s s 
 
 

_ Cornell University Library 
 
 P 105.D344 
 
 Chapters on the science of languaae. 
 
 3 1924 026 438 196 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026438196 
 
0HAPTI]RS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY 
 
 PROF. LEON DELBOS. 
 
 WILLIAMS AND NORGATB, 
 
 14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; AND 
 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBDRGH. 
 
 1878. 
 C3 
 
LONDON : 
 «. NORMAN AND SON, PHINTEB8, 29, UAIDEN IANE, 
 COVERT GABDEN. 
 
 ONiVERSITYi 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Preface iii 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Origin and Formation of LANauAGE ... 1 
 
 CHAPTBE II. 
 Grammar 37 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 On the Literature of India . . . ^ 51 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 BtymoIiOGical Vocabulary 71 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Classification of Language . . . .104 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The task I have undertaken is not one without diffi- 
 culties, hut my subject is so full of interest, that I feel 
 couYinced it would be enticingj were it trusted in the 
 hands of a still less skilful writer, for many will 
 acknowledge with me, that few sciences, if any at all, 
 can lay a more just claim to the attention of the thinking 
 man than the Science of Language, since it treats of the 
 greatest, most valuable and useful possession of man- 
 kind. 
 
 My object, in composing the present work, has been 
 to condense into a small compass the results of former 
 discussions on several interesting philological problems, 
 chiefly for the benefit of those who have not had, either 
 the leisure or opportunity of devoting their time to 
 philology, and also with a view to induce some, who may 
 never have read anything on the subject — either because 
 they think it dry, or because they know not what 
 mysteries the science of language will unfold — to begin 
 a study which promises so rich a harvest. 
 
 Though the origin of language seems at first sight to 
 be shrouded in almost impenetrable darkness, I have 
 
IV PEEFACE. 
 
 nevertheless attempted to give a solution of that interest- 
 ing question, and if some should think it presumptuous 
 on my part to write upon a theme which has been 
 expounded before by such men as Grimm, Bopp, Bur* 
 nouf, Max Miiller, Eenan, Farrar, and others of equal 
 repute, I shall only remark that a man by far inferior to 
 those eminent philologists, but who nevertheless has 
 taken the trouble of studying his subject conscientiously, 
 may have ideas which may not always be erroneous and 
 worthless. And as this book is only a mere Introduction 
 to a Science, far too important and extensive to be treated 
 as fully as it ought to be, in a few pages, I hope those 
 who will condescend to peruse this work, will not pass 
 too severe a judgment upon its author. 
 
 LEON DELBOS. 
 
 London. 
 
CHAPTERS 
 
 ON 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTBE I. 
 
 Origin and Formation of Language. 
 
 It will not be out of place to take a survey of the 
 several theories, which from time to time have been pro- 
 pounded by different writers, without, however, dwelling 
 upon those which are mere fancies, and from which 
 nothing, either important or useful, can be derived, such 
 as the hypotheses of Lucretius, which can only be con- 
 sidered as the wild ideas of a poet totally under the 
 influence of a fanciful imagination, and not as those of a 
 philosopher who has acquainted himself thoroughly with 
 his subject ; or, again, those of the Brahmins, who 
 imagined they had solved the problem of the origin of 
 language, by attributing the invention of it to the goddess 
 Sarasvati, wife of Brahma, to whom also they ascribed 
 the invention of Sanskrit, that of music and of the letters 
 called Devanagari ; and, therefore, leaving these and the 
 like unnoticed, we shall at once proceed to examine more 
 rational conceptions. 
 
 The Grecian philosophers seem to have been the first 
 who began the study of the subject in a scientific manner, 
 
 1 
 
^ THE SCIENCE OF LANGHIAGE, 
 
 as most of them have left MSS. treating of language ; 
 and althougli it must be acknowledged that their views 
 have not always been erroneous, nevertheless their 
 numerous and praiseworthy attempts have generally been 
 fruitless and unsatisfactory. 
 
 After them the subject seems to have fallen into com- 
 plete oblivion for many ages, for it was not until the 
 middle of the last century that the question was brought 
 forward again by some enthusiastic people, who pretended 
 to have found the solution of the difficulty in the follow- 
 ing two verses : " And out of the ground the Lord God 
 formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air ; 
 and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call 
 them : and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, 
 that was the name thereof. 
 
 " And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl 
 of the air, and to every beast of the field ; but for Adam 
 there was not an help meet for him.'''* 
 
 The thoughtful reader may be somewhat astonished 
 when told that the above verses, far from throwing any 
 light upon the origin of language, have, on the contrary, 
 rendered it more dark than ever ; for many have misin- 
 terpreted their meaning, and when they say that they 
 contain the proof that language is of a divine origin, we 
 cannot but admit that their understanding is so obliterated, 
 that it makes them find in a text a meaning totally dif- 
 ferent from the one implied ; for if we examine the two 
 verses quoted and analyse them, nothing will be easier 
 than to discover in them the proof that if God gave man 
 the power of speech, God did not give him the words 
 ready made, for it is said that Adam himself gave names 
 
 * Genesis, ch. ii., vers. 19, 20. 
 
ORIGIN AND POEMATION OP LANauAGE. 8 
 
 to all the beasts of the field and to every fowl of the air, 
 and, therefore, by the text itself, we must acknowledge 
 that the words wei;e invented by man alone. 
 
 Others have said that Adam indeed named the different 
 creatures brought before him, but that God had pre- 
 viously told him what names he was to use, and that thus 
 the first man only repeated the words his Creator had 
 taught him. 
 
 This last explanation has been admirably refuted by the 
 eminent philologist Grimm : " If words have been created 
 by God, says he, we must suppose that that communica- 
 tion was made to man before all others, for since God 
 spoke to Adam it is necessary to believe that he was able 
 to understand what the Creator was saying to him." 
 
 Moreover, from the same explanation it must be 
 inferred that Adam was endowed with a prodigious 
 memory, otherwise he would never have been able to 
 recollect all the different words that were taught him in a 
 few hours, and also that God took upon himself the task 
 of teaching man very much in the same way as a master 
 instructs his pupils in the knowledge of some dead or 
 living language. 
 
 I am more inclined to believe that those who enter- 
 tained such opinions were regardless of truth, and only 
 anxious, as is unfortunately too often the case, to make 
 the Scriptures suit their own views, or wished above all 
 things and without reason to find in the above-quoted 
 verses the canonical declaration of the divine origin of 
 language. And thus they forgot that if God had been 
 really the maker of language, language must have been 
 perfect, or at least have been as much so as Latin, Greek 
 or Sanskrit, for God is perfect and omniscient, and there- 
 
 1 * 
 
4 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 fore the primitive idioms of maEkind ought to have been 
 as complete and elegant as those that followed them. 
 
 I am quite aware that some people who are never short 
 of an answer^ will boisterously declare that the primitive 
 language itself was as rich in words as those we now 
 speakj and that often without knowing any but their own 
 tongue, and without thinking that the acknowledgment 
 of such an idea is equivalent to affirm that a great many 
 vocables and expressions used in our days were also used 
 in remoter times for things which did not exist then, and 
 unmindful or ignorant of the fact that man can only know 
 the names of things which he has seen or heard people 
 speak of. 
 
 It is here necessary to remark that thought and speech 
 are intimately connected, and so much so, that if speech 
 cannot exist without ideas, ideas in their turn cannot 
 exist without speech ; and if it be true to say that the 
 intellectual and material parts of ourselves form a whole 
 marvellously harmonized, although of very different 
 essence, it will also be true to affirm that thought and the 
 words which represent it are so closely united, that it is 
 impossible to think without the words which represent 
 the thought, occurring at once, and almost spontaneously 
 to the mind. 
 
 This is so true that we cannot acquire a new idea 
 without at the same time acquiring a new word in which 
 the thought is enveloped ; and that word itself is always 
 generated at the very instant the thought is conceived.* 
 
 * THe Greeks had so well understood this connexion between 
 ideas and words, that Aoyop expressed not only the outward form 
 by which the inward thought is expressed, but also the inward 
 thought itself. Becker also says that " Ideas without words are 
 
OEiaiN AND FORMATION OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 The great pbilosopher, Jolin Locke, maintained ttat 
 man lived for a considerable time in a complete state of 
 dumbness, causing his thoughts — if thoughts can exist 
 without -words — to be known to his fellow-men by means 
 of gestures and signs, and that he continued thus, until 
 his ideas became so numerous, that he no longer found 
 that natural speech sufficient, and then invented artificial 
 means of communication which enabled him to converse 
 and share his impressions with others. 
 
 Adam Smith and Dugald Stewart adopted almost the 
 same theory, but they went further, and the former tried 
 to prove that men, after having been speechless for ages, 
 suddenly invented words, which were all verbs, whilst 
 the latter maintained that nouns were the first utterances 
 of man.* 
 
 without form and eonsequentlr/ are no ideas."— Organismus der 
 8jprache, p. 6. 
 
 * I am inclined to think that the above-named philosophers have 
 gone beyond reasonable limits, for it is impossible to determine 
 with any degree of certainty, whether verbs have been first used 
 or nouns, and moreover, it is not necessary to the solution of the 
 problem under consideration. 
 
 At the same time it is interesting to think on the subject. 
 
 Verbs might have been used first, for we know that all roots are 
 generally verbal. Verbs are also the essence of language, and by 
 pointing out the object we speak of, we can do without expressing 
 the name of it. It has been objected that the verb being the most 
 comphcated part of a language, it is not likely it should have been 
 resorted to before a considerable time had elapsed, and also that in 
 some languages of Eastern Asia the verb can hardly be said to 
 exist, or at any rate it exists only in a rudimentary form. These 
 seem strong arguments in favour of Stewart's theory, and yet if 
 we consider that three tenses at most are necessary, we shaU no 
 longer be astonished at the fact that verbs in some languages are 
 in a very imperfect state. 
 
b THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 The greatest objection that can be raised against these 
 different theories^ which have been propounded by men 
 who have known to win for themselves a place amongst 
 the most celebrated philosophers of the world, is the 
 organism of man; it is indeed impossible to conceive 
 that man lived for a long time without any spoken lan- 
 guage at all, unless we believe also that he, in his primi- 
 tive state, had not the power of articulating sounds. 
 But such a supposition leads us to think, and rightly too, 
 that the primitive races of mankind were different from 
 those that came later on, and that they had not the power 
 of speech developed as fully as it is now, for it cannot be 
 readily acknowledged that beings, created with all the 
 organs necessary to the emission of sounds, could have 
 been long in a state so little different from that of the 
 brute, and also that God gave men an organ which was 
 to be useless to so many of them. 
 
 What would then have been the object of the Creator 
 in giving our first parents the power of speech, if it was 
 to be of no use to them ? 
 
 Could God have bestowed such a gift on his creature, 
 a gift which was to distinguish man from the lower 
 animals, and which will always be an insuperable obstacle 
 in the way of those who compare themselves to beasts, 
 and that creature remain for ages ignorant of such a 
 divine favour ? 
 
 I am aware that some philosophers in our time, build- 
 ing a theory upon the fact that a few animals have the 
 power of imitating our gestures and voice, have been 
 trying to persuade us that we descend from some monkey 
 tribe, but as they have been forced to acknowledge that 
 language is the great immovable stumbling-block (for as 
 
OBIQIN AND POEMATION OB LAUaTTAGE. 7 
 
 yet they have not carried their audacity so far as to wish 
 U3 to believe that a well-taught parrot speaks as perfect 
 a language as their own) — they have been compelled to 
 have recourse to an invention which nothing can justify, 
 namely, a missing-link, which if found would — at least so 
 they say — demonstrate the truth of their statements. If 
 their theory was to be received, and they hope it will at 
 some future time, it would be, according to them, the 
 proof that language has come through the other species of 
 mimals, undergoing changes, and constantly perfecting 
 tself, until it received the last touch from man. 
 
 But the difference between the so-called language of a 
 nonkey and that of a human being is so great, that the 
 brmer cannot be said to have any resemblance to the 
 litter. 
 
 The cries of animals are due to instinct, and only cor- 
 nspond to a limited number of sensations; they are 
 aways the same, and they cannot be called words, because 
 aiimals do not articulate. 
 
 But as few reasonable men entertain such ideas, 1 think 
 tb best thing is to leave those worthy philosophers to ad- 
 mre their own speculations, and since they seem to value 
 gcatly the honour of being the offspring of a chimpanzee, 
 I lo not see why we should unkindly try to snatch from 
 thdr minds an idea which renders them proud and happy. 
 Jut to return to our subject, let us now examine what 
 Grmm says concerning language. 
 
 according to that eminent philologist, language grows 
 and develops itself in a special soil, exactly in the same 
 mamer as a plant or a tree, and he rejects the idea that 
 mat was created with a language. 
 
 ""f languages," says he, " were an innate faculty of 
 
8 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 man, a child of a given race, brought up in a foreign 
 family, ought to speak the language of his parents." 
 Grimm is right there, for this is never the case. I have 
 myself known an English boy who had been educated 
 among French people, and who came to England for the 
 first time at the age of thirteen, unable to speak a word 
 of his parents' language, while he could speak French as 
 well as any child born in France of French parents. j 
 
 He learnt English, rather slowly, and never was able to' 
 speak that tongue as an Englishman, and had that accen 
 which is always the characteristic of a foreigner. 
 
 This simple fact shows the truth of Grimm's statemem 
 
 " On the contrary," says the same grammarian agai: 
 " the language of animals never undergoes any changi 
 and a dog reared in the midst of cats will bark like eve: 
 other dog." 
 
 In short, we cannot compare the language of animi 
 to that of man, and although we are aware that sorje 
 people beheve, or pretend to believe, that a dog is in pi 
 session of as polished and perfect a tongue as ours, ye 
 we reflect upon the fact that the way in which animls 
 are reared has no influence whatever upon their cries pr 
 utterances, while, on the other hand, the languagepf 
 man is transformed by difierent causes, we must cometo 
 the conclusion that sounds emitted by beasts are nattfal 
 cries only. 
 
 Man also has a natural language which all men posbss 
 in common, and which is the same all over the surface of 
 the globe. That tongue is made up of interjections wid 
 cries resembling those of the lower animals ; but be/des 
 that we possess, and alone possess, the artificial langnge, 
 which we must loarn as every other branch of htnan. 
 
OEIQIN AND FORMATION OF LANQUAQE. 9 
 
 learning, and which we never know until it has been 
 taught us. 
 
 1 know that M. Renan says that to invent language 
 would have been as impossible as to invent a new faculty 
 of the mindj* and that that eminent scholar further adds, 
 that it is as absurd to call invention the use man made of 
 speech to express, his thoughts, as to call invention the 
 use we make of our eyes to see, or of our ears to hear ; 
 and, moreover, he believes that language was created all at 
 once and in its perfect state ;t but if we read his book 
 through, we shall further discover that the same writer 
 states that were man to lose language he would invent it 
 anew.f 
 
 These statements are contradictory, and I must here 
 confess, with all due respect to M. Eenan, that I fail to 
 understand what he means ; for on the one hand he asserts 
 that man cannot create language, and on the other he 
 affirms that man has that power. 
 
 Now what conclusion can be drawn from the different 
 opinions we have just examined ? Are we to believe that 
 God created language and gave it ready made to man ? 
 or that mankind, having been for a considerable time with- 
 out speech, invented it ? or again, that language was 
 created by man alone, and successively ? or that it was 
 invented suddenly, and reached perfection at once ? 
 
 We have given our reasons for not believing that God 
 created man with a language or taught him one, and we 
 have shown how impossible it is to admit that man was 
 speechless for ages. 
 
 * " De rOrigine du Langage," p. 92. 
 t " De rOrigine du Langage," p. 16. 
 J " De rOrigine du Langage," p. 245. 
 
10 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 To believe that language was created by man suddenly, 
 and became perfect at once, is unreasonable; for per- 
 fection, in human nature, is always the fruit of time and 
 study, though by ^perfection it must not be thought that 
 I mean to imply that language is not susceptible of im- 
 provement. On the contrary, I acknowledge it is very 
 imperfect, and that is another inducement for me to 
 believe that it is not the creation of God ; for I cannot 
 conceive anything imperfect coming from the Creator of 
 all things. 
 
 I think that language was not solely invented because 
 it was a necessity for man to communicate his thoughts 
 to his fellow-creatures, but also because, having received 
 the divine gift of speech, he could not have been without 
 one. 
 
 The faculty of creating words was in man, but if the 
 words themselves are a human invention, the power of 
 inventing them was a spark from the divine intellect, and 
 it is in this sense that we may say that language truly had 
 a divine origin. 
 
 In the beginning, and so long as man was alone, he 
 did not speak ; but as soon as a mate was given him, he 
 felt the want of making her share his sensations in another 
 way than by mere signs, and it was then that his mind, 
 suddenly enlightened by a ray of the divine wisdom, 
 revealed to him the gift he possessed in himself, and that 
 for the first time words came forth from his mouth; 
 words which must have been few, and which being 
 repeated by woman became the foundation of the primi- 
 tive language. 
 
 But they did not find themselves at once in possession 
 of a fully-developed tongue. Every day brought under 
 
OEIGTN AND FOKMATION OP LANGUAaB. 11 
 
 their eyes new objects, and other words, the representation 
 of the sounds they produced were introduced, thus in- 
 creasing daily the vocabulary of our first parents. 
 
 Their children naturally were taught their mother's 
 tongue, and when they had become men and women, and 
 began to work at different trades, they used fresh words 
 and new expressions which still enriched the primitive 
 vocabulary. 
 
 At the end of several generations, the offspring of the 
 first man having spread over a considerable portion of the 
 globe, the primitive language began to undergo changes. 
 New things required new appellations, and the names of 
 objects, plants, and animals which did not exist in their 
 new country were forgotten. This shows that the change 
 of country must have been the cause of great modifications 
 in the maternal idiom of mankind, but it was not the only 
 one. 
 
 As the number of men was daily increasing, and as 
 their tastes are different, all those who had selected a 
 particular kind of life collected together. Some who 
 loved agriculture became pastoral nations ; whilst others, 
 preferring the dangers and pleasures of war to peace and 
 quietness, became the roots of the warlike tribes which 
 have at all times been only too numerous. It is not to be 
 exj)ected that the languages spoken by men of such 
 different tastes should be alike. The pastoral nation had 
 an idiom rich in words connected with agriculture, whilst 
 that of the warlike tribe, deficient in such terms, had 
 almost an innumerable quantity of words used to designate 
 weapons or implements of war. 
 
 The difference of climate has also been one of the 
 causes that have influenced language. 
 
12 ' THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 In the North, the mind, impressed by the sight of 
 fields of snow, of seas of ice, of a thick atmosphere loaded 
 with grey clouds, imparts the gloom of nature to the 
 language, which is short, harsh, and unpoeticalj whilst in 
 the South, where everything invites man to enjoy life, 
 and where Nature shows herself under the most pleasant 
 aspect, the words are abundant, sweet and harmonious. 
 
 The Northern languages therefore are more suited to 
 express gloomy and terrible ideas than the Southern 
 ones, which are by far superior to the former, when it 
 is desired to represent agreeable and voluptuous pictures. 
 
 Indeed the influence of the climate is so strong, that it 
 modifies not only the language of a nation, but also the 
 character of the people; and we all know that in Northern 
 climes people are more phlegmatic and less passionate 
 than in the South j that in their books they evince more 
 coolness and correctness ; that their reasoning is better, 
 but their language not so elegant ; in short, they are 
 deeper and more philosophical than their Southern 
 brethren. 
 
 In the sunny regions the reverse is the case. The 
 brightness of the light seems to give a part of its bril- 
 liancy to the people, whose imagination, more brisk and 
 sprightly, pictures things more vividly and boldly. 
 
 However, the language of Homer, Plato, and Aristotle 
 — that king of languages through the medium of which 
 some of the greatest treasures of ancient learning have 
 been handed down to us — is a proof that there is no rule 
 without exception. 
 
 At the same time it must be acknowledged that other 
 influences besides those we have mentioned contributed 
 to give the Greek language such a state of superiority 
 
OEIGIN AND FORMATION OF LANGUAGE. 13 
 
 over all the others, and it is here the place to mention the 
 influence a government may have upon language. 
 
 In a country where — as used to be the case in Greece — 
 men were at liberty to write their thoughts or to speak 
 without hindrance or fear, the language becomes proud 
 and clear j whilst, on the other hand, the tongue of a 
 people oppressed by a tyrant is marked with the stamp 
 of obscurity and respect; it is elegant, subtle, allegorical, 
 and even mysterious, as is the case with some languages 
 spoken in Eastern countries. 
 
 I think the reasons I have just enumerated prove that 
 language, like everything human, changes, but neverthe- 
 less I shall not conclude this point without mentioning a 
 few facts in support of the assertion. 
 
 Gabriel Sagard, who was sent as a missionary to the 
 Hurons in 1626, and published his " Grand Voyage du pays 
 des Hurons" at Paris in 1631, states that, among these 
 North American tribes, hardly one speaks the same lan- 
 guage as another ; nay, that two families of the same 
 tribe do not speak exactly the same language. And he 
 adds, what is important, that their language is changing 
 every day, and is already so much changed that the 
 ancient Huron language is almost entirely different from 
 the present one.* 
 
 We also read of missionaries in Central America who 
 attempted to write down the language of savage tribes, 
 and who compiled with great care a dictionary of all the 
 words they could lay hold of. Eeturning to the same 
 tribe after a lapse of ten years, they found that their 
 dictionary had become antiquated and useless. Old 
 words had sunk to the ground, and new ones had risen 
 * Quoted from Max Miiller's " Science of Language." 
 
14 THE SCIENCE OF LANQUAQE. 
 
 to the surface; and to all outward appearance the lan- 
 guage was completely changed. 
 
 Towards the end of the eighteenth century a colony of 
 Normands crossed the ocean and settled on the coast of 
 San Domingo, where they formed that tribe known under 
 the name of "Buccaneers." After having been for 
 twenty years without communication with the French, 
 and although they had spoken their native language 
 among themselves, it was hardly possible to understand 
 them, so great was the difference between their new 
 language and the former one. 
 
 The want of literary pursuit is a cause of the quick 
 transformation of a language, and it has been remarked 
 that the nations where the alphabet has not yet made its 
 appearance are unable to retain the same language 
 through several generations, for literature is there totally 
 unknown, and as it is the only means by which a tongue 
 can live, the idiom undergoes constant alterations which 
 cannot fail to transform it into a new one in a very short 
 time. It is only because language is written, and thus 
 preserved in books, that its changes are so slow, but the 
 language of nature is soon doomed to destruction. 
 
 The import of foreign words is another cause of the 
 decay of language. So long as their number is small the 
 change is scarcely noticeable. But if through some 
 political event or other a nation is made to adopt a foreign 
 language, a new idiom, closely related to those from 
 which it shall have proceeded, but nevertheless perfectly 
 distinct from them, will spring up. 
 
 For instance let us suppose the Greeks being made^— 
 through conquest or some other circumstance — to adopt 
 the Italian language, or the Italians forced to use the 
 
ORIGIN AKD FOEMATION OF LANGUAQE. 15 
 
 Greek tongue ; they would each pronounce foreign words 
 according to the sounds they give to their own letters, 
 and retaining at the same time some of their own words, 
 it would come to pass that in the course of time a great 
 many new words would be introduced either in the Greek 
 or the Italian, and would thus be the source whence a 
 fresh idiom would spring ; an idiom which after two or 
 three generations would be an entirely new language, 
 which would be as different from its parents as the 
 Italian or Spanish are different from the Latin tongue 
 from which they were both derired. 
 
 Among others, I shall choose Spanish as a living 
 proof of the influence of conquest upon the idiom of a 
 people. 
 
 The language of Spain was immediately derived from 
 the Latin tongue, and for a considerable time was indeed 
 nothing but Latin itself, until it had to undergo the 
 changes to which all tongues are subject, thus forming a 
 new idiom, but at the same time being stiU Latin. But 
 when the Moors crossing the sea took possession of the 
 southern part of Spain and became the lords and masters 
 of the land, some of the words of their language crept 
 slowly into the native idiom, and at last gave the Spanish 
 language the stamp which distinguishes it from the other 
 Komance dialects. 
 
 Yet in spite of the numerous Arabic words found in 
 the language of Spain, Spanish is a Latin dialect, not 
 that it came direct from the pure classical language of 
 Italy, but it was derived fiom it through idioms of that 
 tongue. 
 
 And if any one could entertain any doubt as to the 
 right one has to call Spanish a modern Latin, a glance at 
 
16 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 the grammar of the language would soon cause all un- 
 certainty to vanish. 
 
 Thus far I have been reasoning on the hypothesis that 
 all languages have descended from one common speech. 
 But as many persons reject this theory, it is necessary to 
 say a few words in support of an opinion which is shared 
 by the most eminent philologists and philosophers of our 
 time. 
 
 If we at once admit that men have all sprung from one 
 common stock, we can scarcely believe that they had 
 several languages, when one only would answer the 
 purpose, so long as the number of human beings remained 
 small. We hold this a sufficient proof of the common 
 origin of all tongues, and know that those who acknow- 
 ledge the truth of the common origin of all men will side 
 with us. But those who maintain that we have sprung 
 from several different pairs will not so readily accept our 
 way of reasoning ; and although we should like to con- 
 vince them, we cannot here undertake to prove that all 
 men have had one father and one mother only ; for this 
 would be out of place in this essay, and besides the pro- 
 blem having so often been treated by the most eminent 
 physiologists, we do not deem it worth our while to en- 
 large on a subject which, if studied carefully by a person 
 who has gone to the trouble of weighing all the different 
 opinions, will leave little doubt as to the origin of man. 
 
 But as Professor Max Miiller very truly remarks, " the 
 common origin of mankind is not a sufficient proof of the 
 common origin of language, for language might have 
 broken out at different times and in different countries 
 among the scattered descendants of one original pair."* 
 
 * " Lectures on the Science of Language." 
 
OEIQIK AND FOEMATION OP LANGUAGE. 17 
 
 Tbose who support the theory of several primitive 
 languages tell us that philologists have classified 
 them into three different families^ and that as no 
 Monosyllabic^ no Agglutinative languages have ever 
 reached the Inflectional stage, it is necessary to admit 
 that there must have befen at least three primitive 
 idioms : a Monosyllabic one, another Agglutinative, 
 and a third one which has been the mould into which 
 inflectional languages have been cast. 
 
 Unfortunately for the adversaries of the common origin 
 of language, it happens that Professor Max Miiller has 
 proved that languages widely different from each other 
 may have sprung from the same source. 
 
 I shall add that the three different grammatical forms 
 exhibited in the three families of speech prove nothing 
 against our theory, unless it may be proved tbat no 
 Aryan language has ever belonged to the Agglutinative, 
 or to the radical stages. Such a thing has never been 
 proved, whilst on the other hand signs of Agglutination 
 have been discovered in the Monosyllabic idioms, and that 
 some Agglutinative dialects are bepoming day by day 
 nearer to the Inflectional stage. 
 
 Many have maintained that no new Icmguage can be 
 formed, and that consequently all tongues now spoken 
 must have existed ever since the time of the first appear- 
 ance of man upon this globe, and they give this as a 
 proof that several pairs of human beings were created at 
 the same time, each with a different language. 
 
 If this were true, it would necessarily follow that two 
 nations speaking different languages must be of different 
 races ; for instance, that the Germans and the English 
 
 2 
 
18 THl SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 have come from different stocks. This needs no refu- 
 tation. 
 
 The supporters of such ideas forget that they can go 
 back to a time, not very remote, when their own mother 
 tongue was totally unknown, and that every language 
 now spoken gives birth to numerous dialects, which in 
 their turn shall also become languages when their sources 
 shall have become arid. 
 
 It has also been said that the number of idioms is 
 decreasing, and that all languages now spoken seem to 
 converge towards a certain point which as yet cannot be 
 designated, and also that many dialects have become 
 entirely annihilated. 
 
 Those supposed to be in that case are said to be the 
 dialects of Greece, of Italy, and of Prance; and we are 
 told that the more we look back the greater we find the 
 number of dialects. This assertion is, I fear, erroneous ; 
 for if it be true that the more we penetrate into the 
 realm of human speech the greater the varieties we find, 
 it becomes at once a necessity to admit that the primitive 
 human beings were in possession of a number of lan- 
 guages which puts into the shade the greatest linguists 
 of the world, and compared to whom Mezzofanti himself 
 was a beginner. I admit that many idioms and dialects 
 have become a dead letter; but if I am told that the 
 modern Greeks now speak one language only, that the Ita- 
 lians all use the " lingua Toscana,'' and that the peasants 
 of Normandy or of the southern provinces of France 
 speak the language of Voltaire, I shall be compelled to 
 say in reply that such is not the case, and that at the 
 present time there are numerous dialects of the languages 
 above named. It must not also be forgotten that almost 
 
ORIGIN AND rOEMATION OP LANGUAGE. 19 
 
 each class of society, each, trade, each profession, has its 
 own dialect. There is a language of the sailor, of the 
 physician, of the soldier, of the scholar, of the sports- 
 man ; and such words as kevels, cleats, hod cephalous, 
 splays, ramps, are words which do not belong to the 
 common dialect. 
 
 Others say that as language is the representation of 
 thoughts which, are the same in every human brain, there 
 ought to be one language only to express similar ideas, 
 and they most erroneously conclude that languages have 
 not come from the same source, an assertion which, 
 by-the-by, would make us believe that the same thought 
 cannot be expressed in different ways, and that, for 
 instance, man, homo, homme, avOpurrog, are different 
 creatures, or that " How do you do ? Wie befinden sie 
 sich f Come sta ? Oomo esta vd ? Comment vous 
 portez vous ? hashalom leka ?"* though expressed very 
 differently, do not convey the same thought. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the number of dia- 
 lects is daily growing larger ; that they spring forth from 
 a tongue as the boughs from the main branches, and as 
 the main branches sprang forth from the trunk ; and 
 since this takes place every day under our own eyes, what 
 reason can there be to say that no new tongue can be 
 formed when experience proves to the contrary ? 
 
 See what Robert Mofifatt, in his " Missionary Scenes 
 and Labours in Southern Africa," says : — 
 
 " The purity and harmony of language," he writes, 
 " is kept up by their pitches, or public meetings, by their 
 festivals and ceremonies, as well as by their songs and 
 
 * Tfb nibttJn 
 
 2 * 
 
20 THE SCIENCE OF LANGtUAQE. 
 
 their constant intercourse. With the isolated villagers 
 of the desert it is far otherwise; they have no such 
 meetings : they are compelled to traverse the wilds, often 
 to a great distance from their native village. On such 
 occasions fathers and mothers, and all who can bear a 
 burden, often set out for weeks at a time, and leave their 
 children to the care of two or three infirm old people. 
 The infant progeny, some of whom are beginning to lisp, 
 whilst others can just master a whole sentence, and those 
 still further advanced, romping and playing together, the 
 children of nature, through their live-long day, hecome 
 hahituated to a language of their own. The more voluble 
 condescend to the less precocious ; and thus from this 
 infant Babel proceeds a dialect of a host of mongrel 
 words and phrases, joined together without rule, and in 
 the course of one generation the entire character of the 
 language is changed." 
 
 Another fact corroborates as strongly the truth of our 
 statements namely, that the words of almost every known 
 tongue can be traced bacJc to siimple and unchangeable 
 roots. 
 
 These roots, which are monosyllables, can be used as 
 words, and are indeed thus used in the Chinese and some 
 other monosyllabic languages of a very primitive kind, 
 languages in which there is scarcely any difference be- 
 tween nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions, 
 everything being chiefly dependent upon the construc- 
 tion.* Or those roots may be joined together in such a 
 manner that one of them modifies the sense of the other 
 
 * Webb de Burleigli. Essay on the probability tbat the lan- 
 guage of the Empire of China is the primitive language. London, 
 1669. 
 
OEIGIN AND FORMATION OF LANGUAGE. 21 
 
 to form a new word ;* or again, two roots may both lose 
 their independence in forming a new word ;t but no new 
 root has ever been added. 
 
 Three families of languages have thus been formed 
 from one common source. 
 
 What that common source has been is what we 
 cannot tell, nor any one else either, for the reason 
 that the most ancient languages of which we have any 
 notion, such as the Egyptian or the Chinese, are poste- 
 rior by several thousand years, to the apparition of man 
 on earth. 
 
 Some scholars, more enthusiastic than wise, have laid 
 claims to the discovery of the primitive language, but the 
 results of their labours have always been, as they were 
 wont to be, fruitless. 
 
 Great has been the number of those who maintained 
 that Hebrew had been the first language of mankind, 
 simply because it was the one in which the Bible had 
 been written, It is that belief which for a long time, has 
 prevented the science of language from making amy 
 progress, for a few idioms only could be traced back to 
 Hebrew, whilst a quantity of others could not. Seeing 
 this, some people began to ask . themselves why Hebrew 
 should have been the primitive tongue, and as no reason 
 was found to support that assertion, and as, moreover, 
 there is not a word either in the Ancient or New Testa- 
 ment in favour of it, the idea was at last abandoned ; and 
 it is from that time only, that the real era of discoveries 
 in the linguistic science began to dawn ; for when it was 
 once acknowledged that the honour bestowed on Hebrew 
 
 * Turanian family of languages, 
 t Semitic languages. 
 
22 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 rested on no sound basis, the enthusiastic scholars^ above 
 referred to, spared themselves no trouble to discover 
 another tongue worthy of it, and in their enthusiasm 
 almost every European language was in turn hailed as 
 the progenitor of all the others, without any foundation 
 or sense, as may be seen from a perusal of their works. 
 
 For instance, Groropius, in his book published at 
 Antwerp in 1580, tried vainly to prove that Dutch 
 had been spoken in Paradise. Andrew Kempe followed 
 in the same groove, maintaining — very seriously too — 
 that God spoke Swedish, that Adam answered Him in 
 Danish, whilst the serpent addressed Eve in the French 
 tongue. J. B. Brro published also a work,* in which he 
 tells us that Basquet was the language of our first parents. 
 A curious discussion also took place on the same subject 
 about 200 years ago in the Metropolitan Chapter of Pam- 
 peluna, and the decision of the members entered in the 
 minutes of the Chapter runs as follows : — 
 
 1 . Was Basque the primitive language of mankind ? 
 The learned members confess that, in spite of their 
 strong conviction on the subject, they dare not give an 
 affirmative answer. 
 
 2. Was Basque the only language spoken by Adam and 
 Eve in Paradise ? On this point the Chapter declares 
 that no doubt can exist in their minds and that " it is 
 impossible to bring forward any serious or rational 
 objection." 
 
 * " El mondo primitiTq." Madrid, 1814. 
 
 t The Basque, called also euscara, escuara, or eusquera, is the 
 language spoken by the inhabitants of the valleys of the Spanish 
 Pyrenees, near the angle formed by the western coast of France 
 and the north of Spain. 
 
OEIQIN AND FORMATION OF LANGUAaB. 23 
 
 It is not only in our time that such a vast amount of 
 labour and real worth have been wasted, for we read that 
 the ancients also tried to find out what language had 
 been first in use, and as the experimental method seemed 
 to them the most appropriate one, they resorted to it. 
 Herodotus informs us* that Psametick, king of Egypt, 
 wishing to know what language had been the primitive 
 one, caused two new-born infants to be entrusted to the 
 care of a shepherd, who was commanded never to speak 
 to them, or even to let them hear the sound of a human 
 voice. The two children were suckled by a she-goat, 
 and no one ever approached them except the shepherd, 
 who had been further told to watch them carefully in 
 order to know what word they would first utter. After a 
 time, it came to pass that the children pronounced the 
 word Be'kicoc. The king was at once informed of the 
 fact, and the wise men of his country, on whom the task 
 of finding the meaning of the word had devolved, disco- 
 ' vered that it meant " bread" in the Phrygian tongue. 
 
 And probably because they were wise men, and without 
 any further thought upon the subject, they came to the 
 conclusion that Phrygian must necessarily have been the 
 most ancient language, because it was the natural one, as 
 they thought. 
 
 I am aware that some people, at present living, will 
 share the opinion of the wise men of King Psametick, 
 and I shall therefore say that both they and the wise men 
 are wrong. 
 
 In the first place, it is not to be supposed that infants 
 should at once ask for bread; it is more natural that they 
 should ask for milk or pronounce those easy syllables of 
 
 * Herodotus, B. II. 2. 
 
24 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 _pa and ma as all the other infants do, and taking into 
 consideration that those unfortunate creatures had known 
 no other mother but a she-goat whose bleating was the 
 only sound they ever heard, they simply imitated the 
 voice of their nurse, and thus a mere interjection, a 
 natural cry, was interpreted as a word. For though 
 Bekkoc may have really meant bread in Phrygian, I 
 do not hesitate to affirm that in this case it was a pure 
 imitation of the bleating of the goat, and my assertion is 
 further supported by the fact, that the Greeks often used 
 to call a goat fiJiKa. 
 
 After this, we cannot hesitate to say that the experi- 
 mental method is utterly useless. And indeed, were it 
 of any use, it ought to be condemned, for we have no 
 right whatever to snatch away children from their 
 mothers, for our own gratification, and I most sincerely 
 hope that the time when such abominations could take 
 place without rebuke is past for ever. 
 
 Some writers on philology think that, in the origin, lan- 
 guage must have been complex instead of simple. But 
 whether it is not more natural to believe that language grew 
 up like everything else in Nature is what we will now ex- 
 amine ? Nothing is likely to throK more light upen the sub- 
 j ect than theway in which children learn their mother tongue. 
 They use only simple words which they connect with- 
 out art, and have a tendency to employ aU the verbs in 
 the infinitive mood, and to make regular those which are 
 not so, and nearly every one of us has heard children say 
 " he comed," " he throwed me down and bursted my ball." 
 ■ Mothers also tell us plainly that language has been 
 originally very simple. When they teach their offspring 
 their own tongue, they seem to become children again. 
 
OEIGIN AND rOEMATION OF LANGUAGE. 25 
 
 they make their own language go back to its constitutive 
 elements, they use short syllables, avoid long words or 
 shorten them, and this we see every mother do, whatever 
 her rank and position in life may be, and under any sky 
 we please to wander. But so general a fact can only be 
 the result of one of those laws of Nature herself, a law 
 to which we must submit, because God has willed it. 
 
 This, and also an examination of the languages spoken 
 by tribes where civilization has scarcely made its appear- 
 ance, are convincing proofs of the simplicity of the pri- 
 mitive language. We know that many of those tribes 
 make no difference between present, past, or future, that 
 their vocabulary is very limited, and that they put the 
 words in the order in which they occur to their mind 
 without regard to grammatical relations. Sir Emerson 
 Tennent in a letter to Sir John Bowring, governor of 
 Hong Kong, writes : " The Veddahs are a race of harm- 
 less savages; who inhabit the forests in one of the eastern 
 districts of Ceylon, between the mountains of Ouva and 
 the sea. Their origin and history are unknown; but 
 they are probably a remnant of the aborigines driven into 
 their wilds many centuries ago by the Malabar invaders 
 of the island, and from some unaccountable cause they 
 have never returned to civilized life. They live by hunt- 
 ing, and are expert in the use of the bow. They lodge 
 in caves, under the shelter of overhanging rocks, and 
 frequently sleep in the trees out of the reach of the bears 
 and other wild animals. Fruits, roots, and grain they 
 consume when they can procure them ; but they subsist 
 chiefly on birds, fish, honey, and the products of the 
 chase. They dry deer's flesh and carry it for barter to 
 the confines of the inhabited country, whither some of 
 
26 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 the travelling Moors resort with clothes, axes, and arrow- 
 heads, to be exchanged for dried meat, ivory, and bees 
 wax. In these transactions the wild Veddahs are rarely- 
 seen by the strangers ; in the night they deposit what 
 they have to offer in barter, and intimate, by established 
 signals, the description of articles which they require in 
 exchange, and which, being left the following evening at 
 the appointed place, are carried away before sunrise. 
 
 " Their language contains some words so similar to the 
 more ancient Singhalese that the civilized natives are 
 enabled to communicate with them, though with difficulty; 
 but Mr. Mercer, who held for some years an official 
 appointment in the vicinity of their forests, told me that 
 not only is the language of the Veddahs almost unintel- 
 ligible to the Singhalese generally, but so imperfect in 
 itself that much of their communication with each other 
 is conveyed by signs, grimaces, and guttural sounds, 
 which bear scarcely a resemblance to articulate words. 
 
 " This race are unable to count beyond the first four 
 numerals. A Yeddah who had been found guilty of 
 murder, is now undergoing a long imprisonment in the 
 gaol at Colombo, where he learnt to count his own 
 fingers, but he has never been able to advance further, 
 and seems bewildered by the unaccustomed idea of any 
 numbers beyond. 
 
 " Mr. Atherton, the Government Agent at Batticaloa, 
 was employed by the Government to induce these un- 
 tamed creatures to become located in villages, and betake 
 themselves to cultivating the ground ; and he has to a 
 great extent succeeded in several instances. He verified 
 to me the statement of their incapacity to comprehend 
 the smallest combination of numbers ; and I remember, in 
 
ORIGIN AND FOEMATION OF LANGUAGE. 27 
 
 illustration of this, that he mentioned to me an instance 
 in which he had given twelve arrows to a Veddah to be 
 divided between himself and two others ; but so helpless 
 was he that, after spreading them out on the ground, he 
 failed in every attempt to reduce them to three equal 
 portions." 
 
 This is another argument in favour of the theory of 
 the simplicity of the primitive language, and those 
 Veddahs above mentioned show us that language like 
 everything human has grown and developed itself 
 slowly and has only reached its present stage after having 
 been perfected and increased by thousands of generations. 
 
 Now it remains for us to explain how language has 
 been formed. 
 
 We have already said that the creation of woman was 
 for man a complete revelation, and that he then discovered 
 what power lay in him. 
 
 The first words used must have only been the names of 
 objects or animals which could be seen, or felt, or 
 smelled, or heard, or tasted, in short, the names of either 
 creatures or things, which in some way or other produced 
 a well-defined impression on one or more of the senses. 
 
 The power of imitation was called into exercise, and it 
 is that power which has contributed in a great measure 
 to the formation of the names of animals. Many of 
 those names have come down to us almost unchanged. 
 Thus we have the Sanskrit JcoMla, the Greek kokkv^, 
 the Latin cuculus, the English cuckoo, the French coucou, 
 which all recall to Our mind the song of the bird so 
 familiar to us. 
 
 We also have the Sanskrit Ttarava from which are 
 derived KopaS,, corvus, crow, corbeau. In Chinese most 
 
28 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE, 
 
 names of animals, as well as the names of things which 
 produce a well-defined sound or noise, are imitations of 
 that sound or noise. 
 
 " There is a law which runs through the whole of 
 nature," says Max Miiller in his admirable lectures on 
 the " Science of Language," " that everything which is 
 struck rings. Bach substance has its peculiar ring. We 
 can tell the more or less perfect structure of metals by 
 their vibrations, by the answer which they give. Gold 
 rings differently from tin, wood rings differently from 
 stone; and different sounds are produced according to 
 the nature of each percussion. It was the same with man, 
 the most highly-organized of Nature's works. Man in his 
 primitive and perfect state, was endowed not only, like 
 the brute, with the power of expressing his sensations by 
 interjections and his perceptions by onomatopoeia. 
 
 " He possessed likewise the faculty of giving more arti- 
 culate expression to the rational conception of his mind. 
 That faculty was not of his own making. It was an 
 instinct, an instinct of the mind as irresistible as any 
 other iustinct." 
 
 I shall add that music, the primeval music, the 
 natural one, such as the rustling of leayes agitated by the 
 wind, or the roaring of the waves, gave birth to other 
 words, and we have the proof that music has been an 
 important factor in language in such words as rustling, 
 roaring, whistling, hissing, bleating, and mewing. It is 
 also worthy of notice that a constant relation between 
 accentuation and music is known to exist in almost all 
 languages, and more especially so in poetry. 
 
 I know that imitation could have been of no use in the 
 formation of words which have no connection whatever 
 
OEiaiN AND FORMATION OF LANQUAaE. 29 
 
 with sound, and therefore the onomatopoeUe theory, as 
 well as the system of interjections, fail to explain the 
 formation of the other words. 
 
 If man had not been able to iitter words representing 
 the ideas of things which can only be known through the 
 light of reason ; if he had only had a language purely 
 onomatopoetic ; then man would have been very little 
 superior, in that respect at least, to the other animB.ls. 
 
 But man was endowed with reason, he had the faculty 
 of reasoning, of comparing, of weighing, of analysing, of 
 appreciating and perceiving the qualities of objects, 
 qualities which have been rendered by some combinations 
 of sounds which were always the same, and which repre- 
 sented the ideas it was wished to express. Thus we see 
 that words associated with the idea of pain, are harsh or 
 grave ; whilst those connected with pleasing sensations 
 are soft and quick. 
 
 The names of the physical qualities of bodies follow the 
 same law, and the words heavy, thick, enormous, compared 
 with light, thin, and small, are an illustration of it. 
 It is this association between ideas and sounds which 
 alone has produced such expressive words as Blitz or 
 Srps^atv ; the former, a beautiful representation of the 
 rapidity of the lightning, and the latter, indicating, most 
 vividly, the zigzag of the electric spark. We might also 
 mention the Greek ;//uXXoe, a jumper, Floh in German a 
 flyvng-thing, or Loppe in Danish a runner, all recalling to 
 the mind the different attributes of the insect called a. flea. 
 
 The names which express ideas, the operations of the 
 mind, or other things totally immaterial have been 
 formed by means of that great law, which I shall call the 
 law of Associations, and such words as soul, imagination. 
 
30 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 conception, and hundreds of others are derived from 
 objects to which they were supposed to have some kind 
 of resemblance. 
 
 It was thus that roots were formed, and far from seeing 
 in them the work of hazard, I discover in their creation 
 the hand of the Almighty, by whom all things have been, 
 are, and shall be. 
 
 These roots have been the constituent elements of all 
 the tongues now spoken, and can be found in the words 
 of most languages. 
 
 Their number is very limited, being about 500 or rather 
 less. This is not a very extensive vocabulary, but how- 
 ever it is quite sufficient; for as we have said before, 
 these roots can be joined together in different ways, and 
 each root can give rise to about 50 derivatives, which at 
 once gives us a vocabulary of 25,000 words. 
 
 There are few people indeed, if any at all, who know 
 25,000 words of one language, and many a peasant in 
 England could be found whose stock of words is much 
 below one thousand ; whilst most well educated persons 
 do not know more than four or five thousand words of 
 their own mother tongue. Shakespeare, who of all writers 
 known had the greatest command of language, wrote 
 the whole of his plays with 15,000 words ; and Milton 
 composed his poetical works with 6000 only, whilst 
 the Ancient Testament says all it has to say with 5642 ;* 
 and Bunsen affirms that the language of the ancient 
 sages of Egypt, consisted of about 1 000. f 
 
 The Chinese language is made up of 450 monosyllabic 
 roots. A different accentuation and combination of these 
 
 * Eenan.^" Histoire des Langues S^mitiques," p. 138. 
 t " Egypt," pp. 453-491. ; 
 
OEIGIN AND FOEMATION OF LANGUAGE. • 31 
 
 roots have formed the basis of the 80,000 words contained 
 in the Chinese vocabulary.* 
 
 These derivatives have been formed from the roots 
 either by the additioq of one or more letters, or by the 
 change introduced in the pronunciation of those roots. 
 
 It is to the discovery of Sanskrit, in the XVIIth 
 century, that we are indebted for the knowledge of this 
 fact, and it is also that ancient language which has 
 enabled us to trace back nearly all the words of our 
 modern tongues to those roots, and which has spread over 
 the origin of language a light which ever since has guided 
 the steps of the philologist in the right direction, and 
 which prevents him from going astray, when engaged in 
 solving many problems relating to language. 
 
 Roots exist in every language, but the syllables which 
 have been added prevent one from recognizing them at 
 once ; and all the efforts that were made previous to the 
 discovery of Sanskrit, were almost fruitless, for neither 
 an English, nor a French, nor a German word could be 
 traced farther back than Latin or Greek; and the 
 Greek word, which often was as complicated as the one 
 to which it had given birth, remained a mystery because 
 the old language of India was unknown to tis. 
 
 Thus the English Father, the German Vater, the Gothic 
 Fadar, the French phre, the Italian and Spanish Padre, 
 the Latin pater, could all be easily derived from the 
 
 * TLis fact, and the want of grammatical forms have caused the 
 language of the empire of China to be considered as the primitive 
 language of mankind, or at least as one of the oldest. 
 
 See "Webb, de Burleigh.—" Essay on the probability that the 
 language of the Empire of China is the primitive language.'* 
 London, 1669. 
 
32 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 Greek iraTtip ; but nothing more, whilst the Greek in its 
 turn can now be derived from the Sanskrit noun Pitri, 
 which noun in its turn comes from the simple root pa, 
 which means to noi^ish. 
 
 In the same manner we shall find that the root md, 
 meaning to bring forth, has produced the Sanskrit mdtri, 
 the Greek Mjjtjjp, the Latin mater, the French mere, 
 the Italian and Spanish madre, the German mutter, the 
 English mother, the Russian Tnat, and perhaps also the 
 Chinese mou. 
 
 Names expressing the different degrees of relationship 
 are not the only ones whose etymologies can thus be 
 ascertaiaed. For instance^ from the Sanskrit m,an, to 
 think, we can easily derive the Greek juevw, the Latia 
 meno, the Gothic man,, the German meine, the English 
 mean; and from the same root was formed the Sanskrit 
 manas, whence the Greek fuvog, the Latin mens, the 
 Gothic munds, the German meinung, the English mind, 
 the Russian mnienie, and also the English word man, 
 which thus means a thinhing being, and we can assign to 
 the same etymology to the German mann, the Gothic 
 mann, and the Russian thuz. 
 
 But, as it is not my object to give etymologies in this 
 place, and as I only wish to show how words were formed 
 from roots, I shall only give one more example of deriva- 
 tions, the first ten numbers in fourteen different lan- 
 guages, and shall refer the reader to the Etymological 
 Vocabulary contained in the present work. 
 
 A glance at the following table will show, very clearly, 
 the relations which exist between the numbers of the 
 languages we have chosen j and the reader will easily 
 perceive that the differences between the numbers of one 
 
OEiaiN AND FORMATION OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 33 
 
 tongue and those of another, consist chiefly in the change 
 of the letters ; and he is sure also to notice that those 
 differences are very slight. For instance, we find that the 
 initial letter in all the words for the number 2 are d, t, 
 and z ; but t and z belong to the same class of sounds as 
 d ; they are all dental letters, and such a change of letters 
 is one of those determined by Grimm's law. 
 
 Again, in the number 3, we find as the initial letter the 
 dental t, which only once is replaced by a d, and in the 
 numbers 6 and 7 we find the sibilant, except in Greek. 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Sanskrit 
 
 aika 
 
 dvl 
 
 tri 
 
 chatur 
 
 pancha 
 
 shash 
 
 saptan 
 
 ashtan 
 
 navan 
 
 dash an 
 
 Zend . . . 
 
 aera 
 
 dva 
 
 thri 
 
 chatvar 
 
 panchan 
 
 chsvas 
 
 saptan 
 
 as tan 
 
 navan 
 
 daslian 
 
 Gr^ek . .' 
 
 ug 
 
 Svo 
 
 rptie 
 
 Tcaaapig 
 
 TrevTt 
 
 is 
 
 ejrra 
 
 OKTW 
 
 hvsa 
 
 deica 
 
 Latin . . 
 
 unus 
 
 duo 
 
 tres 
 
 quatnor 
 
 quinque 
 
 sex 
 
 septem 
 
 octo 
 
 novem 
 
 decern 
 
 Italian . . 
 
 uno 
 
 due 
 
 tre 
 
 quattro 
 
 cinque 
 
 set 
 
 sette 
 
 otto 
 
 nove 
 
 dleci 
 
 Spanish . ■ 
 
 uno 
 
 dos 
 
 tres 
 
 cuatro 
 
 cinco 
 
 seis 
 
 siete 
 
 ocho 
 
 nuQve 
 
 diez 
 
 French . . 
 
 un 
 
 deux 
 
 trois 
 
 quatre 
 
 cinq 
 
 six 
 
 sept 
 
 huit 
 
 neuf 
 
 dix 
 
 Gothic . . 
 
 ains 
 
 twai 
 
 threis 
 
 fldwor 
 
 flmf 
 
 saihs 
 
 sihun 
 
 ahtau 
 
 niun 
 
 taihun 
 
 German . 
 
 eins 
 
 zwei 
 
 drei 
 
 Tier 
 
 fUnf 
 
 sechs 
 
 sieben 
 
 acht 
 
 neun 
 
 zehn 
 
 English . . 
 
 one 
 
 two 
 
 three 
 
 four 
 
 five 
 
 six 
 
 seven 
 
 eight 
 
 nine 
 
 ten 
 
 Icelandic . 
 
 einn 
 
 tvau 
 
 thryii 
 
 aogur 
 
 fimm 
 
 sex 
 
 sjau 
 
 atta 
 
 niu 
 
 Hu 
 
 Gaelic . . 
 
 aon 
 
 da 
 
 tri 
 
 ceithar 
 
 coig 
 
 sia 
 
 seachd 
 
 ochd 
 
 not 
 
 deich 
 
 liassian 
 
 Odin 
 
 dwa 
 
 tri 
 
 chetyre 
 
 plat 
 
 shest 
 
 sem' 
 
 osm 
 
 dewyat 
 
 desyat 
 
 Lithuanian 
 
 wienaa 
 
 dTi 
 
 trys 
 
 keturi 
 
 penki 
 
 sheshi 
 
 septyni 
 
 ashtuni 
 
 dewynl 
 
 deshimt 
 
 Now, the above table will also illustrate the law which 
 has presided at the formation of roots, viz., the law of 
 Associations; for we can reduce the number 1 to the 
 root un,* which means to isolate; the number 2 to the 
 
 * The number 1 may also be derived from the Sanskrit pronoun 
 aikas, wkicli means alone. Aeva, in Zend, from diva, that. The 
 feminine fiia comes evidently from the adverb jiuov less, in Sanskrit 
 mlnas, talcen from. 
 
34 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 root dau, to out equally; wMlst we can derive 3 from 
 tar, to intercalate ; 4, from chat, to divide ; 5, from ]pach, 
 to clench the fingers, probably from the habit of counting 
 on the fingers ; &, from saj, to join ; 7, from sad, to fill, 
 or from saj, to adhere ; 8, from ach, to spread, or ahs to 
 occupy ; 9, from the adjective nava, new, as being the last 
 number; and 10 from das, to cut off, probably on account 
 of its being the end of the series.* 
 
 The above few derivations are sufficient to show how 
 great is the importance of Sanskrit to the philologistj 
 since it enables him to trace words back to a language 
 which is much nearer the primitive tongue than either 
 Greek or Latin. 
 
 Though so old a language, Sanskrit is the most perfect 
 and logical idiom that can be imagined, and as the lan- 
 guage of a people is more or less the reflection of the 
 civilization it enjoys, it follows that the Aryas were a 
 highly polished race, at least three or four thousand years 
 ago. 
 
 The eight cases of the Sanskrit, its three genders and 
 numbers, its conjugation, so clear and so harmonious, can 
 stand the comparison with the Greek tongue. 
 
 And if it be true that the simplicity of Arithmetical 
 terms is an evidence of the advancement of the science of 
 a nation, it will be necessary for us to come to the con- 
 clusion that the Hindoos of old were not only gram- 
 marians, but also arithmeticians. 
 
 Every one knows that most nations of the globe have 
 
 * The numbers 6 and 7 are found in languages of very different 
 families, such, as the Arabic and Hebrew and the Basque. In 
 Arabic they are settah and sabah ; in Hebrew, shech and sheba ; 
 and in Basque, sei and zarpi. 
 
ORIGIN AND POEMATION 01* LANaUASE. 35 
 
 always made use of a decimal system of notation, a system 
 which has been derived from Nature and from the prac- 
 tice of counting on the fingers. When this decimal 
 arithmetic is not found, we are almost certain to find in its 
 place a quinary or vicenary sc^le, both of which are also 
 derived from Nature, viz., the five fingers of one hand or 
 the ten fingers and ten toes. 
 
 If we examine the numerals of the Indo-European 
 family, we shall see that they are formed very regularly 
 from one to ten, and that from ten to twenty the general 
 method has been to add, to the ten simple numbers, the 
 word ten j but some languages have departed from that 
 simple rule. 
 
 In the Germanic idioms, for instance, the numbers 
 eleven and twelve are not formed regularly;. but in the 
 Sanskrit we find for 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 the 
 words aikadashan, dvadashan, tridashcm, chaturdashan, 
 panchadashan, up to nineteen, which is generally formed 
 like the Latin unus de viginti, and is unavinsati. 
 
 From 20, in Sanskrit, vinsati for dvinsati, the other 
 tenths are formed regularly by multiplying ten by the 
 first ten numbers. 
 
 Simple' and beautiful as this rule is, it has been 
 broken through by a nation whose language is almost 
 universally learnt, viz., by the French, who, instead of 
 the simple words septante, octante, and noncmte, make use 
 of the complicated expressions soixante-dix, quatre-vingt, 
 and quaire-vingt-dix, and who, instead of ninety-six, say 
 quatre-vingt-seize (four twenties and sixteen) . 
 
 I must also add that the figures we use, and which we 
 are in the habit of calling Arabian numerals, have only 
 
 3 * 
 
36 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 been introduced into Europe by the Arabs, who had 
 themselves learnt them from the Aryas. 
 
 And now that we have briefly shown how language 
 may have sprung from one common source, and in what 
 manner we are to understand that tongues have had a 
 divine origin, we shall say a few words about an invention 
 which has been the necessary consequence of that of 
 language, and of the progress of the human mind, viz. 
 Grammar. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 G-eammae'. 
 
 " Unter alien Volkern der Erde ist die Grammatict beinahe auf 
 einerlei Art gebaut." — Herder: "TJeber die Ursprung der 
 Spraclie/' p. 222. 
 
 GeammaEj contrary to the opinion entertained by most 
 people^ and in spite of the apparent dissimilarity of its 
 forms in different languages^ is however neither the result 
 of hazard nor of fancy^ but is the natural want of the 
 mind, and the consequence of the progress of man's 
 intellect. Language, without Grammar, could never have 
 reached the degree of perfection it has now attained — 
 nay, it could scarcely ever have been of any use to man- 
 kind, for it is of the utmost importance that the words 
 should be placed in a certain logical order, that they may 
 show the first elements in which every thought can be 
 decomposed. And the laws and rules which govern and 
 bind those elements together, always correspond to the 
 intellectual operations of the mind, by which ideas are 
 co-ordinated and combined together. 
 
 Therefore, the rules of Grammar have not been created 
 for the sake of rendering language more intricate, but on 
 the contrary to make it more clear and more intelligible ; 
 they have been guessed by the mind, and psychologic 
 
38 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 analysis alone can enable us to iinderstand their useful- 
 ness and necessity. 
 
 Our first conceptions are always connected with the 
 different objects surrounding uSj objects which never fail 
 to make some impression or other upon one or more of 
 our senses, and which enable us to form some idea of 
 their primary quality, which is that of suhstcmce. 
 
 The mind, having acquired the notion of that quality, 
 is led to designate all the different objects which are scat- 
 tered upon the surface of the earth, or which surround us, 
 and the words thus employed have been most wisely 
 called substantives by all grammarians, who, in that 
 respect seem to have only obeyed a sort of intuition of 
 which they were not conscious. 
 
 After words had been used in a general sense, it be- 
 came evident that a distinction between the different 
 kinds or species ought to be made, and genders were 
 then introduced. 
 
 It must also have been a general tendency to repeat 
 the word twice, in order to give more force to the expres- 
 sion, as is indeed the case in Hebrew ; but that redupK- 
 cation, in the course of time, became a source of confusion 
 through the ever increasing number of homonyms, which 
 would soon have rendered language unintelligible, had 
 not the signification of such words been fixed by the 
 name of the species being made to precede that of the 
 kind, as is exemplified by some of the words of our 
 modern tongues. 
 
 But substantives alone are only the representation of 
 simple and independent ideas, without any other quahty 
 but that of substance ; and as this quality is only one out 
 of many which must necessarily be expressed, another 
 
GEAMMAE. 39 
 
 class of words whicli fulfils this object, has been invented 
 and designated by the appellation of Adjective. 
 
 And although in several languages, one might be 
 inclined to consider the substantive and adjective as the 
 same class of words, it must be borne in mind that it is 
 impossible to assimilate matter with its properties, and 
 thaigh it is perfectly true to say that adjectives are often 
 derived from nouns, and that sometimes the quality 
 expiessed by the, adjective is ascribed to the noun, yet 
 it fals to prove that the attribute of the substance and 
 the sibstance itself are the same thing.* 
 
 Wth nouns and adjectives, it was already possible to 
 desigiate the different objects together with their several 
 attritaites ; but those objects, besides names and quali- 
 ties, nove or are moved, act or are acted upon ; in short, 
 they esist, they are, and the part of speech under the 
 head «f which these important words are placed is the 
 Veri, which therefore serves to express the different 
 states (f existence, and which the Chinese very appro- 
 priatelj call Ho-tsen, or the living word. The verb must 
 and doe always contain the idea of existence, and as it 
 expressis that something is, or that an action is performed, 
 there mist necessarily be something being or acting, and 
 it is tha agent which has been called the subject. This 
 subject 3an occupy three different positions in speech. 
 It is theone who speaks, or the one to whom one speaks, 
 or the oie spoken of. These three modifications have 
 been desgnated by the name ot Persons. 
 
 * If tlii assimilation is grounded upon the fact that some adjec- 
 tives are lerived from nouns, it will be quite as reasonable to 
 maintain tat they can be assimilated to verbs, for many adjectives 
 expressingactiyity or action are derived from verbs. 
 
40 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Bat when an action is done, there must of course be 
 some one or something on which it is effected, that is to 
 say, an ohject, called sometimes accusative or regimm. 
 It is here necessary to remark that from the above ^fi- 
 nitions it is clear that nothing but a verb can bind the 
 subject to the object, and that consequently every sen- 
 tence must contain at least one verb. ; 
 
 But it is not sufficient to emit isolated words or sen- 
 tences, for our intellect perceives between ideas! and 
 thoughts certain relations which ^must be expressel by 
 some particular kind of words^ in order that the de'wlop-. 
 ment of our ideas may not be wanting in precisioi and 
 quickness. / 
 
 The relations that are found to exist in the iniellect 
 are of two kinds only, namely, the relation we pffceive 
 between two elements of the same thought, and tie one 
 we establish between two complete thoughts. Ire;posin 
 tions denote the first kind of connection, whilst th/ words 
 used to join together two thoughts are called Qnjunc^ 
 tions. These words do not in reality belong] to the 
 thought itself, and they must only be considerec as the 
 outward form of it, that is to say they are only wrds. 
 
 It has been deemed necessary to add sons other 
 classes of words to the preceding ones, in order ii> render 
 the expression still cleai-er, more elegant or complete, 
 and thus articles, numeral adjectives, demonstraive pro- 
 nouns, have been introduced. These are so closel related 
 to nouns, that they ought not to be considered a distinct 
 classes of words ; and especially so, when it is pome in 
 mind that they do not really represent ideas different 
 from each other. If some languages are compaled toge- 
 ther, it will be found that a demonstrative pinoun in 
 
GEAMMAR. 41 
 
 any one particular tongue may become an article in 
 another one : this would never occur were they the 
 phonetic types of two ideas.* 
 
 Every one knows that the article is not positively 
 necessary. Latin was deprived of it as also was Sanskrit, 
 and in these two languages the deficiency thus existing 
 was sometimes supplied by using pronouns, and the 
 Greek article itself, instead of really determining the 
 sense of words, is rather the expression of divers gram- 
 matical relations, as is proved by the modern Greek, in 
 which it has been thought necessary to introduce fresh 
 articles, and also by Apollonius in his " Syntax.'^t 
 
 The actions expressed by verbs may have taken place 
 in different manners, or at different times, and as the 
 expression of these modifications are of the utmost im- 
 portance to the clearness of speech, words of another 
 class have been resorted to. These words have no con- 
 nection with each other, and as they always, or nearly 
 always, are placed near the verb whose sense they modify,, 
 they have been called Adverbs. Some of these are 
 nothing but prepositions, and others are joined to sub- 
 stantives when they are taken in a general or metapho- 
 rical sense; but they never modify nouns, because the 
 nature of these would then be completely altered. 
 
 Adverbs are only afiixed to adjectives, or verbs, or 
 other adverbs; and in all languages known they are 
 invariable. 
 
 * The so-called indefmite article is generally the numeral adjec- 
 tive one. The English language is an exception. 
 
 t 'Etrnv iiiov apBpiiiv r/ dvafopa, ri iari irpoKaTiiKiyjiivov vpoaairov 
 TrapaarariKj]. 
 
 Apollonius. " De Syntaxi," p. 31. Sylhurg edition. 
 
42 THE SCIEHCl^ OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 Relative pronouns are mere conjunctions^ for they 
 generally bind two parts of a sentence^ and are in nowise 
 a particular class of words ; and the variations which they 
 sustain in some languages do not in the least change 
 their conjunctive property. 
 
 Personal pronouns have no more claims to form a 
 separate class of words than the former ones, for although 
 they are general enough to apply to all persons, yet they 
 are nothing but nouns, being as well defined and as sus- 
 ceptible of modifications as those, as is proved by some 
 languages in which they are declined exactly as substan- 
 tives.* Moreover they do not always take the place of 
 nouns, for in the Maya and some other idioms, they are 
 used instead of the substantive verb, and in the Semitic 
 languages and other African and American tongues, they 
 take the place of the auxiliaries. 
 
 Everything seems to indicate that personal pronouns 
 have very likely been formed first,t for man's first im- 
 pression is that of his own existence, and I think it is 
 more natural for us to attribute to all things an existence 
 similar to our own, than to conceive them not endowed 
 with any living principle. This being the case, how 
 could we admit, with many grammarians, that the pro- 
 noun of the third person did not originally express a real 
 person. 
 
 It was the idea of activity which is inherent in the 
 verb, which has compelled grammarians to personify 
 things, whose existence was expressed by that pronoun 
 
 * In Persian and Finnic. 
 
 t This opinion has been first propounded by the illustrious Gr. 
 de Humboldt in his memoir, " TJeber die Verwandischaft der 
 Ortadverbien mit dem Pronomeij in einigen sprachen." 
 
QEAMMAE. 43 
 
 and thence the pronoun thus used has been thought to 
 have changed its nature. Some languages possess a pro- 
 noun for inanimate things, but far from being always 
 used for what it was intended, it is also used in speaking 
 of living creatures as is shown by the English language, 
 in which it can be used for the names of animals. 
 
 It was also the personification above referred to, which 
 introduced the genders. 
 
 These genders were generally determined by nature 
 herself, and remained a natural division, until they 
 became, what they now are in most languages, namely, 
 only a grammatical necessity, that is to say they were 
 henceforth determined chiefly by the endings of the 
 words. Thus, we see that the terminations of masculine 
 nouns are more strongly accented than those of feminine 
 ones, whilst some intermediate sounds were classified as 
 neuter ones. 
 
 Numbers were also taken into consideration and new 
 inflections were invented, to distinguish between singular 
 and plural, and in some languages, when two objects only 
 were spoken of, a difi'erence was made introducing new 
 endings. The formation of numbers in different lan- 
 guages is most irregular, for instance, in Hebrew things 
 that can be counted can, when over ten, be put either in 
 the singular or the plural. 
 
 Sometimes also, as in Chinese, many words have no 
 plural at all, and the numbers are determined by the 
 genders;* in other languages different forms are resorted 
 to, and the plurals of inanimate things are different from 
 those of animate ones.f 
 
 * The names of inanimate things have no plural in Chinese, 
 t In Persian and a few other tongues. 
 
44 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 The dwal is used in Hebrew and Keltic, but only for 
 things whicli are naturally double, such as the hands, 
 the feet, the eyes, and in Sanskrit, Greek, and most 
 Slavonic tongues, it is used only in speaking of things 
 accidentally coupled together. 
 
 Other wants have necessitated other inflections, for the 
 signification of a word does in nowise depend upon the 
 place of the other, or their order in the sentence, and as 
 it was indispensable to mark the accidental relations 
 which thought establishes between nouns, other inflections 
 were introduced and added to the stem of the word, 
 which itself was never altered. 
 
 These modifications which have received the name of 
 cases constitute the declension. 
 
 In the most imperfect languages, every kind of relation 
 was expressed by a difierent case and we have the Basque 
 with eighteen cases ; the Lapland with fourteen ; the 
 Armenian with ten; the Sanskrit and Slavonic with 
 eight : the old German with six ; the Greek with five ; 
 the Arabic with three only in the singular and two in the 
 dual, whilst they have been totally eradicated from the 
 Romance languages and the Vulgar Arabic, in which 
 prepositions are used in their stead. 
 
 A quantity of cases is not at all necessary, for there 
 can only be three kiads of relationship between words, 
 viz., substance and accident (genitive case) ; cause and 
 effect (dative and ablative), and union or community 
 (accusative) . 
 
 In most languages, adjectives which expressed only an 
 absolute idea have remained unchanged, whilst in others, 
 for the sake of grammar, they took inflections similar to 
 those of nouns, and were always made to have the same 
 
GEAMMAE. 45 
 
 number, gender, and case as the nouns they qualified ; 
 and as the attributes of substantives do not always ex- 
 press the same idea, and as they can be viewed under 
 different aspects, modifications expressing these differ- 
 ences have become necessary, and thus while the positive, 
 which affirms the quality, was the adjective in its original 
 form, the comparative, which compares between two 
 things, and the superlative, which is properly speaking 
 the comparison between more than two nouns, received 
 different forms by means of suffixes which distiuguished 
 them from each other and both from the positive.* 
 
 These degrees of comparison were at first formed by 
 the adjunction of adverbs to the positive as in Basque,t 
 or by the reduplication of the adjective itself, until 
 finally the different degrees of comparison were marked 
 by endings proper to each of them. 
 
 The verb was of all the different classes of words the 
 one whose stem received the greatest number of changes. 
 Inflections were used to denote the tenses, others to point 
 out the persons. In some idioms, the personal pronouns 
 were added to the verb, whilst in others they were not 
 used along with it, and we also see that in some tongues, 
 verbs were also modified according to the gender of the 
 subject governing the verb. 
 
 * According to Benloew, tlie Comparative and Superlative de- 
 grees may be considered as the declension of the adjective. He 
 assimilates the comparative to a dual and the superlative to a 
 plural. — " De I'Accentation dans les langues Indo EuropSemies," 
 p. 251. 
 
 t In Basque, the comparative is formed hy adding dgo or the 
 adverb bano, and the superlative by means of adverbs added to the 
 positive and which correspond to the English veri/. These adverbs 
 are chit, citittez, guriiz, guciz, and anitz. 
 
46 THE SCIENCE OF LANGCTAGE. 
 
 This last distinction was a very unnecessary one, and 
 only a complication, for the verb can only express an ab- 
 solute form of existence, and whether the subject be 
 masculine or feminine is of no consequence, for it cannot 
 have any effect upon the signification of the verb.* 
 
 Although there are inflections which are used to point 
 out that an action has taken place, yet it would be a mis- 
 take to think that such modifications were a necessity, for 
 they. seem to have been chiefly grammatical differences, 
 and this assertion is corroborated by the grammar of 
 some ancient and modern tongues. We know that the 
 future is used instead of the present in the Arabic ; that 
 the present in Hebrew does not • really exist, and is ex- 
 pressed by the preterite or future. It may seem strange 
 that a language should have no present tense, and yet if 
 we only think a little, it will be easy to see that such a 
 tense is not necessary, nay, that such a tense does not 
 really exist, for the present expresses that the action has 
 just been accomplished, but when it is expressed it must 
 have already taken place, and consequently it is past. 
 
 In other languages, it is the future which is wanted, 
 and its deficiency is supplied by auxiliaries joined to the 
 infinitive, as is the case in English, in German, and some 
 idioms belonging to the North American family. 
 
 The modem Greek also has lost the future, which is 
 substituted by the present, preceded by the particle da, 
 or by prefixing the verb fltXco, I will, to the aorist. 
 
 The tenses themselves are subordinate to different 
 actions. Sometimes, as in the indicative and imperative, 
 the action remains absolute, or it may, as in the condi- 
 
 * The third person has genders in the Slavonic languages, whilst 
 in Arabic it is the second, and in Hebrew the first. 
 
GEAMMAE. 47 
 
 tional or subjunctive, be dependent upon another one, 
 and is then possible or necessary, and these differences of 
 meaning which constitute the moods, have also their pecu- 
 liar inflections. 
 
 The simplest mood is the Infinitive,* for it points out 
 the action or existence vaguely and without any respect 
 to person or number, and can therefore have neither 
 gender, nor case, nor number. 
 
 Infinitives have been, and are even now, used as nouns 
 in some languages, among which are the Basque, the 
 Chinese, and the Greek ; but in the latter language, in 
 which they were called TrpoatpsTiKa prtfiara, they were 
 indeclinable and had no genders. 
 
 Participles, instead of being as verbs, constructed with 
 a subject, are constantly connected with nouns, whose 
 meanings they always modify, and they can therefore be 
 assimilated to adjectives, although participating of the 
 nature of verbs, because they are always derived from 
 them, and because also they express a diflferent form of 
 existence. 
 
 The different actions expressed by verbs, are not always 
 of the same kind, for the subject may be' acting upon 
 something, or be acted upon or act upon itself, and thence 
 three different ways of conjugating have sprung. The 
 first has been called the Active voice, the second the 
 Passive, and the third Befiective or Middle. 
 
 Besides these logical distinctions, some languages ex- 
 
 , hibit numerous others, such as affirmative and negative 
 
 conjugations, or conjugations used for persons and others 
 
 for things, or again, as in the Sanskrit, different forms 
 
 * In Arabic, as well as in some otlier languages, there is no 
 infinitive. 
 
48 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 serve to distinguisli between the action profitable to tlie 
 subjectj and that hurtful to the same agent. 
 
 Scarcely any doubt can be entertained as to these dis- 
 tinctions being pointed out by means of auxiliaries, which 
 in the course of time became incorporated with the verb 
 itself; and judging by the analogies existing between most 
 modern tongues and those languages of old, we have 
 every reason to believe that the verb to he must have 
 always been the most important auxiliary, though several 
 others must necessarily have been in use, as well as some 
 words which were not verbs, and among which personal 
 pronouns occupy the chief place, and we know that, in 
 Hebrew, as well as in some other Oriental languages, these 
 pronouns denote a future tense, when they are placed 
 before the verb, but a past, if they follow it. 
 
 We cannot say anything concerning the syntax peculiar 
 to every tongue, because the laws which govern the order 
 in which words succeed each other, are not fixed by 
 necessities inherent in the intellect. 
 
 Syntax constitutes a difierence between two languages, 
 and sometimes between two nations, for men do not 
 differ because they were born in different parts of the 
 globe, but because their intelligence and ideas are not 
 the same. 
 
 The more the syntax follows the logical order, the more 
 polished the nation where it is in use, and the more de- 
 veloped the minds of its inhabitants must be. On the 
 other hand, a primitive and ignorant race of men have a 
 tendency to overthrow that logical order, which consti- 
 tutes the superiority of one language over another. 
 
 There is certainly no language in which a perfectly 
 logical construction exists, but at the same time the 
 
OKAMMAR. 49 
 
 most polished idioms seem to come nearer to it day by- 
 day, as is proved by the tendency we now have to drop 
 some antiquated constructions which can only hinder the 
 progress of language and render it more obscure, thereby 
 preventing its spreading over a larger portion of the 
 globe. 
 
 Whether at some future time a perfectly logical syntax 
 will be found to exist in a language, is what no one can 
 determine at present ; but we do not hesitate to affirm, 
 that if the human intellect progresses enough to achieve 
 such a. conquest, the world shall then soon be in possession 
 of a universal language. 
 
 But until the mind of man shall have attained to such a 
 high degree of perfection, the nations of the earth will 
 continue to use their own dialects, which will only be 
 liable to the transformations that are the necessary con- 
 sequences of the causes we have enuuaerated in the first 
 part of this work. 
 
 It is here the case to remark that those who have 
 entertained the idea of inventing a universal language, 
 were, either ignorant of the laws which govern it, or were 
 so blind as not to see the madness of their own design, 
 and we shall always regret to see the names of some of 
 the greatest men of Europe associated with such an 
 unreasonable conception. 
 
 It is our duty to work indefatigably for the enlighten- 
 ment of all, but we should never attempt to realize 
 things which are far beyond the power of mortal man, for 
 by so doing we lose a time, which if applied to the right 
 thing would bear fruits, and certainly benefit mankind at 
 large. 
 
 It is hy work only, and by persevering inquiry into all 
 
 4 
 
50 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 the diEferent branches of Science^ and not by mere specu- 
 latioHj that we may hope some day to see Truth 
 victorious, and that no longer hampered by the fetters of 
 ignorance and superstition, blind creduhty destroyed for 
 ever, will make room for Knowledge and Reason; and 
 that man shall then have a right, and a lawful claim, to 
 consider himself as the chef-d'oeuvre of Nature. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 On the Literature of India. 
 
 When two hundred years ago, or thereabout, it became 
 known that there was in India a language, which though 
 spoken at the time of King Solomon, and though older 
 by many centuries than the oldest languages of Europe, 
 was not yet dead, but, on the contrary, was used by the 
 Brahmins in preference to the modern tongues of India, 
 the curiosity of the European scholars was so aroused, 
 that several set out for India, where, after endless diffi- 
 culties and toils, they succeeded in mastering the lan- 
 guage of the Vedas. 
 
 It was only after they brought the results of their 
 efforts to Europe, that the science of language, which till 
 then, left unguided, had wandered here and there without 
 effecting any valuable discoveries, and freed from the bonds 
 which had so long impeded its progress, burst upon the 
 world, which it astonished, and though the youngest 
 among Sciences, soon became one of the most important. 
 
 A language which had brought about such a revolution 
 was sure to secure the attention of the scholar and 
 philosopher alike, and it has, indeed, ever since been 
 studied most carefully, though not so generally as might 
 be desired, by both. 
 
 4 * 
 
52 THE SCIENCE OF LANaUAGE. 
 
 We have seen, in a previous chapter^ that Sanskrit 
 taught us that most European languages were its off- 
 spring, hut valuable as this is, it has revealed to us things 
 of far greater importance, for they no longer interest the 
 scholar alone but mankind at large, and more especially 
 so the large Indo-European family, whose origins are so 
 intimately connected with those of the Aryas of India, 
 that they cannot now be separated. 
 
 If any one had been bold enough, a hundred years ago, 
 to say that Europe, with its sciences, its arts and litera- 
 ture, was indebted to India for these benefits, and that 
 this very civilization, of which we are so proud, was only 
 the continuation of a civilization equally advanced, but 
 flourishing three thousand years ago at least, many would 
 have laughed but few would have believed. And if 
 besides it had been pointed out that those affinities 
 between India and Europe were not confined to sciences 
 and arts, but that they existed more or less iu the dif- 
 ferent forms of government, and in the various rehgions 
 of both countries, people would not have hesitated to 
 condemn the propounder of such doctrines as a visionary, 
 though these assertions, as we shall see, were facts which 
 are now acknowledged by every one who has made a 
 conscientious study of the subject. 
 
 This change is also the work of Sanskrit and its litera- 
 ture. The first scholars who succeeded in gaining an 
 insight into the literature of India, endeavoured, and 
 succeeded in bringing parts of it to Europe, and as they 
 have had numerous imitators we are now in possession of 
 the greater part of the books of the ancient Hindoos, 
 books which we can now study at home without going 
 to the trouble of performing a voyage to India. 
 
THE LITERATURE OF INDIA. 53 
 
 What vast amount of knowledge has been derived 
 from this old Indian literature is what cannot be fully 
 told in a work of this kind, for to do it justice would be 
 to increase the bulk of this book beyond the intended 
 limits, and therefore, we shall confine ourselves to a few 
 pages, in which we shall give a short analysis of the chief 
 works of Indian literature, merely noticing their chief 
 points of interest, as well as the religious symbolism they 
 exhibit, leaving the more minute examination of what 
 they contain, to the future and another work. 
 
 The "Eig-Veda" is by far the most important portion of 
 Sanskrit literature, for being the most ancient it is the 
 one in which we may reasonably expect to look for a 
 greater amount of information respecting India, its reli- 
 gion and civilization. 
 
 The '^Eig-Veda," or book of the hymns, contains up- 
 wards of a thousand hymns, the beauty and simplicity of 
 which cannot but strike, for the Arya, to judge him after 
 the language of the " Eig," must^ have been the most 
 candid and frank of men. He asks of his gods to give 
 him riches, to pour down upon him all kinds of gifts and 
 favours, and is no less eager in the requests he makes 
 for the utter annihilation of those whom he considers his 
 enemies. 
 
 The Arya had not yet learned to pray for his adver- 
 saries, and it was reserved for a higher philosophy to 
 make men do what is most repulsive to their untutored 
 nature. 
 
 We can also gather from the " Eig " what were the 
 habits and occupations of the primitive Aryas. 
 
 All the prayers, all the supplications of the " Eig" are 
 addressed to the two gods they most were in need of. 
 
64' THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 namely Agni and Indra, and it would seem that the 
 whole of the Aryan worship was centred in these two 
 deitiesj the former the Sun and the latter, worshipped 
 chiefly by the warriors, the Ether. 
 
 It is indeed natural, that men who had to encounter 
 formidable enemies, each day opposing their advance, 
 should have striven, by all means in their power, to 
 secure the favours of so powerful an auxiliary as the 
 mighty Indra, just as the European soldiers used tq 
 ip.voke the god of battles before attacl^ing the foe, and 
 that when, oijce thpy had succeeded in acquiring the land 
 they had coveted, they should invoke with no less ardour 
 the God who alone could ripen their harvest — the Bener 
 volent Agni. 
 
 The Mig opens and closes with a hynjn to Agni the 
 God of Fire [Ignis), whom the poet also calls Angiras 
 (the burning), Rita [the pure, the shining, the light), 
 Surya, the " resplendent'^ (from Sur, to shine), Savitri, 
 the Creator (from Sit,, to produce), Mitra, the " benevor 
 lent" (froni Mid, to conciliate), Bhaga, the "fortunate" 
 (from Rhay, to honour). Then come invocations to VayUj, 
 the Air ; to Indra, the Ether, or rather the Heavens which 
 encompass the B^rth, to Mitra and Varuna, the Sun and 
 the Waters; to the Asvins or morning and evening 
 twilights ; to Sarasvati, the goddess of speech ; and to 
 the Ritus ox Seasons. "We also find in the " Big- Veda" 
 hymns to divers inferior deities, among which may be 
 mentioned those addressed to the Bibhus, that is to say 
 to the souls of the departed, 
 
 Varuna, we are told in one of the hymns, is the Son 
 of Aditi. This Aditi (a word evidently formed from 
 dpti, divisible, and a privative), meang the " Indivisible 
 
THE LITEEATUEE OF INDIA, 55 
 
 nature," wliicli is thus personified and whose sons, the 
 Adityas, are constantly at war to repel the incessant 
 attacks of the Biiyas or Uvil spwits. 
 
 The Winds are also addressed as the Marus, whose 
 terrible chief Budra (from Bu, to run, to rush), seems to 
 be only a personification of the air, and another name for 
 Vayu. 
 
 Soma, the Moon; Zfsha, the dawn (from ush, to 
 shine) ; Vishnu, the three steps of whom are a symbol of 
 the Sun at morn, at noon, and at eve, and whose ninety- 
 four stations are the sum of numbers representing divers 
 astronomical phenomena, have all their worship as well 
 as the Venas or clouds. 
 
 From the above, we gather that the worship of the 
 primitive Aryas, like that of almost every nation in its 
 infancy, has had its origin in the contemplation of the 
 marvels which surround us, and of the phenomena which 
 are calculated to impress strongly the minds of men. 
 These phenomena are of two kinds, beneficial and hurtful. 
 The first ones have been ascribed, by men ignorant of the 
 chief laws which govern Nature, to some benevolent 
 divine being, whilst the latter have been considered as 
 the work of the evil spirits. 
 
 Thence arose this ancient belief in two antagonistic 
 principles, the one good the other evil. 
 
 The darkness of night, superseding the brightness of 
 day, cannot but have strongly impressed the minds of 
 those who first beheld it, The night has been looked 
 upon as the enenjy of the day ; the former has become 
 the evil principle, and the latter the good one, and men 
 have worshipped both, the evil one to pacify him, to 
 prevent him from harming them, and the good one in 
 
56 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 grateful acknowledgment of his favours and also to 
 implore him to continue them. 
 
 Such a worship may seem very low to those who never 
 go to the trouble of thinking, but to the philosopher, it 
 exhibits more true philosophy, and more reason, than one 
 might at first suppose. 
 
 This glorious luminary, source of heat and lights may 
 well be regarded as the giver of all good things, and of j 
 all things necessary. It is, not only the centre of our 
 world, but also the life of this and the other planets 
 which revolve round it, and which, did they not receive 
 the warmth of. his rays, would only be frozen solitudes. 
 The Sun is indeed the origin of the energy displayed on( 
 the surface of this globe, and if not the source of every-' 
 thing living, is, at least, the supporter and feeder of life, j 
 
 On the other hand, darkness is for man a symbol oi 
 death, and is always accompanied by all sorts of terrors 
 which only vanish when the dawn appears. It is theii 
 that man awakes, and that he looks towards the East, and 
 that when the radiant orb sheds its stream of light over 
 fields and mountains, into the forests and the caves, thati 
 he falls down and pours out his soul in prayers, before 
 the face of the Almighty Agni. 
 
 From this, it might be inferred that the worship of the 
 Aryas was only that of deified matter. Such a view 
 would however be wrong. In worshipping the different 
 forces of Nature, the Arya saw in them not the 
 only God, but some of his attributes, and beyond the 
 Earth and the water, beyond the clouds and the windSj 
 beyond the Sun and the Stars, he felt, he saw, he per- 
 ceived there must be something, something distinct from 
 all those, something greater than they, some unknown God, 
 
THE LITEIlATUKi3 OF INDIA. 57 
 
 whom he called Devadevas, that is to say the God of the 
 Gods, or Prajapati, the Lord of Creatures, and in a hymn 
 to this supreme being the poet says : " Nothing existed 
 " then, either visible or invisible. There was no supe- 
 " rior region j no air ; no heaven. Where was this 
 " envelop of the World ? In what bed was the water ? 
 " Where were those unfathomable depths of the air ? 
 
 " There was no death, no immortality. Nothing 
 " announced the day or the night. He alone breathed, 
 " without breath, enclosed in himself. He alone existed. 
 
 " In the beginning darkness was wrapped in darkness ; 
 " the water was without strength. All was a chaos. 
 " The Being was in the midst of this chaos and this 
 " great All was born through the warmth of his piety. 
 
 "In the beginning, love was in him, and from bis intel- 
 '' lect the first seed sprang. The wise (men), through 
 " the work of the intellect, succeeded in forming the 
 " union of the visible with the invisible. 
 
 . . . . . " Who knows these things ? Who can 
 " tell them ? Whence came the beings ? What is this 
 "creation? The gods have also been created by Him. 
 " But he, who knows how he exists ? 
 
 " He, who is the first author of this creation, supports 
 " it. And what other could do it ? He, who from the 
 " height of the heavens rests his eyes upon all this world, 
 " alone knows it. What other could have this science ?" 
 
 This surely shows that the Polytheism of India about 
 which so much has been said, was more apparent than 
 real, and that if numerous idols were worshipped, if the 
 sun and the stars were deified, they were not, at any rate, 
 worshipped as the Devadevas. 
 
68 THE SCIENCE ,0E LANGUAGE. 
 
 After this brief survey of the " Eig-Veda" it remains to 
 show that the worship it contains has not been confined 
 to India only, but that it made its way to Europe, where it 
 became the worship of the Greeks and subsequently of 
 many other nations. 
 
 In the Greek mythology, we find the x^oc which can 
 easily be traced to the Sanskrit kham, a vacuum. Out of 
 this x""? came the Earth, and the sky Ovpavog, the 
 Sanskrit Yaruna. 
 
 Bita seems to have become in Greek the fruitful Viia, 
 whilst the devas can easily be assimilated to the 6eoi. 
 
 Saturnus, the Sower, and Janus, the emblem of Nature, 
 are the same as Savitri, and Jana (from jan to produce). 
 The God of the Infernal Regions AiSrig, is the same as 
 the invisible Avitta whilst Mivwq reminds one of Manu. 
 
 The Apollo of the Greeks, also called HvOiog, can be 
 identified with Buddha, the wise (from hudh to Tcnow) ; 
 Minerva, with Manasvini (the intelligent) ; Venus with 
 Vanita (loved), Vulcanus with Ulha, a flame, and Vesta 
 with Vastya, a hearth. 
 
 The struggle between the Qeoi and the TirjjvECj is very 
 similar to that between the Bevas and their enemies the 
 Daityas, and last, but not least, the great Ztue or Aie ; 
 or Jupiter, or Deus, is the same as the Sanskrit Dyupati or 
 divapati (from div to shine) and Ztve TrarijjO or Ate irarrip, 
 in Latin Jupiter, are the same words as the Sanskrit 
 Dyupati and Divapati (from divya, celestial, and pati, 
 lord or master). 
 
 These comparisons might be extended to the whole of 
 the Greek and Roman theology, but as the few names we 
 have chosen are, we think, sufiicient to show that the 
 Greeks and the Hindoos, though now so far from each 
 
THE LITEIIATUBE OF INDIA. 59 
 
 other, must have been in former ages, if not one nation,, 
 at least very near relations, we shall now proceed to. 
 examine the works of Sanskrit literature posterior to the 
 "Eig,Veda." 
 
 Foremost among these are the Sama Veda, the Yadjiw 
 Veda, and the Atharva Veda. 
 
 These Vedas ai-e the sacred books of the Brahmins, 
 those they composed themselves, and as they contain a 
 great deal which is to be found in the Big I think it may 
 safely be said that the first Veda was the work of poets, 
 and not of priests, and that it existed long before there 
 was any well-defined form of worship. 
 
 The Sama contains the bymns of the Big which were 
 sung during the sacrifices, together with rules for chanting. 
 
 The Yadjur Veda is a collection of prayers and disser- 
 tations on several religious topics, and claims a share of 
 our attention, because in it can be found many of the laws 
 which afterwards formed the book of the laws of Manu. 
 
 The Atharva Veda is not probably so ancient as the 
 other Vedas, and owing to the want of philosophical 
 ideas, is not generally considered so valuable a work as 
 the othep sacred books, though invaluable to the student 
 of history and philology. It contains numerous forms of 
 exorcism, both in prose and in poetry, such as were used 
 by the degenerated Brahmins, previous to the reform in- 
 troduced in the worship of Brahma, 
 
 But if these three Vedas lack the interest of the Big, 
 they contain nevertlielesg what the Big lacks, namely. 
 Mantras, or prayers — ^ralimanas and ITpa^iishads, or 
 Commentaries. 
 
 These Upanishads are philosophical books composed by 
 
60 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 the Brahminsj and are appended to tlie sacred books, of 
 which, they form a part. 
 
 They are sometimes dialogues between a pupil and his 
 master, sometimes dissertations pure and simple, and 
 they always show that those who composed them, were 
 trae philosophers. 
 
 What could be more grand than the following 
 Upanishad from the Yadjur Veda.- 
 
 " He who is the primary cause " says the writer, " is 
 " the fire, the sun, the air, the moon, the waters ; he is 
 "■ the pure Brahma, the lord of beings. AU the moments 
 " which measure time have sprung from his glittering 
 " body, which no mortal can embrace or see either above, 
 " or around, or in the centre. His glory is so great that 
 " no image can represent it. 
 
 " It is He " say the Holy Scriptures " who was in the 
 " golden egg, He before whom nothing was ; it is He 
 " who is the God of space. He who is the firstborn, He 
 " who resides in the fruitful bosom. He who will be pro- 
 " duced for ever. 
 
 " It is He who dwells in all beings under the endless 
 " shapes He assumes. He before whom nothing was. He 
 " who alone became everything. He the lord of beings 
 " who delights in creating, made the three lights, the 
 " Sun, the Moon, and the Fire ; and his body has sixteen 
 " limbs. 
 
 " To what God could we ofi'er our sacrifices but to Him 
 " who has made the air fluid and the earth soUd, to Him 
 " who has fixed the solar orb and the celestial space, and 
 '' who has spread the drops of rain in the air. 
 
 -" To what God could we ofi'er our sacrifices but to Him 
 
THE LITEEATUEE OF INDIA. 61 
 
 " wHom the heaven and earth mentally contemplate, whilst 
 " they are fortified and embellished by pious ofEerings, 
 " whilst they are illumined by the Sun which rolls above 
 *' them, and fertilized by the waters which overflow them. 
 
 " The wise man rests his eyes upon this Mysterious 
 " Being, in whom the Universe, which has no foundation 
 " but Him, exists for ever. This world is in Him ; it is 
 " from Him that this world came forth. He is inter- 
 " mingled and woven with all beings under the different 
 " shapes of existence. Therefore let the wise who knows 
 " all the secrets of Revelation, hasten to celebrate this 
 " Being whose existence is as mysterious as it is varied. 
 " He who knows His three states — Creation, Preservation 
 " and Destruction, wrapped in mystery, is united with 
 " the Father. 
 
 " This Brahma in whom spirits obtain immortality 
 " when they have reached the third region, is our true 
 " Father ; all worlds and all beings are governed by 
 " Providence. 
 
 " Knowing the elements, knowing the worlds, knowing 
 " all regions, worshipping the word born first, the pious 
 " man embraces the vivifying spirit of the solemn sacri- 
 " fice by the meditation of his soul. 
 
 " Understanding that the heavens, the earth and the 
 " air are He only, knowing and perceiving that the worlds, 
 " that the space, and the solar orb are He only, he sees 
 " this supreme being, he becomes this being, he identifies 
 " himself with Him by achieving this vast and fruitful 
 " course of the solemn sacrifice. 
 
 " To obtain wealth and wisdom, I address my prayer 
 " to this admirable master of the being and non-being, 
 "friend of Indra, the fire which all creatures desire. 
 
62 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 " May this offering be efficacious ! O Agm, make me 
 *' wise to-day, of this wisdom, which is adored by the gods 
 " and our forefathers. May this offering be efficacious ! 
 '^ May Agni and Prajapati grant me wisdom ! May Indra 
 " and Vayu grant me wisdom ! May Brahma give me 
 " reason ! May both the priest and the warrior defend 
 " me ! May the gods grant me extreme felicity. 
 " thou who art that everlasting felicity, may this offering 
 " please thee, and be received by thee.'' 
 
 We shall end these remarks on the Vedas and their 
 Upanishads by a translation of the legend of the Univer- 
 sal deluge, as found in the Yadjur Veda. It is interest- 
 ing to compare it to the Biblical account, and thougk it 
 is not here considered as a supernatural phenomenon, 
 it nevertheless shows that there was in India, as well 
 as in other countries, a tradition of this great cata- 
 clysm. 
 
 " In the morning the servants of Manu brought him 
 " water for the ablution, as when one brings it for the 
 " washing of hands. Manu having washed himself, a fish 
 " came into his hand, and this fish said to him these 
 " words : Protect me, and I shall save thee. — And from 
 " what wilt thou save me ? A deluge shall destroy all 
 " the living creatures : I can save thee from this deluge. 
 " What protection do you need ? The fish replied : So 
 '' long as we are young, a great danger threatens us, for 
 " the fish do not spare the fish. In the first place thou 
 " shalt protect me by keeping me in a vase. When I 
 " shall have grown too big for this vase to contain me, 
 " thou shalt dig for me a basin, and thou shalt protect me 
 " by keeping me there ; when I shall have grown too big 
 " for the basin, then thou shalt cast me into the sea : for 
 
THE LITERATURE OP INDIA. 63 
 
 " from that time I stall be strong enough to defend my- 
 " self against all dangers. 
 
 " The fish soon became enormous^ for it grew very 
 " quickly. Then the fish said : When the year in which 
 " this deluge is to take place shall be at hand, thou wilt 
 " be able, recollecting my advice, to prepare a ship, and 
 " when the deluge shall come, thou shalt go into the ship 
 " which thou shalt have constructed, and then I shall save 
 " thee. 
 
 " Manu having fed and protected the fish, cast it into 
 "the sea, and in that same year which the fish had indi- 
 " cated, he, mindful of the advice he had received, pre- 
 " pared his ship. When the deluge had come, he went 
 " into the ship. The fish came towards him swimmings 
 " and Manu fastened the cable of the ship to the horn of 
 " the fish, that he might lead it to the mountain of the 
 " North. 
 
 " Then the fish said : I have saved thee ; now lash thy 
 " ship to a tree, in order that the water may not drag 
 " thee away, although thy ship is on a mountain. When 
 " the water shall have subsided, then thou wilt be able to 
 " come out of thy ship. 
 
 " Manu only came out when the water had abated, and 
 " it is from that, that comes the name which the mountain 
 " still retains — the coming down of Manu, coming out of 
 "his ship." 
 
 Then the writer goes on, and tells us that Manu offered 
 a sacrifice, that a woman was formed out of the offering of 
 milk, cheese and butter, and relates how that woman 
 became the wife of Manu, and subsequently the second 
 mother of mankind. 
 
 We cannot conclude this brief analysis of the sacred 
 
64 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE'. 
 
 books of India without alluding to the great reform which 
 took place in the religion of Brahmo, about 800 years 
 before our era. But before we saj anything about this 
 revolution in the old religion of India^ it is necessary to 
 state a few of the causes which led to this schism in the 
 established worship. 
 
 The whole of the Aryas of India were divided into four 
 castes, viz., the Brahmins or priests ; the Kshattras or 
 warriors (from Kshi, to strike) ; the Vaisliyas, colonists, 
 or traders, or agriculturists, ivom vish, to occupy; and the 
 Sudras, or servants, from stid, to 'purify. These four 
 castes were perfectly distinct from each other, and inter- 
 marriages were strictly prohibited by the Brahmins, who 
 were not only the priests, but also the rulers of the nation. 
 These Brahmins, resembling, in many respects, the priests 
 of the Jews, had arrogated to themselves the management 
 of civil and religious affairs, and having the law in their 
 own hands, interpreted it so as to suit their own views. 
 Belonging to the first of the four castes was not yet 
 enough for them, they must be higher than the kings 
 themselves ; and in order to make people believe in their 
 superiority over all other mortals, they did not hesitate 
 to affirm that, before becoming Brahmins, they had been 
 purified in a preceding life, and that their power was so 
 great that not only could their words annihilate their 
 enemies, but even create new worlds. 
 
 These falsehoods, being readily accepted by the people, 
 had given the Brahmins a power which can only be com- 
 pared to the one the Roman priests of the Middle Ages 
 had in France, Spain, or Italy. Nevertheless this power, 
 strong and deep-rooted as it was, was, if not destroyed, 
 at least greatly weakened and diminished by a philosophy 
 
THE LITEEAT0EE OF INDIA. 65 
 
 laore in accordance with reason, and the progress the 
 nation had made. 
 
 Sahja Muni was the propounder of the tenets of the 
 new school. 
 
 Sahya Muni, or the BuMha (budh, to understand), was, 
 it is said, the son of a mighty and wealthy prince, and of 
 a mother remarkable for her beauty and purity. The 
 first years of his life were spent, by him, in all the happi-. 
 ness fortune and rank can give. 
 
 He married a young girl, as beautiful as loving; he 
 loved everybody, and everybody loved him; in short, 
 nothing seemed to be wanting to make his bliss complete. 
 
 But this happiness did not last long; for when casting 
 his eyes around him, when going in the midst of men, he 
 found that there was woe, that there were misfortunes 
 which he could not alleviate, miseries which he could not 
 soothe, desires which gnawed at the very heart of men, 
 and which he could not either appease or satisfy; and 
 when, after having tried to find the means of rendering 
 men happy, he discovered that he had laboured in vain, 
 the cup of bliss was dashed from his lips. He, ashamed 
 of being happy when others were suffering, leaves his 
 palace, forsakes his loving spouse, gives up the pleasures 
 and vanities of the world, and goes into the wilderness to 
 lead the life of an anchorite. He had scarcely retired 
 from the pomps of the world when the king of Maghada 
 came to him, and by offering him the half of his kingdom, 
 tried to induce him to relinquish his present mode of life. 
 Having failed in attaining his object, the demon tried to 
 win him, by employing the most powerful of tempters, 
 viz., beautiful women whom the evil spirit sent to him, 
 and who appeared before the Buddha in all their 
 
 5 
 
66 THE SCIENCE OP lAUaUAGE. 
 
 loveliness. But Sakya Muni once more remained vic- 
 torious. 
 
 After having overcome these temptations, he went 
 forth to preach to men the new religion. 
 
 He taught men that they were all equal, and that, 
 contrary to the statements of the Brahmins, every man 
 might become a priest, whatever his caste might be, pro- 
 vided he possessed the piety and learning qualifying him 
 for the divine office. The favours of God which were 
 only, tiU then, the lot of a few privileged ones, were to 
 become the inheritance of all those who by their piety and 
 charity should render themselves worthy of them. 
 
 Such is the teaching of the Buddha, a teaching which 
 bears more than one point of resemblance to Christianity. 
 
 The Buddha, like Christ, was the friend of the 
 oppressed, and the enemy of tyrants and hypocrites ; his 
 religion, like that of Christ, was also a religion of love, 
 and the heavenly favours were to be confined no longer 
 to one particular class, but within the reach of all. 
 
 If Buddhism has not completely destroyed Brahminism, 
 it has at any rate shaken it to its very foundation ; and if 
 it is scarcely in existence in the country where it first 
 was preached, Christianity is, no longer, the religion of 
 Western Asia. Buddhism has travelled Eastward, and 
 Christianity has shed its light over the Western nations ; 
 and they have under their banners more than one-half of 
 mankind. 
 
 Some may object to this comparison, on the ground 
 that Buddhism is a worship of Idols ; but to this I shall 
 reply, that if Buddhism is no longer the pure worship 
 preached by Sakya Muni, Christianity, in many instances 
 is very far from what it was intended to be. 
 
THE LITEEATUEE OP. INDIA, 67 
 
 We must not be too sanguine in our condemnation of 
 other worships j and before we criticize other people's 
 conduct, we should examine our own. 
 
 If Buddhism has now become a worship of Idols, if its 
 priests no longer remiud one of the Great and Good 
 Buddha, Christianity has more or less degenerated into a 
 similar worship, whilst the virtues of its priests can ho 
 longer be compared to those of Christ. 
 
 Great is the number of those who pity the poor 
 Buddhist who addresses his prayers to a worthless and 
 unfeeling idol ; but few are those who see that the 
 Buddhist of China, prostrated before his idol, has 
 thousands of imitators in Europe. 
 
 To see idols worshipped, we need not go to the far 
 East, for only a few hours journey will show us what we 
 should see thousands of miles away. When once we 
 have set foot on the Continent of Europe we are in the 
 midst of idols and images, as indeed any OathoHc church 
 will demonstrate. There we shall see hundreds kneeling 
 before a plaster statue of a virgin, or before a reliquary 
 containing some bones reputed to be those of a saint, 
 and hundi-eds addressing their prayers to some still lower 
 object, instead of invoking the only one God. Is not this 
 Idolatry? Is not such a worship as demoralizing as 
 modem Buddhism ? 
 
 Those who laugh at the Buddhist because his sole 
 desire, they say, is to be annihilated, have, I believe, 
 been greatly mistaken. 
 
 The Nirvana of the Buddhist is not to be interpreted 
 in the usual manner, for the desire of the Buddhist, like 
 that of the Brahmin, is that his soul should become 
 absorbed into that of the Deity, and not that it should 
 
68 THE SCIENCE OF LANGITAGE. 
 
 be utterly destroyed. The Buddhist prays for the anni- 
 hilation of his body, but, like every other man, he hopes 
 there is something after this life ; and in several of the 
 hymns of the Lalita Vistara, Buddha is asked to in- 
 struct his followers in order that they may become par- 
 takers of his immortality. 
 
 And now, we wiU say a few words about a work to 
 which we have alluded before, namely, the Manavadha/rma, 
 or the law of Manu. This book, composed at least 
 a thousand years before our era, is a complete system of 
 religious and civil legislation. In it are found all the 
 laws which prescribe the duties and limit the rights of 
 each caste ; and such has been the influence of the Mcma- 
 vadha/rma, that after so many ages, and so many revolu- 
 tions, its laws are not yet totally discarded by the 
 Hindoos of the present day. 
 
 In the beginning of the Manavadharma, we are told 
 that a luminous egg appeared in the water (the first sub- 
 stance), and that this egg, dividing itself, formed the 
 heaven, the air, the earth, the fire, and the sea. Out of these 
 elements came everything that grows or moves upon the 
 surface of the earth, and also Manu, after the creation of 
 which Brahma rested. Since then, everything has been 
 submitted to Manu, who, for the guidance of his children, 
 wrote the laws of the Manwvadharma. 
 
 We cannot conclude this sketch of the literature of 
 India, without noticing two poems which do not belong to 
 the first caste, but to the Kshattras or warriors. These 
 two poems are the Bamayana, written about eight hun- 
 dred years before our era; and the Mahdbhdrata, which 
 is two hundred years younger. 
 
 The Bamayana, composed by the poet Valmiki, contains 
 
THE lilTEEATUBE OF INDIA. 69 
 
 nearly 50,000 lines, and is a most precious and valuable 
 monument of antiquity, and most valuable to the student 
 of the history and customs of India. 
 
 The beginning of the poem shows us Valmiki medi- 
 tating near the banks of a pure and calm river, when a 
 voice from Brahma commanded him to celebrate the 
 exploits of Rama. At once, the whole of the marvellous 
 deeds of this renowned warrior passed before his mind, 
 and Yalmiki, inspired by the languid voices of two swans, 
 began to recite before his disciples the poems which form 
 the Bay may ana. 
 
 To give an analysis of such an elaborate work is what 
 we cannot attempt here, for the incidents are so plentiful 
 that to relate them, even briefly, would fill a volume. 
 
 This poem, which can easily be likened to the great 
 epics of Greece, shows once more that the same ideas 
 have pervaded the whole of human nature. We find iu 
 it those Titans and Centaurs of Hesiod, whose deeds 
 have also been recorded by Ovid; whilst Rama can 
 advantageously be compared to Achilles or .ZEneas. 
 
 The other great Indian epic, the Mahabhdrata, is 
 rather a collection of poems, by different authors, than 
 the work of one man. This stupendous composition, con- 
 taining about 200,000 lines, is the description of the great 
 struggle which took place between the two branches of 
 the royal family settled at Kastinapwra, a struggle which 
 ended in the ultimate victory of the virtuous Yudhisthira, 
 son of Pandus, who had given his throne to his younger 
 brother Dhretarasta, on condition that his son Yudhis- 
 thira should still retain the rights he had to the throne 
 of his father. 
 
 In concluding this very imperfect sketch of so impor- 
 
70 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 taut and extensive a literature as that of India, I must 
 express my regret that it is not more generally known in 
 Europe ; and I should esteem myself amply rewarded if 
 these few pages should induce any one to begin the study 
 of that language which has been the key to so many 
 mysteries, and which is destined to throw more light on 
 the Science of EeHgion than any other European lan- 
 guage, namely, Sanskrit. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Etymological Vocabulaet. 
 
 " There is something more truly wonderful in a root than in all 
 the lyrics of the ■vtot\A."—Prof. Max Muller—" The Science of 
 Language." 
 
 In the following vocabulary, the English words, arranged 
 for the sake of convenience, ia alphabetical order, will be 
 immediately followed by the Sanskrit root from which 
 they have been derived. 
 
 Upwards of three hundred words are given, together 
 with their roots, and although this may, at first sight, 
 seem a very small quantum^ considering the extensive 
 vocabulary of the English language, yet, when the reader 
 bears in mind that several derivatives are formed from 
 one word, he wiU at once perceive that our Etymological 
 Vocabulary, small as it is, supplies the etymologies of a 
 very large number of English words. For instance, the 
 etymology of the word iaker will give that of hahing, 
 bakery, bacon, &c., whilst that of spy will supply the 
 derivation of special, species, specimen, specious, speck, 
 spectacle, spectator, spectral, spectre, speculum, and a host 
 of others, such as spite, despite, suspicion, suspect, pros- 
 pect, expect, respect, respectable, auspicious, and even 
 sceptic and Bishop. 
 
 The Greek, Latin, French, or other foreign words 
 given under the Sanskrit roots, are not always the trans^ 
 
72 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 lation of the English, though in many cases they are, but 
 they are always words derived from the same source. It 
 will also be noticed that sometimes the same word goes 
 through several languages without undergoing any very 
 material alteration in form, whilst in other cases, the 
 spelling of a Greek word may be totally different from 
 that of the English or German, and as, at first sight, one 
 might think the roots have been given arbitrarily, it is 
 necessary to mention some of the rules which regulate the 
 changes letters undergo, in passing from one language 
 into another. 
 
 Liquid and sibilant initials, in Sanskrit, remain un- 
 altered throughout all Aryan languages, except Greek, 
 where the breathings act as substitutes. 
 
 The mute consonants, which may be either weak, 
 strong, or aspirate, undergo several remarkable changes. 
 
 The weaTc, in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, or Russian 
 becomes, in German, strong; the strong, aspirate, and 
 the aspirate, weak. 
 
 The dental aspirated 8 and Z are wanting in Latin, 
 Russian, and German, and in the latter language they 
 generally become tz. 
 
 In the class of guttural letters, it must be noticed that 
 the aspirated ones are neither found in English, nor in 
 Latin, nor French, whilst they exist in German, Russian, 
 and Greek, as well as some other European languages. 
 
 The labials are found to exist in aU languages without 
 undergoing any changes. 
 
 The French language, derived chiefly from the Latin, 
 has dropped all the breathings used by the Gauls, and 
 has only retained the abbreviations which were so com- 
 mon in the degenerated Latin spoken by their forefathers. 
 
ETYMOLOaiCAL VOCABULARY. 73 
 
 and tHis accounts for the dropping of all the final vowels, 
 in French. 
 
 Ou has been changed into the French u ; c has become 
 K or s and g, qh or j j whilst ch is sometimes equivalent 
 to the English SH and sometimes pronounced like a 
 Latin c. 
 
 In English, we find that the vowels, in addition to the 
 sounds they have in other languages, have been modified 
 so that the same vowel has sometimes three or four dif- 
 ferent pronunciations ; a fact which is explained by the 
 nature of the English language itself, and which shows 
 the infiuence that different idioms have upon a new 
 language. 
 
 The Sanskrit v is equivalent to the Greek digamma 
 which has been replaced by the Spiriius Lenis. In all 
 other languages it is either the same as v or w. 
 
 The s initial is found in all tongues, but in Greek, the 
 sjpvritus asper takes its place. 
 
 The Sanskrit d exists in Latin, French, Greek, and 
 Russian, and becomes T in English, and t or z in 
 German. 
 
 The Sanskrit T corresponds to the Greek, Latin, French, 
 and Russian t, and becomes th in English, and d or t in 
 German. 
 
 The aspirate H is x i^i Greek; H in Latin ; z in Russian; 
 and a in German and English. 
 
 The Sanskrit sh is the same as the Greek k, the Latin 
 s, the Russian k or sh, and the English and German E, 
 
 SC, SCH. 
 
 G is generally preserved throughout all languages, but 
 at times becomes k, as in German, or c in English. 
 
 The Sanskrit J is equivalent to y or Z in Greek ; to G 
 
74 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 in Latin and Frenct ; to k in German and English ; and 
 to z in Russian. 
 
 The Sanskrit m, used as an initial letter, is always the 
 same, but when it is a final in Sanskrit, it becomes v 
 in Greek. 
 
 The Sanskrit b corresponds to the Greek /3 or ^ ; to 
 the Latiu and French b or F j and in other languages is 
 frequently changed into p. 
 
 L is sometimes changed into E, though rarely. 
 
 The Sanskrit dh is equivalent to a soft English th j and 
 the T to a strong th. 
 
 The German i" is weakened into p in English, in words 
 taken from the former language, and the German d be- 
 comes T in English. 
 
 The preceding laws being sufficient to elucidate the ety- 
 mologies contained in the Vocabulary, we shall refer the 
 reader, anxious to obtain further information on the sub- 
 ject, to philological works, which are too numerous and 
 too well known to necessitate a special mention. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULAEY. 75 
 
 ETYMOLOGIES. 
 
 G. stands for German ; P. for Frencli ; I. for Italian ; Sp. for 
 Spanish ; L. for Latin ; E. for Eussian ; and S. for Sanskrit. The 
 G-reek words, being all printed in Greek letters, are eaaUy recog- 
 nizable. 
 
 A 
 
 A — Un, io redMce, 
 G. ein. F. un. Sp. un. L. unus. S. una. 
 
 Ache — Ach, to he hwtful. 
 G. ach. axoQ. S. anhas, evil. 
 
 All — ^Al, to fill. 
 G. alle. aXetc. S. ala, many. 
 
 Ant. (jprefion), Ati, before. 
 G. ant. F. ante. I. and S. ante or anti. L. ante. 
 avri. 
 
 Ask — IscH, to desire. 
 G, heischen. L. egeo. ttrx'^' ^' is-liclm. 
 
 B 
 
 Bake — Pach, to bake. 
 G. backen. 7r«!rrw. R. peku, S. pakti. 
 
 Bakee — Pach, to bake. 
 G. backer. R. pechnik. S. pachaka, a cook. 
 
 Ball — Pail, to throw. 
 G. ball. F. balle. I. palla. Sp. bala. 
 L. pilum — |3aXavoe. S. pilu, a dart. 
 
76 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Band — Bandh, to tie. 
 G. band. F. bande. I. benda. Sp. venda. S. 
 bandha^ a tie, 
 
 Bakk— Baeh, to harh. 
 G. bellen. E. burcu. jSpoxw. 
 
 Be — Bhu, to he horn. 
 G. bin. L. fuo. ^vw. R. bywaiu. 
 
 Bear — Bhae, to hear. 
 L. fero. ^Ejoeu. R. beru. S. bliara, hurthen. 
 
 Beat — Badh, to striJce. 
 G. besiegen. F. battre. I. battere. S. batir. L. 
 batuo. irariw. R. bodu. S. badha, destructive. 
 
 Bettee — BhaDj to prosper. 
 G. besser. S. bbadra. 
 
 Bid — Path, to declare. 
 G. bieten. L. peto. ■tteiOw. 
 
 Bind — Bandh, to tie. 
 G. binden. F. bander. S. bandhas, a tie. 
 
 Bite — Bhid, to sjplit. 
 G. beissen. 
 
 Blade — Phall, to open. 
 G. blatfc. F. feuille. L. folium. ^vWov. S. pbulla, 
 a hud. 
 
 Bleat — Bale, to bleat. 
 G. bloken. F. beler. I. belare. Sp. balar. L. balo. 
 jSXjjxaw. R. bleiu. 
 
 Bloom — Phull, to blossom. 
 G. bluben. S. pbullam, a bud. 
 
 Blow — Pval, to move. 
 G. blasen. L. flo. (j>XatD. 
 
ITTMOLOGICAL VOCABULARY. 77 
 
 Bond — Bandh, to tie, 
 G. binden. S. baddah, tied. 
 
 
 BOBOUGH — PuE, to Jill. 
 Q. burg. F. bourg. I. borgo. Sp. burgo. 
 1. pura. 
 
 Bound- — Bandh, to tie. 
 G, binden. S. baddha. 
 
 ■Kvpyog, 
 
 Bow — Bhuj, to cv/rve, 
 Gr. bogen. vrvaaw, S. bhugna, ctirved, 
 
 Beeak — Bhaev, to hreah, 
 G. brechen. F. briser. I. frangere. Sp. fracturar. 
 L. frango. irpiZti), S. brista, hroTten. 
 
 Bebw — Bhaej, to fry, 
 G. brauen. F. brasser. L. frigo. ^gvyu. S. bhrinan. 
 
 Beide — Bhae, to hear. 
 G, braut. iragOtvoQ. S. bhritA. 
 
 Beoad — Paet, to spread. 
 G, breit. L. planum. irXaTvg. S. partivi, surface, 
 
 Beothee — Bhei, to bea/r, 
 Gr, bruder. F. fr^re. I. fratello. Sp. fraile. L. 
 frater. <j>paTwp, E. brat. S. bbratri. 
 
 Buck — Bukk, to low, 
 G. bock. F. bouc. I. becco. L. butio. jSjjkov. 
 S. bukka, a he-goat. 
 
 
 Call — Kal, to resound. 
 G. klagen. L. clamo. koXeu. S. kala, noise. 
 
 Can — Jna, to Tmow. 
 G. Kann. R. znaiu. 
 
78 THE SCIENCE Of LANGTJAGE. 
 
 Chop — Chap, to break. 
 L. scindo. kowtid. R. kopaiu. 
 
 CnouaH — Gtt, to murmur. 
 
 F. Chouette. I. civetta. Sp. cliuclio. L. gemo. 
 700W. S. guka. 
 
 Clang — ^Klad, to moan. 
 
 G. klang. F. cliquetis. L. clango. KXa^oi. E. 
 
 klislm. 
 
 Cock — Kuce, to cry. 
 
 F. coq. I. gallo. Sp. gallo. L. gallus. KtKicoe. 
 S. kukkutta. 
 
 Cold — Jal, to grow cold. 
 
 G. kalt. L. gelidus. S. jala. 
 
 Cole — Ohal, to penetrate. 
 G. koH. I. cavolo. Sp. col. L. caulis. kovXoc. 
 R. kol. S. ckula. 
 
 Come — Ga, to move. 
 G. kommen. 
 
 Cook — Kvath, to cooh. 
 G. kocli. F. cuisinier. I. cuoco. Sp. cocinero. 
 L. coquo. S. kvathan, boiling. 
 
 Cool — Jal, to grow cold. 
 G. kiiHeii. L. gelo. R. cholozu. 
 Cow — GtJ, to low. 
 G. kuh. L. gemo. joaw. S. gau. 
 Ceow — Kdk, to sing. 
 G. krahen. F. corbeau. I. corvo. Sp. cuervo. L. 
 corvus. Kopa%. S. karava. 
 
 Cuckoo — Kdck, to scream. 
 G. kuckuck. F. coucou. I. cuculo. Sp. cuco. L. 
 cuculus. KOKKu?. S. kaukila. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULARY. 79 
 
 Gtjt — Kash, to trench. 
 G. kappen. F. couper. Sp. cortar. Kea^u). 
 
 D. 
 
 Damp — Dhu, to move forwa/rd. 
 Gr. dumpfig. Oujuof. S. dhumah, breath. 
 
 Daee — Dhaes, to dare. 
 G. diirfen. L. trux. Opaacrai. E. derzaiu, S. 
 dharsa, boldness. 
 
 Daughter — Duh^ to draw, 
 G. toctter. dvjartip. E. docli. S. duhitri. 
 
 Day — Div, to shine. 
 G. tag. Sp. dia. L. dies. E. den. S. diva. 
 
 Deal — Dal, to divide. 
 G. theilen. L. dole. StjAew. E. dielu. S. dala, a 
 fragment. 
 
 Death — Tud, to destroy. 
 G. tod. F. tuer. L. tumo. Ovcria. S. tauda, mur- 
 der. 
 
 Deck — Tvatch, to cover. 
 G. deck, F. toit. L. tectum, rejog. S. tvatch, a 
 shelter. 
 
 Deed — Dha, to do. 
 G. that. L. thesis. Otmg. S. datus, a base. 
 
 Dew — Dhai, to drinJc. 
 G. thau. OavD. E, doiu. S. daya. 
 
 Dim — Tam, to obscure. 
 G. dunkel. L. tabeo. rejuw. E. tmiu. S. tamasa, 
 darlcened. 
 
80 THE SCIENCE OP LANGtTAaE. 
 
 Dip — Tip, to damp. 
 G. tauchen. P. tremper. Sutttw. 
 
 Divine — Div, to shme. 
 P. divin. S. divya. 
 
 Do — DhAj to do. 
 G. thun. TiOrifu. R. dieiu. 
 
 DooE — DvAB, to obstruct. 
 G. thor. Ovpa. R. dwer. S. dvar. 
 
 Deeam — DEAi, to sleep. 
 G. traiimen. P. dormir. L. dormio. SapOavu). R. 
 dremliu. 
 
 Drive — Teag, to move. 
 G. tragen. P. tirer. L. traho. Tp£x<^. R. trogaiu. 
 
 Deonb — Dhean, to hum. 
 G. drohne. Opeio. 
 
 Det — Taesh, to dry. 
 L. torreo. Ospao). S. tersa, dryness. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eab — An, to plough. 
 L. arare. apo). S. Arya. 
 
 Eaeth — AedHj to become visible. 
 G. erde. L. orior. opofiai S. ardidh.a,, fruitful. 
 
 East — Ush, to glow. 
 G. est. P. est, I. est. S. este. L. oriens. awe and 
 riwg in Doric. S. usM, the dawn. 
 
 Eat — ^Ad, to eat. 
 G. essen. L. edo. sSw. R. iem. S. atta, eaten. 
 
ETYMOLOaiCAIi VOOABULAEt. 81 
 
 Baa — Vi, to pass, or vr, a hvrd. 
 G. ei. P. oeuf. I. uovo. S. huevo. L. ovum. wov. 
 E. iaico. S. vijam. 
 
 End — An, to reach, 
 G. ende. avr\. S. anta. 
 
 Eee — Ie, to go astroAj. 
 G. irren. F. erreur. L. erro. Eppw. S. irana, a 
 desert, 
 
 EvEE — Ay, to go. 
 G. ewig. am, S. S,yau. 
 
 BwE — Av, to support. 
 L. ovis. oT?. R. owen. S. avi. 
 
 Bye— Aksh, to spread. 
 G. auge. P. ceil. S. ocoliio. S- ojo. L. oculas. 
 oKKoe. R. oko. S. aksW. 
 
 P 
 
 Pail — Sphal, to deviate. 
 G. fehlen. P. faiUir. I. fallare. Sp. faltar. L. 
 fallo. (T^aXXw. 
 
 Fall — Sphal, ^o deviate. 
 G. fallen. 
 
 Fallow — Pal, to pass. 
 G. falb. P. fauve. S. flavo. L. pullus. ttwXoc. 
 
 Pang — Pach, to hold. 
 G. fang. L. pango. irriyvvu). R. pagu. S. pachas, 
 a tie. 
 
 Pae — Par, to advance. 
 G. fern. L. prius. Trapo?. S. Tpnra,, formerly. 
 
 6 
 
82 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Faiub — Pae, to advemce. 
 G. fahren. ntpaw. 
 
 Fathee — Pa, to nourish. 
 G. vater. F. p^re. I. padre. Sp. padre. L. pater. 
 iraTTip. E. batia. S. pitri. 
 
 Peak — Bbi, to fear. 
 G. fiirchten. L. frigeo. ^piaaa). 
 
 Feathee — Pat, to fly. 
 G. feder. L. penna. Trrspov. patram, a wing. 
 
 Feed — Pu, to take care of. 
 F. futtern. F. paitre. I. pascere. Sp. pacer. L. 
 pasco. Trail). R. pascu. paushana, /oo£^. 
 
 Few — Pat, to decline. 
 
 F. peu. I. poco. Sp. poco. L. paucus. ttuvm. S. 
 payga, weak. 
 
 Fight — Pisch, to wound. 
 
 G. fechten. L. pugno. ttcikw. R. picliaiu. S. pinja, 
 a hloiv. 
 
 Pill — Pall, to increase. 
 G. fuUen. L. planus. ttAew. R. polniu. 
 
 Fiee — Peush, to burn. 
 G. feuer. F. feu. I. fuoco. Sp. fuego. L. febris. 
 ■jTvp. R. pariu. S. prausba, combustion. 
 
 Fish — Pi, to drink. 
 G. fisch. F. poisson. I. pesce. Sp. pez. L. piscis. 
 S. pasasya, aqueous. 
 
 Flee — Plih, to move onward. 
 G. flieben. nXiacFw. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULARY. 83 
 
 Flow — Plu, to float. 
 G. fliessen. I. fluire. Sp. fluir. L. fluo. (fkvw. 
 plavan, running. 
 
 Foal — Bal, to Uve. 
 Gr. foMen. S. b^la, a child. 
 
 Foot — Pad, to walk. 
 G. fuss. F. pied. I. pie. Sp. pie. L. pes. wovg. 
 S. pad. 
 
 For — Peati, towards. 
 G. fiir. F. pour. I. per. Sp. per. L. pro. ■n-poc. 
 
 FoKE — Pea, before. 
 G. vor. F. pre. L. prae. ttjow. 
 
 Friend — Pei, to delight. 
 G. freund. L. prurio. E. priatnyi. S. prita, beloved. 
 
 Full — Pall, to increase. 
 G. voU. L. planus. TroXvg. R. polnyi, 
 
 G 
 
 Gait — Ga, to walk. 
 G. gang. S. gati, a way 
 
 Gied — Gae, to enclose. 
 G. giirten. L. gyro, yvpotu. R. gorod. S. gerha- 
 enceinte. 
 
 Glee — Hil, to enjoy. 
 icAtttD. S. haili, gaiety. 
 
 Glow. — Jval, to blaze. 
 G. gluth. F. chaleur. L. caleo. KriXtow. R. 
 kaliu. S. jvala, burning. 
 
 Go — Ga, to walk. 
 G. gelien. L. cio. kiw. S. gati, a way. 
 
 6 * 
 
84 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Good — Huth, to whiten. 
 G. gut. S. huthaj pure. 
 
 Goose — Has, to laugh. 
 G. gans. Sp. ganso. L. anser. ^'iv. E. gus. 
 S. hansa. 
 
 Geebdy — Gaedh, to desire. 
 G. gierig. S. gardhu. 
 
 H 
 
 Haib — Chae, to pierce. 
 G. haar. L. crinis. Kopirj}. S. chirsam, a crest. 
 
 Hall — Chal, to enclose. 
 G. halle. F. salle. L. sacelluni. av\a. R. zala. 
 
 s. Cham. 
 
 Hand — Han^ to touch. 
 G. hand. S. hasta. 
 
 Haed — Kae, to act. 
 G. hart. Kparog. S. kratu, strong. 
 
 Haee — Shash, to spring up. 
 G. hase. R. zaec. S. shasha. 
 
 Hate — Hath, to hate. 
 G. hassen. P. hair. L. irascor. epiZw. S. irsha, 
 hatred. 
 
 Have — Ap, to hold. 
 G. haben. P. avoir. I. avere. Sp. haber. L. 
 habeo. otttw. S. apta, held. 
 
 Heat — Inch, to hum. 
 G. hitze. L. ardor, aidog. S. aidha. 
 
 Hbaet — Haesh, to be moved. 
 G. herz. P. ocBur. I. Cor. Sp. corazon. L. cor. 
 KapSia. S. hardaya. 
 
ETYMOLOaiCAL VOCABULARY. 85 
 
 Heir — Hab^ to seize. 
 G. erbe, F. keritier. 1. erede. Sp. heredero. L. 
 haeris. S. hara. 
 
 Hew — HatJj to cut. 
 R. huiu. 
 
 Hide — Kud, to cover, 
 L. cutis. XP'i'Q. Kudi, envelope. 
 
 High — Uch, to increase. 
 P. haut. L. alius. S. uchcha. 
 
 Hold — Hul, to cover. 
 
 Hollow — Hal, to dig. 
 E. koliii. S. halin, husbandman. 
 
 Holm — Kul, to heap up. 
 L. culmen. KoXoivoe- R. cholm. S. 
 
 Hope — Kup, to be passionate. 
 Kairvw. S. hvLTpian, passionate. 
 
 Horn — Char, to pierce. 
 F. come. I. corno. Sp. cuerno. L. 
 S. cherni. 
 
 Hound — Kan, to resound. 
 Or. hund. L. canis. kuojv. S. kuna. 
 
 House — Kud, to cover. 
 G. haus. I. casa. Sp. casa. L. casa. S. kuta. 
 
 Hurry — Char, to reach. 
 L. curro. x^P''^^' ^" '^^^^^> motion. 
 Hut — Kud, to cover. 
 G. Mtte. F. hutte. L. casa. KivOo^. S. kuti. 
 
 G. 
 
 kauen. 
 
 G. 
 
 haut. ] 
 
 G. 
 
 hoch. 
 
 G. 
 
 hiiUe 
 
 G. 
 
 hohl. ] 
 
 G. 
 
 kular 
 
 holm. 
 
 L. 
 
 G. 
 
 hoKen. 
 
 G. 
 
 horn. 
 
 cornu 
 
 I. Kspag. 
 
86 
 
 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 I 
 
 In — An, like the a privative. 
 G. un. F. in. I. in. Sp. en. L. in. av or a. 
 
 Ieon — ^AYj to run through. 
 Gr. eisen. F. fer. I. ferro. Sp. hierro. L. sees. 
 S. ayasa. 
 
 Is — ^As, to be. 
 G. ist. F. est. I. e. Sp. es. L. est. Eort. R. 
 est. S. asti. 
 
 Joke — Jaks, to laugh, 
 Sp. chancear. L. jocor. 
 
 K 
 
 Keep — Kumb, to spread. 
 L. capio. KvnTw. R. kopliu. 
 
 Kin — Jan, to produce. 
 L. genus, ysvoc. S. kana. 
 
 Kind — Jan, to produce. 
 G. kind. I. genere. Sp. genero. 
 jivvaw. S. janita, horn. 
 
 King — Jan, to produce. 
 G. konig. S. jana, a man. 
 
 Knee — Jya, to hand. 
 G. knie. F. genou. I. ginocchio. L. 
 S. janu. 
 
 Know — Jna, to hiow. 
 G. kennen. F. connaitre — I. conoscere. 
 L. cognosce. yivo(TKh). R. gnaiu. 
 
 L. genitus. 
 
 genu. yovv. 
 
 Sp. conocer. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULARY. 87 
 
 Lay — Lag, to adhere, 
 G. legen. L. loco. Xoxaw. E. lozu. 
 
 Leap — Laip, to sprimg forth, 
 G. laufen. X^nrw. 
 
 Less — Lich, to diminish, 
 G. loss. L. laevus. Aato?. S. laichaj weak. 
 
 Let — LicHj to diminish. 
 G. lassen. F. laisser. I. lasciare. L. liceo. Ata^w. 
 R. lisaiu. 
 
 Lewd — Lubh, to desire. 
 G. liiderlicli. F. licenoieux. L libidinoso. Sp. 
 lasdvo. L. laxivus. Xoyvoe. S. laubha, passion. 
 
 Lick — Lib, to lick. 
 G. lecken. P. lecher. L leccarsi. Sp. lamer. L. 
 lingo. \iixf»' K- lizu. 
 
 Lib — Li, to' adhere. 
 G. liegen. L. lego. Xayw. R. leza. S. lagna, 
 adherent. 
 
 Light — ^Laesh, to appear, 
 G. lictt. P. lumifere. I. lume. Sp. luz. L. lumen, 
 or lucerna. ^vxvog. S. lauchaya, shining. 
 
 Lion — Lu, to cut up. 
 G. lowe. P. lion. I. leone. Sp. leon. L. leo. 
 \iix)v. S. lunan, a wild heast. 
 
 Look — Lauk, to see. 
 L. luceo. XivacTw. S. lauka, sight. 
 
 Lop — Ltjp, to cut off. 
 G. kappen. Xutteo). R. lupliu. S. laupa, a wound. 
 
88 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Lose — Lup, to cut off. 
 G. losen. L. luo, Avw. R. lozzu. 
 
 Love — Lubh, to desire, or to love. 
 G. lieben. L, libeo. \i-mro). E. liubliu. 
 
 Love — Lubh, to desire, or to love. 
 G. Hebe. R. liubow. S. laubbaj passion. 
 
 Lust — Las, to enjoy. 
 G. lusfc. L. lusus. Xo^iKTTit). S. lasa. 
 
 M 
 
 Mad — MaDj to intoxicate. 
 I. matto. L. mitis. fiaratog. S. matta. 
 
 Make — Mak, to act. \ 
 
 G. macben. Sp. maquinar. L. macliinor. jurji^ovJJjuat. 
 
 Man — MaNj to thinh. \ 
 
 G. mann. E. muz. S. manu. 
 
 Matter — Ml, to bring forth. 
 G. Materie. F. matiere. I. materia. Sp. materia. 
 L. materia. S. matra, a substance. 
 
 Mead — Mad, to intoxicate. 
 G. metb. (nQv. R. med. S. madu, a liquor. 
 
 Mete — Ma, to measure. 
 G. mass. F. mesurer. I. misurare. Sp. med^. 
 L. metier. fUTpew. R. mezuiu. i 
 
 ^ Middle — Mid, to conciliate. 
 G. mitte. F. milieu. I. mezzo. Sp. medio. L. 
 medius. fnaog. R. mezen. S. madbya. 
 
 Midge — ^Muj, to hum. 
 G. miicke. F. moucbe. I. mosca. Sp. mosca. X. 
 musca. fivia. R. mucba. S. maksbika. 
 
ETYMOLOGTCAL YOCABULAET. 0\) 
 
 Might — Mah, to prevcdl. 
 Gr. macht. L. majestas. fisyadog. R. moguta. S. 
 mahatva, power. 
 
 Mild — Mul, to compress. 
 G. mild. P. mou. I. moUe. Sp. mole. L. mollis. 
 juaXaKOc- R. mylii. S. malita, com/pressed. 
 
 Mind — Man, to thimh. 
 G. meinung. I. mente. Sp. mente. L. mens, juririe. 
 S. mati, intellect. 
 
 Mix — Mishe, to mix. 
 G. mischen. F. meler. I. miscMare. Sp. mezclar. 
 L. misceo. fiicryw. R. miesaiu. S. mistraj mixed. 
 
 Moil — Mal, to tarnish. 
 G. mal. L. moUesco. /xoXvvw. S. mala, soiled. 
 
 Monk — Mu, to seclude. 
 G. monch. F. moine. I. monaco. Sp. monge. 
 L. monaclius. fiovaxbg. S. muni, solitary. 
 
 Month — Ma, to measure. 
 G. monafc. F. mois. I. mese. Sp. mes. L. mensis. 
 JU19V. S. masa. 
 
 Mood — Maid, to reflect. 
 G. mutli. F. mode. I. modo. Sp. modo. L. modus- 
 
 Moon — Ml, to measure. 
 G. mond. F. mois. L. mensis. juijvij. R. miesiac. 
 S. mas. 
 
 Mother — Ma, to bring forth. 
 G. mutter. F. mere. I. madre. Sp. madre. L. 
 mater. ixriTr\p. R. mat. S. matri. 
 
90 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Mouse — Mush, to cut. 
 G. maus. L. mus. fivg. R. mys. S. musha. 
 
 Mow — MusH^ to cut. 
 G. malien. I. metere. L. mutilo. fiaaaw. R. miku. 
 
 Much — Mah^ to prevail. 
 G. manch. I. molto. Sp. muclio. L. magnus. 
 fityag. R. mnogii. S. mahatj great. 
 
 Muedee — Mae, to die. 
 G. mord. F. meurtre. L. mors, /lopog. R. Smert. 
 S. maraj death. 
 
 N 
 
 Nail — Nakk, to pierce. 
 G. nagel. F. ongle. L. ungais. ow^. R. nagot. 
 S. naka. 
 
 Name — Jna, to Jcnow. 
 G. name. F. nom. I. nome. Sp. nombre. L. 
 nomen. ovofia. S. naman. 
 
 Naval — Nu, to flow. 
 
 F. naval. I. navale. Sp. naval. L. navis. vavg. 
 S. navya. 
 
 Navel — Nabh, to penetrate. 
 
 G. nabel. L. umbo. S. nabhi. 
 
 New — Ni, to move. 
 G. neu. P. neuf. I. nuovo. Sp. mievo. L. novus. 
 vtoQ. R. nowyi. S. nava. 
 
 Nigh — Nah, to join. 
 G. nahe. L. neo. vrjw. S. naha, cohesion. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULAET. 91 
 
 Night — Nach, to destroy. 
 G. nacht. F. nnit. I. notte. Sp. noohe. L, nox. 
 vv^. R. nooli. S. nich. 
 
 No — Na, privative particle, like No. 
 G. nein. F. non or ne. I. no. Sp. no. L. ne. vr\. 
 
 Nose — Nas^ to project. 
 G.-nase. F. nez. I. naso. Sp. nariz. L. nasus. 
 E. nos. S. nas. 
 
 
 
 Of — AvA, far or out of. 
 G. ab. F. ab. L. ab. airo). 
 
 Old — Al, to fill. 
 G. alt, L. altus. S. alita. 
 
 One — Un, to reduce. 
 G. eins. F. un. I. uno. Sp. uno. L. unus. S. 
 Unas. 
 
 On — Anu, on, or upon. 
 G. an. L. ad. ava. 
 
 Out — Ut, out. 
 G. ans. 
 
 Over — Upaei, upon or above. 
 G. liber. L. super, ving. 
 
 Owe — ^IsH, to possess. 
 
 .l(7XW. 
 
 P 
 
 Path — Path^ to ivalh 
 G. pfad. F. passage. L. passus. waTog. E. put, 
 S. patha. 
 
92 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 Pawn — Pan, to negotiate. 
 Gr. pfanden. vovoq. S. pana, a transaction. 
 
 Pit — PuTj to stand close together. 
 G. pfuU. F. puits. I. plateo. Sp. patio. L. puteus. 
 fivOog. S. pauta, bottom. 
 
 Pool — Pal, to pass. 
 G. pfuH. I. palude. L. palus. TTjjXoe. S. pal- 
 vala. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quack — Kuch, to shout, 
 G. quacksalber. L. clamo. KpoKriKoe. R- kokuiu. 
 
 Queen — Jan, to produce. 
 G. konigin. jwr). E; gena. S. jani, a woman. 
 
 Quick — Chak, to prosper, 
 KiKVQ. S. ckaka. 
 
 Quiet — Chi, to repose. 
 I. quieto. Sp. quieto. L. quietus, koitoq. S. cka- 
 yatta. 
 
 Quoth — Kath. to say. 
 Koaw. R. koiu. 
 
 R 
 
 Radius — Raj, to radiate. 
 G. radius. P. ra,yon. I. raggio. Sp. radio. L. 
 radius. paSSoc. S. rajis. 
 
 Rage — Raj, to colour, 
 G. rasen. F. rage. I. rabbia. Sp. rabia. L. rabies. 
 pajb). S. rajas, passion. 
 
 Rain — Rat, tofloiv, 
 G, regen. L. rivus. pajvot. S. rajas, flood. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULART. 93 
 
 Reach — Raj, to dominate. 
 G. reichen. L. rego. ps^w. 
 
 Reap — Eip, to ^liick up. 
 L. rumpo. ptirw. 
 
 Red — Raj, to colour. 
 G. rotli. P. rouge. I. rosso. Sp. rubio. L. ruber. 
 tpuflpop. S. rakta. 
 
 Rise — Run, to grow. 
 G. reisen. L. ruo. pww. R. rozu. S. rudis, growth. 
 
 RiVEE — Ri, to flow. 
 
 F. riviere. I. riviera. Sp. rio. ptw. S. ritis. 
 
 Rob — RiPj to pluck up. 
 
 G. rauben. I. rubare. Sp. robar. L. rapio. pivTO). 
 R. rubliu. S. raipas. 
 
 Rod — Raj, to radiate. 
 patSog. S. radis. 
 
 Run — Ri, to flow. 
 G. rennen. L. ruo. paivu). R. rieiu. 
 
 Rush — Ras, to grumble. 
 G. rauschen. L. rugio. potZs(o. R. rychu. S. 
 
 rasa, a noise. 
 
 S 
 
 Same — Sam, to unite. 
 G. selb. L. similis. R. samyi. S. sama, equal. 
 
 Saw — Sach, to saw. 
 G. sagen. F. soier. I. segare. Sp. serrar. L. seco. 
 
 R. sieku. 
 
 Scath — Skad, to hurt. 
 
 G. schade. (TKsBaw. 
 
94 
 
 G. see. 
 G. saum. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Sea — Su, to spring up. 
 
 Seam — Siv, to sew. 
 F. suture. L. sutura. S. simam. 
 
 Seat — Sad, to sit down. 
 G. sitz. F. siege, I. sedia. Sp. silla. L. sedes. 
 eSjoo. S. sadas. 
 
 Seed — So, to produce. 
 G. saat. F. semence. I. seme. Sp. semilla. L. 
 S. sutis. 
 
 Seek — Sach; to follow. 
 G. suchen. F. chercher.. L. sequor. 
 
 Seepent — Saep, to creep. 
 G. sclilange. F. serpent. I. serpente. Sp. serpiente. 
 L. serpens, epirsrog. S. sarpa. 
 
 Sew — Siv, to sew. 
 L. suo. R. siiu. S. sutas, sewed. 
 
 Shade — Schad, to veil. 
 G. schatten. F. ombre. I. ombra, Sp. sombra. 
 L. scena. oKiaZu. S. schadi, a shelter. 
 
 Sheae — KsHUEj fo shave. 
 G. scheren. ^vpa<i>. S. kshuriuj a barber. 
 
 Shine — Chad, to shine. 
 G. scheinen. L. cremo. kuiw. 
 
 Shoot — Skad, to emerge. 
 G. schiessen. L. scando. o-ko^o). 
 
 Shut — Sku, to enclose. 
 G. scUiessen. o-KfTrw. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULAET. 95 
 
 Sister — Sva, heloved, and Stei, wife. 
 G. schwester. F. soeur. L. soror. E. sestra. S. 
 svasri. 
 
 Sit — Sad, to sit down. 
 G. setzen. F. s'asseoir. I. sedere. Sp. seutarse. 
 L. sedeo. E^o/iaL R. sizu. 
 
 Sleep — Svap, to sleep. 
 G. scUafen. P. sommeil. L. somnus. virvog. R. 
 spauie. S. svapna. 
 
 Smaet — Smae, to remember. 
 G. schmerzen. S. smara, remembrance. 
 
 Smile — Smi, to smile. 
 
 F. sourir. L. subrideo. /xiiSaw. R. smieiu. S. smita, 
 irony. 
 
 Snow — Sna, to water. 
 
 G. schnee. F., neige. L. nix. v'k^oq. R. snieg. S. 
 snava, a shower. 
 
 Soak — Sich, to moisten. 
 G. saugen. L. sugo. E. sosu. S. saika, liquid. 
 
 Society — Saj, to join. , 
 
 F. societe. L. societas. aayrt. S. ssikia,, joined. 
 
 Son — Su, to produce. 
 
 G. sohn. ivig. R. syn. S. sunu or suta. 
 
 Sound — Stan, to resound. 
 G. sund. F. son. I. suono. Sp. sonido. L. sonus. 
 R. zwon. S. svana. 
 
 Sow — Su, to produce. 
 G. saen. F. semer. I. seminare. Sp. sembrar. L. 
 sero. (TEvw. R. sieiu. 
 
96 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Spheee — ^Sphae, to hrandish. 
 G. sphare. F. sphere, cripaipa. S. sphara, rotation. 
 
 Spkead — SphaBj to brandish. 
 G. spreiten. L. pargo. (ttteijow. S. spliara, rotation. 
 
 SpT' — Pasch, to look. 
 G. spaher. F. espion. I. spia. Sp. espia. L. spicio. 
 (TKETrroj. S. spaschas. 
 
 Squieeel — ScHAD, to cover. 
 
 F. ecureuil. I. scoiatto. L. sciurus. oKiovpog. 
 
 Stamp — Stabh, to fix. 
 
 G. stampfen. F. esfcamper. I. stampare. S. estampar. 
 L. stipo. oTEtSo). E. stupaiu. 
 
 Stand — SthAj to stam,d. 
 G. stelien. L. sto. araw. R. staiu. S. Sthas, fixed. 
 
 Stae — StaEj to s-pread. 
 G. stern. I. stella. Sp. estrella. L. stella. aarpov. 
 S. star. 
 
 Steee — Sta, to stand. 
 G. stier. Sp. toro. L. taurus. Sp. sturas. 
 
 Stem — Stabh, to fix. 
 G. stam. L. stirps. arvwog. S. stamblia, stump. 
 
 Stick — Sthag, to obstruct. 
 G. stecken. artyw. 
 
 Stigma — Tig^ to penetrate. 
 G. schimpf. F. stigma. L. stigma, ariyfia. S. 
 tigma^ a sting. 
 
 Sting — Stak, to prick. 
 G. steohen. crrt^w. R. stegaiu. S. tigma^ a sting. 
 
 Stone — Stha, to stand. 
 G. stein. o-tuXoc. Sthuna, a pillar. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULARY. 
 
 97 
 
 Stool — Sthal, to place,, 
 G. stuhl. R. stul. S. sthala. 
 
 Stow — Stat, to enclose. 
 oTuo). S. stana, cow/pact. 
 
 Street — Star, to spread. 
 I. strada. L. stratum. 
 
 G. stauen. 
 
 Street — Star, to spread. 
 ■ G. strasse. I. strada. L. stratum. or&irov. S. 
 strata. 
 
 Strew — Star, to spi-ead.- 
 G. streuen. L. sterno. atpiDw. R. stroiu. 
 
 Strike — Staeh, to strike. , 
 ' G. streiclien. L. stringo. arpayyo). 
 
 Stdpid — Stubs, to condense. 
 
 F. stupide. L. stupidus. (Trv<j)pog. Stubdhas, thiclc. 
 
 Sun — Su, to produce. 
 
 G. some. F. soleil. I. sole. Sp. sol. L. sol. S. 
 sunus. 
 
 Sweat — Svid, to perspwe. 
 G. schweis. P. sueur. I. sudore. Sp. sudor. L. 
 sudor. S. svaida. 
 
 Sweet — Svau, to taste. 
 G. siiss. F. suave. I. soave. Sp. suave. L. suavis. 
 S. svadu. 
 
 T 
 
 Take — Tig, to reach, 
 S. tomar. L. tango. Tayyai. R. tykaiu. S. tiktas, 
 reached. 
 
 Tame — Dam, to tame. 
 G. 'Zahmen, F. dompter. L. domo. da/iaw. S. 
 dama, ta/mer. 
 
98 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Tap — Tup, to strike gently. 
 G. zapfen. F. taper. Sp. tocar. rvirirn}. R. topaitt. 
 
 Teach — Dish, to indicate. 
 G. zeigen. L. disco. Sjjkw — Sft^a). S. dishtaj taught. 
 
 Teae — Dae, to split. 
 G. zerren. L. tero. rtipw. R. deru. S. dari, a cut. 
 
 Ten — Dash, to cut off. 
 G. zeHn. P. dix. I. dieci. Sp, diez. L. decern. 
 Seko. R. desiat. S. dashan. 
 
 Tepid — Tap, to warm. 
 F. tiede. I. tepido. Sp. tibio. L. tepidus. R. 
 teplyi. S. tapan, warm.. 
 
 Teeeipt — Teas, to tremble. 
 
 F. terrifier. I. atterire. Sp. aterrar. L. terreo. 
 TapaaaiD. R. triasu. S. trastas, terrified. 
 
 Thin — Tan, to stretch. 
 
 G. diinn. L. tenuis, ravaog. R. tonkyi. S. tanu. 
 
 Think — Dhi, to conceive. 
 G. denken. Soksw. S. dyanam, refaction. 
 
 Thiest — Taesh, to dry. 
 G. durst. L. torris. Otpoe. S. tarsha. 
 
 Theee — Tab, to intercalate. 
 G. drei. F. trois. I. tre. Sp. tres. rpuq. R. tri. 
 S, tri. 
 
 Theough — TaEj to penetrate. 
 G. durch. F. k travers. L. trans. S. tiras. 
 
 Th0NDEe — Tan, to stretch. 
 G. donner. F. tonnerre. I. tuono. Sp. trueno. L. 
 tonitru. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL TOOABULAEY. 99 
 
 Ttne — Dau, to divide. 
 Q. zinke. F. dent. L. dens. dSovs. S. danta. 
 
 To — Adi, towards. 
 Gr. zu. P. de. L. de. 
 
 Town — Dha, to place. 
 L. domus. Swjua. S, dhaman. 
 
 Tebad — Tead, to press. 
 G. treten. P. trepigner. L, trudo. rpso). 
 
 Teembliij — TeaSj to agitate. 
 G. zittem. F. trembler. L. tremo. Tptfio). 
 
 Teust — Daes, to defy. 
 G. trauen. L. trux. Qpaavg. S. darsu. 
 
 Tua — DuH, to draw. 
 G. Ziehen. L. duco. 
 
 Tumult — Tam, to disturb. 
 P. tumulte. L. tumultus. S. tumulas. 
 
 Tune — Tan, to stretch. 
 G. ton. P. ton. I. tuono. Sp. tono. L. tonus. 
 TovoQ. S. tana. 
 
 Tdtoe — Tay, to protect. 
 P. tuteur. L. tutor. Tirra. R. tiatia. S. tata, 
 patron. 
 
 Two — Dau, to divide. 
 G. zwei. P. deux. I. due. Sp. dos. L. duo. Suw. 
 R. dwa. S. dvi. 
 
 U 
 
 Uddee — Aid, to swell. 
 G. enter. L. uber. ovOap. S. uda. 
 
 7 * 
 
100 THE SCIENCE OS LANGUAGE. 
 
 TJn — An, the same as a privative^ 
 G. un. F. in. L. in. av. ava. 
 
 Under — Antae, in or between. 
 G. nnter. P. entre. L. inter, ivrog. 
 
 Up — Ufa, near. 
 G. auf. virto. 
 
 ViEiLE — YiE, to defend. 
 F. viril. L. virilis. S. varas, a warrior. 
 
 Viscous — ^Yis, to spill. 
 F. viaqueus. I. viscovo. Sp. viscoso. L. virus. 
 S. visa, poison. 
 
 Voice — Vach, to speak. 
 
 F. voix. I. voce. Sp. voz. L. vox. »jxsw. S. vacli, 
 voice. 
 
 W 
 
 Wag — ^Vaj, to move. 
 
 G. wedeln. L. velio. ox^w. 
 
 Waggon — Vaj, to move. 
 G. wagen. L. votes, oxo?. R. wezenie. S. vaha- 
 nam. 
 
 Waist — ^Vas, to cover. 
 
 F. veste. L. vestis. saOijc. S. vasta. 
 
 Walk — ^Valg, to turn. 
 
 G. walken. {Xkw. R. woloku. 
 
 Wall — Vall, to protect. 
 G. wand. L. vallis. S. valla, a rampart. 
 
ETYMOLOGICAL VOCABULARY. 101 
 
 War — ^ViE, to defend. 
 L. vis. l<T)(yg. 
 
 Was — Vas, to be. 
 G. war. S. vasu. 
 
 Waste — ^Vast, to destroy. 
 G. wiiste. L. vastatus. arato. S. vastita^ destroyed. 
 
 Water — Ud, to flow. 
 G. wasser. L. unda. vBop. E. woda. S. udam. 
 
 Wave — YaHj to carry. 
 G. woge. r. vague. S. vaha. 
 
 To Wave — Vaiss, to tremble. 
 G. weben. L. vibro. 
 
 Way — VaHj to carry. 
 G. weg. L. via. S. vahas. 
 
 Weather — Ya, to blow. 
 G. wetter. L. ventus. atjr?)?. R. wieter. S. vatri. 
 
 Weave — Yap, to weave. 
 G. weben. S. vapus, a woven stuf. 
 
 Weed — ^Yai, to entangle. 
 L. vitis. iTEa. R. wietu. S. vaitra, a stem. 
 
 Web — ^Yap, to weave. 
 G. geweben. S. vapus, a woven stuff. 
 
 Well — Yil, to cover, 
 G. woM. L. validus. S. vallita, compact. 
 
 West — ^Yas, to cover. 
 G. west. F. ouest. L. vesper, itneepoz. S. vasati, 
 shade. 
 
 Wheel — Yail, to turn. 
 L. volvo. siXew. R. walia. 
 
102 
 
 THE SCIENCE OP LANGUAGE. 
 
 "W^iCK — ^VisH, to occupy. 
 L. vicus. oiKog. R. wes. S. vaishas. 
 
 Widow — Vi, without dhava, husband. 
 G. witwe. F. veuve. I. vedova. Sp. vidua. L. 
 vidua. S. vidhava. 
 
 Wife — ^Vap, to weave. 
 G. weib. 
 
 Wilt. — Val, to choose. 
 G. willen. F. vouloir. I. volere. L. velle. j3ov\ofiai. 
 H. woliu. 
 
 Wind — ^VAj to blow. 
 G. wind. F. vent. I. vento. Sp. vento. L. ventus. 
 nijrjjc. S. vatis. 
 
 Wish — Vash, to desire. 
 G. wiinscli. F. vceu. [. voto. Sp. voto. L. votum. 
 S. vasha. 
 
 Wit — ^ViD, to discern. 
 G. witz. L. video. EiSew. R. witzu. S. vidvas, 
 learned. 
 
 Wolf — ^Vaek, to seize. 
 G. wolfl L. vorax. E. wilk. S. vrika. 
 
 Womb — Vam^ to vomit. 
 G. waume. L. vomo. £ju£w. S. vama, bosom. 
 
 Woo — VasHj to desire. 
 G. weihen. F. vouer. L. voveo. 
 
 WoED — VaeTj to become. 
 Gf. wort. L. verbum. S. vritha, rhythm. 
 
 WoEK — Wu, to act. 
 G. werk. tpyov. S. urja, effort. 
 
ETYMOLOaiCAL VOCABULABT. 103 
 
 Worth — ^Vae, to prefer. 
 G. werth. E. wiemyi. S. vritya, acceptable. 
 
 Yoke — ^Ydj, to join. 
 
 1 oKE — 1 DJ, to join. 
 Gr. joch, F. joug. I. giogo. Sp. yugo. L. jugum. 
 Zvyov. E. igo. S. yugam. 
 
 YoDNO — ^Ytf, to increase. 
 G. jung. F. jeune. I. giovane. Sp. joven. L. ju- 
 venis. E. iunyi. S. yuvan. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 Classification of Language. 
 
 The first philologists who ever attempted to classify 
 the different languages into Branches or families, took a 
 certain quantity of words belonging to different parts of 
 speech, in a particular tongucj and having translated them 
 into the corresponding words^ in several other tongues, 
 based their classification upon the similitude which was 
 found to exist between different idioms. 
 
 The result of this comparison was, that some tongues 
 which belong to very different classes, were considered as 
 members of the same family, whilst others, which in 
 reality are cognate, were pointed out as belonging to a 
 branch of language with which they really have no 
 affinity. 
 
 So long therefore, as the above was the only standard 
 of comparison, very little advance was made towards a 
 scientific classification of language. 
 
 As we have seen before, the discovery of Sanskrit had 
 been a revelation, and it was also from the ancient lan- 
 guage of India that the true method of comparing was 
 to arise. 
 
 Frederick Schlegel, in his work on the " Language and 
 Wisdom of the Indians " pointing out what great results 
 were to be expected from a thorough knowledge of 
 
CMSSIPICATION OP LANGUAGE. 105 
 
 Sanskrit, laid tlie foundation stone on wticb the new 
 Science of Comparative Grammar was built. 
 
 The first work of importance, published on the subject, 
 was the "Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, 
 Persian, and German tongues " by Francis Bopp, a work 
 which was only a kind of introduction to his " Great 
 Comparison of the Grammar of Sanskrit with that of 
 Zend, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Lithuanian, Gothic, and 
 German." 
 
 Other eminent scholars soon followed in the same 
 path and the names of Humboldt, Schlegel, Grimm, 
 Burnouf, Max Miiller, Eichhofi, are for ever associated 
 with the science of Comparative Philology. 
 
 Then, the classification of language no longer consisted 
 in lists of words, which as we shall see, were not sufficient 
 to establish a criterion of relationship between two lan^ 
 guages, but their grammatical forms became the distin- 
 guishing mark. 
 
 A likeness between the words does not indeed prove that 
 any affinity exists between two tongues ; for if this were 
 so we might be induced to believe that Chinese, Sanskrit, 
 and Hebrew are cognate languages. 
 
 Many Chinese words are not indeed, very unlike some 
 Sanskrit ones ; for instance, vou and vajas (force or 
 strength), fiao and pai (to steal), frng and fana, 
 (trouble), or the Hebrew avah and the Sanskrit vol, to 
 be willing ; and yet we know that far from belonging to 
 the same family, they each form a special type, and are 
 members of three diiferent families. And what constitutes 
 this diflerence, is the grammar of these languages only. 
 
 It is therefore, by comparing the different forms speech 
 assumes in difl'erent dialects, that we are enabled to lay 
 
106 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 down the rules which must be followed in the classifica- 
 tion of languages^ rules which are always subjected to 
 the great law of the Phonetic change of letters, discovered 
 by Grimm, 
 
 Comparative Grammar serves, not only to divide lan- 
 guage into great families, but also to arrange them iu 
 classes and branches, for although the languages of one 
 family exhibit in their grammar many points of simili- 
 tude, yet in some respects, they diflfer more or less from 
 the original pattern of grammar, and as some always show 
 the same difference they may be placed together so as to 
 form a class which in its turn, and for the reason just men- 
 tioned, may necessitate to be subdivided into branches. 
 
 Thus, if English and French are compared with one 
 another, it will be at once found that their respective 
 grammars have been cast into the same mould, namely, 
 the Sanskrit Grammar. It will also be seen that many 
 thousands of words are the same in the two languages 
 we have chosen, but on further inquiry it will be dis- 
 covered that the Grammar of the English language is 
 peculiar to a group of languages, which we call the " Low 
 German branch," whilst that of the French has been 
 copied on the Grammar of the Latin language. 
 
 Had it not been for Comparative Grammar, many lan- 
 guages could never have been classified ; such is, for 
 instance, the English language, in whose dictionary are 
 found words which have been borrowed from nearly every 
 language spoken on Earth. It abounds in French, Latia, 
 Greek, German, and Italian words and expressions, as 
 well as in Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, Dutch, Chinese, 
 and even Polynesian terms. 
 
 Now that we have summarily alluded to the method of 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF lANGUAGE. 107 
 
 comparison now in use, we shall proceed to explain the 
 genealogical table found at the end of this chapter. 
 
 In the first chapter of this book we have enumerated the 
 reasons which have induced us to conclude that all lan- 
 guages of mankind have sprung from one common stock, 
 and though a great deal may be said both in faTOur and 
 against the theory of the " Common Origin of Language," 
 yet as it has never been proved impossible that mankind 
 should have been originally of one speech, whilst, on the 
 other hand, no plausible argument can be brought for- 
 ward in support of the adverse theory, we shall continue 
 to consider all the different idioms of the world as the 
 offspring of a common parent. 
 
 Upon this fact, or, at any rate, probability, we have 
 constructed our " Grenealogical Table,'' from which it will 
 be seen that from the Primitive Language three families of 
 speech have sprung, viz. : — 
 
 1. The Aryan, or Indo-European Family. 
 
 2. The Semitic, or 8yro-Arabian. 
 
 3. The Turanian Family. 
 
 ARYAN OE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. 
 
 The Aryas migrated northward and southward of their 
 primitive abode, as is shown by the two divisions indicated 
 in the table, and this migration enables us to determine 
 with a fair degree of certainty the particular spot inhabited 
 by the primitive Aryas. 
 
 The Northern Division includes six classes : — 1 . the 
 Teutonic; 2. the W indie ; 3. the Eellenic; 4. thelUyric ^ 
 5. the Italic ; and 6. the Keltic. 
 
108 the science of language. 
 
 The Teutonic Class, 
 
 is subdivided into three branches, viz. : the Low Ger- 
 many the Scandinavian, and the Sigh German branches. 
 
 The Low German branch comprises the Gothic, Old 
 Saxon, Old Dutch, Old Friesian, and Anglo-Saxon, all of 
 which are now dead ; and the Dutch, spoken in Holland ; 
 the Friesian, in Friesia; the Piatt Deulsch, in Lower 
 Germany ; and the English, spoken by more than a hun- 
 dred millions of men. 
 
 The Scandinavian branch includes one dead language 
 — the Old Norse — and the living dialects of Sweden, Den- 
 mark, Norway, and Iceland. 
 
 The nigh German branch comprises the Middle Sigh 
 German and the Old Sigh Germa/ii, both dead ; and the 
 German languagCj now spoken in the greater part of 
 Germany. 
 
 The Windic, oe Slavonic Class, 
 
 can also be subdivided into three branches, viz. : — 1. the 
 Lettic ; 2. the South-Eastern Slavonic; and 3. the West 
 Slavonic branches. 
 
 The Lettic branch includes the Lettish, spoken in Kur- 
 land and Livonia ; the Old Prussian, which has been dead 
 two centuries ; and the Lithuanian, spoken by some of 
 the inhabitants of Eastern Prussia and of the adjacent 
 frontier of Russia. 
 
 Three languages also form the second branch of the 
 Windic Glass, viz. — The Illyrian, which may be regarded 
 as a common name for the Servian, the Croatian of the 
 Slovinian dialects ; the Bulgarian, and the Russian, 
 with its dialects. 
 
 To the West SlaiSonic hranch belong the Polish, the 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE. 109 
 
 Bohemian, the Lmsatian, spoken by tte Wends, and one 
 dead language — the Old Bohemian. 
 
 The Hellenic Class, 
 which comprises the four dialects of the Classical Greek 
 — Boric, Molic, Attic and Ionic — from which have sprung 
 the Bomaic or Modern Greek, and numerous dialects. 
 
 The Illykio Class, 
 only contains one language closely related to the Greek, 
 and called Albanian. 
 
 The Italic Class, 
 .includes Latin and its dialects, viz. — the Oscan, spoken 
 south of Rome, and the Umbrian, used by the Northern 
 inhabitants of Italy. 
 
 It was from these dialects, as well as from the Classical 
 language of Italy, that sprang the Lingua Vulgaris, the 
 Langue d'Oc and Langue d'Oil, now dead, and the Italian, 
 French, Spanish, Bortuguese, Brovengal, Wallachian, 
 Bomanese, and Enghadine languages. 
 
 The Brovenfal was the language of the Troubadours, 
 and though still used in the South of France, is a mere 
 patois, having lost the literary excellence it had attained. 
 
 The Wallachian, called also Romania, is spoken in 
 Wallachia, Moldavia, Hungary, Transylvania, and Bess- 
 arabia. 
 
 The Bomanese is the language of the Grisons of Swit- 
 zerland, and the Enghadine that of the inhabitants of the 
 Borders of Tyrol. 
 
 The Keltic Class, 
 is subdivided into two branches, viz. — the Gadhelic and 
 the Kymric branches. 
 
110 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 The first tranch comprises the Scotch, spoken in the 
 Highlands of Scotland ; the Irish, almost entirely super- 
 seded by the English, and chiefly used by the poorer 
 inhabitants of the South-west of Ireland ; and the Manx, 
 spoken in the Isle of Man. 
 
 The second branch includes the Armorican, spoken in 
 Brittany, the Welsh in Wales, and the extinct Oornish. 
 
 The Southern division comprises two classes, viz. — the 
 Indie and the Iranic. 
 
 The Indio Class, 
 
 includes the SansJcrit, or ancient language of India, the 
 Hindi, Hindustani, Mahratti, Gudjp-rati and Bengali, 
 spoken in different parts of India ; the Modern SansJcrit 
 and the Pali, both dead ; the Ginghalese, used in Ceylon ; 
 and the Zingari, or language of the Gipsies. 
 
 The Ieanic Class, 
 
 contains the ancient sacred language of the Zoroastrians 
 or Fire Worshippers of Persia, viz. — the Zend. 
 
 It also includes the Old Armenian, the language used 
 in the Cuneiform Inscriptions, the Pehlevi and the Parsi, 
 all of which have long been dead languages ; the Persian, 
 the dialects of Afghan, of Kurdistan, and of Bolchara, 
 the Armenian and the Ossethian, spoken in the Caucasus. 
 
 SEMITIC OR SYRO- ARABIAN FAMILY. 
 
 This family is divided into three classes : — 
 1. The Aramaic or Worthern, 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGE. Ill 
 
 2. The Hebraic or Middle. 
 
 3. The Arabic or Southern. 
 
 The Aramaic oe Noethekn Class, 
 
 comprises the Ohaldee, Syriac and the Cuneiform Inscrip- 
 tions of Babylon and Nineveh, and one living tongue — 
 the Neo-Syri'ac. 
 
 The HebeaiCj or Middle, 
 
 includes the Biblical Hebrew, the Phcenician Inscriptions, 
 the Samaritan, and the Carthaginian, all of which are 
 now dead. To the same class belong also the different 
 dialects now spoken by the Jews. 
 
 The Arabic, or Southern, 
 
 comprehends two dead languages — viz., the Hymyaritic, 
 the Eihiopic, and the Amharic or Abyssinian of Gondar ; 
 the Sheez or Abyssinian of Sigre, and the different 
 dialects of the Arabic language. 
 
 TURANIAN FAMILY. 
 
 It includes all the languages which do not belong to 
 either of the two first-named families, with very few 
 exceptions. 
 
 The languages belonging to this important family can 
 be separated into two large divisions, viz. : — 
 
 1. A Northern Bivisioji. 
 
 2. A Southern Division. 
 
 The Northern division comprehends five classes : 
 
112 the science of language. 
 
 The Tungusic Class, 
 
 subdivided into two branches, an Eastern and a Western 
 one, includes tbe languages spoken by the Northern 
 inhabitants of China. 
 
 The MoNGOXiic Class, 
 
 comprises three branches — viz., an Uastei'n branch, a 
 Northern one, and a Western one ; and in it are included 
 all the languages spoken in the Eastern parts of Siberia 
 by the Mongols, the Buriats, and the Kalmuks. 
 
 The Tueeic Class, 
 
 is divided into Chagataic, Northern and Western branches. 
 It may be considered as the most important Class of this 
 division of the Turanian family, as the languages that 
 belong to it extend over a considerable portion of the 
 world, from the most remote Northern regions, to the 
 sunny shores of the Adriatic. 
 
 The Osmanli or Turkish language spoken in Europe 
 belongs to this class.. 
 
 The Samoyedic Class, 
 
 is divided into two branches — viz., an Eastern branch and 
 a Northern one, and comprehends the dialects of the 
 Samoyedes, of the Kamas, of the Urages, and of the 
 Tawgi. 
 
 The Finnic Class, 
 
 is subdivided into Ghudic, Bulgarie, Permie, and Ugrio 
 classes. The languages of the Cbudic branch are spoken 
 by the people of the coasts of the Baltic; those of the 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF LANQUAGB. 113 
 
 Bulgaric ones by the inhabitants of the banks of the 
 Volga ; those of the Permic branch by the Votiakes^ the 
 Sirianes, and the Permians ; those of the Ugric by the 
 Hungarians, the Voguls, and the Ugro-Ostiakes. 
 
 The Southern Division, 
 
 comprehends five branches — viz., 1. the Taic ; 2. the 
 Malaic ; 3. the Gang etic; 3. the Munda; 4. the Lohitic; 
 and 5. the Tamulic. 
 
 The Taic Class, 
 includes the dialects of Siatn, of Laos, and Cambodia. 
 
 The Malaic Class, 
 
 comprises the languages of Polynesia, such as the dialects 
 of Java, Sumatra, Malacca, etc. 
 
 The Gangetic Class, 
 
 is divided into Trans-Himalayan and 8uh -Himalayan 
 branches. The languages belonging to this class are 
 spoken in the South-Western part of China, near India. 
 
 The Munda Class, 
 
 includes the dialects of Ho, of Sinhbhum, of Sontal, of 
 Bhumii and Mundala. 
 
 The Lohitic Class, 
 
 comprises numerous dialects of Asia, such as those of 
 Khyeng, Kami, Kumi, Shendus, Mru, etc. 
 
114 the science of language. 
 
 The Tamdlic Class^ 
 
 compreliends the Canarese, the Tamils the Telegu, and the 
 Malayalam. 
 
 Our genealogical table includes nearly all the languages 
 spoken on the surface of the earth, except a few unclas- 
 sified ones, such as the Japanese — which has however 
 been found to be a member of the Turanian family — the 
 numerous dialects spoken in the Caucasus;, the Chinese, 
 and the Polysynthetic aboriginal languages of America 
 and South Africa^ and also the Basque language, spoken 
 in Europe by the inhabitants of the Basque provinces. 
 
GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE ARYAN, SEM 
 
 PRIMITIVE LANGUAGE 
 
 ARYAN OR INDO- 
 
 .k 
 
 NORTHERN DIVISION. 
 
 Keltic Class. 
 , 1 
 
 Italic Class. 
 
 Illtbic Class. Hellenic Class. 
 
 WiNDic Class. 
 
 Teutonic Class. 
 
 I 
 
 Cymric B. Gadhelic B. Latin, Oscan and Umbrian. 
 
 r-rn 
 
 S'2. o 
 
 I — ' 
 W: 
 
 T — I — I — 1 — I — I — I — I 
 
 h3 iTj cc ti^ !r> t-i t^ bt 
 
 
 p » ffl C t2. o 
 
 B oa(n » B- 
 
 S tT-2 3 ?^' 
 
 2 k'. p rT> 
 
 <P p I— ' oi 
 
 p o ■ .=• 
 
 &8 S , 
 8 S 
 
 SS>-J 
 
 .1 II 
 
 Doric- jEoUc. 
 
 I I 
 
 Attic-Iomc. 
 
 T- 
 & 
 
 B 
 
 T" 
 
 West-Slavordc B. S. E. Slavonic. Lettic B. High German B- Scandinavian B. Low German B. 
 
 r 1 I " I 
 
 o 2. 
 
 r-7^ ' — ' 
 
 » «^ t:' S^ 
 P g- 2- • 
 
 3 P 
 a" 
 
 §§.§ 
 og' 
 
 r-r 1 
 
 g Si; 
 
 P "? B^ 
 
 2.g • 
 p '1 
 
 015 
 
 3 tagj 
 p SS^ 
 
 B *« .^ 
 
 g ? 
 
 I I I ~1 
 
 o p ^ s; 
 
 ■3 B o «. 
 
 '^ B* m o^ 
 • B-s 
 
 r 
 
 f.n 
 
 . -I — i — I — r I r 
 ts! ii3 fed O fe. o o 
 
 5=f g. 
 
 P-^P 
 
 -; — ; 
 OSS 
 
 SEMITIC 
 
 Aramaic, ok 
 Nobthekn Class. 
 
 rT I I "I 
 tdi 83 S 
 
 S^3 -• 
 
 3 3 P 
 
 a h, ■ 
 
 ft,g 
 Si- 
 
 2 o- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■2. 
 
 TURANIAN 
 
 
 Finnic C 
 
 
 
 
 
 NORTHERN DIVISION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IJlass. 
 
 
 Samotbdic Class. 
 
 
 TuBKic Class. 
 
 
 1 
 
 MoNGOLic Class. 
 
 
 TnNGusic Class. 
 
 UgricB. 
 
 Bulgaric B. 
 
 60 
 
 Pennic B. 
 
 r-rn 
 
 000 
 
 Chudic'B. 
 
 000 
 
 Northern B. 
 
 r-n 
 
 000 
 
 Eastern B. 
 
 5h 
 
 Western B. 
 
 Northern B. 
 
 Chagataic B. 
 
 Western B. 
 
 Northern B. 
 
 -r 
 
 
 Eastern B. 
 
 r-n 
 
 000 
 
 Western B. 
 
 1 ■ 1 
 
 000 
 
 Eastern B. 
 
 f -r 1 
 
 000 
 
 ocooo 
 
 oooooooco 
 
 cueoco 
 
 ooacoo 
 
 00 
 
 p* p* p' 
 
 £■£ 
 
 p s'g; 
 
 P P P 
 
 » » »* 
 
 EC 
 
 E-EEEs. 
 
 £.S.£.E-^^£. — £- 
 
 £.£-£.£.£-£< 
 
 £. ii- £- — £. 2- 
 
 
 Ee-E 
 
 EEE 
 
 £.S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OCDOCtftlOfDOO 
 
 CB CD ft> CD <:» 
 
 
 
 
 a a at 
 
 a> CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 000000000 
 
 rt ri C5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 
 &&& 
 
 S- g- 
 
 S" m m 
 
 ffi Do m 
 
 a S" S" 
 
 00 a 
 
 SB-E-SS- 
 
 S"w-^S-« ^ M <0 ^ 
 
 CD en 0^ uj CO 03 
 
 S" S" S" » »■ »■ 
 
 s- 
 
 Is-s- 
 
 ^ m m 
 
 S" S" 
 
 
 
 2.2,3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 00000 
 
 000000000 
 
 
 
 ° 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 2,S» 
 
 
 
 
 
 »-»ai-rsHhi-t.l-Kf-h'-t.(-f.-^ 
 
 •-*1 l-h Ml Khi S5 Kh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S^S-f 
 
 
 &f? 
 
 tP <B 
 
 fff 
 
 B^? 
 
 si>w>o 
 
 B B 2. 0. ffl 
 
 
 P a CD CD CD 
 
 (B a> ffl 0) 
 
 
 a a a 
 
 © a (» 
 
 
 ) Hungaria 
 s Voguls. 
 Ugro-Ost 
 
 if 
 
 B 5. 
 00 oi 
 
 Permians. 
 
 Syriaues. 
 Votiaks. 
 
 Lapps. 
 Finns. 
 Esths. 
 
 Urages. 
 Tawgi. 
 Yenisei. 
 
 is. 
 10 
 
 rbend. 
 
 erbijan. 
 
 mea. 
 
 itolia. 
 
 melia. 
 
 Kirgis. 
 
 Bashkirs. 
 
 Nagais. 
 
 Knmians. 
 
 Karachais. 
 
 Kai-akalpa 
 Meshcheiy 
 ;ria. 
 
 Yakuts. 
 
 Uigurs. 
 
 Komans. 
 
 Chagatais. 
 
 Usbeks. 
 
 Turkoman 
 
 an. 
 
 Choschot. 
 
 Dsungur. 
 
 Torgod. 
 
 Durbet. 
 
 Aimaks. 
 
 Tokpas. 
 
 S3 
 
 a 
 
 E 
 
 Sharra Mo 
 Khalkhas. 
 Sharaigols 
 
 Chapogirei 
 
 Orotongs. 
 
 Nyertchins 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i^r 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 jr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 Note, — B. means Branch. Italics denote a Dea 
 
YAN, SEMITIC, AND TURANIAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 LANGUAGE OF MANKIND. 
 
 I sesa 
 
 r-1 
 
 m fa 
 
 
 
 3 g 
 
 M 
 M 
 
 <! 
 Q 
 
 a 
 > 
 
 o 
 w 
 
 M 
 
 O 
 
 EUROPEAN FAMILY. 
 
 SOUTHERN DIVISION. 
 
 Indic Class. 
 
 Ieanic Class. 
 
 Co ■ 
 p 
 
 T—r 
 
 Kg 
 
 OWE 
 
 m" f° 5 2 2 
 
 D, 3 
 re'"' 
 
 
 it-i- 
 
 I I I I I I -r- 
 
 ooo 
 
 r^ 5-^ i^. W 
 *» » P p* 
 O O t! 3 
 
 o 
 
 FAMILY. 
 
 Hebkaic, 
 
 OE Middle Class 
 
 1 1 
 
 i 1 
 
 ta'^ooao 
 
 sr 
 
 1 ff §_ 
 
 S" s 
 
 P 2 ?!- 
 
 a S- 
 
 
 
 
 55§ 
 
 So g- 
 
 
 ' ^ s 
 
 5 3 
 
 cr-JS 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 Arabic, 
 OR Southern Class. 
 
 rn — I — I — I 
 C!Ci>iai3j 
 
 FAMILY. 
 
 I 
 
 SOUTHERN DIVISION. 
 
 Taic Class. Malaic Class. 
 
 Gangetic Class. 
 
 MuNDA Class. 
 
 I 
 LoHiTic Class. 
 
 Snb-Himalayan B. 
 
 Trans-Himalayan B. 
 
 r— 
 
 I I I 
 
 ceo 
 E' E' E 
 
 X (» QD 
 
 o o o 
 
 I' I I 
 
 GOO 
 
 I I II I I -r 
 
 OOOOODO 
 
 T— I 
 
 oo 
 
 00000003 
 
 tr-o i 
 
 B ■ ■■ 
 
 
 o o o 
 
 Hh <-*» eh 
 
 tdgO 
 
 ^ a c 
 
 o o o 
 
 MOTHt-iwt^a 
 
 C e" * CD !^- S" I!i^ 
 
 M J D-o a R c 
 
 Es ^ 
 
 {s us 
 
 3i S 
 
 ft¥t 
 
 
 rn — I I I n 
 
 S 2 2 5 S 2 
 p] »] p^ p] »] p' 
 
 fD fD O iTD ffl O 
 
 o n o o o o 
 
 CO GQ ^ Cfi en So 
 
 O O O 
 •-•> i-b f-t, 
 
 p-^ 5- 
 §"3 2. 
 S-p » 
 
 C B 
 
 
 " I 1 I I 
 
 b c o o g 
 £ S! s! e! & 
 
 ffi Cft ffl fD C6 
 
 o o n n o 
 aT S^ to S^ OQ 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 «-•> -*s --ts i-t^ Hfa 
 
 g-g.E-g: 
 
 Tahulic Class. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 r I I I I ■ . 
 
 tfoodoaoo 
 
 III. I — I — r 
 
 E. » ». 
 
 "53- S- 
 Poo 
 
 — E. £. £- i 
 
 <s a> n n 
 
 POOOoOOOO 
 
 tjgo 
 
 O p. B" 
 
 ©WOtB 
 2, "^ t» 
 
 wo 
 
 o o 
 
 t-t> «-*: 
 O QQ 
 
 or? 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 T — I — r 
 
 oab 
 
 p ^ p ES P 
 
 CD CD 
 CD CD 
 
 1-^ 
 
 "n — I — r-i 
 
 gcggg 
 
 p ED ED go js' 
 CD CD CD ,^ "^ 
 
 r I I " 
 OOb 
 
 £.£. ^ £* 
 
 I I I I I 1 
 
 oooooo 
 
 P CD E* (D 
 
 O O O ._ . . ^, 
 
 So So" w Sd" So" m" S" S" S" S" Sd 
 
 _ o 2. G. f^ (^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 §"•■•1 
 
 ill 
 
 a 
 
 j^ ^« C& g (B CD 
 
 O O O Q O O 
 r^ Ma •^ Wft h^ f^ 
 
 ■ ■ ■ i'« 
 
 Italics denote a Dead Language. 
 
14, Henrietta Street, Covmt Garden, London; and 
 ■20, South Frederick Street, Edinburgh. 
 
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