. Weekly Messenger of April 8. I quote from it in my notes on Scene VII. Accounts are also to be found in: 1. A full and complete account of the Heberton Tragedy: to which is added Beauchamp, or the Kentucky Tragedy. New York: published for the trade [1843 or 1849?] 16 mo. pp. 68, of which "Jeroboam O. Beauchamp; or the Kentucky Tragedy" fills pp. 47-68. [N.Y.H.S.] 2. A short History of Franklin County, Kentucky. . . Fourth of July, 1876, by C. E. James, Frankfort, Ky.: printed at the Roundabout office, George A. Lewis, 1881, 8 vo. pp. 11, on pp. 4-5. [N.Y.H.S.] 3. A History of Franklin County, Ky. by L[ewis] F[rank- lin] Johnson, 191 2, Roberts Printing Co. Print Frankfort, Kentucky — Chapter VII, especially pp. 80-87. 4. Famous Kentucky Tragedies and Trials — by L. F. Johnson. The Baldwin Law Book Company Incorporated, Louisville, Kentucky 1916. 8 vo. pp.336 — article The Assassi- nation of Solomon P. Sharp etc., pp. 44-57. This last book has the latest and best treatment of the matter. I have taken some of the facts of the case from it, although my account is verbally based on Hoffman's. The exact date of the murder I g^ve correctly, as on Sharp's monument in Frankfort Cemetery, since this is confirmed by the original report in Amos Ken- dall's Argus of Western America, Frankfort, Nov. 9, 1825, as quoted in the Lexington Kentucky Reporter of Nov. 14. "Two o'clock on the night of the 6th" is of course on the morning of the 7th! The Source of the Plot 55 The story of Sharp and Beauchamp was commented on by Hoffman {Winter in the West, letter xxxiv, Frankfort, Ky., April 9, 1 834, but, unlike most of the series, not published in the New York American) as follows. "Incidents like these, . . . seem from the exaggerated senti- ment and romantic rashness they betray, as belonging to a bygone age or transpiring on a different planet. But among a people so earnest in character as the Kentuckians, and in a community whose sympathies have been outraged by such a mingled tissue of monstrous guilt and romantic infatuation . . . the tragic fate of Beauchamp and his wife sinks . . . into men's bosoms; and the story of their strange loves, of her cruel wrong and his dark revenge, of the savage retribution they exacted from the author of their misery and their crime, and the touching heroism of the death they shared at last together — all combine to make up a drama of real life which can never be forgotten among the scenes where it was enacted." Perhaps Poe took a hint from this and looked up the story — perhaps he had long had it in mind. In any case his treatment of the facts is free; such details as the facts that Miss Cook was older than Beauchamp, and that Beauchamp kicked Sharp, are of course omitted, but many less obviously necessary changes are made. Poe several times commented on the theme as treated by his contemporaries. A review of Simms' Beauchampe (1842) appeared in Grahanis Magazine, May 1842 (vol. xx, p. 300) where Poe said : "The events upon which this novel is based are but too real. No more thrilling, no more romantic tragedy did ever the brain of poet conceive than was the tragedy of Sharpe and Beauchampe. We are not sure that the author of "Border Beagles" has done right in the selection of his theme. Too little has been left for invention. We are sure, however, that the theme is skilfully handled. The author of "Richard Hur- dis" is one among the best of our native novelists — pure, bold, vigorous, original." Of the same story Poe says in a review of Simms' The Wigwam and the Cabin in the Broadway Journal Oct. 4, 1 845 56 Politian (vol. iij no. 13, p. 190; reprinted H. xii, 248). "Beauchampe" is intensely interesting; but the historical truth has somewhat hampered and repressed the natural strength of the artist. Hoffman based his novel Greys laer (N. Y. 1840) on the story, which he transferred to the times of the American Revolution. In his Literati article on Hoffman {Godey's Lady's Book Oct. 1846, vol. xxxiii, p. 157 and H. xv, 119) Poe wrote: — " Greyslaer followed a romance based on the well known murder of Sharp, the Solicitor General of Kentucky, by Beauchampe. W. Gilmore Simms, (who has far more power, more passion, more movement, more skill than Mr. Hoffman) has treated the subject more effectively in his novel "Beau- champe"; but the fact is that both gentlemen have positively failed, as might have been expected. That both books are interesting is no merit either of Mr. H. or of Mr. S. The real events were more impressive than the fictitious ones. Th.e facts of this remarkable tragedy, as arranged by actual circumstance, would put to shame the skill of the most consummate artist. Nothing was left to the novelist but the amplification of character, and at this point neither the author of "Greyslaer" nor of "Beauchampe" is especially au fait. The incidents might be better woven into a tragedy " For further comment see Griswold's remarks, Prose Writers of America, (Philadelphia, 1847, p. 457). Miss Dorothy Don- dore has called my attention to a republication of Greyslaer in the Magazine of History (New York) serially in volumes ix-xix, January 1909-July 1914. Several other literary treatments of the theme have been discovered (mainly by Professors Shearin and Campbell) and may be mentioned as follows; Thomas Holley Chivers' Conrad andEudora; or, the Death of Alonzo, Philadelphia, 1834, pp. 144. Professor Campbell has read the copy in the Harris Collection and assures me it shows no influences from or upon Politian; Simms' Charlemont (1856); and The Kentucky Tragedy by Mary E. Mac Michael {Burton's Gentleman's Magazine, vol. ii, 265-271, April 1838). A poem on the subject by Isaac Starr The Source of the Plot 57 Clason (the actor who wrote a counterfeit conclusion to Don Juan) was written in 1833 but never printed, (Duyckinck's Cyclopedia of American Literature ii, 263) and the popularity of the theme is attested by some words of Mrs. S. J. Hale in Godey's Lady's Book (vol. xxiv, 288, May 1842) noted by Professor Trent, Life of Simms (p. 119). Certain ballads and folk songs are founded on the inci- dents of the crime — one. Colonel Sharp from North Carolina, (mountain whites) has been published by E. C. Perrow as no. 24 of his Songs and Rhymes from the South {journal of American Folk Lore, April-June 1915, vol. xxviii, pp. 166-8). There are references to two others in A Syllabus of Kentucky Folksongs by Herbert G. Shearin and Josiah H. Combs, Lexing- ton, 191 1 — on page 16, section VII (2) Beauchamp's Confes- sion in which Beauchamp under sentence of death pictures his meeting with Sharp in Hell, and page 19, section VIII (12) Jeroboam Beauchamp. Both are included in the late Professor Shearin's article on The Beauchamp Tragedy in American Literature, soon I hope to be published by his widow, who has also in preparation a collection of Kentucky ballads. Some of the folk songs are yet current. Professor C. Alphonso Smith has kindly called my attention to a brief printed synopsis of Professor Shearin's paper in the Program of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting of the Central Division of the Modern Language Association, Chicago, Dec. 27, 28, 29, 1916, p. 13, no. 52. Professor Shearin called Beauchamp a "lawyer's apprentice'' but refers to nothing else not mentioned above. Unfortunately the paper was read by title only. DATE OF COMPOSITION Poe seems to have composed the play in 1835, ^°^ Kennedy wrote T. W. White, April 13, 1835 (Harrison VII, p. vi from Griswold xxix) that Poe was "at work upon a tragedy, but I have turned him to drudging upon whatever may make money." The MS is in script, not the tiny imitation of print found in the Morella and Folio Club MSS., and it is written with relatively few revisions, so there is no reason to think Poe had been long at work on it when Kennedy interrupted him. The version of the Coliseum was seemingly incorporated into the play as The Haunted Palace later was put into the House of Usher — see my notes to Scene xi. I am permitted by the authorities of the Valentine Museum at Richmond to say that there is no reference to Politian in the private letters of Poe there preserved, with the contents of which I am familiar in confidence. COMMENTARY The Cast of Characters. Lalage. This name is familiar from Horace, Odes, I, xxii — but it is just possible Poe was playing on the name of his early sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster. President John Quincy Adams translated Horace's ode with the title To Sally {Poems, Auburn and BuflFalo, 1848, p. 100), and that Poe was fond of tracing remote similarities in names we know from a MS note in the copy of the Broadway Journal he gave Mrs. Whitman, which points out the identity of the names "Helen, Ellen, Elenore, Lenore." For evidence that this note is Poe's see Miss Caroline Ticknor's Poe's Helen, p.^iSg. Lalage in the play represents Miss Cook, — who in her Letters con- stantly speaks of the death of her father and sister — (cf. esp. 1. c. P- 37)- Alessandra. Cf. a note in Poe's Pinakidia, (S. L. M., August 1836; H. xiv, 65); "Politian, the poet and scholar, was an admirer of Alessandra Scala, and addressed to her this extempore: To teach me that in hapless suit I do but waste my hours. Cold maid, whene'er I ask for fruit. Thou givest me naught but flowers.'' The original of this is in Politian's Epigrammata Greeca, xxxii, Kapiroj' ificl wodtovrL ch 5'av8ea (pvWa re fiovvov Awp§ CT] naivcvc' oti ixarriv Tovkoi. and explains the imagery of 11. 2~(i of To One in Paradise which is said to be inspired by a passage in Politian's Orfeo III, {The Assignation H. ii, 120). A green isle in the sea love, A fountain and a shrine. All wreathed with fairy fruits and flowers. And all the flowers were mine. Alessandra di Bartolomeo Scala, according to Isidoro del Lungo, (editor of Politian's Prose Volgari etc. Florence 1867, p. 199) famed for beauty and learning, was a pupil of Giov. Lascari and of Calcon- dila, married the scholar Marullo, and after his death in 1500 became a nun in San Pier Maggiore, where she died in 1506. Jacinta. This name is a form of Hyacinth, a name which Poe plays with in various forms, as lanthe (the form used by Ovid, Landor, Byron, and Shelley, who even gave it to his daughter by Harriet) which is borne by the heroine of the narrative in Al Aaradf ii, 198; Zanthe, a lady addressed in an apostrophe by the poet, Al Aaraaf ii, 57; and Zante, as in the fine Sonnet to Zante beginning Fair isle that from the fairest of all flowers Thy gentlest of all gentle names dost take. Professor Campbell found the name Jacinta in Shirley's play The Example, but now observes that it is a name common enough in 6o Politian Europe. It is the title of a poem by William Rufus of Charleston (see his Rufiana, New York, 1826, pp. 49-51) whose book contains a serenade, Oh Lady, love, awake! which is worthy attention as a possible source for The Sleeper. Poe is also fond of the word "hyacinth" as applied to hair, cf. To Helen 1. 6, and the passage in Ligeia (H. ii, p. 250 1. 20) where he refers indirectly to the Homeric source in Odyssey, vi, 23 1 . Duke di Broglio. Perhaps an Italianized form of the name of the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Achille Charles Leonard Victor due de Broglie (1785-1870) whom Poe later mentioned in Graham's Magazine for April 1841 (vol. xviii, p. 202; H. x, 134 f.) in a criticism of Walsh's Sketches of Conspicuous Living Characters of France. Poe mentions "the Neapolitan Duke di Broglio" in fVilliam JVilson (H. iii, 323, 1. 18). Castiglione. This was the surname of Politian's admirer Baldassare Castig- lione (1478-1529), author of The Book of the Courtier, Venice, 1528, who is mentioned in Pinakidia (H. xiv, 37) and Marginalia (H. xvi, 37). He represents Col. Sharp. San Ozzo. According to Professor Dino Bigongiari, San Ozzo is a common Tuscan diminutive or nickname, even to the present day, but is properly written as one word, Sanozzo. Politian is named for the Florentine scholar and poet Angelo Ambrogini Poliziano (1454-1494) mentioned s. v. Alessandra. His title Earl of Leicester the variants show was an afterthought, doubtless from the title of Dudley, patron of Spenser and favorite of Elizabeth, who is a leading character in Scott's Kenilworth. He represents Beauchamp, but his character (like that of the hero of The Assigna- tion) has in it much of Byron, and some tincture of Poe himself. See notes on Baldazzar — and those on Scene III. Baldazzar. This was the given name of the Castiglione mentioned above, and is thus spelled in Pinakidia. Another instance of Poe's using the given and surname of a single historical personage for two of his characters occurs in Arthur Gordon Pym (H. iii, 19, 1 29) where the two sons of Mr. Ross are named Robert and Emmet, from Robert Emmet (1778-1803), the Irish Patriot. The title "Duke of Surrey" given Baldazzar (v, 51 etc.) is from the famous Tudor poet, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (i 517-1547). Professor Trent be- lieves that the Surrey-Geraldine story may have given Poe the hint for having an English noble in Italy, and having love adventures, and that Sir Philip Sidney's vast reputation on the continent may have influenced the description of Politian. Leicester's connections were more with Holland and Spain — Poe knew the old poets more or less well, quotes sometimes from Sidney, and in this play from Wyatt. Whether the hint came from their travels (on which see Miss Clare Howard's English Travellers of the Renaissance, London and New York, 1914) or from C. F. Hoffman's comparison of the Kentucky crime to deeds of the Italian Renaissance, or from both, which is most probable, the combining imagination of the artist is Commentary 6i well displayed in this mingling of Italian, English, and Kentucky elements into a romantic and poetic unity. Ugo. There is a soldier named Ugo in Chapter xxxii etc. of Mrs. Rad- clifF's Mysteries of Udolpho (from whose Montoni came Poe's Marquis de Mentoni in The Assignation) and there was a famous Italian writer Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827) though I do not recall that Poe mentions him. Benito. Professor Campbell mentions a character of the name in Dry- den's Assignation. Rupert is perhaps too common a name for comment. Scene I. With Poe's opening scene note his remarks in a criticism of Mrs. Mowatt's Fashion in B. J., March 29, 1845 (H- xii, lao, 1 4f) "The denouement should in all cases be full of action and nothing else. Whatever cannot be explained by such action should be communi- cated at the opening of the play." 1. The "hiccup" is extra-metrical except perhaps in line 89. 8. For a similar description of a drunken man with the hiccoughs cf. Bon-Bon (H. ii, 139). A buffo-singer is a singer in comic opera, or of bur- lesque songs. The compound is not in the A^. E. D. but is in the latest Stand- ard Dictionary. 28. The student may well apply this very quotable line to the author, and recall that the description of the effect of liquor in Hop Frog (H. vi, 220, 1. 14 etc.) was drawn from personal experience. Compare the words of Messrs. Williamson and Burns, editors of the Weekly Universe in a letter to George W. Eveleth, August 17, 1847, quoted by Eveleth to Poe, January 11, 1848. {Cf. my Letters from George W. Eveleth to Edgar Allan Poe, p. 17 — also in Bulletin of N. Y. Public Library March 1922, vol. xxvi, p. 179) "he is a gentleman — a man of fine taste, and of warm impulses, with a generous heart. The little eccentricities of his character are never offensive except when he is drunk." Thomas HoUey Chivers felt that Poe put much of himself into his characters, and apparently sings a dirge for Poe under the name 'Politian' in The Vigil in Aiden {Eonchs of Ruby, New York, Spalding and Shepherd, 1851, pp. 5-26), though "Politian" is merely a conventional name for a poet in his Isadore (1. c. p. 97-102, quoted in part as early as Feb. 21, 1847 in a letter to Poe, H. xvii, 280). In a note to VI, 13 W. L. Hughes (loc. cit. p. 263) says in substance that "Like all great writers, Poe gave the characters he created his personal sentiments and sensations — had he not often given some such answer to friends who reproached him etc." While Poe did put much of his personality into his characters, he also based them in no small measure on the romantic figures in the Kentucky Tragedy, and many phrases and actions are copied from life. Lauvriere {Edgar Poe, p. 370) in his anxiety to trace his misconception of Poe's personality in all his works, rele- gates Sharp and Beauchamp to a footnote, as not materially affecting the case, and then produces a criticism of the play "of the imagination all compact." 43. This line is strangely like Chamberlayne's Love's Victory 1. 273. Yet though the grief sit heavy on our souls, and this play, reprinted with Pharronida, London 1820, may have been known to Poe. The lines attributed to Pharronida in the motto to fVilliam Wilson 62 Politian I could not find in the poem, but there is in it so much of Conscience, one suspects Poe erred through faulty memory rather than intent. 43-44. Probably reminiscent of Vergil's Mneid, vi, loo-ioi ea frena furenti concutit et stimulos sub pectore vertit Apollo. In Mneid vi, 78-80, Apollo is compared to a ridec on the Sibyl's spirit, and compare Servius' commentary on the lines. Poe quotes from Servius on Mneid V, 95 in his motto to The Island of the Fay. 49. In a cancelled passage following this line is Poe's first poetic use of the famous refrain of the Raven, "nevermore." Compare with these lines IV, 77 (., and note two passages from Beauchamp's Confession. "She [Miss CooE] sternly refused to make any acquaintances or even to receive the society or visits of her former acquaintances" (p. 9); and "She said 'She could never be happy in society again.'" (p. 10). There are similar passages in her Letters. 54. Miss Cook wrote {Letters p. 60) after her betrayal of suffering "my heart to be irrecoverably lost and blighted by one so little to be trusted — so little worthy of my affections. But, whom I yet love." There is similar phraseology in Ballad (a poem in S. L. M. Aug. 1835 believed by Pro- fessor Woodberry and others to be Poe's first draft for Bridal Ballad) II. 31-32 And tho' my poor heart be broken. It will love her, love her yet while Poe (H. xiii, 21) praises a poem by Mrs. Osgood {Song CVII in her Poems, 1850, p. 457) which has a kind of refrain "She loves him yet." 67. Cf. Proverbs, xvi, 18 "Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall." 74f. Cf. V 45, and Poe's earlier Autography (H. xv, 140) "we are British, but not particularly British. . . . This is a riddle which you may be able to read hereafter." 92. An interesting essay might be written on Poe's puns and plays upon words. A good many are listed by Professor Campbell (p. 265) but there are more than twenty-five in the essay Enigmatical and Conundrum-ical recently discovered by Professor John M. Manly in Alexander's Weekly Messenger, Dec. 18, 1839, (vol. iii. No. 50). And there is a curious story in The Cosmopolitan Art Journal (New York, Dec. 1858, vol. iii, p. 51) which perhaps may be told here. "Poe once was dunned savagely for a grocer's bill, long overdue., [On finally paying it] "There, sir!" said he, "grow, sir, you grocer puppy, into a dog, sir, and may you then be dogged, sir, as you have dogged Poe, sir. Now, go sir, and be to you." This, properly expressed, would look very like a Poe-stanza." From other references in the periodical it is clear the editor was a great admirer of Poe, who, as early as July 1856 advocated the erection of a monument to Poe, and was eager to learn about him, as well as to praise him (see Honor to Genius in the March 1857 issue, vol. i, 83; Remembrance of the Bead in the next (June) issue, vol. i, 112 etc.) and tells the above story as fact. Whether perfectly authentic or not it shows Poe had a reputation for punning. Commentary f)'^ 105. A zecchin, zecchino, or sequin was a gold coin worth about ^2.29, first coined in Venice about 1280, and down to the 19th Century, also issued elsewhere, as in Modena and Savoy. II 1-2. CJ. The Cask of Amontillado (H. vi, 175) "Ha! ha! ha!— he! he! he! — a very good joke indeed — an excellent jest." 24. Cf. Why the Little Frenchman (H. iv, 117) "his riverence, Sir Path- rick O'Grandison, Baronitt." 28. "Between you and I" is retained, because San Ozzo (III, ao) is called a "fellow low-born." But Poe in his revision corrected Jacinta's grammar in VIII, 38, (see Variorum) and an error of like nature of which he was himself guilty in early versions of Four Beasts in One (H. ii, 204 1. 22) - 33f. Cf. Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy Part III, Sect. I, Memb. i, Subsect. 2 On the Objects of Love for "birds of a feather" which has not necessarily a bad connotation, though it has here. 38. Cf. Beaumont and Fletcher, The Maid's Tragedy, I, ii, 10-11, You do me wrong A most unmanly wrong, and I am slow In taking vengeance; but be well advis'd. 45. Cf. Othello V, ii, 345, "one who loved not wisely, but too well." 54. Cf. Keats, Lamia, ii, 1-2 Love in a hut, with water and a crust y' Is — Love forgive us! — cinders, ashes, dust. 74. Cf. The Fall of the House of Usher (H. iii, 275, 1. 17) "the Usher race, all time-honoured as it was." 75. Cf. King John,ll\,\, 2^2 '^- Blanche. How shall I see thy love, what motive may Be stronger with thee than the name of wife? Constance. That which upholdeth him that thee upholds — His honor; O, thine honor, Lewis, thine honor! Poe seems to echo King John again, IV, 94; 107; VII, 84. 92. Salermo is clear in the MS, it is however probably an error for Salerno, a town in Italy famous for its wine. III. The first scene in the 1845 selections. 23f. Cf. Polonius' speech, Hamlet, I, iii, 70-75. Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy But not express't in fancy: rich, not gaudy. For the apparel oft proclaims the man And they in France of the best rank and station Are most select and generous chief in that. 35-36. Cf. Notes to VI, 97-98. 45f. Cf. the descriptions of Politian with that of the hero of The Assignation (H. ii, 109 fF.) "Ill-fated and mysterious man! bewildered in the brilliancy of thine own imagination, and fallen in the flames of thine own youth .... squandering away a life of magnificent meditation in that city of dim visions, thine own Venice Who then shall call thy conduct into question? who blame thee for thy visionary hours, or denounce those occupations as a wasting away of life, which were but the overflowings of thine everlasting energies?" (H. ii, 113) "the graceful person of a very young man, with the sound of whose name the greater part of Europe was 64 Politian then ringing." (H. ii, 1 1 5) "Not that the spirit of each rapid passion failed, at any time, to throw its own distinct image upon the mirror of that face —but that the mirror, mirror-like, retained no vestige of the passion, when the passion had departed Report had spoken of his possessions in terms which I had even ventured to call terms of ridiculous exaggeration " (H. ii, 118,1. 5) "the unexpected eccentricity of his address and manner " (H. ii, 122 1. 8) "the person of whom I speak was not only by birth, but in education, an Englishman." 54-SS. CJ. Ligeia (H. ii, 253, 1. 22 f-) "I have spoken of the learning of Ligeia: it was immense — such as I have never known in woman. Indeed upon any theme of the most admired, because simply the most abstruse of the boasted erudition of the Academy, have I ever found Ligeia at fault? . . . . where breathes the man who has traversed, and successfully, all the wide areas of moral, physical, and mathematical science? 65 . This confusion of the senses, termed by psychologists "synasthesia" is commonly found in the poets, especially Shelley. In Poe's works note Tamerlane (1827) 11. 37'2--3J3, AlAaraaJ, ii, 47, Poe's notes to those passages, a paragraph in Marginalia from the Democratic Review, November 1844 (H. xvi, 17) and a long passage in The Colloquy 0/ Monos and Una (H. iv, 207). 67. Identical with V, 78. IV. From this scene, the second in the 1845 selections, Poe accused Longfellow of plagiarizing a scene (II, iv) in the Spanish Student. Poe's discussion from the Broadway Journal may be found in H. xii, 96 f. W. L. Hughes {Contes inedits p. 255) remarks that, well-founded or not, the accusa- tion is more probable than many of Poe's charges of like nature, and the similarities are certainly striking. The variants show that in quoting the play in the Broadway Journal, Poe read from the original MS, not the slightly revised S. L. M. version. 3-4. Cf. VIII, 31 f. 6-7. Quoted with slight changes from Milton's Comus 11. 632-633. But in another country, as he said. Bore a bright golden flowre, but not in this soyle. (K. C.) 8-10. Translated from Homer's Odyssey iv, 566-568 ov vitptrhi, o^t' ap x^i-f^v xoXiis oi)T€ iror' 3juj3pos, dXX' alti Titifibpoijo Xi7ii irvelovTOs arjras 'QKeavos aviriaw d.vaif/hxn-v avdpinrovs. Professor Campbell and I have failed to discover the source of Poe's lines in any English translation accessible to us, and while many translations of parts of the Homeric poems into English unknown to us must exist, I incline to the belief Poe translated the lines himself. It is notable that lines 9-10 rhyme, which suggests we may have a portion of a school exercise in rhymed transla- tion revamped. The lines are echoed in 11. 11-14 of the newly found Saturday Visiter poem To (Sleep on etc.) In heaven thou hadst thy birth Where comes no storm To mar the bright, the perfect flow'r. But all is beautiful and still. Commentary 65 12-13. Seemingly a distinct story. 15. Lalage reads from Webster's Duchess of Malfi, IV, ii, 261-263 with slight changes. (K. C.) In a review of Lamb's Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets in the Broadway Journal, Nov. 15, 1845 iyo^- "> 288) Poe again quotes the passage. While indebted to Lamb for many quotations from the Elizabethans, Poe seems to have known some through other sources, since he cites passages not in Lamb, on occasion, like the line from Marston's Antonio and Mellida (Part I, Act III, ii, 204) erroneously ascribed to The Malcontent in Loss of Breath (H. ii, 161). 23. Lalage reads of the death of Cleopatra, whether in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra V, ii, or Dryden's All for Love V, 490 f, is hard to say. Poe quotes a very famous phrase from the prologue to the latter play in his Letter to B (Preface to Poems, New York, 1831, p. 21; also in S. L. M. version reprinted H. vii, p. xxxix) and names it in the Saturday Courier version of The Due de I'Omelette, and see also introductory notes on VI. Cleopatra's attendants furnish names for the characters in Poe's dialogue The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion (1839) but W. L. Hughes (pontes inedits p. 257) remarks that Shakespeare and Plutarch {Parallel Lives, Antony, Ixxxv, 4) both spell the names Iras and Charmian. 31f. "Balm in Gilead" {Jeremiah, viii, 22) is mentioned also in The Raven 1. 89. Cf. the phrasing with The Angel of the Odd (H. vi, 1 1 1, 1. 20) "to her wounded spirit I offered the balm of my vows." 34-35. Quoted from Peek's David and Bethsabe 11. 46-47, and used again in To (Not long ago etc.) 11. 9-10. By angels dreaming in the moonlist "dew That hangs like chains of pearl on Hermon hill." [K. C] Peele's lines are based on Psalm cxxxiii, 3 "As the dew of Hermon, and as the dew that descended upon the mountains ofZion: for there the Lord commanded the blessing, even life for evermore," and are also alluded to in Poe's Lines to Sarah, 11. 16-17. When from thy balmy lips I drew Fragrance as sweet as Hermia's dew. Poe quotes a diiFerent passage from Peele's play in the review cited in my note to 1. 15. 57. The story of the farmer who cherished a viper in his bosom and was bitten for his pains is found among yEsop's Fables. A copy of /Esopi Fabulae in Mr. Whitty's collection is the only one of Poe's schoolbooks known to survive. Notable literary uses of the story are in Theognis, 1. 602; Shakespeare's Richard II, III, ii, 131 ; Chapman's Bussy D'Ambois, III, ii, 377-378 (Poe quotes from the play in The Assignation and the review cited on 1. 15) and especially Dryden's All for Love IV, 467-469. Draw near, you well-joined wickedness, you serpents,,' Whom I have in my kindly bosom warm'd Till I am stung to death. See notes to line 23. 60. Cf. VI, 60. Poe may have had in mind the celebrated epigram, attributed to Plato (No. 4) or Julian of Egypt — on the mirror of Lais. 66 Politian 'H ao^apbv ytKkaaaa Kad' "EXXASos, ^ t6v ipartav 'toiubv kvl irpodiipois Aats ixovaa viuv rfj Uaipiq t6 K^TOvrpov' iirel roll] nb> bpaaOai oi/K idk\u' otri 5' Jfv irkpoi oil Sijvafiai,. to which I may append a recent anonymous version, given in Professor Ed- ward Capps From Homer to Theocritus (New York, 1 901), p. 154, I, Lais, who on Conquered Greece looked down with haughty pride, I, to whose courts in other days a score of lovers hied, O, ever-lovely Venus! now this mirror give to thee. For my present self I would not and my past I cannot see! Professor La Rue Van Hook calls my attention to other modern translations, by Walter Leaf, Little Poems from the Greek, p. 24; and Mackail, Select Epi- grams from the Greek Anthology p. 138. Poe might have seen several Latin and French versions in SallengrI, MSmoires de Litterature, xviii, a work mentioned in Pinakidia, and a possible source for a quotation in The Island of the Fay (H. iv, 196). 66. Cf. The Premature Burial (H. v, 271 1. 10) "The Cherub Hope" and VII, 81, "The Angel Hope." 67. Cf. Blair's Grave 11. 109-110 Of joys departed Not to return, how painful the remembrance, and Burns, The Banks 0' Boon (2nd version) 1. 7 Thou minds me o' departed joys. Poe's A Dream 11. 1-2. In visions of the dark night I have dreamed of joy departed and Al Aaraaf (1831) I 23f (more similar than other versions 1. 8) Joy so peacefully departs That its echo still doth dwell. 67-68. Cf. To Zante 1. 6 How many thoughts of what entombed hopes. 73. Miss Cook had a counterpart of Lalage's monk in her friend to whom the Letters are addressed — cf. the note (1. c. p. 37) where "E. R." writes "I tried to show her that [a spirit of revenge] was both unwomanly and unchristian. I begged her to consult her bible; for in that alone she would find happiness and peace; and to struggle to subdue her violent passions, which might yet lead her into the commission of dreadful errors." 76. Cf. Coleridge, Ancient Mariner IV, 2if and Wordsworth Guilt and Sorrow, xxvii, 8 "I could not pray." Poe quoted from the next stanza in Wordsworth's poem in his January 1837 review of Bryant in S. L. M. (H. ix, 276.) 76ff. Cf. Tamerlane (1827) 1. 339f, where the dying king says. The sound of revelry by night Comes o'er me, with the mingled voice Of many with a breast as light As if 'twere not the dying hour Of one, in whom they did rejoice. Commentary 67 In the Wilmer MS Poe changed 1. 339 to "The sound of revelry to-night" to lessen the borrowing from Byron's Childe Harold III, xxi, 1, but in 1829 cancelled the passage. 77. Cf.s. line in cancelled passage after I, 49 To the frightful sounds of merriment below. 84. Cf. note on "Lalage" in Cast. This mourning for the past is con- stantly emphasized in Miss Cook's Letters. IV. 85. CJ. Tamerlane (1827) 11. 22of Gush'd shoutingly a thousand rills, [which. . . .] Embrac'd two hamlets — those our own — Peacefully happy — yet alone — and also Poe's letter to Mrs. Whitman, Oct. 18,1848 {Last Letters Tp- ii,\. n) "the rivulet that ran by the very door" and Landor s Cottage (H. vi, 261, 86ff. In Beauchamp's Confession p. 99 it is said of Miss Cook that "father, brothers, and friends, by a most strange succession of calamities, had been swept into the grave," yet perhaps the parallel is not wholly acci- dental to Kirke White's Sonnet, supposed to have been addressed by a Female . Lunatic to a Lady 11. 2-8. And thou art fair, and thou, like me, art young: Oh, may thy bosom never, never know The pangs with which my wretched heart is wrung! I had a mother once — a brother too — (Beneath yon yew my father rests his head;) I had a lover once, — and kind and true, But mother, brother, lover, all are fled. 94. CJ. King John IV, iii, 67 "a vow, a holy vow." 107-8. CJ. King John III, iv, 43-44- Pandulph. Lady, you utter madness and not sorrow! Constance. Thou art unholy to belie me so. lOSf. The custom of using a sword or dagger as a crucifix was wide- spread. Poe must have been familiar with the stage tradition in Hamlet I, iii, where the actor holds his sword before him as a cross while following the ghost. Poe quotes from Hamlet's speech to the ghost in The Literary Lije of Thingum Bob (H. v, 6, 1. 5). 108-9. CJ. The Assignation (H. ii, 124, 1. 25) "his lips were livid — his lately beaming eyes were riveted in death." 111. Lalage swears Castiglione's death, not her own — Lauvriere (p. 370) unmindful of Poe's use of the facts of the Beauchamp tragedy, curiously misunderstands the passage. V. Castiglione seems in Hamlet mood in this scene, as Professor Trent observes, especially 1. 8f. 19. CJ. Ill 62 "nor learned nor mirthful he." 36. CJ. Hamlet V, i, 210 "your flashes of merriment." 40. CJ. Midsummer Night's Dream V, i, 1-2. Hippolita. Tis strange my Theseus that these lovers speak of Theseus. More strange than true and Hamlet I, ii, 220-221; Poe frequently quotes Byron's famous "Truth is stranger than fiction "{Don Juan XIV, ci, 1-2) — e.g. How to Write a Black- 68 Politian ■wood Article (H. ii 274 1. 34 f), 1002nd Tale of Scheherazade (H. vi, 78), Von Kempelen and his Discovery (H. vi, 250 1. 18), Marginalia, (H. xvi, 25). 45. C/. I, 74-75- SO. Poe uses "honest" not in the Elizabethan sense of "chaste" but the more modern "honorable." See his notes on Dryden's translation of Vergil's Georgics II, 392 in Pinakidia, (H. xiv, 48), and Marginalia (H. xvi, 47); and a comment on "homines honesti" in The Purloined Letter (H. vi, 44.) 78. Identical with III, 67. VI. This, the third scene in the 1845 selections, is one of the best in the play. It is reminiscent however of Shakespeare, especially of Hamlet, though the similarities are rarely close enough for annotation; and my friend Mr. H. W. Wells believes Poe had in mind Dryden's All for Love I, i, end, — where Antony is urged to activity by Ventidius. See notes on IV, 23. 6-7. Perhaps modeled on Hamlet, III, iv, 8-9. ^ueen. Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. Hamlet. Mother, you have my father much offended. 13. See note to I, 28. 21. Cf. The Murders in the Rue Morgue (H. iv, 151, 1. 22) "we then busied our souls in dreams" and The Colloquy of Monos and Una (H. iv, 205, 11. 12-13) "we wrapped our spirits, daily, in dreams." 22. Professor Campbell compares Moore's poem beginning "Go, where Glory waits thee." 23. Professor Campbell notes the source of "trumpet-tongued" in Mac- beth I, vii, 19. 24. Cf. The Fall of the House of Usher (H. iii, 289, 1. 22) "listening to some imaginary sound" and The Assignation (H. ii, lao, 11. 2-5) "he seemed to be listening. . . .to sounds which must have had existence in his imagina- tion alone." 25. Cf. Wordsworth, To the Cuckoo, 11. 3-4, 15-16. O! Cuckoo, shall I call thee bird Or but a wandering voice .... No bird but an invisible thing, A voice, a mystery. One may also comparePoe'si?«t»^« 11. 27-30, and remark thatPoe twice quotes the saying "Vox et praeterea nihil" (criticism of Mathews, Graham's, Feb- ruary 1842, H. xi, 22^y and Marginalia, H. xvi, 172) which in the latter instance he wrongly ascribes to Catullus, perhaps confusing it with the one nightingale mentioned by that poet, (Ixiv, 9-1 1 quoted in the notes on VI, 103 f.). The saying is really the Latin translation of one of Plutarch's Apothegmate Laconica (incert.xiii) and Lipsius at the beginning of his Adversus Dialogistam Liber has "Lacon quidem ad lusciniam, 'vox es, praeterea nihil.' " See Notes and Queries 10 s, ii, 281, and 12 s, viii, 269 for Professor Bensley's comment on King's Classical and Foreign Quotations No. 31 16. 25, 56-7. These lines are used as the motto of Mrs. Whitman's poem The Phantom Voice first published in Graham's Magazine vol. xxxvi, p. 91, January 1850; then in her Hours of Life (Providence, George H. Whitney, 1853, pp. 85-88); and her Poems (Boston, Houghton, Osgood & Co., 1879, pp. 83-85, where it is dated "November 1849"). The Poems have been re- Commentary 69 issued — "2nd edition," Providence, Preston and Rounds Co. 1894, "Third Edition," 1913 from the Boston plates. 29. CJ. opening of The Pit and the Pendulum (H. v, 67, 1. i) "I was sick — sick unto death with that long agony." 31. One recalls Antony's use of "Bear with me" in Julius Caesar III, ii. 34. "Eternal city" is first found in TibuUus II, v, 23, and again in Ovid, Fasti, III, 72 — see Professor F. G. Moore's article On Urbs Sacra and Urbs JEterna in Transactions, Am. Philological Assn. xxv, 34f. 40. Cf. The City in the Sea, 1. 49. The hours are breathing faint and low. and Shelley's Indian Serenade 1. 3. When the winds are breathing low Poe quoted this poem in The Poetic Principle (H. xiv, 269). 41. This beautiful and quotable line was perhaps suggested to Poe by a passage in Wm. Elliot's translation of The Visions of ^uevedo, Philadelphia, 1832, in The Palace of Love (p. 73) where it is said Opportunity "took for a cravat an hour glass with golden grains" (a source for certain parts of Bon- Bon may also be discovered in this book, of which a copy purporting to have been Poe's is preserved). Other parallels in Poe's works are A Dream within a Dream 11. 14-15 I hold within my hand Grains of the golden sand. To — (Sleep on etc.) 11. 15-16 And golden sands proclaim the hour Which brings no ill. while an opposite idea is found in Al Aaraaf, i, 140. The sands of Time grow dimmer as they run. Poe's line is earlier than Tennyson's Locksley Hall (1842) 11. 31-32. Love took up the glass of Time, and turn'd it in his glowing hands; Every moment, lightly shaken, ran itself in golden sands — The parallel is clearly accidental, for Tennyson could hardly have seen Politian prior to 1 845 — but a possible echo of Poe is in Miss A. D. Wood- bridge's Sonnet {Godey's Lady's Book, January 1844, vol. xxviii, p. i) 1. 3. Thy smile hath chang'd to gold time's flowing sand. Another possible echo of Poe is in the second stanza of The Island of the Soul, a. poem (so full of Poesque phraseology as to suggest that it was written after a rereading of Poe) by Ifhomas Dunn English (to be found in his Select Poems, Newark, 1894, p. 547; and first printed in the N. Y. Independent.) 45-46. Perhaps reminiscent of Milton's Paradise Lost, ii, 400-402. The soft delicious air To heal the scar of these corrosive fires Shall breathe her balm. (Note use of "corrosive" in XI, 39.) 45-50. Professor Campbell would see a remote parallel to certain lines in The Merchant of Venice V, i, here. 52-57. This passage is echoed in 1. I3f of The Beleaguered Heart by Mrs. Sarah [Estelle] Anna Lewis: — 70 Politian The softest — saddest Music that O'er mortal ear e'er stole Up from the Hearthstone of the Heart, Or, the Altars of the Soul. The poem was first published in the Democractic Review March 1848 (vol. xxii, 270) and later in her Child of the Sea, and Other Poems, N. Y. 1848, p. I56f and Records of the Heart and Other Poems, N. Y. 1857, p. ipgf. In an unsigned review of Mrs. Lewis in Graham's for April 1849 i^Y ^ot, as is shown in Stoddard's Recollections p. 159) some other lines from the poem appear — for Poe's relation to Mrs. Lewis' poems see Whitty p. 210, and Mrs. Gove- Nichols, Mary Lyndon, N. Y. 1855, p. 342. 52-60. Perhaps influenced by Shelley's Fragments of an Unfinished Drama, 11. 100-102. Your breath is like soft music, your words are The echoes of a voice which on my heart Sleeps like a melody of early days. 55 . Cf. Morella (H. ii, 29, 1. 20) "oppressed me as a spell" [earlier reading "like"]. 57. The phrase "heart of hearts" is used again by Poe, VII, 51 ; To My Mother 1. 7; Landor's Cottage (H. vi, 269, 1. 5); and letter of Oct. i, 1848 to Mrs. Whitman {Last Letters, p. 15, 1. 15). "Heart of heart" is in Hamlet III, ii, 68; and see also Poe's or closely akin phrases in Wordsworth, Ode on the Intimations of Immortality 1. 190; and Shelley, Epipsychidion 1. 385; Frag- ment, A Soul Known 1. 2; Cenci V, ii, 126. 60. Cf. IV, 60. To the meter of the speech beginning here Judge Beverley Tucker objected in a letter to Poe of Dec. 5, 1835 ^- '''^"j ^^ 0- See notes on Verse. 70£. Lalage's song is A Suit to his Unkind Mistress not to forsake him by Sir Thomas Wyatt — stanza ii, slightly garbled. (K. C.) The poem, long a favorite with anthologists, perhaps influenced Ballad (ascribed to Poe) L9. Oh! was it weal to leave me? I find Wyatt's lines reprinted in the Philadelphia Saturday Courier Feb. 8, 1840, at a time Poe may have been working for that paper. 97-98. "Your" clashes with "thee," as in III, 35 and 36, and the Examiner proof sheet text of To (A dream within a dream) 11. i and 2. Poe valued euphony above consistency however, and in the MS draft of his Prose Writers of America wrote "He who is consistent is a fool." 103-104. This passage is without quotation marks in MS and 5. L. M., and as yet has not been definitely located in the works of any other writer. I half believe that it is a reminiscence only — perhaps of Catullus Ixiv, 9-1 1 . audiero numquam tua facta loquentem Numquam ego te, vita frater amabilior, Aspiciam posthac? for Poe's inaccurate reference to a nightingale in Catullus suggests a familiar- ity with this poem. See note to 1. 18. 110. Cf. To Helen (1848) 11. 21-24. Was it not Fate that, on this July midnight — Was it not Fate (whose name is also Sorrow) Commentary 71 That bade me pause before that garden gate, To breathe the incense of those slumbering roses? In this connection it may be well to observe that although Mrs. Whitman destroyed or lost her MS copy of To Helen, I believe she preserves a reading from it (1. 11) "whose earthly name is Sorrow" in her quotation of the line in her To Arcturus, written in April 1. 19 {Graham's Magazine, June 1850, vol. xxxvi, 383; Hours of Life, p. 80; Poems, p. 97). VII. This scene, the fourth among the 1845 selections, termed by Pro- fessor Campbell "the most spirited in the play," seems in great part based on fact; compare the following from Miss Cook's Letters, pages 74-75: — "I felt myself driven from society, and an object of scorn and derision He offered me his hand. Yes, forlorn and abandoned as I was, he was willing to become my husband as he had been my friend. What could I do? I addressed him candidly and openly. You know my history, said I, and my shame, if you are willing to receive to your bosom a poor outcast, whom the world has stigmatised as guilty and polluted, with a wounded heart and a blighted name, then take me. I am yours forever. My dear Ann, he replied, I regard you as the innocent victim of the most detestable treachery I have long admired the cultivation of your mind, and the proud dignity and elevation of your soul. You were calculated to grace the most brilliant and the most elevated circles of society I am proud to be the object of your choice, humbled as you may be in your own estimation, or. . . .in that of an unfeeling world. I have never felt for any woman what I feel for you; my attachment is deep, sincere, and ardent, and while we live it shall never become extinct He had given me sufficient proofs of the truth of what he asserted." This is in a way confirmed by the following from the statement To the Public of Mrs. Eliza T. Sharp: — "Beauchamp married Miss Cook with a full knowledge of all the cir- cumstances of her shame and of the charges which had been so widely cir- culated against my husband. It is said he laughed at the delicacy of his family who would have dissuaded him from forming this connection, and [he] evinced the most perfect indifference upon the subject of her character. 16-18. Poe's use of rhyme in passages of high emotion finds parallels below, 1. 100, and in some of the prose tales, e. g. Morella (H. ii, 30, 11. 27-28); Eleonora (H. iv, 243, 1. 29); The Masque oj the Red Death (H. iv, 258, 1. 10). He uses it elsewhere in the tales for humorous effects as in Lionizing (H. ii, 40, 11. 2-8); The Scythe of Time (early version oi A Predicament, H. ii, 294, 1. 31); Von Jung (early version of Mystification, H. iv, 103 1. 16), X-ing a Paragrab (H. vi, 232, 1. 34^ and House Furniture (H. xiv, 104, 1. 20). See also Poe's remarks on the distinct uses of rhyme for poetic and humorous effect in his criticisms of Brainerd and Longfellow in Graham's (February and March, 1842, H. xi, 24f, 76). 20. In The Poetic Principle (H. xiv, 282) Poe says of lines 7-8 of Moore's song "Come rest in this bosom" (which he probably here had in mind) I know not, I ask not, if guilt's in that heart, I but know that I love thee, whatever thou art that they are "lines in which a sentiment is conveyed that embodies the all in all of the divine passion of love — a sentiment which, perhaps, has 72 Politian found its echo in more, and in more passionate, human hearts than any other single sentiment ever embodied in words," while in a letter of October i8, 1848 to Mrs. Whitman {Last Letters, p. 24) he calls them the "very noblest lines in all human poetry." See also his remarks on Longfellow's Spanish Student (H. xiii, 68). 28. Cf. The Happiest Day, 1. 2, "My seared and blighted heart"— both passages are no doubt reminiscent of Byron's Fare thee well, xiv, 3 "Seared in heart and lone and blighted" but Miss Mary Cook wrote (Ann Cook's Letters p. 28) "My heart is seared and blasted .... but I cannot weep — my eyes are dry but my lips are parched and burning." 32. "Ideal" is here used in the sense of "unreal," from "idea" as opposed to "reality." 38. Cf. XI, 64; and Tamerlane 1. 178. On earth of all we hope in Heaven. [K. C. in part ] 43-4S. Cf. Poe's letter to Mrs. Whitman Oct. i, 1848 {Last Letters p. 18 11. 4-5) "joyfully go down with you into the night of the grave." Both passages are probably reminiscent of Job vii, 9 "As the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away: so he that goeth down to the grave shall rise up no more." In Poe's Bible, the i6th verse of this chapter is marked in ink, supposedly by Poe himself. Beside the mark are pencilled the initials R. H. C, those I presume of Mrs. Cromwell, to whom Mrs. Clemm gave the Bible (see the New York Herald June 10, 1883). The Bible, printed by the American Bible Society, N. Y. 1846, loth edition, small pica, 8 vo. is now preserved in the Poe Cottage at Fordham, where I examined it and found no other markings in ink, but in pencil were marked 2 Samuel xii, 16; St. Luke, xi, 2; xiv, 26; Galatians v, and vi, 14-18. 47. Cf. Letter to Mrs. Whitman Oct. i, 1848 {Last Letters, p. 11, 11. 25-27) "If ever, then, I dared to picture for myself a richer happiness, it was always connected with your image in Heaven." 54-56. Cf. William Wilson (H.iii, 302, 1.5) "with step solemn and slow"; The Imp of the Perverse (cancelled passage after H. vi, 152 11. 15-16) "I saw — or fancied that I saw — a vast and formless shadow that seemed to dog my footsteps, approaching me from behind, with a cat-like and stealthy pace," and The Masque of the Red Death (H. iv, 256, 1. 17) (with 1. 55) "this spectral image (which with a slow and solemn movement .... stalked to and fro among the waltzers." The motto to William Wilson What say of it, what say of Conscience grim That spectre in my path is a possible source, though it does not occur, as Poe says it does in Chamber- layne's Pkarronida. 55. Echoed by Mrs. Sarah Anna Lewis, The Beleagured Heart, 1. 6. With a solemn step and slow. 57-58. The words in this line and the manner in which they are em- ployed, seem, like "It is nothing but the wind in the chimney" of The Tell- Tale Heart (H. v, 90 1. 32f.) and the like 1. 36 of The Raven, " 'Tis the wind and nothing more," so strangely akin to the vainly reassuring replies of the father in Goethe's famous Erlkenig, 11. 8, 16, Commentary 73 Mein Sohn, es ist ein Nebelstreif. . . . In durren Blattern sauselt der Wind that it seems worth while to cite them. The whole question of Poe's Knowl- edge 0/ German is a very complex one — it has been ably discussed by Gustav Gruener in Modem Philology, ii, ii^i and again in Palmer Cobb's thesis on The Influence of E. T. A. Hoffmann on the Tales of Edgar Allan Poe, Chapel Hill, igo8, pp. 20-30 a.ndi passim, but the last word has not been said on the subject, for some important evidence was inaccessible to form?r writers. Poe quoted from Goethe's Das Veilchen 11. 19-20 in his motto to the version of The Visionary {The Assignation) in the Lady's Book for January 1834, and quite possibly through Carlyle or Coleridge (not to mention Scott) had become interested in and dipped into the language — in a letter of Nov. 26, 1 841 to F. W. Thomas (published in Ernest Dressel North's Catalogue N. Y. October, 1905, item 357) he remarks "To the Latin and Greek profi- cient, the study of all additional languages is mere play" — or he may have used translations, for Monk Lewis had rendered Erlk'dnig. I do not believe any deep knowledge of German on Poe's part can be proved, and some of Poe's German "sources" must be given up; no man reading Washington Irving's An Unwritten Drama of Lord Byron in The Gift for 1836 (to which Poe was a contributor) will seek farther for the origin of William Wilson, but I have met with no mention of this save in an article by Joel Benton, which was preserved in a newspaper clipping among the Poeana once owned by the late George P. Philes, sold recently at auction in this city, while one or two more of Poe's most learned notes may be traced to non-German sources. E.g. the bit about Dichtkunst, Pinakidia No. 153 (H. xiv, 67) repeated in a criticism of Longfellow from Graham's for April, 1842 (H. xi, 74) may be found in the English and probably the French version of Bielfeld's Universal Erudition II, vi, 5. Yet Poe's use of translated idioms and single words, nay his very emphasis on and repetition of the few simple points which betray how slight his knowledge was, also make it certain that there was "a little knowledge," which in the case of a genius of Poe's order cannot have been quite contemptible. 62-63. Cf. Dreams 11. 21-22, 'Twas the chilly wind Came o'er me in the night. [K. C] 63. Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, II, vii, 1 1 i-i 12, Under the shade of melancholy boughs Lose and neglect the creeping sands of time. 65. Cf. Byron's Bride of Abydos I, i, i (quoted in The Rationale of Verse H. xiv, 242). Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle in itself copied from Goethe's Mignon's Song "Kennst du das Land." From the allusion to Columbus we learn the play is laid about the year 1500. It seems that before the killing Beauchamp did announce his intention to go to Missouri {Confession p. 28). 69. Cf. To One in Paradise, 1. 5. All wreathed with fairy fruits and flowers. 70. Poe's ideal landscapes, in Eleonora, The Island of the Fay, and The Domain of Amheim should be compared, though there are no close verbal parallels. 74 Politian 78. Reminiscent of Baldazzar's reproach VI, 4. 79. Cf. Beauchamp's dramatic farewell to his dying wife (Appendix to Confession, p. 133). She returned no answer. He felt of her pulse, and said, "Physicians, you have deceived me — she is dying." To the ladies who surrounded the bed she said "from you, ladies, I demand a tear of sympathy." He laid conversing with perfect composure, occasionally putting one hand upon his wife's face and feeling*her pulse with the other until he had felt the last throb. "Fare- well," said he, "child of sorrow — Farewell child of misfortune and persecu- tion — You are now secure from the tongue of slander — For you I have lived; for you I die." He then kissed her twice, and said, "I am now ready to go." [The italics are mine.] [This is related in much the same way in a note in Miss Cook's Letters, p. 90; Hoffman's Winter in the West, p. 34a; Saturday Evening Post, Philadelphia July 29, 1826, from Lexington Kentucky Reporter, July 7, 1826, and in some of the more recent articles.] 81. C/. IV, 66 and note. 82-83. Cf. Letter to Mrs. Whitman, Oct. 18, 1848 {Last Letters p. 21, 1. 4 etc.) "whom I love — by one at whose feet I knelt — I still kneel — in deeper worship than ever man offered to God." 84. Cf. King John, III, iv, 104. My life, my joy, my food, my all — the — world. 90f . Perhaps modeled on a speech of Dido, in Marlowe's Dido, ^ueen of Carthage, V, 177 f. 95-96. Cf. Arthur Gordon Pym (H. iii, 45, 11. 18-22) "he would abandon me — he was gone! He would leave me to perish miserably, to expire in the most horrible and loathsome of dungeons — and one wcrrd — one little syllable would save me — yet that single syllable I could not utter." 100. See my notes to 11. 16-18 and cf. King Lear, II, iv, 22-23. They durst not do't They could not, would not do't. VIII. 18. Cf. Tempest I, ii, 389 "sitting upon a bank." 31. C/. IV, 3-4. 38-41. See notes to II, 28. 44. Cf. Twelfth Night II, v, 158 etc. "Some are born great, some achieve greatness" etc. 52. Cf. Bon Bon (H. ii, 130 1. 12) "the particolored velvet of Genoa" and Landor's Cottage (H. vi, 256, 1. 19) where the grass is compared to "green Genoese velvet." IX. Much of this scene fifth and last in the 1845 selections is closely modelled on passages in Beauchamp's Confession — the parallels are given below. 4. Poe frequently mentions Azrael, Mohammedan angel of death, as in the Saturday Courier version of Metzengerstein, and in Mesmeric Revela- tion (H. v, 254, 1. 16) and Ligeia (H. ii, 255, 1. 6). Compare his use of Aidenn in the Raven. 6. Paradisal is the oldest form of the adjective, used as early as 1560. 16. Cf. Macbeth I, iii, 39. So fair and foul a day I have not seen. Commentary 75 38. Professor Campbell compares Addison's Cato IV, iv, Plato, thou reasonest well and note The Merchant of Venice II, ii, 22 Conscience, say I, you counsel well. 44. Poe cancelled some lines here, hence the metrical imperfection (K.C.). 60-END. Cf. Beauchamp's Confession, pp. 15-17 — a description of an encounter between Beauchamp and Sharp. ,[The latter said] "My friend. . . . I never can fight the friend of that worthy injured lady. . . .1 never will raise my hand against you." [Beauchamp repHed] "Now, sir, tell me, will you fight me a duel, (again raising my dagger) . . . .He then stepped back a step, and I thought from the turn of his eye, was preparing to run. I sprang forward and caught him by the breast of his coat, and said, "Now you damned villain, you shall die." He then fell upon his knees and said "My life is in your hands, my friend, I beg my life" .... I then said "Get up, you coward, and go till I meet you in the street to-morrow;. . . .go arm yourself, for to-morrow I shall horsewhip you in the streets, and repeat it daily till you fight me a duel. . . .You are about such a whining coward, as I was told you were . . . . " [Sharp said] "You are the favored possessor of that great and worthy woman's love? Be it so, then. Here, take my life. I deserve it. But do not disgrace me in the streets.". . . . [Beauchamp continues.] "I bade him begone from me, or I would abide his offer in one moment (starting towards him.)" 71f. Cf. Beauchamp's poem The Death Scene 11. 17-18 {Confession p. 124). I pause — but short as lightning's gleam The flash of Pity through my soul. 75. Cf. Confession, p. 35, where describing the actual murder Beau- champ says "I muttered in his face, 'die, you villain.' " X. This scene shows Poe's grotesque humor at a high level — grim enough in a way, it would yet, I think, be very comical if well acted. 1. "That's flat" is an Elizabethan expression, "that's final." San Ozzo perhaps plays on the other meaning of flat in the next lines — i.e. "stu- pid." 15f. Cf .Marginalia (H. xvi, 175) "it would sing with the Opera heroine The flattering error cease to prove, Oh, let me be deceased!" and compare also the early version oi Loss of Breath {S. L. M., i, 738, col. 2) "yet never for one moment did I imagine that I was not actually dead." Cf. also A Tale of the Ragged Mountains (H. v, 172, 1. 34 f.) "You are not prepared to maintain that you are dead?" where the person questioned, gives no definite answer; but contrast The Pit and the Pendulum, (H. v, 71, 1. i8f.) "[To suppose oneself really dead] notwithstanding what we read in fiction is altogether inconsistent with real existence." 27-29. Cf. Romeo and Juliet, IV, v, 23 She's dead, deceas'd, she's dead; alack the day! 66. Paugh — the N. E. D. records no example of this spelling, though "pah" is common. 76 Politian tin. Cf. Bon-Bon (H. ii, 143) where Satan remarks to the drunken Bon-Bon, "You must know that, in a climate so sultry as mine, it is frequently impossible to keep a spirit alive for more than two or three hours; and after death, unless pickled immediately, (and a pickled spirit is not good), they will — smell — you understand, eh?" 70ff . Compare the conclusion of The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar (H. vi, 166 1. ao) for an example of the lengths to which Poe's charnel fancy could go, and the almost equally gruesome passage in Arthur Gordon Pym, (H. iii, 140, 11. 15-18). XI. This, the last scene of the play to be written, is made up principally from Poe's poem The Coliseum — upon the early history of which, as a sepa- rate poem, much light was thrown by Professor John C. French in Modem Language Notes for May 1917 (vol. xxxiii, p. 257f.) in an article called Poe and the 'Baltimore Saturday Visiter.' Professor French was the first to consult the unique file of the Visiter in the possession of Miss Elizabeth Cloud Seip of Catonsville, Md.,and to give exact information where tradition had become confused. While I am deeply indebted to Professor French's article I have personally examined the Poe texts of the Visiter through the courtesy of Miss Seip and my notes on the variants are more correct than any before published. On June 15, 1833 was first announced an offer of Premiums of "50 dollars for the best Tale and 25 dollars for the best Poem, not exceeding one hundred lines" offered before the first of October, to the Visiter. The paper, formerly edited by Poe's friend Lambert A. Wilmer (see his Our Press Gang, Phila. 1866, p. 22 etc.) was at the time conducted for the proprietors Charles Ferree Cloud and Wm. P. Pouder, on South Gay St., one door from the corner of Market St., by John H. Hewitt, whose relations with Poe were not cordial; but the contest was judged by John P. Kennedy, John H. B. Latrobe, and Dr. James H. Miller. According to an entry in Kennedy's Journal, Nov. 2, 1833, the committee met to judge early in October, having about one hundred tales and poems, (Killis Campbell's Kennedy Papers, 1917, p. 25). Poe submitted several tales and at least one poem, and to quote his own letter of July 20, 1835 *° T. W. White (H. xvii, 11) concerning the Premiums "both. . . . were awarded to me. The award was, however, altered, and the Premium for Poetry awarded to the second best in considera- tion of my having obtained the higher Prize. This Mr. Kennedy and Mr. Latrobe told me themselves." White printed in tlie Messenger for August (vol. i, 716) an editorial note embodying the substance of this, together with a letter from the judges of the contest which had appeared in the Visiter of October 12, 1833. (See Stoddard's edition of Poe, vol. i, 73, and consult Latrobe's account of the proceedings of the committee in Edgar Allan Poe, a Memorial Volume, edited by Sara Sigourney Rice, Baltimore, 1877, pp. 57- 60.) The decision of the judges, as announced October 12, gave the prize for the tale to Poe's MS Found in a Bottle, and for the poem to The Song 0/ the Wind by Henry Wilton, the pen-name assumed by Hewitt, who, as the announcement of the Visiter permitted, chose to receive his prize in the form of a silver goblet. (See Hewitt's Shadows on the Wall or Glimpses of the Past, Baltimore, Turn bull Brothers, 1877, p. 154.) The winning tale and poem Commentary 77 were printed October 19, while the Coliseum appeared on the 26th. Hewitt's poem of 68 lines, which has been twice reprinted (in his Miscellaneous Poems, Baltimore, N. Hickman, 1838, p. 74; and Shadows on the Wall, p. 157) need hardly be given here in full, but since both volumes are rare, the reader may like to see as a sample the concluding lines. But, shrink not; I've gathered the sweets of the flowers. And, laden with perfume, I come to thee now. To kiss the dew-lips of the rosy-wing'd hours. And play with the dark locks that shadow thy brow. Some of the pofem is better, some worse than this — the earlier lines seem to echo more definitely Shelley's Cloud — on the whole one cannot blame Poe for wanting Hewitt to renounce the honor and keep the money as Gill {Lije of Edgar Allan Poe, pp. 69-70) relates. Hewitt evidently disliked Poe both before and after the contest, but wrote a half apologetic poem At the Grave of Edgar A. Poe which may be read in Shadows on the Wall, p. 240 f. Poe's poem, his most rhetorical production, except the Raven, was early popular, and besides appearing in full in two of Griswold's anthologies, extracts (lines 22-28, 33-39) from the Poets and Poetry of America version were printed in Mrs. Sarah Josepha Hale's anthology The Poet's Offering for 1850 (Philadelphia, compiled 1849 — P- 46°j ^- ^- "Ruins"). For the various authorized publications of the poem see the Bibliography. Poe himself rated the poem sixth in a list of his six best poems yet written, in a letter of July 2, 1844 to James Russell Lowell (Woodberry ii, 94). I have stated that Poe incorporated the poem in Politian because the meter is very different from that of the rest of the play; and because a careful study of the variants seems to me conclusive. The version in the play con- tains one simile not in the Visiter version, but given in all the others (11. 52- 53), while the abortive readings (11. 19-24 etc.) are to be expected since a study of 1. 43 tends to show that the Politian version, and that of the S. L. M. represent two different revisions on the Visiter text, while all subsequent versions are based directly or indirectly on the S. L. M. version. An analogy is to be found in Poe's treatment of the MS Found in " Bottle, where the versions of the Gift for 1836, and the S. L. M. are distinct and separate re- visions of the Visiter text, while all other versions are based on the S. L. M. 2-3. Cf. Byron, Childe Harold, IV, cxxviii, 7-8 This long explored but still exhaustless mine Of contemplation. 4. Cf. Gray's Elegy 1. 22:- The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power a line earlier echoed by Poe in Tamerlane (1827) 1. 355 My eyes were still on pomp and power. S-10. Cf. MS found in a Bottle (H. ii, 13, 1. 24 f) [I] "have imbibed the shadows of fallen columns at Balbec, and Tadraor and Persepolis, until my very soul has become a ruin" and Al AaraafW, 2ii> f. Poe in all these passages probably had in mind Shelley's /^/«.r/or 11. 109-128, in addition to the passage which in his notes to Al Aaraaf he cites inaccurately from Voltaire's Essai sur les moeurs et l' esprit des nations. Chap. V, ^[7 (CEuvres, ed. Beuchot, Paris, 1829, XV, 307). 7 8 Politian 7. In part the same as 1. 50. 10. CJ. T. Campbell, Gertrude of Wyoming, I, vii, 1-2. Here was not mingled with the city's pomp Of Life's extremes the grandeur and the gloom. Professor Campbell cites Moore, Loves of the Angels, 11. 1180-1181 Or if they did, their gloom was gone, Their darkness put a glory on and Wordsworth, Ode on the Intimations of Immortality, 1. 57 Where is it now, the glory and the dream ? Parallels in Poe's works are Romance (i 831) 1. 47 Gone are the glory and the gloom, Eleonora (H. iv, 239, 1. 31) "A prison house of grandeur and of glory," and The Oval Portrait (H. iv, 245, 11. 4-5) "commingled gloom and grandeur." 17-18. It has been assumed the allusion is to Christ, but Poe was interested in Jewish history and may have some legend or story about Gethsemane in mind. Poe rarely mentions Our Lord in his poetry, I recall only the cancelled passage of The Sleeper. 19. Cf. Al Aaraaf ii, 42-43 That stole upon the ear in Eyraco Of many a wild star-gazer long ago where Poe explains that Eyraco is Chaldea. As only one person is mentioned here perhaps the allusion is to Abraham {cf. Genesis xv, 5) though according to the introduction to Bk. I of the Lives of the Philosophers of Diogenes Laertius with which Poe was acquainted, to judge from Loss of Breath (H. ii, 167.) the Chaldees were priests among the Babylonians and Assyrians. 22. There are many similar passages — e.g. Thomas Warton, P/fflJ«r« of Melancholy 1. 263 f. 27-28. Cf. Byron, Childe Harold, IV, cxlii for triple use of the phrase "here where" and Manfred III, iv, 22-26 Where the Caesars dwelt And dwell the tuneless birds of night amidst A grove which springs through levelled battlements, And twines its roots with the imperial hearths, Ivy usurps the laurel's place of growth. [K. C] and Mrs. Sigourney's Rome 11. 26-27 Mid Nero's house of gold, with clustering bats And gliding lizards. 29. "Golden throne" cf Lenore 1. 22. 33. Cf. Gray's Impromptu (1766) 11. 13-14. Here mouldering fanes and battlements arise Turrets and arches nodding to their fall, and the expression "tottering to their fall" in The Man of the Crowd (H. iv, 144, 1. 9) and The Murders in the Rue Morgue (H. iv, 151, 1. 11). 33f. One may compare the architectural description in Al Aaraaf II, 28 f. 36. Professor Campbell compares Byron's Childe Harold IV, cxlv, 8 Rome and her Ruin past Redemption's skill and the passage may be vaguely influenced by Gaunt's speech in Richard II Commentary 79 II, i, 4C-60, or the sonnet of Bellay, translated by Edmund Spenser, The Ruins of Rome, iii, of which 1. 5 reads Behold what wreake, what ruine, and what wast A parallel cited by Professor Campbell (p. 220) from a translation published by Mrs. EUet, in December 1833 is rendered improbable by the dates. 39. "Corrosive hours" — the phrase recurs in The Colloquy of Monos and Una, (H. iv, 206, 1. 5) see also note to VI, 45-46. With the other part of the line cf Gray's Elegy, 1. 4. And leaves the world to darkness and to me. and The Assignation (H. ii, 118, 1. 18) "has left to silence and to me." 43. Memnon, son of Tithonus and Eos (Aurora or Dawn) is mentioned by Homer, and other ancient writers. The Greeks gave his name to one of the two Colossi of Amenhotep III at Thebes in Egypt, because it was be- lieved to salute the dawn with a musical sound (described as resembling the breaking of a harp-string.) Allusions to this are countless in literature — see Gayley's Classic Myths pp. 179, 512, and Campbell p. 221. The allusion in Henry B. Hirst's sonnet La Chanteuse 1. 4 {The Penance of Roland etc., Boston 1 849, p. 64) seems to echo Poe's phrasing. 44f. In connection with these lines Lauvriere {Edgar Poe, p. 373) cites Byron, Manfred III, iv, 40-41. The dead, but sceptred sovereigns, who still rule Our spirits from their urns. 51. Seemingly echoed in Hirst's sonnet No More 1. 6 (published in Ladies' Garland, Phila. Feb. 1848, vol. xiii, p. 46; and in Penance etc., p. 88). 52-53. Cf. Wordsworth, Sonnet upon Westminster Bridge 11. 4-5. The city now doth like a garment wear The beauty of the morning and Ode on the Intimations of Immortality, V, 7 Trailing clouds of glory, and Shelley, Prince Athanase, 11. 288-289 they wear Beauty like some light robe and Psalms, civ, 2, 6. "Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment" .... "Thou coverest it with the deep as with a garment." 56. Perhaps an echo of Milton, Paradise Regain'd i, 257 Before the altar and the vested priest. 61-62. Cf. Miss Cook's words, July 4, 1826 {Letters, p. 84) "I suggest it would be better to plunge the dagger into his heart while folded in the arms of her for whom he had deserted me." 64. Cf. VII, 38 and note thereon. CRITICISM Politian — or rather the scenes from it published by Poe, did not prove a favorite with the critics. The first opinions expressed of it which have survived are those of the contemporary press, and since Poe himself collected a large number of notices of the Southern Literary Messenger which he pub- lished in a Supplement (January 1836, vol. ii, 133 f) those which relate to the extracts from the drama should not be ignored. Only four give anything beyond a passing mention to the drama — and I give the passages in full, adding such bibliographical notes as I can. The United States Telegraph [Washington City, Dec. 5, 1835, ^°1- ^» No. 316, p. 12626 — edited by an unknown writer during the absence of the regular editor Duff Green, benefactor of Poe's friend Wilmer, and sometime friend of President Andrew Jackson — see Wilmer's Our Press Gang passim] says "We were disappointed in a "Dramatic Extract" from the pen of Mr. Edgar A. Poe. He had taught us to expect much, for his prose is often high wrought poetry; but his poetry is prose, not in thought but in measure. This is a defect of ear alone, which can only be corrected by more study than the thing is worth." The Richmond Whig and Public Advertiser [Dec. 15, 1835, '^°'- ^"> ^°- 103, p. 13, by Pleasants and Abbott] quotes Major M. M. Noah as saying (evidently in the New York Evening Star of slightly prior date, but I can locate no files of the Star for the first half of December 1835) "Mr. Poe's "Unpublished Drama" does not suit our taste. Why eternally ring the changes on those everlasting and hackneyed Venetian Doges and Italian counts — latticed balconies and verandas — time out of mind exhausted?" The Lynchburg Virginian [Dec. 10, 1835, ^°'- '^^'^' No. 38, p. 32, edited by Fletcher and Toler] said "Scenes from Politian" like the prose produc- tions from the same pen (Mr. Poe) evince great powers, wasted on trifles. Why, (to adopt the catechetical style of his own criticisms,) why does Mr. Poe throw away his strength on shafts and columns, instead of building a temple to his fame? Can he not execute as well as design? No one can doubt it who is conversant with his writings. Eschew affectation, Mr. Poe. It is a blot upon genius as well as upon beauty. And in a notice of the Messenger under the heading Our Table, probably from the pen of the editor, Horace Greeley The New Yorker (Dec. 12, 1835, whole No. 90, p. i'-") said — "Scraps from an Unpublished Drama, by Edgar A. Poe "contains one or two stirring and many beautiful passages — but we are not partial to dramatic poetry." Besides these printed criticisms, there were some strictures made on the versification, by Judge Beverley Tucker, whose letter Dec. 5, 1835 t° P°^> is printed (H. xvii, 21-24), but Poe's reply defending his meter has not been published, altho' it was read at the opening ceremonies of the Poe Shrine at Richmond, April 26, 1922. Poe's remarks are not very specific but resem, ble those on verse in his S. L. M. review of Bryant, January 1837 (H. ix Commentary 8 1 Of other contemporary criticisms and allusions to the play few survive. Of Poe's other correspondents only Eveleth seems to have mentioned the play, in a letter to Poe, January 19, 1847 (see my edition of The Letters from Geo. W. Eveleth, p. 11) — this with a few harsh words in a letter from Elizabeth Barrett to Robert Browning, Jan. 26, 1846 {Letters Harper & Bros. 1899, p. 429), the unkindly remarks in the London Atheneum Feb. 28, 1846 (No. 957, p. 215) and a passing reference in Hiram Fuller's attack on Poe in the N. Y. Evening Mirror, May 26, 1846, comprise all the notices which I have found. In my notes I have pointed out the certain or probable imitations of or references to the play in the works of Chivers, English, Mrs. Lewis and Mrs. Whitman. Passing to more recent opinions, beyond those mentioned elsewhere in this book I may note that while James Hannay {The Poetical Works of . . . .Poe, London 1853, p. 73) characterized the play as "a juvenile production and the least meritorious work Poe has left," Professor J. P. Fruit {The Mind and Art of Poe's Poetry, New York, 1899, p. 108) says it shows Poe's "ability to appreciate dramatic situations." See also Stoddard, Memoir, p. 73, and Campbell, p. 229. It is perhaps worth noting that the old selections have been translated into French, Italian, and German. THE VERSE Poe's blank verse in Politian is extraordinarily free. It is true, the rule of five stresses to a line is scrupulously preserved — there are few cases of fragmentary lines, except the first and last lines of scenes, or where a cancellation has caused the break — and there are scarce half a dozen lines of prose in the play. The following passages deserve comment: — I, 97 and 99 are probably prose, II, 55-57 is arranged as Poe wrote it, though the meter is uncertain, as it is in VIII, 7-8. Since Poe avoided imperfect lines I count the beginning of the song as part of VI, 79. Finally, while I have not ventured to change Poe's text, I would point out that it might be more correct, metrically, to divide II, 102-103 "why don't /You bring etc" and V, 30-3 1 "Baldazzar having / Just etc." But with the preservation of stress, the conventionality ends. About one third of the lines have feminine termin- ations (a very high rate, though less than Fletcher's) and about two fifths of all lines contain one or more resolutions of the iambus each. Poe resolves espe- cially where two vowels come together, and where the speaker is changed with- in the verse, but does not confine himself to such cases. He has a tendency to balance irregularities in adjacent lines, as well as feminine endings. The very few lines ending in a definite trisyllable (usually the name Lalage) are otherwise very regular, only two out of nineteen showing resolutions in my count. The use of a pause to replace a syllable is very rare. There is no attempt to end speeches with a full line — Poe almost seems to prefer transi- tions within the verse, and divides some lines between several speakers. There are, I think, but two or three intentional rhymes, but a curious jingling phrase in VII, 42 should be noticed, for such things appealed to Poe and he sought after them. The verse of the last scene (XI) is far more conventional than that of the rest of the play, and I regard its low proportion of resolutions (one- tenth) and of feminine endings (one-fifth) as compared with the rest of the play as an added indication that the Coliseum is an earlier poem incorporated in the play, for Poe's later blank verse is only slightly if at all more regular than most portions of Politian. Almost all Poe's later blank verse dates from 1 847-1 848, To Helen, To M. L. S—; and To (Not long ago etc.)— though he wrote five lines in 1844-5 (^- ^"> ^4)- It seems to me that while often following Shakespeare closely, Poe was moderately successful in his attempt to reproduce "with some improvements" the verse of such Jacobean writers as Ford whose work he knew through Lami's Specimens, and in the best portions of the play, he has perhaps "al- most if not quite conquered the dangerous redundance of blank verse" as Saintsbury, History 0/ English Prosody, iii, 485, says he has done in To Helen. Certainly the close of Scene IV is forcible, such a passage as VI, 39 f is very lovely, and that at VII, 53 is indeed thrillingly beautiful. The Verse 83 Although no mention of Politian is made in Prof. C. Alphonso Smith's study. Repetition and Parallelism in English Verse, pp. 44-56, there are many cases of repetition and parallelism even in this play, though less than in some of Poe's later lyrics. In particular one should examine I, 13-16, 23-24, 28-29, 59-61, log- in; II, 74-80, 1 14-1 15; Iv, 3-4, 24-25, 59-60, 83 f, ()'T, f; V, 59-61 ; VI, 16-17, 108-109; VII, 1-2, 12-13, 21-22, 55-56, 91 f; VIII, 34-37; IX, 73-74; X, 32-33; XI, 17-19, 22-30, 33-37, 47-51, 55- While this includes the more notable passages, this list is not exhaustive, and an interesting example in the cancelled passage after IX, 44 should be pointed out. There is perhaps room for a thorough study of Poe's prosody (Mr. Saintsbury's remarks though excellent, are few) and fortunately we have a synopsis of Poe's own views on the subject in The Rationale of Verse, an essay based on a careful observation of his own practice. When the study is made however, the student will do well to remember that Poe's verse came first and theories later, and that these theories changed somewhat with the years, as is apparent to any one reading the remarks on verse in Poe's review of Bryant, S. L. M. January 1 837, (H. ix, 268 f)» and in Some Notes on Eng- lish Verse in Lowell's Pioneer March, 1843 (■> 1°^) compared with the Rationale (of 1848.) That the Rationale did not give Poe's final views is shown by his violation of one of his own dicta (H. xiv, 247) in 1849 '" ^- 9' of The Bells. APPENDIX I On Chivers' "Conrad and Eudora" Through the courtesy of Mr. H. L. Koopman, Librarian of Brown University, I have recently examined the copy of Dr. Chivers' Conrad and Eudora in the Harris Collection. It is a small 12 mo of 144 pages with title page reading as follows: — "Conrad and Eudora; | or, | the death of Alonzo. | A Tragedy. | In five acts. | Founded on the murder of Sharp, by Beau- champ, I in Kentucky.] — | By Thomas Holley Chivers, M.D. I — I Philadelphia. | 1834." The play occupies pp. [5]-82, the rest of the volume containing a collection of lyrics under the title Songs of the Heart. Chivers (who had studied medicine at Transylvania University) probably learned of the story while in Kentucky, and keeps the scene of his drama there, rarely altering the original facts. Considering that both plays have a single series of incidents as a common basis, surprisingly few parallels can be found. The similarity between the scenes {Conrad and Eudora III, i and ii; Politian IX) describing the preliminary encounters of Sharp and Beauchamp, is due to the fact both poets kept close to the Confession. Chivers' play is less strange than his later work, but the lack of a publisher's name argues that the volume was privately printed. It is very unlikely that Poe knew of the little book when he wrote Politian, for his friendship with Chivers was not begun until much later. INDEX [The Index aims to include all persons named in the book, save those merely thanked for aid, and those publishers mentioned only in the interest of bibliographical accuracy. References to Poe's other writings, to periodicals, and a few topical references have been added.] Abbreviations, 40. Abraham, 78. Adams, John Quincy, 59. Addison, 75. ^sop, 65. Aidenn, 74. Amenhotep III, 79. America, 16. American Folk Lore, 57. Anderson Galleries, 44. Antony, 68, 69. Apollo, 62. Atheneum (London), 81. Autograph (N. Y.), 44, 49. Azrael, 31, 74- B Balbec, 77. Ballads, 57. Baltimore Saturday Visiter, 43 etc. Beauchamp, Jereboam O., 51 etc. his Confession, passim. his farewell to his wife, 74. poem by, 75. his wife — see Cook, Ann, 51 etc. Beauchamp, Jereboam, uncle of pre- ceding, 52. Beaumont and Fletcher, (st,. Bellay, 79. Bensley, 68. Benton, Joel, 73. Beuchot, 77. Bible, Poe's, 72. Galatians, 72. Genesis, 78. 'Jeremiah, 65. Job, 72. St. Luke, 72. Proverbs, 62. Psalms, 65, 79. 2 Samuel, "jl. Bibliography, 43 f. Bibliophile (London), 44. Bielfeld, 73. Bigongiari, Dino, 60. Blair, Robert, 66. Brainerd, 71. Broadway Journal, 43 etc. Broglie, due de, 60. Brownings, the, 81. Bryant, W. C, 66, 80, 83. Burns, Robert, 66. Burns, Wm., 61. Burton, 63. Burton's Magazine, 56. Byron, Lord, 59, 60. Bride of Abydos, 73. Childe Harold, 67, 77, 78. Don Juan, 57, 67. dramas, iv. Fare Thee Well, 72. Manfred, 78, 79. c Caesar, 38. Calcondila, 59. Campbell, Killis, 56 and passim. Campbell, Thos., 78. Capps, Edward, 66. Carlyle, Thos., 73. Castighone, 60. Catullus, 68, 70. Chaldea, 78. Chaldees, 37, 78. Chamberlayne, 61, 72. Chapman, 65. Charmian, 65. Chivers, T. H., 56, 61, 81. Christ, 78. Clason, Isaac Starr, 57. Clemm, Mrs., 72. Cleopatra, 65. Cloud, C. F., 76. 86 Index Cobb, Palmer, 73. Coleridge, 66, 73. Columbus, 26, 45, 73. Combs, J. H., 57. Cook, Ann, wife of Beauchamp, 51 etc. her Letters, passim. Cook, Mary, sister of Ann, 72. Cosmopolitan Art Journal, 62. Criticisms of Politian, 80. Criticisms by Poe listed under per- sons criticised. Cromwell, Mrs. R. H., 72. D Dana, J. G., 53. Darby, P. H., 52, 53, 65. Date of composition of play, 58. Date of play, 45. Democratic Review, 64, 70. Dido, 74. Diogenes Laertius, 78. doggerel by Poe, 62. Dondore, Dorothy, 56. Dry den, iv, 61. Dudley, 60. Duyckinck, 57. Eames, Wilberforce, 52. Elizabeth, Queen, 60. EUet, Mrs. E. F., 79. Elliot, Wm., 69. Emendations, editor's, 45. Emendations, Poe's, 46-50. Emmet, Robert, 60. English, T. D., 69, 81. Eos, 79. "Eternal city," 69. Eveleth, G. W., 61, 81. Eyraco, 78. Fletcher, 63, 8a. folksongs, 57. Ford, John, 82. Foscolo, Ugo, 61. French, John C, 76. Fruit, J. P., 81. Fuller, Hiram, 81. Garnett, Richard, iv. Gaunt, 78. Gayley, 79. Geraldine, 60. German, Poe's knowledge of, 72. Gethsemane, 37, 78. The Gift for 1836, 73, 77. Gill, W. F., 77. Godey's Lady's Book, 56 etc. Goethe, 72, 73. Gove-Nichols, Mrs., 70. Graham, J. Lorimer, 41. Graham's Magazine, 55 etc. Grammar, bad, 63. Gray, Thos., Elegy, 77, 79. Impromptu, 78. Greeley, Horace, 80. Green, DufF, 80. Griswold, R. W., 43, 50, 56, 77. Gruener, Gustav, 73. Guendel, G. Edmund, iv. H Hale, Sarah J., 43, 57, 77. Hannay, James, 81. Harrison, 81. Heberton, 54. Hermon, Mt., 65. Hewitt, John H., 76, 77. Hirst, Henry B., 79. Hoffman, Charles Fenno, 54, 55, 56, 60, 74. Hoffman, E. T. A., 73. Homer, 60, 64, 79. Horace, 59. Howard, Claire, 60. Howard, Henry, 60, Hughes, W. L., iv, 61, 64, 65. I Ingram, John H., iii, 42, 44, S'- Iras, 65. Irving, Washington, 73. J Jackson, Andrew, 80. James, C. E., 54. Johnson, L. F., 54. Julian of Egypt, 65. Index 87 K Keats, John, 63. Kendall, Amos, 54. Kennedy, John P., 58, 76. King's Classical arid Foreign Quota- tions, 68. L Ladies' Garland, 79. Lais, 65. Lamb, Chas., 65, 82. Lander, W. S., 59. Lascari, Giov., 59. Latrobe, J. H. B., 76. Lauvriere, 61, 67, 79. Leaf, Walter, 66. Leicester, 60. Lewis, "Monk," 73. Lewis, Mrs. S. A., iii, 49, 69, 70, 72, 81. Lipsius, 68. Longfellow, 64, 71, 72, 73. Lowell, J. R., 77, 83. Lucas, E. v., iii. Lungo, Isidoro del, 59. M Mackail, 66. MacMichael, Mary E., 56. Madigan, 44, 49. Magazine of History, 56. Manly, John M., 62. Marlowe, 74. Marston, 65. MaruUo, 59. Mathews, Cornelius, 68. Memnon, 38, 78. Meter, 61, 82. Miller, James H., 76. Milton, John. Comus, 64. Par. Lest, 69. Par. Reg., 79. Moore, F. G., 69. Moore, Thos., 68, 71, 78. Morgan, J. P., iii, 43. Mowatt, Anna Cora, 61. N Nero, 78. nevermore, 62. New English Dictionary, 61, 75. Newspapers. Alexander's Messenger (Phila.), 62. American (N. Y.), 55. Argus of Western America (Frank- fort), 54. Atheneum (London), 81. Evening Mirror (N. Y.), 81. Evening Star (N. Y.), 80. Examiner (Richmond), 70. Herald (N. Y.), 72. Independent (N. Y.), 69. Kentucky Reporter (Lexington), 54, 74- New Yorker (N. Y.), 80. Patriot (Frankfort), 54. Saturday Courier (Phila.), 70. Saturday Evening Post (Phila.), 43, 50. 74- Saturday Museum (Phila.), 43. Saturday Visiter (Baltimore), 43, 50, 76. U. S. Telegraph (Washington), 80. Virginian (Lynchburg), 80. Weekly Messenger (Russellville), 54- Weekly Universe (N. Y.), 61. Whig (Richmond), 80. Noah, M. M., 80. Notes and Queries, 68. O Opera heroine, 75. Osgood, Mrs. F. S., 62. Ovid, 59, 69. P Peele, Geo., 65. Perrow, E. C, 57. Persepolis, 77. Philes, Geo. P., 73. Pioneer, 83. Plato, 65. Plutarch, 65, 68. Poe, Edgar A., his bible, 72. Cottage, 72. drinking, 61. monument, 62. private letters, 58. punctuation, 41. schoolbooks, 65. Index Shrine, 80. Writings Criticisms indexed under name of persons criticised. Letters under name of recipients. Miscellaneous articles: — Autography, 62. Enigmatical and Conundrumi- cal, 62. Letter to B — , 65. Literati, 56. Marginalia, 60, 64, 67, 75. Pinakidia, 59, 60, 66, 67, 73. Poetic Principle, 69, 71. Prose Writers of America, 70. Rationale of Verse, 73, 83. Some Notes on English Verse, 83- Poems AlAaraaf, 59, 64, 66, 68, 77, 78. Ballad, 63, 70. Bells, 83. CZ/y ;w A4f Sea, (><). Coliseum, 41, etc., especially 76 f. Doggerel, 62. ^ Dream, 66. ^ Dream within a Dream, 69, 70. Dreams, 73. Haunted Palace, 58. Happiest Day, 72. Z,i«« /o Sarah, 65. Lenore, 78. Parody on Mrs. Browning, 82. Raven, 62, 65, 68, 72, 74. Romance, 78. Sleeper, 60, 78. Sonnet to Zante, 59, 66. Tamerlane, 64, 66, 67, 72, 77. To — (Not long ago), 65, 82. To — (Sleep on), 64, 68. To //^f/fw (1831), 60. To Helen (1848), 70, 82. To M.L.S—, 82. To Afy Mother, 70. To 0»f 2» Paradise, 41, 73. Tales Arthur Gordon Pym, 60, 74, 76. ^«jf/ ©/■ /^f 0(/^, 65. Assignation, 41, 59, 60, 63, 65, 67> 68, 73, 79. Bon-Bon, 61, 69, 74, 76. Cask of Amontillado, 63. Colloquy of Monos and Una, 64, 68, 79. Conversation of Eiros and Char- mion, 65. Domain of Amheim, 73. D«f 1^^ V Omelette, 65. Eleohora, 71, 73, 78. F 72, 74, 81. Whitty, J. H., 44, 70. Williamson, 61. Wilmer, L. A., 67, 76, 80. Wilton, Henry {pen-name), 76. Woodberry, G. E., 62. Woodbridge, Miss A. D., 69. Wordsworth, Wm., 66, 68, 70, 78, 79. Wyatt, Sir Thos., 60, 70. Z Zecchin, 63. VITA Thomas Ollive Mabbott was born in New York July 6, 1898, entered Collegiate School In that city in 1906, and from it went to Columbia College in September 191 6. He received his degree of Bachelor of Arts with high honors in Greek and Latin June 1920, and has continued his studies in the Graduate School of Columbia University since then, receiving the degree of Master of Arts in June 1921. Since July 1922 he has been Assistant in English in the Graduate School. He has edited The Letters from George W. Eveleth to Edgar Allan Foe for the New York Public Library, 1922, and has been an occasional contributor to Modern Language Notes, The Classical Weekly y and Notes and Queries. He has attended lectures in the Graduate School under Professors Thorndike, Trent, Lawrence, Ayres, Krapp, Erskine, and Brander Matthews of the Departmerft of English and Comparative Literature; and Professors Perry, McCrea, and F. G. Moore of the Department of Classical Philology. Mr. Mabbott is a member of the New York Historical Soci- ety, the Classical Association of the Atlantic States, the Edgar Allan Poe Shrine, and * B K. ^ Influence of Some Organic Compounds upon the Hydrolysis of Starch by Salivary and Pancre- atic Amylases BY NELLIE M. NAYLOR DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE RE- QUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PURE SCIENCE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 44, pp. 2957-66. NEW 'YORK 1922 Influence of Some Organic Compounds upon the Hydrolysis of Starch by Salivary and Pancre- atic Amylases BY NELLIE M. NAYLOR DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE RE- QUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PURE SCIENCE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Reprinted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 44, pp. 2957-66. NEW YORK 1922 -m ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This investigation was undertaken at the suggestion of Professor H. C. Sherman, and was carried out under his direction. The author wishes to express to Professor Sherman her appreciation of his advice and encour- agement received throughout this work. The author also wishes to thank Professor A. W. Thomas and Dr. Mary 1,. Caldwell for helpful suggestions and advice. INFLUENCE OF SOME ORGANIC COMPOUNDS UPON THE HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH BY SALIVARY AND PANCREATIC AMYLASES Various organic compounds have been reported as influencing the ac- tivity of amylases in the digestion of starch. In 1893^ and again in 1904', Effront investigated the effects of certain amines and amino acids upon the hydrolysis of starches by an infusion of malt extract. Glycine, alanine, leucine, glutamic acid, hippuric acid, creatine, creatinine, asparagine and aspartic acid were found to increase the activity of the amylase, while amides and aliphatic amines appeared to act as inhibitory agents. Ford and Guthrie,' using Lintner soluble starch with malt extract and with a purified malt amylase, studied the effect of asparagine, glycine and alanine on the starch digestion. They ascribe the apparent increase of activity in the presence of the amino acids to the amphoteric property of these compounds or to their effect in neutrahzing some inhibitory impiuity in the starch or enzyme solution. Terroine and Weill^ tested the influence of many of the amino acids on the saccharification of starch by pancreatic juice. They report an ac- tivating influence on the part of the amino acids tested, but they make no statement regarding the hydrogen-ion concentration, or regarding the purity of any of the materials used. Desgrez and Moog^ report an activating influence exerted by methyl, ethyl and trimethyl amine hydrochlorides, on the hydrolysis of starch by a glycerol extract of dry pancreas. As in the work reported by previous investigators, there is no indication of any tests for hydrogen-ion concen- tration or for purity of materials used. Nor is there any evidence that 1 Effront, Mon. Sci., 41, 266 (1893). 2 Effront, ibid., 61, 561 (1904). » Ford and Guthrie, /. Chem. Soc, 89, 76 (1906). * Terroine and Weill, Compt. rend. soc. bioL, 72, 542 (1912). » Desgrez and Moog, Compt. rend., 172, 553 (1921). the influence of simple inorganic salts was provided for, so that so far as their data show, the activation may have been due simply to the effects of the substances as chlorides rather than to the organic radicals. Rockwood* studied a large number of nitrogen compounds with regard to their influence on the hydrolysis of starch by saUva. Those compounds which seemed to increase the activity of the amylase were called auxo- amylases. It was reported that: (1) a-amino acids act as auxo-amylases, as evidenced by the effect of added glycine, tyrosine and aspartic acid; (2) anthraniUc acid, and its meta and para isomers, in which the amino group is not alpha to the carboxyl group, were also reported to be auxo- amylases; but sulfanilic acid, in which the carboxyl group is replaced by the group, SOjOH, was not; (3) the substitution of one hydrogen of the amino group by benzoyl, as in hippuric acid, did not destroy the activating properties; (4) amines of the methane series were reported to act as auxo- amylases; (5) amides were not auxo-amylases. The results of Rockwood's experiments are, however, not conclusive, since several factors now known to influence the activity of the amylase were not standardized and appar- ently not taken into account. As mentioned in connection with other work, there is no evidence that the influence of inorganic salts was pro- vided for; also the hydrogen-ion concentration, determined as "neutral to litmus," would be only approximately known, and not necessarily that at which optimum activity of the amylase is obtained. Therefore the "activation" reported may be due to the influence of other factors, in- stead of to the effect of the organic groupings in the compounds tested. In this Laboratory the work of testing the influence of amino acids on the hydrolysis of starch by amylases has been done under much more closely standardized conditions; the starch and all salts used were piuified, the hydrogen-ion concentrations of all starch dispersions tested, either electrometrically or colorimetrically with standardized buffer mixtures, and the enzyme, either purified or natural, was always present in a starch paste "activated" by an optimum concentration of sodium chloride and sodium phosphate. Under these conditions, it has been determined' that neutralized aspartic acid and asparagine, glycine, alanine, phenyl- alanine and tyrosine increase the saccharogenic activity of saliva, pan- creatin, and purified pancreatic and malt amylases. It was also deter- mined' that glycine, phenylalanine, arginine and cystine increase the amyloclastic activity of purified pancreatic amylase, while histidine and tr3rptophane do not show this influence. It was the purpose of this investigation to study the influence of certain organic compounds, containing typical groupings, on the hydrolysis of « Rockwood, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 39, 2745 (1917). ' Sherman and Walker, (a) ibid., 41, 1866 (1919); (b) 43, 2461 (1921). 8 Shennan and Caldwell, ibid., 43, 2469 (1921). starch by amylases, to see whether this might throw some Ught upon the problem of whether the favorable effect of amino acids is due to a direct activation attributable to their organic structure, as considered by Rockwood, or is due to the conservation of the enzyme, as brought out by previous work in this Laboratory,""'* or due to both. It was planned to use several simple organic compounds, in which the influence of the carboxyl group alone, the amino group alone, and the carboxyl and amino groups in the same molecule, could be studied, and then to extend the investigation to the influence of other groupings, especially those present in the amino acids which have been tested in this Laboratory. Several of the compounds used in this work have been studied by other investi- gators, but since the results were inconclusive, as has been pointed out, the work has been repeated by the standardized method"' used in this Laboratory for testing the influence of the amino acids on the hydrolysis of starch by amylases. The compounds were chosen: (1) to contain the amino group in aniline sulfate and in methyl and ethyl amine hydrochlor- ides, the carboxyl group in benzoic acid, and the amide group in benz- amide; (2) to show the effect of the position of the amino group by study- ing glycine, in which the amino group is alpha to the carboxyl group, and anthranilic acid in which the amino group is ortho to the carboxyl group; (3) to show the effect of substitution of the hydrogen of the amino group, as in hippuric acid; (4) to test the influence of indole and guanidine, and to compare their effect with that of the amino acids containing these groupings. Materials Used Lintner soluble starch was purified by repeated washings with distilled water and with thrice distilled water. The starch was air-dried and the moisture was determined. The acidity was determined by electrometric titration of a 1% starch dispersion con- taining the amounts of sodium chloride and disodium phosphate used for pancreatic amylase work.' All water used in making starch pastes and activating solutions, and in the final rinsing of glass ware, was distilled from alkaline permanganate, then from dil. phosphoric acid, through a block-tin condenser, and collected in Non-sol bottles, in which it was kept until used. The sodium chloride and sodium phosphate used as activating agents were re- crystallized twice from distilled, and once from thrice distilled water, air-dried, and an- alyzed for moisture. All of the organic substances employed were carefully purified and tested for purity. Experimental Procedure The equivalent of 10 g. of dry starch was weighed, mixed with cold water, poured into boiling water, and the mixture boiled for 3 minutes. This was cooled, made up to a volume of 250 cc, and allowed to settle. Twenty-five-cc. portions of this starch dispersion were introduced into lOOcc. cylinders and the required amount of 0.01 N sodium hydroxide solution was added. The activating agents, sodium chloride and sodiiun phosphate, in amounts previously determined for the enzyme to be used' were added to the cylinders. • Sherman and Kendall, J. Am. Chem Soc, 32, 1087 (1910). 8 The substances to be tested in this work were in most cases difficultly soluble, and more or less subject to hydrolysis. The amount to be used for several cylinders was weighed out, water and the small quantity of sodium hydroxide (0.01 N or 0.02 N) or hydrochloric acid (0.01 N) required for neutralization were added to the substance, and carefully warmed not above 40°, until the substance was dissolved. This solution was cooled, and made up to a definite volume, and portions to represent the desired quantity of the substance were added to the cylinders, from a buret. The contents of each cylinder was then made up to a total volume of 100 cc, stirred, and the cylinders were placed in a thermostat regulated at 40*0.01°. While the cylinders were attain- ing the temperature of the surrounding water, the enzyme solution was prepared, and introduced into clean, dry flasks. The activated starch dispersion at 40 ° was added to the enzyme, the whole thoroughly mixed and allowed to react for exactly 30 minutes, the flasks being kept at constant temperature. The effect of light was excluded by work- ing in a north room with window shades drawn, and avoiding the use of any artificial light during digestion. The reaction was stopped by the introduction of Fehling solution, and the flasks were placed in a boiling water bath for 15 minutes. The amount of cuprous oxide formed by the reducing sugar present was determined. Since sodium sulfate would be present in every test in which neutraUzed aniline sulfate was used, any difference in the activity of the enzyme might be due to the effect of the aniline or to the sodium sulfate. When sodium sulfate was tested in amounts corresponding to those which would be formed in the solutions containing neutralized aniline sulfate, it was found to have no influence on the activity of the amylases used. Since earlier work^" has shown that the optimum activity of pancreatic amylase is obtained for only a small range of hydrogen-ion concentration, it is necessary to deter- TablE I Log Ch+ in Moi,es pbr Liter Found in Digestion Mixtures Used 0.01 M solution added except with benzoic acid and benzamide, of which 50 mg. each was added Starch Paste (activated) Log Ch+ Log -Ch+ (electrometric) (colorimetric) No substance added -6 .94 -6 .93 Benzoic acid -6.96 -6.93 Benzamide -6 .90 -6 .93 Aniline- -6.87 -6.93 Hippuric acid .... —6 .93 Anthranilic acid .... —6 .93 Methyl amine hydrochloride -6.90 -6.93 Ethyl amine hydrochloride -6.89 -6.93 Indole -6 .87 -6 .93 Guanidine hydrochloride -6.88 —6.93 Tryptophane -6.96 -6.93 Alanine -6.86 -6.93 " Aniline sulfate, calculated to the desired amount of aniline, was used in all cases. mine accurately the values for each digestion mixture used. These determinations were made by electrometric titration (if possible) of the substance to be tested, in a buffered starch dispersion; then in each "set" the hydrogen-ion concentration was checked by a colorimetric test of the starch dispersion actually used in digestion, or that of a separate cylinder made up exactly like the one used. In all colorimetric tests the 10 Sherman, Thomas and Baldwin, /. Am. Chem. Soc, 41, 231 (1919). 9 color comparison was made with a standardized buffer solution," using bromothymol blue as indicator, range Ph 6.0 to 7.6. The results of these hydrogen-ion determinations are given in Table I. In order to prove that hydrolysis of the substances tested did not change the hydro- gen-ion concentration of the mixtures during digestion, colorimetric or electrometric tests were made of the starch dispersions, before and after digestion. In all cases, where solutions were buffered with sodium phosphate, the hydrogen-ion concentration was found to be constant throughout the experiment. Data of Tsrpical Experiments Table II shows the influence of equimolar quantities of methyl and ethyl amine hydrochlorides, ^iline, anthranilic acid, hippuric acid and glycine, when tested in the presence of activating salts, sodium chloride and sodium phosphate, and when tested in the absence of these salts. Table II Influence of Equimolar Amounts of Certain Organic Substances on the Hy- drolysis OP Starch by Saliva In presence of salts In absence of salts Cc. of pure saliva per 100 cc. of starch dispersion Added material 0.4 0.4 0.8 Cuprous Cuprous Cuprous oxide oxide oxide 0.01 M Mg. Mg. Mg. None 294 2.6 Methyl amine hydrochloride 297 281 . Ethyl amine hydrochloride 293 285 .0 None 208 0.5 4.6 Aniline 202 3 .0 25 .0 Anthranilic acid 191 6.0 15.0 None 197 2.0 4.5 Hippuric acid 180 1.0 22,0 Glycine 209 0.3 4.3 This experimental work shows that very small amotmts of reducing sugar are obtained by the action of saliva on a pure starch dispersion, in the absence of added electrolytes, as has also been found to be true in the case of the pancreatic amylase, even when tested in the form of commercial pancreatin.'^ The presence of 0.01 M ethyl and methyl amine hydro- chlorides, in the media in which no other salts are added, activates the enzyme to such an extent that almost as much reducing sugar is obtained as in the presence of sodium chloride and sodium phosphate. Since aniline, tested as sulfate, does not show this effect, the influence exerted by methyl and ethyl amine hydrochlorides cannot properly be interpreted as showing any specific effect of the amino group, but is probably due to the favorable '1 W. M. Clark, "Determination of Hydrogen Ions," Williams and Wilkins Co., 1920, p. 81. " Sherman and Schlesinger, /. Am. Chem. Soc, 34, 1104 (1912); 37, 1305 (1915). 10 influence upon the amylase of the chloride ions thus introduced into the digestion mixture." Anthranilic acid, hippuric acid and glycine tested in the absence of inorganic salts, showed no influence on the rate of digestion of starch when 0.4 cc. of pure saliva per 100 cc. of starch dispersion was used. However, when the concentration of enzyme was doubled in the starch dispersions containing these substances, no inorganic salts being added, thus making the conditions comparable with the experiments described by Rockwood, an activating influence was obtained. This activation may be attributed to the presence of a larger amount of electrolyte in the increased volume of saliva used, rather than to the effect of the substances added. This view is supported by the fact that when anthranilic acid, hippiuic acid and aniUne are tested in the presence of sodium chloride and sodium phosphate, they show no "activating" influence. These experiments confirm the statements already made, that tests for the influence of any substances on the digestion of starch by saliva or by pancreatic amylase must be made in the presence of inorganic salts;' and indicate that the "activation" reported by Rockwood and other investigators as attributable to organic structure is misleading, and is probably due to the influence of the added substances upon hydrogen-ion or electrolyte concentration rather than to any specific effect of the organic groups. In order to determine whether the organic groups discussed by Rock- wood have activating effects upon salivary and pancreatic amylases when Tablb III Influbnce of Benzoic Acid, Aniwnb Sui,fatb, Benzamide, Anthranilic Acid and HrppuEic Acid on the Hydrolysis ov Starch by Saliva and by Purhhed Pancreatic Amylase Material added Saliva Pancreatic amylase Cuprous oxide Cuprous oxide Mg. Mg, Mg. None 327 298 Benzoic acid 50 324 274 Benzoic acid 100 321 272 None 331 282 Hippuric acid 50 322 261 Hippuric acid 100 314 264 None 218 217 Aniline 60 217 206 Aniline 100 225 203 None 296 312 Benzamide 60 289 310 Benzamide 100 289 308 None 331 317 Anthranilic add 50 313 305 Anthranilic acid 100 319 305 these are tested in the presence of the usual "activating" salts, a series of experiments was carried out with saliva and pancreatic amylase tested 11 in the presence and absence of benzoic acid, hippuric acid, aniline sulfate, benzamide or anthxanilic acid. The technique of these experiments was the same as has already been described, the mixtures always being "activated" by chloride and phos- phate and made up to the correct hydrogen-ion concentration for the enzyme to be used. Typical results are shown in Table III. The re- sults obtained with benzoic acid and with aniHne sulfate (Table III) and methyl and ethyl amine hydrochlorides (Table II) on the hydrol- ysis of starch by amylases, are taken as typical of the influence of the carboxyl and amino groups, when tested under conditions suitable to the normal activity of the enzyme. Since no favorable effect is shown by any of these compounds, the presence of the carboxyl group alone or the amino group alone does not account for the "activation" of the amylases by amino acids. Benzamide shows no effect on the activity of the amylases used. Glycine, as well as most other natural amino acids, has been shown to give definite "activation" of the amylases in the digestion of starch,"" while anthranilic acid, containing both the amino and carboxyl groups does not activate. Since in these experiments only the a-amino acids, such as glycine, and other products of protein hydrolysis have been found to increase the activity of the amylases, it is plain that neither the amino nor the car- boxyl group alone, nor the presence of both in the same molecule is suffi- cient to induce any "activating" influence upon the amylases when present in a substrate solution containing proper amounts of simple electrolytes. One may, therefore, conceive either that the "activating" effects of amino acids, like glycine, are due to their structural configuration in that they contain amino radicals in the a position to the carboxyl group, or that their favorable influence is due to the conservation of the enzyme through diminution of its hydrolytic destruction in the water solutions in which it acts.^*" It has not been feasible to test a-amino acids known not to be products of protein hydrolysis because our knowledge of the hydro- lytic products of the proteins is not yet sufficiently complete. It might, perhaps, be expected that if true "activation" can be attributed to a-amino acid structure, per se, it should not be entirely lost in a derivative such as hipptnic acid (benzoyl glycine). Hippuric acid, however, shows no "activating" effect on the digestion of starch by saliva and purified pan- creatic amylase. It was thought best to determine whether this failure to "activate" the enzyme might be due to the hydrolysis of the hippuric acid during digestion, forming glycine and benzoic acid. By a colorimetric test, using stand- ardized buffer solutions," and bromothytnol blue as indicator, it was found that the hydrogen-ion concentration was the same before and after '» Ref. 11, p. 76. 12 digestion and, therefore, that hydrolysis of hippuric acid did not occur to any appreciable extent. Table IV shows a typical experiment in which the influence of glycine alone, of benzoic acid alone, of a mixture of equal weights of glycine and benzoic acid, and of equimolar amounts of each, is tested. Tablb IV Comparison op the Influence op Benzoic Acid Plus Glycine on the Hydrolysis OP Starch by PuRiPmD Pancreatic Amylase Material added Cuprous oxide Mg. Mg. None 288 Benzoic acid 50 280 Glycine 50 331 Benzoic acid 50 + glycine 50 335 Benzoic acid 0.0066 M, + glycine 0.0066 M 326 This experiment shows the usual "activation" with glycine, independent of the presence of the benzoic acid. The effect of indole and guanidine on the hydrolysis of starch by purified pancreatic amylase, and the influence of these groups in the amino acids, were next tested. It was found that guanidine, like arginine, reacts with Fehling solution so that a test upon saccharogenic activity could not be made. The influence of these substances on the amyloclastic activity of the enzyme was studied, instead, by a method based on that of Wohl- gemuth,^^ and used in previous work in this I/aboratory.'* The results indicate that guanidine has no effect on the amyloclastic activity of the enzyme, while indole shows an inhibitory effect. This accords with the observation that arginine has a favorable effect upon the amyloclastic action of the enzyme while tryptophane has not.* In view of these ex- periments, one might reason that the indifferent behavior of trjrptophane, compared with the activating influence of most of the other amino adds, is explainable on the hypothesis that the favorable effect of its alanine group is offset by the inhibitory influence of the indole radical. However, the explanation that tryptophane may be so bound in the enzjone mole- cule that it is not liberated by hydrolysis until after the amyloclastic activity of the enzyme has been injured, seems more consistent, when studied in the Ught of ftirther investigation. When a comparison was made of the influence of alanine, phenylalanine and tryptophane on the saccharogenic activity of the amylase, the result showed that tryptophane acts like most of the other amino acids in increasing the saccharogenic activity of the enzyme. The results of a typical comparison are given in Table V. " Wohlgemuth, Biochem. Z., 9, 1 (1908). " Sherman and Thomas, /. Am. Chem. Soc, 37, 634 (1915). Ref. 8. 13 Table V Imfi,uENCK OP Alanine, Phenylalaninb, Tryptophane and Indole on the Hydrolysis op Starch by Purified Pancreatic Amylase Material added Cuprous oxide Material added Cuprous oxide 0.005 M Mg. 0.005 M Mg. None 300 Alanine 339 Tryptophane 338 Phenylalanine 341 Indole 275 Since consistent "activation" is obtained with tryptophane as with other amino acids tested, upon the saccharogenic property of the amylase, it is evident that in this case the added substance affects the amyloclastic and saccharogenic activities dififerently. With the other amino acids here tested, the influence has been the same towards the two properties of the enzyme; but tryptophane is not unique in augmenting the sacchar- ogenic but not the amyloclastic activity, for in other experiments in this Laboratory the same has been found with respect to lysine.^' This effect is not due to hydrogen-ion concentration, since this was constant in the digestion mixtures used in all experiments, as has been stated before, and since previous work" has shown that, for optimum ac- tivity of the amyloclastic and saccharogenic properties of pancreatic amy- lase, the range of hydrogen-ion concentration is the same. However, since the enzyme molecule is in all probability of a protein nature, the tryptophane may be so bound in the molecule that it would not be Ub- erated until after the amyloclastic activity of the enzyme was lost and, therefore, any added tryptophane would not affect the amyloclastic prop- erty, but still might protect the enzyme from further hydrolytic changes whereby its saccharogenic activity would be affected. Summary The favorable effect reported by Rockwood to be exerted by several tjrpes of organic compoimds upon the activity of amylolytic enzymes, in consequence of which he applied the term auxo-amylases to these com- pounds, appears to have been due in most if not all cases, other than those of nattu-al amino acids, to hydrogen-ion or salt effects, rather than to the organic structure of the compounds. Tested upon saUvary or pancreatic amylase in the presence of favorable concentrations of chloride, phosphate and hydrogen ions, methyl and ethyl amine hydrochlorides, aniUne sulfate, benzoic acid, benzamide, anthranoHc acid and hippuric acid failed to show any favorable effect upon the activity of the enzyme. Hence, it appears probable that none of the types of compounds illustrated by these substances has any ac- tivating influence upon salivary or pancreatic amylase which can properly be attributed to their organic structure. " Sherman and Caldwell, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 44, 2926 (1922). " Sherman and Schlesinger, ibid., 35, 1784 (1913). 14 Previous findings regarding the favorable influence of several amino acids resulting from protein hydrolysis have been confirmed and extended. This influence may be attributed either to a direct "activating" effect de- pendent upon the structural nature of these substances as a-amino adds, or to conservation of the enzyme by retarding its hydrolysis. While the hjrpothesis of direct "activation" exerted by a-amino compounds as such is not disproved, the results of tests with hippuric acid fail to give it any support. The results obtained in this investigation can all be explained on the basis of the conservation hypothesis alone. VITA Nellie M. Naylor was born at Clear Lake, Iowa, March 20, 1885. She prepared for college at the Clear Lake High School, and entered Iowa State College in 1902, taking two years of collegiate work there and later, two years at the State University. She received the degeree of Bachelor of Arts from Iowa State University in 1908. She was an Assistant in Chem- istry at Iowa State College from 1909 to 1911, and an Instructor in Chem- istry from 1911 to 1920. She was a graduate student at the University of Chicago during the summers of 1910, 1911 and 1919, and received the degree of Master of Science at Iowa State College in June, 1918. She has been a graduate student in the School of Pure Science Columbia University during the academic years 1920-1921 and 1921-1922. She was co-author with Dr. R. R. Renshaw of a paper entitled "Dyes containing the Furane Cycle," pubUshed in the Journal of the American Chemical Society 44,862(1922). A Study of the Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid in Eggs DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University. By LOUIS PINE, B.S., A.M. New York City 1923 A Study of the Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid in Eggs DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University. By LOUIS PINE, B.S., A.M. New York City 1923 H TO MY WIFE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author wishes to take this opportunity of expressing his indebtedness to Dr. John H. Larkin, Director of the Strecker Me- morial Laboratory, Welfare Island, New York; to Professor William J. Gies of Columbia University; and to Dr. Harry W. Redfield, Chief of the New York Station, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, for their encourage- ment, advice, and many acts of kindness. L. P. New York Station, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, May, 1923. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Dedication 3 Acknowledgment 4 Introduction 7 Method for the Estimation of the Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid in Liquid Whole Egg and Yolk 8 A Study of the Chapin and Powick Method for the Extrac- tion of Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid 9 Plan of Investigation ; 12 Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid and Water in Whole Egg 12 Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid and Water in Yolk 17 Discussion 21 Summary and Conclusions 25 References 26 Biographical 26 Publication 26 A STUDY OF THE ACID-SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID IN EGGS By Louis Pine (From the New York Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture) INTRODUCTION Chapin and Powick (1), while working on a method for the estimation of the inorganic phosphoric acid in tissues and food products, found that the inorganic phosphoric acid in eggs was greatly increased on decomposition. They were interested only in the method and did not make an extensive study of the quantita- tive changes in inorganic phosphoric acid in eggs, as a test for decomposition. The total phosphorus pentoxide in eggs is given by Sherman (2) as 0.37 per cent, by Cook (3) as 0.67 per cent and by Chapin and Powick (1) as 0.5 per cent. About 96 per cent (1) of the total phosphorus is organically combined. Practically all of the organic phosphorus is in the yolk. The organic compounds of the yolk containing phosphorus are proteins, chiefly vitellin, 15.7 per cent (4) ; phospholipoids, chiefly lecithin, 11 per cent (5) ; and glycerophosphoric acid, 1.2 per cent (6), of the yolk. Upon decomposition, the vitellin yields inorganic phosphoric acid (7) and the phospholipoids liberate glycerophosphoric and in- organic phosphoric acids (8). Chapin and Powick (1) found from 16 to 18 mgs. of inorganic phosphorus pentoxide per 100 grams of fresh eggs and from 41 to 129 mgs. per 100 grams of decomposed eggs, depending upon the degree of deterioration. Cook (3) found a decrease in lecithin in cold storage eggs. Since the phospholipoids on decomposition liberate glycero- phosphoric acid as well as inorganic phosphoric acid, the increase in the inorganic phosphoric acid alone would not be a complete measure of the decomposition. The increase in the total acid- soluble phosphoric acid, containing both the inorganic and the glycerophosphoric acids, would be a better index of the decom- position of the organic phosphorus compounds of the yolk. This work was undertaken to ascertain whether the increase of acid-soluble phosphoric acid in whole egg and yolk could be made a test for decomposition. The white of egg was not consid- ered in this investigation because it contains little organically com- bined phosphorus, and therefore the increase of acid-soluble phos- phoric acid on decomposition would be neglible. METHOD FOR THE ESTIMATION OF THE ACID- SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID IN LIQUID WHOLE EGG AND YOLK There are three important steps in the determination of the acid-soluble phosphoric acid in eggs : the extraction, the destruc- tion of organic matter, and the final estimation of phosphoric acid. The extraction is made by a modification of the Chapin and Powick method (1). The organic matter is destroyed by di- gestion with concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids. The phos- phoric acid is determined as magnesium pyrophosphate. Extraction. — Fifty grams of whole egg or 25 grams of yolk are weighed out in a 500 c.c. Erlenmeyer flask. 200 c.c. of hydro- chloric acid solution, containing 1 c.c. of concentrated hydro- chloric acid (0.5:100), and 8 grams of picric acid are added. The flask is stoppered with a rubber stopper and shaken vigorously at frequent intervals, at least every ten minutes, for one hour. The contents is then filtered through a folded filter paper, 24 cm. for whole egg and 18.5cm. for yolk. The filtration should not be al- lowed to proceed for more than three-quarters of an hour. Destruction of Organic Matter. — 125 to 150 c. c. of the filtrate are transferred to a 500 c. c. Kjeldahl flask. Four glass beads, 10 c. c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c. c. of con- centrated nitric acid are added. The mixture is boiled down until white fumes appear. About 2 c. c. of concentrated nitric acid are added drop by drop and the mixture is boiled again until white fumes appear. This last step is repeated four times. The mixture is boiled ten minutes longer and then allowed to cool. About 25 c. c. of water are added and the solution boiled until the brown fumes are driven ofif. Estimation of Phosphoric Acid. — The solution, while still hot, is transferred to a 400 c. c. beaker and the flask washed with small amounts of hot water until the volume of solution in the beaker measures about 100 c. c. The phosphoric acid is then de- termined by the official gravimetric method (9). The total volume of solution in the extraction mixture is found by adding to the 200 c. c. of hydrochloric acid solution the volume of water contained in 50 grams of whole egg or 25 grams of yolk and in 8 grams of picric acid ( 1 ) . Water in eggs is determined in vacuum at 55° C. (10) and in picric acid in vacuum over sulphuric acid (11). Note 1. — ^Rubber stoppers absorb picric acid. They can be cleaned by soaking in water and changing the water several times. Dte 2. — The amount of filtrate collected in three-quarters hour depends upon the grade of filter paper used. A rapid rtaoer must be. used. Note ur depends upon the gi )er must be used. 8 of an hour depends upon filter paper must be used. A STUDY OF THE CHAPIN AND POWICK METHOD (1) FOR THE EXTRACTION OF THE ACID- SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. Chapin and Powick extract the acid-soluble phosphoric acid tor two hours with 200 c. c. of water, 10 c. c. of 2.5 normal hydrochloric acid and 5 to 8 grams of picric acid. Their method was tested by varying the amounts of the reagents and the time of extraction. Effect of Varying the Amounts of Hydrochloric Acid. — 10 c. c. of 2.5 normal hydrochloric acid are equal to about 2 c. c. of the concentrated acid. The amount of concentrated hydro- chloric acid was, therefore, varied from 1 to 4 c. c. Each sample of whole egg was divided into four 50-gram portions and each sample of yolk was divided into four 25-gram portions. Each portion of whole egg or yolk was extracted for two hours with 200 c. c. of hydrochloric acid solution, containing respectively 1, 2, 3 and 4 c. c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 8 grams of picric acid. The results are given in Table 1. TABLE I EFFECT OF VARYING THE AMOUNTS OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID Hydrochloric acid, cone. Ice. 2 c. c. 3 c. c, 4 c. c. ( 3rams M,g2P207 in 150 c. c. of filtrate Samiple No. 1 Whole Eeg .0122 .0125 .0128 .0126 2 tt it .0140 .0140 .0144 .0147 3 it tt .0145 .0149 .0156 .0161 4 tt tt .0182 .0181 .0185 .0194 5 tt tt .0457 .0455 .0449 .0459 6 Yolk .0167 .0171 .0172 .0183 7 tt .0161 .0170 .0175 .0177 8 tt .0160 .0163 .0171 .0175 9 tt .0146 .0148 .0154 .0157 10 tt .0158 .0170 Effect of Varying the Amounts of Picric Acid. — Dupli- cate determinations were made, one with 5 and the other with 10 grams of picric acid. Each sample of wholei egg was divided into two 50-gram portions and each sample of yolk was divided into two 25-gram portions. Each portion of whole egg or yolk was extracted for two hours with 200 c. c. of hydrochloric acid solu- tion, containing 2 c. c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and with 5 and 10 grams of picric acid respectively. The results are shown in Table II. TABLE II EFFECT OF PIRIC ACID Picric Acid 5 Grams 10 Grams Grams MgzPaOj in ISO c. c. of filtrate Sample No. 1 Whole Egg 2 (( it 3 il n 4 it tt 5 Yolk 6 tt 7 (t 8 tt .0138 .0135 .0449 .0447 .0156 .0154 .0164 .0161 .0141 .0137 .0450 .0446 .0158 .0156 .0165 .0158 Effect of Time. — Fifty-gram portions of whole egg and 25-gram portions of yolk were extracted with 200 c.c. of hydro- chloric acid solution, containing 2 c. c. of concentrated hydro- chloric acid, and 8 grams of picric acid. The time of extraction was varied from one-half hour to forty-eight hours. The results are given in Table III. TABLE III. EFFECT OF TIME Hours '/. 1 1 2 3 t 24 48 Shaken by machine Shaken by hand every 10 minutes Shaken occasionally Grams Mg2F20T in 50 c. c. of filtrate Sample No. 1 Whole Egg .0129 .0138 .0361 .0684 2 .0139 .0148 .0309 .0505 3 .0131 .0136 4 .0140 .0145 5 .0120 .0119 6 .0105 .0108 7 .0115 .0116 8 Yolk .0164 .0163 9 .0145 .0145 10 .0153 .0156 11 .0138 .0139 .0148 .0152 .0164 12 .0157 .0159 .0163 13 .0145 .0150 .0156 DISCUSSION The results in Table I show that the amount of acid-soluble phosphoric acid extracted from eggs is affected by the amount of hydrochloric acid used in the extraction. The difference in magnesium pyrophosphate between two successive columns is slight but when columns 1 and 4 are compared the difference is quite marked. These results show that 1 c.c. of concentrated 10 hydrochloric acid is sufficient for the complete extraction of the acid-soluble phosphoric acid because increasing the amount of hydrochloric acid to 2 c.c. does not affect the results appreciably. Table II shows that 5 and 10 grams of picric acid give the same results. The filtration is much quicker with 10 than with 5 grams of picric acid. For this reason 10 grams of picric acid would be more desirable than 5 grams. Since the effect of greater amounts than 10 grams of picric acid was not investigated, it is best to use a little less than 10 grams. Table III shows that one-half hour and one hour extractions give practically the same results, but if the process is continued longer, more acid-soluble phosphoric acid is extracted. The higher yield of acid-soluble phosphoric acid obtained when more than 2 c.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid was used, or when the extraction was continued over one hour must be due to the disintegration of organically combined phosphorus. There- fore, the Chapin and Powick method of extraction was modified as follows : The amount of hydrochloric acid was changed from 10 c.c. of 2.5 normal (about 2 c.c. of the concentrated acid) to 1 c.c. of concenrated hydrochloric acid and the time of extraction was decreased to one hour. RECOVERY OF ADDED PHOSPHORIC ACID The modified Chapin and Powick method of extraction of acid-soluble phosphoric acid was tested by determining the amount of added phosphoric acid that can be recovered from eggs. The phosphoric acid was determined in a solution of di- sodium hydrogen phosphate by the official gravimetric method (9). The acid-soluble phosphoric acid was estimated in a sample of whole egg by the method described on page 8. A known volume of the disodium hydrogen phosphate solution was added to each of five aliquots of the sample of whole egg and the acid- soluble phosphoric acid again determined. The results are given in Table IV. TABLE IV. Recovery of Added Phosphoric Acid Sample No. 12 3 4 5 Grams P^Os in 50 grams of eggs. .0153 .0153 .0153 .0153 .0153 Grams P=0= added .0550 .0550 .0550 .0550 .0550 Grams Total P^O= .0703 .0703 .0703 .0703 .0703 Grams P=0» found .0700 .0697 .0699 .0698 .0699 Per cent recovery. 99.57 99.15 99.43 99.29 99.43 Maximum recovery — 99.57 per cent. Minimum recovery — ^99.15 per cent. Average recovery — 99.37 per cent. 11 Table IV shows a practically complete recovery of phosphoric acid added to eggs. PLAN OF INVESTIGATION To find the normal variations of the acid-soluble phosphoric acid in edible whole egg and yolk, twenty-five samples of each were selected. They varied from eggs one day old to the lowest grade obtainable in groceries in the Spring. To find the maxi- mum amount of acid-soluble phosphoric acid that could be per- mitted in edible whole egg and yolk, ten samples of each were selected from weak eggs with slightly stuck yolks which could be set free by a quick twist of the egg. These eggs are edible according to Pennington, Jenkins and Betts (12). To determine whether the increase in the acid-soluble phosphoric acid in eggs is proportional to the degree of decomposition, spots, white rots and black rots were selected. The eggs were candled and examined out of the shell as described by Pennington, Jenkins and Betts (12). Each sample of whole egg consisted of two eggs and each sample of yolk consisted of the yolks of three eggs. Cook (3) states the following: "Eggs in storage for one year show a loss of weight equivalent to 10 per cent of the total weight, which loss is largely water from the whites." Greenlee (13) re- ports a loss of moisture in the white and a gain in the yolk in cold storage. Since whole egg loses moisture and yolk gains moisture on standing, results on stale eggs cannot be compared with those on fresh eggs, unless calculated to a dry basis. ACID-SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID AND WATER IN WHOLE EGG. 1. Whole Egg of Good Quality. TABLE V. A. One Day Old. Water Acid-Soluble P.O, % Milligrams per 100 Grains No. Original Material Dry Basis 1 72.94 20.9 77.2 2 : 75.40 23.5 95.5 3 73.00 22.9 84.8 4 72.31 21.3 76.9 5 74.18 21.4 82.8 Maximum 75.40 23.5 95.5 Minimum 72.31 20.9 76.9 Average 73.57 22.0 83.4 ±5.4 12 TABLE VI. B. Highest Grade Ohtaitiable in Groceries in the Sprmg. Water No. " 1 73.39 2 72.89 3 73.93 4 74.69 5 73.31 6 73.'06 7 73.63 8 72.59 9 73.62 10 72.34 Maximum 74.69 Minimum 72.34 Average 73.35 Acid-Soluble P^Os Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 22.4 22.9 24.0 21.8 23.3 22.1 23.2 24.1 20.1 25.5 25.5 20.1 22.9 84.2 84.5 92.1 86.1 87.3 82.0 88.0 87.9 76.2 92.2 92.2 76.2 86.0 ±3.5 TABLE VII. C. Lowest Grade Obtainable in Groceries in the Spring. Water No. 1 71.21 2 71.69 3 73.19 4 72.43 5 71.85 6 72.68 7 73.88 8 72.98 9 71.40 10 72.63 Maximum 73.88 Minimum 71.21 Average 72.39 13 Acid-Soluble PjOs Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 23.8 82.7 26.5 93.6 19.3 72.0 22.7 82.3 25.1 89.2 19.9 72.8 21.4 81.9 20.5 75.9 21.9 76.6 21.2 77.5 26.5 93.6 19.3 72.0 22.2 80.5 ±5.5 TABLE VIII. Summary of Results on Fresh Eggs of Good Quality {Tables V, VI and VII). Water Maximum 75.40 Minimum 71.21 Average 73.01 Acid- Soluble PjOs Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material 26.5 19.3 22.5 Dry Basis 95.5 72.0 83.3 ±5.3 TABLE IX. 2. Whole Egg. No. Yolk Stuck to the Shell But Can Be Set Free by a Quick Twist of the Egg. Water Acid-Soluble PsO. % Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 1 71.91 28.8 102.5 2 71.97 26.4 94.2 3 72.34 25.2 91.1 4 72.50 25.0 90.9 5 71.90 25.8 91.8 6 70.34 28.1 94.7 7 70.64 28.1 95.7 8 72.08 26.2 93.8 9 71.66 25.4 89.6 10 72.04 27.4 98.0 Maximum 72.50 28.8 102.5 Minimum 70.34 25.0 89.6 Average 71.74 26.6 94.2 ±2.8 TABLE X. 3. Whole Egg. Held in Cold Storage Eleven Months. No. Water Acid-Soluble PjO, Milligrams per 100 Grams Original 1 70.63 2 71.66 3 71.00 4 71.36 5 71.54 6 72.21 7 71.74 Maximum 72.21' Minimum 70.63 Average • 71.45 14 Material 28.8 26.1 27.3 28.8 29.1 28.7 31.9 31.9 26.1 28.7 Dry Basis 98.1 92.1 94.1 100.6 102.2 103.3 112.9 112.9 92.1 100.5 ±4.9 TABLE XI. 4. Whole Egg. Yolk Stuck to the Shell But Can Be Set Free by Several Quick Twists of the Egg. Water Acid- Soluble P2O5 % Milligrams per 100 Grams No. Original Material Dry Basis 1 68.49 30.1 95.5 2 69.07 30.9 99.9 3 69.25 35.3 114.8 4 70.09 31.8 106.3 5 67.85 34.0 105.8 6 70.35 30.0 101.2 7 68.86 33.5 107.6 8 70.52 26.2 88.9 9 72.54 28.4 103.4 10 72.56 24.2 88.2 Maximum 72.56 35.3 114.8 Minimum 68.49 24.2 88.2 Average 69.96 30.4 101.2 ±6.4 TABLE XII. 5. Inedible- Whole Egg. Heavy Spots. Yolk Stuck to the Shell and Cannot be Set Free by Twisting the Egg. Water No. 1 71.30 2 70.78 3 72.22 4 70.22 5 67.78 6 69.73 7 63.60 8 63.83 9 67.66 MjLximum 72.22 Minimum. 53.60 Average 68.57 Acid- Soluble P^Ob illi grams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 28.8 100.0 28.7 98.2 29.4 105.8 36.1 121.0 32.6 101.2 29.6 97.8 46.4 127.5 41.2 113.9 34.6 107.0 46.4 127.5 28.7 97.8 34.2 108.0 ±7.6 15 TABLE XIII. 6. Inedible Whole Egg. Decomposed Frozen Eggs. Putrid Odor. Water No. 1 70.00 2 69.02 3 69.24 4 70.41 5 69.45 Maximum 70.41 Minimum 69.02 Average 69.62 Acid-Soluble PsO, Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material 46.2 52.1 54.6 44.8 51.6 54.6 44.8 49.9 Dry Basis 154.0 168.2 177.5 151.4 168.9 177.5 151.4 164.0 No. TABLE XIV. 7. Inedible Whole Egg. White Rots. Water 1 70.07 2 68.63 3 63.19 4 70.03 Maximum 70.07 Minimum 63.19 Average 67.98 Acid- Soluble PaOs Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material 73.0 92.6 45.5 70.6 92.6 45.5 70.4 Dry Basis 243.9 295.2 123.6 235.6 295.2 123.6 224.6 No. TABLE XV. 8. Inedible Whole Egg. Black Rots. Water % 1 64.41 2 69.55 3 73.13 4 74.51 Maximum 74.51 Minimum 64.41 Average 70.40 16 Acid- Soluble P,Oi Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material 229.4 142.7 178.1 184.0 229.4 142.7 183.6 Dry Basis 644.6 468.6 662.8 721.9 721.9 468.6 624.5 ACID-SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID AND WATER IN YOLK. L Yolk From Fresh Eggs of Good Quality. TABLE XVI. A. Yolk From Eggs One Day Old. No. Water 1 47.95 2 47.41 3 47.16 4 48.06 5 47.24 Maximum 48.06 Minimum 47.16 Average 47.56 Acid-Soluble P2O5 Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material 51.6 49.4 50.4 58.1 54.0 58.1 49.4 52.7 Dry Basis 99.1 93.9 95.4 111.9 102.4 111.9 93.9 100.5 ±5.3 TABLE XVII. B. Yolk From the Highest Grade Eggs Obtainable in Groceries in the Spring. No. Water % 1 49.01 2 49.67 3 49.10 4 49.48 5 49.64 6 50.06 7 50.15 8 50.42 9 49.48 10 49.34 Maximum 50.42 Minimum 49.01 Average 49.64 Acid-Soluble P2O5 Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material 52.0 50.2 53.8 62.1 54.6 56.8 55.3 53.2 53.5 51.3 62.1 50.2 54.3 Dry Basis 102.0 99.7 105.7 122.9 108.4 113.7 110.9 107.3 105.9 101.3 122.9 99.7 107.8 ±5.0 17 TABLE XVIII C. Yolk From the Lowest Grade Eggs Obtainable in in the Spring. Water % No. 1 50.69 2 50.20 3 49.87 4 48.91 5 48.52 6 50.02 7 49.35 8 49.52 9 49.70 10 50.06 Maximum 50.69 Minimum 48.52 Average ■ 49.68 Acid-Soluble VJOt illigrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 49.9 101.2 58.9 118.3 52.4 108.1 56.3 110.2 56.3 109.4 49.9 99.8 52.8 104.2 48.8 96.7 51.0 101.4 44.8 89.7 58.9 118.3 44.8 89.7 52.1 103.9 ±5.1 TABLE XIX. Summary of Results on Yolk From Fresh Eggs of Good Quality {Tables XVI, XVII and XVIII). Water Maximum 50.69 Minimum 47.16 Average 49.24 Acid- Soluble P»0, Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 62.1 122.9 44.8 89.7 53.1 104.8 ±6.0 18 TABLE XX. 2. Yolk From Stale' Egffs. Yolk Stuck to the Shell But Can Be Set Free by a Quick Twist of the Egg. Water Acid-Soluble PjO» % Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 1 . . . . 51.39 53.4 109.9 2 . . . . 51.73 59.2 122.6 3 . ... 51.01 59.6 55.2 121.7 4 . . . . 50.88 112.4 5 .... 51.12 47.6 97.4 6 . . . . 50.71 47.9 97.2 7 . ... 51.45 53.4 110.0 8 .... 51.17 55.6 113.9 9 . . . . 52.43 52.4 110.2 10 . . . . 52.49 52.7 110.9 Maximum . . . . 52'.49 59.6 122.6 Minimum . . . . 50.71 47.6 97.2 Average . . . . . . 51.44 53.7 110.6 ±5.7 TABLE XXI. 3. Yolk From Stale Eggs. Yolk Stuck to the Shell But Can Be Set Free by Several Quick Twists of the Egg. Acid-Soluble P^Os Milligrams per 100 Grams Original No. Water % 1 52.70 2 51.46 3 51.29 4 52.33 5 53.03 6 52.75 7 51.59 8 52.71 Maximum 53.03 Minimum 51.29 Average 52.23 Material 54.1 54.7 55.8 50.8 53.3 56.9 54.3 56.0 56.9 50.8 54.5 Dry Basis 114.4 112.7 114.6 106.6 113.5 120.4 112.2 118.4 120.4 106.6 114.1 ±2.9 19 TABLE XXII. 4. Yolk From Eggs Which Were Held in Cold Storage Eleven Months. No. Water 1 52.97 2 52.83 3 53.90 4 53.89 5 54.55 6 54.30 Maximum 54.55 Minimum 52.83 Average 53.74 Acid-Soluble P.Ois Milligrams per 100 Grams Original Material Dry Basis 66.4 141.2 55.5 117.7 57.8 125.4 56.7 123.0 57.4 126.3 59.2 129.5 66.4 141.2 55.6 117.7 58.8 127.2 ±5.5 TABLE XXIII SUMMARY OF RESULTS ON ACID-SOLUBLE PHOS- PHORIC ACID IN WHOLE EGG AND YOLK Whole Egg Acid-Soluble P2O5 mgs. per 100 grams, dry basis Min. Max. Average 1. Good quality 72.0 95.5 83.3 ± 5.3 2. Yolk stuck to the shell but can be set free by a quick twist of the &gg 89.6 102.5 94.2 ± 2.8 3. Held in cold storage eleven months 92.1 112.9 100.5 ± 4.9 4. Yolk stuck to the shell but can be set free by several quick twists of the egg 88.2 114.8 101.2 ± 6.4 5. Yolk stuck to the shell and cannot be set free by twisting the tgg... 97 S, 127. h 108.0 ± 7.6 6. Decomposed frozen 151.4 177.5 164.0 7. White rots 123.6 295.2 224.6 8. Black rots 468.6 721.9 624.5 Yolk 1. Good quality 89.7 122.9 104.8 ± 6.0 2. Yolk stuck to the shell but can be set free by a quick twist of the egg 97.2 122.6 110.6 ±5.7 3. Yolk stuck to the shell but can be set free by several quick twists of the egg 106.6 120.4 114.1 ± 2.9 4. Held in cold storage eleven months 117.7 141.2 127.2 ± 5.5 20 DISCUSSION Water in Whole Egg and Yolk. The water content of whole e.gg was found to vary from 75.40 per cent (Table V) to 63.19 per cent (Table XIV). One day old eggs gave an average of 73.57 per cent of water. Eggs which were held in cold storage for eleven months gave an average of 71.45 per cent of water. The water content of yolk was found to vary from 47.16 per cent (Table XVI) to 54.55 per cent (Table XXII). Yolk from eggs one day old gave an average of 47.56 per cent of water. Yolk from eggs which were held in cold storage for eleven months gave an average of 53.74 per cent of water. These results show that whole egg loses mois- ture and yolk gains moisture on standing. Therefore, the acid- soluble phosphoric acid must be calculated on a dry basis. Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid in Whole Egg. In Table VIII are shown 25 samples of fresh eggs of good quality. These eggs were divided into three grades : one day old, the highest, and the lowest grades obtainable in groceries in the Spring. As a rule, only fresh eggs are sold in groceries in the Spring. Even the lowest grade eggs were of good quality. Table V shows that the acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in five samples of eggs one day old varies from 76.9 to 95.5 milli- grams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 83.4 milli- grams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 5.4. The variations in the amount of acid-soluble phosphorus pen- toxide in 10 samples of fresh eggs of the highest grade obtainable in groceries in the Spring are shown in Table VI. The minimum is 76.2, the maximum is 92.2, and the average is 86.0 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 3.5. Table VII shows that the acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in 10 samples of fresh eggs of the lowest, grade obtainable in groceries in the Spring varies from 72.0 to 93.6 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 80.5 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is ± 5.5. As stated above, only eggs of good quality were used in this series of 25 samples. If the increase in the amount of acid-soluble phosphoric acid in eggs is to be used as a test for decomposition, the lower grade eggs should not give higher re- sults than the higher grade eggs, unless decomposition has set in. The results obtained on the three grades of eggs do not differ ap- preciably. A summary of the results of Tables V, VI and VII on 25 samples of fresh eggs of good quality is given in Table VIII. The minimum is 72.0, the maximum is 95.5, and the 21 average is 83.3 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 5.-3. In Table IX are shown 10 samples of stale eggs. Fresh eggs were allowed to stand until the yolks stuck to the shells but could be set free by a quick twist of the eggs. These eggs are con- sidered edible (12). The acid-soluble phosphorous pentoxide in these eggs varies from 89.6 to 102.5 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 94.2 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 2.8. The minimum, maximum and the average results are higher than those obtained on eggs of good quality (Table VIII). These results show that after decomposition has set in, as shown by candling and physical examination out of the shell, the acid-soluble phosphoric acid is increased. Table X shows 7 samples of eggs which were held in cold storage for eleven months. The condition of these eggs was as follows: the air spaces were movable, the yolks separated from the whites with great difficulty, the whites were very thin and slightly colored yellow and the eggs had a perceptible odor. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in these eggs varies from 92.1 to 112.9 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 100.5 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 4.9. In Table XI are shown 10 samples of eggs of a doubtful nature. These eggs cannot be classed as edible or inedible. The eggs of this series were allowed to stand until the yolks stuck to the shells but could be set free by several quick twists of the eggs. As a rule, a candler does not twist an egg before the candle more than two or three times. The average candler might pass some of the eggs of this series as edible, but not all. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in these eggs varies from 88.2 to 114.8 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 101.2 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is ± 6.4. The minimum, maximum, and the average results are higher than those obtained on eggs of good quality (Table VIII). The maximum and the average results are higher than those obtained on eggs the yolks of which stuck to the shells but could be set free by a single quick twist of the eggs (Table IX). The difference in age between eggs of Table IX and Table XI may be only a few days. Table XII shows nine samples of heavy spots. The yolks of these eggs were stuck to the shells and could not be set free by twisting the eggs. This grade of eggs is considered inedible. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide was found to vary from 97.8 to 127.5 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 108.0 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 7.6. On further decomposition, spots are 22 changed to white rots and these in turn are changed to black rots. Table XIV shows four samples of white rots. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in these eggs varies from 123.6 to 295.2 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 224.6 milligrams. Table XV shows four samples of black rots. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in these eggs varies from 468.6 to 721.9 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 624.5 milligrams. In Table XXIII is given a summary of results on eight grades of whole egg used in this investigation. Excluding numbers 3 and 6, this table is arranged in the order of the gradual decom- position of eggs. The results show a progressive increase in the acid-soluble phosphoric acid from an average of 83.3 milligrams of phosphorus pentoxide per' 100 grams in eggs of good quality to an average of 624.5 milligrams in black rots. Acid-Soluble Phosphoric Acid in Yolk In Table XIX are shown 25 samples of yolk from fresh eggs of good quality. As in the case of whole egg, the yolks of this series also were divided into three grades : from eggs one day old, from the highest, and from the lowest grades of eggs obtainable in groceries in the Spring. The eggs of this series were of the same quality as those described in Table VIII. Table XVI shows five samples of yolk from eggs one day old. The acid- soluble phosphorus pentoxide in these yolks was found to vary from 93.9 to 111.9 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 100.5 milHgrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 5.3. The variation in the amount of acid- soluble phosphorus pentoxide in 10 samples of yolk from the highest grade eggs obtainable in groceries in the Spring is shown in Table XVII. The minimum is 99.7, the maximum is 122.9, and the average is 107.8 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is ± 5.0. Tabk XVIII shows that the acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in 10 samples of yolk from eggs of the lowest grade obtainable in groceries in the Spring varies from 89.7 to 118.3 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 103.9 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is ± 5.1. The results obtained on these three grades of yolk do not differ appreciably. A summary of the amount of acid-soluble phos- phorus pentoxide found in 25 samples of yolk from fresh eggs of good quality (Tables XVI, XVII and XVIII) is given in Table XIX. The minimum is 89.7, the maximum is 122.9, and ttie average is 104.8 milligrams per 100 grams on a dr,' basis. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is ± 6. Of the 25 samples of yolk, 23 contain less than 114 milligrams. 23 Table XX shows 10 samples of yolk from eggs the yolks of which stuck to the shells but could be set free by a quick twist of the eggs. These eggs were of the same grade as those de- scribed in Table IX. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide was found to vary from 97.2 to 122.6 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 110.6 milligrams. The average dev- iation from the arithmetic mean is — 5.7. The minimum and the average results are higher than those obtained on yolk from eggs of good quality (Table XIX), but the maximum is the same. In Table XXI are shown 8 samples of yolk from eggs of the same grade as those described in Table XI. The eggs of this series were allowed to stand until the yolks stuck to the shells but could be set free by several quick twists of the eggs. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in these yolks varies from 106.5 to 120.4 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 114.1 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 2.9. The minimum and the average results are higher than those obtained on yolks from eggs of good quality (Table XIX), but the maximum is lower. Table XXII shows 6 samples of yolk from eggs which were held in cold storage for eleven months. These eggs were of the same quality as those described in the discussion of Table X. The acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide was found to vary from 117.7 to 141.2 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis, and the average is 127.2 milligrams. The average deviation from the arithmetic mean is — 5.5. In these yolks the minimum, maximum and the average results are higher than those obtained in yolk from eggs of good quality (Table XIX). 24 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Chapin and Powick's method for the extraction of the acid soluble phosphoric acid from eggs was modified as follows : the amount of hydrochloric acid was changed from 10 c. c. of 2.5 normal to 1 c.c. of concentrated acid in 200 c.c. of water and the time of extraction was decreased to one hour. 2. Whole egg was found to lose moisture and yolk was found to gain moisture on standing. Therefore, the acid-soluble phos- phoric acid must be calculated on a dry basis, to secure comparable results. 3. The amount of acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in 25 samples of fresh eggs of good quahty was found to vary from 72 to 95.5 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis. These eggs were divided into three grades : one day old, the highest, and the lowest grades obtainable in groceries in the Spring. The results obtained on these three grades of whole egg do not differ appre- ciably, showing that whatever the age of an egg, as long as candling and physical examination out of the shell do not show any signs of decomposition, the amount of acid-soluble phosphoric acid is not increased. 4. The amount of acid-soluble phosphorus pentoxide in 25 samples of yolk from eggs of good quality was found to vary from 89.7 to 122.9 milligrams per 100 grams on a dry basis. The yolks of this series were divided into three grades : from eggs one day old, from the highest, and the lowest grades of eggs obtainable in groceries in the Spring. The results obtained on these three grades of yolk do not differ appreciably. 5. The amount of acid-soluble phosphoric acid in eggs was found to increase on decomposition, the increase depending upon the degree of deterioration. 6. This investigation was carried out on small samples in order to bring out the greatest variations possible in the amount of acid-soluble phosphoric acid in whole egg and yolk. Each sample of whole egg consisted of two eggs and each sample of yolk consisted of the yolks of three eggs. 7. The results obtained in this investigation warrant the fur- ther study of the acid-soluble phosphoric acid in eggs on a com- mercial scale. 25 References 1. Chapin, R. M., and Powick, W. C, J. Biol. Chem. XX, p. 97, 1915. 2. Sherman, H. C, Food Products, New York, 1916, p. 137. 3. Cook, F. C, Bulletin No. 115, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 19(38. 4. Atwater, W. O., and Bryant, A. P., Bulletin No. 28 (Revised Edition) United States Department of Agriculture, 1906. 5. Leach, A. E., Food Inspection and Analysis, New York, 4th Edition, 1920, Page 271. 6. Konig, J., Chemie der Menschlichen Nahrungs-und Genuss- mittel, Berlin, 4th Edition, 1904, Vol. II, p. 575. 7. Halliburton, W. D., Handbook of Physiology, Philadelphia, 11th Edition, 1913, p. 429. 8. MacLean, H., Lecithin and Allied Substances, The Lipins, London, 1918, p. 17. 9. Official and Tentative Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, 1920, p. 1. 10. Redfield, H. W., Bulletin No. 846, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1920. 11. Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America, 9th Edition, 1916, p. 471. 12. Pennington, M. E., Jenkins, M. K., and Betts, H. M., Bulletin No. 565. Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1918. 13. Greenlee, A. D., Circular No. 83. Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 1911. Biographical Louis Pine was born in Russia on May 20, 1887. He entered Cooper Union Five-Year Night Course in Chemistry in 1908, and was graduated with a diploma in chemistry in 1913. He studied in the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, from 1913 to 1916, and was graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Science in Chem- istry in 1916. During 1916-1917 he pursued post-graduate studies in biological chemistry and physiology in Columbia University, and in 1917, received the degree of Master of Arts. He served in the United States Army from September, 1917, to August, 1919. After discharge from the Army he returned to Columbia Univer- sity as a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1920. Publication "Aluminum in the Blood of Man Following the Prolonged In- gestion of Food Containing Aluminum." By Louis Pine and Paul E. Howe. In press — Biochemical Bulletin. r Studies on Streptococcus Hemolyticus i!!^^mAs&aA and Other Origins A.-TOXft FORMATION JOHN W. RICE VITA John Winter Rice was born at Williamsport, Pennsylvania, July 4th, 1891, and attended the public schools at that place. He was admitted to Bucknell University in 1910 and received the degree of Bachelor of Science from that institution in 1918. After completing an additional year of residence he was granted the degree of Master of Science by the same college in 1915. He was in charge of the Department of Biology in the Hazleton high school in 1915-1916, and the same year was made an in- structor in Biology at Bucknell University. During the aca- demic year 1917-1918 he attended Columbia University and re- ceived the degree of Master of Arts under the Faculty of Pure Science, after which he enlisted as a private in the Sanitary Corps of the United States Army and was commissioned a Sec- ond Lieutenant in the Sanitary Corps following competitive ex- aminations. He was on the instruction staff of the Yale Army Laboratory School at the time of release from service in the Army in December 1918. He then returned to the instruction staff at Bucknell University as Assistant Professor of Biology which position he now holds. He was granted a leave of ab- sence in 1921 to continue his studies under the Faculty of Pure Science in Columbia University. He published an article en- titled, "The Reliability of the Sachs-Georgi Test for Syphilis" in the Journal of Infectious Diseases in November 1922. Studies on Streptococcus Hemolyticus of Scarlatinal and Other Origins A.--TOXIN FORMATION BY JOHN W. RICE Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University. From the Department of Bacteriology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York City. MAY 10, 1923 UNIVEESITY FEINT SHOP LEWISBUEG, PA. INTEODUCTION In spite of the fact that few forms of infection are as import- ant in human pathology as those caused by streptococci, and in spite of the enormous amount of work which has been done on these microorganisms, there is more uncertainty about some of the fundamental principles involved in such infections, than there is in the cases of most of the other pathogenic bacteria. Indeed, we are only beginning to obtain any information about antigenic properties of members of this group, their possible division into types similar to those recognized in the meningococci and in the pneumococci, a phase of streptococcus study which must inevi- tably precede any logical approach to the problems of serum therapy. Of the details of the processes by which streptococci cause disease, of the reasons why many streptococcus infections are associated with systemic symptoms remote from the points of localization of the organisms, of the toxic influences they exert upon the infected body, of all of these facts we are practi- cally Ignorant. As a matter of fact, though this group of organ- isms was probably one of the earliest observed by bacterioligists, and because of its great importance has enlisted the interest of an army of Investigators since its first discovery, there is no group of bacteria in which there is more confusion concerning biological, pathogenic and immunological properties. The litera- ture is full of claims and counter-claims, and such important problems as the possibility of toxin formation by streptococci, the serological homogeneity of the strains associated with scarlet fever, the permanence of types among the hemolytic organisms, and the reason for the limited protection afforded by certain homologous immune sera, are all problems in which the literature is full of uncertainties and contradictions. The writer has believed that it would be of the greatest usefulness to approach the streptococcus problem from the point of view of a careful reexamination of certain fundamental prin- ciples, taking up one point after another, on a sufficiently large material to reach definite conclusions, sacrificing rapidity of progress to extensivencss of the field of material, in order to arrive at certainty of one point before taking up another. The plan of research approached, therefore, being an extensive one, will probably occupy a considerably larger number of years than has been spent in the preparation of this thesis. The work contained in the present communication, therefore, represents merely the 3 beginning of a series of studies which will be continued in subse- quent years along a. definitely purposeful plan. Among the most important problems and the first one which it was deemed advisable to attack as a beginning, is the question of toxin formation by streptococci. This problem is particularly important because a clear determination of the nature of the poisonous substances which can be obtained from streptococci of various origins would considerably facilitate all subsequent work in helping to explain the manner in which the organisms of this group cause injury, and Indirectly pointing out the factors of defense called out in the body of the invaded animal. Toxin Production A large number of workers have occupied themselves with the question of toxin production by streptococci, and the conclu- sions reached by them are remarkable only for utter lack of uni- formity and contradiction of experimental results. In 1902 Marmorek (1) grew streptococci in bouillon con- taining leukocytic extrrxt and such amino acids as glycino and leucine and obtained a toxin which was fatal to rabbits in doses of 0.25 to 0.5 cc. This toxin was destroyed by heating to 70OC. He believed that all strains of stroptocooci produced the came toxin for, according to his experiments, tlie Immune serum produced against the toxin of his original virulent strain of streptococcus was active against the toxins of strepto- cocci of other pathological sources. Bordet (2) and Denys and LcClef ( 3 ) , experimenting with an immune scrum pro- duced according to Marmorek's methods, were able to show that the immune scrum which did protect, did eo because of increased opsonic properties. Aronson (4) grew severrJ strains of streptococci highly virulent for rabbits on 0.1 per cent, glucose horse meat infusion ' broth. Fiitratcn of the most virulent strains showed either no action or at most only a slight infiltration at the rolnt of sub- cutianeous inoculation. Likewise, extracts of virulent strepto- cocci grown in mass failed to produce a deadly poison. Bourneman (5) likewise concluded after a very clr.borate series of protection experiments that as a therapeutic agent, anti-streptococcus scrum was very unsatisfactory. Ho rcouted the idea that Marmorek's serum was antitoxic and agreed with Denys and LeClef that the immune seruri acted upon the leukocytes so that they developed an a'oundant phagocytic power. The earlier research following the experiments of Marmorek occupied itself very largely in attempts to produce powerful anti- streptococcus sera, and to analyze the mechanism by which such sera exerted passivly protective powers in infected animals. Also, at this time the question of the homogeneity of the streptococci as a group was raised by Marmorek (6) and others in experiments which are not directly pertinent. Experiments on toxin produc- tion, however, were taken up by a considerable number of other workers, subsequently. Simon (7) was cbic to produce a weak toxin in anaerobic brotli cuKures which containej leukocytic extract. Manfred! and Traversa (8) described a toxin which caused paralytic manifestations in guinea pigs and rabbits which they obtained from cultures of an erysipelas streptococcus grown from 10-20 days at 25 to 30 C. Braun (9) produced a toxic substance in broth cultures of hemolyzins streptococci. He found the toxin to be most abundant after 8-10 hours incubation; that if was thermolabile, being destroyed in 30 minutes at 60 °C. or in 6 hours at 37 °C; and that it was very resistant to strong alkali and acid. He reports no experimental work with animals to show the strength of this toxin. Clark and Pelton (10) grew hemolytic streptococci on Locke's solution to which was added 0.15 per cent, glucose and sufficient sterile defibrinated rabbits' blood to give 2 per cent hemoglobin. Toxicity ap- peared in the medium after 18 hours incubation, was maximal in amount at 48 hours, and persisted until 9 6 hours of incu- bation. This toxin was destroyed by heating to 50° C. for 30 minutes and slowly lost its toxicity in the icebox; was dialy- sable; requred an incubation period of from 4 to 24 hours (dependng on the dose) before showing toxic effects on rabbits; was antigenic, immunity being rapidly developed in rabbits; was protective, in that it neutralized the toxic ef- fects of the filtrate when injected with it, and because immune rabbits were rendered resistant to living streptococci; was specific since B, Coli, B. lactis aerogenes, a Gram negative microorganism from the air, and a hemolytic M. catarrhalis did not produce toxic filtrates. Symptoms of intoxication in animals were slowly increasing muscular weakness often ac- companied with diarrhea, death ensuing finally with or without convulsions. Zinsser, Parker, and Kuttner (11) were able to obtain a toxic substance from filtrates of broth cultures of streptococcus hemolytious which would kill rabbits within a few hours to a, few days. This toxin was maximal in amount in 22-hour cultures and showed deterioration in 48 and 72-hour cultures. This poisonous substance was non-specific in that it was ob- tained from various species of microorganisms both pathogenic and nonpathogenic but nevertheless exhibited very similar charac- teristics in all species studied. Microorganisms other than hemo- lytic streptococcus which produced toxic filtrates, were; B. influenzae, grown 12 hours on "chocolate" agar; meningo- coccus, grown 2 3 hours on horse serum hormone broth; B,, pro- digiosus, grown 20 hours on hormone agar; and B. coli and B. dysentery Flexner grown for 5% -hours on hormone agar. Also staphylococcus and pneumococcus Type 1. Gross protection experiments to determine the specificity of the toxic substances failed because of the lack of antigenic power of these toxins. These poisonous substances were found to be thermolabile, showing a very marked deterioration at 70 °C for 30 minutes, and almost complete destruction at 75 oto80°C. for a similar period. Autopsies of animals killed by these poisonous sub- stances failed to show any lesions which were peculiar to their toxic properties. Havens and Taylor (12) describe a special stock medium composed of a meat infusion made with distilled water to which is added the oridnary amount of peptone, 1.0 per cent disodium phosphate, 0.5 or 1.0 percent glucose and adjusted to P H 8.0 or 8.2. To this stock solution was added 1.0 per cent sterile defibrinated sheep or rabbit's blood and a 'frag- ment of sterile rabbit's kidney. Virulent streptococcus hemo- lyticus strains grown in this medium for 48 to 72 hours pro- duced filtrates (Mandler filters) which were toxic for mice in 0.1 to 0.2 cc doses, death occurring within 24 hours. The toxic substances thus obtained were thermolabile, being des- troyed at 62 °C.for 30 minutes; were unstable at ice box tem- perature; were reduced in amount by adsorption in passing through the filter; were specific in that non-hemolytic strepto- cocci, typhoid bacilli, staphylococci and pneumococci failed to produce toxic filtrates when grown on the same medium; were rather uniformly toxic for mice and less so for rabbits and guinea pigs; and in potency, were found to bear a direct relationship to the virulence of the streptococcus; and finally, were antigenic. The immune serum, obtained by treating rabbits with toxic filtrates, neutralized the toxic properties of streptococcus in vivo and in vitro, protecting against 100 fatal doses of the specific microorganism. This serum obeyed the law of multple proportions when used in neutralization experi- ments. These results would seem to indicate the presence of a, soluble toxin and that a specific anti-toxin could be produced by treating rabbit's with the filtrates of streptococcus cultures. Bliss (13) worked with a number of strains of strepto- coccus hemolyticus and by chance happened to get two strains the filtrates of which were toxic for mice. Strain 213 freshly isolated from a case of scarlet fever was grown in broth con- taining 0.1 per cent of ascitic fluid. Sterile filtrates of this strain injected intraperitoneally into mice in doses as small as 0.05 cc caused death in 4 days. Twenty-four hour culture filtrates showed maximal toxicity. The mice were taken sick quite promptly following injection. The hair roughed up and the animal huddled up in the jar. Autopsy revealed no gross pathological lesions in the viscera although there were ecchy- moses of the tail and feet. Cultures of the peritoneal exudate and heart's blood gave negative results. Another strain (76) was isolated 5 months prior to the test. It had been kept on- rabbit's blood broth and passed through a series of 16 mice to raise the virulence for protection experiments. When grown on rabbit's blood broth this strain produced a poison such that 0.2 cc of a 72-hour culture filtrate killed mice in 7 to 10 days with symptoms and autopsy findings similar to those noted above. A guinea pig receiving 5 cc of this filtrate died in 10 days. Autopsy revealed hyperemia of the liver, kidneys, and intestinal wall. Cultures made of the heart's blood and peritoneal exudate were negative. Experimental Work The literature outlined above represents the most important communications dealing with the problem of toxin formation by the streptococci, and it is quite apparent from these that results have not been uniform and that the first step to be taken in the elucidation of this problem must consist in collecting a consider- able number of hemolytic streptococcus strains from carefully controlled clinical sources, and to subject these to the various experimental manipulations which it had been claimed, had given positive results in the hands of other investigators. It was hoped that a certain degree of uniformity of findings might be obtained in this way, which either would solve the problem or at least point in the direction along which it might be solved. According- ly, 17 strains of hemolytic streptococci were obtained from cases of tonsillitis, otitis media, mastoiditis, empyema, puerperal septi- cemia, etc., 19 strains were obtained from tonsils of persons af- fected with pharyngitis and coryza, and 167 strains were derived from the tonsils and throats of scarlet fever patients cultured as early in the disease as possible. In all, 203 strains of streptococci were collected for this work. Each strain was tested for bile insolubility and the formation of the beta type of hemolysis, ac- cording to Brown (14), when grown on sheep's blood Infusion f.gar plates. All strains were composed of long or short chains of spherical cocci which retained the gentian violet by the Gram's method of straining. On the experimental side, each strain was studied with utmost care to determine if a soluble toxin was secreted by a significant number of all the strains; if possible the unity of the streptococcus group on the basis of virulence and toxicity; if there was a peculiar scarlatinal group of strepto- coccus; and lastly, to determine whether toxicity and virulence were parallel characteristics in this group of pathogenic micro- organisms. Work on Toxin Formation Technique Medium Used and Incubation Time : « was decided in the beginning of this investigr.tion to use the medium for the growth of the streptococci which was described by Havens and Taylor (12). This medium seemed, from the nature of the ingredients, to commend itself to this particulr.r line of reser.rch. The meat infusion and the glucose together with the animal serum would constitute that degree of enrichment which would assure luxuri- ance of grov/th and a resulting abundance of products of mctabol- ism of the bacterial colls. The disodlum phosphate would pre- sumably exert a buffer action on the hyperacidity which develops where glucose enrichment is utilized in the culture medium. And lastly, the piece of sterile fresh rabbit's kidney would furnish a partial state of anaerobiosis such as was found to be advantageous in the development of diphtheria toxin by Robinson and Header (15), and the production of toxin for B. Welchii by Bull and Pritchett (16). The basic medium was made in four litre lots to obtain uniformity. Tubes containing approximately 10 cc of the sterile stock broth, Pj. 8.0 to 8.2 were freshly prepared for inocu- lation by adding 1.0 cc of sterile defibrinated rabbit's blood and a fragment of sterile rabbit's kidney to each tube. The tubes, without previous incubation to determine sterility of the medium, were inoculated with a certain strain of streptococcus in batteries of from three to five tubes for each strain, and were then incu- bated for varying periods at 37 ° C. Growth was invariably lux- uriant in these tubes. In some few cases there was a uniform clouding of the broth, but in the majority of the cultures the streptococcus grew in granular clumps large enough to sediment out as a heavy granular precipitate leaving the supernatant broth quite clear. A considerable degree of hemolysis was produced after 24 hours of incubation, which was usually maximal in amount at about 48 hours. In old cultures 72 and 96 hours, the kidney tissue lost its clear-cut outline and seemed to be subjected to a slow digestion by the action of the bacteria. Transfer tests proved that few streptococci remained alive in this medium after 96 hours of incubation, and 5-day cultures were frequently sterile. This rapid deterioration of the cultures was probably due to the high acidity which would reach a P,^ value of 6.5 or higher in 24 to 36 hours after inoculation. Care of the Filters and the Filtering Process; The "V" grade number 3 Berkefcld filter was used in this work. Great care was exercised in washing the filters. Adherent organic material was Removed by scrubbing, then a 0.5 per cent solution of potassium permanganate was passed through the cylinder to remove any organic accumulation in the pores of the filter. Sub- sequent washing in a 10 per cent solution of sodium bisulphite, and 500 cc of clean tap v/ater produced filters which were neutral in reaction and which showed a uniform degree of porosity over long periods of time. After the filters were mounted and steri- lized in steam under pressure and dried they were ready for use. Upon the completion of the proper incubation period all of the tubes containing a certain strain of streptococcus were pooled to make a 50 cc volume, which was centrifugallzed at high speed for a half hour to remove suspended bacteria, blood cells, etc. with a minimum loss of time, the supernatant fluid was filtered, and the filterates were injected intraperitoneally into mature white mice ranging in weight f"om 20 to 2 5 grams. It was ohserved by former workers that the process of filtering lowered the toxic content of the filtrate by adsorption. To offset this loss, a fractional method of filtering v/as devised. Ten cubic centi- melers of the supernatant fluid was passed rather slowly through the filter and discarded, then 25 or 30 cc were passed rapidly through the same filter and used for the test. The last portion of the filtrate was discarded because the filter tended to clog some- what from finely divided protein material of the medium used. By using the second fraction, obtained as indicated above, a slightly enhanced toxic filtrate was produced when compared with that of the whole culture. The average filtering time for the fraction used in the toxicity tests was from 40 seconds to one minute. The filtrates were tested for sterility by inoculating hormone broth tubes with 1.0 cc of the same, after which they were incu- bated at 37 C. for at least 24 hours. In more than 200 filtrates prepared there was no instance in which streptococci passed through the filters. Experimental Animals and Controls : White mice were used for the test animals because they were easily obtained in large numbers and are susceptible to experimental streptococcus infec- tions. Also, recent workers on streptococcus toxins report rather uniform results with these poisonous substances using white mice as experimental animals. It is generally recognized that guinea pigs are not affected by the toxic filtrates of streptococcus. Moreover, a great deal of work was done upon streptococcus filtrates by Zinsser and Kuttncr (17), in these laboratories, using rabbits as test animals. These workers found their results diffi- cult to interpret because of the irregularity with which the animals responded to the toxic filtrates. In this work, the mice were injected by the intraperitoneal route with appropriate doses of the sterile filtrates of streptococcus cultures. Following the injection each mouse was kept under observation for 24 hours lu a jar by itself. Those that survived were marked at the end of the 24-hour period and placed in a large clean box where they could move about and obtain food and water. A battery of control tubes (uninoculated media) were treated in exactly the came manner as the cultures. A control mouse was injected with this sterile media filtrate to eliminate any toxic quality of the media itself. Every mouse that died follow- ing an injection of the supernatant liquid of centrifugalized cultures, of sterile filtrates, or of broth cultures in virulence and protection experiments, was autopnled and cultures made of the pcrtioneal exudate, heart's blood, and any r.bscesses found on the viscera. Toxin Formation In The Scarlatinal Strains The streptococcus strains of scarlatinal origin were obtained from the Willard Parker Hospital. Cultures were taken from the tonsils by means of sterile applicator swabs. As soon as inoculated, these swabs were immersed in tubes of hormone broth and taken to the laboratory. Streak cultures were then made on sheep blood agar plates and incubated for 24 hours along with the broth tubes in which the swabs were transported from the hospital. By this method, hemolytic streptococci showing the beta type of hemolysis were obtained in 167 of the 209 cases of scarlet fever examined. The hemolytic streptococci thus obtained were kept in stock at 4 o C In def ibrinated sheep's blood which had been heated to 56 ° to 60° C. for 15 minutes to destroy the leukocytes. These stock cultures were transferred every two months. Whenever possible the streptococci were tested for toxicity as early as the time necessary for isolation would permit. For the toxicity tests cultures were prepared in the media described by Havens and Taylor In the manner previously Indi- caied. After 24 hours incubation at 37 ° C the purity of the cultures was determined, and the degree of hemolysis was noted. Then some of the cultures were used for the short period incu- bation toxicity tests, while the remainder was carried on for longer periods of incubation. In the first part of the work the toxicity tests were made on the filtrate of the contents ' f but one culture tube of 10 cc volume. The filtering was carried on as rapidly as possible and the dose Injected into the mice was taken from the whole filtrate. Later, as explained previously In this paper, volumes of 50 cc of the cultures were filtered by the fractional method. In the first experiments 0.5 cc of the sterile filtrate was used as the test dose, and was injected Intraperlton- eally into a mouse. Later the dose was Increased to 1.0 cc. Since hyperdistentlon of the peritoneal cavity of the mouse pro- duced considerable modification of the respiratory movements, such that these could very easily bo read into manifestations of toxicity of the anaphylatoxin sort, it was decided that a dose of such proportions should be given as would show a slight amount 10 of toxin which might bo present and still be reasonably within the capacity limits of the experimental animal. Following the injection of the streptococcus filtrates, the mice showed a rather regular train of symptoms which were qu'.te uniform in making their appearance and varied only in the intensity of the reaction in some individuals. Shortly after injection, the mouse stretched out flat on its belly, breathing became labored with an increase in respiratory rate in some and a decrease In others. Tliese symptoms were attributed to the volume of the injection since the control mice responded in the same manner. Within an hour or rarely longer, the hair of the animal receiving the toxic filtrate roughed up, the eyes closed and the animal huddled up as though cold. The ears and tail be- came pale and sometimes cyanosed. Dyspnea increased for a time and later subsided. In the majority of cases this train of symptoms persisted for 12-18 hours and then suddenly subsided with the mouse appearing perfectly normal within 24 hours. For ease in note taking, an animal showing the above symptoms was desig- nated as "sick". Other mice in addition to the closure of the eyes showed a peculiar secreting of the same such that in the more severe cases the lids became adherent. The labored breath- ing became very pronounced and a respiratory distress to the animal was evidenced by the frequent brushing of the forepaws over the nose as if clearing away an obstruction to the external nares. Intestinal disturbances manifested themselves in diarrhea, and in the more severe cases, in bloody discharges. Symptoms of this type usually persisted over 24 hours. If the animal recovered later when given nourishment it was rated as "very sick" With considerable rarity these more severe symptoms in mice termi- nated in death in periods ranging from 16 to 18 hours to several days. The Period of Maximal Toxic Substance Production To determine the period of greatest poison production when strains of streptococcus hemolyticus were grown on the special medium previously described filterates were made of cultures which had been incubated for 16, 24, 48, 72 hours, and 11 days. Mice were injected intrapertioneally with 1.0 cc doses of these filtrates. The results are presented in brief form in the following table: 11 TABLE 1. Eelation of Growth Period to Toxicity. Hours of Number of Strains Tested Results of Injections in Mice Incubation Died Very Sick Sick 16 6 1 5 18 3 1 2 24 34 16 * 18 36 6 1 5 40 15 2 5 8 48 73 3 19 51 72 33 7 26 11 days 6 1 5 Note: Mice indicated "very sick" had symptoms of severe toxemia, vfith tim« to recovery more than 24 hours. Mice indicated "sick" presented symptoms of mild toxemia with recovery within 24 hours. In the shorter growth periods several more mice died follow- ing Injections of sterile filtrates than is indicated in the table. Little significance was attached to these deaths since B. typhi murium was isolated from the peritoneal exudate and heart's blood of these animals. From the data presented in the table there is an indication that there is a deterioration in the toxic substances after 48 hours of growth, and that the younger cul- tures seem to possess more of them than the older ones. For several days the ability of streptococcus strain P82 to form toxic filtrates seemed rather constant and so a detailed ex- periment was set up to determine with greater definiteness the period of Incubation necessary for the greatest toxin production. Filtrates made of 16-hour culture of this strain injected intraper- itoneally produced only mild sickness In the mice. A 40-hour culture filtrate killed a white mouse In a 1.0 cc dose in 46 hours with symptoms of severe toxemia. Another mouse receiving 0.5 cc of the same filtrate was very sick, but recovered within 48 hours; 72-hour culture filtrates caused death in 6 days in one mouse which received a 0.5 cc dose, whereas another mouse in the same series receiving 1.0 cc of the filtrate recovered within 24 hours; 5-day cultures produced filtrates which showed marked toxic symptoms but with recovery in all mice. From the results of this experiment with this one strain and from the results presented in Table 1, it was decided that the toxic substances v.'ere present In greater mass in the 40 to 48-hour cultures than at any other interval of incubation. 12 Toxic Substances in Centrifugiates and Filtrates Havens and Taylor (12), and Zinsser, Parker and Kuttner (11) observed that tlie process of filtration removed a consider- able amount of the toxic substance from the filtrates by adsorp- tion. A series of tests were made to cover this point and, if possible, to account for the low degree of toxicity observed in the many filtrates studied in this investigation. Twenty four parallel tests were mr.de on 7 strains of streptococci incubated for 16, 24, 40, 48, 72 hours, and 5 days. At the end of the several incubation periods the cultures were centrifugalized at high speed for one hour to throw down as many streptococci as possible. A series of mice were then injected intrapertionealiy with varying doses of the supernatant fluid. The remainder of the supernatant liquid bf each culture was passed through a Berkefeld filter and the filtrate was injected immediately into mice in doses similar to those used of the supernatant fluids. Several deaths occurred following the injection of supernatant fluids of 24 and 40-hour cultures of three strains of streptococci. Autopsies on these animals showed that septicemia was the cause of death since streptococci were isolated from the heart's blood in each case. A blood agar plate control, made of each super- natant liquid, revealed about 200 colonies of streptococci in a 2mm loop of the fluid. The mice which receive a 1.0 cc dose of 72-hour and 5-day supernatant fluids did not die. Bloodi agar plate controls showed that there was a very greatly reduced number of bacteria in the 72-hour supernatant liquids and fre- quently complete sterility in those of 5-day cultures. One mouse which received 0.5 cc of a 72-hour culture filtrate died in 6 days with autopsy findings negative, while 23 other mice each of which received 1.0 cc doses of the filtrates of the several strains showed mild or marked symptoms with complete recovery. These experiments failed to show that the toxic substances were being retained by the filtci's. These results differing from those of other workers, might be explained by the fact that the "very porous" grade of Berkefeld filter was used, the pores of which were slightly larger than the toxin molecule. This con- clusion was substantiated by the fact that earlier in the work the filters became clogged when they were used in the inverted position in order to obtain a maximal yield when small volumes of the cultures were filtered. When the porosity of the filters had been reduced to that degree that a great amount of the free hemoglobin of the cultures was retained, the filtrates of a dozen strains of streptococcus produced very mild symptoms when 13 injected Into mice. Those same strains, in a later test, when passed through very porous filters produced considerably greater toxic symptoms in mice. The Effects of Oxygen Tension on Toxin Production Several strains of streptococci of scarlatinal origin, among them being strains P82 and P99 which had previously produced filtrates which caused death in mice in 0.1 cc and 1.0 cc doses respectively, were grown 40 hours on the special medium described by Havens and Taylor, under conditions of complete anaerobiosis. Included in the series were two strains of non- scarlatinal origin. One was derived from a fatal case of puer- peral septicemia, and the other was obtained from a case of acute mastoiditis. The puerperal strain had previously given a toxic filtrate fatal to a mouse in a 1.0 cc dose of a 15-hour broth culture. Mice were injected with 1.0 cc doses of filtrates of the several strains grown in an oxygen-free atmosphere. The mice which received the filtrates of strains P82 and P99 were very sick, but recovered within 36 hours. All other mice were rendered mildly sick and recovered within 24 hours. It was de- cided from these experiments that partial or complete aerobiosis favored the production of the toxic substances in the cultures. Neutralization of Acidity in Growing Cultures and the Production of Toxic Substances. Up to this point in the work 116 strains of hemolytic strep- tococci of scarlatinal origin had been tested for toxin production when grown on the special beef infusion-kidney-blood broth previously described. In one strain only (P82) of this number could a toxic filtrate of sufficient potency to kill a mouse in a 1.0 cc dose. Or less, be produced in more than one trial. The advisability of adding glucose to the media was questioned be- cause of the high degree of acidity produced in 18 and 24-hour cultures. Just the degree of acidity present in the cultures was difficult to estimate since the released hemoglobin of the rabbit's blood completely masked any indicator that could be used to show this. By the use of strips of litmus paper it was determined that the filtrates were acid. It is well known that a diphtheria toxin of high potency cannot be produced in an acid medium, and so it was assumed that little toxic substance was produced in the streptococcus cultures due to the excessive acidity which early made its appearance in the inoculated media. To offset this objection, cultures of five strains of streptococcus, three of which were previously found to be toxic for mice in 1.0 cc doses, were 14 set up in batteries of 5 tubes each. Three tubes of each set con- tained 1 cc of stock broth to which was added 1-0 cc of sterile defibrinated rabbit's blood and a fragment of sterile rabbit's kidney. The two remaining tubes of each set were made up in the same manner except that the rabbit's blood was omitted and 0.5 cc of sterile phenol red was added in its stead. All tubes of each set were inoculated with a certain strain of streptococcus. After incubation for 12 hours, it was necessary to add 1.0 cc of2s[|l NaOH to bring the controls to P ^ 7.2. Since all tubes of each set grew with about equal luxuriance, a like quantity of sodium hydroxide was added to the cultures containing the rabbit's blood. By this manner of adjustment the cultures were kept to an approximate P |_| value of 7.6 for the 48 hours of incubation. The blood broth culture tubes were then pooled, shaken by hand, centrifugalized and filtered. Mice were immediately injected intraperitoneally with 1.0 cc doses of the several neutralized filtrates. The mice which received the filtrates of strains P82 and PI 4 8 were rendered very sick, but both recovered within 36 hours. The control mouse in this series reacted rather severely to the Injection of a 1.0 cc dose of sterile media filtrate P|^ 7.8 and so these results were largely invalidated. To overcome any -il effects upon the streptococci that might be incu' red by introducing normal sodium hydroxide into so small a volume as 10 cc of the cultures, and to reduce the amount of aseptic pipetting necassa.ry to adjust the reaction of 30 tubes in a series, other strains of streptococci were grown in 50 cc of media in 100 cc Erlenmcyer flasks. To each of 5 such flasks was added 6 per cent of sterile defibrinated rabbit's blood, and to each of 5 more was added 1.0 cc of sterile phenol red to indicate the reaction of the growing '.ultures. Five strains of streptococci were sceiod in duplicate into the several flasks of the two series. These cuKures were ke-pt adjusted to Pj^ 7.6 for a period of 48 hours in the same manner as the tube cultures were treated in the previous test. Filtrates were then prepared in the usual way and mice were injected with 1.0 cc doses of the several filtrates. All responded with mild reactions except the mouse which received the filtrate of strain P165. Th's mouse became very sick shortly after the injection, but recovered within 48 hours. It was decided from these experiments that repeated neutralization of the grow- ing cultures did not enaance the potency of tin toxic substances. Modifications of the Culture Media The remainder of tlie survey work on the toxin production of hemolytic streptococci was largely taken up in the study of 15 media modifications which might yield more positive results in the production of toxic filtrates. The Havens-Taylor medium was modified by substituting for the sterile dofibrinated rabbit's blood and fragment of rabbit's kidney, 10 per cent of ascitic fluid. Five strains of streptococcus grown in this medium in 50 cc volume for, 48 hours gave filtrates which produced only mild symptoms in mice injected with 1.0 cc closes. These filtrates were decidedly acid, beiug greater than P^ 6.8 so three series of cultures, comprising 15 strains of streptococci, were grown for 48 hours on the same medium, which was kept neutral or slightly alkaline by the addition of normal sodium hydroxide. Nine of these strains showed a considerable degree of toxicity for mice. Neutralization of the growing cultures appeared to increase the toxicity in these strains but not to the hoped for degree. Hormone broth, made according to the method described by Hun toon (18) to which was added 10 per cent of ascitic fluid, was used as the culture medium to test 20 additional scarlatinal strains of streptococcus which had been recently Isolated. Growth in this medium was very luxuriant. Of the 20 filtrates obtained from 4 8 -hour cultures, 5 produced severe symptoms In mice but with subsequent recovery. Hormone, broth was then used to which was added 6 per cent sterile defibrinated rabbit's blood. This medium was dis- pensed in 50 cc portions in 300 cc Erlenmeyer flasks. The depth of the culture was about 12 mm and the area exposed to the air was about 225 sq. cm. The aim in this experiment was to ascer- tain whether considerable aeration would tend to enhance the amount of toxic substances in the cultures when grown on this medium. Five toxic (by previous tests) strains of streptococci were inoculated into these flasks and Incubated for 48 hours at 37 °C, During the incubation period the cultures were shaken by hand on several different occasions to increase the amount of aeration. Growth of all of the cultures was luxuriant and the degree of hemolysis in the rabbit's blood was considerable. Mice inoculated with 1.0 cc doses of the filtrates of strains P82 and P99 showed marked toxic symptoms, all others responding with only slight manifestations of toxemia. Media made up on tho Locke's solution base, according to the method of Clark a.nd Felton (10), was used to grow the most toxic scarlatinal strains of streptococcvis as determined by previous tests. The cultures were incubated for 48 hours and filtrates were injected intrapertioneally in 1.0 cc doses into mice. Toxic symptoms were comparatively slight in all animals injected IG. with these filtrates. The streptococci grew with considerable dfficulty in this medium, which probably would account for the slight toxic manifestations in mice injected with these filtrates. Toxin Production in Non-Scarlatinal Strains of Streptococcus As soon after isolation as possible, 33 strains of hemolytic streptococci obtained from non-scarlatinal origins were tested for the production of toxic substances in broth cultures. The following represents a summary of the results obtained: Twelve of these strains of streptococcus were grown on the Havens- Taylor medium. One strain, M4, derived from a case of puerperal fever, killed a mouse in 5 days when 1.0 co of the sterile filtrate of a 16-hour culture was injected intraperitoneally. Autopsy revealed negative findings. When grown anaerobically for 40 hours, this same strain produced a filtrate that caused rather severe reactions in a mouse, but the animal recovered within 3 6 hours. The eleven remaining strains grown on this medium produced only slight symptoms in mice independent of the incu- bation time of the cultures.. Eight strains of streptococcus from the several sources listed above were grown on hormone broth to which was added 10 per cent ascitic fluid. The filtrates of all of these cultures, save one, produced mild reactions in mice. The filtrate of strain M6, ob- tained from a case of follicular tonsillitis killed a mouse in 48 hours in a 1.0 cc dose with autopsy findings negative. A portion of this filtrate was kept in the ice box at 4 ° C for four days and was then injected in 1.0 cc doses into each of two mice, together with a control mouse which received an equal dose of a sterile filtrate of the uninoculated culture media. Mouse No. 1 died in 3 6 hours. Autopsy findings showed B'. typhi murium in the heart's blood. Mouse No. 2 recovered within 48 hours. The control reacted in the usual manner. This test would indicate that the toxic substance deteriorates rapidly even when kept in the dark on ice. Thirteen other strains of streptococcus, non-scarlatinal in origin, were grown on the Locke's solution medium described by Clark and Felton. One strain only (M12), newly isolated from a case of osteomyelitis, produced a filtrate that caused severe toxic symptoms, whereas the filtrates of all the other strains of this series caused very mild ymptoms in mice. "Sterile" Deaths in Mice Inoculated with Streptococcus Culttires. In passing it is desirous to call attention to an unusual finding in the autopsies of several mice of about two hundred which were inoculated with 0.25 cc doses of 24-hour hormone broth cultures of streptococcus hemolyticus, also one instance of a mouse which had received a 1.0 cc dose of the supernatant fluid of a broth culture which had been centrifugalized at high speed for one hour. When the heart's blood and peritoneal exudate of these mice were cultured on infusion blood agar plates for 48 hours at 37 C. no growth occurred. These very unusual "sterile" deaths would indicate that a soluble poisonous sub- stance secreted, by the streptococci must be the real cause of death in these animals. The protective mechanism of the host was presumably great enough to destroy all living streptococci that had been introduced by injection, and yet these microorgan- isms before their elimination from the animal body, stimulated to excessive production by the antagonism of the host, v/ere able to secret a maximal quantity of their toxic substances which v/as just sufficient to cause death even when the infecting agent had been successfully combatted per se by the combined defenses of the host. Sterile filtrates of all of these strains which caused "sterile" deaths in mice, except the toxic strain P82, showed no toxicity for mice when grown on artificial media. Attempts to reduce these unusual deaths to some degree of uniformity by inoculating a series of mice with varying doses of a ■"irulent broth culture of streptococcus met with little success due to the extreme irregularity in the relationship between the dose injected and the effects of the ss.mo on the mice It is the belief of the writer that these "sterile" deaths just described are significant in the problem of poisoa production by the hemolytic streptococci, in that it is indicative of the presence of a potent poison, developed by these microorganisms under conditions of active infection, which has to date not been obtainable on enriched artificial media. Summary of Experiments an Toxin Production. In the foregoing experiments, we have reported on 209 toxicity tests made on filtrates of cultures of 188 different strains of hemolytic streptococci. In these tests, we did not content ourselves with a single medium or a single method, but various strains were carried on a number of different media; aerobic, partially anaerobic, and anaerobic conditions were tried, different periods of growth were employed, and a number of different ad- 18 justmeiils of reaction were carried out. In spite of all these variations and a large number of tests, no very liigh toxicity was obtained In any of the organisms, although the organisms were all of them obtained from human lesions and were tested at various periods after their isolation from the human body. Of all the strains tested, only 9 produced toxic filtrates which were fatal for mice in 1 cc doses, given intraperitoneally, under con- ditions which excluded the possibility of experimental error, or the effects of intercurrent paratyphoid infection in the mouse. Of these strans, only 1 gave a filtrate which produced death in mice with a minimal fatal dose of 0.1 cc of a 40-hour broth culture. The richest medium, namely, that described by Havens and Taylor, produced the largest percentage of toxic results. From this considerable mass of material, we can only con- clude that the poisonous substances produced by hemolytic strep- tococci are of a low degree of potency, are very variable in appearing in cultures, even when other conditions are kept rigidly uniform. In most strains toxicity seems to be reduced sofnewhat by prolonged cultivation outside the body. One strain, however, was loxic 148 days after isolation, and another 166 days after isolation. On the basis of poison production, hemolyzing power, nature of growth on hormone broth, and virulence for mice, we can find no basis for a" classification of the organisms from human sources, and in 152 strains of streptococci obtained from scarlet fever patients, many differences in cultural appearance, hemolyzing power, toxicity and virulence were noted. If eventually a single scarlatinal group shall be determined, it will have to be purely on serological homogeneity, since from our own studies it appears that cultural and other homogeneity does not exist. We may conclude from this part of our work, then, that the formation of a certain amount of toxic material in artificial media is a very common attribute of streptococci. It is, however, also apparent that such toxicity is never very great under the con- ditions studied by us, and cannot at the present time be attributed to a soluble toxin comparable to that of diphtheria or tetanus bacilli. The next step in our studies on toxicity of streptococci will necessarily occupy itself with further studies in the correlation between virulence and toxicity. We have been able so far only to attempt this in the case of 2 strains which were toxic to begin with, bvit, strangely enough, in these strains the enhancement 19 of virulence was impossible, even after a considerable number of mouse passages. It is, of course, well known that virulence cannot be enhanced in all hemolytic streptococci by mouse passages. It will be necessary for us to select a considerable number of streptococci from different sources and enhance the virulence of these strains, and carry out comparative toxicity tests along the lines of experimentation described above. This work is in progress. Bibliography 1. Marmorek; Ann. de I'lnst Pasteur, 1902, 16, 169 2. Brodet, quoted by Gay: Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med. 1918,, 3, 721. 3. Denys and LeClef; Ibid. 4. Aronson: Berliner Klin. Wochenschr., 1896 XXXIII, 32, 717 5. Bourneman: Weiner Klin. Wochenschr., 1896, IX, 51, 1201 6. Marmorek: Ann. ae I'Inst. Pasteur, 1902, 16, 172 7. Simon: Kraus and Levaditi, Handbuch, Vol. 11, 484 8. Manfredi and Tracersa, Ibid. 485 9. Braun: Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. 1912, 62, 383 10. Clark and Felton: Jour. Am. Med. Assn., 1918, 71, 1048 11. Zinsser, Parker and Kuttner: Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, and Med., 1920 XVIII, 49 12. Havens and Taylor: Am. Jour, of Hyg. 1921, 1, 311 13. Bliss: Personal Communication. 14. Brown: Monograph No. 9. Rockefeller Institute for Med. Research, 1919 15. Robinson and Meader: Jour. Inf. Dis. 1920, XXVII, 106 16. Bull and Pritckett: Jour. Exp. Med. 1917, XXVI, 119 17. Zinsser and Kuttner: Unpublished notes, 1921 18. Huntoon: Jour. Inf. Dis., 1918, 33, 169 20 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN. 1922. No. 26 PHILANTHROPY IN THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION JESSE BRUNDAGE SEARS ASSOCIATE PI?OFESSOR OF EDUCATION, tELAND STANFORD JUNKIR OiflVERSITY WASHINGTON GOVERNtiffiNT PRlNTfl>lG OFFICE 1922 BtniETIN OF I'HE BUEEATT 01* EBTTCATlON tOR 1922. No. 1. Recent State legislation for physical education. W. S. Small. No. 2. Administration of schools in the smaller cities. W. S. Deflenbaugh. No. 3. Prepai^ation ol teachers of the social studies for the secondary schools. Edgar Dawson. No. 4. Statistics of private commercial and business schools; BL R. Bonner. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. , No. 5. Reorganization of home economics in secondary schools. A report of the commission on the reorganization of secondary education. No: 6. State policies in public school finance. Fletcher, H. Swift No. 7. Report on the higher educational institutions of Arkansas. No. 8. Statistics of teachers' colleges and normal schools. H. R. Bonner. Advance sheets from tbe Biennial survey, 1918-1920. >' No. 9. Statistics of private high schools and academies, 1919-20. H. R. Bonner. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 10. Supervision of rural schools. Katheriue M. Cook. No. 11. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. G, F. Zook. No. 12. Dormitories in connection with public secondary schools. Edith A. Lathrop. No. 13. Review of educational legislation, 1919 and 1920. Wm. R. Hood. No. 14. Status of sex education in the high schools. Newell W. Edson. No. 15. A kindergarten first-grade curriculum. No. 16. The district owned or controlled teachers' iome. John C. Muerman. No. 17. Statistics of city school systems, 1919-20. H. R. Bonner. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 18. The residence oi students in universities and colleges. G. P. Zook. Np. 19. National conference of junior colleges, 1920. G. F. Zook. No. 20. State laws relating to education, 1920-21. Wm. R. Hood. No. 21. Record of current educational publications, May 15, 1922. No. 22. Statistics of kindergartens, 1919-20. H. R. Bonner. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-1920. No. 23. High school buildings and grounds. A report of the commission on the reorganization of secondary education. No. 24. The school Janitor: A study of the ftmctions and administration of school janitor service. .T. A. Garber. ; : ' No. 25. Higher education in Australia and New Zealand. Charles F. Thwing. No. 26. Philanthropy in the history of American higher education. Jesse B. Sears. No. 27. Statistics of agricultural and mechanical colleges for 1919 and 1920. Walton O. John. No. 28. Statistics of universities, colleges, and professional schools, 1919-20. Advance sheets from the Biennial survey, 1918-20. No. 29. Statistics of State school systems. 1019-20. Advance sheets from the Bi- ennial survey, 1918-20. No. 30. Accredited higher institutions. G. F. Zook. No. 31. University summer schools. J. C. Egbert. No. 32. A program of education in accident prevention, with methods and re- _,, sul$s. , E. George ^Fayn^!. ,;., ,- .,^ ,., ,..,,:■-- __,>-,,', PHILANTHROPY IN THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION By JESSE BRUNDAGE SEARS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction v Chapter I. — Development of a theory of philanthropy 1 The early conception of philanthropy 1 Place of educational foundation in Turgot's social theory 1 Place of educational foundations in Adam Smith's free-trade economy- B William von Humbolt's theory 4 Chalmer's modification of the earlier theories 5 Mill's opposition to the theories of Turgot and Smith 5 Mr. Lowe's return to free-trade principles 7 Hobhouse on "the dead hand" in education 1_ 7 Other English theories 8 Summary and conclusion 8 Chapter II. — The colonial period 10 Influences affecting the beginning of American higher education 10 Finances of the early colleges 16 Analysis of the gifts to four of the colonial colleges 19 The function of philanthropy in the colleges 22 Function of the State in higher education 25 Conditional and unconditional gifts 27 Summary and conclusions 31 Chapter III. — The early national period, 1776-1865 33 The period characterized 33 The number of colleges and how started 33 The beginnings 35 How the work was accomplished 36 Philanthropy in the older colleges 37 Philanthropy in the colleges founded later 40 Theological education in this period 43 Other lines of professional training 44 Education of women 44 Philanthropy and the manual-labor colleges 45 Philanthropy through education societies 47 Summary and conclusions 51 Chapter IV.— The late national period, 1865 to 1918 .53 The period characterized 53 Growth in number of colleges 53 General survey of educational philanthropy in this period 55 Status of education among all the objects of philanthropy 59 Philanthropy in the colleges of this period 67 Philanthropy through religious education societies 73 Summary and conclusions 78 Chapter V. — Great educational foundations 81 A new philanthropic enterprise 81 The stated purposes of these foundations 82 The operations of these foundations 89 Summary 103 ui IV CONTENTS. Page. Chapter VI. — Summary and conclusions 1U3 Purpose and plan of the study ] J3 The the ry of endowments 103 Early experiences in America l^i The early national period 106 The late national period 107 Developments bearing upon a t^eory of endowments 109 Index 113 INTRODUCTION. This study represents an attempt to trace the influence of philanthropy in the development of higher education in America. Incident to this has been the further question of what has been evolved by way of a theory of educa- tional endowments, or, broader still, of educational philanthropy. The im- portance of such a study is obvious when we consider the part philanthropy has played in the development of the American college and university. Its importance is equally clear, too, when we view the recent enormous increase in educational philanthropy, and the wide variety of educational enterprises to which philanthropy is giving rise. If we are to avoid the waste that must in- evitably come from bad management of gifts, from wrong dispositions of money over which the future can exercise no control, we must study our already extensive experience and develop a set of guiding principles or a fundamental theory of educational philanthropy. It was evident from the outset that any reasonably brief treatment of a subject occupying so large a place in the history of American higher education would present certain difficulties, not only in the selection of facts, but also in the interpretation of the comparatively small amount of first-hand data that could be satisfactorily treated in brief space. It has been the writer's purpose carefully to scrutinize the materials pre- sented to see that they were fully representative of one or another important type of philanthropy affecting our higher education; to see that no type of effort was without representation ; to draw only such conclusions as the facts clearly warranted ; and, finally, to present the data in such form as to make them fully available for future use in more intensive studies, if occasion for such should arise. If in these respects the effort has been successful, then it is believed to offer, in broad outline, the history of philanthropy in the de- velopment of American higher Institutions of learning. As such it is presented, with the hope that it may add somewhat to the general perspective we now possess for the various features. of our institutions for higher training, and to the development of a sound theory of educational philanthropy, as well as with a full consciousness that there is very much yet to be done before we shall have adequate details concerning any one of the many phases of this problem. At the beginning of our experience In this field Europe had formulated no theory of educational endowment or of educational philanthropy, but sub- sequently the subject received treatment in the writings of their social and pelitical philosophers, and also to no less extent by practical statesmen en- gaged in correcting the evils of past mistakes in practice. These ideas have been traced briefly in an introductory chapter. Following this, it has been my purpese to describe our own practice from the beginning to the present time, and to make such generalizations as the facts seemed to warrant. Two types of data have been studied: First, the foundation documents, such as VI INTKODUCTION. charters, articles of incorporation, constitutions, by-laws, deeds of trust, wills, and conditions controlling gifts on the one hand ; and, second, the statistics of gifts on the other. To add to the value of bare description, the comparative method has been utilized wherever it was possible. The writer is indebted to numerous librarians and education boards for special courtesies, and especially to Dr. Paul Monroe, not only for having sug- gested this problem, but also for important suggestions concerning the method of its treatment. The original study of which this bulletin is a condensation is on file at Teachers College, Columbia University, where it was presented in April, 1919, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy. J. B. Seabs. Stanford University, Calit., April 20, 1919. PHILANTHROPY IN THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Chapter I. DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORY OP PHILANTHROPY. THE EAKLT CONCEPTION OF PHILANTHROPY. So long as charity remained intimately associated with the church it is not strange that the work it was doing should never have been called in question. The term " charity " meant Christian virtue, and its economic significance was wholly overlooked. In praising a man's good intentions it was not thought important that society should hold him responsible for having wisdom in ex- pressing them. PLACE OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS IN TURGOt's SOCIAL THEORY. It is left, therefore, to the economist to look critically Into the problem so long ignored by superstition, religion, and sentinientalism. It is interesting to note that it was in an age when all social life was being carefully scruti- nized that Turgot published his unsigned article " Foundations," in the Encyclopedia, in 1757. It is at this point that a real halt Is called, and phi- lanthropy becomes a problem for the intellect. All peoples and ages have regarded active benevolence as an important virtue, and to such acts the severest economist olfers no protest. But the bald unwisdom evident in the presumption that man is competent to judge what is good for all the future is what drew from Turgot this classic criticism, which John Morley says is " the most masterly discussion we possess of the advan- tages and disadvantages of endowments." ' The native instinct which underlies man's desire to relieve hjs brother in distress makes no distinction between present and future good; nor does it discover that good is a relative term. Consequently, it is not strange that much evil is done where only good is intended. But add to this native impulse the best wisdom of our day and yet we can not say what will be the need of another generation; and if we could, and were large-hearted enough to endow that need, we would not be able to guarantee that our successors, in whose • John Morley : Diderot and the Encyclopaedists, p. 191. 2 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEEICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. hands we place the right, would execute with the same enthusiasm with which wo have founded. Business, but not enthusiasm, may be handed down. It is because the history of European endowments was written so plainly in these terms across the faces of the church, the hospital, and the school, that Turgot was lead to inquire into the general utility of foundations, with a view to demonstrating their impropriety. He does not approach the subject in a purely abstract way, though he had a well-defined social theory which later received a clear statement in his " Reflexions sur la Formation et la Dlsti-ibution des Richesses," since for every principle set forth he appeals to history for its justification. Turgot sees so little good accomplished by endowments that he is led to say : " Un fondateur est un homme qui veut 6terniser I'effet de ses volont6." ' His motive may be good, but results prove his lack of wisdom. After citing cases which are convincing, he concludes : " Je ne craindrai point de dire que, si I'on comparait les advantages et les inconv6nients de toutes les fondatlons qui existent aujourd'hui en Europe, il n'y en aurait peut-gtre pas une qui soutint I'examen d' une politique 6clair6." ' Granting that at its conception the object is a real utility, there is yet the impossibility of its future execution to be reckoned with, because the enthusiasm of the founder can not be trans- mitted. If even this, however, were overcome, it would still not be long till time would sweep away the utility, for society has not always the same needs. Thus Turgot pointed out the diflSculties and the consequent evils inherently connected with the establishment of perpetuities, If we suggest the idea of a periodical revision, which is done by later thinkers, Turgot quickly points to history and shows how long periods usually elapse after a foundation has become useless before its uselessness is detected; that those closely acquainted with such a charity are so accustomed to its working as not to be struck by its defects and that those not acquainted have little chance. of observing its weakness. Then there is the difficulty of determining the proper character and extent of the modifications, to say nothing of enforcing its adoption against the opposition of the vested interests. The ^uthor distinguishes two kinds of social needs which are intended to be fulfilled by foundations : Onej " appartiennent a, la soci6te entiSre, et ne seront que le rgsultant des int6i^6ts de chacune de ses parties : tels sont les besoins g6n6raux de 1' humanity, la nourriture pour tous les hommes, les bonnes moeurs et r education des enfants, pour toutes les families ; et cet intgrSt est plus ou moins pressant pour les differents besoins ; car un homme sent plus vivement le besoin de la nourriture que 1' int6r6t qu'il a de donner a ses enfants une bonne Mucation." * This need, he says, can not be fulfilled by a foundation or any sort of gratuitous means, for the general good must result from the efforts of each individual in behalf of his own interests. It is the business of the state to destroy obstacles which impede man in his industry or in the enjoy- ment of its fruits. Similarly, he insists that every family owes to its chil- dren an education, and that only through these individual efforts can the general perfection of education arise! If interest in education is lacking, he would arouse it by means of a system of prizes given on merit. The second class of public needs he would propose to meet by foundations he has classed as accidental, limited in place and time, having less to do with a general system of administration, and that may demand particular relief, such, for instance, as the support of some old men, the hardship of a scarcity, or an s Turgot-Oeuvres, Vol. I, p. 300. •Ibid., p. 301. Mtld., p. 305. DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORY OP PHILANTHROPY. 3 epidemic, etc. For the amelioration of such needs he would employ the public revenues of the community, some contribution of all its members, and volun- tary subscriptions from generous citizens. This scheme he declares to be not only efficient but impossible of abuse, for the moment funds are diverted from their proper use their source will at once dry up. This puts no money into luxury or useless buildings, it wouW withdraw no funds from general circu- lation, and place no land in idle hands. He points to the success of such asso- ciations in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and thus supports his theory with reference to present practice. By these lines of thought he justifies the proposition that government has a right to dispose of old foundations. " L'utilitS publique est la loi suprem," " he says, and adds that a superstitious regard for the intention of the founder ought not to nullify it. These are the principles, not deduced from an imaginary law of nature alone, but carefully supported and justified at each point by the clear facts of history. All foundations are condemned by Turgot as worse than useless and his laissez faire doctrine would forbid the establishment of others. This was a bold doctrine to preach in the middle of the eighteenth century, but its impress was felt throughout Europe, and it is only a few decades till another member of the same school of economists lends support to these views. PLACE OF EDUCATIONAX FOUNDATIONS IN ADAM SMITH'S FKEE-TKADE ECONOMY. Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations," first published in 1770, tends to substan- tiate all Turgot had taught and to show that it applies particularly to educa- tional endowments. In discussing the natural inequalities of labor and stock, he insists that where there is " perfect liberty " all advantages and disad- vantages tend to equality.' And In the following chapter on political inequali- t'es of wages and profit he points out three ways in which political interference with " perfect liberty " has produced great and important inequalities. " First, by restraining the competition in some employments to a smaller number than would otherwise be disposed to enter into them ; secondly, by increasing it in others beyond what it naturally would be ; and thirdly, by obstructing the free circulation of labor and stock, both from employment to employment and from plt^ce to place." ' In support of the second he shows how public money, " and sometimes the piety of private founders," ' have drawn many people into the profession of the clergy, thereby increasing competition to the point of making the salaries very low. Exactly the same thing, he says, has happened to men of letters and to teachers, and when contrasted with the time of Isocrates, " before any charities of this kind had been established for the education of indigent people to the learned professions," ' the ill effect upon the teacher's income is evident enough. There is yet another phase of the subject which is touched upon in Smith's discussion of the expense of the institutions for the education of the youth. Referring to the many endowed schools throughout Europe, he asks : Have those public endowments contributed in general to promote the end of their institution? Have they contributed to encourage the diligence and to improve the abilities of the teachers? Have they directed the course of educa- tion toward objects more useful, both to the individual and to the public, than those to which it would naturally have gone of its own accord? " = Turgot-Oeuvres, Vol. I, p. 308. • Smith, Adam : Wealth of Nations, Bk. I, Ch. X, p. 101. 'Ibid., p. 121. •Ibid., p. 131. 'Ibid., p. 134. '"Ibid., p. 249. 4 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. He then states as a universiil principle that the exertion of most people in a profession is proportional to the necessity they are under of making that ex- ertion. He believes that the endowments of schools have diminished the neces- sity of application in the teachers, and shows how the older and richer colleges have clung longest to a useless and worn-out curriculum, while the poorer universities, dependent upon their popularity for much of their income, intro- duced the modern subjects much earlier." He saj« : Were there no public institutions for education, no systems, no sciences would be taught for which there was not some demand, or which the eirdum- stances of the times did not render it either necessary or convenient, or at least fashionable, to learn." This extreme application of the principle of free trade is modified only slightly by Smith to meet the inequality of opportunity brought about in a complex society where division of labor has been carried to great length. While he states that in most cases the state of society places the greater number of individuals in such situations as form in them almost all the abilities and virtues which that state requires, yet there are cases in which this is not true. The man whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple operations, of which the effects, too, are perhaps always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to exert his understanding or to exercise his invention in finding out expedients for removing difficulties which never occur. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and igno- rant as it is possible for a human creature to become." Thus Smith would have the state intervene in behalf of the great labor popu- lation, whose intellectual tendency must inevitably be in this direction. This brief presentation of Smith's attitude toward perpetuities shows how his principles of social organization exclude them ; and, like Turgot's, his theory is constructed in the presence of existing facts. The sum of the con- tribution is little more than a specific application of Turgot's arguments to educational foundations. If the social theory underlying the objections to endowments made by these tvs'o men is sound, surely the facts they have cited would warrant their con- clusion that endowments are evil because they interfere with the real laws of human progress. Certainly the evidence they cite makes clear the difficul- ties attending their establishment. Is a laissez faire policy a sound basis for social organization, and can these evil practices be overcome? These are problems for their successors. WILLIAM VON Humboldt's theory. William von Humboldt wrote, in 1791 : " Ueberhaupt soil die Erzlehung nur, ohne Rilksicht auf bestimmte, den Menschen zu ertheilende biirgerliche Pormen, Menschen bilden ; so bedarf es des Staats nlcht." " Thus he not only accepts the system of free exchange laid down by Turgot and Smith, but excludes the possible modification which Turgot impliesi under the head of " accidental " social needs, and which Smith makes to correct the slight disadvantage to which some are iilaced by the effects of the extreme division of labor. " Unter freren Menschen gewunen alle Gewerbe bessren Fortgang; bliihen alle Ktinste schoner auf ; erweitem sich alle Wissenschaften," says William von Humboldt, " This argument is quite obviouBly beside the mark in America. •2 Smith, Adam : Wealth of Nations, Bk. V, Ch. I, p. 266. "Ibid., p. 267. " Wllhelm von Humboldt, Werke, Vol. VII, p. 57. DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORY OF PHILANTHROPY. 5 and again, " Bei freuen Mensclien entsteht Nachelferung, und es bilden slcli bessere Erzieher wo ihr Schiksal von dem Erfolg ihrer Aibeiten, als wo es von der Beforderung abhangt, die sie vom Staate zu erwarten liaben." Here we find a leading German statesman insisting upon tliese social and economic principles in matters of education. Surely he did not foresee the future development of schools in Germany, where the State has been responsible for practically all educational work. While our purpose here is not to write, or even to sketch, the history of economic theory, yet it is interesting to note that the objections soon to be raised against a wholesale condemnation of educational endowments are focused upon the economic doctrine of the physiocrats, and fit in as early steps in the historical decline of the laissez faire economy. Chalmers's modification of the earlier theories. Dr. Thomas Chalmers, an early nineteenth century economist, interested in the practical problem of handling the poor, accepts the idea of free exchange to the extent of condemning the state endowment of pauperism but urges that an endowment for the relief of indigence is not to be compared with one whoso object is the support of literary or Christian instruction. For education, though it is a real want, is not a felt want. He says : The two cases, so far from being at all alike in principles, stand in direct and diametric opposition to each other. We desiderate the latter endowment because of the languor of the intellectual or sp. ritual appetency ; in so much that men, left to themselves, seldom or never originate a movement toward Icurning. We deprecate the former endowment because, in the strength ftf the physical appetency, we have the surest guarantee that men will do their uttermost for good ; and a public charity having this for its object by lessening the industry and forethought that would have been otherwise put forth in the cause, both adds to the wants and detracts from the real work and virtue of the species. And, besides, there is no such strength of compassion for the sufferings of the moral or spiritual that there is for the physical destitution. An endowment for education may be necessary to supplement the one, while an endowment for charity may do the greatest moral and economic mischief by superseding the other. Relatives and neighbors could bear to see a man ignorant or even vicious. They could not bear to see him starve.''^ Thus an important modification of the above social theory is proposed. Whether the practical philanthropist has since shown such discrimination or not, the principle involved in the criticism was important. Shall the provision for education be dependent upon the mere demand of the market, or shall this important but " unfelt " need be stimulated by some kind of endowment? mill's OPPOSITION TO THE THEORIES OF TTJR60T AND SMITH. In February, 1833, John Stuart Mill published an article in the Jurist '" in \which he declared ignorance and want of culture to be the sources of all social evil, and adds that they can not be met by political checks." He says: There is also an unfortunate peculiarity attending these evils. Of all calamities, they are those of which the persons suffering from them are apt to be least aware. Of their bodily wants and ailments, mankind are generally conscious ; but the wants of the mind, the want of being wiser and better, is, in the far greater number of cases, unfelt ; some of its disastrous consequences are felt, but are ascribed to any imaginable cause^except the true one." '" Quoted by Thos. Mackay in " The State and Charity," p. 36. '" Later published in " Dissertations and Discussions," Vol. I, pp. 28-68. " Mill, J. S. : " Dissertations and Discussions," Vol. I, p. 54. «Ibld., pp. 54, 55. 6 PHILAKTHEOPY IN AMEMCAN HIGHER EDUCATION. In answer to tlie question as to what nVen have depended upon and must depend upon for the removal of their Ignorance and defects of culture, he says, " mainly on the unremitting exertions of the more instructed and cultivated," which, he adds, is a wide field of usefulness open for foundations. He com- bats Smith's argument that such foundations are but premiums on idleness and insufficiency merely by saying that such is the case only when it is nobody's business to see that the trust is duly executed. To show further how the idea of endowments fits into Mill's general social philosophy, note what he says in his essay " On Liberty," written in 1858 : With regard to the merely contingent, or, as it may be called, constructive injury which a person causes to society, by conduct which neither violates any specific duty to the public, nor occasions pprceptible hurt to any assignable individual except himself, the inconvenience is one which society can afford to bear, for the sake of the greater good of human freedom." Individual freedom is as carefully guarded as by Turgot or Smith, but the implication that it is best preserved by a complete system of free ^change is carefully avoided. Mill does not believe that in a government where majority rule predominates the ideas of the n.inority should be lost. In his essay on " Endowments," pub- lished in the Fortnightly Review, April 1, 1869, he says : There is good reason against allowing them to do this (make bequests) in favor of an unborn individual whom they can not know, or a public purpose beyond the probable limits of human foresight. But within those limits, the more scope that is given to varieties of human individuality the better. And, Since trial alone can decide whether any particular experiment is successful, latitude should be given for carrying on the experiment until the trial is com- plete." His contention is, then, not only that foundations should be permitted, but that over a reasonable period of time the exact wishes of the founder should be strictly adhered to. His defense, later in the essay, of a foundation just then being severely criticized by the press shows the great social import which he attaches to the preservation of an unusual idea of an unusual person. After a complete trial of the experiment has been effected, the obligation of society to the founder has been discharged, and the value of the gift to society can be indicated. The explanation of this relationship is the first object of the essay of 1833, the second being a discussion of the spirit In which and the reservations with which the legislature should proceed to accept and modify the original plan and object of the foundation. In brief, he regards the endowment as public property after about fifty years from the date of its establishment, and in every sense subject to the will of society, even to changing the purpose of the gift, if necessary, to meet the changes of succeeding ages. Mill's economic justification of man's right to establish endowments is quite as interesting as his social justification. He says that it is due not to the children but to the parents that they should have the power of bestowing their wealth according to their own preference and judgment, for — • Bequest is one of the attributes of property ; the ownership of a thing can not be looked upon as complete without the power of bestowing it, at death or >» Mill, J. S. : " On Liberty," published in the Harvard Classics, p. 289. 2° Mill, J. S. : " Endowments," Fort. Rev., vol. 5, p. 380. See also essay on " The Right and Wrong of State Interference with Corporate and Church Property," in " Disser- tations and Discussions," p. 32. DEVELOPMENT OE A THEORY OF PHILABTTHROPY. 7 during life, at the owner's pleasure ; and all the reasons which recommend that private property should exist recommend pro tanto extension of it." This is no small modification of the theories of Turgot and Smith, and is a definite stand taken by Mill in respect not only to a philosophical but to an important practical issue then before the English public. And only a few years before his death he wrote in his autobiography "^ that the position he had taken in 1833 was as clear as he could now make it. Indeed, this very principle of Mill's was in 1853 embodied in the legislative enactment carried through by Lord Brougham and others. Mill's position, however, was too conservative, and too considerate of the numerous abuses of endowments then so well known to everyone, and drew forth sharp criticisms.'^ In condemning the report of the commissioners ap- pointed to inquire into middle-class education, whose procedure had been generally in line with the ideas of Mill and Chalmers, Mr. Lowe" (later Lord Sherbrooke) calls for a return to the ordinary rules of political economy. He would class teaching as a trade, and keep it in the quickening atmosphere of free exchange. This return to the notion that failure of endowments is due not to founder worship, as Mill would say, but to the principle of endowment, shows the influence of the free-trade economy. In practice at this time the cry is not that all foundations be used to pay the national debt, and so place education where Mr. Lowe would ask, but rather how can the terrible waste of funds be checked, or, what system of con- trol can the State legitimately exercise? We have Mill's suggestion that society will progress most rapidly when it gives wide range to social and educa- tional experimentation, and that this is done best, not by the State through a commission, which would tend to force all endowments into a uniform mold, but by legal enforcement of the exact conditions of the foundation till the merits of the experiment become evident. HOBHOUSE ON " THE DEAD HAND " IN EDUCATION. During the period 1868 to 1879 Sir Arthur Hobhouse delivered a series of addresses, afterwards published as " The Dead Hand," '^ in which he accepts, with Mill, both the principle of endowed education and the idea that every such bequest should be made to serve the present. The question of method, however, is a point on which he takes issue with Mill. He can not see that the term " property " implies power of posthumous disposition. Tried by history, he says, " the further back we trace any system of laws, the smaller we find the power of posthumous disposition to be." " Furthermore, he insists that 250 years of English experience does not reveal one useful educational experi- ment resulting from such foundations as Mr. Mill regards important in the development of new ideas and lines of social and educational practice." 21 Mill, J. S. . " Political Economy," Vol. I, p. 287. ^ Autobiograpliy, p. 182. " See Report of Schools Inquiry Commission of 1868. ^ See his Middle Class Education, Endowment or " Free Trade." 2= London, 1880. » Hobhouse, Sir A. ; " The Dead Hand," p. 14. i"Ibid., p. 94. 8 PHILANTHBOPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. This attitude Is further eniphaslsied by Sir Joshua Fitch, whose practical contact with JOnglish ei S3 Q.S "s> i O to -S-S r-t to m £.£3 Jj SB'S" •fc. e 9 n ■< a 0'° S °9 -B 1^. til UT30 C !» 11 gw o fl o S o SS^-sog S a ■op,5!>f ago . M otW 3 S g o 5 n NO CO O w C CQ CQ tit III -^1-^ II o* o ^ E?o o » s fecM S>&£ S^.So 1^^^ o -a w ra.rt 2 2- .£c§" . 11 w ei #. u d SS a-' ra o" 5 .3 a M (-IT- O tfl OT d ^« CO S o S V, -S S £ ^ oU Sw 8s Eh o O § rt IP .■ssaS In hoc roya] Char Hei] fa ©-i . :3 . "8§3 a Sf»" l» UM 11 0? CO* 03 to J;;j *"* ■a w ..V td mak undi See -vT a . mbe the 1751 « 2 a ij fl OS g s ^ ^ f^ dde mp] [Hen. ■2 « i» J3 !> g5 .S '"e-^sa -- -cva-" them" Dl. 1, oh. ollege," bylegis resident [.Ofl P. « - a S g. &1'SS he major New Jers h of Colui eries auth there wa .a,®°>; >.S ^ o- this qclo 912-13,p of the Co Historica ed from t Educ.in .s-H t^oi;-.. fl « o-«! S ° 1 "Inhabiting wit 3 College catalogu • Maclean; " Hist 'Moore, N.H.;" 6 This amount re • Murray: "Hist 14 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. " Several benevolent and charitable persons have generously paid, and by subscriptions promised hereafter to pay, • * * for the use of said acad- emy, divers sums of money," spent " in maintaining an academy there as well for the instruction of poor children on charity," etc." ' Brown University. — " And whereas a Public School or Seminary, * * * to which the Youth may freely resort for Education in the vernacular and learned Languages, and in the liberal Arts and Sciences would be for the gen- eral Advantage and Honor of the Government." " And whereas Daniel Jenckes, Esq. ; * * * with many others appear as undertakers in the valuable Design * * * praying that full Liberty and Power may be granted unto such of them, * * * to found, endow, * * * a College," etc. And, further, " Being willing to encourage * * * such an honorable and useful Institution, We, the said Governor," etc.* Rutgers Colleg.e. — The college is for " the Education of youth in the learned languages, liberal and useful arts and sciences, and especially in divinity." Did it try to preserve the Dutch language?' Dartmouth College. — " Dartmouth College, for the education and instruction of Youth the Indian Tribes in * * * Learning * * * necessary * * * for civilizing and christianizing * * * Pagans * * * -in Arts and Sciences; * * * also of English Youth." " It hath been represented * * * that the Reverend Eleazer Wheelock * * * did * * *, at his own expense, * * * set on foot an Indian Charity school and for several years through the assistance of well-disposed Persons * * *," etc.* 3. BELIGIOUS AND DENOMINATIONAL INrLTJENCES. The religious influence is, of course, prominent. The statements showing how the movements for establishing the schools were started, those showing the source of control, the petitioners for the charters, and the religious affilia- tions of the first presidents, as well as the last one, showing the aim of the college, all point to religion as the large motivating force in the case of every one. The beginning of William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, King's, Brown, Queen's, and Dartmouth (Harvard should probably be included) lies with groups of ministers or religious bodies. In the case of Yale, Princeton, Brown, Queen's, and Dartmouth the formal request for a charter was presented by represent- atives of religious bodies; while the source of control in the case of Yale, King's, and Brown was placed in the hands of religious bodies. In effect the same was true of Princeton, Harvard, and Queen's. All the first presidents were ministers. It is in the charter, however, that the religious motive stands out with greatest prominence. The quotations presented are those which seem best to reveal the chief aim of the institution. Somewhere in every charter, Penn- sylvania a possible exception, theft is evidence that the teaching of religion was to be a prominent feature of the work of the college. » Academy charter, in catalogue, 1912-13, p. 15. This is of course the basis of the charter for a college granted two years later. • Charter, in catalogue for 1912-13, pp. 29-30. ' Murray : " Hist, of Educ. in N. J.," p. 288, refers to the charter of 1770 as amend- ing a statement which was said to have been included in the first charter, viz, that the Dutch language was to be used exclusively in the college. ' Charter, in Chase's Hist, of Dartmouth College and Hanover, .N. H., p. 642. >■ THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 15 To what extent denominatlonalism was a factor does not appear fully from this table. From other sources we know that the chancellorship of William and Mary was by charter granted to the Bishop of Loudon ; that Yale, which was built by Congregationalists in a Congregational colony, said in her charter that at least the major part of their 10 self-peri)etuating trustees must always " be ministers of the Gospel inhabiting within this colony." " Princeton's char- ter does not call for denominational control, yet, according to the charter of 1648, there were 12 Presbyterian ministers on the board." It is also true that Governor Morris, of New Jersey, refused Princeton's first request for a char- ter made, in his opinion, by a body of dissenters." These, as well as the connection which the schism in the Presbyterian Church in 1741-1745 had with the beginning of Princeton," are evidence enough that denominatlonalism, if not even sectarianism, was a factor in its earlj- life. In King's College about two-thirds of the 41 trustees were members of the Church of England, though they were not chosen officially upon religious grounds. The Pennsylvania College is an exception, for its charter shows its aim to have been broadly human, though not specifically religious, and cer- tainly not denominational. By Brown's charter, however, 22 of her 36 trus- tees must be Baptists. There are no statements in the charters of Queen's and Dartmouth that they are to be controlled by certain religious sects, yet there is no deubt that the Dutch Reformed Church controlled Queen's and that Dart- mouth was nonsectarian, but with half the board of trustees constituted of ministers,'" the whole enterprise being threatened when the Reverend Wheelock refused to accept Governor Wentworth's proposal to make the Bishop of London an ex oificio member of the board of trustees." It is noticeable, too, that the formal request for the charter of Yale was made by a group of Congregational clergy, that of Princeton by Presbyterian clergy, that of Brown by the Phila- delphia Baptist Association, and that of Queen's by the clergy and congrega- tions of the Dutch Reformed Church. The first president of Harvard was of Puritan training, and later was forced to resign because he agreed with the Anabaptists on the sub.iect of infant baptism.'" The first president of King's was a minister of the Church of England, and the inclusion of this requirement in the charter caused bitter opposition to the granting of the charter, a bitterness healed only by the addition of a professor of divinity "To be chosen by the Consistory of the (Dutch) Church for the time being."" The first rector (president) of Yale was a Congregational minister. Brown's first president was a Baptist minister, and Queen's a minister of the Dutch Church. POLITICAL INFLUENCE. The political influence is evident enou,gh. Harvard was established by the ■colonial government. William and Mary was founded by the English and Virginia Governments, and Kings by the New York Legislature. Yale's charter •Charter of the Collegiate School (Yale College) Catalogue, 1912-13, p. 64. >■> Maclean : " History of the College of New Jersey," Vol. I, 92. » Ibid., p. 34. "^Ibld., p. 24. '■ Charter, in Chase, F., " History of Dartmouth College and Hanover, N. H., Vol. I, 642. " Letter of Wheelock to Gov. Wentworth, of New Hampshire. See History of Dart- mouth College and Hanover, N. H., by F. Chase, p. 115 ff. " Pierce, Benjamin : " Hist, of Harvard Univ. from its Foundation, in the year 1636, to the Period of the Amer. Eev.," p. 10. '• Fulton, John. " Memoirs of Frederick A. P. Barnard," p. 302 ff. See also Ecclesi- astical records of tie State of New York. 16 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. says the youth are to be instructed to the end that " they may be fitted for public employment both in the church and civil state," and her first money gift Was £120 country pay from the colony. That these colleges were intended from the beginning to rest upon gifts of the people is suggested in the quotations from the charters given above. If not so stated, then the fact that the charter is granted to a body of men seeking to establish a college, together with the absence of any evidence that the state was accepting the responsibility, makes the inference clear. It is to be noted, too, that Harvard, Tale, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth received their names from their first great benefactors, and that In only three cases were the first funds of the coHege granted by the legislatures. To seek further evidence that the colonial colleges were or were not State institutions is not our present purpose. There is evidence here to show that the principle of State aid to higher education is as old as Harvard College. Yet the movement for each of the colleges, possibly excepting Harvard, was initiated either by a single man with great missionary zeal, or by a group of men, and not by the State. From this preliminary examination of these foundation documents, then, one gathers some notion of the setting which our problem is to have. Judged by the facts presented, as well as in terms of the hard work associated with the starting of these institutions, philanthropy Is clearly the mother of the colonial colleges. FINANCES OF THE BAHLT COLLEGES. -> 1. SCARCITY or MONET. Down to 1693 we had but one college, that founded at Cambridge in 1635. There Is probably nowhere available to-day a complete record of all the early gifts to Harvard, but what have been brought together here will doubtless give a fairly satisfactory exhibit of the nature and extent of the earliest philan- thropy devoted to higher education in this country. There is one thing so characteristic of the early gifts to all the colonial col- leges that it must receive brief notice at the outset. That is, the size and kind of gifts. Harvard records the receipt " of a number of sheep bequeathed by one man, of a quantity of cotton cloth, worth 9 shillings, presented by another, of a pewter flagon, worth 10 shillings, by a third, of a fruit dish, a sugar spoon, a silver-tipt jug, one great salt, and one small trecher salt, by others." " From Yale's early history the sentiment attaching to the words : " I give these books for founding a college in Connecticut," pronounced by each of the trustees as he placed his little contribution upon the table, could not be spared, and before a charter had been granted a formal gift of the " glass and nails which should be necessary to erect a college and hall " had been made," Eleazar Wheelock, the founder and first president of Dartmouth, in a letter replying to criticisms of the " plainness of the surroundings " at the college, says : " As to the college, it owns but one (tablecloth), that was lately given by a generous lady in Con- ' necticut, and of her own manufacture," " and again in a letter to the Honorable Commissioners for Indian Affairs, etc., he says, after indicating the impossible financial condition in which the college finds itself : " I have, with the assistance of a number of those who have contributed their old put-ofC clothing, supported them (the scholars) along hitherto."" Doubtless simUar examples could be >' Peirce : Hist, of Harvard Univ., p. 17. >* History of Yale College — Barnard's Jour, of Bduc, V, 542, 1858. » Quoted in Chase's Hist of Dartmoutli College and Hanover, N. H., p. 232. "Ibid., p. 546. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 17 taken from the subscription lists that yielded relatively large amounts to Princeton, Queen's, Brown, and William and Mary if these were extant. In these gifts there is reflected much of the simplicity of the social and eco- nomic life of that time. Actual money was scarce, as shown by the repeated issues of currency by the various Colonies, hence such gifts as Dartmouth's sawmills and blacksmith shop and Harvard's printing press entered most nat- urally and effectively into the making of colleges in those days. 2. USE OF THE SUBSCKIPTION METHOD. These colleges were all active in gathering funds by the subscription plan both in England and in America. Princeton received a subscription of £1,000 proclamation, given in produce and money, in the southern Colonies in 1769, another of £1,000 from Boston in the same year, and £2,000 in England. Brown received $4,500 by subscription in England and Ireland In 1764." Blair brought home from England £2,500 which he had gathered by subscription for William and Mary in 1693. Dartmouth collected £10,000 in England in 1769, while King's and Pennsylvania shared equally a subscription fund of £10,000 gathered in England. These are only the most striking instances of the use of this method of collecting the gifts of the people. Through the churches this method was repeatedly used and frequently the colonial court or the town officials would name a day on which a subscription for the college would be asked from every citizen. 3. FEW LAEGE GIFTS. In that day of small gifts a few names of great benefactors stand out. Whatever the " moiety " of Harvard's estate was, it was a princely sum In the year 1638 for a college with one or two teachers and a half dozen students.^ This was the first great gift to education in America, and it is worthy of note that it was not tied up with conditions which might make it useless to the Harvard College of the future. It was given by request to the college out- right, and^ constituted half of the fortune and the entire library of one of the wealthiest and most noted men in New England. The immediate influence of this was great, and is well recorded by the histo- rians of the college, Quincy and Peirce. During the next few decades several gifts of £100 were received, and in 1650 Richard Saltonstall, of England, gave " to the college " goods and money worth 320 pounds sterling. In 1681 Sir Matthew Holworthy bequeathed " to be disposed of by the directors as they shall judge best for the promotion of learning and promulgation of the Gospel " £1,000. The Hon. William Stoughton erected a building in 1699 which cost £1,000 Massachusetts currency. These are the large gifts of the seventeenth century, with the exception of the gift of William and Mary, of England, to the college of Virginia. During the next century Thomas Hollis established a professorship of divinity at Harvard (1721). In hist " orders " " he asks " that the interest of the funds be used, £10 annually for help to a needy student for the ministry— as many of these as the funds will bear." He reserves the right to sanction all appoint- ments during his lifetime, then leaves it to the " President and Fellows of Harvard College," and asks " that none be refused on accouftt of his belief and 2> Names of the first subscribers are given in the Collections of the Rhode Island His- torical Society, Vol. VII, 273. 22 A careful discussion of the amount of this legacy is given in Quincy's History of Harvard, Vol. I, ,appendix I, 460. " See Quincy's Harvard, Vol. I, Appendix XLII, for copy of the Instrument of gift. 18 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEBICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. practice of adult baptism." " The conditions which he places upon this, the first professorship established in America by private donation, are of interest. These are his words : I order and appoint a Professor of Divinity, to read lectures In the Hall of the College unto the students; the said Professor to be nominated and ap- pointed from time to time by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, and that the Treasurer pay to him forty pounds per annum for his service, and that when choice is made of a fitting person, to be recommended to me for my approbation, if I be yet living.^ In that day of fierce theological controversies these seem to be very liberal conditions. A few years later HoUis established a professorship of mathematics and natural philosophy. In all, his donations total over £5,000, a sum which far exceeded any single gift to education in America up to that time. Aside from books and goods the purposes of all his gifts were stipulated, but in such gen- eral terms and, as his letters show,"' so fully in terms of the wishes of the presi- dent and overseers, that it constitutes an example of educational philanthropy that is worthy of note. Madam Mary Saltoustall, who bequeathed £1,000 in 1730 for educating young men " of bright parts and good diligence for service of the Christian Church " ; " Thomas Hancock, who founded the professorship of Hebrew and other oriental languages in 1764 with a gift of £1,000; John Alford, whose executors, acting in accordance with his wish that his money should be used to aid " pious and charitable purposes," gave £1,300 to establish a professorship " of some particular science of public utility " ; " Nicholas Boylston, who bequeathed £1,500 for the support of a professor of rhetoric in 1772 ; and Dr. Ezekiel Hersey, whose gift established a professorship of anatomy and physic in 1772, are other pre-revo- lutionary names which figure on the list of Harvard's greatest benefactors. At the Collegiate School of Connecticut the names of Elihu Yale and Rev. Dr. George Berkeley, with gifts of £500 and £400, respectively ; at the College of New Jersey the names of Tennent and Davy, of England, with a gift of over £2,000 ; at King's the name of Joseph "Murray with a bequest of his library and his estate worth £9,000 in 1762 ; and at William and Mary the names of James Blair and Robert Boyle give us other Instances of educational philan- thropy on a liberal scale in the colonial days. 4. GIFTS FEOM TOWNS, CHURCHES, AND SOCIETIES. In addition to these gifts from private individuals there is frequent evidence of support coming from towns, churches, and societies. In 1764 the town of Boston collected £476 by subscription, which it gave to Harvard to repair the loss occasioned by the destruction of Harvard Hall by fire. Nine other towns made smaller contributions to the same end, while two years previously 44 towns had made contributions to the college. Wheelock received funds from public collections taken in several eastern towns between 1762 and 1765 which were of great value to his struggling school, soon to be known as Dartmouth ^ See Quincy's Harvard, Vol. I, Appendix XLII, for copy of the Instrument of gift. ^ Quincy's Harvard, Vol. I, Appendix XLII. ^ Numerous letters from Mr. HoUis to his agent and others in the Colonies appear a« appendixes in Vol. I, of Quincy's History of Harvard. 2" Quincy, Vol. I, p. 421. <" Quincy, VoL II, p. 142. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 19 College." In the eases of Princeton, Queen's, King's, and Brown the donations from churches were large and frequent. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts found the colleges appropriate agencies through which to operate in the Colonies. As early as 1714 reference is made to a gift of books to the Yale library ; in 1747 the society made a large donation of books to Harvard, and £100 in money in 1764.'°' From the same society King's received £500 sterling and in 1762 a library of 1,500 books. The society also assisted in getting a collection made in England which raised nearly £6,000 sterling for the college in 1762.'" The Society for Propagating the Gospel in New England and parts adjacent gave to Harvard 1,101 volumes and £300 sterling to repair the loss of its library in 1764. The Edinburgh Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge presented Harvard with some books in 1766, and the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, in Scotland, gave £30 for the purchase of books in 1769. 5. GIFTS OF BOOKS, BUILDINGS, AND LAND. It is noticeable in the early years that many gifts of books were made to the colleges. However strongly the titles of the books may suggest the religious and theological nature of higher education, in those days such gifts were of the greatest importance when both the bounds and the methods of knowledge lay almost wholly within books alone. There is an occasional gift of a building, and frequent reference is made to gifts of land. During the colonial period Harvard received from towns and individuals over 2,000 acres ; '^ Yale received over 1,000 acres, including 300 acres from the general assembly ; ^ King's received 5 acres in the heart of New York City, and 34,000 acres more from the State which were lost to the college and the State as well at the close of the Revolution ; "^ Dartmouth received 400 acres from proprietors of the town of Hanover ; " the College of New Jersey received 210 acres from the town and people of Princeton ; and a large portion of Queen's campus was the gift of a private citizen. Gifts of real estate were for many years of little productive value however ; so the chief support had to be money or something that could be exchanged at any time. ANALYSIS OF THE GIFTS TO FOUR OF THE COLONIAL .COLLEGES. To get at the full meaning of the philanthropy of this period, however, com- plete lists of all the gifts to Harvard, Yale, King's, and the College of New Jersey, four of the nine colonial colleges, have been made and appear in Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6. Remembering that it is not the absolute amount of a gift, but rather what the gift will purchase, that measures its value, we may ask, first : What was «* Chase : History of Dartmouth, p. 31. 20 The motive back of this may be seen in the following quotation, which throws some light on the denominational motives which Impelled many gifts. Referring to the gift of books : "A good investment for the conformity of four graduates of the Presbyterian College at Yale, Connecticut, had been mainly effected (in 1722-23) by theological works sent to the college in 1714." " Two Hundred Years of the S. P. G., 1701-1900," p. 799. ^ Ibid., pp. 775, 798. =' Barnard's Journal, Vol. IX, 159, gives a full list of gifts of real estate. •2 Ibid., Vol. X, 693, mentions the important gifts. '^ A History of Columbia Univ., 1754-1904, p. 35 S. ^ Chase : History of Dartmouth, p. 174. 20 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. the size of the problem which philanthropy had undertaken and what did education cost? 1. SIZE OF THE COLONIAL COLLEGES. The numbers of students attending these colleges can be judged by the number of their graduates. Harvard rarely if ever had over 100 students be- fore the year 1700, and at no time In the colonial period did she have over 350 or 400 students, while Yale and King's had fewer still. Pennsylvania graduated in all only 135 students before 1776, Brown 60, and Dartmouth 31. The teaching staff was also small. The president's administrative duties were insignificant, his chief function being that of instructor. Before 1720 Harvard's faculty consisted of a president and from 1 to 4 tutors. At Yale the president was assisted by from 1 to 4 tutors, rarely more than 3, before the year 1755. After 1720 Harvard's faculty gradually increased to 9 ; Yale's to 8 ; and King's to 11. In the case of King's a much larger percentage were from the start of professorial rank. Thus, judged by the size of student body and faculty, the actual work done in the colonial colleges was small, and great sums of money were not needed. 2. THE COST OP A COLLEGE EDUCATION. The cost of a college education at Harvard in Its early days is shown In an old account book for the period 1649-50 to 1659, from which it appears that for those graduating from 1653 to 1659 the total expense ranged from £30 25s. IJ d. to £61 lis. SJd., or from about $100 to about $200 for four years' residence in college. An iteniized account of a student, Thomas Graves, of the class of 1656, by quarters, shows that he paid about 32s. for tuition. His first quarter's expenses appear as follows : " Pounda. S. D. Qr. 8, 10, 54 Commones and slznges 2 8 9 2 Tuition, 8 B ; study, rente, and bed, 4 s ; fyer and candelle 2 s 14 Fower loode of wood 17 4 The other three quarters' expenses were similar to this. In 1797 this cost, according to an account of Judge Daniel Appleton White, given in volume 6 of the Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings, page 272, would have been about $480 for the four years. Students' bills were often paid in butter, rye, malt, hog, lamb, egg?, etc. At Princeton, Maclean tells us that a student's entire expenses in 1761 were £25 6s. proclamation money. A fairly complete, account of the tuition cost at Yale, as set forth in Table 2, data for which were gathered from Dexter's Annals, shows the tuition not to have been much different at the beginning from the above account of tuition cost at Harvard a half century earlier. » Prom Mass. Hist. Proc, 1800-1862, Vol. V, p. 60. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. Taile 2. — Cost of education at Yale College. 21 Date. Tuition. Room. Board. Presi- dent's salary. Salary of tutor. 1701.. 1704.. 1712.. 1718.. 1719.. Shillings. 30 30 30 30 120 C.P.i 50 60 100 140 20s. 4s. 4d. 1726.. 1726.. 1727.. 1728.. 1729.. 1734.. 1737.. 1738.. 1740.. 1742.. 1745. . 1748.. 1749. . 1754- . 1755.. 1759. . 1764.. 1767.. 30 40 50 50 50 50 60 60 60 24 17 17 20 24 24 2C 30 4s. 8d. 140 212 260 300 300 65 60 65 66 ::::.:::::::: 300 320 1 1 (22 to 26 s.l 3s. or 4s. 8d. V 200 200 1768.. m 1769. . 1777. . 48 6s. 160 ^ In country pay 120 equaled about £60 sterling or one-tliird. 2£57 6s.8d. At Dartmouth in 1773 tuition and board together were £20 a year. At Wil- liam and Mary the tuition in 1724 was " 20s. entrance and 20s. a year for pupil- age for each scholar." A woman offered to " undertake the keeping of the college table at the rate of £11 per annum for each scholar, with the other ad- vantages allowed to Mr. Jackson." " At Princeton tuition was £3 in 1754, £4 In 1761, £5 in 1773, and board in 1761 was £15 a year, according to Maclean. Reference to the prices of a few well-known commodities will help one to appreciate the apparently small gifts which we are to examine. In 1641 com- mon labor was worth Is. 6d. per day, the next year corn was worth 2s. 6d. and wheat and barley 4s. per bushel. In 1670 wheat was worth 5s., corn 3s. ; the year following labor was worth from Is. 3d. to Is. 8d. In 1704 corn was worth 2s. and wheat 3s. 8d. In 1727 wheat was worth 6s. 6d. to 8s. In 1752 com was worth 4s. and wheat 6s. In 1776 corn was 3s. and wheat 6s. Sd." 3. SALARIES OF COLLEGE PKOFESSOBS. One further item of interest in this connection is the salary of the teacMng staff. This was the chief item of expenditure in every college and is a fair index to the value of any gift or to the value of the funds available for the use of the college at any time. As shown in Table 2, Yale's president received from £60 to £300, while the salary of a tutor was very much less. Maclean thinks that Princeton's president did not receive over £50 annually before 1754. In that year his salary was fixed at £150 proclamation, rising to £200 proclaraa- " " Proc. of Visitors of William and Mary College, 1716," in The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. IV, p. 174. "From Weeden's Economic and Social Histoi-y of New England, 1620-17S9, Vo). If. 22 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. tion in 1757 and to £400 In 1766, only to be reduced again to £250 with the usual perquisites, and finally to £200 in 1767. In 1768 it rose again to £350 proclama- tion, or about £206 sterling. In 1752 Maclean states the salary of a tutor to have been £20 sterling and £66 in 1767. The three professors at Princeton in 1767 received: Divinity, £175; mathematics, £150; language and logic, £125. In 1654 the overseers of Harvard College offered Rev. Mr. Charles Ohanning the presidency of the college at a salary of £100 per annum." From Judge Sewell's diary the salary in 1698 appears to have been £200." At the close of the colonial period Harvard's president was receiving £300," a professor about £200, and the librarian £60. In October, 1766, a committee of the colonial assembly of Connecticut reported that Yale ought to have : 1. A president, at £150 per annum. 2. A professor af divinity, at £113 6s. 8d. per annum. 3. A senior tutor, at £65 Is. 4d. per annum. 4~ Three junior tutors, at £51 Is. 4d. per annum each. Salaries at William and Mary were little different. President Blair, the first president, received £150 at first, and later only £100, increasing in 1755 to £200. During the same period a professor received £80 and fees of 20s. per student. In 1729 each professor received £150, but no fees.*' In 1770 the president received £200, each of two divtni-ty professors £200, two other pro- fessors each £100, master of grammar school £150, first usher £75, second usher £40." When one considers that the entire expenditures of Harvard for the year 1777 were but £1,086 18s. 2d. and that the college had but £386 18s. 2d. to pay it with, the residue being paid " by assessments on the scholars for study-rent, tuition, and other necessary charges, amounting communibus annis to about £700 ; " or that the average annual income of William and Mary College during the decade 1754 to 1764 was £1,936 14s. 6id.," these salaries appear relatively high. THE FUNCTION OF PHILANTHROPY IN THE COLLEGES. What now is the character of the educational philanthropy which was practiced in the midst of these conditions? Was it constructive, or did it follow tradition? It might be hard to answer these questions to our entire satisfac- tion, but an examination of the parts of Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6, which refer to this period, will throw light on the subject. ^ Quiney : Vol. I, Appendix IV. * Ibid., Vol. I, Appendix XI, p. 490. *»Ibid., Vol. II, p. 241. "Tyler, pp. 137, 144. " Tyler quoted these amounts from the college bursar's books, Williamsburg, the Old Colonial Capitol, p. 158. " Quiney : Vol. II, p. 241. " Tyler, Lyon G., " WUliamsburg, the Old Colonial Capital," p. 156. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 23 Table H.— Donations and grants to Harvard. Vmversity, 1636-1910 — Distribu- tion of the donations by individuals.^ Total dona- tions by Individuals, Per cent of all gifts from Eng- land. Total grant by colony. Per cent of total donations by individuals given to — Dates. 1 2 'o & go & 3 6 I h CO H §1 li Is p .0 3 Per cent in form of— s 1 X636-1640.. 1641 1645 11,936 4,826 333 1,475 6,785 266 4,764 7,745 900 7,041 2, 5.58 462 3,724 1,498 1,232 2,979 9,171 8,259 5,153 2,496 2,643 2,973 1,277 1,112 2,584 17,397 6,336 12,989 1,814 1,800 7,906 9,103 4,000 33,333 6,444 47,333 76,700 60,003 146,662 44,951 31,180 303,702 205,383 131,898 254,713 ' 680, 917 ' 2.54, 741 773,427 784,541 1,487,608 2, mi, 554, 1,586,865 4,306,609 7,648,309 7,309,960 "'ii' ""\2 63 9 6 42 34 $2,002 99 60 100 27 79 37 36 ,5 82 75 100 100 10 89 13 11 30 75 26 60 9 3 16 9 38 42 L3 14 44 3 1 40 100 91 100 9 100 22 15 "hi" .5 9 31 100 164^1650. . 1651-1655.. 1656-1660. . 445 666 1,665 100 73 21 63 64 99.5 18 25 " 90' ' 11 87 89 60 25 74 40 91 97 84 91 62 68 87 86 66 97 100 100 100 100 100 100 96 97 .34 100 100 96 98 100 88 88 78 93 95 83 79 78 74 86 87 88 85 100 36 99.6 100 100 87 100 100 100 100 88 25 39 40 46 48 97 83 81 79 46 100 10 100 14 58 "87.'5 6 8 1 15 17 1 14 10 25 43 68 38 7 9 64 16 22 23 29 .52 36 20 18 1 100 61 90 100 99.6 .33 30 15 63 39 10 1666-1670.. 1671-1675. . 1676-1680. . 1681-1686. . 1686-1690. . 1691-1695. . 1696-1700. . 1701 170^ 66 1,831 1,666 1,998 1,665 1,332 1,831 63 .5 18 25 67"' 70 13 13 100 3 100 11 54 77 90 90 76 97 77 100 3 97 (') 89 1706-1710. . 1711-1715. . 1716-1720. . 1721-1725.. 1726-1730. . 1731-1735. . 1736-1740. . 1741-1745. . 1746-1750. . 1761-1755. . 1766-1760. . 1761-1765. . 1766-1770. . 1771-1775. . 1776-1780.. 1781-1786.. 1786-1790. . 1791-1796.. 32 70 11 16 53 80 37 78 78 90 77 13 17 27 2,337 2,758 11, 107 907 4,486 2,364 654 378 942 9,459 2,946 3.5, .507 14,162 6,594 3,203 4,878 3,220 22 76 61 60 54 52 3 17 19 21 54 50 46 23 37 12 2.5 17 11 "2.5" 33 35 44 3 12 7 4 2.5 "■9" 2 10 10 25 3 12 23 97 100 2 20 23 1 49 19 47 3 97 35 66 40 58 63 97 3 90 04 .7 65 44 86 42 100 12.6 94 92 99 85 83 99 86 90 75 67 42 62 93 91 36 84 78 77 71 48 64 80 80 42 79 12 94 4 60 42 100 87 "'h" 12. 100 53 52 26 29 14 93 37 52 39 62 29 96 75 61 66 24 45 43 79 64 88 1801 1806 1806-1810. . 1811-1815. . 1816-1820.. 1821-1825. . 1826-1830 ioo 20,000 .50,000 30,000 "'K' 3 66 .7 "2 ■ 6 .1 99 36 76 21 44 16 47 12 16 .6 14 48 74 71 86 1836-1840. . 1841 1845 7 4 2 15 1 12 .2 2 14 8 8 3.6 5 10.8 6 3.S 9 9 .2 4 11 3 23 ...... 12 16 4 1.6 1.4 3.4 63 1846-1850. . 1851-1855 48 .7 .3 .3 "e" 1.8 .2 29 8 .2 "e" 12 8 .03 3 11 8 9 61 1856-1860 12 2 22 7 5 17 21 22 26 14 13 38 71 1866-1870 4 1871-1875 25 49 1881 1885 33 1886-1800 76 189M895. . 66 57 1901 1905 21 IflOfl-lfilO 36 1 These data were compiled from three sources mainly. Those before 18'51 were taken from Quincy's History of Harvard University, 2 vols published in 1840, and from the lists of "Grants and Donationsto Harvard CoUege" published In Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. IX, pp. 139-160, Sept., im Those for the years 1862-1910 were taken from the annual reports of the president and treasurer of Harvard " offt of 27 acres of land, income to be used for scholarships for students from town of Dorchester. • Data for the years 1862-63 and 1867-68 are not Included. 24 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Tabi,e 4. — Donations and grants to Yale University, 1701-1900 — Distribution o-j donations by individuals^ Total grants by colony. Total donations by indi- viduals. Per cent of total donations by individuals given to— Per cent in form of— Dates. 1 =1 P. ^ 3 II pi ft 1 it 'S * .2 .ft i s u 11 if p il a 3 1 1701-17(15 $1,335 1,335 3,627 1,758 4,006 2,203 2,448 2,997 2,679 5,233 4,520 S134 100 100 100 100 1706-1710 1,424 5,416 868 1,971 a?, 608 67 352 63 169 968 1,041 109 62 1,290 3,233 1,468 / .1,122 ■■87' 51 19 80 "89' ■73' 50 100 13 49 100 100 100 81 20 100 100 100 11 100 27 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 1 100 29 100 11 82 100 100 100 100 60 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 100, 100 100 90 100 100 80 50 100 1716-1720 12 1721 1725 100 1731 1735 99 14.6 52 99 17X6-1740 50 71 ■■'89" 18 80 1746-1750 37 89 97 82 16 10 1751 1755 "is"" 0.5 89 18 1761 1765 1,460 3,596 1,282 5 10 10 1766-1770 1771 1775 1776-1780 20 1781-1785. 50 1786-1790 22 1 }40,629 100 8 100 1796 1800 1801-1806. 1806-1810 "8,'785' 2,000 100 100 100 100 1811-1815. 1816-1820 . 6,000 78,848 14,664 126, 138 12,000 38,100 15,860 177,490 329,600 434,648 743,481 1,136,007 417,000 623,200 3,349,471 1,553,382 1,729,094 100 2 3 30 "25' 21 2 6 15 33 S3 1 21 35 98 97 70 100 100 75 79 100 98 94 85 66 47 99 79 , 65 100 30 75 32 17 31 27 96 68 53 62 89 46 98 92 74 81 50 98 100 97.3 18 100 44 95 92 97 92 93 46 85 18 50 1821-1825 70 26 68 83 69 71 5 42 47 38 11 55 20 8 26 19 58 6 20 3 1 50 21 16 2 1 ...... 16 3 34 "ss"' 2 1826-1830. 1831-1835 7,000 "it 1836 1840 82 1841 1845 66 1846-1850 8 '"5""" 34 56 1861-1855. 30 40 21 11 42 5 21 6 10 3 9 60 6 17 24 . 2 28 13 26 8 5 1866-1860. 24 44 9 11 28 2 1 5 15 6 4 "5"" 3 1.5 "io""" 3 s 1861-1865. 3 1866-1870. 1871-1876. 0.5 .3 4 ...... 1 .5 2 2 4 1.5 5 3 4 8 1876-1880. 1881 1885 54 15 1886-1890. 1891-1895. 1893-1900. ^ Sources for this table: Conn. Colonial Records; Dexter — Yale Biop'aphies and Annals, 1701; Steiuer^ Hist, of Educ. in Conn.; Bagg— Four Years at Yale; Stile's Diary /Vol. Ill; Trumbull— Hist, of Conn. Vol. II; Papers of New Haven Hist. Soc.; Kingsley — Yale Book; Baldwin— Hist, of Yale College; and reports of the president and treasurer of Yale CoUege. 2 £3,000 of this was the value of a farm which the coUege leased for 999 years, and though now worth 1140,000, brmgs the university only $145 per year^ New Haven Hist. Soc. Papers, Vol. I, p. 156. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 25 -Donations and grants to Princeton University, ll^S-lSoG and 1906- 1910 — Distribution of the donations 6j/ individuals.'' Total donations by indi- viduals. Total grants by Colony. Per cent of total donations by individuals given to— Given in form of— Dates. 4 i g o 1 P. 1 6 a s a •1 il O4 1 ■a « CO m ^ fi3 CO td 3 k .if 1 Ph P. s 1 P5 3 1 n 1745-1750 13,953 16, 261 973 100 1 100 100 100 100 99 100 100 2 1751-1765 25 100 67 25 100 6 1756-1700 (?) 1761-1765 (») 1766-1770 7,058 146 3,300 1,550 3,657 10,677 80 63,278 13,500 3,480 3,080 9,080 17,030 4,785 3,185 6,080 3,540 105, 080 4,769,115 92 8 100 "94' 90 100 100 99 97 100 100 100 97 100 100 63 100 100 77 79 100 100 69 18 100 "'99' 3 88 98 33 27 99 98 99 98 8 16 21 6 1 8 "ioo"'" 99 100 1 1771-1775 1776-1780 100 6 10 100 1781-1785 31 82 63 90 93 81 100 31 9 69 1786-1790 91 1791-1795 100 1796-1800 S8, 010 ..... 3 100 1 97 12 2 67 73 1 2 1 2 90 85 100 100 98 96 88 100 100 100 75 98 63 100 100 87 1801-1805 2 1 16 17 98 33 16 44 60 37 54 3 82 "27' 1 95 97 97 33 11 62 97 49 98 3 .01 6 .5 6 ""5" 1806-1810 66 12 2 1 70 1 2 1 2 1 4 1811-1815 12 1816-1820 1821-1825 66 1826-1830 3 1831-1835 25 1836-1840 2 1841-1845 37 37 1846-1850 1861-1865 95 4 ..... 1906-1910 £3 13 1 Data for this table were taken from Maclean's Hist, of tbe CoUege of New Jersey; Murray's Hist, of Educ. in New Jersey; and from reports of the president and treasurer of the college. " In 1860 the hbrary contained about 12,000 volumes, practically all of which had been donated. See Maclean, Hist, of the CoUege of New Jersey, Vol. I, p. 206. ' Right to conduct lottery. There were three sources of, income for the colleges : The general court, philan- thropy, and student fees. In the accompanying tables we are concerned with that of philanthropy mainly, though for comparative purposes, column 1 gives the amounts received from the State. The gifts are grouped into flve-year periods. Column 2 gives us a picture of the stream of donations that has been flowing for so many years into the treasuries of four of our oldest colleges. The first large grouping of the gifts is that which shows them to have been given to the college unconditionally on the one hand, or with certain conditions which wholly or in part determine how the money shall be spent on the other. The next grouping is that which states vifhether the gift is for present use or for permament endowment. Further than this it is a question of just what is the specific condition. Is it for the library, for scholarships, for appa- ratus, etc.? FUNCTION OF THE STATE IN HIGHER EDUCATION. During the eighteenth century Harvard received relatively much more from the State than in the seventeenth century. Yet during the entire colonial period the loss of that support would have been almost fatal to the college. The same 26 PHILANTHEOPY IN AMBBICAN HIGHER EDTJCATION'. Table 6. — Donations and grants to C.olum1)ia University, 1754-1910— Distribvr tions of the donations by individuals.^ Total dona- tions by individ- uals. Total grants by colony. Per cent of total donations by individuals given to— In form of— Dates. si 1 1 lis 1 .1 1 3 s 1 1 1750-1755 521,593 27,680 4,860 1756-1760 1761-1765 1 7fifi-1 770 $115,328 38,466 29 99 71 \ 1 17-71-1775 177fi-17S0 1 1 17R1 ■|7RS 4,860 12,462 4,880 48,600 11,935 8,958 2,700 1 100 1786-1790 1801 1805 1806-1810 1 1 1816-1820 10,000 1 i 1821 1825 ...1 1826-1830 1836-1840 ... 1841 1845 20,000 100 100 100 100 1846-1850 1851 1855 1,000 1,150 2,800 200 4,300 10,000 18,945 247,911 4,974,385 3,630,160 3,910,570 4,382,015 100 13 100 100 100 100 95 60 92 99.7 97 74 'ioo"" 28 100 100 40 37 9 82 44 51 52 100 1 13 28 100 100 100 40 95 31 93 68 92 75 87 87 .... 1 72 72 72 1 1871 1S75 60 63 91 18 66 49 48 50 63 14 3 2.5 0.6 2.4 34 22 36 2 1.5 60 5 40 8 0.3 3.0 26 5 1886-1890 69 1891 1895 7 1896-1900 1901-1905 1906-1910 ■"'6.' 2' 6 12 15 32 8 25 ' The data for this table were taken from an official publication of the university entitled "Colmnlns University — Gifts and Endowments — 1754-1904," and from the reports of the treasurer of the university covering the years subsequent to 1904. This covers the Columbia Ck>ri>oratian alone and does not indude Barnard and Teachers' Colleges. is true of Yale and Columbia. For Princeton, however, there is a different story. Only once during the colonial period was any aid given by the State to Princeton. In 1762 the assembly granted the right to hold a lottery for an amount not to exceed £5,000." This was very real help, and since it involved a special act of the legislature it is fair to assume that it shows friendliness on the part of the State. A few years after this period closes, the State granted to the college £600 annually for three years, to be paid in quarterly payments.'" In the report of the committee which represented the college before the legis- lature it appears that legislators raised the objection that the institution was under the " sole and exclusive control of one denomination of Christians." The difficulties with which this act was passed and the result of the act show the extent to which the College of New Jersey was not a State institution. « Murray : Hist, of Educ. in New Jersey, p. 27. i ' " Maclean, Vol. I, p. 13, gives a copy of the report of a committee appointed fcW&ply to the State for aid. THE COLONIAL PEEIOD. 27 It is said on good authority, declares Maclean, that not one of the legislators who voted for the act was returned to his office at the ensuing election, so bitter was the feeling against the act." It is to be remembered that New Jersey, unlike Connecticut and Massachu- setts, was settled by people of several different religious sects, and that while religious education of the Congregational type practically meant State educa- tion for Yale and Harvard, it meant only church education for the New Jersey college." A more careful study of the problem of higher education and the State is inviting, but a few illustrations to show that State education of collegiate grade, while understood and practiced in part, was not a fully established educational social philosophy in the colonial days, serves our purpose. Wheelock's Indian school received aid, £50 per annum for five years, once from the Colony of New Hampshire, and after the school became Dartmouth College it received aid of £60 in 1771 and £500 in 1773, after which no foi-mal request was ever made, though one was prepared in 1775." New Hampshire apparently had no thought of Dartmouth as a State institution. The College of Rhode Island was essentially a denominational school estab- lished in a State where the Baptist faith predominated but by the church of that denomination in several Colonies. There should theoretically have been no hindrance to making their college quite as much an object of State concern as was the case with Yale, Harvard, and Kings ; but the facts show that little help was ever received by the college from the Colony, due, no doubt, to Rhode Island's insistence upon a real separation of church and state. At William and Mary the relation of college and state varied with the governors of the province, several of whom were exceedingly unfriendly to higher education in general, and to President Blair and his college in particu- lar. But in spite of these the college received much genuine assistance from the Colony. At the outset it was granted a duty on liquors imported, and on skins and furs exported, which by October, 1695, amounted to £441 sterling,™ and "upwards of 3,000 pounds communibus annis."^^ In 1718 a grant of £1,000 was made by the Colony to establish three scholarships (part of this fund was invested in negro slaves). In 1726 a grant of £200 annually for 21 years was made from the duty on liquors. In 1734 this increased to include the entire income of the 1 penny per gallon duty on liquors, providing that part of the money should be used for the purchase of books, each of which was to bear a label, reading " The gift of the General Assembly of Virginia in the Year 1734." " In 1759 the college received another grant in the form of a tax on peddlers. Without making the list exhaustive, it is evident that the State took an interest in the college and bore a fairly substantial part of its financial burdens, even if it did not assume the real responsibility. CONDITIONAL AND UNCONDITIONAL GIFTS. In the case of Harvard there seems to have been a gradual and fairly per- sistent tendency for people to specify how the college should use their gifts. At Yale there was somewhat of a general tendency toward unconditional gifts, "Maclean, Vol. I, p. 18. " During and following tlie Revolntion Tale could not get help from the State for much the same reason. The l^slature demanded that " civilians " be placpd on the board of trustees before the State rendered aid. This was finally done. "Chase, pp. 2T2, 277. ■* Jruce, Philip Alexander : Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth C«i- tnry, Vol. I, p. 395. •■Wowe's History of the Colony of Virginia, p. 325. ■■ This is another evidence that the State did DOt consider the college a State iwtitation. 111512'— 22 8 28 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. but most of the early gifts were conditional. At Princeton also there was a tendency to place some condition upon the gifts, and with the emphasis in the early years somewhat between that for Tale, which emphasizes conditional and that for Harvard which emphasizes unconditional gifts. In the early days a college was just one thing. It was a teaching institution only and there was little occasion for giving other than " to the college.'' Yet many gifts were carefully safeguarded with conditions. A glance at the succeeding columns of the tables, however, and an explana- tion of some of the large figures in the " purpose specified " column will suflice to show that the main current, even of the conditional gifts, was generally in line with the fundamental aim and practical needs of the college. Taking the 73 per cent in the " purpose specified " column of the Harvard table, the ex- planation is simply £60 worth of books and £251 15s. 6d. toward " the repairs of the college." The 99.5 per cent in 1671-1675 is largely accounted for by the contributions from 44 towns " for the erection of a new building for the college," amounting to over £2,000. The 90 per cent in 1696-1700 is mostly accounted for by the cost of Stoughton Hall, built and presented to the college by the Hon. William Stoughton in 1699. The first 100 per cent in the " purpose specified " column of the Princeton table was gifts to the aid of pious and indigent students, a very common mode of assistance in those days, as it is now in many colleges. In the Yale table the first 100 per cent refers to books for the library, and the second to nearly 1,000 volumes, mostly from England. GIFTS FOK PBESENT USE AND FOK ENDOWMENT. The next general grouping of the funds is into those for present use and those for permanent endowment. It is very noticeable that all through this period the gifts were in the main to be used at once by the college. The " dead . hand," good or bad, plays little part in this period of our educational history. The 100 per cent in the Harvard table, " permanent endowment " column, 1646-1650, was just one bequest, and that to the college in general. The 64 per cent in 1666-1670 was for the establishment of " two fellows and two scholars." The 75 per cent in 1716-1730 was for the maintenance of preachers and for the education of pious young men for the ministry, both entirely appropriate to the needs of Harvard at that time. This same tendency appears to have been true for the other colleges. HOW GIFTS WERE CONDITIONED. What and how many kinds of restrictions were placed upon these gifts? From the very start there are restricted gifts, at first few in number, and falling within the main object of the college, but gradually increasing in number and variety until in the present day they are extremely numerous. During the period under discussion, however, they were few in number. They are for buildings, for the library, for aid of pious and indigent students, for scholarships and fellowships, for equipment, and for professorships. INFLUENCE OF CONDITIONAI, GIFTS UPON THE GROWTH OF THE COLLEGE. To what extent do these restricted gifts tend to broaden the purpose and function of the college? There can be cited numerous instances of where an entirely new field of work has been undertaken by a college as the result of such a gift. Observatories, scientific schools, hospitals, and botanical gardens are common illustrations of this. In the colonial days, however, when the THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 29 economic ancl social life was restricted; wlien for the most part professional life meant the ministry, and a ministry whose profession rested upon accepted truths and philosophies long ago written down in books, and not upon ability and training in the discovery of new truth and the making of new creeds ; when all learning was book learning; we expect the conditions placed upon bene- factions to reflect these ideas and conditions. To say that " endowment " has not produced an educational experiment until it has completely departed from the common aims and ideas of people in gen- eral, however, is to restrict the meaning of educational experiment. The found- ing of a professorship of divinity in 1721 was an experiment in a way, even though theology was then the center of the college curriculum. If this pro- fessorship did nothing startling by way of educational experimentation, it at least shifted the emphasis in the Harvard curriculum, which means that it made Harvard a slightly different Harvard from what it had been. So. while an examination of the tables shows that nothing very unusual was started by gifts during this period, it also shows that without the gifts the colleges would have been different from what they were. A study of the gifts " to pious and indigent students " is especially interest- ing. Tale seems to have received nothing for this purpose before 182.5. The same is not true, however, for either Harvard or Princeton. The fact that the tendency to add to these funds to-day, and that they are of such large conse- quence in our theological colleges particularly, gives us a special interest in the early ancestry of this particular kind of beneficence. We can not help noting the absence of such funds in our modern scientific schools. To say that our present research fellowship is the same thing is not true. Competitive scholarships and fellowships are very old methods of helping students and not in any way connected with the funds here considered. In colonial times the condition almost always read " for the benefit of pious and indigent students of the gospel ministry," or words to that effect. Since a large percentage of colonial college students were training for the ministry," it is perhaps unfair to assume that indigence was regarded as a virtue or proper qualification for entering that profession. The income of a minister was about equal to that of a professor, so the economic outlook for the theological student could scarcely be responsii)le for the ministry calling its members largely from the Indigent class. Whatever the explanation, it seems a fact that colonial Harvard and Prlncfetoh did subsidize a class of students who classified as " indigent, pious, and desirous of entering the ministry." The plan of establishing scholarships and fellowships, granted on basis of scholarships and general ability, appears first at Harvard in 1643, with a gift of £100 from Lady Moulson, of England. There were very few such funds es- tablished in the colonial period, but there were enough to show that the idea, old in Europe of course, had been brought into the colonial college. The gifts for the establishment of professorships, usually regarded as on the whole the most useful of all conditional benefactions to higher education." have played some part in the development of our colleges since the first gift for that purpose in 1721, when the Hollis professorship of divinity was established at Harvard. From then on these gifts take a prominent place among Harvard's benefactions, and there are a few such gifts to Yale and Princeton. Table 7 will show, in order of their establishment, the kinds of professorships which were established in this period, the field of work each covered, and how each was endowed. " See " Professional Distribution of College and University Graduates," by Bailey B. Burritt, D. S. Bu. of Educ. Bui., 1912, No. 19. " See President Bliof b An. Rep. of Harvard Univ., 1901-2, p. 61. 30 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Table 7. — Distribution and character of pre-Revolutionary professorships. Dates. Field of work to be covered. How endowed. Place. Founding gift. 1721 Gift by Thos. Hollis Harvard Harvard Yale Income £40 an- ' Mathematics and natural philosophy. Gift by Thos. HolUs nually. 1764 Gift by PhiUp Livingston Bequest by Thos. Hancock. . Gift by Jno. Williams Bequest by Nicholas Boylston £28i sterling. 1764 1766 Hebrew and other oriental languages. Harvard Princeton Harvard £1,000 sterling. £100 sterling. 1771- Khetoric and oratory £1,600 sterling. Here are six professorships — three of which are divinity and two others more or less allied to divinity, four founded by bequest and two by gift, all but one on a fair foundation and that one soon enlarged by subscription — founded in the half century preceding the Revolution, which, when considered in the light of the small faculties of that time, represent a very substantial accomplishment for philanthropy. The fields covered by these professorships were all entirely legitimate, in fact essential to the meaning of a college at that time. We must not overlook the fact, however, that such a gift was not made at Harvard during almost its first century of work, at Tale during its first half century, and at Princeton for 20 years. The precedent for founding professorships is, of course, very old in Europe, and it is a bit surprising that such endowments were begun so late in the Colonies. The endowment of the library is scarcely second in importance to that of professorships. The column representing gifts to the library is only partially complete, since so many of the gifts were in books and manuscripts, the value of which was only occasionally to be found. The money gifts to libraries during this period, including gifts of books when value was stated, were more prominent in Yale than in Harvard or Princeton. THE FOEM or GIFTS. The form of the gift varies somewhat with the college, but in all the larger percentage of benefactions for this period are by direct gift instead of by be- quest. This is slightly so for Harvard, more so for Princeton, and pronouncedly so for Yale. The bequests are more often presented for permanent' rather than for immediate use, though they have not been segregated here to show this. IMPOBTANCE OF GIFTS FROM ENGLAND. Before passing from this period some note should be taken of the important part which the mother country played in providing money for the infant col- leges in this country. Evidence for this is shown for Harvard only. From these figures, however, it is evident that the colonial colleges had many friends in the mother country. In fact, without these gifts it is hard to say what might have been the fate of colonial Harvard. English donations did not come through the avenues of the church and religious societies alone, though religious motives are often evident in the conditions adhering to the gifts, which were for the aid of library, professor- ships, indigent students, etc. When war broke down the friendly feeling between the two countries this remarkable source of support, valuable in more ways than one, rapidly dried up. It is frequently pointed out that the beginning of our national period is the ending of English and the beginning of French influence in our higher THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 31 ediicatipn. So it is, and the ending of the column of figures here referred to is a concrete statement of one of tlie things that is meant by the ending of the English influence. When we consider these figures in the light of the developments which the gifts opened up and the suggestions they brought to our colleges, we have more than a word picture of this transition stage in one of our higher institu- tions of learning. There is one table (Table 6) not yet referred to, dealing with King's Col- lege, later Columbia University. The fact that this college received so little by way of donations through this period, and a fairly regular amount from the Colony, makes it a marked exception. This study is dealing with philanthropy, and not with the lack of it, and can only pass this with the suggestion that the political life of New Tork, the religious restrictions attaching to the founda- tion of the college, and the general and growing attitude of unfriendliness which the people felt toward the English church, and also the English Govern- ment, made it more difficult for the people to sympathize with the college and treat it as an institution. of the people. Without attempting to analyze the cause further, it must be referred to here as a marked exception to the rule of college building in colonial America ; and in view of the fact that gifts for other colleges not infrequently came from people in New York, we can only infer that the people themselves were not neglectful of higher education, but only of this college. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. This concludes a description of the educational philanthropy of the colonial period. If we were to try to characterize it briefly, we should say that, in the light of the economic conditions under which a group of young colonies were forming, it was extensive and that it was consciously focused upon a vital social problem. We should say that organized religion dominated practically aU. the colleges and a large proportion of the gifts, and often denominationalism tried to bend the college in this or that direction, most often with little ill effect. We should say that there is good evidence that a very large per- centage of the gifts were solicited, usually for a specific purpose, and that therefore the conditions of many gifts were actually determined by the col- lege authorities themselves, which argues that, after aU, the colleges did not take form to a very marked extent in terms of the ideas, or v-' -nis either, of philanthropists. We should say that the restricted gifts which ,,ent to the colleges were focused in reasonable proportion upon the fundamental needs of the schools, such, for instance, as buildings and grounds (not shown separately in the tables), professorships, library, and scholarships. We should say that the unrestricted gifts, though in relative amount they varied for the three colleges, show a substantial and fairly dependable source of support for each, and that the tendency to give for immediate needs was as commendable as it was pronounced, when we realize the limited resources of the colleges. We should say also that there is evidence in the foundation documents and facts pertaining to the actual establishing of the colleges that they were all — William and Mary a partial exception — intended from the start to rest upon philanthropy, and that the important service of philanthropy was not in its money and property gifts alone, but in responsibility borne and service rendered, service which meant not only self-sacrifice to a cause but constructive thinking and planning. While the colonial governments rendered most important service to William and Mary, Yale, Harvard, and King's, though not to Princeton. Brown, Dart- mouth, and Rutgers, it does not appear that in any case the Colony frankly 32 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEBIGAN HIGHEE EDUCATION. and fully accepted the responsibility for developing a college. State aid to higher education was an accepted fact when we think of Massachusetts, Con- necticut, Virginia, and New York, but not elsewhere. And in these cases there are explanations to be made which do not fully justify our calling any of them State institutions in the present accepted sense. If there is in this a lesson for modern philanthropy, it is in the persistence with which the gifts flowed into the colleges under all circumstances, and the sin- '•■ iiiid sane directions under which these gifts did their work. Chapter III. THE EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD, 1776-1865. THE PERIOD CHARACTERIZED. The treatmeut of the years 1776 ■ to 1865 as one period in the history of educational philanthropy is a more or less arbitrary division of time in the nature, extent, or methods of giving during these years. Yet there are some reasons, aside from convenience, for studying these first 90 years of our na- tional existence as a single period. As was pointed out above, the gifts from England practically ceased at the time of the Revolution. The Colonies now became Independent States, nnd began to face grave social and political responsibilities. Not only were the ties with the mother . country broken, but new, and for future educational development, significant friendships were formed in Europe with peoples whose educational ideas and institutions were quite unlilie those of England. In losing this Important source of support and influence, in forming new po- litical and, as it proved, educational ties In Europe, and In facing her new po- litical future, all American institutions enter upon a new period and must learn to function in new terms. Once a Nation was established, its next great political crisis was in 1861. During these years there had been remarkable political and Industrial achieve- ments, important religious movements, an unheard-of expansion of population to the west, and numerous and varied social philosophies had been tried out and proved failures in practice. All these movements and ideas were more or less reflected in the develop- ment of higher education. There had been a decline in interest in education, succeeded by an educational revival ; there had been a rapid growth in the number of colleges; the Nation and the States had shown an interest in edu- cation by the ordinances of 1785 and 1787 and by the actual founding of sev- eral State colleges. It Is mainly to philanthropy, however, that we must look as the chief agency in the development of the American college during these first 90 years of our national life. To trace the development of colleges through these years, and to describe the part which philanthropy played, is the problem of this chapter. THE NUMBER OF COLLEGES AND HOW STARTED. So far as mere numbers of institutions are concerned, private giving bore the larger part of the responsibility for higher learning during the early years. The States took no very definite step before 1794, and then in most cases fol- lowed rather tardily -the lead of private and church-endowed colleges. What 33 34 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDTTCATTON. the States did, however, was not insignificant. From the foundation of Har- vard down they had contributed liberally to higher education.' While making an occasional grant upon request from a college is different from taking full responsibility, yet we must remember two things: First, States were themselves in process of making and had no traditions or prece- dents to follow in such matters ; second, private and church-endowed educa- tion had centuries of precedent and traditions to point the way. In other words, society had been accustomed to using the church and private agencies for handling its college problems, and it is not surprising that it was slow in placing that function upon the State. During this period, then, one may say that the ideas of State support and control of higher education worked themselves out, but that the chief burden rested upon private and church donations. This is brought out still more clearly in Table 8, which shows the names of all the States added to the original 13 during this period, the dates of their admission, the name, date, and source of control of the first college established in each, the date when tlie State college or university was founded, and the number of colleges which had been founded in each State before the State uni- versity was established. There are 23 States in this group, and in only 2, Nevada and Florida, was the State imiversity the first institution of higher education founded. In three others, however, the State and a privately endowed school were started in the same year. A comparison of the date columns in the table will show that in most cases the State was more than 10 years old before it established a State college or university. This was doubtless due in most cases to the fact that the State was already well supplied with colleges, as appears from the next to the last column in the table. One other set of facts in this table is of interest, viz, the control of these colleges. In nearly every case it was the church which did the pioneering. Those marked nonsectarian were usually none the less religious projects, and some of them so marked were originally denominational. Philanthropy, for the most part through the church, Is therefore not only re- sponsible from the standpoint of mere numbers of colleges throughout this period, but also for the actual college pioneering of the ever-broadening frontier of the new country. 'Williams College (1793) received State grants as follows: 1789, lottery for £1,200, building for free school : 1793, £1,200 ; in 1816, three-sixteenths of the Massachusetts bank tax for 10 years, equaling $30,000 ; in 1859 a moiety of money from sale of Back Bay lands, $25,000, last gi-ant in 1868, $75,000. Colby College (1813) (Maine was then part of Massachusetts) received State grants as follows from Massachusetts: In 1813 a township of land, and again in 1815 a township of land ; from Maine, in 1821, $1,000 a year for 7 years (to reduce tuition fees) ; 1825, $1,000 annually for three years ; 1829, $1,000; 1832, $1,000 (one-half to help indigent students) ; 1861, two half town- ships of land on condition that college raise $21,000 by Apr. 1, 1863 ; in 1903, $15,000 to rebuild (after Are). Amherst College (1821), in 1827, in 1831, in 1832, 1838, and in 1839, requests refused; in 1847, $25,000 granted. Bowdoin College (1802), in 1794, five townships of land ; in 1820, $1,500 plus $1,000 annually " until the legislature shall otherwise direct " ; in 1820 also $3,000 annually for seven years, beginning 1824. THE EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD, 1776-1865. 35 Table 8. — Date of establish metit on^l sottrces of support and control of the first college or university in enrh of the States admitted before 1865. Date ad- mitted. First college. Control. State CoUeges found- states. Name- Date estab- Ushed. univer- sity found- ed. ed before State imiver- sity. 1792 1791 1796 1802 1812 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1836 1837 1845 1846 Transylvania University Mlddlebury CoUege 1798 1800 1794 1800 1832 1806 1826 1827 1830 1802 1818 1872 1833 Nonsectarian do 1865 1800 1794 1808 1860 1824 1848 1868 1831 1868 1847 1872 1841 1887 1889 1876 1848 j- lt«9 1869 1870 1863 1868 1886 11 Vermont Te,mie.=Kse« do Ohio Marietta College do Trfinf' Bush, p. 240. " Rep. tr. S. Com. of Edu., IfllS, p. 325. " Hall : Higher Educ. in Maine, p. 35. 111512°— 22 i 44 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATTON. In the early days the school had no endowment and marks its first important gift as $300. In 1835 a $100,000 endowment fund was started, but because of the financial crisis of that time only about one-third of this amount was raised. Another effort was made in 1849, when $34,000 was raised for the endowment of two professorships. Since that date the school has prospered. In 1913 a permanent endowment of $310,000 was reported. These are but samples to show how philanthropy, entirely unaided by the Stiite, took care of education for this particular profession. OTHER LINES OF PROrESSIONAL TRAINING. What philantbrophy has not done is of some interest here, since we are concerned with its relation to the development of all higher education. Theology has been kept strictly apart from politics in this country, and aside from a few early gifts from the State, this profession has been built up entirely by philantbrophy. Its institutional growth was in the beginning in connection with colleges of liberal training, but toward the close of the eighteenth century began to develop as separate schools. This was partly in fear of the rather unorthodox trend in the colleges and partly in order to better the instruction, since the demand for a better-trained ministry appears to have been strong. Denominationalism was also a factor in the case of churches which had not established colleges of their own. While higher education for the ministry has been handled entirely by philanthropy, this has not been true of either law or medicine. A few pro- fessorships of law'" and physic were established in the universities before the end of the colonial period, but appear to have been too academic and indirect to satisfy the rather utilitarian motives of these two professions. In the beginning, in fact all through this period, and even later, a few busy doctors taught medicine, and law was learned almost wholly by apprenticeship despite the rapidly increasing importance of the legal profession after the Revolution." EDUCATION OF WOMEN. Another important educational movement In the history of higher education which originates during this period, and furnishes new motives to philan- thropy, is that of colleges for women. The movement takes its rise along with Jaclcsonian democracy, antislavery agitation, the great westward move- ment, and early women's rights agitation, and very quickly takes permanent form in the hands of philanthropy, first through the pioneer work of Mrs. Einma Willard in the founding of the Troy Female Seminary in 1820 and the later work of Miss Mary Lyon in connection with the founding of Mount Holyoke Seminary and College in 1836. After an interesting educational career, Mrs. Willard opened the Troy Female Seminary in 1821. An initial fund of $4,000 was raised by the city of Troy by taxation and promptly supplemented by gifts. According to the curriculum offered," it is fair to look upon this as a genuine and successful attempt at higher education for women, even though the school later passed out of existence. In every sense this was a philanthropic enterprise. It succeeded as such for some 70 years, during which time it wielded a very wide Influence and "Professorships of law were established at William and Mary in 1799; at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania In 1790 ; at Columbia in 1793 ; at Yale in 1801 ; at Dartmouth In 1808 ; and at Harvard in 1815. " See Professional Distribution of College and University Graduates, by Bailey B. Bur- rltt, U. S. Bu. of Ed. Bui., 1912, No. 19. " See U. S. Com. of Ed. Rep., 1895-96, Vol. I, pp. 240-257. THE EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD, iT^fr-lSBS. 45 Stood as one of the important foundation stones whicli Mrs. Willard laid for tlie higher education of women in this country. Miss Lyon, like Mrs. Willard, proceeded on the assumption that it was quite as important to enlist the interest and sympathy of the great mass of people as it was to secure funds. She planned, therefore, to raise $30,000 by small subscriptions to start Mount Holyoke Semiuary and College. When one reads that one of the record books of subscriptions contained the names of more than 1,800 subscribers from 90 places, promising a total of $27,000, in sums varying from 6 cents to $1,000," and then reads that it was Miss Lyon's wish to " put within the reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that none can find better * * * a permanent institution consecrated to the work of training young women to the greatest usefulness," and one " de- signed to be furnished • with every advantage that the state of education in this country will allow,^° he realizes that, while philanthropy is not finding new methods, it is finding a new motive in an institution exclusively for the higher education of women. As is well known, the new idea met with opposition but, as usual, it w.is finally proved that philanthropy can be depended upon to meet any important social need as soon as that need differentiates itself from mere vague unrest. This movement for the education of women was less than 30 years old when the founder of Vassar College laid down funds amounting to nearly $800,000 for a similar institution, so much in demand as to attract nearly 350 students in its first year. Thus in a short time philanthropy's experiment had succeeded far beyond expectations. PHILANTHKOPT AND THE MANTJAL-LABOE COLLEGES. The manual-labor movement in American secondary and higher education came to this country from Europe, where for nearly the first half of the nine- teenth century Fellenberg and his successors experimented vrith the idea of combining remunerative work with school training. Students from many countries visited the Fellenberg institution, and the movement spread rapidly, the labor features finding a fertile field in both colleges; and secondary schools in this country. In Connecticut as early as 1819 such a school was established, and in 1831 the manual labor society for promoting manual labor in literary institutions was organized. The secretary of this society made an extended tour of the West and Southwest, visiting the manual labor schools, but seems to have left no statistical evidence of his study. Where the idea was introduced here the labor feature was used as an appeal to the philanthropist for support and to the parent to send his son to college, where, as a Wesleyan University resolution of August 27, 1833, says, " the physical as well as the intellectual and moral education will be attended to." It is only necessary to state that this idea took form In Maine Wesleyan Seminary in 1825, in Andover Theological Seminary in 1826, in Colby College in 1827, in Western Reserve University in 1830, in Wesleyan University in 1833, in Hartford Theological Seminary in 1834, and in Oberlin from its origin in 1833, to show something of the type of colleges which introduced it and the extent of its adoption. It was an expression of a new social as well as educa- ' « Mount Holyoke Seminary and College, by Mrs. Sarah D. (Locke) Stowe, U. S. Bu. of | Ed. Circ. No. 6, 1891, Ch. XXII. » " Mount Holyoke College — the Seventy-fifth Anniversary," p. 13. 46 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. tional philosophy, and seems to have made its appeal for benefactions from the social, moral, religious, educational, and economic points of view. A more intimate study of the benefactions to Oberlin, a college founded after the movement had become popular and one which fairly hewed its way into the world on the manual-labor basis, should give us a fair picture of this type of educational philanthropy. Mr. Leonard,^' quoting from Oberlin's first annual report, 1834, says : " The manual labor department is indispensable to complete education " and, " in a word, it meets the wants of a man as a compound being and prevents common and amazing waste of money, time, health, and life." He then goes on to ex- plain the nature and extent of the department and how well it is working. In 1837 " nearly all the young ladies and a majority of the young gentlemen have paid their board by manual labor." This report adds that while the school's funds were as they found them at that time, no pledge could be made that labor would be furnished. From then on the failure of the scheme was only a matter of time, and in 1849 the trustees realized that it was not paying and that some legal means of ending the experiment must be found. It was at this point that the " dead hand " appeared. The 500 acres of land had been donated to a manual labor school. In 1852 legal authority was found for leasing the ground, the lessee covenanting " yearly, during said term, to employ students of said college in some department of manual labor (when applied for) and pay them for their labor the current market price, to an amount each year of at least $2 for each acre of land hereby demised." '^ Further on in the lease it is agreed that in case any part of the lease is ad- judged to be beyond the powers of the Oberlin trustees, the lease becomes void. The expression " manual labor " disappeared from the catalogue after 1867-68, and m place of it reference is made to " facilities for self-support." ». Thus within 2 years from the beginning the college had failed to meet the full demand for labor, and within 20 years the labor scheme had disappeared in failure. During these 20 years, however, Oberlin had become a fairly well- established college, though these had been years of extreme poverty with much debt. The school's first real funds, some $15,000, were received during the first year, largely upon solicitation in payment for scholarships.^ The business side of the undertaking soon used this money, and the college went begging to New York, where it received a guarantee for full endowment of eight pro- fessorships. An unalterable condition of this gift, which was never paid,' was that Negroes should be given equal privilege with white students in the school. In this gift we have an illustration of how the policy of a college respect- ing a very important social and political issue was to be absolutely settled by philanthropy, and settled contrary to the wishes of nearly half the trustees of the college. A second effect of this intended gift was the abolition of all tuition charges, a move which cost the college dearly. Within a few years the college was some $40,000 in debt. In 1837 anveffort to raise a $100,000 endowment realized only about $6,000.^ Finally, in 1839, » The Story of Oberlin, by Delavan L. Leonard, p. 224 ffi. " Leonard, ibid., p. 228. 2" These perpetual scholarships cost $150 each and paid no tuition, merely giving the holder the privilege of entering the school and using the labor appliances to earn his way. They were thus a further pledge that the labor feature would be perpetuated. " Commons : Hist, of Higher Bduc. in Ohio. THE EARLY NATIONAL PERIOD, 1776-1865. 47 agents were sent to England to make an appral for help with which to pay the debts of the college." This brought $30,000 and valuable collections of books, and deserves notice here because the agents carried with them to England letters from antislavery leaders in America through which they presented their case to antislavery sympathizers In England. This and the idea of educa- tion for women are said to have made special appeal to the Society of Friends in England.^ Little aside from a gift of 20,000 acres of land was received during the next decade, but in 1850 an attempt at endowment was made, and by 1852 almost $95,000 was raised and invested. This, however, was another sale of scholarships, which this time secured free tuition for one student perpetually for $100, 18 years for $50, and 6 years for $25. This was merely paying tui- tion in advance, but a little figuring will show that it must be counted an absurdly low tuition. The Interest on $100 could not possibly pay the cost of educating a student. Thus the college increased its business," but on an imsound economic basis, which broke down with the high cost of living in the sixties. This is a fair picture of the relation of philanthropy to the manual labor college movement. There is little to distinguish it from tlie philanthropy in the old colleges where the manual labor idea was never adopted. It is just more evidence that philanthropy in education has been governed by the con- ditions of the times rather than by any wise educational philosophy. The manual labor college was but an incident in our great westward expansion. Such cure-all schemes in education were essential to the times. Hartford Theological Seminary carefully avoided the " incubus " of any permanent fund for the first few years, but when her subscribers fell off and lost their zeal for giving, an $11,000 bequest was gladly accepted as permanent endowment. Kenyon College sent out an appeal, " The Star in the West, or Kenyon College in the Year of Our Lord 1828," calling upon the reader to send $1 to the struggling school. " Kenyon College Circles " were formed in numerous towns where women met and sewed for the college, and more than $25,000 was sent in as the result of this appeal On the whole it is wiser to say that the manual labor movement was useful because it expressed an essential element in the civilization of that time than to say that it was useless because it was educationally and economically im- possible. PHILANTHROPHY THROUGH EDUCATION SOCIETIES. Another channel through which philanthropy has played a part in American higher education is that of religious education societies. These societies began to organize early in the nineteenth century in response to the demand for trained missionaries and ministers. Statistics published in early numbers of the American Quarterly Register show that churches were fully conscious of this need. Aside from several small local societies, the American Education Society ''' was the initial undertaking in this field, its original constitution being dated August 2= Fairchild : Oberlin, the Colony and the College, p. 208. M Ibid., p. 209. ^ This immediately increased the number of students from 570 to 1,020. ^ In 1874 the American Education Society and the Society for the Promotion of Col- legiate and Theological Education in the West were united under the name American Col- lege and Education Society. See their annual reports for 1874. 48 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. 29, 1815." The aim of this society is made clear by the following statement from its original constitution : Taking into serious consideration the deplorable condition of the inhabitants of these United States, the greater part of whom are either destitute of com- petent religious instruction or exposed to the errors and enthusiasm of un- learned men, we * * * do hereby, * * * form ourselves into a society for the benevolent purpose of aiding, and of exciting others to aid, indigent young men of talents and hopeful piety in acquiring a learned and competent education for the Gospel Ministry. This outlines a definite piece of work to be done, proposes philanthropy as a means, and indigent young men of talents and hopeful of piety as the agency for doing it. Further on in the constitution it is proposed to raise funds by subscription, and it is stated that " a permanent fund, of which flve-sixths part of the interest only may be expended, shall be formed of bequests, legacies, donations, grants, and subscriptions," and further, that agents shall be appointed to solicit — • by exciting churches and congregations to make annual collections for this pur- pose; and by establishing auxiliary societies in towns, counties, and distant regions, together with Cent Societies, * * ♦ by personal and persevering addresses to rich Individuals of both sexes, * * * and by respectful appli- cations to legislative bodies and other classes of men ; by establishing active and extensive correspondences, etc. All appropriations of funds are to be made by the trustees, who will also examine and select the candidates for the charity. All recipients of the charity who do not enter the ministry must refund the money received. The final article declares that " This Constitution, but not its object, may be altered and amended." The plans by which aid was granted have been changed from time to time," but since 1842 the money has been given as a gratuity. The bases for eligibility of applicants for assistance are stated in general terms only. Up to 1841 the applicant must have had 6 months of classical studies. During 1841 this was increased to 12 months, and in 1842 to college entrance requirements, with the exception of third-year academy students In some cases. This exception was later abolished. Such has been the general aim and plans of work of one of the oldest of these societies in America. To describe the workings of the other societies of this type would be practically to repeat the above. The Presbyterian Education Society was founded in 1819, became a branch of the American Education So- ciety in 1827 ^ and operated as such until the break in the Presbyterian Church, which took place toward the close of the period under discussion. The society for educating pious young men for the ministry of the Protestant EJplscopal Church was organized in 1818 and within a decade had 28 auxiliary societies » A copy of this constitutiott is printed in full In Appendix A at the annual report of the society for 1839. Whether this idea of organizing education societies for the training of ministers was borrowed from England is not known, but such a society existed in England as early as 1648. The American Quarterly Register, vol. 3, pp. 145-152, published a tract showing " a model for the maintaining of students of choice abilities at the university, and prin- cipally in order to the ministry," followed by the names of trustees, among which were Matthew Poole, Richard Baxter, Wm. Bates, and others. In Chapter IV of the model we read : " That the scholars to be chosen be of godly lite, or at the least, hopeful for godli- ness, of eminent parts, of an ingenious disposition, and such as are poor, or have not a gnflBcient maintenance any other way." Tills society had 44 students at Oxford and Cam- bridge at this time. " See An. Rep. for 1839, p. 71 ft ; also Barnard's Amer. J. of Eiduc., vol. 14, p. 373 ff. ''An, Rep, Amer. Ed. Soc, 1839. THE EARLY NATIONAL PEBIOD, II'TG-ISSS. 49 operating under its supervision.'" The Massachusetts Baptist Education Society, later the board of education of the Northern Baptist Church, starting in 1814; the board of education of the Reformed Dutch Church, starting in 1828; the board of education of the Methodist Episcopal Church, starting in 1864 ; and the Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education in the West are the principal organizations of this type. Bach of these had numerous branch societies", and all supported students in part or in full by loans. The development of branch or auxiliary societies in connection with the Amer- ican Education Society Is a fair sample of their methods. Between 1815 and 1838 there were organized 63 branch societies east of the Mississippi River and north of the southern boundary of Tennessee ; 41 of these were founded between 1829 and 1834." Although the chief method of work was by direct gift or loan to the student, in some cases professorships were established, salaries were paid, and buildings erected. The gifts or loans to students were often no more than $40 per year. In 1829 to 1831 there were 18 to 22 theological seminaries in operation in the United States. Table 13 shows the number of students attending these schools and the number receiving aid from some education society." From this it appears that from one-fourth to one-sixth of the theological students in the United States at this time were beneficiaries of these organiza- tions. Table 15 sets forth for each fifth year, which may be taken as representative of the other years, the financial history of three of these societies, along with the numbers of beneficiaries they have had under their care during this period. Table 14 shows what a large part of the student body at Amherst College was j-eceivlng assistance from the American Education Society. Table 13. — Number of students in theological seminaries and numher receiving aid from religious education societies. Dates. Students in seminaries. Eeceivlng aid. 1829 599 639 709 151 1830 143 1831. 115 Table 14. — Number of students attending Amherst College, lS-i5-1854, and number and per cent of these receiving aid from the American Educational Society." Dates. Total students attending. Receiving aid from American Education Society. Number. Per cent. 1845. 118 120 150 166 176 182 190 195 211 237 27 28 26 45 42 57 66 46 40 58 22.8 1846 23.3 1847 17.3 1848 27.1 1849.. 23.8 1850 3L3 1851 29.0 1852 23.5 1853 19.0 1854 24.6 a Data for this table taken from Edward H. Hitchcock^s Reminiscences of Amherst College. "Amer. Quar. Register, Jan., 1829, p. 190. " From An. Eep. Am. Educ. Soc. for 1839, pp. 88-90. » Data taken from Am. Quar. Register, -s-*!. 1, p. 220 ; vol. 2, p. 247 ; vol. 3, p. 303. 50 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN THGHER EDUCATION. Table 15. — Showing for each fifth year the. anrmal receipts anil' the numher of students aided by three church or religious educational societies} Date. American Educ. Society. Northern Baptist Educ. Society. Presbyterian Educ. Society. Amount received. Number aided. Amount received. Number aided. Amount received. Number aided. 1817 $5,714 13,108 33,092 41,927 05,574 32,352 32, 831 15,566 28,732 16,559 23,386 138 195 300 807 1,125 615 389 413 332 324 200 $604 2,049 2,245 6,340 11 9 19 33 1822 $4,457 11,860 13,761 37,038 26,628 39,645 45,396 48,632 43,244 51,308 90 1827 230 18,32 . 270 1837 ' 562 300 1847 403 1852 372 383 1862 375 1866 254 1 Compiled from the volumes ol the American Quarterly Register and from the annual reports of the societies. One of these societies, the Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education in the West, had a slightly different purpose. It was organized in 1844, and operated as a separate society down to 1874, at which time it joined with the American Education Society. Its purpose as set forth in its charter ^ was to assist struggling young colleges in the West with funds collected iu eastern cliurehes.'" It was concerned with general as well as with theological training, and limited its aid not only to western colleges but only to such of these as showed promise. There is evidence that this society had influence in the development of higher standards in western colleges." TABtE 16. — Financial account of the Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education in the West. Years. Receipts. Grants. Colleges aided. Years. Receipts. Grants. Colleges aided. 1844 $17,004 11,661 16,730 14,113 12,339 16,737 17,623 16,962 20,617 20,931 17,803 19,021 24,687 18,007 14, 103 $15,588 8,704 13,194 14,324 5 5 1859 $15,185 22,528 18,643 60,270 20,430 26,913 38,538 58,426 27,803 72,289 74, 742 62,475 76,505 67,760 $10,156 17,793 14,689 56,320 14,710 23,588 . -33,246 61,319 19,964 -65,695 72,425 51,022 73,881 62,979 10 1846 1860 .•11 1846 1863 1847 7 7 7 6 6 7 11 11 4 16 8 12 1864 1848 1865 - i 1849 1866 1850 1867 5 1851 1868 1852 1869 ' ' 9 1853 12,296 9,669 6,978 18,889 11,692 8,418 1870 -6 1854 1871 ft 1856 1872 . 7 1856 1873 7 1857 1874 9 1858 Table 16, showing the work done by the society, will bear close study. The society gave aid " to the college," not to individual students; and did this in a way to keep down useless undertakings and to stimulate useful ones. If we compare the income of these societies with that of colleges reported In Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11, and 12, we will see that in these early years the work of these societies is by no means a mere incident in the educational machinery. '= See the society's first annual report, 1844. s» " It is an eastern society. Not a western vote affects the decisions of the board." Fifth an. rep., 1848, p. 7. " See annual report for 1845, p. 12, THE EARLY IfATIONAL PERIOD, 1776-1865. 51 From 1S21 to 1825 Yale received by gift approximately .$16,000 annually; Princeton less than $2,000; Harvard about $12,000; and Amherst less than SI.OOO; while the American Education Society received close to $14,000, the Presbyterian Society over $5,fiU0, and the Baptist Society some $1,500. We have pointed out that the ministry is the only calling for \Ahich training has thus far been subsidized in this vyay. The law, medicine, business, and technical pursuits have made their way by force of their economic importance to society. Has it been true that religion represents a " real " but not a " felt " need or has it been true, as Adam Smith would argue, that such procedure will overstock the occupation in question? The actual demand for ministers is shown in a convincing manner by sta- tistics published in the American Quarterly Register and in the annual reports of the societies.'* That the demand was large is obvious from the fact that of all the graduates of 37 of the most prominent American colleges, from 20.8 per cent to 30.8 per cent entered the ministry in every five-year period between 1776 and 1865.'" Important as this profession was, the demand did not bring forth the sup- ply, even with this special care. In this connection we must not overlook the fact that entrance to the ministry was by much longer educational route than was entrance to either the law or medicine, and without citing facts we know that it was not more remunerative than these other fields. It follows then that something had to be done to meet the situation, and these education societies were the response which the churches made. With all the obvious waste the method involved, it not only cHd much toward the sup- port of an important profession but it also supervised and helped to popularize the demand for higher education. SUMMAKT AND CONCLUSIONS. In summarizing the development of this period we may note that the English influence practically disappeared with the Revolution and that State and Na- tional support continued. Before the end of the period the idea of a State college had taken definite form, though the real burden stUl rested upon philanthropy. In nearly every State the church and private enterprise did the college pioneering. Small gifts and the subscription method were as common as was the poverty which characterized the financial history of practically all the colleges of the period. Few, even of th« older colleges, found themselves well endowed by 1861. It was a period in which the old traditional college curriculum and organi- zation yielded to the influence of the developments in science and to the broad- ening business and professional demands. Consequently, it was a time in which the conditions attaching to gifts were more numerous and perhaps more varied than in the past. In spite of this, there was a growing tendency to de- velop permanent funds. These tendencies are as characteristic of the new as of the old foundations, and in both the conditional gifts tend to go mainly to professorships, library, and buildings; that is, to the institution rather than to the student direct. While there is some increase in interest in direct assistance for students, it is given, Princeton excepted, on the basis of scholarly promise rather than on that of indigence and piety. «« See an address of the board of education of the Presbyterian Church (their first annual report, 1819), p. 14; also their annual report for 1843, p. 5; and the same for 1867, p. 5. »Burritt, p. 144. 52 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Th(> early financial history of the newer colleges of the period is identically like (he beginning years of the old colonial group of colleges, but they grew much more rapidly. During this period also we have the beginnings of sevei-al new ideas in higher education, which open up several new lines of philanthropic activity — the de- velopment of professional schools, women's colleges, church education societies, and the manual labor college. In the development of schools of medicine, law, and theology we are struck by the fact that, from the standpoint of their scientific development, medicine and law achieved but little during this period and that very largely on the basis of private venture institutions, while theology was taken over by philanthropy and became well established, first as a department of the older colleges and later as separate schools. ' In the development of the theological schools de- nominationalism naturally played an important part, and the gathering of funds by the separate denominations from their own churches was the common practice. Colleges for women offered a new motive for giving to education but nothing at all new by way of a method of directing the use to which gifts should be put. When the law of supply and demand failed to provide enough ministers, philanthropy came at once to its rescue with education societies which played a large part in higher education during the period. The manual labor college was the most unique though not the most valuable venture in higher education undertaken during the period. It failed, but it was an experiment that was fully warranted if we consider the times in which it was tried, and surely it is balanced by the success of women's colleges. Whatever the value of the various experiments, it was philanthropy that initiated and carried them through, as it was mainly philanthropy that pioneered the new country and philanthropy that kept the old colleges alive through these years. Chapter IV. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865 TO 1918. THE PERIOD CHARACTERIZED. The period from 1865 to 1918 is quite unlike the colonial and early national periods in several ways. The rapid increase in population which began before the Civil War has continued, but has brought a foreign class far more difficult of assimilation than was that of pre-war days. With the rapid development of machinery have come remarkable industrial and commercial expansion and remarkable means of communication and travel. The free public land has fast disappeared, bringing with it a demand for new and technical methods in agri- culture. The corporate method has been widely adopted, and large private fortunes have been amassed. Along with these changes have come many new things in education. The Idea of State support of higher education has been fully established ; more than a dozen large private fortunes have given rise to as many institutions of higher learning ; and some 8 or 10 large nonteaching foundations have been established. During this period a new interpretation of education has been developed in accordance with the findings of the newer sciences of sociology, psychology, and biology, and given concrete expression In the organization and methods of our institutions of higher education in the botanical garden, the laboratory method in all the sciences, in the free use of the elective system of studies, and in the broadened college entrance requirements. GROWTH IN NUMBER OF COLLEGES. Just how philanthropy has adjusted itself to these new conditions will now be shown. First of all, the relative number of colleges founded by philanthropy Is a rough index of the extent, if not of the character, of its work. At the beginning of this period the tendency to found private or church institutio'ns was at its height, since which time the number has gradually decreased, till now very few are being established by either State or phi- lanthropy, not so much because there are universities enough as because the changed meaning of education and the new conception of a university have ruled out the type of enterprise that tended to subsist on enthusiasm rather than on funds. The new demands of this period have no more balked philanthropy than they have the State. If, however, consideration were given to the number of insti- tutions that ceased to exist, it would be seen that philanthropy had very often overstepped its mark. Soon after the Civil War, due very largely to the national land grant act of 1862, the movement for State schools began to assert Itself.' Now all States have their higher institutions of learning, largely endowed by the National (government, but resting firmly upon a State tax. 1 See Kandel, I. L. Federal Aid for Vocational Education. Tlie Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teacliing, Bui. 10, 1917. 63 54 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Table 17. — Date of establishment and source of support and control of the first college or university in each of the States adtnitted subsequently to 1865. States. Ad- mitted, First institution. Name. Date estab- lished. Control. State university or school estab- lished. Number of colleges estab- lished before State univer- sity. Nebraska Colorado North Dakota, South Dakota. Montana Washington... Idaho Wyoming Utah Oklahoma. . .. New Mexico. . Arizona 1867 1876 1889 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 1896 1907 1912 1912 State University., University of Denver Jamestown College Yankton College Montana College of Agriculture. State University College of Idaho State University University of Utah State Agricultural College State University University of Arizona. 1781 1864 1883 1881 1893 1861 1891 1867 1850 1891 1891 1891 State, M.E. Presb Cong. State. State. Presb State. State. State. State. State. 1871 1874 1877 1884 1882 1893 1861 1892 1867 1850 1891 1891 1891 Since 1865, 12 new States have been admitted to the Union. From Table 17 we are able to see that for the most part it was the State rather than philan- thropy that did the pioneering in higher education in these States. In 9 of the 12 States higher education was well under way before the State was ad- mitted to the Union. In 8 of the 12 States the first such school was established by the State, while in the remaining 4 the church lead the way, and in these 4 little had been done before the State institution was founded. This contrasts rather sharply with the facts brought out in Table 9, which shows these same facts for the early national period. Here we are dealing with Western States, for the most part very sparsely settled, whereas Table 9 refers to Eastern and Central States, somewhat more densely populated. The chief explanation, however, would seem to be not that the missionary zeal of the churches, philanthropists, and educators was lagging, but rather that the idea of State higher education was getting under headway and that the national grant of 1862 came at an early date in the development of the West. The number of church and private foundations since establishecl shows that the efforts of philanthropy have not flagged. Should the State, or private and philanthropic enterprise, determine the character and amount of higher education? And related to this, what powere should be granted to private or church-endowed institutions? The struggle between these social theories, a notable early date in which is that of the Dartmouth College decision in 1819, does not begin in 1865. It began in one sense with the opposition in New Jersey Colony and elsewhere to sectarian con- trol of the college which the colonial government was asked to help support. It began In a real sense in Revolutionary days and in the days when Ameri- can democracy was taking form as a nation. At that time it was urged that, since higher education will do much toward determining national ideals, the State should direct and control it ; and the opposite, that the State ought not to be taxed to send anyone's son to college. It is interesting that Presidents White, of Cornell, and Eliot, of Harvard, were on opposing sides of this issue at the beginning of this period. Probably it is correct to say that this clash has provided the greatest stimu- lus to growth and expansion that has been felt by higher education through these years. This study can do little more than call attention here to these interesting theoretical developmaits. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 55 GENERAL SURVEY OF EDUCATIONAL PHILANTHROPY IN THIS PERIOD. Practically from its lieginning in 1868 the United States Bureau of Education has Included in its annual report statistics bearing upon the worlc of philan- thropy in education. The following tables ofEer a fairly competent general picture of the extent and character of philanthropy in higher education since 1871. Prom Table 18 it is possible to see, at intervals of five years : First, the annual contribution to higher education from city, State, and Nation ; second, the amounts contributed by students through tuition and other fees ; third, the amounts contributed by productive funds held by the colleges ; fourth, the contributions from philanthropy ; fifth, the contributions from all other sources ; and, finally, the total annual income of all institutions of higher education. Besides these is stated the wealth of the United States in billions of dollars, and the population by millions for each decade. The steady increase in income from each of these sources as the years pass shows not only the rapid growth of higher education but the dependability of each of these sources of support. When the total column, or any single col- umn, is compnred with the growth in national wealth, it is plain that higher education is more liberally supported each succeeding decade. It will be noted that the " benefactions " column does not show the degree of increase that is shown by the first column or by the " total " column. This, however, is to be expected with the rise of the State colleges in this period. But it will be seen that benefactions are not quite keeping pace with the rate of growth in wealth. On the other hand, the rate of increase in wealth is surpassed by the growth in income from productive funds, most of which funds have been established by philanthropy. In comparison with the growth in population, it is obvious that each decade is providing more educational facilities of a high order per unit of population than was provided by the next preceding decade. We have liere to remind ourselves though that the per capita wealth has shown a far greater rate of increase than is shown by any of the other figures, which suggests that educa- tional and philanthropic enthusiasms are not outrunning their purses. Table 18. — Sources and amounts of income for higher education in the United States, each fifth year from 1S71 to 1915} [Compiled from the annual reports of the U.S. Commissioner of Education.] Dates. From city. State, or U. S. Tuition and other fees. Productive funds. Benefac- tions. All other sources. Total income. Wealth of U.S. in billions of dollars. Pop. of U.I. in millions. $36,347,638 24, 528, 197 8, 522, 600 4,386,040 2, 964, 483 1, 406, 117 932,635 .418, 159 667, 521 582, 265 $34, 067, 238 19,220,297 10, 919, 378 8, 375, 793 6,336,655 3,764,984 2, 270, 518 1,881,350 2, 136, 062 i, 248, 143 $18,246,427 11, 592, 113 8,618,649 6, 110, 653 5,329,001 3,966,083 3,915,545 3, 014, 048 2,453,336 2,275,967 $20,310,124 18, 737, 145 14,965,404 10, 840, 084 5, 350, 963 6, 006, 474 5, 134, 460 2,666,571 2, 703, 650 6, 282, 461 59,591,784 6, 561, 235 1, 589, 896 1, 964, 002 2,163,499 1, 664, 734 1, 000, 000 10 $118,299,296 80,438,987 45, 715, 927 31, 676, 572 22, 134, 601 16,808,734 12, 253, 158 7, 980, 138 7, 960, 569 13,388,836 1910 i87.73 2 107. 10 88. 51 » 77 09 65.03 91.9 1900 1895 75.9 1890 62.9 1880 1875 42.64 50.1 1872 <30.06 <38. 5 ' From 1871 this table includes universities and colleges for men and for both sexes; after 1905 techno- logical schools are added; and alter 1910 women's colleges are added. Before 1888 column 1 includes income from State only; in 1890 it includes income from State and city; and after 1891 it includes income from States, cities, and United States. Column 2 includes only tuition down to 1898, after which it includes "other fees" (board and room rent). The figures in any given hne, that is, for any given year, are fully comparable . In comparing the figures for one year or period with those of a later year or period, the above facts must be kept in mind. "For year 1904. ' Estimated. ' For year 1870. 56 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Table 19, covering the period from 1871 to 1885, including gifts to secondary as well as higher schools, shows that on an average more than half of all gifts have gone to " permanent endowment and general purposes." What part of this was available for immediate use it is not possible to determine ; nor is it possible to say what were the special conditions placed upon the gifts. Table 19.- -Total benefactions to all forms of education and the per cent of that total given under the restrictions indicated. Total bene- factions. Per cent given to— Dates. Endow- ments and general purposes. Profes- sorships. Fellow- ships, scholar- ships, and prizes. Grounds, build- ings, and appara- tus. Indigent students. Libraries and museums. Uncon- ditional purposes. 1885 $9,314,081 11,270,286 7,141,363 7,440,224 5,518,501 6,249,810 3,103,289 3,015,256 4,691,845 4,126,662 6,063,804 11,225,977 10,072,640 8,693,740 68 40 46 63 54 60 57 57 38 54 68 70 23 44 7 7 7 14 15 3 4 7 S 5 2 9 6 2 2 3 3 3 7 1 4 3 3 1 1 2 1 20 20 16 18 12 24 16 18 32 24 21 17 34 24 1 2 15 2 2 3 14 6 12 15 6 2 2 10 14 26 8 7 7 10 1884 1882-83 2 2 2 1 3 3 1881 1880 1879 1878 1877 1876 7 1875 2 2 8 4 1874 1873 1872 1 1871 From a study of the " professorships " and the " fellowships, scholarships, and prizes " columns, which are not included in the " endowments and general purposes " column, it would be natural to infer that much of column two went to general unrestricted endowments. From the standpoint of growth in per- manent endowment funds, however, the whole table, as a single sample of evidence, is quite reassuring. Furthermore, there is little to criticize in the evidence available on the nature of the conditions placed upon the gifts. A fairly considerable amount has always been given unconditionally in the past, if we Judge by individual cases which have been cited in the last two chapters, and here is evidence that this was true in general over the country through these 15 years. The " to indigent students " column seems to indicate that what was, true in the early cases studied was also true in general. In Table 20 is shown, from the same source, the distribution of gifts under three heads for the years 1907 to 1915, inclusive. Here there is no mistaking the evidence that generally over the country there is an increasing interest in giving to the permanent endowment of higher education. In this table the " endowments " column includes all gifts from which only the incomes can be used. By combining the three columns of Table 19 which represent gifts to permanent endowments, and assuming that " general purposes " in column one is also endowment, which is likely true, we can still see a clear indication that a larger percentage of gifts is going into permanent funds now than was true at the beginning of this period. It appears also that the gifts to " plant and equipment " make a better show- ing in Table 20 than in Table 19. In both there is much fluctuation. The " current expenses " column, comparable with the last column of Table 19, shows improvement in quantity as well as a greater dependability. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 57 A third collection of facts compiled from the United States Commissioner's reports and presented in the following tables furnishes evidence upon which we may generalize regarding the character and extent of benefactions to higher education through this period. Table 20. — Benefactions to fiigUer education in the United States and the per cent of that total gii>.en for endowments, for plan.t and equipment, and for current expenses. Total gifts. Per cent for— Dates. Endow- ments. Plant and equip- ment. Current expenses. 1915 S20,310,124 26,670,017 24,651,958 24,783,090 22,963,145 24,755,663 17,807,122 14,820,955 21,953,339 63 69 65 69 60 39 63 60 55 29 18 19 26 25 50 23 35 34 18 1914 1913 1912 15 1911 15 1910 1909 1908 15 1907 11 Table 21 shows the number of schools of theology, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, agriculture, and mechanic arts, and of women's colleges that were opened during each five-year period since the first one was founded in 1761- 1765. No account is taken here of colleges that have failed. Three forces have assisted in the development of these schools — the State, philanthropy, and private enterprise. Philanthropy is almost, if not solely, responsible for the schools of theology. The State and private enterprise, with some help from philanthropy, have developed the law schools. All three are responsible for the medical schools, though private enterprise is playing a smaller and smaller part. Philanthropy has shown very little interest thus far in schools of dentistry and pharmacy, but has contributed liberally to colleges of agriculture and mechanical arts, which latter have been fostered mainly by the State. In most cases the State provides coeducational uni- versities but not special schools for women.° The women's colleges included in this table are therefore the work of philanthropy and private enterprise. Table 22 shows the part that philanthropy has taken in the development of these colleges. The table is not complete, but one can not run up those columns without being impressed with the strength of the appeal which these fields of higher education have so continuously made to the people. Gifts for the higher education of women have increased with fair regularity and to a creditable extent. ' Florida State University has a separate college for women. 58 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEeIcAN HIGHER EDUCATION, Table 21. — DUtlrihuUon of the present list (1915-16) of professional and tech- nical and women's colleges with respect to the dates of their opening. Dates. Theol- ogy. Law. Medi- cine. Dentis- try. Phar- macy. Agrio. and mech. arts. Women's colleges. 17fi1-l765 1 1 1 1 17Pfi-17Q0 1 2 1 1 1 1 Sfl5-IR10 2 2 5 5 6 4 4 4 6 7 13 7 18 9 3 14 8 14 5 9 3 3 1 1 2 5 1 2 3 6 6 1 5 2 4 4 4 3 5 9 5 10 6 3 1Q11 IQie; 1 1 1891-tfi25 1 1 1 3 1 1 S3 1-1 835 1 2 1836-1840 1 1 1 1 1 5 1841-1845 .■- 1 4 2 4 1 1 1 4 4 8 9 4 3 5 8 5 1846-1850 7 1861 1855 ... ' 16 1856-1860 ; i' 15 1 4 1 5 5 9 8 7 6 2 1866-1870 9 T 5 4 6 16 15 10 14 15 3 2 2 7 8 15 13 11 5 6 11 1871 1875 8 1875-1880 4 1881 1885 5 9 1891 1895 8 6 1901 1905 1 1 8 1906-1910 ... 2 1911-1915 1 Total 155 119 92 49 75 52 114 Table 22. — Benefactions to different lines of higher education in the United States each fifth year, 1871-1915. Dates. Higher education of women. Theological schools. Medical schools. National land-grant schools and schools of science. Schools of law. 1915 $1,467,055 1,431,028 < 1,890, 606 1,123,812 1,385,552 '923,831 681,855 827,866 404,356 §52,265 > $2, 661, 076 509,227 354,210 183,500 95,260 '249,287 94,250 11,400 72,395 2,000 ' $90 576 19X0 . $1,303,431 1,107^523 588,566 625,734 303,257 322,813 92,372 217,887 l,600j000 •86,334 1905 1900 105 500 1895 1890 '5205,295 562,371 1,371,445 ,147,112 286,000 ' 14 663 1885 « 40' 150 1880 UOO 000 1875 .'-• . - 1871 ' In 1914 medical schools received $7,113,920. ! In 1914 law schools received gifts amounting to $203,067; in 1913, $189,453; in 1912, $425,867. « In 1909 law schools received 5356,800, and in 1908, $382,000. t In 1906 theological schools received $3,271,480. 'In 1891. "In 1886. 'In 1878. Considering the steady decline In strictly sectarian theology through these years, and the general decline in religious zeal, gifts to theological schools have been large, as have all the others. The column of gifts to "medical schools shows the growth that has taken place in medical science as well as in medical education through this period.' The same is, of course, not true of the theology column. In the absolute both theological and medical education have prospered. Both rise very slowly from THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 59 the start, with slight advantage in favor of theological education down to 1890, and with this advantage slowly increasing from 1890 to 1909, after which medical education leaps far ahead. Philanthropy, speaking now in relative terms, very definitely began to turn away from theology about 1890, and soon after to look with slightly more favor upon medical education. In the last decade these tendencies have become marked. Turning again to Table 22 one is struck first by the immediate and liberal notice which philanthropists gave to the land-grant colleges and schools of sci- ence. The last column of the table is interesting in itself, and more so in comparison with the column showing gifts to medical schools. It is apparent here that society began to call a halt on apprenticeship methods of learning medicine before it did the same for law. Law has tended to remain much more a business than a profession, while the opposite is true of medicine and theology. Taking these data from the Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education as a rough general picture of the educational philanthropy of this period, for it is dependable as such, one is impressed with the large contribu- tion which has been made ; with the apparent regularity or dependability of such sources of income ; with the size, in the absolute, of the permanent sources which are thus being built up, but with the relative decline in such resources when all higher institutions of education are considered; with the relative increase in the amount of gifts to establish professorships ; with the recent tendency toward increase in gifts to cover current expenses ; with the regu- larity with which one-third to one-fifth of aU gifts have gone to plant and equipment ; with the rise, both relative and ahsolute, in the gifts to medical schools ; with the corresponding decline in gifts to schools of theology ; and with the relatively slow increase in gifts to schools of law. STATUS or EDtrCATION AMONG ALL THE OBJECTS OF PHILANTHROPY. Another source of data covering almost the last quarter century, and so almost half the period under discussion, is that contained in the Appleton and International Yearbooks and the World's Almanac. In these annuals there have been published the most complete available lists of all gifts of $5,000 and over, together with the object for which each was given. For some of the years these gifts have been classified under the following five heads: Educational institutions ; charities ; religious organizations ; museums, galleries, public improvements ; and libraries. Where they were not so classified the writer has been able to make such a classification with reasonable accuracy. In addition the gifts were also recorded as having been made by gift or by bequest, so that this classification was also possible. In these data, then, there is a valuable addition to the general description of philanthropy just presented. 111512°— 22: 5 60 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCAnON. Table 23. — Distribution of the gifts and bequests recorded in the Appleton and New International Yearbook and the World's Almanac, 189S-1916. Amount of eltts and bequests. Per cent of total given to— Per cent in form of— Years. Educa- tion. Charity. Religious purposes. Uuseums and public improve- ments. Libraries. Dona- tions. Bequests. 1893 $14,283,254 15,976,466 13,930,505 13,831,211 12,436,391 20,405,034 43,314,282 23,H90,473 72,334,460 55.174,640 50,026,058 24,918,399 70,000,000 29,775,000 89,817,208 46,552,039 36,122,241 61,283,182 61,879,296 35,207,907 57,601,997 90,741,210 35,354,338 72,612,619 47 43 60 60 31 57 66 54 66 60 76 45 57 79 58 40 31 43 49 16 23 46 25 9 21 20 19 16 17 25 18 27 13 21 7 29 18 15 16 44 46 38 26 76 60 48 64 88 14 11 12 19 13 7 10 7 6 6 3 9 17 4 4 4 15 8 16 4 13 2 12 2 6 17 12 9 35 7 3 5 7 8 9 14 8 2 20 10 5 6 8 3 13 4 8 1 12 9 7 6 4 3 3 7 9 5 6 3 2 2 3 28 17 66 48 32 64 69 65 73 49 60 30 «83 67 48 47 70 70 74 46 67 42 82 72 1894 83 1895 34 1896 62 1897 68 1898 46 1899 31 1900 46 1901 27 1902 61 1903 40 1904 70 1905 (') 1906 17 1907 33 1908 62 1909 63 1910 30 1911 . .. 30 1912 26 1913 54 1914 33 1915 58 18 34 43 49 37 7 9- 8 9+ 2 2 64 59 36 Total with 1916 41 ' Data Inadequate. This total column gives rather forceful evidence of the large part of the world's work that is being done by philanthropy. Through these 24 years the range is from 27 to 764 millions of dollars, with an average of nearly 125 millions. In 1915-16 the entire cost of public education in New York City was $45,010,424, and that for Chicago was $28,604,534. In this same year the total outlay for public education In the State of New York, which had the largest of all our State budgets for schools, was $68,761,125, while that for the United States was but $640,717,053. Again, the total income of all imlversitles, col- leges, and technological schools reporting to the United States Commissioner of Education in this year was $113,850,848. If the huge gifts summarized in the table are flowing annually into the five channels indicated, we may see from these comparisons the large forces that are operating constantly to determine the character of the Institutions of edu- cation, charity, and so on. In considering the sum total of all benefactions, three questions deserve con- sideration. First, what is the relative position of education among the objects of these gifts ; second, with what degree of regularity do these gifts come — that is, how dependable a resource does this make for education ; and, third, how large a contribution is this t See p. 42 fl. 64 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEKICAW HIGHER EDUCATION. Prom these facts it is clear that if the college does not expand too rapidly, it will very soon be on a remarkably sound basis. 3. THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTIONS. The growth of Amherst is somewhat paralleled by that of Andover Theologi- cal Seminary, the early history of which has already been discussed.* Refer- ring again to Table -12, it will be seen that after the Civil War, and down to 1890, Andover continued to receive contributions to her permanent funds, and that in increasing amounts. The details of these endowments are not aU given in the table, but enough is shown to indicate that professorships, scholarships, and the library fared well. According to reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, the total amount of Andover's permanent funds in 1872 was $550,000. With some fluctuations these funds have gradually increased to more than $810,000 in 1915. As early as 1852 these funds were furnishing an annual income of $35,000. By 1889 this had grown to $55,000, and it is recorded " that this was the entire income of the school for the year. Here, then, is a theological school, founded in 1807, which has slowly built up an endowment fund that makes it virtually independent. 4. women's colleges. As we have already seen,' Mount Holyoke College was one of the pioneer institutions devoted to the higher education of women. The school was founded and became well established in the second quarter of last century. The fol- lowing tables will show something of Its financial career since the close of the early national period. Up to 1875 practically no permanent endowment funds had been accumulated. The school had in a very real sense been on trial' as a new philanthropic social project. That it fully proved its worth and received a large social sanc- tion is shown by the figures of Table 26. Column 1 of this table shows the total amount of permanent funds possessed by the college at intervals of five years from 1875 to 1915. In 1875 the college possessed a permanent fund of $50,000. In 1915 this had grown to near a million and a half dollars. Table 26. — Total endotoment, total income, and sources of income for Mount Holyoke College at intervals of five years, 1875-1915." Total en- dowment. Totalin- comelor the year. Benefac- tions. Income from— Dates. Productive funds. Tuition and other fees. X875 150,000 63,486 103,600 150,000 99,000 476,000 801,000 838,750 1,426,173 $48,000 42,294 55,500 $3,000 4,350 7,600 $46,000 1880 6 37,944 1885 t 48, 000 IggO 119, 665 6,200 31,000 276,000 31,292 12,830 1895 74,000 139,663 187,000 279,721 349, 828 5,000 24,061 19,000 34,666 50,820 69,000 1900 115,602 1905 168,000 1910 100,197 1915 114,643 a Compiled from reports of United States Commissioner of Education. i> Includes board and tuition * See p. 44. ' Rep. tr. S. Commis. Educ, 1889. • See p. 45 tt. 'A Boston paper refused to public Miss Lyon's statements In behalf of the college unless paid for as advertising. Stowe, Hist of Mount Holyoke Sem., sec. ed., 1887, p. 41. THE LATE NATIONAL PEEIOD, 1865-1918. 65 It wUl be seen that permanent funds are rapidly assuming a larger and larger share In the annual income of the college, the main sources of which are also shown in this table. In 1875 the school received $3,000 from the income on permanent funds and $45,000 from student fees. In 1915 permanent funds produced $50,820 and tuition amounted to $114,643. This shows even more clearly what was mentioned above, and just what we have seen to be true of Andover and of Amherst, viz, that the rate of growth in income from perma- nent funds is greater than is the rate of growth in income from other sources. If this rate continues, it will not be many decades before philanthropy will have produced a college for women that will not be dependent upon student fees and that in spite of an extremely modest financial beginning. No small part of Mount Holyoke's permanent funds are devoted to the gen- eral endowment of the college. The growth of this general fund, together with the permanent fund for scholarships, is shown in Table 27. Table 27. — Growth of tioo of Mount Holyoke's permanent funds, that for gen- eral purposes and that for scholarships^ Date. Gifts to permanent fund tor- Date. Gifts to permanent fund for — General purposes. Scholar- Ships. General purposes. Scholar- ships. Before 1875 14,640 $26,666 7,000 22,500 10,000 19,000 43,600 1901-1905 $223, 363 5,600 432,750 $14,000 19 500 1876-1880 1906-1910 1881-1885 25,000 50,792 164, 134 185,000 1911-1915 56*314 1886-1890 Total 1891-1895 1,091,179 218,480 1896-1900 1 ' Compiled from catalogues and the presidents report. From this table it appears that these two funds have increased rapidly and that each has reached a position of importance in the support of the college. 5. OBEBUN AN EXAMPLE OF THE MANUAL LABOE COLLEGE. Oberlin College was another institution of the early national period whose early history has been traced.' It was pointed out that Oberlin's attempts at gathering funds for permanent endowment were pretty much a failure before the Civil War. Table 28 furnishes us with a very remarkable sequel, however, to that earlier story of hard times, for since the Civil War Oberlin has made progress quite similar to that noted above for Amherst, Andover, and Mount Holyoke. It is not only in Oberlin's total, however, but In the purposes for which these totals were given that we see the large value of her endowment. This the table makes clear through a period of almost a half century. • See p. 46 ff. 66 PHILANl^HROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Table 28. — Distribution of OherUn's permanent funds, received 'by gift and bequest, 1833-1915.'^ Total. To general funds of— Special funds. Dates. Univer- sity. College. Seminary. Library. Professor- ships.* Scholar- ships.' 1860-1865 $6,000 25,000 28,494 98,291 464,093 125,219 97,692 116,877 637,103 638,796 348,243 $6,000 1866-1870 $25,000 8,935 91,005 148,906 92,268 68,000 12,624 108,919 40,000 1871 1875 $17,514 1,286 186,026 2,045 1876-1880 4,000 1881-1886 $68,059 $42,135 133 427 $887 14,276 18,100 1886-1890 18,542 1891-1895 24,815 72,944 372,319 343,496 188,685 4,450 1896-1900 5,824 . 4,752 73,549 26,685 1901-1905 10,000 68,034 4,142 28,113 37,767 96,016 13,000 1906-1910 16,760 1911 1915 69,500 1 Data for this table were compiled from the Oberlin General Catalogue, 1833-1908, and the Quinquennial Catalogue tor 1916. 2 Of the total amount of benefactions for this purpose to 1908, 61 per cent was received as direct gifts, 24 per cent by bequest, and 25 per cent by endowment canvasses. Nearly 26 per cent of it was for thQ endowment of rehgious and theological instruction and 18 per cent for instmction in natural and physical 'Of the total amount given for the endowment of scholarships during these years, 22 per cent was received by bequests, nearly 5 per cent came from churches, and 3 per cent from different classes of alumni. About 14 per cent of it was for those entering missionary work or th6se who were children of missionaries, more than 25 per cent was for indigent self-supporting students, 8 per cent for colored students, and 15 per cent for girls. Some details concerning the growth of the professorship funds are added in Table 29. From these facts it appears that slightly more than half of the total of these funds was built up by subscription methods, approximately one- fourth by gift and the same by bequest. Table 29. — Date, amount, and source of each endowed professorship at Oberlin College. Dates. Amovmt. How obtained. Branch of instruction endowed. 1867 $26,000 8,935 21,371 19,634 50,000 26,000 25,158 23,748 30,000 26,000 20,000 66,881 36,387 38,000 30,000 12,524 30,419 40,000 38,500 40,000 Bequest , Greek literature and archseology. New Testament language and literature. 1876 Subscription 1877 do . . .. Old Testamcflit language and literature. 1879 do 1880 Gift 1881 do Homiletics. * ' "' 1882 1882 do 1882 Gift Latin language and literature. 1884 Bequest . .. Mathematics" 1886 Gift Physiology and physical training. German and Frenob. 1889 Bequest 1888 Suoscription....'. Theology. 1393 Gift..,., Dean of women and director of women's gymna- sium. History. 1895 do 1898 1901 In part by subscription Director of conservatory of music. 1902 Gift:............. ::: :: Mineralogy and chemistry. 1904 1907 Gift Practical theology. Considering these four colleges as fairly representatlTe of the philanthropic foundations of the early national period, we may say of their development slince the Civil War that in all cases this has been a period of rapid growth. The period of experimentation seems to have passed about war times, and these colleges to have been accepted as worthy of the full confidence of phi- lanthropy. Permanent funds began to accumulate, slowly at first and then at an increasing rate, till now aU have a substantial income from such funds. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 67 At the present rate of gi-owth, and with no more than normal expansion, these colleges will in time become practically independent of Income from other sources. The endowment funds of these colleges are In large part available for general purposes, though considerable sums have been given for pro- fessorships, scholarships, and Ubrary. PHILAHTHEOPY IN THE COLLEGES OF THIS PERIOD. Down to 1865 practically every college had begun its existence with very small funds, usually with little or no real endowment, and had had to pass through a long financial struggle before it had won a clientage suflicient to guarantee its future. During the period here under discussion colleges con- tinued to be founded on that same basis. Drury College began in poverty in 1873 and remained poor until 1892, when a gift of $50,000 laid the foundation of her present endowment of over a quarter of a million. Carleton College, chartered in 1867, began with $20,000 received from the citizens of Northfleld and $10,000 received from the Congregational Churches of the State. In 1915 this college possessed endowment funds of almost a million dollars. Wash- burn College, chartered in 1865, was started by small gifts from the Congre- gational Churches, but by 1915 had developed an endowment of over $360,000. These are but three from the many well-known illustrations of this type. 1. THE PKIVATBLT ENDOWED "DNrVEESITT A NEW TYPE. In addition to this type, however, we see the beginning of a new era In educational philanthropy — an era in which a great and independently endowed university could spring into existence almost at once from the gifts of a single benefactor. Such schools did not have to go to the public and beg for funds, nor await any sort of social sanction. They secured their charters as corporations, erected their buildings, called together their faculties, organized their curricula, and opened their doors to students. They start, therefore, as educational and philanthropic, and we might also say, social experiments. Can such financially powerful corporations be trusted to keep faith with America's educational, economic, religious, and social ideals was the question in many minds at that time. An examination of the charters, articles of incorporation, and other founda- tion documents of these institutions should reveal something of their own conception of what their function was to be. Accordingly the following ex- cerpts from these sources are presented : 1. EDUCATIONAl AIMS. The charter of Vassar College was issued in 1861. Section 2 of this charter declares it to be the object and purpose of the corporation " To promote tlie education of young women in literature, science, and the arts." A fuller statement is to be found in Matthew Vassar's address to the trustees of the college, delivered on February 26, 1861, in which he says : I wish that the course of study should embrace at least the following partic- ulars : The English language and its literature ; other modern languages ; the ancient classics, as far as may be demanded by the spirit of the times ; the mathematics, to such an extent as may be deemed advisable ; all the branches of natural science, with full apparatus, cabinets, collections, and conservatories for visible Illustrations ; anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, with practical refer- ence to the laws of health of the sex ; intellectual philosophy ; the elements of political economy ; some knowledge of the Federal and State Constitutions 68 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. and laws; moral science, particularly as bearing on the filial, conjugal, and parental relations ; aesthetics, as treating of the beautiful in nature and art, and to be illustrated by an extensive gallery of art ; domestic economy, prac- tically taught, so far as possible, in order to prepare graduates readily to become skillful housekeepers ; last, and most important of all, the daily, system- atic reading and study of the Holy Scriptures as the only and all-sufficient rule of Christian faith and practice.' Oornell's charter, granted in 1865, says, in section 3 : The leading object of the corporation hereby created shall be to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanical arts, incuding military tactics ; in order to promote the liberal and practical educa- tion of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life. But such other branches of science and knowledge may be embraced in the plan of instruction and investigation pertaining to the university as the trustees may deem useful and proper." In addition to this statement from the charter, we have the following words from Ezra Cornell, the founder :" I hope we have laid the foundation of an institution which shall combine prac- tical with liberal education, * * * i desire that this shall prove to be the beginning of an institution which shall furnish better means for the culture of all men, of every calling, of every aim ; * * * training them to be more useful in their relations to the State, and to better comprehend their higher and holier relations to their families and their God. Finally, I trust we have laid the foundation of- a university — "an institu- tion where any person can find instruction in any study." Johns Hopkins says in his will : I do hereby give, devise, and bequeath all the rest * * * of my real and personal estate to be held, used, and applied by such corporation in, for, and to its corporate purposes in accordance with the provision of its existing charter of incorporation, etc." In this brief and formal certificate of incorporation of August 24, 1867, we find the general declaration of purpose to be that of " Organizing a university for the promotion of education in the State of Maryland," etc." These general ideas of the purpose of Johns Hopkins University are made a bit more specific in the inaugural address of the first president in which he lays down 12 principles fairly well expressed in the following brief excerpts :" 1. All sciences are worthy of promotion, etc. 2. Religion has nothing to fear from science, and vice versa. 3. Remote utility is quite as worthy to be thought of as immediate ad- vantage. 4. As it is impossible for any university to encourage with equal freedom all branches of learning, a selection must be made by enlightened governors, and that selection must depend on the requirements and deficiencies of a given people in a given period. 5. Teachers and pupils must be allowed great freedom in their method of work. In his next several principles he lays emphasis upon the importance of a broad liberal culture for all students; upon research for professors, upon the influence of research upon instruction, and vice versa ; points out that honors must be bestowed sparingly and benefits freely ; and says that a university is a thing of slow growth and very liable to fall into ruts. • In Vasaar, by Taylor, James Monroe, and Hais^t, Elizabeth Hazelton, Appendix II. « Cornell University Register, 1868. " Fonnder's Address at the Inaugural of President White In 1868, In Biography of Ezra Cornell, A. S. Barnes & Co., 1884, p. 199 ff. "^ Johns Hopkins University — Charter, Eztracts of Will, Officers, and By-Laws. Balti- more, 1874. "Published with subsequent amendments in the University Register for 1918-19. "Addresses at the Inauguration of Daniel C. GUman, as President of Johns HopkloB University, Baltimore, 1876. THE LATE WATIONAX, PERIOD, 1865-1918. 69 The founding grant of Leland Stanford Junior University declares tliat it is " Its object to qualify Its students for personal success and direct usefulness in life." And further : Its purposes, to promote the public welfare by exercising an influence in be- half of humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and Inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of govern- ment as derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty, and the pur- suit of happiness. In addition to vs^ork of instruction, the university was designed " to advance learning, the arts, and sciences." In the University of Chicago certificate of incorporation we find the aim of the foundation expressed in section 2 as follows : To provide, impart, and furnish opportunities for aU departments of higher education to persons of both sexes on equal terms ; * * * to establish and maintain a university in which may be taught all branches of higher learning. Such are the educational aims of these institutions as they were conceived by the founders. / I 2. BELIG10U8 AIMS. The religious emphasis is shovra to some extent in these same documents. Vassar's charter makes no reference to religion, but Mr. Vassar, in the ad- dress above quoted, does. In addition to the reference to religion in the above quotation, he says : All sectarian influences should be carefully excluded ; but the training of our students should never be intrusted to the skeptical, the irreligious, or the im- moral. Cornell's charter makes specific reference to religion, as follows : Sec. 2. But at no time shall a majority of the board be of any one religious sect or of no religious sect. Sec. 3. And persons of every religious denomination shall be equally eligible to all offices and appointments. In Johns Hopkins' brief charter no reference is made to religion, but in President Gilman's address, as above quoted, we can see that questions of religion were to fix no limitations in the life of the university nt any point. Leland Stanford's foundation grant as amended in October, 1902, says : The university must be forever maintained upon a strictly nonpartisan and nonsectarian basis. The charter of the University of Chicago says : Sec. 3. At all times two-thirds of the trustees and also the president of the university and of said college shall be members of regular Baptist Churches * * * in this particular this charter shall be forever unalterable. No other religious test or particular religious profession shall ever be held as a requisite for election to said board or for admission to said university * * * or for election to any professorship or any place of honor or emolument in said corporation, etc. ^uch aims as these could not have been expressed in earlier college charters. The idea of educating young women in the sciences ; the idea of connecting science as taught in the college with the work of the farmer and mechanic; the laboratory method of teaching ; the idea of investigation and research as a imiversity function ; the slight general references to and the broad liberality in matters of religion ; these things could not have been written into the founda- tion documents of our colonial colleges. There is a marked contrast between the general tone and the actual ideas and ideals expressed here and those shown from colonial charters in Table 1 above. 70 PHILANTHEOPy IN AMEBICAIT HIGHEE EDXJCATIOIir. The new education Is strongly suggested in almost every line of these docu- ments, and a careful analysis of the conditions placed upon the foundation gifts would show that very little is to be subtracted from the showing which the above quotations make. Mr. Rocliefeller demanded that the Baptist Education Board should raise $400,000 to put with his gift of $600,000, his gift to become a permanent endow- ment for current expenses. The conditions of his next several large gifts were quite as simple. Matthew Vassar placed in the hands of his trustees securities worth $400,000 with which to build a seminary and college for women. He explained what his notion of such a college was and then very modestly advised the board as to future use of the funds. Mr. Cornell had to meet the demands— not altogether reasonable — of the State of New YorJi, and those of the national land-grant act of 1862 before he could give $500,000 to build a university. These are typical. These great fortunes were to build and endow a " college " or a " university," as the case might be, and no narrow limitations were placed upon the use of the gifts to those ends. With such large initial funds available, it is obvious that these institutions are in a position to reject any subsequent gift that does not meet the essential purposes for which the schools were founded. The aims laid down in their charters can be carried out without help if necessary," and it is especially noteworthy, therefore, that in no case has society failed to accept the foundation in the right spirit. Almost from the start the people made these projects their own, as was evidenced by the con- tributions which very soon began to flow into their treasuries from outside sources. 3. TYPES OF EAKLT CONDITIONAL GIFTS. Vassar College. — ^Vassar College was founded in 1861 and was opened to students in 1865. Mr. Vassar's first gift was $408,000. In 1864 he added a gift of $20,000, for an art collection, and in 1868, by his will, he canceled a $75,000 debt for the college, and added $275,000 to establish a lectureship fund, a students' aid fund, a library and art cabinet fund, and a repair fund. The first important gift to come to Vassar from the outside was in 1871, when A. J. Fox gave $6,000 to establish the Fox scholarship. This was soon followed by two other gifts for scholarships and in 1879 by a gift of $6,000, and in 1882 by another of $3,000, both for scholarships." In 1879 two of the founder's nephews agreed to build a laboratory of chem- istry and physics ; in addition to which Matthew Vassar, jr., gave $50,000 for scholarships and $40,000 for two professorships. In 1890 an endowment fund of $100,000 was raised by subscriptions." IS Andrew D. White, In his AutoWography, Vol. I, p. 413, quotes the foUowing statement from a trustee of Johns Hopkins University : " We at least have this in our favor ; we can follow out our own conceptions and convictions of what Is best ; we have no need of obey- ing the Injunctions of any l^lslature, the beliefs of any religious body, or the clamors of any press ; we are free to do what we really believe best, as slowly and in such manner as we see fit." " In accepting some of these scholarships the college bound itself for all time to edu- cate a girl on each of the foundations. That was possible when money was worth 7 per ceut, and the cost at such education $400 ; but as money fell to 4J to 5 per cent, and the cost of such education rose to $500, such gifts became liabilities in place of assets. This, however, was no fault of philanthropy, but due rather to shortsighted management on the part of the college. Such management was not, however, without precedent See discussion of Oberlin scholarships, p. 46. "These facts were taken from Tailor and Haight's Yassar, and from President's Re- ports and Catalogues. THE LATE NATIOKAL PEEIOD, 1865-1918. 71 This covers practically all the gifts to Vassar during its first 25 years of work. Certainly the conditions named have been in line with the main purposes of the founder. Cornell University. — At Cornell University, founded in 1865, we have a some- what different situation. The half million doUar gift of the founder was very thoroughly bound to fulfill certain conditions laid down by the State legisla- ture." The university started and grew against serious opposition of almost every sort, and almost immediately gifts began to be received. In 1871 Henry W. Sage gave $250,000 to establish and endow a women's col- lege ; John McGraw erected the McGraw Building; at a cost of about $100,000 ; Hiram Sibley presented a building and equipment for the college of mechanic arts at a cost of over $50,000 ; President White built the President's House, at a cost of some $60,000 ; and Dean Sage endowed the chapel which had been built by a gift of Henry W. Sage. These are typical of many other early gifts which produced a phenomenally rapid growth of the university." Joiin Hopkins University. — Johns Hopkins opended its doors in 1876, hav- ing been chartered in 1867. Almost immediately its large foundation began to be supplemented by gifts and bequests. In his will, dated February 26, 1876, Dr. Henry W. Baxley left $23,836 to found a medical professorship. In the same year a small gift was received for a scholarship, and this was followed by several others during the next few years. Large and important book col- lections, including a large German law library for Heidelberg, were contributed to the library very soon after it was opened, and two $10,000 fellowships were contributed in 1887. Numerous small gifts are also recorded, but these are fuUy typical of the conditional gifts to Johns Hopkins during her first two decades.^ CMcago University. — Among the early gifts to the University of Chicago after it was chartered in 1890 was a site for the college by Marshall Field and a million-dollar gift from Mr. Rockefeller, $800,000 of the latter to be used as a permanent fund for the support of nonprofessional graduate instruction and fellowships, $100,000 to be used as a permanent fund for the endowment of theological instruction in the divinity school of the university, and $100,000 to be used in the construction of buildings for the divinity school. In 1891 the trustees of the William B. Ogden estate began proceedings which ended in a gift of nearly $600,000 for the Ogden Graduate School of Science. In 1893 Silas B. Cobb gave a $150,000 recitation building, and in this same year three other large gifts for buildings were received. Numerous other gifts, such as an astronomical observatory, a physical laboratory, a chemistry building, an oriental museum, followed within a few years, as also did large sums for endowment. Leland Stanford Junior University. — At Leland Stanford Junior University, opened in 1891 on the largest initial foundation gift yet made to an American institution of higher learning, numerous valuable gifts were made to the library and museum from the start. The half-million dollar jewel fund for the endowment of the library was the gift of Mrs. Stanford in 1905. Other large gifts from Thomas Welton Stanford restored the museum, which had been destroyed by the earthquake in 1906, and added an art museum and a " By tie charter the university was made subject to visitation of the regents of the University of New York, and the trustees were made personally liable for any debt above $50,000. It alSo made the founding gift of Mr. Cornell absolutely unconditional. ■* For these facts, see President White's Autobiography, and W. T. Hewett's Cornell University, a History, Vol. Ill, Appendix. » See A List of Gifts and Bequests Received by the John Hopkins University, 1876- 1891, Baltimore, 1892. 72 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. valuable art coUeetion. Several prize scholarship, fellowship, and lecture- ship funfls were also among the early gifts. We may say, then, that these institutions did receive gifts from the out- side, and that very soon after they were founded. We may say that the conditions of these gifts were unquestionably in accord with the essential aims set forth in the charters of the schools. In other words, these projects met the real test and passed it, and having received society's sanction they have joined the ranks of Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Oberlin, Amherst, and the long list of institutions which these names suggest. 4. ANALYSIS OF GrrTS TO TWO T7NIVEESIT1ES OF THIS GEOOP. It is possible to add to this description something of the financial history of two of these universities. Tables 30 and 31 give us a fairly complete account of the Income to the University of Chicago and to Cornell University at intervals of five years down to 1915. Any one of the columns of these tables is instructive. All point to the phenomenal growth of these univer- sities. The income from tuition shows the rapid growth of the student bodies, and when compared with the column showing the total ingome it is seen that throughout Cornell's history tuition has furnished from one-fourth to one-seventh of the total annual income, while at the University of Chicago this percentage is from one-third to one-fifth. The income from productive funds in both tables shows a steady and rapid increase almost from the start, and at Cornell has furnished from two to six and even nine times the income produced by tuition. The gifts column in Table 31 shows that gifts have become, subsequently to 1890, an extremely important and dependable source of income. It should be added that an examination of the treasurer's reports shows that a large percentage of these gifts to Cornell have been going into the permanent funds of the university. In Table 30 we have a further analysis of the benefactions to the Uni- versity of Chicago, after 1906, from which we are able to see the extent to which gifts are being received for enlargement of plant, for endowment, and for current expenses, respectively, from which it is evident that a very large percentage of all gifts go into the permanent funds. Table 30. — Income of University of Chicago at 5-year intervals from 1890 to 1915^ From student fees. From ■ productive funds. From private benefactions (or— From otlier sources. Dates. Tuition. Other student fees. Plant. Endow- ment. Current expenses. Total income. 1890 $2,127,083 1895 $130,000 $140,000 207,620 336,144 774,246 1,094 254 $205,000 30,280 47^607 46,687 103,880 $1,365,000 2 095 997 1 468 178 2,793,968 3 268,508 1900 294, 4n2 «$V,634,'9i6" 273,642 352,193 1,563,695 579,873 867,048 784,303 1905 504, F^i « $388,270 53,635 7,885 1910 688,721 708,176 193,989 217,838 1916 1 Data eompUed from United States Commissioner's Reports and from the reports of the university president. ' In 1907. THE LATE N^ATIOKrAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 73 Table 31. — Financial exhilit of income of Cornell University at five-year inter- vals from 1865 to 1915.^ Years. Tuition fees. Other receipts from students. Income of investments. Productive funds. Ail other sources. Total. 1865-66 $9,000 76 711 1868-69 J33,348 15,105 18,545 17,050 46,000 114,277 155,003 251,031 476,400 635,346 622,575 $130, 000 1874 Jl,993 1,637 2,719 18, 502 26,736 38,413 67,311 J80,000 73,662 186,907 276,028 314,993 376,033 413,629 428, 562 644,637 709,777 S9,203 13, 314 10, 700 22,775 66,931 40,849 122, 915 119,624 346,595 409,826 loo' 301 1879 107;i58 217,377 362,304 624,631 675, 163 1,330,336 1,460,610 6,790,280 3,161,381 1884 1889 1894 112,595 64,855 486,449 183,252 4,376,103 201,484 1899 1904 1909 1914 45,334 183,975 1915 1 Data to 1904 from Hewett's Cornell University, and subsequent to 1904 from Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education. Prom these figures it is evident that the scale upon which these institutions were founded has been fairly maintained as their scale of growth. Chicago's income from permanent funds is furnishing an increasing proportion of her annual income, while the opposite appears to be true of Cornell. The latter is explained by the fact that Cornell has in recent years been receiving relatively large annual appropriations from the State, the city, and the United States. What we have noted above regarding the endowment funds of the colonial and early national colleges, then, is equally true of these younger institutions. They are rapidly building up a source of support that will, under normal ex- pansion, make them independent. If we ask regarding the further conditions placed upon these vast gifts to higher education, we have but to read over the lists published in the year- books, in magazines, and in official university publications to see that they are rarely out of line with the main lines of growth in the institution receiving them. More than half of Cornell's permanent funds belong to the general funds of the university or to some one of the schools or departments.^ Of the great foundations of this period then we may say : Financially they are practically independent from the start; each is, in the main, the gift of one man ; their charters grant them' almost unlimited freedom to become any- thing they may choose to call college or university; they are very definitely nonsectarian and nonpolitical, but one, Chicago, is definitely fostered by a church ; they cultivate liberality in matters of religion ; they stress original research as a professorial function ; and, in the face of real opposition in some cases, as well as the natural tendency to distrust such large corporations, the gifts they have received from the start show that they have been accepted by the public as fully as have the most ancient or most religious foundations of the past. All are rapidly building up permanent endowment funds which promise a large degree of financial independence in the future, and, judged by our best standards, all are not only fuUy law-abiding, but each in its own way is exercising wide leadership in the field of higher education. PHILANTHKOPT THEOTJGH HELIGIOTJS EDUCATION SOCIETIES. As explained in Chapter III, religious education societies arose very early in the last century in response to a growing demand for trained ministers, ^A full Hat of these funds with date and amount of each, and with fairly complete statement of conditions controlling the use of their income. Is puWlslied In the annual report of the treasurer for 1915-16. 74 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. which demand the colleges were failing to meet. They organized and were chartered as corporations to aid in the education of young men for this calling. They operated mainly by direct aid to the student, though in some cases grants were made to colleges. Most of the societies did some work of this kind, even going so far as to found colleges in some instances." Most of these societies survived the period of the Rebellion and have con- tinued, separately or in combination, to carry on this work to the present time. Many other societies have also been organized, several new ones having ap- peared very recently. The old methods of assistance have continued in force, and permanent endowment funds have in several cases grown to importance, and it is plain that the influence of these organizations Is becoming greater. At present they are organized on denominational lines, though originally many of them were not so. 1. THE AMEEICAN EDUCATION SOCIETY. Something of the extent of their service to higher education may be seen from the following tables, which are typical of the best work that is being done by these societies. Table 32 shows the annual income of the American Educa- tion Society, the number of students assisted, the amount of permanent funds possessed, the total annual grant to colleges, and, for a few years, the number of colleges receiving these grants. The first two columns are a continuation of columns one and two in Table 14. Table 32. — Finanoial statistics of the American Education Society at intervals of five years from 1866 to 1915. D^tes. Amount received. Students aided. Amount of per- manent fund. ' Orants to colleges.! Colleges aided. 1865 $21,613 27,120 93,713 64,097 60,124 101,425 141,189 120,047 144,036 129,555 89,639 253 354 413 367 309 359 335 138 192 231 $81,000 81,500 81,500 83,499 103,418 112,622 225,342 1870 1875. _ > $62, 375 38,983 •88,137 58,336 26,534 28.861 7^849 22,731 10,521 1880 1885 ■8 1890 1895 1900 1905 281, 114 282,124 1910 1915 , ' Usually much larger sums were given to academies than to colleges. 2 In this year (1875) the society jomed with the Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education, was chartered, and became the American College and Education Sodetv. •In 1884. If we turn to Table 14 we will see that this society grew rapidly from its beginning in 1815 to well into the thirties, after which it slowly declined until after the Civil War, when it again entered upon a period of prosperity which has continued practically to the present time. In 1874 the American Education Society, which had worked mainly by grants to students, was combined with the Society for the Promotion of Col- legiate and Theological Education in the West, which had operated by making grants to colleges." This shift in emphasis appears in column 4 under " grants to colleges." The rise in income along with the decline in number of students and colleges aided is explained by the fact that increasing attention has been given to the ^ As when the Western College Society founded Illinois College In 1843. •• See p. 50 ff. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 75 work of academies, pastorates, and missionary schools.'' The society has not only prospered, but its total service to education has increased. 2. THE PBESBYTEBIAN EDUCATIOISr BOARD. Table 33 continues for the board of education of the Presbyterian Church the facts shown for that society in Table 14. In addition, this table shows the number of churches from which contributions were received, ajid the maximum amount and the total amount of aid granted to students. Table 33. — Financial statistics of the Presbyterian Board of Education at inter- vals of five years.^ Years. Number of con- tributiag churches. Receipts from all sources. Number of candi- dates aided. Maxi- mum amount of aid. Total amount paid to candi- dates. 1866 J46,751 52, 276 68,179 296 391 496 424 619 839 1,031 716 658 843 776 895 $41,027 1870 $150 160 100 110 100 80 80 100 100 75-150 75-150 40,897 1875 63,450 1880 2 208 40,861 63,314 1885 2, 632 72. 733 1890 3,008 3,165 3,523 3,788 4,958 6,431 5,504 84,936 97,278 77,763 119, 104 148,503 164,459 203,592 67,651 1895 79, 071 1900 51,499 1905 64,535 1910 81,414 1915 .. . 79, 815 1917 86,902 Total 4,864,402 3, 147, 637 ' statistics from the 98th An. Rep. of the board, in 1917; the Cumberland Presbyterian Education Society united with this board in 1908; their first joint report is in 1907. First of aU, it wiU be seen that since 1878 the jumber of churches con- tributing to the funds of this society has practically* trebled. This in- crease in the society's clientage has been very gradual, and an examination of the receipts shows that the average contribution per church has remained fairly constant or perhaps increased slightly. If we examine the three last columns of this table we see that its service has also increased. The number of students aided has increased from 296 in 1866 to 1,037 in 1896 ; then, after a decline for a few years, has risen again to 895 in 1917. During these years the amount of aid per student has fluctuated somewhat but on the whole has declined, while the total of grants has varied somewhat with the number of students aided. 3. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHUBCH BOABD. The board of education of the Methodist Episcopal Church took definite form in 1864. Its charter empowered it to aid young men desiring to enter missionary work or the ministry, and to aid biblical or theological schools, as well as universities, colleges, and academies then (1869) under the patronage of the church. No gifts were to be made for buildings and no aid was to be given to any school not then in existence, except " the board shall first have been consulted and shall have approved of the establishment and organization of such institution." " Down to 1908 it has rendered aid to higher education » See Ad. Rep. of the Treasurer, 1916. '^ See the original charter of 1869, published in the 1904 report, 111512°— 22 6 76 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. entirely by making loans direct to students, for the reason that It had practically no funds for work of a broader scope.*" Since that time it has, in addition to this, made grants to colleges. Table 34 shows the annual receipts from gifts, the annual outlay in the form of loans to students, the annual grants to institutions, and, for some years, the number of students receiving these loans. From these figures it is evident that this society has made a remarkably rapid growth. From its beginning in 1873 to 1915 the board claims to have assisted a total of 22,392 different students." That includes those In the academies and theological schools as well as those in college. Table 34. — Financial statistics of the toard of educaition of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1868-1915, at intervals of five years.^ Years. Amount received less in- terest on permanent funds. Amount of loans to students. Number of students aided. 1 A mount of aid to in- stitutions. 1868 $84,000 2,141 5,079 38,852 64 914 76,529 114,651 130,640 164.608 200,158 -. 1875 110,095 8,000 31,684 42,173 70,596 81,749 108,658 115.400 123,696 1880 .' 1885 1890 . . 1895 1,540 1900 1905 2,072 2,189 t20 496 1915 43,528 Total 3,338,725 2,634,034 260,072 > Compiled from annual and quadrennial reports of the board. Table 35. — Biennial receipts of the 'board of education of the EvangeiUoal Lutheran Church in the United States of America. Periods. Amount received. Periods. Amount received. Periods. Amount received. 1887-1889 J6,409 10,140 14,181 15,288 19,878 1897-1899 $21,012 27,070 41,105 40,635 54,234 1907-1909 $104,866 1889-1891 1899-1901 1909-19U 1891-1893 1901-1903 1911-1913 ... . 75,656 89,746 95,738 1893-1895 1903-1905 1913-1915 1895-1897 1905-1907 1915-1917 4. EVANGELICAL LUTHERAN CHUECH BOAED. In 1885 the board of education of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States of America was organized and has operated continuously since. Table 35 shows the resources of the board biennially since its foundation. Its method of work has been that of making contributions to various educational Institutions. According to treasurers' reports, gifts to colleges were sometimes for the " budget " of the school and sometimes for a specific item, as interest on a debti special endowment, scholarship, etc. For the past decade reports show that at least seven Institutions were regular recipients of aid from this board, and it appears froni reports to have been responsible for founding, and also for refusing to found, new institutions, which together indicates that it is in some sense a supervising agency. " See discussion of tliis in ttie annual report of the board for 1904. "An. Rep., 1910. THE LATE KATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 77 6. WOEK OF THESE SOCXETIES EVALTTATED. While it is not possible to state jnst what proportion of the funds of these societies has gone into higher education, it is clear that all effort has been aimed directly or indirectly at training for the ministry. One has but to glance at the columns, and especially at their totals, to realize that these organizations have meant much to the growth of higher education in this country. The Income of the Presbyterian board for 1917 is approximately that of such colleges as Wells and Beloit. The showing for these four societies or boards is probably typical of the best that is being done by these organizations. Undoubtedly thousands of young men and women, have received secondary or collegiate training who would otherwise have received little or no schooling. The ministry has brought many into its service by this means. These societies have saved colleges which were virtually bankrupt. By small gifts they have stimulated much larger ones. They have exercised supervision over colleges under their patronage by refusing aid to those which show no promise. They have by these and other means attempted standardization, and it should be added that the Methodist board began to exercise this influence very early .^ They have through church pulpits and Sunday schools brought the problems of college education to the attention of a large percentage of our population. More recently coordination of the efforts of these many boards, through the work of the council of church boards of education, is resulting in a more intelli- gent placement of new foundations. Doubtless we should add that these boards have helped to save denominationallsm among churches, whatever that may be worth. Most of them seem to be worthy aims, if the cost has not been too great. In opposition to this kind of philanthrophy it is sometimes argued that a young man who is put through college by the aid of these boards naturally feels obligated to enter the ministry regardless of the fact that he discovers in the course of his training that he is better fitted for some other calling; that, as a rule, academy students are not in a position to decide upon a voca- tion; that the scholarship method, unless appointments are based upon ability, is not the best way to stimulate scholarly efforts ; and that the cost of admin- istering the funds is too large.™ It is clear at any rate that these boards are occupying a much stronger position among the churches than formerly. Their supervision is real super- vision, when it is possible for them to close up such of their own weaker insti- " In 1892 general conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Ciurch authorized a " uni- versity senate " to formulate a standaid of requirements for graduation to baccalaureate degree in their church schools, and the board was authorized to classify as collies only such schools as met those requirements. See Appendix to Annual Report for 1892, and for the general conference for 1896, p. 736. The collies are classified on this basis in the annual reports of the board for 1895. * In 1875 approximately 11 per cent of the expenditures of the American College and Education Society was for the cost of administration. The cost of administration for the Methodist board amounted to more than 16 per cent of the total expenditures in 1889, and about 27 per cent in 1915, and the same figure for the Presbyterian board in 1888 was about 10 per cent. Of course these are only rough figures. The administrative offi- cers are often engaged in ways that are directly useful in the development of higher educa- tion. The application of college standards by the administrative officers of the Methodist board is a fair Olustration. The making of educational surveys, the gathering and pub- lication of educational information, the vast amounts of correspondence in connection with gifts and loans, and the advice to colleges concerning their educational and financial de- velopment, are all illustrations. In a sense these boards are all engaged in propaganda work, the results at which it is diScult to eraluata. 78 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEBICAN HIGHBK EDTTCATION. tntions as they may decide are no longer useful." These boards are not only taking a scientific attitude toward this problem, but they are studying their col- leges to see what are needed and what are not needed, and are advocating, and in many cases effecting, the close of the superfluous institutions." 6. COUNCn, OF CHUECH BOABDS OF EDUCATION. There Is one feature of this whole movement which seems to promise very great possibilities for good. That is the recently organized council of church boards of education. This council was organized in 1911, and has for its pur- pose a more intelligent cooperation among churches in the building and main- tenance of church colleges." Possibly it was the influence of the more powerful philanthropic agencies, together with the growing prestige of the great pri- vately endowed and State universities, that brought the small church college to realize that its influence was beginning to wane. This movement toward cooperation is one important outcome of the vigorous discussions of the place of the small college in American higher education. These boards knew many of the weak points in the church college situation and knew that duplication of effort was probably their greatest weakness. At an informal conference of the secretaries of seven church boards of edu- cation, held in New York City, February 18, 1911, it was decided that a second conference should be held at which carefuUy prepared papers should be pre- sented. Such a conference was held and resulted in the following declaration of principles : (1) A large degree of cooperation between educational boards is practicable and desirable. " Through them we might secure a better geographi- cal distribution of denominational colleges * * * a proper standardization of institutions," etc. (2) The denominations should offer loyal support to the pub- lic-schoor system. (3) The legitimacy and the absolute necessity of a certain number of denominational academies, occupying strategic positions in territory not fully occupied by the public high schools. (4) There should be a direct ap- proach by the denominations to the problem of religious instruction at State university centers."^ The council took permanent form at the conclusion of this meeting and has since published annual reports of its work. Several practical steps toward cooperation between the boards have already been taken, and, though its place as a standardizing agency may remain advisory only, it is in that capacity that its influence as a philanthropic agency offers substantial promise. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. « We may characterize this period in the growth of higher education in America as follows : The question of State versus private endowment of higher education has been fought through and settled favorably to both methods; the church has con- tinued its work of founding small colleges; several very large institutions (in a sense a new type) have been founded by the fortunes of single individuals and have not looked to the church for support ; a number of large foundations, « See Rep. Bd. of Educ. Meth. Epls. Ch., 1915, p. 23, for illustration. " Black Hills College^ 1903 ; Charles City College, University of the Pacific, and Fort Worth University, 1911 ; Mount Pleasant German College, 1908, are a few of the Method- ist institutions that have been closed In this way. «" The constitution of the council is printed in the Second "Annual Report of the Coun- cil of Church Boards of Education. " See First An. Rep. of Council of Church Boards of Ed. in U. S. America. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865-1918. 79 the aim of which is research and general educational stimulus and supervision, have been created; and a new philosophy of education, which has found ex- pression in the organization, administration, and management of our institu- tions of higher learning, has been worked out. In opening up new territory to higher education during this period, the State has for the most part done the pioneering, thus reversing the custom of pre- Civil War days, when the church school led the way. From a general view of the work of philanthropy in higher education, as gathered from the Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, we have seen that philanthropy has gradually built up a vast fund for the per- manent endowment of higher leax-ning; that from this source, together with annual gifts, philanthropy Is still bearing decidedly the larger part of the burden of higher education, though the State is assuming a relatively larger portion of this burden each year ; and that tuition has covered practically the same per- centage of the total annual cost from 1872 to the present. We have seen that, on an average, more than half of all gifts have gone to " permanent endowment and general purposes " ; that there is a tendency in recent years for a larger proportion to go into the permanent funds ; and that from one-eighth to one-half of the annual gifts have been for the development of the school plant. We have seen that in the seventies and eighties professorships and libraries fared well ; that scholarships became increasingly important, and that the indigent never were quite forgotten ; and, finally, that the percentage of all gifts that have been made without condition through the years has ranged from 4 to 26 per cent. From other data we have seen that philanthropy has been almost solely re- sponsible for the development of separate colleges for women, and for theo- logical schools; that it has played a large part in the development of medical schools, and a small part in technical and law schools ; and that private enter- prise and the State have been almost entirely responsible for the development of schools of dentistry and pharmacy, while the State has been largely respon- sible for technical schools. From data in the various annual publications from 1893 to 1915, inclusive, we have seen that education has received 43 per cent of all gifts of $5,000 or over in the United States ; that charity is education's largest competitor, with 37 per cent ; while " religious purposes " balances with museums and public im- provements at approximately 9 per cent each, and libraries at 2 per cent. Roughly, and relatively speaking, we may say* that during the first half of this period the amount of gifts for education made a slight gain, since which it has suffered a steady decline. Similarly religious purposes and museums have suf- fered a substantial though irregular decline from the start, while libraries have made a continuous decline from the first. These changes are in practically all cases only relative. Among the old colonial colleges we have seen that the entire burden has fallen upon philanthropy and student fees, the States having offered no assist- ance whatever through this period. In spite of this, gifts have increased greatly. Conditjonal gifts have become somewhat more popular, but slightly the opposite is true with respect to gifts for permanent funds. Gifts to libraries and to indigent students have declined, while professorships have remained approx- imately as before. In the colleges of the early national period we see the same rapid growth of funds from philanthropy as noted for the older institutions. In the colleges of this period the rapid growth of permanent funds is especially noticeable, and, further, the larger portion of these gifts are for the general fund. With this growth of general endowment have also prospered professorships, scholarships, and libraries. 80 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. As to the colleges of this period, no study was made of what we think of as the small church college. The work of this character is undoubtedly important, but there is little if anything new coming from it. The real contribution of the period is the group of large foundations. With one or two exceptions these are not church-fostered and not State-fostered institutions as all their ancestors have been. They encourage liberality in religion, they offer the most liberal scientific education for women, they encourage the use of museum and laboratory methods of teaching, and they foster research as a university function. An examination of the financial history of this type of institution shows that in all cases they have been promptly taken over by the people and are now among the most important recipients of gifts in this country. Their rate of growth has been very great almost from the start, and all our evidence goes to show that these powerful financial corporations, planted in the midst of small colleges and accepted in some quarters with misgiving, have not only kept faith with earlier social, religious, and educational aims, but. In the readjust- ment of those aims to our rapidly expanding age, they have shown capacity proportionate to their great financial power, and what was to some a doubtful experiment is a success. Through this period we have seen the continuation of the work of church boards of education, or religious education societies. These are rapidly increas- ing in numbers, there being a tendency for each church to have its own board. Their work has been conducted along two main lines. They have contributed scholarships either by gift or by loan, and they have made grants to colleges to meet either a general or some special need. Their chief aim has continued to be the development of a trained ministry, though the development of col- leges in which all students will be kept in a proper religious atmosphere is scarcely secondary. The evidence presented shows that these societies have prospered. They are contributing direct assistance to many hundreds of stu- dents every year; they are making grants direct to colleges, grants which, though small, have often been directly responsible for larger gifts; they have in some measure exercised supervision over the founding of new schools, over curricula, and finance ; and by their cooperation through the council of church boards of education they promise much more for the future. Chapter V. GREAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. A NEW PHILANTHROPIC ENTERPRISE. A type of philanthropic educational enterprise peculiar to the period just discussed Is that of the large foundation whose purpose is not alone, nor eveft\ primarily, that of teaching but rather that of supplementing and assisting established institutions of education. One can scarcely read the founding documents of these institutions without being struck first of all with the very wide scope of service which they have andertaken. The Peabody Fund promoted popular education in the South by cooperation with State and local ofiicials. The Jeanes, the Slater, and the Phelps-Stokes Fund have been devoted to the problems of education for negroes. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has concerned itself with salaries, pensions, and insurance for college professors. The Gen- eral Education Board has helped along several of these lines and paid much attention to educational investigations, and especially to a more substantial endowment of existing institutions. The Sage Foundation has contributed lib- erally by investigation, research, and publication. These foundations, therefore, appear as a really new type of philanthropic enterprise in education, with church education boards as their only possible precedent, and though, as compared with the educational assets of some of our great cities, or with sums which numerous States are utilizing annually, or even with a few of our universities, they are not remarkably large, yet they are large enough to represent very great possibilities, and society can not afford to take them lightly. Can our country assimilate this new enterprise, is a ques^i tion that might have been asked when Mr. Peabody and his successors began f pouring out their millions in the development of this new lusiness, the business ' of educational philanthropy. The church college was antagonistic toward the State institutions of higher education when the latter began to grow rapidly into great universities, and they were also quite skeptical of the great privately endowed universities, lest they might be Godless schools. The State, the church, and the individual philan- thropist were in a fairly real sense competitors in the field, and it was but natural that the old pioneer, the church college, should at first be jealous of what seemed to be its special prerogative. This rivalry has continued, but it has become increasingly friendly with passing years. These new foundations, however, do not enter the field as rivals, but, instead, aim definitely to supplement and to cooperate with forces already at work. What work will they supplement and with whom will they cooperate are extremely practical questions which they must face, and also which the col- 81 82 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEBICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. leges and schools mnst face. Giving help to my competitor is in a sense the equivalent of doing harm to me. This was precisely the point of danger. THE STATED PURPOSES OF THESE FOUNDATIONS. First, then, what are the aims of these foundations, and what limitations are ^placed upon the funds which they are to manage? For these we must turn to their founding documents. 1. THE PBABODT EDUCATION FUND. The Peabody Education Fund, the gift of George Peabody, of Massachusetts, was established in 1867, and amounted finally to $3,000,000. In a letter to 15 men whom he had chosen to act as his trustees, Mr. Peabody sets forth his plans and purposes, which were later embodied in the act of incorporation. He says : ' I give to you * * * the sum of one million dollars, to be by you and your successors held in trust, and the income thereof used and applied, in your discretion, for the promotion and encouragement of intellectual, moral, or industrial education among the young of the more destitute portions of the Southern and Southwestern States of our Union, my purpose being that the benefits intended shall be distributed among the entire population, without other distinction than their needs and the opportunities of usefulness to them. In the following paragraph he empowers them to use 40 per cent of the principal sum within the next two years, then adds another million to the gift, grants the trustees power to incorporate, and further says : In case two-thirds of the trustees shall at any time, after the lapse of 30 years, deem it expedient to close this trust, and of the funds which at that time shall be in the hands of yourselves and your successors to distribute not less than two-thirds among such educational and literary institutions, or for such educational purposes as they may determine, in the States for whose benefit the income is now appointed to be used. The remainder to be dis- tributed by the trustees for educational or literary purposes wherever they may deem it expedient. This letter, together with a later one in which he says, " I leave all the de- tails of management to their (the trustees') own discretion," were embodied in the preamble to the charter later issued by the State of New York. In June, 1869, Mr. Peabody addressed to the board a letter of appreciation for their service in carrying out his trust, in which he conveyed a gift of securities worth nearly a million and a half dollars.' These letters certainly stand out, as among the most remarkable documents in the history of educational philanthropy to this time. There were only the most general restrictions on the funds, and these were to end after 30 years, leaving the trustees almost entirely free to dispose of the entire fund. The best proof of their great distinction, as we shall see, lies in the fact that they have been the precedent for all similar subsequent foundations. 2. THE JOHN r. SIATER FUND. The second of these foundations was the John F. Slater Fund for the Educa- tion of Freedmen, established on March 4, 1882, by a gift of $1,000,000. In a letter of date March 4, 1882, Mr. Slater invites 10 men to form a corporation for the administration of the fund, and in this letter he sets forth the pur- poses he wishes to achieve, together with the restrictions he places upon the gift He names as the general object — " See Proc. of Trustees of Peabody Educ. IMnd, Vol. I, p. 1 fC. ' Peabody Educ. Fund, Proc., Vol. II, p. 142 ff. GEEAT EDUCATIOlirAL FOUNDATIONS. 83 the uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the Southern States, and their posterity, by conferring on them the blessings of Christian education. He seeks not only — for their own sake, but also for the safety of our common country [to provide them] with the means of such education as shall tend to make them good men and good citizens — education in which the instruction ot the mind in the common branches of secular learning shall be associated with training in just notions of duty toward God and man, in the light of the Holy Scriptures. The means to be used, he says, " I leave to the discretion of the corporation." He then suggests " the training of teachers from among the people " and " the encouragement of such institutions as are most effectually useful in promoting this training of teachers." Further on he adds : I purposely leave to the corporation the largest liberty of making such changes in the methods of applying the income of the fund as shall seem from time to time best adapted to accomplish the general object herein named. He then, obviously drawing upon English experience, warns them against the possible evils of such endowments, and states that after 33 years they are to be free to dispose of the capital of the fund — to the establishment of foundations subsidiary to these already existing institu- tions of higher education, in such wise as to make the educational advantages of such institutions more freely accessible to poor students of the colored race. Finally, he urges the avoidance of any partisan, sectional, or sectarian bias in the use of the gift, and closes with reference to the success of the Peabody Education Fund as having encouraged him to establish this foundation.' This letter was embodied in the charter issued by New York State in April, 1882. In all the fundamentals these documents are a fair copy of the charter and instruments of gift in the case of the Peabody Education Fund. 3. THE CABNEQIE INSTITUTION. The third of these foundations to take form was the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The trust deed by which it was established is of date January 28, 1902, and transfers to the trustees securities worth $10,000,000. (This sum has since been more than doubled.) In this instrument of gift' Mr. Carnegie declares it to be his purpose to found in Washington an institution which, with the CTi^^ratibn or Other institutions — shall in the broadest and most liberal manner encourage investigation, research, and discovery — show the application of knowledge to the improvement of man- kind, provide such buildings, laboratories, books, and apparatus as may be needed; and afCord instruction of an advanced character to students properly qualified to profit thereby. It aims, he says: 1. To promote original research. 2. To discover the exceptional man in every department of study * * * and enable him to make the work for which he seems specially designed his life work. 3. To increase facilities for higher education. 4. To increase the efficiency of the universities and other institutions of learning [both by adding to their facilities and by aiding teachers in experimental studies]. 5. To enable such students as may find Washington the best point for their special studies to enjoy the advantages of the museums [and other numerous institutions]. ■ • For a copy of this letter and the charter see Proceedings of the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen, 1883, p. 21 fE. * See Carnegie Institution of Washington, Tear Book No. 1, 1902, 84 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER BDtJCATION. 6. To Insnre the prompt publication and distribution of the results of scientific investigation. Finally : The trustees shall have power, by a majority of two-thirds of their number, to modify the conditions and regulations under which the funds may be dis- pensed, so as to secure that these shall always be applied in the manner best adapted to the advanced conditions of the times; provided always that any modifications shall be in accordance with the purposes of the donor, as expressed in the trust. 4. THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD. Following this in 1903 the General Education Board was established by John D. Rockefeller. His preliminary gift in 1902 of $1,000,000 was followed in 1905 by a gift of $10,000,000, and this by a third gift of $32,000,000 in 1907, and a fourth, of $10,000,000, in 1909. In the act of incorporation Mr. Rockefeller states the purposes of the founda- tion as follows: Sec. 2. That the object of the said corporation shall be the promotion of education within the United States of America, without distinction of race, sex, or creed. Sec. 3. That for the promotion of such object the said corporation shall have power to build, improve, enlarge, or equip, or to aid others to build, Improve, enlarge, or equip, buildings for elementary or primary schools, industrial schools, technical schools, normal schools, training schools for teachers, or schools of any grade, or for higher institutions of learning, or, in connection therewith, libraries, workshops, gardens, kitchens, or other educational ac- cessories; to establish, maintain, or endow, or aid others to establish, main- tain, or endow, elementary or primary schools, industrial schools, technical schools, normal schools, training schools for teachers, or schools of any grade, or higher institutions of learning; to employ or aid others to employ teachers and lecturers; to aid, cooperate with, or endow associations or other corpora- tions engaged in educational work within the United States of America, or to donate to any such association or corporation any property or moneys which shall at any time be held by the said corporation hereby constituted ; to collect educational statistics and information, and to publish and distribute documents and reports containing the same, and in general to do and perform all things necessary or convenient for the promotion of the object of the corporation. In a letter from John D. Rockefeller, jr., of date March 2, 1902, the con- ditions which are to control the uses to which the money may be put are set forth. These limitations were subseciuently changed. Originally, however, re- ferring to the above statement of purpose, the letter says : ' Upon this understanding my father hereby pledges to the board the sum of one million dollars ($1,000,000) to be expended at its discretion during a period of 10 years, and will make payments under such pledges from time to time as requested by the board or its executive committee through its duly authorized officers. The second gift is announced in a letter from Mr. F. T. Gates, which states the following conditions: I The principal to be held in perpetuity as a foundation for educatioij, the in- come above expenses of admihislrafibn to Redistributed to, or used for the I benefit of, such Institutions of learning, at such times, in su(?h amounts, for ! such purposes and under such conditions, or employed in such other ways, as / the board may deem best adapted to promote a comprehensive system of higher education m the United States. The third gift was presented through a letter from Mr. Rockefeller, jr., and the conditions controlling the uses of the money are : " See The General Education Board, An Account of Its Activities, 1902-1914, p. 212 IT. « Ibid., p. 213. GREAT EDUCATIONAL, FOUNDATIONS. 85 One-third to be added to the permanent endowment of the board, two-thlrda to be applied to such specific objects within the corporate purposes of the board as either he or I may from time to time direct, any remainder, not so designated at the death of the survivor, to be added to the permanent endowment of the board. Concerning the fourth gift Mr. Rockefeller says, through a letter from his son addressed to the board, that the gift is to be added to the permanent endow- ment of the board. Then follow these qualifications : He, however, authorizes and empowers you and your successors, whenever in your discretion it shall seem wise, to distribute the principal or any part thereof, provided the same shall be authorized by a resolution passed by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of all those who shall at the time be members of your board at a special meeting held on not less than 30 days' notice given in writing, which shall state that the meeting is called for the purpose of con- sidering a resolution to authorize the distribution of the whole or some part of the principal of said fund. Upon the adoption of such resolution in the manner above described, you and your successors shall be and are hereby re- leased from the obligation thereafter to hold in perpetuity or as endowment such portion of the principal of such fund as may have been authorized to be distributed by such resolution. This would seem to give the board very wide powers and to leave to the donor very little control aside from a part of the third gift specially reserved. Yet Mr. Rockefeller seems not to have been fully satisfied, for on June 29, 1909, he addressed a letter to the board saying: Gentlemen : I have heretofore from time to time given to your board cer- tain property, the principal of which was to be held In perpetuity, or as en- dowment. I now authorize and empower you and your successors, whenever in your discretion it shall seem wise, to distribute the principal or any part thereof, provided the same shall be authorized by a resolution passed by the affirmative vote of two- thirds of all those who shall at the time be 'members of your board, at a special meeting held on not less than 30 days' notice given in writing, which shall state that the meeting is called for the purpose of con- sidering a resolution to authorize the distribution of the whole, or some part of the principal of said funds. Upon the adoption of such resolution in the man- ner above prescribed, you and your successors shall be, and are hereby, re- leased from the obligation thereafter to hold in perpetuity or as endowment such portion of the principal of such funds as may have been authorized to be distributed by such resolution. It would be hard to think of a point at which this board could be given wider freedom in the exercise of its jurisdiction over these funds than is here granted by the founder. 5. THE CAENEGIE FOUNDATION. The fifth of these foundations, th« Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- ment of Teaching, had its origin in a letter, of date April 16, 1905, in which Mr.>. Carnegie set forth to a group of 25 men whom he had chosen to act as hia x^ trustees the plan of his foundation.' In all he has placed $16,250,000 in the hands of this board. The plan is clearly stated in the charter which was obtained in March, 1906. Here the object is declared to be: To provide retiring pensions, without regard to race, sex, creed, or color, for the teachers of universities, colleges, and technical schools in the United States, the Dominion of Canada, and Newfoundland, who, by reason of long and meri- torious service, or by reason of old age, disability, or other sufficient reason, shall be deemed entitled to the assistance and aid of this corporation, on such terms and conditions, however, as such corporation may from time to time approve and adopt. ' Quoted in full in the first annual report of the president and treasuier o( the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. »6 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEEIOAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Then follows the limitation that those connected with any institution which is controlled by a sect or which imposes any theological test as a condition of entrance Into or connection therewith are excluded. In general, to do and perform all things necessary to encourage, uphold, and dignify the profession of the teacher and the cause of higher education * * *, and to promote the object of the foundation, with full power, however, to. the trustee hereinafter appointed and their successors, from time to time to modify the conditions and regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the conditions of the times; [and provided that by two-thirds vote the trustees may] enlarge or vary the purposes herein set forth, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing and kindred thereto.* 6. THE KtrSSELL SAGE TOUNDATION. In April, 1907, the sixth of these, the Russel Sage Foundation, was chartered by the State of New York. The charter states the purpose of the corporation to be that of— Receiving and maintaining a fund or funds and applying the income thereof to the improvement of social and living conditions in the United States of America. It shall be within the purposes of said corporation to use any means to that end which from time to time shall seem expedient to its members or trustees, including research, publication, education, the establishment and maintenance of charitable or benevolent activities and institutions, and the aid of any such activities, agencies, or institutions already established. In her letter of gift, of date April 19, 1907, Mrs. Sage says : " I do not wish to enlarge or limit the powers given to the foundation^ by_its act_qf~iSc6rpo- -lation," " but adds that it seems wise to express certain desires to_ which she would wish the trustees to conform. Then follows several suggestions relative to local and national use of the funds, types of investments, etc., which in the writer's judgment tend to enlarge the freedom which most men serving as trus- tees would otherwise have been inclined to exercise over the funds under tlie charter. ^-. 1. THE PHELPS-STOKES FUND. The seventh of these foundations was the Phelps-Stokes Fund of nearly S1,000,000, which was established by the bequest of Caroline Phelps Stokes, who made her will in 1893 and died in 1909. The foundation was chartered in 1911. In her will Miss Stokes says : " I direct that all my residuary estate * * * shall be given by my executors to the following persons " (here she names the trustees she has chosen, and adds) : To invest and keep invested by them and their successors, the interest and net Income of such fund to be used by them and their successors for the erec- tion or improvement of tenement-house dwellings in New York City for the poor families of New York City and for educational purposes in the education of the negroes both in Africa and the United States, North American Indians, and needy and deserving white students, through industrial schools of kinds similar to that at Northfield, Mass., in which Mr. Dwight L. Moody is inter- ested, or to the Peet Industrial School at Asheville, N. C, the foundation of scholarships and the erection or endowment of school buildings * * *. I hereby give said trustees and their successors full power of sale, public of private, in their discretion, upon such terms as they think best respecting any part of said trust fund in the course of the due execution of such trust." ' "Act of Incorporation, By-Laws, Rules for Granting of Retiring Allowances," N. T., 1906. » For copies of tUs letter and of tlie cliarter tlie writer is indebted to Dr. John M. Glenn, director of the foundation. »" From Phelps-Stolces Fund — Act of Incorporation, By-Laws, and Other Documents. GREAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 87 The charter, in defining the purpose of the foundation, uses much of this same language and in addition. the following: It shall be within the purpose of said corporation to use any means to such ends * * *, including research, publication, the establishment and mainte- nance of charitable or benevolent activities, agencies, and institutions, and the aid of any such activities, agencies, or institutions already established." This fund stands as a permanent endowment, but with such very general conditions placed upon its use that it is virtually as free as it could be made. 8. THE EOCKEFELLEE FOUNDATION. The latest foundation of just this type to be established is that of the Rocke- feller Foundation, incorporated in April, 1913. The purpose of the corporation is that — of receiving and maintaining a fund or funds, and applying the income and principal thereof, to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world. Its means are to be — research, publication, the establishment and maintenance of charitable, benevo- lent, religious, missionary, and public educational activities, agencies, and insti- tutions, and the aid of any such activities, agencies, and institutions already established, and any other means and agencies which from time to time shall seem expedient to its members or trustees." 9. THE CLEVELAND FOUNDATION. There is one other type of foundation that is of very recent origin, but which is rapidly becoming popular, and shows promise of becoming very extensive and powerful in the near future. The chief work of this corporation is not education, but since educational service is within its powers it deserves men- tion here. The Cleveland Foundation, organized in January, 1914, was the first of this type, since followed by the Chicago Community Trust, the Houston Foundation, the Los Angeles Community Foundation, the St. Louis Commu- nity Trust, the Spokane Foundation, and other foundations of similar char- acter at Milwaukee, Boston, Indianapolis, Ind., Attleboro, Mass., Minneapolis, Detroit, and Seattle. The Cleveland Foundation was formed by resolution of the board of directors of the Cleveland Trust Co., in which the company agreed to act as trustee of property given and devised for charitable purposes, all property to be administered as a single trust. The income of this founda- tion is administered by a committee appointed partly by the trustee company and partly by the mayor, the judge of the probate court, and the Federal district Judge. The principal is managed by the trustee company. The resolution creating the trust sets forth the object of the foundation as follows : " Prom the time the donor or testator provides that income shall be available for use of such foundation, such income less proper charges and expenses shall be annually devoted perpetually to charitable purposes, unless principal is distributed as hereinafter provided. Without limiting in any way the charitable purposes for which such income may be used, it shall be available for assisting charitable and educational institutions, whether supported by private donations or public taxation, for promoting education, scientific re- search for care of the sick, aged, or helpless, to improve living conditions, or to provide recreation for all classes, and for such other charitable purposes as will best make for the mental, moral, and physical improvement of the " Ibid., p. B ff. 12 An Act to Incorporate The Rockefeller Foundation, in Ann. Rep. "From "Tie Cleveland Foundation a Community Trust," The Cleveland Trust Co., 1814. 88 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Inhabitants of the city of Cleveland, as now or hereafter constituted, regard- less of race, color, or creed, according to the discretion of a majority In nuipber of a committee to be constituted as hereinafter provided. It is further provided that if contributors to the foundation, In their instru- ments of gift, place limitations as to the final disposition of the principal, or as to the uses to which its income may be put, or as to what members of the trust company shall exercise control over the disposition of principal or Interest, then — The trustee shall respect and be governed by the wishes as so expressed, but only In so far as the purposes Indicated shall seem to the trustee, under con- ditions as they may hereafter exist, wise and most widely beneficial, absolute discretion being vested in a majority of the then members of the board of directors of the Cleveland Trust Co. to determine with respect thereto. When by the exercise of this power funds are diverted from the purposes indicated by their respective donors, such funds " shall be used and dis- tributed for the general purposes of the foundation." The foundation Is to provide a committee for distributing Its funds, the com- mittee to be made up of — Residents of Cleveland, men or women interested in welfare work, possess- ing a knowledge of the civic, educational, physical, and moral needs of the community, preferably but one, and in no event to exceed two members of said committee to belong to the same religious sect or denomination, those holding or seeking political oflBce to be disqualified from serving. Two members of the committee are to be appointed by the Cleveland Trust Co., one by the mayor, one by the senior or presiding judge of the court which settles estates in Cuyahoga County, and one by the senior or presiding judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio. This committee is to be provided with a paid secretary, but otherwise to receive expenses only. There are other interesting features of this resolution. For Instance, when the income of any trust Is available for use by the foundation — All or any portion of the property belonging to such trust may be listed for taxation, regardless of any statute exempting all or any part thereof by reason of Its application to charitable purposes, if a majority of the board of directors of the Cleveland Trust Co. shall so direct. And more important still Is the provision that — With the approval of two-thirds of the entire board of directors of the Cleveland Trust Co., gl^en at a meeting called specifically for that purpose, all or any part of the principal constituting the trust estate may be used for any purpose within the scope of the foundation, which may have the approval of four members of said committee, providing that not to exceed 20 per cent of the entire amount held as principal shall be disbursed during a period of five consecutive years. Careful provision Is made for an annual audit of all accounts, and fuU control of funds and properties is vested In the trustees of the foundation. This is clearly a new method of handling philanthropy. In a sense it is an ordinary commission business with unusually good security for its patrons. From the standpoint of the bank it promises fair though not lucrative profit. It is so designed as to keep its business exclusively for the city of Cleveland, so that fortunes accumulated there by the few eventually may be turned back to the community in the form of some kind of public service. Looked at from another angle, it is a real community enterprise which ought to develop civic pride as well as contribute to the, solution of local social and educational problems. It makes philanthropy possible for small as well as large fortunes, GREAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 89 and so tends to popularize giving. The large fund that promises to accumulate is always adaptable to whatever changes the future may bring. It is un- doubtedly an interesting and important business and social experiment by which education may hope to profit. This places before us in fairly complete form the aims and purposes of this rather new type of educational enterprise. The Anna T. Jeanes Foundation is very similar in character but deals with elementary education exclusively. Similarly there are numerous other foundations engaged in charitable, library, or research work whose founding instruments embody the same fundamental principles common to those here quoted and, viewed from the standpoint of the evolution of a theory of endowments, belong in the same class. To state these principles in brief we may say, first of all, that the " purpose " is in every case set forth in the most general terms and in brief and simple language; second, that the means for carrying out this purpose is left almost entirely to the trustees of the foundation ; third, that the means, and to an extent in some cases even the purpose, is modifiable at the will of the trustees ; and fourth, that there is no sectional, racial, denominational, political, or ecclesiastical control. In most cases the capital fund is to remain permanently intact, but in some cases the entire income and capital may be used and the trust terminated. The Peabody Education Fund illustrates how this latter plan has already operated in full. The possible scope of activities is practically national for all, and international for some, the boards of trustees are self- perpetuating, and they receive no pay for their services. This means that there is every possibility for keeping these large sums of money, now amounting to more than $300,000,000, constantly in touch with the real educational needs of the country, and In these charters there seems no possibility that it will ever be necessary for any one of these foundations to continue to do any particular thing in any particular way — as, for instance, to maintain " enough faggots to burn a heretic " — in order to control the avail- able funds to some entirely desirable and profitable end. THE OPERATIONS OF THESE rOUNDATIONS. The real test of these liberal provisions could come only when educational philanthropy as a business began actually to cope with the educational, social, and economic forces in the midst of which it sought a place of responsibility. A half century of activity has passed since the first of these foundations be- gan its work. During the first 15 years of this period the Peabody BMnd stood alone. Then came the Slater Fund, after which 20 years passed before the next, the Carnegie Institution at Washington, was established. This founda- tion by Mr. Carnegie seemed to initiate a new era in respect both to the number and size of these endowments. 1. THE PEABODT EDUCATION FTJND. When the Peabody Education Fund began its work there were few public- school systems of consequence in the South, either city or State. With this fund Dr. Bamas Sears attacked this problem directly, and by 1875 had so popu- larized the idea that cities and States were taking over the schools which the fund had established. The next move was for the training of teachers for these schools. Arrangements were made to turn the University of Nash- ville to this purpose, its new name to be Peabody Normal College. This was done in 1875, and a large number of scholarships were established. Later, attention was turned to summer normals, to teachers ' institutes, and gradually to the development of normal schools in each of the States. 90 PHIIANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHEE EDTTCATION. Doctor Ourry, who succeeded Doctor Sears, carried forward the development of normal schools, but In his work began to condition his gifts upon the State's making appropriations to go with them. Doctor Curry was repeatedly before State legislatures, defending the claims of public education ; and when, In 1898, it was proposed to make final division of the fund by endowing one or more institutions, practlcaUy every Southern State protested against it. This dis- position of the fund was finally made in 1913-14, with the endowment of the George Peabody College for Teachers. During the years 1868 to 1914 the foundation gave away $3,650,- 556 to the following : » 1. City public sehools ?1, 148, 183 2. Normal' schools 759, 122 3. Teachers' Institutes 382, 755 4. George Peabody College 550,381 5. Scholarships 580, 665 6. Educational journals : 8, 300 7. Summer schools 32, 500 8. Rural public schools 37, 800 9. State supervision of rural schools 77, 950 10. Educational campaigns 13, 500 11. County supervision of teaching 15, 000 12. Miscellaneous 44, 400 The final distribution of the fund, with its accrued income, was as follows : George Peabody College for Teachers 1, 500, 000 University of Virginia 40,000 University of North Carolina 40, 000 University of Georgia 40, 000 University of Alabama 40, 000 University of Florida 40,000 University of Mlssisippi 40,000 Louisiana State University 40,000 University of Arkansas 40, 000 UniTersity of Kentucky 40,000 Johns Hopkins University 6,000 University of South Carolina 6,000 University of Missouri 6, 000 University of Texas . 6, 000 Winthrop Normal College '. 90, 000 John P. Slater Fund (education of negroes), estimated at 350,000 Table 36 will give some slight notion of the service rendered by the fund, if we keep in mind, first, that no one of the 11 States receiving aid from the fund in 1871 was itself contributing as much as $800,000 for common schools, and that at least 2 of these States spent less than $200,000 each ;" and second, that these sums were so placed by the foundation as to stimulate interest in the idea of public schools. The difficulty of the task which this foundation has performed must not be overlooked. It is specially noteworthy that from the beginning its agents worked in the open, frankly as a big propaganda enterprise. Both by addresses and by publications the people were kept informed as to just what the founda- tion sought to do. « Proc. Peabody Educ. Fund, Vol. VI, p. 634 tt. " See Eep. of U. S. Commls. of Educ, 1871. GREAT EDUCATIONAL, FOUNDATIONS. 91 Table 36.- -Distrihution of the gifts of the Peabody Education Fund, 1868-1910, in 9 to IZ Southern States} Dates. To States. To Normal CoUege, NasS- ville. Scholar- sMps in Normal College, Nasfi- viUe. Total grants. Dates. To States. To Normal College, Nash- ville. Scholar- ships in Normal CoUege, Nash- ville. Total grants. 1868 135,400 90,000 90,500 100,000 130,000 136,850 134,600 98,000 73,300 78,860 57,800 64,500 42,900 34,125 49,350 46,925 31,600 31,995 46,000 31,600 23,600 39,750 135,400 90,000 90,500 100,000 130,000 136,860 134,600 101,000 76,300 95,750 64,500 87,800 66,350 64,100 73,609 77,125 62,700 63,065 74,600 66,400 49,200 77,150 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908. 143,376 49,524 54,800 47,500 39,688 34,551 49,019 45,100 45,700 45, 114 43,604 41,300 41,100 36,673 38,400 62,500 54,500 35,000 128,250 14,350 14,000 13,200 11,600 120,300 6,212 9,900 14,600 14,750 15,100 14,600 14,600 14,600 16,600 25,500 37,500 45,000 121, 474 23,726 23,600 26,450 25,188 35,131 19,008 23,567 24,498 24,709 25,351 24,329 24,180 24,127 25,000 193,100 87,600 1869 1870 -92,400 1871 87 150 1872 76 388 1873 89,981 1874 74,239 1875 f3,000 3,000 15,000 6,000 11,000 13,000 4,000 8,009 9,500 9,900 10,100 10,000 10,600 7,800 10,950 60,667 1876 84,798 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 11,900 1,900 12,300 10,400 25,975 16,150 20,700 21,200 20,970 18,500 24,300 17,800 26,450 84,573 84,056 80,229 79,880 75,400 80,000 78,000 1884 92,000 1885 80,000 1886 80,000 1887 1909. 69,000 1888 1910 36,500 1889 ' Compiled from Eept. of U. S. Commis. Educ. for 1903 and from An. Proc. of Peabody Educ. Fund. It is easy to imagine that society miglit liave been much more skeptical of such an agency than it seems to have been. The growth of public-school sys- tems and of normal and industrial schools in the South is evidence enough that the fund has been greatly useful, and its success stands as a monument to the capacity of the southern people to furnish the type of public opinion necessary to direct such a philanthropic force into useful channels. In this, however, public opinion would have failed had not its founder left it free to meet the changing conditions which came with the passing years. This, as our first experment, must be pronounced a decided success and it must stand as an excellent precedent both for the future public and for the future philanthropist. 2. THE JOHN F. SLATEK FUND. The John F. Slater Fund was handled on so nearly the same lines, to so nearly the same ends, in the same territory, and for many years by the same agent as was the Peabody Education Fund that detailed examination of its work would add little if anything new to this discussion. 3. THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, D. C. The work of the Carnegie Institution of Washington is difficult to describe in terms that will show what its contribution has really been." In explaining the policy for the future, it is made clear that " grounds already occupied will be avoided," " and that the institution considers that systematic educati'm in universities, colleges, professional schools, and schools of technology, and the assistance of meritorious students in the early stages of their studies are already provided for anr^ are therefore outside the scope of the foundation. "i For brief description and historical development of the institution, see The Carnegie Institution of Washington — Scope and Organization, Fourth issue, Feb. 4, 11)15, by the institution ; also Seven Great Foundations, by Leonard P. .\yrcs ; also retrospective re- view of, in the Eleventh Year Book of the institution. " Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Booli, No. 1, 1902, p. x\i. 11512°— 22 7 92 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. From the outset the institution has directed its work along four' lines as follows : Large research projects covering a series of years and managed by a corps of investigators; small research projects, usually directed by single individuals and for a brief period; tentative investigations by young men or women of aptitude for research; and publication of the resiUts of its own studies and of meritorious work which would not otherwise be readily pub- lished. The order of development of its larger departments of research is worthy of notice here. They were as follows : Department of Experimental Evolution December, 1903 Department of Marine Biology December, 1903 Department of Historical Research December, 1903 Department ot Economics and Sociology " January, 1904 Department of Terrestrial Magnetism April, 1904 Solar Observatory December, 1904 Geographical Laboratory December, 1905 Department of Botanical Research December, 1905 Nutrition Laboratory December, 1906 Department of Meridian Astronomy March, 1907 Department of Embryology December, 1914 To these larger fields of operation must be added special researches in almost every possible field, and even a casual reading of the annual reports of the institution shows that the division of administration has itself served as a research laboratory of no mean proportions." From the nature of its work it is evident that the relations of the Institu- tion to universities and to learned societies would have to be guarded. This the institution has tried to do by keeping out of occupied fields and by deal- ing with individuals concerned with specific pieces of research. The outside world has apparently raised little question as to the privileges and responsi- bilities of this institution, but with the society of scholars it has numerous conflicts, if the brief hints in the reports of the president are indicative of the content of his letter files.^" It is in the face of this type of public opinion that this institution will continue to adjust itself to its proper place in so- ciety, and also to work out a fundamental theory of administration for this new type of educational enterprise, which, together with its help in popular- izing -scientific method and the use of the results of research, will constitute no small part of its total contribution. Any study of the finances, or of the amount of work done, or of the number of studies' published, or of the number of houses, laboratories, observatories, and ships owned and utilized by the institution can add but little to any attempt to evaluate this type of philanthropic enterprise. The following table showing the annual appropriations and the volume and page extent of its published researches is of some value, however, when we consider that these sums have been spent in fields that could not have been so fully explored if the several hundred investigators employed had been compelled to meet the usual demands made upon the time of a university professor : " Discontinued as a department of the institution in 1916. " See especially the president's study of definitions of " humanities " In the 16th Year Book, 1917, p. 16 fE. '° See especially the 14th Year Book of the institution. GEEAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 93 Tabile 37. — Distribution of appropriations made by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1902-1917.^ Fiscal Invest- ments in bonds. Large projects, Minor projects and special asso- ciates and assistants. Publica- tions. Adminis- tration. Total. Volumes published. years. Number. Pages. 1902 »4,600 137,564 217,383 149,843 93,176 90, 176 61,282 70,813 73,464 63,048 103,241 110,083 107,456 109,569 99,401 97,526 J27,513 43,627 36,967 37,208 42,621 46,005 48,274 46,292 44,011 45,456 43,791 43,652 44, 159 48,224 49,454 48,776 132,013 282,606 611,949 630,763 623,216 702,534 676,163 769,460 662, 373 661,616 1,147,047 1,571,572 1,876,096 1, 181, 183 1,334,572 1,410,464 3 3 11 21 19 38 28 19 29 30 23 29 23 23 35 21 1903 1 SIOO. 475 1938 11,590 21,822 42,431 63,804 49,991 41,677 49,067 37, 580 44,054 53,171 44,670 46,698 73,733 62,884 1 667 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 196, 159 51, 937 63,016 2,000 68,209 116,756 67,889 51,921 436,276 666,428 861, 915 206,203 473,702 505,473 $49,848 269,940 381,972 600,648 448,404 495,021 437,941 463,609 519,673 698,337 817,894 770,488 638,281 695, 813 2', 877 5,228 4,454 9,712 7,328 4,907 8,105 6,732 6,025 9,357 6 912 1909 1910. 1911. 1912 1913 1914. 1916. g' 1,52 1916 11^908 1917 Total... 3,858,363 7,187,775 1,588,531 644,017 694,936 13,973,614 335 88,555 * From 16tli Yearbooli:, p. 29. Cents omitted. Several points about these figures are of interest. During the 16 years recorded in the table the unused funds have accumulated, furnishing a sub- stantial reserve fund for special needs. Aside from the first three years from 45 to 60 per cent of the appropriations have been for large department projects ; from 5 to 12 per cent have been for the smaller investigations, the tendency being to give rather less to this item ; from 2 to 10 per cent have been for pub- lications, also with a tendency to decrease. During the first year only a small appi'opriation was made, approximately 86 per cent of all going for adminis- tration. During the second year only about 15 per cent vrent for administra- tion, and for the remaining years the amount has been 7 per cent or less, declining to only 3 or 4 per cent in the sis years ending in 1917. There are no figures with which these properly can be compared, but they stand as the experience of 16 years spent in developing an entirely new type of ' institution. To the universities of the country it has not only furnished a great stimulus to research, but it has also given much direct assistance by financing important pieces of investigation and by publishing finished pieces of research. 4. THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOAKD. I Mr. Rockefeller referred to the General Education Board as " an organiza- tion formed for the purpose of worklng__Qut, in ah orderly and rather scientific ~ way, th e proble m of helping to stimulate and Improve education in all parts of the country." "" " ^ ' ' \ The experience of the Peabody Fund in cooperating with State, county, and city officials was at hand and had been thoroughly studied." Just how to co- operate with other forces, public and private, was the first specific problem of the General Education Board. =° Rockefeller, John D. The BeneToIent Trust, the Cooperative Principle in Giying. The Worlds Worls, vol. 17, Jan., 1909. =» See The General Education Board, 1902-1914, p. 13 ff. 94 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDTJCATION. Leaving aside tUe question of how this was aceomplished in the matter of farm demonstration work and in elementary and secondary education in the South, we are concerned here with the board's worls in the field of higher education. One of the terms of Mr. Rockefeller's second gift to the board was that assistance should be given to — such institutions of learning as the board may deem best adapted to promote a comprehensive system of higher education In the United States. The fact was we had no system of higher education, and this corporation proposed to do what it could toward that most laudable end; Schools had been developed by the church, the State, and private enterprise, each working with but little reference to the other, denominational competition and politics often resulting in quite the opposite of system. If this new board was to work toward a " system of higher education," then it must inevitably clash with these already conflicting enterprises, or somehow effect a coordination of their various forces. Some definite policy, therefore, had to be decided upon. Two principles of procedure were laid down, as fol- lows: The board neither possessed nor desired any authority, aijd would not seek directly or Indirectly to bias the action of any college or university; in making an appropriation the board would in no way interfere with the in- ternal management of an institution nor incur any responsibility for its conduct. When and where and how to apply these principles was the practical task. In 1916-17 the board reported that in all it had assisted 112 colleges and universities in 32 States. During the year 1916-17 the board contributed a total of $1,185,000 toward a total of $5,300,000 in gifts to 9 colleges. When we consider that for this same year Harvard received from gifts as much as $1,934,947, Columbia $1,390,594, and Chicago $3,181,543 we can see' that the board had to find some basis for making choice among its many possible beneficiaries. Making this choice was precisely what Mr. Rockefeller wanted, to_bay6_done sciehtiflcally." To^ do it was to demonstrate that philanthropy could be made ~^»-.a, successful busiBe^^ ShTefprise. Accordingly," extensive studies oFthe ques- tionr were tmdertaken,- and to date almost the entire college field has been surveyed with respect to certain main Issues, and those colleges to which con- tributions have been made have been studied minutely. The result is a mine '~ of important and systematically organized information about our' higher" in- stitutions Of learning that had not hitherto been available. These studies can not be adequately described, nor their value satisfactorily explained in few words.'* As a method of giving they stand as a permanent contribution of value. They have meant that fact rather than sentiment has guided the board from the start. The board has made a somewhat modest statement" of certain clearly evident / improvements that have resulted ^from their strict-adlierence-_t o this me thod o^giAHkig, as follows: CEirst,,is.ihat of more careful accounting systems. ^\^ S^'ond, it'has necessitated a clarification of certain terms, such as " capital," '•"endbwnient," " scientific equipment," etc., the very loose usage of which had ^ There is plenty of evidence on file in the board rooms to show that many benefactors are utilizing these studies in placing their gifts. aiThe General Education Board, 1902-1914, p. 149 fl. GREAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 95 previously made it impossible to compare financial statistics of different in- stitutions. Third, it has put an end to the practice, rather common among colleges, of ufflSf the principal of endowment funds on the assumption that the sum so taken was a loan and would later be replaced. Fourth, it has brought about a distinction in practice between the educa- tional budget of a college and its various business activities, such as the run- ning of a boarding hall. Ji'ifth, It has resulted in a sort of departmental accounting, which has helped not only to distinguish costs in college from costs in preparatory departments but has tended to help even in defining what worli is of college and what is of academy grade. This board has operated on one other principle that deserves mention, viz, that any college that can not raise some money from its own natural clientele is scarcely to be thought of as very necessary to the community. Accordingly, it has been the practice of the board to contribute a sum toward a much larger total which the college must raise. Mr. Rockefeller said that — to give to institutions that ought to be supported by others is not the best philanthropy. Such giving only serves to dry up the natural springs of charity." The application of this principle has not only brought large gifts to educa- tion that probably would never have been given otherwise, but it has helped toward placing the responsibility for the growth of these colleges where it belongs — upon large numbers of interested friends. Auotlier condition from which the board varies but rarely is that the entire gift, of which their own forms a part, shall be preserved inviolate for the permanent endowment of the institution. This recognizes the need for general, as opposed to special, endowment funds. Another provision is that no part of the board's gift can ever be used for theological instruction. During the last few years the board has entered upon two other lines of work — that of financing and directing educational investigations and that of putting clinical instruction in the medical schools of John Hopkins, Yale, and Washington Universities upon a full-time basis. This latter was not an untried experiment, but it was certainly in an early experimental stage in this country. The field of educational investigation was not new, but the demand for such work was by no means fully met by other agencies. The survey of the Maryland State school system ; the more recent report of a survey of the schools of Gary, Ind. ; and the experimental work on reading and writing scales at Chicago University and with gifted pupils at Illinois University; as well as the experimental school at Teachers College, Columbia University, are some of the results so far obtained in this field, all of which give large promise. The following table will give at most an inadequate notion of the work that has thus far been accomplished by the foundation : ** In World's Work, above cited. 96 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEEICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. Table 38. — Total appropriations of the General Education Board from its foundation in 1902 to June 30, 1918^ (The Rockefeller Fund.) Amotint appropriated. Amount paid. Amount unpaid. For whites: Universities and colleges for endowment. . Colleges and schools for current expenses.. Medical schools for endowment Professors of secondary education Rural school agents Lincoln school Consolidated rural schools Southern education board J13,873,7M 174,991 5,603,774 379, 339 230,476 219,260 21,600 97,126 $10,278,617 174,991 2,770,874 343,089 172,206 104,250 11,500 97,126 20,600,162 13,952,654 For negroes: Colleges and schools for current expenses and buildings .. Medical schools for current expenses Rural school agents Summer schools County training schools Home-makers' Clubs Expenses of special students at Hampton and Tuskegee. Scholarships Negro Rural School Fund John F. Slater Fund 1,249,776 15,000 208,120 19,891 49,797 90,989 17, 865 5,000 59,400 3,000 1, 718, 839 Agricultural work (white and negro): Southern agricultural demonstration work Girls' canning and poultry work in the South Maine agricultural demonstration work , New Hampshire agricultural demonstration work. . Rpral organization service 716,077 113,751 120,876 64,093 36,646 1,051,446 Miscellaneous (white and negro): Educational investigation and research General survey of educational conditions and needs in North Carohna Cost-accounting system for Gary Expenses rural school agents at Harvard summer school. . Model county organization Conferences '. Supplemental fund 158, 35* 6,000 1,025 7,000 28,150 19,438 7,772 226, 741 1,141,282 15,000 153,066 11,839 28,604 88,768 3,615 300 41,400 1,458,876 716,077 113,751 95,876 48,093 36,646 1,010,466 122,988 1,025 20, .WO 19, 438 7,772 171, 724 Income on hand June 30, 1918 Unpaid appropriations as above. Unappropriated income June 30, 1918. 13,595,087 2,832,900 36,250 58,270 115,000 10,000 6,647,607 108,492 60,054 8,052 21,193 32,220 14,250 4,700 18,000 3,000 259,962 25,000 16,000 41,000 7,000 7,660 8,035,988 7.003,486 1,032,601 1 See An. Rept., Gen. Bduc. Bd., 1917-18, pp. 84-85. Cents omitted. In addition to the foregoing the sum of $110,572.33 has been appropriated and paid to negro rural schools from the income of Anna T. Jeanes Fund, and $85,000 has been appropriated and paid to Spelman Seminary from the principal of the Laura S. Rockefeller Fund. 5. THE CAKNEGIE lOUNDATION FOE THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING. Fundamental to Mr. Carnegie's doctrine of giving had been the idea that the purpose for which one gives must not have a degrading, pauperizing tendency upon the recipient.'"' To be able to give a pension and avoid such difficulties as these was the tasli Mr. Carnegie set for himself. Believing that many evils were resulting from low salaries for professors and being familiar with the idea of teachers' pensions so widely practiced in i* The Gospel of Wealth, p. 21, ft. GREAT EDUCATIONAL, FOUNDATIONS. 97 Europe, Mr. Carnegie hoped to make the pension for the professor and his widow a regular part of the American educational system. He believed that if the teacher could receive his retiring allowance not as a charity but as a matter of right then pensions would raise the plane of academic life." Obviously, the income from the original gift of $10,000,000 would not meet the needs of the 700 or more institutions calling themselves colleges. First of all, therefore, the foundation was face to face with the question of what is a college. Secondly, having barred from participation in the fund all institu- tions under denominational control, the question of what constitutes denomi- national control must also be settled. The legal definition of a college which has been in operation in the State of New York furnished a basis for an answer to the first question," and a definition of denominational college was arbitrarily decided upon and the foundation began operations, trusting to investigation and experience to clarify these definitions. The first work of the foundation was to send out a circular asking all in- stitutions of higher learning for information bearing upon: (o.) The educa- tional standards in use; (6) the relations of the school to the State, both in matters of control and support; (c) the relation of the school to religious denominations. In addition to this, information regarding salaries and size of faculties was asked for.^" This brought together an unusually rich mass of educational data, which when digested by the foundation furnished the basis for its future action. Out of this and succeeding studies came the quantitative definition of the college entrance " unit " ; a clearer distinction between the work of a pre- paratory department and that of the college proper; as well as clearer con- ceptions of " college." of " State college," and of " denominational college." These accomplishments are pointed to here not only as an important con- tribution in ^standardization but also because of the wide discussion of these subjects which the action of the foundation provoked. Such work shows, too, how the foundation realized that In order to act wisely in the awarding of re- tiring allowances it must itself first of all become an " educational agency." ^ This type of study is not the extent of the foundation's educational investiga- tions. Its charter demanded that the trustees " do and perform all things necessary to encourage, uphold, and dignify the profession of the teacher and the cause of higher education." "" In pursuance of this end the foundation has from the start undertaken to contribute liberally to the scientific study of higher education. In 1913 Mr. Carnegie added $1,250,000 to the endowment to meet the needs of a research department, and already the results of 11 extensive studies have been published and several others are under way. It is not possible to state accurately the value of this type of contribution. One might point to specific cases of more accurate university bookkeeping having resulted from the issuance of Bulletin No. 3, 1910, which presented 25 typical blank forms for the public reporting of the fmancial receipts and expenditures of universities and colleges ; or to the revision of standards and the stir that was caused in the medical world by the issuance of Bulletin No. 4, 1910, describing the status of medical education in the United States and Canada ; or to the legislative enactments following the recommendations made in Bulletin No. 7, 1907, giv- '^ See The Policy of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Educ. Rev., June, 1906. " See First Annual Report of the President and of the Treasurer, p. .38. » Ibid., p. 10, ff. ^ See The Carnegie Foundation for the .\dvancement of Teaching. Second Annual Report of the President and Treasurer, p. 65. '" See quotation on p. 85. 98 PHILA.NTHEOPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. ing the results of the survey of education in the State of Vermont; or to similar reactions to the reports dealing with engineering education and legal education, and in each instance show that the study brought direct results. The larger value of such work, however, can not be measured in that way. The sentiment for better medical schools which was created by the foundation's study has been a powerful factor in bringing about higher standards of training in that profession, and similar valuable results have come from other studies. In administering the pension system the foundation has met with many difficulties, some of which have not been easy to overcome. From the outset the foundation has wisely dealt with institutions and not with individuals. It muet not be said, however, that the foundation set itself up as a standard- izing, agency. It did set itself up as an educational agency, and very properly chose to administer its funds in terms of educational standards of its own choosing. In doing this no embarrassment was felt. The foundation named a list of " accepted institutions,"" explained why these were included, and no serious criticism of this list was offered by the public. By the end of the first year the trustees stated that the questions of edu- cational standards and of denominational or State control had been provision- ally dealt with." These questions continued to bring difficulties to the foun- dation, and for several years their reports show that they were exhaustively studied. The question of pensions for professors of State universities was solved in 1908 when Mr. Carnegie addressed a letter to the board in which he offered to add $5,000,000 to the endowment in order to meet that need."^ Denominational colleges memorialized the trustees to modify their ruling af- fecting such institutions," but with little success. Several sharp criticisms of the position of the foundation in this matter appeared in magazines,'" but the trustees preferred to maintain their original standard." During the first few years the number of institutions eligible for the " ac- cepted list " increased at an unexpected rate " and the foundation was com- pelled to revise its rules for granting pensions or otherwise plan to carry a heavier load. Within a very few years a number of colleges under denomina- tional control, by proper legal process, had so modified their charters or articles of Incorporation as to make them eligible to the accepted list,** the original actuarial figures had taken no account of the growth of the institutions," and the number retiring under the " years of service " basis had been far greater than anticipated,*" and other facts indicated that some modification of original »' The original list is printed in the foundation's first annual report above cited. " See the foundation's first annual report above cited, p. 36 fE. " See the foundation's third annual report, p. 62, for copy of his letter. »* See the foundation's fourth annual report, p. 4 S. »s See letter by J. P. Gushing published in Nation, vol. 90, p. 233, and other articles in the same volume; also vol. 31 of Science. ™ Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Report, 1909, p. 6. " Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Report, 1909, p. 63. •* Bowdoin, Drury, Central University of Kentucky, and Drake University are Illus- trations. " See the foundation's fourth annual report, p. 62. "In his Review of Six Years of Administrative Experience the president of the founda- tion explains that the 25 years of service rule had been " adopted by the trustees under the assumption that but few applications would be made under it, and that these would be in the main applications from men who were disabled for further service. The inten- tion was in fact to use the rule as a disability provision," "After a few years of adminis- tration it was perfectly clear that the rule was doing barm rather than good. It was therefore repealed by the trustees -in accordance with the authority they had reserved in their hands," and was made a definite disability rule. See seventh annual report of the president and treasurer, 1912, p. 82. GREAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 99 plans would have to be made. At the outset the right to make such modification had been specially reserved," partly upon the advice of actuarial experts. Ac- cordingly, in 1909 the rules for granting retiring allowances were changed in two respects. The original rules based the grant of a pension upon age or length of service in accordance with 10 specific rules. Rule 1 was revised to include instructors as well as the various grades of professors, deans, and presidents, and so really broadened the scope of the foundation's work to that extent. The original rules granting a pension after 25 years of service were changed so as to restrict such allowance to only such teachers as were proved by medical examination to be unfit for service. This latter change brought forth extensive criticism, raising the question of the ethical right of the foundation to do the thing it had specifically reserved the right to do, viz, to modify its rules " in such man- ner as experience may indicate as desirable." The reasons for making these changes are more fully set forth in their 1904 report than it is possible to show in brief space. It serves our purpose here to note, first, that such change was made, and that the foundation was legally within its rights in so doing ; and, second, that the change met with strong oppo- sition in many quarters. There were slight modifications of these rules, but no important changes were proposed until the issuance to the trustees and to all teachers in associated institutions of the foundation's confidential communication in 1915, setting forth a Comprehensive Plan of Insurance and Annuities.'^ This communica- tion called attention to the weak points in the existing system of pensions and proposed to replace the old system with a plan of insurance and annuities. More than 50 institutions complied with the request for criticism, and their statements are published in an appendix to the eleventh annual report of the foundation. Many faculties approved the plan in part, a few approved the plan in full as suggested, but altogether tliese statements, together with what ap- peared in the press, contain many important criticisms. It was argued, first, that the Carnegie Foundation had created certain expectations on the part of college teachers which it was morally obligated to fulfill ; second, that it is unjust to establish a system of insurance involving compulsory cooperation on the part of every teacher; and, third, that commercial companies could offer a plan which would be financially more attractive.*^ In 1916-17 the trustees passed a resolution referring the proposed new plan of insurance and annuities to a commission consisting of six trustees of the foundation, two representatives of the American Association of University Professors, and one representative each from the Association of American Universities, the National Association of State Universities, and the Associa- tion of American Colleges." This commission agreed upon a plan of insurance " See original Rules for Granting of Retiring Allowances in first annual report. ** This was later published as Bulletin No. 9 of the foundation. " In the eleventh annual report of the president and treasurer Presideait Pritchett virtually accepts the first ef these objections as valid (see p. 24), and the trustees passed a resolution approving the idea of a contributory pension system which will operate " without unfairness to the just expectations of institutions or of individuals under the present rules." (See p. 4.) In the twelfth annual report a review of the year's work points out that the experience of 12 years' work has found the foundation " faced with two duties : First, to carry out fairly and to the best of their ability the obligations as- sumed in the associated institutions " ; and, secondly, to establish a system of insurance. Further the report says : " In the nature of the case the determination of what is a reasonable exercise of the power of revision retained by the trustees touches many per- sonal interests." See pp. 19 and 30. " Twelfth An. Rep. of the Foundation, 1916-17, p. 5, for the membership of this com- mission. 100 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION, and annuities and recommended it to the trustees of the foundation." In May, 1917, It was voted to approve the fundamental principles of the teachers' pen- sion system and also the combination of insurance and annuity benefits, as de- fined In the report of the above commission." This very soon led to the organization of the Teachers' Insurance and An- nuity Association of America, chartered by the State of New York on March 4, 191S. This insurance company, together with a definite and fair plan for fulfilling the expectations of teachers who had belonged to the associated insti- tutions under the original pension system, brought to a close what is likely to be regarded as the first period of the history of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. It was in many ways a stormy period in which sharp and often personal criticism was hurled at the foundation by Individuals, through the press and even in the form of an investigation by the Federal Commission on Industrial Relations. Few direct replies to these criticisms have been made by the officers of the foundation except through the pages of their regular annual reports," where every intelligent criticism has been dealt with. It is obvious, even from this brief sketch of the history of this foundation, that what may be termed the elastic clause in its rules for granting pensions has been a most Important one. The field was new and experience alone could point the way. Without the right to change Its plans the foundation might have become a nuisance instead of a blessing. If that clause has given the foundation an easy way out of difficulties — too easy as some have thought — it has proved to be an excellent point of leverage for public opinion, and it must be evident to all that public opinion has not been Ignored. It must be said that the foundation has done some difficult pioneering in the field of teachers' pensions and has contributed liberally to the development and application of proper standards in the field of higher education. The following tables will give a partial financial view of the operations of the foundation up to June 30, 1917 : Tablk .39. — Receipts and expenditures of Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching, 1906-1917." Total receipts. Expenditures. Dates. Retiring allow- ance. Adminis- tration. Publica- tion. Studies, etc. Total. 1905* $292,673 644, 031 530,30a 544, 355 543, 881 590,449 676,486 694,195 696,038 712, 852 S00,332 625,862 $19,932 39,906 39, 898 36, 106 33, 749 36,743 35, 949 36,632 32,910 30, 550 36,684 33,772 $19,932 198,797 287,072 1907 $158,890 246,6*2 343,870 469,834 526,879 570,423 600,390 634,863 674, 7:;i 687, IDO ■547,358 1908 $63i 9,494 23,929 7, 400 3,347 1909 $7, 983 8,635 9,414 23,777 3,579 1,758 1,576 6,620 6,390 397,455 538,148 1910 1911 580,443 1912. 634,490 640, 601 1913 1914 669, 532 1915. 712,852 1916 8 2,461 731,413 1917 c 625,862 " Compiled from the annual report o( the treasurer of the foundation. Cents are omitted. b July 1 to Sept. 30. c Oct. 1 to June 30. " Ibid., appendix to Part II, for a full report of this commission, "Ibid., p. 28 ff. •' President Henry S. Pritchett wrote a careful and dignified reply to such criticisms for the N. Amer. Rev. of April, 1915, " Should the Carnegie Foundation be Suppressed ; " and Secretary Clyde Furst gave an address before the Dept. of Sup., Nat. Ed. Assoc, in 1918, on " The Place of the Educational Foundation in American Education." This ad- dress was published in School and Society for March 30, 1918. GREAT EDUCATIONAL, FOUNDATIONS. 101 Table 40. — Foundation's expenditures for allowatices, each third year.' Years. Institutions. Retired teachers on roll. Retiring allow- ances paid. Widows' pensions. Total amount paid. Kind. Num- ber. Num- ber. Amount paid. 52 32 67 62 72 68 73 65 71 64 44 12 162 54 220 80 259 68 274 62 ti;;, 479 6,475 206,473 104,537 388, 338 108,330 473,969 99,851 345, 214 62,054 6 ■"'33' 12 62 23 90 28 112 32 $1,125 125 24,545 8,317 53,646 20,046 80, 152 20,752 116, 891 23, 199 $16,604 6 600 1906 2 . . . Nonassociated. . . /Associated 231 018 112,853 441,985 128, 438 Nonassociated (Associated 554,122 120, 603 462, 105 \Nonassociated 85,263 I The amounts for the intervening years are not given, but approximate those here reported; see 12th An. Rep. of the foundation. Cents are omitted. " From July 1 to Sept. 30. ■ Oct. 1 to June 30. 6. THE EUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION. The Russell Sage Foundation has purposely avoided the field of higher edu- cation from the start," but deserves mention here because of the contributions it has made to educational research. Among its contributions are to be listed studies of retardation and elimina- tion in city school systems, the medical .inspection of schools, the care and training of crippled children, child-welfare work, health worli: in public schools, education through recreation, school buildings and equipment, and many other studies of direct or indirect value in reducing education to a science. Im- portant, too, is the extensive work which the foundation has done in the fleid of educational surveys. The reports of the Springfield and the Clevelan.l surveys have aided materially in the establishment of standards for this kind of work. From the start the foundation's policy has been to spend its income on research and the dissemination of knowledge with a preventive intent. That it has carried out such a policy is evident to those who are familiar with its publications. SUMMARY. In this chapter it has been the purpose to describe the working principles and as far as possible to show the significance of our recently established phil- anthropic educational foundations. In form these foundations represent a new type of agency in educational philanthropy. In scope the possibility of service which they are empowered to render to higher education is almost with- out limit, and in the main each of the foundations occupies a field peculiarly its own. These foundations are well characterized as attempts at reducing educa- tional philanthropy to a business. The corporate principle is fully applied and the plan of administration is similar to that by which the affairs of a factory or a railroad are directed. In their most recent form the essential principles of a commission business are enijployed. They are further characterized by the very genera) limitations placed upon the gifts by the founders; by the possibilities left open for reasonable changes in the original purpose, or even, in some cases, for a termination of the entire " Schneider, Franz, jr. The Russell Sage Foundation, in Jour. Nat. Institute of So. Sciences, Dec. 20, 1915, p. 5. 102 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. trust; by the very careful plans devised for the administration of the funds; and by the entire absence of political, sectarian, or sectional control. The woTi accomplished by these foundations can not be fully evaluated. In variety and extent it includes gifts and propaganda for the development of public schools, the endowment of colleges, fellowships, and pensions, as well as research in almost every field known to science. In all these fields their efforts have been fruitful. The movement (for in the history of educational philanthropy it must be called a distinct movement) appears not yet to have reached its zenith. In character it is becoming more and more inclusive, and perhaps by that tendency may contribute to the establishment of the idea that education is but one of the many aspects of our social problem. The power which such Institutions can turn toward the reconstruction of society has already been clearly indi- cated by the results described above, but quite as clearly has public opinion shown not only its ability to discern the possible misuses of that power but also its readiness to bring pressure to bear once a sign of such danger has been sensed. However much these foundations may supervise, therefore, and the promise in this respect is great, it is evident that they will themselves not go unsupervised. Chapter VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. PURPOSE AND PLAN OF THE STTjDT. It has been the purpose of this study to inquire into the extent to which philanthropy has been responsible for the development of our institutions of higher learning, to discover wliat motives have prompted this philanthropy and how these motives have influenced college building, and, in addition, to try to bring to light whatever has been developed in the way of a theory of educational philanthropy and of educational endowments. The study is covered in four chapters dealing, respectively, with: (1) The development of a theory of endowments and of philanthropy; (2) philanthropy of the colonial period; (3) philanthropy of the early national period, 1776- 1865; (4) philanthropy of the late national period, 1865-1918; and (5) great educational foundations. Various sources have been drawn upon, chief of which have been indicated by footnote references. These sources may be classified as having to do with what may be termed the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the problem, respectively. The former including charters, constitutions, by-laws, deeds of trust, wills, and other instruments of gift ; the latter only with the bare figures and their analysis, or the statistics, of such gifts. THE THEORY OF ENDOWMENTS. At the beginning of college building in America there was no special theory of educational endowments or of educational philanthropy to worli; from. No careful thought had been given to the subject in England aside from discus- sions of practical situations, numbers of which were demanding attention long before America began to build colleges. About the time Harvard College had reached its first centennial a really substantial discussion of the subject was entered upon in Europe and has con- tinued practically ever since. The discussion was in connection with the gen- eral inquiry into the social institutions of the times, and represents one line of inquiry pursued by the new school of political economy just then taking form. Turgot, of France ; Adam Smith, of England ; and William von Hum- boldt, of Germany, were the chief early contributors in their respective coun- tries and agree fairly well that education should not be endowed by the State, but rather that it should take its place in competition with all other interests. Turgot and Smith would modify the application of this laissez faire principle to meet certain conditions, while Humboldt would have it carried to its full 103 104 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. length. Doctor Chalmers, early in the nineteenth century, and John Stuart Mill, in 1833, however, proposed an important distinction between need for food and need for education, and urged that because of this difference the prin- ciple of free trade could not properly apply to education. Owing to the bad state of educational endowments in England at that time, the discussion shifted somewhat to a consideration of the rights of the State in the control of endowments. The critics declared that the failure of these endowments was due to the very principles involved in endowments for educa- tion, while the Mill economists argued that it was due merely to failure of the State to exercise a proper control over them. Other discussions in England of the possible value of endowments followed, involving the question of the right of posthumous disposition of property and emphasizing the rights of society (the State) as the real recipient of such gifts. EARLY EXPERIENCES IN AMERICA. In the early years America contributed little to this theoretical discussion, but as time went on and the idea of free public education began to take root, we gradually came face to face with it in connection with the question of school support. The State had taken a hand in initiating and in the support of our first attempt at higher education. The church had taken even a larger part than that shared by the State. In colonial Massachusetts, however, the State and the church were practically one, and therefore no opposition be- tween the two was likely to appear. The church and the State in America were soon to rest upon the theory of complete separation, however, and then the question of responsibility for the support of schobls had to be worked out. The building of colleges went on, the church, the State, and private philan- thropy sharing the burden of cost, but with the responsibility for management resting mainly with the church until near the close of the colonial period. At the beginning of the national period the State began to contribute less and less to the old foundations and to debate the question of State colleges or uni- versities. By the middle of the new century the movement for State support and control of higher education took definite form. This did not rule out tlie church or private philanthropy, nor did it consciously interfere with them. It, nevertheless, set up competition between these two ideas of educational control. The result has been the development of a rather large literature on the subject, a decided stimulus to higher quality of work, and a clarification of the respective functions of the church and the State in higher education. In the earlier decades private philanthropy was so completely dominated by the church on the one hand, and was so small and scattered on the other, that its place in the field of higher education had raised no serious questions. The development of State universities, however, brought criticism, and in more recent years such college buildings as that initiated by Ezra Cornell, Johns Hopkins, John D. Rockefeller, Leland Stanford, and Andrew Carnegie, and such nonteaching foundations as those discussed in Chapter V have raised the question of the possible good or ill that may come from State endowment and from private philanthropy on such a large scale. It is in connection with these two points in our educational experience — the clash between State and church control ; and the upsetting of the old and small practices by wealthy philanthropists through the launching of great competing universities, or by the establishment of vast funds for endowment, pensions, and investigation — that America's contribution to a theory of endowments or of educational philanthropy has been made. Writers on social and political theory have given the subject but little thought, though many legislative bodies SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 105 have dwelt at length upon specific issues which have been raised by the clash of these forces.* In colonial America the aim of higher education was from the start dominated by the general religious aim of the people, and whether the State and the church were one or not, it was almost without exception the church leaders who initiated the move for building a college, and the colleges of this period were primarily designed for the training of ministers. The colonial governments of Massachusetts, Virginia, Connecticut, and New York contributed liberally to the maintenance of Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, and King's Colleges, respectively, but not so with Rhode Island, New .Jersey, and New Hampshire in the case of Princeton, Brown, Dartmouth, and Rutgers. We are able to say, therefore, that philanthropy, motivated in the main by religion, was primarily responsible for initiating college building in all cases; that it was largely responsible for the maintenance of five of the nine colonial colleges, and almost solely so for the other four. We may say, too, that while the idea of State support for colleges was practiced, it was not common in all the Colonies, and in no case (William and Mary a possible ex- ception) did a Colony assume full responsibility in the founding and develop- ment of a college. Hence denominational rather than State lines stand out in the history of higher learning in colonial times, and unless we think of the impetus given to " this \-\-orldly " education by Franklin in the beginnings of the University of Pennsylvania there was no experiment that could be called a real departure from the traditional idea of a college. The sources from which philanthropy came during these years were nu- merous and varied, and each has in a way left its mark upon the college it benefited. No small amount of assistance came from England, largely through the influence of religious organizations. The influence of these gifts is sug- gested by the names of several of our colleges. Again, funds were sought in fliis country in Colonies quite remote from the college, and in many cases substantial aid was thus received. In the main, however, a college was either a local community or a denominational enterprise. If the former, as in case of Harvard, the burden rested mainly upon people close by. If the latter, as in the case of Brown, then churches of the denomination in question, wherever located, gave freely to its support. Many gifts from towns and froni church congregations are also recorded. One is impressed at every point with the very large number of small gifts and with the way in which they were obtained. This applies to the entire history of American college building. The thousands of small gifts to our colleges seem to record the fact that from the outset these were to be schools of the people. During this period philanthropy initiated no unique educational experiments, yet it is quite as true to say tliat neither do we find evidence that gifts any- where influenced education in a wrong way. Gifts which were made to some specific feature of a college went in the main to the library, to professorships, to scholarships, and to buildings, all of which are essential to any college. Throughout this period, however, it has been shown that a relatively large percentage of gifts were made to the college unconditionally. We may say, then, that our beginnings were small ; that they were warmly supported by the mother country ; that the idea of State support was common, though by no means universal ; that there is evidence that no State, with the possible partial exception noted, intended to assume full responsibility for the * Note, for instance, the legislative debates in New York over the founding of Cornell University. 106 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. college ; that philanthropy clearly did assume that responsibility ; and that philanthropy did direct the policy of every college. We may say that philan- thropy was motivated by religion, and that the church in most cases dominated the movement; that penury was common in all cases; that the thousands of small gifts constituted an important asset in that they popularized the idea of the college and so helped to democratize society ; and that the gifts were in the main " to the college " without condition, or, if conditioned, they were almost invariably in accord with the essential lines of the school's growth. THE EA1U.T NATIONAL PERIOD. During the early national period there was no special break in the main forces that had been building colleges in the Colonies. Conditions under which these forces had to work, however, were vastly different, whether we think of the problems of State making, of religion, of industries, of exploration and settlement, of growth of population, or of social philosophy. It was an age of expansion in all these matters and that in a broad and deep sense. In the matter of higher education it was also an age of expansion; expan- sion in numbers of colleges, and, to some extent at least, in educational aim and types of studies offered. The Revolution had brought to an end the work of English philanthropy, and in increasing measure State support for established colleges was declining, leaving the task mainly to the churches of the country. The question of the State's function in higher education was soon raised, however, and before the close of the period a solution of the theoretical aspect of the problem had been reached and several State universities well established. Whatever of promise there was in this new movement, however, the great college pioneering of this period was done almost entirely by church-directed philanthropy. In this period, as in colonial days, the beginnings were small. Academies were often established with the hope that in time they would become colleges, the financial penury so common to the early colleges was characteristic through- out this period, and the subscription list was common everywhere. The motive behind the work of the church was not only to spread the Gospel but to provide schools for the training of ministers to fill the increasing num- ber of vacant pulpits reported throughout the period. Denominational lines were strong and undoubtedly led to an awkward distribution of colleges. The motives back of philanthropy in this period differ little therefore from those common to early Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Among the older col- leges, where the curriculum had begun to broaden and professional schools to take form, it was somewhat more common to find gifts made to some par- ticular end. Among the newer foundations we see a fair duplication of the early history of the older colleges, except that the new colleges grew some- what more rapidly. There is in most cases a more marked tendency to give toward permanent endowment, while among the conditional gifts those for professorships stand out strongly everywhere, and gifts to indigent studfents suffer a decline. The development of professional schools, of the manual labor college, and of institutions for the higher education of women mark a change in our educational philosophy and give expression to the changing social life of the times. Most of these experiments were initiated and fostered by philanthropy. Medical and law schools originated mainly as private schools conducted for profit, while schools of theology have been philanthropic enterprises from the start. The idea of women's colleges may have originated in the private pay SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 107 schools for girls, or ladies' seminaries, common in the South, but the first well- financed college for women was the work of philanthropy, as most all subse- quent attempts have been, and description of the work of philanthropy in these schools would fit faiily well any college of the period. The (act that we find philanthropy rising to meet these many and varied educational and social ideas and ideals is not only an important fact in the social life of this country but is also an important characteristic pt our educa- tional philanthropy. It is early in this period that the church education society comes into exist- ence to answer the call of the church for more and better trained ministers. The work of these societies was extensive, and no doubt resulted in filling many vacant pulpits and church missions. During this period, then, we may say that philanthropy did not slacken its interest in higher education, either because of the loss of English support or because of the rise of the State university. Philanthropy was, as before, directed in the main by the churches, and so through the whole period is prompted in the main by religious motives. The church college followed the westward-mov- ing frontier, leaving many evidences of denominational competition for the new field. The failure of these church schools to meet the demands of the ministry is marked by the rise of church education societies whose aim was to provide scholarships and loans for students who would enter the ministry. Philan- thropy was active in the movement toward separate professional schools, in the development of manual labor colleges, and in the origin and development of women's colleges during this period. These new enterprises may with some propriety be called educational experiments, credit for which must go to churches and to philanthropy. As to method, there is practically nothing new to record. Permanent endow- ment grows somewhat more popular, and- gifts for specified purposes tend to replace gifts to the general funds of the college. Nowhere, however, are the main aspects of the college neglected in favor of the new or unusual features. THE LATE NATIONAL PERIOD. After 1865 we enter a period of vast expansion in college building as in every other line. Tlie idea of State higher education was worked out, and the question of State versus private and church schools was, for most people, satisfactorily solved. In the new States of the period it was more often the State than the church that established the pioneer institution for higher learning. With the exception of the manual labor college, practically all old ideas and practices in higher education were continued in force. Separate professional schools, women's colleges, church boards of education, and the typical small church college, all went forward, and each seems to have found a place for itself and still shows signs of healthful growth. The period is equally well characterized by the development of new en- terprises, back of which were at least a few really new things in educational philanthropy. One is the privately endowed university founded by a single large fortune. Another is the similarly endowed nonteaching educational foundation. The more detailed description of the philanthropy of this period brought out the fact that among the old colonial foundations, as well as among col- leges founded in the early national period. State aid was entirely lacking, while gifts were greatly increased both in numbers and size. It was noted that among the old colonial colleges the percentage of conditional gifts in- creased, while gifts to permanent funds showed a slight relative decline. 111512°— 22 8 108 PHILANTHROPY IN AMEEICAN HIGHER EDXJCATIOlf. In the colleges of the early national period almost the opposite tendency was shown — ^rapid growth of permanent funds and rapid increase In gifts to the general fund. In all the colleges professorships, scholarships, and library were well remembered, though gifts to libraries among the older colleges did not grow so rapidly as was true In the younger schools. Everywhere it has been the fashion to give " to the college " outright or toward some«raain feature like (luildings, equipment, library, professorsWps, or scholarships. As compared with other kinds of philanthropy the data show that higher education is one of the greatest recipients of charity we have to-day, that a vast permanent endowment for higher education is being built up, and that philanthropy still bears the larger portion of the entire burden of cost. They bring out clearly the recent large movement of philanthropy toward the de- velopment of professional and technical schools and women's colleges, and also toward the larger support of church boards of education, the functions of which have been much enlarged in recent years. GREAT EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. During the last portion of the present period the great private foundation appeared as a form of educational philanthropy which was practically new. Each of these foundations represented the ideas and aspirations of the, one man whose , fortune gave it existence. Dominated by no church or religious creed, and not even by the man who established it, but only by public opinion and the corporation laws of State and Nation, these foundations have en- tered the educational field and left an impress on practically every type of educational enterprise in the country, whether private, State, or church. The whole business and financial aspect of higher education has been studied and in a sense made over as a result of the operations of these gifts. The college curriculum has been more clearly differentiated from that of the secondary school, and standards of achievement in studies more clearly de- fined. Attention has been forcefully called to the problem of the distribution of colleges and to the principles which should guide us in locating new col- leges. Millions have been added to the general endowment of higher educa- tion. Medical, legal, and engineering education have been enormously profited by the dear and impartial, studies that have been made of these schools and by financial assistance. The scientific study of education has not only been greatly stimulated, but contributions have been made through experiments and investigation. The bounds of knowledge have been pushed out in many directions by extensive and costly research. The principles involved in pen- sions for teachers have been thoroughly studied from every angle and broadly and with some measure of satisfaction established. Some doubts and fears and many sharp criticisms have been voiced lest these powerful corporations, might seek to bias education and public opinion in favor of wrong social, political, or business ideals. This should be looked upon as a sign of health. Democratic society must not be expected to take such gifts on faith. Even if there is a grain of danger from such corpora- tions, such danger should be mercilessly weeded out. In seeking for such dangers, however, we must not close our eyes to the obvious benefits which have and must continue to accrue to higher education from these sources. While society must insist upon its right to control such corporations, it must not be blind to the difficulties these foundations have had to face in blazing the new trails which they respectively have chosen to mark out in the field SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 109 of higher education. If the church, the State, the university, the professor, and the general public will continue to distinguish between intelligent criticism^ on the one hand, and mere suspicion and gossip on the other, and remember that a wise administration of these gifts is largely dependent upon a cooperat- ing and appreciative beneficiary, then this, the greatest experiment in educa- tional philanthropy that has ever been tried, will continue to prove its worOi to society. DEVELOPMENTS BEARING UPON A THEOET OF ENDOWMENTS. From all this giving, what have we learned about the meaning of philan- thropy itself? What attitude shall the State, the church, and society in general take toward the great stream of gifts that is continuously pouring into the lap of higher education in the country? It is obvious that gifts to colleges are accepted by all as great blessings, and practicaUy nowhere is there evidence that people fear the power which may some day be exercised through these gifts ; that is how firmly the college has established itself in the confidence of the people. So many thousands of pepple have contributed small or large gifts to build these schools, so closely have the schools been associated with the church, and so intimately have they woven themselves into the life of the people that they are everywhere fully trusted, and thus far no very bad effects of philanthropy have been felt." Even the great privately endowed institutions like Cornell (accepted with much misgiving at the outset in many quarters) have now fully won the confidence of the people in general, of the church, and of the State. This is not surpris- ing in the light of the study of the conditions placed upon the thousands of gifts classified in the course of this study. If there is any misgiving in the minds of the people about any educational philanthropy to-day, it is perhaps in reference to one or another of the recently established nonteaching foundations. Here some uncertainty exists, as has been pointed out, though even here there is comparatively little that has not been accepted In most quarters with full confidence. If philanthropy has so nearly won the entire confidence of the people, it is because of the record philanthropy has made for itself. In defining the meaning of education, or in setting the limits to its participation in college building, donors have not departed too far from the accepted Ideas, ideals, and practices of the time and of the people they sought to serNe. Millions have been given for permanent endowment but the practice has been to endow " the college," a " professorship," a " scholarship," a given line of " research," a "library," and rarely or never to define with any severe detail just what is to be included under the term " college," " professorship," " scholarship," etc. The result is that the writer has found little evidence of harmful or even useless foundations, large or small. In the light of these facts it seems fair to assume that the great dominating motive in educational philanthropy has been desire to serve society; or, if we prefer, desire for a very high type of notoriety. So far as social progress is concerned, these are but two views of the same thing. ' The writer did not find it feasible in this study to inquire Into the number of gifts that have really laid a burden upon the college. In his autobiography. President White, of Cornell, expresses the opinion that our colleges have too frequently been the re- cipifflits of such gifts as an observatory, leaving the college the responsibility of pur- chasing instruments and caring for upkeep. 110 PHILANTHROPY IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION. It has been pointed out that most that has been done toward developing a ' theory of educational philanthropy in this country has grown directly out of the practice rather than out of the studies of social and political theory. The country has faced and solved certain fundamental questions as they have arisen, as : The functloB of the State In higher education ; the fuirctton-of-ttreTiniTch in 'Higher education ; the function of private philanthropy in teaching and non- teaching activities touching higher education. In settling these questions there has been endless debate and some bitterness of feeling, yet we have fully ac- cepted the idea of State-endowed higher education, and, according to our prac- tice, defined that education in the broadest possible way. This acceptance of State-endowed education did not rule out the church, whose activities in college ■ building are as much appreciated and as well supported as ever. That there should have been a clash between the old idea of church-directed education and the new idea of State education was to be expected. The outcome of such a clash in this country, however, could not have been different from what it was. Smilarly, there was a clash between the church and the privately endowed pes of colleges, but each has a well-established place In present practice. In this country we have not confined ourselves to any single notion about 1 who shall bear the burden of higher education. The State establishes a uni- versity but it also encourages the work of the church and of private philan- I thropy.' The practice is therefore based upon a theory that is not fully in line with those of the early English, French, and German philosophers. It is far more liberal, being based rather upon the underlying conceptions' of our social and political organization. ' Ownership of property in this country carries with it the right of bequest, and the " dead hand " rests, in some degree, upon most of the institutions of higher education. We fully respect the rights and the expressed wishes of the educational benefactors,* but this study shows that the benefactors have also respected the rights of society, not the society of to-day only but that of future generations as well. There has been a growing tendency for colleges and universities to study the terms of proffered benefactions with utmost care and to refuse to accept gifts to which undesirable conditions are attached. Similarly there has been a growing tendency on the part of benefactors either to accept terms suggested by the institution or to make the gift practically without conditions or with specific provision for future revision of the condi- tions named. This, It seems to the writer, marks an achievement which guarantees society against most if not all the evils associated with endowed education. After an examination of the hundreds of documents which have furnished the basis of this study, the writer Is inclined to look upon educational philan- thropy as an essential and highly important characteristic of democracy. If a statement were made of the theory which has been evolved or the principles which have been arrived at in the almost three centuries of prac- tice, they would seem to be about as follows : (1) Permanent endowment of higher education by the State, by the church, or other association, or by individuals, is desirable. (2) All gifts to education, whether for present use or for permanent en- dowment, whether large or small, should be encouraged, because they open ' Usually the property of such schools Is made entirely, or at least in part, free from taxation by State laws. ' As note the Glrard College case. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. Ill up large possibilities in the way of educational investigation and experiment and because the donor is brought into an intimate relationship with an enter- prise that is fundamental to the national life. (3) The wishes of a donor as expressed in the conditions of his gift shall be respected and fully protected by the State. (4) It is desirable that the conditions controlling a gift shall be stated in general terms only, and that the methods of carrying out the purposes of the donor be left largely to the recipient of the gift. (5) Finally, it is desirable that even the purpose of a gift should be made alterable after a reasonable period of time has elapsed, and, if it be desirable, that the gift be terminated. INDEX American Education Society, financial eta- tlstics, 74-75. Amherst College, donations and grants, 42 ; Income, 63 ; students receiving aid from American Educational Society, 49. Andover Theological Seminary, gifts to per- manent funds, 43 ; growth, 64. Brown University, charter analyzed, 12-13. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 85-86, 96-101. Carnegie Institution, 83-84, 91-93. Cleveland Foundation, 87-89. College education, colonial period, cost, 20-21. College of William and Mary, charter ana- lyzed, 11-12. College professors, colonial period, salaries, 21-22. Colleges, finances of, colonial, 16-19. Colleges and universities, charters analyzed, 10-14 ; donations and grants, early na- tional period, 37-43, 45-47 ; donations and grants, late national period, 53-54 ; early national period, establishment and sources of support, 35-37 ; growth in late national period, 53-54. Colonial period, 10-32. Columbia University, charter analyzed, 11- 12 ; donations and grants, 26, 42. Cornell University, donations and grants, 71 ; Income, 73. Council of Church Boards of Education, worlj, 78. Dartmouth College, charter analyzed, 13-14. Early conception of philanthropy, 1. Early national period, 33-52, 106-107. Education societies, philanthropy, 47-51. Educational donations and grants, 17-20, 23-32, 56-62. Educational foundations, 81-102, 108-109; place in Adam Smith's free-trade econ- omy, 3-4 ; place in Turgat's social theory, 1—3. Endowments, 103-104, 109-111. Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States of America, 76. General Education Board, 84-85, 93-96. Harvard University, donations and grants, 23, 39 ; charter analyzed, 11-12. Hobhouse, Sir Arthur, on " dead hand " in education, 7-8. John F. Slater Fund, 82-83, 91. Johns Hopliins University, donations and grants, 71 ; ideas and purposes of founder, 68. Late national period, 53-80, 107-108. Leland Stanford Junior University, dona- tions and grants, 71-72 ; object of founder, 69. Lowe, return to free-trade principles, 7. Manual-labor colleges, 45-47, 65-67. Methodist Episcopal Church Board, finan- cial statistics, 76. Mill, John Stuart, opposition to theories of Turgot and Smith, 5-7. Mount Holyoke College, endowment and in- come, 64-65. Oberlin College, funds, 66-67. i-eabody Education Fund, 82, 89-91. Phelps-Stokes Fund, 86-87. Political influence. Colonial period, 15-16. Presbyterian Education Board, financial statistics, 75. Princeton University, charter analyzed, 11- 12 ; donations and grants, 25. Religious and denominational influences, Colonial period, 14-14. Religious education societies, philanthropy, 73-78. Rockefeller Foundation, 87. Russell Sage Foundation, 86, 101. Rutgers College, charter analyzed, 13-14. Smith, Adam, place of educational foun- dations In free-trade economy of, 3-4. Theological education, early national period, 43-44. Turgot's social theory, place of educational foundations, 1—3. University of Chicago, Income, 72 ; pro- vision of charter, 69—70. University of Pennsylvania, charter ana- lyzed, 11-12. Vassar College, donations and grants, 70- 71 ; educational aims, 67-68, 69. Von Humboldt's theory, 4—5. Women, education, early national period, 44-45. Women's colleges, late national period, 64- 65. Yale University, charter analyzed, 11-12 ; donations and grants, 24 ; gifts, 39. 112 O VITA Jesse Brundage Sears: Born, Hamilton, Mo., September 25, 1876. Academic Training : Elementary education at the Wooder- son school, Davies Co., Mo. ; Graduated from Kidder Institute (academy), Kidder, Mo., June 1902; Bachelor of Arts degree at Leiand Stanford Junior University, June 1909 ; Part-time student at University of Wisconsin, 1909-1910 ; Student, Chicago University, summer quarter, 1910 ; Student, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1910-1911 and summer term, 1911 ; Student assistant, Stanford University, 1907-1909 ; Assistant in Educa- tion, Columbia University, 1911 ; Research scholar. Teachers College, 1910-1911. Professional Experience : Rural school, Davies Co., Mo., 1897-1900; Grade teacher, Kidder public schools, 1902-1903; Supervismg principal, Kingston, Mo., public schools, 1903-1905,; Principal, Hamilton, Mo., high school, 1905-1906 ; Instructor, University of Wisconsin, 1909-1910 ; Instructor, Stanford Uni- versity, 1911-1912 ; Assistant Professor, Stanford University, 1912-1917 ; Associate Professor, Stanford University, 1917 — Author : ' ' Classroom Organization and Control, ' ' Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918; Joint author, "The Boise Survey," Yonkers, N. Y., The World Book Co, 1920; Joint author, "School Organization and Administration," Yonkers, N. Y., The World Book Co.. 1916. / Department of Educational Sociology Teachers College, Columbia University New York City PART - TIME SCHOOLS A Survey of Experience in the United States with Recommendations Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University. New York, N. Y. . 1922 Department of Educational Sociology Teachers College, Columbia University New York City PART - TIME SCHOOLS A Survey of Experience in the United States with Recommendations Harry Bradley Smith, Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University. New York, N. Y. 1922 n CONTENTS. Page. Foreword xi PART I.— AMERICAN PART-TIME SCHOOLS. The need for some new type of public education 1 Preliminary statement of objectives and metliods 2 I. Major objectiyes . 2 II. Minor objectives 3 III. Metbod of work and sources of informaiion 3 IV. Form of the resulting bulletin 4 V. Tables 4 Scope of the survey 5 I. Area covered 5 II. Number of children affected C Outstanding conclusions of the survey 8 The field as a whole 8 Legislation 9 Administration 10 Finance.- 11 Housing and equipment 11 Types of classes 12 Pupils 12 Teachers 13 Subject matter 14 Means and methods of part-time instruction 15 Time arrangements 15 Attendance factors 15 Objectives 16 Outstanding recommendations 17 The field as a whole 17 Legislation 17 Support of public opinion 17 Time for preparation 18 Administration 18 Flexible administration 18 Centralizing activities 19 Finance 20 Housing and equipment 20 Type? of classes 20 Pupils 20 Teachers 21 Subject matter 21 Means and methods of part-time instruction 21 Time arrangements 21 Attendance factors 22 Objectives 22 III IV CONTENTS. SECTION I. rage. Legislation 23 Time laws have been in force? 23 Place of attendance 24 Employment notifications 25 Penalties i 27 Permits and work certificates 28 Tuition 33 Teachers' licenses 34 Rules for discontinuing classes 36 Type of the act 38 Comments and suggestions on the law 39 SECTION II. Administration 45 The- executive staff 45 Supervision 46 Cooperating agencies 56 Records — Health and education 62 Influence of industries on administration 65 SECTION III. Finance ^ 67 Cost of part-time schools 67 Cost per pupil year , 68 Cost per pupil hour 69 Fluctuation of cost with average attendance . 70 Fluctuation of cost with hours of attendance 70 Comparisons with all-day schools 71 Earnings of pupils 72 SECTION IV. Location in city — housing and equipment 74 Buildings and equipments 80 SECTION V. Types of classes 89 Statistics 90 SECTION' VI. Pupils 92 Number of pupils by types of classes 92 Personal and social characteristics t 93 SECTION VII. Teachers 106 Sources of supply and how reached 106 General continuation teachers 106 Trade-extension teachers 107 Trade preparatory teachers 108 Trade-finding teachers 108 Home-making teachers 109 Commercial teachers 111 Men VS. women teachers 111 Teachers' training and experience 113 Quality of teachers employed 121 Future preparation of teachers 124 Oroup vs. departmental organization 126 CONTENTS. T SECTION VIII. Page. Subject matter 128 Compulsory and elective classes 128 Details of subject matter 133 Trade subjects 134 General comment 137 Hygiene 140 Citizensliip and civics 1 140 Standards 143 An excellent plan 144 Assignment of work to pupils 146 Methods and devices 151 Reference material 152 Observation opportunities 154 Englisli 156 Grammar 157 Oral Englisb 158 Oral reading 159 OomiX)sition 159 Home reading 160 Poetry 160 Type of English in general . 161 Current events " 162 Public assemblies 163 ■Advanced type of worli 164 Marketable projects 164 Physical training 164 Suggested changes . 167 SECTION IX. Means and methods of part-time instruction 168 Getting subject matter 168 Conferences 170 Occupational studies 170 Sources of subject matter 171 The first day 173 Subsequent transfers 178 Individual progress 179 Division of class time 184 Discipline 186 Vocational guidance 188 School tests 190 To take the measure of a boy 195 Special topics 198 Outside cooperation 201 Method of group division 211 Instruction methods 213 Placement 215 Studies of outside conditions 218 Type of equipment 221 SECTION X. Time arrangements 223 Working day 223 Days upon which school is in session 224 Hours per week 225 VI CONTENTS. Time arrangements — Continued. Page. Teachers' hours 227 Employers' preferences and powers 229 Regulation of pupil attendance 232 SECTION XI. Attendance information 237 Total number of pupils and average attendance _ 237 Effect of type of pupil on attendance 237 Subjects best attended 241 Securing attendance 243 State department 244 Use of coordinators 244 Special officer 245 Regular attendance officer 245 Special attendance department 246 Making up absences 248 Substitute aftendance - 249 Evening school 249 Apprenticeship 249 Business college 250 SECTION XII. Objectives 253 Home makers 259 Women citizens 259 The home economics objective 260 English 260 Arithmetic 261 Spelling 261 Geography , 262 Shop subjects 262 Related subjects 262 Means of arriving at objectives 263 Industrial arts and home economics 266 High-school mechanic arts 266 Commercial work 266 SECTION XIII. Miscellaneous considerations 274 A national part-time law 274 Unclassified questions 275 Success in obtaining cooperation 277 The small school vs. the larger school 278 Relation to industries '. 280 The 16 to 18 year old group , 281 Special points 284 PART II.— PART-TIME SCHOOLS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Prefatory note 293 General impressions 295 England 296 Legislation 296 Schools visited ^ 302 Summary of interviews 302 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Part I— AMERICAN PART-TIME SCHOOLS. THE NEED FOR SOME NEW TYPE OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. There is an unrecoraed but perfectly well recognized consensus of opinion in this country that when a boy or girl has reached the age of approxTimately 18 years he is capable of looking after him- self and his future activities. On the other hand, there is just as well recognized an opinion that until the age of 18 the minor has needs for training and counsel that can not be left to his judgment and initiative to care for. As long as these children remain in the home and attend the public day school society feels that they are provided with proper agencies for counsel and training, and that whatever is lacking or inefficient is to be corrected by the improve- ment of these time-honored agencies rather than by the creation of new ones. When a child under 18 years of age is ou.t of the home or out of day school, for any reason whatever, working or not, there is a .well- defined feeling that something is lacking in the way of a social agency to deal with this child's needs. The loss of a home has long been recognized as a loss which must be supplied at public expense until a minor can be made self-supporting. Where, however, the home supplies a lodging place and food, but leaves all other needs, such as that for education, for vocational guidance and training, and for instruction as regards the duties of a citizen and the simple health and social relationships, unprovided for, the public has been slow to admit its responsibilities for meeting these needs except with the regular school. When one of these minors leaves the day school to enter employ- ment he severs connection usually with the only public agency which has been provided for meeting his needs, but he does not part com- pany with the needs — indeed he multiplies and adds to them. Much of the education he has acquired will be lost unless it is reviewed and applied. He is often faced with a job for which he is not pre- pared and for which industry gives no adequate instruction. He must solve financial problems of his own. He has become a member of society and he can not even define that term or appreciate his duties and privileges. He is moving in an atmosphere of business and politics for the first time. He thinks of the present and does not plan for the fi'ture, and his leisure and recreation are decided by instinct and caprice without knowledge or judgment. The State 1 2 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. must not fail, both for his welfare and its own, to provide some public agency to assist this boy, and, if need be, force him to use it. The agency now on trial is the part-time school. Its business is to determine the present and future needs of working minors and future citizens as they actually are when they come to the school, and to meet those needs, whatever they may be, using its own organization and every other organization whose Qooperation can be secured. No other public agency is doing this ; no other social institution, public or private, has covered such a comprehensive field ; the needs of the children are beyond controversy, and the part-time school alone of all public agencies so far suggested has given promise of being adequate for such a task. For millions of children it will provide the capstone of educa- tional attainment and some promise of economic security through occupational skill acquired under competent guidance. To society and the State it should be one important factor of insurance against political incompetence, economic wastefulness, and that restlessness and discontent, growing out of ignorance, which often breeds anarchy and national disruption. A great objective for a great institution, and one not beyond the reach of the smallest class in the smallest village if the teacher is a teacher with a vision. PRELIMINARY STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES AND METHODS. The material contained in this part of the bulletin was secured through personal visits made by a representative of the Federal Board to 26 towns and cities in the United States, and the purposes of the entire survey may best be set forth in terms of its major and minor objectives. I. MAJOR OBJECTIVES. 1. To secure, assemble, organize, and interpret data relative to the scope, character, and effectiveness of part-time education in certain of those States in which the fullest development has been achieved or exceptional difficulties encountered. 2. To give special attention to administration, objectives, standards, and subject matter, and to examples of efficient and successful part- time work for treatment in seeking to realize the third major ob- jective. 3. To present a series of constructive proposals based upon the findings of the survey and interpretations of the same, and designed to assist the administrators and teachers of compulsory part-time schools in improving their work. PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. 6 rr. MINOR OBjEcrrvES. 1. To ascertain in what ways and to what extent courses of study and materials of instruction have, in the places visited, been based on actual study and determination of needs of pupils. 2. To analyze the principal advantages and disadvantages in the part-time schools of various plans for providing flexibility of admin- istration and curriculum. 3. To ascertain the prevailing opinions of educators, legislators, employers, parents, and other citizens as to why part-time acts are so frequently opposed shortly after passing. 4. To ascertain what principal public and private agencies other than schools are serving the needs of part-time pupils, and to suggest means and methods of better utilizing such agencies. ni. METHOD OF WORK AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION. A questionnaire designed to bring out the facts and opinions de- sired was submitted personally by the investigator who wrote the answers to the questions after consultation and conference with com- missioners of education, superintendents of schools, directors, both of State and city activities in vocational education, teachers in con- tkiuation schools, employers, parents, and others. By far the greatest part of the information obtained concerning the law, the administration, the finance, location and housing, types of classes, teachers, the larger objectives, and the general unclassified information was obtained from those holding administrative posi- tions in the schools. Information regarding pupils, subject-matter, means and methods of instruction, time arrangements, and the more detailed points of everyday operation was largely obtained from teachers and supervisors, although in most instances this material was checked by administrative officers before being finally entered for record. Throughout the entire study an effort has been made to corroborate facts and to secure accuracy. As regards several inquiries, however, absolute statistical accuracy has not been attempted, but only such statements as would prove beyond question of doubt the point under discussion; thus in respect to the earnings of students in part- time schools, the entire amount is a fairly accurate estimate based upon more or less exact information collected in the various schools regarding the weekly wages of their pupils. As the total sum under consideration runs into the millions a few hundred thousand dollars one way or the other will have no effect upon the correctness of the conclusions drawn. Likewise with the total number of pupils attend- ing part-time schools there is a constant variation from day to day, 4 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. and the figures given in this report would not be valid for a record on which a payment for pupil hour instruction could be based, but as indicative of the thousands of young people in the places visited who are profiting by this type of work it is entirely satisfactory and sufficiently accurate. A small portion of the data obtained has been tabulated and treated by the usual statistical methods. A somewhat larger por- tion, but yet a relatively small portion of the whole, has been accu- rately tabulated and used as a means of disclosing prevailing present practices with an assembly of opinions as to their efficiency. The major part of the information and opinions assembled, coming as it does from a field of education of recent and still experimental development, has been interpreted by the following methods: First, information as exact as possible was, obtained by actual visiting in the schools, questioning executive officers and their staffs, interview- ing employers, city officials, employees, and others, and reading local publications. In some instances the questions required a "yes" or " no " answer, in others a selection of alternatives, and in still other cases answers based upon experience. Second, these data were then grouped or blocked out topic by topic, and from them the writer draws his deductions and builds up his recommendations, using his own technical experience in consultative cooperation with others as a basis of interpretation. rv. FOEM OF THE RESULTING BUIJ^TIN. The information collected as a result of the survey and the fore- going analysis is presented to the reader in a bulletin of 13 sec- tions, whose titles are given in the table of contents. Each section is subdivided by a series of questions taken from the questionnaire, and after each question are given the actual facts as to what is being done, an assemblage of opinions as to its success or failure given by those actually engaged in the work, and suggestions on how conditions may be bettered. At certain points, frequently at the close of a section, general conclusions and recommendations are drawn, while at the outset the most important of these are given under the titles " Outstanding conclusions of the survey " and " Out- standing recommendations." V. TABLES. Tables are made out by cities or places reporting, not by indi- viduals answering the questions. Thus, " totals " in tables represent the number of communities in which the majority of opinions was decisive enough to permit it being recorded as the opinion of the community. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 5 SCOPE OF THE SURVEY. I. AEEA COVBEED. For the purpose of visitation the United States was divided roughly into five sections— the Northeast, Southeast, Central, North- west, and Southwest. Typical school systems were visited in each of these sections. The largest or even the most progressive systems in any section were not always visited, since frequently they presented problems too similar to those already studied in other places. In selecting the places to be visited attention was given to location, size, age, State law, and difficulties previously reported, as well as to excellence of work. The 26 places here given was the final list : Table I.— PLACES VISITED. Conshohocken, Pa. Kansas City, JIo. Reading, Pa. Phoenix, Ariz. Boston, Mass. Los Angeles, Calif. Springfield, Mass. San Francisco, Calif. Rochester, N. T. Berl^eley, Calif. Buffalo, N. Y. Ofcland, Calif. ' Toledo, Ohio. Butte, Mont. Detroit, Mich. Salt Lake City, Utah. Lansing, Blich. Denver, Colo. Chicago, 111. Jacksonville, Fla. Milwaukee, Wis. Birmingham, Ala. St. Louis, Mo. Atlanta, Ga. Lockport, N. T. Raleigh, N. C. This list represents 17 States, including individual localities vary- ing from 8,000 to 2,700,000 inhabitants and representing among their principal occupations all lines of factory manufacture, commerce, rolling-mill work and smelting, mining, banking, business, inten- sive and extensive farming, grazing, special agriculture such as the growing of cotton, tobacco, fruit, and nuts ; and textiles of every de- scription. There are cities with dominant industries and those with diversified industries; with workers of native birth, foreign birth, and foreign parentage representing practically all our immigrant races. II. NUMBER OF CHILDREN AFFECTED. It was the desire of the investigator to secure information as to the number of part-time pupils in places visited, sufficient to enable him to make a fairly satisfactory estimate of the number of children per thousand of population who might be expected to be found at work, classified as 14, 15, 16, and 17 years of age. 92827°— 22 2 6 PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. Since the statistical records of pupils required in the different cities vary widely in respect to ages recorded — due to differences in the laws, differences relative to the issuing of labor permits, and dif- ferences in length of time laws have been in force, several of which are progressive in their compulsory action — and since there is a total lack of statistics in the case of some of the places visited, it has been necessary to modify the original plan. The following summary totals and proportions have been determined. In 6 of the cities visited, with a total population of 2,139,200, run- ning from 21,300 as a minimum to 772,900 as a maximum, there were found at work 5,804 children 14 years of age, or an average of 2.7 children per 1,000 population. In 5 cities, with a total population of 2,569,400, ranging from 21,300 to 993,700, there were found at work 7,692 children 15 years of age, or an average of 3.0 per 1,000. In 10 cities visited data were secured showing number at work for the 2-year-age period, 14 to 16 years. The total population of these cities was 2,907,100, ranging from 8,500 to 772,900; and the total number at work between the ages given was 20,180, or 6.9 per 1,000 population. Six cities ranging from 56,000 to 993,700 in population, with a total population of 2,622,500, had recorded 39,178 children between 16 and 18 years of age in regular employment, which gives an aver- age of 14.9 per 1,000 population. Five cities ranging from 295,800 to 2,701,700 in population, with a total population of 4,285,800, had recorded 112,871 children between 14 and 18 years of age as employed. This gives an average for the 4-year-age period of 26.3 per 1,000. Similar statistics are given below by localities, so that the popula- tion of any locality may be compared with the number of children employed for the ages specified above. While deductions from these results can not be taken as more than approximately indicative of conditions in other communities, it may be pointed out that the com- munities covered by the data are fairly representative when taken by groups, since they include cities of widely varying population located in different sections of the United States — congested manu- facturing centers and rural areas, places where the foreign popula- tion exceeds 50 per cent together with localities where this element in the population is practically negligible.^ 1 All cities are named in Table XXXIII. PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. 7 Table II.— CHILDREN 14 YEARS OF AGE AT WORK IN CITIES. Number of Nmnber Population children at work of the at work per 1,000 city. 14 years popula- of age. tion. 57, 300 85 457, 100 1,080 324, 400 656 772, 900 3,131 506, 800 830 21, 800 22 2.7 2, 139, 800 5,804 Table III.— CHILDREN 15 YEARS OF AGE AT WORK IN CITIES. Population of the city. Number of children at work 15 years of age. Number at work per 1,000 popula- tion. 993,700 324, 400 772, 900 457, 100 21, 300 1,377 430 2,796 3,000 89 7,692 3.0 2, 569, 400 Table IV.— CHILDREN 14-16 YEARS OF AGE AT WORK IN CITIES. Number of Number Population children at work of the at work per 1,000 city. 14^16 years popula- of age. tion. 107, 800 1,574 8,500 139 748, 100 4,673 129, 600 1,243 ... 295, 800 1,165 2\300 117 457, 100 4,080 772, 900 5,928 324, 400 1,086 41, 600 2, 907, 100 175 6.9 50, 180 8 PAHT-TIMB SCHOOLS. Table V.— CHILDREN 16-18 YEARS OP AGE AT WORK IN CITIES. Population of the city. Number of children at work 16-18 years of age. Number at work per 1,000 popula- tion. 295, 800 243, 200 993,700 457, 100 576, 700 56,000 4,524 500 26, 139 5,000 2,615 400 14.9 2, 622, 500 39, 178 Tabm VI.— CHILDREN 14^-18 YEARS OP AGE AT WORK IN CITIES. Population of the city. Number of children at work 14-18 years of age. Number at work per 1,000 popula- tion. 506, 800 2,701,700 295,800 457, 100 324,400 15,000 80,000 5,689 10, 160 2,022 26.3 4,285,800 112, 871 The total number of individual children of part-time age at work in all the places visited could not be ascertained, but 21 of the 26 cities show a total average attendance on part-time schools of over 30,000 pupils per week, and a registration of 35,447 pupils per year. Whoever deals with any statistics relative to part-time students must remember that the average attendance and total registration, the number per teacher, the number at work, and the number hold- ing work permits are constantly varying under influences that have much less weight in effecting such statistics for any type of all-day school. OUTSTANDING CONCLUSIONS OF THE SURVEY. THE FIELD AS A WHOLE. Even a casual glance through the material contained in this survey will convince the reader that there are as yet few settled policies and practices regarding part-time education in any one State of PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. 9 those visited, and none that may be called common to the group. In the answers to most- of the questions two or more sides are presented,- and wherever the problem is important and common to several States there often appear directlj' opposing suggestions for its solution. Thus we find arguments for the standardization of teachers by the State and equally good arguments for leaving the local authorities great independence in selecting their faculties. ■ The age limits of compulsory attendance and the hours of attend- ance per week called forth greater unity of opinion than any other single topic of importance. Yet out of 21 States, 14 years to 16 years was given by 10, 14 years to 18 years by 9, 16 years to 18 by 1, and 12 years to 16 by 1. Attendance either four or eight hours- per week was preferred in 16 cases, but elsewhere five hours, six hoursy and in one State no fixed hours per week, but only a yearly mini- miun of 144 hours has been decided upon. Even where the proposi- tion for one central part-time school building received a large ma- jority vote, the answers regarding its use and cooperating agencies varied widely. LEGISLA-nON. Legislation on the whole had not been either hurriedly or care- lessly done, although some of its designers are open to the criticism of having copied parts of laws in other States without due considera- tion for the other laws in those States. Thus a western State secur- ing suggestions from the part-time law of an eastern State, where other laws than the part-time legislation provide for a fixed working day, working conditions, inspection of work place, etc., has omitted these points from its new law, which, unsupplemented by older laws specifying them, is causing trouble for the local school adminis- trators. The principal defect in legislation seems to have been its failure to allow sufficient time between its passage and the date of enforce- ment for proper preparation on the part of school authorities to creditably carry out the demands of the law. . Besides this in several States, the law has been attacked a short time after its passage by factions that were sometimes antagonistic because of ignorance or misunderstanding of the actual results of the legislation. The bulk of the legislation has been consciously enacted with a double objective, one social, offering an extension of training into the upper years for those not in full-day schools and providing for physi- cal, civic, and general education ; the second vocational, with a dis- tinct aim to provide in some way for increase of earning power. Thus out of 22 local courses of study, English appears in 19, civics in 19, and hygiene in 19, and these are most frequently prescribed in the law. Further, electrical construction and drafting appear 12 10 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. times, prescribed shop 10 times, sewing 10 times, cooking 8 times, typewriting 12 times, salesmanship 7 times, giving evidence of the vocational aim, although not necessarily of its accomplishment. Most of the laws are too recently in force to have demonstrated what their success will be, as a glance at Table IX on page 23 will show. The major portion of the legislation has really had in mind the characteristics of the 14 to 16 year old group. As has been shown already, this group alone is affected by law in 10 cities visited, and is included in the groups specified in the laws under which 9 other cities operate. There are many evidences that the 16 to 18 year old minors are beginning to attract attention and study, in anticipation of the requirements of existing laws, and others contemplating an advance to 18 years for the upper compulsory age limit. A few laws in the East and in the far West have a tendency to prescribe details that hamper local administration, but give unity to the State's procedure, as regards, for example, rigidity in exemp- tions, substitute attendance, and division of time. On the other hand, many schoolmen favored inclusion of more specific details in the law as one means of avoiding controversy and centering responsibility. Where the law specifies subject matter and division of time, thus affecting administration inside the school, it is criticized more often than when its details are directed exclusively to administration apart from instruction. ADMINISTRATION. The administration of part-time schools is almost wholly in the hands of all-day school executives. In 24 out of 25 places the super- intendent of schools is the chief executive of part-time administra- tion. This is a most natural arrangement and open to little criticism where proper experts are in immediate charge of this new type of work. A study of 21 cities, however, shows that the superintendent of schools was in immediate charge of the continuation schools in one instance ; that in two places an assistant superintendent of schools was in direct charge of the continuation school along with numerous other branches of the public schools; that four directors of voca- tional education for their respective cities had added part-time school direction to their duties ; and that in the other 14 cases some mem- ber of the regular part-time staff was the immediate executive officer. This means that one-third of the part-time schools recorded were depending for immediate direction at a critical period upon men whose main objectives and chief responsibilities lay in other direc- tions. Where the real manager was exclusively from the part-time staff his position too often was not rated high enough to command atten- tion and secure authority. PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. 11 One other outstanding need of these new schools is better facili- ties for coordination with the home and with industry ; 14 out of 22 cities made a very poor showing in this respect. When the above facts are considered, it is perhaps surprising that part-time schools have been administered as successfully as they have been, for certain it is that the greatest faults are not to be found in the methods of administration. FINANCE. FinanciaL reports and other statistics regarding part-time schools are difficult to obtain, and estimates are open to doubt because of the fact that financial records have not usually been kept and experience has not been sufficient to estimate with nicety. This is not a criticism of the administration of these schools. The wprk is so new and the absolutely essential things so pressing that accounts, statistics, and records that could be dispensed with have been forced to wait. Teachers' salaries and certain fixed charges can usually be obtained by asking for them, but attempts to pro rate or estimate overhead expense failed in nearly every city visited. Eather reliable reports from 17 places indicate an average cost per pupil per year for all types of part-time work, taken together, of $32 to $34, and a cost per pupil per hour of from 16 to 17 cents, with the lower rate more probable. HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT. Sentiment is almost unanimous in favor of the establishment in each community of a central school building as headquarters of all part-time education in the locality. Already 16 of 21 places recorded have such an arrangement, and approximately 60 people engaged in this work in other places preferred it. Even employers arid parents, v/hen they were not wholly opposed to the part-time principle, com- monly preferred to have the instruction given in a public school rather than in a plant. Kegarding the exclusive use of such a build- ing, without outlying classes in any case, opinions differed widely, as shown in the arguments given in the body of this survey. Housing, on the whole, is much better than is generally believed ; 14 of 21 cities have rooms that are " entirely satisfactory," 2 localities reported " almost satisfactory," and 5 had real grievances. Equipment, however, needs much more attention. It is frequently of the old manual-training type, and often without power. Not in- frequently it is lacking altogether. This much, however, must be said : Either from design or from necessity the part-time school ex- ecutive has given his first attention to securing teachers, and is now 12 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. in most cases preparing to buy equipment^a procedure often re- versed by our other types of schools, much to their loss. TYPES OF CLASSES. In general, the chief purposes of the continuation schools visited are indicated by the types of classes offered, and while the percentage distributions of the summary table here given are only approxima- tions based upon data presented in the section,. " Types of classes," in the bulletin, they are sufficiently accurate to serve all purposes of general inference. Table VII.— PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OP CLASSES REPORTED AND CLASSIFIED AS TO TYPE OF WORK DONE. Percentage. Total classified 100 General continuation -39 Trade finding 20 Home making 13 Trade extension • 10 Trade preparatory 8 Commercial and salesmanship '10 The proportion shown for general continuation school classes, which is nearly double that of any other type, signifies the predomi- nance of the social and general educational aim. That for trade finding, second in importance, judged by number of classes, repre- sents the very widespread feeling that these schools must provide agencies for helping pupils to make intelligent choices of a voca- tion. Home making stands here for a definite and separate aim in training girls as good home makers, although girls are enrolled in each of the other types of classes. Trade extension and commercial types, showing equal proportions in the table, represent the existence of definite vocational aims, while trade preparatory work indicates an objective of vocational preparation which is not so generally rec- ognized as being either possible or needed as are the other objectives. Exception may perhaps be taken to some of these inferences. Difficulties encountered in the way of differentiating class aims are fully discussed in the text, but that all six of the specified objectives prevail in varying degrees of importance can not be doubted. PUPILS. As regards health and physical characteristics, part-time pupils, even those 16 to 18 years of age, differ so little from other pupils, that 17 out of 22 executive officers of the all-day and part-time ' See sec, 5 in Survey proper. PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 13 schools had noted no important characteristic differences. In most cases their answers were based upon personal observation and con- tact supplemented by incomplete medical examinations, no general use of physical examination by school authorities being uncovered by the survey. Mental characteristics of part-time pupils have not been graded with accuracy. Intelligence and accomplishment tests are rarely given, and comparisons with all-day pupils are of doubtful value, since there are no standards of comparison except academic stand- ards, and even these are not commonly used directly in testing the work of part-time pupils. Sharp differences between the 14 to 16 year old groups and the 16 to 18 year old groups are not reported except where there has been an abrupt change in employment at the sixteenth year, and in 14 of 22 of the places visited the part-time children, irrespective of age, were reported as employed in temporary but usually good and satis- factory work. An assemblage of opinions on " homes," while lacking any defi- nite standard of measurement, tends to prove that the part-time pupil's home is not a serious handicap to his advancement except in a very small percentage of cases — probably not over 2 or 3 per cent. TEACHERS. The part-time movement in education is so new and has spread so rapidly that special part-time training has not been generally pro- vided for teachers now in service. It is true that only 8 out of 21 cities reported no such training, but in many cases the training was not required of all part-time teachers, and only 3 out of 18 States had established State compulsory part-time teacher training. On the other hand, plans are everywhere in evidence for training he incoming teacher, and the need for such special training is rapidly being acknowledged. Part-time teachers have been selected most commonly from the existing body of all-day teachers. In 17 out of 22 places teachers are reported as having hacl previous experience in the grades or the high school. That this selection has been so made as to secure the highest native ability is borne out by the reports from 14 out of 22 cities, which rank the part-time teacher as superior to the all-day teacher, 2 cities ranking part-time teachers as equal to others, and 3 cities accrediting to them superior characteristics but not general su- periority. Salaries of part-time teachers taken as a whole compensate fairly for the work expected. In 9 out of 20 places reporting salaries they are of high-school rank, in 1 place above high-school rank, and in 8 14 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. places between the grammar and the high school ranks. On a basis of actual teaching hours, however, those below high-school rank are often paid less per hour than grammar-school teachers. SUBJECT MATTER. The whole question of what specific subject matter shall be taught in handling any particular subject in part-time schools is just rising out of chaos. There are no fixed standards as yet in common use by which the needs of a particular group can be definitely deter- mined, nor are there such standards for eliminating nonessential material or least essential material from full-day school courses of study. Such standards at best can determine only a reference scale for the teacher, who must be allowed to vary from any rigidly fixed average. Thirteen of nineteen systems visited reported no standards for measuring value or success of continuation school work other than shop work. Intelligence tests have been tried in Only three places visited, and their success in these places is a matter of doubt. On the whole, no careful study of needs has been made before lay- ing out classroom work — no study of group needs by vocations or previous schooling, or of community needs from surveys of local civic, social, and vocational institutions. Excuse for this condition may be found commonly in lack of sufficient time for preparation after the law has been enacted. On the other hand, a reasonably successful and praiseworthy effort has been made to determine indi- vidual needs after the student has been enrolled, but a change of program rather than a change of subject matter has been the usual result where misfits have been found. Approximately from 50 to 55 per cent of all classes in operation were of a general continuation nature, including in these many trade- finding and home-making groups. The determination of subject mat- ter in these classes has been left largely to the teacher, and too fre- quently the subject matter is found to be a transplanted or selected section of some day-school course. In like manner, shop teachers have frequently been allowed to set up their work without challenge as to its aim, usefulness, or necessity. It must, however, be acknowledged that carefully selected teachers of long experience and shop teachers of high-grade mechanical skill and knowledge have produced some splendid courses as bases for evolution and future tests. In 12 cities out of 20 the teacher has been the principal factor in determining sub- ject matter. In 4 places suggested courses sent out by State depart- ments or other cooperative agencies were adopted at the beginning. In 2 cities only were courses based on a study of industrial needs, and in 2 cases on studies of pupils in large groups to discover their group needs. PAET-TIMB SCHOOLS. 15 MEANS AND METHODS OF PAET-TIME INSTRUCTION. No means has yet been discovered that solves the problem of caring for the new pupil on the day he enters school unless he enters alone or with a few others. This problem deserves careful study and experi- mentation. When large numbers present themselves on the opening day they must be met individually and personally, their aims and needs at least roughly determined, their records consulted, assignments made with regard for the nature and time of employment, and 'the entire group kept busy during the whole time of registration. This is one of the most practical and most perplexing of the mechanical problems of part-time work. Again, there appears a lack of appreciation of the value to be ren- dered a pupil through the use of every possible means of vocational guidance.^ Few teachers appreciate that if an entire year of part- time attendance has resulted only in fixing the student in a vocation suited to his likes and abilities, the school has rendered that student a service sufficiently valuable to repay him for the year in school. Fifteen of 20 cities had none or only the most incidental methods of vocational guidance. In general teaching organization the part-time schools still pattern largely after the grammar schools — unit class groups prevail, con- tinuous-lesson plans are more commonly followed than unit-lesson plans, and cooperative relations with outside institutions are usually neglected. On the other hand, the principle of individual instruction is well appreciated and although not carried out extensively, because of mechanical difficulties and lack of trained teachers, few part-time employees do not ultimately look forward to this as the future estab- lished method of instruction. TIME ABEANGEMENTS. The policy of legislators and administrators alike has been to keep part-time school hours within the legal working day, and to prohibit substitute attendance at Saturday afternoon or evening schools or at short-unit-course commercial schools. Within these limits the employer is permitted great independence of choice, being allowed in most cases to select the day of the week and the morning or afternoon when his employees shall attend. Hours are readily changed at his request. ATTENDANCE EACTOES. The most interesting conclusion reached as a result of the data compiled in this section is that regularity of attendance is closely connected with the intelligence of the pupil as shown through school 16 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. attainment and the character of the job held. On the whole, pupils who reached higher levels in the all-day school give good attendance on part-time schools, and those who hold the higher types of jobs have better attendance than those on lower-grade work. The at- tendance problem in large cities is a difficult problem and one de- pending upon the automatic cooperation of many agencies outside the part-time school. It may also be noted that several States have compulsory attendance which they do not enforce. OBJECTIVES. It has already been shown that there are as yet no part-time policies or practices that can be called national in scope. The state- ment has also been made that the actual teaching material is little more than a chaotic mass, out of which appear in a few instances evidences of carefully selected subject matter. The cause for this, as might have been expected, is indistinct or confused objectives. Two or three of the larger objectives are instantly appreciated. The superintendent- of schools knows that one of his chief aims must be to remove a general educational handicap from the minor who left day school in the fifth grade, but when it comes to the class ob- jective, the purpose and aim of the group teacher, he is uncertain. Shall this handicap be overcome by more general education or by specially selected social and civic studies or by vocational guidance and trade-finding work looking toward some calling requiring very little general education? Interpreting large objectives in terms of smaller ones for guiding actual instruction is rarely done well. Men speak readily of " pro- moting civic intelligence" without knowing what or how much civic intelligence should be the goal of a teacher's ambition for any group. The larger objectives may be roughly divided into four types, as follows : Table VIII— MAIN OBJECTIVES OF PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Number, Total cities reporting 24 Main objective better citizenship 7 Main objective occupational supremacy 4 Main objective better general education 4 Combinations of above 4 No distinguishing objectives 5 A comparison of this table with the statements already made on objectives as shown by subject matter will indicate all the larger features included in the survey. The whole field is lacking in methods and measurements for a scien- tific study of working objectives. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 17 OUTSTANDING RECOMMENDATIONS. THE FIELD AS A WHOLE. There should be developed under direction of some national agency such as the Federal Board for Vocational Education, a uniform terminology in the field of part-time education, a short and worlcable statistical blank, a uniform method of using this blank, and of sys- tematic collection and publication of data. Eeports in this field must at first deal largely with fixed records such as total registration, average attendance, and cost per pupil-year and pupil-hour, classified according to the type of work being offered when possible. For each community there should be determined. also the same costs for all-day instruction, figured according to some accepted method. Size of classes, teachers' salaries, and equipment also should be reported. Later this national agency might render services as a central clearing house for ideas, experiments, and reports looking to the establishment of methods, and especially of standards by which pupils' needs may be determined, proper subject matter selected, and the success of class teaching, group teaching, and individual teach- ing measured and compared. The part-time teacher is usually enthusiastic and anxious to learn. If the correct method of handling the blank and the importance of the information when accurate are made clear, hearty cooperation will follow and experiments be readily tried. IjEGISLATION'. Support of public opinion. The people of a State must be made to understand the specific purposes of part-time education, as they apply to that State, before the passage of any compulsory act. The types of work to be offered, for whom they are to be offered, the object and advantages of such training, its connection with day-school education, its bearing upon employment and citizenship, illustrated by numerous concrete ex- amples, should be presented to the public through every advertis- ing medium, not after the law is passed but before. Not until there is satisfactory evidence that large numbers understand and approve the idea is it wise to seek legislation that is compulsory. Having once secured the support of public opinion and the nec- essary legislation, the school must live up to its promises to fit for life. Measurement of the day-school system may be deferred for years, but the part-time school must expect an early accounting of its statements regarding the benefits to the pupil, society, business, and industry. If it fails to keep its pledges in actual fact, the least 18 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. it can expect is apathy, and the more probable result will be open hostility and opposition. The wave of uneasiness and dissatis- faction that so frequently runs over a State within one or two years after the establishment of part-time schools can usually be traced to lack of preinsured public support or failure on the part of the schools to give the real education they promised. The call for modification or repeal of the act, not infrequently a serious meance, where it is not wholly for financial reasons, is usually connected directly or indirectly with the fact that the people did not know what they were getting into or that the work of the part-time classes has been too much like that of the public day schools. TxTTve 'for preparation. After the actual passage of a part-time compulsory education law, ample time must be allowed for providing the necessary machinery of administration before the act becomes effective. Proper hous- ing must be insured, equipment provided, teachers trained, courses of study tentatively laid out, details of organization planned, lists of working minors made, employers consulted, industries visited and possibly surveyed. All these things take time and time must be allowed, but to insure that the time will not be wasted because of procrastination the community should be compelled to elect or ap- point some person as executive officer charged personally with au- thority and responsibility for seeing that these preparations are made. Such an appointment might, for example, be required within three months after the passage of the act and one year before it became effective. Furthermore, it is advisable to make provision in the act for the compulsory attendance by age groups to become effective on suc- cessive years, so that those pupils 14 years old attend, say, in 1921, those 15 years old, in 1922, and so on, but permitting a community to combine groups, if desired, so that, for example, those 14 and 15 years old will start together, always on the date set for the youngest age group concerned. It is also well to allow one extra year for emergencies, to be applied wherever the local authorities desire. This means five years as the limiting period for the four age groups, 14 to 1 8, before the law is fully in force. This principle has already been recognized both in this country and abroad. ADMINISTRATION. Flexible admdnistrcction. It seems to be evident that the administration of part-time schools within the State must be done with a flexibility that can not in any PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 19 way be restricted to that of the present administration of all-day schools. This flexibility and delegation of authority and responsibil- ity must extend down through the local officials even to the individual teacher. The part-time school is charged with meeting individual needs, the day school with meeting group needs, and the number, com- plexity, unexpectedness, and immediate necessities of individual needs call for a system that allows the local board and its teachers to adapt their work at all times to a changing situation. The sudden opening of a factory might throw 300 pupils into a part-time system in a few days, and no board of education could provide them with teachers if it were obliged to select teachers according to rules and regulations which work very well indeed for the established grammar schools. The entire complexion of a teacher's class may change in a few weeks, and to allow the teacher no authority to change the work accordingly also will bring undoubted failure in that class. These are extreme cases, but they have happened. Within the most generous fixed limits, . but with teachers specially trained in ingenuity and methods of part- time work wherever possible, supervised especially to insure proper objectives and fundamental principles rather than means and devices of executing these principles, teachers should have great freedom and local boards almost unlimited powers. The word " always " should never be included in our part-time vocabulary. No study should " always " be required ; no rule " always " enforced simply because it is a rule. It is inconceivable that among 4,000,000 children there is not OTie who might not better be tardy each week at part-time class if such tardiness permits him to accomplish some purpose otherwise im- possible. Centralizing activities. There are a large number of activities pertaining to the welfare of part-time students that are not ordinarily found under part-time school control. Part-time school authorities are necessarily in- terested in, for example, health examination and records by a city health department, school records held in the grammar school, in- telligence tests by city experts, vocational guidance hj a municipal bureau, placement by some general agency, control of attendance by the regular attendance department and inspection of working place by State inspectors. Without disturbing the activities of these agencies, provided* they are meeting the primary needs for which they were established, all acts of theirs which bear directly upon the welfare of part-time students should centralize in the office of the chief executive officer for part-time education or in an office under his control. This may be done by requiring a duplicate of every record made concerning a part-time pupil to be transmitted to this part-time office, leaving the 20 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. future use to be made of the same in the hands of the part-time school officer. Since in practically all cases such officer is responsible to the superintendent of schools, any neglect on his part to properly use the information furnished or to cooperate with the special depart- ments for the good of his pupils can be corrected through the super- intendent's office. To act wisely and promptly on the case of any part- time student, his director or principal must have every record con- cerning that student immediately accessible. riNANCE. Recommendations relative to financial reports and uniform statis- tics have already been sufficiently covered. It will be of interest in local school systems to be able to compare the cost of instruction in various lines, but simply to compare part- time with all-day costs will not be of very great service. A thorough calculation showing relative costs of grades, high school, drawing, manual training, music, physical education, home making, specific ' commercial branches, technical and vocational courses, and part-time instruction would permit a much better estimate of relative cost and relative values. The part-time school and the other branches should then be made to justify any wide discrepancies in pupil-hour expense. HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT. The recommendations in the body of the survey will suffice for housing. Those responsible for the purchase of equipment espe- cially for continuation school use should first determine the concrete • aim of the work to be given, then the subject matter which is to ac- complish that aim, and only then select equipment to do the work laid out. Equipment, for example, wholly unsuited to trade-finding processes has been selected by teachers who had no intimation that trade finding was the aim of their shop. TYPES OF CLASSES. It is strongly recommended that some uniform terms be designated to represent the various kinds of classes according to their aims. Also that classes with mixed aims, which are commonly found,' be named according to some specified division per cent of pupils making up the class or by some other defined characteristic. PUPILS. Part-time school principals and directors should familiarize them- selves with three or four of the latest intelligence tests and apply PART-TIME ■ SCHOOLS. 2 1 them to part-time pupils with a view to evolving some type of test adaptable to their needs. Tests wholly independent of grammar- school standards should be experimented with in conjunction with the above, and short physical and health tests should be adopted. TEACHERS. In making appointments of new teachers to part-time positions those without special preparation for such work should be employed on condition that they attend summer or other suitably arranged classes in the principles and methods of the work. Such classes should aim, in addition to the more scientific and mechanical part of their work, to impress upon these teachers the social and civic functions of these schools and the necessity for constant cooperation with agencies outside the school. SUBJECT MATTER. The one outstanding recommendation for subject matter is that it be selected primarily to fill some need that has been carefully studied and defined, and that every reasonable source of supply be used in the search for up-to-date, accurate, and interesting material. MEANS AND METHODS OF PART-TIME INSTRUCTION. Education is education, and teaching methods are in principle teaching methods in all cases, but the actual application of funda- mental principles to various types of education requires all sorts of minor methods and devices in order to fit many varying conditions. There is no more reason, without investigation and trial, to assume that grammar-school and high-school methods of teaching will fit part-time classes than there is to assume that high-school methods will fit the average night school — a fallacy that long endured and only disappeared when failure after failure fairly forced such methods out of evening classes. Teachers should be trained to test every method on its own merits and discard those of the day school just as readily as but not more readily than new ones or those from other types of teaching. The unit lesson is proving generally successful wherever tried, and its use is recommended for careful consideration. TIME ARRANGEMENT. Study and consideration should be given to the possibility of de- veloping a working plan that will leave in the hands of some responsi- ble local agency the power to permit substitute attendance upon even- ing classes for pupils 16 to 18 years of a^e. This recommendation is 92827°— 22 ^3 22 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. presented with full appreciation of the dangers attending such local authority, and a suggestion that ratification of the State oflSce might be required to insure that the substitution is made to benefit the pupil and not his employer. ATTENDANCE FACTORS. If a compulsory attendance law is on the State books and is not enforced, the influence of and respect for the State department of education is materially weakened. The law should be enforced, modified in such a manner that it can be enforced, or else repealed. OBJECTIVES. It is recommended that each part-time system shall post in a con- spicuous place a chart showing all the various types of work being given, with a definition of the term used to express the type, and the larger objective or objectives which represent the type aim. Under each type of work should be listed the actual classes (ex- cluding duplicates) ,-with the name of the class and the. direct minor objective toward which that class is working. This may appear a mechanical rather than a philosophical suggestion, but there will be enough philosophy involved in the making of a correct chart to satisfy the most exacting educational thinker. Section I. LEGISLATION. TIME LAWS HAVE BEEN IN FORCE. The comparative recency of compulsory attendance upon part-time continuation schools is shown by the following facts : Table IX.— LENGTH OF TIME THE COMPULSORY PART-TIME SCHOOL LAWS HAVE BEEN IN FORCE. Number. Per cent. 26 100 6 23 13 50 5 19 1 4 1 4 Total cities reporting Voluntary Not over 1 year Between 1 and 2 years 5 years 9 years In 6 of the 26 cities visited attendance was still voluntary, but in one of the States a new compulsory law was in the hands of the legislature, and has since been passed. In 13 cities the compulsory attendance has been in force for not more than one year. One of these cities had three years of volun- tary attendance and three years of permissive mandatory attendance preceding the comipulsory law. In two of the cities where the law went into effect in September, 1920, no effort is now being made to enforce compulsory attendance. Five cities have compelled attendance for a period of two years, the schools in one of these having been established three years ago but discontinued for one year and then reestablished. One city had enforced compulsory attendance for five years, and in one city it had been in force for nine years. The recency of the establishment of these schools must be taken into consideration in judging the answers of all questions following ; but since the principal aim of this bulletin is to suggest means and methods of overcoming difficulties in the establishment of this work, the contributions made by those who are in the midst of these diffi- culties, and who are working out solutions to the same, have in them- selves a peculiar value. 23 24 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. PLACE OF ATTENDANCE. Should the law state definitely that a pupil must attend in the com- mwnity where he is employed, in the conrmmmty where he lives, or home an option 'between the two? The answer to this question was unanimous so far as saying that the law should be definite in this matter. There was, however, a divergence of opinion as to what should be stated. Table X.— PLACE OF ATTENDANCE OF PART-TIME PUPILS. Number. Per cent. Total cities reporting ... 20 100 Uncertain 5 5 4 6 25 25 City of residence 20 Eitner place 30 Twenty communities answered the question. Of these 5 had not met this problem sufficiently to decide where attendance should be compelled ; 6 would enforce attendance in the place of employment ; 4 would enforce it in the place of residence ; and 6 would allow at- tendance in either the place of employment or place of residence. In one instance it was suggested that the place of residence be made responsible for the attendance; that it should issue the certificates of employment and require them to be returned ; and that it be given power to release students for attendance in the place of employment when desirable. Another department head would have the control centered in the place of employment and when necessary exempt from attendance there if pupils would attend in the place of residence. In the same line still another community points out that nonresi- dent pupils would get preferential employment over those in resi- dence if the place of employment did not control compulsory attend- ance. One school administrator whose law did not make this point defi- nite stated that he had met these difficulties by assuming authority, but would much prefer to have it definitely stated in the law. One other, who believed in placing responsibility on the home city, would permit the truant officer to recommend to the director such pupils as should be exempted to attend in the place of employment. One State is organized by districts and is happily so situated that it does not have this problem to contend with, since the districts are made surrounding in quite an extensive way all places large enough to come under the law. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 25 The significant fact to be drawn from the answers to this question is that the law should state definitely whether a pupil must attend in the place where he lives, in the .place where he is employed, or have an option. It may further be concluded that the responsibility for pupils who are not employed should rest on the place of residence, while the place of employment must have some jurisdiction over the com- pulsory attendance of those employed. The place of employment is entitled to an assurance that if its own pupils are forced to attend a part-time school its nonresident employed minors of school age will also be forced to attend such school. If there is no school established in the place of residence, that place should be held responsible for transferring, with proper notification to the part-time authorities in the place of employment, the names of minors of school age resident there and employed in the other community. If the place of resi- dence maintains a part-time school, such students should be compelled to attend that school unless a mutually satisfactory agreement is made for their attendance in the place of employment. It appears to be justifiable to require the place of employment to pay all expenses for the education of minors employed there and at- tending its schools whatever their place of residence, inasmuch as the labor of these minors, the greatest financial asset which they have, benefits more directly the place of employment than the place of resi- dence. EMPLOTMENT NOTIFICATIONS. Does the law require notice of employment and discontinuance of employmsnt sent to the place of residence atid to the place of employment? The executives in three voluntary systems and in one compulsory system did not feel justified in passing on this question. Table XI.— WHERE NOTIFICATION OF EMPLOYMENT AND ITS DISCON- TINUANCE SHOULD BE SENT BY THE EMPLOYER. Per cent. Total cities reporting Uncertain To city of employment To city of residence To both cities To issuing person (either city) Discontinuance notice only. . . 26 PART-TIME SCHOOLS, In 7 places the notice of both employment and discontinuance of employment is sent only to the place of employment, and in 4 in- stances such notification is sent only to the place of residence. Four places only have provided for such notification to be sent to the part-time school authorities in both the place of employment and place of residence, and in one instance the employer is required to return such certificate to the issuing officer whether in the city of employment or in the city where the pupil resides. In one case no notice of employment is sent to the part-time authorities but notice of discontinuance of employment is sent to the place of residence. In still another place the notice of discontinuance of employment is sent to both the home town and the place of employment, but this is done by regulation and the authorities feel that it should be in- cluded in the law. Another part-time executive of long experience believed that the law should not only require both these notices sent to the home authorities and to the authorities in the place of employment but also that a continuous census should be taken following up every minor of school age at very frequent intervals, so as to know at all times whether these minors are in all-day school, part-time school, employed, or unemployed. Discrepancies in this matter have also crept in as in many other laws and regulations relating to schools. In one .place the permit says " Return to the chilS," while the law requires that it be re- turned to the issuing officer- who is the superintendent of schools in the place of residence. It may be remarked that experienced part-time educators agree almost unanimously that there is something to. be gained and nothing to be lost by requiring notice of employment and of the discontinu- ance of employment to be sent to the authorities in the place of resi- dence as well as to the authorities in the place of employment. Where this is not in the law it may be arranged by cooperation and agreement. Attention was particularly drawn to the fact that where these notices were sent only to the place of employment the unemployed minor could return to his home town and remain unemployed con- trary to law outside of the jurisdiction of the authorities to whom notice had been sent until he was picked up in some haphazard way by the truant officer in that place. On the other hand, where notice is sent only to the place of resi- dence, if the pupil is attending in the place of employment, the latter school authorities must call up the firms in cases of absence or await the pleasure of the employer in reporting to some school authority the fact that the pupil has discontinued his employment. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 27 It appears irrefutable from these facts that some simple method of reporting both employment and discontinuance of the same to the authorities in the place both of residence and of employment might well be included in the law or in the regulations provided to carry it out. PENALTIES. Should a financial 'penalty he laid on the covwnunity vhich evades the law? Table XII.— REPLIES TO THE INQUIRY, " SHOULD COMMUNITIES BE FINED FOR NONENFORCEMENT OP THE PART-TIME LAW?" Number. Per cent. Total cities reportino^ 20 100 Uncertain 6 11 2 1 30 Yes 55 No 10 No (conditionally) 5 Eleven communities answered this question in the affirmative, thereby recording it a« their opinion that a financial penalty in the shape of a fine or a definite loss of financial aid should be placed upon the evading commimity. Six administrators were unwilling to commit themselves either one way or the other on this problem. Two were definitely opposed to any financial penalty, and one felt that it was a very questionable proposition. In the case of 2 of the 11 who believed in a penalty, one would not have it assessed in the nature of a fine, and one stated that public opinion in his State would not support him in his view. Of the two who did not favor the loss of money, one was partial to a law similar to that used in New York State, where certain sums are deducted from State aid and used to carry on part-time schools. In one State (Massachusetts) the New York idea is combined with a penalty by deducting from the State aid twice the amount needed for carrying out the provisions of the law ; three-fifths of which is used on the schools in the community and the other two-fifths re- tained by the State. One executive of experience was emphatic in his opposition to a financial penalty on the grounds that any community that would evade the law because there was no penalty would make a botch of the job when forced to do so for financial reasons only. 28 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. The general deductions from the answers to this question are : That if the law is to be enforced in all places alike there must be some form of penalty laid upon the community ; That appearance of a fin© or absolute financial loss is to be avoided if possible ; and That probably the most efficacious method would be to take over the handling of the situation by some proper State authority, and compel the local district to foot the bills in some prescribed manner. In this way the value of the school may be impressed upon the community, and con- fidence in part-time work sufficiently developed to induce a willingness on its part to take up the project rather than leave it to outside administration. PERMITS AND WORK CERTIFICATES. Are home permit regulations specified? This question applies almost entirely to girls, and asks whether or not a pupil who is to remain at home to work rather than to be employed outside must secure some special permit other than the regular work permit, and whether or not such a pupil is excused from part-time schools. Table XIII.— REPLIES TO THE INQUIRY, "ARE SPECIAL HOME PER- MITS ISSUED FOR GIRLS WORKING AT HOME?" Number. Per cent. Total cities reporting 19 100 Yes 6 13 32 No; or same as regular work permits 6S Nineteen cities answered this question. In 6 of them special home permit regulations have been made, and in 13 there were either no regulations whatever or the regulations for working at home are identical with those for employment gen- erally. Of those which had special provisions for regulating the work at home various means were used to prevent the miscarriage of this privilege. In one place the pupil is exempted by the judge of the juvenile court, but must attend upon part-time school. In another place the permit is issued by the local attendance department only after an inspection of the home, and the pupil must attend the part- time school. PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. • 29 In two places the regulations are specific that the girl may be em- ployed in her own home and none other and that she must attend the part-time school. Attention is called also to the fact that care must be taken to pre- vent girls who are temporarily out of work from securing home per- mits, since in most places pupils temporarily out of work are com- pelled to attend the part-time school for a much larger number of hours per week than are required in the cases of those holding regular home permits. In one other case where a special permit was issued this permit was the same as that given for any occupation but was granted only after a careful investigation as to the income at home, whether or not there was a stepmother or stepfather, the number of children to be cared for, and other matters which were not so carefully investigated for general juvenile labor. In this place also part-time attendance was required. In none of the places visited was a special permit issued which exempted the pupil doing home work from all attendance upon part- time schools. Of the 13 places that reported no special regulations a majority issued the same permit for home work that would be issued for any other work. In two instances this had not proved satisfactory ; one place reported that it would be much better to specify regulations, as there were two or three cases which had caused them much trouble. Another place reported that the working permit law was very loose and that a blanket permit issued for all jobs covered the home permit unsatisfactorily. In one or two instances no permit is needed to work at home, but the child so working is compelled to attend the part-time schools, and in others no permit is needed and no attendance at the school is required. In one place no permit can be issued, as the State forbids it and provides financial support for the home. Another executive where no such permits have been issued urges that -some agency should pass on each case and have power to act. ' In one instance the principal is given the power to excuse from attendance, each case being a special case, but a release is very sel- dom granted. Still another law regards the child at home as not working and therefore under control of the full-time school until an employment certificate is issued, thus leaving the responsibility with the regular school-attendance authorities. If in this place a position is obtained and lost, the pupil while searching for a new job continues in the part-time school four hours every day, but if nonemployment con- 30 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. tinues he is sent back to full-time school or turned over to full-time authorities. One other city is not protected by State law, having a local regu- lation only. Unless the pupil proves absolutely that she is needed at home, she Is required to attend full-time school. In another place a nonattendance permit may be issued which al- lows a pupil to remain at home and not work, but such pupil must attend the part-time school. It appears from these statements that only in a few places has the home permit received as careful attention as it merits. The girl who is employed at home is not subject to State regula- tions governing the employment of minors ; her place of employment is not inspected ; her hours of labor are not regulated ; and even the environment in which she works may, under certain conditions, be questionable. It appears that the home permit should not be issued as generally as the work permit, but that there should be some special form granted only after an inspection covering the points given above and the needs and the services of the girl at home. It would also seem advisable, where there are coordinators or other agents of the school visiting places of employment, that they should visit these homes also, and that whereas in nearly all cases such pupils should attend upon part-time school, it is advisable to have some authority — such as the judge of the juvenile court, the depart- ment of attendance and welfare, or the city superintendent of schools — with power to make in rare instances exemption, at least temporarily, from such attendance. Is farm service or domestic service exempt? Would you exempt do- mestic service? Would you exempt farm service? Tablk XIV.— replies to THE INQUIRY, "ARE FARM BOYS EXEMPT PROM ATTENDANCE ON PART-TIME CLASSES?" Number. Per cent. 20 100 Yes 5 1 7 3 2 2 25 Undecided 5 Same as other pupils 35 15 Conditioned on distance - 10 10 Twenty different localities answered these questions. In five of them farm service is exempted from attendance upon part-time school either by law or by regulation. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 31 In one place the matter has not yet been decided, but the author- ities believe that the farmer boy should be exempted. Of these- five places one does, not approve of the law exempting farm service, another vs'ould exempt farm service only if it was shown to be too far out for attendance, and another would exempt the farm boy if he works outside the confines of the local community. Seven communities reported that farm service was treated like any other service. One of these, if permitted, would exempt agricultural workers from school, but require them to attend seasonal classes for 144 hours ; another would exempt them from attendance upon school, but require them to report by mail each week. Still another would require a careful inspection before exempting from school to show that there was a practical rather than theoretical difficulty in securing attendance. In another case the agricultural worker is treated like any worker in towns of over 5,000 population, but is exempted in smaller places. In this place the authorities would not approve of maldng any exemptions as long as residence remained in the school district. In three instances the local school authorities had no jurisdiction over farm service. One of these communities would exempt the farm boy entirelj- because of distance, another would not exempt him from attendance of some sort, and a third leaves the question to be decided by the judge of the juvenile court. Two cases base their approval of exemption entirely on distance, one setting the minimum distance from the school at 3 miles for securing exemption and another would prefer not to exempt farm pupils unless it be shown that extension work can not possibly be carried to the district schools by a traveling teacher or some other means. In regard to domestic service the answers are somewhat more uniform. Table XV.— EXEMPTION OF DOMESTICS FROM ATTENDANCE ON PART-TIME CLASSES. Total cities reporting Domestic service forbidden Treated like all other pupils Individual cases only Conditioned on distance Exempted by law No exemption After careful inspection of work place 32 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. In three places domestic service is not permitted between the ages of 14 and 16 and therefore no exemptions from school are expected. One of these places reports that it would not permit it, eveft if allowed to do so. Another would permit it only under special safeguards, and the third would allow it for girls 14 to 16 in investigated fami- lies and would attempt to raise the standard of domestic service by public inspection and attendance of the domestic upon part-time work. Eleven places report that domestic service is treated the same as any other employment, which means that the pupils must attend upon part-time instruction. One administrative officer calls attention to the need of careful in- spection, much more careful than has been given heretofore, to work in domestic service. Six other cities reporting can not be well classified in groups. One would exempt girls for domestic service only in individual cases after a hearing. Another would exempt them for service, and ex- empt thein from school if they lived beyond a reasonable distance. Still another would not exempt them from attendance upon school, but has no law affecting the case. In one place the domestic is exempted by law from attending the part-time school, but the law does not meet the approval of the local authorities; and in another they are exempted by law, but a local regulation forces the domestic to attend school. In summing up both farm and domestic service, it is clear that the necessity and advisability for excusing the farm boy is much greater than that for excusing the domestic service girl. The seasonal na- ture of the farmer's business, the distance in most cases from the nearest part-ticie school, and the character of the work make it ad- visable to exempt the farm boy from regular weekly attendance. A seasonal class in the winter months may well be made compulsory.' The suggestion of carrying continuation work by an itinerant teacher into the district schools should command the attention of those who live in a somewhat congested agricultural district, where a large number of pupils might be secured for attendance one-half day a week. In many sparsely settled districts this plan is imprac- ticable. As a matter of administration it would seem advisable to set some distance limit for the part-time class in operation beyond which all pupils would be exempted on account of distance only. The most natural solution of the farm problem would seem to be that which is now being tried in several States, namely, six months of farm work and six months of all-day school, with compulsory at- tendance up to 18 years of age. PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 33 As regards girls in domestic service, all testimony seems to indi- cate that they should be exempted from full-time school on a domes- tic-service permit somewhat more rigid than the ordinary working permit; that this permit should also be differentiated from the home permit, the latter being issued only to girls between 14 and 18 years of age who eat and sleep in the same home in which they are em- ployed, living with their parents or who have not parents living in the same district. Before issuance of domestic-service permits some means should be set up of regulating in each case the hours of labor, the conditions of labor, and the surroundings of the minor so em- ployed, and imder no circmnstances should such minors be exempted from part-time school instruction, since they need it as much as or more than those employed in the other occupations. Does the law provide for keeping the age limit of employment cerr- Uficates six to nine months in advance of the part-time law? In many instances laws are put into effect by stating that all chil- dren who go to work after a certain date and who have not reached a specified age upon that date must apply for a work permit and must register in the part-time school. Such a regulation does not force into the part-time classes permit pupils who during the previous year have left school and gone to work, and the date for applying the law to work permits and school attendance is the same. In any instance, however, where an interpretation of the law makes it necessary for the school authorities to bring back into attend- ance pupils who have previously been excused to work, it is advisable to fix the date for the compulsory issuing of work permits nine months to a year earlier than the date of compelling school attend- ance, so that the school will have some record of employed minors subject to its jurisdiction. Thus if work permits have been required up to 16 years of age and the new part-time law has required attend- ance up to 18 years of age, beginning in September, 1921, the date for issuing work permits up to 18 years of age should have been not later than September or October, 1920. This means that compulsory attendance under a law must be deferred for a year or more after passage of the law, and many other reasons will be found for allow- ing this time interval. TTJITIGK. Is tuition permitted in a part-time school? Table XVI.— COLLECTION OF TUITION IN PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. Number. Per cent. 20 100 No tuition _ 19 1 95 5 34 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. But 1 of the cities visited out of 20 charge tuition in part-time schools, and in this place it is charged to people outside the district. One other city may charge 50 cents a week to outsiders, but does not do so. In three places the statement was made that under certain circum- stances they might charge tuition to nonresidents, but were not now doing so, and in one instance the statement was made that authorities at the place of residence were responsible in the first instance for tuition if charged, and if they refused the child must pay it. It can be seen, therefore, that the practice of charging any tuition whatever in a part-time school to any student, whether resident or nonresident, is universely disapproved in this country. The reason for this is apparent when we consider that the average nonresident contributes to the wealth of the place in which he works through the production of his labor, and to that of the place in which he lives through the expenditure of his pay, and that as a social unit and prospective citizen he is entitled to free part-time schooling at what- ever place he may attend. teachers' licenses. Are there specified certificates for part-time teachers? Table XVII.— REQUIBEMENTS FOR TEACHERS' LICENSES. Total cities reporting No regulations Teachers' records must be approved Part-time teacher training required Licenses essentially same as for other schools . . High-school license or special part-time license Special certificates for part-time work Twenty-two cities made answer to this question, and of these, 6 had no regulations governing the requirements for teachers in their part-time schools. In one of these, however, the teacher's record was subject to approval by the State board, and in another the teacher was required to have 120 hours of special preparation for part-time work. In answer to the question as to the advisability of leaving teachers' requirements open to local determination, one of the largest cities in the country expressed its unqualified approval of local determina- tion on the ground that absolute freedom on the part of adminis- trators is required to enable them to select teachers specifically quali- fied to meet special needs and the needs of special groups. PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 35 Seven part-time authorities reported, that their teachers were hired on exactly the same certificates as those required for teachers in the all-day schools. In most instances, however, certain excep- tions were made. Thus, a special certificate was required for related mathematics and . drafting ; also special training was required in salesmanship in addition to the regular license. In one place regular teachers were selected and sent to a special part-time training class, and in still another regular teachers were hired without change of certificate to do part-time teaching in the continuation school, while those teaching full time in that school were required to have special training. Again, the regular school certificates were accepted in all cases, but the trade teachers were required to be tradesmen of experience. Still another department accepted the regular high-school certificate, or a special certificate for special subjects in the part-time school. These special part- time certificates could be earned by holders of elementary and high- school teaching certificates who attended a university teacher-train- ing course. Only one of the places visited accepted the regular all-day certifi- cate, but required in addition practical experience — shop, commer- cial, or selling — for all teachers, including those of academic subjects. Eight places require special certificates for teaching part-time students. One sets up the high standard of normal or college graduation, with improvement courses required after employment, and another requires a high-school certificate plus special train- ing in vocational activities, maldng this special part-time teacher training obligatory either before or after entering employment. In one case the special certificate is set up by local regulation, but the authorities believe it should be required in the law. Considered as a whole, these results would seem to indicate decided impi'ovement in the training of part-time teachers during the last two or three years. School authorities evidently realize that in many cases the regular teacher has not the proper subject-matter equipment to handle part-time classes in the special lines and is not equipped to make a proper selection of subject matter even for the general continuation school classes. It still remains, however, to impress upon public school authorities in general the fact that experience in teaching in the regular day school must be supplemented by special courses other than those re- lated to subject matter. It is apparent that the necessity for careful training in the handling of part-time classes, appreciation of the dif- ference between the needs of such classes and those of full-time classes, the methods of carrying on several different lines of work in the same room at the same time and the ability to utilize these methods must 36 PART-TIME SCHOOLS, be taught. Last and most important the ability to so present subject matter that each day's lesson shall be a unit by itself, enabling pupils freely to enter and drop out at any time with a minimum of loss in the process of adjustment and a maximum of profit from the instruc- tion given, has not received proper consideration at the hands of those setting up the requirements for part-time instructors. ETJLiES FOR DISCONTINUING CLASSES. Are schools made permanent when once estaJ)lished, or may they he discontin/ued under certain conditions? How and for what reason? Would you permit the discontinuance of the school when numbers fall ielow the required minimum during the year? Table XVIII.— REPLIES TO THE INQUIRY, " MAY SCHOOLS BE DISCON- TINUED WHEN ONCE STARTED"? Number. Per cent. 22 100 No 3 13 6 14 Law uncertain 59 Yes 27 Twenty-two answers to these questions were obtained. In these cases the opinion of the persons questioned was that schools once established are permanently established and can not be discontinued. In one of these three cases the person answering would not express an opinion as to the advisability of this law. Another stated that this' had been done by regulation and not by law, and he favored discontinuing the school when the class fell below 10. In the third case the law required the schools to run 12 months in the year, and discontinuance was not favored under any condition. By far the larger number of schools were provisionally permanent. By this is meant that the law established some minimum condition under which schools must be started — such as a population of 5,000 people or more, 20 pupils coming under the law, 50 labor permits issued within one year, etc. — ^but made no mention whatever of any regulations for discontinuing the schools when once established. In such cases it is evident that the question is one which has not been decided. A provision to the effect that a school must be started when there are living in the community 20 minors subject to the part-time law leaves open to question whether such a school can be discontinued PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 37 as soon as the number has fallen below 20 and started again when- ever the number reaches 20, or whether a school once started must be continued through the school year and in the succeeding year. The first part of this schedule inquiry therefore was largely answered by such statements as no record, not decided, nothing in the law, or law is indefinite. Such a condition leaves the matter largely to the opinion of those experienced in administering the laws. Of the 13 who stated that the law was uncertain, one would not express an opinion as to what policy should be followed; one be- lieved that a school should be discontinued when numbers fell below the required minimum; one thought that the city should be per- mitted to decide in such cases ; one would not discontinue a school if five students or more were attending; one would not in any case discontinue during a current year, but might discontinue the next year under marked change of conditions; and eight would make the schools permanent when once they have been established for as long as there are any pupils to attend. In 6 places it was believed that the schools could be discontinued at any time during the year. In one case discontinuance was condi- tional upon the teacher not holding a yearly contract ; in another case upon the number of pupils being too small for a class. Three of the six systems were voluntary systems not subject to compulsory laws. In the opinion of two administrators schools should not be per- mitted to discontinue during the school year; one administrator was uncertain in this matter ; one had already discontinued a school ; and two believed that such schools should be permitted to discontinue, one of these basing his reasons for discontinuing on a study of the pro- visions being made to meet the needs of pupils, the costs, etc., in rela- tion to value. Apparently the question of discontinuing compulsory part-time schools under certain conditions has not generally required much con- sideration of those who have prepared the legislation and established the schools. Many of the larger cities never have this problem to meet, since their numbers are always beyond the required minimum, but it would appear to be desirable to specify, either by law or by State regulations, the only conditions under which smaller places may dis- continue a part-time school or class when once it has been established, at least during the school year in which it is started. Where such con- ditions have not been specified, in exceptional instances it would be possible for a local community to discontinue and reestablish a part- time school several times during the year, with the starting and stopping of child-employing industries or the movement of youthful employees in and out of the locality. 92827°— 22 4 38 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Further, part-time educators generally feel that discontinuance of a school should be permitted only when the number of pupils has fallen very much below the number which requires the starting of such school. TYPE or THE ACT. Is this law part of a child-labor act or other labor legislation, or is it pcurt of a school law? Table XIX.— PART-TIME LEGISLATION CLASSIFIED AS TO TYPE. Total cities reporting No law passed Separate act (school law) Part of a child-labor act Connecting act between school and labor legislation Of the 21 places reporting, 3 had no law and 15 reported that the school law was no part of a child labor act. In 2 places the school legislation was a part of a child labor act and in 1 place it was a separate act which was related to both the child labor legislation and the school legislation. This act, however, placed no penalty for nonattendance on parent or pupil except to revoke the working permit. This withdrawal of permit permitted the pupil to loaf and placed on the school authorities the rather unique responsibility of seeing to it that he did not return to work. In general the compulsory part-time law was either an amend- ment to the regular school law or a special act considered as part of the general public-school law. Three places reported speqial legislation of this kind rather than amendments to previous legislation; and one place reported two special pieces of legislation — one without compulsion on the student but specifying where schools should 99 munity center and as such is used by both the pupils and their par- ents. Again, a community center where special instruction is offered has been used by pupils of the school but not for social activities. For the most part, however, the answers are plainly negative. There are either no settlement houses or community centers in the locality, or, where there are such organizations, the part-time school has made no effort to make use of them. To find so little attention given to the possibilities of using settle- ment houses and community centers as socializing factors is rather disappointing, because it indicates in some measure failure on the part of part-time authorities to appreciate the responsibilities of the part-time school as a socializing unit. Of course, where there are no settlement houses or community centers, they can not be used, and this is the condition in some of the cities reporting; but in other places there remain many opportunities for providing students with lectures, pictures, exhibits, recreational entertainment, physical exer- cise, and many other benefits which it is impossible for the school to provide, except by obtaining the cooperation of those in charge of settlement-house and community-center activities. Parks and playgrounds and libraries fall very much under the same head. Occasionally the answer is given that there is a library in the school. This, however, could never be interpreted as a sub- stitute for the use of the public library. Parks and playgrounds are often used by part-time pupils the same as by any other children in the city, but seldom has any specific effort been made for the part- time pupils to use them in groups. Occasionally groups of pupils are taken to the library on a visit. In one case the playgrounds are used by part-time pupils under the direction of an instructor fur- nished by the city. In still another instance the playgrounds are used only in the summer when they are open to part-time pupils as to all other public-school pupils. In one place, however, where the city has a good library it is used extensively, especially in English work, by the part-time pupils working under directions from their teachers. Another city reports that individual students only are sent to the library as teachers may desire. In one western city the public library has been systematically used by the part-time schools, books have been set aside for the special use of part-time pupils, and speakers have been sent out from the library to call its attractions to the attention of the pupils. In one city the public school owns the libraries. The city library is a part of the public school system, but the special opportunities which this condition of affairs presents for tying up the library work with that of the part- time pupils has not been taken advantage of to the limit. In another 100 • PART-TIME SCHOOLS. city individual teachers make use of the libraries, but only to a limited extent, while in another city there is a branch library for the special use of part-time instructors and pupils. In two places especially fine use has been made of the library. In one place different teachers are trained on library relations under a specialist, and these teachers, working with the pupils, encourage and assist them in using library material. It was the opinion here that, as a general rule, several regular teachers should be trained in this work, rather than that there should be provided one specialist, the idea being that a wider range of interest might be given to the work by training teachers of different subject matter, and also it was pointed out that one teacher might leave, thus temporarily breaking down the system. In another place the value of the library was materially increased by taking the stu- dents in groups to the library building, where they were introduced to the librarian and also shown the exact manner and method of using library books. Part-time students, when they came to the library singly, presented a card which insured them a special welcome from the library staff which made an effort to remove the difficulties which beset young readers in searching for library material. Thus it was hoped to make the library not only an easy and convenient, but also a pleasing place in which to work. Probably the neglect to use parks and playgrounds is a natural one. Children naturally seek such centers of themselves for recrea- tion. It would do no harm, however, for the part-time authorities to investigate the opportunities offered in this direction, and even if they do not set up some regular method of making use of these op- portunities they can at least post them conspicuously in the school, and mention them in assemblies or opening talks. Failure on the part of teachers to use libraries is, however, inexcus- able. A library established in a part-time school should not be ac- cepted in lieu of the public library. Pupils who have left the regular school for some employment must depend upon libraries almost en- tirely for general information, and in many cases for technical infor- mation which is invaluable in assisting them to advance to better-paid positions. The ease with which in most cases cooperation can be obtained from library authorities, and the effectiveness of a scheme which makes the part-time pupil appreciate his privileges and his welcome when using the library, should make a strong appeal to school authorities. The average youth, whether from school or not— and, indeed, many adults — are discouraged from making use of libraries by the complexity of the rules and regulations, which they do not understand, and by the difficulty which they find in securing exactly what they are after without going through a mass of irrele- vant material. PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 101 How do pupils use their trcdrmvg? This question was asked in an effort to determine whether the aver- age part-time school had any record of the use made by pupils of the training which they received, and whether the value of such records had impressed itself on the school authorities. Ten places acknowledged that they had no records or authentic information as to how pupils used their training. One or two of these knew in a general way that pupils taking typewriting were using their training on the job, and also that those taking cooking were cooking in the home, but no precise information in respect to these or any other subjects was available. In practically all cases where trade-extension work was given the answer that the training was used on the job was forthcoming, but very rarely were any records kept as to how such training was being used or just what part of it was most important. As might be expected, pupils enrolled in millinery classes were making hats for themselves and their fami- lies, and instruction in cookery and canning also was applied in the home. It was not possible, however, to find out how many students were and how many were not deriving practical benefits from their training or whether the methods, especially in cooking, did or did not fit home conditions. It was not uncommon to get a report that pupils in special classes, such as, for example, flower making and tail- oring, could profit by their training directly, but that the average pupil could make no use of his training on his present job. In one place it was believed that the greatest value of the training was in the development of a new idea of service and of relations to employ- ers. In another city it was reported that success in the part-time schools was evidenced in securing new jobs, and that 75 per cent of the advances secured by pupils were obtained as a result of part-time school work and through assistance rendered by the school. In respect to commercial and salesmanship classes, rather more definite answers were given. In nearly all cases instructors knew that pupils were making use of their training, either directly on the job or to secure promotion to some position which had been promised them or which might at any time become vacant. In respect to general continuation-school subjects, it was naturally most difficult to pin down to facts. In one place, however, em- ployers and the pupils themselves both had made written statements specifying advantages obtained from the general continuation-school instruction. The necessity for better general education, especially in arithmetic and English, was shown in the case of certain mill workers where the schools were contributing indirectly to vocational ad- vancement by providing such instruction. One very frank admin- 92827°— 22 8 102 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. istrator said, regarding the general academic subjects, "A few really get a lot out of them; as a whole the pupils get something out of them." In another city a man of experience, after having stated that the commercial and home-making people knew how they profited hy their training, added that in general the continuation-schoo] pupil did not see clearly how he was being benefited by it. An unusually definite statement, however, was made in one place, where pupils were using the part-time diploma to pass certain subjects in order that they might get back into the high school and continue full-time work. In one of the middle western cities the boys are interviewed in regard to the use they are making of their training once every six months. In this city the effort is made to tie up all subjects with the present job in some way or other, even though it be indirectly, and although much of the subject matter in courses may not be applicable directly to the occupation. One city, which was reporting for girls only, stated that their arithmetic was given for stock work and that it fitted exactly the employer's needs. In many cases girls asked for special instruction and were given such instruction. They were also taught how to use the telephone, the directory, the railroad time-table, atlases and geographies, and abbreviations for States. This, together with the practical training in English, had been foimd very helpful in securing positions and advancements. To any one familiar with the principles of vocational education none of the above answers will be surprising. Excluding those relat- ing to direct trade-extension, trade-preparatory, and trade-finding work, statements regarding the exact use which the pupils are mak- ing or can make of the part-time instruction, although the practical benefits are often very considerable, are usually based upon impres- sions of instructors or reports of students. It is suggested that, whether or not coordinators are employed, some systematic plan should be adopted whereby teachers and administrators may secure for themselves at least once a year some rather specific information as to what subjects and parts of subjects are actually being used by students in their occupations, and what modifications might be made to more closely tie up general industrial subjects with occupations without sacrificing their general improvement objective. In closing the topic on pupils, administrators and teachers were asked if they put the following questions to their students : 1. Why did you leave school? 2. Would you like to go back? 3. Do you advise those in school to remain there ? 4. Do you like your job? 5. Are you looking for a permanent job ? PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. 103 Answers to these questions may or may not be of assistance in plan- ning the work of the school, but they are a never-ending source of interest to the teachers. As it is impossible to summarize these answers to any advantage, they are given about as stated in the sepa- rate cities. Firsi city.— About one-sixth left school for jfinancial reasons; in other cases they were tired of school, or wanted to earn money, or wanted to start work, or somebody offered them a job, or they just left and didn't know why. About one out of nine pupils stated that he would like to go back to full-time school, and 6.5 per cent actually returned to full-tune school. Most of these went back to vocational schools. This city had no record as to the advice which part-time pupils give to those in the full-day school. It appears that about half of the pupils liked their present jobs and half did not, and that about 60 per cent could be said to be thtak- ing along the line of permanent work. Second city (girls only).— Most of them left because they did not like school. Many left because they wished money with which to dress better. None at the start would like to go back to school, but a few during the year change their minds. These girls are reported as often advising those in the public schools to remain there. As a general rule, they like their jobs, but they do not know whether they want a permanent job or not. Third city. — Usual reason for leaving was dislike of school ; very few are forced out financially. They do not care to go back; they do not advise with those in the school; they like their jobs and they are on the lookout for permanent advancement. Fourth city. — The usual reason for leaving the school was that they were not getting an3rwhere; they did not care to go back; they do not advise those in school to remain. In 60 per cent of the cases they are satisfied, and they are looking for more pay rather than a permanent job. Commercial pupils in this city have stated that store work is often a better training in discipline than the high school. Pupils usually secure work in the summer and simply keep on working. More and more, as some of them work in the part-time school, they express a desire to return to full-day school. Twelve returned during the first half of the present year and some had been granted permission to attend evening school. There was no record of what they advised full-time pupils. As a general rule they did not like their jobs, and were waiting for an opening for a better job, but were not industriously looking for one. Fifth dty. — State records here show that 40 per cent leave for financial reasons; 38 per cent for failure in school; 18 per cent be- 104 PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. cause they want to go to work; 27 per cent because tl^ey dislike school; 11 per cent because of slow progress in school; 2 per cent because they have completed the elementary school ; and 1 per cent because of illness. On first entering these people emphatically do not wish to come back. Later 250 to 300 out of approximately 4,500 do return to the aU-day schools. This city keeps no record of what the part-time students advise the day students, but the majority of those ques- tioned like the jobs upon which they are engaged and are looking for permanent situations. Sixth city. — Here 20 per cent had left school for financial reasons. The remainder were not getting anywhere and realized it. The usual answer is that they would not go back. Occasionally they re- turn later for some specific purpose. They do not advise with those remaining in school. They are about equally divided as to whether or not they like their jobs. Although they are not at first on the lookout for permanent jobs, they are easily led into this state of mind by the school. In many cases where the general answers agree with those given above, unique statements worthy of mention were made. In one place it was found that the pupils often left through fear of some particular subject, such as arithmetic or history. It was found also that the girls would advise their brothers to remain in school to prepare for permanent work, but would advise their sisters to leave school so as to provide themselves with clothes, etc. Again, it may be stated that generally where high-grade pupils were occupying low-grade jobs they were unsatisfactory and con- stantly changing, and where low-grade pupils had been misplaced in high-grade jobs the same held true. In such cases the school had assisted in making adjustments and had been obliged to lead its pupils by giving them an incentive for locating a permanent job. In one instance the school directs those who are looking for per- manent jobs to the State employment bureau, and gets a report from this bureau every week. By sending all children to this bureau for enrollment, the school at least starts them thinking about permanent occupations. In one city it was found that pupils often left school because one or the other parent was out of work, and that when they had left for this reason they were usually willing to return. Occasionally finan- cial necessity is the only reason which is accepted for leaving school, and in one case the permission of the full-day principal is necessary to obtain a work permit. This city reports that three- fourths of its pupils are looking for permanent positions and know what they are looking for, and that they are encouraged and directed by the school. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 105 A survey in another city develops the rather remarkable fact that death of a parent was the most usual cause for leaving school,, followed by need of money, and dislike for school. This city reports also that 90 per cent of its part-time pupils like work better than school. Dislike of a particular teacher was mentioned as an important cause for leaving school, especially among girls. The same authorities report that certain of the part-time pupils would return to all-day school if they could sit with their own group or class. This authority advises that when part-time pupils are encouraged to return to all-day school they be seated with the advanced class and permitted to go back to take up elementary work. Desire to get away from the restraint of the school was another rea- son given for leaving, the same person noting that for pupils who are behind in age, failures of very little importance, such as the failure of one examination, often cause them to drop out of school. In this city only 20 or 30 out of 3,000 or 4,000 can be induced to return to the full-time school. Jobs in this place are changed every three or four months on an average, not because they are disliked but because the worker can secure better pay elsewhere. Even so, they are not looking for permanent positions, but must be urged to think about this. This city has a loan fund, a private fund, from which a part-time pupil can borrow sufficient money to return to full-time school. This money he pays back without interest. It is purely an honor agreement and not legal, but the fund is not producing the results which it should produce. Section VII. TEACHERS. SOTJECES OF SUPPIiT ANf) HOW REACHED. Specific records were obtained from 21 cities regarding the sources from which they drew their part-time teachers for the various types of classes. GEPTERAL CONTINUATION TEACHERS. The reports for teachers in general continuation school work are as follows : Table XLVII.— SOTJKCES FROM WHICH PART-TIME TEACHERS OF GENERAL CLASSES HAVE BEEN DRAWN. Per cent. Total cites reporting Regular school force — College or normal school i . . Teachers with special aptitudes Men ^th shop experience Those with special part-time training Vocational high school Smith-Hughes classes Fourteen cities have drawn the teachers of their general continua- tion classes, which are mostly of an academic nature, from the regu- lar graded schools either wholly or in part. .In 9 of these places the regular day school-teachers were transferred to part-time work, without special training, the day school being the exclusive source of supply. In one place only high-school teachers were eligible. An- other selected grade teachers with experience which fitted them to handle part-time pupils. Of those cities which look to other sources of supply than the regular grammar schools and high schools. One required either college or normal-school graduation. One accepted married women only who had had teaching experience. Normal school or college graduation, with special aptitudes for this work, was required in several places. In one city women of normal-college training were selected, but the men were required to have shop experience. In three cases teachers were not accepted unless they had had special part-time training in a regular course preparing for 106 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. 107 that work. One city selected only teachers with vocational high- school experience, and another required all of its academic teachers to be chosen from instructors of Smith-Hughes classes in the junior high school or shop school. One very good plan reported was that of trying out grammar-school teachers in part-time classes on Satur- days and basing selection on the results of this try-out work. In general there seems to be no consensus of opinion in these mat- ters from which any general deductions may be drawn, except that apparently, in altogether too many cases, regular day-school teach- ers are employed for part-time instruction without sufficient previous training for handling the pupils, and with no provision for special training coincident with their period of employment. TRADE EXTENSION TEACHERS. Sixteen cities reported in regard to trade-extension teachers. In only one place, having classes for girls exclusively, were no special requirements set up, and in only one place were trade-extension teachers taken directly from the public school system without special qualifications. Table XLVIII.— REQUIREMENTS FOR PART-TIME TEACHERS IN TRADE EXTENSION CLASSES. Total cities reporting No requirements Same as all-day school Trade experience In general, it may be stated that the trade-extension teacher was always a journeyinan mechanic or a teacher with some special tech- nical training which fitted him for the subjects he was teaching. In one place only mechanics with administrative experience or teacher- training experience were accepted. Others selected mechanics from their teacher-training classes. In some cases manual-training teachers were used, with the qualification that it was done only when trades- men were not available. Journeyman mechanics teaching in the day schools seemed to have been selected frequently and to have given good satisfaction. Teachers of related work were in all cases re- quired to have shop experience, but it was often less than a journey- man's experience. In two instances college training plus some prac- tical experience was accepted. That the qualifications of these teachers are more uniform than the qualifications for general continuation-school teachers is not surprising. The fact that trade-extension work is measured imme- 108 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. diately by the student on his job makes it necessary to have a more uniform type of teachers with trade knowledge and experience to handle the work and hold the confidence of the pupils. TRADE PREPARATOET TEACHERS. Eleven cities only reported trade-preparatory instructors separate from the others. The requirements for these teachers were much more indefinite than for the trade-extension teachers. In 2 instances teachers were selected from the public-school system without special requirements. In 1 city teachers were picked from the evening teacher-training classes. One required both trade and normal-school experience for this work, but in a majority of cases the only require- ment was that the teacher should have had experience in some trade, and in only two or three cases was special training for the part-time work required. Table XLIX.— SOURCES FROM WHICH PART-TIME TRADE PREPARA- TORY TEACHERS HAVE BEEN DRAWN. Numher. Per cent. Tof^l citif*-R Tf^pnii^iTig; 11 100 Same as for all-day-school tea^jhers 2 1 1 7 18 Those trained in evening classes 9 Those having trade and normal-school experience 9 Men and women with some trade experience 64 TRADE-FINDING TEACHEBS. Apparently teachers for trade-finding work have not been selected with the care which has been given to the choice of trade-extension teachers. J'purteen, cities reporting on their trade-finding teachers give a somewhat heterogeneous list of requirements : Manual-training teachers ; teachers from vocational departments ; domestic-science and domestic-art teachers from the public, schools; men from the trades; men with college experience ; regular grammar-school teachers ; jour- neymen, both men and women, are some of the qualifications listed- The use of manual-training teachers is much more common than in the preceding classes. One city appears again with no special requirement, and no specific preparation is called for except where the trade-finding teachers are the same as those used in one of the other departments of the part-time school. It is evident from a glance over this list that trade-finding classes, because of the ele- mentary nature of their subject matter, have been classified in the minds of administrators as requiring a lower grade of teaching PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. 109 ability, much as the first grade in the grammar school was so regarded for many years. Tt should be apparent to anyone giving thought to the matter that the most difficult shop work to handle, with any degree of certainty of obtaining satisfactory results, is that of a trade-finding character. For this work there should be found the most expert tradesmen and teachers, who can be depended upon to present the work in such a way as to represent actual trade conditions and yet to keep it simple enough to fit the pupil's intelligence, and who can be depended upon to so adapt the works as to develop the pupil's aptitude and interests. It is, of course, very easy to say what sort of teachers are required, and very hard to find such teachers, but finding them should be' the first thought in the mind of any administrator who has to select trade- finding instructors. •J HOME-MAKING TE5ACHEES. Eegular domestic-science and domestic-art teachers with graded- school experience form the principal source of supply for home- making teachers in the part-time schools. These teachers, without other qualifications, are accepted in 9 of the cities visited. Other requirements which are set up in the other places are college courses in domestic science; home-economics teaching experience, with spe- cial home-making bent ; grade teachers who are specially trained in part-time courses ; experienced housekeepers ; housewives trained in teaching; and regular domestic-art and domestic-science teachers with trade experience. In one place the teachers are trained in the agricultural college, but this is not a requirement. Table L.- -SOURCES FROM WHICH PART-TIME HOMEMAKING TEACHERS, HAVE BEEN DRAWN. Per cent. Total cities reporting Grade and high-school, domestic-science, and domestic-art teachers Graduates of college course in domestic science Those with home economics teaching experience Grade teachers specially trained Experienced housekeepers Housewives trained in teaching Domestic-science and domestic-art teachers with trade experi- ence No home-making work given The most serious criticism to be offered of present practice as shown above concerns the apparent custom of selecting home-making teachers on a scientific rather than a personal basis. That fact that 110 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. a woman is successful as a teacher of domestic science or domestic art in graded schools, or that she has completed a domestic-science course in college, or that she is even a good tradeswoman in sewing or cook- ing, does not in any sense prove that she is qualified to handle courses in home making for part-time girls. It is possible that failure to mention personality of teachers more frequently is to be explained as an oversight on the part of some ad- ministrators, but this qualification should have been the first one to have entered their minds. Home making is not a form of domestic science or domestic art or sewing or cooking which can be handled by specialists or departmental teachers. The best evidence obtainable goes to show that it is a business in itself, which can be best handled by a woman of home-making experience who has had special training in some or all of the subjects mentioned and in teaching. She must be able to appreciate the problems of the homes of the pupils which she visits, and must adapt her work to the needs of those homes, not by following their examples and customs, but by beginning with such instruction for improving conditions as can be immediately appreci- ated and used by the part-time girls. This is so decidedly a matter of personality that no general qualifications can be laid down in a bulletin such as this, except to advise administrators to seek proper teachers wherever they can be found, and not to accept or reject as such those from the regular home-economics department of the pub- lic school. Do you seek Kome-maJeing women as teacTiers; is your teaching sup- ply ample? One city reported that it had tried housekeepers and they had failed. In this city, however, married women are barred by regu- lation, and there is a local normal school specializing in home making. Fourteen reported that they had made no effort to secure teachers with home-making experience. One sought experienced housekeepers through eligible lists made up by the city and State ; only two places have made a systematic effort to procure teachers who are successful home makers. In almost every instance the source of supply for all types of teachers was given as satisfactory. The common answer was, " The source is ample, but they need part-time training before starting to work." One city, as already mentioned, reaches its teach- ers through eligible lists made up by the city and State, and another secures its teachers through advertisements in the local newspapers, especially where it needs tradesmen. There was absolutely no uni- formity in the method used to secure part-time teachers, and as a rule they are selected in much the same manner as are the day-schbol teachers. PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. Ill COMMERCIAL, TEACHERS. Six citjes had no report to make on commercial teaching require- ments. Of the 15 with special qualifications, 10 required actual prac- tice experience with or without other qualifications. In one case teachers from the grades who had made special study for this work were accepted. Another city accepted specially trained commercial teachers. Still another would accept either eight years' experience or college-trained commercial work. One required normal and com- mercial courses in addition to experience, and still another would accept business-college graduates or those who had completed part of a normal training and a business-college course. Regular day- school commercial teachers were eligible in one city, and conmier- cial high-school teachers were eligible in another city. It would appear that the handling of commercial work and sales- manship is in the hands of teachers experienced in their particular lines. In three or four cases only have teachers been hired with special training and without experience. Where graded teachers have been transferred to handle this work it has practically always been of an elementary nature, such as business writing, business Eng- lish, and business arithmetic, rather than the more technical or sales- manship work. Table LI.- -SOURCES FROM WHICH PART-TIME COMMERCIAL TEACHERS HAVE BEEN DRAWN. Total cities reporting From business — actual practical experience Grade school commercial teachers Business-college graduates Specially trained commercial teachers Commercial-college training or 8 years' experience Normal and commercial training High -school commercial teachers No commercial work given MEN VS. WOMEN TEACHERS. Do you home men teachers for hoysf Are there things men can con- tribute because they are rnen? What are they? In what sub- jects for hoys do women succeed better than men, and in what classes do you prefer rnen? Of 21 places, 6 used men teachers exclusively for boys' classes and 15 did not, although in nearly all of these 15 communities men are used for certain types of classes, being almost exclusively employed 112 PAKT-TIMB SCHOOLS. for shapwork. In five or six instances at least, where the schools are now using both men and women, a belief was expressed that it would be better to hire men teachers for nearly all the work'given to boys. A not infrequent answer was that men would be employed exclusively for boys' work if the salaries would procure a suitable type of men. Table LII.— THE USE OP MEN TEACHERS FOR BOYS. Number. Per cent. Total cities reporting. Men exclusively for boys Men and women 21 100 6 15 29 71 In answer to the question as to whether there are things which a man -can contribute because he is a man, in only one place was a negative answer given. All others questioned conceded that there were certain things which men could contribute and which women could not contribute to the education of the part-time boy. The following are samples of some of the answers as to what these things are: The experience of having been a boy; punch; the understand- ing of boys' problems and ability to have open-hearted talks ; appre- ciation of subject-matter content that appeals to the masculine mind; virility ; men as a class are better adapted to the boys' point of view in' business; leadership and common understanding; employers are usually men ; the boy's contact in business is with men, his contact in school should be with men ; discipline ; ability to speak the boys' language; personal experience as the basis of acceptable advice; positiveness in handling; boys lack confidence in women; they desire to mix with nien ; they naturally look up to men ; manly influence ; outlook on life; companionship; the setting of example and the relating of experiences ; a boy's respect for work often depends on a man teacher; physical strength appeals to boys; interpretation of occupations and physical vigor. A very great diversity of answers was received regarding subjects in which women succeed better than men when teaching boys. Again it is practically impossible to summarize these answers except to a slight extent. It may be noted that in only one instance was related subject matter mentioned as a subject better taught by women. Gen- eral academic work of a lower grade in part-time schools was given in one instance and English was several times mentioned as having been taught more successfully by women than by men. Subjects having to do with neatness, good manners, gentility, accuracy, cour- PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 113 tesy, and personal refinement were felt to have been handled more suc- cessfully by women even when teaching boys, and three places went so far as to include all academic or classroom subjects. History was mentioned once, elementary mathematics once, and typewriting very frequently. Again, hygiene, arithmetic, commercial geography, and civics were set aside as subjects better taught by men even in places where the general predilection was for women in classroom work. In all cases shop work for boys was exempted, and in only one in- stance were men and women considered equally effective as teachers of mechanical drawing. Commercial subjects were very frequently reported as neutral, being successfully taught to boys by either men or women. Depa;rtment-store system was believed to be better taught by men, while salesmanship shared honors equally with both sexes. In one city all commercial subjects were placed in the woman's list, and in four cities women were not being used for such instruction given to boys. It would seem to be fair to conclude that in general men teachers would be hired for boys if the salaries were sufficient to secure men of the proper type, inasmuch as it is generally conceded that there are things which a man can contribute to a boy's education simply because he is a man. It would not appear, however, that in many cases an absolutely exclusive rule would be laid down in this regard. English and typewriting as specific subjects, certain lines of com- mercial work, and other general continuation-school subjects, par- ticularly those calling for neatness and exactness, would in many cases be taught by women. On the other hand, all shop subjects, practically all subject matter directly related to the shop trades, personal hygiene, civics, and subjects of a managerial or adminis- trative nature would undoubtedly fall to the lot of the man teacher. In conclusion it may be added that in order to carry out any such division of work as that just mentioned, the proportion of men to women teachers in the part-time schools must greatly increase the country over. teachers' training and experience. What troa/mng have present part-time teachers received? Naturally it would do little good to make a list of the previous training of all the teachers in all the places visited. An effort has here been made to give a cross section of the general academic train- ing of the teachers employed. 114 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. Table LIII— TRAINING (ACADEMIC) OF PRESENT PART-TIME TEACHERS. Per cent. Total cities reporting ' College Normal school High school , Miked standards ' This table records the prevailing standard for the city — not absolutely for every teacher. One-third of the 21 places reporting are depending very largely upon colleges or universities, including a normal coUege. One of these seven places reports college men with normal and collegie women, and another reports mostly college men with shop experience. Then there are several which report college training for some lilies of work. For instance, college-trained people may be used for trade- extension and home-making work, and high-school graduates for other work. As might be expected, normal-school training is specified more frequently than college training^ 11 cities reporting the normal school as the center of their academic work. Such answers as the following may be noted: Normal with trade experience for related work and eighth grade for shopmen ; normal school or its equivalent — our women have all had part or all of a normal course; mostly trained in normal school; high-school, normal, and college work; normal or college plus three years' experience ; and graduation from normal school. One city explained simply that all teachers were academically trained, another that the majority had had part of a high-school course, and others that highrschool graduation was accepted for practical men. A very marked similarity may be noted between these conditions and those of the regular school, and a decided contrast to what is usually found in vocational and industrial schools. The percentage of normal and college graduates in the part-time schools is appar- ently even higher than in the day schools, while graduates of gram- mar grades are infrequently mentioned. It must be borne in mind, however, that the next topic — ^vocational preparation — undoubtedly accounts for the absence of many grammar-school graduates from a place in the academic training record. . PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 115 "What vocational preparation hxxve they had? Table LIV— VOCATIONAL PREPARATION AND EXPERIENCE OF PART- TIME TEACHERS. Total cities reporting College and trade experience . . . Engineering or trade extension . . Normal and trade extension. . . . Journeyman experience Trade experience only High school and special subjects No training standard Under vocational preparation, technical college men with trades- man experience, or practical experience with university extension courses, are mentioned by 3 cities. In one city for related-subjects teachers' college engineering or trade experience is acceptable. Nor- mal-school graduates with practical experience are mentioned but once, where the practical experience is set at six years. Regular journeymen are common, being reported by 8 different localities, sometimes unqualified and again with such statements as " three years at the trade," or " journeymen plus State teachers' training extension courses," or "eight years' trade experience, including one year as foreman," or " four years as journeyman with certain equiva- lents accepted." Several places require trade experience, but do not require journeyman experience; thus we have trade experience and evening training — shop experience less than journeyman, practical experience but no real tradesman experience, and so on. Three cities state openly that they require no vocational preparation whatever for their teachers, and another states that they require high-school special subjects only. Apparently from these statements the part-time student has been fairly well safeguarded from the inexperienced practical teacher. Except for a careful analysis of the subject matter which these teachers offer, it would not be possible to state whether the technical college and university men employed are entirely suitable for their work; but since in practically all places some trade experience is required, it would appear that the related subject matter is in many places handled more satisfactorily than might have been anticipated. Where teachers with the academic training before mentioned are not included in any of this group with vocational preparation, it is doubtful if they can be employed on related subject matter to the best advantage; and it seems to be the error, somewhat prevalent, 116 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. of placing men and women without trade experience over directly related classes,' that is causing difficiilty in that work, rather than a lack of vocationally prepared teachers in the community. What teaching experience ha/oe your teachers had? Table LV.— TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF PART-TIME TEACHERS. Total cities reporting Previous experience in ^ades or high school Commercial experience m grades Day vocational classes Little or none Number. 24 100 17 70 1 4 3 13 3 13 Per cent. A very large majority of the part-time teachers have had prac- tical teaching experience before entering upon part-time work. Most of them have come from the regular day-school staffs. Teach- ing experience, either in the grades or the high schools, was reported by 17 of the places visited. In one case the commercial teacher, not specially trained, was reported as having practical commercial expe- rience in these grades, and in three instances the day-school experience was specified as experience in vocational schools or junior high-school vocational classes. Three places reported for these teachers little or no previous experience, and one that reported previous experience stated that it had seldom been in the public-school service. It may be assumed from this and other statements not specifically., noted that in a large majority of cases, precisely as one expected to find, teachers have been transferred from the publicTSchool system, and that in a few cases they have been picked from the outside field without experience in teaching. What cormnercial training has your faculty had? Table LVI.— COMMERCIAL EXPERIENCE OF PART-TIME TEACHERS. Total cities reporting Graduates of business college. : : ^ Normal commercial courses Normal commercial courses and practical experience Business high-school graduates Practical experience Proficiency on special subjects. Miscellaneous None. Number. 24 100 5 20 3 13 2 8 3 13 4 17 1 4 4 17 2 8 Per cent. i-AltX-TlMK SCHOOLS. 117 Eegarding the commercial training of teachers, the prominence of the business or commercial college does not appear to be so consid- erable as had been expected. Graduates of business or commercial colleges were reported in only 5 places, although several others men- tioned business and commercial college special courses in their train- ing, and one of the 5 above mentioned required practical experience on top of the business-college diploma. Such answers as the fol- lowing can not be readily summed up : Normal commercial courses ; normal commercial courses, with practical summer experience ; busi- ness high school graduation; normal-school work and commercial practical experience. "Practical experience only" is frequently noted, as is also " study of specific subjects only." Reports from two places specify no requirements whatever, and in several instances the reply is, " no regular requirement," followed by such statements as, "We draw men from commercial plants"; "accepting college men or those with eight years' experience " ; " such men must take special courses for part-time teachers." Again, the answer is, " We have no definite requirements ; our commercial teachers are all nor- mal graduates, excepting a few who have studied special commercial courses." One city reports that its commercial teachers are largely self-made, having taken a little business college and a little commer- cial extension work; and another requires no specific training, but selects its commercial teachers from the high school, none being regular commercial experts. It may be added to the above statements that in many places the commercial work given is of a very elementary character, lead- ing largely to general promotion in ofRce work for young people rather than to the filling of strictly commercial or salesmanship oc- cupations. This accounts for the present tendency to have* scat- tered qualifications and training for commercial teachers. Admin- istrators are advised, however, in the case of the commercial branches or salesmanship courses, however simple, to exercise cau- tion in employing regular teachers from the day schools who have not had actual contact and experience in business sufBcient to make them capable of appreciating specifically how even such courses as business writing are to be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their classes, whose occupations they should have studied and whose places of business they should have visited. How much, special fwrt-time teacher training has been given? A very happy tendency is noticeable everywhere to appreciate the value of special part-time training either before or after the teacher has entered service. Twenty-one places answering for the part- time training of the teachers already employed state as follows: 92827°— 22 ^9 118 PAJBT-TIME SCHOOLS. In one nearly all teachers have had such training, tailors and shoe- makers being excused. In two cities about one-half of the teachers have had special part-time training. In two places the teachers have had courses of 10 weeks each; in one place a course of 100 hours ; in another a course of 60 hours ; and in another they have at- tended summer courses. One city reports a course of 72 hours ; an- other attendance of teachers on State teacher-training courses with- out specified time. One administrator said that all teachers had taken specific courses, but not all the same course ; and still another showed that 90 per cent of his teachers had had special training in special courses. The shortest length of course reported . was six weeks carried on in one city, and, of the 21 places reporting, 8 only were obliged to state that none of their teachers had had any special part- time training. This record would, of course, not hold for the entire country, but it should impress upon administrators generally the value which experience has already set upon providing special part- time teacher-training work to be taken, either before or after enter- ing upon part-time teaching. The certification of part-time teachers has not yet received its full share of attention. Such teachers are certified in the same way as are high-school or other teachers in 8 places, 3 of which report this method as being not satisfactory. In one of these places a special part-time certificate may be obtained by those who com- plete certain work; those teachers who hold elementary and high- school teaching certificates may earn a special certificate by attend- ing and passing the work of special part-time teacher-training courses offered by a State university. In one State part-time teachers meet the Federal Smith-Hughes regulations. In several places' they must hold State licenses. This is true in seven of the cities reporting, and in one additional the license is furnished by the State and city together. One city has added to its regular city cer- tificate a few special requirements for part-time teachers, and in four places no special requirements or licenses whatever are set up. A State certificate usually, but not always, means the passing of State examinations or credit for subjects taken in standard institutions. Occasionally industrial or part-time teachers may secure special cer- tificates without examination when they can present evidence of fit- ness. Only one city reported that it was left entirely to do as it chose regarding teachers' certificates for all teachers, and had made no special regulations for part-time teachers. As has been said before, there is a certain advantage, at least at the start, in having very liberal requirements for teaching in part- time schools. Such classes are specifically to meet the needs of the groups of pupils immediately present. The work must be elastic PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. 119 and the instruction largely individual. The personality and experi- ence of the teacher are to be preferred as credentials far above the fulfilling of any regulation set down on paper. On the other hand, the requiring of a certificate specified by a State for all teachers, or by a local community for its grade teachers, is of almosfl no value. Many times there might better be no license required what- ever, or else a special license based on the particular requirements of the part-time school. State and city licenses usually determine only academic scholarship, which, while desirable and necessary, is by no means a sole criterion by which to judge the suitability of a part-time teacher. Average number of years in part-time work credited to your teachers. The years of experience which the present teaching force have had in part-time classes are few indeed. Table LVII.— YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE IN PART-TIME WORK, OF PRESENT PART-TIME TEACHERS. Total cities reporting Half year 1 year 2 years 4 years ■. . . to 5 years 2 to 7 years Few months or no records. . Number. Per cent. 21 100 1 5 9 42 6 28 1 5 1 5 1 5 2 10 One city reports a half-year's experience on an average. Nine re- port 1 year ; 6 report 2 years ; 1 reports from to 5 years ; 1 averages 4 years ; another, 2 to 7 years ; another, a few months ; and 1 has no records. Certainly, with these figures before us, we should not enter very seriously into criticism of the progress which our part-time teachers have made in the work in which they are now so earnestly and seriously engaged. What salaries do yom, pay? The question of salaries was taken up almost exclusively for the purpose of securing data which would enable one to compare the salaries of part-time teachers with those of regular day teachers. The following salaries were reported as of exactly high-school rank : 120 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Table LVIII.— SALARIES PAID PART-TIME TEACHERS. First city $1,800 to $2,400. Second city $1,900 to $2,300. Third city - $1,600 to $2,800, which is the range for both junior and senior high school. Fourth city $1,600 to $3,400 ; part-time teachers get overtime pay. Fifth city $2,000, which is intermediate between the minimum and maximum for senior high-school men. In this same city $6 a day is paid to certain part-time teachers, which is below high-school pay. Sixth city $1,250. Seventh city $120 to $150 a month. Eighth city Same as vocational high school. Ninth city $130 a month, which is the rate for senior high-school grade. Of cities which report for part-time teachers salaries that were lower than those paid to teachers of high-school rank, the first city re- ports $1,728 to $2,724, which is somewhat below the range for teachers of high-school grade. The second city reports $100 above the grade rating, which is the same as for the junior high school. The third reports $1.50 an hour, added to day-school salary. The fourth re- ports $1,350 to $1,700, which is slightly below senior high-school grade salaries. The fifth reports no specific amount, but gives part- time teachers the same classification they had in regular schools. The sixth gives no amount, but states that it is lower than that for high-school teachers. The seventh pays $1.50 an hour, both for teach- ing and for visiting time — teachers are in the regular high school in the morning and do part-time work in the afternoon. The eighth reports $1,610, which is $100 more than is paid to seventh and eighth grade teachers and $200 less than is paid to senior high- school teachers. The ninth reports $1,800 to $2,500, which is some- what below the range for high-school teachers. The tenth reports $1,400 to $2,200, which is the range for teachers of junior high-school grade. Only one city reports for part-time teachers a range of salaries higher than that for high-school teachers. In this city part-time salaries range from $180 to $240 a month, individual salaries being usually $100 above those for teachers of the same rank in the day school, including high-school teachers. Taken as a whole, this indicates that the longer hours and special requirements of part-time teachers have been generally recognized as warranting salaries equal to those paid to senior high-school teachers, or at least larger than those paid in the regular grades and the junior high school. This of course is not true in all cases, but ^'onditions are, in this respect, to say the least, encouraging. ^ Many regular teachers are willing to study and prepare them- selves for the special duties of part-time class work, because of their PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 121 interest and enthusiasm in handling that work, and without specific increases in salary; but in all cases this requires an expenditure of time and money on the part of the teachers, both in preparation before and after entering the work. It means greater personal effi- ciency and a larger service to the community, and justifies an in- crease of pay over the salary which the teacher of similar capacity could earn in the usual all-day school. The consensus of opinion of those people who were consulted seemed to be that the part-time salary should at least be on a par with the best salaries of the senior high school, and more than one commissioner of education and super- intendent of public schools concurred in this opinion. One unique arrangement was reported which should be avoided under all circumstances. The minimum salary for teachers in the part-time school was higher than the minimum for that of the grade teachers; the maximum salary, however, in the regular day schools was higher than that provided for on the part-time schedule. From a money standpoint only, therefore, there was a tendency for teach- ers to ask for transfers from the lower-salaried day-school positions to the part-time school, and later on from the higher-salaried part- time positions to the regular day school. Teachers moving in and out of part-time work for this reason would naturally be less interested in the part-time pupil than in their wages, and at the time of the second transfer would not be properly equipped for carrying on either the work of the part-time school or that of the regular day classes. QUAMTT OF TEACHERS EMPLOYED. Are present fart-time teachers above or helow the average of teachers in general? Table LIX.— RANKING IN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF PART-TIME TEACH- ERS AS TO INTELLIGENCE AND ENERGY. Total cities reporting Above the general average On a level with all-day teachers Special classification Wide variation Refused to answer Number, Per cent. 22 100 14 63 2 9 3 14 9 1 5 Of the 22 cities which answered this question, 14 ranked their part-time teaching staff as above the average of their general teach- ing staff. It is to be remembered that many of these questions were answered by directors and supervisors whose particular interest lay 122 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. in the field of part-time education, but it is true also that the ques- tions were frequently asked of principals in public-school buildings where part-time classes were located, of associate superintendents of schools, of directors of vocational education having charge of day- school work, of superintendents of schools, and of others. Authorities in one city felt that they did not care to make a classi- fication; two cities ranked the two groups on the same level, and could see no particular difference; and three cities made special statements, as follows : 1. " The part-time group is not as well trained as the high- school teachers, especially the men. The women are above the average for the city." 2. ''^They are slightly above the junior high- school average but not above the average of the entire city system." 3. " They are more devoted but not more intelligent." As a whole, while one must discount answers to this question as being merely expressions of opinion, there appears to have been a general feeling that the part-time teacher is by personality, training, interest, and general intelligence somewhat superior to the usual grade and high-school instructor. Are vrmnature and inexperienced teachers being em/ployfed? In the minds of those who are directing part-time work in the places visited, inexperienced and immature teachers are not being employed for this work. Sixteen of the supervisors and principals have answered this question with an absolute negative. It was the intent of the question to classify as inmiature those teachers who were under 23 to 25 years of age, and as inexperienced those who had not taught long enough to be able to adapt themselves to the changing conditions of part-time work. Naturally this is a some- what indefinite standard, but on the whole the contact made by the investigator with individual teachers bears out the above statement of the executives. In only rare instances were really young men and women found in charge of part-time classes, and in only two cases, both young girls, could they be called in any sense immature. On the whole the part-time teachers, both men and women, a con- siderable number of whom must range over 30 years of age, gave unmistakable evidences of mature judgment and personalities above that of the average school-teacher. Two cities would not make a definite answer to the question, explaining that they were unable to classify strictly on the basis of maturity and experience. In three of the places visited the question was answered in the affirmative, one director admitting that he was forced to employ both immature and inexperienced teachers, because in some instances only such were to be secured under the local conditions. It was not true, however, of PABT-TIME SCHOOI^. 123 his entire part-time teaching force that it was immature and inex- perienced. In another city it was admitted that the teachers were inexperienced but not that they were immature, the majority of them being men and women taken from practical occupations. In interpreting the alaove statements, it is to be carefully borne in mind that inexperience does not mean only without part-time teach- ing experience. A large number of mature and experienced teachers have been employed during the last two years whose experience has been entirely in the handling of regular grades, vocational classes, and occasionally high-school subjects. Are part-time teachers Tnore generally interested than general teachers? This question was answered in 20 places. A majority of the answers came, of course, from people who were directly responsible for the supervision of part-time education. A constant effort was made, however, to get the opinion in all cases of those who were equally responsible for all-day work and for part-time work, includ- ing superintendents of schools and their assistants, and city super- visors wherever they would express opinions. In 15 of the 20 places, the consensus of opinion was that part-time teachers were more thoroughly interested in their work than were a majority of those engaged in regular public school day instruction. Opinion varied all the way from a mere belief that this was the case to a very decided and emphatic affirmative. An assistant super- intendent of schools in a large city answered the question with but two words, "Absolutely so." In another large city an associate superintendent of schools, while admitting the superior interest of these teachers, attributed it to the fact that they were specially chosen for the work they were doing. A superintendent of schools, who evidently had had some unpleasant experiences somewhere, made the pithy remark that part-time teachers were " not mere time servers." The State director for vocational education in one of the Southern States asserted that not one of his part-time teachers showed a lack of interest. A woman in charge of the work for girls believed that the part-time teacher's interest was stimulated largely by her outside visits and her contact with home conditions; which enabled her to understand her pupils and thus acquire a greater interest in their work. In one city there were two affirmatives and one negative answer. The negative answer came from the associate superintendent of schools, who attributed the same interest in their work to all of his teachers. He did, however, give this most valuable piece of advice : " Train the part-time teachers to interpret their group needs and there will be no difficulty about interest." One 124 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. principal of a part-time school, a man of academic training attain- ments and long teaching experience, when asked this question, re- plied : " Yes ; every time." On the other side, 5 answered the question in favor of the day- school teachers or equally favorable to both. ' In one place the part- time teachers were also teaching day-school pupils at the same time, and no difference in their interest or attitude could be found between the groups. A small western city executive answered with a simple "no." Another answer was to the effect that "some are and some are not." The director of one of the best systems of trade-extension work which was visited replied that "the interest of the part-time teachers and of the regular vocational teachers was just about the same," and a small system carrying almost exclusively general in- dustrial work made practically the same answer in reporting, "in general about the same; possibly a more personal interest in indi- vidual pupils." There seems to be little need of commenting on the above. On the whole, the evidence seems to be in favor of the part-time teachers, with the qualification, however, that they are in many places a selected group; that they have entered this work by election; and. that the instruction is new enough to be fascinating. Apparently the most valuable conclusion to be drawn from these answers is: That if regular day-schoool teachers could be made to take an interest in the home conditions of their pupils, the immediate needs of the group they are teaching, and the individual problems of the children in that group, and if they could be allowed more liberty in the selec- tion of the details of subject matter and be given more responsibility for the preparation of new material, their interest in their work might be expected very greatly to increase. FUTURE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. // ttdvcmcing com/pulsory (M-day school is raising continuation school work to high-school grade, what prepartion of teachers is heing made to meet this restdt? In 16 cities this "problem had not been given any consideration whatever. This is not surprising inasmuch as the rush to establish part-time schools of new and elementary type has made it difficult to secure even partially trained teachers for that work. The idea of training teachers for a still further advance would hardly be ex- pected in such places. One city reports that the compulsory age is already up to 18 and as high as it will be. In this city, however, it is apparent to the observer that the possibilities of training for the older pupils had not been given a fair share of attention, and that a careful study of PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 125 new and more individual lines of instruction, with a consequent preparation of teachers for doing that work, will be one of the next steps in advance in that particular city. Another large city, which undoubtedly will have this problem to face in a few years, is giving no specific training except research by teachers under guidance of the director. Still another city from the far West reports that most of its teachers are in special university classes. Another city has classes for higher grade part-time teachers listed as a much-needed addition to their present work. One city has left this work to special teacher- training courses in the summer school, while another has made more specific plans by grouping its teachers for training in mathematics, English, history, mechanical drawing, and shop work of a strictly high-school grade. It goes without saying that as soon as a part-time teacher has acquired one or two years' experience in the handling of a lower group of pupils, it is well to provide an opportunity for such teachers to study both the subject matter and the method required for meet- ing the specific needs of older pupils over 16 years of age. There is one danger, however, that should be considered. The tendency of these teachers to study special subjects has the same effect on the part- time school that the introduction of specialists has had on the human interest of the high school, and it may also lead to the use of teachers of related subject matter who depend entirely for their practical ex- perience upon visits made and shop work done during a short summer period of special preparation. In one place a woman was found suc- cessfully teaching machine-shop mathematics. She had had machine practice and special preparation. Despite her success, however, such an arrangement could not be recommended as generally satisfactory. Is industry or business ahsorMng your expert part-time teachers and do they go hack into regular school work? All but 4 of the 24 cities visited answered this question in the nega- tive. In one case the teachers were already regular school-teachers ; in another case they had stepped from industry into the part-time work, and showed no tendency to return. In another city those that had come from the regular schools liked the part-time work so much better that they had refused positions similar to those which they had formerly occupied. Of the four cities reporting that they were losing teachers from their part-time work, one reported that business, both industrial and commercial, was absorbing some of the best of their part-time teachers because of the low salary schedule. Another re- ported that some of their teachers had been drawn into business posi- tions, but that as a whole they were not prepared to enter the business world. The same city reported that teachers had left the part-time work and gone back into the regular work because they were unable 126 PAET-TIMB SCHOOLS. to stand the physical strain. Another reported merely that they had lost their teachers to commercial concerns but not to regular school positions. One city reported that it lost none of its teachers to business, but had had a few of them return to the regular school work because they were misfits in the part-time classes. It is shown clearly enough by these statements that part-time edu- cation has not yet reached a point where it is being hampered to any great extent by the loss of its trained and experienced teachers, and that, with few exceptions, when they are lost through returning to the regular graded work, it is because of some personal or physical inability to give the best service in part-time instruction. GROUP vs. DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION. In concluding this section relating to teachers, attention may be called to one or two suggestions made by people of experience. In one State an experiment is now under way in which some teach- ers are being trained to handle part-time classes as unit groups, one teacher giving all the instruction a group receives, academic, related, shop, or commercial, while other teachers are being trained as semi- specialists, so that one teacher will handle the shopwork and another the classroom subjects. Much has been said on both sides regarding the relative advan- tages of, on the one hand, a plan providing for the teaching of all subjects by one teacher and, on the other, a departmental plan, advo- cates of various combinations of these two systems being frequently found. For this reason the results from the teacher-training courses above mentioned will be exceedingly valuable to future students of part-time education. Advocates of the group method, under which work in different lines is handled by one teacher, were rather more numerous than had been expected. Advice was frequently given to concentrate all work for a group, wherever it could be done, in order to get a close coordination, and to resort to departmental work or special classroom teaching only when the peculiarities of the subject or the limitations of the ordinary teacher required it. It was pointed out in one instance that where groups had been made up of several smaller groups with, varying needs, the whole being taught by one teacher, the work partook somewhat of the type of the old district school, which, it may be said, has never had an equal in meeting the individual needs of elementary pupils, when those needs were clear to the teacher. The point which should be stressed in dealing with the subject of teachers and the training of teachers, is the necessity for abrupt changes and quick adaptation to the ever-changing needs of pupils. The really resourceful part- time teacher must be one capable of using the departmental method, PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 127 the group method, the method of individual instruction, of relating his work to the work of some other teacher, or laying out the com- pleted program which will start and stop entirely under his direc- tion. He must not be wedded to any particular method or system of organization ; to any set course of study ; any fixed standard of attainment, except such as shall be set up to meet the necessity of the individual group under consideration. Attention of administrative officers may, however, be called to the fact that years of experience in Europe and America have shown that in part-time and evening classes, where the technical and indus- trial material given is so simple that the youth of the pupil, his in- terest, and his ambition demand of the teacher personal interest, pa- tience, and pedagogical insight — which are of more value than tech- nical knowledge — an all-round, wholesome, and genuine man or woman teacher of experience is more likely to succeed than a specialist. Where, however, the subject matter is so technical or industrially accurate that the confidence of pupils can not be maintained except by an instructor skilled in the art of the science or craft being taught, the chances of success are better when such a teacher is selected, leav- ing the matter of methods of instruction and discipline, but not of personal interest, to be acquired in the course of the period of em- ployment. Section VIII. SUBJECT MATTER. COMPULSORT AND ELECTIVE CLASSES. Have you required courses? Heme you elective courses? Do you believe in carefully differentiated courses? Have you required subjects? Do you require home making for all girls? Have you elective subjects? These questions may be more fully stated as follows: The first, Have you your subject matter laid out in the form of courses to which students are assigned by some authority that has determined their need ? the second, Have you subject matter laid out in general in the form of courses which students are permitted to elect? the third, Do you believe in having a considerable number of differenti- ated courses to meet the needs of pupils, rather than in permitting pupils to make selection of various subjects, thus building up almost an individual ■ course for each pupil? the fourth. Having either elective or differentiated courses, do you have required subjects which the pupil must take? the fifth, Are all girls required to take home- making work? and the sixth. Whether there are elective subjects which pupils may select regardless of the foregoing questions ? All of these questions together are given for the purpose of fur- nishing the reader a general insight into the philosophy of the ar- rangement of subject matter for the use of part-time instruction, especially to determine the elasticity and the independence of the teacher, as well as the selective power of the pupil. Twenty-two cities reported regarding required courses. Of these 8 were providing such courses and 14 were not. Elective courses of study planned out but not required were reported from 11 cities, while 11 reported in the negative, as having no predetermined courses which were elective to students. As to required subjects, 18 of the places visited had subjects that were required and 4 had no positively required work. Twelve cities had elective subjects which might be taken by pupils either in regularly elective courses of study or independent of any course whatever and 10 cities had no purely elective single subjects. Fourteen administrative or supervisory officers favored carefully differentiated courses, 3 would not express themselves regarding this matter, and 5 were opposed to such grouping. 128 PABT-TIME SCHOOLS. 129 Table LX.— NUMBER OF CITIES REPORTING ELECTIVE AND REQUIRED COURSES AND SUBJECTS. Number. Total cities reporting 22 Required courses : Yes 8 No 14 Elective courses : Yes 11 No 11 Eequired subjects: Yes 18 No 4 Elective subjects : Yes 12 No 10 Differentiated courses: Yes 14 No 5 No answer 3 Home making for all girls was required in 7 places, 5 were uncer- tain as to their final policy in this matter, while 10 were not disposed to carry home making as a subject from which no girl could be excused. Naturally, replies of yes and no to these questions must be sup- plemented by more detailed statements, in order to be properly in- terpreted. Table LXI.— REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE COURSES IN HOME MAKING FOR GIRLS. Per cent. Total cities reporting Required courses Uncertain Elective courses In regard to required courses, one city would allow each depart- ment to set up its own required courses for itself, but would make such courses obligatory upon students entering the department. An- other would have required, courses only for the general continuation classes, and another believed in recommended courses which should not be absolutely fixed, but which in general would be required of all pupUs. Not infrequently a combination of required and elective work is found. Thus, in answer to the question regarding elective courses. 130 PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. one city reports that they are determined by the director and the teacher only, not by the student although in consultation with the student. Again, the election of the course may be based solely upon the election of one subject, which immediately determines all the general education and related work that goes to make up the course ; thus in one place a student may elect either the industrial course, the industrial prevocational course, the home-making course, or the academic course, thereby determining what work is to be taken, and in another city the pupil may elect one of the series of shop courses which fixes all his other work. In one place the freedom of election of a course is qualified by the statement " when the pupil is prepared to make an election," which undoubtedly would be found to hold true in most communities, even though not specifically so noted. Required subjects would naturally be an outgrowth of required courses, but independently of this it may be stated to be almost uniformly the policy to have certain subjects required. In one in- stance related work only was required, but very rarely was the student left entirely free to elect subjects exactly as he desired. Various qualifications were specified by those who reported having elective subjects. One city stated that all work was elective, but two hours of shopwork and two hours of general-continuation work were required in making up the election. Again, the statement is made that elective work will gradually be permitted more and 'more, as the students show an ability to make good choices. Still Another city reporting elective subjects has a required commercial course that offers no election, while only one subject in each of the other courses is elective. Elective subjects are sometimes permitted to keep up interest. One city allows from 55 to 90 minutes at the end of the day which may be devoted to elective work. In this city girls may elect either cooking, sewing, or millinery, if they are in commercial courses, and if they are in home-making courses they may elect commercial work or salesmanship subjects ; but academic work is required, includ- ing English, social science, and hygiene. Occasionally election de- pends upon previous attainment, as in other schools — if the student is weak, the work is compulsory, otherwise it is elective, and so on. There seemed to be some confusion in the minds of part-time teachers as to what was meant by carefully differentiated courses. In general, however, they were divided between the desire to retain the flexibility of teaching material and to have, nevertheless, some unity of purpose in all the work given to any individual group. . The viewpoint of several was expressed by one executive who was opposed to carefully differentiated courses and believed that, the PAET-TIME SCHOOLS. 131 election should be by subjects only, leaving it to the adviser to maintain a well-rounded layout. In another city the view was expressed that the best results had been obtained by having com- plete and carefully laid-out courses for each plant, but not attempt- ing to make them general. StilL another man of experience believed in differentiating the work by courses, but within the courses, allow- ing very little latitude, the time limit being too short for very much variation. It was not unusual to find four or five vocational subject courses which were identical in every respect except that the pupil elected but one of the vocational subjects offered, pursuing the remainder of the work as though in a required course. Others believed that courses should be differentiated by groups ; that is, that there should be no printed courses of study, but that a required course should be laid out to meet the needs of the group, the pupils following the course when once prepared. In a few cases they were frankly opposed to anything like courses of study. One supervisor, when asked about his success with differentiated courses, answered "not very much," and another replied that " in special cases only it might be advan- tageous, but, of course, was a very doubtful unit of work for part- time instruction." Those who advocated home making for all girls were very enthu- siastic in regard to that work, but they were not in the majority, which again was contrary to the expectations of the investigator. The usual reasons were given for requiring home making, namely, that most girls become home makers; that home-making subjects are almost as useful to the commercially or industrially employed woman as to the housekeeper — where the work included sewing, mending and repairing, and millinery; and, an argument not so generally understood, that home making can be made the basis of civic train- ing, personal and family hygiene, and intelligent and useful train- ing in recreation and health. On the other hand, there were many objections offered to making this work compulsory for all girls. Only one city in which it was not now compulsory believed that it should be given to all girls alike. In many cases girls coming to the part-time school for strictly com- mercial subjects, whose needs were great and whose interests in com- mercial work or salesmanship were immediate and very strong, were excused on the two grounds that the time could not be well spent in home-making pursuits, and that interest in those pursuits could not be aroused until the immediate desire for occupational training had been satisfied. Again, it was pointed out that a girl is just as likely to need other vocational work as to need home making, and, despite the fact that 132 PAKT-TTME SCHOOLS. more girls can use home making than can use any other one subject, there is no reason to suppose that every girl needs home making during her short period of part-time instruction more than she needs anything else. " The pupils state that other courses are more profitable to them than home making," was an answer several times repeated. One city which favored home making for all girls, did not favor a uniform requirement, but the requiring of one out of a fairly wide range of home-making subjects. Only one city went so far as to excuse from home making without condition anyone who asked to be excused. One city that was re- quired to give home making would like to be permitted to excuse some pupils for good reasons which had been advanced. In general, it may be said that girls who have had commercial experience, girls who need office work, those whose immediate interests lie in some decidedly industrial or occupational direction, and frequently those who have a positive disinclination for home-making work are excused to pursue other courses. Again, attention should be called to the fact that it is not a ques- tion of choosing between these six methods of organizing subject matter. It is a question of being open-minded and ready to use any or all six of them whenever the need arises. Undoubtedly there are instances where required courses are desirable, but such courses should be required for some purpose and to meet some specific objective, and not be laid out merely for the purpose of simplifying the administration of the school or using the teachers trained/ to handle that type of instruction. Elective courses are undoubtedly desirable. Many pupils who are allowed to elect a major subject are unfit to determine what they need in the shape of general education and related subject matter to round out the vocational subject elected. Required subjects, especially for the younger pupils, are to be expected. Elective subjects are almost imperative because the setting up of an absolutely rigid program can not be justified. Whether or not fluidity is assured by providing a large number of carefully differentiated courses, or through a large number of elective subjects, or through a very careful study of groups and the provision of special subject-matter courses for each group, is a question that can be settled only by a study of conditions at first- hand. And likewise while home making for girls, especially where it is given by a real home maker and includes personal hygiene, healthful recreation, and social factors so much needed in mill and manufacturing towns, is a subject which it is difficult to admit could not be well given to every girl, it is nevertheless beyond reason to suppose that under no conditions and in no circumstances should any girl be excused from pursuing this course. PAKT-TIME SCHOOLS. 133 DHTArLS or STTBJEar MATTEE. Copies of a few specially selected courses to meet individual situa- tions will be found in the appendix. These courses are given as examples of what individual localities have done to meet their own particular needs, and as suggestive of the difference between the subject matter best adapted to part-time instruction and that fre- quently used in graded and high school instruction. They are, of course, not offered for adoption unmodified in any community. Table LXII.— GENERAL EDUCATION SUBJECTS OFFERED IN PART- TIME CLASSES. Number of cities reporting 22 Number of cities offering — English 19 Civics 19 Hygiene 16 Arithmetic 13 General mathematics 6 History 6 Commercial geography 6 Spelling 6 Current events 4 Writing 4 Number of cities ofEering — Contd. General science 3 General dravring 3 Geography 2 Physiology 2 Reading 2 Elementary economics 2 Algebra 2 Geometry 1 Vocational civics 1 Gymnasium 1 The reader must differentiate between such subjects as reading, writing, and spelling given incidentally with English work, physi- ology given in connection with personal hygiene, and specifically arranged subject-matter courses under the same heading. The above table includes only such places as have classes especially devoted to the subjects mentioned. The following comment should be carefully noted in connection with the statistics given in the table: Algebra was offered in two places, but in one place it was only given when needed by a pupil or pupils for a specific purpose; like- wise, history would be given only upon request in this city. In an- other place such subjects as elementary science, citizenship, and per- sonal and vocational safety and health are given during assembly periods and consequently are not listed as classroom subject matter. The English work, however, is held in special classes, although the director groups the two subjects, English and civics, together as of particular importance, having their greatest opportunity for doing good at a time when the minor first starts to work and finds himself in an atmosphere where social and financial values are really under- stood for the first time. In regard to commercial geography, there was such a wide differ- ence of opinion as to whether commercial and industrial geography were general or related subjects that it has seemed best in the table to 92827°— 22 10 134 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. classify as a general subject, under the heading of commercial geog- raphy, any regular classes given in commercial geography, indus- trial geography, or local geography of an industrial nature. In one large city a course had been built up around the local industries lead- ing to local geography and then to industrial and commercial geog- raphy in general. In like manner, under the head of citizenship have been grouped all courses dealing with practical civics, simple economics, and American history. In one city the hygiene is taught during the assembly exercises by a special teacher of that subject. A flexible general continuation-school program established in a western city provides special coaching classes in the general subjects and will give any subject of an elementary or secondary grade needed by any student. Occasionally the authorities here place students in the full-day school for the particular subject needed, provided the student can come every day at the proper hour, the attendance being counted as satisfying the part-time compulsory law. Just as com- mercial and industrial geography were found combined, so safety and hygiene are found in combination. In such cases the hygiene of the worker was usually emphasized, but in practically all other cases the emphasis was placed on personal hygiene and health. In one instance no specifically made-up courses were offered in all the subjects given, but work was assigned in the nature of selective examples and topics and taken from textbooks. Vocational civics as a specific subject appeared only in one place, where it was taught from a text, but vocational features developed in general civics or citizenship classes were found in several commu- nities. One of the smaller cities had worked out two courses in general educational subjects, one an elementary and the other an advanced course. The elementary course covered practically all the general school subjects up to the fifth grade, while the advanced course cov- ered the regular school subjects through the eighth grade, with his- tory and civics in addition. Each of these courses required four hours a week, which was the student's full time, and excluded him from regular trade subjects. In conclusion, attention is drawn for the first time to the big four- English, civics, mathematics, and hygiene — which have a long lead on all other subjects in the favor of part-time administrators. TRADE SUBJECTS. The following statements deal with material which has been classi- fied under four separate heads — ^trade subjects, technical and related subjects, commercial work, and home making. It may be confessed PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 135 at the outset that it has been next to impossible to get an absolutely accurate division of these subjects, a fact which in many cases is a compliment to the part-time school authorities. It is possible that what are called trade subjects might better have been designated shop subjects, inasmuch as the element of shop equipment has entered very largely into this classification. For instance, a trade-finding course in electrical work is certainly a trade subject, but it differs very considerably from a trade-extension course given to apprentices employed in the electrical trades. Wherever such work has been of a practical shop nature, even though it partook largely of the manual- training idea, it has been classified as a trade subject. In like manner the technical and related work in mechanical drawing might be a trade subject for pupils working in a drafting room or preparing themselves to be mechanical draftsmen. Where it could be shown that the aim of the class was to make draftsmen, the work has been classified as a trade subject. Wliere the pupils were in other lines of work to which this work was supplementary, or where it was trade finding, it has been classified as related work. Almost any of the sub- jects in home economics could be classified either as trade subjects or as home-economics subjects. In many classes there were girls taking dressmaking as a home-making subject, girls taking dressmaking as a trade subject, and girls taking dressmaking for no particular purpose except that they were obliged to select some subject of this nature. •• In handling the home-economics subjects, as well as the commercial subjects, it was the original intention to restrict the survey to this work where it was done in general continuation classes, but this was soon found to be impossible. Mixed classes in both these lines were found to be the rule, so that in a very few cases was it possible to say of this work that it was strictly commercial work or home- economics work, and in no sense a part of the general continuation school program. The demarcation was more clearly drawn in com- mercial lines than in home making, but even in salesmanship and office practice the work was frequently a part of the general continua- tion courses, while such subjects as business English, business prac- tice, penmanship, business writing, and the like were not at all un- common in general continuation schools where no specially trained commercial teacher was employed and no direct commercial aim was apparent. With ths explanation the following tables are offered. 136 PART-TIME SCHOOLS. Table LXIII— TRADE SUBJECTS OFFERED IN PART-TIME CLASSES. Number of cities reporting 22 Number of cities oifering : Electrical construction 12 Drafting 12 Machine shop 10 Woodworking 10 Printing 10 Sewing 7 Cooliing 6 Millinery 6 Automechanics 6 Pattern making ^ 4 Dressmaking 3 Home nursing 3 Sheet metal 3 Cabinet and miU work 3 Foundry 3 Power machine operations 3 Telegraphy 2 Carpentry 2 Tool making 2 Forging 2 Number of cities offering — Contd. Commercial drawing 1 Commercial art 1 Architectural drawing 1 Wireless telegraphy i Machine design i Shoemaking i Music 1 Plumbing i Flower making i Hair dressing i Manicuring i Embroidery machine operat- ing 1 Baking i Tailoring 1 Oxy-acetylene welding i Concrete work 1 Bricklaying 1 Machine operations 1 Gas-engine work i Table LXIV. — TECHNICAL AND RELATED SUBJECTS OFFERED IN PART-TIME CLASSES. Number of cities reporting 22 Number of cities offering: Mechanical drawing , 10 Shop mathematics 7 Industrial chemistry demon- strations 1 Mechanical and shop prob- lems 1 Vocational civics 1 First aid 1 Number of cities offering — Contd. Printer's English 1 Safety and industrial hazards- 1 Materials 1 Electrical theory and mathe- matics 1 Blue-print reading and mathe- matics ' Structural reading and mathe matics 1 Table LXV.— HOME-MAKING SUBJECTS OFFERED IN PART-TIME CLASSES. Number of cities reporting 22 Number of cities offering : Sewing 10 Cooking 8 Millinery 6 Home economy 1 Number of cities offering — Contd. Home arts 1 Care of the sick and care of babies 1 Dietetics, foods, and home management 1 > One offers demonstration work only. PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 137 TABLE LX VI— COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS OFFERED IN PART-TIME CLASSES. Number of cities reporting 22 Number of cities offering — Typewriting 12 Bookkeeping 10 Salesmanship 7 Business practice 5 Office training 5 Stenography 4 Business English 4 Business arithmetic 4 Retail selling 3 Trade spelling 3 Number of cities offering — Contd. Penmanship , 2 Commercial geography 1 Comptometry 1 Business writing 1 Filing and recording 1 Office machine operating 1 Designing (for women) 1 Department store system 1 Merchandising 1 Advertising 1 GENERAL COMMENT. In the trade subjects, electrical construction leads, with machine shop, woodworking, and printing tied for second place, unless we included drafting as a trade. In regard to the technical and related work, mechanical drawing and shop mathematics are the only subjects that are generally presented. The almost total absence of science was one of the unexpected features of this count, and the fact that blue-print reading appears but once may be accounted for on the grounds that much of this work is just beginning and it has started with elementary mechanical drawing, which in time will undoubtedly develop into differentiated courses in blue-print reading. Besides this, the class teachers as a. whole are not capable of handling blue-print reading, which has placed that work in the shop where it has been included in the shop work reported and could not be classified by itself. ^> ^^ Osborne and Mendel ^■'', McCollum*-" and others. The rat method is therefore the best standardized by previous work. Dr. Harriet Edge- worth ^'', working in this laboratory, after a careful analysis of the yeast and rat growth methods concluded: "The rat growth method involves somewhat larger probable errors than the yeast method, but can be interpreted in terms of B vitamin with much greater certainty and is therefore the preferable method." Skimmed milk in the form of dry powder was chosen as the source of vitamin B, since it furnishes the vita- min in a typical natural state, readily available and uniform. It is easily and accurately manipulated in either large or small quantities and is convenient for study in either the fluid or dry state. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Selection and Care of Aiumals. The rats used were twenty- eight or twenty-nine days old, this being the time of weaning adopted in this laboratory, and weighed from thirty to sixty- five grams when placed on the experimental diet. The experi- mental animals all came from mothers on a diet of two-thirds whole wheat, one-third whole milk and sodium chloride, two per cent, of the weight of the wheat (diet 13) or this diet with an addition of ten grams of raw lean beef per adult rat per day (diet 13M). In each experiment, however, care was taken, that equal numbers of comparison and control rats , came from mothers on the same diet. The lots were made up in the following manner. If, for example, in one experiment there were five variations of the diet and ten rats for each variation, then fifty rats were required. Six to eight litters of from five to ten animals each would be needed to supply this number of rats. Each litter was distributed over the five vari- ations as far as it would go. For example, a litter of nine rats would furnish two animals each for four variations and one for the fifth. Then a litter of six rats would provide for one rat where there were two before, and two rats where there was one before, making a total of three rats for each variation of the diet. The remaining thirty-five rats from the various lit- ters were portioned out so that there were ten animals in each lot, and in such a way that the total weight of the rats and the number of males and females on each modification was prac- tically the same. The experiments were continued for eight weeks, from the begining of the fifth to the end of the twelfth week of the rat's life, this being the most rapid growth period. A number of experiments were continued for four weeks longer. These last four weeks, however, did not show any significant differ- ences which were not brought out in the growth curves from the fourth through the twelfth week. When the milk, which was the source of vitamin B, was fed separately from the rest of the diet, the animals were kept in round galvanized iron wire cages, eight inches high and nine inches in diameter, one rat in each cage. In addition to the milk these rats received a vitamin B-free basal ration, of which they ate ad libitum. In the experiments in which the rats received the milk mixed with the rest of the diet, which was always before them, six to eight animals were housed in square iron wire cages 11" x 14" x 10". Fresh water was always available. The cages were cleaned as often as seemed necessary, the large cages usually every day and the small round cages three times a week. Each animal was weighed once a week and the food remaining weighed and subtracted from the amount fed, the difference being the amount con- sumed by the rat or rats during that week. Basal Ration and its Preparation. The basal ration used was planned to contain all the essential food factors in optimum amounts, with the exception of vitamin B which was lacking. It had the following composition : Diet 94 per cent. Casein 18 Butter fat 10 Starch 68 Salt mixture (Osborne and Mendel)*" 4 Later, merely as a factor of safety, cod liver oil was substi- tuted for one-fifth of the butter fat, making diet 107. The in- gredients of the diet were weighed out and intimately mixed first by hand and then transferred to a mechanical mixer and stirred for five minutes. The casein was prepared from the commercial product by purification in the manner suggested by Sherman and Husa (unpublished experiments) as follows : One liter of 60 per cent, alcohol (by weight) was added to 200 grams of casein and the mixture stirred for one-half hour by means of a mechanical stirrer and was then allowed to stand for five and one-half hours. After this period the casein was filtered off through a Buchner funnel and washed once in the funnel with 500 cc. of 60 per cent, alcohol. The casein was again treated with one liter of 60 per cent, alcohol as before but this time was left to stand for eighteen hours. It was filtered off and washed as before with 500 cc. of 60 per cent, alcohol and finally with 500 cc. of 90 per cent, alcohol. The last washing merely facilitates the drying. The casein was removed from the filter and spread out in a thin layer and allowed to become air-dry. Throughout this paper the strength of alcohol used is always given in per cent, by weight. The butter was melted at a temperature not exceeding 45° C. All the curd, salt and water settles to the bottom of the vessel and may be easily removed when the butter solidi- fies. The butter fat is again melted at a low temperature, and filtered through filter paper using a hot water funnel. The salt mixture described by Osborne and Mendel *" was used. Commercially pure corn starch, which according 8 to these authors contains no appreciable quantities of the water soluble vitamin furnished the carbohydrate of the diet='^ Source of Vitamin B, Treatment and Manner in Which it Was Fed. Dried skimmed milk was used as a convenient source of vitamin B. It permits the study of the effect of heat on the vitamin both in the wet and dry state. By using skimmed milk powder from the same lot throughout one experiment, possible variation in vitamin content is eliminated. The dry milk was heated at 100° C. for six, twenty-four and forty-eight hours in a constant temperature oven. It was spread out in thin layers about one-half inch in thickness and the temperature taken by means of a thermometer extending into the dry milk. Two hours were allowed, which was the time found to be necessary for the milk to come to 100° C. The portions heated six, twenty-four and forty-eight hours respectively actually remained in the oven eight, twenty-six and fifty hours. The reconstructed milk was prepared by weighing out 100 grams of the air-dry powder and making it up to 1,000 cc. with water. For the heat treatment 250 cc. of this was poured into an Erlenmeyer flask and tightly stoppered with cotton. This was heated in a vigorously boiling water bath for six hours. A thermometer extending into the milk actually re- corded a temperature of 99.5° C. to 99.8° C. At the end of six hours the flask was removed from the bath and rapidly cooled under the tap. Since the volume diminished, due to evaporation through the stopper, the milk was again made up to volume before using. The milk was fed in doses of 8 cc. per rat per day for seven days a week, this, as will later be shown, being the amount which would best reveal any variation in vitamin con- tent. The milk was measured into a small cup by means of a graduated pipette and placed into the cage each day. If the rat did not drink the milk readily, the water cup was removed for the day and replaced in the evening. Usually this treat- ment brought the desired results. After two to three days all the rats took all the milk that was given them. The milk heated dry was fed in two ways: (1) mixed with the rest of the diet, replacing 25 per cent, of the starch in diet 94. This ration was always available and the rats ate ad libitum. (2) ,In another series of experiments the milk, which was heated dry, was reconstructed before feeding by making 25 grams up to a volume of 250 cc. with water. This was fed in doses of 8 cc. per rat per day. The advantage here is that all the rats re- ceived exactly the same amount of vitamin per day. Positive controls, animals receiving in the one case the diet containing 25 per cent, of unheated milk and in the other case 8 cc. per day of the reconstructed unheated milk, were run in every case in comparison with the rats receiving the heated food. Nega- tive controls, receiving only the vitamin-free diet were run in almost all but not every experiment. This was done in order to make sure that the basal diet did not vary. THE ADEQUACY OF THE BASAL DIET In order to prove that the basal ration contained the optimum amounts of the Various constituents, it was fed to a series of rats in comparison with diets in which each ingredient of the basal ration, the casein, butter fat and salt mixture, were in turn used in larger amounts. It was thought that perhaps another protein such as ex- tracted meat might prove to be a more adequate protein, or the meat might be more palatable and that therefore the rats would eat more of the basal ration. Consequently diet 94 was also compared with a diet in which extracted meat residue replaced the casein. Commercial extracted meat residue was purified according to the method described for casein (page 7). TABLE I. The following diets were used in the comparison : Diet 94 102 103 105 104 % % % % % Casein 18 18 23 18 18* Butter fat 10 15 10 10 10 Starch 68 63 63 67 68 Salt mixture (O. &M.)*°.... 4 4 4 5 4 * Meat residue. 10 Number of Diet rats 94 12 102 8 103 8 105 8 104 8 Average Average weight at death age at death 34 gms. 61 days 31 " 65 " 34 " 64 " 34 " 63 " 33 " 62 " The average growth curves on these various diets were practically identical and the average duration of life varied by only four days. Table II briefly summarizes the results of this series of experiments. TABLE II. Summary of average results on diets 94, 102, 103, 104, 105. Average initial weight 47 gms. 46 " 47 " 47 " 46 " It was thought that the results might be different if vita- min B were added to the diets, in other words if this vitamin was not the limiting factor in the diet. At about this time in the course of the work, it was also thought wise, merely as a factor of safety, to replace 2 per cent, of the butter fat in the diet by cod liver oil. Each rat in this comparison received either diet 107, 108, 109, or 110 with an addition of 7 cc. or 8 cc. of reconstructed skimmed milk. These doses were used, since from experiments reported later in the paper it became apparent that one or the other of these amounts would prob- ably give the best results in the study of the destruction of water-soluble B by heat. 8 cc. was later decided upon as the best dose but the results for both are here given, both being valuable in this connection. TABLE III. The following diets were used in the second comparison : Diet 107 108 109 110 % Casein 18 Butter fat 8 Cod liver oil 2 Starch 68 Salt mixture (O. & M.)*" 4 11 % % % 18 23 18 13 8 8 2 2 2 63 63 67 4 4 5 Table IV gives a summary of the results of the compari- son of diet 107 with diet 108 containing 5 per cent, more but- ter fat, diet 109 containing 5 per cent, more casein and diet 110 with an excess of 1 per cent, salt mixture over that in diet 107. TABLE IV. -sil -i^ g M <« w [rt •a-'s H^ rt ^ Hi Aver, age at death Gain for en Si'^ alt B LM .5 *. . J3 or when killed 8 weeks ■s o v3 O P g-ss »J e " d > u >■ jL-S (3 ^ <^ < rt ^ 107 11 47 gms. 36 gms. 54 days at death 108 10 47 " 36 " 55 " " " 109 10 47 " 36 " 55 " " " 110 9 47 " 34 " 53 " " " 107 7cc. 9 48 " 69 " Killed at 12 weeks 21 gms. 108 7cc. 10 47 " 84* " 1 dead at 64 days Rest killed at 12 wks. 37 " 109 7cc. 11 49 " 73 " Killed at 12 weeks 23 " 110 7cc. 10 46 " 70 " " " 12 " 24 " 107 8cc. 10 47 " 82 " " " 12 " 35 " 108 8cc. 12 48 " 81 " " " 12 " 33 " 109 8cc. 11 47 " 82 " •' " 12 " 35 " 110 8cc. 11 47 " 78 " " " 12 " 31 " * 84 gms. is the average weight of 9 rats at 12 weeks of age. The results of the experiments tabulated in Table IV are the same as those in the previous series (Table II). It ap- pears from the data that the basal rations 94 and 107 furnish optimum amounts of the essential food factors, protein, fat, mineral salts and vitamin A. DETERMINATION OF THE MOST ADVANTAGEOUS DOSE FOR MEASURING HEAT DESTRUCTION OF VITAMIN B IN SKIMMED MILK POWDER. Feeding the Milk Separately from the Rest of the Diet. It was next necessary to determine the amount of milk to feed in order to detect most readily any change in the water soluble B content upon heating the milk. Increasing amounts of milk were superimposed on the basal diet and a study made of the growth curves in relation to size of the dose. The milk was 12 fed in doses of 2 cc, 4 cc, 6 cc, 8 cc, 10 cc, 12 cc, 15 cc, per rat per day. These amounts were fed without regard to the weight of the rat and the same amount was fed throughout the experimental period. The data are summarized in Tables V and VI and Chart I, Figures I and II. TABLE V. Diet 94 and unheated milk. Milk Age in weeks Total °' p^;. 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 j^^'g Remarks No. of rats day Average weight in grams wks. 6 2 SO 57 61 60 57 53* see (1) below 6 4 47 58 60 56 53 50* see (2) below 5 '6 44 52 59 64 63 63 62 63 66 221 3 8 45 54 66 77 86 95 99 108 116 71( aU rats K at 6 10 45 56 67 76 85 94 99 101 107 62) ^„ , r i,,. '„, 6 12 46 58 74 84 92 99 99 103 113 67 ( ^^°- °^ ^^^" ^'^• 6 IS 48 65 81 90 100 108 107 111 110 62) K. = killed. D. = dead. ♦ Since all rats did not live till the end of the experimental period, averages could not be given for the last three weeks. (1) 4 rats D. at 64, 65, 77, 77 days. 2 rats K. at end of 12th wk. (2) 4 rats D. at 63, 66, 70, 74 days. 2 rats K. at end of 12th wk. TABIvE VI. Diet 107 and unheated milk. ■vr Milk Age in weeks Total of .^^1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 £t'a Remarks rats per for 8 day Average weight in grams wks. 10 51 54 52 47 37 see (1) below 10 6 51 61 70 70 66 61 61 62 66 15 10 8 51 65 78 84 84 83 83 86 91 40 10 10 50 65 80 90 92 91 95 100 105 55 10 12 50 67 85 97 102 105 110 115 120 70 (1) 37 gms.=average weight at death. 56 days^average age at death. It will be noted that in both experiments (Tables V and VI) the largest difference in weight gained for the same difference in milk fed comes between 6 cc. and 8 cc. In order to prove 13 conclusively that the 8 cc. dose is the best one to use, three lots of six rats each were given diet 94 with the addition of 6 cc, 7 cc, and 8 cc. of skimmed milk respectively per rat per day. The animals receiving 6 cc. of the milk gained an aver- age of 34 grams in eight weeks, those receiving 7 cc. averaged 35 grams gain and the rats fed 8 cc. averaged 56 grams. Eight cc. of skimmed milk per rat per day is probably the best level at which to feed in order to detect any change in the vitamin B content of the milk, since it is at this level that we get the largest difference in the total gain in weight for eight weeks, as compared with the next lower amount fed. This does not furnish the optimum amount of vitamin B, since further addition of milk gave increased growth in many cases and in the general average. In another experiment the amount of milk given was varied in accordance with the weight of the rat. Each animal received 0.05, 0.075, 0.10 or 0.125 grams of skimmed milk powder (0.50, 0.75, 1.00 or 1.25 cc. reconstructed milk) per 10 grams of rat per day. The amount of milk fed was calcu- lated on the basis of the weekly weighings, the milk fed each day for a week being determined from the weight of the rat at the beginning of the week. It was expected that this method would yield more consistent results and that the varia- tion among individuals receiving the same amount of vitamin B would be lessened by this method of feeding. The results, however, do not bear out this assumption. A comparison of the weight curves of the individual rats which were fed the same amount of milk throughout the experimental period re- gardless of body weight, with those of the rats receiving the graduated doses, shows that the former are as uniform as those in the other series. Table VII summarizes the results of the experiments in which the rats received the graduated doses. 0.1 gram of milk per day per 10 grams of rat is ap- parently the best level at which to feed the milk by this method, since for the same difference in amount of milk given a greater difference in weight gained is observed between this and the next lower amount, than between any other two suc- cessive doses. The method was not adopted since it gave no 14 assurance of having any advantage over the former, and the former was easier of application. TABLE VII. Diet 94 and unheated skimmed milk fed in fluid state. f. Milk per Age in weeks Total of°' l^Sms. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 P"i Remarks of rat per tor 8 '' day, gms. Average weight in grams wks. 4 44 SO 46 36 31 see (1) below 4 0.05 39 SO 51 50 46 45 47 49 59 20 4 0.075 44 53 58 59 60 59 66 65 73 29 4 0.10 43 S3 63 70 74 80 89 100 110 67 4 0.125 43 54 61 65 71 74 83 90 106 63 (1) 31 gms.=average weight at death. 55 days^average age at death. Feeding the Dried Milk Mixed With the Rest of the Diet. For the experiments in which the dried milk was mixed with the rest of the diet, it was essential to determine the propor- tion in which the milk should be added in order to make the test for possible differences in vitamin B content, most deli- cate. The starch in diet 94 was replaced by skimmed milk in amounts varying from 2.5 per cent, to 30.0 per cent. The diets are given in Table VIII. TABLE VIII. Diet 94 98 97 96 95 99 100 101 % % % % % % % % Casein 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 Butter fat 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Salt mixture (O. & M.)*» 44 444444 Skimmed milk powder.. 2.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Starch 68 65.5 63 58 53 48 43 38 The rats used in these experiments came either from mothers on Diet 13 or 13 M. The data for the animals from the two sources have been summarized separately and are given in Tables IX and X and the combined results in Table XL See also Chart II, Figure I. 15 TABLE IX. Rats frofti mothers on Diet 13. No of Diet rats 6 94 6 98 6 97 6 96 S 95 6 99 6 100 6 101 Milk % Age in weeks 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Average weight in grams 32 36 33 32 29 24 2.5 41 46 46 41 35 30 5 37 42 45 44 42 38 10 40 49 57 59 51 46 IS 39 52 68 74 71 70 74 76 20 36 48 64 71 80 86 90 93 25 ^7 47 66 78 94 109 118 126 30 37 53 75 94 114 132 143 151 Total 1? gain ^^ for 8 92 132 Remarks wks. see (1) below see (2) below see (3) below see (4) below see (5) below 56 K. at 12 wks. 95 " " 12 " 159 122 " 12 K. = killed. D. = died. (1) 24 gms.^average weight at death. *69 days=average age at death. (2) 30 gms.=:average weight at death. 65 days^average age at death. (3) 4 rats D. at 53, 63, 68, 69 days. 2 rats K. at 12 weeks. (4) 2 rats D. at 51, 65 days. 4 rats K. at 12 weeks. (5) 1 rat D. at 11 weeks. 4 rats K. at 12 weeks. * The average age at death here is high, due to the fact that one rat lived 100 days. TABLE X. Rats from mothers on diet 13 M. No. of Diet rats Milk Age in weeks 6 7 8 9 10 11 94 98 97" 96 95 99 100 101 Average weight in grams 46 52 S3 48 41 32 2.5 51 57 60 59 52 47 36 S 47 58 57 55 48 41 35 10 48 61 70 69 62 54 47 40 15 49 68 82 90 89 86 84 86 20 51 71 89 101 103 109 107 103 25 54 75 99 118 136 153 169 168 30 56 73 103 12S 146 165 182 197 Total 12 ffr's R^-"ks wks. see (1) below see (2) below see (3) below see (4) below see (5) below 102 51 K. at 12 wks, 175 121 " " 12 " 204 148 " " 12 " K. = killed. (1) 32 gms.= 62 days= (2) 36 gms.= 71 days= (3) 35 gms.= 71 days= (4) 40 gms.= 75 days= (5) 2 rats D. 4 rats K. D laverage weight :average age at :average weight :average age at laverage weight :average age at raverage weight :average age at at 74 days. at 12 weeks. . =^ died, at death, death, at death, death, at death, death, at death, death. 16 TABLE XL (Combined results of Tables IX and X.) Rats from mothers on Diet 13 and 13 M. No. of Diet rats Milk % Age in weeks 4 5 6 7 Average weight in grams Total 9 10 11 12 j^^'^ wks. Remarks 10 94 38 42 41 38 34 27 see (1) below 12 98 2.5 46 52 53 50 44 33 see (2) below 10 97 5 41 48 50 48 40 35 see (3) below 10 96 10 43 54 62 63 55 SO see (4) below 11 95 15 44 61 75 83 81 78 79 81 see (5) below 11 99 20 43 58 75 85 91 96 98 97 97 54 K. at 12 wks. 11 100 25 45 59 81 96 113 129 141 145 151 106 " " 12 " 11 101 30 46 62 88 108 129 147 161 172 179 133 " " 12 " K. = killed. D. = died. (1) 27 gms.=average weight at death. 66 days^average age at death. (2) 33 gms.^average weight at death. 68 days^average age at death. (3) 8 rats D. in 69, 68, 63, 53, 75, 73, 69, 67 days. 2 rats K. at 12 weeks. (4) 6 rats D. at 65, 61, 75, 82, 72, 72 days. 4 rats K. at 12 weeks. (5) 3 rats D. at 74, 74, 77 days. 8 rats K. at 12 weeks. The greatest difference in rate of growth for a difference of 5 per cent, in the amount of milk contained in the diet, is found between 20 and 25 per cent. Obviously then the ration containing 25 per cent, of skimmed milk powder is the proper one to use in a study of the change in the water soluble B content of skimmed milk powder upon heating. A study of Tables IX and X further shows a decided dif- ference between the animals from the two sources. Rats from mothers on Diet 13 M grew faster and maintained a higher average weight than the animals from mothers on Diet 13 alone. The young rats from Diet 13 M are evidently more vigorous and therefore make better growth. The data shows that it is essential either to use rats coming from mothers on the same diet or to take the same number of rats from each diet in making up matched lots of rats for comparison. A typical experiment will suffice to show the variation among the individual animals on the same diet. The average 17 figures for 8 cc. milk in Table VI were calculated from the data given in Table XII. TAELE XII. Weights of 10 rats receiving Diet 107 and 8 cc. milk. Age in weeks Total Rat 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 gain for Weight in grams 8 weeks 9 5960 49 63 79 86 87 80 78 81 91 42 9 5962 31 47 63 73 78 17 74 79 83 52 5 5965 55 71 81 80 82 84 85 89 96 41 5 5968 52 67 76 80 11 11 76 82 87 35 5 5994 58 li 87 93 91 84 84 87 93 35 9 5998 50 56 68 I') 80 83 86 85 87 37 5 6002 56 67 82 89 94 96 93 92 89 33 5 6040 56 70 11 82 78 72 11 19 85 29 5 6049....:... 56 11 88 92 91 97 98 103 104 48 5 6055 44 63 11 85 85 80 83 84 92 48 av. for 10 rats 51 65" 78 84 84 83 83 86 91 40 THE EFFECT OF HEAT UPON VITAMIN B IN MILK IN THE DRY AND FLUID STATE. Experiments with Reconstructed. Skimmed Milk Fed Sepa- rately from the Rest of the Diet. The skimmed milk powder used in this work was heated both dry and in the natural fluid state, in the manner described earlier in this paper. The liquid milk was heated for six hours at 100° C. in a boiling water bath and the dry milk for 6, 24 and 48 hours at 100° C. in a constant temperature oven. In the experiments summarized in Table XIII each rat received 8 cc. of the reconstructed milk per day in addition to the basal ration 107, 8 cc, as has been previously shown, being the dose which would be most likely to reveal any modification in the B content of the milk. When the milk was heated dry it was mixed with water (1 gm. milk in 10 cc. water) before feeding. The advantage of this method of feeding is that each animal receives exactly the same amount of the vitamin-containing food whereas in the experiments in which the milk is mixed with the rest of the food, the amount of vitamin the rat gets depends upon how much food it eats. 18 TABLE XIII. Diet 107 and 8 cc. of milk treated in various ways. Age in weeks Total gain for No. of Milk 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 rats treatment 8 weeks Average weight in : grams 10 Unheated S3 70 80 82 86 86 88 91 95 42 10 Heated dry 6 hrs. 54 69 80 83 87 88 89 91 96 42 10 Heated dry 24 hrs. 54 68 76 n 79 n 78 78 80 26 10 Heated dry 48 hrs. 53 67 75 78 82 85 85 86 90 37 10 Heated in fluid state 6 hrs. 54 66 71 67 63 60 57 57 60 6 The results in Table XIV are those of an experiment sim- ilar to the one just described, but in place of 8 cc, each rat received only 7 cc. of milk, this series of experiments having been completed before it was decided that 8 cc. would be the most satisfactory amount. In both experiments all the rats came from mothers on Diet 13 M. TABLE XIV. Diet 94 and 7 cc. of milk treated in various ways. No. of rats Milk cc. : Milk Treatment Age in weeks 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Average weight in grams Total gain for 8 weeks 3 42 43 44 38 32 1 3 7 Unheated 45 59 70 71 71 68 64 64 64 19 4 7 Heated dry 6 hrs. 45 57 72 78 74 71 67 64 62 17 4 7 Heated dry 24 hrs. 46 59 75 78 74 71 67 63 59 13 4 7 Heated dry 48 hrs. 40 50 61 66 69 68 64 57 57 17 4 7 Heated in fluid state 6 hrs. 40 61 68 65 59 53 ^ 1 32 grams = average weight at death, the average age being 53 days. ' S3 grams = average weight at death, the average age being 62 days. There; is apparently a measurable destruction of vitamin B when the milk is heated at 100° for 6 hours in the fluid state. The average growth curve for the ten rats receiving 8 cc. of the reconstructed milk heated six hours at 100° C. corresponds very closely to the average curve of the rats receiving 6 cc. of unheated milk (Tables V and VI). This indicates that ap- proximately one-fourth of the total B in the milk was destroy- ed when the fluid milk was heated for six hours at 100° C. 19 The seasonal differences in the growth of the rats ^- '• *" and the possible seasonal variation in the vitamin content of the milk ^> ^' "• *^- *^' ** are eliminated here, since the experiments (Tables V and VI) were carried on at the same time in the early spring, late winter milk from the same lot being used in both series. The four rats receiving 7 cc. of reconstructed milk which had been heated, died at the ages of 50, 60, 66 and 66 days respectively, while the rats getting the same amount of unheated milk lived till the end of the twelfth week when they were killed. This is additional evidence of the destruc- tion of vitamin B by this heat treatment. Dry heat applied for 6, 24 and 48 hours seems to have little or no deleterious effect, as the weight curves of the control rats receiving unheated milk and of those receiving the heated milk are approximately the same. Experiments with Milk Mixed with the Rest of the Diet. Preliminary experiments reported elsewhere in this paper in- dicate that a change in the vitamin B content of skimmed milk powder may be most easily observed if the milk is mixed with the rest of the diet in the proportion equal to 25 per cent, of the entire mixture. Therefore the unheated milk of Diet 100 was replaced by the milk heated dry for various periods, 6, 24 and 48 hours. The animals from mothers on Diet 13 M and Diet 13 placed on these diets have been summarized separate- ly in Tables XV and XVI and the combined results are given in Table XVII and Chart II, Figure II. It will be noted here again, as was observed from the results of the experiments in which different amounts of milk replaced the starch in Diet 94 (Tables IX and X) that the rate of growth of the animals from Diet 13 M is greater than that of the animals from Diet 13. The total food consumed by the animals on Diet 100 and the diets in which the unheated milk of this ration was re- placed by the milk heated 6, 24 and 48 hours was practically the same in each case. The rats therefore received essentially the same number of calories and equal amounts of protein, of the mineral elements and of the vitamin containing food on the four different diets. 20 TABLE XV. Rats from mothers on Diet 13. No. of Diet rats Milk Milk 4 5 6 t^ % Treatment ^^^^^^^ e in weeks 8 9 10 11 weight in grams 12 Total gain for 8 weeks 6 94 43 49 SO 47 41 33* 8 100 25 Unheated 39 SB 79 90 93 97 99 99 98 59 8 100 8 100 8 100 25 Heated dry 6 hrs. 39 53 75 87 25 Heated dry 24 hrs. 39 52 64 81 25 Heated dry 48 hrs. 39 S3 69 83 93 101 103 102 90 100 105 112 87 97 100 104 106 118 108 67 79 69 * 33 gms.^average weight at death, the average age at death being 60 days. TABLE XVL Rats from mothers on Diet 13 M. No. Milk Milk Age in weeks Total ol rats Diet % Treatment 4 b 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Average weight in grams gain for 8 weeks 7 94 52 57 59 54 49 42 35* 7 100 25 Unheated 52 71 92 109 129 142 149 164 166 114 7 100 25 Heated dry 6 hrs. 53 Ti 92 111 122 135 147 162 166 113 7 100 25 Heated dry 24 hrs. S3 70 88 104 116 125 135 141 149 95 7 100 25 Heated dry 48 hrs. 54 67 83 96 111 132 133 145 151 97 * 35 gms.:=average weight at death, the average age being 67 days. TABLE XVII. (Results of Tables XV and XVI combined.) No. of Diet 13 94 15 100 15 100 15 100 IS 100 Milk Milk Treatment Age in weeks Total 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 gain for Average weight in grams 8 weeks 48 53 55 51 45 35* 25 Unheated 45 64 85 99 110 118 123 129 130 84 25 Heated dry 6 hrs. 45 62 83 98 106 117 124 130 134 88 25- Heated dry 24 hrs. 46 60 17 92 102 112 119 125 132 87 25 Heated dry 48 hrs. 46 59 76 89 98 113 115 125 128 82 * 35 gms.=average weight at death, 64 days being the average age. The conclusions to be drawn from these regarding the heat destruction of vitamin B in the dry state, confirm those of the previous experiment in which the heated milk was fed separately. The average gain in weight for eight weeks on a control diet containing unheated milk and on the diets con- taining the milk heated for 6, 24 and 48 hours is the same. There is evidently no destruction of the vitamin by this treat- ment or the amount of destruction is too small to be detected by either of the methods employed in the present work. 21 SUMMARY A quantitative method for the determination of relative amounts of vitamin B is described. The work comprises eleven comparative studies with a total of thirty-eight varia- tions of the basal diet and includes over six hundred quanti- tative studies of the growth of young rats. An adequate basal ration is described which contains optimum amounts of all the food factors necessary for the growth of young rats with the exception of vitamin B. The most advantageous quantities of milk to feed in order to detect possible differences in the vitamin B content were 8 cc. of skimmed milk or 0.8 gram of skimmed milk powder per rat per day when the milk was fed separately from the rest of the diet ; or 25 per cent, of the total food mixture when the skimmed milk powder was mixed with the basal ration. Feeding the basal ration under the conditions described to experimental animals of suitable age and size and suffi- ciently known dietary history, it is believed to be possible to detect a variation certainly of 25 per cent, and probably of 15 per cent, in the vitamin B content of the food tested. There was no evidence of destruction of vitamin B in milk powder heated dry at 100° C. even when this heating was con- tinued for forty-eight hours. When the milk was heated in the fluid state for six hours at 100° C. there was appreciable destruction of vitamin B. Apparently about one-fourth of the vitamin was destroyed. Vitamin B is therefore very stable to heating at 100° C. in the dry state, but somewhat less stable when heated at the same temoerature in water solution. CHART I. CO 80 10 60 50 40 30 20 10 -10 -20 -30 K ^ -vVy i / /'' '"^^^^ ,y ^ X ■ K /■/.// / ^ y y. i/y/ / ^—i__ r/f ^ ^-^ 7A 4 / >^ ' li// / Hn ^K // ^ <:k f ■ ^ \ \d ^ 10 DAYS FIGURE I. FIGURE II. Figure I. Average gain curves of rats on diet 94 plus various amounts of skimmed milk. Curve 1 Diet 94+15 cc. milk " 2 " 94+12CC. " 3 " 94 + 10 cc. " 4 " 94+ 8cc. " 5 " 94+ 6cc. " 6 " 94+ 4cc. " 7 " 94+ 2cc. Figure II. Average gain curves of rats on diet 107 plus various amounts of skimmed milk. Curve 1 Diet 107 + 12 cc. milk " 2 " 107 + 10 cc. 11 " 3 " 107+ 8cc. It " 4 " 107+ 6cc. It " 5 " 107 no milk K. = killed. D. = died. The last point on the curve is the average age and weight at death. Curves 6 and 7 in Figure I could not be completed as some of the rats died before the end of the experimental period of eight weeks 23 /40 /30 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 SO 40 30 20 C] HA RT ' II. 1 / Y / 1 y ■n u 1 / ^ / X' f/i. A ^ C v N 1 / f/ ) V y^ -— —A mA^ / K /r/v t // // — ^ // // y 'L 5\ 1 7, 10 -10 -''0 ////^ \ 1 , // //// //py ^ 11// ^ "^ -.in , — 10 FIGURE I. FIGURE II. Figure I. Curve 1 Average gain curve of rats on diet 101 (30% milk) " 2 " " " " " " " 100 (25%' milk) 3 4 5 6 7 8 99 (20% milk 95 (15% milk) 96 (10% milk) 97 ( 5% milk) 98 (2.5% milk) 94 (no milk) Figure II. Curve 1 Average gain curve of rats on diet 100 (milk unheated) " " ' " " " " " " 100 (milk heated 2 " 3 " 4 K. = killed. 6 hrs. at 100° C.) " " " " " 100 (milk heated 24 hrs. at 100° C.) " " " " " 100 (milk heated 48 hrs. at 100° C.) D. = died. The last point on the curve is the average age and weight at death. Curves 4, S. and 6 in Figure I could not be completed as some of the rats died before the end of the experimental period of eight weeks. 24 BIBLIOGRAPHY ^ Hopkins : The analyst and the medical man. Analyst 1906 XXXI 385. - Hopkins : Feeding experiments illustrating the importance of accessory factors in normal dietaries. Jour. Physiol. 1912 XLIV 425. ^Osborne and Mendel : Feeding experiments with isolated food substances. Carnegie Inst, of Washington 1911 Pub. No. 156. ''Osborne and Mendel: The relation of growth to the chemi- cal constituents of the diet. lour. Biol. Chem. 1913 XV 311. ^ Osborne and Mendel : The role of vitamines in the diet. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1917 XXXI 149. " Osborne and Mendel : Nutritive factors in plant tissues. II. The distribution of water-soluble vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1919 XXXIX 29. " Osborne and Mendel : Nutritive factors in plant tissues. III. Further observations on the distribution of water- soluble vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XLI 451. * McCollum : The newer knowledge of nutrition 1922. ^ McCollum and Davis : Essential factors in the diet during growth. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1915 XXIII 231. ^° McCollum and Davis : Nutrition with purified food sub- stances. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1915 XX 641. " McCollum and Davis : The nature of the dietary deficiencies of rice. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1915 XXIII 181. '^Eijkman: An illness of fowls similar to beriberi. Vir- chow's Arch. 1897 CXLVIII 823. ^^ Eijkman : Nutritional polyneuritis. Arch. Hyg. 1906 LVIII 150. " Eijkman : Polyneuritis gallinarum and beriberi. Arch. Schiffs-Tropen Hyg. 1911 XV 698. ^^ Funk : The vitamines. Trans, by Dubin 1922. '■^ Funk: Chemical nature of the substance which cures poly- neuritis in birds induced by a diet of polished rice. Jour. Physiol. 1911 XLIII 395, 1912 XLV 75. 25 " Williams : Chemical nature of the vitamines. I. Antineuritic properties of the hydroxypyridines. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1916 XXV 437. '' Williams : Chemical nature of the vitamines. III. The struc- ture of the curative modifications of the hydroxypyri- dines. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1917 XXIX 495. ^" WilHams : Chemistry of the vitamines. Philippine Jour. Sci. 1916 Ser. A XI 49. ^' Williams and Seidell : The chemical nature of the vitamines III. Isomerism in natural antineuritic substances. Jour. Biol. Chem. XXVI 431. " Wildier: La Cellule 1901 XVIII 313. ^^ Sherman and Smith : The vitamins. 1922. -' Williams : The vitamine requirements of yeast. A simple biological test for vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1919 XXXVIII 495. " Williams : A quantitative method for the determination of vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XLII 259. ^° Williams : Vitamine and yeast growth. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1921 XLVI 113. ^^ Bachman : Vitamine requirements of certain yeasts. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1919 XXXIX 235. " Eddy and Stevenson : The suitability of the Bachman test for water-soluble B. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1919 XVII 52. ^*' Eddy and Stevenson : Studies in the vitamine content. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XLIII 295. ^^ Emmett and Stockholm : Water-soluble vitamines. II. The relation of the antineuritic and water-soluble B vita- mines to the yeast growth promoting stimulus. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XLIII 287. ^^ Fulmer, Nelson and Sherwood : The nutritive requirement of yeast. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1921 .XLIII 191. ^' Funk and Dubin : A test for antiberiberi vitamine and its practical application. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XLIV 487. =" McDonald and McCollum : The cultivation of yeast in solu- tions of purified nutrients. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1921 XLV 307. 26 " McDonald and McCollum : The bios of Wildiers and the cultivation of yeast. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1921 XLVI 525. ^' Nelson, Fulmer and Cessna : The nutritional requirements of yeast. III. The synthesis of water-soluble B by yeast. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1921 XLVI 77. '^Souza and McCollum : A study of the factors which interfere with the use of yeast as a test organism for the anti- neuritic substance. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XLIV 113. '"^ Hopkins, Chick et al : Report on the present state of knowl- edge concerning accessory food factors (vitamines). Medical Research Committee Special Report No. 38 1919. '' Edgeworth : Experiments with two methods for the study of vitamin B. Dissertation 1922. ^* McCarrison : Studies in deficiency diseases. Oxford Uni- versity Press. 1921. '" Osborne, Wakeman and Ferry : Preparation of protein free from water soluble vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1919 XXXIX 35. *" Osborne and Mendel : Nutritive value of the wheat kernel. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1919 XXXVII 572. ""^ Kennedy and Dutcher : Vitamine studies. IX. The influence of the diet of the cow upon the quality of the vitamines A and B in milk. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1922 L 339. "*" Hopkins : Note on the vitamine content of milk. Biochem. Jour. 1920 XIV 721. *' Osborne and Mendel : Milk as a source of water-soluble vitamine. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1918 XXXIV 537. ^* Osborne and Mendel : Milk as a source of water-soluble vitamine. II. Jour. Biol. Chem. 1920 XEI 515. 27 VITA Adelaide Spohn was born in Chicago, Illinois, May 25, 1886. In 1908 she received the degree of B. S. from the Uni- versity of Chicago and in 1913 the degree of M. S. from the same University. Since 1908 she has held the following posi- tions : Instructor, Woodstock, Illinois, High School 1908- 1910; Instructor, JoHet, Illinois, Township High School 1910- 1911 ; Research Assistant to Dr. Oscar Riddle at the Univer- sity of Chicago and Station of Experimental Evolution of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1911-1915; Instructor in Chemistry, Teachers College, 1915-1916; Chemical Assistant in the Department of Physiology, Columbia University, 1916 to February, 1918; Instructor in Chemistry Northwestern University, February 1918-1919; Instructor in Chemistry, Pratt Institute, 1919-1920; Research Assistant in Food Chem- istry, Columbia University, 1920-1922. She was co-author with Dr. Oscar Riddle of the following publications : Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in Birds. II. On the Chemical Composition of White and Yel- low Egg Yolk of the Fowl and Pigeon, Am. Jour. Physiol; 1916, XL,I, 397 ; Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in Birds. IV. When a Gland Functions for the First Time is its Secretion the Equivalent of Subsequent Secretions ? Am. Jour. Physiol. 1916, XLI, 419. She has been a graduate student under the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University, during the years 1915-16 and 1920-22. 28 Lansing-Broas Print 231UnionSt. Poughkeepste, N. Y. Iiitermingling Gametophytic and >rophytic Mycelium in Gym-: nosporangium Bermudianum HENRY W. THURSTONi'-jR. SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT-OP THE REQUIREMENTS- FOR THE'DEGREE OF' DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY EN THE FACULTV :' OF PURE SCIENCE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSI|F^,; ; NEW ,tpRK ClTt . . 1922 VOLUME LXXV NUMBER 3 THE BOTANICAL GAZETTE May ig2j INTERMINGLING GAMETOPHYTIC AND SPOROPHYTIC MYCELIUM IN GYMNOSPORANGIUM BERMUDIANUM H. W. Thurston, Jr. (with plates XII, XIII AND POUR FIGURES) The genus Gymnosporangium comprises a group of rusts interest- ing historically because of the fact that the first taxonomic descrip- tion of any rust was a description of a species on Juniperus. This genus is also interesting because the aecidial stages of the heteroe- cious species were for many years supposed to be confined to the family Malaceae, and because of the lack of a repeating or uredo- spore stage. Recent investigations have somewhat changed our conception of the genus. Members of the Rosaceae, Hydrange- aceae, and ]Myricaceae have been added as aecial hosts, and in 1916 Arthur (i) added G. nootkatensis, which possesses true uredospores. One of the most curious associations of spore forms known among the rusts is that found in Gymnosporangium hermudianum (Farlow) Earle on the southern red cedar. This is the only known autoecious species of the genus. It was described by Farlow in 1887 and has since received only passing mention in the literature. Farlow (10) first described the aecidial stage on galls from the red cedar in Ber- muda. He named the fungus Aecidium hermudianum. Not having the teleutospores, he did not recognize the fungus as a Gymnosporan- gium. Galls bearing both aecidia and teleutospores were distrib- uted by Seymoiir and Earle in 1872, and they described the 225 226 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may fungus as a Gymnosporangium, stating " Teleutospore stage follow- ing aecidial stage on the same galls in the spring." In 1896 Underwood and Earle (26) noted that "the species, unlike its congeners, produces its aecidial and teleutosporic stages on the same host, from the same gall, and in all probahihty from the same myceUum." They note also, as did Farlow, the similarity of the galls to those of G. globosum, as well as to another species which has since been described as G.floriforme. Kern (14) in 1911 described the species somewhat more fuUy, and gives a photograph. The fact that teleutosori and aecidia do appear on the same gall, raises the question as to the kind of mycelium from which they arise, and the further question of the relationship of this form to the other gymnosporangia. Olive (19) has shown evidence for the existence of intermingling sporophytic and gametophytic mycelia in certain autoecious perennial rusts such as Puccinia obtegens, on Cirsium arvense var. mite, P. Podophylli on Podophyllum peltatum, and Uromyces Glycyrrhizae on Glycyrrhiza hpidota. It appears that in these cases both kinds of myceUum may be perermial in the same host, each producing the spore form peculiar to it. Olive believes such conditions are rather common among autoecious perennial rusts and arose from an assumption by both myceha of the perennial habit. In P. Podophylli he describes the binucleated myceUum as "often invading the immediate neighborhood of the spermogonia, which arise invariably from a gametophytic myce- lium." He says further that the aecidiospores are not formed on this gametophytic myceHmn, but are secondary in nature and arise from the binucleated mycelium. In P. obtegens and U. Glycyrrhizae also he has described young uredosori formed of uninucleated cells, with binucleated hyphae pushing up into the sorus and forming spores directly. Previous to Olive's work, Sharp (22) had recorded the occur- rence of the two kinds of mycelium in the leaves of plants affected with P. Podophylli. Olive's forms show the sporophytic mycelium crowding out the gametophyte, while in the form I have studied the sporophytic and gametophytic mycelia produce their character- istic spore bearing organs in alternation without interference, although in the same gall. 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 227 The gymnosporangia have as yet been studied but Uttle cyto- logically. Blackman (2), however, gives a full account of the germination of the teleutospore and the accompanying nuclear divisions of G. clavariaeforme on Juniperus communis, and also of the formation of the spermatia on the leaves of the hawthorn. He did not observe the fusion of the cells at the base of the Roesielia, but says it is clear that the transition from the uninucleated to the binucleated condition does take place, as the mycehum at the base of the cup was uninucleated and the spores were binucleated. Stewart (24), in a paper on the anatomy of gymnosporangium galls, has come to the conclusion that the galls caused by G. macropus and G. globosum arise from the axils of the leaves, and are trans- formed axiUary buds, but states that both leaf and stem tissue may be involved. In a later paper and after going over Stewart's material, Weimar (27) reaches the conclusion that the galls caused by G. Juniperi virginiana and G. globosum originate as modified leaves, and that in no case does more than one abnormally large vascular bundle enter the gall. He also concludes that, in order to reach any considerable size, the gaUs must be situated close to the stem, and that galls in such a position become attached to the stem and probably involve stem tissue. In this paper is a good summary of the literature dealing with anatomy of Gymnosporangium. Regarding the primitive condition in the rusts, many different hypotheses have appeared in the literature, detailed discussions of which have been given by Grove (13), Oltve (18), Kern (15), and others. Concerning the interrelations between autoecism and heteroecism, there have been, broadly speaking, two views. The first, as upheld by Olive (18), Christman (3), Dietel (6), Klebahn (17), and Grove (13), is to the effect that primitive rusts were autoecious, and that the heteroecious state arose later by the removal of one spore form to some other host. The other view, as expressed by Kern (15), Dietel (7), and Fischer (12), is that primitive rusts were heteroecious, and later became autoecious in many cases by the dropping out of spore forms. In 1898 Fischer (12) advanced the idea that the primitive rusts were plurivorous, and probably derived from even omnivorous saprophytes. This 228 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may idea, although perhaps tacitly accepted by many, has not received the attention it deserves. Dietel (7) has modified certain of his earher views, and expressed his behef that ancestral rusts were plurivorous, and that they have gradually become more and more specialized and restricted as to hosts. In this he has partially followed Fischer, although he still believes that there are two ways in which heteroecism may have arisen, that is, from other forms already heteroecious (as he believes the whole family Melampsor- aceae to have done) , or in some instances from autoecious forms, as in the case of U. Veratri, which bears its aecidia on Adenostyles spp., and which he would derive from U. Cacaliae, an autoecious form on Adenostyles. Dietel thinks that Gymnosporangium Elissii is a case in which a spore form has jumped to a new host, in this case Myrica outside the family Malaceae to which most of the G3rmnosporangia are restricted, implying that the parasite regains in some measure its original plurivorous habit. It is of course possible to regard the Ufe history of G. Elissii as a good example of the main- tenance of an earlier more plurivorous condition which doubtless prevailed in the genus. Dietel (6) expressed the opinion that G. bermudianum is a primitive form which has not yet become restricted to alternate hosts. Later (7) he considers it to be analogous to the autoecious Melampsora amygdaloidis on Salix, and that both of these species have arisen from heteroecious forms by the removal of the aecidium to the teleutospore host. He has given no indication, however, as to how he would fit either of these rather unusual forms into the larger idea of a plurivorous ancestral condition. For the sake of making possible the utilization of all possible morphological characters in determining the phylogenetic relations of Gymnosporangium, it is worth while to note the differences be- tween Roestelia and Aecidium according to the original descriptions. Rebentisch's diagnosis of Roestelia is as follows: Roestelia Reb. Prod. Florae Neomarchieae Ber. 1804, p. 350. — Peridium filis parallelis apice cohaerentibus compositum e stromate progrediens. Pulvis farinaceus nudus. He makes R. cancellata the type and adds the further description: Aestate in foliis ut macula dilute crocea et punctata apparet, dein tubercula spadicea ibidem proveniunt quae tandem ut peridia conica prominent. Pers. 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 229 Ob peridii structuram proprium genus constituere meretur; itaque ab Aecidiis disjunxi et ex aestumatiss. amici mei Roestel (Pharmacopoli Lands- bergensis) cui haec florula multum debet, nomine Roesteliam vocavi. Persoon diagnoses Aecidium as follows: Aecidium Pars Syst. Nat. 2:1472. 1791.— Theca (membranacea) utrinque glabra, feminibus nudis non cohaerentibus plena. Rebentisch (Prod. Florae Neomarchicae Ber. 1804, p. 351) diagnoses Aecidium as follows: Peridia manifesta teretia, membranacea, demum nupta ore plerumque dentato. Pulvis farinaceus coloratus nudus. Keen (14) finds it possible to make use of the degree and kind of cohesion of the apical cells of the peridium and the method of its dehiscence in keying out the species of Gymnosporangium. Further study of young and vigorously growing material may make it pos- sible to utilize these characters for phylogenetic groupings within the genus. Material and methods Material for cytological investigation was accumulated from aU available sources. An endeavor was made to secure viable spores for cultures, to determine if possible which spore form was capable of infecting the cedar. I have had material of G. bermudianum from Bermuda, Florida, and Mississippi. The greater part of the material, however, was collected near Daytona, Florida, by Dr. R. A. Harper in 1916, and by Dr. B. H. Douglas in 1917, and I am also indebted to Dr. Wortley and Professor H. H. Whetzel for specimens from the Bermuda Islands, the type locality. G. bermudianum from Florida and Mississippi has for its host Juniperus barbadense and /. virginiana L., while the specimens from Bermuda were on /. bermudianum L. G. bermudianum is also reported on J. Lucayana Britt. from the Bahamas. Both Dr. Harper and Dr. Douglas while collecting in Florida found some gaUs very similar to those of G. bermudianum, but considerably larger. Some of these large forms were "smooth," and looked very much like G. macropus, except for a very slightly scaly appearance. Others were quite warted, lobed, or tuberculate, and agreed more nearly with the descriptions of G. floriforme. On 230 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may none of these larger galls were aecidia to be found, although the scaly surface of the ones which were not lobed or warted suggested that an aecidial layer might perhaps have been present earlier in the season. Material has also been secured from Texas which agrees in character with these large galls from Florida, and suggests a possible transition from G. macropus or G. globosum to G. floriforme or even to G. bermudianum. At Biloxi, Mississippi, according to Dr. Tracy, the host is quite abundant, but the fungus is restricted to a small percentage of the trees. In Bermuda, in the vicinity of Paget East, the fungus is somewhat more abundant, occurring on 25-40 per cent of the red cedars, according to Wortley. Specimens of G. bermudianum collected at Biloxi, Mississippi, in January and February, 191 6, and in Florida during January and February, 1917, did not show teleutospores at aU, while the old aecidium cups, often still containing spores, were to be found on nearly every gall. Out of 150 galls only 3 did not show aecidia. Other specimens from Biloxi, collected from March 9 to May 12, 1916, bore teleutospores very sparingly, only 10 galls out of a lot of 241 showing them. Out of this same lot there were 42 galls which appeared perfectly smooth. Many of these, however, were proved to contain young aecidia when subsequently sectioned. Material from Biloxi collected during October and November showed the aecidia in their prime. The galls collected during the period March 9 to May 12, 10 of which bore teleutospores, were all kept under observation in the greenhouse for a period of two weeks or more, and an attempt was made to force more of the teleutosori by placing the twigs bearing the galls in small bottles of water and covering with a belljar, to keep them moist. Three more of the galls did produce teleutosori under this treatment, but the sori were poorly developed. It is probable, however, that under natural conditions a far larger percentage of the galls would have produced teleutospores. Spermagonia have never been observed in connec- tion with G. bermudianum, and are assumed to be lacking. For cytological investigation, material from the foregoing collec- tions was fixed in Flemming's weaker solution and in Bouin's solution. The Bouin solution gave the most reliable and uniform 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGWM results. The usual method of washing and imbedding in paraffin was followed, with the exception that the material was often allowed to remain in the paraffin oven as long as 3-4 weeks. This was necessary especially after the Flemming fixation in order that perfect infiltration might take place. Sections were stained with the Flem- ming triple stain and also with fuchsin and iodine green, which gave very satisfactory differentiation of the mycehum as well as the host tissue. Spore germination Aecidiospores from some of the material collected in the fall of 1916 were tested for germination. Spores were floated on tap water in Syracuse watch glasses, and also dusted over the surface of agar plates. Germination took place readily in the watch glasses and was complete in 2-4 hours. The long germ tubes (fig. i) are typical of aecidiospores, and they contain two nuclei which lie close together and usually near the middle or tip end of the tube. Aecid- iospores from material collected in the winter and in the spring did not germinate. Teleutospores from material collected in the spring of 191 6 were germinated in the infection flames by spraying them with water and then allowing germination to take place in moist air. If^as observed that only a small percentage of the spores in any sorus germinated. The basal cell of the spore usually germinated first. The spores in sori produced in the greenhouse as a result of forcing, as previously described, did not germinate at all. A few 3-ceUed teleutospores were observed and also a few i-ceUed spores. When teleutospores were floated on water in watch glasses in the same method used for aecidiospores, the germ tubes, instead of becoming promyceha, simply grew very long. This was probably the result of being too moist or of becoming submerged. Cultures In an attempt to determine whether aecidiospores or basidio- spores or both were capable of infecting the cedar, several cultures were made as foUows. Young seedKngs of Juniperus barbadense were raised in the greenhouse for this purpose. Trees 6-18 inches 232 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may tall and in a vigorous growing condition were selected and placed in a moist infection frame. Suspensions of spores were sprayed upon the trees with an atomizer. Masses of spores also were rubbed upon branches and leaves, and galls producing spores were hung over them. The trees were allowed to remain 48 hours in the infec- tion frame, and were then set out upon the greenhouse bench. It was ascertained by germination tests at the time of inoculation that the spores used were in viable condition. The results are shown in table I. The trees were kept under observation for nearly two years, but in no case were infections found. TABLE I Date of inoculation No. of trees Kind of spores (from Biloxi, Miss.) Result 8 12 12 Teleutospores Aecidiospores Aecidiospores Negative Negative Negative 10— 29— I 6 An attempt was also made to transfer the fungus to some alter- nate host. In this experiment aecidiospores only were used. Young potted plants of apple, Crataegus, and Amelanchier were sprayed with spore suspensions on the same dates as the preceding, and kept in a moist infection frame for 48 hours. In this case also the results were aU negative. Structure of galls Wetmf.r (27) came to the conclusion that galls caused by the species of Gymnosporangium which he studied (G. Juniperi- virginiani and G. glohosum) always originated as leaf infections, but that especially in older galls or perennial forms stem tissue inay become involved. He mentions the fact that the terminal portion of the leaf remains attached to the gall and may be found there for some time. His contention that Stewart has mistaken a normal axUlary bud for a young gall seems to the writer hardly to be justi- fied. That the galls of G. bermudianum also originate from infec- tion of the axiUary bud seems probable from the evidence at hand, although there is no doubt that most of them involve both leaf and stem tissue. Figs. 7 and 8 show a young gall which in this stage 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 233 seems to be nothing else than a hypertrophied axillary bud. Figs. 9 and 10 are older and show the leaf pushed up and still attached to the gall, as described by Weimee. In these older galls, however, at least part of the basal portion of the leaf which subtended the earlier stage has also gone to form gall tissue. It seems probable from the splitting of the leaf as shown in these iigures that more or less of its tissue has simply shrivelled up. The galls produced by G. bermudiauum are small, usually glob- ular in shape, and rarely over a quarter of an inch in diameter. They are often clustered three or four close together and usually close to the stem. The color is reddish to purplish brown. The surface is smooth and lustrous, becoming somewhat scaly and roughened in old specimens. Dried specimens become quite shrunken and wrinkled, often leaving the aecidium cups protrud- ing as small papillae. The color of the dried specimens does not change. The surface layer of the galls is corky. This cork layer is developed when the gall is very young. Inside the cork layer the gall tissue is very largely made up of large parenchymatous cells. Vascxilar elements are to be seen in nearly every section. The vascular bundles appear much branched and proliferated, the strands penetrating the gaU in all directions, gradually breaking up and connecting with the parenchymatous cells. The mycelium of the fungus is very abundant and appears everywhere, ramifying through the gall between the cells. Proliferation Some of the galls show a pecuhar secondary growth or prolifera- tion of the gaU tissue itself. This new growth appears about the base of an old and apparently dead gall, and gives somewhat the appearance of a twin gaU. Such a condition is pictured in fig. ii, and was noticed in about one-third of over one hundred specimens from Bermuda. It seems probable that the mycelium has pene- trated the stem and remained dormant there, while dying out in the gall proper, untU conditions again become favorable for growth, when new gaU formation takes place. Only binucleated mycehum has been found in these proliferations, which would give rise to teleutospores. Sori, however, have not been observed on these 234 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [mat proliferations. It is suggested that the proUferation may be the means by which the fungus is kept alive during unfavorable periods for growth, and that the sporophytic mycelium is essentially perennial, but only Hves over in the deeper portions of the tissue. Dodge (8) has found in the case of G. Elissii (a stem attacking form) that the mycelium "invades every tissue except cork." Roestelia The roesteliae appear scattered upon the gaUs (fig. 12), which may bear from one to a dozen or more, according to the size of the gaU. They are deeply imbedded in the gall tissue, and surrounded within the gall by a pseudoparenchyma of fungus h)rphae. There is always an abundance of fungus tissue about the bottom and sides of the aecidium. The peridium forms a narrow tube extending some distance above the surface of the gaU and spreading slightly; it is fragile and soon broken up. The roestelia appears to start when the gall is quite young and to grow up with the gaU, at least such would be the inference from its position in the tissues. Some aecidia are never able to rupture the surface tissues, but stiU appear to be full of entirely normal spores. Mature aecidia have been found still imbedded 4-5 cells beneath the epidermis. The material shows that the aecidia always arise from a uninucleated mycelium (text fig. i). It has not been my good fortune to be able to examine aecidial material in the very young stages, but I have nevertheless been able to find fairly abundant evidence that the binucleate condition arises by the fusion of two gametophoric hyphae in the base of the aecidium, as described by Christman (3), Fromme (ii), and others for the more open types of aecidium cups. Fig. 4 shows such a fusion ceU. Multinucleated cells have been described (Olive 19, Richards 21, Fromme ii) at the base of various types of aecidia. Occasionally such cells are to be found in my sections of G. bermudia- num. Fig. 5 shows a 4-nucleated cell, probably the result of the fusion of four cells, although in this case the fusions have not given rise to a spore chain. Kern states that the aecidia of G. hermudianum arise from a biennial mycehimi, but it seems from my studies that the game- 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 235 tophytic mycelium is shorter lived than the sporophytic, which can be demonstrated in the galls at ahnost any time of year. Galls sectioned in the winter after the aecidia have ceased to bear spores show a peculiar appearance of the myceKum, which for a consider- able distance about the cup appears as if the h3q)hae were all dead. This mycehimi takes the stain intensely, and no differentiated struc- tures or nuclei are visible. Somewhat deeper in the tissue myceKum Fig. I. — Section through mature aecidium, showing a, uninucleated myceliiun at base, b, binucleated spores; somewhat diagrammatic. may be found which stains normally and shows two nuclei to the cell. This mycelium would presumably give rise to teleutosori. The gametophytic mycelium is not in any sense crowded out by the sporophytic mycelium. Both kinds appear to function normally, although the gametophytic mycelium, so far as I have observed, does not persist after fruiting. The basal cells from which the chains of spores arise are very long, which might be expected when the long and tubular roesteliae 236 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may are compared with the broader, more open, and cup-shaped aecidia. The length of these cells is from one-fourth to one-third the length of the cup itself. They appear simply as parallel hyphae and are sometimes septate. Teleutosorus The teleutosori are born apparently an)rwhere on the surface of the gall. Usually only a few (1-4) on a single gall, they appear as low, rounded masses, dark cinnamon brown in color. A teleuto- sorus may be found immediately beside an aecidium cup. The sec- tions have shown (fig. 6) that the teleutosorus arises from a binu- cleated mycelium which can usually be traced throughout the Fig. 2. — Section near base of aecidium, showing intermingling of sporophytic and gametophy tic mycelium : a, parenchymatous mycelial tissue surrounding aecidium; drawn with camera lucida and 1/12 oil immersion lens. extent of the gall. At first an aggregation of hyphae appears under the epidermis, which is pushed up, the hyphal tips appearing in quite an orderly palisade. Buffer cells, as described by Dodge (8, 9) for several other species of Gymnosporangium, are present, although I am not able to say that only the ultimate ceU serves in this capacity, or that the penultimate cell always becomes the basal cell. In older sori it would appear that teleutospores may arise ■from cells which are situated 2 or 3 cells removed from the ultimate cell. From a basal cell a cell is cut off, which elongates, and finally divides to form the spore and its stalk. Several stalks may arise from a single basal cell, much as described by Christman (4). The sporophytic hyphae have a noticeably greater diameter than I9231 THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 237 the gametophytic hyphae, and, as already mentioned, the binu- cleated cells of the sporophytic mycehiun can be demonstrated in the galls, even when no teleutospores are being produced. Hyphae with binucleated cells have even been observed close around the pseudoparenchyma of a vigorous aecidium cup (text figs. 2, 3). In cases of this kind, however, it is not always possible to teU with certainty whether such cells belong to a sporophytic mycelium, or whether they may not possibly be gametophytic cells in which the septmn has not been laid down, following a nuclear division. From the size and staining reactions the writer believes this to be true sporophytic mycelium. From the prevalence of binucleated mycelium in so many galls which are bearing aecidospores, and from the "dead" appearance of the gameto- phytic myceliimi after its spores have been produced, it would appear that the sporophytic myceHum is longer lived than the gametophytic, perhaps in some cases perennial (text fig. 4) . Fig. 3. — Section near base of aeci- dium, similar to fig. 2, showing inter- mingling of sporophytic and gameto- phytic mycelium; drawn with camera lucida and r/r2 oil immersion lens. Fig. 4. — Section of gall, showing a, aecidial sorus from uninucleated mycelium, J, teleutosorus from binucleated mycelium; slightly diagrammatic. 238 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may Many of the galls bear scars in the form of a hollow or sunken area, sometimes blackened, but at any rate lacking the t}rpical cork epidermal layers. From their position, number, and general appear- ance I have interpreted these as the scars of teleutosori of previous years. If this is a correct interpretation, it is in support of the view we have here of a perennial or bienpial sporophytic mycelium. Cell invasion and haustoria Haustoria are very numerous, and the material appeared to be favorable for a study of the old question as to whether or not the haustorium really enters the cell, that is, penetrates the plasma membrane, or merely invaginates it. Colley (5) found the white pine blister rust to be favorable material for the study of haustoria. He states that haustoria in Pinus Strohus are always uninucleated (which is perhaps to be expected, since the mycelium is uninu- cleated), and mentions a sheath, which he says resembles the cell wall of the host, but which appears only in old or mature haustoria. He also states that the plasma membrane is not "broken or pierced by the haustorium." Olive (20) states that the haustorium of Botryorhiza Hip- pocrateae pushes in the plasma membrane of the host cell which it invades. The haustoria of this form are multinucleated, and form masses which may almost fill the host cell. Dodge (8) reports large-sized binucleated haustoria in G. clavipes and G. Elissii. Smith (23) undertook a really critical study of haustoria. He describes a thickening of the cellulose wall of the host cell opposite the point of penetration of the fungus, which he believes is due to the deposition of additional cellulose by the plasma membrane stimulated at this point by the attempts of the fungus to enter the cell of the host. Further, he describes the mature haustoria as surrounded by a sheath, and the sheath as being bounded by the plasma membrane. The contents of the sheath he believes to be the disintegrating cellulose of the ingrowth .of the wall. It is Smith's contention that the haustorium does not penetrate the plasma membrane (at least in the early stages), as is shown by the ingrowth of the cellulose of the host cell wall. 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 239 The haustoria of G. bermudianum (as well as those found in sections of some of the larger galls previously mentioned) both from gametophytic and sporophytic myceHum contain regularly one nucleus. No exceptions to this rule have been obser\'ed. There is what I regard as an appressorium, formed on the outside of the cell wall where a haustorium is to be formed (figs. 2, 3). It appears as a thick-walled, rounded-up segment of the hypha, closely pressed against the wall of the host cell, and cut off from the rest of the myceHum by a septum. This organ, which I have called an appres- sorium, appears to be comparable with the organs in the mildews and certain of the Perisporiaceae, which serve as attachment organs and give rise to haustoria. It is also similar to organs described by LuTMAN (17a) for certain smuts. Its function would here be a similar one, serving to hold the fungus mycelium closely appressed to the host cell until penetration is accomplished. From the appressorium a slender hyphal branch grows into the host cell waU to form the haustorium. At first there is a thickening of the host cell waU opposite the point of attack. Whether this is due. to gelatinous swelling of the wall, or whether new cellulose is depos- ited is not clear. In either case the young haustorium soon catches up and penetrates the wall. The plasma membrane (fig. 2) of the host cell is merely thickened about this cellulose papilla or ingrowth, and is very granular in appearance. In later stages the cellulose papilla disappears, and there is often an actual depression in the host cell waU where the haustorium passes through. The haustorium often has a sheath or membrane about it which is wrinkled or shrunken away from the haustorium, and in such cases can clearly be seen. The fact that there is such a noticeable sheath would seem to prove that the plasma membrane is not yet ruptured. A mere invagination of the membrane, however, might be expected to draw the membrane away from the cell walls for a considerable distance on either side of the point of penetration. Such a phenom- enon has not been observed, and the membrane appears closely appressed to the cell wall right up to the penetrating hypha, and often foUows the contour of the haustorium itself so closely as to be scarcely visible. The haustoria are especially numerous in the vicinity of the vascular elements. 240 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may That portion of the parasite which actually penetrates the cell wall of the host is amazingly fine and threadlike. Although the in- tracellular portion may become greater in diameter than the normal mycelial hypha, the nucleus must pass through the cell wall through this slender threadlike tube. Whatever nourishment the parasite gets apparently must also pass through these tubes in a manner similar to the translocation of plastic or dissolved food materials through the so-called protoplasmic connections which exist between the cells of many plant tissues. It is a noticeable fact that the middle lamellae of the host cell walls are rarely visible when the fungus is active, and the walls themselves are much swoUen and appear almost hyahne, taking the stain very faintly. Discussion DiETEL (7), in his most recent discussion of the heteroecious rusts, has accepted in part the hypothesis of Fischer, and beheves that 'the ancestral rust was plurivorous after the manner of sapro- phytic fungi, and in contrast with the very pronounced specificity in choice of host plants that many of the rusts exhibit today. He beheves, however, that there are two ways in which heteroecism may have arisen: (i) from species already heteroecious by the removal of one spore form to another host (here he cites as an example G. Elissii on Myrica, which he thinks of as having arisen from some other species of Gymnosporangium with aecidia on Malaceae) ; (2) from autoecious species, giving here as an example U. Veratri with aecidia on Adenostyles, which he would derive from U. Cacaliae which is an autoecious form also on Adenostyles. The latter method (7) he now admits is much in the minority, although he earlier (6) believed that all heteroecious species originated in this way. He further believes that some of these changes are now going on, the spore form that makes the change to a new host reassuming in a manner its plurivorous habit, while at the same time certain other species are changing from heteroecism to autoe- cism, becoming more specialized by the dropping out of spore forms. Such "reduced species" have appeared as a rule upon the aecidial host of the heteroecious species, and may or may not have resulted in the total disappearance of the heteroecious form. According 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 241 to Dbetel, Chrysomyxa Picea on Ahies in India is a good case of a reduced form that has arisen from a heteroecious one. Melampsora Amygdaloidis {Amygdalinae Kleb.), an autoecious species with the full complement of spore forms on Salix amygdalina and S. pen- tandra, he also considers as having arisen from a heteroecious species (perhaps hke M. Larici-pentandris with Caeoma on Larix), but in this case on the teleutospore hosts of the original species. It seems apparent that Fischer and Dietel have offered a stimulating suggestion in the idea that primitive rusts were plurivor- ous. Dietel in particular has not, in his own mind, accepted all that this impHes. A primitive plurivorous condition fits in well with ideas of the development of parasites from saprophytes as pointed out by Fischer (12), and lately well expressed by Thomas (25). Beginning with plurivory, and becoming more and more restricted and dependent as the parasitic habit has become fixed, certain of the rusts have come to live on two sets of hosts, while others, as for example certain biological strains or races of P graminis, have become further specialized and limited almost to a single species for each generation. Still others, the autoecious forms, have become restricted to a single species or Hmited group of hosts. Among these forms we find aU degrees of restriction, from forms like P. malvacearum, which will attack practically every genus in the mallow family, to forms like P. Buxi, which is, so far as known, confined to the single species Buxus sempervirens. It is even possible that certain forms on perennial hosts such as the thistle rust are becoming restricted to individuals of the species, and may even be losing their power to infect the host by means of their spores. Such restriction and increasing specificity have not been aU in one orderly Hne of course, and may not serve to explain aU the differences and relationships between heteroecious and autoecious species. It is not to be disputed that there is a possi- bility in certain cases of development in the opposite direction, namely, from the more specialized to the less. It is believed, however, that the idea of greater and greater speciaHzation and restriction pictures quite accurately the general tendencies of the group. On this basis it would appear logical to explain the species which Dietel has considered as arising from autoecious forms 242 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may by the fact that they have longer retained their primitive plurivor- ous habit, rather than by assuming (as he apparently does) that they have become specialized and restricted, and then in some mysterious manner regained the power to infect a new type of host. It seems apparent, therefore, that while exhibiting this tendency to become more and more restricted, the rusts as a group are stUl in a plastic state, and that consequently we may expect to find all possible modifications of the usual life history. It is suggested that tropical and semi tropical forms of rusts may well be in a more plastic state as regards their host relationships than are the rusts of more temperate climates. Evidence is acciunulating that infection occurs only on actively growing regions of the host. Where conditions are such as to keep the host in a continuous growing state, new infections may occur repeatedly in a single year. The rusts of the colder climates have of necessity had to adjust themselves to the seasonal changes of their hosts, and have thus probably gained a much greater fixity in their developmental cycles. G. bermudianum may be considered as a reduced specialized species which has learned to live on a single host, without however having lost any spore form except spermatia. It is not impossible that these may yet be found. If we assume with Olive (i8) and others that the ancestral rusts were autoecious upon their present gametophytic hosts, we should have to assiime that G. bermudianum has descended from a totally different ancestor from any other species of the genus, since it is the only one with a gametophytic stage on a juniper. This argument, however, is not very convin- cing. If the developmental tendency has actually been from autoe- cism to heteroecism (Olive i8, Dietel 6, Grove 13), then we are bound to consider G. bermudianum, because of its autoecism, as the most primitive of the Gymnosporangia, while at the same time it possesses a highly developed and specialized type of aecidium. On the other hand, if plurivory has been the ancestral primitive state, we might expect to find some of the Gymnosporangia becom- ing autoecious on one host or the other. Dietel (6) expressed his opinion that this form is a primitive one, not yet restricted to alternate hosts. He has since (7) stated that he considers it to have 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 243 originated from a heteroecious form. By accepting the hypothesis of plurivory as the ancestral condition, it is not necessary to imagine any fixed intermediate state in which this form was restricted to alter- nate hosts, but it is by no means impossible that G. hermudianiim may have a roestelial stage on some species of Crataegus in the south. The discovery of such a form would be most interesting in its bear- ing on the whole problem of heteroecism. As it is known now, it is the most advanced and specialized species of the genus. Because of its semitropical habitat it seems possible that this rust may be in a plastic state. It is not impossible that under suitable condi- tions of artificial inoculation one might be able to infect with it some species of Crataegus or other malaceous host. Relationships Reasoning from host relationships alone, an attempt might be made to show that some sort of relationship exists between G. bermudianum and the species of Peridermium which also have aecidia on conifers. Morphologically, however, the roesteha of G. bermudianum are of course more similar to the aecidia of the Puccinia group of rusts than to the aecidia of Peridermium, although these also show relationships, particularly through the leaf inhabit- ing forms, to the Puccinia type of aecidium. Roestelia was first described as a genus in which the peridial cells remained coherent at the tip of the peridium. Within the genus Gymnosporangium there is a nice transition from this type, as found in forms hke G. juvenescens, to the more open and cuplike aecidium which in forms like G. Elissii on Myrica show all the characters of the aecidium as originally described. This fact was pointed out by Kern (14), and undoubtedly shows, as he has suggested, in what species Gymnosporangium is most closely related to the Puccinia group of rusts. G. bermudianum itself, while its peridium dehisces early, is deep seated within the host, and is so markedly tubular in character that it may be said to conform more nearly to the roesteHal type than to the open and cupulate aecidial type, which fact, however, affords no evidence as to the effect of the host on the morphology of this spore form. This fruit form is certainly as true a roesteha as many of those on malaceous hosts. 244 BOTANICAL GAZETTE may Intermingling mycelia In the case of the perennial forms described by Olive (19), it has not been shown how infection may take place, nor how the binucleate condition arises when the gametophytic mycelium pro- duces only spermogonia. Presumably in these three forms, P Podophylli, P. ohtegens, and U. Glycyrrhizae, both the sporidia and the secondary aecidiospores and uredospores may under suitable conditions infect the host. No one has shown in the case of an autoecious or perennial rust how close the spatial association may be between spores produced on the one hand from gametophytic and on the other hand from sporophytic mycelixma. There are many cases known, of course, where uredospores and teleutospores are produced in the same sorus, one being in Gymnosporangium {G. nootkatensis on Ckamaecy parts nootkatensis) . Olive has de- scribed young sori formed of uninucleated myceUum in which, how- ever, the spores are formed by binucleated hyphae which push in and suppress the uninucleated mycelium. In many autoecious rusts the two kinds of mycelia apparently produce their respective spore forms in close proximity and in succession on the same leaf. U. Cunninghamianus was described by Barclay (la) as producing teleutospores within the aecidium cup, each sorus presumably arising from a separate infection by the other spore form. The genera Allodus and Pucciniola as described in the North American Flora present numerous instances of a similar association of spore forms. In G. Bermudianum the two kinds of mycelium exist side by side in a very close relationship within a single gall, and each produces its spore form apparently unhampered in any way by the presence of the other. As Dietel notes, Melampsora amygdaloidis on Salix is a form analogous to G. bermudianum in being autoecious upon the host which commonly bears the teleuto generation of other species of the genus. This form has been cultured by Kle- BAHN (16), who has succeeded in bringing about infections with both sporidia and aecidiospores. It does not form a gall, and while it might well be an interesting subject for cytological investigation, it cannot be presumed to differ from many other autoecious species. Since cultures of G. bermudianum have so far been unsuccessful we can only speculate on the probabilities as to the infection phenomena. 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 245 The problem as to how the two spore forms from different mycelia come to be found in one and the same gall is quite differ- ent from that presented by perennial forms such as P. Podophylli, P. obtegens, and U. Glycyrrhizae, with which Olive worked. In these forms both kinds of mycelium exist throughout the host from year to year, and in the case of the thistle rust winter in the running rootstocks, and presumably in the underground parts in the other two forms, wlule the galls of G. bermudianum are formed anew every year or two years, and yet they bear two spore forms from two kinds of mycelium. The problem here presented is also believed to be different from that presented by the Allodus and Pucciuiola forms, for while these forms where the teleutosori arise within the aecidium cup need cytological investigation, it seems probable that we are not here concerned with intermingling myceHum, but that the so-called secondary aecidia which are reaUy the morphological equivalent of uredosori arise from the same binucleated mycelium which later bears the teleutospore. If we assume that the aecidiospores only can infect the cedar, we should expect gaUs to be formed which would bear teleutospores first. How then can we account for the presence of the uninucleated mycelium which forms the aecidia? On the other hand, if we assume that sporidia from teleutospores infect the cedar, then we should expect the aecidium to be, as it probably is, the first sorus form produced, but we should stiU be at a loss to account for the appearance of a binucleated myceHum bear- ing teleutospores on the same gall. It would perhaps be more natural to imagine that the cedar is first infected by aecidiospores, as is the case in aU other Gymno- sporangia, and that the gall itself is then reinfected by the sporidia from germinating teleutospores. In my sections I have examined few galls that I can say with certainty have contained only one kind of mycelium. Aecidia are without doubt found on very smaU gaUs, so small that there is room for only one aecidium. Such of these gaUs as I have sectioned show only uninucleated mycelium, although in larger gaUs it is impossible to say with assurance that only one kind of mycelium is present; in fact, galls that only show externally one of the spore forms have almost uniformly revealed in sections the presence of both kinds of mycelium. 246 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may There is some evidence that both teleutospores and aecidiospores can infect the cedar, as has been shown in the case of Melampsora amygdaloidis, where both spore forms of this rust are capable of infecting its host, Salix. ' It seems quite probable that in reality there are three kinds of galls, some bearing teleutospores, some aecidia, and some both, and it would be entirely possible for aecdio- spores to germinate while stiU in the cup and to reinfect the gall. From the evidence that in proliferating galls only sporophytic mycelium has been found, which is probably perennial in character, it would seem that we have here all the possibihties of a case parallel to the early spring production of teleutospores in the Podophyllum rust, and further ground for the assumption that there are three kinds of galls. The sporophytic myceHum in the proHferations could give rise to teleutospores, which upon germination may be supposed to reinfect the cedar and give rise to galls bearing at first only aecidia; some of these by reinfection of the same gall giving rise in turn to a second crop of teleutospores, this time upon the aecidium bearing galls. This work was conducted under the guidance of Professor R. A. Haiuper, to whom I am indebted not only for collections of material but for many helpful suggestions and criticisms. Columbia University New York City LITERATURE CITED 1. Arthtje, J. C, A Gymnosporangium with repeating spores. Amer. Jour. Bot. 3:40-45. 1916. la. Barclay, A., On the life history of a remarkable uredine on Jasminum grandiflorum. Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:141. 1891. 2. Blackman, V. H., On the fertilization, alternation of generations, and general cytology of Uredineae. Ann. Botany 18:323. 1904. 3. Christman, a. H., Sexual reproduction in the rusts. Bot. Gaz. 39: 267-274. 1905. 4. , Alternation of generations and the morphology of spore forms in the rusts. Box. Gaz. 44:81-100. 1907. 5. CoLLEY, R. G., Parasitism, morphology and' cytology of Cronartium rib- icola. Jour. Agric. Res. is: 619-659- 1918. 6. DiETEL, P.,WarendieRostpilzeinFruhemZietenPlurivor? Bot. Central. 79:81-85. 113-117- 1923] THURSTON— GYMNOSPORANGIUM 247 7. , tJber die Wirtswechselnden Rostpilze. 8. Dodge, B. O., Studies in the genus Gymnosporangium. I. Notes on the distribution of the mycelium, buffer cells, and germination of aecidiospore. Brooklyn Bot. Gard. Mem. 1:128-140. 1918. 9. — ■ , Studies in the genus Gymnosporangium. III. The origin of the teleutospore. Mycologia 10:182-193. 1918. 10. Farlow, W. G., Aecidium on Juniperus virginiana. Box. Gaz. 12:205- 207. 1887. 11. Fromme, F. D., Morphology and cytology of the aecidium cup. Box. Gaz. 58:1-35. 1914. 12. Fischer, E., EntwicklungsgeschichtKche Untersuchungen iiber Rostpilze. Beitrage zur Kryptogamen flora der Schweiz. i : part i. 1898. 13. Grove, W. B., The evolution of the higher Uredineae. New Phytol. 12:89-106. 1913. 14. Kern, F. D., A biologic and taxonomic study of the genus Gymnosporan- gium. Bull. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 7:391-483. 1911. 15. — ■ ; The genetic relationship of parasites. Amer. Jour. Bot. 2:116-131. 16. Klebahn, H., Kulturversuche mit Rostpilze VIII. Jahrb. Wissensch. Bot. 34:355- 1900- 17. , Die Wirtswechselnden Rostpilze. 1904. 17a. Luiman, B. F., Some contributions to the Ufe history and cytology of the smuts. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 16:1191-1244. 1910. 18. Olive, E. W., Origin of heteroecism in the rusts. Phytopath. 1:139-149. 1911. 19. — ■ — — , Intermingling of perennial sporophytic and gametophytic genera- tion, etc. Ann. Mycol. 11:297-311. 1913. 20. — ■ ■, Cytological structure of Botryorhiza Hippocrateae. Mem. Brook. Bot. Gard. 1:337-341. 1918. 21. RIC3IARDS, H. M., On some points in the development of aecidia. Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci. 21:255. 1895. 22. Sharp, L. W., Nuclear phenomena in Puccinia Podophylli. Box. Gaz. 51:463-464. 1911. 23. Smxh, G., The haustoria of the Eiysipheae. Box. Gaz. 29:153-184. 1900. 24. Siewart, a.. An anatomical study of Gymnosporangium galls. Amer. Jour. Bot. 2:402-417. 1915. 25. Thomas, H. E., The relation of the health of the host and other factors to infections of Apium graveolens by Sepioria Apii. BuU. Torr. Bot. Club 48:1-29. 1921. 26. Underwood, L. M., and Earle, F. S., Distribution of Gymnosporangium in the south. Box. Gaz. 22:255-258. 1896. 27. Weimer, J. L., Origin and development of the galls produced by two cedar rust fungi. Amer. Jour. Bot. 4:241-251. 1917. 248 BOTANICAL GAZETTE [may EXPLANATION OF PLATES XII, XIII PLATE XII Fig. I. — Germinating aecidiospore, showing two nuclei in germ tube. Fig. 2. — Very young stage in formation of haustorium, showing appres- sorium containing two nuclei. Fig. 3. — Mature haustorium with one nucleus, showing also appressorium and binucleated intercellular myceliiun. Fig. 4. — Fusion cell from base of aecidium, showing origin of binucleated condition. Fig. s. — Four-nucleated cell from base of aecidiiun. Fig. 6. — Young stage in formation of teleutosorus, showing binucleated mycelium. PLATE XIII Figs. 7-10 taken with Carl Zeiss micro planar 35 mm. focal length, all X6; figs. II and 12, X 1.5. Fig. 7. — -Very young gall of G. bermudianum, showing its origin in axil of leaf. Fig. 8. — Same gall with most of surrounding leaves dissected away. Fig. 9. — ^Larger and older gall, showing persistence of leaf, no sori as yet appearing on this gall. Fig. 10. — Location of two yery young galls may be noticed below larger one, which bears remains of old leaf, as in fig. g. Fig. 11. — Proliferated gall, portion nearest stem being alive but bearing no sori, outer portion dead and dry, and bearing remains of aecidia. Fig. 12. — Two aecidial galls, showing protruding peridia. BOTAXICAL GAZETTE, LXXV PLATE XIII 7 ': 9 THURSTON on GYMNOSPORANGIiai VITA Born January 3, 1893, at La Grange, Illinois. Graduated from the University of Illinois, 1915, receiving the degree of Baclftlor of Science. November, 1917-June, 1919: Associate Professor of Plant Pathology and Physiology at Uni- versity of Nebraska. Teaching, station staff and research. June, igig-April, 1920: Pathologist — Office of Cereal Investigations Bureau of Plant Indus- try, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Engaged on Rust Epi- demiology studies in states of the Middle West and Southwest. Field research. April, 1920: Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology, Pennsylvania State College. Research and teaching. Publications: Sex in the Conjugatae and relative frequency of the different types of conjugation. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 46:441-446. 1919. A Phytophthora parasitic on Peony. With C. R. Orton. Science N.S. 54:170-171. 1921. A note on corrosive sublimate treatment for control of Rhizoctonia. Phytopath. 11:150-151. 1921. /x BUDGETARY PROCEDURE FOR A LOCAL SCHOOL SYSTEM By John Wesley Twente, Ph. D. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University New York, N. Y. 1922. BUDGETARY PROCEDURE FOR A LOCAL SCHOOL SYSTEM By John Wesley Twente, Ph. D. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy Coliunbia University New York, N. Y. 1922. H Copuright, 192S by John W. Twentb ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebted- ness to the individuals who have assisted in making possible the completion of this study. He wishes to acknowledge with gratitude his indebtedness to Dr. George D. Strayer, professor of educational admin- istration, Teachers College for making available the major portion of the data used in this study, also, to Dr. Luther Guhck, acting director of the Institute of Public Administration for data on school budgets. More particularly, would the writer express his appre- ciation of the counsel, cooperation, and direction given by Dr. N. L. Engelhardt, professor of educa- tional adnainistration, Teachers College. The list of acknowledgments would be incomplete without giving credit to the writer's wife for her untiring as- sistance in the tabulation and interpretation of the data here presented. J. W. T. CONTENTS Chapter Page Inteoduction 9 I. Statutory Provisions for Budgetary Procedure 13 II. Statutory and Charter Provisions for Budge- tary Procedure in Selected City of New York State 20 III. Existing Practices in Budgetary Procedure in 363 Cities over 8000 Population 35 IV An Analysis of the Budgetary I'eocedvki!; i« Chapters I, II, and III 70 V. Classification of Budget Material 83 VI. Estimating Budget Needs 96 VII. Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 112 Summary of Conclusions 130 Underlying Principles for Budgetary Proce- dure 131 A Proposed School Budget plan 134 Appendices I. School Law References 135 Bibliography 137-139 II. Extracts from School Laws Relating to the Budget 140 III. Source of Data for Chapter III 150 Inquiry on Budgetary Procedure 150 Cities that Contributed to the Inquiry 152 IV. Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Bud- get Data 157 CONTENTS Chapter Page Introduction 9 I . Statutory Pbovisions for Budgetary Procedure 13 II. Statutory and Charter Provisions for Budge- tary Procedure in Selected City of New York State 20 III. Existing Practices in Budgetary in 363 Cities OVER 8000 Population 35 IV An Analysis of the Budgetary Procedure in Chapters I, II, and III 70 V. Classification OF Budget Material 83 VI. Estimating Budget Needs 96 VII. Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 112 Summary of Conclusions 130 Underlying Principles for Budgetary Proce- dure 131 A Proposed School Budget plan 134 Appendices I. School Law References 135 Bibliography 137-139 II. Extracts from School Laws Relating to the Budget 140 III. Source of Data for Chapter III 150 Inquiry on Budgetary Procedure 150 Cities that Contributed to the Inquiry 152 IV. Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Bud- get Data 157 INDEX OF TABLES Number Page I . School Budget Data as Collected from the State School Codes . . 1&-17 II . Frequency with which the Special School Charters of 37 New York Cities Designate Certain Items or Purposes on which Data shall be Given in the Budget Estimate 23 III . Variation in the Dates upon which the Fiscal Year Begins with the Number of Cities for Each Date, 363 Cities Ee- porting 36-37 IV Number of Days that Elapse Between the Date that the Bud- get is Presented to the Reviewing Body and the Initial Date of the Fiscal year, 155 Cities Reporting 40-41 V . Officials, Officers or Board that Most Frequently Compile the Budget, 360 Cities Reporting 42-43 VI . Number of Cities, 357 Reporting, in which the School Board has Final Authority as to the Amount of the Budget Except as Limited by State and City Charter Regula- tions 44 Vn . Nmnber of Cities in which the Mayor has the Power to Veto the Budget, 273 Cities Reporting. . . .■■ 45 VIII. Governmental Bodies, Municipal, County, or State, that Review the School Estimate after it has been Passed by the Board of Education, 187 Cities Reporting 46 IX. Number of Cities in which the Members of the Governmental Bodies that Review the School Budget as Passed by the Board of Education are Elected or Appointed, 142 Cities Reporting 49 X . Variation in the Size of the Governmental Bodies that Review the School Estimate after it has been Passed by the Board of Education, 181 Cities Reporting 50-51 XI . Number of Cities in which the Action of the First Board Other than the Board of Education is Subject to the Approval of Any Other Board, Governing Body, or Committee, 211 Cities Reporting 52 XII. Number of Cities in which Local Authorities Consider Other Budget Estimates at the Same Time that they Consider School Estimates, 207 Cities Reporting 53 8 Index of Tables XIII. Per Cent of the School Budget Estimate that was Adopted Because of Mandatory Legislation, 107 Cities Report- ing 55 XIV Number of Years that the Present Budget Procedure has been in Effect, 202 Cities Reporting 56 XV . Number of Cities in which the Present Budget Plan is Satis- factory or not Satisfactory, 280 Cities Reporting 57 XVI . School Budget Facts for Individual Cities as Reported by Sup- erintendents of Schools in Inquiry No. Ill for the Nar- tional Committee for Chamber of Commerce Coopera- tion with Public Schools, 1921 58-67 XVII . Methods of Reviewing the School Budget Proposal Prevailing in Thirty-Four Financially Independent Cities of More than 100,000 Pouplation 78 XVIII. Increase in Average Daily Attendance and Enrolment for Nine Months 1916-1917 and 1917-1918 100 XIX. Increase in Total Enrolment, Average Nimiber Belonging, and Average Daily Attendance of the School Population in a School System for a Ten Year Period 102 XX . Growth in School Population 104 XXI. Classes Added and Discontinued by Schools and by Years since 1911 106 XXII. Cost Data Based on Enrolment and Average Daily Attendance 113 XXIII . New York State Per PupU Costs Based on A. D. A. Fifty-Nine Cities, 1919-1920 114-125 XXIV New York State Per Pupil Costs based on A. D. A. for Cities 1919-1920 127-128 XXV. New York State Per Pupil Costs Based on A. D. A. for Cities 1920-1921 129 INTRODUCTION In the nearly one hundred references listed in the card catalog of New York City Public Library dealing with some phase of the budget in the national, state, or municipal government as admin- istered in the United States, the school budget is not mentioned. Since approximately one-third of all municipal expenditures are devoted to education, it is evident that the school budget and its administration are of vital concern, not only to the finance officials of a municipality, but to educators as well. What is meant by a budget may be approached by quoting definitions which budget authorities have given. Dr. F. A. Cleve- land, one of the foremost of our authorities upon the subject of budgets, defines the term thus : A budget is a plan for financing an enterprise or govern- ment during a definite period, which is prepared and sub- mitted by a reasonable executive to a representative body (or duly constituted agent) whose approval and authoriza- tion are necessary before the plan may be executed.^ Prof. A. R. Hatton states of the budget that it provides a means through which citizens may assure themselves that their effort which has been diverted to com- munity ends is made to produce the maximum of results for the effort expended.'^ Dr. A. E. Buck of the Bureau of Municipal Research staff states that the budget in the strict sense of that term, is a complete financial plan for a definite period, which is based upon careful estimates both of the expenditure needs and of the probable income of the government.^ Thus definitions given by other writers on the budget might be quoted. Those who have discussed the budget within the last five years generally designate it as a document which gives the expenditure and income program for a definite period of time, ^National Municipal Review, 5:403-10, July 1916. "Annals — American Academy of Political and Social Science, Nov. 1915, p. 7. 'Budget-Making— D. Appleton & Co., New York 1921, p. 2. serves as a means of financial control, and gives public information on matters for which public revenues are expended. This study presents some of the budgetary practices as defined by the state school codes, as reported by superintendents of schools in an inquiry of national scope, and as revealed by a personal in- vestigation of practices in a limited number of cities. Sources of data. (1) State school codes of the forty-eight states as they were available in the Columbia University hbraries. (2) Special charters and statutes regulating school systems in cities of New York State. (3) Replies of superintendents of schools to Inquiry No. Ill by the National Chamber of Commerce Committee Cooperation with the Public Schools and The American City Bureau, 1921. (4) Data on budgetary procedure in school systems, obtained through the Institute of Municipal Research, New York City. (5) Data obtained from the state reports in the office of the Educational linance Inquiry, New York City. (6) Investigation of budget practices in fourteen cities through personal investigation or through an analysis of the budget pro- posals and completed budgets of these cities. Validity of the data. The data as gathered from the state school codes, statutes, or city charters are reliable and correct for the years to which they apply. For most states the latest laws were examined and the results recorded. The facts as tabulated from Inquiry No. Ill, National Chamber of Commerce Committee Cooperation with the Public Schools and American City Bureau are without doubt quite reliable since the superintendents of schools who supplied the information did so with the understanding that their replies might be published and distributed to many school sjrstems. The data from the Institute of Public Administration and the Bureau of Municipal Research were obtained by questionnaire and voluminous correspondence. This material was checked against that from the same cities in Inquiry No. Ill, revealing any dis- crepancies that might be found for some of the cities that replied to both the questionnaire and the inquiry. The data secured by personal investigation, those taken from reports, surveys, and budgets were used just as reported by or found in the sources. The scope of this investigation is limited to: (1) budgetary facts as contained in the state school systems in cities of New York State; (2) budgetary practices as reported by superintendents of schools in cities with a population of 800C or over in an nation wide inquiry; (3) discussion of the present school budget procedures in view of standards that have been accepted by experts in financial management; (4) proposed princi- ples and plans for budgetary procedure in a local school system. CHAPTER I STATUTORY PROVISIONS FOR BUDGETARY PROCEDURE When does the fiscal school year begin? The initial date of the artificial division of the calendar for financial purposes for school districts is indicated by the school codes of 36 states. In 30 states^ it is provided that this date be July 1. In Oregon^ it is the third Monday in June; in Georgia*, January 1; in Colorado*, December 1; in Maryland^, August 1; and in New Mexico*, September 1. In Pennsylvania^ all school districts of the first class begin the fiscal year on January 1 ; the second, third, and fourth class districts, on the first Monday in July. Twelve state codes do not designate the date for the be- ginning of the fiscal year but use the term, school year, which in many cases is not synonymous with the fiscal year. With reference to the fiscal year, when must the budget be presented? In Alabama® and Arizona* the budget must be presented on the first day of the fiscal year; in Florida^", Nebraska^ ^, North Dakota^^, Ohio'^^, and Utah^*, less than one month before; in North Carolina^*, two months before; in Nevada'* and 'Appendix 1 school law references nos. 1,2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; 17., 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46. ''Ibid., school law reference no. 35. *Ibid., school law reference no. 9. *Ibid., school law reference no. 5. ''Ibid., school law reference no. 18. *Ibid., school law reference no. 29. 'Ibid., school law reference no. 36. *Ibid., school law reference no. 1. 'Ibid., school law reference no. 2. "*Ibid., school law reference no. 8. ' 'Ibid., school law reference no. 25. '^Ibid., school law reference no. 32. '^Ibid., school law reference no. 33. ' *Ibid., school law reference no. 42. "Ibid., school law reference no. 31. '*Ibid., school law reference no. 26. 14 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System New Mexico^, three months before; in Deleware' and Vermont', five months before; and in Illinois*, Iowa*, and Montana' the budget must be presented from eight days to two months after the fiscal year begins. The above data have reference to school systems outside the large cities. The variation for cities is given in Table III. Several school codes provide that the budget be presented at the first annual or other designated meeting of the school district. To what extent are the details for the budget estimates presented by school codes? The school codes of 34 states^ define, either in detail or in general, the classifications or items that must be included in the budget estimate. In 34 states^ expenditure estimates are re- quired, whereas in only 10 states* items pertaining to the estimated income for the fiscal period are designated. Four states* desig- nate that the unexpended balance for each specific purpose be given in the estimate. In Oregon^ " , in addition to the estimated expenditures, the budget estimate must include the original esti- mate sheets of every oflBicer and department with unit costs of services, material, and supplies for the last fiscal year. In Ohio^^, besides the estimated expenditures for the coming fiscal period, the budget estimate must give the monthly and total expenditures from each and all funds, the annual expenditures from each fund for the last five years, the monthly average ex- penditures from the several funds for the last year, and the total monthly average from all funds for the last five years. In ^Ibid., school law reference no. 29. *Ibid., shcool law reference no. 7. *Ibid., school law reference no. 43. *Ibid., school law reference no. 11. 'Ibid., school law reference no. 13. •ibid., school law reference no. 24. ^Ibid, school law reference nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. 'Ibid., school law reference nos. 1, 7, 15, 16, 18, 22, 26, 33, 35, 45. •Ibid., school law reference nos. 18, 26, 33, 35. ^ "Ibid., school law reference no. 35. ■• ^Ibid., school law reference no. 33. Statutory Provisions for Budgetary Procedure 15 Nevada^ such classifications as realty valuation, improvemen valuation, personal valuation, and total valuation are made t part of the budget estimate list on which data are given. Th rate of taxation necessary to produce the required amoun must be given in the budget estimates of Missouri^ an( Nevada^. Data on the number of elementary and higl school pupils with pupil costs are made a part of th budget estimates of Vermont*. The number of classification or items required for the budget estimate varies from 12 in Ten nessee', 10 in Nevada^ and Oregon, 9 in Ohio', 8 in Delaware and Kentucky, 7 in Maryland*, 5 in CaUfornia^", Missouri, am Washington, 4 in Connecticut^^, New Hampshire, New Mexico North Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin, 3 in Alabama ^^ Arkansas, Iowa, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey and New York, 2 in Florida^ ^, llhnois, Louisiana, Virginia, am Wyoming to one in Arizona^*, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Soutl Dakota. Ninety different classifications for budget estimate dat; may be Usted by checking schools codes. The frequency of an; one specific classification varies from 8 to 1. Estimates of curren expenses are stated in some form or other in all budget proposals Several states require that the amount for the general fund b estimated; others demand estimates for certain objects. Capita outlay and debt service information is generally not considered a a necessary part of the budget estimates. In the presentation o the budget proposal there is no uniformity as to the form of th budget nor in the number of classifications on which data shall b supplied. ^Ibid., school law reference no. 26. "Ibid., school law reference no. 23. ^Ibid., school law reference no. 26 *Ibid., school law reference no. 43. °Ibid., school law reference no. 40. °Ibid., school law reference nos. 26, 35. 'Ibid., school law reference no. 33. 'Ibid., school law reference nos. 7, 15. *Ibid., school law reference no. 18. ^"Ibid., school law reference nos. 4, 23, 45. ^^Ibjd., school law reference nos. 6, 27, 29, 31, 42, 43, 47. ^*Ibid., school law reference nos. 1, 3, 13, 22, 24, 25, 28, 30. ^ *Ibid., school law reference nos. 8, 11, 16, 44, 48. **Ibid., school law reference nos. 2, 20, 36, 39. 16 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System TABLE I SCHOOL BUDGET DATA AS COLLECTED PROM THE STATE SCHOOL CODES Key to numbers used below: I July. 1 II . Other date than July 1. III. Uses term, school year, not always synonymous with fiscal year. 1 . Estimated receipts from state or county. 2. Estimated receipts from taxation in local district. 3. Estimated expenditures for maintenance. 4 . Estimated expenditures for current expenses. 5 . Estimated expenditures for teachers' salaries. 6. Estimated expenditures for capital outlay. 7. Estimated expenditures for debt service. 8. Estimated amounts to defray expenses. 9. Estimated expenditures for various items. 10. Statement of unexpended balance by funds. 11 . Data on type of activity, work program, that is carried on. 12. Comparative data. Initial Items or classifixxUions on Total number State date of which data are given in the of items fiscal year budget estimates for estimate Alabama 1,2,8 3 Arizona 8 1 Arkansas 4,8,9 3 California 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 5 Colorado Connecticut III 3, 4, 5, 8, 12 5 Delaware 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9 8 Florida 2,3 2 Georgia III Idaho Illinois 2,6 2 Indiana Iowa 3,4,8 3 Kansas Kentucky 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 8 Louisiana 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 9 Maine Maryland II 1, 2, 3, 4, 10 7 Massachusetts III Michigan III 8 1 Minnesota III Mississippi III 1,2,8 3 Missouri I 2, 3, 6, 7, 9 5 Statutory Provisions for Budgetary Procedure 1 TABLE I— {Continued) Montana I 3, 8, n 3 Nebraska I 6,7,9 3 Nevada I 1, 2, 8, 9, 10 10 New Hampshire ^. I 3, 4, 8, 9 4 New Jersey I 1,3,4 3 New Mexico II 3, 4, 6, 7 4 New York III 3,4,5 3 North Carolina I 3, 4, 5, 11 4 North Dakota I Ohio I 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10 9 Oklahoma III Oregon II 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10 10 Pennsylvania II 8 1 Rhode Island I South Carolina I South Dakota I 8 1 Tennessee III 3, 4, 5, 9 12 Texas III Utah I 3, 6, 7, 9 4 Vermont I 8, 11, 12 4 Virginia III 6,8 2 Washington I 1, 2, 6, 7, 8 5 West Virginia I 3, 5, 6, 8 5 Wisconsin III 2,4,8 3 Wyoming II Who submits the budget proposal? For district schools the budget proposal is nearly alway submitted by the board of directors or trustees. Such proposal i referred to the annual meeting for ratification or modification. I: case of a county organization the estimate is prepared and pre sented by the county board of education and is filed with the prope financial county officer which includes said amount in the nex assessment. In the township organization the budget estimate i submitted to the township treasurer who in turn forwards it ti the county clerk to be included in the next tax Ust. The greates differences in practice as to how and by whom the budget estimat must be approved is found in cities This variation will be pre sented in Chapters II and III. Who collects and accounts for the school funds? School moneys for districts, township, or county schools ar collected at the same time, in the same way, by the same person 18 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System as other tax moneys are collected. In the case of the district unit the district treasurer disburses the funds upon the order of the district board, the township treasurer for township schools disburses the funds on the order of the township board, and the county treasurer disburses the funds in county organization units upon the order of the county school board. What data of budgetary value are included in the annual report of the board of education? In 11 states the school code provides that the board of educa- tion make a report concerning the budget transactions for the pre- ceding year. Such report is made either soon after the close of the fiscal year or immediately preceding the annual meeting or at the annual meeting when the election of a school director is to take place. In 5 states such report is made to the public at large; in 3 it is presented at the annual meeting; in 2, to the county super- intendent; and in 1, to the town auditor. The Vermont code pro- vides that such report give the condition of current accompUsh- ments and needs, give an itemized account of expenditures and finances of the district showing the record, number, date, to whom paid, and object of expenditure for the last twelve months for each amount paid out, give the number of elementary and high school pupils, the average amount expended for each pupil, the cost of each separate school, and make recommendations for the coming year. Colorado provides that the report contain an item- ized account of expenditures and finances of the district and a statement of disbursements with receipts. Connecticut requires merely a printed statement of the cost of each and all schools the preceding year. The other states make requirements similar to the above, some demanding specific details and others general statements. What provision is made for auditing the accounts of the board of education? An independent audit of the accounts of the board of educa- tion and of its financial officers is provided for in Alabama, Mis- souri, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Nebraska. In Louisiana the board treasurer is under bond not to disburse any funds for any purposes not designated in the budget. In a Statutory Provisions for Budgetary Procedure 1! number of states the treasurer must keep a record of the warrant drawn, date, amount, person to whom paid, and object of expendi ture besides making a complete report on such transactions. SUMMARY 1. More than one-half the state school codes provide that th fiscal school year shall begin on July 1. Twelve state code use the term, school year, and do not indicate whether it i identical with the fiscal year or not. Some of the state schoo laws specify that in cities the school year shall be identica with that of the municipality. In Pennsylvania the initia date of the fiscal year is determined by the class of the schoc district. 2 . Legislation i n regard to budgetary procedure and budget makin varies as to the kind and amount of data that must be in eluded in the budget. Oregon and Nevada have budge laws which are rather complete in designating the steps o budget making from the time of the preparation of the bud get until its execution. The Ohio budget law states specifi cally what types of information shall be set forth in th annual estimates. The Tennessee code defines a numbe of items for which the required amounts for the next fisca period shall be estimated. 3. Most legislation on budget estimates takes into account th expenditure program only. The income program and worl program are not generally made a part of school budge estimates. 4. Capital outlay and debt service estimates are seldom includei in the annual budget estimate. 5. The board of education is the authority which is responsible fo the preparation, presentation, and execution of the budgel 6. The type of information which the annual report of the boar^ of education shall contain varies in nearly every state. Dat which have value for budgetary purposes are seldom giver 7 . The independent audit of the accounts and records of the boar of education is provided for in seven states. The state code require that the financial officer of the board of educatio give a commercial or personal bond for the faithful perfoi mance of his duty. CHAPTER II STATUTORY AND CHARTER PROVISIONS FOR BUDGET- ARY PROCEDURE IN NEW YORK STATE The General Education Law of New York State provides that the board of education of each district shall present in writing at the annual meeting a detailed statement of money which will be required for the ensuing year for school purposes specifying the several purposes and the amount for each. Such estimate is voted as a whole or, on request of any voter, the items presented shall be voted separately. The voters may increase the amount of any estimated expenditures or reduce the same except for teacher wages and the ordinary contingent expenses of the schools. In villages or cities with union free schools the board of educa- tion submits to the corporate authorities an estimate of expendi- tures for various purposes and the said authorities raise by tax such amounts without increasing or decreasing the same, provided that the voters of such union free school have authorized the pro- posed estimates. In cities having a population of less than one million the board of education prepares an itemized estimate of expenditures for the current or ensuing year for the following purposes : A. 1. Salary of superintendent of schools. 2. Salary of associate or district superintendent. 3 . Salary of examiner. 4. Salary of directors. 5. Salary of supervisors. 6. Salary of principals. 7 . Salary of teachers. 8 . Salary of lecturers. 9 . Salary of special instructors. 10. Salary of auditors. 11 . Salary of medical inspectors. 12. Salary of nurses. 13 . Salary of attendance officers. 14 . Salary, fees, or compensation for other employees of the board of education. Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 2 B. Incidental and contingent expenses. 1 . Building repairs. 2. Fuel and light. 3. Supplies. 4. Text-books. 5. School apparatus. 6. Books. 7. Furniture and fixtures and other articles and servic necessary for the proper maintenance, operation an( support of the schools, Ubraries, and other educational social, or recreational affairs and interests under it management and direction. C. 1. The remodehng and enlarging of buildings. 2. The construction of new buildings. 3 . The furnishing and equipment of buildings. 4 . The purchase of real property for new sites. 5 . The purchase of real property for additional sites. 6 . The purchase of playground or recreation centers ant other educational purposes. 7. To meet any indebtedness or liabiUty incurred fo: purposes in this section. Such itemized estimate is filed on or before September 1 in al cities except in those where special statutes or charters maki budgetary procedure provisions for the local school system. Thirty-seven of the first and second class cities^ with approxi mately 75 per cent of the total number of 5 to 18 year old resi- dents of New York State have special statute and charter pro visions in regard to budgetary procedure'^ for the local schoo system. Sixteen of these cities begin the fiscal year on January 1 10, on August 1 ; 3, on July 1 ; 3, on September 1 ; and for eacl of the dates, April 1, May 1, October 1, November 1, and Decem ber 1, there is one. ^Amsterdam, Auburn, Binghampton, Cohoes, Cortland, Dunkirk, Elmira Fulton, Gloversville, Hudson, Ithaca, Johnstown, Kingston, Little Falls Lockport, Middletown, Mount Vernon, New Rochelle, New York, New- burgh, Niagara Falls, Odgensburg, Oneida, Oneonta, Oswego, Plattsburg Poughkeepsie, Rensselaer, Rochester, Rome, Salamanca, Saratoga Springs, Tonawanda, Utica, Watertown, Watervliet, White Plains. ^See page 27 for plans of procedure for typical cities of New York State. 22 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System The time that elapses between the date of filing the budget estimates and the beginning of the fiscal year varies from 10 months for one city, 6 months for three cities, 5 months for one city, 4 months for two cities, 3 months for five cities, 2 months for four cities, to 1 month or less for eight cities. In Little Falls and Platts- burg an estimate for the current year is made two and one-half months after the fiscal year begins; in Ogdensburg it is submitted one month later than the initial date of the fiscal year. In the remaim'ng ten cities no definite date for submitting the budget proposal is given in the school code. The frequency with which certain items or purposes are stated on which the budget proposal shall give data as listed in Table II varies from 25 to 1. Some of the codes require estimates for definite detailed purposes, while others ask for an estimate on a general classification of items. The number of items or purposes on which any city requires data in the budget estimate varies from a general classification to a detailed statement of the purposes for which estimates are to be made. In 5 cities estimates and data must be given on nine items or purposes; in 1, on eight; in 7, on seven; in 8, on six; in 3, on five; in 2, on two; and in 1] , on one. A detailed statement of anticipated expenditures for various purposes is used by those 11 cities which employ a general statement in designating for what purposes estimates are to be made. The proposed estimates are submitted to the reviewing officials by the board of education. In the laws of Cohoes^ it is stated that such estimate shall be prepared with the aid of the superin- tendent of schools. In 27 cities the board of education prepares a statement of sums of money necessary for a fiscal period and submits the same to a reviewing officer or officials; in 8 cities the board of education fixes, determines, and certifies as to the amount of money needed; in 2 cities the board of education levies and collects by tax the school funds for current expenditures. In 16 of these cities the prepared estimates are submitted to the mayor for review and approval; in 11 cities, to the common council of the city; in 4 cities, to the board of estimate and apportionment; in 1 city, to the [com- mon council and board of estimate and control; in 2 cities, to the ^New York State, Laws 1915, ch. 130, sec. 208. Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 2 TABLE II FREQUENCY WITH WHICH THE 8PBCIA1, SCHOOL CHABTBB8 OP 37 NEW TOR: CITIES DESIGNATE CERTAIN ITEMS OR PURPOSES ON WHICH DATA SHALL B: GIVEN IN A BUDGET ESTIMATE Item or Purpose Frequenc Wages of superintendent and teachers 2 Contingent expenses including wages of clerk, janitors, truant officers, and other assistants and employees as well as incidental expenses 2 Repairing school houses, outhouses, and grounds with their appendages and appurtenances 2 Purchasing, exchanging, improving, and repairing school apparatus 2 Purchasing fuel and lights 1 Purchase, maintenance, and care of the school library 1 Detailed statement of anticipated expenditures for various purposes 1 Rent of school houses and rooms for school purposes Maintenance of the high school and payment of the teachers thereof Purchase and lease of sites for school buildings Insurance Other purposes Payment of charges or expenses incurred by law (fulfill contract) Refundof loans and payment of interest thereon. . j Salaries of all other employees : Buildings -.. . . . Furniture Buildings, including the purchase of sites > Evening schools All other necessary incidental and contingent expenses An estimate of the income of the board of education for the ensuing year . . . Total number of persons registered as pupils in the pubUc schools the preceding year Average membership per month for each school during the year mayor and common council; and in 1 city, to the city clerk. Th reviewing authority may adopt or approve the estimates in 2 cities, may increase certain items in 2 cities, may diminish item in 2 cities, and must adopt, levy, and collect as submitted in 1 cities. In 16 of the 25 cities where the reviewing body is not cone pelled to adopt and collect the estimated amounts, the board c education may by two-thirds to three-fifths vote readopt over th reviewing body's veto or objections the original estimate a prepared and submitted. In those cities where the power t diminish is given to the reviewing body, certain items, such a salaries, necessary contingent expenses, and statutory obligs tions may not be made less than the amounts estimated. 24 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System In those cities where the board of education is the only au- thority that has any power in determining and fixing the amounts to be collected, such boards are usually confined within certain limits beyond which they may not estimate. Some cities have a limitation on the basis of per capita expenditures based on average membership or average daily attendance dxu-ing some past period, and others are limited to a certain percentage of the assessed valuation. In the cities of New York State the city authorities collect the school moneys at the same time and in the same way as other tax moneys are collected. In Ithaca^ the board of education makes out the tax list on the last assessment roll and directs the city chamberlain to collect said amounts. The corporate authori- ties levy and collect the school fund at the same time as other city taxes. In Buffalo'* all expenses of the school department are in- cluded in and paid out of the general fund. The city finance officer, designated in 21 of these cities as city treasurer, in 10 as city chamberlain, in 2 as commissioner of finance, in 1 as city comptroller, is the custodian of the school funds to the credit of the board of education. In 2 cities the school district treasurer is the custodian of the funds, and in 1 city the treasurer of the board of education acts as the custodian of the funds after they have been collected and alloted to the school district as school moneys. In disbursing school funds there are shghtly different pro- cedures, but in each case more than one individual must sign, audit or approve the account before it can be allowed. In 12 cities the funds are disbursed pursuant to a resolution by the board of education which must have the signatures of the president and clerk of the board of education. In 19 cities funds are expended by orders or warrants upon the treasurer, which must have the signatures of at least 2 members of the board of education. In 6 cities all school bills must be audited and are paid as obtains for the settlement of other city bills. In 7 cities it is required that all orders be numbered consecutively giving the payee and fund lipon which drawn. In 7 other cities the orders must specify ^New York State, Laws of 1908, ch. 503, sec. 180. ^New York State, Laws of 1914, ch. 217, sec. 292. Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 25 for what purpose the amount shall be paid as obtains in the case of other bills against the city. The regulations as to how the board of education keeps it- self informed concerning the current condition of the funds, vary widely. In 16 cities the custodian of the school funds shall, on request of the board of education, render a statement as to the balance remaining in any or all funds; in other cities such officer makes a statement at regular intervals. The cities vary in the number and type of reports that must be rendered during a current period. Auburn^ requires that the secretary of the board of educa- tion keep an accurate account of all orders drawn on different funds and that he make a monthly report to the board of education of the amount of orders drawn from the commencement of the fiscal year. As a check against the secretary's report the treasurer must compile a monthly statement giving the condition of the funds in his hands on the first day of each month and the deposi- tory submits an itemized statement on the first of each month listing the deposits and withdrawals for that month and the balance remaining in each fund. In Cohoes'' the members of the board of education are personally hable in permitting an expenditure greater than the amount appropriated, while in Rochester' it is a misdemeanor for any ofiicer of the city during any fiscal year to expend any amount which is in excess of the estimated appro- priations adopted by the common council for such fiscal period. In most cities funds may be expended only for which appropriated. The transfer of funds from one item to another by the board of education is specifically prohibited, while the mayor and chamber- lain may make such transfers on request of the board of education in the city of Oswego*. The board of education in 35 cities is required to include in its annual report some phase of budgetary significance. In 13 cities this report is made at the same time the state superinten- dent's report is rendered; in 7, within one month after the close of the fiscal year; in 6, on the first day of the fiscal year; in 7, within fifteen days after the close of the fiscal year; in 6, within ^New York State, Laws of 1875, ch. 577, sec. 30. ''New York State, Laws of 1915, ch. 130, sec. 216. 'New York State, Laws of 1907, ch. 755, art. 1, sec. 23. *New York State, Laws of 1895, ch. 394, sec. 167, as amended by L. 1899 ch.304. 26 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System ninety days after the close of the fiscal year; and in 1, within one- hundred-fifty days after the close of the fiscal year. In 4 cities such report is rendered before the fiscal year ends, usually at some time with references to the election of the board members. In 20 cities such report is rendered to the common council and mayor, while in 15 cities it is made to the public at large. In 12 cities it is specifically required that such statement be published in an official newspaper or in a paper that has general circulation within the region concerned, and in 7 cities it is a part of the finan- cial report of the city. All these reports give facts concerning the expenditures of the school district for a definite fiscal period. An itemized state- ment of the amount expended or incurred under each head of ex- penditure is given in 29 of these annual reports of the board of education, and the remaining 6 reports give a statement under one or more of the following heads: the amounts paid in salaries; the amount expended by funds; the cost of the operation of the school; an account of all warrants issued. In addition to the current expenditure figures, 8 cities render a report as to the debt service of the district and 1 city gives the condition of the present truant funds. Income figures, by sources and by amounts, are given in either a general or detailed form in many of these reports. The work program is expressed in various ways, some cities requiring data on the number of pupils enrolled, on average daily attendance, and on the number of teachers for a certain fiscal period; some, a general description of the work and condition of the schools; and others, detailed information concerning the management and prog- ress of the schools together with recommendations as to possible improvement and future growth. In addition to the annual report by the board of education it is required in 9 cities that the superintendent of schools render a report to the board of education and the pubhc giving informa- tion which may have potential value for use in the carrying out of a budget plan. The New York City and New Rochelle statutes state that such report shall be a statement of the general condition and needs of the schools of the city with such details as shall be fixed by the by-laws and rules of the board of education. The Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 27 odes of the other cities* b'st certain items on which data shall be ;iven. The condition of the school buildings and equipment, igures on enrollment and attendance of pupils, and curriculum hanges advisable, are considered in these reports. Many educa- ional data which have budgetary value are available in many annual eports that are published by the board of education. 'LANS ILLUSTRATING BUDGETARY PROCEDURE AS PRESCRIBED BY THE CHARTERS FOR VARIOUS CITIES OF NEW YORK STATE The following plans are based on an analysis of the sections >f the special charter and statute regulations that govern the ichool systems in certain locahties. The procedure and the neces- lary steps involved in the carrying out of the budget laws are Uustrated. These plans are indicative of the tjrpe of procedure hat is outlined by statutes and charters for selected New York iities that have special regulations governing the city school lystems. ^Amsterdam, Cortland, Fulton, Mount Vernon, Oneida, Oneonta, Salamanca. 28 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System BEACON, NEW YORK Chapter 539, Laws of 1913 Sec. 102 The school board shall have ex- clusive charge and control of all school matters and school property 1 ' A report and budget is made by the school board to the annual June meeting of the city council for the year beginning next September 1 ^ r Commissioner of finance is custodian of school funds ' ' School funds paid out on the written order of the school board prop- erly countersigned by its president and clerk Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 29 COHOES, NEW YORK Chapter 130, Laws of 1915 Sections 208, 215, 210, 216 Statement by board of education on or before the first day of December of amount neoessary for year beginning next January 1. Such estimate is prepared with the aid of the superintendent of schools Submitted to board of estimate and apportionment; said board must approve and allow the estlniated amounts Submitted to common council; said council has no power to limit said board of educa- tion to sum less than stated in the estimate Said board of education shall apportion to various funds the amount specified In the estimate and shall notify the treasurer and comptroller of such apportionment. Transfer in funds may be made on resolution of said board with the consent of the comptroller and treasurer. School moneys deposited with city treasurer to credit of respective funds under con- trol of board of education School moneys paid out for specific purposes by city treasurer on resolutions of board of education if approved by the city comptroller School board members ' are personally liable for incurring debt in excess of amount appro- priated or provided for specific- school purposes t ^ Board of education within 30 days after the close of the fiscal year makes a report to the common council giving in detail Information concerning the iumbor of scholars, receipt and expenditure of funds for the year ending June 30 last 30 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System CORTLAND, NEW YORK Chapter 160, Laws 1900 Section 158, as amended by L. 1901, oh. 196; 159 Statement by board of education with the counsel of the mayor on or before Ootober 15 of the amount necesjary for year beginning next January !• a. Salary of auperintendent and taschsrB. b. Maintenomoe of high school and payment of teachers. 0. Pepair of school houses, grounds* outhouaee* appurtenances. d. Purohaae and repair of school apparatus, boolcs, furniture, fixtures. e» Purohasq of fuel, light! contingent oxpenaea. X Presented to mayor I May approval ifay rsjoot any Itam within 6 days Sy two*thirds vote may sustain original statement Board of eduoation I j_ May modify to oonform to mayor's objeotion* I yiled with Pity elerk| 1 Common council includes amounts in annual tax and asseasment roll not to exceed one-third of one per 'bent of total asBessed valuation of all property. Limitation may be exossded by two-thirds vote of-ooonoil. Amounts oolleoted and kept by city ohamberlaln to the credit tif board of education Board of eduoation disburses for speclflo purposes all funds by orders upon tha chamberlain _ signed lay the president On request of board of education the ohamber- laln makes a oortifiod statement as to the ooa> dltlon of various funds board of education on or befora the 10th day of January in each year, makea a detailed report as to appropriations and expenditures of school moneys to the common oounoil *If the board of education modifies the estimate to conform to the views expressed by the mayor in his objection, he shall sign and file it with the city clerk or return the same with his objections within twenty-four hours. The board of education shall continue to present statements as aforesaid until the mayor's approval is obtained or until two-thirds of the members of said board agree to pass the same over his objections and said statement when thus approved or passed shall be filed with the city clerk. Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 31 NEW ROCHELLE, NEW YORK Chapter 559, Laws of 1910 Section 62, 63 Detallsd statement of estimated expendii^ures by board of eduoa» tion on or before December 15 for yesu* beginning January 1 a. Salaries b. All other expenses itemized Presented to mayor Placed before board of estimate and apportionment on or before January 15 [May approvel May forthwith make changes, diminish any item or total Board of education may within 10 days by two- thirds vote of all its members readopt estimate r Filed with city clerk Included In an- oual city budget 32 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System ELMIRA, NEW YORK Chapter 370, Laws of 1895 Sections 12, 15, 16, 17, 19 as amended by L. 1094, ch. 189; L. 1901, oh. 464; L. 1911, ch. 522; 20 as amended by L. 1911, ch. 522; 27. Statement -ot estimated amounts made by the board of education on OF before the first regular meeting of the conmion oounoil in October for the year beginning next January 1 a. site fund d. Operation fund b. Building fund e. Contingent ftmd e. Ualntenance fund f . Salary fund 1 ; I Reported to eoimnon eounoil| X — " I May approve I if \ May increase I X I May dfminishl Amounts certified to board of education which shall limit expenditures to appropriations 1. Certifies to board of super- visors on or before the 15th of November the amount to be expended as aforesaid Board of supervisors levies and collects the certified amounts in same manner as money is raised for the health and public relief departments and general election expenses All school funds are in the hands of the city chamber- lain to the credit of the board of education City chamberlain pays out moneys upon drafts drawn by the president and countersigend by the secretary of the board of education which draft is drawn pursuant to a resolution by the board of education Board of education at least 15 days before the annual election of commissioners makes a detailed statement as to the approprl* ations and disbursement of the school fund Statutory and Charter Provisions in Selected City 33 KINGSTON, NEW YORK Y Chapter 494, Laws of 1902 \ _^Sections 172 and 173 as amended by L. 1916, eh. 611; 174 Detailed statement by board of educa- tion on or before July 1, giving the anticipated expenditures for various purposes fop year beginning next August 1 ICertified to mayor and council | Common council considers es- tlmato on or before July 15 May reduce or revise With in two days May approve estimate j Board of education con— - siders revised estimate Two-thirds vote of board of educa- tion sustains original estimate May modify estimate • to conform to mayor's objections and return to him for his signature Filed with city clerk by July 20 Common council levies and col- lects amounts as determined School funds in hands of oity trsasuror to credit of board of education School funde disbursed by city treasurer on warrants signed by the president and clerk of the board of education City treasurer renders to board of education* when required, state- ment giving detailed information concerning school funds in his hands Estimate must have the mayor's signatiire or be passed by two-thirds vote of board of education members over mayor's veto before it may be filed with the city clerk. 34 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System SUMMARY 1 . The cities of New York State with special statute and charter provisions governing the school systems present several plans of budgetary procedure. 2. The mayor or the governing body of the municipah'ties with special charter and statute provisions regulating the school systems, has the reviewing power of the expenditures to be made for educational purposes; but in the majority of these cities the board of education may exercise final authority as to the amounts that shall be expended for the schools. 3 . The General Education Law of New York State provides that estimated expenditures be made in three divisions : one for salaries, one for incidental and contingent expenses, and another for capital outlay and debt service. Each of these divisions has many details listed for which estimates shall be made. 4. The income and work programs are not included as a part of the budget estimates in many cities. 5. The board of educEktion has the spending power in nearly all cases. In a few instances the city finance authorities must approve and audit the board of education bills and accounts. 6. Boards of education make annual reports to the public at large giving financial facts in the form of an operation or balance statement without any comment of justification for such expenditures. Some superintendents and boards of education issue a report which gives intelUgible information in regard to school activities and expenditures. CHAPTER III EXISTING PRACTICES IN BUDGETARY PROCEDURE IN 363 CITIES OVER 8000 POPULATION* When does the fiscal school year begin? Table III makes a distribution of 363 cities giving the number of cities for each date according to size and geographical location. Fifty-nine per cent of the total number of cities begin the fiscal year on July 1; 14 per cent, on January 1 and September I each; and the remaining cities are distributed among eleven different dates. The larger the city the more likely it is that the fiscal year does not begin on July 1. Of 124 Eastern cities 32 per cent begin the fiscal year on January 1 and 44 per cent on July 1. Eighty-seven per cent of the Great Plains cities, 85 per cent of the Western, 70 per cent of the Southern, begin the fiscal year on July 1. How much time intervenes between the date that the bvdget is pre- sented to the reviewing body and the beginning of the fiscal year? In Table IV the responses to this question for 155 cities are tabulated according to size and geographical location. Fifteen per cent of them give less than 15 days for the consideration of the budget; 3 per cent, fifteen to thirty days; 11 per cent, thirty to sixty days; 14 per cent, sixty to ninety days; and 25 per cent, over ninety days. Thirty-two per cent of these cities consider the budget after the fiscal period begins. It is interesting to note that for 33 per cent of the total Eastern group cities here represent- ed, the intervening time is from one hundred twenty to one hun- dred fifty days; 15 per cent present the budget thirty to sixty days after the fiscal year begins; and 18 per cent give less than fifteen days in which to discuss the budget proposal. There is no city in the Southern group here hsted in which the budget is proposed after the beginning of the fiscal period. In 20 per cent of these Southern citieS the time for reviewing the budget proposal is limited to less than fifteen days; in 6 per cent, from fifteen to thirty Data from Inquiry No. Ill, by Chamber of Commerce Committee Coopera- tion with the Public Schools and American City Bureau, 1921. 36 Bvdgetary Procedure for a Local School System 5 I o p X ^ S " S 'o n O H O P< P » g o E^ ootoosi-H Tio T)or-. t>co50eoN eoi-i(N>-i ■-< CO Si >*< rt rH eC rH N rH 05 CO 13 1-H rt CO tH rt CO ?3°' 3 00 "3 (N lO M i-< N «0 ^°' •J q rt ^ -H U) rt •3 3 o >*< - rt CO !O(M->J<-*00 m05T)(O5iO 10-^IN'*>0 CO (N CO eO rl 1-H rt I- !0 -^ ^ CO •s "to" 1-H rH 1— ( l-H •* rt ^1 X5 »— I i-H CO •a tH iH rH l-H ■* rt W rH f-4 rH lO rH «i rH ii CO •^rH rHCCrH UDNCJrH ss » J U"S"§| |l||l ll-^-§| s§gs| is66^ M^MMi WoqOO^ c Si S, S, 22222 r233^r2 tTH^r™™ 1 Existing Practices in 363 Cities 37 CO 00 " IM ■* o IN ■>i)i CO y IN "3 O "3 CO H r-1 r-t y 0 t- CO C^ rH »0 -^ CO rH TJ4 r-i rH 1-* rH rH O to CD OS l> •* IM rH CO lO rH lO O O IN rH IN t~INrHCOrHtO-J g ^ O a H i^ CO M H £ m u lO H to M 1-1 O ^ g^ n s S s •6. O s ^ tooooioeo NeooNM ON-l M 1-1 i-c 11 s '•J2 5§ * »1 11 5§ h '3' •1 o 1— 1 O i-i CO *-t CO iH 1-1 to CO « n 5§ * HI CO CO rt t» U3 1 ^ -H b- IN M-*NN 1-1 §52 a 1 i ^ TjirtCOrt rtrt^ rt(N M 11 11 5§ I— 1 1-1 i-i C^ IM lo eo 1 ^ 1-1 iH i-( rH •* CO •y 1 ■S °> h i-« 1-1 C^ i1 a <=:* ^ ON'^iHW Mi-lIN S52 i gjjH^PHg S3j^^_g g5gh:i(i t^ N 00 .-H »-H T-H I— I CO IN (N CO tH CO in I CN CO l-H CO CO CO T-1 ■* 00 ■* •* o to t» 00 ■* M OJ O C3> 1— ( INrt,-! 1-HCOCOCO lO (N lO (N « U5 CO i-H CO •* IN lO l-H 1-1 ■* TJH T)( lO O t~ ■*-*l>rtlNcOiOiO 1 o IN (N CO rt t^ 00 M 00 05 CO O CO 1-1 O lO to 1 o 1-1 1-11-1 1-1 CO >o 1—1 , 05 CO lO O 00 IN to-* C^(NC5lOt~»00 IN (N r-l (N CO IN 00 CO IN ! o pa o m e5 W N S CO M ?3;^g53"' CO 0» 00 lO b- »-l i « IN IM O <0 •* CO lo i~ m rt lO CO CO IN CO ?2g 1 0 C<| ,H f-4 1-4 rt rH e^ CO (N S?'' ■3 > in IN >-i 0 CO lo eo .-c eg lO ^ IN (D m o o =3 ^ g ^^3 T3 -a T3 -S 13 § s s i S « j3 -g -g ^ 1 §> s 11 S c3 § S S 3 Existing Practices in 363 Cities 43 t~ to ■) 00 -"ll 'J' 00 O lO CO (N Tj( o lO CO »l OS OS U5 N N »H T-H 1-t M -^ 3 CO -H OS >0 N » U3 OS 00 d O H '3IN'*i-i*, •« ts ° ° 3 ^ ^ g c o S eg S 3 "2 -d O III ^, ^ ^ S «^ cS CO m . _ 03 cf V m _ * c o o 0^ ja & o 3 02 02 W O CO a a o o ^ 2 .9 -5 &•" 3 O x: o3 •^ ^ a 3 m o '3 -2 .9 ^ fe 0< ->^ 3 3 a 02 02 as ._ is- 3 g "O as .2 a 3 W 2 = o. o as ja .3 O 1) i^« ft 3 a < S w o3 Q S ^ an a ■-) ■7-1 ■^ a « 44 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System TABLE VI NUMBER OP CITIES, 357 KEPORTING, IN WHICH THE SCHOOL BOARD HAS FINAL ATTTHORITY AS TO THE AMOUNT OP THE BUDGET EXCEPT AS LIMITED BY STATE AND CITT CHARTER REGULATIONS Distributed according to size and geographical location (a). Cities Yes No Total Small Eastern 34 37 71 Small Southern 14 16 30 Small Great Lakes 36 30 66 Small Great Plains 31 8 39 Small Western 3 17 20 Middle Eastern 9 25 34 Middle Southern 5 6 11 Middle Great Lakes 15 13 28 Middle Great Plains 9 2 11 Middle Western 2 3 5 Large Eastern 4 11 15 Large Southern 4 3 7 Large Great Lakes 3 5 8 Large Great Plains 4 1 5 Large Western 3 4 7 Total 176 181 357 % of total 49 51 Total small 118 108 226 Total middle 40 49 89 Total large 18 24 42 % of total small 52 48 % of total middle 45 55 % of total large 43 57 Total Eastern 47 73 120 Total Southern 23 25 48 Total Great Lakes 54 48 102 Total Great Plains 44 11 55 Total Western 8 24 32 % of total Eastern 39 61 % of total Southern 48 52 % of total Great Lakes 53 47 % of total Great Plains 80 20 % of total Western 25 75 (a) For explanation of size and geographical location see page 152. Existing Practices in 363 Cities TABLE VII 45 NTJMBEB OF CITIES IN WHICH THE MATOK HAS THE POWER TO VETO THE BUDGET, 273 CITIES EEPOKTING Distributed according to size and geographical location (a) . Cities Yes No Total Small Eastern 3 43 46 Small Southern 21 21 Small Great Lakes 2 51 53 Small Great Plains 29 29 Small Western 1 16 17 Middle Eastern 9 18 27 Middle Southern 11 11 Middle Great Lakes 3 18 21 Middle Great Plains 6 6 Middle Western 4 4 Large Eastern 6 8 14 Large Southern 2 6 8 Large Great Lakes 1 8 9 Large Great Plains 3 3 Large Western 1 3 4 Total 28 245 273 % of total 10 90 Total small 6 160 166 Total middle 12 57 69 Total large 10 28 38 % of total small 4 96 % of total middle 17 83 % of total large 30 70 Total Eastern 18 69 87 Total Southern 2 38 40 Total Great Lakes 6 77 83 Total Great Plains 38 38 Total Western 2 23 25 % of total Eastern 21 79 % of total Southern 5 95 % of total Great Lakes 7 93 % of total Great Plains 100 % of total Western 8 92 (a) For explanation of size and geographical location see page 152. 46 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System TABLE VIII GOVBKNMBNTAL BODIES, MUNICIPAL, COUNTY OR 8TATB,THAT REVIBW THE SCHOOL ESTIMATE AFTER IT HAS BEEN PASSED BY THE BOARD OP EDUCATION, 187 CITIES REPORTING Distributedaccording to size and geographical location (a) Cities Number of cities in each group I* II* III* IV* V* VI* Total Small Eastern 13 12 11 2 10 48 Small Southern 7 6 12 Small Great Lakes 6 19 1 5 31 Small Great Plains 1 3 4 Small Western 6 12 18 Middle Eastern 2 15 7 3 27 Middle Southern 5 5 Middle Great Lakes 4 1 3 2 2 12 Middle Great Plains 3 3 Middle Western 2 2 Large Eastern 2 2 6 10 Large Southern 3 1 4 Large Great Lakes 1 3 1 5 Large Great Plains 2 2 Large Western 4 4 Total 17 66 27 31 34 22 187 % of total 9 30 14 16 18 12 Total small 13 26 11 25 23 15 113 Total middle 22 24 8 3 7 5 49 Total large 2 6 8 3 4 2 25 % of total small 11 23 10 22 20 13 % of total middle 4 49 16 6 14 10 % of total large 8 24 32 12 16 8 Total Eastern 17 29 24 2 13 85 Total Southern 15 1 5 1 22 Total Great Lakes 11 25 3 8 47 Total Great Plains 1 2 6 9 Total Western 6 18 24 % of total Eastern 20 34 28 3 15 % of total Southern 68 5 23 4 % of total Great Lakes 23 53 6 17 % of total Great Plains 11 22 67 or „f +„+oi -nr^n+n-n OK •TE Existing Practices in 363 Cities 47 I. Finance Committee; Town Finance Board; Finance Committee and Mayor. II. Mayor amd Municipal Council; Mayor and Aldermen; Mayor and City Commission; Municipal Council; City Commission; Court of Common Council; Municipal Council and Board of Taxation; Board of Aldermen; Selectmen. III. Board of Estimate; Board of School Estimate. IV. Budget Commission. V. County Board of Review; County Board of Supervision; Board of County Commissioners; County Board of Education; Advisory Board and County Commissioners; County Excise Board; County Council. VI. Mayor; Town Meeting; Appropriation Committee; State Tax Com- mission; Commission of the District of Columbia. In 9 per cent of these cities the committee on finance reviews the proposed expenditures for educational purposes ; in 30 per cent the municipal legislative and executive bodies; in 14 per cent the board of estimates; in 16 per cent the budget commission; in 18 per cent a county board; and in 12 per cent either the mayor, the tax commission, the appropriation committee, or the electors at a town meeting. The larger cities are more Hkely to have a permanent committee or board which acts as a reviewing authority for estimates. In Eastern and Southern groups the municipal governmental officials more frequently act as the reviewers of the proposed expenditures for school purposes. How are members for the reviewing bodies selected? One hundred forty-two cities of the group in Table IX indi- cated whether the members of such reviewing bodies were elected or appointed. In Table IX, 27 per cent of the cities have the members appointed, while in 73 per cent they are elected. The larger cities are more likely to have members of such reviewing bodies elected. Fifty-nine per cent of the Eastern group cities have such bodies elected while in 90 per cent of the Southern and 100 per cent of the Great Plains cities they are elected. What is the size of the governmental reviewing bodyf Table X shows that the ^ize of such reviewing body varies from 1 member to 43. The median number of members is 5. Twenty-three per cent of these cities have a reviewing body of three and 28 per cent have five members on such body. Twenty-seven per 48 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System cent of the small sized group cities, 12 per cent of the middle sized group, and 30 per cent of the large sized group have a board con- sisting of three members. Thirty-three per cent of the Eastern cities, 29 per cent of the Southern cities, and 67 per cent of the Western cities have five members on the reviewing body, while 78 per cent of the Great Plains cities have seven, and 67 per cent of the Great Lakes cities have three. The reviewing bodies with 143 and 263 members are composed of electors in cities where the budget proposal is submitted to a town meeting for consideration and approval. How many cities have a second authority that must review a budget proposal? Table XI shows that there are still a few cities in which a second reviewing body must approve a school budget estimate after the first reviewing body has taken action. Out of 211 cities which checked this question, forty-seven cities or 22 per cent have a second reviewing authority. Thirty-two per cent of the cities in the large sized group; 20 per cent of the middle sized group, and 21 per cent of the small sized group, have a second reviewing body which passes on the board of education estimate. Forty-one per cent of the cities located in the Eastern section, 17 per cent of the cities located in the Western section, 13 per cent of the Southern section cities, and 11 per cent of the cities in the Great Lakes group, have a second body which reviews the school estimate. The Great Plains section does not record a single city with this cumbersome step as a part of school budget procedure. In how many cities do the authorities consider the school budget at the same time that they consider other departmental estimates? Table XII makes a distribution of 207 cities that replied to this question. In 61 per cent of these cities the school budget estimate must compete with other departments for funds. This is true for cities of all sized groups as well as for the Eastern, Great Lakes, and Western groups. In the Great Plains section 62 per cent of the cities have the school budget estimate considered separately from other departmental estimates. Existing Practices in 363 Cities 49 TABLE IX NUMBER OP CITIES IN WHICH THE MEMBERS OP THE GOVERNMENTAL BODIES THAT REVIEW THE SCHOOL BUDGET AS PASSED BY THE BOARD OP EDUCATION ARE ELECTED OK APPOINTED, 142 CITIES REPORTING Distributed according to size and geographical location (a) Cities Appointed Elected Total Small Eastern 21 20 41 Small Southern 1 11 12 Small Great Lakes 2 7 9 Small Great Plains 8 8 Small Western 16 16 Middle Eastern 6 16 22 Middle Southern 5 5 Middle Great Lakes 3 5 8 Middle Great Plains Middle Western 1 2 3 Large Eastern 3 8 11 Large Southern 1 2 3 Large Great Lakes 1 1 Large Great Plains Large Western 3 3 Dotal 38 104 142 Vo of total 27 73 Dotal small 24 62 86 Dotal middle 10 28 38 Dotal large 4 14 18 Vo of total small 28 72 Vo of total middle 26 74 7o of total large 22 78 Total Eastern 30 44 74 Total Southern 2 18 20 Total Great Lakes 5 13 18 Total Great Plains 8 8 Total Western 1 21 22 "^0 of total Eastern 41 59 ^ of total Southern 10 90 ^ of total Great Lakes 27 73 i of total Great Plains 100 i of total Western 5 95 i) For explanation of size and geographical location see page 152. 50 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System X ^ tH CM CO .-I N .-( i-H 00 I-H 9S ^-» i-H ■* 8 t^ -H •£! I-H I-H I-H i-l .* 00 I-H -? «> t» (M N I-H CD I-H a U5 mtOi-H a> to ^ <>i lo lOi-H cq 3 c5 p ^ N N I-H lO cc SO C.H I-H I-H i-H I-H .* IN s l|-§-§| I'^lli .2|-§-s| oQEjajasS r^ci^*;^ht> saojcjg WoaOO^ ajoajoaj WoqOOiS = a ;s a ^ g ^3 g ^ g a S, Si a a flfliflfl 3:233^ t?tfg'£?£? JJJiiJ §§§§§ ^^K^tSt^ 1 Exisitng Practices in 363 Cities 51 1-3 •* (M m -< Tjl (M 1-H IN 00 00 05 Tjl I l> N T)H P) 1 CO ^ ^ 1 ^ CO I— I 1—1 [ T-H TjH tH i— I i-H i-H ^ 1 1-1 T-l .-I 1 CO ^ »H r-t T-H 1 1-1 T-< l-i 1 CO ■* COIMCO>0 COIM TtHt> (N ^ l-H i-H 1-1 N - 1 Cii-i'^ CO Tj< rH tH IN 1-1 CO "; •* Til (N 1-1 to 1> IN 1 o to 1 Ttl OO lOJIN 00>O I05IN S'^ ] 05 -^ 00 lO CO M IN 1-1 C. i -H lO "O ^^ cq O CO IN t-l IN INCioeor-itt>io-*Tti Cl 111 rt<>-(oi>'oeoejusOi-i ■*oow50irat~Ni^i^eo »HeoM»H NM.-l>-l 50NTtia>Nt~e>t-occo U5lOlOTtlTl<-*^i*'*COCO tH 05 i-H OS 00 05 to "5 rH Oi iH rH OS CO I-H S i-H 2 1 T-l 1 I-H 1 t-t 1 to 1 «5 OS 1 OS iH ci 1-i I-H o» i-H 1 1— t 1— 1 1 o I-H 05 iH g ^ » o pq o a o * Estimating Budget Needs 103 The superintendent uses data as listed in the above table in determining the probable increases in pupils the coming year. It may be noted that whether he computes on bases of total enrol- ment, average number belonging, or on average daily attendance, the increase, if taken for the period since the close of the war, is quite constant year by year and if the average for the last two or three years is figured, the growth is rather fixed. In actual prac- tice the superintendent provides teachers on the basis of five per cent increment in enrolment annually. How many teachers will be used to take care of the increment depends on the policy of the school system as to the number of pupils for whom, under existing conditions, one teacher should be provided. Using such a figure as the divisor the number of teachers is easily obtained and the extra amount to be included in the budget can be figured according to the prevaiUng schedule. The superintendent of schools at Paterson, New Jersey esti- mates any additional elementary teachers that may be needed on the basis of the change in enrolment as shown by the figures of January compared with January, June with June, and September with September. The enrolment for these dates indicates what the rate of school growth is and it is on the average of these figures that he estimates the number of pupils for whom additional teachers must be provided. For the estimate of the number of high school teachers needed, in addition to the above facts, there are obtained from the parochial schools the number of pupils that will be sent to the public high school. The allotment for regular teachers is provided for according to a fixed schedule and a lump sum appro- priation is made for any additional teachers that may be needed. The board of education acts as a committee on repairs. Each commissioner looks after three schools and recommends altera- tions and repairs. The principal of the building, the superinten- dent of schools, and the secretary of the board of education make estimates as to the cost of recommended repairs and the board as a whole acts on these estimates. Text-books and supphes are esti- mated on the enrolment of pupils. In 1921-1922 the budget pro- vided $1.46 for text-books and supphes for each child enrolled in the schools. Neither the budget estimate not the supplemen- tary data have any figures on unit costs. Comparisons for the various items are made with the figures of the previous year. 104 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System Increase in enrolment 00 00 OJ ■* CO (N U3 (N CO O 0> rt to ^ 1^ S i-t ■»*< CD ■* T-l C^ OS 05 "-1 >o ■* o o >o ,-H CO CO t* lO 00 W3 i s CO to t^ O 00 O TT to t- •* >n 00 ■* 1-1 i-H O T-H lO rti to >-l •* CO "5 ll ©4 CO CO -iOINO Si 1 INOOC^lpiH.-iO'FHrt 3 1 \ '^ i §! II 8 I! ■3' j: n i-H ■Ht-<0(M.-i(N00t-(0 .S -(INrHONO o i-Hi-HfHCflOi-tOO^Hi-H ^1 00 CO i-H i-Hi-HONi-HO'HO'-lO » 1 (NO0NOrt.H0lNO IN0(NrHOO.-lTM,HO 1111111111 o -♦* T3 to o 3 S a - ., « ^i ^ ^ ^ (U m ID Estimating Budget Needs 107 classes are combined or when a class is divided. It is interesting to note that for the whole staff of elementary teachers for Newark, the estimate for 1921-1922 was in error by only one teacher. The following list indicates the tjrpe of information on which superintendents compile data in estimating the number of teachers for budgetary purposes: Comparative enrolment and attendance data for the whole school system at the end of the year. Comparative enrolment and attendance data for the whole school system on three different dates : January with January, June with June, September with September. Comparative enrolment and attendance data by departments. Comparative enrolment and attendance data by subjects. Comparative data on the average number belonging at the end of the year. Difference in growth between the first half and last half of the year. Principal's estimates by grades and buildings. Supervisor's estimates by grades and buildings. Enrolment and attendance facts for private schools. Probable condition of the employment situation. Number of pupils per teacher in different grades and subjects. Number of new classes begun and classes discontinued by years and schools. It is evident that there is no common practice among school systems as to the bases on which the number of teachers to be employed should be estimated. We may say, however, that in far too many school systems the information that is tabulated and interpreted is far too meagre to claim any attempt at a scien- tific procedure for this phase of budget estimating. For New York City^ the following features are recommended in the proposed method of estimating the need of elementary school teachers for budget purposes. ■'Bachman, F. P. — ^Estimating for Budget Purposes the Number of Teachers Needed in the Elementary Schools, Committee on School Inquiry Report, 1911-1912. 108 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System 1. That a register including only pupils, exclusive of transfers, who have been in attendance at least one entire day during the month be made the basis of estimating the needs of the elementary schools. 2. That the entire elementary school system be made the unit in estimating the register. 3 . That the estimate of the register for the entire system as a whole be based on the actual average increase pr decrease in the register of all elementary schools for a series of past years, and that a separate estimate be made for each month of the school year. 4. That the estimated register for the system as a whole for a given month be distributed among the several grades and kinds of special classes on the basis of the average annual increase or decrease in the grades in question for the same series of past years as were employed in estimating the given total register for the entire system. 5 . That the number of pupils for whom on the average one teacher is to be provided be determined, by months and by grades and kinds of special classes, from a study of the conditions in each elementary school and from the number of pupils it is found one teacher, under existing conditions, can economically and efficiently instruct. It may be noted that in the above report the average number on the register for the whole school system and the actual increase or decrease for a series of years are used in estimating the number of pupils for which teachers shall be provided. Estimates for budget items other than personal services are made on the basis of accumulated data which show the kind of services and objects that past expenditures have procured. There is also an analyzed statement of all the proposed activities for which expenditures are to be made. In the maintenance item any increases over the amounts expended during the. past year are accounted for in the better school budget proposals in terms of estimated costs for labor and material as determined by a study of the needs for each school building. New equipment expendi- tures are listed by schools and by the kind of service that will be rendered. A large part of the operation charges are in terms of salaries paid to janitors and engineers. These are fixed by a sched- ule of salaries paid to mechanics, engineers, and laborers of dif- ferent classes. The amounts that are asked for fixed charges are determined on the basis of past experience. The rent, in- Estimating Budget Needs 109 irance, and liability items cover existing contracts and policies, .dditional amounts for these items are considered and acted upon 'hen necessary. In addition to these comparisons with the expenditures for le past years, the unit cost figure is also used in the better budget stimates. The probable amount needed for supplies is computed y multiplying the per capita cost by the number of pupils which mst be taken care of during the coining year. For example, in a elementary school system where the average cost of text-books $1.25 per pupil, the superintendent knows on the basis of the robable increase in the number of pupils how much he must ask )r this item in the next budget. Furthermore, if he knows that le cost of library and reference books is $.92 per capita, he can jadily find what amounts are to be estimated for the coming ear on the number of pupils in school. The better school budget estimates use not only the whole mounts expended during the past years in estimating future eeds, but also make an analysis of unit costs and on this basis lake requests for their future budgets. A score card^ devised for the rating of school records and sports suggests in the standards^ the types of information that a •iperintendent of schools should compile. On these accumulated ata he must base his recommendations in presenting a budget to tie board of education. Facts should be given covering a series f years for his own school system and for a number of comparable 3hools systems on the following: I. Population (a) city; (b) school census. II. Total Enrolment (a) public; (b) private. III. Aggregate Attendance; IV Average Daily Attendance. V Length of School Year in Days. Engelhardt, N. L. — A Score Card for Records and Reports of a School System in a City of 100,000 People or Less. Department of Educational Administration, Colmnbia University, Teachers College, New York City. Page 157 for suggested forms to be used in collecting budget data. These forms partially meet the standards set up in the score card. 110 Bvdgetary Procedure for a Local School System VI. Number of Teachers (a) Kindergarten (b) Elementary (c) Continuation (d) Jr. High School (e) Sr. High School (f) Jr. CoUege. VII. Assessed Valuation. VIII. Tax Rate (a) city; (b) school. IX . Receipts by Sources. X. Indebtedness (a) city; (b) school. XI. Total Expenditure (a) city; (b) school. XII. Per Capita Costs on Agg. D. A. and A. D. A. for the different types of schools. XIII. Median Salaries paid to teachers of the different types of schools. XIV. A unit cost analysis of all the school and city activities by function, character, object and organization units. The above Ust is indicative of the type of material that should be made a part of every program of providing funds for the opera- tion and maintenance of the school plant. This score card is more extensive and includes more kinds of data than any other list that has been found. It estabUshes standards for forms and records that must be a part of the budget-making program. SUMMARY 1 . Accounting officers, financial secretaries, and leading superin- tendents of schools list as one of the essentials of a budget estimate the detailed unit expenditures for the last completed year. Many would give the average of such expenditures for a three or five year period. 2. Officials who formulate budget estimates recognize that past experience is a great factor in making requests for amounts to be expended in the future, also that records of past experi- ence must be complete, accurate and readily available. 3. Standardization of personal services and supphes have elimi- nated variable factors so that estimates more nearly ap- proach the actual amounts expended. Estimating Budget Needs 111 4 . Superintendents of schools use data of various kinds and types in estimating the increased amounts that they will request for teachers for the coming year. Comparatively few super- intendents have developed a scientific technique which fits their school system. Many use data far too meagre in estimating the probable increase in instructional service amounts. 5. Enrolment data are more frequently used than average daily attendance in computing the probable increase in students. Many superintendents use both in addition to total or aver- age number belonging. 6. The tendency of the leading school systems in presenting the budget estimate is to use the unit cost basis in making com- parisons within the system as well as with other school systems. Thus estimated needs are justified. CHAPTER VII UNIT COSTS FOR BUDGET PURPOSES Unit cost figures may be used in making cost comparisons between different systems or within the same system. Such com- parisons may be for the same item over a series of years or for different items either for the same year or for a number of years. Every wise superintendent of schools knows in terms of dollars and cents what each school activity costs so that when he goes before the board of education, he can in a businesslike manner present his case. In making available such data, he is only adopting the financial procedure that has long been in use with industrial, manufacturing, and business concerns. The practice requires no defense with progressive school-men — others will adopt it or surrender their leadership in educational matters. An example of a very complete analysis of school costs on the per capita basis is given in ' 'An Analysis of the 1922-1923 Budget Requests for Detroit, Michigan." Per capita costs are computed for the different types of activities by organization units. Thus each organization unit is on a comparative basis with the preceding year and the defense of the budget in this form is convincing. "The Boston School Report of 1920" also gives unit cost figures in detail for the organization units. In computing the unit costs in Table XXII for the cities of New York State, the total sum expended for the items was divided by the number of pupils in average daily attendance^ . Another reason for using this unit is that the published reports for the state department of education of New York give such costs as they have on the basis of average daily attendance. It may be noted that within the same school system where total enrolment, average enrol- ment, or average nvmaber belongings are always romputed in the same manner, the superintendent of schools may be justified in ■■■ "A divisor as little subject to misunderstanding as possible and one based upon facts which are obtained in the same way everywhere, is of the first importance. This is provided by the average daily attendance and should be used to obtain the 'Cost of Education.'" (G. D. Strayer, in City School Expenditures, Teachers College Contribution to Education, No. 5.) Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 113 presenting comparative figures on any of these units. In addition to the comparison in costs which are made, these figures are of value in presenting the budget estimates to the board of education. If the superintendent wishes to justify any activity in terms of money spent per individual he is able to state that for any particu- lar item, the board of education is spending so much for each pupil in school. He can also show what the trend in costs is over a period of years and whether or not the amount is adequate as compared with other school systems. TABLE XXII COST DATA. BASED ON ENROLMENT AND AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE* FOR 1920-1921 Based on average Naine of city Based on daily enrolment attendance New Brunswick S 68.17 $ 84.21 Plainfield 76.56 93.76 Bayonne 76.95 95.33 Passaic 62.89 77.02 Paterson 59.95 66.87 Camden 61.10 78.80 Trenton 64.01 79.52 Hoboken 86.04 104.96 Perth Amboy 59.81 72.28 Elizabeth 58.31 68.55 Montclair 107.70 140.72 East Orange 76.57 95.12 *New Brunswick, New Jersey, Superintendent's Monthly Report to the Board of Education. From Table XXII it is evident that comparisons between different school systems or different years must be made on the same unit. It would obviously be unfair to both cities concerned if the cost figure as computed on the enrolment were to be compared with the cost as found on the basis of average daily attendance. Comparative data have h'ttle value unless they are obtained by analogous processes. In the following tables the costs based on average daily at- tendance for 34 budget items are given for the 59 cities of New York State for the year 1919-1920. Under the expenses of general 114 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System o o s ^ . a M 03 s a so g K I QQ M K sjaiiuoj^ vonn i-HrHCQ 05 •*Q0 (N(NM 00 n •^TfOO CO .-HO -HO-* .-1 •< »h' ' lO ' ■ !>; 1- 1-1 1-H noxx INOIN -H -Ht^N to eooooo ; OJt^CD t^ -^i-Hi-H ^ oocoo c 'r-<-!■* CD e»3t>0 asnovMg ■*00M 05 r-l(NO a50l>0»H C 't-I .-(•*' CD.-(>-l<0-' CO T)t fipopaudHDg WOt^ COOCOOO OOCOIO U3 »J 'i-l>-i ,-i'cO (Mi-Hi-i O ■■ uofrnDiiBuig i-H (N rH CO -H t~ I fiuvq2V 00(NO OINOOnos- i-h'cd I HJ-OA (^M .66 1.98 2.64 .02 5.02 1.19 49.38 2.24 57.85 opffng cocDos '^ (yi N y-i t~ a> cocoi-iosrt e U300CO rHOOONi-IO OU5t~i-l05 ' i-ie •o Ol to ,_, CO ^ 00 cq cq to no w 10 -* (N 1— I T-H en 6 i-H CO t^ I-H CO cq Tt< lO to CO on (M T— 1 ^ CTi 00 t^ 10 r^ 00 >0 03 Til o ,—1 ,-1 10 T— ( I-H a> i-H CO •* CO lO i-H t^ Oi to to to Ttl 00 oq 03 T— 1 -+I ■* I> i-H to ^ ". o 00 CO 1-H 00 I-H 1— t cq CO CO a> C4 00 to cq "^ l> ^_, lO ^ r^ ^ to (N CO CO ^ •* 00 to in •O lO OCi 05 10 to CO I-H CM ■* Tf CO 10 T-H o c^ to m Oi r^ t^ in rn rq m -* m 00 05 to cq to -* »C Ttl tH 1—1 00 00 ,— I i-H to cq t~ ■* CO cq TjH (N 00 rq rq M< n> (N (M 10 05 to (N ■*! 10 I-H ^ to m o CO T— I 00 C33 OS (N CO CO cq cq cq rH O C3! to to 00 j^ t~ o ^ lO i-i 00 .— 1 cq 1* I-H i-H r-H r^ m lO (33 >o (N 10 lO 00 •* CO S. S ^ O CO 00 r-H IM to 00 r-H c^ CO ,-H CO CO r-t ,-H t- iH fl K C3 "a *43 P > -4^ f> -tJ a a •3 (1) "o 3 CD CIJ Is < ■^ CO "a Q 3 3 13 3 o ■3 « a CI o 1 o 1 "a < 3 is ■3 13 3 m a 1 3 a 03 § 3 CD g "3 a i CQ tj) 3 3 OJ 3 '3 a °o "3 X! g a CI 3 m cu Water Light and power Janitor's supplies so £ i o C3 :S o s '> CD o OC CD 1 -4-3 O 3 ,o a o "3 O g 2; B g 3 -2 CO g- Pi -O 3 It o3 Eh 'o3 a CD Pi Heating, lighting. Apparatus Furniture Other equipment Other expenses of H 5 < 13 1 3 .2 CO Repair and replac Other expenses New books "3 j3 3 a s Medical inspectio Nurse service Dental service Other expenses Other auxihary aj Total of auxiliary 116 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System mpiunQ to U3 ■* t> N i-H CO to 00 us O to CO OJ 1-1 OS i-( to 00 l> 05 O pUVlfJOQ to to o o ■* U5 to •* to —I (SI) euiuMj (6) BmuMQ 05 CO t-l CO (N CO IN O CO o o O "5 (M rji 1^ O S90'qOQ •H 05 O 0^*10 (N o »— I « °. 5§ 8S 00 o IN CO I-H O ' OJ CO s §§ 00 o § CI IN 00 (N CO to CO 1* §^2 tmBivpuvuvj CO Tjt O CO CO o »H -^ lO itoDvag >0 IN 00 (N CO CO 00 05 ■-! ■* O CO vwv}vg s 05 ^ 1-H CO § S s IN U5 s I-H CO 00 g^ I-H § T-l 1— I 55 I-H o CO §s ^ I-H (N IN US IN O 9 !§ ° iunqrey «3 CO I-H •o 5 o o 9 00 in 03 CO o l-H O 9 CO 00 T-l ° ° CO ^^ Oi 00 ,1 •>)< fe 1-t 1— 1 1-H 00 00 9 9 l-H o n IN IN s 9 o CO CO (N o IN §2 o 9 00 (N O T— 1 9 O IN T-l CO 2§ ro 00 m to O CO I— t 00 d 9 T— 1 00 IN l-H 1— ( ^ IN T-l 9 CO ^ i-H o s ^ T— 1 o t* CO O CO lO CO N CO CO CO 9 I— ( CO 1—1 CO CO CO IN IN CO IN o CO T-* 9 CD CO ^ CD eo 9 9" ' IN ■■D >0 tH o CO CO 6 t— 1 00 ^ 1—1 9 9 9 O (N >0 lO (N IN CO CO U5 IN o rH ^^ T— 1 30 t~ * i-l ^ CD CO CD CO 00 CD CO IN IN CO ^ N ■* lO 05 CO g m .2 .3 -3 1 ^^i ° " .ill ^ o^ si- I |. O0O^j"intiBa°* Hcjin S Jld ^ 3 5 I .s fe ^ I .g s -a .- -J § -a s fe ^ ^ -g I -3 s 1 1 ^ £ I « s ° 340wo o 5|f5"rt||i|^[goo| g;2t|fdo;z;2S!z:Ooo^ ':§« w tn;5 118 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System 1—1 SSg IM CO CO CD CD OS 00 K 00 O 05 •* tunots3iuvj' N CO rt O ■* lO t^ .-1 O CD O CO — < (N —1 CO £; -^ ^ CO CO 1-1 05 O CO lO CD CO 05 CD ■* CD Cl O 1> O V3t)1{}J ^ t~ O l> "3 C^ CO O OS "O 1-1 CD lO (N CO <-i (N ro 1— ( 1-4 Oi ^ W3 1* CO CO ■* O CO w io r- 00 CO I> 05 <33 CO 05 uospnff M O -* "-I N CO (N O t- W iO O OS O -H ,-i ' CO CO CO i-l CO N 1-1 lO «5 1-H CD CD IC ■* O rt iO -* IpiuoH CO CO CO tH CD O i-l N O l~ ■* >0 CO N >o t- CO y-l N T-1 ■* >-l o> (N CO CO CO 03 Tj* CO i-H t> (N ■* i-H N (N e» lO CO ■* Ol snt>d s"»?£) CD O t- 00 O .-H O "H W <» lO ■* CD o ■* CO CO T— ( ^ ^ % CO (N ■* 03 CO (N 00 CO t~ CO CO t~ rt ■* 05 ■* CD dtlOQ vaiQ O O -H O 1> o o a> 05 o T-H 05 CO 00 lO CO CO I-( N (N 1> ■* CO ■* ■* K5 O « N »0 CD ■* (N 05 00 CO ■* 05 vasudf) CO I^ O 00 t- r-H O lO (N tf> CO CD 1-) (N CO ■-I ■* CO 00 N uo^nj O O .-1 ■* (N O O ■* .-1 Tt< 1-1 O CO CO T-H IN CO l> CO CO IN CO CO CO CD 00 CO lO CTi ta VMIUJS ■* CD O CD O (M i-H i-H O CD CO O CO CO rt 1-1 (M ,-1 lO ^ s CO (M bjects istants 3 CD sands fficeas ce fl o pervisors of grade of supervisors cipals ipal's clerks and o of principal's offi of supervision o Q. >:) ■s ^ O O s control onal control control a o hers used in inatruc of instruction ional service , 1 1 1 "o . O busines educati general ion paidsu xpenses of prin of princ xpenses xpenses ching laries of teac xtbooks tier supplies her expenses al of instruct 1^ o i st of st of alof I pervis ilaries ther e ilaries daries ther e there o < CS eg O) -f^ -»:> 4^ ^^^ >< UU u jbmOcKtBOO j^mH OO o o Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 119 N --i o m lo CO OS o »H IN OS r^ to no CO 1-1 CO 00 f> i-( IN CO 00 o ^H 1-1 CM Ti< tH CO 1^ 00 1—1 N 1—1 r- CO (N 00 co o o 00 O T(( o CO o m TjH ro f-t ;^ CO CO OS N lO M( CO CO (N OS lO CM CO CO 00 1> (N (M 00 t-l (N IN o o o CO O 1—1 CO rt ^ t~ rt f. ON CO -H 00 lO OS CO CO fN ns o OS 1—1 CO CO CO 00 CM CO CO lO CO O (N t^ O 00 00 1-1 o a o o CO Ttl CO O lO o CO IN CM IN T(l IM IM OS ■* lO CO (N O IN ;5 O rH iO OS l- o t- cq o CO CM t- ^ t> OS IM IM lO 1—1 CM r* CO »o Tji lo IM OS ns t-~ CO o O 1-1 lO TH 00 00 IN OS >-l O 00 T-( 00 CD o o 00 CO CO o O O CM 00 1—1 1—1 00 t^ IN >o IN lO ■* CO CO »0 T-H tH »0 -* t~ o o CO CM lO 1-1 OS CO 1— ( OS 00 CO U3 t> rt CO IM (N IN o ■* -H 00 i> >o t> t~ en CO CO O 1-1 t^ rt OS I— 1 O O ca iH CD l-^ ot i-i .f^ CQ S rt m •^ P. H t "o o > -3 M o >} OS .1 ^ ■o 1 "3. 5 o o x> ■s •5 li^ 1 a o3 1 03 t-i ■| Ph g- s 3 i 1 T3 i. Light and power Janitor's supplies General care of grounds Services other than perso Other expenses of operat Total of operation of plan < la O O < CO fap 11 be .^ "t; O O +J M o 1 1 03 1 Heating, lighting, and pi Apparatus Furniture Other equipment Other expenses of maint( "o s 1 '3 a 1 00 o H o < .2 h3 Salaries Repair and replacement Other expenses New books "3 o ■o O a Medical inspection Nurse service Dental service Other expenses Other auxiliary agencies Total of auxiliary agencie 120 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System o o o 00 00 o o> a> CO m M CO a> i(Binqma}i 00 rH 0> CO O IN •* eo IN N o •* iO f-H 1-* ft CO TtH rH N CO N M eo Tj( §S^ "5 rH to U3 Cd to OS 05 U5 00 -f to a> 92;9V3os m3M 00 o X o o l> Til to N 0> M ■* IN ^ N rH CO rH g^^ s lo CO 05 U5 •* rH rH O 00 N rH -^ W CS| o o •* UOUMjl ■}J\[ O ^ N CO o t^ CO o IN N C» 00 ■»JH rH lO ei >-i CO rrt Tji 00 rH rH l> -* 115 1^ rH 05 00 r- a CO >o •* CO pq 00 CO e o 00 00 O rt o o U5 O ■* -jX lO 00 CO IN N (M eo to rH rH rH ■* CO N CO ■* O T-l T-H ■ ^^ nv>d nnn lO >o t~ ■* N <» CO N ■* CO OJ lO CO CO CO ■* (N rH rH rH en « •§ CO •* ■* o ■* O! lO 05 to lO >0 U5 00 N to WD CO o. vuuvaiv^ovq 00 to ■* o 03 O O eo OS to i-i »o rH 05 W 1-1 CO U3 CO r-t O rH 00 ■* CO ■* •* 1 I> ^ 00 CO ■* CO 00 1> to IN 05 >0 O O •* lO l-H iw}sButj{ O rH rH •* o 05 rH rH 05 O N O rH OS eo IN hH N N JH CO 0> rH rH 00 eo CO (^ N CO ^ "! rH to tM 00 (M o CO o o CO 1— 1 00 CO CO CJ IN ^ CO CM a t- to o o o 1— 1 I^ o ■>* Ttl Ol lO m to to 00 CO rpi rf) (V> ■^ T-H o T— I •* o rH CM 00 (N IN rH 1—1 CO »o I-H to CM CO O (N to tH to lO Til to 00 (N 1— 1 to t^ CM in T* re »o r-i o t^ o (N CD o •o IN CO ^ CM "* t> IN N ^ ■* TtH i-H t— 1 00 00 ■* lO re lO CO 10 to IN CO h* CO ta N CO M I> o iO t^ IN lO ■* CD "3 t>- re ■* to 00 a> 00 03 o ■* CT) IN lO C3S IN IN CO CO IN IN ■* M T— 1 (N to to f-l (N O f-H o CO (N ■* 1— 1 C<1 to T-l -H 00 1-1 05 to *-< 1^ CO 00 lO Mf 00 t^ to T— 1 re C^ t- t- (N tH CO tH to to o T— 1 cs 00 (N 01 CM CO 10 I— 1 CM -H (N to 00 >o T-H to CO 00 to TtH CO CO t- 10 ■o IN IN Id >o 05 CO (N o 1-H o CO T— ( CO n CD to CO 00 1^ to CO Tf ■* ■* M to CO o CD o 03 1-H Ot) CO T— 1 IN CO CM ta 00 1—1 CO o> 1^ to n> •m nn r^ ■* (N T— 1 to T-t 1^ 1—1 re re t^ h- T-l lO to CO N CO OS o to 1— ( o (N T— 1 >I3 IN CO CM CM 1—1 C-1 •o to •* lO r^ ■* CO r^ 1—1 00 Ol T-l ■* "5 1—1 CM CO lO CO CO T— 1 T-t 1— t CO i-H o o o ta t— 1 CO to CO 10 1—1 n OJ o. s "o E5 > o i> +3 13 -f3 d ■3, OS a 1 be Cl <4-l o P CO a 3 a 3 o a o s ID & c a o 1 o i ^ '3 ■a so i a; o "1 "E o3 m 0) t3 "o C C3 J3 a 03 03 '3 g .2 g 1 II P 1-5 "o o la i J o en _o '> GQ o 8 CO s a X o o o "o 1 o u z ■< < 03 fl 3 2 M o s a CD "o3 & g a. v t3 « c3 & 1 Heating, lighting. Apparatus Furniture Other equipment Other expenses of a -^ d a 1 S 5 z H <1 « 3 X p < 03 _Q3 3 to ty Repair and replac Other expenses New books 1 "o a a Ph Medical inspeotio Nurse service Dental service ^i 122 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System ffl CO OS to 00 to to lO 00 OO >0 00 O 00 00 t^ SllU9f )M)J ■*■*<» to O O O N O t> O 1-1 N o t- ^ .-1 CO ■* cq CO <3S 1-1 t^ CO 1-1 CO •* O CO OS 00 CO IN CO O CO to »o OS (N 00 drnqsnind lO ■* OS O U3 O ^ CO O O 1-1 CM CO ^ CO CO IN N 00 ^ ■* CO ■* to uj C^l 1-4 CO OS to •* CO C» CO O ■* 1-1 .to CM oBacnsQ O U3 «5 W3 IN CO O IN O 00 O CO t~ to N N rt to OS 00 ■* CO CO ■* 00 OS t~ CO to W5 SSS§g5 o ^ t~ Vflt03UQ t- CO rH OS iH iH CM 1-1 CO 1 W CO ■* 1-1 »0 ^H CO ^ 00 CO CO (N CO IN O IN 00 CQ 1-1 t~ 00 >o t~ 00 ui a> t~ ■optauQ o ■* ■* th CO 1-1 00 rt CO •* t~ OS OS CM N N 1-1 N to -H CO Oi CO ■* — 1 t» 00 OS to U3 O lA O CM •* umiQ t~ t- ■* O O 00 CO o ■^ uO ^ CO O'J t^ »H cq ■-H N CO IN 1-H OS CM CO CO CO o o o OS OS t^ lO OS O 1-1 •* ■* i> m RjmqsvapBQ 1-1 O T-H lo CO o o CM 00 1-1 O ■* CM ■* CO CO 1—1 to OS CO CO ■* ui lO t- (N rt t^ O N CO to CS t~ CO CM TfOmMJ^ O OS o C<1 CO l> ^ q IN to N OS CO ■* CO CO IV to Tjt CM CM o o o 00 OS lo ■* en cq i>. •* to o vpuvmmioj, -jyf N 00 O t> IN to 00 OS 1-H to to 1-H CO ^ CO ■* Oi ^ -^ ^ CO ■* CD W3 1-1 lO 00 iH o to IN 00 t- OS to to to OS siivj ■Dj.vBmj^ to lo e« to O 00 en o o CO CO in rt U3 OS -H ^ IN 1-H CO 00 •-< 1-1 b- CO -sjl CO CM 5 -S o a ■^ 1 a 'a T3 d re fl 4) re Sfi OJ ^ rvisors of grade supervisors als ttl's clerks and o principal's offic supervision 1 ontrol al control ntrol > lers used in instructio of instruction ional service I o 1 re g § id supe nses of princip princip nsesof nses of i^ s ^ Cost of busines Cost of educati Total of general 02 Teaching Salaries of teac Textbooks Other supplies Other expenses Total of instruct b 1 Instbuction Supervision Salaries pa Other expe Salaries of Salaries of Other expe Other expe O O O Wages of j Fuel Water Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 123 00 03 1^ to OS •ni IN CO IM I-) r-^ CO 00 OS T-H 00 »o CD ^ O o O IN T-H IN '!< CO ^ CO 2 S i^ CO ,— i o h- 00 r^ IN f^ r)H >n in CO ^ O 00 CM T— 1 Tt< o OS CO CO ^ tH CO ^ ■* IN '-< CO --I IN O CO o> CO ca lO r^ OS >o >o T-H on t~ T-H CM c] ; M O 00 O CO I-H OS o o 10 IN TlH CO ^ ^ 00 ira -ii t^ T-H lO c^ ■* to r^ lO IN CO CO CO (N T-H >o . lO CO CO T-H o oo o rH CO T-H OS O CD CO TJH IN C^ CO IN T-H ■* oo ■* t^ 1-H CO T-H "^ ^ CO 10 00 CD 00 CO CO CM 00 N -* o IN T-H IN o o o 10 Oil t>. r- T-H 1 O OJ Tt* OS CD CD ■* ira ^ IN f- CO CO CO >o 1 CO IN i CO 05 CD o I-H CO o o IN IN IN (N 1 T-H IN CO •o on CO ^ 10 1^ IN 1-H CO 1-H o to 00 6 T-H T-H o CD o IN IN CO CO (N CO rO CO IN IN M< CO Tt> ■* CD CO r^ T»l CO IN ^ (N CO N IN CO O 1-H tH CO T-l OS CO ^ ' CO C^ 00 m m ■^ en T-H ro lO on »o (N CO OS CO 00 CO CO Ol ^ ^ CO T-H tH T-H T-H i> IN "3 00 CO 1 tH o T-H (N T-H '^ a "o o -^3 d <1 >> a rf> rn ^ S) d *o & >• •^ ■« d Pi O ■^ 3 1 1 d ^ o o 8 .a a rr, '0 3 CO d m 1 3 o +3 c3 OJ o 1 «4H o a o ■■0 cS O "o la o ,1 Qi: m d g Fl P. 1 ■3 a "o CO C3 "3 CO 0) GQ C (D ft J O o la o < 1 d o e 1 11 ho X! ID 1 m t~i -d d oS CD Heating, lighting. Apparatus Furniture Other equipment g d ■3 a H 5 a; H < .2 Fh -Q 3 .2 ce -3 Repair and replac Other expenses New books ID ,d d a 2 FM Medical inspectio Nurse service Dental service a 0) 124 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System »0 CO 00 (35 O W lO »0 1-H t- IN IN smvjj nPlM tH CD I^ l> O W t-1 CO OS t* CO CO T-H C0 CO CO rH ■* CO TlJ 00 -H CT> (3» a> >o OS CO CD lO OS s ■« iKnofdajVj^ rt 00 05 O 00 rH lO CO CO O OS N CO CJ to CO 05 N 00 N CD 00 lO OS 00 (N rH CD jypuvavouox cq -* t- 1-t CO o IN 00 CO CO CO rH N CO CO CO IN •5)1 rH (N CO tH •<* •^ 00 t^ >o cq CO Ol CO ■!)< 00 OS T)< rH IN O •Bdg vBofvung O rt IN IN O C) IN r-^ 36.5 1.5 .6 41.3 t^ CD rH CO >o r^ c> CD .INN O CO i-H CO OS i-l U3 00 00 D3UmUZ)f0g O >0 CD ' CO CO CO o o 1-i (N lO o <© O ii OS 00 rH IN id lO ■* OS c» m 00 IN CO CD 0> W (N OS CI 00 91U0JJ rH rH (N 00 CO rH rt o lO N OS ■* t- to eo (N (N -i< ■* rH CI CO CO •* lO .-H CD ■* o 00 rH OS OS N CO OS m javpssva^ O !>. 1>. CO t-t rH ■* CO t~ CO 00 t- CO IN N f-H CO •* rH r- N CO ■* C t^ ■* O Ol O CO CO C» 00 CD OS 9isd393ii{Bnoj CO CO N 00 OS N o •* N •* rH CO o t> -H N l-( rH J^-^-^ ^ CO IN ^ .3 1 .2 s en 1 >> cQ u e S s ^^ o &• i ^ "S •*3 9 1 o n J, Si a supervisors als al's clerks an principal's 1 instruc ruction ervice J o III ^ 1 hers used in of inst ional s 1 1 o "as M o « c. •s-g-.&'s •s Wages of janitors Fuel Water ost of busines ost of educati tal of general CO 1 1 1 5 -a •ii ft ^ ther expenses ularies of prin •ilaries of princ ther expenses 1 aching ■ilaries of teac extbooks ther supphes ther expenses tal of instruct 1 ou^ ^=^ OmwOO ^wHOO ° o Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 125 1-H i-H CO ■* CO o o o o 03 03 c S •" S -H S o m 1g iS t-g i|g :S -g gj^f Z "^ e-:9 § ft ^ 9 frt e is, M-c a; -a .s- g -i 3 -« £ -» o f •? >; s f= x S^5a?!3SPS3«Sw-£Ssfii.'"°-2^«^«o3 0. -g S3 ^ I .§ S ■§ -is -^ g -3 S fe ^ ^ ■§ -S '^ o te s -a 2 ? "^ »> - 126 Budgetary Procedure jor a Local School System control the costs are given the two items: business control' which includes salaries and expenses of school elections, salaries and expenses of the board of education and secretary's oflSce expenses for legal services, and other expenses of business control, cost of educational control which includes salaries and expenses in connec- tion with the enforcement of the compulsory education laws, truancy laws, census enumeration, and other expenses of educa- tional control. To the item, other auxiliary agencies and sundry activities, are added : transportation of pupils, care of children in institutions, provision of lunches, conamunity lectures, social centers, recrea- tion, payments to private schools, and payments to schools of other civil institutions. In Table XXIV the cities of New York State are grouped according to population and a measure of central tendency is given for all four groups. Since there are only three cities in the first group, the amount expended by the middle city in an order distribution is given as the median for each item here listed which may be accepted as the measure of central tendency. The actual median for the cost of business control for the cities of the first class is $1.25, while the amount given is $1.23. The actual median for the cost of educational control for the three first class cities is 11 . 125, while the amount expended by the middle city is $1. 13. The figures given as the median for the seven second class cities were entered in a manner similar to that employed in the first column for the first class cities, that is, the amount spent by the fourth city in an order distribution of amounts spent by the seven cities is given as the median. On inspection it is found that the median amounts spent for some items vary only slightly. The larger cities expend more for instructional service. The first quartile for the cities with over 30,000 population is nearly the same as the median amount spent by the third class cities for instructional service. A part of the greater cost for this item in the large cities is attributable to the greater amount spent per pupil for the salaries of principals. The item, salaries for teachers, in the large cities requires from seven to ten dollars per pupil more which is a big item in the cost of instructional service. For a majority of the items here listed the amount expended per pupil in average daily attendance is greater Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 127 o a> I o> 1—4 o p a, IS Pd M « o U5 t~ O OTt0001OC00i ^ ■* 00 t- TtHOOOOO—lt^cOOTIN (M T-t t^ i-t -^ I> tH rH to ■* o »» § 1 W) 00 o >oir5t>^05(?qococo Is i 1 (M lO M IMThOOINOC'lOCD'H (N rt CO ' IN .-1 .-1 ^ o "o o OOOIOIOIOOWCOI^ Oi "3 O 0(N'H'-iOiO-*050 i-H 1— ( IM rH CO C<1 -^ CO »» 05 r-( CO ai001>(NC0OO3CT>00 m •O 00 o lOiOOOCOi-HCOOt^CO M CC t^ (N CO Ol 1-1 ^ CO TjH CO a& .w i3 ~ 1 cl 1 CTi 00 00 OCCOOO>l>t-COCOO 1 § O lO X3 OOt^cO>-lOT)<00-*(N m OrH.*TH00OO &s NC0CD.-lOCDlMt>^ Ca o OS CO sl 1-f 1 (N ^ t- to •»*l 00 U3 i-l ■* CO "O O lO CO W i-H tH M g g U5 m in o 50 in u5 o lo e<5 CO lO 1 i 1 .H i-H O lO CO ■<»( O 00 00 CO ■* w 00 tH M IM rH I— ( s O O O 00 l> lO o o o ■* to lO 05 ■* e«5 CO CT m b- t~ lO (N N lO C O M (N 1-) i-t 03 to 00 OS « •<)( OS 00 00 o OS •* oa N o lo lo 00 CO OS -# ■* lO •* s Q? !»■*■* N 1-1 M i~* 1 s 00 S go M lo OS (O 56 "O t-1 Td CO 00 OS .-H Tjl IM to 1-^ i i § s rt 00 i> lO CO ■* o 1 t~ CO CO (N 1-H 1-1 CD rH CO 0» CO 00 "5 03 CO •* 00 Id I^ OS •* (N (N lO to CO CM C^ (N t^ to M N 1^ ^H Second Class Cities g "5 O TiH OS OS ■* l> o CM -* 00 o g 1 00 >0 CO ■* CO OS 00 w 00 CO ■* "5 OS Tt( CO »— t »— 1 ... «, 00 s ■* .-1 00 •* CD a 1-1 o to Citie g 1 T-l ,-1 to CO 00 uj .-i CO OS OS CO r^ 00 f-H to >, o 1 0) 1 1 of plant • janitors and d power supplies nee of plant to btiildings lighting and agencies inspection rvice OQ •2^ ^-g ■* m to S 2 OS 1 Opera Wag Fuel Ligh Janit ■P^ ■iSi 1 |rt W ^§^ S : Unit Costs for Budget Purposes 129 in the larger sized cities. A superintendent of schools may com- pare the amounts spent in his school system for any one of these items and may ascertain how and to what extent the expenditure made varies with the prevailing practice. He may also use data of this type when he goes before his board of education and presents a particular type of activity which he would install or enlarge upon in his school system. TABLE XXV NEW YORK .STATE PER PUPIL COSTS BASED ON A. D. A., ALL PUBLIC DAT SCHOOLS COMBINED, 1920-1921 Computed From Reports of State Departmen Second Class Third Class Cities Cities Over 30,000 Cities (7) (.43) 1 1 (19) 1 1 Median Qi Median Qs Qi Median Oa General Control 1 1.95 $ 2.84 $ 3.66 $ 4.14 $ 1.98 $ 2.33 % 2.73 Instructional Costs* 71.20 52,38 57.75 63.19 56.88 72.50 81.25 Operation of Plant 10.66 8.75 10.41 12.19 8.58 10.68 12.43 Maintenance of Plant 2.38 2.01 2.52 3.68 2.18 2.98 3.86 Auxiliary Agencies 2.64 1.41 2,05 3.19 1.99 2.75 3.16 Fixed Charges .92 .86 1.12 1.48 .83 1.15 1.63 Health 1.45 .70 1.00 1.28 .98 1.23 1.45 "Includes salaries of evening schools. In Table XXV the figures are given for the major items of the budget distribution for current expenditures to which health has been added. A superintendent may compare the unit costs for his system with any of the above items and if they are at vari- ance greatly with the median, he should be able to account for 3uch costs in terms of better service more economically rendered. A.U these cost data have the greatest value only as interpreted in the light of the services secured and conamodities bought. 130 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS Underlying principles for budgetary procedure. The suggested underlying principles are based on the budge- tary procedure practices as discussed in this volume. A proposed school budget plan. The proposed school budget plan suggests a procedure for cities in which the board of education is financially dependent or independent. It is adaptable to school systems with any type of organization. The titles of the officers who submit the estimates are not the same, as here indicated, in all school systems, but analogous heads of organization units should submit the budget estimates to the central office. The detailed statements that a superintendent of schools would include in his final budget estimate to the board of education may vary, but for an intelligible pre- sentation of the financial needs of the school at least those indicated must be presented. In the cities with financially dependent boards of education the reviewing body should refer all desired changes in the proposed estimates to the official who first compiled the estimate. The reviewing authority should not make alterations, but should return the budget estimate to the superintendent of schools who with his staff would make the changes to conform with the wishes of the reviewing authority. Fundamentally there should be no difference in the budget-making procedure plan no matter what form of government the city might have. UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES FOR BUDGETARY PROCEDURE What is Involved In Budgetary Procedure? Budget-making procedure constitutes the recording, com- pilation, presentation, review, adoption, and execution of an expen- diture and income plan for a definite period; in addition to the financial plan, it also involves the furnishing of fiscal information to the pubUc and must be a means of financial control. The above procedure is continuous from year to year making a complete cycle of operations. Pvhlic Interest and Responsibility in Budgetary Procedure. Effective budgetary procedure in a democracy implies that the public take an interest and participate in the adoption of a budget plan, also in the activities that are carried on through the administration of such plan. Responsibility of the Board of Education in Budgetary Procedure. 1 . The board of education as the representative body of the electorate must assume all responsibility in the adoption of accepted budgetary methods and must conduct the school system on the basis of sound financial management. To limit appropriations to income and to confine expenditures to the appropriations, is one principle which the legislative body of the school system must not violate. 2. The board of education must act as the reviewing and adopting authority on the proposed budget estimates and should not assume to make any deductions in the total amounts or in the itemized estimates without referring such changes to its proper educational and financial agents. 3. The board of education should conomit itself in advance to all undertakings and expansions of the educational plans and when the time to pass the budget arrives, it should support such financial measures as will carry out the adopted educational programs. 132 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System Responsibility of the Superintendent of Schools and his Staff in Bud- getary Procedure. 1 . The superintendent of schools as the executive and cen- tralizing agency of the school sjrstem is the proper individual to direct the complication, presentation, and defense of the budget proposals. He also must execute the budget in compliance with the appropriations that are made. 2. In the prepai^tion of the budget estimates the executive must take into his counsel his staff of departmental assistants, principals, teachers, and others who are directly concerned with the amounts of money to be asked for. . The committee procedure in organizing budget needs for presentation is based on the prin- ciple of participation. 3 . A frank clear statement by the budget maker at the time of the presentation of the budget, taking the board of education and the public entirely into his confidence, explaining what must be accomplished during the ensuing year and what the cost wiU be and why, will tend to disarm criticism in advance. The Budget Estimates and the Budget. 1 . The budget estimates must be made as near the begin- ning of the fiscal period as possible, but there must be sufiicient time for an intelligent consideration on the part of the appropriat- ing body. 2. After its passage the budget must be binding on the administration in the major items of the accoimting scheme for which definite amounts have been appropriated or alloted. 3. No reviewing body should have the power to decrease the amounts estimated for the various budget items. The power to diminish estimates must be vested only in that body which first presents the complete budget proposal. 4. Uniformity in the estimate forms, reports, and appro- priation acts is essential to good budgetary procedure. 5. Unit costs which enable the superintendent of schools to present convincingly to his board of education the advisability of adding certain activities or changing policies are most desirable. Underlying Principles for Procedure 133 6. A large surplus of funds for any one item is, from the financial management standpoint, as undesirable as a large deficit. Budgeting is of little value unless expenditures are kept within the amounts appropriated. 7 . Financial comparisons for a series of years between cities with the same conditions and educational opportunities are a very important part in budget making. 8. The monthly financial statement showing the total costs by items with the distributions by buildings will reveal any great variations and point out where adjustments might be necessary. 9. A distribution of expenditures well defined, uniformly made, and imiversally used is essential to make vaUd the financial comparisons that should be used in formulating budget estimates. 10. In conformity with the best business practice, it is essen- tial that the educational and financial records of the board of education be submitted to an independent audit at certain inter- vals, the report of such audit to be published and given wide cir- culation. 134 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System A PROPOSED SCHOOL BUDGET PLAN [ fBudMt eatlMte forae with detelled directlone are aietributed IfroS the oeotral office to officers of organization units Batlnatet suboltted tiy principals of schools Tsaoher training schools Say elemontar; achoola Day high schools Contlnaatlon schools .Truant schools Other schools Estlaatss submitted by direotors of auxiliary activities Bureau of ohlld hygiene Bureau of recreation Bureau of school feeding Bureau of extenelon Other bureaus Estimates submitted by officers in charge of direction and control Superintendent of schools Secretary of board of eduoation Treasurer of board of education Auditor (comptroller) Director o^ supplies Director of oonstruotlon Director of operation and maintenance Director of attendance Director of reference and research Other directors Estlmatee reviewed by the superintendent of schools in consultation with his assistants* and under his direction the final budget estivnte is aompiled by the bureau of reference and researoh a* A balance sheet for present year b« An operation statement for present year e« Capital outlay and debt service statement d* Comparative data for previous years •• Comparative data from other school systems f • Proposed budget for next year !• Statement of revenuea by sources 8. Statement classifying the proposed expenditures by object OTfianigatlon uBltfl» character, function and analyale of unit costs Final budget estimate la submitted to board of education by the chief executive of the school system Pinal budget estimate is deliberated upon* given publiolty* considered at public hearings» and finally approved by board of education [budget I JFlnanoing planj [Spending plan| [york plan| APPENDIX I SCHOOL LAW REFERENCES 1 . Alabama, General Laws 1919, art. 8, sec. 18. 2. Arizona, The School Law 1919, oh. 18, sees, 2817, 2818. 3. Arkansas, Digest of Laws 1920, sees. 7, 7589-a, 7625, 7627, 7628, 7631. 4. California, School Law 1921, art. 7, sec. 1612a. 5. Colorado, School Law 1917, sec. 245. 6 . Connecticut, General Statutes 1 920, ch . 58 ; Support of Schools, ch. 16, sees. 235, 236, 252. 7. Delaware, School Code 1920, sees. 127, 130, 132, 134. 8. Florida, School Laws 1921, sees. 2, 53. 9. Georgia, School Code 1921, sec. 67. 10. Idaho, School Laws 1921, art. 24, sec. 1043. 11. Illinois, The School Laws 1921, Circular No. 157, sees. 3, 136, 190. 12. Indiana, School Laws 1917; 1919; 1921. 13 . Iowa, School Laws Code 1897, the Supplement to Code 1913, and the Supplemental Code 1915, sees. 2806, 2807, 2810, 2768. 14. Kansas, The School Laws 1921, H. B. 570, sec. 9072. 15. Kentucky, Educational Laws Supplemental to the Constitu- tion 1920. , 16. Louisiana, Public School Law 1919, act. no. 120, 1916, sees. 55, 56. 17. Maine, Laws Relating to Public Schools 1921. 18. Maryland, The Public School Laws in Code of PubUc General Laws 1912 and Acts of Assembly 1912, 1914, 1916, 1918, 1920, ch. 4, sec. 26; 1920, ch. 442; 1916, oh. 506, sees. 27, 29, 52. 19. Massachusetts, Commonwealth of School Laws 1919. 20. Michigan, Revision 1919, act. 65, sees. 4, 5; 1917, act. 166, sec. 23. 21. Minnesota, Educational Laws 1921. 22. Mississippi, School Laws 1919-1920; 1910, ch. 122, sec. 3426; 1912, ch. 125, sees. 4525, 4534. 23. Missouri, Revised Code 1921, ch. 102, art. 2, sees. 11142, 11155, 11188, 11189. 136 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System 24. Montana, School Law 1919, ch. 6, sec. 607; ch. 20, sec. 2001, 2002. 25. Nebraska, School Laws, 1917, acts. 2, 22. 26. Nevada, The School Code 1921 Fiscal Management of School Districts sees. 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 14. 27 . New Hampshire, Laws Relating to Public Schools as Codified and Amended by the Session Laws of 1921, part 4, sec. 15; part 6, sec. 4. 28. New Jersey, School Laws 1921, sees, 74, 75, 76. 29 . New Mexico, Public School Laws as amended 1917. 30. New York State, Education Law 1921, ch. 16; art. 33-a; sec. 877. 31. North Carolina, The Public School Law 1919, arts. 11, 12. 32. North Dakota, General School Laws, 1919, art. 7, sec. 632; art. 12, sees. 1298, 1301, 1304, 1306; art. 21, sec. 1382. 33 . Ohio School Laws 1921, sees. 260, 4763, 5649. 34. Oklahoma School Laws 1921. 35. Oregon School Laws 1921, ch. 7, sees. 228, 230, 231, ch. 9, sees. 307, 334. 36. Pennsylvania, The School Law 1919, art. 5, sees. 501, 513, 523, 524, 532, 533, 534, 536, 537, 563, 564. 37. Rhode Island, Laws Relating to Education 1919-1921. 38. South Carohna, General School Law 1919 as amended. 39. South Dakota, School Laws 1915-1921. 40. Tennessee, Public School Law 1921, ch. 2, sec. 1. 41 . Texas, Public School Laws, 1917, 1919, 1921. 42. Utah, School Laws 1921 as amended ch. 10, sec. 4624; ch. 11, sec. 4704. 43 . Vermont, General Laws Relating to Department of Education as amended to 1922. 44. Virginia, School Laws 1920, Code sections 646, 661, 726, 747. 45. Washington, Code of Public Instruction 1917. 46. West Virginia, Code 1919, ch. 126 to amend ch. 28a of 1916. 47. Wisconsin, Laws of 1919, oh. 14, sec. 925. 48. Wyoming, School Laws 1919. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, H. C. The Science of Finance. New York. Holt. 1898. Aggeh, E. E. The Budget in the American Commonwealth. Studies in History, Economics, and Law, Vol. 25, No. 2. Columbia University. Ph. D. Thesis. New York City. 1907. Bachman, E. p. Estimating for Budget Purposes the Number of Teachers Needed in the Elementary Schools. Report of the Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Estimate and Appor- tionment, City of New York. 1911-1912. Ballotj, F. W. Efficient Finance for the City School System. Pro- ceedings N. E. A. 1918, p. 613. Boston Statistics Department. Special Publications 1-20 on the Budget. City of Boston, Printing Department 1898-1913. Bkuere, H. The Budget as an Administrative Program. Annals — American Academy of Political and Social Science, 62: 176-191. November, 1915. Buck, A. E. Budget Making. New York. Appleton. 1921. Buck, A. E. The Operation of the New Jersey Budget Law. New- ark, New Jersey. 1917. Budget Legislation in 1921. The American Pohtical Science Review. Bureau of Municipal Research Making a Municipal Budget, 1907. Harrisburg, Pa., Survey, 1917, pp. Ji2-52. A Handbook of Municipal Accounting. New York. Appleton. 1914. Bulletins Nos. 57, 80, 88. Newark, New Jersey Survey of the Municipal Government, 1919. pp. 86-110 (unpublished). Dunkirk, New York Survey of the Municipal Government, 1919. pp. 30-40 (unpublished). Salem, Massachusetts Survey of the MunidpalGovernment, 1921. pp. 45-55 (unpubhshed). Cleveland, F. and Buck, A. E. The Budget and Responsible Government. New York. Macmillan. 1920. CoBDEN Club of London. Correspondence Relative to Budgets of Various Countries. New York. Cassell, Better and Galpin. 1877. Cook, H. R. M. Standardization of School Accounts and Statistics. American School Board Journal, 61: 43-54. July, 1920. Elliott, E. C. Soms Fiscal Aspects of Public Education in America. Teachers College Contribution to Education, No. 6. Columbia University. New York. 1905. 138 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System Engelhakdt, N. L. a Score Card for Records and Reports of a School System. Department of Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University. New York City. FiNEGAN, T. E. Statutes and Provisions of Charters Regulating School Systems in the Several Cities of New York State. Albany. The University of the State of New York. 1915. FiTZPATRicK, E. A. Budget Making in a Democracy. New York. Macmillan. 1918. Gilchrist, H. The Governor's Budget in Maine. Bureau of Municipal Research Bulletin No. 92. New York City. 1917. GuLicK, L. H. Solution of the Budget in Massachusetts. New York. Macmillan. 1920. Hadley, W. B. Accounting Boms of Budgetary Procedure. Annals — American Academy of Political and Social Science, 62 : 136-39. Nov. 1915. Hutchinson, J. H. School Costs and Accounting. Teachers College Contribution to Education No. 62. Columbia Univer- sity, New York City. 1914. Indianapolis, Indiana. An Analysis of the Budget for School Purposes. American School Board Journal, 63 : 76. Nov. 1921. Mandel, a. M. Budgetary Procedure Under the Manager Form of City Government. Annals — American Academy of Political and Social Science, 62: 163-75. Nov. 1915. Michener, a. M. Budget System of Frankfort-on-the-Main. Columbia University. Ph. D. Thesis. New York City. 1921. MoEHLMAN, A. B. A Standardized Budget. American School Board Journal, 61 : 33-35. Oct. 1920. Morrison, J. C. The Legal Status of the City School Superinten- dent. Baltimore. Warwick and York. 1921. Oakey, F. Principles of Government Accounting and Reporting. New York. Appleton. 1920. Ohio Budget Commission. Budget Code and Explanation. Col- umbus. 1916. Proceedings, Eighth Annual Schoolmen's Week. University of Pennsylvania, Bulletin Vol. 21, No. 37. June 1921, 110-134. QuiMBY, H. D. Budget for the City of Rochester for 1919. City Controller's Office, Rochester, New York. Report of the Committee on Uniform Financial Reports. Proc. N. E. A. 1899, p 349. Also see U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 3. 1912. Report of Special Joint Committee on Taxation and Retrenchment. Legislative Document No. 80. Albany, New York. 1920. Bibliography 139 RiGHTOK, C. E. Recent Progress in Municipal Budgets and Accounts. National Municipal Review, 5: 403-410. July, 1916. Smith, H. P. The Accounting System and Budget of a Small City. American School Board Journal, 61 : 41-43. Nov. 1920. Spaulding, F. E. The Making of a School Budget. School Review, 26: 684r-95. Sthayeb, G. D. and Engblhaedt, N. L. The Survey of the Hackensack, New Jersey School System. Board of Education, Hackensack, New Jersey. 1921. Stbayeb, G. D. City School Expenditures. Teachers College Contribution to Education No. 5. Columbia University, New York City. 1905. Strayer, G. D. and Thorndike, E. L. Educational Adminis- tration. New York. Macmillan. 1913. Theisen, W. W. The City Superintendent and the Board of Educa- tion. Teachers College Contribution to Education No. 75. Columbia University, New York. 1916. Updegraff, H. a. a Study of Expenses of City School Systems. U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 5. 1912. Upson, L. D. Budget Making for Small Cities. Annals — ^American Academy of Political and Social Science, 62: 249-63. U. S. Bureau of Budget Circulars for 1921. Washington, D. C. U. S. Census Bureau. Financial Statistics of Cities. 1919. WiLLOUGHBY, W. F. The Problem of a National Budget. New York. Appleton. 1918. APPENDIX II EXTRACTS FROM SCHOOL LAWS RELATING TO THE BUDGET AI4ABAMA, GENERAL I«AWS 1919, AKT. 8 Section 18. The city board of education ...... shall annually prepare on or before the first day of July a school budget which shall show the amounts needed during the succeding school year. This annual'school budget shall also show the estimated amounts that will be received from the county, and from any local tax levy for schools It shall be the duty of the city council or conunis- sion to make such an appropriation as will care for the deficit from the treasury from the city, if at all practicable to do so. Section 20 ; .The business and financial transactions of the city board of education, and the records and accounts of its treasurer shall be audited as early as possible after July the first of each year, and may be published. Section 22. The city board of education shall cause to be prepared and published annually, not later than the month of October, in sufficient quantities for distribution among the inter- ested citizens of the city, an annual report showing the condition, current accomplishments and needs for the improvement of the schools; also a statement of the business transactions of the board, and the amount expended and for what purpose. Such state- ment must show the total amount of school funds received by the city and the sources from which derived. The amount expended for teachers' salaries i^ each school and the amount paid out of the school funds for any other purpose than teachers' salaries must be shown and shall include the name of the person to whom paid, the amount of each items, and the purpose for which said amounts were expended. Article 15. The scholastic year shall begin on the first day of October of each year, and end the thirtieth day of September of the following year MISSOURI, REVISED CODE 1921 Chapter 102, article 2, section 11155 the school year shall commence on che first day of July and end the thirtieth day of June following. Section 11142. The board of directors of each district shall, on or before the fifteenth day of May of each year, forward to the Extracts from School Laws 141 county clerk an estimate of the amount of funds needed to sustain the schools of their district for the time required by law, or, when a longer term has been ordered by the annual meeting, for the time thus decided upon, together with such other amount for purchas- ing site, erecting buildings or meeting bonded indebtedness, and interest on same, as may have been legally ordered in such estimate, stating clearly the amount deemed necessary for each fund, and the rate required to raise said amount. Section 11188. The county treasurer in each county shall be the custodian of all moneys for school purposes belonging to the different districts, until paid out on warrants duly issued by order of the board of directors or to the treasurer of some town, city or consolidated school district, as authorized by this chapter, except in counties having adopted the township organization law, in which counties the township trustee shall be the custodian of the school moneys belonging to the township, and be subject to corresponding duties as the county treasurer; and said treasurer shall pay all orders heretofore legally drawn on township clerks .... Section 11189. The county or township treasurer shall, semi- annually settle his accoimts with the county court at its first and third regular terms in each year, being the regular I ebruary and August terms of said court The said treasurer shall account for all school moneys and funds of any and all kinds received by him, from whom and on what account, and the particular fund to which each of said funds were entered and charged, and the amount paid out for school purposes to the various districts of the county, and for any and all other purposes. The county court shall examine the vouchers, receipts, orders and warrants upon which each of such payments was made, and if satisfied that said payments were just and correct, shall make an order attesting the same, which order shall be entered of record and shall be prima facie a discharge of the liability of said treasurer The said county or township treasurer, shall on the 25th day of March and the first Monday in October of each year, deliver or mail to the clerk of each school district in the county or township an accurate and detailed statement, showing the actual amount of cash on hand to the credit of each of the district funds; and the statement made in October, as herein provided, shall show the amount of cash on hand on the day of the approval of the last settlement made by the said treasurer with the county court, and shall be jointly made and signed by the said county treasurer or clerk of the county clerk, and shall be a full exhibit, showing the amount of public money, railroad taxes, and all other moneys on hand or due the district by taxation, the levies made, the assessed valuation of each of said districts for the year, and the balance on hand to the credit of each district fund. 142 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System NEW JERSEY, SCHOOL LAWS 1921 Section 74. On or before the 15th day of May^ in each year; the board of education of such school district shall prepare and deliver to each member of said board of school estimate (two mem- bers of the board of education appointed by the president of said board of education and three members of the city council or city commission appointed by the city council or the commissioner) an itemized statement of the amount of money estimated to be necessary for the current expenses of and for repairing and fur- nishing the public schools of such district for the ensuing school year, and also the amount which shall have been apportoined to such district by the county superintendent. Section 75. Between the first and 15th day of February in each year said board of school estimate shall fix and determine the amount of money necessary to be appropriated for the use of the public schools in such district for the ensuing school year ex- clusive of the amount which shall have been apportioned to it by the county superintendent of schools. Said board of school estimate shall, on or before the last named date, make two cer- tificates of said amount, signed by at least three of the members of said board, one of which certificates shall be delivered to the board of education of said school district and the other to the common council, board of finance or other body in the city having the power to make appropriations of moneys raised by taxes in such cities. Section 76. Said common council, board of finance or other body shall, upon receipt of said notice, appropriate by including the amount so certified as aforesaid, in the tax ordinance, and said amount shaJl be assessed, levied and collected in the same manner as moneys appropriated for other purposes in such city shall be assessed, levied and collected provided, that any amount in excess of three-fourths of one per centum of the taxable valuation of the real and personal property shall be appropriated only with the concurrence and consent of said common council, board of finance or other body, expressed by the resolution duly passed. . The board of education shall, as soon as practicable after the close of each school year, cause to be printed and published a report of the condition of the public schools under its charge, of all the property under its control, and an itemized account of the expenditures of the board and of the finances of the district. ^The board of education submits its estimate at the time that other de- partments of the city government file their estimates, that is Feb. 1 *The fiscal year begins July 1. Extracts from School Laws 143 All disbursements of the board of education shall be by warrant drawn on the custodian (city treasurer) of the school moneys of the district, signed by the president of said board and counter- signed by the secretary. The comptroller, auditor or other officer shall audit the claims and demands against said munici- pality shall be auditor of the school district shall audit warrants and statements. The secretary shall report monthly to the board of education the amount for which warrants shall have been drawn during the preceding month, the accounts against which said warrants shall have been drawn and the balance to the credit of each account and shall at the close of the fiscal year, make a full itemized report of the finances of the school district. OHIO SCHOOL LAWS 1921 Section 260-1. For all state officers, departments, commis- sions, boards and institutions of the state the fiscal year shall be and is hereby fixed to begin on the first day of July in each year and to end on the last day of June of the succeeding year. (106v 508) Section 4663. In each city school district, the treasurer of the city funds shall be the treasurer of the school funds. In a.11 exempted village, village and rural school districts which do not provide legal depositories as provided in sections 7604 and 7608 inclusive, the county treasurer shall be treasurer of the school funds of such districts. (H. B. 180.) Section 5649-1. In any taxing district, the taxing authority shall, within the limitations and the manner prescribed by law, levy a tax sufficient to provide for interest and maturity payment purposes for all serial bonds issued by any poUtical subdivisoin, and for interest and for sinking fund purposes of all bonds hereto- fore issued by such political subdivision, which tax shall be placed before and in preference to all other items, and for the full amount thereof. (H. B. 33) Section 5649-3a. On or before the first Monday in June, each year, the county commissioners of each county, the council of each municipal corporation, the trustees of each township, each board of education and all other boards or officers authorized by law to levy taxes, within the county, except taxes levied by the state or for state purposes, shall submit or cause to be submitted to the county auditor an annual budget, setting forth in itemized form an estimate stating the amount of money needed for their wants for the incoming year, and for each month thereof. Such annual budgets shall specifically set forth: 1 . The amount to be raised for each and every purpose allowed by law for which it is desired to raise money for the incoming year. 144 Budgetary Procedure for a Local Sclwol System 2. The balance standing to the credit or debit of the several funds at the end of the last fiscal year. 3. The monthly expenditures from each fund in the twelve months and the monthly expenditures from all funds in the twelve months of the last fiscal year. 4. The annual expenditures from each fund for each year of the last five fiscal years. 5. The monthly average of such expenditures from each of the several funds for the last fiscal year, and also the total monthly average of all of them for the last five fiscal years. 6 . The amount of money received from any other source and available for any purpose in each of the last five fiscal years, together with an estimate of the probable amount that may be received diu-ing the incoming year from such source or sources. ^ 7 . The amount of the bonded indebtedness, setting out each issue and the purpose for which issued, the date of issue and the date of maturity, the original amount issued and the amount out- standing, the rate of interest, the sum necessary for interest and sinking fund purposes, and the amount required for all interest and sinking fund purposes for the incoming year. 8. The amount of all other indebtedness incurred, with a statement of the sections under which such indebtedness was incurred, and the amount of such additional taxes as may have been authorized as provided in section 5649-5 or 5649—4 or any other section of the General Code under which taxes have been levied outside of usual tax limitations or by a vote of the people, setting out in detail each item of indebtedness as provided in the next preceding paragraph and giving the details as to dates of such levies, their rates and the periods for which they run. 9. Such other facts and information as the tax commission of Ohio or the budget commissioners may require. The aggregate of all taxes that may be levied by a county, for county purposes, on the taxable property in the county, on the tax list, shall not exceed in any one year three mills. The aggregate of all taxes that may be levied by a municipal corpora- tion on the taxable property in the corporation, for corporation purposes, on the tax list, shall not exceed in any one year five mills. The aggreagte of all taxes that may be levied by a township, for township purposes, on the taxable property in the township on the tax list, shall not exceed in any one year one and five-tenths mills. The local tax levy for school purposes shall not exceed in any one year three mills on the dollar of valuation of taxable property in any school district. . Such limits for county, township, municipal and school levies shall be exclusive of any special levy provided for by a vote of the electors, any levy excepted from the Extracts from School Laws 145 limitation provided for in section 5649-2 of the General Code or authorized by said section or by any other provision of law to be made in addition to the limitation provided for in said section; nor shall such limits include special assessments, levies for road taxes that may be worked out by the tax payers, and levies and assessments in special districts created for road or ditch improve- ments, over which the budget commissioners shall have no control. Such budget shall be made up annually at the time or times now fixed by law when such boards or officers are required to de- termine the amount in money to be raised or the rate of taxes to be levied in their respective taxing districts. The county auditor shall provide and furnish such boards and officers blank forms and instructions for making up such budgets. (S. B. 160.) Section 5649-lc. On or before the first Monday in May of each year, the fiscal officer of the municipal corporation or other political subdivision shall certify to the council, county commis- sioners, board of education or other tax levying authority of his political subdivision the amount of tax necessary to provide for the payment of final judgments against the political subdivision, except in condemnation of property cases, and said tax levying authority shall place such amount in the annual tax levying ordi- nance, resolution or other measure for the full amount certified. (H. B. 33.) OREGON SCHOOL LAWS 1921, CHAPTER 7 Section 228 the fiscal school year shall begin on the third Monday of June and end on the last day (preceding the third Monday) of June (of the following year.) O. L., sec. 5135.) Section 230. District Meetings — No tax shall be le\'ied at any meeting unless the call for such meeting shall contain an item- ized budget showing contemplated expenditures Section 231. It shall be the duty of the district clerk of any district at least two weeks before a meeting is held for the purpose of levying taxes to publish in one or more newspapers pubhshed in the district and having a general circulation, a budget statement of the estimated amount of revenue required for the ensuing year for the maintenance of the school district, and in districts in which no newsparer is pubhshed the clerk shall post such budget on the door of the school house in said district at least ten days before such meeting. It shall be the duty of the directors of any such district to make out and deliver to the district clerk of their dis- trict, an itemized statement of the amount of revenues which may be required for the purpose of carrying on the district schools for the ensuing year, which statement shall be signed by the board of directors at a legally called board meeting. 0. L. Sec. 5138. 146 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System Section 231-A. It shall be unlawful for any municipal cor- poration in this state to levy in any year any tax upon property subject to taxation unless an estimate shall have first been made of the total amount of money proposed to be expended by the municipal corporation for all purposes during the fiscal year next ensuing, and such estimate published and opportunity for a full and complete discussion thereof allowed in the manner hereinafter provided in this act. 4. The estimates herein required shall be fully itemized and shall be so prepared and arranged as to show in plain and succinct language each particular item of proposed expenditure, showing under separate heads the amount required for personal service, for material and supphes and for any and all other purposes for each department, each office or officer, each improvement or unit there- of, the construction, maintenance and repair of each building, structure or institution and the salary of each officer or employee; provided, that employees of like salary in amount in each depart- ment or office may be fisted by the number of such employees, the amount of each salary and the amount of their combined salaries. Said estimates shall show also the amount proposed to be expended for the construction, use, maintenance or improvement of public highways, roads, streets, bridges; the construction, operation and maintenance of each public utifity; the payment of bonded, float- ing, funded, warrant or other indebtedness and the interest there- on, and shall contain a full and complete disclosure of all the pro- posed expenditures. Accompanying said estimates and made a part thereof shall be the original estimate sheets of every officer and department from which the estimates herein required have been compiled. Said original estimate sheets shall show in parallel columns the unit costs of the several services, material and suppfies for the three fiscal years next preceding the current year, the de- tailed expenditures for the last one of said three preceding fiscal years and the budget allowances and expenditures for six months of the current year. Said estimates of proposed expenditures and original estimate sheets as provided in this section shall, when pre- pared, be certified to as correct and filed in the office of the levying board and shall be open to public inspection. All estimates of expenditures and all other estimates of any kind required by this act shall be made a sufficient length of time in advance of all regular or special meetings of the levying board at which by law tax levies are authorized to be made to permit pubUcation thereof, discussion thereof, and consideration thereof and action thereon as hereinafter provided. 5 . Each municipal corporation shall include in the estimates which by this act it is required to make one estimate only for emergency or other expenditures unf orseen at the time the estimates Extracts from School Laws 147 were made and such emergency fund shall be applied only to the payment of such unforseen expenditures. 6. Each municipal corporation shall, at the time of making and filing the estimates of expenditures and original estimate sheets as required by this act, also prepare and file its estimate in detail of the probable receipts of the municipal corporation and account what fund, department or office, during the next ensuing year from fees, Ucenses, fines, forfeited bail, interest on deposits, or on securities of any kind, delinquent taxes, judgments, damages, rent, premiums on sales of bonds, services, road or other work done for private persons, transfer of unused balances of any fund, rebates, refunds of moneys heretofore paid on any account, apportionment, grant, contribution or allocation from any state, county, municipal or other hke fund and from any and all other sources of whatsoever kind or character. Said estimate of prob- able receipts required by this section shall include also an estimate of the probable unappropriated or unexpended balance in money which shall remain in each fund, department or office on the last day of the current year. The amount of the difference between the estimated receipts as herein provided and of the estimated expen- ditures for all purposes, including the estimates for emergency expenditures, shall be the estimated tax levy upon the assessable property within the municipal corporation for the next ensuing fiscal year as nearly as the same may be determined. 7. The estimates required by this act, together with the notice of the time and place at which such estimates may be dis- cussed with the lev3ang board, shall be published in the manner provided in tl^is act at least twice prior to the time appointed for such proposed meeting in a newspaper of general circulation pub- lished in the municipal corporation; provided, that the first pub- lication shall be not less than twenty days nor (or) the second publication less than ten days prior to the date of such meeting; Provided further, that in case no newspaper of general circulation shall be published in the municipal corporation, then the notices and estimates required by this act shall be posted in three con- spicuous places in the municipal corporation for at least twenty days prior to such meeting. 8. It shall be the duty of the levjdng board to meet at the time and place designated in the notice of the meeting required by this act, when and where any person who shall be subject to such tax levy, when the same shall be made, shall be heard in favor of or against said tax or any part thereof. 9 . When the hearing provided for in this act shall have been held, or if at the time and place appointed for such hearing no taxpayer shall appear to discuss the proposed levy, then the levying board shall proceed to make, determine and declare the amount 148 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System of taxes to be levied upon the current assessment and tax roll and to make a separate appropriation for each office or officer, depart- ment, building, structure, institution, bridge, road, highway, street, public utility or other purpose as shall be sufficient to raise the amount of taxes so determined and declared, and such determina- tion shall be entered in the proper records of the levying board; and no greater tax than that so entered upon the record shall be levied or collected by the municipal corporation proposing such tax for the purpose or purposes indicated. And thereafter no greater expenditure of public money shall be made for any specific purpose than the amount estimated and appropriated therefor, except as provided in sections 5 and 10 of this act. 10. Subject to the provisions contained in the charter of any city or town or in any law of this state relating to municipal corporations, it shall be lawful to transfer money from any esti- mate or fund to any other estima.te or fund of the municipal cor- poration, and the levying board may provide that money so trans- ferred must be returned to the estimate or fund from which it was transferred ; provided, that it shall not be necessary to return to the emergency fund any moneys transferred therefrom to any other estimate or fund. 14. It shall be the duty of the levying board to appoint each year a suitable number of the qualified electors and freeholders of the municipal corporation equal to the nurnber of members of the levying board, who with the members of the levying board, shall constitute the budget committee; provided, that the electors and freeholders so appointed shall not be officers, agents or employ- ees of any municipal corporation. It shall be the duty of said budget committee to prepare all the estimates required by this act. Said budget committee shall not receive any compensation for their services in preparing said estimates. Said budget com- mittee shall be empowered to demand and receive from any officer, employee or department of the municipal corporation any informa- tion it may require for the preparation of the budget and compel the attendance of any such officer or employee at its meetings. Said budget committee shall at its first meeting after its appoint- ment elect a chairman and a secretary from among its members. CHAPTER IX Section 307 . On or before the last day of October of each year, the district school board of each school district shall prepare a budget showing the amount of money which in the judgment of the board will be needed in the ensuing year for the maintenance, operation and support of all schools of the district and for acquir- ing or improving school sites, after deducting therefrom sums expected to be received from statewide and countrywide taxes Extracts from School Laws 149 levied as heretofore provided by law or from other state or county funds. Section 334. On or before the last day of October in each year the district school board of each of such districts shall pre- pare a budget for the ensuing year of such sums of money as it may deem necessary for the maintenance, operation aind support of the school system of the district, said budget to be published according to the forms prescribed and furnished by the state superintendent of pubUc instruction. (O. L., sec. 5209.) WISCONSIN, LAWS OF 1919 City Schools, chapter 4, 925. 1. The board of education shall prior to the first day of October each year make an estimate of the expenses of the public schools for the ensuing year^, including all necessary incidental expenses and the amount thereof which it will be necessary to raise by city taxation and certify the same to the city clerk who shall lay the same before the common council at its next regular meeting. It shall be the duty of the common council to consider such estimate and by resolution determine the amount to be raised by city taxation for school purposes for the ensuing year, which amount so fixed shall be included in the annual budget to be raised by tax called the city school tax, which shall be collected the same as other taxes. 2 . It shall be the duty of the city treasurer to keep all moneys raised in any way for school purposes, whether by the state, county or the city, coining into his hands and to pay out the same when- ever the board of education shall present to the city clerk a certi- fied bill, voucher or schedule signed by its president and secretary setting forth the names of the claimants, the amounts of each claim, and the purpose for which expended ; such city clerk shall issue orders upon the city treasurer , who shall pay the amounts there- of, provided that funds are on hand in the city treasury appropriated for school purposes sufficient to pay the same. 'The fiscal year begins July 1. APPENDIX III SOURCE OF DATA FOR CHAPTER III In Inquiry Number III, "Know and Help Your School" of the American City Bureau, 1921 series by Dr. George D. Strayer et al, the following questions concerning the school budget were asked: 1. By what official, officials or board is your school budget estimate compiled? 2. When does your fiscal school year begin? 3. Aside from state and city charter i^egulations concerning amounts, does your school board have Final authority as to the amount of this budget? 4. If not, when must your budget be ready for presentation to any authority other than the Board of Education? 5. Give the following data concerning the board or authority mentioned in question 4: 1. Name. 2. Number of members. 3. Appointed or elected. 4. By whom? 5. If it is an ex-officio board or has ex-officio members on it, give a hst of the officers that serve on it. 6. What action may this board or authority take concerning your school budget estimate? (Underline and add others.) 1. Reduce 2. Increase 3. Adopt 4. Reject 7. What action did this board or authority take on your last budget? (If your budget was itemized give the following) 1. What items were reduced? 2. What items were increased? 3. What items were adopted as presented? 4. What items were cut from budget? 8. What percentage of the budget estimate adopted by this board was adopted because of mandatory legislation? 9. Is the action of this board or authority subject to approval by any other board, governing authority or committee? Source of Data for Chapter III 151 10. Give the following data concerning the board or authority mentioned in question 9 : 1. Name. 2. Number of members. 3. Appointed or elected. 4. By whom? 5. If it is an ex-officio board or has ex-oflBcio members on it, give a hst of the officers that serve on it. 11. What action may this board or authority take concerning your school budget estimate? (Underline and add others.) 1. Reduce 2. Increase 3. Adopt 4. Reject 12. What action did this board or authority take on your last budget? (If your budget was itemized give the following) 1. What items were reduced? 2. What items were increased? 3. What items were adopted as presented? 4. What items were cut from budget? 13. What percentage of the budget estimate adopted by this board was adopted because of mandatory legislation? 14. Has the mayor power to veto the budget? 15 . If so, how and by whom can this veto be overcome? 16. Are other budget estimates considered at the same time and by the same authorities that the school budget estimates are? 17 . If so, underline them and add others if necessary. Sewers Streets Police Fire City Admim'stration 18. How long has the above procedure of budget adoption been in operation in your city? 19 . Is the present plan satisfactory to your schools? 20 . If not, what plan would you prefer? 21. If your answers to the above questions fail to make your situation clear, please write on blank paper and attach to this sheet, an account of how, when and by whom your budget estimate is compiled, and the possible legal actions that any official, board or authority may take in the matter of changing, adopting, rejecting or in any way influencing your budget. CITIES CONTRIBUTING TO INQUIRY NO. Ill, NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR CHAMBER OF COMMERCE CO- OPERATION WITH THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AMERICAN CITY BUREAU, NEW YORK CITY, 1921. I Cities from 8,000 to 30,000 population (Small) II Cities from 30,000 to 100,000 population (Middle) III Cities over 100,000 population (Large) A. Eastern States, including Connecticut, Maine, Massachussetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont. B. Southern States, including Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia. C. Great Lakes States, including Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin. D. Great Plains States, including Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota. E. Western States, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, Utah, Washington, Wyoming. Aberdeen, S. Dak ID Auburn, Me lA Ada, Okla ID Aurora, (E. S.), lU IIC Adrian, Mich IC Aurora, (W. S.), lU IIC Akron, Ohio IIIC Austin, Texas IIB Albion, Mich. IC Bakersfield, Cal IE Allentown, Pa IIA Bangor, Me lA Alhance, Ohio IC Battle Creek, Mich IIC Alpena, Mich IC Bayonne, N. J IIA Alton, 111 IC Bellefontaine, Ohio IC Altoona, Pa IIA Belleville, N. J lA Americus, Ga IB Bellingham, Wash IE Amsterdam, N. Y IIA Beloit, Wis IC Anderson, Ind IC Bennington, Vt lA Ann Arbor, Mich IC Beverly, Mass lA Ansonia, Conn lA Bloomfield, N. J lA Appleton, Wis IC Bloomington, Ind IC Ardmore, Okla ID Bluefield, W. Va IB Asbury Park, N. J lA Boone, Iowa. . .' ID Atchison, Kans ID Boston, Mass. IIIA Atlanta, Ga IIIB Boulder, Colo IB Attleboro, Mass lA Bowling Green, Ky IB Cities that Contributed to the Inquiry Braintree, Mass lA Bridgeton, N. J lA Brockton, Mass II A Brookline, Mass IIA Burlington, Iowa ID Burlington, N. J lA Burlington, Vt lA Cairo, 111 IC Camden, N. J IIIA Cape Girardeau, Mo ID Carbondale, Pa lA Carlisle, Pa lA Carrick, Pa lA Carthage, Mo ID Cedar Rapids, Iowa IID Centralia, III IC Champaign, III IC Chanute, Kans ID Cheyenne, Wyo IE Chicago, 111 IIIC Chicago Heights, 111 IC ChilUcothe, Ohio IC Cincinnati, Ohio IIIC Claremont, N. H lA Clarksville, Tenn IB Cleveland, Ohio IIIC Cleveland Heights, Ohio. . . IC Clinton, Iowa ID Clinton, Mass lA Coffey ville, Kans ID Colorado Springs, Colo. .. . IIE Columbus, Ga IIB Columbus, Miss IB Concord, N.H lA Coshocton, Ohio IC Covington, Ky IIB CrawfordsviUe, Ind IC Danvers, Mass lA DanviUe, 111 IIC Davenport, Iowa IID Dayton, Ohio IIIC Decatur, lU IIC Denver, Colo ' IIIE Detroit, Mich IIIC DuBois, Pa lA Dubuque, Iowa IID Dunkirk, N. Y lA East Chicago, Ind. . . . East Hartford, Conn . East Liverpool, Ohio. , Easton, Pa East Orange, N. J Eau Claire, Wis Ehzabeth, N. J Elmira, N. Y El Reno, Okla Elwood, Ind Elyria, Ohio.'. ....... Enfield, Coim Englewood, N. J. . . . . Eureka, Cal Everett, Mass Everett, Wash Fairmount, W. Va Fall River, Mass Findlay, Ohio Flint, Mich Fort Smith, Ark Fort Worth, Texas. . . . Frankfort, Ind Frankfort, Ky Franklin, Pa Frederick, Md Freeport, lU Fulton, N. Y Galesburg, 111 Gardner, Mass Gary, Ind Glendale, Cal Glens FaUs, N. Y Gloucester, Mass Goshen, Ind Grand Forks, N. D... Grand Junction, Colo. Grand Rapids, Mich. . Granite City, 111 Great Falls, Mont Hackensack, N. J Hagerstown, Md Hammond, Ind Harrisburg, Pa Harvey, 111 Hastings, Neb Hattiesburg, Miss. . . . 153 lie lA IC IIA IIA IC IIA IIA ID IC IC lA lA IE IIA IE IB IIIA IC IIC IB IIIB IC IB lA IB IC lA IC lA IIC IE lA lA IC ID IE IIIC IC IE lA IB IIC IIA IC ID IB 154 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System Hazelton, Pa Helena, Mont Henderson,Ky Highland Park, Mich. Holyoke, Mass Homestead, Pa Homell, N. Y Houston, Texas. ...... Huntington, Ind Hutchinson, Kans. . . . Independence, Kans. . IndianapoUs, Ind lola, Kans Ironton, Ohio Ironwood, Mich Jackson, Mich Jamestown, N. Y Jeannette, Pa Jefferson City, Mo Joliet, 111 Kalamazoo, Mich Kankakee, 111 Kansas City, Kans. . . Kansas City, Mo Kenosha, Wis Kent, Ohio Keokuk, Iowa Kinston, N. C Lakewood, Ohio Lansford, Pa La Salle, lU Latrobe, Pa Leavenworth, Kans. . . Lebanon, Pa Lewiston, Me Lexington, Ky Lincoln, Neb Little Falls, N. Y Logan, Utah Logansport, Ind Long Beach, Cal Los Angeles, Cal Louisville, Ky Ludington, Mich Manhattan, Kans. . . . Manistee, Mich Mankato, Minn IIA Mansfield, Ohio IE Marietta, Ohio IB Marinette,Wis lie Marion, Ohio IIA Marlborough, Mass I A Marquette, Mich lA Marshall, Texas IIIB Marshalltown, Iowa IC Mason City, Iowa ID Meriden, Conn ID Merrill, Wis IIIC Methuen, Mass ID Michigan City, Ind IC Middleboro, Mass IC Middletown, Conn lie Middletown, Ohio IIA Milford, Conn lA Millville, N. J ID Milwaukee, Wis lie Minneapolis, Minn lie Mishawaka, Ind IC Missoula, Mont HID Mobile, Ala HID Modesto, Cal lie Moline, lU IC Monmouth, 111 ID Monroe, Mich IB Montclair, N. J lie Montgomery, Ala lA Morgantown, W. Va IC Mt. V^mon, Ohio lA Muncie, Ind ID Muskegon, Mich I A Muskogee, Okla IIA Nanticoke, Pa IIB Nashville, Tenn IID Newark ,N. J lA New Bedford, Mass IE New Britain, Conn IC New Brunswick, N. J. . . HE Newburg, N. Y HIE New Haven, Conn IIIB New London, Conn IC New Orleans, La.' ID New Philadelphia, Ohio. IC Newport, R. I ID Newton, Kans IC IC IC IC lA IC IB ID ID IIA IC lA IC lA lA IC lA lA IIIC HID IC IE IIB IE lie IC IC lA IIB IB IC lie lie IID lA IIIB IIIA IIIA IIA IIA IIA IIIA lA IIIB IC IIA ID Cities that Contributed to the Inquiry Newton, Mass. New York City, N. Y. Norfolk, Neb Norristown, Pa Norwood, Mass Oakland, Cal Oklahoma City, Okla. . Okmulgee, Okla . . . Old Forge Boro, Pa. . . . Olean, N. Y Omaha, Neb Orlando, Fla Ottawa, 111 ., Ottawa, Kans Ottumwa, Iowa Owensboro, Ky Owosso, Mich Paducah, Ky Palestine, Texas Parkersburg, W. Va Pasadena, Cal Passaic, N. J Paterson, N. J Pawtucket, R. I Peoria, ni Perth Amboy, N. J Phillipsburg, N. J Phoenix, Ariz Phoenixville, Pa Pittsburg, Kans Pittsburg, Pa. .' Pittsfield,Mass Plainfield, N. J Pontiac, Mich Poplar Bluff, Mo Port Arthur, Texas Port Huron, Mich Portland, Me Portsmouth, N. H Portsmouth, Ohio Portsmouth, Va Pottstown, Pa Poughkeepsie, N. Y . Providence, R. I Quincy, 111 Racine, Wis Rahway, N. J IIA Ranger, Texas IIIA Reading, Pa ID Redlands, Cal IIA Redwing, Minn lA Richmond, Ind IIIE Richmond, Va IID River Rouge, Mich ID Riverside, Cal , lA Roanoke, Va lA Rochester, N. H HID Rochester, N. Y IB Rock Island, lU IC Rockland, Me ID Rocky Mount, N. C... ID Rome, Ga IB Rutherford, N. J IC Saginaw, (E. S.), Mich. IB St. Cloud, Minn IB St. Louis, Mo IB Salina, Kans IIE Salt Lake City, Utah. . . IIA San Antonio, Texas IIIA San Bernardino, Cal IIA San Diego, Cal lie San Francisco, Cal IIA Santa Ana, Cal lA Santa Cruz, CaJ i IE Santa Rosa, Cal lA Sapidpa, Okla ID Saratoga Springs, N.Y. . IIIA Saugus, Mass IIA Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.. lA Savannah, Ga lie Sayre, Pa ID Schenectady, N. Y IB Scranton, Pa IC Seattle, Wash IIA Shamokin, Pa lA Sharon, Pa lie Shawnee, Okla IIB Shelton, Conn lA Sioux Falls, S.D....;.. IIA SomerviUe, Mass IIIA South Bend, Ind nC Southington, Conn nC Spokane, Wash lA Springfield, lU 155 IB IIIA IE ID IC IIIB IC IE IIB lA IIIA lie lA IB IB lA lie ID HID ID IIIE IIIB IE IIE IIIE IE IE IE ID lA lA IC IIB lA IIA IIIA IIEE lA lA ID lA ID IIA IIC lA IIIE lie 156 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System Springfield, Mass. . Springfield, Mo Springfield, Ohio . . , Stamford, Conn. . . , Stratford, Conn. . . , Streator, 111 Suffolk, Va Swampscott, Mass. Tacoma, Wash Tarentum, Pa Terre Haute, Ind. . Texarkana, Texas. . Tiffin, Ohio Topeka, Kans Trenton, N. J Tulsa, Okla.. Tyrone, Pa Vallejo, Cal Vancouver, Wash. . Virginia, Minn Wabash, Ind Wakefield, Mass Warren, Ohio Washington, D. C. . IIIA Washington, C. H., Ohio. IID Waterbiuy, Conn lie Waterloo, Iowa II A Watertown, Wis lA Watervliet, N. Y IC Waukegan, 111 IB Wausau, Wis lA Waycross, Ga HE Webster, Mass lA Westerly, R. I lie West Palm Beach, Fla. . . IB Weymouth, Mass IC WheeUng, W. Va IID Wichita, Kans IIIA Wilkinsburg, Pa IID Williamson, W. Va lA Winchester, Mass '. . IE Winchester, Va IE Winfield, Kans ID Winona, Minn. IC Winsted, Conn lA Winston-Salem, N. C. . . . IC Woonsocket, R. I IIIB Zanesville, Ohio IC HA IID IC lA IC IC IB lA lA IB lA IIB IID lA IB lA IB ID ID lA IIB IIA IC APPENDIX IV SUGGESTED RECORD FORMS FOR COLLECTING BUDGET DATA* 1. Population and Enrolment Record. 2 . Total and Per Capita Wealth Record. 3. Tax Rate Record — MiUs on the Dollar. .4. Comparative Record of Per Capita Wealth and School Tax Rate with Selected Cities. 5. Summary of Expenditures — School and Municipal. 6. A Summary of Receipts and Expenditures for Schools. 7. Enrolment and Attendance Record. 8. Total Receipts and Distribution by Sources. 9 . Distribution of Expenditures by Departments of Service. 10. Per Cent of Total Expenditures Devoted to the Various Department's of Service. 11. Budget Appropriations for PubUc Schools. 12. Per Cent Each of the Major Items of School Budget is of the Total Appropriation. 13 . Distribution of School Appropriations among Principal Sub- Divisions of Budget. 14. Unit Costs of Public Education by Schools — I. 15. Unit Costs of Public Education by Grades — II. 16 . Unit Costs of Public Education by High School Subject-Groups or Departments — III. 17. School Debt Record. 18 . Principals and Supervisors Distributed by Salary-Groups. 19. Elementary Teachers Distributed by Salary-Groups. 20. Secondary Teachers Distributed by Salary-Groups. 21. Other Teachers Distributed by Salary-Groups. 22 . Median Salaries of Teachers and Principals and Supervisors. 23 . Principal's Budget Estimate to the Superintendent. 24. Financial Facts. *These record forms are indicative of the type that superintendents of schools may use. This Hst does not presume to be complete in every detail but is more extended and inclasive than most school systems have at the present time. 158 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System ;: 00 •S eo d^ 1 6§fe OQ 1 1 1 " 1 »S O ^ " B^ •S 8 ^ 1 1 ^.3 o SQ 1 1 1 H £ ^ Jg h^ SS «D 1 13 H ^fe s i ^1 if s l£ t=> 0^ o (^ 1 II (£ 1 1 1 ^ i£ j^ § >s A 05 1-4 OS 1-1 r-t at o» o> 05 Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 159 ti ;^ n 8 w -§1 E-1 1 :S Q < Hi 1 ^ II 'W - 2 ^ P t^ 03 05 1-* t-4 OS 03 05 1-t OS I— f OS 1^ OS 160 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System % o Q w !? O OS » I ^ IS rt % ScAooJ Tax Rate is ot Total City Rate Total Tax Rate for City (MiUs) Tax Rate School Tax (Mills) Tax Rate State Tax (Mills) Tax Rate County Tax (Mills) ( Tax Rate Municipal Tax Other Than Schools (Mills) ^ i-H 05 1— ( f ■ Oi i-H 05 i-H 0» 1-H OS GQ Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 161 1 School Tax Rate (MiUs) »-H Per Capita* WeaUh 05 School Tax Rate (Mills) Per Capita* WeaUh School Tax Rate (MiUs) T-< Per Capita* Wealth 03 Schml Tax Rate (MiUs) i-t Per Capita* WeaUh 09 School Tax Rate (Mills) Per Capita* Wealth O ^ P fH N re •* U3 t-^ 00 05 2 162 Budgetary Procedure far a Local School System 1-3 O O ™ O*^ IB _ O I- H a Q3 Co R ^ 3 ^ 1 ^1 i S J 11. O S -, . ^ J &«§^ o^ CO eo g-s a -s a Scho endi endi '^ ,8- £ t Kj S R) ~l 111 "1 1 tg ^ ^ ~ ^ ' fe s s cipal ■res 'choo ^l.l ■g ^"a ■g ill 1 Tota Ex o ^ fe "s e ll ^|l ^^ ^ ^ 1 ■S s. g t,^ ■^ 5 O &i 1 j_ 1 s ' . ' . 1 i^ S ■ OS o» Oi : o O) O) OS . OS at tH r-t i-i i-« tH 1-H i-H l-\ 1-t rH Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 163 Record Form No. 6. City op A SUMMARY OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FOR SCHOOLS Year Total Bece ipts Total Expenditu res Surplus I Deficit rr 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 Record Form No. 7. Ciir of ENROLMENT AND ATTENDANCE RECORD Year Total Enrolment Number Belonging Average Daily Attendance 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 164 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System S g.g g O S OS ^ !l 1^ ^JM 1 1 » "^ . ^l^j « 1 ^l^J « 1 1 ^1^1 GQ 1 1 . ^l^i ^J 1 rH 1-t 01 1-H 1-^ s 05 Stiggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 165 o o Is ^ p:; Per Inhab- itant • ^ 1 ^|l 8 c> 1 CO 1 ^|l o CQ 1 1 1 i« ^ii 4 1 CQ £ '|i g e ■£ 1 5 , "' , i; 1 S :8l 1 i'il 1 1 , ill ^ 1 1 a a 2 2 at 2 a* a> s a»| 166 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System u ll iS i ^ 1 « * 1 o o 1 S i JH CO 1 ii 1 1^ \ Eh : gl >^ at 1^ e> r-l OS OS T-1 OS OS 1-H s 2 Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 167 !l s S Pi o o w o 1^ m g 02 I? o I— t i H H O Q Total Auxiliarji Agencies 1 Total Capital Outlay i ^ w- Tola Debt Servic ~ -M S- 5| 1 '- 1 ? Tola Maintenc oJ Pla ? Total Operatic Plan r Total Oenen Contrc u Total Sc Appropt tioni Year OJ s o> OS s s 0) at Cb| 168 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System o iz; o 2 H i PL| Ph < ^ H a Q n 1^ o s o o OS O w o <1 pq H I? Q a ■'i -^ t^o CO J § ft- .i-s g-l 6? ^ ■M vp 11^ Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 169 ft o O o o rt c a, c ■ 1 1 s ig o fi- 1 ^1.8. 1 g P Ill 4 1 03 'fe 8 IS < 1-a o 1 Is i P & § CO 1 8 03 £ 1^ O I? O ■ll il e to ;^ O) OS ffi <» OS Oi OS OS a> csr 170 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System 1 « "i 1 4 ^ i-^ i 1 .«-sl- Q 11 i fti i 1 J » 4 CiTT OP. ^PRIATI0^ 1 05 ft. 1 ,|.| 1^ ii^i ^§ "*! - i ^ ■i fa 5 O H :g t« - •mNo. ] TRIBU' II Record Foj DIS 1 a* o 2 a Oi a> a at ai Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 171 ^ ~ ~ '^ la^ S. » III * ..-^ """ ^ '^ ■§ 1q tso . '^ 1 1 verage Daily mdance 1 » •^ ^ S ■^ A ^_^ % •^^^ 1 ^I'^i s W ^ O o l-i 1^ 1 m 02 fe "§ 'S £«- » -^ '^ 1 h o •^ 1 Unit Coat .D.A O I'-s S O <5 © H i-i" » s 1^ 1 13 Averi Dai Attend ,-, •■s-'^ s> ii«: 1 "i -^ V i "S"" « J to erage aily idanc -^^1 ■^ ,_ g ^1 OS OS 1— 1 OS OS 1^ OS 1-4 OS 1-H OS OS -§ 172 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System o S o p Q n & o w o •a o o Cm g I 1 » 8 lU ' II III ^^1 ■5 '^ 1 5 II l*^! ■^ ?■ la "I ^ i| •■^''3 i5 ll 1 01 at a> ai o> oa s 0) o> 01 StLggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 173 6 C2 Ph o H 03 O o m 3 .g '■♦J (3 O O o iz; o tf O H O ^. O g ffl >, .5 ^* t§a to a S 1? o a ~ a ^ to a -^ Q 1 174 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System B 5 I O H § H 55 2S •a n ^ 1^ 1 bC •^ c3 1 13 CJ -^ ci § !^ •^ •■« -a ^^ '^ '^ "^ •M i«o 'fi « 1 tiO "^ C) i 13 '"i ■ 1 ci :§ . §■ -^ K) ci j^ S ^ 05 1-i i-H 1-H OS 1-1 1-H OS OS s OS "-I Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 175 Record Form No. 17. City of SCHOOL DEBT RECORD Year Total Indehtedn ess Sinking Fund Ass r eU Net Dei H Per Capi Net Deb ta 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 176 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System fe o O 03 o £ p^ ■a .2* If ■I SW Sot? W W w Total 1 1 1 .g 1 i 1 5 & Cc a; ^ ti cc P£ tE a Ct n a [i tE <£ >' o e ■ o a a Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 177 1 J\ 5 1 _ _ d ^ i o s « ! 1 _ _._ H n iZ3 Mn a;} K ijtn SSqq Hhcc o a 31 » 0> 178 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System I 02 a H k< OS H 1* ,^ ^ e» S." 1 i ^ s OQ ^ 1 ■ *g H, ; |>. ■§ &< s g ^. u. r 09 OS l-H OS 1-4 1-4 o> ^4 1-H o f a g (3 O A II 03 'Q O 3 ^ a T3 S "I a .s<| II Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 179 02 Ph P 2 CO B Q m 02 02 K O H 3 ^ - i (a. 1 1 U ^ ^ a> at rfS f^ o •s 02 Os r? §■ - id ^ c o Si t-( \ t/j ■S m : fr i;-' fe; 1 - ! e 1^. r-l 1—1 OS »— 1 1—1 1-1 a> i-t 03 6i r- 1 051 180 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System ■*— H- 1 -i 1 1 1 & tyy ■ 1 O f -1— « ^ (5 1 - & i J3 d *- 1 1 1 1 *- •*— 3 li - !i^ OS 05 I— ( OS 1-( »-4 05 ll II Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 181 o ^ (H 09 - t— 1 Q 42 < 1 t-3 i !2; P 1 e 02 Pl < S ill M S ;:S 05 01 1— 1 1— ( OS OS 05 i-H 05 I— ( OS 1—1 C3S 1— t 182 Budgetary Procedure for a Local JScftml System ■s ■a 3 n "o S3 9 -^ M Hi H 525 W O Q IS « 1 f'l s^- S Q '■ ^ ^ III ^ 1 ^. 1 _ ~ ' 1 ^ 1 _^ -« ^ ^ ^ ■M „. - ^ ^ « ■■ ■" — " — -- — ■ " — — ' ^ ■•< ^ 4i IS ' u o h 1 'S o Mi ■ ■•s -"^ ?3 ' 2 - j^ s tl )i fe e o ri , . . CQ 1 1 1 1 i d; 5 ■s '1 < i t , a c t "1 1 o o o o S & ^ ° Sal '1 C 1 G ■i *" 0) p- ■* If cc N CC o- c r- 1 **■ i c Suggested Record Forms for Collecting Data 183 o pj O Q C3 t Cd So - ^ P < '3 J a am a ^ III" ZW-o U -9 a 4! a as S iStf O s a £H0 31 D -2 - - •< k1 « W H 1^ 1^ .2 & S -a 184 Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System u o iz; o •d. ^ II Ratio of School Debt to City DM Per Capita School DM Total School DM Per Capita City Debt Total City DM i Ratio of School to Total Tax Rate School Tax Bate SI Muni- cipal Tax Bale E Total Tax Bate Assessed Valua- tion Per Pupil Wealth Based on Enrolment Per Capita Wealth . ^1 ■ 1 VITA Author's name: John Wesley Twente. Place of birth: Napoleon, Missouri. Date of birth: September 2, 1887. Education: Completed eight grades in pubUe schools, Napoleon, Missouri. 1906 — Graduated from Central Wesleyan Academy, Warren- ton, Missouri. 1910 — Granted A. B. degree by Central Wesleyan College. Warrenton, Missouri. 1916 — Granted A. M. degree in education by University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. 1921 — Granted A. M. degree in education by Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, New York City. 1922 — Completed advanced courses in educational adminis- tration at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Citj^ Experience: 1909-1910 — Assistant instructor in Teacher Training Depart- ment, Central Wesleyan Academy, Warrenton, Missouri. 1910-1911 — Principal of public schools, Warrenton, Missouri. 1911-1917 — Supeiintendent of schools, Baxter Springs, Kansas. 1917-1918 — National Army, Can.ip Funston. 1918-1919 — American Expeditionary Forces. The author has participated in several surveys of rural and city school sj^stems. Groups Whose Maximal Cyclic Subgroups are Independent By LOUIS WEISNER Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University. NEW YORK 1923 Groups Whose Maximal Cyclic Subgroups are Independent By LOUIS WEISNER Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Eequirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Pure Science, Columbia University. NEW YORK 1923 VITA Louis Weisner. Bom in New York City on May 1, 1899, and educated in the public schools of that city. B. S., 1920, College of the City of New York. A. M., 1922, Columbia University. Assistant in Mathematics and instructor in Extension Teaching and Summer Session in Columbia University, 1921 to date. Member of Sigma Xi and of the American Mathematical Society. The writer welcomes this opportunity of expressing his appreciation of the valuable counsel and encouragement received from Professor Cole and of the inspiration afforded by his lectures on the Theory of Groups. GROUPS WHOSE MAXIMAL CYCLIC SUB- GROUPS ARE INDEPENDENT* By Louis Weisner 1 . A cyclic subgroup of a group G is said to be a maximal cyclic subgroup of G if it is not contained in a larger cyclic subgroup of G.** Every element of G is included in at least one maximal cyclic sub- group. A necessary and sufficient condition that each element of G except identity be included in one and only one maximal cyclic subgroup of G is that the maximal cyclic subgroups of G be inde- pendent; that is, that no two maximal cyclic subgroups of G have an element besides identity in common. The present paper concerns itself with groups whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent. It will be shown that the following are the only types of solvable groups whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent: (1) Abelian groups: cyclic and type (1, 1, 1, . . .). (2) Prime-power groups: cyclic, dihedral, type (1, 1, 1, . . .) abelian groups, and groups conformal with type (1, 1, 1, . . .) abelian groups. (3) Certain groups which contain an invariant cyclic subgroup; these are considered in §§ 9-12. (4) The octahedral group. (5) Groups of order p°^gP which contain no element of com- posite order, where p and g are different prime numbers. (6) Certain groups whose commutator subgroups are of the type given in (5). All other groups whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent are insolvable and usually simple. General properties of groups whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent are also considered. I. PRELIMINARY THEOREMS 2 . We note at once that the statement that the maximal cyclic subgroups of a group G are independent is equivalent to the state- ment that if s°' = t^^l, where s and t are elements of G, then (s, t) ♦Read before the American Mathematiral Society, December 28, 1922 „.,„„,„ **G A Miller "Note on the Maximal Cyclic Subgroups of a Group of Order p". Bull, of the Amer. 'Math. Soc., Vol. 18, p. 189. 4 L. Weisnbr is a cyclic group. This fact is very useful and will be used in prov- ing that in a group whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent every subgroup has the property that its maximal cyclic subgroups are independent. Let H be a subgroup of G, and let 5 and / be two elements of H, with s"' = t^ ^1. Since ^ and / are also in G and the maximal cyclic subgroups of G are independent, this relation can be true only if s and i generate a cyclic subgroup of G, which then is a cyclic sub- group of H. Since every relation such as s"' = t^ 4"! between two elements of H implies that (s, t) is a cyclic group, it follows that the maximal cyclic subgroups of H are independent. 3. Let €,, C2, ■ ■ ■ C„, of orders, c^, c^, . . . c„ respectively, denote the maximal cyclic subgroups of G, whose order we denote by g. A necessary and sufiRcient condition that the maximal cyclic subgroups of G be independent is that ic-l) + (c^-l) + ... {c„-l)=g-l. If the maximal cyclic subgroups of G be divided into complete sets of conjugates, of which C^jC^, . . . Cr are representatives, then a necessary and sufficient condition that the maximal cyclic subgroups of G be independent is that i (^^-^) + 1 ^'^-'^ + • • ■ + i (^'-^) = «-^' where h^ denotes the order of the subgroup of G under which C, is invariant {x = l, 2, . . . r). n. QUOTIENT GROUPS 4. THEOREM: If H is an invariant subgroup, of a group G whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent, and if no element of G not in H has a power in H besides identity, then the maximal cyclic subgroups ofG/H are independent. Arrange the elements of G in cosets as regards H. Let 1, s^, Sj, ... 5ft be the elements of H; 1, u^, . . . Ug/h the elements of G/H; and let ti, tiSi, . . tiS/, be the elements of the coset which cor- responds to Ui in the h to 1 isomorphism of G with G/H. Two elements of G not in H and in the same coset cannot have a power in common besides identity. For if (w, it follows that for each Lj„ there is a t^k such that (txSk)'^ = <,5„. Similarly, there is a tySp such that {tySp)P = t,s„. Then itxSk)°' = itySp)^. so that txSk and tySp generate a cyclic group. Let t^ Sy be a generator of this cyclic group with h Sk = {t^rY and tySp={t^s,f; then u^^uZ, Uy = ul. Therefore {Ux,Uy) is a cyclic group. Since every relation such as m^ = m® ^1 between two elements of G/H implies that (m^, Uy) is a cyclic group, it follows that the maximal cyclic subgroups oiG/H are independent. III. ABELIAN GROUPS 5. THEOREM : An abelian group whose maximal cyclic sub- groups are independent is either cyclic or of type (1,1,1,. .). Let G be an abelian group which is neither cyclic nor of type {1,1,1, . . .). Since G is non-cyclic it possesses at least two maxi- mal cyclic subgroups. Since G is not of type (i, 1, 1, . . .), not all the maximal cyclic subgroups of G are of the same prime order. Let .J and t be two elements of G whose orders are m and n respectively, such that 5 and t generate two different maximal cyclic subgroups of G and either m and n are unequal or, if equal, they are not prime numbers. Case 1. \i m and n are unequal, assume m>n. Then (5^" = 5"/" = 5" since f = l. Moreover 5" tj=l since m>n. Hence st and 5 have a power in common which is not identity. Now si and 5 cannot generate a cyclic group, for if so, this cyclic group would contain s, si and therefore s~'st = i, contrary to assumption that 5 and / generate different maximal cyclic subgroups. By §2 it follows that the maximal cyclic subgroups of G are not independent. Case 2. li m = n, let p he a prime factor of n. Then n/p>l, since n is not a prime number. We have {st"^*)" = s^t" = s" since T = i . Moreover s*^ 1 since p{p), which is impossible since a, where p is any prime factor of c. We proceed to prove that when this condi- tion is satisfied the maximal cyclic subgroups oi G={s, t) are in- dependent. Since m is prime to c, no element of G not in C can have a power in C other than identity. We readily prove by induction that (tsY = f' s "'■^"'-'^ ^ ^'''K If {ts"/ = {ts^'Y' , then whence x' = y' and {x — y) {i" —1)^0 mod c. Now since i belongs to the exponent m modulo p, where p is any prime factor of c and x' Km, i" — 1 is prime to p and hence to c. It follows that x = y. Thus the cyclic groups generated hy s, is, ts', . . . ts'~' have no element in common besides identity. Each of these cyclic groups except {s)=C is of order m. The number of elements contained in these cyclic groups is c-f-c(OT — i) =COT, which is the order of G. Therefore these cyclic groups are the maximal cyclic subgroups of G, and since they have no element in common besides identity, the maximal cyclic subgroups of G are independent. II m = q^2, (f cannot divide c. For if 52 = 5"^''', (i, $2) is of order g-', is non-abelian and contains an element of order ^ . There is only one such group of order g^ defined by e=sf = i, r's2t=s2'+'. But the maximal cyclic subgroups of this group are not independent since {ts^f —s}'''^'^'^'^"'^^'^ ^1. Therefore g' does not divide c un- less g = 2 , in which case G is the dihedral group of order 2c. Let 5^ = 5'^' ; then {t, s^ is of the type given in the preceding paragraph since c/q is prime to g. Therefore i belongs to the exponent g modulo p, INDEPENDENT MAXIMAL CYCLIC SUBGROUPS 9 where p is any prime factor of c different from q. When these condi- tions are satisfied, the maximal cycHc subgroups oi G={s, t) are Independent. For the first power of fs" in C is {fs^Y = f V"' ')^('-" = 1+1+1'+ ■ . . +i''~'=q = mod q. Also t — i is prime to c/g so that {i'>-l)^{i — l) = 1^-1 = mod c/q. It follows that (i''-l)-^{i-l)=0 mod c. Therefore s^(''-^)-('-^) = i, so that every element of G not in C is of order q. It follows that the maximal cyclic subgroups of G are independent. We therefore have the group G—{s,t) of order g = mc defined by t"' = s =1, t~'st = s', where m^q, the smallest prime factor of c, and i belongs to the exponent m modulo c and modulo p, p being any prime factor of c; except that when m = q, i = l mod q. 10. Case 2. If GjC is a type {1,1,1,...) abelian group of order ^" (a> /), every element of G not in C is of order p. If t is one such element {t,C) is of the type defined the preceding sec- tion; therefore p'^q, where q is the smallest prime factor of c. Let tj,t2, . . . /a , be elements of G which correspond to a set of in- dependent generators oiG/C. Then f'^ 51^ = 5" {x = 1,2, . . . a), where i^ belongs to the exponent p modulo c and modulo p , p being any prime factor of c; except that when p = q, ix = 1 mod q. Moreover the integers i^, i^, . . . ia generate a type (1,1,1,...) abelian group which is a subgroup of the group of totitives modulo c and is simply isomorphic with G/C. The elements t,, t^, . . . ta may be selected so as to generate a Sylow subgroup i? of G of order />" or p'^'^' according as p 1) be those powers of s which are conjugates of 5. If s" and s^ are conjugates of s, so is s'^ ; therefore the integers 7,5^,... 5„form a subgroup of the group of the group of totitives modulo c. If s^ is not a power of 5, then 5^, 5*^, . . . 5^« **Frobenius'"Ueber auflosbare Gruppen, IV.' 'Berliner SitzungsitrkhU (1901), pp. 1223-1225. I* L. Weisner are conjugates of s^ under G; and no other power of s^ is a conjugate of s,. We thus separate the conjugates of j into sets as follows: S 5^2 5*" S, S.^t 5*3 5^1 5/2 V s. S"" 5 °« 2*« (/iw = m) The substitution group G' is imprimitive, the above being the system of imprimitivity. For if T' j/ = 5j, then r'si t = Sj, so that t' interchanges or leaves fixed the above sets as units. If G' is a composite group it contains a characteristic subgroup /'. (§7). If I' were intransitive it would consist of the substitu- tions common to the subgroups under which (s'), (^2) . . . {s„) are respectively invariant. But then G' would be simply isomorphic with the octahedral group (§15), contrary to assumption. There- fore /' is a transitive group, and it is of degree m. If 7' is a compo- site group it contains a characteristic subgroup J' . If J' were intransitive I' would be simply isomorphic with the octahedral group (§15), which is impossible since /' is invariant under G' (§16). Therefore /' is a transitive group and it is also of degree m. Continuing in this way we obtain a series of groups G', I' ,J' , . . . each of which is a characteristic subgroup of the preceding and each of which is a transitive group of degree m. The series terminates with a simple group K' whose order is a multiple of m. If w is a prime number, K' could conceivably be of order m, andG' a solvable group. But in that case G would contain an invariant cyclic sub- group K of prime order m, contrary to assumption. It follows that a group whose maximal cyclic subgroups are independent, and which contains no invariant cyclic subgroup defines by its composition series a simple group whose order is a multiple of the index under the group of each maximal cyclic subgroup of composite order, provided that the commutator subgroup contains at least one element of composite order. In particular, the group is a simple group if it contains at least two maximal cyclic subgroups of relatively prime composite order. The known simple groups of orders 2" (2" — J) and ^p" (p^" — i) are examples of simple groups whose maximal cyclic subgroups are INDEPENDENT MAXIMAL CYCLIC SUBGROUPS 16 independent . That their maximal cyclic subgroups are independent follows from the analysis of this type of group.* VIII. GROUPS CONTAINING NO ELEMENT OF COM- POSITE ORDER 19. There remain for consideration the groups which contain no element of composite order. The tetrahedral and icosahedral groups are examples. Let G, of order g, be such a group. It is evident that the maximal cyclic subgroups of G are independent. G cannot possess two invariant Sylow subgroups K and L of dif- ferent orders p"^ and gP\ for in that case, K-L would contain an element of order pq. Let K, K^, . . . Kn (w> 1) be the Sylow sub- groups of order p"^ . No two of these groups have a common element ; otherwise G would contain an element of composite order . * * It follows that the number of Sylow subgroups of order ^" is of the form l + kp'^.'\ If g^p'^gP, where p and g are two distinct primes with ^"i be the number of conjugates of j in K. Then every conjugate of K contains exactly m conjugates of s, and no conjugate of s is contained in two conjugates of K. Every element of G transforms K into a conjugateX; of K, and in so do- ing transforms the m conjugates of 5 which are contained in K into the m conjugates of 5 which are contained in Ki. It follows that G' is an imprimitive group, those conjugates of 5 which are con- tained in a conjugate of K forming a system of imprimitivity. The m conjugates of i contained in Kt generate a subgroup Jf of Ki. Since K, K^, ■ . . Kn have no element except identity in com- mon and J, Jj, . . . /„are subgroups oiK, K^, . . . K„ respectively, J, J2, ■ ■ . J„ have no element in common besides identity. As in §18, an invariant intransitive subgroup of G' would leave fixed each system of imprimitivity and would therefore be common to J, J^, . . . J„. It follows that if G' possesses an invariant subgroup /', I' is a transitive group and its order a multiple of g/p'^. Similar- ly, an invariant subgroup of l' must be transitive and its order a multiple of g/p"^. Continuing in this way, we must finally arrive at a simple group whose order is a multiple of g/^"- INDEPENDENT MAXIMAL CYCLIC SUBGROUPS 17 Since g is divisible by at least three distinct prime numbers, the above discussion may be repeated for a non-invariant Sylow sub- group of order q^'^p'^. Then either G contains an invariant sub- group of order g/q0 (§20) or else G contains an invariant subgroup whose order is a multiple of g/q^. In either case, the composition factors of G would be different from those determined in the pre- ceding paragraph. It follows that a group which contains no ele- ment of composite order is a simple group if its order is divisible by at least three distinct prime numbers. The above method may be employed to prove the following more general theorem: A group in which the order of each element except identity is a power of a prime is a simple group if its order is divisible by at least three distinct prime numbers. The maximal cyclic sub- groups of the group need not be independent. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. CONSFT^VATtON 1991 SEP 2 1 fl» •'^ CONSEfiVATlOW IdM