CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library DF 825.B58 Greece under King George 3 1924 028 258 733 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http ://www. arch i ve . o rg/detai Is/cu31 924028258733 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE JannLa. LONDON : EICHAED BENTrEY AND SON : 1898. SzXnaJnn,. GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE R. A. H. BICKFORD-SMITH, M.A. BARRISTER- AT-LAW LATE STUDENT OF THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS LONDON RICHARD BENTLEY AND ^S O N PaiUshas in dDriinaxj) to '^tv JtlajwtS tl« t^nnK' [All rights reserved] '^ XAPIAAJ2I TPIKOYHH TIMH2 ENEKA CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. POPULATION. General Statistics— Towns and Villages— Births and Deaths — Religion and Nationality i — lo CHAPTER 11. AGRICULTURE. General Statistics — Corn — Stock — Dairy-Farming — Poultry — Game — Wine — Currants — Olives — Figs — Other Fruit — Mulberry— Cotton — Valonia — Tobacco — Vegetables ii — 34 CHAPTER HI. FORESTS. Area — Species 35 — 47 CHAPTER IV. INDUSTRIES. Mines^Marble — Salt — Factories — ^Fishing 48 — 58 CONTENTS I'AGE CHAPTER V. COMMERCE. Shipping — Imports and Exports 59 7^ CHAPTER VI. BUSINESS. Public Companies — Employment 72 — 79 CHAPTER VII. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. Roads — Railways — Steamboats — The Korinth Canal — The Euripos — Lake Kopais — Lighthouses — Post-office — Telegraph — Telephone — Weights and Measures — Coinage 80 — 102 CHAPTER VIIL FINANCE 103 131 CHAPTER IX. THE PUBLIC DEBT I32 142 CHAPTER X. THE FORCED CURRENCY 143 157 CHAPTER XL FINANCE (concluded). M. Beckmann's Deductions — ;The 1893 Estimates Municipal Finance irg 160 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER XII. PUBLIC ORDER. Justice — Crime — Police — Prisons — Bankruptcy— Men- dicancy i6i— 174 CHAPTER XIII. EDUCATION. Elementary — Secondary — The University — Cost — The Institutions subsidiary to the University — Female Education — Technical Instruction — Summary 175 — ic CHAPTER XIV. CULTURE. Books — Newspapers — Learned Societies — Fine Arts — Physical Culture 199 — 21: CHAPTER XV. ARCHEOLOGY 2 13 — 224 CHAPTER XVI. RELIGION. Organization — Monasteries — Priests — Summary 225 — 239 CHAPTER XVII. ARMY AND NAVY. Army — Distribution — Navy — Defence— Attack 240—256 CONTENTS CHAPTER XVIII. CONSTITUTION. Articles of Constitution analyzed — Parliaments — Adminis- trations — Monarchic Democracy 25? — 274 POLITICS CHAPTER XIX. 275—284 SOCIETY CHAPTER XX. 285—294 PHILANTHROPY CHAPTER XXI. 295—3°° CHAPTER XXII. MISCELLANEOUS. Climate — Wind — Rainfall — Earthquakes — Mountains — Mineral Waters — Flags — Travellers — Travelling 301— 3 1 7 CHAPTER XXIII. PANHELLENISM 318—336 CHAPTER XXIV. CONCLUSION. As regarding Greece — As regarding England 337 — 345 INTRODUCTION. If a Q.C. is sufficiently interested in a case in which he is not engaged to read a verbatim report of it, he probably pays more attention to the evidence than to the speeches of counsel. It is true that these gentlemen are present for the purpose of assisting the Court towards a right opinion, but the chief help they give consists in marshalling the evidence ; a great portion of their addresses is too highly coloured to aid in the right solution of the problem. At the same time, it not unfrequently happens that some members of the jury are more affected by the eloquence of the Bar than by the facts revealed through careful examination. The case of Greece has been ably pleaded by many writers during the last fifty years, and I do not presume to act as a leader. But the humbler task of examination- in-chief is not without its fascinations, or even its difficulties. On my way to Constantinople in March, 1890, my skipper- used to constantly assure me that before I had been a fortnight in Greece all my b INTRODUCTION hopes for the New Greece, and even my admira- tion of the Old, would have been rudely disturbed. On my subsequent arrival in Athens, I attempted to make myself daily remember this unwelcome prophecy. The daylight portion of the first week was spent almost entirely on the Akropolis, so that my studied impartiality was only called into exercise after sunset. On one of these first evenings I almost began to think my anti-Greek friend was right. I had gone to sip my after- dinner coffee in the Square, and had given the waiter a napoleon, worth at the time 24 paper- drachmas, and legal tender. The price of the coffee was a few sous. The waiter came back with the change, and produced on his tray 19 drachmas and some odd coppers. I was rather shy of attempting an expostulation in Greek, and merely looked at him inquiringly. He thereupon added a drachma to the other nineteen. By means of three more separate stares, increasing in severity in geometric proportion, the other three drachmas were extracted. I mention this episode, not as tending to throw any doubt upon the honesty of the modern Greeks, to which question I shall refer later, but simply to show how I was brought towards a proper state of impartial receptivity with regard to the phenomena of Greek life. I do not for a moment deny that at first my mind was more full of the life-surroundings of ^schylos and Plato, and, indeed, of Herakles INTRODUCTION and Agamemnon, than of the modern leaders of men ; nor was it possible that the little incident of the caf6 could put such bias far from me. But, as a personal experience, it was of some value in backing up my already-made determination to beware of sentiment. Most Greek travellers whom I have met have told me that after the first period of admiration and enthusiasm they had usually experienced a time of revulsion, generally while travelling in the interior, which was in turn succeeded by a more reasoning afterglow which was permanent. I cannot say that I underwent the revulsive trial of my faith. Perhaps it was sufficiently curbed by the warnings J had received and the guile of the waiter. At any rate, I made up my mind to observe facts, and each day I found some new items which seemed worthy to be added to the stock from which I might eventually evolve an opinion. I think the first thing that struck me was the attitude of the moderns towards the antique. I am not suggesting that the population at large is very well acquainted with the uses to which the different ruined buildings had been put. They are not ; but the sense of proprietorship is very strong, and the feeling of reverence very notice- able. No one could fail to remark the different tones in which his guide or a passing peasant would say that some old walls were Hellenic or INTRODUCTION Prankish, or the contemptuously silent shrugs with which he would convey the information that they were Turkish. The accusation that Greeks treat their old architectural treasures with destruc- tive indignity is now quite devoid of truth. As soon as the archaic spell was loosened enough to allow of my studying modern life, I was astonished at the amount of business of Athens and the ports ; at the trade done in a country paneguris (equivalent to a Breton pardon) ; at the number of caiques in the different ports. It was obvious that, however Eastern the Greeks might be in some of their customs, they were not at all Orientally sleepy. The absence of fixed prices is, of course, no proof of this ; but, taken in conjunction with their undoubted vitality, it implies a keen pleasure in bargaining, based as much on independence of character as on love of money. Still more surprising were the signs on every hand of the universality of education. Not only were schools of every grade plentiful, and the University open, like them, free to all Greeks, of whatever station and of whatever country, but the chances thus offered were promptly, almost greedily, seized. Parents and still more children seemed alive to the advantages to be got from learning. The eagerness of the children in the Board schools was very different from the rather listless air so common at home — each one seemed anxious to be given a chance to show off before INTRODUCTION xiii the Strangers. And through the children, as through the men, there shone the spirit of democracy. In the great girls' school at Athens, the cabdriver's daughter sat side by side with the child of the Secretary of State. Never before had I heard of, or even imagined, so real a democracy in working order. There was no anarchism in it, no jealousy in it — or, at any rate, only an everywhere accepted jealousy which would admit of no one rising above another. There was one, of course, very much above the others — the King. Certainly, but he was not a Greek ; and, for the matter of that, in many things he accepted a position of equality with his subjects. He was often to be seen on foot in his capital. His smile was given quite freely to all. He had never permitted any Court intrigues, never un- democratically set anyone up or put anyone down. And the idea of royalty was itself attractive to these free, equal, brotherly people. The sceptre being so light, they enjoyed the splendour of the crown. They appreciated the superior dignity of a monarchical country in its foreign relationships, and had a strong personal attachment to their Sovereign and his philanthropic consort. That the remote future political result of this should be hard to foresee one might readily admit. In the words of Sir Thomas Wyse, 'A free Government, a free press, and a free University, existing immediately under the action of European INTRODUCTION education and feeling, and yet in juxtaposition with the landmarks of Byzantine civilization, form together a force calculated to impel in a very singular diagonal.' I noticed, too, that whereas in England patriotism was not generally looked on as a virtue of quite the front rank, and was, indeed, treated rather as a vice by our most advanced school as well as by the little band of millennial cosmopolitanists, while in one part of the United Kingdom the accentuation of the word differed, here in Greece the idea embraced in the word was the staple of conversation and the master-soul of all politics. Any crime against commonplace domestic laws could be forgiven for its sake. One might tire of an Aristides the Just, but never of a Kanares the Patriot. And the feeling was not a vague pride in ancestral exploits, true and legendary, but connoted a definite present policy. It said in terms that, whereas Byzantion was in origin a Greek colony, and the Byzantine Empire had been a thoroughly Greek empire, keeping guard for the later Greece that was to come against the onslaught of the Hunnish hordes, keeping alive both literature and law, philosophy and theology, so Byzantion was by moral right Greek still. It was a lordly patriotism that could not treat on equal terms the aspirations of a new little State like Bulgaria, that looked at the Turk less as an old and mighty oppressor than as a contemptible barbarian, and INTRODUCTION was inclined to show a slightly fretful reserve when Austria, England, France, Germany, Italy and Russia were spoken of as ' the Powers.' It was not a childish patriotism except in its im- patience, and it had great magnetic power. It sometimes seemed to puff itself up, yet it was never bloated, only swollen of its own strength. And as I constantly came into contact with Greeks, whether when riding about the country or caiquing about the islands, or boarding with a Greek family, I could not fail to be struck with the predominant traits of the national character. One can have no dealings with them without discovering their politeness, which is more graceful even than that of the French. As soon as you have taken up your quarters in the house of the village demarch a bouquet is presented to you. Your guide is constantly giving you flowers — always sweet-scented ones. It may, perhaps, happen that your bedroom is invaded by the family after you have retired, but, then, we wear such very funny clothes that a little curiosity on the subject is not to be wondered at. Of pretty speeches at going and coming you will hear no end. The object of every creature, shepherds' dogs and certain other beings that prowl at night excepted, seems to be to make your life agreeable. Sometimes these courtesies — these ceremonies I had almost called them — threaten to absorb the time at your disposal, but then, perhaps, that only INTRODUCTION proves that It Is more blessed to give than to receive. It Is an understood thing that every man's house Is your castle. Nor have you much to fear for your goods and chattels. If It Is a mere question of edibles and potables of a cheap kind, your guide may not be trustworthy, judged by an English criterion. But that is unfair ; the Greeks who have money are very free and easy with their dependents in such matters ; it Is the custom of the country ; he would help himself to your paysandu before your eyes, and he would not feel aggrieved If you annexed some of his olives. If It was a question of drachmas, or even such tempting things as knives or firearms, it would be quite another thing. You might find his admiring eloquence a more expensive thief But his honesty does not colour his speech. He will be truthful where truth or untruth may affect your welfare ; but If it is indifferent to them, I should not like to reckon on his truthfulness. And the odd thing is that you will get to enjoy the creations of his fancy. That is the secret of his falsehoods. It Is Oriental and ancient Greek as well. All the poets and most of the historians, even Aristotle, are bedaubed with the same painter's brush. It has in it no attempt, no wish to deceive. It is a compound of vividness of imagination and subconsciousness of literary skill. A cook employed by a party of which I was one for some weeks had a quite extraordinary genius INTRODUCTION for impromptu fabrication. Time after time we got his nose hard against the truth, but the harder we pressed the more brilhant the escape. But intemperance of language is their only intemper- ance. I never saw a drunken man in Greece. With good reason do they pity us for having to fortify ourselves with Bands of Hope ; but there are no teetotalers. They are fully alive to the Epikurean pleasure of using without abusing. Such are a few samples of the observations I made. While I was in the country, and still more after I had got back home, I attempted to see how far my more or less ill-assorted notes tallied with what could be statistically demon- strated. In the early days of my visit to Athens, a foreign diplomat at whose side I sat at the table d'kSte, and with whom I had many interest- ing talks about modern Greece, observed to me, ' You are off to study the dead, and I the living ; but I think you will pay attention to the living too some day.' I only mention this to support a proposition which I believe to be almost uni- versally true — that, however antiquarian the in- stincts may be that send a traveller to Greece, he is certain to become infected after a little while by the patriotism of the Greece before his eyes. Of course I did not mean to write a book — no one ever does unless he has written one before, and not always then. After a year or two abroad, especially in a INTRODUCTION country at once so admittedly interesting and so unfrequently travelled over— I mean, of course, in comparison with the countries which lie between her and us — I found I had to withstand a good deal of questioning, a process which affects a re- turned tourist quite differently from the way in which it affects an unreturned candidate for Parlia- ment. But the questions proved that the amount known in an average English circle about the recent progress of Greece was not very flattering to that country, or perhaps to ours. I add this because I think that the ' Hellenic factor in the Eastern Question ' is a very important one — the most important one, even. We do not want Constantinople for ourselves, we are quite deter- mined that Russia shall not have it, we know that the Turks cannot keep it much longer, and yet, outside a strictly diplomatic set, very few people trouble their heads about the selection of the right candidate for it. Now that Lord Roseberv has given a knock-down blow to that don't-care-a- farthing - about - foreign - affairs bugbear of the Liberal Party, perhaps we may hope for an awakening of attention to the Eastern Question. In that case it must become patent to all that Greece is, from our point of view, the only possible grantee of Constantinople. Of my authorities, I need only mention three, though it goes without saying that the scores of books of travel and archaeological exposition that INTRODUCTION one reads when one is absorbed by a cause like that of Greece must have a share in the making of any book one may attempt on the subject afterwards. Mr. Lewis Sergeant's ' New Greece ' I have continually consulted ; I have used his figures for the times to which they applied, and I think I can subscribe to almost all his opinions as far as they regard Greece up to 1879. But a very important chapter of Greek history has been lived since then. For this later period, and, indeed, for all periods, my chief source of information has been the ' Panhellenic Companion.' This, a sort of Greek Whitaker, was first published in 1890, and has been continued annually since. Unfortunately, so much leeway has to be made up, regular statistics never having before appeared to any valuable extent, that the same subjects do not recur each year. Accordingly, the latest data may be those of any year from 1889 to 1892. In some cases I have been able to supplement these figures from such sources as consular reports and Greek news- papers. The most important of my authorities is a pamphlet by M. Joseph D. Beckmann. His treat- ment of the present Greek financial situation is worthy of the proverbially logical French mind. To the average student, the problem he deals with appears desperately complex — a very Cretan maze ; but with this Ariadnean thread we can go INTRODUCTION in and out of it, and enjoy its intricacies at our pleasure. The system of orthography of place-names adopted is that of Bishop Wordsworth, not that of Colonel Leake — I have ' not endeavoured to suggest to the readers their modern sound, but their ancient sense.' The map, however, contains the traditional spelling, as the making of a new one would have necessitated considerable delay. Chapters xix. and xx. appeared in substantially the same form in the Newcastle Daily Chronicle in May last year. CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.* 1814. — Foundation of the Philik^ Hetairia at Odessa. 1815. — The Ionian Islands occupied by Great Britain. 1818.— Removal of i'hilik^ Hetairia to Constantinople. 1821. — All Pasha asks the Greeks to come to his aid against the Turks, promising them independence. First exploits of the Suliots and Mark Botzares. Rising under Mauromichales. Meeting of the Kalamai Senate. Archbishop Germanos raises the standard of the Cross at the monastery of Hagia Laura. Successful general rising in the Peloponnesos. Rising in Moldavia ; Prince Alexander Hypsilantes crosses the Pruth, but in vain. Massacre of Greeks at Constantinople. Rising general over Greece and the Archipelago. Greeks successful in several sea engagements, and capture Tripolis. National Assembly at Epidauros. 1822.— Death of Ali Pasha. Massacre of Greeks at Chios. Defeat of Turks under Damales by Kolokotrones and Nikitas. Defeat of Greeks at Peta by Kourshid Pasha. Athens captured by the Greeks. Naval exploits of Kanares and Miaoules. Siege of Mesolonghi. 1823. — Defeat of Omer Vriones at Karpenisi by the Greeks. Death of Mark Botzares. * Chiefly from Baedeker's ' Greece ' and the Guide Joanne, ' Athfenes et ses Environs.' CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH 1824. — NTahmoud entrusts to Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, the task of subduing Greece. The Greeks sustain reverses. Death of Lord Byron. Party-strife among the Greeks. Massacre of the Psariots. Crete retaken by the Egyptians. 1825. — Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, lands a regular army in the Peloponnesos, takes Navarino, and beats Kolokotrones at Tripolis. Victory of Hypsilantes at Nauplion. Attempt of Kanares on Alexandria. 1826. — Capture of Mesolonghi. The Turks under Kiontagi take Athens. Fabvier's campaign. 1827. — New Assemblies of Epidauros and Troizen. John Kapodistria elected President of the Greek Republic. Attempt of Lord Cochrane and General Church to relieve Athens. Capitulation of the Greek garrison in the Akropolis. England, France, and Russia essay mediation, which Mahmoud haughtily rejects. Battle of Navarino. The combined English, French, and Russian fleets almost annihilate the Turkish fleet of 82 ships. 1828. — The Turks beaten on the Danube. 20,000 French troops under General Maison land in the Peloponnesos. Ibrahim Pasha evacuates the country. Reduction of Pylos, Korone, and Modone. 1829. — Protocol of London ; Greece declared a hereditary monarchy, but tributary to the Porte. 1830.— Second Protocol of London; Greece declared an independent sovereign kingdom ; Leopold of Saxe- Coburg (afterwards King of Belgium) refuses the Crown. 1 83 1. —Dissensions among the Greeks; John Kapodistria assassinated ; his brother Augustine elected President. CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH 1832. — Anarchy. Treaty of London ; Prince Otho of Bavaria proclaimed King. Loan of sixty million francs. 1833. — Arrival of King Otho ; Maurer in power. 1834. — Athens chosen as capital. 1835. — Unpopular administration of Count Armansperg ; all offices given to Germans ; dilapidation of finance. The King comes of age. 1836. — The King marries Princess Amalia of Oldenburg. Count Armansperg dismissed. 1843. — Revolution at Athens : a Constitution granted. 1845. — Disturbances in the Peloponnesos. 1848. — Risings in the provinces. 1850. — The British fleet blockades the Peiraius. Mediation of France. 1854. — Agitation in Greece at the beginning of the Crimean War. Insurrection in Epiros supported by the Greeks. The French occupy the Peiraius, and take possession of the Greek fleet, which they retain until 1857. 1862, February. — Military revolt at Nauplion : the town and citadel in the hands of the insurgents. March. — The royal troops retake the town, but not the citadel. Disturbances at Syros. April. — The Ionian Islands Assembly begs England to unite them to Greece. Nauphon reduced. October. — Revolution breaks out in the Western Provinces. 22nd. — Athens rises; formation of a Provisional Government. The King and Queen depart. 1863, February. — The National Assembly meets. Negotia- tions with the protecting Powers as to the choice of a new King. March — June. — Prince William George of Schleswig- Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, second son of the King of Denmark, and brother of the Princess of Wales, proclaimed King, and ascends the throne as George I. 1864. — England gives Greece the Ionian Islands. A new Constitution is promulgated. CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH 1867.— Marriage of the King with Princess Olga, daughter of Grand-Duke Constantine Nikolaiewitch of Russia. 1868. — Cretan insurrection ; Greek sympathy with, and aid to, the insurgents. Birth of Crown Prince Constantine (July 21). Turkish ultimatum to Greece with regard to Crete. Blockade of Syros. Mediation of the protecting Powers. 1869. — Capitulation of Petropoulakes and the chief Cretan volunteers. Conference of Paris ; Greece accepts its proposals, and renews diplomatic relations with Turkey. 1878 — The Greeks cross the Thessalian frontier, but yield to the persuasions and promises of the Powers. Berlin Congress (June 13 to July 13) ; Greece shabbily treated by the Powers. 1880. — Berlin Conference ; Turkey refuses to submit. 1881. — Constantinople Conference ; Thessaly and part of Epiros ceded to Greece. 1882-1885, May. — M. Trikoupes Prime Minister. 1885-1886, May. — M. Deleyannes Prime Minister ; Roumelian difficulty ; Greece, in spite of the warnings of the Powers, mobilizes her army and navy. 1886. — Naval demonstration by the Powers (except France and Russia) in Suda Bay. May. — The representatives of the Powers leave Athens, and on the 8th their fleets blockade the Peiraius. M. Trikoupes replaces M. Deleyannes. June. — The blockade raised. 1890, October. — M. Deleyannes again Prime Minister. 1892, February. -M. Deleyannes dismissed by the King for failure to deal with the immediate financial needs of the country. May. — M. Trikoupes Prime Minister with an enormous majority in the Chamber. GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE CHAPTER I. POPULATION. General Statistics — Towns and Villages — Births and Deaths — Religion and Nationality. The number of Greeks in the best days of Old Greece has been estimated by different writers, their guesses varying between 10,000,000 and 20,000,000; of the former 3,500,000 are allotted to that which is now Modern Greece, without Thessaly, Epiros, and the Ionian Islands, the share of the Peloponnesos being 1,720,000, and of the mainland 970,000. The statistics anterior to this century are no more reliable in Greece than elsewhere, but it may be accepted as a fact that war and oppression had constantly diminished the population of Greece since the days of Perikles. If we give any credit to the enumeration of those r GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE living in the Peloponnesos in 1692, which fixes the number at 116,000, we shall be convinced that, allowing for the immigration of a certain number of their conquerors for the time being, the Greeks were not troubled to any serious extent by the presence of the descendants of Romans, Goths, Slavs and Bulgars. At the outbreak of the revolution in 182 1, the figures were as follows : Peloponnesos ... Mainland Islands Christians. ■■■ 334.896 ... 186,503 ... 154,247 Turks. 63.813 19.853 7.165 Total. 398,709 206,356 161,412 Total 675,616 90,831 766,477 By 1832, so nearly had the influx of Hellenes from without counterbalanced the exodus of Turks and the losses of the War of Independ- ence, that the population of the Peloponnesos was 384,322, that of the mainland, 145,000, and that of the islands, 183,286. The total Hellenic popu- lation actually shows a gain of 37,962. From 1838 to 1 86 1 we get the following progressions : 930,29s 960,236 986,734 1,042,527 1,052,627 1,096,810 Thus, in twenty-three years Greece had gained 344,733 inhabitants, or 45-83 per cent, making a 1838... ■■ 752,077 1844 1839... • • 823,773 1845 1840 ... .. 850,246 1848 I84I ... ..• 861,019 1853 1842 ... • • 853,005 1856 1843- •• 915,059 I86I POPULA TION yearly accession of 14,987 inhabitants, or rgg per cent. The density had accordingly risen from 1 5 '8 2 per square kilometre to 23 '18. Leaving on one side for the moment the Ionian Islands and Thessaly (the former of which were added in 1864 and the latter in 1881), we note the following increases : 1^61. 1870. 1879. i88g. Peloponnesos ... 552.414 611,861 709,245 813,154 Mainland 318,535 356,865 441,033 556,254 Islands... 225,861 238,784 259,056 235,050 Total ... 1,096,810 1,207,510 1,409,334 1,604,458 Consequently, this period of twenty-eight years yields an increase of 507,648 inhabitants, or 46 '2 8 per cent., i.e., a yearly increase of 18,130 inhabitants, or i "65 per cent. The density be- comes 337 per square kilometre. The Ionian Islands, which, under British rule, had receded from 230,757 in 1853 to 228,631 in 1862, progressed to 229,516 in 1870, and 238,783 in 1889. The first census of Thessaly was in 1889, when it was found to contain 344,067 inhabitants. The total population of Greece was, in 1889, accordingly, 2,187,308, or just three times what it was when the State was formed in 1832. The United States have a yearly gain of 2-4 per cent, (largely assisted by immigration), GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Saxony of 1-4, England of 1-3, Russia of ra; while that of France is only o'2. Nor must it be forgotten that Greeks are rather prone to emigrate. The Akarnanians (especially the Karpenesiots) have a penchant for Turkey ; so have the Argives, and those who live in the northern Kyklades ; the inhabitants of Kythera, and many others, go to Smyrna and the rest of Turkey in Asia ; while the southern Kykladians go in troops to Egypt, in double numbers since our occupation. In fact, in addition to Greeks born abroad, there are 135,466 Greece-born Greeks distributed over the world. Contrary to the rule throughout Europe, males are more numerous than females, there being 5i'82 of the former, and 48'i8 of the latter. In 1852 it was vice versa. Towns and Villages. — The numerical pro- pfress of the Hellenes is best seen in the advance made by the towns. They are quite as essentially urban in their proclivities as their Periklean ancestors. At the time of the Revolution there were hardly any towns in Greece. Athens was little more than a village, with a few hundred souls, the Peiraius a wooden shed and landing-stage ; the chief towns in the early days of the movement were Epidauros, Mesolonghi, Kalamai, Nauplion and Argos, though they could not boast 5,000 inhabitants apiece. The subjoined table shows the progress of the thirty-five towns which have now over 5,000 : POPULATION Progressive Rank. 3 Athens 8 Peiraius 1 5 Patras 29 Hermoupolis 2 1 Kerkyra 29 Zakynthos . 1 Trikkala 28 Larissa 1 2 Pyrgos 2 Volo 27 Tripolis 14 Kalamai 31 Argos II Chalkis 10 Mesolonghi 2 1 Argostoli 7 Philiatra 13 Agrinion 4 Ano Syros 18 Arta... 15 Aigion 17 Lamia 9 Karditsa 31 Hydra 26 Messene 23 Megara 34 Lexouri 6 Leukas 5 Gargalianoi 33 Kranidi 24 Langhadia 19 Tyrnavos 20 Nauplion 24 Amphissa 35 Spetsai Total Population. 1879. i88<). Increase. . Per Cent ■■ 63,374 114.355 50,981 80 .. 21,618 34,327 12,709 58 ■■ 25,494 33,529 8,035 31 s 21,540 22,104 564 2 •■ 16,515 19,025 2,51° 15 • ■ 16,250 16,603 353 2 •■ 5,563 14,820 9,247 166 ■■ I3>i6r) 13,610 441 3 ... 8,788 12,647 3,859 43 4,987 11,029 6,042 121 .. 10,057 10,698 641 6 7,609 10,696 3,093 40 ... 9,861 9,814 (-47) — ... 6.877 9.919 3.042 44 6,324 9,476 3-152 49 ... 7,871 9,075 1.204 15 ■■■ 5.632 8,973 3.341 59 ... 5,218 7,430 2,212 42 ... 4,328 7,338 3,010 69 5,700 7,048 1.348 23 5,311 7,001 1,690 31 ■•■ 5,506 6,888 1,382 25 4,501 6,798 2,294 50 6,446 6,413 (-33) — ..• 5,853 6,325 472 8 • •■ 5,348 6,036 688 12 ■•• 5,418 5,740 (-322) (-5) 3>434 5.539 2,105 61 ■■• 3,397 5,528 2,131 62 ... 5,628 5.500 (-128) (-2) ... 4,825 5.375 5.SO 1 1 ■•• 4.337 5,305 968 22 4,589 5,459 870 18 ... 4,667 5,180 513 1 1 ... 6,495 5.172 (—1323) (-20) 342,733 471,760 129,027 37-6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE An analysis of the first thirty-five urban sanitary districts (in alphabetical order) in Eng- land and Wales with a present population of over 5,000 gives : t88t. i8gi. Increase. Per Cent. 488,458 57S.i°3 86,645 17-7 Nor can it be said that the Greek urban increase means a rural decrease, for, eliminating the towns, we find : i8yg. i88g. Increase. Per Cent. i!349.33i 1,429,991 80,660 , 5-9 In spite of their fondness of town life, 78 per cent, of the population is rural, a proportion similar to that of Roumania, and less than that of Italy, but exceeding that of all other European countries. Further, a good many of the towns which figure in the above list are really rural ; that is to say, their inhabitants are chiefly engaged in farming. There are, or until quite recently were, no isolated farm-houses and cottages in Greece. Originally gregarious from fear of the Turks, the peasants continued to house themselves in big villages as long as brigandage lasted, trudging off to their work in the morning with a pocketful of bread and olives, which they would eat at mid-day beside some spring or brook under the shade of a plane- tree, and returning to their little town before POPULATION nightfall. For the same reason, as well as owing to peasant proprietorship, country-seats are non- existent. Now that brigandage has been dead for twenty years, a tendency to live on the land they till is beginning to be observed. The multi- plicity of small villages may easily be remarked in the following table : Nomarchy. Attika-Boiotia Phthiotis-Phokis Aitolia-Akarnania Argolis-Korinth Arkadia Achaia-Elis ... Lakonia Messenia Euboia Kyklades Kerkyra Kephallenia... Zakynthos . . . Arta ... Larissa Trikkala Total . . . Eparchies. Denies. Villages. 5 4 6 6 4 4 4 5 4 7 5 4 I 2 6 3 7° 28 36 34 32 33 30 28 31 24 39 22 20 10 8 38 27 440 192 266 352 322 325 521 456 45° 27s 206 217 245 61 55 3'3 319 4,575 There are only 1,006 urban sanitary districts in England and Wales. Births and Deaths. — The 'Companions' issued so far give the birth-rates, etc., up to 1884 only. In the decade ending with that year there were 45,177 births per annum, or 26-59 per thousand, while there were 3i,959 deaths pef 8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE annum, or i8"84 per thousand. The rate per thousand in other capitals was last year : Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths. London .. 29-2 19-7 Berlin • 32' 17- Edinburgh . .. 287 24- Vienna ■■ 32-4 20' Dublin .. 22-8 22-8 Rome •■ 2S'4 i6-r Paris • 23-5 19-2 St. Petersburg — 19-2 Brussels •• 24-9 17-8 New York ... — 20-8 People very frequently reach extreme old age. The following table shows the rate to population of those alive at different ages in Greece and France : In Greece. In France. 75 to 80 one in 1,602 80 ,, 85 „ 2,101 85 >! 9° .. 3)02o one in 4,352 9° i> 95 ,> S.918 „ 20,000 95 » 100 „ 11,988 ,, 83,145 Over loo „ 16,678 , 352,947 M. Ornstein attributes Hellenic longevity to good climate, pure air, simple food, better natural physique, and less hereditary disease. The Athens death-rate is 21-4 per thousand, March being the most fatal month for males, and June for females. Religion and Nationality. — In the 1879 census account was taken of religion and language. There were 24,165 Mohammedans, 14,677 Roman Catholics, 5,792 Jews, and 740 others, the re- mainder belonging to the Orthodox Greek Church. POPULATION There were 58,858 Albanians, mostly congre- gated at Kropia, Salamis, Eleusis, Thespise, Solygeia, Acharnai, Marathon, Tanagra, Pellene, Eidyllia, Plataia, and Thisbe. The frequent recurrence of battlefields is somewhat remarkable. Perhaps the situation suitable for a battle is par- ticularly adapted to the shepherd habits of the Albanians, most of the places mentioned above being situated on the hinge between mountain and plain. There are also a score or so thousand Wal- lachians. Of Slavs there are none. Those Slavs who stayed in Greece have become so absorbed in the Hellenic race that they are almost untrace- able. Professor Hopf has innocently exploded the charges cunningly devised by Fallmerayer against the Hellenic genealogy of modern Hellas, and it is now generally admitted by scientific archaeologists that Greeks are really Greeks Of course it must not be imagined that the Spartan of to-day has an unbroken lineage from the Spartan of the time of Leonidas, nor the latter- day Megalopolitan from an Epaminondan an- cestor. Such special similarities as travellers claim to have remarked, where they are not the product of a pleasantly sentimental imagination, are probably due to topographic influences. The surroundings which made the Athenian of old intellectual, conceited, somewhat superstitious, and intensely democratic, have the same tendency still. lo GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE The Albanians and Wallachians are also of Greek stock, the former being identified by Hahn with the Illyrians, and the latter by Roesler with the Thracians, identifications which are now generally received. [" ] CHAPTER II. AGRICULTURE. General Statistics — Corn — Stock— Dairy - Farming — Poultry- Game — Wine — Currants — Olives — Figs — Other Fruit — Mulberry — Cotton — Valonia — Tobacco— Vegetables. When Greece became free her productive power was very slight. The Turkish tyranny had not been strong enough to force its bondmen into a slavery really lucrative to their masters ; at the same time, it had been too greedily wide awake to allow as much profit to the subject race as would have encouraged it to industry. With freedom came the belief in the possibility of acquiring wealth ; and gradually the willingness to undergo the requisite amount of toil for success is becom- ing apparent. It is hardly fair to tax the Greeks with laziness in money-making. In the first place, the same persistent energy is not to be expected in a country as beautiful — and as hot — as Greece, where one's needs are so few, and so very pleasant a life is offered at a very small daily 12 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE expense. In the second place, the Greeks who had thrown off the Turkish yoke looked instinc- tively on affluence as the natural result of free- dom — for were not the Turks free, and were not they nearly all rich ? — not heeding that the Turks had been masters of an alien soil, while they were only masters of their own. As the Klephtic feeling grew less, and brigand- age became finally extinct, the land by slow degrees came into greater cultivation. Up to i860 there are no reliable statistics. The pro- gress made since will be seen from the appended table : Wheat Barley Meslin Maize Oats Rice Dhimenon Rye Turkish maize Millet Potato Bean Haricot . . . Pea Chick-pea (i) Chick-pea (2) Chick-pea (3) Dwarf-pea... Lentil Stremmaia. i860. 1875- 1887. 944>o93 1,601,480 2,484,03: 362,871 679,111 902,502 361,825 577,500 501,263 36,988 — 33,237 41,486 — 90,249 — — 2,000 3,67s — 25,279 — 49,240 32,054 512,586 218,160 780,296 436 58,310 899 — — 20,000 — 19,410 46,535 — 43,760 49,824 — 15,560 609 — — 34,547 — 16,620 37,944 — 330 — — — 10,722 — — 11,268 AGRICULTURE 13 Stremmata. i860. 1875- 1887. Lupin — — 46,175 Oryvos — — 44,961 Vetch 840 — 19,193 Broom — — 2,093 Sesame, etc. 4.504 9,170 79,595 Hemp and linseed — — 3,480 Flax — 3,810 3,917 Cotton 21,105 109,860 61,916 Tobacco ... 25,000 42,204 38,987 Vine 492,502 — 1,266,204 Currant vine iS3.°S8 — 468,77s Olive 370,000 — 1,742,154 Mulberry 75,000 — 76,945 Velanidia 13,000 — — Fig 18,000 — 104,809 Almond — — 4,5°9 Other fruit — — 106,935 Vegetable gardens — -- 40,242 Gardens — — 19,376 Fallow 2,516,000 — 4,035,331 Forests ■■ S.4i9>66o — 6,000,000 Sundries — 1 10 60,985 Various (returns incomp ete) 1,482,949 i3>278,s65 — Total under cultivation . ■• i2>8S5.S6o 16,721,200 19,290,841 Waste land (poor) .. 11,748,000 diminished increased Mountains (often pastura ge) 18,599,240 increased increased Marshes and lakes 833,448 increased increased Towns, rivers, roads, etc 1,653,000 increased increased Total 45,699,248 50,211,000 63,606,000 Considering the addition of the Ionian Islands between the first period and the second, and that of Thessaly between the second and third, the 14 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE improvement is not very great. However, the advance seems made in the right direction, viz., corn, vines, currants, and olives. Corn. — The wide plains of Thessaly, and others, such as those of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Megalopolis, are fairly productive, though the system of agriculture is a good deal too archaic, being, in fact, almost Hesiodic. Steam-ploughs, and other modern engines of culture, are quite unknown. Nature there smiles so when she is tickled, that she is never subjected to our rougher treatment. Often, indeed, the primitive wooden plough is discarded for the hoe. Even under these conditions the farmer frequently gets two harvests in a year. One of the causes contributing to the lack of earnestness in Greek farming is a certain demo- cratic absence of the perception of the right of property — especially in other people. Exactitude they consider exaction. In riding about the country you will find that your agogiat never carries fodder for his animals during the season when the corn is standing ; when the hour for the mid-day meal arrives he just turns the animals loose into the nearest corn. Nor will he admit that this is theft. He is quite sure that no one would be so unneighbourly, so inhospitable, as to refuse to the passing stranger an obol's worth of corn. Probably the Turks inured them to this forced charity, and they have not yet learned to appre- AGRICULTURE 15 ciate the less poetic, if more practical, advantages of the accurate European szmm cidqiie. It is a fact that at present Greece does not grow enough corn for her own consumption. Her half a million families require forty bushels a year each, or a total of 20,000,000 bushels, while the amount of corn availabledoes not exceed 14,000,000 bushels, thus leaving 6,000,000 to be imported. This constitutes a serious loss, as there is not only the carriage to be paid for, and the profit left elsewhere, but Greek labourers lose their share of the work, and so of the money. Thessaly could, unaided, make up the deficiency, as there are there over 3,000,000 stremmata of corn-land not yet brought into cultivation. It is to be hoped that the new Athens-Larissa railway will stimulate the Thessalians to greater energy. There is very little fault to be found with the system of land-tenure. In the Peloponnesos peasant proprietorship very largely prevails, most of the farms being an acre or two only in extent, although in the plains they average from ten to fifty acres. The land is otherwise farmed under a form of metayer tenure which Mr. Rennell Rodd very accurately thus describes in his last book, 'The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece ' : ' In Thessaly, which is still in the hands of large proprietors, the peasants, as a rule, pay one-third of the produce in kind. The plains of Thessaly 1 6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE are, however, subject to bad harvests, in conse- quence of a succession of frost and snow too soon after the seed has been committed to the ground in autumn ; and a series of such bad years, coupled with want of method and a want of proper irrigation, have reduced the peasants to very sore straits ; but faciHties are now being offered them by the Government for borrow- ing money upon easy terms, which will enable them gradually to become proprietors of their holdings. In Euboia, where the return to agriculture is large, the payment of a third and less where the land is poor has enabled the peasantry to buy out many of the original holders, and already a greater part of the island is in their hands. In Boiotia I learned from several large proprietors that it was the custom to advance seed to the cultivator, which advance became the first charge on the produce of the harvest, with fifteen per cent, more as the landlord's share. In the Ionian Islands two systems prevail. Under one the owner takes two-thirds of the produce, but supplies seeds and implements, manure — all, in short, except mere manual labour ; the other system resembles the Italian metairie, under which the tenant cannot be dispossessed, save in very exceptional circumstances, which it is not practically possible to enforce ; a fifth of the holding is looked upon as belonging absolutely AGRICULTURE 17 to the tenant, inalienable from his person, and descending to his next-of-kin. Peasants holding under this system pay nominally one-half of the produce to the owner of the land, and furnish themselves with the necessary equipment ; but it seldom happens that the proprietor obtains the stipulated share of his dues, and the peasant is practically master of the situation. For instance, the olive groves, which represent the chief wealth of the islands, are approximately valued at their estimated yield, while the fruit is still ripening, by the peasant and a representative of the owner. The latter, however, is generally himself of the peasant class, and in sympathy with the tenant, and therefore inclined to under-estimate the yield ; then, when the return has been made, and the share of the landlord determined, he is frequently informed after the harvest that such and such of the trees were despoiled by insects, that hail or storm damaged so many more, so that his part of the produce is reduced to about half of the estimate.' There is very little doubt that a considerable source of revenue is closed to the Government owing to the utter confusion which prevailed after the Turks had been driven out. The Capitani seized lands where they could, and many thou- sands of acres have been accordingly lost by pre- scription to the Government. 2 li GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Stock. — 1SS2. 1SS7. TSp2. Camels 53 44 44 Horses 110,305 91.513 100,000 Mules 49,381 46,344 52,000 Donkeys . 100,038 91.543 100,000 Cattle 387,177 331.689 360,000 Sheep ■ 3.301.976 2,620,161 2,900,000 Goats • 2,545,497 1,981,483 2,000,000 Pigs 38,377 13,679 25,000 It will be observed that the depression in trade caused by the military excitement of 1885 was very severe in 1887, and has not been yet quite recovered from. Last year's figures are necessarily not thoroughly exact, but they show an invariable falling off as compared with 1882, except as to mules, and an advance as compared with 1887, except in the case of the camels, which may well be the same forty-four animals which figured in 1887. They are used only in the neighbourhood of Parnassos, and a string of them may often be met at Krissa. Of the cattle at present in the country, most are far too athletic for the table, having spent their lives at the plough-head or other similar work. No less a sum than 1,460,819 drachmas was last year paid out of the country for animals for food. Dairy-farming. — On this subject there are no statistics available, but everyone who has travelled in Greece is well aware of the deficiency of the country in this respect. Cows' milk is hardly to AGRICULTURE 19 be bought outside Athens, and even there is scarce. As a rule, the goats are driven into the towns in the morning, and milked at the doors of the houses. The butter, which, although it more nearly resembles Cornish cream than English butter, is archaeologically the real article, is re- markably good, and makes a fine compound with the honey from Mount Hymettos. The fresh cheese is excellent ; in fact, I never remember tasting such cheese in my life as that which one summer evening was the staple of my dinner a thousand feet or so from the summit of Parnassos. There were three kinds : the fresh ; laourti, a very palatable cream-cheese ; and Misethra, a rich, older variety. The ordinary salt cheese beloved by the rustics is not very toothsome to an Englishman. Poultry. — The fowls of Greece, which form the traveller's food almost wherever he goes, relieved occasionally by sheep and goat, are like the cattle without the latter's excuse. Luckily pilafi conceals a great deal of toughness. There is probably room for a large extension of poultry- farming in the neighbourhood of Athens. Turkeys, geese, and ducks are rarely met with. Game. — Hares are fairly plentiful on the main- land ; red-legged partridges on the islands, espe- cially Aigina and some of the Kyklades ; wood- cock in Aitoliaand Akarnania; quails in Kythera; duck and other wildfowl on Kopa'is and the other GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE lakes and marshes. Pigeons are common every- where, and becaficoes not rare. Big game is hardly to be found, though bears, wolves, and jackals visit the mountains in the winter. There is no preserving, and one may shoot wherever one pleases ; a license, which is not, however, always considered essential by the natives, costs five drachmas. Wine. — Greek wines are but little known in England, and not much better on the Continent, and, indeed, only those who have drunk them on the spot have any idea of their excellence. Many of them are of tempting colour and exquisite flavour, and most have the rather old-fashioned merit of purity ; at the same time, wine-making is left so much to Nature that great care and atten- tion are required in selection and shipping. Malmsey, once the glory of Monemvasia, is now no more. M. About, in 1853, wrote,, ' C'est tout au plus s'ils fabriquent tous les ans de quoi noyer Clarence.' The best wine at present grown in Greece is that of the King's vineyards at Dekeleia. Amongst the finest are the white Kephallenia, Rombola and Moschato (sweet), which are shipped in considerable quantities to the Continent, especially to Germany, by Mr. E. A. Toole. Zakynthos is renowned for its Lithakiotikon (red) and Verdere (white) ; the former is sometimes of a wonderfully fine quality, but with the present primitive means of manufacture no proprietor is AGRICULTURE at all certain that his coming crop will maintain his vineyard's good name. Ithaka produces a fine full-bodied black wine, a little of which some- times finds its way to England, and also a very fair white wine. After this come the wines of Santorin, which, however, are not as good as they were, and the wine of Petaleia. Kerkyra and Lenkas produce large quantities of fair quality, which are exported to Genoa, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Rouen, and Hamburg for blending. Kyme, in Euboia, also exports with this object to France. Keos produces a good black wine, which is con- sumed chiefly in Athens and Peiraius. Of the Attic wines the best (after the King's) is M. Skouzes' Clos Marathon, a very fine Hocky wine, of which the Grand Hotel in Paris, has the monopoly. M. Solon's white C6tes de Parnes is good — much better than the dark. M. Syngros, too, grows- fair wine. The Deutsche Actien Gesellschaft fiir Wein, at Patras, under the direc- tion of Herr Gustav Clauss, has, after years of persevering endeavour, obtained a good sale in Germany, especially for its white dinner-wines. Their black Mavrodaphne is also a good and saleable table-wine ; they also produce a cham- pagne which is pure, but not very cham- pagney. A similar ambition has taken hold of the Tegeans, but their Tzampania is very undry, and will not always even fizz. French companies have at various times attempted wine-growing in GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE certain parts of the Peloponnesos, notably in the plain of Mantineia (near Tripolis), but from one cause or another they have given up the attempt. Most of the wine consumed in the country is, as is well known, flavoured with resin ; but the palate soon becomes used to this pecu- liarity, and can discriminate between the fine vintages of Lakonia and Naxos and the raw and rough products of Argolis and part of Arkadia. The retsinatos of Euboia and the Attic Mesogaia are also much esteemed. The antiquity of the custom of adding resin has not yet been adequately explored ; I believe it is not known to exist or to have existed in any other country. It is not impossible that the pine-cones associated with Dionysos and the satyrs may be due to it, in which case it would be of interest to discover the earliest instance in extant or described works of art. Modern Greeks sometimes assert that their special political tendencies and sanguine tempera- ment are in a large measure traceable to it. It has the reputation, too, of being anti-pyretic, and I think it is not unlikely to be anti-rheumatic. A little more knowledge of vine culture, and a great deal more attention to scientific wine- making, ought to lead to a very extensive increase in the export of wine, as Greece can certainly produce better wines than Italy, even including Sicily, and not improbably as good wines as any other country whatsoever. , AGRICULTURE 23 Currants. — The development of the currant trade was one of the first outward signs of the freedom of Greece. In 1820 there were pro- duced over 4,000 tons, but the Turks persistently destroyed the plants. The production has risen steadily (making allowance for rainy years and disease) : Tons. Tons. 1830 ... 8,920 1871 ... 81,374 1851 ... 40,510 1881 ... 124,826 1861 ... 42,759 1891 ... 167,000 The last-named quantity was worth to Greece 70,000,000 francs (gold). Last year the crop was partially spoiled, and the returns will be consequently less satisfactory. The quantities consumed by the different countries were : i88g. i8po. 1891.* Tons. Tons. Tons. England . 51,680 67,650 S9.000 France 70,000 39.350 20,000 United States .., • I3)2°0 15.700 9,400 Germany . 22,670 18,200 9,700 Canada and Australia are becoming consider- able consumers. The two most striking features in the above table are the enormous increase of English consumption, and the decrease in French consumption. The former is partly due to the currant tax having been reduced, in 1890, to 2s. * August I to October 31, or about three-fifths of the yearly total. 24 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE' a hundredweight, by Mr. Goschen, while the latter has a similar cause, the imposing of a new tax in 1 89 1 of 12 francs per 100 kilograms by the French Minister of Finance in addition to the 6 francs tax already in existence. The 'Hellenic Companion' for 1892 contains in its supplement a paper on 'The Currant in France,' by M. M. Chairetes. He says : ' The sending of large quantities of currants to France for the preparation of wine has little by little attracted to itself the animosity of the vine-growing com- munity, who have recognised a dangerous rival in this new industry. The French wine-growers had intended to gain themselves the advantage of the higher price of wines resulting from the phylloxera catastrophe, and consequently could not but be confounded when they saw a foreign product gradually take the place of their grapes In the manufacture of wine.' The currants are grown principally along the south of the Gulf of Korinth, Elis being responsible for 94,000,000 litres in 1891, Triphyllia 35,000,000, Messenia 35,000,000, Patras 29,000,000, Pylia 22,000,000, Korinth 21,000,000, Kephallenia 20,000,000, Aigialeia 19,000,000, Olympia 17,000,000, Za- kynthos 13,000,000, and Naupaktos 10,000,000; the chief places of export being, consequently, Patras (one-third of the whole), Katakolon, Kalamai, Zakynthos, and Kephallenia. The diffi- culty of currant-culture can be seen from the AGRICULTURE 25 following extract from ' New Greece,' by Mr. Lewis Sergeant (1879) : ' When the fruit is pro- duced it is liable to destruction or deterioration by rough weather or excessive moisture ; and yet the culture cannot be extended far inland. The crops are gathered in August, and it happens that the Gulf of Korinth is at this time fre- quently exposed to storms, which may in a day convert a heavy crop into a light one. The vine bears in its sixth year, and does not reach per- fection for a dozen or fifteen years, so that it is necessary to manage the plantations very syste- matically, and to sink capital long before a return is expected.' And capital is one of the good things that Greece abounds least in. Several seasons have been very bad in consequence of disease, but now that the farmers have been induced (by success) to believe that it is not irreligious to supplement prayers with sulphur the harm from this source is not so formidable. Seeing that the income derived by England from the currant tax last year was only ^113,994 net, there is no reason why the tax should not be altogether abolished. The slight budgetary inconvenience would probably be balanced by the benefit to the poor consumer ; the friendly action to Greece remains to the good. Olives. — The olive, with its feuillage discret, is, next to the mountains, the most familiar feature in Greek landscape. So it was of old, 26 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE and so it continued to be till Ibrahim Pacha cut down two-thirds of the trees. No sooner had the Greeks gained their independence, moreover, than they began at once to plant olives. In 1834 there were 2,300,000 trees, in i860 there were 370,000 stremmata (with about twenty trees to the stremma), in 1887 1,742,154 stremmata. The consumption of the dried fruit (mostly the black kind) in Greece is very large, as it is the one relish which the peasant can afford. The export of olives and of olive oil is considerable and progressive. Olives. Olive Oil. 649,877 drachmas. 2,318,252 drachmas. i>o5S>9i4 „ 3:535.821 709.362 „ 1,506,313 „ * isa2 1887 i8q2 In 1889 the chief consumers were Russia • 254.770 drachmas. 1.378,874 Turkey . 226,776 263,460 Roumania . . 182,418 25,262 Egypt • 135,418 115,888 France • 51.473 — Italy 21.359 1.542,347 Austria • 15.338 406,794 England . — 80,501 Germany . — 62,881 There is also a small quantity of the oil made from the kernels sent every year to France. * January i to August 31. AGRICULTURE 27 The trees are placed at considerable intervals, and do not require very much attention ; they yield a good crop every four or five years, and live to a great age. Figs. — This is a culture only recently tried, but is likely to succeed. There were 18,000 stremmata in i860, and 104,809 in 1889. The export in 1890 amounted to 2,248,008 drachmas (182,334 staters), by far the largest quantity going to Austria, though Turkey and Russia were also buyers. Of the production last year (up to August 15), Kalamai shipped 100,519 staters, the trees being planted in long lines in its neigh- bourhood, Nesi 26,814, ^r^d Almyros and Lonkas smaller quantities. The quality nearly equals that of Smyrna figs. Other Fruit. — The almond-tree area in 1889 was 4, 509 stremmata ; the orange-tree area is not given in any statistical papers that I know of, but should be very much larger than the former, as all the valleys and plains have their share of orange trees. Lakonia, Messenia, Argolis, Karystos in Euboia, the islands of Paros, Naxos, Andros, and Poros, and the Troezenian mainland opposite to the last-named island, are most cele- brated. Most of these places export considerable quantities, which form the largest part of the 1,561,670 okas exported in 1890. Lemons, citrons, bergamots, etc., are also grown in great variety. Peaches, apricots, etc., are of more 2 8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE recent introduction, and are not yet satisfactory, being either gathered in a too unripe state, or not scientifically cultivated. The total area under fruit-trees, exclusive of almonds, in 1887 was 106,935. You also find apples (some of very good flavour), carob, damson, hazel-nut, jujube, loquat, medlar, morella-cherry, pear, pistachio- nut, plum, pomegranate, quince, service - tree, and walnut, and, amongst the herbaceous and fruticose kinds, gooseberry, melon, raspberry, strawberry, and water-melon. Fruit is very cheap, sometimes 4 lb. a penny, of various sorts, in the islands. The Mulberry. — The mulberry is not planted so much as a fruit-tree, but as food for the silk- worm, although Morus nigra produces a pleasant fruit, from which in some parts of Messenia a strong drink is distilled. Moms alba, the taste- less-fruited species, is grown in Attika, as also are, though less frequently, the Chinese, Italian, and Prussian kinds. It is too slow-growing (much slower even than the olive) to appeal effectually to the rather in-a-hurry-to-be-rich instinct of the average Hellene. Then the silk itself, when it comes, has not a very ready sale. It is used, certainly, for the well-known Kalamai handker- chiefs, and the less - known but much richer Hydriot kummerbunds, and for the best dresses of the damsels who have the good luck to live in a silk-growing neighbourhood ; but Europe has not yet learnt to appreciate it. At the same time, for handkerchiefs, neckties, and scarfs, it answers AGRICULTURE 29 admirably. It is so light, that for a ball-dress (not Koan), or especially a wedding-dress (not Empire), it would be perfectly ideal. There are 76,945 stremmata of mulberry at present, very little more than there were thirty years ago. The value of the silk exported in 1890 was 502,730 drachmas, and of the cocoons, 870,648 drachmas. France bought all the silk, and Italy nearly two-thirds of the cocoons, of which France and Austria were also buyers. We in England get ours indirectly through France, with a French name, and no doubt a French price. Void a fine opening for Liberty's ! Cotton. — The American Civil War gave a considerable stimulus to cotton-growing in Gi-eece. In i860 there were 21,105 stremmata; in 1887 there were 61,916, mostly in the neighbourhood of Levadeia, and in the sub - nomarchy of Phthiotis. The annual production is about 15,000,000 kilograms; some of this comes to England. It is said to be of superior quality. This is another industry which ought to thrive. Valonia. — The Qtiercus cegilops produces acorns which are used in tanning and other more delicate operations. The number of stremmata in i860 was 13,000, and there should be much more at the present time, although I cannot find any more recent record. The export value in i8go was 1,299,716 drachmas, rather over half of which went to Austria, and more than a quarter to England. 30 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE There is a very fine grove of velanidia on the right-hand road from Marathon to Rhamnus. The region most productive of valonia is, how- ever, that of Xeromeros, in Akarnania.* Here this magnificent, broad-foHaged oak grows luxuri- antly on the bare rock. The peasants who live in the villages near come in the autumn and help themselves and make just about enough to keep body and soul together for the rest of the year. Tobacco. — Area in i860 ... ... ... 25,000 stremmata. i> 1875 42,204 „ =, 1887 38,967 As tobacco has long been under Government surveillance (it is now a monopoly), its area is of necessity circumscribed. The value exported has increased more steadily than that of most Greek agricultural products, having been 719,583 drachmas in 1871 1,581,916 ,, 1882 2,317,837 „ 1887 2,800,239 „ 1889 3,975,723 „ 1890 Turkey and Egypt take about three-quarters of this, which they make into cigarettes, and pack in boxes plentifully besprinkled with crescents and Turkish characters and induce the British dude to purchase at the rate of a penny each. * ' Le Mont Olympe et I'Acarnanie,' by L. Heuzey, pp. 236, sg. AGRICULTURE 31 Holland, France, England, Austria, and Russia {in the order of import quantity), also buy. As far as my own experience goes, I should say that the best is that which comes from near Parnassos ; then that from Lamia, Lakonia, Mesolonghi and Arkadia, and, least good, that from Mykenai. Baedeker mentions that from Trichonia as well, and adds that the annual consumption is about 4 lbs. per person. The average Hellene, whether urban or rustic, always has a cigarette in his mouth ; indoors, especially in country cafes, he often smokes a nargilleh, the tobacco for which is specially prepared, and I believe comes from Persia. Greek-grown tobacco is too dry for use in a pipe, which, by the way, is not at all correct, except inasmuch as it generally stamps one as an Englishman, and so as a 'lordos.' There are no native-made cigars, and all that are to be bought in Athens are either very dear or very nasty. The tobacco -growing provinces are (in order of quantity) : /Etolia-Akarnania, Argolis-Korinth, Phthiotis-Phokis, Trikkala and Larissa. Vegetables. — The Greeks have not yet learned to cultivate vegetables in our sense of the word 'cultivate.' There are a good many — wWd chor- taria (herbs), in which they take a predatory interest. Athens, under the guidance of tourists and Greeks who have travelled, is already making a demand for vegetables, which is met pardy by the establishment of kitchen-gardens in the 32 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE suburbs, and partly by importation (400,989 drachmas' worth in 1890). There are only 20,000 stremmata of potatoes, which are very rarely to be obtained outside the metropolis and a few of the big towns. In addition to the vegetables mentioned on page 12, there are also grown, though not plentifully or everywhere, artichoke, asparagus, beet, blite, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, chicory, cress, dill, Jerusalem artichoke, kohl rabi, leek, lettuce, onion, parsley, pumpkin, purslane, raddish, sorrel, turnip and watercress, and a few other species of quite local preference, such as CArenos and Bamia. The provincial distribution for 1 890 is instructive : Value of Value of Products in Products per I. Mainland: Attika-Boiotia ... Aitolia-Akarnania Arta Euboia ... Larissa ... Trikkala Phthiotis-Phokis Cultivated Land in Stremmata. 1,490,879 200,152 626,624 2,440,803 1,007,044 2,361,489 Drachmas. Stremma. 18,100,948 151146,700 i>4S6,9S9 11.747,899 21,188,479 12,039,654 13,661,767 I2'I4 14-33 7-27 1874 8-68 "■95 5-78 Total 9,183,956 93,342,405 TO"l6 //. Peloponnesos : Argolis-Korinth . . 1,284,013 31,755,400 2473 Arkadia 1,393,870 16,463,726 1 1 -81 Achaia-Elis 782,860 46,550,793 59-46 Lakonia 800,790 18,202,750 22-73 Messenia 758,568 37,348,203 49-23 Total 5,020,101 150,320,872 29-94 AGRICULTURE 33 Cultivated Land in Stremmata. Value of Products in Drachmas. Value of Products per Stremma. ///. Kyklades ... 473.391 8,928,254 i8-86 IV. Ionian Islands ; Kerkyra Kephallenia Zakynthos 383,224 418,719 114.394 916,337 15.593.785 18,806,413 22,958,990 8,736.519 49-07 54-83 76-37 Total 50,501,922 55-11 Grand total 303,093.460* 19-43 Accordingly we see that land produces on an average at the present value £2 an acre, the variation being between los. in Phthiotis-Phokis, and £'] I OS. at Zante. The chief products (in order of quantity) in each province are : Attika-Boiotia — Wine, wheat, grapes, olive - oil, cotton. Aitolia-Akarnania — Maize, wheat, wine, tobacco, olives. Arta — Maize. Euboia — Wine, wheat, olives, olive-oil, grapes. Larissa — Wheat, olives, olive-oil, wine, barley. Trikkala — Wheat, maize. Phthiotis-Phokis — Wheat, maize, wine. Argolis-Korinth — Wheat, wine, currants, grapes, olives, barley, maize, olive- oil. Arkadia — Wheat, wine, grapes, maize, meslin. Achaia Elis — Currants, wine, wheat, maize, grapes. * Lepta are included only in the grand total. 3 34 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Lakonia — Olives, olive-oil, meslin, wine, wheat. Messenia — Currants, wheat, oHve - oil, olives, grapes, maize, figs. Kyklades — Wine, vegetables. Kerkyra — Wine, olive-oil, olives, grapes. Kephallenia — Olive-oil, currants, wine, olives. Zakynthos — Olives, currants.* * Only those products are mentioned which are worth over 1,000,000 drachmas. [35 ] CHAPTER III. FORESTS. Area — Species. It is probable that the forests of Greece have been growing gradually less ever since the original advent of the Pelasgoi. Plato, in the ' Kritias,' mentions the deforesting of his day. And as soon as the Dryads and other wood- nymphs lost their sway over the people, there was nothing to stop the devastation. Indeed, the early Christians made an iconoclastic onslaught on such groves as were esteemed sacred, and probably looked on all woods as having (in Greece) an anti-Christian tendency. There was but little change until the arrival of the Turks, nor, indeed, then, except with regard to cypresses, which are, however, not forest-trees in Greece. In 1833 an ordinance of King Otho forbade the cutting of timber without permission. In 1835, 1836, 1838, 1843 and 1856, there was further legislation. Attempts were made to place the 36 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE forest laws on a proper basis in 1856 and 1858, but without success. The question was again dealt with in 1861, 1876, 1877 and 1882, but inefficiently. Last October another endeavour was made to grapple with the difficulty, and the steps now taken are at least more likely to have practical good results than their precursors. There are three evils which the State has to overcome : first, the almost irrepressible habit which the peasants have of helping themselves to firewood and small timber for domestic use — a compara- tively small evil with a wide area ; second, the bleeding of the pines for resin with which to flavour the wine, a robbery which is both more dangerous and more easily detected, as well as being restricted in area ; third, the custom of the shepherds to set a forest ablaze in order to provide herbage for their goats. It is difficult to find words in which to adequately condemn this abomination. The country has had to put up with the loss of millions of pounds sterling in the last thirty years in order that a few score shep- herds might gain a few thousand pence. Hymettos is already bare. Pentelikon has suffered from two serious fires, and Parnes from one, in the last three years. And it is the same all over the country. The modiis operandi is simple enough. A retired glade in the middle of a wood is chosen, some com- bustible material arranged under glass, and the rest left to the sun. Phoebus — how he must hate FORESTS 37 the work ! And it is very difficult to say how- such crime can be detected. At least the punish- ment in case of detection should be made strongly deterrent. Arson of a royal dockyard is with us a capital crime, and the treason to the country is no less manifest in this arson of the country itself. M. Trikoupes has set apart fifty officers, with a proportionate number of soldiers, to the work of protecting the forests, and public opinion has been strongly roused on their behalf Perhaps they will have, after all, to exterminate the goat — make him the scapegoat of his owners. Area. — The forest area of Greece is at present : /. Mainland: Attika-Boioda 430,000 1 stremmata. Phthiotis-Phokis ... ... 1,660,000 )) Euboia 630,000 )» Larissa 1 Trikkala \ ... 2,200,000 )) Arta ' Akarnania- Aitolia . . . ... 1,210,000 1) Total ... 6,130,000 jj II. Peloponnesos: Achaia-Elis 366,600 )) Arkadia 618,700 M Argolis-Korinth ... 319,000 )» Lakonia ... 588,200 3> Messenia ... i77>5°° )J Total ... 2,070,000 )) There are practically none in the Kyklades and Ionian Islands, so the grand total for Greece is 38 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE 8,200,000 stremmata. The chief forest regions are the slopes of Pindos, Ossa and PeHon, the eparchies of Doris, Naupaktos, Phthiotis, Eury- tania, Baltos and Bonitsa on the mainland ; and the eparchies of Kynouria, Lakedaimon, Epi- dauros Limera, Olympia, Elis, Kalavryta and Korinth in the Peloponnesos. The sea-coast is, except near Kaiapha, unwooded to a considerable distance inland. The legitimate consumption of timber has been as follows : Cubic Value in Metres. Drachmas. For ship-build ing 1,860 158,100 For household purposes 52,369 2,094,760 For fuel... ... 214,479 1,651,488 Total ... 268,708 3,904,348 Resin ... 2,925,000 okes. 885,756 Tan 25,041 staters. 100,164 jSS6. i8go. Cubic Value in Cubic Value in Metres. Drachmas. Metres. Drachmas. For ship.] building 1 252 21,420 2,606 221,510 For house-~j hold pur-j- poses ' 43>i32 1,925,280 62,799 2,511,960 For fuel ... 275,690 319.074 2,122,813 232,465 1,789,980 Total ... 4.069,513 297,870 4-523.440 Resin ...3,011,0000k. 903,449 3,995,0000k. 1,168,688 Tan ... 32,961 St. 131,844 80,012 St. 320,048 FORESTS 39 Taking the nine years' average 1882-1890, and including valonia and sundry other smaller forest products, the yearly production is 9,297,267 drachmas, which at 4 per cent, represents a capital of 232,431,675 drachmas. The real value must be very much larger, for there is a great deal of contraband firewood and resin. 45 per cent, of the forest trees are oaks and other broad-leaved kinds. 35 ,, ,, fir and spruce. 20 ,, ,, pine. Species. — The following is a list of the indi- genous trees and shrubs. The chief sources of this compilation are Smith's 'Flora Grseca,' and Von Heldreich's 'Die Nutzpflanzen Griechenlands,' and ' Pftanzen der attischen Ebene.' I have in- cluded as species a few plants, such as Abies RegincB-AmalicE, of which the status does not ap- pear to be finally determined. In some cases it has been somewhat difficult to decide whether or not a plant should be called a shrub ; I have intended to exclude all species which are merely suffruti- cose or frutescent. In cases of uncertainty as to indigeneity, Greece has been allowed the benefit of the doubt, as, for instance, Salix Babylonica. The species printed in italics are to be found in Attika, though not necessarily only in Attika, while the remainder are to be found only in other parts of Greece. 4° GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Order. Leguminosse. Tree-species. Amygdalacese. Rosacese. Cercis Siliguastrum. Ceratonia Siliqua. Amygdalus communis. Persica vulgaris. Pmnus Armeniaca. „ avium. „ Cerasus. ,, domes tica. „ insititia. „ Mahaleb. ,, pseudo- armeniaca. , , spinosa. Cerasus Caproniana. „ L a u r o c e- rasus. „ prostrata. Shrub-species Anagyris fcetida. Spartium junceum. Genista acanthoclada. „ candicans. „ horrida. ,, Scorpius. Cytisus divaricatus. „ sessilifolius. ,, spinosus. „ triflorus. Anthyllis Herman- nia. Medicago arborea. Psoralea bituminosa. Colutea arborescens. Astragalus aristatus. Coronilla Emerus. „ glauca. Alhagi maurorum. Rosa canina. „ rubiginosa. ,, spinosissima. FORESTS 41 Order. Pomacese. Granatacese. Myrtaceae. Rutaceee. TerebinthaccEe. Juglandacese. Euphorbiaceae. Rhamnacea;. Tree-species. Cydonia vulgaris. Pyrus amygdali- formis. „ communis. ,, Malus. ,, salicifolia. Sorbus domestica. „ Grseca. CratEegus Azareolus. Heldreichii. monogyna. oxyacantha. pycnoloba. pyracantha tanacetifolia. Punica Granatum. Myrtus communis. Pisiacia Lentiscus. „ Terebinthus. Rhus Coriaria. Juglans regia. Rhamnus saxatilis. Shrub-species. Rubus Idseus. Poterium spinosum. Ruta chalepensis. ,, divaricata. „ graveolens. Rhus Cotinus. Schinus molle. Euphorbia Characias. „ dendroides. Buxus sempervirens. Rhamnus Alaternus. alpinus. catharticus. fallax. Graecus. infectorius. Libanoti- cus. 42 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Order. Tree-species. AquifoliaceEe. Celastracese. Aceraceae. Meliacese. Auraniiacese. Tamaricacese. Hypericacese. Tiliacese. Malvaceae. Caryophyllaceae. Mesembryaceae. Cactacese. Ilex Aquifolium. Acer Heldreichii. ,, platanoides. „ Reginae-Amalias. Melia Azederach. Citrus Awajitium. ,, deliciosa. „ Limetta. ,, Limonium. „ vulgaris. Shrub-species. Rhamnus oleoides. ,, prunifolius. „ pubescens. „ rupestris. „ Sibthorpi- anus. Zizyphus Paliurus. „ vulgaris. Euonymus Euro- paeus. „ latifolius. Acer Creticum. Citrus medica. Tilia argentea. „ Europasa. „ microphylla. Tamarix Hampeana. „ parviflora. Hypericum Coris. „ etnpetri- folium. Lavatera arborea. Olbia. „ unguiculata. Dianthus fruticosus. Drypis spinosa. Mesembryanthemum nodifloru7n. OpuntiaFicus-Indica. FORESTS 43 Order. Cistacese. Tree-species. Capparidaceee. Cruciferse. Berberidacese. Ribesiaceae. Cornaceae. Ampelidacese. Umbelliferse. Ericaceae. Stryacacese. Solanaceae Boraginaceae. Verbenaceae. Cornus mas. Shrub-species. Cistus albidus. „ Creticus. „ incanus. „ Montpelierisis. „ parviflorus. „ salvifolius. Helianthemum Apen- ninum. „ ellipticutn. „ lavandidcefolium. „ thymifolium. Capparis spinosa. Mathiola tristis. Alyssum Orientale. „ saxatile. Cheiranthus Cheiri. Berberis cretica. „ vulgaris. Ribes grossularia. „ multiflora. „ Uva-crispa. Cornus sanguinea. Vitis vinifera. Bupleurum frutico- sum. Erica arborea. „ carnea. „ multiflora. „ verticillata. Arbutus Andrachne. „ Unedo. Styrax officinalis. Lyciuin Mediter- raneum. Lithospermum fruti- cosum. Vitex Agnus- Castus. 44 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Order. Labiatae. Tree-species. Gentianacese. Asclepiadaceae. Apocynacese. OleaccEe. Oka EuropcEa. Shrub-species. Lavandula dentata. „ Spica. „ Sioechas. Origanum sipyleum. „ Tournefortii. Thymus capitatus. „ lanceolatus. „ vulgaris. Satureia nervosa. „ Thymbra. Thymbra spicata. Micromeria Grceca. „ Juliana. „ plumosa. Rosmarinus offici- nalis. Salvia calycina. „ officinalis. „ triloba. Sideritis candicans. „ Taurica. Stachys Palasstina. Phlomis fruticosa. Prasium maius. Teucrium brevifolium. „ divaricatum. „ fiavum. „ montanum. „ Folium. Chironia maritima. ,, spicata. Gomphocarpus fruti- cosus. Marsdenia erecta. Nerium Oleander. Fhillyrea latifolia. ,, media. FORESTS 45 Order. Jasminacese. CaprifoliaceEe. Rubiaceae. Composite. Tree-species. Elseagnaceae. Thymelseacese. Elceagnus angustifolia. Santalacese. Lauraceae. Laurus nobilis. Chenopodiacese. Salicacese. Salix acuminata. „ alba. „ amplexicaulis. „ Babylonica. ,, cinerea. Shrub-species. Jasminus fruticans. Sambucus nigra. „ racemosa. Lonicera xylo- stemma. Viburnus Lantana. Rubia tinctorum. Inula crithmoides. Artemisia arborescens. Helichrysum Stoechas. Stffihelina Chamae- peuce. Santolina anthe- moides. Santolina marilima. Daphne Alpina. ,, dioica. ,, Gnidium. „ jasminea. „ mezereum. „ oleoides. Thymelcea hirsiita. „ Tartonraira. Osyris alba. Atriplex Halimus. Arthrocnemum fruti- cosum. Suceda fruticosa. Salicornia fruticosa. Salix incana. ,, purpurea. ,, viminalis. 46 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Order. Salicacese. Urticacese. Amentaceae. Gnetaceae. Conifers Tree-species. Salix Cyllenea. ., fragilis. „ Helix. ,, triandra. Populus alba. Ulmus campestris. Celiis australis. Moms alba. „ nigra. Ficus Carica. Platanus Orientalis. Alnus glutinosa. Quercus cegilops. „ Ballota. „ Calliprinos. „ cerris. „ coccifera. „ congesta. „ Esculus. „ /lex. „ infectoria. „ peduncu- lata. ,, pubescens. „ sessiliflora. Carpinus Betulus. „ JDuinensis. Ostrya carpinifolia. Corylus Avellana. „ Colurna. Fagus sylvatica. Castanea vulgaris. Pinus Halepetisis. ,, Laricio. „ pinea. Abies Cephalonica. Shrub-species. Celtis Tournefortii. Ephedra distachya. Juniperus communis. „ drupacea. „ foetidissima. „ macrocarpa. FORESTS 47 Order. Tree-species.. Shrub-species. Coniferae. Abies Reginae- Amaliae. Juniperus nana. „ Panachaica. ,, oxycedrus. „ pectinata. ,, Fhxnicea. Cupressus semper- „ rufescens. virens. „ sabinoides. „ turbinata. Palmse. Phoenix dactylifera. Smilacese. Ruscus aculeatus. Liliaceae. Aloe vulgaris. [48 ] CHAPTER IV. INDUSTRIES. Mines — Marble — Salt — Factories — Fishing. Mines. — The mineral wealth of Greece is not now great, though several of the mines have produced large profits during the course of their existence. Almost all those at present worked, or even known, were worked in classical days. The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper, iron, coal, sulphur, magnesia and manganese ; in addition, emery, marble, mill-stone, potter's clay, gypsum, and several kinds of building-stone are found. On most of these a royalty of 1 1 per cent, (on the net profit) is paid to the State. This yielded last year as follows : DracAmas. Silver-mines at Laurion (French company) 250,000 „ „ (Greek „ ) 40,000 „ Sounion (French „ ) 14,000 Iron mines at Seriphos and Spelazeze ... 12,000 „ Daskalion 12,000 Manganese mine at Bani (in Melos) ... 23,000 INDUSTRIES 49 Drachmas. Sulphur-mine in Melos ... ... ... 7,000 Coal-mine at Oropos ... ... ... 330 Quarries of marble in Euboia ... ... 11,000 „ millstone and gypsum in Melos ... ... ... ... ... 35,000 Quarries of emery .. . ... ... ... 480,000 Santorin earth ... ... ... ... 25,000 Total 909.33° This means a profit of over ^300,000, and a very'- considerable employment of labour and circulation of money. There are several other ventures which do not appear in this list, as, for instance, a coal-mine at Kyme, the coal from which is used in the manufacture of lime (also not included). Magnesia, too, is found in Euboia ; and quite lately gold, it is said, has been dis- covered near Arta. Manganese is found with the iron, (2 to 2\ per cent, of the former to 47 to 49 of the latter), and in Spelazeze (14 to 17 per cent, to 34 to 36), and at Nikias. The Seriphos ore is delivered on board ship for 6 francs the ton, that from Niig. To[j(f)aiva. Braize. 'Pdypoe. <^ay%p\. Bull-head. Ks(f>a.'Koi. K's(f}aXo^. Cod. SxuAaf. 'SKuXo-^apa. Conger. Voyypoi. Voyypiov. Cuttle-fish. ^tivia. Kakafj-dpi. Eel. "Eyx^Xo^- XeXu. „ (small). BiXovr}. 'BiXoviTo-a. Eel-pout. TaXibg. VaXrih. Flying-fish. Xi'kidiiti. XiXiboMO-^apov. Gar- fish. Zapyotrj. Zapyiuva. Zapydva. Gilt-head. Xp{jSo(j)pu';. Xpva-6a, S6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE English. Ancient Greek. Modern Greek. Grayling. \ 2>t;os. ) 1 f.xia.iia. 1 Muoxom. Gudgeon. I Ka)/3;Jc. ' Kw/3;o5. Herring. @fiasoc. (ppia-cra. Hog-fish. 'S.MfJTaita. 2xopmiia. John-dory. ZEi)s. Xpicrro^ctpov. Lamprey. ( Mupaiva. ( 'S/Lvpaiva (in Plato), l^'^^^"- Mackerel. Sy-d/jt/Sfos. Sseou^TfL Mormyrus. Mop/JifUpoq. Movpfiovpa. Oblada. MiXdvoupoq. MiXavoupi. Octopus. noXiiTous. ' Oxra'Troii. Parrot-fish. Sxapos. 'Xxdpoq. Perch. nepyiri. U'lpxa. Pickerel. ' AOipttri. ' AOepita. Pike. 'S.^hpaiva. ^cjjupaiva. Plaice. "Taim. Ouyaiva. Red Gurnet. 'Epudpivo';. AiOpivi. Red Mullet. TpiryXri. M'rup,u,'!ro{'H. Salpa. SaXcr;). idXira. Sardine. l.apdTvo's. 'SapdeXXa. Scad. SaC^os. 'Sauptdi. Seabream. Sto^os. 'Smpo^;. Sea-perch. "Of^os. 'Po(^os. Sea-scorpion. 'Sxop'nioq. Sxopmos. Sea-urchin. 'Ep^^os. 'A^/i'OS. Serranus. 1 Xai/os. 1 Xaws. Shad. TlriXafih. naXa//.;'3a. Shanny. SXhvios. 2aX;af)js. Shark. SsXa^os. ^iXd^i. J) Zvyaita. Ziiyaiva. )» ' Viva,. 'Viva. Sheep's head. 'Sapyb's. 'S.apyo's. Skate. BotWs. Ban. Smelt. 1//.apls. Maplha. INDUSTRIES 57 English. Ancient Greek, Alodern Greek. Sole. YriTTa. TT^ucrcra. Sword-fish. Hiia's. Bi(j)ioq. Tooth-shell. Imaypls. ImoLyfiba. Torpedo. 'iHapxri. Movdida-Tpa. Tunny. ©uvvss. My.yiuTixov. (species). Tovtva. 3) H KoA/a?. KoX/os. J» )) 'OpKum. 'Opxmo'i. Weever. Apdxaim. Apdxaiva. 6' 7 Fishing is carried on much as in ancient times, various descriptions of nets being used, as well as harpoons (tridents) and lamps. At Mesolonghi they enclose the fish with hurdles about the middle of May, but it is complained that the hurdle-meshes are too small, and that conse- quently the fishery is threatened with extinction — a complaint not dissimilar to one we sometimes hear nearer home. The export of prepared fish is quite new, 1889 being the first year; there were then 43,830 drachmas' worth exported ; in 1 890, 74, 1 74 drachmas. Per contra, there is a large import of prepared fish, especially caviar, which is very popular. The value was : Prepared Fish. Caviar. 1871 ... 2,351,853 drachmas. 493,995 drachmas. 1887 ... 3,880,444 „ 885,227 1890 ... 5)178,317 drachmas (combined). The prepared fish comes chiefly from England, S8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Italy and Turkey, and the caviar almost entirely from Russia. There is also a small export trade in sponges : I87I 606,040 drachmas. 1882 381,692 1887 ••• 2,073,324 1890 ... 1,959,220 England takes more than half of this total, France about a sixth, and Austria, Turkey, the United States, Italy and Russia, the remainder. [59 CHAPTER V. COMMERCE Shipping — Imports and Exports. Shipping. — Perhaps the most hopeful sign of the actual and potential progress of Greece is the steady development of her carrying-power and carrying-trade. Before the revolution she had about 60,000 tons, but was left in 1833 with very few ships, Galaxidi, for instance, being re- duced from 250 ships to ninety. In 1891 she had reached a total of ninety-three steamboats of 46,688 tons, and 4,772 sailing vessels of 228,976 tons, distributed as follows : Tonnage. 93^136 24,81 I 10,393 i9>4i5 3.319 9,442 S>736 9-135 8,899 7.53° Steamers. Tonnage. Sailing- ships. Syros . 28 15.234 632 Peiraius .. ■ 33 IO-57S 368 Argostoli.. ■ 14 10,214 133 Galaxidi .. . — — 222 Ithaka . . 10 6,127 161 Spetsai . . — — 308 Andres . . ■ 5 3,668 106 Thera — 122 Zakynthos — — 137 Kerkyra .. I 780 247 Total Skips. 660 Total Tonnage. 108,370 401 35,386 147 20,607 222 171 19,415 9,446 308 9,442 III 9,404 122 137 9,13s 8,899 248 8,310 6o GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE After these come (in order of total tonnage) Hydra, Skiathos, Patras, Skopelos, Kyme, Chalkis, Volo, Cheli, Poros, Trikkeri, Leukas, Mesolonghi, Tsagesi, Kythera, Zagora, Melos, Lexouri, Mykonos, Nea Psara, Amorgos, Boiai, Nea Mizele, Pylos, Kalamai, and Paxos. Twenty-eight of the steamers belong to the three passenger companies : Hellenic (fourteen), Panhellenian (nine), Goudi (five). The number of steamers increases somewhat rapidly, some being built in the Peiraius )ards of McDowell and Barbour, and the Basiliades Company, while the majority are constructed in Great Britain, 1 1,8 1 2 tons (steam), in 1 891, at West Hartlepool and Dundee, and 14,954 tons (steam), in 1892, at Sunderland, Middlesbrough, and Dundee. Messrs. McDowell and Barbour built twenty- six steamers, of 2,203 tons, and 2,956 horse- power, last year. There are also chantiers for sailing-ships at Peiraius (two), Syros, Spetsai, and Galaxidi, the Galaxidiotika Karabia being very well known. The total number of men employed at sea is 30,147: Men. Mainland 6,650 Peloponnesos (of which total Hydra, Spetsai and Poros supply 8,277) ■•• 10,807 Kyklades 5,643 Ionian Islands ... ... ... .. 6,997 The ports principally contributing are : COMMERCE 6i Men. Hydra ... ■■■ 3.39° Spetsai ... ... 3,271 Kephallenia ... 2,789 Syros 1,962 Galaxidi ... 1,769 Poros . . . ... 1,596 Thera ... i>S79 Cheli ... 1,439 Kerkyra 1,300 However, the 6,062 fishermen before referred to are included in this total of 30,147, and making allowance for those not entirely pursuing a sea- faring life, the actual number of sailors may be set down at about 20,000, of whom about 5 per cent, are masters, about 22 per cent, officers and pilots, and 26 per cent, apprentices. The number of ships entering and clearing Greek ports (exclusive of the coasting trade) was : 1888. Tons. English Austrian Italian French Turkish Egyptian Total (foreign) Greek Total T, 016,112 962,013 612,175 780,722 230,434 201,084 i88g. Tons. 1,088,459 921,575 732,992 588,885 322,256 210,558 i8go. Tons. 1,242,957 933,129 794.194 635,813 224,847 207,810 4,089,678 4,137,346 4,233,150 698,491 699,492 653,793 4,788,169 4,836,838 4886,943 As last year's returns are not yet complete, we can compare them only with the same period of 62 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the preceding year (1891). The ships entering between January i and August 31 were : Greek. Foreign. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. I89I 1,261 184,670 2,324 1,421,405 1892 1,623 235,202 3,997 1,254.744 ;re cleared . 1891 1,187 194,631 2,152 1,376,073 1892 1,422 243,003 3,775 1,085,905 The country from and to which the ships sailed is perhaps as instructive as the flag (1890 figures) : Greek Foreign. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Turkey . ... 332,218 1,826,970 2,159,188 Italy 39,457 817,482 856,939 England . 32,973 598,292 631,265 Austria . 76,122 394,188 470,310 France . 20,303 264,665 284,968 It must not be forgotten that there are im- portant lines of passenger steamers to all these countries except England, which has hardly any direct passenger communication. It is in this way, too, that a good deal of the Italian, Austrian, French, and Egyptian trade in the table on the preceding page is accounted for. About 40 per cent, of the tonnage comes to the Peiraius, 20 per cent, to Syros, 18 per cent, to Kerkyra, and 5 per cent, to Patras. 25 per cent, of the total tonnage sails under the English flag, all the same to COMMERCE 63 19 per cent. Austrian, 16 per cent. Italian, 13 per cent. French, 4 per cent. Turkish, 4 per cent. Egyptian, and 1 3 per cent. Greek. In addition we must notice the Greek shipping on the Danube and Pruth, which has lately made great strides. There are now in this trade 722 ships, of 261,333 tons, owned by Greece, to 121 ships, of 56,840 tons, owned by other countries. The inhabitants of Ithaka hold two-thirds, and the Kephallenians a quarter, of the tonnage. There is a detailed account of the Danubian trade, by M. N. I. Spandones, in this year's ' Panhellenian Companion.' There can thus be no doubt about the growth of the Greek mercantile marine and the extension of its operations. The Greeks are essentially a seafaring people, and are capital seamen, prob- ably surpassed only by our countrymen. They possess an admirable mixture of caution and daring, with a happy fertility of resource in emergency. Their position between the East and the West must always give them great opportunities. I am not at all sure that their present success would not be enormously increased if they could dare and afford to adopt the prin- ciples of Free Trade. Again, as soon as they are connected with the trunk lines of Europe, which unfortunately rather depends on the reforming capacity of the ultra-Conservative Turk, the Peiraius ought to supplant Brindisi, and 64 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE an immense gain accrue to Greece generally, as well as to her shipping. Imports and Exports. — There is not that regularity about Greek commerce which we find in that of countries of a maturer civilization. Nor does it vary in the pendulum fashion that older countries are becoming habituated to. War-fever, election-fever, and the depression that follows a bad season, are the main causes of its frequent downs ; when any two of these causes occur simultaneously the downward tendency is very alarming ; the ups are its normal state. Imports. Drachmas. Per Head. 1887 ... 131,749,325 62 1888 ... 109,149,182 50 1889 ... 132,653,248 60 1890 ... 120,785,604 55 Exports. Drachmas. Per Head. 102,652,477 48 95.653,741 45 107,077,708 49 9S>79i>684 44 1887 1888 1889 1890 Total. Drachmas. 234,401,802 204,802,923 240,431,056 216,577,288 Per Head. no 95 109 99* The next table shows the yield to the State from this source : * The complete tables for 1891 and 1892 I have not been able to obtain. COMMERCE 6s Import Dues. Export Dues. Drachmas. Drachmas. 1887 26,675,304 2,436,785 1888 25,472,810 1,981,839 1889 24,012,146 2,557,676 1890 24,393,046 1,826,233 These figures do not quite correspond with the preceding, partly because the duties have been somewhat reduced, and partly because they are being gradually better collected. Import Duties. — It would be quite useless to wade through the thirty-six pages of dutiable articles (including a few undutiable ones, how- ever), but we may learn something of value from a brief list of the more important. These include carriages (8), clocks {7), corn (13), dairy pro- duce (12), drugs (2), fish (10), furniture (5), glass (4), metals (3), musical instruments (6), paper (i), pottery (9), and timber (11). In the present state of Greek industry, there are obvious reasons besides that of finding revenue why these are maintained. At the same time, I think the duties might be gradually decreased and dropped — I should suggest in the order indicated by the bracketed figure which follows the subject of the duty. Export dues are levied only on glass, olives, rak6 (a liqueur), and silver. 5 66 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE We next see from what counties Greec imports : ZS53 S>343 7.7o6 9,722 ,, local govern- ment . . . I 6,250 5,199 4,109 2,872 3,720 Total ... 8,865 8,752 9,452 10,578 13,442 1833. 1861. 1870. 1879. i^Sg. Army ... ... 4,866 — 12,420 18,521 26,134 „ (pensioned) _ _ — 1,265 3.532 Navy — 510 1,315 2,202 3,361 Total ... — — 13.73s 21,988 33,027 Independent ... — 16,122 31,234 32,345 36,032 It will be noticed that, with three exceptions, the 1889 returns are the largest on record. The agogiats are losing their t^aison d'etre, being snuffed out by the railways, the local government servants have been in part drafted into the national civil service, and the sailors who are away with their ships do not appear in the 1889 census. The increases to be regretted are the naval and military, which, fortunately, have been considerably reduced since 1889 ; the civil service, who might be still considerably reduced to advan- tage, though their permanency is the chief reform required for them ; the barristers (including lawyers of all kinds), who are many of them semi-briefless, and so driven into the already over- full ranks of journalism and politics ; the shep- herds, who are, to some extent, a. survival of the klephts— admirable people to struggle against 78 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE foreign oppression, but very liable to kick over the traces of even a free and national government ; and possibly the priests, although one is naturally very reluctant to think so. The increases which account for the progress of Greece so far as it has gone, and point prophetically to a still greater future, are the increases of farmers and labourers, of artisans and business-men, of men of independent means, and especially of teachers. The class-growths are seen thus : iS53- 1861. 1870. 1879. i88g. Agriculture 229,259 206,052 290,959 291AS1 386,949 Commerce 58,128 62,349 92,259 ioJ,334 125,087 Domestic service — 22,682 31-566 33,480 56,763 Professions 7-737 9>377 12,262 16,257 2r,982 Civil Service ... 8,865 8,752 9,452 10,578 13,442 Naval and military — — 13,735 21,988 33,°27 Independent"! means J 16,122 31,234 32,345 36,032 Agriculture has not progressed as rapidly as it ought to have, considering the increase of terri- tory. The professions have made almost too rapid strides, though the ambition which accounts for it cannot be condemned. The advance made by commerce, and its resultant, independent means, is very satisfactory. It will be observed that female domestic service is becoming much commoner now that the fear of letting their womenkind come into contact with masculine strangers — due, no doubt, partly to fear of the BUSINESS 79 Turks availing themselves of some Hunnish equivalent for cuissage, but still more to the Turkish example of keeping their own women as much as possible out of sight — has been almost extinguished in the light of that chivalry which has become common decency in the life of the West. The professions (rateable) followed in Athens by the largest number of people are : Provision- sellers 421, drivers 351, tobacconists 285, caf6- keepers 273, carpenters 236, cook-shops 190, bakers 180, doctors 172, tailors 172, cab-drivers 170, hairdressers 153, butchers 149, shoemakers, 143, drapers 135, fancy-shop-keepers 121, black- smiths 116, and greengrocers 103. The richest professions, from a rateable (or licensable) point of view, are : Banks 6,000 drachmas a year, bankers 1,125, railway companies 1,000, insurance companies 1,000, big merchants 762, wine- merchants 672, agents 300, wholesale merchants 282, hotel - keepers 250, ornament - sellers 242, fancy-shop-keepers 226, confectioners 212, linen- drapers 211. There are 140 professions, etc., enumerated, accounting for 6,147 individuals. [80 ] CHAPTER VII. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. Roads — Railways— Steamboats — The Korinth Canal — The Euripos — Lake Kopais — Lighthouses — Post-office — Tele- graph — Telephone — Weights and Measures— Coinage. Roads. — However Telemachos may have driven his chariot from sandy Pylos to Pherai, and on to hollow Lakedaimon, crossing a river or two and getting from one side to the other of difficult Taygetos (I am afraid we can hardly accept Colonel Mure's explanation), there can be no doubt that the ancient Greeks were not great road-makers. There were a good many roads, of course, such as they were, as people had some- times to move with their household goods or merchandise from one town to another, and the racing-chariots had to be taken to the various meetings at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea,. and the Isthmos, and it is not quite likely that they went from Sparta and from Southern Achaia to Olympia, or from Thebes to Delphi, by sea. At INTERNA L COMMUNICA TION the same time, it must not be supposed that there are no traces left of Greek roads ; there are a considerable number, as, for instance, of the Sacred Way from Athens to Eleusis, and of that between Korinth and Argos ; and there are old Greek bridges, too, as over the Eurotas, below Ithome, and near the Isthmian Sanctuaries. The Romans did not do as much road-making in Greece as elsewhere, and the barbarians who followed them destroyed instead of creating. The unfathomable Turk improved the inter- communication a little, though his best was but a bridlepath in the slipperiest staircase style, which was, however, both durable and cheap. Oddly enough, the mountain ponies approve the Turkish method ; at least, when they have to choose between the ordinary mountain substance along- side and one of these Mussulman tracks, consist- ing of irregularly alternate rows of smooth pebbles and sharp pinnacles, they invariably choose the latter. When Otho came to the throne he found not a single carriage-road in his dominions. He set to work vigorously, beginning with the road from Athens to the Peiraius, taking advantage of his little Bavarian army for the purpose. The next highway was from Nauplion to Argos and Tripolis. The Ionian Islands were lucky in this matter. The English Government made good roads in all of them, especially in Kephallenia, which had the advantage for some years of the 82 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE administrative capacity and energy of the best man we ever sent to the Ionian Islands, Colonel Napier. The following table shows the roads in the different provinces, with their cost : Roads Complete. Kilometres Attika-Boiotia . 562 Phthiotis-Phokis 439 Aitolia-Akarnania 505 Arta 131 Trikkala... 53 Larissa ... 120 Euboia ... 186 Argolis-Korinth 254 Arkadia ... 286 Achaia-Elis 422 Messenia 204 Lakonia ... 220 Kyklades 46 Kerkyra ... 303 Kephallenia 220 Zakynthos 5° Total • .3,997 Cost. Drachmas. 6,956,212 5,793,202 9,228,790 746,407 SS4.20O 1,250,830 3,602,900 2,020,032 4,805,705 5.i°9,536 2,837,090 2,708,605 689,494 1,250,443 749,115 474,978 48,777,719 Roads in Progress. Kilometres. 89 67 47 45 19 42 84 55 188 52 79 32 17 66 27 IS 924 This gives practically 2,500 miles already made, and 600 in preparation, a very respectable net- work for so small a country, especially for one which possesses such splendid sea communica- tions. The expense, although heavy, about 1,500,000 sterling, is still very light when the INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 83 difficult nature of the country is considered. The expenditure per kilometre has been heaviest in Euboia, about ;^ 1,02 5 a mile, and Aitolia- Akarnania, about ^950 a mile, and lightest in Kephallenia, about £180 a. mile, Kerkyra about ^220 a mile, and Arta about ;!f300 a mile. It is proper, however, to remark that the roads are not kept in perfect repair. One would not like to drive one's own landau from Megalopolis to Karytaina, for example. The engineering, too, while it has very puzzling problems to solve, does not always hit on the happiest or, in the long-run, cheapest solutions. The preference for zigzagism over cuttings is a little too marked. Instead of beginning at a town and going steadily forward, they often begin in the middle if the work happens to be easier. On the same prin- ciple, bridge-making is rather unduly postponed. At the same time, considering the lack of avail- able funds, and the not always friendly attitude of the rustics who live near the operations, we must admit that the Greek Government has done wonderfully well. It would be grossly unfair to expect from them either the results which cen- turies of work and outlay have given us, or the methods which we have gained by long experience. Railways. — There are seven railway com- panies ; 84 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Kilometres Kilometres Made. in Progress. Peiraius-Athens 9 Peiraius-Athens-Peloponnesos 5(58 104 Thessaly 204 Attika .. 70 Mesolonghi-Agrinion 44 Mesolonghi-Krioneri ... 16 Peiraius-Lkrissa 400 Total on S04 1. The oldest is the Httle line between Athens and the Peiraius, made in 1869, which has been very profitable both to the public and the share- holders — in fact, to everyone except its maker. It is of i^ metres gauge, and will have a double line by January next year, by which time it will also have a station in the Place de la Concorde, an underground railway being in pro- cess of construction to this quarter from the present station in the Kerameikos. The capital of the company is 2,800,000 drachmas, in 1,400 shares of 200 drachmas each. It carried 693,370 passengers in 1869, 1,334,545 in 1879, 2,350,474 in 1889, and 2,121,232 in the first eight months of 1892. The present price of shares is 437 drachmas, and the last dividend was 10 drachmas. The stations on the lines are Athens, Phaleron, and Peiraius. 2. The Spap, as it is familiarly called, is of I metre gauge. Its capital is 25,300,000 drachmas, in 92,000 shares of 275 drachmas each. In 1890 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 85 it expended 4,711 drachmas per kilometre, and received 8,616 drachmas per kilometre, 70 per cent, being from passenger traffic. The number of passengers carried in 1891 was 1,189,378, paying nearly 3 drachmas each, the length of line being 18 kilometres more than in 1890, and the increase of passenger traffic 15 per cent, greater, a considerable improvement, which is likely to be more than maintained. The dividends have been: in 1886, none; 1887, none; 1888, 4 per cent. ; 1889, 3 per cent. ; 1890, 7 per cent. The present price of shares is 133^ drachmas. The stations on the line are Peiraius, Hag. loannes, Myloi, Kato-Liosia, Ano-Liosia, Kalyvia, Eleusis, Hag. Nikolaos, Megara, Kineta, Hag. Theodoros, Kalamaki, Korinth ; Nemea, Phyktia, Argos ; Dalamanara, Tiryns, Nauplion ; (Argos) Kepha- lari, Myloi, Tripolis ; (Korinth) Perialoi, Vracha- toi, Kokona, Bellon, Kiaton, Domini, Melissoi, Sykia, Xylokastron, Kamari, Ligoporia, Stomboi, Derveni, Akrata, Diakophti ; Kavasila, Bartho- lomion, Kyllene, Loutra ; Temeni, ^gion, Patras, Kato-Achaia, Lechaina, Gastuni, and Pyrgos. 3. The Thessaly Railway is of i metre gauge, single line. Its capital is 23,000,000 francs (gold), in 92,000 shares of 250 francs each. It takes more money from goods than from passengers. It is not a very paying concern, its takings per kilometre being (in 1890) 5,628 drachmas, and its expenditure 3,641 drachmas. Consequently its 86 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE dividends have been: in 1886, 5 per cent. ; in 1887, 1888, and 1889, none ; and in 1890 3 per cent. The present price of shares is 140 drachmas. The stations on the line are Volo, Velestino ; Phersala, Sophades, Karditza, Trikkala, Kalam- balika ; (Velestino) Schoular, Ldrissa. 4. The Attika Railway, finished in 1885, is run by the Laurion Mining Company. It is of I metre gauge. Its capital is 5,400,000 drachmas, in 27,000 shares of 200 drachmas each. In 1890 its receipts per kilometre were 7,350, and its expenses 4,223. It has a fair goods traffic, carrying must, etc., from the country, and iron- stone from Daskaleion. In 1886 it carried 180,020 passengers, and in 1891 351,567. Its dividends have been : 1888, 6| per cent. ; 1889, 6^ per cent. ; 1890, 9 per cent. The price of shares is not quoted. The stations on the line are : Athens, Patesia, Herakleia, Amarousion, Kephissia ; (Herakleion) Chalandri, Geraka, Kantzas, Li6pesi, Koropi, Markopoulon, Kalyvia, Keratea, Daskaleion, Thorikos, Laurion. The fares are low on all the lines, averaging about 13 lepta (a little over a penny) per kilo- metre first class, 10 lepta second class, and 7 lepta third class. The carriages are quite up to the European standard of comfort, and some are built like tram-cars with a little platform at each end. There is no unnecessary delaying of passengers, INTERNAL COMMUNICATION and no fussy formalism over their luggage. The officials are polite, and the trains fairly punctual. 5. The Peiraius-Larissa Railway was begun in 1890, on a loan of ^3,600,000, actually yielding 80,100,000 francs, the expense of making the line being expected to reach 52,250,000 francs, i.e., 345 kilometres at 140,000, and 45 at 90,000 francs. The line is being made by an English company, Messrs. Eckersley and Co., of West- minster, and is to be finished in 1895. The Government has had very hard lines over this adventure, as, though only half the loan has been subscribed, and about 15,000,000 will have to be spent on intercalary interest, which means that it will have to find about 27,000,000 somewhere, it has not even the right of free disposal of the railway. The line of route is from the Peiraius to Athens (9 kilometres), thence via Mazi (36) and Skimitari (27) to Thebes (28) ; on to Levadeia (38-8), Dadi (41-8), Lianokladi (48-8), Pentamilos (447), and Larissa (70"9). There will be branch lines from Skimitari to Chalkis (23), and from Lianokladi to Hag. Marina (40 — finished). More than half the work is done. The line differs from most other Greek railways in that it goes more or less as the crow flies, not in the beating-about- the-mountain style of the Peloponnesian Railway. They dare to tunnel and bridge quite in English fashion. 88 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE The line from Diakophti to Kalavryta is on the cogged mountain-climbing principle. Railways have also been voted by the Chamber, and will soon be begun : (i) From Pyrgos to Pylos, with a branch to Meligala, by which it will be connected with the Myloi-Kalamata line. (2) From Pyrgos, via Olympia, Karytaina, Megalopolis, and Sparta to Gytheion. (3) From Mesolonghi to Antirrhion. It is also under contemplation to connect Kyme with Aliveri. Bulgaria has about 250 miles of railway, Rou- mania 1,400, and Servia 341. Athens is also well provided with tramways ; and there is a steam tramway to Old and New Phaleron, which is well patronized during the bathing season ; both of these concerns are pros- perous. There are also plenty of omnibuses. Steamboats. — There are three companies: I. The Hellenic Steamship Company, estab- lished in 1856, with a capital of 5,000,000 drachmas in 10,000 shares of 500 drachmas each (1,106 shares, however, never having been allotted), with a reserve fund of 207,000 drachmas. The company has recently been re- organized by Messrs. McDowall and Barbour. It possesses fourteen steamers, with a total of 9,400 tons and 1,770 horse-power, the biggest boat being the Theseus, of 1,004 tons and 180 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 89 horse-power. Under the old dispensation there had for some time been no dividend. Its service is as follows : (i) Peloponnesian — Syros, Peiraius, ^gina, Poros, Hydra, Spetsai, Cheli, Nauplion, Leonidi, Monemvasia, Kythera, Gytheion, Kalamai, Korone, Pylos, Marathos, Hag. Kyriake, Kyparissia, Katakolon, Zakynthos, Patras. (2) Peloponnesian — Very similar, but calling at Limeni, Kardamyloi, Kyllene and Meso- longhi. (3) Argolic Gulf — The first part of (i), as far as Nauplion, but also stopping at Astros. (4) Ionian Islands — Patras, Mesolonghi, Kyllene, Zakynthos, Kephallenia, Paxes, Kerkyra. (5) Ionian Islands — Similar, but with rather fewer ports of call. (6) Korinthian Gulf — Patras, Naupaktos, Aigion, Vistrinitza, Galaxidi, I tea and Korinth. (7) Korinthian Gulf — Similar. (8) Akarnanian — Patras, Mesolonghi, Astakos, Mytika, Zaverda, Alexandres and Ithaka. (9) Ambrakian Gulf — Patras, Ithaka, Leukas, Pr^veza, Salagora, Vonitza, Menidi and Karvassara. (10) Euboiaand Pagasaian Gulf — Syros, Peiraius, Laurion, Aliveri, Chalkis, Limne, Atalante, Stylida, Oreos, Nea Minzela, Almyros and Volo. 90 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE (ii) Euboia and Pagasaian Gulf — Similar, but with fewer ports of call, adding, however, Kythnos and Kea before Peiraius. (12) Euboia and Pagasaian Gulf — Similar to (10), but with fewer ports of call. (13) Peiraius, Laurion, Karystos, Gavrion, Syros. (14) Syros, Tenos and Mykonos. (15) Peiraius \yid Salonica and Dardanelles] to Constantinople. (16) Peiraius [z'zi Smyrna, Mitylene and Darda- nelles] to Constantinople. (17) Patras — Kerkyra, Brindisi. 2. Panhellenic Steamship Company, estab- lished in 1883, with a capital of 5,000,000 drachmas in 25,000 shares of 200 drachmas each, with a reserve fund of 419,000 drachmas. It possesses eleven steamers, with a total burden of 15,095 tons, and with 2,820 horse-power; and a new one has recently been added. The finest boat is the Athenai, of 3,000 tons and 450 horse- power. The dividends are rather irregular in amount. Its service is as follows : (i) Peloponnesian-— Peiraius, Gytheion, Kalamai, Katakolon, Zakynthos, Mesolonghi, Patras. (2) Peloponnesos, Ionian Islands and Trieste — Peiraius, Syros, Gytheion, Kalamai, Kata- kolon, Zakynthos, Patras, Leukas, Ker- kyra and Trieste. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 91 (3) Korinthian Gulf — Patras to Itea. (4) Akarnanian — Patras, Mesolonghi, Astakos, Ithaka, Leukas, Preveza, Salagora, Vonitza, Karvassara, Menidi. (5) Ionian Islands — Patras, Zakynthos, Kephal- lenia Kerkyra, Preveza, Leukas and Korfu. (6) Eubola and Pagasaian Gulf — Peiraius, Laurion, Chalkis, Stylida and Volo. (7) Euboia and Pagasaian Gulf — Peiraius, Laurion, Aliveri, Chalkis, Limne, Atalante, Stylida, Oreos and Volo. (8) Kyklades — ^Peiraius to Syros. (9) Kyklades — Peiraius, Syros, Paros, Naxos, I OS, Thera. (10) Peiraius [via Dardanelles] to Constanti- nople. In 1888 the total knottage was 301,301, about 92 knots a day for each of the (then) nine boats. 3. Goudi Steamboat Company. — This is a private business, founded in 1879, and is sup- posed to pay well. It has six boats, with a total of 1,202 tons, the biggest being the Nauplion, of 296 tons and 100 horse-power. The service is as follows : (i) Peloponnesian — Peiraius, Hydra, Spetsai, Leonidi, Gytheion, Kalamai, Korone, Pylos, Marathos, Hag. Kyriake, Kypa- rissia, Katakolon, Zakynthos, Kyllene, Mesolonghi, Patras. 92 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE (2) Argolic Gulf — Peiraius, ^gina, Methana, Poros, Hydra, Spetsai, Cheli (sometimes Leonidi) and Nauplion. (3) Peiraius to ^gina and Poros. (4) Euboia and Pagasaian Gulf — Peiraius, Lau- rion, Aliveri, Chalkis, Limne, Stylida, Volo. (5) Euboia and Pagasaian Gulf — Similar. (6) Euboia and Pagasaian Gulf — Peiraius, Lau- rion, Chalkis and Volo. (7) Kyklades — Peiraius, Kythnos, Syros and Tenos. There are several other steamboats in the passenger trade — the Serpieri line, for instance, serving the Argolic Gulf, and there being similar local convenience at Volo and Kephallenia. There are from eight to ten steamers thus employed. The Greek steamboat arrangements are not quite perfect from an English standpoint, but, at the same time, they are very good under existing conditions. Those on which the passenger has to sleep aboard are inferior to the Mediterranean boats of the Messageries Maritimes, but rather better than those of the Fraissinet com- pany. The food is wholesome, palatable, cheap and abundant, and the berths are clean. The objectionable feature is that pretty generally the third-class passengers are allowed on the part of the deck nominally reserved for the first-class. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 93 The officials of the company not only share the democratically gregarious spirit of the cheap-fare payers — a spirit which is absolutely unable to com- prehend our English exclusiveness — but they will not admit the simple proposition that if one third- class passenger is allowed to travel first-class the first-class passengers are thereby actually robbed. But there is another side to this question to which the companies would do well to give some atten- tion. I have been told — and, indeed, it is also borne out by my own observation — that the com- panies' servants have discovered a neat device for robbing their masters. Say, the first-class fare is 20 francs, the second 15 francs, and the third 10 francs ; the purser gives you a third-class ticket for 15 francs, and leaves you in undisturbed possession of your first-class quarters. The purser makes 50 per cent, on the ticket, and the traveller, if he is not scrupulous, pockets his reduction of 25 per cent, and says nothing about it. If he is an Englishman he probably does not know modern Greek ; besides, he is generally too busy admiring the scenery to think of scrutinizing his ticket. It is obvious that, if the company only receives half the proper fares, its dividends are not likely to come up to expecta- tions. The Korinth Canal. — The idea of piercing the Isthmus of Korinth is a very old one. Caesar, Nero, and Hadrian all thought of it, and traces 94 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE of Nero's attempted canal still remain. In classic days ships were conveyed on a railway (Diolkos) from one side to the other. The present enter- prise was set on foot in 1881 by a Fench com- pany, which made the mistake of letting in the sea before the cutting was complete. It is being finished accordingly by a Greek company, which has a capital of 5,000,000 francs in 10,000 shares of 500 francs, though the French company had spent 44,000,000 francs before coming to grief The canal will be 3^ miles long and 100 feet wide. Baedeker states, that the journey from Messina to the Peiraius, which now takes about fifty-eight hours, will be reduced to about half the time, while the sea-voyage from Messina to Constanti- nople will te shortened by about two days. From the three Greek steamboat companies alone, it is expected to take dues of 400,000 drachmas a year. A lighthouse is being built on the highest ground adjacent, and special attention is being paid to the proper lighting of the Korinthian Gulf; no doubt the Messageries Maritimes and the Fraissinet boats, and probably also the Austrian Lloyd, will avail themselves of the oppor- tunity of reducing their distances ; the Peiraius and Patras are certain to benefit largely. The official opening is put down for May of this year. The deepening and broadening of the Euripos has been undertaken at an estimated cost of INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 95 400,000 drachmas ; it is expected to be finished shortly. Lake Kopais. — An EngHsh company has for some years been engaged in draining this rather refractory lake. The old katabothra were in many cases choked up, and new channels have been made leading to Lake LIkeri, thence to Lake Paralimne, and thence to the Euripos. The reclaimed land should be extremely fertile. Lighthouses. ^ — English sailors are rather in the habit of abusing the lighthouse arrangements of Greece alongside of those of Spain and Portugal, though on cross-examination I have never heard it asserted that Greek lights were ever left unlit. In order to fully appreciate the enormous cost which would be necessary to light the Greek coast as the English Channel is lit, we have only to call to mind the extraordinary littoral of Greece. Area Littoral Square Kilo- in Square in metres of Area Kilometres. Kilometres. to Littoral. Greece 65,194 5.442 12'0 England , . 313.675 3>702 84-5 Italy 296,012 2,742 107-9 France 528,575 3.536 141-5 Greece has, accordingly, seven times as much seaside proportionally to its area as England, and nearly twelve times as much as France ; and the wealth at the disposal of the Government, instead 96 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE of being in a similar proportion, is worse than the inverse. However, Greece possesses at present sixty-nine Hghthouses, and is building seventy- two more, fifty-five of which are to be at Marlera, Antipaxos, Menidi, Karvassara, Basilike, Mar- maka, Gombos, Skytari, Kapri, Oxyas, Zav^rda, Kaukalidion, Trypeton, Psaromytas, Galaxidi, Itea, Nikolaos, Malangavi, Keri, Marathoupolis, Karse, Limeni, Neapolis, Kythera (Avgo), Karavi, Isthmia, Sousaki, Salamis, Hag. Georgios, Makronesi, Tamelos, Aliveri, Oropos, Atalante, Arkitza, Bromos, Stylida, Drepanon, Hag. Sostos, Oreos, Argyronesos, Almyros, Pontikonesi, Arkaki, Gregias (a point of Andros), Dyovato, Tenos Harbour, Aspronesos, Livada, Krapsi (Paros), Naxos, Kyklops, Livathy, Antimelos, and Maskoula. I hope, too, that Mr. Cecil Barff' s determined efforts will lead to the placing of a light on the Euboia side of the murderous Doro Channel. The existing lighthouses are : Othonoi, Peristera, Kerkyra (on the Akropolis), Leukimne, Laka (on Paxos), Gaion (on Paxos), Leukas, Doukaton, Phiskardo, Bardianoi, Hag. Theodoroi, Lexouri, Hag. Euphemia, Hag. Andreas (on Ithaka), Kyllene, Hag. Soste, Papa, Patras, Antirrhion, Drepanon, Myrnos, Aigion, Apsephia (on the islet Hypsolithia), Korinth, Kryoneri, Zakynthos, Katakolon (cape), Kata- kolon (pier-head), Strophades, Kyparissia, Pylos, Oinoussai, Korone, Kalamai, Kytriai, Tainaron, INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 97 Gytheion, Peiraius (entrance), Peiraius (pier- head), Themistokles' Point, Phleva, Kea, Phonia, Vrysaki, Berdougi, Aulis, Chalkis, Kake Kephale, Spathi, Kapsali, Malea, Parapola, Leonidi, Spetsai, Cheli, Zourva (on Hydra), Poros, Aigina (har- bour), Plakakia, Naustathmos (on Salamis), Psyttaleia, Strongyle, VasiHna, Anderas, Trikera, Sesylos, Gourouni, Physsa, and Gavrion. Four are visible 25 miles or more, five others 20 miles or more, seven others 15 miles or more, and four- teen others 10 miles or more. Physsa on Andros is visible the greatest distance, viz., 28 miles ; while Parapola is visible 27 miles, Othonoi 26, and Oinoussai 25. When those now building are finished, this will give Greece a lighthouse for every 38" 5 kilometres of coastline, a very fair average, especially when one remembers that she only possesses forty-one harbours (and this is a large number for her population), and that the average of other countries is greatly raised by the number of little pier-head lights. Post-Office. — Colonel Leicester Stanhope, who went out in 1822 on behalf of the Greek Committee, made strenuous, and to some extent successful endeavours to establish a post, and the Government of Kapodistria, on September 24, 1828, passed a Bill introducing a postal system, which was carried into effect in the following May. The first convention with a foreign country was that with Austria, in 1834. The 7 98 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE progress made is easily seen in the financial returns : Receipts. Expenditure. Drachmas. Drachmas. 1833 .., ... 8,832 9,261 1875 662,450 464,808 1880 673,597 406,627 1885 1,014,008 635,162 1890 1,387,060 792,550 1891 1,443.719 796,080 The development is also seen in the ordinary way : 1883. 1885. T88y. i8go. Letters ,.. 3,265,079 4,535,076 4,849,000 4,940,440 Post-cards ... 32,141 i37,244 i 40,000 194,778 Samples ... 13,690 30.943 31,991 44,845 Printed matter 191,178 31 2,034 "» , Newspapers... 3712,243 4,190,036/ 58,197 P'°4°.397 ^ ' ^^ 14,888,807 There are several other headings, which raise the total correspondence of 1890 a total 1,177,629 in advance of 1887. The number of post-offices in 18 17 was 249, with 512 officials ; but the position of Greece in this respect is best seen in a comparative table : Letters No. of To .E: andPost Post- Popula- Letters. Post-cards, cards offices. tion. per Head. England 17,587 2,109 105,342 1,512,200,000 188,800,000 46^0 France . . . 7,436 5,672 57,496 666,256,000 38,105,000 i8'3 Russia . . . 5,429 18,855 25,661 173,193,000 16,460,000 1 7 Norway 1,274 1,557 1,730 17,098,000 1,243,000 9-2 Portugal .,636 2,782 3,238 20,200,000 3,257,000 5-0 Greece... 249 8,384 512 4,849,000 140,000 2-3 Bosnia . . . 76 17,580 342 2,739,000 306,000 2 '3 Bulgaria no 25,590 811 3,136,000 343,000 1-2 Servia .., 92 21,703 571 3,671,000 89,000 17 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION 99 The most interesting feature in this table is, per- haps, the evident superiority of Greece over the much-petted Bulgaria. In 1 89 1 the total correspondence (the details are not yet available) reached 16,802,330. The parcels post was established in 1 890, and although somewhat dilatory at first, especially in the case of parcels from abroad, is now in good working order, though it is still largely an external post, about 80 per cent, of its work being of this descrip- tion. Postal orders have also been established, and in such a moneyless country are a great success. Over 6,000,000 drachmas were thus sent in the first half of 1892. It is difficult to say what effect its establishment may or may not have on the already too puzzling currency question. It may be interesting to amateur stamp- collectors to have a schedule of Greek stamps : Otho. i860. 1883. I lepton ... black brown 2 lepta ... yellow yellow yellow S „ ... green green pale green 10 „ ... blue gold pale yellow 20 „ violet blue pink 25 ., — — blue 40 „ . . . purple violet violet SO „ — — dark green 80 „ ... gold purple ashy Telegraph. — The telegraphic system has developed very rapidly, but does not yet pay its way. The number of messages was 579,507 in GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE 1882; 845,707 in 1887; and 1,185,682 in 1892. The receipts last year were 1,122,517 drachmas, and the expenditure 1,924,640. There are 8,958 kilometres of wire, and 186 telegraph- offices. The most important service is that of the Eastern Telegraph Company, with its head- quarters at Syros. Bulgaria has 1,734 miles of telegraph, Roumania 3,576, and Servia 3,095. Telephone. — There is at present no public telephone service, but the Government, the rail- way companies, and several individuals have wires. A law was passed on August 18, 1892, however, which had for its object the establishing of both urban and inter-urban public communication. Weights and Measures. — In this respect, at any rate, Greece is more civilized than England. On September 28, 1876, she adopted the decimal system. At the same time, it must be confessed that in practice she is still rather inclined to adhere to the Turkish weights and measures, which are of quite English cumbersomeness and barbarity ; in this case the measure often bears the prefix ' old,' while those of the decimal system carry that of ' royal.' Measures of Length. I grammd=i millimetre = '03937 inch. I daktylos = i centimetre = '39371 inch. I palime=i d^cimfetre = 3-93708 inches. I p&hys=T metre = i'o93 yards. I stadion=i kilometre = 1093-633 yards, or -621 mile. I schoinis=i myriametre = 6-213 niiles. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION loi Square Measures. I square pechys = i square mfetre= i'ig6 square yards. I strdmma=i decare='247 acre. Cubic Measures. I kybos=i millilitre = •06103 inch, or "ooi pints. I mystron = i centilitre = 'eiozy cubic inch, or -017 pint. I kotyle=i decilitre = 6' 1 02 7 1 cubic inches, or '176 pint. I litra=i litre = 'o35 cubic foot, or 1760 pints. I koil6n=i hectolitre =3 "5 31 cubic feet, or 22-009 gallons. Weights. I k6kkos=i centigramme- •15432 grain. I obolos=i decigramme = 1-54323 grains. I drachme=i gramme = '032 ounce. I tilanton= too kilogrammes = 220^46 pounds. I tdnos = 1,000 kilogrammes = 2204 '6 pounds, [i mna= i| kilogrammes = 3-307 pounds. The talanton most usually = 100 mnas, and the tonos 1,000 mnas.] The equivalents of the old measures and weights still in use are : I pechys = -646 mfetre = 2-ii9 feet. I pechys (building) = -74 mbtre= 2-427 feet. I stremma= 1,270 square mfetres= -314 acre. I oka= 1-33 litres = -046 cubic foot. I oka =1,282 grammes =2-82 pounds. I koildn = 33-148 litres = -895 bushel. I drami = 3-2 grammes = '103 ounce. I statdr=56-4o8 kilogrammes= 124-323 pounds. Coinage. — The earliest mint of old Greece was in Aigina, and in Aigina, too, was the first mint of New Greece. There, on July 28, 1829, with the ;^ioo worth of appliances bought by M. A. Kontostaulos in Malta, coins were struck of i 102 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Phoinix (silver), lo lepta, 5 lepta, and i lepton (copper). Under King Otho, from 1836 to 1858, 3'945)952 I -lepton pieces, 4,490,487 2-lepta pieces, 72>AS°>7^Z 5-lepta pieces, and 17,350.763 lo-lepta pieces were coined. Silver coins of 5 drachmas, i drachma, -^ drachma, and ^ drachma were also struck during this period, and gold of 40 drachmas in 1852, and 20 drachmas in 1833 and 1852. Munich and Paris supplied the dies. Under King George Greece joined (April 10, 1867) the Latin union, and obtained from Paris Tresh dies, the new mintage consisting of copper coins of 10, 5, 2, and i lepta ; silver of 5, 2, i, \, and 1 drachmas ; and gold of 100, 50, 20, 10, and 5 drachmas. It is hardly necessary to say that the bigger gold coins (like our largest Jubilee pieces) have never been in circulation. Whatever gold and silver may be left in Greece is carefully hoarded up — in fact, so little is gold known, that I remember that in a bank in the Peloponnesos they once refused to change gold for me into banknotes, though they actually offered to lend me the notes I wanted, simply because I was an Englishman. The National Bank has notes in circulation of I, 2, 10, 25, 100, and 500 drachmas, and the Ionian and Thessalian Banks of i, 2, 10, 25, and 100 drachmas. For convenience, lo-drachma notes are cut in two, and used for 5 -drachma notes. [ I03 CHAPTER VIII. FINANCE Even professional financiers find Greek finance an extremely difficult riddle to read, so that the ignorance of the general public in England and throughout investing Europe generally is very excusable. There was issued, however, at Athens last November a pamphlet* by M. Joseph D. Beckmann, which not only solves that part of the problem which was often regarded as insoluble, but makes the present financial situation quite intelligible — and, let me add, hopeful. He says : In 1 86 1 the budget showed total receipts 24,996,762, while the expenditure required 24,987,487 old drachmas (100 new =112 old). Budgetary equilibrium, then, was complete, and the financial situation corresponded with the patriarchal circumstances in which the country lived, paying at that time 1,382,366 drachmas on * ' Les Finances de la Grbce, ^tude coinposee sur la base de documents authentiques.' I04 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the score of interest on its debt. The following year brought the revolution and a new dynasty ; it marked, too, the commencement of a new era in the life of Greece. Her requirements naturally increased, but without sensibly disturbing the budgetary equilibrium. In 1867 the budget balanced with 32,292,335 drachmas receipts, and 28,158,698 drachmas expenditure. The budget of 1871 shows a total of 33,991,000 receipts, and 39,458,924 expenditure. At this period Greece had already contracted some loans, and the annuity of the debt was 7,793,000 drachmas. We must, however, remark that the settlement of the guaranteed loan account, fixing the total due at 100 millions, had but recently taken place. Nevertheless, the budgets of the 1870 to 1880 period were still tolerably small, and showed no disquieting deficit. In 1875 the budget balanced wich 35,239,000 drachmas receipts, and 39,331,387 expenditure. It is certain, however, that at the end of the financial year these deficits would have to be much more considerable, since the receipts often remained below the estimate. The last years of this period sensibly altered the situation. These years are marked by the great national movement, roused by the Russo-Turkish War and the Berlin Treaty. Greece appealed to European credit, issued the 60 million loan, and prepared to issue the first great loan, which still exists, of 120 millions. Her budgets felt the FINANCE 105 effect of this ; that of 1880 shows total receipts 46,716,857 drachmas, while the expenditure is set down as 56,086,872 drachmas. The following year the budgetary deficit was already assuming a disquieting aspect — 113,852,722 drachmas ex- penditure, to 51,481,561 drachmas receipts. At the same time, the interest on the debt had risen to 19,723,000 drachmas. Still, we must not set up this year as a model for the period, seeing that its budget was made during a big mobilization. The budget of the following year was reduced to 66,841,561 receipts, and 77,854,786 drachmas ex- penditure, a deficit capable of being considerably lessened by the end of the financial year. In short, the military expenses of the years 1877 to 1 88 1 gave an aggregate deficit of 140 millions. These armings swelled out the debt, and brought about the forced currency ; but they also had a happy issue in the acquisition of a fertile province of 13,000 square kilometres, which at once pays the expenses entailed by its acquisition. The last decade, after all, had the greatest influence on the configuration of the budget. If it has grown enormously, it is better balanced ; for if the expenditure, the estimation of which reached 100,411,479 drachmas in 1891, had quadrupled in the space of thirty years, the receipts had also increased proportionately, being set down in the budget at 96,451,462 drachmas. As for the 1892 budget as rectified by the new Government, it io6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE balances with 103,550,792 receipts, and 99,986,128 expenditure. A glance at the estimates for the years 1881 to 1 89 1 shows that, excepting the two mobilization years (1885 and 1886), the anticipated deficit was almost nothing; in 1887, 1888, 1889, and 1890 it disappears completely, and only reappears in 1891 within very modest limits. If Greece had not had during this period to undergo many consider- able expenses, occasioned by the acquisition of the new provinces, and the mobilization charges, investments indispensable to her material develop- ment, and also by the conversion of weighty loans of long-standing, in all probability her yearly ac- counts would have balanced steadily. It is true, and we shall be verifying it immediately, that until now the receipts realized at the end of a year were always inferior to the estimates ; but, as a compensation, the ordinary realized expenditure also remains much below the credit granted. The reader will be able to see in the tables which we are about to submit to him that this assertion applies more or less to each financial year. As for the deficiency of receipts, it arises from a defect of budgetary legislation. In Greece the budget sets down the estimated receipts, the receipts verified as due from the tax-payers, and, finally, the receipts actually realized. Now, the estimates of a year's receipts are based, not on the payment of the preceding year, but on the FINANCE 107 verifications. It is incontestable, in theory, that budgetary estimates should rest on the amounts the maturity of which is legally proved ; for this is the only legal basis of a budget. But since there is always a considerable difference between estimate and collection, an organic deficit is the result. This difference varies with political and economic circumstances ; but it is always con- siderable enough to justify the conclusion that it constitutes the greatest evil of the Hellenic budget. By means of the following tables, the reader will be able to judge of the Greek budget as a whole and in detail. But since the returns of the years before 1883 are not within our reach, we content ourselves necessarily with analyzing the budgets since 1883. We do not believe that this lacuna can throw doubt on the usefulness of this work. The years before 1882 belong to an epoch of which the books are closed for ever. The life of modern Greece begins with the last decade. Besides, one can always present a return in abstract for the preceding epoch. Up to 1875 the budget was small, the needs of the country were limited, and consequently the eventual deficits, too, were modest. From 1861 to 1876 Greece borrowed 80 millions. Taking into con- sideration the onerous conditions on which she had to borrow at that time, you can easily imagine what was the sum total of the deficits covered by the proceeds of these loans. The years following io8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE occasioned great military expenditure. According to the calculations of M. Simopoulos, Minister of Justice at the time, an able judge of Greek finance — calculations based on official documents — the deficit of 1877 was 20,549,515 drachmas ; in 1878, beyond the ordinary receipts, 27,579,047 drachmas were spent on army and navy requirements ; in 1879, 2,360,847 drachmas. In the two following years extraordinary expenditure assumed a dis- quieting development, since the combined deficit of 1880 and 1 88 1 reached 90,180,298 drachmas. Lastly, in 1882 the yearly balance showed a deficit of 5,118,000 drachmas. Since then the budget has developed as follows : Ordinary Receipts. Extraordinary Receipts. Estimated. Realized. Drachmas. Drachmas. Drachmas. 1883 72,133,610 58,537,556 — 1884 86,122,950 60,744,637 46,675,000 1885 74,006,586 59,374,676 2,052,358 1886 88.324,068 62,151,128 33,416,838 1887 94,656,907 82,849,805 93,360,420 1888 95,3°6>23i 89,551,394 4,119,822 1889 96,449.453 83,371,591 99,3°°,373 1890 93>S43.36S 79,824,101 43,223,529 1891 (pro- 1 visional) / 96,541,462 88,013,404 12,900,000 Thetc tal receipts are then : Drachmas. 1883 ■■■ 58,537.556 1884 ... 107,419 ,638 1885 ... 131,427 034 1886 ■■■ 95,567 ,967 1887 176,210 216 FINANCE 109 Drachmas. 1888 ... 93,671,21 7 1889 ... ... 183,031,964 1890 123,047,63 1891 ... 100,913,404 The expenditure- list shows the following figures : Estimated Supplementary Total. Actual Expenditure. Credits. Expenditure. Drachmas. Drachmas. Drachmas. Drachmas. 1883.. ■ 72.236,648 6,961,002 79,002,363 67,795,868 1884.. • 85,814,598 19,204,242 105,487,600 91,346,783 1885.. • 85,497,005 43.S50.812 132,197,167 122,797,767 1886.. 89,074,634 80,433,294 169,541-759 129.717.525 1887.. 94,269,188 28,279,950 t22,55i,374 107,128,253 1888.. • 92.677,585 28,984,703 '21,983,398 108,050,858 1889.. 95,974,420 90.523.744 86,499,665 168,739,262 1890.. 91,258,840 67.385,253 '59.869,765 141,360,752 1891.. ioo,4t 1,479 5,444,606 105,856,085 110,163,618 The balance-sheets of these years are then : Receipts. Expenditure Surplus. Deficit. Drachmas. Drachmas. Drachmas. Drachmas. 1883.. 58,537,556 67,795,868 — 9,258,312 1884.. 107.419.638 91.346.783 16,072,858 — 1885.. 61,427,034 122,797,767 — 61.370,733 1886.. 91.567,967 129.717.525 — 34,149,558 1887.. 176,210,226 107,228,253 69,081,973 — 1888.. 93,671,217 108,050,858 — 14.379.641 1889.. 183,031,964 168,739,262 14,292,702 — 1890.. 123,047,630 141.360,752 — 18,313,122 1891.. 100,913,404 110,163,618 — 9,250,214 As is seen in the preceding tables, the Greek account-office distinctly specifies the ordinary and extraordinary receipts, but does not divide the expenditures. So in the returns we see on one side budgetary and supplementary credits, and on no GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the other the total of actual expenditure. Now, it is indispensable to know what part of this total corresponds to the estimates ; for it is only the comparison of this part of the expenditure to the ordinary realized receipts that can give the true balance of the budget — that is to say, show whether there is surplus or deficit. To judge of the daily economy of the State, we must know the ordinary receipts and expenditure at the end of each financial year. The total of receipts compared to the total of expenditure proves nothing. All the extraordinary receipts accruing from loans, etc., are comprised in these totals ; the expenditure, on its side, comprises the con- versions that are operated, and all extraordinary expenditure. To arrive at this indispensable dis- tinction, we must run through all the expenditures of these years, and eliminate everything which from its nature ought not to be classed among regular expenses. Here is such an analysis : 1883. — As this year had no extraordinary receipts or expenditure, the whole of the deficit — 9,258,312 — falls on the ordinary administration. 1884. — Ordinary receipts realized, 60,744,637 ; total expenditure, 91,346,783. Of this amount 8 millions in round numbers were employed in extraordinary expenditure for the army and navy. The ordinary deficit of the year is then 22-6 millions, and the extraordinary 8 millions. 1885. — Ordinary receipts, 59,374,667 ; total ex- FINANCE penditure, 122,797,767. This is the year of the mobilization. Of 43,550,000 voted as extra- ordinary credits, 35,700,000 were disbursed for the requirements of the Ministries of Marine and War. All this expenditure had an extraordinary character. Not finding any other extraordinary expenditure, we deduct these 35,700,000 from the total expenditure, and find that the ordinary ex- penditure was 8yi millions, which presents, in comparison with the ordinary receipts, a regular deficit of 28 millions, and an extraordinary one of 357 millions in round numbers. 1886. — Ordinary receipts realized, 62,151,128; total expenditure, 129,717,525. This year again bears the stamp of militarism. All the extra- ordinary expenditure, of which we could verify altogether 39,200,000 (32 millions for the army, and 3,167,000 for the navy), results from the mobilization. Deducting this amount from the total expenditure, there remain 90,517,000, a comparison of which with the ordinary receipts leaves an ordinary deficit of 28,366,000. It is to be remarked that M. Simopoulos in his calcula- tions arrives almost at the same results. Accord- ing to him, the deficits of 1885 are 26,685,772 and 36,737,000; those of 1886, 28,145,000 and 39,420,000. This divergence, which, however, does not at all affect the final result, is due to a different appreciation of certain expenditure. 1887. — Receipts realized, 82,849,805; total 112 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE expenditure, 107,128,263. Of this total we deduct (i) 15,891,138, employed in the conversion of former loans (of 25, 4, and 6 millions) ; (2) 5,683,168, paid for the building of the three ironclads, Hydra, Psara, and Spetzai; (3) 225,000, for other naval expenses ; (4) 782,000, for extra- ordinary military expenses; (5) 2,417,000, for railways. Total deductions, 24,998,000 ; remainder of expenditure, 82,130,000. Compared with the ordinary realized receipts, there is then a regular surplus of 719,000 drachmas. 1888. — Ordinary realized receipts, 89,551,394; total expenditure, 108,050,858, in which we find (i) 1,571,000 for railways; (2) 9,955,000 for ship - building ; (3) 122,300, expenses on the occasion of the King's anniversary ; in all, 11,638,300 drachmas extraordinary expenditure. The ordinary expenditure was then 96,412,000, and the ordinary deficit 6,861,000. 1889. — Ordinary receipts realized, 83,731,591 ; total expenditure, 168,739,262. Of this sum we must deduct, (i) amortization of the loans of 6 and 10 millions, 8,382,000; (2) amortization of the loans of 26 and 60 millions, 57,966,000 ; (3) dowry of the late Princess Alexandra, 400,000 ; (4) subvention to the Cretan refugees, 400,000 ; (5) public works, 10,074,000 (of which 8 millions for railways) ; (6) 3,136,000 for the building of the three ironclads ; (7) public build- ings, 503,000 ; (8) settlement of debt due to the FINANCE 113 National Bank, 1,700,000; (9) Paris Exhibition, 250,000 — in all, 82,811,000 of extraordinary ex- penditure, which, being deducted from the total receipts, gives a total of 85,928,000 ordinary ex- penditure, i.e., a deficit of 2,197,000. M. Simo- poulos arrives at the same result. 1890. — Ordinary receipts realized, 79,824,101 ; total expenditure, 141,360,752. The statement of this financial year not being published yet, we can mention here only the undoubtedly extra- ordinary expenditure known to us. Here is most of it: (i) Peiraius-Larissa railway, 8,805,159; (2) intercalary interest on this loan, 1,148,000; (3) Myloi-Kalamai railway, 8,062,458 ; (4) in- terest on this loan, 1,440,000; (5) other railways, 4,237,911; (6) building of the three ironclads, 4,814,000 ; (7) subvention to the Cretan refugees, 1,320,000; (8) redemption of the rest of the old loan (1824-1825), 15,539,314; (9) palace of the Crown Prince, 149,700 — in all, 45,516,532. The year 1890 is, however, marked by a change of Government, with which, indeed, the shape of the budget had a good deal to do. The Govern- ment, which came victorious out of the elections of October 14, 1890, was not slow in remodelling the budget it found in force in a way little favour- able to their predecessors' administration. The then Opposition accused the new Ministry of having transferred a quantity of undoubtedly ex- traordinary credits to the ordinary budget in order 8 114 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE to make the deficit appear greater. We do not pretend to judge whether these accusations were or were not well founded, but at the same time it must be remembered that in the returns for 1890 many amounts come on to the budget of ordinary expenditure which can under no pre- text be characterized as such. We find there a sum of 4,228,743, representing half the yearly obligation on the loans of 170 and 135, which amount, belonging to a previous financial year, was placed, simply for account-office reasons, on the shoulders of 1890, the budget of which already contained the full yearly obligation of the two said loans. Likewise the charge for redemption is improperly set down for 754,335 drachmas. 800,000 drachmas of supplementary expenditure pertaining to the construction, transport and insur- ance of the three ironclads, were also placed in the ordinary budget. It is also contended that other extraordinary expenses figure in the total of the ordinary expenditure of this year. But not having the detailed statement in our hands, we shall confine ourselves to adding to the amount of extraordinary expenditure the foregoing three figures. Thus we arrive at a total of 51,299,610, which, deducted from the sum total of expendi- ture, gives 90,061,142 ordinary expenditure ; that is to say a deficit of 10,237,000 drachmas. 1891. — This financial year not being yet finished, we can only use the results known, going as far FINANCE lis as July 31, 1892. Ordinary receipts realized, 88,013,404; total expenditure, 110,163,618. Of these, extraordinary : railways, 18,851,653; other extraordinary expenditure, 551,863 — in all 19,403,497. This sum being deducted from the total expenditure there remains an ordinary ex- penditure of 90,760,121 drachmas, and a pro- visional deficit of 2,746,717 drachmas. The extraordinary deficit at the same date was 10,050,214 drachmas. From this analysis of the budgets of the last nine years, the reader will be able to draw several conclusions. He will see at first that the years in which a change of Government took place generally gave bad results ; in other words, de- ficits. In fact, the deficits in 1884, 1886, and 1890 are considerable, and greater than those of their preceding years. A ministerial change brings new elections, and each election period is an absolute loss to the Treasury, for the adminis- trative machine hardly works at all for two or three months. The change of personnel, too, entails expense of all kinds. It is undeniable, however, that, in spite of these interruptions, setting aside the great gap caused by the two war years, 1885 and 1886, the deficit always goes on getting less Above all, since 1887 it dis- appears almost entirely, and reappears only in 1890, a year of change of Government. In examining the subject of expenditure, we ii6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE are especially struck with the deficiency of collec- tion compared to estimate. However, what a difference is there not between 1883, when the deficiency was 14 out of 72 millions, and 1888, when 89*5 millions were recovered out of 95 millions estimated, or even the provisional collec- tion of 88 out of 96 millions in 1891 ! The dif- ference between estimate and receipt was in 1883 twenty, in 1884 twenty-three, in 1885 twenty-one, in 1886 thirty, in 1887 thirteen, in 1888 seven, in 1889 twelve, in 1890 sixteen per cent. ; 1891 shows a considerable improvement, which will appear still more plainly at the end of the financial year. The explanation of these deficiencies is easy. An increase of expenditure, and con- sequently of taxation, has been very quickly, even suddenly, made ; it has not kept pace with the economic development of the country. In order to meet the increase of expenditure, a quantity of new taxes were decreed ; increases of customs duties, octrois, taxes on consumption, came all at once. The Greek people, till then very lightly taxed, could not immediately accom- modate itself to the new demands, which forced it to work more. New administrative machinery, too, had to be created. But the sums which the State demands of the nation are not beyond its strength. The constant upward progression of the receipts proves it irrefutably. If with the present defective system they have been FINANCE 117 able to levy 89^ millions in 1888 and 88 millions in 1 89 1, it is obvious that with a serious reform of the administration they will be able to levy 95 millions and more. To believe that the arrears are caused by the inability to pay of the tax- payers, is to be ignorant of the economic capacity of the country. Greece is undoubtedly approach- ing budgetary equilibrium. Contrarily to the receipts, the relation between estimated and realized expenditure is very favour- able ; the latter always remains below the estimates. In 1883 of 72,236,648 drachmas expenditure set down in the budget, only 67,795,868 was spent on ordinary requirements. In 1884 this ratio is 85,814,598 to 82,000,000 ; in 1885, 85,497,000 to 87,000,000; in 1886, 89,074,634 to 90,517,000; in 1887, 94,269,188 to 82,130,000; in 1888, 92,677,585 to 92,762,000; in 1889, 95,974,420 to 86,640,000; in 1890, 91,258,840 to 90,061,142 ; in 1891, 100,411,479 to 90,760, 121. Seven years, then, out of nine show a total of actual expendi- ture much (as far as 10 millions) below the estimates. These results may be taken as proof of conscientious administration ; in any case they offer considerable compensation for the deficiency of receipts. This inferiority of expenditure, com- pared with estimate, may also be admitted for future budgets, and then, with a more exact recovery of receipts, it will render the budgetary equilibrium more stable. ii8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Examining the revenue accounts chapter by chapter, we shall see that, with the exception of direct contributions, the means of financial administration yield just about the estimated results. Taking, for example, the financial year 1 89 1, the results of which are ascertained up to the end of July, 1892 (each 'year' begins on January i, and lasts twenty -two months, to October 31 of the following year), we find that the revenue comes under seven headings : (i) Taxes, (2) customs and octrois, (3) stamp duties and charges, (4) monopolies, (5) domanial revenue, (6) sale of public goods, (7) recovery of arrears. The results of the four first groups were : Taxes, estimated 2 2 "6 millions, recovered 1 7 '5 millions; customs and octrois, estimated 28'4 millions, recovered 27'6 millions ; stamp duties and charges, estimated i4'i millions, re- covered 1 3 '2 millions; monopolies, estimated 10 millions, recovered 97 millions. These figures may change by the end of the year, but not sensibly. Now, while the receipts from monopolies and customs corresponded almost entirely to the estimates, and the stamp-duties had a deficiency of a million only, the direct taxes produced 5 millions less than the estimates, or a deficiency of 22 per cent. This phenomenon recurs each year. We take, at random, the returns for 1887, a year, therefore, which gave a surplus, and we shall see that of 21,642,800 drachmas of indirect FINANCE 119 taxation set down in the budget, 17,177,788 drachmas were received. The adverse difference found at the end of the year must then be chiefly attributed to the poor incoming of the indirect taxes. Much has been said and written on the subject of this ever-open administrative sore, and many a remedy has been proposed ; but it will be seen that in this case it is much easier to advise than to reform. The arrears of taxation are, so to speak, an inextricable consequence of the political system of Greece and of all countries that live under the same conditions — as witness Servia. Without a radical change of system it will always be difficult, if not impossible, to over- come the difficulties which stand in the way of applying the assessment strictly. But such a complete change cannot be effected in one day, nor does it depend on the good-will of a Govern- ment. Waiting and preparing for its arrival, a conscientious Government can do nothing except approximate the estimate as much as possible to the last actual receipts. And this is what the present Government has done in the revised budget for 1892, sanctioned by the law of August 7. The estimated receipts which it gives are : Taxes 20-9 millions, customs and octrois 27-4 millions, stamps and duties 167 millions, monopolies 107 millions. In the 1891 budget taxes figured for 2 2'6 ; now, in spite of a 20 per cent, increase of the most important tax— on cattle— the new 120 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE budget sets down two millions less. The customs estimate corresponds exactly to the last year's receipts. The slight increase of revenue from monopolies corresponds to the increase of popula- tion and the constantly growing consumption of the monopolized articles. The only subject for wonder would be the three millions' increase of the stamp-duties, but it should be observed that in this increase there is comprised the new scholastic tax, of which the revenue is estimated at I "6 millions. A subject of some importance is still that concerning the recovery of arrears, estimated at 4'2 millions. Since in 1891 the receipts under this head were 3 '8 millions, and their average 3 '5 millions of late years, it may be admitted that with a little energy and good- will they will end in collecting the whole sum set down. The revenue budget contains other subjects beside the above - mentioned. The domanial revenue is set down at 3,330,000 drachmas, 1, 1 68,000 drachmas of which represent the revenue from forests. Considering the great extent of public land in Greece, and the large importation of forestal products which takes place, one cannot but be astonished at so insignificant a revenue. As to the other revenue subjects (highways, light- houses, elementary education), we excuse our- selves from going into their details, the more so as there are special budgets, the revenues of FINANCE which are previously deducted in a certain pro- portion from the general receipts. Expenditure. — The revised budget of 1892 anticipates a total expenditure of 99,986,128 drachmas, distributed as follows : Public debt, 33,516,566; pensions, 4,911,156; Civil List, 1,325,000; Foreign Office, 2,135,131; Justice, 4.833.533 ; Interior, 7,482,957 ; Public Worship, 4,888,088; War Office, 16,638,374; Admiralty, 6,445,653 ; Exchequer, 5.045,689 ; expenses of administration and collection, 8,139,463. The subject of public debt occupies the largest place in the budget of expenditure — exactly 33 per cent, of the whole. But since this ex- pense is set down at the nominal amount — that is to say, in drachmas, while nearly the whole (29 millions) is paid in gold — -we must take into account the monetary difference which, according to the rise of agio, swells the actual expenditure more or less considerably. An agio of 20 per cent, for example, increases the sum payable in gold — 29 millions — by a fifth, and results in the Government having to pay on this count 35 millions, provided that the Treasury is obliged to buy the whole of the yearly obligations on the home market. Up till now this eventuality has never presented itself. Either the State had to procure only a part of the yearly obligations in the country itself, or it found the whole amount necessarv abroad. The great secret of Greek GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE finance just consists in this : That their head, profiting by the multiple relations between Greece and other countries, knows how to operate the payment with the least possible loss from monetary difference. The 3 3 "5 millions of annual obligations from the public debt is analyzed as follows : Interest on the consolidated and amor- tizable loans 23,968,864 francs. Redemption 4,674,277 „ Interest on the floating debt : „ I per cent, bills (forced cur- rency) ... ... ... 700,000 drachmas. „ I per cent, bills (small bank- notes) ,, 5 per cent. Treasury bonds ,, different provisional loans Loan administration ... Monetary difference ... 140,000 „ 500,000 „ 732,000 francs. 150,000 „ 2,200,000 drachmas. In the 33,516,566 of the total annual obliga- tions, there are included 2 '2 millions estimated as monetary difference. The obligations properly so called are reduced to 31,316,566. Up to now the Government has not had to buy the current obligations and pay the difference ; it is possible, then, that at the end of the year this credit of 2,200,000 may remain available. We must notice, however, that the foregoing table does not contain the interests on the Peiraius-Ldrissa loans, which, during the construction of the line, must be taken FINANCE 123 from the capital of the loan itself, and are liquidated in virtue of a special credit. But within two or three years from now they will figure in the ordinary budget, so that the annual obliga- tions on the public debt are henceforward 36"5 millions. We do not need to say that of this total only 32 millions constitute the engagement of Greece to other countries — that is to say, the charge permanent and decreasing in proportion to the amortization, but which cannot be got rid of On the other hand, the yearly obligations on the floating debt may very well disappear from the budget the moment the finances shall have become healthy. The first consequence would probably be the abolition of the forced currency, with the double advantage of stopping the payment of interest on this head, and extinguishing all ex- penditure entailed by monetary difference. So we may firmly believe that, after serious financial reform, the annual obligations on the debt could be considerably reduced and unified. The fact that, of the 28'5 millions paid abroad, 4'6 millions represent the amortization charge offers another possibility of facilitating economic regeneration in Greece, either by arranging a temporary suspension of the amortization, or by operating a conversion of the amortization amount charged for interest with augmentation of capital. In any case, we 124 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE may say that if the annual obligation occupies to-day too large a place in the budget, it is in consequence of difficult circumstances, political changes, historic events, and forced currency, which have contributed to the indebtedness and monetary depreciation of the country ; but, at the same time, we ought also to recognise that after a period of political stability, of reflection and serious reform, aided by confidence abroad, all these disastrous factors will disappear, and then the burdens of Greece will be absolutely and relatively diminished. When we see that military expenditure is set down in the budget for i6'6 millions, we cannot but be astonished that Greece is continually being reproached with a penchant for armaments and military expenses. The war budget, as we see it to-day, reduced from the year before by nearly three millions, is relatively and absolutely smaller than the military budget of the other Balkan States. It represents a seventh, or more exactly 1 6 '6 per cent., of the total expenditure. It would, indeed, be difficult to find another State in Europe whose military expenditure occupies so small a place in its budget. To the possible objection that it is only quite recently that Greece has begun to limit its armaments, we shall reply by appending the credits set down in the budgets for military expenditure, and the actual expendi- ture : FINANCE I Military Expenditure voted. Actual. i883 i6-5 millions. i3'3 Tiillions. 1884 25-0 )» 22-5 11 1885 43-3 I) 40-9 ■» 1886 77'8 ») S2'0 ,, 1887 i9'o )j 15-8 )j 1888 t7-8 j» i6'o j> 1889 i8-o )? i6-2 j» 1890 18-4 )) 17-9 ') 1891 l8'2 )) 15-3 )» 125 Military expenditure remains, then, like almost all the other ordinary expenditure, below the estimate. Besides, no one could seriously deny that the indebtedness of Greece is due in part to her armaments and military operations. The building of the three ironclads was paid with part of the 135 million loan. This loan and others served to cover the large deficits of 1885 and 1886, occasioned solely by the expenses of mobilization. But Greece was dragged into this expenditure by circumstances altogether extra- ordinary, and she cannot be reproached with having embarrassed herself through jndgalomanie. It is only the war years which show an inflated budget. Greece alone amongst European States abstains from following the progress of military science ; her army contents itself with the rifle of large bore. Ever since the acquisition of the three ironclads, the question of their supple- mentary armament has been dragging on ; but 126 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE they do not solve it, for economic reasons. Everyone who has closely seen the Greek army, and who knows how many gaps all the corps contain, will understand that the peace state scarcely suffices, or rather does not suffice, for ordinary duty. Everywhere the authorities com- plain of powerlessness for want of a sufficient armed force. How, then, can one harmonize these real and obvious facts with the pretended desperate arming of Greece ? Foregone con- clusions are deeply rooted, and it is less trouble to hold them than to do, honour to the truth. Naval expenditure is set down in the budget for a sum of 6,400,000 drachmas, which fact gives the lie to another of the charges brought against Greece. A surpassingly maritime country, with a fleet of twenty-seven ships, of which three are big ironclads, must evidently observe very great economy to come off with the paltry sum of 6,400,000 drachmas. The Greek ships, in fact, hardly ever leave their own waters, their crews are at half-strength, and their drill takes place within the limits of the strictest necessity. Withal, the Greek navy pays, so to speak, its own ex- penses ; for it is indispensable to the surveillance of the coast and islands, without which smuggling would be openly practised. The other heads of expenditure need no com- ment ; the figures speak for themselves. One might find the spending of eight millions for the FINANCE 127 collection of taxes and financial administration excessive, and, in fact, some people assure me that serious savings might be effected on this head. But it is a fact that local conditions in Greece are very different from those of other countries. The people, restive with regard to tax-paying, need much surveillance. The islands are particularly costly in this respect, for there vigilance by sea is necessary as well as by land, and yet the good islanders boast that they pay hardly any customs. The sentiment of duties stateward has not yet sufficiently penetrated the people, an unfortunate state of affairs not unknown elsewhere ; accord- ingly the State has to have agents everywhere, or see part of its revenue slip away. Summing up, we draw from the foregoing analysis the conclusion that the 1892 budget shows considerable progress. To believe that the nominal surplus of three millions will be estab- lished at the end of the year would prove an excess of optimism. This budget will be applied to the last five months of the year only ; it has been remade in haste and under pressure of a sudden change of Government, and contains only a small portion of the reforms which make up the programme of the present Government. Never- theless, compared with its predecessor, it presents a much greater stability. As far as the totals go, the difference is not great ; there is equal ex- penditure, and a slight increase of revenue. But 128 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE in bringing j^ millions of savings into the budget, set off by almost as much inevitable expenditure, which would otherwise have produced a deficit, the Government has added to the sincerity of the budget. On the other side, it has better, that is to say, more sincerely, appraised the receipts, averted ulterior mistakes, and set off these nominal deficiencies by an increase of revenue amounting to 97 millions. Even though not believing in the thorough success of these fiscal measures, especially at the start, we will admit that their increased value, added to the more certain pay- ment of the revenue in general, offers better chances of relative equilibrium. The budget of 1893, now in preparation, will draw its inspiration from the same principles, which is all that one can ask and expect from Greece in the present circumstances. At the last moment there appears the 1893 budget, awaited so impatiently, since it must definitely decide the question whether Greece can or not, in the present circumstances, live on her own resources, and at the same time faith- fully fulfil her engagements. The sketch of the budget, and the commentary on it contained in the speech of the President of the Council, reply clearly and convincingly to this vital question. Greece wills to suffice from to-day for all her own wants ; as for her foreign engagements, she FINANCE 129 will provide for them by herself after some time, as soon as the foreigner shall have helped her to disengage herself from the disastrous con- sequences of the forced currency. The new budget presents a total revenue of 110,491,453 drachmas, with an expenditure of 104,491,453 drachmas. In the budget at present in force the revenue figures at 103,550,792 drachmas, and the expenditure at 99,986,128 drachmas. But in this total there are three millions of purely accidental revenue, so that we must only count in round numbers 100 millions of estimated revenue. The increase in the new budget is obtained by means of : The increase of certain import duties (1,200,000 drachmas), the increase of the stamp-duties (1,000,000 drachmas), the increase of the duty on the consumption of wine and alcohol (600,000 drachmas), the better administration of forests, the payment of postal taxes in gold, the imposition of tonnage-dues. The better administration of the duty on tobacco should yield two millions more. This estimate is not fictitious, for the quantity of tobacco subject to taxation has trebled in a few months, thanks to strict vigilance. Besides new taxes there is the natural increase of revenue. As for the expenditure, which seems to be increased by 4^ millions, I must observe that the total includes a credit of 8,500,000 meant to cover contingent loss through monetary difference. The present 9 130 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE budget contains a credit of 2,200,000 drachmas, with the same object. In this way the new budget has a more soHd basis, for it is just the monetary difference that occasioned a deficit every time the Treasury had to get gold at home. Without this credit the estimated expenditure comes to 95 milHons, and even then we must deduct from this figure the expenditure of two millions for future military police, which will be entirely refunded by the local governments. Moreover the diminution of the total expendi- ture follows also from the economies operated in connection with the new budget. These savings belong to nearly all departments, but they are especially considerable in the War Office estimate (1,000,000 drachmas). Public Works (3,000,000 drachmas), and Elementary Education (700,000 drachmas). We are assured, too, that the present budget is strictly sincere ; the estimated revenue is based on the average realized receipts of the last three years. Thus the budget totals present a nominal surplus of six millions. Even allowing for the same proportion of arrears as in recent years, say six or seven millions, the new budget will have a settled equilibrium. This budgetary stability, however, does not immediately do away with the yearly obligation of 31 millions in gold. To make sure of part of their requirements the Government will have the export-duties, lowered 20 per cent, paid in FINANCE 131 gold. In this way it will have about 7^ millions of gold at its disposal. The 8^ millions would suffice to cover the difference of the remainder. But the prolonged purchase of such considerable quantities of gold in the country could only aggravate the situation by raising the agio. The Government thinks that the principal cause of the agio is the quantity of paper-money in circula- tion, and believes that the moment it was reduced to the maximum of 50 francs a head, the agio would come down, and then the country could by itself furnish the capital for the service of the debt. Consequently the Government will con- tinue its efforts for the conclusion of an external loan, large enough for them to be able to with- draw 74 millions of forced currency ; that is to say, the proceeds realized by this loan would for two or three years have to meet the annual obli- gation, while equivalent sums would be succes- sively withdrawn from circulation. The service of this new loan would be served by the 8^ millions credit which would become available the moment the Treasury has to pay no monetary difference. [ 132 ] CHAPTER IX. THE PUBLIC DEBT. M. Beckmann continues : The beginnings of the Greek pubHc debt go back to the time of the War of Independence, before the constitution of the kingdom. On February 21, 1824, the Coundouriotis Government concluded a loan in London of ;^8oo,ooo, which though long disclaimed, was at last acknowledged and liquidated at 24,975,000 francs in 1878, and entirely re- deemed in 1890. Moreover, the treaty of May 7, 1832, by which Prince Otho, of Bavaria, was chosen King of Greece, granted a loan of 60,000,000 francs, guaranteed by the three pro- tecting powers. From that time to the sudden change in 1861 Greece borrowed nothing ; still, it is a fact that she fulfilled very irregularly the engagements of the guaranteed loan, of which the sum due was fixed in 1864 at 100,392,833 francs. The series of regular Greek loans begins in 1862 with a loan of 6 millions. Six years after THE PUBLIC DEBT 133 a loan of 25 millions was concluded. Then the intervals grew shorter — 1871, the loan of /\ millions; 1874, o^^e of 26 millions; 1876, one of 10 millions; 1879, one of 60 millions. Here we interrupt the enumeration of the operations of Greek credit, because the year 1880 separates the past from the new period, marked by the acquisition of the new provinces, by enormous social and political development, and by a new financial policy. Up to 1880, then, the external debt of Greece had reached the nominal amount of 256 millions. The loan of 120 millions issued in i»8i, which inaugurates the series of big loans, belongs by right to the preceding period, as it only served to cover the expenses of the mobilization in 1880. However, we enter it in the 1881 to 1884 period, because in point of fact it belongs there, because it still exists, and because this method seems to us indispensable to our object, which is to show the way the loans of the new era have been employed. Appended is a table of all the loans from 1880 to now : Loans since 1880. 1880 loan, 120 millions ... ,, „ 9 millions 1884 „ 170 millions (reduced] to 100) ... ... ... ...} 1885 loan, patriotic ,, ,, small bank-notes Nominal. Real. 120,000,000 74,000,000 9,000,000 9,000,000 100,000,000 63.353.759 30,000,000 2,709,168 18,000,000 18,000,000 134 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Loans since 1880 {continued). No77iinal. Real. 1885 loan forced currency 75,615,000 75,615,000 1887 pol les) 185 millions (mono-'j 135,000,000 90,990,000 1888 loan 15 millions ... 15,000,000 9,990,000 1889 _;^ 1,200,000 ... 30,000,000 20,437>S°° )j ;^5 ,000,000 ... 125,000,000 91,268,827 1890 Peiraius-Larissa 45,000,000 40,050,000 1891 )) 15,000,000 13,000,000 1892 internal (gold) [6,500,000 10,999,980 " highways Total 20,000,000 16,934,187 7.';4,2i5,ooo 539,448,421 From this total of 754,215,000 francs we deduct first the 75,615,000 francs loan for the forced currency, since we are not now dealing with the floating debt. The remainder, then, of 678,600,000 added to the total of the loans concluded before 1880, say 256,000,000 francs, tells us that Greece has since her political birth borrowed 934,600,000 francs. In the table of Greek debt, which will be found further on, it will be seen that the total of this debt to-day reaches 818,476,339 francs. Of this sum 130,192,519 francs constitute the floating debt ; consequently we will deal only with the remainder, 688,274,819 francs, total consolidated and redeemable debt, which, compared with the sum total of the engagements concluded by Greece, shows a diminution of 255,356,000 francs. To this diminution, the annual redemption, which THE PUBLIC DEBT 135 figures for a sum of 4,-%. millions in the budget, has largely contributed ; in this way 65 millions (in round numbers) of capital have been paid. There remains, nevertheless, a difference of 195 millions, which represents the relief given to the nominal total of the Hellenic debt by the different conversions and other operations. We can arrive at a like result, by enumerating the objects served by the loans, and justifying their employment. Only in following this method we cannot take into account the nominal amount of the loans, and must make out our statement on the base of their actual yield, for these loans have served practical ends as much as they have furnished the Government with real capital. The yield of the loans since 1880 was 539,448,421. Manifestly we include also the yield of the forced currency loan, and that quite rightly, since, the moment it is a question of justifying the employ- ment of extra- budgetary receipts, their origin is a matter of indifference. The proceeds of the 120,000,000 loan served with that of 60 millions to cover the deficits of years 1877 to 1881. In fact, at the beginning of the financial year 1882 the loan of 120 millions was already quite consumed. Its yield cannot enter into the returns of the loans concluded after 1881, and consequently we deduct it from the total of 539,448,421. There remain, then, 465,448,421 francs. 136 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Conversions and Redemptions. Francs. Conversion of the loans of 60 and 26 millions ... 57,966.000 „ „ 25, 4 and 6 millions 15,801,000 Redemption of 16,336,000 of the highways loan 16,336.000 Redemption of the obligations of the loan of 170 millions, with which the capital was reduced to 100 millions ... ... ... ... ... 56,375,000 Conversion of the remainder of the Independence loans 15,539,000 Conversion of the loans of 6 and 10 millions ... 8,564,000 Total ... ... 170,581,000 Railvi'Ays. For the Peiraius-Larissa Railway there were paid up to August 31, 1892 : Francs. Francs. For work done ... ... ... 15,071,607 „ expropriation ... 1,900,000 ,, intercalary interest (5 half- years) 5,648,000 23,619,607 For the redemption of the loan of ^950,480 for the Myloi-Kalamai Railway, and of ;^i48,78o for the Mesolonghi - Ayrinion Rai'»ay 28,114,000 Other railways (Diakofti-Kalavryta, and sub- ventions to the Peloponnesian and Thessalian Railways) 14,000,000 Total 65,733,607 Building of three ironclads ... 26,000,000 So far, we have a total of 236,714,000 francs, of which the employment was justifiable. None of these expenses could be classed with regular ex- THE PUBLIC DEBT 137 penditure. The employment of the loans, how- ever, did not stop there. Almost the whole system of roads at present existing in Greece would still be in its former rudimentary state if the loans had not procured for the State considerable sums, of which part had to cover the extraordinary ex- penditure on highways. But we think that road- making is an elementary duty of the State, and that consequently only the extraordinary expen- diture under this head can figure in the extra- ordinary budget. There is, however, another expenditure which must be deducted from the total yield of the loans before we can form a faithful idea of its employment — that is, the 67,604,582 francs spent in 1884 on the abolition of the forced currency of the notes of the National Bank and Ionian Bank. Since this sum was taken in full from the proceeds of the 170 millions loan with the object of lessen- ing the total debt, and since it was really paid, we must add it to the part of the loans employed in conversion and redemption. The fact that the forced currency was reintroduced in 1885 does not alter the question at all. The 75,615,000 of new debt contracted on this occasion are included in the sum total, the employment of which we wish to justify. Of the total loans, after deducting the pro- ceeds of the 1 20 millions loan — that is to say, 465,448,421 francs — there were spent : 138 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Francs. On conversion and redemption ... 170,681,000 On railways 65,733,000 On the ironclads 26,000,000 On abolishing the forced currency ... 67,604,582 Total employment ... 330,018,582 Total loans 465,448,421 Difference ... 135,4291839 These 135,429,839 francs represent the part of the loans employed in covering the deficits from 1882 to 1891. If we add these up, we find that their total comes to 202,496,000 drachmas (in round numbers as to the thousands). Analysis : Deficits. Surplus. Ordinary. Extraordinary. 883 ... 9,258,000 — — 884 ... 22,600,000 8,000,000 — 885 ... 28,000,000 35,700,000 — 886 ... 28,366,000 39,200,000 — 887 ... — — 719,000 888 ... 6,861,000 — — 889 ... 2,197,000 — — 890 ... 10,237,000 — — 891 ... 2,746,000 10,050,000 — Total ... 110,265,000 92,250,000 719,000 Viz., 203,215,000 - 719,000 = 202,496,000 It is striking that the total uncovered expen- diture is 202,496,000 drachmas, while the portion of the loans not otherwise employed, and which alone can have served to cover the deficits, is THE PUBLIC DEBT 139 only 135,429,000. There is thus a difference of 67,067,000 drachmas, which has to be explained. With this end in view, we will at first point out one of the peculiarities of the Hellenic budget — the administration of the highways. For this there is a special account, its revenue accruing from a first claim on the taxes. But the Treasury is bound to cover all the expenses of this depart- ment — that is to say, in so far as the special revenue is insufficient for highway requirements, the Treasury must make up the deficit. The general budget of the country contains, both as to revenue and expenditure, a highways account — that is to say, the receipts and the amounts spent on the highways accounts form part of the general budget. Now, since 1882 the receipts have been 42,434,533 drachmas, and the expenses 68,562,602 drachmas. This difference of 26,128,069 must be deducted from the total deficits, as it is evident that if we had taken into account in our analysis of the financial years these unforeseen investment expenses, we should have classed them with extra- ordinary expenditure. The deficit total, then, is 176,368,000, and the difference between it and the remainder of the loans available — 135,429,000 — is reduced to 40,939,000 drachmas. Since 1885 — the year when the forced currency was re-established — the issue affecting the State debt on this account has increased by 15,019,000 drachmas. For in our lis); of sums arising out of 140 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE loans, we have put the circulation of the forced currency down as 75,615,000 drachmas, while the State debt on this score was, on October 15, 90,634,054, that is to say, an increase ot 15 millions. Besides the forced currency, we ought to take into account the rest of the floating debt, composed as follows : Drachmas. Treasury bonds ... ... ... 10,285,730 Sundry provisional loans ... ... 17,198,733 Total ... ... 27,484,463 These 27,484,463 drachmas of further loans, added to the 15 millions obtained by the increase of the circulation of the forced currency, just make up for the difference of 40,939,000 drachmas. Accordingly the employment of the extraordinary revenue resulting from loans is justified. Schedule of the National Debt of Greece UP TO the latter half of 1892. — According to an official publication of the Ministry of Finance, the National Debt of Greece was, on October 15, 1892, compared as follows : Paper. Gold. Total. Amortizable loans . . 19,824,492 481,601,720 501,426,213 Amortizable loans ) (consolidated) j 31,848,606 — 31,848,606 Consolidated — 155.000,000 155,000,000 Floating debt (forced\ currency, provi- sional loans. Treasury bonds / 98,068,951 32,122,667 '30.192,519 Total . 1 [49.742.049 668,724,387 818,467,338 THE PUBLIC DEBT 141 In this total, the individual loans figure, in ac- cordance with the 1892 budget, for the following amounts : Paper. Consolidated residue of the 26 millions loan, 5 per cent., 1874 20,303,500 dr. Consolidated residue of the 10 millions loan, 5 per cent., 1876 886,250 „ Consolidated residue of the 9 millions loan, 5J per cent., i88t 8,900,000 „ Loan for highways, 5I per cent., 1878 ... 1,758,856 „ Gold. Consolidated loan, ;^i, 200,000, 4 per cent., 1889 ... ... ... ... ... 30,000,000 fr. Consolidated loan, ^^5, 000,000, 4 per cent., 1889 125,000,000 „ Amortizable loan of 120 millions, 5 per cent., 1880 106,055,000 „ Amortizable loan of 170 (100) millions, 5 per cent., 1884 92,473,500 „ Amortizable loan of 1 35 millions (monopolies), 4 per cent., 1887 133,410,000,, Amortizable loan of 15 millions, 4 per cent., 1887 14,855,000 „ Loan for Peiraius-Larissa Railway, 5 per cent., 1890 60,000,000 „ Interior loan (gold) of 16-5 millions, 4 per cent., 1892 16,305,000 „ Besides the following special loans : Loan from the three great powers, 1864 ... 73,202,720 fr. Debt to the late King Otho, 1868 2,433,442 dr. Patriotic loan, 1885 2,536,050 „ Floating Debt. Treasury bonds in circulation ... ... 10,285,730 „ 142 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Circulation of Forced Currency Notes, on the State's Account, October -h-, 1802. Gold. Notes of National Bank 70,994,240 dr. „ Ionian Bank 1,884,307 „ „ Epiro-Thessalian Bank 9°5.S73 » Debt on Smaller Bank-notes. National Bank ... ... ... ... 7,000,000 ,, Ionian Bank ... ... ... ... ... 3,500,000 „ Epiro-Thessalian Bank ... ... ... 3,500,000 „ Metallic Debt in Virtue of Forced Currency. Gold. National Bank ... ... ... ... 13,999,906 fr. Ionian Bank ... ... ... ... ... 2,010,028 ,, Epiro-Thessalian Bank ... ... ... 804,000 ,, *Provisional loan, 5,015,000 fr., 6 per cent. ... 5,815,000 fr. (Falling due Nov. 24, 1892.) „ ^60,000, 575 per cent. ... 1,500,000,, (Falling due Nov. 28, 1892.) ,, 700,000 fr., 6 per cent. ... 700,000 ,, (Falling due Jan. 7, 1893.) 703,733 fr-- 6 per cent. ... 7o3>733 » (Falling due Nov. 5, 1892.) „ ^64,720, 6 per cent. ... 1,615,000,, (Falling due March 7, 1893.) „ ^60,000, 5 per cent. ... 1,500,000,, (Falling due March 7, 1893.) !, ;^4o>°oo. 5 75 per cent. ... 1,000,000,, (Falling due April 10, 1893.) ,, ^64,000, 575 per cent. ... 1,600,000,, (Falling due April 19, 1893.) » ;^35, 00°. 575 per cent. ... 875,000,, (Falling due April 19, 1893.) Note. — The loans in the foregoing list marked with an asterisk are guaranteed by obligations of the unissued part of the Peiraius-Ldrissa loan. 143 ] CHAPTER X. THE FORCED CURRENCY. On this subject M. Beckmann says : Since 1877 Greece has not been free from de- preciation of its money. On June 20 of that year the forced currency of the notes of the National Bank and Ionian Bank was decreed — at first for a maximum of 47 millions for the National Bank, and 12 millions for the other. In 1884 the forced currency was revoked, an operation which cost the Treasury 67,604,000 francs, but which had no lasting results, as in 1885, owing to the require- ments of the mobilization, it was re-established, with this difference, however : That this time the notes of the Epiro-Thessalian Bank also obtained the same privilege. We must first explain the legal conditions under which forced currency exists in Greece. In normal times the National Bank can issue notes, of which the whole must be covered — as to a third by cash, as to a third by negotiable 144 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE drafts, and as to a third by State bonds. On establishing the forced currency, the State borrowed 14 millions in gold from the bank, obliged it to hold at the disposal of the State bills to the amount of 70,000,000 drachmas, and in return conferred on it the privilege of circulating on its own account 60 millions of forced currency. The amount of notes, then, circulating on the State's account represents its debt to the bank ; in fact, the State pays i per cent, on this circulation, and also I per cent, for the metallic debt of 14 millions. Accordingly the maximum circulation of the National Bank is 141 millions, to which one may add the 7 millions for small bank-notes (one and two drachmas) which are issued by the bank on the State's account, the latter also paying i per cent, on this amount. The conditions with the two other banks which have a forced currency are as follows : The Ionian Bank can have a maximum of 9 millions, two of them on the State's account ; the Epiro - Thessalian Bank maximum is 7 millions, of which one on the State's account. Each of these two banks has also 3 '5 millions of smaller notes. Consequently the maximum of forced currency possible in cir- culation is 156 millions in bank-notes, and 14 millions in small notes. Leaving on one side the comparatively in- significant circulation of the other two banks, we will deal first with the circulation of the national FORCED CURRENCY 145 institution. It is always below the legal maximum. Whereas the State often goes to the extreme limit with its right of drawing — the balance-sheet of August 31, 1892, shows on the State's account a circulation of 70,994,240 — the bank's circulation never reaches the 60 million maximum. At the same date it was 49,817,242. It is further note- worthy that the National Bank always has part of its circulation stored in its coffers. Many people, for mere safety's sake, deposit their capital in bank-notes with the bank itself without interest. Thus on August 31 the bank had 137 of its notes stored, an amount which we must deduct from the circulation. The circulation of the bank was on an average during the last five years from 38 to 40 millions. The total circulation of its notes on August 31 was thus 128,811,482 drachmas, adding to which the total of the two other banks, we get a circulation of 145 millions for Greece. This amount is not too large. Absolutely, it is 65 francs per head of the population. But you will see more clearly that there is nothing dis- quieting in this circulation when you call to mind that beside it there exists no means of circulation in the country. Gold is merchandise, and plays absolutely no part in internal transactions. Cheques are hardly known ; they are being introduced, but slowly. All payments are cash — that is to say, in notes, with forced currency. Far from looking for the causes of monetary difference in the 10 146 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE quantity of forced currency notes, one may record a very perceptible lack of money — that is to say, of the legal medium — in economic transactions ; and since the bank-note alone here plays this part, we are right in affirming that the circum- stances of the country imperiously demand a larger quantity of money. In asserting that we do not wish to advise the setting to work of the bank- note press. The experiment would be dangerous, and would probably lead to a terrible depreciation of Hellenic paper-money ; but still, we distinctly believe the reason of this depreciation would be the moral effect, and not the abundance of notes. It is undeniable that money — we speak always of paper-money— is very rare in Greece. This scarcity of money causes the rise of the rate of interest — 6 to 7 per cent, at the banks, and 10 to 12 in private affairs. We must seek elsewhere, then, for the causes of the monetary difference, which, after having for a short time reached 57 per cent., has remained for some months at about 40 per cent., which means that you must pay 140 drachmas to buy 100 francs. There is no need to explain the disastrous consequences of this depreciation on the State budget, on com- merce, and on the whole national revenue ; every reader understands and can imagine them. But whence comes this difference, and why is it so considerable ? The mere fact of the existence of the forced FORCED CURRENCY 147 currency must produce a monetary difference ; experience proves it, and logic makes it intelligible. Gold disappears, and a piece of paper remains in the country, a piece of paper which, from the mere reason that it has no right to be paid abroad, must undergo depreciation. But in Greece, in addition to this natural cause, there exist special reasons of which the effect is to increase the monetary difference. Greece exports more gold than she imports. The country, indeed, incon- testably possesses no reserve of monetized bullion, and even were it true that importation equalled exportation, a metal reserve would never be formed. In addition to that the afflux of gold occurs once a year at a certain period — that is to say, after the harvest — while importation goes on all the year round, by the agency of draughts on other countries. The gold coming into the country is moreover very quickly absorbed by speculation. It can be demonstrated this year that, in spite of the good currant harvest, which in a short time brought at least 40 millions into the country, the agio did not go down at all. These two factors — the lack of metallic reserve and the requirements of the import business — are always active ; they have existed in the same force ever since the introduction of the forced currency. If in spite of them the agio could keep for five years at a height of 20 or 25 per cent, at most, it is because the third cause, of which 148 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the influence is the most direct, did not then act. It has been elsewhere stated that out of 33-5 millions of yearly obligations from the debt, 29"5 are payable in gold. The whole of this sum goes abroad. Even if it were established that 130 millions of the Hellenic debt were found in Greek hands, one would have to admit that the whole amount of interest goes abroad, for the Greek bondholders discount their coupons abroad. To meet this difficulty the State can follow two courses : either buy the sum in metallic value on the home market, or get it abroad, while other- wise disposing of the budget credits thus liberated. From 1887 to 1891 the Governments did not find themselves under the necessity of buying the equivalent of the interest on the home market. The different loans, concluded during this period, placed the necessary amounts at the disposal of the Government. It would have been extremely maladroit not to profit by these combinations which permitted the Government to fulfil the engagements of the State with an expenditure equal to the bills falling due, and, if it had per- sisted in collecting the amount of the yearly obli- gation in the country, by paying the monetary difference and the cost of transfer, without counting the serious disturbances which this proceeding would have caused in the money market. If the loans had been concluded with the sole object of facilitating the payment of the interest (Greece FORCED CURRENCY 149 has often been reproached with making new loans to pay the interest of old ones), this system would be at the same time detestable and ruinous. But since these loans would have had to be concluded anyway — in the chapter on the public debt will be found a detailed statement of their origin and employment — the country was for five years spared the unfortunate consequences of the forced currency by profiting by the facility offered by these credits which Greece had abroad. Since then events have furnished the proof, that without these combinations the situation to-day as to the height of agio would long since have been established. The movement of the agio demon- strates it with almost mathematical precision. In 1887 and 1888 the agio remained at 128 and 126 respectively. It fell considerably during the two following years, 1889 and 1890, of which the average was 122. These were the years of the greatest abundance of gold, coming from the loans of £\-2 millions and 5 millions, and the Peiraius-Larissa loan. The change of Govern- ment in October, 1890, raised the agio to 127. It was, however, able to stop at this point, with slight variations during all the first half of 1891, as the Government had no need to buy the first six months' obligations. It was only in the second half of this year, when the Government commissioned certain banks to collect gold on its account, that the market felt the effects of it. ISO GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE The rise was slight at first, but from the moment the conduct of the Government was known, specu- lation interfered in it, and the agio rose to 140 and more. Since then it has come below this average for a few days only. Under the pro- visional Constantopoulos Ministry the rise even continued; the napoleon cost 31 "20 drachmas, which corresponds to an agio of 57 per cent. But the result of the elections of May -{^^ brought some improvement, and since then the rate has been at 140, though always with a slight upward tendency. We must observe, too, that the internal loan of 16,500,000 concluded by the Constantopoulos Ministry furnished almost the whole of the first half year's interest. The Government has got very little gold, then, on the market, and since in spite of this circum- stance the monetary difference is maintained, we must infer that an agio of about 40 per cent, corresponds to the actual circumstances of the country. The question of forced currency is of vital importance to Greece. No other economic question has interested people so powerfully, or roused so many discussions. On this subject the most opposite theories have been expressed, and some have even gone so far as to pretend that the monetary difference has not any physical cause. And yet one and one only origin must be attri- buted to it — the lack of a metallic reserve in the FORCED CURRENCY 151 country. There is undoubtedly a considerable quantity of precious metals, and even of gold coin, in Greece, but all these sums are of no account as circulation, seeing that they form the hoardings of a certain class of the population and never leave the old stockings or mattresses in which they are hidden. The higher gold rises in value, the more carefully its owners keep it. The small metallic fund of the banks cannot act as a counterpoise to the centrifugal tendency of gold. Besides, the nature of Greek commercial activity tends to strip her of gold. The sum total of her exports and other resources may, expressed in money, equal her imports ; but it does not come to the same economic result. The imports — articles of consumption and manufacture — are paid for by the whole population, while the exports — products of the soil — profit certain classes only. Is it not remarkable that the essentially agricultural countries — Russia, Austria, Hungary, and partially the United States — have had to undergo the extreme consequences of forced currency, and can free themselves only in pro- portion as their industries develop ? And can it be insignificant that the two richest countries as to metallic reserve, France and England, owe their wealth to trade and manufactures? It is because trade fosters the industry of the country, while the exportation of agricultural products con- tributes very little to the distribution of property. 152 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE This is not, of course, the primary cause of monetary difference, but from the moment forced currency exists, the disproportion between economic value of import and export increases it. However, the chief reason, the reason which acts direcriy, is the requirements of the Exchequer for the interest on the debt. Let us picture the situation of Greece in this respect. Gold, there is none, except a few millions belonging to the banks. This reserve, once consumed, would be renewed with difficulty. What there might have been over and above this well-guarded reserve has long since left the country ; in fact, you can come upon Greek money anywhere except in Greece. The exports leave no surplus. From whence, then, take the 30 millions which the State has to export every year ? At all events the necessity of looking for them on the home market increases the demand. Objection will, perhaps, be made that there is not generally, for the matter of that, a real export of metal since the payment is made by draft. But that does not prevent the buyer, as he has no hard cash to offer, from having to accept the conditions of those who sell him their credit. The natural conclusion from all these reflections would be that Greece ought, even at the price of great sacrifices, to re-establish her metallic circula- tion. This operation was made in 1884, but with mediocre success. The agio did not disappear. FORCED CURRENCY 153 and if it was not heavy, that is because the big external loan, with which the forced currency had been revoked, had introduced a lot of money into the country. In 1885 the forced currency was re-established ; to meet military necessities, it is true, but no one doubts that this necessity would have arisen all the same, though perhaps rather later. The situation to-day proves it. Let us examine the practical consequences which the withdrawal of the forced currency by an external loan would entail at this moment. A hundred millions would be quite enough, as it would be a condition of the withdrawal that the State should pay the National Bank its metallic debt, 14 millions, and withdraw all the notes in circulation on its account, at present 71 millions. The analogous operation with the other banks would cost from 6 to 7 millions — a total, then, of 90 millions. As to the 14 millions of smaller notes, we think they might very well continue to circulate without a metallic fund under the double guarantee of the State and the bank. After this operation, then, the agio would disappear, and could not reappear as long as the bank continued to give cash for every note. But that is the very misgiving which first arises. This metallic fund of the bank may be indifferently in gold or silver. Would not an agio come on gold if the bank persisted in changing its notes into silver? Further, we fancy that the metallic fund of the 154 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE bank, fixed at a third of its circulation, is not enough for the large requirements of the country, and especially for the exports on the State s account. Accordingly it is to be feared that after a certain time the money which came into the country through the loan will be consumed, and then there will come quite naturally a premium on gold, and from that moment it will be im- possible to stay its flight. From that to the re-establishment of forced currency it is not far. Observe, too, that the loan for the removal of the forced currency would increase the debt, and consequently the interest — by from 5 to 6 millions — and that this interest would contribute to hasten a new calamity. Everything then leads us to believe that the sudden removal of the forced currency would be premature ; at any rate, it is well worth while avoiding the sacrifice of a hundred millions, if it is not certain to succeed. If Greece manages to establish real stable equilibrium in her budget, her credit will feel the effects of it. A considerable improvement in the value of Greek securities cannot remain without influence on monetary difference ; it will fall, for it is always found in inverse ratio to external credit. If, at the same time, the economic conditions of the country change ; if the production of the soil increases so that Greece produces herself all that she consumes ; if with the progress of science they get to increase the value of their exports ; FORCED CURRENCY 155 if, meanwhile, the country can create an industry which would in part suffice for its wants — then gold would be undoubtedly more abundant, or, rather, less in demand, and consequently the agio would fall. With the monetary difference come down to 15 per cent, for instance, the removal of the forced currency will be a much easier affair than at present, and will have — what is still more important — much better chances of permanent success. While waiting for this favourable moment to present itself, the Government might undoubtedly make use of some expedients, if only with the object of somewhat animating their languishing commerce. There has been talk of an external loan of 40 or 45 millions, and pay- ment by its means to the banks — in the first place to the National Bank — of the metallic debt of the State due to them. That done, the National Bank would dispose of a metallic fund of at least 25 millions, which would inevitably lower the agio for a considerable time, especially as it would enhance the foreign credit of the bank. This operation, of which the economic utility would be great even in case it did not last long, would have the advantage of not aggravating the State burden, as it is simply a question of borrowing abroad to pay the internal debt. As everything points to Greece having entered on a period of serious reform and retrenchment, we must believe that a preparatory operation of this kind, added to the iS6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE happy effects of a combination which would Hghten the charges for the making of the Peiraius- Ldrissa Railway, might bring much nearer the moment of the regeneration of Greece, which should be crowned by the withdrawal of the forced currency. In concluding this subject, it may perhaps be useful to examine how far the National Bank is prepared to resume cash-payment. On August 31, 1892, its metallic funds consisted of 7,974,647 francs, to which must be added 1,727,607 francs, bills at sight on the Treasury, and 1,161,337 francs, notes of other banks, which would have cash value as soon as the forced currency was withdrawn. It is one of the stipulations between the Government and the bank that the former, before removing the forced currency, withdraws all the circulation on its account, and pays the bank the whole of the metallic debt it owes it. This debt is twofold : the forced currency debt of 14 millions, and the provisional loans of 5,477,265 francs. From the moment of the with- drawal, the bank then would have 27,451,939 francs in cash, and 1,161,337 francs in the notes of other institutions in its coffers. In conformity with its charter, this fund would be sufficient to guarantee a circulation of 84 millions ; the nominal circulation of the bank was, however, at the same date 49,817,242 francs. This circulation, then, would be covered, at the moment of the re- FORCED CURRENCY 157 establishment of the metalHc circulation, by nearly 50 per cent. Probably this circulation would not suffice for the needs of the country, and the bank, sooner or later, would find itself obliged to in- crease it. But even in this case it would not find its resources exhausted, as, in order to reinforce its cash, it would only have to sell part of its stock of State obligations in gold ; of these it possesses 18,666,227. The moment after the removal of the forced currency, which would un- doubtedly have raised Greek prices, would be specially propitious for this operation. The bank can, after the removal, at any moment bring its metallic funds to 45 millions, which, according to its articles, is enough to guarantee a circulation of 130 millions, an amount sufficient for the needs of the country, especially as there would be along- side of it the metallic circulation. Whether a metallic fund of 33 per cent, offers the necessary guarantees for the stability of the value of its notes is another question. [ 158 ] CHAPTER XI. FINANCE (CONCLUDED). M. Beckmann's Deductions — The 1893 Estimates — Municipal Finance. M. Beckmann's deductions may be tabulated as follows : I. Though Greece has borrowed a large amount of money, she has something to show for it : Thessaly, many miles of roads, many miles of railways, a respectable little navy, and a very rapidly developing commerce. II. Her budgets have been gradually improving, and are now nearly in stable equilibrium. (i) The estimated revenue shows a greater correspondence with the amounts last collected. (2) The estimated expenditure is moulded as far as possible on the amounts collected. (3) Such economies as are possible are intro- duced in all departments, notably in that of the Minister for War. FINANCIAL CONCLUSIONS 159 (4) Greater stringency is observed in the collection of taxes. The Estimates for this year (1893) are as follows : Revenue. Drachmas. Drachinas. Indirect taxation ... . 22,110,634 Taxes on consumption . 36,003,000 Duties • i9.53«.9o7 Monopolies • 11,342,806 Income from public property 3,953.232 Sale of public property ... 2,976,674 Recovery from expenditure 1,551,000 Light dues ... 450,000 Telegraph ... 500,000 Elementary Education receipts .. 3,401,200 Police 1,800,000 Sundries • 5.558,000 Total ordinary revenue 109,185,453 Extraordinary receipts 306,000 Loan for highways 1,000,000 Total extraordinary revenue . . 1,306,000 Total revenue 110,491,453 EXPENDIT URE. Drachmas. Drachmas. Interest on national debt ... ■ 35.468,596* Subsidies ... 131,899 Pensions ... 4,893,000 Civil list 1,325,000 Parliamentary 504.258 Foreign Office 1,916,658 Ministry of Justice ■ 4.589,951 * Lepta are omitted under the separate heads, but included in the total. i6o GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Expenditure (continued). Drachmas. Drachmas. Ministry of Interior ... ... 8,904,758 „ Religion ... ... 6,924,104 War 14,364,230 Marine 5,034,254 „ Finance i,776,o7S Administration ... ... ... 8,105,011 Sundries ... ... ... ... 1,863,000 Total ordinary expenditure ... 95,800,797 Extraordinary expenditure for national debt pur- poses ... ... ... 8,690,656 Total expenditure .. ... 104,491,453 Municipal Finance. — The revenue of Athens was, in 1891, 2,219,323 drachmas, with an ex- penditure of 1,994,480 drachmas. Only about half of the income is provided by rates, so that the annual burden per head is only about 10 drachmas, the expenditure being just 20 drachmas per head. This is very small in comparison with the expenditure of other capitals : Milan... Berlin ... Bucharest Vienna Washington Paris . . . Brussels Munich Prague The total municipal indebtedness of Greece does not reach 20,000,000 drachmas. 30 francs. 44 )) 61 1) 67 )j 102 >» 122 j> 124 ») 153 » X85 >» [ i6i ] CHAPTER XII. PUBLIC ORDER. Justice' — Crime^Police — Prisons — Bankruptcy — Mendicancy. Justice. — In 1833 there were only three law- courts in Greece — at Argos, Thebes and Meso- longhi — and these were of criminal jurisdiction only. At present there is (beginning at the top) the Areopagos, or final Court of Appeal, consist- ing of a President (9,600 drachmas a year), Vice- president (7,800), and fifteen other judges (7,200). Next to these is the Court of Appeal, which has five courts, viz., at Athens, Nauplion, Patras, Kerkyra and Larissa. There are forty-nine judges of appeal, with salaries of 4,800 drachmas a year (presidents 6,000). There are twenty-two Civil Courts of First Instance, viz., at Athens, Syros, Chalkis, Lamia, Amphissa, Nauplion, Tripolis, Kalamai, Sparta, Kyparissia, Patras, Mesolonghi, Pyrgos, Zakynthos, Leukas, Kerkyra, Keph- allenia, Arta, Ldrissa, Trikkala, Volo and Kar- ditsa. The judges number 158, with 2,400 II i62 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE drachmas a year each (presidents 3,600). Lastly there are the County Courts, with 226 magistrates, paid at from 2,160 to 1,200 drachmas a year. M. Antonios Ronteres, in an article on the Greek Law Courts in the 1892 ' Panhellenic Companion,' says, ' It is certainly believed that we are the most litigious people in the world.' He gives the total number of cases for 1890 as Areopagos, 402 ; Courts of Appeal, 4,588 ; Courts of First Instance, 34,831 ; County Courts, 155,708. He contends, and I think most people will be inclined to agree with him, that while in an old-established country litigiousness may imply an unpleasant ethical state, in a land only set free a score or two of years from a semi-anarchic tyranny, and having only within the last few years emerged from the unrest and insecurity consequent on centuries of slavery, litigiousness is itself a happy proof that the people understand that it is better not to take the law into their own hands, and have learnt the difficult lesson that the State is strong enough to punish those who will not so understand. It is even more than this ; it goes a long way towards proving that the State is strong enough to punish those who disregard its authority. M. Ronteres goes so far as to say ' The policecourt is the principal agent of civilization in our country,' and if these two statements are read together, and assented to, we must admit that the civilization of Greece should be proceeding at a great pace. PUBLIC ORDER 163 The decided cases have been as follows : Civil. 1887. 1888. i88g. i8go. Areopagos 353 293 213 238 Courts of Appeal ... 4,879 5.°72 .i.736 4,588 „ First Instance 43.824 41,039 •r^,74o 34,831 County Courts 128,212 145,892 155,708 132,048 Total 177,268 192,296 Criminal. 202,397 171,705 1887. 1888. i88g. i8go. Areopagos ... 158 193 187 164 Courts of Appeal . . . 1,172 1,380 1,186 1,132 Police Courts 35,583 39,394 36,993 32,385 Inferior Police Courts 36,811 54,948 51,364 39,006 Total 74,724 95,915 89,730 73,687 It appears that in both civil and criminal matters a climax was reached in 1888, that is to say, that the new Themis had been worshipped with so much ardour that there could but come a time when her votaries would see that she preferred the law-abiding even to those who forsook the dagger for the law court. There are also commercial tribunals, on the French projection at Syros, Nauplion and Patras. Athens is the only town which has a separate Inferior Police Court. In all other cases the civil judges sit also in Crown cases. In spite of this the number of judges appears to English eyes comically excessive, but yet the whole 440 only 1 64 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE cost about ^120,000 a year, or less than twenty- two of our judges (one- twentieth of the number) cost us. For my part I am inclined to think the number might be considerably reduced, and the salaries slightly increased. At the same time, we must not forget that in the Ionian Islands we were unable to do with numerically weak benches. Even as it is, disciplinary measures had to be adopted to thirty-six County Court judges, and two judges of First Instance in 1888, to fourteen County Court judges and two judges of First Instance in 1889, and to thirty-two County Court judges and three judges of First Instance in 1890. This means 14 per cent, of the Court of First Instance, and 5 1 per cent, of the County Court judges, removed, fined or reprimanded in three years ! Even this is rather a hopeful sign, for a few years ago they would have had to be very naughty judges, indeed, before any official notice was taken of them. A little more severity, a little more certainty of severity, and a decently pure judiciary may be found. And this will have a very great effect on the cause of law and order in Greece, although its first result may be an apparent in- crease of litigiousness. The Athenian Bar may be roughly divided into three ranks : A few, who can be counted on one's fingers, make from 36,000 to 48,000 drachmas (^1,200 to .1^1,600) a year ; the middle division earn from 6,000 to 12,000 drachmas (^200 to ^400) a year ; the rest, who form the PUBLIC ORDER i6s great majority, have practices confined to County Courts and police courts, and struggle after a dollar a day. The provincial barristers are usually of this last kind, although in the chief centres a few gain 6,000 to 12,000 drachmas a year. Although justice is still somewhat uncertain, it is neither noticeably nor incurably so, nor is it as dilatory as is commonly supposed, and a foreigner is quite sure of not being unfairly dealt with, at any rate if he is on the spot, which is more than can be said of some bigger countries, which pretend to possess a civilization on an altogether higher plane. Crime. — ^This is the section of Greek con- temporary life which is most likely to depress the Philhellene. The figures speak for themselves only too well : Murder and manslaughter .. Wounding Rape, etc. Robbery Theft Fraud Forgery Coining Perjury Arson Various attempted Total 1888. i8go. 2,344 2,301 i 802 869 255 212 472 442 201 186 665- 586 20 22 30 38 8 8 16 18 30 15 240 igo ■ 4,883 4,880 I have but imperfect figures for 1889, for which i66 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE year an enormous reduction of crime is claimed ; there can be no doubt that there really was much less crime than in 1888 or 1890. In the latter year 2 per cent, of the condemned were of superior education ; 60 per cent, were more or less educated, and 38 per cent, illiterate ; 66 per cent, were un- married ; only 51 were females. In 1889 49 per cent, were illiterate, and 51 per cent, not so, while 62, per cent, were unmarried. The classes chiefly involved were farmers, 2,952 ; shepherds and swine-herds, 495; of independent means, 199; labourers, 127 ; car-drivers and cab-drivers, 95 ; shoemakers, 92 ; business men, 91 ; soldiers, 85 ; sailors, 81 ; butchers, 58 ; iron- workers, 56 ; civil servants, 53 ; tailors, 51 ; coffee-shopkeepers, 44 ; servants (male), 43 ; general dealers, 40. The influence of weather on Greek criminality is very striking : iSgi. Murders. '„ / Robberies. 461 9 47 7 67 1 II 100 1 9 102 3 132 4 156 7 180—) 6 149 / 6 97/ 7 Not only the first, second, and fifth columns show a great increase in the hot weather, but even January ■ 37 February •• 33 March .. 47 April ... •• 45 May ... •• 43 \ June ... - 54 \ July ... . .. 73 \ August .. 76- September .. 64 / October ■• 48/ PUBLIC ORDER 167 thefts, which can only be partially explained by the greater opportunities then offered. The actual murders (not including man- slaughters) and attempted murders in 1889 are thus geographically distributed : Murders Attempted Murders. Total. I to — of Population. Attika-Boiotia .. 50 174 224 1,15° Achaia-Elis .. 49 64 i'3 1,864 Zakynthos... 10 9 19 2,319 Arkadia , . . 16 42 58 2,SS6 Phthiotis-Phokis 27 24 SI 2,676 Messenia ... ■• 34 34 68 2,694 Akarnania-Aitolia ■■ 30 21 51 3.176 Euboia 12 18 30 3.448 Argolis-Korinth - 15 23 38 3.811 Arta 2 6 8 4,111 Lakonia . , . .. i6 14 3° 4,202 Kephallenia 7 12 19 4,219 Kyklades ... 10 13 23 S.717 Trikkala ... 16 9 25 S.72S Larissa •• IS 8 23 7.3°8 Kerkyra . . . 7 2 9 12,726 It is rather a bad sign that Attika should be the most murdersome province in Greece ; under the very eyes of the Government, at the very head- quarters of the police, not to speak of the centre of education and learning, there ought to be less difficulty than elsewhere in getting the peace decently kept. Nor is Athens a populous enough city to afford a set-off on the score of police difficulties. The secret of all this crime will be shown somewhat in the next table : 1 68 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Condemned to death 23 \y penal servitude for life 255 u 3J years 1,476 )j imprisonment with hard labour . . . 1,489 )) gaol ... 1.637 This is for 1890. There were 2,301 homicides (from murder downwards), and twenty - three prisoners were condemned to death — i per cent ! There is, however, a more hopeful side : Convicted for the first time 4,486 J, )) second time ... 266 ,, jj third time 5° J) ,) fourth time 14 ), n fifth, etc., time 13 1 89 1 was a still worse year than 1890. At the time of the general election in Greece last year the Tricoupists scored considerably by instilling into the public mind and imagination the lesson of the criminal statistics under the rival leaders. This is one of the tables used. It is compiled from the figures published in the ' Ephemeris ' : 1889 i8gi {M. Tricoupes, (M. Deleyannes, Prime Minister). Prime Minister). Murders ... ... 316 821 Attempts to murder... 473 i)925 Mysterious deaths ... 24 96 Rapes, etc. ... ... 51 197 Thefts 513 1,117 Robberies ... ... o 135 When M. Deleyannes fell there were in Lakonia alone {with a population of 126,000 souls) 1,247 & PUBLIC ORDER 169 fugitives from justice. His opponents asserted that a good deal of the support he was likely to get would be from those who ought to be in g-aol ; and there can be no doubt that the fear of losing popularity had made him very tender towards the criminal part of the population. Certainly the vote is at the bottom of the lawless- ness in Greece. However, after the release of the Gweedore folk perhaps an Englishman ought not to say much. An examination of the criminal statistics brings out the fact very prominently that crime in Greece is not caused by dishonesty, or by vice in any of its most unpleasant shapes. Quickness of temper is the cause of nearly all of it. Brigandage is dead ; it was buried with Mr. Vyner's murderers in 1870. A distinguished archseologist will never again be seen tied shirtless to a tree, sketching his similarly posed and unattired companion in misfortune, while the footpads in the background carry off their booty. Nor is there much thieving in Greece. It is true that among the country folk the distinction between meum and tuum is not well developed, but then it is nearly as vague on the meum side as on the tuum. There is a good deal of philoxenous and neighbourly socialism. The crimes of violence, which are the black spots on the fair fame of modern Greece, are largely due, as we have seen, to climate. There is a conversation over a business bargain. I70 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE on family matters, or what not ; there is a dis- agreement ; the blood of all concerned is at boiling-point ; knives are close at hand in their belts ; one strikes, not intending to kill, or intend- ing anything ; the other falls. When staying at Megalopolis for some six weeks, assisting at the excavation of the theatre, I had several oppor- tunities of finding out how it is done. The exclamation ' symploke !' (a row) was a very common one with us, and someone would go to the balcony to see what it was all about. But though the Greeks are quick-tempered, they are not ill-tempered. The old vendetta spirit once de rigetir in Maina, and very common in the Ionian Islands, is now almost extinct. Except in love-affairs, or occasionally as a sort of lynch-retribution for cattle stealing, there is very little premeditated murder. Unfortunately there is very little popular antipathy to homicide. Everyone is so smeared with the same pitch, through his relations and friends, that no one lends a helping hand to arrest a runaway man- slayer. Until manslaughter becomes either dangerous or ridiculous, it will not be checked. Both these cures ought to be tried. Just for one year every murderer ought to be put to death, and a crusade of satire should be carried on by the whole press against this particular crime. At the same time, the Holy Synod should make a combined effort to persuade the people of the PUBLIC ORDER 171 eternal danger of it ; and the schoolmasters should do everything In their power to show the young Hellenes not only the heinousness of killing a fellow-creature, but the ugliness and the absurdity of all displays of temper. If Greeks could only see the effect this yielding to the short madness of anger has on 'change, they would surely be patriotic enough to restrain themselves. Police. — Next to finance, this is the most difficult problem the Government has to solve. Of course, if they could manage the former, this would be much easier ; probably if they could successfully deal with this, it would considerably simplify the former. There can be no doubt that the country has, so far, been under - policed. Athens, with 120,000 inhabitants, has had to keep itself in order with only 200 policemen, or one to every 600 ; while London has one to every 200. The pay of the average constable is about ^18 a year at the present rate of exchange, so that, allowing for paucity of numbers and not too intense popular sympathy, ' a policeman's lot is not a happy one,' and the result is that 'con- stabulary duty ' often remains undone. The present Prime Minister is making a great effort to remedy this state of things, making use of military assistance. The Athens police force has been raised to nearly 400. Prisons. — There are four kinds of prison in Greece : 172 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE (i) Sophronisteria, large establishments (like our Portland) where the discipline is the most severe, at Athens (256), Aigina (326), Kerkyra (179), Kephallenia (139), and Zakynthos (243). (2) Prisons (like our county prisons) at Chalkis (120), Ithaka (46), Ldrissa (65), Nauplion (269), Pylos (314), Rhion (163), Trikkala and Zakynthos (179)- (3) Reformatory prisons (of a milder kind) at Athens (212), Amphissa, Arta (26), Kalamai (274), Karditsa (85), Kerkyra (73), Kyparissia (187), Lamia (221), Leukas (118), Mesolonghi (92), Patras, Pyrgos (no), Sparta (157), Syros (93), Tripolis (234), and Volo (67). (4) Lock-ups in all the towns. Life-sentences and other Jong terms are served in (i) and (2), hard labour equally in (i), (2), and (3), and simple imprisonment also in these three, but chiefly in (3). The Syngros is the best ; it is on the Auburn system, and can accommodate 300 prisoners, and has generally nearly this number. It is managed by seven officials and seventeen warders. Ninety per cent, of the prisoners are satisfactory in their conduct, and 81 per cent, in their work. The Greek prison system is faulty from two points of view — in the first place, their sanitary condition is, for the most part, bad, though probably not much worse than the homes from which the prisoners come ; and in the second PUBLIC ORDER 173 place, there is an almost alarming lack of discipline. When a prisoner tells a magistrate in England that he would rather go to prison than the work- house, he means rather to abuse the latter establishment than to flatter the former ; but the little terror that the idea of prison has for the average Greek is quite simply because prison-life is made so easy. Take, for instance, the social opportunities of life in the Palamidi (Nauplion) ; the prisoners have almost as many chances of con- versation — the luxury which every Greek enjoys above all others, especially when it verges on debate, as it is sure to do — as in their village caf6s, and the dramatic past of their fellow-talkers supplies a spice they could not get so generously at home. Then the necessary cigarette is not prohibited ; nor is the owning of a .peculiwn, to build up which he is allowed to offer to visitors the product of his forced industry. The idea of discipline is absolutely repugnant to the Greek character ;• so much so, that I almost believe that if there were no punishment in their prisons but mere confinement and a rigid iron enforcement of rules — no talking, no smoking, no money, regular exercise — they would find they had a much stronger deterrent than they have at present. So many people have had a little holiday under mild State supervision and at State expense, that there is practically no stigma attached to im- prisonment. The idea has not yet penetrated 174 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the Hellenic masses (you cannot, however, think of Greek ' masses ' like you can of English or French — partly, of course, from the absence of huge populations seen collectively ; but partly, I think, from the greater independence of the Greeks) that crime is an injury to the nation, to the very soul of Hellenism, and to every in- dividual Hellene. Bankruptcy. — The figures are rather alarm- ingly progressive ; at the same time, insolvency savours of modern civilization, and the recent increase may only mean a development of the speculative spirit. In 1880... ••• 157 In 1886 ... ... 263 „ 1882 ... ... 128 „ 1888 ... ... 423 „ 1884... ... 190 „ 1889... ... 516 In the last-named year 201 of the cases were at Athens, 1 1 3 at Patras, 50 at Syros, 3 1 at Nauplion, and 23 in the Parnassid. Mendicancy. — Although begging was pretty common fifty years ago, Greece is now freer from this proof of misery and degradation than any other country I know, England not excepted, and stands out brilliantly in contrast with her neigh- bour Italy. The pride and independence of character of the Greek, which sometimes do him an ill turn, here stand him in good stead, making his fatherland appear prosperous and contented, the latter of which it really is. [ 175 ] CHAPTER XIII. EDUCATION. Elementary — Secondary — The University — Cost — The Institu- tions subsidiary to the University — Female Education — Technical Instruction — Summary. A GREAT deal has been written on the general question of the educational zeal of Modern Greece. The scope of this chapter will simply be the collection of facts, with a few comments on them. The data up to 1877 are taken directly from Mr. Sergeant's ' New Greece,' for later years from the Panhellenic Companions, 1890 to 1893. Elementary. — Before 1820 there had been a few schools, but the revolution brought education to an abrupt halt. In 1830 there was practically no education going on. Kapodistria had right intentions, but did not accomplish much. In 1834 a training-school for teachers was established. In 1840 there were 252 elementary schools, 176 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE with 22,000 scholars, under Government control and dependent upon Government support, and private schools, with an additional 10,000 scholars, a total of 4 per cent, of the population. In 1855 there were 450 schools, with 35,273 scholars. In 1872 there were 73,219 scholars in public, and 7,978 in private, schools; total, 81,197, or 5^ per cent. In 1877 there were 74,561 scholars in public, and 10,650 in private, schools; total, 85,211, or still 5^ per cent. In 1889 there were public schools as follows : I. Mainland: Denies. Schools Boys, Girls. Teachers Attika-Boiotia . . 28 132 6,409 4,354 190 Phthiotis-Phokis.. 36 160 4,877 841 108 Aitolia-Akarnania 34 177 4,866 686 89 Larissa 38 201 5,611 2,000 13s Trikkala ■ 27 189 3,633 332 47 Arta 8 5° 1,373 120 13 Euboia ... 24 195 109 1,018 3,542 797 9,130 77 Total 30,301 659 //. Peloponnesos : Argolis-Korinth .. 32 163 7,086 2,011 133 Arkadia ... 33 181 6,938 878 130 Lakonia 28 IS4 6,700 349 105 Messenia 31 172 6,880 1,450 130 Achaia-Elis 30 212 7,466 1,374 139 Total 154 882 35,050 6,062 637 ///. Kyklades 39 127 6,173 2,588 144 EDUCATION 177 IV. Ionian Islands . Demes. Schools . Boys. Girls. Teachers. Kerkyra 22 117 3,354 567 lOI Kephallenia 20 93 2,751 459 75 Zakynthos 10 41 1,176 180 25 Total 52 251 8,281 1,206 201 Aggregate 440 2,278 78,815 18,986 1,641 This is nearly 5 per cent, of the population, but does not include private schools, which bring it up to rather over 6 per cent. The province which succeeds best in getting its children to school is the Kyklades ; next, Argolis-Korinth ; third, Lakonia ; while the three worst are Aitolia - Akarnania, Zakynthos, and Trikkala, which last gets less than 3 per cent, of its population to school. Achaia-Elis and Trikkala with 7, and Arta with 6'2, have the greatest number of schools per deme ; while Euboia with 4"5, Zakynthos with 4' I, and the Kyklades with 3 '2, have the least. In Attika-Boiotia there are 1-4 teachers per school, and in the Kyklades I'l ; while in Arta and Trikkala there are four schools to every teacher. In Attika-Boiotia 40 per cent, of the scholars are girls ; in the Kyklades, 28 per cent. ; in Ldrissa, 26 per cent. ; but in Arta and Trikkala only 8 per cent., and in Lakonia only 5 per cent. The elementary education of boys in Lakonia is thus quite the best in Greece. 12 178 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Before going further, it will be as well to mention that the general scheme of education, as at present applied in Greece, is founded almost entirely on that in force in France. Three years are spent in the deme schools, three in the Hellenic schools, four in the gymnasia, and four in the University. Beginning at the base, with which so far we have alone been dealing, we have the deme schools, of which we have seen that there are 2,278, or 57 to every deme, and just one to every two of the 4,575 villages, a splendid abun- dance. Secondary Education is given in Hellenic schools and gymnasia ; the latter resemble French lyc^es rather than our grammar-schools. Of the Hellenic schools, which are sometimes called grammar-schools, and come between the deme schools and the gymnasia, there were, in 1855, 80, with 4,224 scholars, and in 1875, 136, with 7,945 scholars. There are now : Schools. Scholars. Teachers. Mainland 120 7,548 — Peloponnesos 117 8,325 — Kyklades 28 1,312 — Ionian Islands ... 16 i>oS5 Total 281 18,240 538 Messenia, Lakonia, and Achaia-Elis are at the top; while Kephallenia, Trikkala, and Kerkyra are lowest. The two largest schools are those at Meligala (near Ithome) and Gytheion ; but there EDUCATION 179 are seven of these schools at Athens. Next higher come the gymnasia, of which the Var- vakeion may be taken as a type, though it is, in fact, the best of them. It has seven classes, with the following obligatory curriculum : (i) scientific — Greek, English, French, German, religion, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, physics, chemistry, and mineralogy ; (2) technical — writing, drawing, gymnastics, and drill. In the first 3 classes there are 33 hours' instruction a week ; in the 4th and 5th, 34 ; and in the 6th and 7th, 35. The first three classes correspond to the three classes of which the Hellenic schools (or grammar-schools) consist. There were : In 185s ... 7 968 „ 1875 ... 18 2,460 „ 1888 ... • 35 4.704 „ 1890 • 36 S.312 „ 1893 ... 41 ■ 7-r 1 • ] T\^ Gymnasia. Scholars. Teachers. 187 Attika-Boiotia, Achaia-Elis, and Messenia show the best figures. Compared with other countries, the provision for education of the lycde kind in Greece is : Lycees to Inhabitants. Lycee Scholars per 10,000 Inhabitants. Greece 53.347 27 France 40,000 26 Belgium 36,580 25 Italy 28,500 22 Roumania 100,000 15 United States ... ... i73.°oo II i8o GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE The only gymnasium head-master I have had the pleasure of conversing with, M. Kasimates of Dimitzana, was a man of culture and energy, an archaeologist of considerable research, and the very man to inspire the young men of a mountain fastness in Arcadia with a love of country that is not jingoism, and a love of learning that is not pedantry. Passing over for the present certain technical schools, we come to the University. The University was opened in 1837 with 28 professors, and in 1841 numbered 292 students — 167 in law (57 per cent), 53 in arts (18 per cent.), 52 in medicine (18 per cent.), and 20 in theology (7 per cent.). Sixty-nine of these students came from abroad, so also had a large proportion oif the money (a quarter of a million) subscribed up to that time, especially from Alexandria, the Ionian Islands, and Constantinople. In 18-55 there were 550 students. In the first reign of King George there were over 1,100. In 1872 there were : Natives. Foreign Greeks. Total. Per C Theology 20 6 26 2 Law ■- 556 66 622 50 Medicine 299 124 423 34 Arts 75 45 120 10 Pharmacy 45 8 S3 4 Total ... 995 249 1,244 It will be observed that more than half the foreign EDUCATION Greeks were medical students, a more auspicious fact than the 56 per cent, of native Greeks who were to graduate in law. In 1886 there were 36 students in theology (i per cent.), 1,281 in law (49 per cent.), 867 in medicine [T)?) V^^ cent), 410 in arts (15 per cent.), and 40 in pharmacy (2 per cent.), a total of 2,634. The year 1888-9, gives this analysis : Theology 24 Law ■•• 1,370 Medicine ... 797 Arts 519 Pharmacy 97 Total.,. ... 2,807 Total Students. Freshmen. 5 384 202 199 40 830 The percentages under each faculty since the foundation and now are : Since the Now on Fresh- Actual Foundation. the Roll. men. Numbers Theology ■■• 3 I I 401 Law ■ ■■ 43 49 46 6,433 Medicine ... 30 29 24 4,552 Arts 20 18 24 2,940 Pharmacy 4 3 5 56s In 1889-90 there were 3,331 students, 905 of these freshmen, and arts was rather more popular than medicine. Their provenance was : l82 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Freshmen. Total. Mainland ■ ■ 243 890 Peloponnesos 287 1,096 Ionian Islands •• 65 223 Kyklades 73 231 Epeiros and Alkania 46 157 Asia Minor Islands ... 34 154 Crete 34 152 Macedonia 23 145 Asia Minor ... 42 133 Thrace 10 52 Varna 2 24 Constantinople 13 21 Cyprus 3 13 Of the freshmen the Varvakeion suppHed 66, and the other Athenian gymnasia 144, Patras 72, Syros 43, the Peiraius 40, Chalkis 27, Nauplion 23, Pyrgos 21, Sparta 20. The Great School of the Race at Constantinople supplied 24, and the Evangelical School of Smyrna 15. In theology there are 5 professors and 7 lecturers, and the course lasts 4 years. In law there are 10 professors and 17 lecturers, and the course lasts 4 years. In medicine there are 16 professors and 33 lecturers, and the course lasts 4 years. In arts there are 22 professors and 16 lecturers, and the course lasts 4 years. The pharmacy school is annexed to that of medicine, and has no separate professors or lecturers, but the course lasts only 3 years. That which I have called the arts course the EDUCATION 183 Greeks themselves call philosophy ; it includes literature, archaeology, and natural science, as well as philosophy in the English academic sense. The programme of the lectures is too long to reproduce (11 pages), but a few lines from the art course may not be uninteresting : N. G. Polites — (i.) Greek mythology, Fridays ; (ii.) Archaeological exercises ; (iii.) Greek archae- ology, Tuesdays and Saturdays ; (iv.) Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, Wednesdays. K. Stephanos — (i.) Differential calculus, Mon- days, Thursdays, and Fridays; (ii. ) Integral calculus, Tuesdays and Saturdays. D. Ch. Semitelos — (i.) Greek metre; (ii.) College exercises. S. K. Sakellaropoulos — (i.) Roman philology from Augustus to the end of the Roman Empire in the West ; (ii.) Virgil's yEneid XI. K. A. Mylonas — (i.) History of the arts, and especially the plastic, among the Greeks ; (ii.) Practical demonstration on the site of the monu- ments preserved ; (iii.) Greek epigraphy and what it teaches of Athenian topography. P. Kavvadias — (i.) History of Greek art and sculpture ; (ii.) Demonstration in the central museum. G. Tserepes — ^Sanskrit grammar and translation. The University is organized on the German system. 1 84 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Cost. — The amount of money spent on educa- tion in Greece was 873,026 drachmas in 1846, 2,106,410 drachmas in 1876, and has increased enormously since. The demotic schools in 1890 cost the State (including the local governments) 2,727,627 drachmas, the pay of the 1,641 teachers being 1,911,640 drachmas, or about ^38 a head, in addition to which they had houses provided (or lodging allowances) of 304,040 drachmas, i.e., 165 drachmas, or about ;^5 los. each. The salaries of the gymnasium teachers vary from ^20 to ^200 a year, the great majority receiving from ^100 to ^120 a year. The teachers' salaries per scholar vary from 15 drachmas a year at Andritsaina to 266 drachmas a year at Arta, from 100 to 150 drachmas a year being the general amount. The amount spent by the State on the Uni- versity was in 1876 : Drachmas On the four Faculties ... ... 333,240 ,, Library ... 33,900 „ Observatory 14,220 „ Botanical Garden 7,760 „ Archseology ... 123,690 Total ... ... t;i2,8io The amount of the State subsidy has scarcely increased since 1876. EDUCATION 185 The Institutions subsidiary to the University- are : (i) The Observatory, built in 1842, at the expense of Baron Sina, of Vienna. The director, M. D. Aiginetes, has three assistants. (2) The Botanical Gardens, once the county- seat of a Turkish vaivode, has a German curator and a Scotch head-gardener, with a couple of under-gardeners. (3) Anatomical laboratory, with two professors and two assistants. (4) A chemical laboratory, with two professors and one assistant. (5) A pharmacy laboratory, with one professor and one assistant. (6) A toxicology laboratory, with two professors and one assistant. (7) The Municipal Hospital, with six professors and four assistants. (8) A clinical hospital, with two professors and three assistants. (9) An ophthalmic hospital, with two professors and an assistant. (10) A children's hospital. (11) A lying-in hospital, with one professor and two assistants. (12) A lock hospital, with one professor (the pre- sent Chancellor of the University) and one assistant. (13) A natural science museum, with three pro- fessors. i86 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE (14) A botanical museum, with a curator. (15) A pathological museum, with three pro- fessors. (16) An anthropological museum, with a curator. (17) The national library, with five curators and two assistants. It contains 170,648 books, and 1,312 manuscripts; in the reading-room all the principal scientific and literary reviews and magazines are to be found. The majority of the manuscripts were brought from the Dorikos and Meteora monasteries ; they are nearly all ecclesiastical. The most remarkable are two Gospels of the tenth and eleventh centuries, splendidly illuminated, and a small beautifully written manuscript which belonged to the Emperor Cantacuzene. There are also three golden bulls of the Andronici. The books are : Greek literature Latin „ Modern „ History ,, Geography Theology ... Law Medicine ... Physics Philology ... Miscellaneous Recent additions Volu7nes. 10,000 5,000 8,500 r 1,000 3,600 12,500 7,600 8,000 7,200 4,200 74,890 18,790 Female Education. — Ever since the noble work of Mr. and Mrs. Hill in the earliest days of EDUCATION 187 modern Greece a good deal of attention has been paid to the education of girls. In 1836 the Education Society was founded with this object, and with the generous help of M. Apostolos Arsakes, an Epirot Greek, the Arsakeion was built. It has now 1,500 pupils, and a capital of 1,300,000 drachmas, and has yearly subventions from the Government and local governments. The pupils, many of whom become school-mistresses, are supposed to spend six years in it, after having spent three in the elementary schools. There is an infant school under the same management. There is a similar school for girls at Kerkyra, founded in 1868, with over 200 pupils, as well as at Eleusis, Gaurion, Kotachovon, and Menidi. The society has in its service altogether 40 professors and 59 school-mistresses. From 1836 to 1890, 43,963 pupils have passed through these schools, of whom 2,500 have become teachers. The number of pupils of the Arsakeion has been : 1836 ... ... 150 1866 ... 595 1846 ... 224 1876 ... ■ •• i>432 1856 ... ... 650 1886 ... ... 1,471 1890 ... ... 1,500 The amount of money spent has been 8,944,295 drachmas. The amount spent on the Kerkyra school has been 1,108,379 drachmas, which is included in the above total. Its total pupils 1 88 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE number 4,648. Over 3,000 girls have passed through the other four schools, which have been founded nearly thirty years. 250 of the poorer girls receive this higher education without pay- ment. The expenditure on the six schools in 1889 was 327,044 drachmas. There are a good many private schools for girls in Athens. The result of all this effort is that Greek women get a very fair education, and can get a very good one. The girls, however, do not make anything like the use of the schools that the boys do, chiefly through parental dislike to trust them out of sight, a prejudice which is not yet entirely unreasonable, though it is no doubt a legacy from Turkish times. This is gradually being overcome, and then no doubt the girls will be allowed to take advantage to the full of the ample opportunities offered to them. Technical Instruction.— (i) The Metsovian (from Metsovo, the birthplace of its founders) Polytechnic consists of two departments— an art school founded in 1863, and a science school founded in 1887. The former had, in 1891, 9 professors and 122 pupils — 32 for drawing, 6 for sculpture, 9 for wood-engraving, 56 for decoration and designing. The full course requires seven years, except for decoration, which needs three only. The science school teaches mechanics, engineering, land surveying, road and railway EDUCATION 189 making, building, mineralogy, forestry, book- keeping, telegraphy, and applied chemistry. It had, in 1891, 21 professors (with 5 assistants) and 170 pupils. The full course requires four years. The yearly income of the Polytechnic is only about 17,000 drachmas, but it has State aid to the extent of 134,020 drachmas. (2) Agricultural Schools. Kapodistria founded a school at Tiryns in 1831, and provided it with both land and funds ; but it did not realize ex- pectations, and was closed in 1865. The school at Aidinion, near Almyros, has seven instructors, and spends about 60,000 drachmas a year. It is much less theoretical and more successful than its precursor. There is also a farming school at Athens, with ten instructors. Its forestry depart- ment is good ; besides disseminating instruction, it distributes about 15,000 trees a year. It has an aesthetic as well as a utilitarian aim. (3) Navigation Schools. Greece, having great expectations nautically, has been wise enough to provide ample special instruction for her sailors. The nucleus of the necessary fund was supplied by the patriotic Varvakes (from whose name and purse comes the Varvakeion). The earliest was opened at the Peiraius in 1882. There are now seven. The Peiraius school gave 96 certificates between 1887 and 1891 — 15 to Andrians, 15 to Kasiots, 1 1 to Kymiots, 10 to Ithakans. The other schools are at Syros, which gave 50 I go GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE certificates in 1891 ; at Spetsai, which gave 10; at Hydra, which gave 20 ; at Galaxidi, which gave 30 ; at Volo, which gave 1 5 ; and at Argos- toli, which has given 150 since its institution. Naval officers of high rank sit on the examining boards. (4) The services are quite sufficiently supplied with the means of instruction. The army has : (i.) The School of the Evelpids, established in 1828, for engineers and artillery — originally at Nauplion, now at the Peiraius ; all its students must already have certificates from the gymnasia. The course lasts five years. There are over 100 students, (ii.) The Subalterns' School, with a three years' course, for infantry. (iii.) The Reserve School, also requiring gymnasium certificates. (iv.) and (v.) The Cavalry and Artillery Schools for officers already commis- sioned. (vi.) A small Engineers' School. The Naval School, founded at the Peiraius in 1888, has 37 students. The course is four years. (5) There are clergy schools at Chalkis, founded in 1857, with 22 students ; Tripolis, founded in 1858, with 32 ; and Syros, founded in 1862, with 20. They all need to be reformed and made attractive. Perhaps a short attendance at them EDUCATION 191 should eventually be made compulsory for all young men seeking orders. (6) Archaeological Schools. Although the students of these schools are not Hellenes, yet they have such an important influence on the future of Greece that they cannot well be omitted from a list of the technical schools of Greece. To many people Greece means archaeological wealth rather than agricultural or commercial, so that the technical education most a propos would be the archaeological. Although there is nominally no Greek school, yet archaeology is very well looked after in the University and by the Archae- ological Society, which has 180 members, and receives 1,000 drachmas a year from the University. The archaeological schools are : (i.) The French School, founded in 1846, with which are associated the names of Beul6, Burnouf, Collignon, Paul Fou- card, Garnier, Girard, Hanriot, Haus- soullier, Homolle, Lebegue, Lenormant, Martha, Reinach, and Riemann. It has, since 1870, published eight times a year a Bulletin de Correspondence HelUnique. (ii.) The German School, founded in 1874. The names best known in connection with it are those of Adler, A. Botticher, Bohn, Curtius, Dorpfeld, Forchhamner, B. Forster, Hirschfeld, Jahn, Kaupert, 192 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE H. Lolling, Michaelis, Milchhofer, and A. Mliller. It has, since 1876, published a quarterly journal, Mittheilungen des Deutschen Archiiologischen Institutes, in Athens, (iii.) The American School, founded in 1881. It was the home of L. Beier, Fowler. Richardson, and J. R. Wheeler, and still is of Dr. Waldstein, the curator of our Fitzwilliam Museum. It has published ' Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens ' yearly since 1883. (iv.) The English School, founded in 1886. Its most familiar names are those of Mr. Penrose, for many years the chief authority on the Parthenon and Athenian architecture generally, and Mr. Ernest Gardner. Its work is chronicled in the Journal of Hellenic Studies. It has had 32 students. Summary. — There are two objections brought to the educational system — the one that Greece is under-educated, the other that she is over- educated. Nor does the one objection answer the other ; for the former may be meant to apply to elementary education, and the latter to higher education, or vice-versa. The facts displayed in the preceding pages go to prove that Greece has considerably fewer children in her primary schools EDUCATION 193 than most other European nations, although the deficiency is largely caused by feminine truantism, and, at the same time, a larger proportion than in other countries proceed to severer studies. The obvious retort of the Greek to a charge of rest- less ambition founded on these facts is that, through the unwisdom or inexperience of the parents, the children are often not sent to school ; but when they do go, the fondness for learning inherent in the Greek heart impels a large pro- portion of them to continue the pursuit of learn- ing. The truth, as usual, lies between these two extremes. The parents, especially in the country districts, would often rather have their boys at work on their little farms than trying to be better than their fathers, with the unpleasant possibility of lessened respect, apart from the simple reason that knowing nothing of books themselves, they see no good in them. The boys not only learn to read, and so become the natural prey of ambi- tion, but have their feelings of rivalry aroused. As novel-reading can become a dangerous stimu- lant, so with these raw country youths political talk, which they soon get to understand and take part in, has an exciting effect. Curiosity makes the old home routine look very dull ; they must go to the nearest gymnasium. The influence of town life on country boys is not incontestably good, besides which the secondary schools are accused by Greek educational experts of usurping ^3 194 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the functions of the gymnasia. The same thing goes on while they are there, but with extended knowledge and wider wonder and hopes ; they must go to Athens. After this it is quite simple to choose a professional career. The wiser choose medicine ; the more ambitious or sentimental arts ; the greatest number law, chiefly because there will be more talking to do, or, rather, perhaps because they unconsciously fancy that there will be less working than talking, and all Greeks love talking, and many of them are good talkers. The Bar is not a prosperous body ; ;i^i,ooo a year is very rare among them, and an eight- penny fee is not always refused. There are nearly as large a proportion of barristers out of work in Greece as in England, and they have not the same length of paternal purse to fall back upon when clients refuse to come. As for the arts men, some of them go in for politics, and some for journalism, and some into the Civil Service. The best of them, those with grit as well as versatility, succeed ; many of them fail. It must not be imagined that these first-genera- tion professional men necessarily smell of the plough or the fishing-boat. By no means. Most of them take a certain amount of polish very rapidly. A barrister whom I knew very well when I was at Athens had worked his way up in the manner I have described ; but his affection for his humble home in the Peloponnese, for the EDUCATION 19s old couple, and even for the girl he left behind him, was very real and dignified. He was not one of the failures ; nor was his ambition obtrusive. He meant to get on, and he worked. He had picked up French and German, and got a little English out of me ; and the last I heard of him was that he meant to travel for a year or so — Italy, France, England, and the United States. The remarkable thing about him was his polish — the j'e ne sais quoi which made you admit he was a gentleman. Nor was it merely external ; I could not imagine him doing a mean thing. You will think perhaps that his is an altogether ex- ceptional case. I admit that he was above the average ; but yet in many of the young Greeks whom I have met there has been something of this same gentlemanliness. I have perhaps in this sketch laid myself open to attack from those who assert that what Greece wants is not men of culture, but of agriculture. But this does not follow — is not even in probable sequence. There are plenty of strong arms left to till the fields ; a few thousand students more or less can make no appreciable gap. And these very students will some of them teach farming, some will make roads, some will write leaders tending to the diminution of crime, and all of them will spread around them the desire for knowledge. The standard will be raised. Im- proved general knowledge in the country means 196 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE improved agriculture, stimulated commerce, and, above all, that increased reverence for the State and her laws which make better farming and wider industries possible. Mr. Lewis Sergeant says that even if the students did make a big hiatus in the ranks of manual labour, ' it would be difficult to decide upon the comparative ad- vantage to their country of men who sacrifice knowledge to gain, and of men who sacrifice gain to knowledge.' The whole question was fought out and settled in England when public elementary education was decided on, and has been determined by all other civilized countries in the same way. If it is rather out of date to say that a man is over-educated, the same thing is surely true of a country. If a man's hiring- value goes up with his increase of mental weight, a couple of million men's hiring-value will do the same, and part of this value goes to make up the wealth of the State. The case is very well stated in Professor Jebb's ' Progress of Greece.' He says : ' Where a school and university education is opened free of charge to a people of keen intellectual appetite, it is natural that an unusually large proportion of persons should go through the university course. And where, as in Greece, agriculture is under a system which gives little scope to the higher sort of intelligence, while there is neither public nor private capital enough to provide employment for EDUCATION 197 many architects or civil engineers, it is natural that an unduly large proportion of university graduates should turn to one of the liberal pro- fessions, or to some calling in which their literary training can be made available.' He then goes on to show that it is the influx of Greeks from Turkey that aggravates this abundance of educated men into a surplus ; but, quoting M. Lenormant, who says that ' the j'ole of Greece in the con- temporary East closely resembles her role in antiquity,' shows that, although over-education may for the present be a difficulty to Greece herself, the Levant in general is immensely obliged to her for it. It may be mentioned that in all post-Byzantine days, even although Greece was not free, she has been fulfilling this duty. The important underlying truth to remember, however, is that, whether with conscious intention or not, Greece is thus paving the way for herself to Con- stantinople — is building a fortress-ring, not only of hearts that beat to the Panhellenic inspiration, they have long been ready, but of trained intel- ligence which shall give her the alternative choice of superior military skill or talented diplomacy. Meanwhile, these lithesome brains are gradually finding something to do. Although university graduates are more numerous at Athens than ever, the number unemployed is slowly but steadily decreasing. With extending commerce come openings for barristers, journalists, and 198 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE intelligent business men. For some years to come these ambitious young men, adventurers in an inoffensive sense, will embarrass their relations and the Government ; but the corner has been turned, and in the end what they have learnt will well repay their country and, let us hope, themselves. [ 199 1 CHAPTER XIV. CULTURE. Books — Newspapers — Learned Societies — Fine Arts — Physical Culture. Books. It would be foreign to my purpose to give a history of modern Greek literature. The object of this chapter is simply to show what the people read. I think the safest way of doing this will be to give a sample-page or two from the last catalogue of the chief publishing -house in Athens, the ' Hestia ' : /. — School-books. A thanasoulas — Calligraphy Apostolopoulos — Reading-book ... Bratsanos — Alphabetarion ... „ The New Robinson — Drachmas. ... -50 ... I-I5 ... -30 - (i.e., Crusoe) geographical Bratsanos — Old Testament History ... 1-25 I New ... -So GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Drachmas. Bratsanos- —Scenes from the Greek Revolt 1- tion ... ... • ■ . • ■ • • 1-25 Bratsanos- —Geography of Greece • 1-25 Drosines— -Tales . -So ■> > A Campaigner's Stories . -So Kondyles- -Elementary Natural History . . -So >j ,, Botany . -So J) Zoology ... . -So //. — Dictionaries. Amongst the dictionaries we notice : Drachmas. Barbates — French - Modern Greek Dic- tionary ,., ... ... ... ... 25 Bontyras — Dictionary of History and Geography ... ... ... ... 300 Rangabes — Dictionary of Greek Archae- ology 30 Lascarides — English -Modern Greek Dic- tionary ... ... ... ... ... 24 ///. — General. Drachmas. The Holy Passion and the Holy Resurrec- tion (656 pages, bound) ... ... ... 3 Anninos — Here and There (historical essays) ... ... ... ... ... 4 Apostolides, P. — Animation ... ... 5 Arabantinos — Collection of Popular Songs of Epiros ... ... ... ... ... 10 CULTURE Drachmas. Arabantinos — Annals of Epiros ... ... 25 Athanasieff — Microbiology (translation) ... 6 Abadie Leroy — Elementary Pathological Anatomy (translation) ... ... ... 6 Apostolides, N. Ch. — The Animal King- dom ... ... ... ... ... 28 Basiliades — Attic Nights (poems and essays, 4 vols.) ... ... ... ... 20 Balaorites — Poems (2 vols.) ... ... 7 Blachos — Lyric Poems ... ... ... 5 „ Translations from Lamartine . . 3 „ Lessing ... 4 ,, The Homeric Question ... 2 JV.~Novels. There is not yet the same standard of national romance-writing as of verse-making ; most of the novels advertised are translations, among the authors being Mrs. Craik, Mary Lafone, Mayne Reid, Scott, Dumas, Victor Hugo, Paul de Kock, Ohnet, Sue, and Jules Verne. V. — De luxe (bound). Paganeles — Across the Isthmus ... Memoirs of Kolokotrones Soures — Poems Meliarakes — Zoology ,, The Cat Drachmas. 4 3 12-50 7 2-50 202 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Drachmas Rangabes — Herakles and other Dramas ... lo ,, Theodora ... ... ... lo Athens — Album of Twelve Photographs... 5 Lists I., III., and V., are taken in alphabetical order from the catalogue. Newspapers. There are 131 papers Dublished in Greece thus distributed : Papers, i to — Inhabitants. Attika-Boiotia ■ 56 4,602 Kyklades • IS 8,769 Zakynthos ... • 5 8,814 Larissa II 15.275 Kerkya 6 19,089 Kephallenia ... 4 20,044 Achaia-Ehs ... 9 23,412 Lakonia 4 31-522 Akarnania-Aitolia . • 5 32,404 Argolis-Korinth ■ 4 36,209 Trikkala • 3 47-714 Arkadia ■ 3 49,428 Euboia 2 51-721 Phthiotis-Phokis 2 68,235 Messenia 2 91,616 Total i6,6q6 It may seem odd that Messenia, which ranks so high in intermediate education, should publish CULTURE 203 the fewest newspapers ; perhaps it reads the Athenian papers more than other provinces, or perhaps it prefers books to newspapers. The number pubHshed on the mainland, then, is 79, or 60 per cent, of the total ; in the Pelopon- nesos, 22 ; in the Kyklades, 15 ; and in the Ionian Islands 15. As to towns, Athens supplies 51, or nearly 40 per cent. ; Hermoupolis, 8 ; Ldrissa, 6 ; Patras, Zakynthos, and Volo, 5 each. Sixty are political and social, 9 political and literary, 9 political and legal, 9 political and com- mercial, 28 scientific and literary, 6 legal, 2 com- mercial and financial, 6 satirical. The names are so suggestive that I think the list is worth giving : 'Archaeological Journal,' founded in 1837. ' Palingenesia ' (Regeneration), founded in 1857. 'Children's Journal,' 'Word,' ' Times,' 'Journal,' 'Aristophanes,' 'Athens Messenger' (in French), ' Hestia,' ' Phcebus,' ' Thesmoi ' (after Drako's laws), 'Morning,' founded from 1861 to 1870. 'Calm,' 'Children's Improver,' 'Journal of Greek and French Jurisprudence,' ' Helikon,' ' Akro- polis,' ' Globe,' ' New Journal,' ' New Themis,' 'Day,' 'Providence,' ' Paleanthropos ' (Scamp), ' Hermes,' ' Report of the Historical and Ethno- logical Society,' 'Review,' ' Romeos,' 'Attic Museum,' 'Apollo,' 'Week,' 'Greek Farming,' 'City,' 'Greek Guide,' 'Ladies' Journal,' 204 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE ' Saviour,' ' Reform,' ' Acheloos,' ' Children's Periodical,' ' World,' founded from 1871 to 1880. ' Pharmaceutic and Therapeutic News,' ' Athena, 'Themis,' 'Prometheus,' 'Nature,' 'Army Medical Journal,' 'General Review,' 'Journal of Handicrafts,' ' Parnassos,' ' Chance,' ' Econo- mist,' ' Education,' ' Fine Art,' ' Agricultural Progress,' 'Socialist,' 'Cat,' ' Phthiotis,' 'Ther- mopylai,' ' Byron,' ' Aitolian Confederation,' 'Citizen,' 'Akarnania,' 'Popular Education,' ' Tax-payer,' ' Lantern,' ' Commercial Observer,' 'Proof,' 'Alpheios,' ' Peloponnesos,' 'Waker,' ' Mentor,' ' Patras Echo,' ' Kalamai Journal,' ' Erane Echo,' ' Lakonia,' ' Dawn,' ' Combat,' 'Sparta,' 'Arkadia,' 'Tripolis,' 'Tegea,' 'Argolis,' ' Independence,' ' Progress,' ' Agamemnon,' 'Euripos,' 'Reflux,' 'Fatherland,' 'Sun,"Truth,' 'Orient,' 'L'Orient' (in French), 'New Siphnos,' 'Time,' 'Hermoupolis Journal,' 'Thera,' founded from 1 88 1 to 1890. ' Naxos,' ' Santorin,' ' New Andros,' ' Country,' ' People's Journal,' ' Inspector,' ' Concord,' ' Pegasos,' ' Rhegas,' ' News' Journal,' 'Hatchet,' founded in 1891. ' People,' ' Improvement,' ' Hope,' ' Justice,' ' Spectator,' ' New Age,' ' Epoch,' ' National Greatness,' ' Tempe,' ' Volo,' ' Trumpet,' ' Pagassa,' ' Nightingale,' ' Kissavos,' 'Constitu- tional,' 'Tablet,' 'Voice of the People,' ' Karditsa,' ' Thessaliotis,' 'Caustic,' founded in 1892. CULTURE 205 The circulation of all the 131 papers together is, however, only 110,953, oi" ^ little more than a third of the daily circulation of our Standard. The ' Akropolis ' has the largest number of sub- scribers — 10,000 ; and the ' Helikon ' the smallest —25- Roumania has 30 newspapers. The Greek press originated in the enthusiasm and energy of Col. Leicester Stanhope, who in 1822 began to print his first paper at Meso- longhi, being assisted by Lord Byron. Stanhope afterwards started a paper at Athens. Journals were not numerous under King Otho, but they contributed greatly to the popular zeal on behalf of education and progress. At the Paris Ex- hibition of 1867 nearly a hundred papers were shown. At the present time the Greek press is a very powerful organ for good. There is no press censure, and although in the spring of last year this was in some quarters supposed to be regret- able, there can be little doubt that to in any way fetter it would be a great mistake. The case of Egypt is by no means analogous. There a certain number of papers are directly organized against the English influence ; they are indirectly (per- haps even directly) supported by France and Russia. Their lying-power is to their intellectual weight what a thousand horse-power would be in a steamer of twenty tons burden ; and there are 2o6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE no papers in the English interest to counteract them. In Greece, on the contrary, if the papers are sometimes exaggerative in their facts and vehement in their exhortations, they are at least up to the French standard in truthfulness, and not much below it in literary merit. Indeed, there is a picturesqueness in Greek journalistic style which is not to be found elsewhere, due partly, I surmise, to their Orientality, and pardy to their familiarity with the best literature the world has produced. Learned Societies. I need hardly remind Philhellenes of the part taken by the Syllogoi in the liberation of Greece. These societies have always had an ostensible intellectual object, but willy-nilly the Panhellenic idea has almost invariably forced itself into their notice. They exist to-day in greater numbers than ever, both in Greece and out of it, especially in the big Greece of Hellenic dreams — to. KpcTtj Tov a'lfjLov, as they call Turkey, Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro. There is, indeed, a freemasonry of blood which binds the Greeks of free Hellas to those of still enslaved Hellas. The most important syllogues in Athens are : (i) The Parnassos Literary Society, founded in 1865, had, in 1891, 849 members. It meets once a month, and gives weekly public readings. It maintains a school for poor boys, some of CULTURE 207 whom are Cretans. In 1890 they numbered 161. (2) The Byron Society, founded in 1868. Byron's heart is still at Mesolonghi, and he is loved in Greece as much as his poetry is admired in England. The Panhellenic Companion for this year opens with a Greek version of the lines beginning : ' He who hath bent him o'er the dead, Ere the first day of death is fled — ' The society erected a statue of Lord Byron at Mesolonghi, which was unveiled on September 24, 1 88 1, when the little town was en fete for three days, a considerable force of infantry and artillery having been sent to join in the grateful demonstra- tion. The society is chiefly engaged In educa- tional work, and sends consignments of books for public use to different towns and villages ; its attempts in the direction of free village libraries have not yet succeeded. It published a periodical from 1877 to 1 88 1. (3) Society for the Propagation of Hellenic Literature, founded in 1869, with a present membership of 1,200, and a capital of 1,500,000 drachmas. It consists of four sections : (i.) Law and Politics, (ii.) Literature and Archaeology, (iii.) Physics, (iv.) Fine Arts. 2o8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE It has founded and maintains several schools ; it grants subsidies in aid of poor schools ; it prints and distributes school - books ; it pays for the education abroad of fifteen young men destined to become teachers, and takes an especial interest in Greek geography. It succeeds in doing a large amount of useful work. {4) The Society of the Friends of Education, whose splendid operations have been already mentioned (page 187). (5) The Historical and Ethnological Society, founded in 1883. It has a museum containing 126 historical pictures, and 8,000 documents. (6) The Physical Science Society, founded in 1887, had a membership in 1892 of 120. It organizes tuition, lectures and demonstrations, and scientific excursions into the country. It is about to open a special scientific library and read- ing-room, and commence a periodical. (7) The Athens Scientific Society, founded in 1888, with a very professorial membership, seeks to promote scientific investigation and training in various way, and publishes the 'Athena.' (8) The Teachers' Society, founded in 1873, has as its object the improvement of middle and higher education. It had 300 members in 1892. It has several times successfully memorialized the different Governments in the interest of educa- tion. It has a library of 3,000 volumes, and a reading-room, and publishes the ' Plato.' CULTURE 209 (9) The Orient, or Asia Minor, Society, lool<;s after the historical and archaeological interests of Asia Minor. (10) The Academy, founded in 1859 ; at least, King Otho in that year laid the foundation-stone of the beautiful building which Baron Sina, of Vienna, presented for the purposes of an academy. It cost about three million drachmas. The Baron's widow added an endowment of ;^io,ooo. But there are no academicians ; there is something of the English prejudice against picking out a team of forty and giving them national colours for life, and there is also the difficulty of the original selection. It would, at any rate, have to be either by the King or by the whole nation — say, at a new Olympian Congress, or by a newspaper referendum. The Library of the Chamber of Deputies should also be mentioned ; it contains over i 35,000 volumes, and has a splendid collection of Greek works of all kinds written between the capture of Constantinople and 1833, got together with the express intention that the continuity of spirit from at least Byzantine days may have a living force. There are a great many societies distributed over the towns of Greece : fine art societies, as at Kerkyra ; law clubs, as at Kalamai and Sparta ; dramatic societies, as at Kerkyra ; commercial guilds, as at Nauplion ; political societies, as at 14 210 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Zakynthos ; and teachers' societies, as at Kerkyra ; besides clubs, which are partly social and partly literary. Fine Arts. In the early days of King Otho there was still a Greek school of painters ; they were almost all trained on the Holy Mountain, and journeyed about Greece painting pictures and screens for the churches. This painting is still done ; but there is no special school, and no special excel- lence. It was never very high art at its best. At present painting is almost entirely neglected, although during the last few years the subject has aroused considerable interest in Athens, and in 1 89 1 M. Giallinas, a water-colour painter, ex- hibited in London with some success, and M. Rhoilos in the Salon. In the same year there was an exhibition in Athens of paintings by Greek ladies. Sculpture is in a rather more forward state, some of the copies of Tanagra works showing genuine talent (although many of these are done by Italians) ; the statue of Varvakes by the late M. Drosos, placed in the Zappeion Square, is generally pronounced excellent. Music is not neglected. The Odeum, founded in 1876, has M. Trikoupes for its president, and has done a great deal towards introducing Western music in lieu of the weird Turkish chaunts which had almost come to be looked on CULTURE 211 as national. It has not penetrated the Pelopon- nesian fastnesses yet, and a music-hall entertain- ment such as you get at Megalopolis or Sparta is a thing not to be easily forgotten. The dances, too, so admirably described by Mr. Rodd, are trodden to the old Turkish hum. In Athens itself all this is changing. At the music-halls there and in the streets you hear the more or less latest airs from London and Paris. The Odeum has 14 professors, including several Germans, and teaches the theory of music, the various instruments, singing, and elocution. It has over 300 pupils, and gets financial help from the State. The Philharmonic Society, founded in 1888, has the special aim of fixing the Greek style of music. It has over 400 members, some very distinguished honorary members, such as Gounod, Thomas, Saint-Saens, and Kremser, and is very "popular"..; It gives about half a dozen concerts a year. There is a Byzantine Sacred Musical Society. French and Italian companies, though not of very great calibre,, come to Athens and Phaleron, and assist in the process of education. What struck me most was the very high average of piano-playing, very much higher than in England. The country-people are very fond of their music, such as it is ; but the too minute sub-division of the tone, and the too great assistance derived 212 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE from the nose, make their singing very unmusical. It may be argued that if they had really had music in their souls, they would not have tolerated the Oriental monotone, and would have invented a proper scale on their own account ; but I think this is asking rather too much. I believe when once their musical tendency is directed into a good German channel, they will prove themselves to be a very musical people. Physical Culture. As Greece rather models her civilization on that of France than on that of England, it will be surmised, and rightly, that her physical educa- tion is in a backward state. At the same time, Greece is not a land of big cities, and plenty of exercise can be obtained in a country which is half mountain without a M.C.C. or a Rugby Football Union. There can be no doubt about the wiriness of the race. Their physical endurance was an object of frequent admiration during the War of Inde- pendence, and they have by no means deteriorated since. An ' Olympia at Athens ' is often mooted. There is a rowing-club at the Peiraius, and three cycling-clubs at Athens and one at the Peiraius. [ 213 ] CHAPTER XV. ARCHEOLOGY. As this treatise has an economic and political design, Greek archeeology pure and simple has no place in it. But Greece and Italy are in this respect differently situated from the rest of the world. They possess extra capital in their anti- quarian treasure quite out of proportion to their agricultural and commercial wealth. Although England is by no means poor in antiquities, yet their ratio to her total wealth is insignificant. In Italy and Greece this is not so. In the case of Greece, indeed, it is by no means certain that her antiquarian wealth does not actually exceed her other capital. It may be argued, perhaps, that though an American syndicate might make an offer to buy and transplant the Parthenon to Beacon Hill, Boston, and might not haggle about a few million dollars more or less in the price, expecting it to prove of infinitely greater drawing power than the Eiffel Tower, the Greeks would 2 14 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE never dream of parting with their ' marble lily.' Of course they would not ; but it is always there as a reserve fund. And if the Parthenon would draw at Boston, where it would be out of harmony with nature, not to speak of the utter incongruity of mixing the Hellenic idea with the Bostonian, why should it not draw ' in its violet crown,' where the echoes of old Greek life are wafted through the pellucid air, and flowers and birds and human faces are as of yore ? Italy finds its currency difficulties much lightened by the golden millions left in the country every year by tourists. So far, Greece only gains a few thousand pounds in this way ; but every year, especially with Egypt under our protection, brings her more guests. It is true that Hellenic pride is so great that she will not take their money for her great peep-shows. In this her lofty spirit is antipodean to the Italian humble avarice that demands a lira or so every time you go from one room to another in her museums. But if she levies no direct tax, we may be sure that she will get no slight gain indirectly when the tourist world shall have found out Greece. At present, apart from the passage des anglais from Egypt, Greece is visited only by antiquarians, Phil- hellenes, and le tres hatit ton ; but, as in the case of the Rhine and Switzerland and Italy, so in the case of Greece, the footsteps of milords and savants will be trodden in sooner or later by the ARCHEOLOGY 215 nouveaux riches and the vietix pauvres, and some day we shall find Cook organizing great expedi- tions of working-men to Athens and back under the auspices of South Kensington or the People's Palace. But her antiquarian wealth has another, per- haps finally greater, value to Greece. By its means her children add with wonderful ease a higher culture to their practical and technical education — a culture which not only must make them pleasanter and more orderly citizens, but must become of cash-value to them. Nor can we deny that a real appreciation of the glories of the Akropolis, the mysterious charm of her moun- tain temples and fortresses, and the bold memories of Olympia, are likely to accentuate the already wide-spread Panhellenic idea. And this, if it anticipates greater responsibilities, also expects the greater wealth which goes with wider territory. Another gain to Hellas from her marble treasures is the development of good taste in architecture. Modern Athens was spoilt by the Bavarians, who were neither artistic designers nor artful builders. However, she now has several fine buildings, notably the University, the University Library, the Academy, and the two museums. Her new streets are well laid out and well built in the Parisian style ; her wealth in buildings, public and private, should at no distant date be very considerable. 2i6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE The actual wealth of her museums is enormous. In Athens there are the Central Museum {i.e., central for all Greece), with its magnificent statues, friezes, reliefs, tombstones, and coins (this depart- ment is very well looked after ; it contains 527 gold, 10,638 silver, 19,275 bronze, 1,979 lead, 38 others, 268 facsimiles, 5,356 badly preserved — a total of 38,081); the Polytechnic Institute, with Mykenian (and Egyptian) antiquities — a wonder- ful display of gold — vases, terra - cottas, and bronzes; the Akropolis Museum, with the treasures found on the sacred hill itself ; not to speak of the private collections of M. Karapanos (Dodona finds), M. Lambros, M. Philemon, M. Rhou- sopoulos, the late Dr. Schliemann (chiefly Ilian), and the various archaeological schools. There is also a Christian Archaeological Society, under the patronage of the Queen, which has a well-filled little museum and an almanack. Outside Athens, too, museums are very plenti- ful. If Greeks do not like their treasures carried off by strangers, no more do the different towns like theirs carried off to Athens. The old inde- pendent State feeling is still very strong. Sparta would indignantly resent sending such hostages to Athens. In addition to this feeling, the Greek Government believes that t\i& pieces de demonstra- tion can teach their lessons more clearly on the spot than they would if all congregated at Athens — a proof of their sincerity when they maintain ARCHEOLOGY 217 that the Elgin Marbles would be of more service to art in Athens than in London. Besides, if we may again import a commercial aim, the amount of money spent by travellers making the round of the principal local museums at Mykenai, Sparta, Olympia, Delos, Delphi, etc., not to speak of the smaller ones at Dimitzana, Larissa, Syros, Thespiai, Epidauros, Tanagra, Messene, Chaironeia, and, in fact, in nearly all towns on old sites, would be something considerable. The civilizing effect of this contact with the West is also of very great importance. The great interest now taken by Greeks in the unburying of her past is also proof of the progress she has made in the last thirty years. From the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, although the Renaissance had done much for Greek litera- ture, it had done little for Greek archaeology, by which alone the literature could have the freshness and accurate vigour of life. The eighteenth cen- tury and the first part of the nineteenth opened the way to investigations of great value ; this was the English period, the heyday of the Dilettanti and at its close of the immortal Leake. When Greece became free, she invited the help of Europe, and France and Germany joined Eng- land in the explorations. In 1858 the Greek Archaeological Society was founded, and thence- forward the Greeks have done a great deal of the work for themselves. But, not only is this zeal 2i8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE of theirs a proof of their intellectual and aesthetic progress, it is still more a pledge of their solvency. Is it humanly conceivable that a race with such traditions to be proud of, with such heirlooms to hand on to their children, would ever repudiate their just debts and run the risk of seeing, not only their dearest hopes abandoned, but the very relics of their ancestors in the hands of an inter- national official-receiver ? The real position is exactly the reverse. Greece is herself the natural guardian of the greatest art- treasures in the world, and is morally responsible for their safe keeping. Whether from this motive or not, in this spirit she acts. The careless treat- ment of works of art spoken of by travellers fifty years ago has entirely ceased. At the same time, the world makes no return to Greece for her careful and, for her, expensive guardianship. Although she has never repudiated, and never can, she is always treated by the financial world as if she were on the verge of repudiation. The case of trustees is proverbially hard ; but they can usually relinquish their trusts. Greece cannot even do this, for she sincerely believes that such relinquishing would itself be a breach of trust ; and whoever has contrasted the impression made on him by the antiquities in situ, in their proper colour- surroundings and their only fitting environment, with those he received when visiting the British Museum — and not only the sentimental impres- ARCHEOLOGY 219 sions, but the knowledge assimilated equally — will hold that Greece is right. At least in sympathy, Greece has great claims on the civi- lized world which are never met. Leake, writing in 1821, mentions the following places as those where excavations might be made : In the Peloponnesos. — Amyklai, Asine, Dyme, Elis, Epidauros, Gytheion (G.), Hermione, the Isthmos, Kainepolis, Kleitor, Korone, Mantineia (F.), Megalopolis (E.), Messene, Nemea, Olympia (Gen), Orchomenos, Pallene, Phigaleia, Phlius, Prasiai, Psophis, Sikyon (A.), Thuria, Thyraia, Troezen, and the Hieron near Epidauros (G.), the Heraion near Argos, and the Sanctuaries of Zeus and Despoina in Arkadia. In Attika, Boiotia, etc. — Delphi (F.), Eleusis (G.), and many others of the Demi of Attika, Elateia, Eretreia (A.), Histiaia, and several other cities of Euboia, Haliartos, Herakleia, the Grove of the Muses on Mount Helikon, Chaironeia (G.), Coroneia, Cyrrha, Opus, Orchomenos (Schliemann), Plataia (A.), Tanagra, Thespiai, Thronion, the Oracular Fane of Apollo on Mount Ptoon (F.), and the temple of Athena Iloneia in Boiotia. In Thessaly. — Demetrias, Gomphoi, Kyretiai, Metropolis, Pagasai, Pelinnaion, and Thebes. In Akarnania. — ^niadai, Argos, Stratos (Ger.), and Thyreia. 2 20 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE In Aitolia. — Kalydon and Thermos. [In Epiros.— Gytomai, Kassope, Kichyros, Pandosela, Passaron and Phoenike.J He says 'In all these places the state of the soil appears to indicate that the sites have been little disturbed since the respective places fell to ruins, and to promise a rich harvest of ancient remains.' [The letters placed after the names of places signify the school by which the site has been explored and excavations made : A. = American school, E. = English, F. = French, G. = Greek, Ger. = German.] It will be noticed that the Greeks have done a great deal of the work themselves. Besides these little-disturbed sites, a great many others have been excavated — notably various parts of Athens, Mykenai, and Tiryns (by Schliemann), and Delos (by the French). Excavation is not, however, quite as expensive an amusement as might be imagined, although where occupiers have to be expropriated and houses pulled down, as at Delphi, it may even exceed expectation. The usual viodits operandi is for a couple of members of the school to go and prospect ; the director, acting under his committee, decides whether excavation is to be begun. If they decide in favour of it, the director communicates with the Greek Government, which consults its head ephor. Permission is almost invariably granted, subject to the two conditions. ARCHEOLOGY 221 that all treasure-trove be surrendered, after a fair period for examination, to the Government, and that an ephor be present during the excavating to represent Greek interests. The ephors are, generally speaking, men of good general attain- ments, as well as experienced practical archaeo- logists, especially M. Kavvadias, the chief ephor and able cataloguer of the Athenian Museums, M. Leonardos, and M. Kastromenos, brother-in-law of the late Dr. Schliemann. They are not likely to create much difficulty. Having taken up your abode in the nearest village to your site, or, if there be none conveniently near, pitched your tent close to your scene of operations, you set about your task. In the former case you will have no difficulty as to labour ; in the latter you will have had to bring your labourers to the spot and either encamp them or build temporary huts for them. The labour itself is cheap, men receiving from is. ^d. to 2s. a day, and girls about half that amount. So you have 50 men and 50 girls working from sunrise to sunset for about ^200 a month ; though, allowing for the customary holidays, it is always a good deal less. The English school is unfortunately by far the poorest of the four. The French and German schools get grants from their respective Govern- ments in aid of their work, and the American school gets dollars in abundance from its millionaire patrons at home. Meanwhile, the GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE English school, even with the help of the Hellenic Society and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, cannot afford to spend more than about ;^300 a year on excavations. It indeed has only a score or two of subscribers. I hope it will not be thought mal a propos either to the matter or to the manner of this treatise for me to append the name and address of the secretary — Walter Leaf, Esq., Old Change, E.C. Subscriptions to the school not only assist in increasing our knowledge of ancient Greek life, but distinctly help to bring Greece back again to life, to the full Periklean life ; and while doing this, they shed lustre on the name of England. It may be well, perhaps, to refer to the question of the restoration of the Elgin Marbles. Every year or so it is rumoured in Athens that we are going to send these stolen treasures back. Eng- land is the only nation in the world which has ever been known to surrender valuable territory unthreatened and simply on sentimental grounds. If England gave up the Ionian Islands, they argue, worth several millions sterling, why should they not give back the marbles, which, if put up to auction in lots, would hardly fetch a million. Captain Trant, writing in 1830, said that it was reported that the King of Bavaria, who was a great Philhellene, had expressed his intention of ARCHAEOLOGY 223 making his Glyptothek at Munich disgorge the Aiginetan Marbles and restoring them to Greece. He, rightly, thought it problematical, and they are, of course, still at Munich. Oddly enough, the people who abuse us most for having robbed the Parthenon are not the Greeks, but the French, who have done more of that kind of thing than any nation since the Romans. This occurred to Chateaubriand (who confessed to a certain amount of mild spoliation himself), and he attempted to contrast our thefts with those of his compatriots ; his- first distinction that they did not pull down to take away is plausible, but will not bear examination, as the bare places they left behind them in Italy were quite as great eyesores, and the precious prey did not stand in so great need of protection ; his second distinction, that in their case the glory of France required it, smells too much of vanity for us to have anything to do with it. The question of the restoration of the Elgin Marbles is one of artistic expediency. Few Englishmen would maintain that we had a moral right to keep them longer than is necessary in the interests of art. The first question to be decided is whether they are more useful to the world in London or in Athens. If it be in doubt, the original ownership of Athens should shift the balance of proving the superior advantages of London on to us ; if it be admitted that Athens is the more suitable place for them, the question 224 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE resolves itself into selecting the right moment for their restoration. This will obviously be when they will be in no danger from either a foreign enemy, or a revolutionary mob. I am inclined to answer the first question in favour of Athens. To the second, I should reply that as long as Deleyannism exists the marbles must stay in the British Museum, which means that, before they go, the criminal statistics must show a very marked improvement, and the drachma must get to within lo per cent, of its nominal value. Pro- bably it would be better if Greece had already obtained possession of Constantinople. [ 225 ] CHAPTER XVI. RELIGION. Organization — Monasteries — Priests — Summary. It is a truism to say that the religion of a com-' munity has great influence on its material pros- perity ; but to estimate at all approximately what that influence is, is often extremely difficult, and the methods by which an at all definite conclusion can be arrived at are extremely complicated. What we wish to discover about the Orthodox Church is : (i) What has been its influence in the past ; (2) What is its influence to-day ; (3) What is its -influence likely to be in the future. The solution of the first two problems will help us materially with the third. In order to arrive at a result of any value, we must understand clearly the organization of the Orthodox Church. With its doctrine we need not immediately deal. There are now said to be between twenty-five and thirty thousand Roman Catholics in Greece, being most numerous in the Kyklades, where 15 226 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE they have six monasteries, most of them with schools attached, the Jesuits, Capuchins, Fran- ciscans, and Dominicans being represented. Athens, Kerkyra, and Naxos are archbishoprics, and Kephallenia, Syros, Tenos, Thera, and Zakynthos bishoprics. They have about sixty churches, of which two-thirds are in the Kyklades. The Greek Church is quite independent ; it is alHed to the Russian Church, but does not acknow- ledge the Czar as its head. In 1833 it attempted to throw off the authority of the Patriarch of Constantinople, which, owing to that dignitary's practical subjection to the Sultan, had been ex- tremely baneful to it ; by the Synodal Tome of 1850 the severance was complete except as to a few nominal rights of an entirely trivial character. The government of the Greek Church is now in the hands of the Holy Synod, a compact little college of five ecclesiastics and a royal commis- sioner, the former being at present the Metro- politan of Athens, President, the Archbishop of Ldrissa, the Metropolitan of Demetrias, the Archbishop of Mantineia, and the Bishop of Thaumakos. There are altogether 40 dioceses, the sees which have as their centre the capital of a nomarchy being archbishoprics. Accordingly, in addition to the members of the Holy Synod, there are archbishops of Argos, Arta, Kerkyra, RELIGION 227 -Korinth, Messenia, Syros, and Zakynthos, and bishops of Hydra, Karystia, Naupaktos, Naxos, Platamon, Thera, and Triphyllia. There are also ' widowed,' or prelateless, dioceses — namely, the archbishoprics of Akarnania, Chalkis, Kephal- lenia, Patras, Sparta, Trikkala, and Phthiotis, and the bishoprics of Andros, Gardiki, Gortyns, Gytheion, Ithaka, Kalavryta, Kythera, Leukas, Oitylos, Paxos, Pharsala, Phokis, Stagoi, and Thebes, making a total of 2 metropolitans, 9 archbishops, 7 vacant archbishoprics, and 8 bishops, with 14 vacant bishoprics. The head of the Church receives a stipend of 6,000 drachmas a year, with an allowance of 3,000 drachmas more, making a total income of about ^300 a year (though considerably less at the present rate of exchange). Archbishops get 5,000 drachmas a year (say, £160), and bishops 4,000 drachmas a year (say, ^130); the four members of the Holy Synod receive extra allow- ances of 2,400 drachmas a year. Monasteries. At the time of the Revolution there were 593 monasteries in Greece, although many of the buildings were in decay and tenanted by a single monk. The Government of King Otho paid early attention to them, and they were gradually reduced in number, till in 1857 there were only 152, of which four were for women. Those 228 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE which were suppressed were placed under Govern- ment control, their revenues being in theory- devoted to religious and educational purposes, although it is rather doubtful how the moneys were applied. No doubt they helped to make the early confusion of Greek finance more con- founded. It is somewhat remarkable that the confiscation met with no public disapproval ; possibly the affairs of the seculars did not appeal to the popular imagination as an indignity to their parish priests would have done ; perhaps even there was an unconscious acquiescence in Bentham's theories of government, which, by the way, had been very persistently dinned into the ears of the original leaders by Col. Leicester Stanhope. In the Eastern Church there are two kinds of monasteries : (i) Ccenobitic (living in common), in which all dress and live in the same way, the government being monarchical. The head, or ' Hegoumenos,' is, as a rule, the most learned of the monks, and not necessarily the oldest ; his term of ofifice is limited. Each monk on joining gives up to the monastery all his property, which, however, is not generally extravagantly great. (2) Idiorhythmic (each living in his own way), in which there is much greater freedom, the government being more nearly republican, or, at least, constitutional. There is a governing com- RELIGION 229 mittee of three — the Hegoumenos, and two Epitropoi or Symbouloi, elected every five years. Each monk owns a particular share of both the realty and personalty of the convent, in the former case working his allotment himself, although he often has a lay helper. Instead of taking their meals in the common refectory like the Kaloyers (Kalogeroi = good old men), as the Coenobitic monks are called, they have ' commons ' of bread and wine dealt out to them, which they consume, with whatever else they choose to buy, in their own cells. At present there are 186 convents in Greece — 31 in Trikkala, 21 in Achaia-Elis, 15 in Argolis- Korinth, 14 in Arkadia and Kephallenia, 13 in Attika-Boiotia and the Kyklades ; 176 are for men and 10 for women, although a good many are in reality mixed. The largest are : /• — For Men. Monks. Nuns. The Taxiarchs, in the deme of Aigion 112 9 Megaspelaion, in the deme of Kerpine 109 The Gardeners, in the deme of Katogetai ... 63 6 St. Luke, in the deme of Distomia ... 56 The Death of the Virgin, in the deme of Ithome 5° 3 The Fountain of Life, in the deme of Naousa ... ... ... .. 48 47 3 46 2 43 2 41 2 41 41 230 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Monks. Nuns. The Death of the Virgin, in the deme of Letrinai ... St. Laura, in the deme of Kalavryta The Death of the Virgin, in the deme of Aigion ... The Death of the Virgin, in the deme of Chaironeia St. Dionysios, in the deme of Zakynthos ... St. Seraphim, in the deme of Petra ... The Birth of the Virgin, in the deme of Agraiai ... ... ... ... 39 2 St. Athanasios, in the deme of Leukasion ... ... ... ... 39 Dekes Ireni, in the deme of Skotoussa 39 //. — For Women. The Death of the Virgin, in the deme of Tenos ... ... ... ... i iii St. Constantine, in the deme of Kalamai ... ... ... ... 2 68 Lazarus, in the deme of Thera ... 3 65 St. Gerasimos, in the deme of Omalai 19 47 The average number of monks in each monastery is less than 10, and there are barely 2,000 monks and nuns in the whole of Greece. Mr. Sergeant, in 1879, gave 10,000,000 drachmas as the total estimated value of conventual property ; RELIGION 231 but the revenue in 1889 was 2,326,804 drachmas, and the expenditure 1,849,437 drachmas, or about ^30 per head per annum. The richest houses are Phaneromene (in Salamis), with 45,000 drachmas, or about 5,000 drachmas per head per annum ; The Angels (near Athens), with 77,000 drachmas, or about 3,080 drachmas per head per annum ; St. Elias (in the Parnassid), with 45,000 drachmas, or about 1,350 drachmas per head per annum ; St. Laura, with 55,000 drachmas, or 1 , 1 90 drachmas per head per annum ; St. Luke, with 55,000 drachmas, or 980 drachmas per head perannum; The Taxiarchs, with 105,000 drachmas, or 930 drachmas per head per annum ; Voulkano, with 45,000 drachmas, or 900 drachmas per head per annum ; and Megaspelaion, with 95,000 drach- mas, or about 870 drachmas per head per annum. It should be added that there are about 700 male and 80 female novices, and about 1,000 attendants, who are not all included in the above tables. The age of admission is thirty for men and forty for women. In order to appreciate the present position of Greek monasteries, we must remember that their principal duties in the old days, and still under Turkish rule, were of a charitable and hospitable kind. They were not learned brotherhoods as in the West, although there were not infrequently learned men of their number. In fact, throughout 232 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the Turkish period these estabHshments were required to act as inns, and were bound to accept and entertain whatever traveller came ; in return for this important public service, the Porte saved the monastic revenues from the sticky hands of its underlings. It is hardly necessary to add that this traditional hospitality is still kept up, and that an Englishman especially always finds a warm welcome in these reverend khans. Priests. There are rather over 8,000 priests for an orthodox population of 1,635,698, or one to every 200 souls. They have no ' livings,' and no stipends from the State or elsewhere ; and the fees they receive for the more private of their holy functions are very small. The Athenian priests receive from 1,800 to 3,000 drachmas (;^6o to ;^ioo) a year, while those in the provinces get only from 600 to 1,440 drachmas (^20 to ;^48) a year, and even this pittance is worth 25 per cent, less at the present rate of exchange. As a consequence, they have to earn a living like their parishioners ; they usually resort to agri- culture or shopkeeping. Their duties are prin- cipally liturgic and ritual ; they do very little preaching. However, they are in a sense the heads of their villages, not officially, but by the unspoken decree of the community ; it is to them the stranger applies for information or hospitality. RELIGION 233 They wear their hair and beards long as a pro- test against the West — and for the same reason, perhaps, they are generally married, though a bishop must on being enthroned renounce his wife — and their top-hats brimless in revenge- inspiring memory of the Turkish ordinance which thus exposed their eyes to the glare of the Southern sun. The Ottomans had a strange hostility to Giaour eyes, as may be seen from their treatment of the sacred pictures in Greek chapels : they commonly pricked out the eyes of the saints. I fancy that numerous as the priests are — four times as numerous as in Great Britain, and, indeed, in a thicker ratio to the population than in any other country in the world— there are even more chapels than priests. There are even more chapels per square mile than there are in Cornwall. The reason for this is that in the early history of the Church it was usual wherever possible to turn every temple, perhaps even every temenos, into a Christian chapel. Cave-temples dedicated to the Nymphs or Pan were re-dedicated to the Panaghia Speliotissa (Virgin of the Cave) ; Theseus became St. George ; Helios or Apollo, Elijah ; Athene the Virgin, and so on. And as in the days of the old faith it would have been monstrous to in any way encroach on a place consecrated to Divine use — whence the word ' temenos ' — so tradition maintained that what was once a chapel should be always a chapel. 234 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Where population placed itself a chapel was built ; when the population ebbed away to more fertile land or a higher perch out of the reach of pirates, the chapel still remained. They are, however, all of them small, with the exception of a few of the modern ones at Athens, and are all Byzantine in style, the women being treated somewhat as in our House of Commons. The site of a ruined chapel (Eremoklesia) is usually marked by a little covered stand, on which is a picture of the tutelary saint ; the pious, as they pass, cross themselves, and say a prayer and leave an obol or two. Summary. In order to fully grasp the present state of the Greek Church, we must not forget its origin. St. Paul was struck by the something between religiousness and superstition of the Athenians, and by the profusion of altars and shrines dedicated to their gods. The missionaries who followed him found that, although the Christian philosophy was exactly suitable to the Greek mind, there was a clinging to old myths and ritual which could not be evicted. So they made the best they could of the strange circumstances. They instilled the ethics and the beliefs of the New Testament, and allowed the familiar fairy tales to bear a new import, and the old ritual to have a fresh sacred charm. Almost every RELIGION 23s custom which the traveller finds foreign to Roman tradition can be traced back to pre - Christian times. In this way the priesthood remained dear to the people, and thoroughly national. In this way was the Church enabled to hold her own, and by her influence the Greek race remained comparatively pure, and the Greek language was saved for better days. That the priests cannot themselves have entirely believed the quaint fictions indulged in by their parishioners is probable, though it is not improbable that with their little learning a credulous habit crept upon them too unawares. But even when they did not believe, it is not unlikely that they felt it more comfortable to allow these innocent super- stitions to go on while they retained their in- fluence over their flocks. In all times and climes there has been a tendency to have an esoteric alongside of an exoteric religion. In order to counteract the dangers that threatened when they dared to interfere with the vulgar excrescences on the faith — for they did sometimes dare to interfere — they stiffened their authority by the increase of fast-days. As a counterpoise in the reverse direction, they allowed the ritual to replace the didactic. In most countries except our own it is a generally received doctrine that nations likely to thrive must not forget their national fetes. With us the Queen's birthday is more or less of a 236 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE holiday, especially as it is generally kept on a Saturday ; the Prince of Wales' is the day on which the three gas plumes over London shops advertise their owners' good fortune ; and November 5 is given over to the naughtier among small boys In Greece the great days are observed by thanksgivings in church in the morning, and general hilarity for the rest of the day. Such is the history of the influence of the Greek Church on the people, and their present inter- relation is just what would be expected. The people have great faith in their pastors, and are obedient to them, but their obedience does not entail the hardest kind of hardship ; certain small payments and rigid fasts and attendance at chapel on sundry occasions. There is no strict censorship over their lives, no set attempt to make the people live in harmony with the teach- ings of the text-book of their faith. As in Ireland the priests are largely drawn from the same classes as their congregations, and with the result observable in Ireland- — great sympathy, especially on national questions, but utter in- capacity to raise them beyond themselves in the domain of morality. Sir Thomas Wyse, her Majesty's Minister in Athens, says (in 1858): 'It is not an over-fed Church, nor an over - officious Church, nor a fashionable Church, nor a rough-riding, filibuster- RELIGION 237 ing Church ; its tone is less than modest, and we hear nothing of oppression or complaint,' which is a faithful portrait of the Greek Church in 1893. There is only one new factor of any consequence in the situation, and that seems rather a sad one, although its final effect it is difficult to forecast. In the last thirty years it has been increasingly common for young men to go to Paris to com- plete their education, and in Paris they find religion laughed at. Being young they do not cast out from their faith what there may be of the ridiculous lurking in it, but cast out the faith itself neck and crop. Few of them are dis- illusioned by the void they afterwards discover, but seek to fill it by some liberty-capped fetish, or some idol anx Camdlias. When they get home again they are at first very revenants for the scare they cause, but on s habitue a tout, and after two or three decades of this the effect is plainly felt in Athens. One would be inclined at first to prophesy for Greece the wholesale degeneracy which has taken place in France, but luckily, though the Church is established by law, it has neither state subsidy nor political power. Still less does the Church seek temporal supremacy, and so provoke license of thought as in Italy. So on the whole it is more likely that the touch of agnosticism will produce a reaction. In this the stranger cannot help Greece much. The Greek Church has never been aggressive, 238 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE and it resents aggression ; the old feud between it and Romanism is almost bitterer than the hatred of the Mohammedan oppressor. Protest- antism — at least, the /in de siecle Protestantism which cannot quite decide against the admission of Darwin to its calendar — is not understood. Attempts to proselytize are looked on as attempts to denationalize. The utmost the stranger can do is, when mixing with Greeks, whether in Greece or abroad, to point out in conversation the immense necessity of reform from within. It is not a question of deposing some time-honoured dogma. It is purely a question of practice. There is no dangerous purgatory, no misinter- pretable confessional to get rid of. What is needed is spirituality, life, especially, perhaps, the vitalizing spirit of self-sacrifice. It would be easiest to begin at the top. This has not been the usual method of Christianity, indeed, from the days of the fishermen of Galilee to those of ' General ' Booth, but the cases are not parallel. In Greece you have a splendid machinery for regeneration. Inspire the Holy Synod, and through them the bishops and hegoumenoi, and half the work is done. Let us hope that before the sensuous mockery of Paris can get at the heart of the Hellenic race the leaders of her religious thought will see the peril, will not be deceived by false hope and friendly memory as to its imminence, and will rouse themselves to RELIGION 2 39 make their Church the power for moral and spiritual good that it ought to be. The unscholarliness of the priests became patent to the great minds of Greece soon after the national independence had been achieved ; and in 1841 the brothers George and Manthos Rhizares founded a seminary, which is named the Rhizarion, in their honour. It has a foundation of 1,700,000 drachmas, but though as a school it has been very useful, it has failed to act as a priest-making machine. Only about 120 pro- spective or actual priests have availed themselves of its advantages. It had in 1889 13 pro- fessors and 52 pupils. There are also clerical training-schools at Chalkis, Syros, and Tripolis, and their pupils are obliged in theory to take orders afterwards, but they are not very suc- cessful. [ 240 ] CHAPTER XVII. ARMY AND NA VY. Army — Distribution — Navy — Defence — Attack. Army.- — It is very difficult to arrive at an exact estimate of the fighting-strength of the Greeks in the War of Liberation. In some cases the figures reported were exaggerated either through com- fortable optimism or the hope of frightening the Turks ; in others, owing to the inaccessibility of the mountain rendezvous, detachments were alto- gether omitted. There was very little cavalry or artillery ; the infantry was very largely irregular, though not on that account less suited for the particular kind of fighting it had to do. Perhaps a hundred thousand men took part in the war. King Otho had a bodyguard and a gradually increasing army, although it never became numerically strong. King George soon after his accession set about the reorganization of his forces, and the state in 1877 was : ARMY AND NAVY 241 10 battalions of infantry ... 8,700 men. 4 ,, rifles (Evzonoi) ... 2,000 „ I battalion of artillery ... 900 „ I „ engineers 500 „ I „ cavalry 420 „ Total... ... 12,520 „ If the gendarmerie is included, the total was about 14,000 men. The National Guard, how- ever, or army on a war footing, was supposed to number 200,000 men, although their organization was not very complete. In more recent years the regular army has varied in number from 26,000 to 29,000 men. The period of service is two years, although the conscription taking place on October i, and the military year ending on June i, it is practically twenty months ; after this there is a further period of ten years in the reserve. The length of service in the National Guard is eight years (with the exception of ten years for cavalry), and a further period of ten years in the reserve. The National Guard can only be called out in case of actual war, and its reserve in case of invasion. The conscription is universal, for all who are not physically unfit, from the age of 21 to 51, the minimum height being i'56 metres (61^ inches) for infantry, and slightly higher for artillery and cavalry. The obligation to serve is personal, with no power to buy a substitute. Each infantry regiment consists of three bat- 16 242 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE talions, but the third is always a skeleton, for economy's sake ; for the same reason Evzonoi battalions exist only on paper. Each cavalry regiment consists of four squadrons, the total strength being i,8oo men and 800 horses; most of the latter are Hungarian. The artillery em- braces three regiments, divided into twenty batteries. The weapon of the infantry and Evzonoi is the 1874 French Gras rifle, which carries rather over a mile, and can be discharged about twelve times a minute. With its bayonet it weighs 476 kilogrammes, or 10^ lbs. Each soldier is allowed 175 cartridges, of which he carries 78 on his person. The ordnance supplied to the artillery include field, mountain, and garrison guns (Krupp manufacture), of 7-5, 87, 10-5, 15, and 17 centi- metres, and mortars of 15 centimetres ; 272 rounds are carried per gun. The country is divided into three districts, with headquarters at Ldrissa for the nomarchies of Ldrissa, Trikkala, and Phthiotis-Phokis ; Meso- longhi for Aitolia-Akarnania, Achaia-Elis, Arta, Kerkyra, Kephallenia, and Zakynthos ; and Athens for the remainder. The distribution was,, in 1 890, as follows : ARMY AND NA VY 243 Place. Regiment. 1 .3 1 •3 s ■■5 ."2 .12 Si . ^1 Athens . . , No. I Line 7 12 II 27 4 — 3 )) ... No. 7 „ 7 rr 14 24 3 — 4 „ No. 2 Battalion Evzonoi 3 4 5 10 1 — 2 ,, No. 2 Cavalry... 4 3 5 13 2 — 2 ,, No. 3 „ 4 3 6 14 2 — 2 ,, No. I Artillery.. 7 5 8 13 2 — 4 ,, No. 2 „ 6 6 7 15 3 — 3 jj No. 3 „ ... 6 6 7 12 3 — 4 jj • ■ • Engineers 4 9 II 37 I — 3 Chalkis ... No. 2 Line 7 13 14 25 3 — 3 Kalamai . . . No. 3 „ S 10 13 24 2 — 4 Nauplion .. No. 8 „ 7 12 15 25 4 — 4 Larissa . . . No. s „ 6 [2 15 27 4 — 2 Volo No. 4 „ 6 12 15 23 3 — 4 Trikkala... No. 4 Battalion Evzonoi 2 4 5 10 I — I Kalambaka No. 7 Battalion Evzonoi 3 4 5 6 I — I Tyrnavos . . No. 8 Battalion Evzonoi 3 4 S 5 — — I 31 No. I Cavalry... 5 3 3 14 2 — 2 H)pata ... No. 9 Battalion Evzonoi 2 3 4 8 I — I Mesolonghi No. 9 Line ... 6 13 14 30 3 — 4 Kerkyra ... No. 10 Line ... 6 12 13 22 3 — 4 Arta No. 6 Line 5 12 12 16 4 — 2 )? • " No. 3 Battalion Evzonoi ... 3 4 4 4 — ■ — ■ I Agrinion . . . No. I Battalion Evzonoi 3 ,■; 5 7 I — I )j No. 6 Battalion Evzonoi 3 3 5 8 I — I In the chief towns of the noraarchies Gendarmerie ... Stores Dept. ... 7 5 7 12 45 II 49 24 — — — 244 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE s fc K Piaire. Regiment. ■^■^ x. Nauplion... Arms Dept. ... i 3 3 4 — Athens ... Engineers' Dept. 4 5 3 6 — — ■ — „ ... Artillery Dept. .3 2 — — — In the chieH military h Hospital Dept. . i 2 3 3 68 21 10 centres J Athens ... Military Law Dept. ... 16 10 — I — (Recruiting Dept. 16 16 16 16 — Financial Dept. 2 19 17 30 - - 14 Athens ... Education Dept. 27 15 20 14 8 — 2 Athens,' Kerkyra, and Nau- plion Garrison Total ... 211 278 341 577 131 21 90 There are also a few staff-officers not included In this table a dozen generals, and 22 chaplains, bringing up the total number of officers to rather over 1,700. It will be remarked that one-third of the whole are sub-lieutenants, and they are found in large numbers in important positions, as in the educational and financial departments ; the chief reason of this is that they do not become lieu- tenants in the speedy quasi-automatic way that second-lieutenants do in England, the secret being the same as that of the blank battalions — lack ot money. The proportion of officers to men is unneces- ARMY AND NAVY 245 sarily large. This is due very largely to the abundant supply — not to say plethora — of men of officerly status who are obliged by the conscrip- tion to serve in the army. In F" ranee, by the volunteer system of shortened service, young men of good family are induced to go into the ranks ; but Greece, while too democratic en gros to allow of such a distinction, is not democratic enough en detail to accept the hardships of a full period in the ranks. In addition to this both superior education and ardent patriotism tend towards a commission, and the very sentiment of democracy itself makes for the multiplication of officers, though its final outcome would be, as ludicrously as logically, regiments in which all were officers, and, indeed, all colonels. The pay of officers in the army is as follows : General of Brigade ... 7,080 drachmas {j[,2iG) a year. Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel Major ... [highest Captain -i , '^ (lowest Lieutenant Sub-lieutenant... At the present rate of exchange they actually receive about 25 per cent. less. In 1892 the total rank and file of the army was 28,1 14 ; this year it is reduced to 22,607, of whom 13,839 are infantry and Evzonoi, 2,277 artillery, 6,960 )' {£n^) 5>76o )) {£^9^) 5,280 )) (-^176) 3.720 3) (^124) 2,640 )) (;£88) 1,920 >J {£(>A) 1,680 )) {£sz) 246 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE 1,413 engineers, 1,146 cavalry, 305 army hospital corps, and 3,229 gendarmes, with 1,690 horses and 303 mules. There are 1,855 officers, or about I officer to 1 2 men. The expenditure on the army in 1892 was 16,642,374 drachmas ; in 1893 it is to be 14,364,230 drachmas. Bulgaria has an army of 33,463 men, Rou- mania of 18,532, and Servia of 13,000. Navy. — The early history of the Greek navy is much like that of her army. Her admirals and her commodores were the klephts of the sea. The phrase ' Greek fire ' was quite as alarming in the old days as its analogue 'torpedo' is now. It was a guerilla warfare among the hills and valleys of the deep, in contradistinction to the pitched battle between squadrons on the open plain of the sea. There was no gay uniform then either for'ard or aft; and when it was all over in 1834, and the new Government wished to show its ap- preciation of its heroes, old pyrpolete Kanares ambitioned nothing higher than lieutenant's rank. (Of his descendants now in the service one is a rear-admiral and two are commanders.) The first attempt at naval organization was made in April, 1833 ; there was not much of a fleet to organize, only the gallant but broken-winded crocks of the ten years' struggle — brigs and brigantines and schooners anchored in the ports of Hydra, ARMY AND NA VY 247 Spetsai, and Poros. A commission, however, under Miaoules and Kanares, visited the different harbours, and selected Poros as the naval port. Within three years two spacious establishments were built, big enough to accommodate 1 50 hands. Shortly afterwards, in 1838, they sent out a small student mission — Sachines to France, and Sach- toures and Koumelas to England — an experiment so successful as to be repeated in 1844 and 1846. So, too, Tompazes, who was chief constructor of the two first ships built at Poros — the Louis and the Amalia — had studied for many years in England. Two other ships — the Orphetis and the Ariadne — were given by the Russian Govern- ment. In 1859, under Athanasios Miaoules, it was decided to introduce steam, and three small boats were bought from a Clyde yard — the Nauplion, the Plexaura, and the Aphroessa — and three larger — the Salaminia, the Paralos, and the Pan ope. Their average maximum speed was about 10 knots. Under King George naval matters at first proceeded very quietly ; but in 1876 the BoubouLina, an ironclad, and the Psara, a torpedo depot ship, were built, and the smaller Delphin and Aspis. In 1877 the navy consisted of two ironclads and twelve wooden vessels. In 1878 the King's father lent him some Danish officers, whose services in elucidation of the new weapons 248 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE were very valuable. The torpedo, with its mystery and deadliness and demand for science and heroism, appealed very strongly to the popular imagination, and there was a big boom in sugar-torpedoes — a trivial fact that would have been considered in old times of dire portent to the enemy. In 1880 a torpedo- school was established under a Danish chief, and six torpedo-boats were brought from England at ^14,400 each. Four Thames passenger steamers also were bought for torpedo-work, and later 20 more torpedo-boats from England. It had become obvious to the authorities that the little port of Poros was unequal to modern require- ments, so in 1878 the Government yards had been moved to Salamis. It was finally ready in 1 88 1, and the little town which arose in con- sequence has now a population of 5,000 people. Six more torpedo - boats have been purchased from Stettin and nine from La Seyne. In 1889 to 1 89 1 the first really ambitious stride was taken. The ships of the Greek navy are at present : Armoured. Displace- , ,, jj„„.„ Aj-mour: Indicated 95o 10 1869 King ) ARMY AND NA VY 249 Unarmoured. Admiral Mia- ou les Amphitrite Hellas Sphakteria Mykale Aktion Ambrakia Hydra Spetzai Acheloos Alpheios Eurotas Peneus Aphroessa Nauplion Plexaura Syros Paralos Salaminia Displace- ment . Tons. 1,800 1,380 1,300 1,000 1,000 469 469 440 440 420 420 420 420 380 380 380 380 380 380 Length : Ft. In. 246 O 256 O 200 2 23s o 210 6 128 o 128 o 124 8 124 8 138 o 138 o 138 o 138 o 124 7 124 7 124 7 124 7 123 o 123 o Beam, : Ft. In. 36 c 36 37 3° 32 23 23 29 29 24 II 24 II 24 II 24 II 22 II 22 II 22 II 22 II 23 II 23 II Indicated Horse- power. 2,200 1,500 1,700 1,000 380 680 400 400 400 400 160 160 160 160 204 200 „, , Date Speed: . ^"o"- Launch. 15 II 14-5 10 "■3 10 10 10 lo'SS 9 9 9 9 879 890 878 88s 880 890 890 881 881 858 856 856 881 858 858 The armament (all of French manufacture) of the ironclads Hydra, Psara, and Spetzai, consists of 3 27-centimetre breech-loaders, and 5 of 15- centimetres, with 5 fixed tubes or launching- carriages for discharging fish - torpedoes. The Olga has 4 breech-loaders of £7 centimetres {5^ tons, long Krupp), 2 also of 17 centimetres (3I tons, short Krupp), 2 machine-guns, and 4 light guns. The King George has 2 breech-loaders of 21 centimetres (iC' tons, Krupp), 2 machine-guns, and 4 light guns. Of the unarmoured ships the Admiral Miaoules 250 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE carries 3 breech-loaders of ij centimetres (long Krupp), and i also of 17 centimetres (short Krupp). The Hellas carries 12 breech-loaders of 15 centimetres The guns carried by the others are chiefly 9"6 and 87 Krupp breech- loaders, though the Hydra and Spetzai each carry one 26-centimetre 26-ton Krupp breech-loader. There are 36 small steamers, some fatted for spar-torpedoes, and others used for custom-house work, and a royal yacht, and a transport — the Bouboulina — of r, 170 tons, and 1,800 horse-power. There are 34 torpedo-boats, in four classes, 6 being of 85 tons displacement, 128 feet length, 15^ feet beam, 1,050 horse-power, and 19 knots speed, built at Stettin, and 6 others of 48 tons, 100 feet length, 600 horse-power, and 19 knots speed, built by Yarrow. There is also a torpedo depot ship — the Kanares — of 1,100 tons, and 500 horse- power, with 2 lo-centimetre Krupp breech-loaders, 2 Whitehead-torpedo launching-guns, and 2 under- water torpedo-tubes ahead ; her speed is 14 knots. The number of officers and men was, in 1892, 3,550, of whom about 140 were officers, a much smaller proportion than in the sister service. The number of all ranks this year is 3,041 ; but there is a naval-reserve of men under thirty-four years, which numbers about 5,000. The naval expenditure for 1892 was 6,730,564 drachmas, the principal items being : Pay, 2,040,000 drachmas ; maintenance, 1,230,000 drachmas ; and ARMY AND NA VY 251 repairs, 1,378,000 drachmas. But the total esti- mated naval expenditure for 1893 i^ 5,034,245 drachmas only. The pay of officers in the navy is as follovirs : £ s. d. Admiral of the Fleet .. 13,200 drachmas (440 0) a year highest C^P'^'" ilowest 11,160 , (372 °) „ 6,480 , (216 °) ) . (highest Post-captain jj^^^^j .. 7,608 (253 12 0) » .. S>o88 , (169 12 0) J (highest Commander-, (lowest 5.424 4,104 , (180 , (136 8 16 0) 0) highest Lieutenant ], (lowest 3,744 , (124 16 0) ) 2,664 (88 16 0) ) Sub-lieutenant 1,800 (60 0) ) The English equivalent at the present rate of ex- change is about 25 per cent. less. Bulgaria has ten steamers on the Danube, Roumania twelve steamers, and Servia none. Defensive. — Greece was never a difficult country to defend as far as its land-approaches are concerned. Its present boundary - line is practically unassailable except in two places. The first weak spot is the region of Mount Olympos. There are three passes — the first to the south-east by Platamona, turning into the Vale of Tempe ; the second by Petra, between the true Olympos and the Pierian Mountains ; the third by the Turkish fortress of Servia, between the Pierian Mountains and Mount Amarbis, the route of Sarandaporos. There is also a very poor bridle-track over the lower part 252 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE of Olympos, by which the Romans entered Greece. None of these routes are really much more practicable for a modern army than the almost passless mountain- country between Tyrnavos and Arta. It is the very happy hunting-ground of Klephtic warriors like the Greeks. If they got magazine rifles, as they would if war-clouds threatened, and quick firing six - pounders and Maxims, they ought to have no difficulty in holding the Olympian passes against any numbers the Turks would ever be likely to bring against them. The further west the Turks go to attack the Greeks, the more complicated their task becomes. There is not only the getting their men and stores over many miles of rough roads ; there is the very doubtful loyalty of the Albanians and Epirots. In AH Pasha's time there was very little love between the dwellers round Joanina and the genuine Ottomans ; some of the Skipetar have from time to time turned Mussulman, but their race sym- pathies are much stronger than their religious attachment to Turkey. There may no longer be Suliots nor Pargiots to give the world a reminder of Thermopylean bravery ; but there are many fustanella-wearers who on the craggy heights of the frontier would show the Turks that, predilec- tion apart, they know that the Hunnish wave is ebbing to flow no more against Europe. At Arta this would especially be the case. The town is not well fortified, taking any ordinary Western ARMY AND NAVY 253 criterion ; but allowing for the rising ground and the river, and especially the mote than uncertain friendship of the neighbouring hillmen, there is very little fear of an attack from this quarter. Besides, granting that an enemy might in this way get to Agrinion and Mesolonghi, he has an insurmountable array of mountains before he can get Into Phokis and Boiotia. We may conclude, then, that having once got the Turks out of Hellas, the Greeks need be under no appre- hension of their ever returning by land. In war- time Greece could easily raise 50,000 men, and properly arm 10,000 of them, more than enough to secure their frontier against the Turks. By sea the case is rather different. The Greeks, as we have seen elsewhere, have an enormous range of coast-line to defend. This they could not do with their navy, nor could they do it by submarine mining, against a strong naval power. But at present it is not for them a ques- tion of Russia, but of Turkey, and their fleet is already very nearly equal to the decayed and ever-decaying navy of the Porte. Their torpedo- boats mancEuvred with the skill with which Kanares and Miaoules handled the brulots during the War of Independence would soon quench the Sultan's thirst for invasion. But supposing there were a complicated European war, or supposing that it was no longer a question of Turkey, but Russia, how then .'' We are assuming 254 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE that even Russia would think twice before ven- turing a worse than Plevna before Olympos, and would attempt an invasion from the sea. The defence of little Hellas would no doubt be difficult ; but I am not sure that it would be im- possible. In the first place, she has admirable heliograph stations (vide the beginning of the ' Agamemnon ') ; the top of Parnassos overlooks almost the whole of Greece ; the Akrokorinth, low enough never to be cloud clothed, has an enormous outlook ; a few signallers on Olympos, Mount Ocha (in Euboia), Hymettos, the Akro- korinth, one of the Argolid Mountains, Kolokera (above Monemvasia), some high point in rather Southern Maina, Mathia (above Pylos), Samikon, the east side of Erymanthos, Mount Zygos (above Mesolonghi), and Leukas, and you have a splendid signal-ring. In the second place, Greece rather resembles the watertight - compartment arrange- ment of a modern ironclad. There are a good many places where the enemy could land, which might safely be abandoned ; they would be practically culs-de-sac ; it would be signalled that troops had been landed on a certain little plain, and the little Peloponnesian railway would soon bring up enough men to defend some almost impassable mountain - road. Then, again, her rugged and rock-guarded coast would itself make the landing of an army-corps, or a quarter of an army - corps, in many places an impossibility. ARMY AND NAVY 255 There would remain certain larger plains like those of Olympia, Messenia, Sparta, Argos, and Athens, which would require scientific defence. This, of course, I shall not attempt to deal with. It is enough to say that modern mining at the hands of men defending their homes — of men as crafty and as fearless as the successors of the men who won their freedom sixty years ago, would not be unlikely to find out how to make it exceed- ingly hot for an invader. I do not think it would be a question of 100-ton guns, or of heavy ordnance at all ; Gardners and Maxims, and plenty of them, and above all the ingenious use of submarine explosives of high power. Attack. — Greece is never likely to attack any other country, except perhaps Turkey ; and in at all the immediate future, even Turkey only in her most accessible weak spot, Crete. Even such an attempt is improbable, unless the eyes of Europe are turned for the time in another direction. Were this to happen, it is by no means unlikely that, aided by the Greek Cretans, the Greeks would capture Crete. Nor in the present, and still more in the future, state of the Ottoman Navy should it be impossible for the Greeks, having taken possession, to hold their prize. But Greek aspirations are not limited to Crete by any means. They want Crete, for the sake of the Cretans ; for themselves, they want "H ITdAic, Constantinople. They could obviously 2S6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE never get there by sea. The Dardanelles are so narrow that no navy but ours — and perhaps not even ours — could force its way through. Could the Greeks get to Stamboul partly by land ? I do not suppose they could. But I cannot admit that it is impossible. Naturally, if Turkey was free to concentrate all her forces against Greece, it would be impossible. But if Turkey were engaged with Russia in the North, even with the Bul- garians neutral, or busy with Servia, Greece might not stand aloof as in the last Russo-Turkish War. She might happen to remember the fragile nature of the promises of the friendly powers, and prefer to try the chances of war on her own ac- count. She might possibly land at Dedeagh almost unopposed. She would there intrain to Kouleli- Bourgas, and from there, if the Turks were being hard pressed elsewhere by the Russians, would have a straight run in. It would be a Wolselian exploit, requiring careful pre-arrange- ment and bold fulfilment, but I do not think it is quite outside the bounds of possibility. It is true that once in Constantinople, her troubles might begin, Hannibal-like. But if the war were the great general European conflagration, which everyone more or less expects in the not very remote future, the general result of the great struggle might be in her favour, and she might thus conceivably be left in possession of the much- coveted prize. [ 257 ] CHAPTER XVIII. CONSTITUTION. Articles of Constitution analyzed — Parliaments — Administra- tions — Monarchic Democracy. This is not the place for a detailed description and analysis of the Greek Constitution. The aim of the preceding chapters has been to provide data on which to safely form an opinion as to whether in the region of population, agriculture, commerce, finance, education, and other parallel matters, the country had shown a satisfactory development during the reign of his Majesty George I. This chapter will of necessity differ from them in that it cannot to any serious extent avail itself of the solemn evidence of figures. And not only are facts generally, when recounted in running prose, less easy to grasp and less faith- demanding than facts in tabular form, but the particular facts incidental to, and descriptive of, political life are liable to be weighed by different measures. A barrel of gunpowder and a barrel 17 258 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE of soft soap affect the balance very unequally. We must get as nearly as possible into a state of mind and feeling equipoised between that likely in the atmosphere of a meeting presided over by Tom Mann and that suitable to a Primrose League Habitation. We want to conscientiously investigate the progress of Hellas politically towards the ideal, or, should the facts prove retrogression, to be quite sure of their teach- ing. For we may assume that the political movement of the last thirty years has had im- portant effects on the economic and commercial state of the country ; looking at politics in what seems to us its most elementary feature, public order, we know that neithei- in theory can there be, nor in experience has there been, either con- siderable commercial development or economic stability without it. The justification of the Powers who obtained autonomy for Greece largely depends on the result thus arrived at, not to speak of the support which may be given to her in the attainment of her wider ambitions. The science of politics may be treated either historically, as in the wonderful papers of the Federalist, on which the United States Constitu- tion was largely based, or psychologically, as in the writings of Professor Sidgwick. To treat the constitutional history of modern Greece in the former way would require far more space than this chapter affords, an ample volume at the least ; CONSTITUTION 259 the second method would prove too disputatious, as many features of Greek character would them- selves be matter of controversy. Accordingly, I shall assume as a sort of middle ground, with which, of course, both schools of theorists may disagree, that in political development the usual, or perhaps more exactly the average, course is from autocratic socialism through constitutional individualism to constitutional socialism ; append- ing axiomatically that in a state of human per- fection the socialistic and individualistic would coincide. The constitutional history of modern Greece may be thus summarized : On March 25, 182 1, the flag of liberty was uplifted at the monastery of St. Laura ; and on the same day the Messenian notables met at Kalamai under Peter Mauromichales, and pro- claimed the freedom of Greece. This conference having been of too local a character, the Pelopon- nesians met on the following May 26 at the monastery of Kaltetsai, in Lakonia, and appointed a Peloponnesian Senate, which afterwards met at Stemnitza. There were also meetings on the eastern and western mainland. The great Epi- dauros Convention first met on December 20. The earlier gatherings had dealt rather in detail with questions of police, recruiting and taxation, but this at once set about the framing of a Con- stitution. Its chief provision was that legislative 26o GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE authority should lie in an elective Senate and a Supreme Council of five, also elected, and for one year only. It was partly ancient Greek and partly French republican. On August i, 1825, under stress of circumstances, the Assembly at Nauplion placed Greece under the absolute pro- tection of Great Britain. On February 3, 1830, the Powers decided on the complete indepen- dence of Greece, and determined that its Govern- ment should be a hereditary monarchy. The Assembly now met at Argos, but under Kapo- distria there was no Government worthy of the name, and there was something like a small civil war before King Otho arrived. The Convention between the Powers and Bavaria decreed a Regency during the minority of the young King, but unfortunately not one of the three Regents selected by King Louis was a Greek, so Greece lived her first ten years under a tyranny, not, it is true, very cruel, but very incapable, and not at all in harmony with the rather ultra -academic ideas of Democratic Government, which had so far underlain Hellenic attempts at Constitution- making. At the expiration of the Regency the King still continued to rule through his Bavarians. However, the Greeks were much too sincere in their love of independence, and much too con- scious of political capacity, to be long content with such a state of affairs. On September 15, 1843, the necessary revolution came; no lives CONSTITUTION 261 were lost. The King dismissed his Bavarians, appointed a Greek Ministry, and summoned a National Assembly. A committee of twenty-one met in the following November, and drew up a Constitution, chiefly based on the French Con- stitution of 1830, and on that of Belgium. It was drawn up in a hurry, and with none of that wise care and debate which had .been so remark- able in the making of the Constitution of the United States. In aggravation of this, as Mr. Sergeant observes, ' the interference of the Powers in the affairs of Greece can hardly be said to have grown less frequent or less imperious under the constitutional regime ; and, indeed, the exercise of supreme political authority by men like Maurokordatos, Kolettes, Trikoupes, and Tsavellas, young in the art of government, and often rash from a novel sense of power, was cal- culated to afford ground for more or less reason- able intervention on the part of England, France, or Russia. Corresponding with the distinct policies of London, Paris, and St. Petersburg, there were political parties in the Greek Assembly, which went by the names of English, French, and Russian, and which were undoubtedly encouraged by the action of the three Govern- ments. This rivalry for diplomatic supremacy at Athens had the effect of checking the growth of independent statesmanship, and it swells the aggregate of responsibility incurred by Europe 262 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE towards the kingdom of Greece.' The legislative work of King Otho's Assembly calls for little comment. The country was disturbed within as well as from without ; its creditors had driven it a long way in the direction of bankruptcy, and the people had not yet had enough political experience to enable them to deal successfully with such complicated questions as constantly embarrassed them. On October 22, 1862, there was again a revolu- tion. Still, with all their democratic enthusiasm, on expelling King Otho, the Greeks asked for another King. Indeed, to be strictly accurate, they chose one for themselves. They took a plebiscite, which selected the Duke of Edinburgh by 230,016 votes against 4,865 votes given to eight others; while 1,917 were given for 'an orthodox king,' 1,763 for 'a king,' and 93 for a republic. However, the Duke was barred by the understanding entered into by the Powers on the creation of the kingdom ; and on June 5 the Powers, at the instance of England, recognised Prince William George of Schleswig-Holstein- Sonderburg-Gllicksburg as the new King. The National Assembly had already enrolled a National Guard, decreed universal suffrage, and appointed a Provisional Government. Their efforts were directed to the framing of a new Constitution, which was ratified by the King on November 21, 1864. Abolishing the old Senate, CONSTITUTION 263 it established a Representative Chamber of 150 deputies, since increased to 190, and again to 307, elected by ballot by all males over the age of twenty-one, from equal electoral districts (they were afterwards elected by nomarchies ; the system now is by eparchies). Mr. Sergeant gives the number of electors (in 1879) at 311 per 1,000, but I do not know what he does with the women and minors, who must be about 75 per cent of the population. The present number of electors is 450,000, or 205 per 1,000. The King has considerable power : he is irresponsible ; he appoints and dismisses his ministers and all officers and officials ; and he can prorogue or suspend Parliament. Nor is his power merely nominal. In 1866 the Chamber behaved illegally, and the King promptly dissolved It; in 1875 again the King successfully steered his country out of a whirlpool of corruption ; and, lastly, in 1892, his Majesty, finding M. Deleyannes obstinate in his financial dilatoriness, dismissed him. In order to thoroughly grasp the really advanced nature of the last Greek Constitution, we shall do well to look at it from a two-fold point of view — let us say from the Liberal and Conservative standpoints. The former I shall assume (although I know that, as far as English parties are concerned, these distinctions are not admitted in theory, and in practice are by no 264 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE means always true) to be a standpoint embracing especially the increase of the liberty of the subject in all directions, and the latter an outlook of narrower range but greater distance, commanding especially the remoter effects of legislative Acts, and so having a tendency to restrain individual liberty for the good of, and for the sake of, the State as a whole. The four-square effect of the proper relation- ship of depth to breadth will become very notice- able if we arrange some of these quasi-antithetical clauses in parellel columns. Ordinances Showing Liberal Progress. Article i. — Every other recognised religion is to be tolerated. Article 3. — All Greeks are equal before the law, and con- tribute without distinction to the public burdens propor- tionately to their incomes. Article 4. — Personal liberty is inviolable. Article 10. — Greeks have the right to assemble quietly, and without arms. Ordinances Showing Con- servative Progress. Article i. — The established religion in Greece is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ. Proselytism, however, is for- bidden. Article 3. — Only Greek citizens are to be admitted into any branch of the public service. Article 10. — The police may be present at all public meet- ings. Meetings in the open air may ,be forbidden, should public safety be thereby en- dangered. CONSTITUTION 265 Article II. — Greeks have the right to form societies, . . . which (z.«.,the laws) can never make this right de- pendent on previous Govern- ment permission. Article 12. — Each man's dwelling is inviolable (asylon). Article 13. — In Greece a human being is neither bought nor sold ; a purchased slave or serf of any race or religion is free as soon as he sets foot on Greek soil. Article 14. — Everyone may publish his opinions in speech, writing, or print. . . . The press is free. The censorship, as well as every other preventive measure, is forbidden. So also the seizure of newspapers and other printed matter is forbidden either before or after publica- tion. while they observe the laws of the State. . . . Article 16. — Everyone has the right to establish private schools. . . . Article 17. — No one is to be deprived of his property. . . . while he observes the laws of the State. The seizure after publica- tion is permitted in case of insult to the Christian re- ligion, or to the person of the King. Only Greek citizens are allowed to publish news- papers. Article 16. — Higher instruc- tion is provided at the expense of the State; and the State also contributes to demotic education according to the needs of the demes. conformably with the laws of the State. except for public necessity. 266 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Article 21. — All authorities proceed from the State. . . . Article 33. — The secret articles of a treaty cannot annul its public articles. Article 62. — A deputy can- not be prosecuted, or in any way whatsoever examined, touching an opinion or vote given in the exercise of his duty as deputy. Article 66. — The Chamber consists of deputies chosen by the citizens who have the suffrage by direct universal and secret voting, by ballot. properly shown, when and as the law may direct, and always with previous compensation. and are exercised in what- soever way the Constitution directs. Article 24. — No proposal concerning an increase of estimated expenditure for pay or pension, or generally for personal emolument, pro- ceeds from the Chamber of Deputies. Article 56. — The Chamber of Deputies cannot debate and decide any question with- out the presence of at least half its members plus one. Article 67. — Deputies re- present the nation, and not only the Eparchy by which they are elected. Article 70. — To be elected a deputy it is necessary to be a Greek citizen, of the Eparchy by which he is elected, or to have been domiciled at least two years in it, with enjoy- ment of municipal and political rights, to have completed the thirtieth year of his age, and, further, to possess the qualifi- CONSTITUTION 267 but not with those of officers in active service. Officers may be elected. . . . Article 77. — No member of the royal family may be ap- pointed Minister. Article So.- — The Chamber has the right to accuse Ministers before the proper tribunal. only with the consent of the Chamber. Article 91. — Judicial com- missions and extraordinary tribunals may not be estab- lished under any pretext what- soever. Article 92. — The sittings of the courts of law are public. . Article 93. — The system of trial by jury is maintained. Articlei)^. — Political crimes are judged by juries. cations required by election law. Article 71. — The duties of a deputy are incompatible with those of a paid public official or demarch. . . . but when elected are placed on half pay during the entire duration of the representative period, and remain in this position until their recall to active service. Article 82. — The King can pardon a condemned Minister — but in the higher ranks. . . . except when publicity would be injurious to good morals or public order. Article 96.— A judge is not 268 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE allowed to accept any other salaried employment except that of professor in the Uni- versity. Article 107. — The revision of the Constitution, as a whole, is not allowed. . . . but limited ordinances not fundamental to it may be re- vised. Article no. — The observa- tion of the present Constitution is dedicated to the patriotism of Hellenes. Parliaments. — Before commenting on this, it may be well to give a table showing the duration of Greek Parliaments. I. Under King Otho : Assembled. September 7, 1844 July 28, 1847 October 30, 1850 October 30, 1854 December 7, 1856 October 29, 1859 February 15, 1861 Dissolved. April 14, 1847 July 22, 1850 October 27, 1853 October 29, 1856 May 24, 1859 November 16, i860 September it, 1862 II. Under King George: Assembled. May 28, 1865 April 25, 1868 June 5, 1869 March 24, 1872 February 14, 7873 April 26, 1874 July 25, 1874 March 28, 1875 Dissolved. December 21, 1867 December 10, 1868 December 27, 1871 July 21, 1872 CONSTITUTION 269 Assembled. Dissolved. 7 • ... August II, 1875 July 14, 1879 8 . ... October 20, 1879 March 12, 1881 9 • ... October 9, 1881 February 11, 1885 10 ... May 9, 1885 November 5, 1886 II ... January 22, 1887 July 25, 1890 12 ... October 29, 1890 February 20, 1892 13 ■ ... May 3, 1892 The pay of a Minister of State, of whom there are six, is 9,600 drachmas a year (worth at this moment about ^^250), the Prime Minister drawing half as much again. Administrations. — The statesmen who have been Prime Minister more than once are : Under King Otho. A. Maurokordatos, 5. D. G. Boulgares, 5. G. Koundouriotes, 3. K. Kanares, 3. Sp. Trikoupes, 2. Rudart, 2. A. Miaoules, 2. Under King George. Al. Koumoundouros, 10. Ch. Trikoupes, 6. Ep. Delegeorges, 6. B. Rouphos, 4. D. N. Boulgare=, 3. A. Moraitines, 2. Z. I. Balbes, 2. Ih. Za'imes, 2. Ih. Deleyannes, 2. Before King Otho there were 4 administra- tions ; under his rule 24(13 before the Constitu- tion was granted and 11 after), 10 in the interregnum, and 42 under King George. This gives 70 administrations in 62 years, or about one every \o\ months, or, deducting the two kingless periods, 56 administrations in 60 years — that is, with an average duration of nearly 13 2 70 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE months. This compares for stability very well with the duration of French Ministries, 28 of which have lasted 22 years, or about 9^ months each. It should also be stated that there has been a distinct tendency to greater Ministerial longevity of late years in Greece. Under King Otho there were seven Parlia- ments in 18 years, which allows 2 years and 7 months for each Parliamentary period. Under King George there have been 13 in 28 years, or with a life of 2 years and 2 months each. However, we know that Parliament had not the same free play under the first King that it has had under the second ; and, besides, the present Parliament, considering the Prime Minister's enormous majority, is likely to con- tinue some time, and bring up the Georgian average. We now come to the lessons to be learnt from the foregoing facts. Monarchic Democracy. — The most striking- inference we are likely to make is the wonderful balance of the monarchic and democratic ideas. Antiquarians may be inclined to see in this a survival of the notions of Government prevailing in the different states which went to make up old Greece, and although it is probable that there is a considerable substratum of truth in this ex- planation, it is also adequately explicable on modern grounds. The fact is that, although CONSTITUTION 271 monarchy as exemplified by King Otho had not been as successful as Greece and her well- wishers had hoped, it had not been altogether a failure, and the leading spirits of the era of the new Constitution were more inclined to attach the blame of unrealized ideals to the old Con- stitution than to the King. Now, the old Con- stitution was chiefly of the French republican order, and consequently lop-sided. With a mature nation used to self-government, in no danger of public disorder, left to themselves by the outside world, it might have worked pretty well, but under actual conditions it was doomed to failure. Accordingly the Greeks not un- naturally turned their eyes to the form of Govern- ment under which England had shown itself the most stable and steadily ruled country in the world — perhaps in all history. We had no con- stitutional code for them to annex, but the spirit of our Constitution, and the most salient features of its body, were reproduced, with such differ- ences as the Greek law-makers thought advisable under their different circumstances. In addition to this revulsion against republican ideas, there was also some doubt as to whether the Powers, being all monarchical, would sanction any change in an anti-monarchic direction, and probably the selection of the Duke of Edinburgh, and the anglicizing of the Constitution, were not uncon- nected. 272 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE There have been no notable changes of the Greek Constitution since its first promulgation, though there has been a natural expansion, especially in the judicial section. This very fact is of itself a vindication of Hellenic national stability. There is no bevy of pretenders as in France, no nihilistic network as in Russia, not even a Home Rule party as in England. Inextricably, and almost inexplicably, mixed up with the individualist and socialist theories of government is the convenient inter-relationship of the legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. Too great power in the first is ultra-individual- istic ; in the two last, ultra-socialistic. The clause fixing the Constitution as a whole comes into the latter category, while there is at least one objectionable clause from the opposite point of view ; this I have not yet quoted. It states that the authoritative interpretation of the laws belongs to the legislature {i.e., Boule). But a law passed since the granting of the Constitution, and in interpretation of it, is liable to much more serious abuse. I mean that which places the trial of election petitions in the hands of the Chamber. This was once the law even in England, and is still the law in France, where it was abused after the 1889 general election to the prejudice of the Boulangists. In 1890 M. Deleyannes carried his abuse of it almost to the ridiculous, ejecting so many of his opponents from the Chamber that CONSTITUTION 273 the rest stayed away for some time as a pro- test. In making up our minds as to the suitabiUty of the Greek Constitution, we must look at it as a foundation on which experience may in time build up for them a Constitution exactly suitable to their needs. I think both internal, evidence and the history of the last thirty years go to show that it was, in fact, very fairly adapted to the development of the country. It was not only a satisfactory basis, in so far as it was neither too individualistic nor too socialistic, but it was both in principle and in many details suited to the specific probabilities of development inherent in the characteristics of the nation. Take, for example, the two sections dealing with the free- dom of religion and the press. In the former case liberty is limited, because for the time being at least proselytism would not only be very offensive to Greek feelings, but would not im- probably (did, as a matter of fact, in March last year) lead to a breach of the peace. On the other hand, in a nation so politically and journal- istically keen as the Greeks, absolute freedom of the press can do little or no harm. Extravagant language is often indulged in, no doubt, but extravagance rebuts extravagance, and in time, as far as Eastern richness of fancy and Southern excitability may permit, extravagance will give way to moderation. 18 274 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Taking, again, the two articles which state that a deputy must have been domiciled two years in the eparchy for which he stands, and that deputies represent the nation, and not only the eparchies which elect them These are both clauses of the restrictive kind, although anti- thetical. The first ensures to some extent that the second shall cause no harm to the con- stituents, while the second certainly attempts to provide that the first shall cause no harm to the State. As a matter of fact, the first is at this moment of the greater importance in Greece, although in England the second would be almost infinitely the more valuable. If we were to examine all the no articles of the Constitution in this way, balancing clause against clause, and reading them in their true local colour, we should come to the conclusion that the Constitution of 1864 is in itself valuable evidence of the political progress of the Greek poeple. It shows them to be neither reactionary (of which, however, probably no one would think of accusing them, unless it might be some rapine- loving Communist orconstitution-hating Anarchist) nor revolutionary, as is not uncommonly supposed in England. It shows that they aimed at a high ideal, and chose a path not unlikely to lead them to it, a path which has already led them some way towards it. [ 275 CHAPTER XIX. POLITICS. The fight in Greece last year was a square, or to be more picturesquely accurately, a trapezian one. There were the two large parties that followed M. Trikoupes and M. Deleyannes respectively, and the two smaller ones that supported M. Ralles and the locum tenens Government. The last named expected in theory a majority in the new Chamber, which it had not in the old, but gave no outward and visible sign of existence in the contest that was waged so merrily in the provinces, although M. Philaretos, the Minister of Justice, did make a tour of Thessaly of more or less political significance. The Ralles particle, too, counted for very little, having no assessable influence outside Attika and Boiotia. There was, however, supposed to be some sort of a compact between M. Deleyannes and M. Ralles, that if the former should be called on to form a Ministry, the latter should have a couple of portfolios at his 2 76 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE disposal, while if M. Ralles should be sent for by the King (an altogether unlikely contingency, as, if his influence had been serious, he would have been sent for in February) the former and his partisans were to give him their thorough support — a rather one-sided bargain, apparently. M. Ralles had one advantage over M. Deleyannes, namely, the support of the Palingenesia, the best Athenian evening paper ; the best morning paper, the Akropolis, being Trikoupist. That which would have most astonished an Englishman studying a Greek election for the first time on the spot would be the 'group system.' In each province there are usually two or more groups centred round the leading provincial politicians. At the outset considerable doubt often prevails as to which way the leader, and consequently his ' combination,' will go. For instance, about three weeks before the poll at the last election, Pandragoumism suddenly came to the front at Megara, which, being interpreted, means that M. Dragoumes got his group well in hand with almost certain prospects of success. In that particular instance, as M. Dragoumes was not only an ex- Minister of M. Trikoupes, but also a great personal friend, there could be no doubt as to which party would have the advantage of his combination. This is not, however, in- variably or even usually the case, and there is no doubt that during the course of the contest POLITICS 277 many of M. Deleyannes' provincial leaders were won over to M. Trikoupes' side. The latter's admirers asserted that while all those who hated the ex-Premier might be reckoned on as certain to support M. Trikoupes, the anti-Trikoupists were not at all sure to back M. Deleyannes. Moreover, M. Trikoupes' adherents rejected combinations in toto, and advocated unalloyed Trikoupism. It is not a very easy thing to sketch the rival programmes. In the most approved English way, the literature and oratory of the Trikoupes party asked the electors to compare the state of the country then with what it had been twelve months before, when their chief had gone out of office, and, from a party point of view, the local comparisons were very efficiently looked after — that is to say, the domestic facts, such as increase in crime, slackness in road-making, and inefficiency of educational provision were brought well home to the inhabitants of the most out- of-the-way hamlets. Quite a formidable array of figures was marshalled against poor M. Deleyannes, those in relation to crime being especially effective. But the political dis-agi- tator, if we may call him so, did not simply rely on his statistics. He spoke to audiences that had had bitter experience of the lawlessness into which the objection of M. Deleyannes to see his friends in gaol had plunged them. The 278 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Akropolis followed the example of our Times in the matter of a touring prophet, during the course of the contest, but his tour received a sad additional piquancy, though a party advan- tage, from the telling of the tale of crime and poverty in which he found the districts which he visited. Greece being very mountainous, and its road and railway systems incomplete, the few weeks which elapsed between M. Deleyannes' fall and the general election could not suffice to kill Kordonism, an ism latterly associated less with the personality of its hero than with the almost criminal laisser faire, which resulted from his lack of personality. In one place the tobacco laws passed by M. Trikoupes, eighteen months before, had not been put in force. In the same village a school of 150 children was left with only one teacher. The more ardent Trikoupists openly accused their opponents of police-court intrigue, and hinted pretty plainly that M. Deleyannes based his electoral hopes on the enormous number of criminals, convicted and otherwise. To descend to what appears to us impossibly trivial, the Trikoupists complained, and possibly with good reason, for the Govern- ment had not removed the ex-Premier's officials, that the circulation of their newspapers was often interfered with. Imagine Mr. Gladstone giving private orders to all post-office officials friendly to him to stop the delivery of the POLITICS 279 Standard and Morning Post ! M. Trikoupes' least popular but perhaps most praiseworthy ■ promise, was that he would , decrease the personnel of the civil service, a promise which he is fulfilling, and which should do a good deal to make such an abuse of power impossible, and such a charge unlikely. As finance was the rock on which M. Deleyannes finally and fatally struck, his opponent naturally made this his rallying-cry — for the leaders of thought. The press which repre- sented his views accepted almost unreservedly the financial programme which had recently ap- peared in the Times, approving heartily of the writer's demolition of certain French journals which had denied the solvency of Greece. Of course, the inference must not be hastily drawn that M. Trikoupes took his policy from the Times — a slander his enemies were not slow to pro- pagate ; on the contrary, it only meant that the Times writer was either very fortunate in the source from which he obtained his materials, or very masterly in the use he made of them. The objections taken by the Gortynians (the ex- Premier was a native of Gortys, of classical renown) to M. Trikoupes' finance were inconceivably puerile. They not only found fault with the principle of conversion, the golden dream of modern budget- makers — and an excess of silliness in that particular instance, as M. Trikoupes had used his 28o GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE surplus in railways and other public works — that is to say, productively — but even accused him of having borro-wjed 444,600,000 drachmas, nearly their whole debt ! As may be surmised, the converter had nearly all the money of Greece on his side, a fact which his opponents did not scruple (we have seen the same kind of thing happen nearer home) to make capital of. He also had the support of the Greeks living outside the kingdom, the Greeks of Alexandria, Smyrna, etc.; some of whom joined very keenly in his crusade against national bankruptcy. The ex-Premier did not appear to have a programme in our sense of the word. ' From their lion's head proceed miscreant menaces ; their programme draggles from their cur's tail,' said an Opposition paper ; and again, ' they content them- selves with provoking the most ignoble feeling in the lowest way.' A partisan opinion obviously, but M. Deleyannes' own words gave some ground for it. ' What value,' he asked, ' has your vote ? The crisis which is upon us happens to be a significant crisis. It was not only insulting to you, but it was insulting to the Chamber, and amounts to a fraud on our constitutional rights.' He thus alluded, in somewhat treasonous terms, to our way of thinking, to the King's dismissal of him from ofifice, while he still retained a majority in the Chamber. But he showed that he could be more disloyal than that on occasion. In saying, ' Royalty cast me from power at the POLITICS 281 very time when I was struggling to put to rout the poverty of the State,' he imphed that the corner was being turned, and that the King was determined not to let him have the honour of having helped to turn it — as unjustifiable an attack on Royalty as ever was made. It was not M. Deleyannes' lack of heroic finance, but his failure to deal with the simple provision for the hour, and culminating in his postponement of the budget, which caused his humiliation. The result of the ex-Premier's pseudo-Georgic was that modern Harmodioi and Aristogeitones, sometimes rather pigmy of stature and juvenile in calligraphy, went about chalking up on the walls, ' Long live liberty !' ' Down with tyranny,' and the like, though their catechism savoured more of petty Parisian anti Royalty than of the old Hellenic political experimentalism, which, after all, had some raison d'etre, besides giving the world an example of folly on a small scale, which might have saved much pother since, had man- kind been wiser. The system of voting in Greece is now by eparchies, and every voter may give as many votes as there are candidates, but he may not give more than one vote to any candidate. The result is that the vote of each eparchy is, as a rule, almost entirely of one colour. It is, how- ever, thoroughly in harmony with old Greek life, especially as many of the present eparchies were then independent states ; and as, of course, the 282 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE geographical arrangement which caused the ancient territorial divisions still exists, although partially disturbed by a rapidly improving rail- way system, the eparchy makes an admirable electoral unit. In 1890, when it was the nomarchy, the provincial unanimity was quite as marked ; Arkadia with 1 2 members, and Kephallenia with 7 were entirely Deleyannist, while the Kyklades, Lakonia, and Achaia-Elis were almost as decidedly in his favour. All the constituencies poll on the same day, as in France. The appended table contains the number of successful candidates belonging to each party by nomarchies. It must be borne in mind that there were three parties — Trikoupist, Deley- annist (the Rallists being merged), and Govern- ment, as well as Independent candidates ; while not only did each of these four run their men in groups, but a good many candidates, though of known party predilection, ran ungrouped. Grouped. Ungrouped. Mainland — 1 t 1 5^ 1 Attika-Boiotia ■ IS I I I Phthiotis-Phokis .. . 10 I 1 Euboia . 8 I I I Aitolia-Akarnania . . ■ IS Arta I I I Larissa • 9 I 3 I Trikkala . 12 I POLITICS 283 Grouped. Um GROUPED Peloponnesos — Argolis-Korinth Arkadia Achaia-Elis Lakonia Messenia ... Kyklades . . . Ionian Islands — Kerkyra Kephallenia Zakinthos ... ^ ^ S ^ 13 10 TO 13 s 1^ 020 8511 .13 S o ° 4 o o o o o o o o o Si "^ B Ci o o o o o ^3 I O o o o 6000IOII yooiiooo 40000000 In its main division this is equal to Mainland Peloponnesos ... Kyklades Ionian Islands... Trikoupist. Opponetits. 76 10 58 23 18 o 19 3 It will be seen from this that the revulsion of feeling in M. Trikoupes' favour was extremely widespread ; old Klephtic mountain villages and busy little ports vied with Athens in their resolu- tion to run no risk of national disgrace. Argos, Korinth, Ithaka, Megara, Messene, and Thebes were all solid for him, while of the 1 1 members for Athens, M. Ralles was the only successful anti-Trikoupist. 284 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE The next table shows that the ungrouped system has probably received its death-blow : Trikou- Deleyan- Govern- Indepen pist. nisi. ment. dent. Grouped candidates... 221 67 34 34 Successful... ... 154 15 6 9 Ungrouped candidates 96 31 14 146 Successful ... ... 17 2 I 3 The chances of winning were accordingly : Trikoupist grouped ... 7 ...ungrouped... •18 Deleyannist ,, ... -2 ... „ •06 Government „ ... -17 ... „ ■07 Independent „ ... -26 ... „ ■02 Trikoupist generally SS Deleyannist „ ■17 Government „ ■15 Independent „ ■07 Of course, the chances of all anti-Trikoupists were evidendy very small ; but it is important to note that of 356 grouped candidates of all parties, 184 succeeded (-5) ; while of 287 ungrouped candidates, only 23 succeeded ('08). After such a lesson, one might suppose that the Greeks would take a little more kindly to the party system of government. [ 28s ] CHAPTER XX. SOCIETY. Of Athenian society as at present constituted it is quite impossible to give a definition. In the first place, you have the Court set, made up principally of those who are honoured with more or less of the personal friendship of the Royal family. Outside this is a larger circle, consisting of all those who get invitations to Court functions. These, in harmony with the strong democratic side of Greek sentiment are very numerous for so small a capital. For the annual New Year's Court ball considerably over a thousand invitations are usually issued, and not only are many shabby uniforms seen in the quite royally-proportioned ball-room, but patent-leather chaussure is not compulsory, and there is no particular prejudice even against muddy boots. The Royal hospitality has on occasion been extended to the whole body of mayors and mayoresses of the kingdom. Luckily, although between the accent of the 286 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE vvorld and the counter- world there are differences, there is no fatal k to mark the gulf between the two. The best people talk the best Greek, that is, the purest from an antiquarian point of view ; the halfway people are rapidly Atticizing, most of the Greek they read is nearly up to New Testament form ; the others are quite content with the dialects of their provinces, tainted with Turkish for Thessalians, and Italian for Ionian Islanders. The chief distinction (allowing for certain grammatical changes due to an analytic tendency) between the old and new tongues is the introduction of phraseology borrowed especially from England and France. Person- ally, I do not think this a failing. I feel con- vinced that the unapproached wealth of expression of the Greek of the golden age is largely due to the readiness with which their talkers and writers borrowed from all sorts of barbarians. At the same time, the reason for the continuance of the practice is largely due to the fact that, indigenous literature being limited, they have to go to other literatures for their culture ; when they see good phrases, they are not ashamed to help themselves and enrich their language. To revert to society, it is, as may be imagined, distinctly mixed. It consists, however, of four principal elements. First, one has the old noble families (the actual titles have no legal value or recognition, and the King is not allowed to bestow SOCIETY 287 any such honours, except on the members of his family) of Austrian, Venetian, Servian, etc., origin, the Kapodistrias, Kolokotrones, Mauro- kordatos, Mauromichales, Metaxas, and Soutsos ; they do not aspire to the privileges of rank in Athens, but the numerous old titles in the Ionian Islands have still a certain amount of prestige. Then come the names of Kanares, Karaiskakes, Miaoules, and Botsares, whose lustre earned by noble deeds during the War of Independence is scarcely dimmed as yet. The third section is larger and still growing ; it consists of those who have struck oil in one shape or other, and includes the names Syngros, Schouzes, Schouloudes, Kalligas, Karapanos, Theologos, Pachys, Empe- dokles, etc., each of whom is probably worth over a quarter of a million sterling, one or two even being sterling millionaires. Finally, we have the political world par excellence, the hereditary legislators (by the divine right of talent), the Trikoupes, Koumoundouros, Koundouriotes, Dele- georges, etc. Of course, some names appear in more than one list, and assist in the cohesion of society generally. It will be inferred that society is not by any means a close corporation, nor has it even any very eclectic coteries, such as we are used to. There is constant regrouping within, constant accretion from below. There is only one jet of honour from the Royal fountain, the Order of the Saviour, and that is very highly esteemed. 288 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Its ribbon is not in every button-hole, like that of the Legion of Honour, nor have I ever heard of a case in which its conferment has had to be- cancelled. The analysis of the last-published list yields the following results, which are of use in a study of Greek social, and still more of Greek politico-social, life : Grand Cross. manders {higher). Com- manders. Knights. Tota Court o I 1 I 3 Ministers ... 2 7 12 21 Diplomatic Service I 2 9 4 16 Civil. Service o 3 17 51 71 Judges I 1 10 38 SO Nomarchs o 2 6 II 19 Deputies ... I O 6 26 Zl Army I i6 56 96 169 Navy o 3 12 36 SI Barristers o o 5 14 19 Clergy o 10 10 Profes.sors 7 II 29 47 Medicine... I 3 IS 19 Consular Service .. o 2 20 22 Demarchs o o 7 24 31 Commerce o 4 3 16 23 Miscellaneous o o IS IS Totals 47 160 406 619 The Army and Navy accordingly get 35 per cent, of the honours, a much larger share even than they get in England (23 per cent.), and, indeed, in proportion to population, they are knighted twelve times as frequently. The crosses bestowed on those not in State employ of one SOCIETY 289 kind or another are very few ; but it is the fashion of the times in all countries to give the social plums in much greater plenty to those who serve their country for pay than to those who serve her for love. It is in harmony with the high estimate in which the town unit is held that even provincial mayors, to the number of thirty-one, can reckon the blue and white ribbon within the range of its ambition. Perhaps the cynic will wonder where to find the much-vaunted democratic genius of Greece, but he should not forget that in the great Republic across the Atlantic every man aspires to be at least a ' Judge ' or a ' Colonel,' and even the Radical English tradesman arrogates to himself the title of Esquire, while the particle is nearly as much worshipped in half-communist France as In quite-imperial Germany. Greece has set up in her midst as her demigod the great equalizer (and liberator and fraternizer too) Education. Not only can they not possess a considerable hereditary aristocracy, for heredity has practically had but a couple of generations In which to do its gentle work, surnames, in fact, only dating generally from sixty years ago ; but, with the exception of a small minority, they all go through the same course of instruction. As the tourist rides about the interior, he Is surprised perhaps at the innocent communism of his muleteer, who, a/^e7^ drinking, passes his master the cup ; who, unless restrained, will sleep in the same room as his 19 2 90 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE lordos (milord), but is somewhat reconciled when he discovers that his servant (at a shilling or two a day) is a briefless barrister, or a politician out of work. Neither in public nor in private is heed paid to social standing ; the democratic idea, which permeates Greek life from Court to court, is perfectly sincere ; exclusiveness there means unsociability. A Greek is quite as willing to extend his acquaintance downwards as upwards ; in fact, to him generally up and down simply mean money, and the absence of it. Policies play a livelier part in social life than in France, although not quite the same part that they do in England. This difference is largely accounted for by the existence of political pro- fessionalism, which has here, as elsewhere, two principal causes : the fact that all their members of Parliament are paid, and the monstrous opening for corruption which exists where the majority of places in the Civil Service are retransferred to political adherents with every change of Govern- ment. The rewarding of political partisans has been carried so far even (not under the present Premier, of course) as the bestowal of a pension for previous services on a convicted forger. The play of social influences on elections has altered somewhat of late, owing to the change of the electoral area from nomarchies to eparchies. The kind of influence which controlled the larger area has not quite the same effect on the smaller ; there SOCIETY 291 is scope for local wire-pullers which did not exist before ; in fact, its effect is somewhat similar to that which the lowering of the franchise has produced in England. One feature which Greek social life shares with most European countries is the absence of ladies' political associations. Nor, with one brilliant exception, can there be said to be any salons. Not that femininity is uninterested in such matters. Over their afternoon izat (tea d la russe) there comes often much wit, and no little wisdom, on the questions of the hour from the matrons who are intimate with great personages. Seeing the strides female education has made in the last decade or two — and most girls at all in society now know one or two languages besides their own, to the extent even that you may hear quite as much French as you hear Greek, and nearly as much English, at a Court or Legation ball — one may be sure that the fair sex are likely to have a good deal to say on matters political. It is not unnatural that they should not yet have thrown off the last trace of Turkish oppression, but the customs that still remain as a bitter reminder of the child-tax days, are doomed to speedy extinction. The ethical question, par excellence, will deal with it, for in this the women have the men at a great advantage. The chief difficulty is the dot system. A young man gets embarrassed financially ; what does he do ? Go to the Jews.'' He cannot do that, for he is a 292 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Greek, and Jews do not flourish in Greek cities. No, he looks about for a Hkely girl — that is to say, the girl with the largest dowry, for whose hand he would have any chance — and, with a little profes- sional help, gets betrothed. His debts are paid, and often enough they are unhappy ever after- wards. This is not the only serious aspect of the question. It is looked on as bad form, or worse, for a brother to marry until his sisters are disposed of, and for a younger sister to marry before an elder. The result is that an over-sanguine eldest sister celibifies the whole establishment. Another unpleasant incident of the custom is the un- welcome which meets the poor girl babe, not only the first, because she is not a son and heir, but all girl babes, for the simple reason that each will have to be provided with money to catch and keep a husband on. Shakespeare, the great apostle of love-matches, is fortunately becoming more and more read, and if English institutions are copied rather than French, there is a chance of disestablishing the dowry yet. At present I am afraid that, although there is a strong socially Philanglic set, the sympathy of Athens is more with Parisian life than with English. The most sombre Saxon admits that Paris is much more attractive outwardly, and at first, than London ; in London you have to hunt after a pleasure, but in Paris it hunts after you. Not unnaturally, then, the Greek likes French life and imitates it at SOCIETY 293 Athens. But he will find out the superficiality of it some day. Already the average Greek is superior to the average Frenchman in several matters of morals, just as he is superior — vastly superior — to him in looks ; he is not yet more learned, but he is more intelligent. It can hardly be conceived, then, that Athens will long go to Paris for her inspirations. What I imagine is likely to happen is, she will copy in turns and in fractions the socials of London, New York, Berlin, and Paris, assimilate what is best of them — or, at least, what she may find most assimilable — and evolve a social life of her own, gay and pleasing, and not unwise, and thoroughly natural to her traditions and surroundings. Let us hope that this will include love-marriage, though Greece will have a hard struggle before she really convinces herself that the holy bonds of love have a happier, more abiding grip than the casual bondage of lucre. The greatest drawback to Greek social enjoy- ment is the absence of country houses. This fact, which is less Turkish than true Hellenic (although Xenophon had a charming place with capital hunting at Skillus, near Olympia), has baneful effects on agriculture, political organization, and society. There are suburban villas at Ambelo- kepi and Kephisia (where Aulus Gellius had his, and wrote his sometimes stiff and sometimes chatty essays), and a leading banker has a house 294 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE as far afield as Marathon. But although Greece teems with lovely sites — not historical, Heaven forefend ! — for country mansions, even chateaux have not yet made their appearance. The rich families often go in the summer to what they still call Europe, just as Cornishmen speak of going to England ; the comfortably-off go to Phaleron and Kephesia. To an Englishman the chief social charms are the constant reminders of the old Greek, and especially Athenian, life, and the intensity of the patriotism, not the aggressive patriotism of the Champs Elys^es, that detects a personal insult in all other national aspirations, and heedless of 1 8 1 5 and 1870-71, affects superior strength, and tenfold superior value to that of half the world, but a patriotism of sincere desire and solemn intention, not unlike, but superior to our own on account, perhaps, of its greater need. Surely there can be few nobler causes or firmer cements of democracy than genuine patriotism. [ 295 ] CHAPTER XXI. PHILANTHROPY. An elaborate system of benefaction is generally indicative of a deep-rooted civilization, and is rarely found in newly-established states. Nowhere is the variety of charitable aim and method so nearly infinite as in England, so immense that the charities of London alone require a big volume to describe them. So even in Greece there are too many philanthropic institutions for us to attempt to investigate them all. However, we may form a fair general estimate of the beneficence of the people by glancing at the leading facts of the chief pious foundations of Athens and the Peiraius : I. The ' Hope' Hospital, founded in 1836. It has a revenue of about ^5,000 a year. In 1891 it dealt with 1,453 cases, of whom 97 were Athenians, 860 provincial Greeks, 450 Greeks from 'unredeemed Greece,' and 46 foreigners. It has medical and surgical sides, the former 296 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE embracing- about 60 per cent, of the cases, of which 309 were of the respiratory organs, 229 were zymotic, and 106 of the digestive organs. The most plentiful surgical cases were woundings, of which there were 169. 2. The Ophthalmic Hospital, founded in 1843. It attends to about 1,200 cases a year, of whom 65 per cent, are men, 20 per cent, women, and 15 per cent, children. It owns property to the extent of over ;^i 5,000. The blind number 7 per 10,000 of the population. The deaf and dumb 5 „ ,, ,, The lunatic 5 „ „ ,, 3. The Zaneion Hospital at the Peiraius, founded in 1873. It attends to about 600 patients a year. 4. The Naval Hospital at the Peiraius, founded in 1880. In 1890 it treated 258 cases, of whom only 7 died. Foreign sailors are boarded and physicked for 2^, drachmas a day per head. 5. The Evangelismos Hospital, founded in 1 88 1. It owns over a million and a quarter drachmas worth of property, and in 1892 ex- pended 274,067 drachmas. In 1891 it dealt with 946 cases, each patient remaining in the hospital on the average just six weeks. It is by far the most important hospital in Greece. Paying patients are admitted at 10 drachmas a day, everything included. It boasts of 38 ' benefactors,' and 100 lesser benefactors, who have given donations of PHILANTHROPY 297 between 10,000 drachmas and 1,000 drachmas at a time. 6. The Lunatic Asylum, founded in 1885, con- tains 72 men and 3.9 women. It is arranged on the French sectional plan. Of its 206 patients between October, 1887, and December, 1890, 74 were idiots, 46 had paralysis of the brain, and 29 were melancholiacs. Alcoholism is very rare. Its expenditure is about 25,000 drachmas a year, and its capital 300,000 drachmas. 7. The Hadji- Kosta Orphanage, founded in 1853. Its revenue in 1891 was 111,695 drachmas. In 1858 it had a capital of a quarter of a million drachmas, and maintained 10 orphans ; it now has a capital of two millions, and maintains 230 orphans. They receive technical instruction, some of them learning farming, as well as an elementary education. 8. The Queen Amalia Orphanage, founded in 1855. Its present capital is about 2^ million drachmas, and it maintains 1 50 orphans. 9. The Enfants Trouv^s, with its big collecting- box ; it was founded in 1859. The annual number of children exposed is said to fluctuate between 300 and 360, a total high enough, one would think, to expose the impolicy of the system. 10. The Helen Zanes Orphanage, founded in 1875, maintains 75 orphans, who also receive technical instruction. Its income is about 30,000 drachmas a year. 298 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE 11. The Girls' Orphanage, recently established at the Peiraius. 12. The Retreat for the Aged at the Peiraius, founded in 1874 ; it spends about 7,000 drachmas a year, and entertains twenty old men. 13. The Poor House, founded in 1864, but removed to its present commodious quarters in 1872. One hundred and eighty poor men and women are maintained in it. Its capital is 400,000 drachmas. 14. The Brotherhood of the Friends of the Poor, established at the Peiraius in 1880. It provides work and looks after the sick, taking special pains with the convalescent. 15. The Brotherhood of Poor Macedonians, founded in 1890. In its first year it relieved over 300 Macedonians who were found in needy cir- cumstances in Athens. 16. The Brotherhood in Christ, founded in 1 89 1. Its aim is the moral, mental, and material improvement of released prisoners. 17. The Ladies' Syllogue, founded in 1872. Its principal undertaking is the provision of work for needy women. About 400 are thus looked after each year. Sewing employs about 100, embroidery 40, lace-making 25, silk-work, etc., 80. In 1890 it received 155,161 drachmas from sales. It has also a school. Its capital is nearly half a million drachmas. Its silk articles are particularly good. PHILANTHROPY 299 18. The Hymenaeal Society is a club for pro- viding dowries. A subscription of 5 drachmas a month for twenty years assures a dowry of 2,750 drachmas. The society has a revenue of 36,000 drachmas a year. There are also societies for more or less mutual benefit among the different professions and trades, the doctors meeting for the good of their patients, let us suppose, and the barbers in the interests of art. The hospitals which have medical schools at- tached to them have been treated of on page 185. The provinces are also very fairly supplied. For instance, Kephallenia has a hospital, with a foundling department, a poor-house, an institution for poor priests and deacons, and a yearly alms- giving ; while Syros has a hospital, a foundling hospital, a society for the relief of the poor, a Roman Catholic poor-house and hospital com- bined, and a French brotherhood, which, amongst other things, keeps a school of about fifty boys, and teaches them French gratis. It will be seen that old and young, poor, sick, and imbecile, are all well cared for. Of these last there are very few, probably a smaller proportion to population than in any other country in Europe. There is also extrernely little pauperism, one reason for which is that living is very cheap. The Greek peasant lives in comfort and even in luxury on a few coppers a day. A cloudless sky, 300 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE a cigarette, and plenty of conversation, and he is more than contented. The hospitals, although containing plenty of beds, and officered by well- read doctors and clever surgeons, are not quite satisfactorily worked. A rheumatic patient does not at all enjoy the washing-out of his ward in the bucket-fashion common to all small Athenian manages, and good nurses are rather lacking. However, the Queen is quite devoted to hospital- work (the Evangelismos is under her special care), and is doing a great deal to improve the home- side of hospital-life. [ 30I ] CHAPTER XXII. MISCELLANEOUS. Climate — Wind — Rainfall — Earthquakes — Mountains — Mineral Waters — Flags — Travellers — Travelling. This is a chapter of odds and ends which bear more or less directly on the past and future pro- gress of the country. It is obvious, for instance, that the climate is an important factor in the development of Greek agriculture, that earth- quakes provide economic problems which have to be reckoned with, and that Philhellene optimists are likely to look to an increase of tourists as a likely source of revenue. Climate. — The mean temperature of the air at, and sea near, Athens, calculated from the observa- tions of M. Schmidt, the Director of the Athenian Observatory, during a period of over twenty years, has been : January i Mean Temperature of the Sea. 147 Mean Tempi of the /. 8-5 „ IS ... February i ... 13-9 139 8-0 8-4 IS 14-4 9-6 302 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Mean Temperature Mean Temperature of the Sea. of the Air. March i 15-2 II'2 .. IS l6'2 12-8 April I 17-3 14-4 » IS i8-i i6'3 May I 19-8 i8-5 >. IS 21'3 2I-I June I 22'9 237 .. IS 24'6 25-8 July I 25-8 27-2 >= IS 26-6 28-1 August I 26-8 28-s >. IS 26-5 28-1 September i 25-6 26'S I S ••■ 24-4 24-4 October i 23-0 22'0 IS 21-6 197 November i 20'0 17-2 I 5 ••• 18-5 I4-S December i I7-S 11-9 I, 5 ... 16-4 97 This gives a mean annual temperature of ly^ (rather greater than that of Lisbon, and rather less than that of Palermo), with a difference between the January and July means of 19 '3 (which is considerably greater than that of either Lisbon or Palermo). The mean temperature at Kerkyra is : January, 10-2 ; February, 10-3 ; March, irS ; April, 15-5 May, 19-5 ; June, 23-4; July, 26-3; August, 25-9 September, 23; October, 19-8; November, 15-2 December, 1 1 •6. The greatest and least summer maxima registered at Athens have been : MISCELLANEOUS 303 Greatest Least Maximum. Maximum. May ... 38-1 28-1 June 4o'3 30-8 July ... 4o'i 33-9 August ... 41 'o 33'9 September 39-0 29-4 The soil-temperature sometimes reaches 74°. Snow is a rare phenomenon in Athens ; the most notable fall was in January, 1864, when it lay for over a week. There is a commonly prevalent belief that snow is unknown in the islands, but this is only applicable to their low-lying regions ; the mountains of Salamis, Aigina, Syros, Andros, Tenos, Mykonos, and even Delos, are pretty often snow-clad. The first snow usually appears on Parnes about December 6. ,, ,, Hymettos about December 30. It also appears regularly on Pentelikon, and occa- sionally on Aigaleos. The Wind is a very important item in Greek, especially in Athenian, life. The following table of their average frequency, by MM. Neumann and Partsch, is taken from the ' Guide Joanne ': N. N.E. E. S.E. 6-. S.W. W. N. W. January . ■■ 3-5 lO'O o'S 1-2 3-6 7-2 2-3 2-4 February 2'I 8-1 °-s I -8 3-4 7-5 3-S 1-8 March . •■ 17 6-8 0-6 0-8 S'o lo'S 3-1 2-4 April .. 1-6 6-3 0-4 I'2 2-8 13-0 4'o I'o May 1-2 6-3 °-s °'5 4-3 14-4 2-4 1-3 June .. 0-8 8-2 o'3 07 2-9 i3"i 2'2 2'2 July . .. 0-9 14-4 0-3 o'3 ^•3 io'4 1-8 0-6 304 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE JV. ME. K S.E. 6'. S.W. IV. MW. August . . . 0-8 14-5 0-4 °'5 1-9 9-6 2'2 I'l September 1-8 ii-B o-S 0-9 3'3 9-8 1-3 0-8 October... 2-3 8-6 0'2 0-6 3'S 117 2-5 1-2 November 2-0 9"o 0-6 i-o 5'° 8-0 2-9 1-4 December 3-5 8-1 o-S II 4-2 7-6 4-0 1-9 Total ... 22'2 II2"I 3-S io'6 42-2 122-8 32'2 l8'I The N.E. wind in the summer is a great boon, while the S.W. wind in the same season is quite the reverse ; but the air of Attika is so hot that it does not deposit any moisture. The Rainfall (from Dr. Schmidt's observa- tions, over a period of ten years, given in Baedeker's ' Greece ') is as follows, the unit being the Paris line. of which 5-^=5 lines English, nearly : Days. Rainfall. Days. Rainfall January ... 13 25-2 August 3 37 February ... 19 i6'o September 4 6-3 March II 17-3 October .. 9 22'I April 8 7-9 November 13 39'4 Mav 6 8-8 December 13 25-9 June 4 6-8 — July 2 4-2 Total.. • 95 183-6 This is about 16 inches a year. It must be observed, however, that in the wet season a ninth of the yearly rainfall sometimes falls in one day ; more than a fifth of it even has been known to. Rain falls in Kerkyra on 103 days in the year, in Zakynthos less frequently than in Athens, the average quantity in Kerkyra being about 30 inches annually, though varying much in different years. MISCELLANEOUS 30s However, rain rarely continues for more than a few hours in any of the Ionian Islands. The rainfall is distributed as to seasons, thus : Athens. Patras. Kerkyra. Spring .. 20 per cent. 18 per cent. 18 per cent. Summer .. 8 „ 4 4 Autumn .. 34 33 36 Winter .. 38 „ 45 42 The annual mean of humidity is 62 per cent, (being 67 per cent, at Palermo, and 71 at Lisbon); this is largely owing to the almost complete absence of dew in the summer. Thunderstorms are sometimes of considerable severity ; about 20 occur annually in the neigh- bourhood of Athens, chiefly between June and December. They are almost as frequent in the Peloponnesos, but rarer in the Ionian Islands. Earthquakes. — Mr. J. Smith was the great authority on Greek earthquakes, and we may take the period of his investigations as a sample- period. His general table is as follows : Days on which Shocks were Felt. In Greece. In Greece, destructive. In Athens. — 7 — 9 I 2 I 8 1859 37 i860 59 I86I .. 58 1862 . 95 1863 . 54 1864 . 39 1865 . 60 1866 S3 1867 . 204 1868 . .. 87 1869 . 49 1870 . •• 130 15 16 15 II 13 34 20 3o6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Days on WHICH Shocks WERE Felt (continued). In Greece. In Greece, destructive. In Athens. 1871 212 3 6 1872 167 2 10 1873 ... 114 2 15 1874 ... 166 I 18 187s ... 21 I 6 17 years 1,605 22 185 This gives an average of 94*4 days of earthquake per annum for all Greece, and of 1 1 days per annum for Athens, and a destructive earthquake every nine months — a distinctly alarming record. The historic earthquakes of Greece have been : B.C. 373. The destruction of Helike and Bura. A.D. 23. „ Aigion. ,, 77. ,, Korinih and other places. „ 551. The destruction of Korinth, Patras, Naupaktos, etc. (the greatest of all known catastrophes). „ 1 7 14. Patras and other towns injured. ,, 1742. Zacholi greatly injured. )5 ^753- " 5' „ 1785. Patras ,, 1%1'j.ab Aigion ,, ,, 1842. Patras greatly injured ; also various other towns of the Peloponnesos. ,, 1847. Hydra greatly injured. ,, 1853. a/5 Thebes ,, ,, 1858.13: Korinth ,, „ 1 86 1. Serious earthquake in Achaia. „ 1867. ,, „ Kephallenia. ,, 1870. ,, ,, Amphissa. ,, 1893. <) ,, ,, Zakynthos. a signifies greatest loss of life, and b greatest destruction of houses; no single shock has killed more than 100 persons, or destroyed any large building. — Chiefly from a note by Dr. Schmidt in Sir Thomas Wyse's ' Excursion in the Pelopon- nesos,' MISCELLANEOUS 307 M. J. Smith's observations go to show that earthquakes are most prevalent in calcareous formations, and not in volcanic. He is of opinion that many of the lesser seismic effects in Greece are not autochthonous, but are sympathetic waves from Crete and Asia Minor. Mineral Waters.^ — Greece has an abundant supply of natural mineral waters : Aerated — at Provata (Melos) and Sousaki (near Kalamaki). Alkaline — at Aidepsos, Andros, Bouliagmene, Hermione, Kastriotissa, Kythnos, Loutraki, and Methana (2). Carbonic acid — at Kounoupitsa and Protothalassa (Melos). Iron — at Aetos (Akarnania), Kythera, Nea Kaymene, and Neon Phaleron. Saline — at Aigina, Ali Jelebi, Galaxidi, Kythnos, Peleketon, Repsoi, Thera, Thermasia, and Vonitsa. Saline (bitter) — at Kythera, Levadeia, Melos, Mounychia, and Paphos. Sulphur — in Aidepsos, Aigina, Gargalianoi, Hy- pata, Kaiapha, Karvassara, Kyllene, Methana, Nea Kaymene, Thermopylai, and Zakynthos. (Those in italics are the most celebrated, and have, I believe, dtablissements, though not on a very luxurious scale.) Mountains. — Switzerland is lucky in that her inferdle mountain soil makes her the happy hunt- 3o8 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE ing-ground of Alpine clubs and alpenstock-wielders generally. The mountains .of Greece have yielded, so far, no such compensation. The altitudes (in metres) of the highest or otherwise most interest- ing are ; Mainland. Peloponnesos. Islands. Olympos ... 2,956- Taggetos ... 2,409 Ainos ... I ,620. Giona 2,512. Kyllene ... 2,374 Staurotes 1 ,180. Korax 2,495- Chelmos ... 2,355 Neritos 807. Parnassos ... 2,459- Erymamhos 2,224 Gieri ... 756. Tymphresto.s 2,319- Parnon 1,937 Pindus 2,156. Panachaikon 1,927 Oite 2,152. Artcuiision 1,772 Ossa 1,95°- Moinaleon 1,559 Dirphys ... 1,785- Lykaion ... 1,420 Helikon ... 1,749- Tsimberou 1,252 Othrys 1,728. Helenitza ... 1,247 PeJion 1,630. Minthos ... 1,222 Kirphios . . . 1,563- Parthenion 1,217 Parnes 1,428. Arachneion 1,199 Kithairon ... 1,411. Hag-Maria 1,016 Ocha 1,404. Zabitsa 975 Kallidromos 1,374- Malthia ... 957 Geraneia . . . 1,37°- Tiitheion ... 858 Pentelikon 1,110. Ithome 782 Hymettos ... 1,027. Mesapeion 1,025. Sphingeion 567- The chief Ath inian heights are Akropol s 156. Lykabetto s ... 277. Mouseion 147. Ardettos. --- 133- Pnyx . log. The rivers of Greece are not rivers in a Tamisian sense, and they are not estuaries, for MISCELLANEOUS 309 the simple reason that there are practically no tides in the Mediterranean ; they are rapid torrents after the melting of the mountain snows, and dry sandy ravines the rest of the year. The longest is the Peneios — 90 miles. It is easy to understand how they were deified in primitive times ; indeed, it is a pity that their cult in our days is not more regularly practised. It is only by the most careful storage of their waters that the summer plains of Greece can ever produce their rightful weight of corn. Irrigation has made considerable progress in the last ten years, but there is a lack of combination which robs the land of its due share of the plentiful waters that rush by every spring and are wasted in the sea. No doubt, too, in the centuries that have gone, they have carried with them a valuable quantity of the soil of the country. Flags. — The badge adopted in 182 1 was a phoenix below a Greek cross. The phcenix is found on the frontispiece of Greek books printed at Venice. The original flag, as raised by Arch- bishop Germanos, was white, with a cross en- circled with a wreath of laurel ; it was inscribed ' The Symbol of Freedom.' The Spetsiots carried a blue flag, on which was a half-moon with a cross above it, round which was coiled a snake ; on the left hand a spear and an owl with folded wings. Its inscription was ' Freedom or Death.' A black banner was used by the Hydriots, and various 3IO GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE Other flags in the other provinces. The Epidauros Assembly decided on blue and white as the colours, a white cross on a blue ground having been used by the fleet of Stathas twenty years previously. The number of stripes decided on was nine, a somewhat Homeric choice. At present several varieties of the national colours are in use. The flag proper has 5 blue and 4 white horizontal alternate stripes ; in the lower left-hand corner a square bears a Greek cross argent on a field azure. The royal standard and the ensigns used by the navy and by fortresses bear the royal crown on the centre of the cross. The flag of the mercantile marine has the nine blue and white stripes, but blazonless. A fair idea of Greek patriotic sentiment can be got from the following invocation, by M. N. Saripolos, in this year's 'Companion': ' The Fatherland, children of Greeks, is not your plain or hill, the cross of your village church, or the smoke of your hearths rising to the sky, nor the tops of your trees, nor the monotonous song of your shepherds. The Fatherland is Thessaly for the Akarnanian ; Cyprus and Crete for the Athenian ; Olympos, Pindos, Athos, for the hill-born Arkadian, and the haughty ranges of Taygetos. The Fatherland is all Greece by blood from Malea and the Ionian Islands to the Phoenician Sea. The Fatherland is whatsoever part of the fair earth speaks the language — our harmonious MISCELLANEOUS 311 Greek language ; it is whatever causes "the throbbings of our breast ; it is the bond of religion, the blood-libation which our brethren, our parents, from all the corners of the Hellenic land, have offered on the altar of our rebuilt native land. The Fatherland is the sharing of the Hellenic name. Freedom's sweetest and holiest link. The Fatherland is our heaven's fair blue, the sweet sun that lights us, the tranquil sea that flows round us, the fertile lands from Thrace and the Euxine to the Libyan Sea. The Fatherland is all our fellow-citizens, great and small, rich and poor. The Fatherland is the nation which we ought to love, worship, serve, and defend with all the powers of our minds, with all the might of our hands, with all the energy and all the love of our souls.' Travellers. — Whatever opinion one may entertain of Greece economically, however Turkish or Russian one may be in one's political sympathies, one cannot deny that Greece is the least betoured of all the interesting countries in the world. I know it is hard to say why people go in crowds to some places for their holidays and not to others, but the Rhine and the Riviera, Norway and Naples, are all notable for fine scenery.^ People may not choose the most beauti- ful spots to go to, but they certainly avoid the most ugly. In theory Greece far excels all other countries in her claims on travellers. The coast 312 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE scenery is not much more beautiful than that near Monte Carlo ; some of its plains are rivalled by those of Southern France, and its mountains are less high (above the sea) than those of Switzer- land ; but not one of these, nor any other country, has the same wonderful combination. The view from the summit of many Greek mountains is inconceivably beautiful. From the top of a Swiss mountain what can you see ? A few other peaks, and perhaps a few score leagues of plain. But from Parnassos you have peak and plain, island and sea, to far greater distances ; from Zakynthos to Asia Minor, and from Mount Athos to Crete, the most beautiful panorama known to mortals. In no more northern country, moreover, is there the same translucent air — an air that seems to act magically on distant objects. But the innermost secret of Greek scenery, and that which, even if as scenery it were only equal to other of Nature's pictures, would raise it far beyond them in men's estimate, is the subtle charm of association. This is not true of the archaeologist alone ; he, indeed, is liable to lose something of its massive delights in the pursuit of more acute specialist raptures, in the skilful riding of a favourite hobby, or the bowling over of a rival's theory. But the average man and woman have an undefined sympathy with the names of places they learnt about at school — the names that pervade all literature, and are the MISCELLANEOUS 313 f^te names of all the arts. Probably the Iliadic feats of the War of Independence, and the romantic stories of the feudal days, have con- secrated few place-names for the multitude ; but from the attack of St. Paul on Athens, back to that of the Persians, each little square of country was receiving ever and anon a something from its tale of weal or woe to touch the interest of all mankind for ever. Further back the spell has still more power. The spots made sacred by dramatic art are sacred still, but chief of all the holy glamour that blind Homer poured upon the castles of unhallowed days — Cyclopean castles and their giant crimes and fairy nobleness — is on the world's eyes yet ; even that world that thinks itself so wise it does not deign to read such nursery - tales. The usual man is Philistine enoucfh to know and care but little of the hard sharp facts of history, but yields himself up pretty readily to feel a little dreamy pleasure from the sweet unknown of old associations. When he comes to Greece, as come he will some day, he will not be museum-tied, or spend too crowded days on the Akropolis solving the puzzles of the Parthenon ; but, treading leisurely the academy, will wonder how old Plato knew so much, not knowing in the least what Plato knew ; or climb into the chilly home of Zeus, and mix up Ovid's and Disraeli's tales ; or on Parnassos fill his roving eyes with blunders that would once 314 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE have cost him dear ; or at Olympia let his sport- ing trend have unchecked sway, indifferent about his fellowship of soul with Pindar's song. Travelling. — A wanderer who has just re- turned from this land of dreams is daily amused at the way his friends lump the different parts of the Levant, Egypt now excepted, as a region not to be travelled in, but only explored. The general survival of the word ' dragoman ' is perhaps partially responsible for it. As a matter of fact, one can stay about as comfortably, although not quite as luxuriously, in Athens as in London or Paris, and the fact that inns are scarce elsewhere is a mere ordinary illustration of the law of demand and supply. The present class of Greek traveller, not being too literally thin-skinned, enjoys the novel hospitality of a two-roomed manse, and the in-by-sunset mildly jovial asceticism of a monastery. He likes his ten hours in a saddle, with lunch and siesta by a plane protected fountain, better than a day in a drawing-room car, with lunch on board. And then he is enchanted by the free-and-easy money- dealings with the natives ; occasionally, perhaps, he may sigh for a /rzir Jixe, but considering how cheap everything is, he probably rather likes the feeling of uncertainty as to the demands to be made upon him. And the elasticity of idea of the providers of his wants as to the value of their commodities and services is very refreshing. MISCELLANEOUS sts He will sleep, perhaps, in a totally furnitureless room, and be rather surprised to be asked ten drachmas for his bed ; but, then, he will but enjoy the more the feeling of relief when his tender of two drachmas is contentedly accepted. Nor need he find the supposed over - shrewdness of the Greeks at making a bargain at all unpleasant. He need but let himself slip into an Oriental mood, and have a cup of coffee with his bargainee, and, above all, not appear to be in a hurry. The letters of horses and rooms will everywhere try to make as much out of him as possible, of course, because they are poor, and all Englishmen are supposed to be rich ; but they are very reasonable, and never refuse a fair offer. If he travels in this rough-and-ready fashion, with a simple agogiat to look after him, he can get on very well on ten shillings a day. If he would be bored by a little higgling, or would find it a bother to have to talk a little Greek (one can get on quite comfortably from the first with the remains of one's college Greek plus the words and phrases in Baedeker), he had better take a dragoman with him for about £2 a day if he is alone, or ^i a day for each person if there are four. One of the pleasantest ways imaginable of spending the ' long ' is to get up a party of four and hire a caique — say at the Peiraius, or Kerkyra ; at the latter place there are generally yachts to be found for hire. The 3i6 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE caique can be painted and fitted up for a fiver or so — lockers and pegs and a floor in the hold — a contract is then made with its crew for from ^lo to ^15 a month for a master, two sailors, and a boy, including the hire of the boat, and with a cook for ^3 or ^4, and the total expenses (inclusive of the above, and of the hire of mules to perambulate the islands on) willcome to about ten shillings a day a head. Intending visitors to Greece who are at all archEeologically - minded should get M. S. Reinach's little book, ' Conseils aux voyageurs arch6ologies en Grece et dans I'Orient Hellenique.' Although written by so learned a man, it is not alarmingly learned either in matter or style. It is a sermon on the text, ' They have eyes, but they see not," and is meant even more for the ill-prepared traveller, who asks himself, ' Can a profane even glean when the harvest has been made by masters ?' than for the ambitious traveller, whether specialist or encyclopedist. He is especially strong on the advantages of photo- graphy, and in these Kodak days neither the luggage nuisance nor the expense need frighten anyone out of taking a little trouble, which will be more than compensated by the possession of such mementoes in after years. There ought to be a ready sale of good negatives for lantern-slides, as at present Greek slides, unless of Athenian subjects, are very hard to get. What really MISCEL LAN ROUS 3 j 7 ought to be attempted, although it might require combination, is an illustrated edition of Pausanias. The pictures in Williams, Forbin, Wordsworth, etc., are admirable, but quite devoid of system. Everything mentioned by Pausanias, and still in existence — the scenery he passed through, the temples and the marbles — ought to be photo- graphed, and the resultant edition of the great forerunner of the Baedekers, Murrays, Meyers, and Joannes, would be the most magnificent book ever published. The other weapons recom- mended by M. Reinach for amateurs are a squeeze apparatus, a sculptor's chisel, a magnify- ing -glass, a field -glass (a binocular telescope, which costs about ^10, is a most fascinating travelling- companion), a note -book ruled both ways, and a graduated walking-stick. [ 3i8 CHAPTER XXIII. PANHELLENISM. The previous chapters have consisted principally of facts showing the state of Greece sotis tous les rapports at three dates in her history — at her birth, at her confirmation, if we may so speak of her admission to the sacred privilege of a democratic Constitution, and at the present time, when she is seeking to form a lasting union with the disinherited Greece, her cousin. It is with this alliance that we have now to deal. Nor will it be to our purpose to assert or support any imaginary right of hers to whatever lands may once have been hers by right of colonization or long posses- sion. She makes no claim on Marseilles, or even on Sicily. Nor again shall we base any argu- ments on the long continuity of the Byzantine empire. The circumstances are wholly modern, and our calculations must deal with wholly modern facts. The claim of Greece is simple enough ; it is to be the successor of Turkey when Europe PAN HELLENISM 319 decides to drive the Turks out "of Europe, and in Asia Minor as soon as circumstances may permit. The figures she brings forward in her favour are merely census returns — the number of Greeks in the provinces she asks for. Mr. Sergeant sets forth the figures in careful detail as they stood in 1879 ; but if he was able to support the claims of Greece then, the figures are so much more favourable now that there ought to be no doubt about the matter at all. They apply not to Greeks born in Greece, who appear in a separate table, but to Greeks born in Turkey : I. Thrace : Greeks living ir 1 the province of— Constantinople 220,000 Derkoi 70,000 Herakleia ... 190,000 Adrianople ... 105,000 Didymoteichos 40,000 Ainos 10,000 Bizye 10,000 Anchialos 10,000 Selybria 15.00° Sozonagathoupolis ... iS>ooo Gonos iS>°oo Lemnos 12,000 Imbros 14,000 Prokonesos ... 10,000 Total . . . 736,000 II. Makedonia 630,000 III. Epeiros 380,000 IV. Crete 250,000 Total European Turkey 1,996,000 320 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE V. Asia Minor and its ' islands : Greeks living in the bishopric of — Smyrna 150,000 Ephesos 300,000 Kyzikos 7S,ooo Nikomedeia.. 50,000 Chalkedon ... 80,000 Proussa 25,000 Philadelphia 20,000 Ankyra 15,000 Pisidia 40,000 Trapezus 60,000 Neokaisareia 40,000 Ikonion 50,000 Araaseia 80,000 Chaldeia 25,000 Kaisareia 60,000 Mitylene 80,000 Rethymna ... 50,000 Rhodes 45, 000 Samos 52,000 Chios 75,000 Kos 40,000 Karpathos ... 25,000 Adanoi 55,000 Cyprus 150,000 Total 1,692,000 The foreign towns most resided in by Greeks are: In Bulgaria, Varna; in Austria, Trieste; in France, Paris ; in Germany, Hamburg ; in Great Britain, London ; in Italy, Venice ; in Roumania, Braila ; in Roumelia, Philippopolis ; in Russia, Odessa ; in Servia, Belgrade ; in the Turkish Provinces — in Thrace, Constantinople ; in Makedonia, Salonika ; in Epiros, Prevesa ; in Asiatic Turkey, Kydonia ; in Egypt, Alexandria. PANHELLENISM 321 Recapitulation. Greeks born in Greece and living in Greece . . • 2,233,822 abroad .. ■ 180,338 Total ... ... ... ... 2,414,160 Greeks not born in Greece, living in European Turkey ... ... ... ... ... 1,996,000 Greeks not born in Greece, living in Asia Minor 1,692,000 Turkey ... 3,688,000 Total number of Greeks ... 6,102,160 With this we must compare : I. Bulgarians in Bulgaria ... .. 2,326,250 „ „ Turkey S4o,ooo Total number of Bulgarians ... 2,866,250 2. Total number of Roumanians, about 5,000,000 3. „ „ Servians, „ 1,650,000 4. Turks in European Turkey ... ... 700,000 „ Asiatic Turkey ... ... 6,800,000 Of true Greeks resident abroad, 19,506 are in commerce; 13,503 are students; 8,336 are artisans; 5,530 are sailors; and 2,409 engaged in agriculture. Asiatic Turkey, however, includes, besides Asia Minor, Syria, the greater part of Armenia, Kurdi- stan, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. We see, then, that in the two areas to which Greece has pretensions she owns by kinship a larger proportion of the population than any other nationality. In European Turkey, indeed, which is her most immediate concern, 43 per cent, of the last census isGreek, the total population being 21 32 2 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE 4,668,000. The members of the Greek Church are still more numerous, as it embraces Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Servians, or about 56 per cent, of the population. But the numerical strength of Greece in Turkey does not nearly represent her real strength, for their syllogues give them a homogeneity which other races, the Turkish masters even included, do not possess ; this is maintained by their educational superiority, which not only gives them great influence, but no doubt increases their natural money-making talent, and so makes them frequently the owners of the soil. Whether or no Greece is some day to have Constantinople depends not only on the right of Greece to it, or on her fitness to receive it, but at least as much on the lack of a satisfactory alterna- tive. The other claimants are Turkey, Russia, Austria, and Bulgaria. I. Turkey — who can hardly be called deata possidens. Englishmen have always had pity on the poor Turk ; and, indeed, taken absolutely, a Turk is not a bad specimen of humanity ; he is clean, brave, philosophical, and obliging. He is a bit of a bully when he gets the chance, certainly, especially if a mere Christian is the occasion of it, and he is not quite up to nineteeth-century form on certain questions affecting the fair sex ; but his failings have been greatly exaggerated, except his laziness, which could not be, and the present Sultan has shown himself thoroughly alive to PANHELLENISM 323 Western ideas, a man of courtesy, culture, and considerable statecraft. If it was simply a ques- tion of handing over his European possessions to Greece because she would develop their resources quicker, free them of brigandage, as she has freed her own, and generally bring them within the pale of Christian civilization, probably most people would say that she had enough to do to look after her own affairs, and that Turkey, having shown signs of reformation, ought to be allowed another chance. But is there anyone in England, is there anyone in Turkey, is there anyone in Europe, who supposes that the present condition of affairs is likely to last long ? Most people are expect- ing a war of the most alarming kind before the close of the century. A military friend of mine of high rank, who knows both Russia and the Balkan States very thoroughly, confidently pre- dicts May, 1895, as the date of the commence- ment of the struggle. His calculations are based, I believe, on the wish of official Russia to get the affair settled as soon as possible, coupled with his knowledge of the time she still needs in order to complete her preparations. Admitting, however, that the war will not come in 1895, nor even this century, experience teaches us pretty plainly that sooner or later there will be European wars, and I do not think it is an unwarrantable assumption to suppose that that corner of Europe will be one of the campaign- 324 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE ing-grounds. The fight will be inier alia for the possession of Turkey, and, judging by precedent, her further dismemberment is likely to be one of its results. Accordingly the question of Turkey for the Turks needs no consideration. 2. Russia. — I believe there is a school of foreign political thought in England which does not admit Russia's wish, or, at any rate, her in- tention, to obtain Constantinople. To them there is nothing to be said, though they might find reasons for changing their mind if they studied Russian opinion as expounded by Russian news- papers, even in the short translated extracts which appear in the English and French press. Mr. Sergeant gives a quotation from the Histoire du Consulat et de I' Empire, in which M. Thiers says : ' When the Russian Colossus shall have one foot on the Dardanelles and the other on the Sound, the old world will have been reduced to servitude, and freedom will have fled to America. A chimera still for short-sighted politicians, these sad previsions will one day be painfully justified; for Europe, stupidly divided, as the Greek cities were in presence of the King of Makedonia, is certain some day to suffer the same fate.' What would M. Thiers have said if he had known that the 'stupid division ' of Europe in the last decade of the century should be the work of the ' short- sighted politicians ' of his own country ? Mr. Sergeant deals at some length, following M. PANHELLENISM 325 Martin, with the falsity of Panslavism. We need not concern ourselves here with the Aryanness or otherwise of Russian descent ; it is enough for us that we consider Russia the worst possible candidate for Constantinople. We are convinced from the highest possible standpoint that she is unqualified for the work. We bring no charge against her peasants ; we do not even accuse the Czar either of barbaric tyranny at home or aggressive selfishness abroad ; we only state that, whatever may be the cause, Russia is at present unfitted to be entrusted with the ad- ministration of more territory. But we do not need to take such high ground as this. The balance of power is rightly a sacred phrase ; and we are convinced that the balance of power would meet with worse disturbance if Constantinople became Russian than if it became anything else, except, perhaps, Chinese. All Europe, except, of course, France, is disgusted with Russia's ways of extending her influence. The revelations we have lately had about the official machinery by which she has carried out assassination in Turkey and Bulgaria — to omit minor crimes — have probably convinced most Englishmen that it would be an insult to civilization, an insult to liberty, to advocate the claims of a Power that is morally still in the nursery, and should be in the corner. It is interesting to observe that the Panslavs not only reject Panhellenism, but 326 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE follow the lead of Fallmerayer, who declared that the modern Greeks were not Greeks at all — a bubble exploded everywhere except in Russia. 3. Austria. — It is perhaps hardly fair to accuse Austria of desiring Constantinople. She wants a port on the ^gean, but would be content with Salonika. At the same time, if in the general milde she were to successfully engage a Russian army in the Balkan region, and the Turkish army were engaged elsewhere — say on the Greek frontier — she might be tempted to try a coup de thddtre. All we know of her designs at present is that she was strongly opposed in 1878 to the Russians seizing Constantinople, and we may take for granted that she would be at least as strongly opposed to any such thing now. It is quite obvious that the idea must be more obnoxious to her than to any other Power. Her frontier would be threatened on the south as well as on the east, and she herself would be Russia's next prey. The machinations practised now in Bulgaria would then be tried on in Hungary. Even at the present moment it requires much tact to keep her heterogeneous population in proper going order. With Russian conspirators in her midst the task would be well-nigh impossible. 4. Bulgaria. — This plucky little country is a formidable candidate. She has been blessed with two good princes, and several prudent and in- genious statesmen. Her diplomacy during the PANHELLENISM 327 last ten years has earned her the admiration of all Europe, and a greater compliment still, the detestation of Russia. She has made great pro- gress internally ; she pays her debts punctually — even to Turkey, to which State, indeed, she be- haves in quite a model way, especially when one considers that she is a sort of ward of court, and might be expected to treat the condemned parent's authority with some disdain. She does not, however, conduct herself towards her neighbour Greece in an altogether friendly way. It may be in accordance with her laws that no foreigner shall be able to leave the ownership of land in Bulgaria to anyone not a Bulgarian citizen ; but it is very questionable morality, and very poor policy, not to allow the foreign legatee to sell the land to a Bulgarian subject. Some of her Prince's most useful subjects have been Greeks, and to attempt to drive them out of the country is third-rate statesmanship. The question of the Greek schools, too, does not reflect much credit on Bulgarian self-confidence, or on her hospitality. It betrays a sub-consciousness that the Greeks are a stronger race. The question of the ex- archate, I fancy, need not have caused the resent- ment in Athens that it did. It was a repartee, and a good one, to the intrigue by which General Ignatieff had detached the Bulgarian Christians from the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and annexed them to the national Church of Russia, 328 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE of which the Czar is the head. Poor Dr. Vulko- vitch (who was one of the victims of Russian mediaevahsm), of whom I saw a good deal at Athens in the spring of 1890, disclaimed any ambitions Constantinople-wards for his country ; but being Bulgarian agent to the Porte, he could hardly be expected to make any naughty admis- sions. The issue which he thought most likely if Turkey were ever to be dispossessed of her European possessions, and I do not think it can be a breach of confidence to his memory to state it, was that Constantinople should become a free city after the old fashion of Hamburg. Its present mode of administration in part by consular courts, with even separate post-offices under the management of the chief Powers, would not seem a bad groundwork for such a scheme. This plan concerned Constantinople only, and Dr. Vulko- vitch said nothing about such Bulgarian aspira- tions as might stop short of its walls. In comparing the claims of Bulgaria and Greece, we ought not to attach too great importance to Bulgaria's diplomatic successes. As far as in- ternal progress is concerned, there is only one department in which Bulgaria has outstripped Greece — that is, in governmental stability. But this is, without doubt, due to the fact that her Government depends entirely for support, not on its internal administration, but on its dexterity in external affairs, and its foreign policy is very PANHELLENISM 329 much simplified by the persistent unfriendHness of Russia. As long as Russia continues to threaten her, M. Stambouloff will always have a large majority in the Chamber, which, of course, greatly facilitates internal administration, and consequently the development of the country. Greece has not the advantage of a foreign bully to drive her parties into coalition, and is accordingly subject to a certain amount of administrative change, though M. Trikoupes' last administration was a long and steady one, which his present one, barring financial difficulties, ought also to be. I think we may fairly concede that, as far as evidence of autonomous capacity goes, Greece and Bulgaria are on an equal footing. Accord- ingly we must look elsewhere for a test by which to determine their relative claims to be the suc- cessor of the Porte in Europe. The solution of the difficulty which at once presents itself is that of nationality. A century ago this would not have appealed to the public mind as it now does ; but since 1835, when I think the word was first used — at any rate, with its present signification — there has been a tendency to favour that kind of territorial adjustment which most coincides with the facts and sentiments of nationality. The most accurate, as well as the most temperate, exposition of this doctrine that I can recall is that of Pro- fessor Sidgwick :* ' We recognise it as desirable * 'The Elements of Politics,' 1891, pp. 213, 214. 330 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE that the members of a state should be united by the further bonds vaguely implied in the term " nation." I think, however, that the implications of this important term are liable to be obscured by attempts to give them great definiteness. I think it impossible to name any particular bond of union among those that chiefly contribute to the internal cohesion of a strongly-united society — belief in a common origin, possession of a com- mon language and literature, pride in common historic traditions, community of social customs, community of religion— which is essential to our conception of a nation-state. In popular talk it is often assumed that the members of a nation are descended from the same stock ; but some of the leading modern nations — so called — are notoriously of very mixed race, and it does not appear that the knowledge of this mixture has any material effect in diminishing the conscious- ness of nationality. Again, the memories of a common political history, and especially of com- mon struggles against foreign foes, have a tendency to cause the community of patriotic sentiment which the term " nation " implies : still, the present imperfect cohesion of the Austro- Hungarian State shows that this cause cannot be counted upon to produce the required effect. In the case just mentioned, differences of language seem to have operated importantly against cohesion; and, indeed, in most recent movements for the formation of PANHELLENISM 331 States upon a truly " national " basis — whether by aggregation or division — community of language seems to have been widely taken as a criterion of nationality : still, it seems clear, from the cases of Switzerland on the one hand and Ireland on the other, that community of language and community of national sentiment are not necessarily connected. Again, at certain stages in the history of civiliza- tion religious belief has been a powerful nation- making force, and powerful also to disintegrate nations ; but these stages seem to be now passed in the development of the leading West European and American states. I think, therefore, that what is really essential to the modern conception of a state which is also a nation is merely that the persons composing it should have a conscious- ness of belonging to one another, of being members of one body, over and above what they derive from the mere fact of being under one govern- ment ; so that, if their government were destroyed by war or revolution, they would still hold firmly together.' Taking the minor and more definite tests, we can have no doubt at all about the superiority of Hellenic claims over Bulgarian. Not only have Greeks a much more earnest belief in a common origin, and that of a much more remote period, than the Bulgarians, but, taking the inhabitants of the disputed territory, the Greek belief in a common origin is held by 1,996,000 people, as 332 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE against 540,000 who may thus beHeve in a com- mon Bulgarian origin. The possession of a common language and Hterature affects the same proportion of Turkish subjects, and there are many who talk Greek who are not Greeks ; but if we look at the question of literature, the difference of qualification approaches the ridiculous. As to pride in common historic traditions, it is unneces- sary to say anything, as it is one of the commonest of the charges brought against the modern Greeks, and its absence is sometimes looked on as a merit in the Bulgarians. These latter have a community of social customs, but not more so than the Greeks. Lastly, community of religion is shared by both ; but as the religion thus held in common is that of the Greek Church, and the Bulgarians are com- paratively new converts — although it might, as far as this item goes, give Bulgaria a claim to be a part of the Greek nation — it can hardly be seriously used as an argument for handing over a majority of Greek members of the Greek Church to her keeping. The indefinite definition of Professor Sidgwick may, however, be allowed to decide the question. No doubt the Bulgarians in Bulgaria have con- siderable ' consciousness of belonging to one another ' ; but, all the world over, no country is to be found in which that consciousness is so intensely keen and wide - awake as in Greece. Every peasant, every fisherman, glories in being PANHELLENISM 333 a Hellene (the older name ' Greek ' does not appeal to them so strongly), and is thoroughly alive to the existence of Hellenes at present outside the Greek kingdom. ' Enslaved Hellas ' and ' Free Hellas ' are terms they all understand — as how- should they not, with the memory of their own slavery so fresh and painful ? Indeed, if proof of this consciousness were needed, it would be enough to mention the fact that all Greeks, wherever born, are legally subjects of King George. They have a right to free education, whether at deme school or university, in Greece ; and if they come as refugees in a time of local trouble, as did the Cretans in 1890, they receive a subsidy from the Greek Government. There is something of this feeling in Bulgarians, too, but nothing like to the same extent ; besides, the numbers to whom it could apply are, as we have seen, very much smaller. Leaving on one side a comparison of Greek and Bulgarian claims, we come to a series of facts which appear to strongly support Hellenic aspira- tions. The first is the intensity of belief — not of desire ; that we have dealt with, and its weight is not the same — all over Greece, both free and en- slaved, that Constantinople will be theirs before long. Everyone who has travelled in Greece is familiar with the prophecy, an old one, revived with great earnestness by the Greek priesthood, that Greece would win back Constantinople when 334 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE she should have a Constantine for King and a Sophia for Queen. The marriage of the Crown Prince with Princess Sophia, sister of the Emperor of Germany, has made it probable that in the course of time the necessary conditions will be fulfilled. One is disposed to hope that belief in the prophecy will result in solemn self-sacrificing preparation for so great responsibilities, and that the interval (may it be a long one !) which will elapse will be one of absolute internal quiet. In this way they might themselves contribute mate- rially to the fulfilment of the prophecy. It is occasionally asserted by people unac- quainted with the immense progress made by Greece in the last thirty years, that until she can govern what she has she is unfit to be entrusted with a bigger area. This is so plausible a pro- position that it runs the risk of being taken as a truism. And yet there is a tolerably obvious answer to it. What if the difficulty she may experience in governing the area she has is almost entirely due to the very restrictedness of that area ? This is precisely the case with Greece. The frequent changes of Ministry are almost entirely due to impatience of the fulfilment of the Hellenic idea. Suppose, for a moment, that the English colony in Ireland represented 43 per cent, of the total, and that the Government was in the hands of the Irish, numbering only 15 per cent, of the population, is it not certain PANHELLENISM 335 that English politics would be conducted with more than the usual excitement until Ireland was united to England ? That is almost on all fours with the situation in Greece. In some features the Greek case is the harder. She is not yet a rich country, and the constant strain on her financially is very severe, and is never relaxed : the feeling of unrest, the daily expectation of the war which shall liberate ' the rest of Greece,' unsettles her for the routine work of internal pro- gress. Her frontiers, too, have to be constantly and carefully watched. She has put down brigandage at home, but she is daily in danger of falling a prey to the sometimes Albanian and sometimes Wallachian brigandage of Turkey ; and, to add insult to injury, the telegrams in the English papers always supply the brigands with Greek names, a fact chiefly due to the news having been supplied from Greek sources, the only possible ones in remote educationless dis- tricts. Far from being truistic, then, the applica- tion of the parable of the Talents in an invidious sense to Greece would be wholly unjust. The ambition of Greece is one of the strongest points in her favour. It is not a purely com- mercial want, like a wish on the part of the United States to annex Hawaii ; it is not born of a military instinct like the Tonquin Expedition ; it is not a blend of the business-like and philan- thropic like our Uganda affair ; it is not even like 336 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE the ambition of the Greeks of Greece herself in 182 1. They wanted to be free themselves; now they want to make their brothers free. They would not be human if other lower motives did not enter into their desire. No doubt they have their share of the annexing spirit, and still more are they alive to the advantages of extended markets for their goods (I am afraid philanthropy to the Turks does not form one of their incen- tives) ; but the one absorbing wish is to free the Hellas that is in slavery. [ 337 ] CHAPTER XXIV. CONCLUSION. As regarding Greece — As regarding England. In politics it is not easy, even when you are quite sure of the facts of a particular situation, to satisfy yourself that you have found out the course of conduct which your facts demand. Usually the only safe course is to attempt a variety of related expedients simultaneously, in the hope that the right ones will be operative, and that their good results will not be much neutralized by the others. It may accordingly be well to throw out a few practical suggestions as to measures which might, if taken, lead to the further progress of Greece. As REGARDING Greece HERSELF. — Of internal policy it is not necessary to speak. She has at the present moment a Prime Minister who has already effected many reforms, and is certain to effect morei His clever finance, his successful crusade against crime, his reduction of the army 22 338 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE and Civil Service, are not likely to be interfered with for some time to come. It is on the ques- tion of Greek foreign policy that an onlooker sees most to puzzle him. The Greek nation as a whole seems quite incapable of understanding that Russia and Greece cannot both at the same time possess Constantinople. There are two reasons for this lack of logic : one, their possess- ing a common religion ; and the other, the know- ledge that Turkey is their most immediate foe, and that Russia has always opposed Turkey. But Turkey is only their temporary enemy ; Russia will be their enemy for centuries. As soon as they recognise this fact, Turkey will almost cease to be their foe. Turkey would willingly give up Crete — at any rate, for a subsidy — if she could be sure of not being attacked in the rear by Greece when she has next to meet Russia. But this is comparatively unimportant. Let Greeks ask themselves how Bulgaria has succeeded, and they will have to admit that it has been by openly throwing in her lot with the Triple Alliance, and daring Russia to do her worst. The question embraces three main points — sympathy, com- merce, and politics. In these days, granted a certain amount of national sentiment, it is not very difficult (vide Cronstadt demonstration) to direct the public sympathy or antipathy to suit the exigencies of the State. The average Greek is already very well disposed towards England, CONCL USION 339 and not ill-disposed towards Germany, Austria, and Italy. If he could only be induced to see how ridiculous it is to join sides with his country's only serious rivals to the reversion of Constantinople, this part of the business might be easily settled. There is, of course, France to consider. But the French are far too high- minded and logical to deny Greece the right of acting in the only way by which she could possibly attain her ends. No one would counsel Greece to be ungrateful to France, to whom she owes a great deal, but the accident of the tem- porary alliance between France and Russia ought not to be allowed to interfere with what is to Greece of almost infinite importance. An entirely wrong impression prevails in Greece on the subject of Cyprus. That island is repre- sented, as for instance by M. P. Karolides in an article in the 'Companion,' to be 'groaning under the English occupation more than under the Ottoman yoke.' No Englishman or Cypriot needs to be told that this is a gross libel. Its un-Hellenic source may easily be guessed. Not only does Cyprus now enjoy perfect freedom, and even self-government, but its worldly prosperity is incomparably greater than it has been for centuries. But the worst of the charge is the ingratitude of its forgetfulness. It is not so very long ago that we handed over the Ionian Islands, having tenderly prepared them for autonomy for 340 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE half a century. Surely after that the quick-witted patriots of Greece might guess that, as soon as the coming war should have legalized our permanent possession of Egypt, we should hand over Cyprus to them with pleasure. The commercial side is perhaps more com- plicated in practical detail, but its principles are simple enough. England and the Triple Alliance are twice as good customers of the Hellenic nation as France and Russia. Although there is no powder-and-bullet war going on at the present moment, tariff wars we have always with us. Making allowance for favoured-nation clauses and other hindrances, it ought not to be .difficult for Greece to stimulate the trade with the League of Peace. If her trade with the dual Powers did not suffer, so much the better. Lastly as to an offensive and defensive, or purely defensive, alliance. I do not suppose it would be necessary to actually engage in a formal treaty. England and Bulgaria have all the advantages, and no doubt morally all the obligations, that written stipulations could give. It is simply a question of speaking out. Any fear there might be of her funds being depreciated in consequence in Paris would be quite baseless. If the French Bourse attempted such a thing, those of London and Berlin would soon, set matters right ; in fact, it is likely enough that the simple fact of Greece thus appearing under the aegis of the Central Powers CONCLUSION 341 would considerably improve her financial position. Her present foreign policy is too opportunist ; opportunism may not be dishonest, but it is not the best policy. As REGARDING ENGLAND. — I suppose it is hardly necessary to set about proving the value of a Greek alliance to England and the Central Powers. We are strong, of course, but so are our probable enemies. And the smaller nations, Greece, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Servia, close to the theatre of the war, will of necessity play an important part. Every influence has its value in men and money, and we cannot afford to under- appreciate any accessory when the forces are so evenly matched. And if we desire Greece for an ally, we have still more reason to desire her as a friend. Ever since Wheler travelled in Greece English interest in that country has been on the increase. The dilettanti introduced her to the notice of the upper ten, and Byron made her known and loved by the great poetry-reading middle-class. The suggestions I should venture to make for the improvement of our relations with Greece are as follow : I. By the direct action of our Government. I. Abolition of the tax on currants and on Greek silk. Currants present no difficulty, and that with regard to. Greek silk, vis-a-vis, France might be managed by classification, as Greek silk is quite different from French silk. I am afraid 342 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE wines could not be treated in the same way, however. 2. A small subsidy of, say, ^5,000 a year to the British school at Athens. The most economical Chancellor of the Exchequer ought not to feel any alarm about so insignificant a sum, and it would do a good deal to increase English popularity in Athens. It is hardly necessary to add that the French Government grants subsidies to its school on a much more generous scale. So far we have never given a halfpenny to ours. 3. Our representatives in Athens might be in- structed to show increased friendliness. In future consular appointments, too, it might not be a bad thing to appoint as consuls men who can speak Greek. The rigid rule by which vice-consuls are passed over for men in the service might occasion- ally be departed from to advantage. 4. A ship of war ought to be stationed at Peiraius as of old. The French are quite aware of the advantage of this, and have a first-class cruiser always there. 5. Our fleet might visit Greek ports rather more frequently than they have been in the habit of doing. I believe we have been improving in this matter latterly. Our recent relief to the sufferers by the Zakynthos earthquake was very much appreciated indeed. Nous atitres anglais are so unromantic that we do not understand the excited gratitude little international acts of kindr CONCL USION 343 ness are apt to call forth in more Southern souls. The presence of our sailors and marines in Phaleron Bay is very effective. The size of the men, their discipline, and their good temper act powerfully on the Greek imagination. They occasionally get a little lively, but our naval men take a thoroughly British view of compensation for any damage that may be done, so no ill-feeling arises on this account. A propos, I do not think the English papers got hold of an interesting incident that happened recently in Volo Bay. A squadron of our ships was there for drill, and a sham-fight was instituted. A sail-carrying boat was to slip her cable at night and hide from the others, who were to hunt after her with a search-light. She first went and dressed up an appropriate rock to represent herself under full sail, and then retired close in shore, pillaged an olive wood near of scores of boughs, and masqueraded as an olive grove. After the time allowed for hiding was up, the remainder of the squadron steamed round the gulf and eventually found the dummy, which they attacked, wrecking two of their torpedo- boats before they found out that they had been 'sold.' The Greeks were naturally indignant at the destruction of their olive-trees, but the affair was soon arranged to the satisfaction of all parties. 6. A royal marriage. This is delicate ground, and I will say no more than that there are nubile 344 GREECE UNDER KING GEORGE one Princess and one Prince of the Greek royal house. II. Indirectly by the action of individuals. 1. Sympathy. — All who have had happy hours with Greek authors, whether original or trans- lated, all who are conscious that but for the existence of old Greece they would not have had the culture and its resulting happinesses that they have, ought to feel that their sympathy with the present Greek movement is the least return they can make. 2. Those who have time and means should visit Greece. It does not require much of either — three weeks and .1^50. With a ' tramp ' each way it would take a couple of months, and cost about ^35. I have never known anyone go once and not long to go again. 3. Purchase of Greek products. — One need not diet one's self on currant-buns, or unduly prolong the Christmas - pudding period, or even take to retsinato ; but one can keep on asking for Greek olive-oil, Greek silk, Greek wine, and Greek figs until one gets them, and perhaps even gets them into the English market. 4. Those who are more particularly classically- minded, especially if they have a trend towards archaeology, ought to subscribe to the British school, or at least join the society for the promo- tion of Hellenic studies. 5. All Philhellenes ought to use their influence CONCLUSION 345 more than they do in the direction of making the cause of Greece understood and appreciated. We need not start a- new fad on the poHtical world, or send an examination paper Hke the more or less fanatical Fabians to our would-be Parlia- mentary representatives, asking among other things for an explicit ' yes ' or • no ' as to the demanding of Crete, and eventually Constanti- nople, for Greece ; but when we consider that the public schools and universities supply us with a ready-made pro-Greek party in England, and that the University Extension Lectures and Free public libraries, and their entourage, "provide the machinery for reaching the great mass of voters, if we are sincere Philhellenes, we ought to do something to prove the faith, hope and love that are in us. The Greek question must always have only its proper proportionate share of the public interest, but it is well that, when the dismemberment of Turkey comes, the intelligent sympathy of England should be found on the side of persevering little Greece, and not on that of enormous over- bearing Russia. INDEX. Academy, 209 Administrations, 269 Agricultural scliools, 189 Agriculture, 11 Albanians, 9 Ambition of Greece, 335 Antiquarian wealih, 213 Antiquities, Greek regard for, xi ArcliKological schools, 191 Archeology, 213 Architecture, Modern, 215 Army, 240 distribution of, 242 equipment of, 242 officers, Large number of, 244 Arrears of taxation, 1 1 5 Arsakeion, 187 Athens Scientific Society, 208 Attika railway, 86 Authorities, xviii Balance-sheet, 1883-91, 109 Balkan States, English trade with, 69 Bank-notes, 102, 143 Bank of Constantinople, 74 Bankruptcy, 174 Banks, 72 Barristers, 164 Beckmann's, M., deductions, 158 pamphlet on Greek finance extensively quoted, 103 sg. Births and deaths, 7 Blind, 296 Books read, 199 Brigandage, i6g Brotherhoods, 298 Budget of 1892, 127 1893, 128 Business, 72 Butter, 19 Byron Society, 207 Carpets, 53 Chairetes, M., quoted, 24 Cheese, 19 Chronological sketch, xxi Church, Influence of, on public order, 170 Civil service, 77 Clergy schools, 190 Climate, 301 Coal, 49 Coast-line, 95 Coinage, loi Commerce, 59 Commodities exported, 39 imported, 40 Communication, Internal, 80 Constantinople, Candidates for, 322 Constitution, 257 Constitutional history, 259 Constitution, Articles ot, show- ing Conservative progress, 264 Constitution, Articles of, show- ing Liberal progress, 264 Constitution, Suitability of, 273 Conversions, 136 Corn, 14 Insufficient production of, 15 Correspondence per head, 98 Cotton, 29 Countries exporting to Greece, 67 INDEX 347 Countries importing from Greece, 66 Countries to and from which ships sailed, 62 Country-houses, Absence of, 293 Credit, Greek, 154 Crime, 165 Cultivated land, 12 Culture, 199, 215 Currant-growing, 25 Currants, 23 English importation of, 23 French importation of, 23 Currency, Forced, 143 Cyprus, Greek ideas concerning, 339 Ddiry-farming, 18 Danube, Greek ships on, 63 Deaf and dumb, 296 Decisions of courts of law, 163 Deficits, 138 Deleyannea, M., v. the King, 280 Denies, 7 Deme schools, 175 Democratic feeling, xiii Diakophti-KalavrytaRailway,88 Dowries, 291 Earthquakes, 305 Education, 175 - Cost of, 184 Female, 186 of priests, 239 Secondary, 178 summary, 192 Technical, 188 Election, Returns of last, 282 Elgin Marbles, 222 Emery, 50 Emigration, 4 Employment, 75 Changes of, 76 English school at Athens, 221 Eparchies, 7 Epiro-Thessalian Bank, Ti Estimates for 1893, 159 Euripos, 94 Excavation accomplished, 219 Method ol, 220 Expenditure, 109 1892, 121 Extraordinary, 1 10 Expenditure, Military, 124 Naval, 126 Export duties, 65 Exports, 64 Factories, 52 Families, Chief Athenian, 286 Fetes, National, 235 Figs, 27 Finance, 103 Municipal, 160 Fine arts, 210] Fish, Ancient and modern names of, 55 Fish, Import and export of, 57 Fisheries, 53 Fishing-boats, 53 Fishing, Mode of, 57 Fishing-stations, 54 Flag, 309 Fleet, 248 Armament of, 249 Forest area, 37 fires, 36 Forests, 35 Laws as to, 35 Fruit, 27 Game, 19 General Contract Company, 75 Credit Bank of Greece, 73 Gold, Deficiency of, 147 Goudi Steamship Company, 91 Grammar-schools, 178 Greece, How, could be defended, 251 Greece superior to Bulgaria, 329 Greeks in Turkey, 319 Gymnasia, 178 Gypsum, 50 Hellenic Literature Societv, 207 Steamship Company, 88 Highways, Administration of, 139 Historical and Ethnological Society, 208 Holy Synod, 226 Honesty, Greek, xvi, 169 Hospitals, 185, 29s Hymenaeal Society, 299 Import duties, 65 348 INDEX Imports, 64 and exports, Lessons of. Imports and exports, by Triple Alliance and England, 70 Industrial Credit Bank of Greece, 74 Industries, 48 Insurance companies, 75 Ionian Bank, 72 Jebb, Professor, quoted, 196 Judges, 161, 164 Justice, 161 King George, xiii, 280 Kopais, 95 Korinth Canal, 93 Laboratories, 185 Ladies' syllogtie, 298 Land, Products of, 12 Tenure of, 15 Laurion, 49 Law-court?, 161 Lead, 49 j Lenormant, M., quoted, 197 LifDrary, National, i85 of Chamber of Deputies, 209 Lighthouses, 95 building, 96 Loans, 133 Longevity, 8 Lunatic asylum, 297 Lunatics, 296 Magnesia, 49 Manganese, 49 Manslaughter, 169 Marble, 51 McDonall and Barbour, Messrs., 60 Measures, 100 Mendicancy, 174 Mesolonghi-Agrinion Railway, 84 Mesolonghi-Krioneri Railway, 84 Metsovian Polytechnic, 188 Military schools, 190 Mills, 52 Mill-stone, 50 Mineral waters, 307 Mines, 48 Monarchic democracy, 270 Monasteries, 227 Monopolies, 75 Monopolies of Greece Com- pany, 74 Mountains, 307 Mulberry, 28 Murders, 167 Museums, 185 Wealth of, 216 Music, 210 Napier, Colonel, 82 National Bank, 72, 155 Naval schools, 190 Navigation schools, 189 Navy, 246 Newspapers, 202 Nomarchies, 7 Odeura, 2IO Officers of army, Pay of, 245 of navy. Pay uf, 251 Olive-oil, 26 Olives, 25 Oranges, 27 Order of the Saviour, 287 Public, 161 Orient Society, 209 Orphanages, 297 Orthography, system used, xx Painting, 210 Panhellenic Steamship Com- pany, 90 Panhellenism, -18 Parliaments, Duration of, 268 Parnassos Literary Society, 206 Patriotism, Greek, xiv, 310 Peiraius-Athens Railway, 84 Peiraius, Future of, 63 Peiraius-Larissa Railway, 87 Peloponnesos Railway, 84 Philanthropy, 295 Philharmonic Society, 2ii Philhellenes, Duty of, 344 Physical culture, 212 Science Society, 208 Police, 171 Politeness of Greeks, xv. Political combinations, 276 INDEX 349 Political professionalism, 290 programmes, 277 Politics, 275 Poor-house, 298 Population, i Annual increase of, 3 Nationality of, 9 Religion of, 8 Ports, 60 Postage stamps, 99 Post-ofSce, 97 Poultry, 19 Priests, 232 Prime Ministers, 269 Prisons, 171 Professions, how rated, 79 Property, Feeling as to, 14 Provinces, Chief products of, 33 Provincial distribution of pro- ducts, 32 Provincial hospitals, 299 societies, 209 Public and Communal Works Company, 74 Public companies, 72 debt, 132 debt schedule, 140 Punishment of crime, 168 Railways, 83 Fares on, 86 Rainfall, 304 Receipts, Extraordinary, 108 Redemptions, 136 Religion, 225 Religious reform, 238 Reinach's, iVI. S., advice to travellers, 316 Resin, 38 Retreat for the aged, 298 Retsinato, 22 Revenue, 1 883-1 891, 108 Rivers, 308 Roads, 80 Cost of, 82 Turkish, 81 Rodd, Mr. Rennell, quoted, 15 Roman Cathohcs in Greece, 225 Ronteres, M. Antonios, quoted, 162 Salt, 52 Saripolos, M., quoted, 310 Scenery, 311 Sculpture, 210 Seamen, 60 Sergeant, Mr. Lewis, quoted, 25, 196, 261 Shipping, 59 Ships entered and cleared, 61 Shrubs, 39. Sidgwick, Professor, quoted 329 Silk, 28 Silver, 49 Soap, 53 Societies, Learned, 206 Society, 285 of Friends of Education, 187 Stanhope, Colonel Leicester, 97, 205 Steamboats, 59, 88 Accommodation on, 92 Stock, 18 Suggestions to England, 341 Greece, 337 Sulphur, 50 Syngros Prison, 172 Tan, 38 Teachers' Society, 208 Telegraphs, 99 Telephones, 100 Temperature, 301 Thessaly Railway, 85 Thiers, M., quoted, 324 Thunderstorms, 305 Timber, Consumption of, 38 Tobacco, 30 Tramways, 88 Travellers, 311 Travelling, 314 Trees, 39 Truthfulness, Greek, xvi Turkey, How, could lae attacked, 255 University, 180 faculties, 180 Institutions subsidiary to, 185 programme of lectures, 183 35° INDEX Valonia, 29 Vegetables, 31 Villages, 6 Voting, System of, 281 Vulkovitch, Dr., 328 Wallachians, 9 Weather, Influence of, on crime, 166 Weights, 100 Winds, Prevailing, 303 Wine, 20 [236 Wyse, Sir Thomas, quoted, xiii. Yachting, 315 THE END. BILLING AND SONS, PRINTERS, GUILDFORD, /. D. &- Co. ERRATA. Pages 1-252, for ' Epiros ' read ' Epeiros ' throughout. Page 4, line lz,for ' 135,466' read ' 180,338.' Page 27, Hne 2\,for ' Troezenian ' read ' Troizenian. ' Page 66, hne it/or ' counties ' read ' countries.' Page 85, lines 21-23, /o/- ' Diakophti . . Pyrgos' read ' Diakophti, Temeni, Aigion, Patras, Kato-Achaia, Lechaina, Kavasila ; Bartho- lomion, Kyllene, Lontra ; Gastuni. Pyrgos ; Katakolon ; Olympia.' Page 98, Une 16, af/er 'of 1890' inseri ' to.' Page 167, hne 12, and page 202, hne 17, for • Akarnania-Aitolia ' read ' Aitolia-Akarnania.' Page 219, line 16, after 'Argos' insert '(A.).' Page 219, line 9, after ' Epidauros ' insert ' (G.).' Page 316, line i'i,for ' archeologies ' read ' archeologues. ' Page 321, Une 8, before ' Total number of Greeks ' insert ' (1892).'