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 Studies in South American native jangjiag 
 
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STUDIES 
 
 —IN- 
 
 South American Native 
 Languages. 
 
 FROM MSS. AND RARE PRINTED SOURCES. 
 
 BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., 
 
 Professor of American Archaeology and Linguistics in the 
 University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 MacCalla & Company, Printers, 237-9 & 0C K Street. 
 
fZ'X-l'f- 
 
Prefatory Note. 
 
 The papers which follow were contributed to the Proceed- 
 ings of the American Philosophical Society in the early 
 months of 1892. Most of them are based upon unpublished 
 manuscripts in European and American Libraries, which I 
 have had the opportunity of examining within the last year. 
 They include material on at least four linguistic stocks, hitherto 
 wholly unknown to students of this interesting branch of 
 anthropologic science. 
 
 T have added two studies of Mexican languages, one with 
 South American affinities, the other apparently standing 
 isolated among all American languages and strikingly simple 
 in construction. 
 
 Philadelphia, April, 1892. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Prefatory Note 3 
 
 Contents 5 
 
 I. The Tacana Language and its Dialects 7 
 
 II. The Jivaro Language 21 
 
 III. The Cholona Language 30 
 
 IV. The Leca Language 36 
 
 ■V. A Text in the Manao Dialect 38 
 
 VI. The Bonari Dialect of the Carib Stock 44 
 
 VII. The Hongote Language and the Patagonian Dialects 45 
 
 VIII. The Dialects and Affinities of the Kechua Language 52 
 
 IX. Affinities of South and North American Languages 58 
 
 X. On the Dialects of the Betoyas and Tucanos 62 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. On the Chinantec Language 3 
 
 II. On the Mazatec Language 11 
 
Introductory. 
 
 It is not too much to say that the languages of the native tribes 
 of South America are the least known of any on the globe. The 
 problems they present in their grammatical character and affinities 
 remain the furthest from solution, and the materials to undertake 
 such a task are the scantiest from any equal area on the earth's 
 surface. In spite of the labors of such earnest workers as Von den 
 Steinen, Ehrenreich, Adam, Ernst, Darapsky, Middendorff and 
 others, there are numerous tongues of which we know absolutely 
 nothing, or have but bare and imperfect vocabularies. 
 
 In the present series of studies I present a variety of material 
 from either unpublished or rare works, accompanied by such sug- 
 gestions as to its character and relations as have occurred to me in 
 its preparation, and by some observations on the ethnography of 
 the tribes mentioned. As I am convinced that the only ethno- 
 graphic classification possible of the native tribes of America is that 
 based on language, I do not hesitate to apply this whenever 
 possible. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE TACANA LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. 
 
 In my work on The American Race,* I offered the following 
 classification of this group : 
 
 Tacana Linguistic Stock. 
 
 Araonas, 
 
 Isuiamas, 
 
 Pukapakaris, 
 
 Tumupasas, 
 
 Atenes, 
 
 Lecos, 
 
 Sapiboconas, 
 
 Ticyumiris. 
 
 Cavinas, 
 
 Maracanis, 
 
 Tacanas, 
 
 
 Equaris, 
 
 Maropas, 
 
 Toromonas, 
 
 
 From this list we must strike out the Atenes or Atenianos and 
 Lecos, as I shall show that these spoke a tongue nowise akin to the 
 
 * The American Race: A Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic Description of the 
 Native Tribes of North and South America. By Daniel G. Brintou. 1 vol., 8vo, pp. 392 
 (N. D. C. Hodges, New York, 1891). 
 
 Reprinted March 26, 1892, from Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. xxx. 
 
Tacana, in spite of some assertions to the contrary by Spanish 
 writers. 
 
 Other tribes which should probably be added to this list, as they 
 are located on old maps within Tacana territory and have Tacana 
 names, are : 
 
 Carangues, on left bank of Rio Tarabeni. 
 
 Chumanos, north of Lake Roguaguado. 
 
 Poromonas, on the lower Rio Beni (or Poro). 
 
 Samachuanes, on Rio Coroico. 
 
 Uchupiamonas, on the Rio Uchupiamona. 
 
 Yubamonas, on the Rio Yuba. 
 
 The termination monas to several of these names is the Spanish 
 plural form of the Tac. manu, river, the tribes being named from 
 the streams along which they lived. 
 
 In addition to the above I have found that the tribe known as 
 "Guarizas"is to be included among the Tacanas. A series of 
 texts in their language, comprising the Pater, the Ave and the 
 Credo, was found among the papers of Cardinal Mezzofanti, and 
 has been published by Prof. Emilio Teza in his Saggi inediti di 
 Lingue Americane (Pisa, 1868). The learned editor states that all 
 his endeavors to identify this language, or to ascertain the location 
 or affinities of the tribe, had been fruitless. A comparison of the 
 Guariza Pater with that in the Tacana, both of which I give on a 
 later page, will prove the very close relationship of the two tribes. 
 
 D'Orbigny asserts that "Tacana" is not the name of a tribe, 
 but the name of the language. It is called by Spanish writers of the 
 last century the " Maracani,"* which is apparently not the same as 
 the Macarani of the mission of Santiago among the Chiquitos. 
 
 The earliest missionary explorer of the Rio Beni, Fray Francisco 
 de Rosario, wrote a report in 1677, in which he mentions a number 
 of tribes, now extinct, among them the Hucumanos and the 
 Torococyes, whose names indicate them to have belonged to the 
 Tacana stock, f 
 
 Location and Number. 
 
 The general location of the Tacana group may be described as 
 along the eastern slope of the Cordillera, where it descends to the 
 
 * See D'Orbigny, V Homme Amiricain, Vol. i, p. 374 ; Descrip. de las Misiones del Alto 
 Peru (1771). 
 f His report was printed in full in Melendez, Tesoro Verdadero de las Indias, Tomo iii. 
 
9 
 
 valley of the river Beni (otherwise called the Rio Poro, the Rio 
 Pilcopata and the Rio Madre de Dios), and in the valley of the 
 latter on both banks, between South lat. 12 and 15°. At present 
 the Tacana dialect proper is spoken in the towns of Tumupasa and 
 Isiamas ; the Araona by the Araonas, who dwell on the banks of 
 the Beni and on those of its western tributaries, known as the 
 Manuripi,- Tahuamanu and Uaicomanu ; the Cavinefio is confined 
 to the mission of Cavinas ; the Maropa to the Maropes, in and near 
 the Pueblo de los Reyes, on the right bank of the Beni, about 
 12 30' S. lat., while the Sapis or Sapiboconas appear to have been 
 the most eastern branch of the stock, as they were attached to the 
 mission of the Moxos in the province of that name on the Rio 
 Mamore. 
 
 In 1831 the total number of persons speaking the dialects of 
 this stock was about 6000 (D'Orbigny). The majority of these are 
 nominally Christians and have fixed habitations; but the Toro- 
 monas, who dwell between the rivers Madidi and Beni, in i2°-i3° 
 South lat., are still uncivilized and heathens; so, also, are the 
 Araonas, who are stated to be cannibals and idol worshipers. Their 
 idols are geometrically shaped pieces of polished wood and stone. 
 Their chief deity is " Baba Buada," whom they identify with the 
 wind, vutana, and whose home is in the air. He is said to live 
 towards the south and to be the creator of heaven and earth. The 
 general term for divinity is edutzi, and there is a zia edutzi, god of 
 maize; an agave edutzi, god of health, etc. Each edutzi has his 
 own yanacona, or priest, to superintend the proper rites.* 
 
 Loan Words. 
 The Tacana-speaking tribes have for generations adjoined on the 
 west the once powerful and cultivated Aymaras, and on the north 
 the populous herds of the Panos. The v consequences on their 
 tongue have been quite marked. A number of words have been 
 borrowed from both sources ; but they are not so frequent nor of 
 such a character as to authorize the supposition of an original unity 
 with either of the stocks named. I give a list of some of these : 
 
 Identities in Aymara and Tacana. 
 
 Arm, 
 Body, 
 
 * E. Heath in Kansas City Review, April, 1883 ; Col. LabriS in Proc. Soy. Geog. Soc, 
 Nic. Armentia, Ezplor. del Madre de Dios. 
 
 Aymaba. 
 
 Tacana. 
 
 ampara, 
 
 embai, M, 
 
 amaya. 
 
 eami, M. 
 
10 
 
 
 Aymaka. 
 
 Tacana. 
 
 Boat, 
 
 huampu, 
 
 cuamba, M. 
 
 Cold, 
 
 t'aarata, 
 
 bruada, T. 
 
 Earth (patria), 
 
 marca, 
 
 rnechi, S. 
 
 Green, 
 
 chojna, 
 
 china, T. 
 
 Heaven, 
 
 alakhpacha, 
 
 evacua pacha 
 
 House, 
 
 uiax, 
 
 etai, M. 
 
 Island, 
 
 huatta, 
 
 eda-pupu, T. 
 
 Lightning, 
 
 llipikh-llipikh, 
 
 jili-jili, M. 
 
 Man, 
 
 ehaeha, 
 
 dreja, M. 
 
 Meat (flesh, body), 
 
 aycha, 
 
 aicha, T. 
 
 Morning (Span, manana), 
 
 maylla. 
 
 maita, M. 
 
 Night, 
 
 arwma, 
 
 apurne, M. 
 
 Old, 
 
 achachi, 
 
 esi, M. 
 
 Star, 
 
 huara, 
 
 erujdi, T. 
 
 Identities in Pano and Tacana. 
 
 Pano. 
 
 Tacana. 
 
 imi, 
 
 ami. 
 
 abaque, 
 
 ebacua. 
 
 nami, 
 
 yami. 
 
 matsy, 
 
 emata. 
 
 bari, 
 
 bari. 
 
 Jiata, 
 
 bata. 
 
 omibaque, 
 
 qui embague. 
 
 uirli (star), 
 
 ireti. 
 
 Tina, 
 
 eana. 
 
 cucu, 
 
 cucu, mju. 
 
 iena, 
 
 ena. 
 
 Blood, 
 
 Child, 
 
 Flesh, 
 
 Hill, 
 
 Moon, 
 
 Small, 
 
 San, 
 
 Sun, 
 
 Tongue, 
 
 Uncle, 
 
 Water, 
 
 The only two. numerals which can be claimed for the Tacana 
 evidently also belong to the Pano : 
 
 One, 
 Two; 
 
 The important words for maize, salt, tobacco and banana seem 
 to be borrowed from other tongues : 
 
 Maize, s7iije or dije. — Probably the Pano schequi, which in turn is un- 
 doubtedly the Kechua cherclri, roasted maize. The grain evidently 
 became known to the Panos as an article of food in this prepared 
 form. 
 
 Salt, banu. — Apparently a variation of the Arawak pamu. 
 
 Tobacco, umaza or umarsi. — Doubtless, from the Tupi put-uma, Maypure 
 iema. 
 
 Tacana. 
 
 Pano. 
 
 pea, 
 
 atchou-pe, pa-ju, 
 
 beta, 
 
 ta-boe, ru-b'a. 
 
11 
 
 Banana, bondare and naja. — The former is the Pano banara, panala, and 
 naja is the same word with the first syllable omitted ; banara is but a 
 corruption of banana, an Arawak word. 
 
 The color names appear to me irreducible, except that for 
 "green," which has been borrowed from the Aymara. 
 
 White, 
 
 pasana. 
 
 Black, 
 
 devena. 
 
 Blue, 
 
 danane. 
 
 Red, 
 
 derena. 
 
 Yellow, 
 
 lidnia. 
 
 A few similarities to the Moseteno, a language spoken by a 
 neighboring stock, may be noted : 
 
 
 
 Tacana. 
 
 MoseteSo. 
 
 Fish, 
 
 
 see, 
 
 sen. 
 
 Foot, 
 
 
 euatsi, 
 
 yu. 
 
 God, 
 
 
 edutzi, 
 
 dogit. 
 
 "Water (river), 
 
 
 ena, 
 
 ogni. 
 
 Woman, 
 
 
 epuna, 
 
 phen. 
 
 !ut these have 
 
 little 
 
 significance. 
 
 Phonetics. 
 
 
 All the Tacanan dialects are facile and agreeable in their sounds, 
 differing in this respect from the Aymara and Kechua, both of 
 which are harsh to the European ear and almost unpronounceable to 
 a foreigner. The Araona has no sound which is not capable of cor- 
 rect expression by the Spanish alphabet ; but the Tacana has the 
 strong English th (as in this); a soft, scarcely audible aspirate, and 
 a sound intermediate between t, d and r (heard in dudu, brother ; 
 tata, father, etc.), while the soft Spanish th (as in Span, ce, ci) is 
 absent. The / is not heard in any native Tacana word. 
 
 The statement quoted by D'Orbigny, from a MS. of one of the 
 missionaries, to the effect that the Tacana is one of the most gut- 
 tural and harshest of languages, is quite incorrect and could not 
 have been intended to apply to any of the dialects of this group. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 The paradigms of the Tacana pronouns are as follows : 
 
 I, ema. We, ecuana. 
 
 Of me or mine, quiema. Of us, our, eeuanasa. 
 
 For me, quiemapuji. For us, ecuana puji. 
 
12 
 
 To me, 
 
 ema. 
 
 To us, 
 
 ecuana. 
 
 With me, 
 
 ema neje. 
 
 With us, 
 
 ecuana neje. 
 
 Thou, 
 
 miada. 
 
 You, 
 
 micuana. 
 
 Thine, 
 
 miqueda. 
 
 Your, 
 
 mieuanasa. 
 
 For thee, 
 
 mique puji. 
 
 For you, 
 
 micuanapuji. 
 
 To thee, 
 
 mida. 
 
 To you, 
 
 micuana. 
 
 With thee, 
 
 mi neje. 
 
 With you, 
 
 mieuananeje. 
 
 He or she, 
 
 tueda. 
 
 That, 
 
 ichu. 
 
 Those, 
 
 tueda cuana. 
 
 Those, 
 
 ichu cuana. 
 
 His or her, 
 
 tuseda. 
 
 This one, 
 
 jida. 
 
 This, 
 
 yhe. 
 
 These ones," 
 
 jida cuana. 
 
 These, 
 
 yhecuana. 
 
 Who? 
 
 aydeni. 
 
 
 Verbal 
 
 Forms. 
 
 
 Of all the dialects the Tacana is richest in verbal forms, and its 
 various subdialects are less variable than its neighbors. 
 
 Further, Armentia states that all the dialects have a dual number 
 in both verbs and pronouns, but his work does not furnish the 
 means of analyzing the character of this dual. As is well known to 
 grammarians, there are several very different conceptions of duality 
 in language. 
 
 The notion of action in the verbal theme undergoes modification 
 by suffixes, thus : 
 
 ha, to make, to do. 
 
 e-halani, I am doing [e=ema = T). 
 
 e-liametani, I am ordering it to be done. 
 
 aque, imperative, do ye. 
 
 atique, go thou and do. 
 
 Of such suffixes, j'a expresses desire or to wish, as: 
 
 puti-ja, I wish to go. 
 dia-ja, I wish to eat. 
 idi-ja, I wish to drink. 
 
 The suffix ji, appended to a noun, signifies possession, as chipilo- 
 ji, one having money; but reduplicated and suffixed to a verb, it 
 conveys the sense of past time, as : 
 
 puti-jiji, he has already gone. 
 dia-jiji. he has already eaten. 
 
13 
 
 The termination ti appears to be that of the reflexive verb : 
 
 dama, to cover. 
 
 ja damali, to cover oneself. 
 
 The neuter is changed to the active signification by the suffix me : 
 
 manu, to die. 
 
 manuame, to kill. 
 
 ja manuamejiji, lie who has killed another. 
 
 Many verbs are compounded by simple juxtaposition, as : 
 
 babe, to know ; quisa, to tell ; whence : 
 babequisa, to teach, i. e., to tell what one knows. 
 
 The word babe, to know, is itself a derivative from ba, to see, 
 which also appears in such compounds as diaba (from dia, to eat), 
 to eat, seeing, i. <?., to test or try a food (probar la comida); and 
 batsuatique (tsuati=z above), to look upward. 
 
 Literature and Texts. 
 
 The literature of the Tacanan dialects — if I may apply this term 
 to such meagre material — is widely scattered and difficult of access. 
 Ludewig, in his Literature of American Aboriginal Languages 
 (p. 206), speaks of it as a dialect of the Yurucare, with which it 
 has not the slightest affinity. The same author gives the Sapi- 
 bocona as a dialect of the Kechua (p. 1 68), and the Maropa as 
 related to the Yuracare. 
 
 Of the Tacana proper I have made use of three published 
 vocabularies: 1. That given by H. A. Weddell, Voyage dans le 
 Nord de la Bolivie (Paris, 1859). He gives forty words and six 
 numerals, obtained from a party of Tacanas from Ixiamas and 
 Tumupasa, whom he met at Guanay. 2. A vocabulary of one 
 hundred and fifty-seven words and six numerals, by Ur. E. R. 
 Heath, contributed by him to the Kansas City Review, April, 
 1883. 3. A vocabulary of forty-eight words and ten numerals, 
 accompanied by grammatical observations by the Rev. Nicholas 
 Armentia, published in his Exploracion del Rio Madre de Dios 
 (La Paz, 1889). 
 
 The only printed text I have found is a small octavo of forty-one 
 pages, with the following title : 
 
 " Catecismo | de la | Doctrina Christiana | en Idioma Tacana | 
 
14 
 
 por un Misionero del Colejio de | Propaganda — fide de la | Paz de 
 Ayacucho | 1859. | Imprenta de Vapor. — Calle de la Aduana, 
 No. 36. 
 
 The text is entirely in Tacana, without the corresponding 
 Spanish, and embraces the Pater, Credo, Salve, Smaller Catechism, 
 Explanation of the Doctrine, the Via Sacra, etc. I have been 
 unable to discover the author. 
 
 Further, Armentia gives also vocabularies of the Araona and 
 Cavineno dialects, and Dr. Heath supplies one of the Maropa. 
 For the Sapibocona, I have relied on that printed by Hervas in his 
 Vocabulario Poliglotto. 
 
 Dr. Heath refers to the great similarity between the Maropa and 
 Tacana dialects, and adds the remark: "The Maropas have 
 many words that have significations widely different; etra means 
 bone and also hair ; biya means a louse, a wasp and urine." Prob- 
 ably there is a difference in accent or inflection, which is not 
 apparent to the European ear, but which to the native indicates 
 which sense is intended. 
 
 The version of the Lord's Prayer given below, as well as that of 
 the Creed, are taken from the Catecismo en Idioma Tacana, above 
 referred to. I have added an interlinear translation of the former, 
 and also a translation of the latter, as there is evidently some slight 
 change of the customary phraseology. 
 
 Lord's Prayer in Tacana. 
 
 Ecuanasa lata evacuapachasu, mi canichanapajiji papu mique ebani, 
 
 Our father heaven in, thou sacred come thy name, 
 
 mique ewcuapacha ecuanasa papu, mique envme eni papu ye canasu, 
 
 thy heaven (to) us come, thy wish come earth on, 
 
 evacuapachasu epuani nime viame. Amen Jesus. Pamapa zinesu ecuanasa 
 
 heaven in come (like to?). Amen Jesus. Every day our 
 equita tucheji jeave ecuanatiaque. Ecuanasa jucha cuana chenubaque, 
 body food to us. Our sins forgive, 
 
 cuaja bata ecuaneda eiehenubania ecuanasa manu cuana, ba ecuana 
 even as we forgive 
 
 dajajameji mi juchasu, inasiguaque pamapa madada cuanasu. Amen 
 
 remove all evil us from. 
 
 Jesus. 
 
 Alongside of this I quote the same in the Guariza dialect, from 
 Prof. Teza's work, already mentioned : 
 
15 
 
 Lord's Prayer in Guariza. 
 
 Echeza tata evacuepacJtazu anigi mi, ibbubatagigicapapuini mige evani, 
 echebe pezu papu eyueaini mi reyno, agigieapapuini mige enime eubbazu 
 evacuepachazu battmja. Ecama geabe chinezv, tiage eaheza jana pugi : 
 echebe jucha gigicuana ichenubage echeza jucha qetahu, tuevata ecama 
 echeza majaycuana eichenubbaza : ecama tucheme age veca par'ajaja 
 jutfiazu, chutemejubua ichenume cuanazu ecama mapenege. 
 
 It [is evident that this is a version by a different hand into a 
 closely allied dialect. 
 
 Creed in Tacana. 
 
 I believe in the Father God, of all 
 things in heaven and on earth the 
 maker ; I believe in the Lord Jesus 
 Christ, His only Son ; who was con- 
 ceived by the grace of the Holy 
 Spirit, and was born of a virgin ; 
 he suffered under the power of 
 Pilate ; he was crucified ; he died ; 
 he wentdowntolimbo; fromamong 
 the dead he arose on the third day; 
 he went up to heaven ; there he is 
 seated on the right hand of the 
 Father almighty; whence he shall 
 come to judge the living and the 
 dead ; I believe in the Holy Spirit, 
 the holy Catholic church, the com- 
 munion of all the saints, the pardon 
 of sins, and that our bodies shall rise 
 again, and that life shall not end. 
 
 Eama jei eania tata Dios pamapa 
 aji, evacuapachasu ye eausu segua- 
 meji ; jei eania tata Jesucristo tusa 
 evacua peada quita ; bataji puida 
 Espiritu Santasa gracia eje putzu ; 
 etsesa cuara Virgen cuinaida ; iche- 
 nuda cuana vidinaida Pilatosa 
 emesu; tatajiji puida crususu; dapia 
 manujiji puida, limbosu buteida ; 
 manujiji cuana dujusu nettianaida 
 quimieha zinesu ; soatida evacuapa- 
 cha, mesa tata pamapa aji bai eni 
 bene cani, da jenettia epueicha 
 eideni cuana, manujiji cuana equi- 
 saba puji ; eania jei eania Espiritu 
 Santosa, santa Yglesia catolicasu, 
 santo cuanasa aysaida jacti cuanasa 
 jaditati, jucha cuanasa perdon, ecua- 
 nasa equila quita eydeyo pupebse 
 mave eide cani. 
 
 Vocabulary — English-Tacana and Dialects. 
 
 T.= Tacana (T. W.— Tacana of Weddell); M.= Maropa; S.= Sapibo- 
 ona ; A.= Araona; C.= Cavinefio. 
 Orthography Spanish ; j = Eng. A; ^scarcely perceptible; s = Eng. th. 
 
 Alive, eicle'ja, T. ; escheveve, M. 
 All, pamapa, T. ; huana', M. 
 Always, doja-piricha, T. 
 Arm, ebu'e, T. ; embai, M. (probably 
 
 from ema, hand). 
 Arrow, pisa, T. ; pizi, M. 
 Ascend, to, tsuati, T. 
 
 Ashes, etimu, T., A. ; etiquimuru, C. 
 
 Aunt, nene, T., A., C. 
 
 Bad, mada'da, T. ; emasa', M. 
 
 (=ma-saida, not good). 
 Bark (of tree), eviti, T. ; embiti, M. 
 Beard, que 1 da, T. ; euesa', M. 
 Belly, etu, T. ; ese>, M. ; edde,T. (W.) 
 
16 
 
 Bird, dia, T. ; bu'ni, M. 
 
 Black, devena, T. ; sebe'mi, M. 
 
 Blood, ami, T. and M. 
 
 Blue, danane, T.; mvame', M. 
 
 Body, equita, T., C. ; ea'mi, M.; 
 ecuicha, A. 
 
 Bone, e'iro, T.; eira', M. 
 
 Bow, a, pisatri, T.; pizalrue, M. 
 (see Arrow). 
 
 Boy, canane, edeave, T. ; dreja've, 
 M. (see Man); toro,A..; ebacuapi, 
 C. (see Child; ve is the diminu- 
 tive suffix). 
 
 Breasts (= mammae), atra.T. and M. 
 
 Brother (my elder), quema-onici, 
 T. ; &«'<?■*, M. 
 
 Brother (my younger), quema-eou', 
 T. ; chintri, M. 
 
 Brother, zau, uitzecua, A.; jasm, msj, 
 C. 
 
 Canoe, eua'bua,T.; cuamba', M., A.; 
 cuaba, C. (Aymara). 
 
 Charcoal, elide,, T. ; etesi, A. ; etirut- 
 seve, C. 
 
 Chest, the, etredu, T. ; echentru, M. 
 (breast bone? see Bone). 
 
 Child, ebacua, T. 
 
 Cold, bruada, T. ; vinna'ma, M. 
 
 Come, to, j>M0, T. ; apueya, M. ; 
 papw, T. 
 
 Cry, to, tsia-tsia, T. ; je/aje, M. 
 (imitative). 
 
 Dance, to, tiri-tiri, T. and M. (imi- 
 tative). 
 
 Daughter, my (by father and 
 mother), onibaquapuna, T. ; qui- 
 embaqua, M.; ebacuepuna, A., C. 
 (see Child and Ifo/nam). 
 
 Day, tri'ne, T. and M. ; chine, S. 
 
 Dead, manujiji, T. and M. 
 
 Deer, ba'que, T. ; batru'nu, M. 
 
 Die, to, manu, T. 
 
 Dog, »c7w, T. ; pacw, M. 
 
 Drink, a, ayeidi, T. ; «j'd», A.; 
 ej#£, C. 
 
 Drink, to, idi, eicli,T. ; jaisehitri, M. 
 
 Duck, a, se'e, T. ; su'zi, M. 
 
 Ear, edaja, T. ; eshaeue'na, M. 
 
 Earth (land), meeK, «&», T. ; wie«r i, 
 M. ; mechi, C, S. ; e«a, mczi, A. 
 
 Eat, to, dia-dia, T.; chancha, M. 
 
 Egg, e'ja, T. and M. 
 
 Evening, trineli'a, T. ; trinequa, M. 
 (see Z>a#). 
 
 Eye, etradru'ndru, T. ; etaehundru, 
 M.; etuaehuru, S. (see Sister, 
 Elder and Hair ; apparently "sis- 
 ter hairs," i. e., eyebrows, eye- 
 lashes). 
 
 Face, embu, T. and M. 
 
 Father, my (by son), rema-tata,T. ; 
 qui-tata,M.; tata, or checua, S. C. 
 
 Father, my (by daughter), rema- 
 tata, T. ; qui-tata, M. 
 
 Far, uqueda, T. ; huazumi, M. 
 
 Feathers, eina,T. ; enuqua, M. (com- 
 pare Hair). 
 
 Fingers, ema, T. ; emechuja, M 
 (=head of hand). 
 
 Fire, qua'ti, T. ; eua'ti, M., S., A. ; 
 tffegw, C.j aire, T. (W.) (compare 
 -4s7ies and TPood). 
 
 Fish, sisi, M. ; see, T. ; jas, A. 
 
 Flesh (see Meat, Body). 
 
 Fly, a, vere-vere, T.; 6eW, M. (imi- 
 tative). 
 
 Food, jana, T., A.; eWwca, C. 
 
 Foot, equatri,T. ; evatri, M.; ebbachi, 
 S. ; euatsi, A., C. 
 
 Forehead, emali, T. ; emma'ta, M. 
 and S. 
 
 Forest, tf/j'Je, T. ; hayjintru, M. 
 
 Friend, apare'je, T. ; epere'je, M. 
 
 Girl, jrata, epunave, T. ; pwnave, M. ; 
 ebmzacua, A. ; ebaeuna, C. («e := 
 diminutive ; see C/iiW, Daughter 
 and TPomewi). 
 
 Give, to, to, T. ; tia'na, M. 
 
 Go, to, #«'&", T. and M.; p«j, A.; 
 cwa, C. 
 
 God, eruchi, S. ; edttte*, T., A.; 
 educhi, C. 
 
17 
 
 Good, saida, 'saipiave,T '. ; jundra, M. 
 Grass, nutsa, T.; ea'ji, M. 
 Great, aida, T. ; haymi, M. 
 Green, china, T. ; schepiei, M. 
 Hair, ecliu-ena, T. ; eira, M. ; echau, 
 
 S. (see i?ead, Feather, Wing). 
 Hand, e'n«, T.; erne, M., S., A.; 
 
 eme-tucu, C. 
 He (pron.), to e^a, T. ; to-w, M. 
 Head, echu, T. ; echuja, M. and S. ; 
 
 eelma, A.; iyuca, U. 
 Heart, masu'mo, T. ; masumu', M. ; 
 
 emofobo, A. ; «?u/tt, C. 
 Heaven, evacuepana, S. ; evacua- 
 
 paaha, T.; tecpo, T. (W.). 
 Here, upi'ca, T. ; msm', M. 
 Hill, a (or mountain), ernata, T. ; 
 
 emina, M. (probably from emu, 
 
 extremity, point, hand). 
 Hot, sina'da, T. ; ziniri-trime, M. 
 House, ejtej.T. ; etai, M., A.; elare,C. 
 Husband, my, quemayavi, T. ; jmj- 
 
 astie, M. 
 I (pron), «m« (active form, ea'ma), 
 
 T. ; e'me, M. 
 Ice, ea'na, T. 
 Infant, eanane-chidi, T. (see Soy); 
 
 ejanana, M. 
 Iron, peama', M. 
 
 Island, edapu'pu, T. ; ischa'pupu, M. 
 Jar (Sp. olla), jutu, T., A.; emari- 
 
 caca, C. 
 Kettle, co'to, T. 
 Kill, to, manuame, emanuani, T. ; 
 
 mane'me, M. 
 Knife, cuchilo, M. (Spanish). 
 Know, to, SaSe, T. 
 Lake, 6ai, T. and M.; eubihure, S. 
 
 (see Water). 
 Laugh, to, ydeba'li, T.; yaschi-bati, 
 
 M. 
 Leaf, a, equena 1 , M. 
 Learn, iffl&e toa, T. 
 Leg, etida'da, T.; eta', M.; e««, 
 
 T. (W.). 
 Lie, to, bidumimi, T.; ea'raa, M. 
 2 
 
 Lightning, tseru-tseru, T. ; jili-jili, 
 
 M. ; j'tepa, S. 
 Love, to, esbune'ba, T. ; imbu- 
 
 nimbu, M. 
 Maize, dt)'e, T. ; s/iye, M.; zta, A. 
 Make, to (Sp. hacer), ha, T. 
 Man, de'ja,T., C; dreja, M.; reanci, 
 
 S. ; dfja, ecuicha, A. 
 Many, yucua'da, T. ; dru'je, M. 
 Meat, aieha, T. ; ea'mi, M.; yaro, 
 
 A. ; erami, C. 
 Money, chipilo, T. 
 Moon, Sa'di, T., A., C; lantri', M.; 
 
 Jan, S. 
 Morning, matachu, T. ; mai'ta, M. 
 Mother, my (by son or daughter), 
 
 quema-qua'ra, T.; quicua, M.; 
 
 eaa, S. ; uaua-di, A.; cuaha', C. 
 Mouth, aquatri, T. ; equa'lra, M.; 
 
 eZ>6o, T. (W.). 
 Musquito, sasrci or cK, T. ; <Zn, M. 
 My, quema, T. ; jim', M. 
 Name, etoii, T. ; embani, M. 
 Nails, ema-tichi, T. ; erne tichi, M 
 
 (see Hand). 
 Near, narise, T. ; drema', M. 
 Neck, m''ju, T. and M. and S. 
 Never, niquielsunu. 
 Night, fe'za, T. ; apume', M. 
 No, «'te, T. and M. 
 Nose, m'-erei, T. ; ess, M. and S. 
 Old, ecrt, T. ; e'si, M. 
 Our, ecuanasa, T. 
 People, endrani, T. ; driani qua'na, 
 
 M. 
 Plantain (Sp. platano), nam, T.; 
 
 «a?a, A. ; bondare, C. 
 Prairie, nutsa'ni, T. 
 Rain, ticm, T. and M. 
 Rattlesnake, Jacua (totta, T. ; swot 
 
 bacua, M. (see Snake). 
 Red, derena, T. ; utrume, M. 
 River, eraa, T. ; manu, A.; exeperea- 
 
 rida, C. (em« = water). 
 Rivulet, enabaque, T. (= child- 
 water). 
 
18 
 
 Eoad, edidi, T. ; edisi, A.; edigi, 0. 
 Run, to, judu'du,T.; vandrundu, M. 
 Salt, banu, T. ; bano, M. 
 Say, to, quisa, T. 
 See, to, Ja, T. ; jam-bati, M. 
 Silver, Sepg, T. ; sepe, A. 
 Sing, to, satm, T. ; za«™, M. 
 Sister, zatna, A. ; tatna, T. ; «»si, 
 
 jane, C. 
 Sister, my elder, quema-du'du, T. ; 
 
 drundru, M. 
 Sister, my younger, quematona, T. ; 
 
 is'iid, M. (in M. eldest brother 
 
 says cani to his youngest sister). 
 Sit, to, aniu'ti, T. ; animbotia, M. 
 Skin, ebbai, T. (W.). 
 Sky, bueyu'pa, T. ; embaquapac.ha' , 
 
 M. 
 Sleep, to, taW, T. and M. 
 Small, chicli, T. ; batavi'chi, M. 
 Snake, baeua, T. andM. 
 Son, my (by father or mother), 
 
 quema-embami, T. ; qui-embaqua, 
 
 M. ; ena, A.; ebacua, T. C. (see 
 
 CMd, Daughter). 
 Soul, enidu, T. ; ^'i'ay, A. ; 2/asta- 
 
 ecuana, C. 
 Speak, to, mims^ T. and M. 
 Squash, a, je'nu, T. ; je'mi, M. 
 Stand, to, enutsinejenetsi, T. ; ne'ti, 
 
 M. 
 Star, eru'jai or elubay, T. ; buana'vi, 
 
 M. ; etujay, A.; purari, C. 
 Steal, to, 2si, T.; in, M. 
 Stone, ftOTM, T., C, A. and S. ; 
 
 tem a, M. 
 Strong, tuche'da, T. ; tretremi, M. 
 Sun, 4>e'ft' or wfe£j, T. ; is;'eW, M. ; 
 
 i£fC^, C. 
 
 Teach, to, babe-quisa, T. 
 
 Teeth, etre, T. and M.; eche', T. 
 
 (W.) (compare Bone). 
 That, 2/cto, T.; icAtt, M. 
 There, chupia, dapiavi, T. ; ichuzu, 
 
 M. 
 They, yehu-cuana, T. ; tuna've, M. 
 
 Think, to, pi&a, T. , A. ; adeba, C. 
 
 This, #Ae, T. ; *y«, M. 
 
 Thorn, aquida, T. ; acuisa, A. ; 
 acuija, C. 
 
 Thou, micla, T. ; m£"»e, M. 
 
 Thumb, ema-chuai, T. ; eme-chuja, 
 M. (see Hand, Fingers, Head). 
 
 Thunder, etiria'ni, T. ; Zj'r i, M. 
 
 Tobacco, umar'si, T.; umaza, M. 
 
 To-day, jecrae, T. and M. 
 
 To-morrow, maUa-puiclia, T.; 6an- 
 £ra, M. (see Yesterday). 
 
 Toes, equatri-ritrana, T. ; etairi- 
 tiehi, M. (see #00* and Nails). 
 
 Tongue, eanas, T., M. and S. 
 
 Tortoise, dati, T. ; dra'ti, M, 
 
 Town, eju'de,T.; tjuntre', M.; «w«, 
 A.; cjow, C. (see House). 
 
 Tree, a'j«j, T. andM.; acw», A., C. 
 
 Uncle, juju, T., A.; cucu, C. (a cele- 
 brated word, probably of Carib 
 origin, on which Martius founded 
 his classification of the " Guck " 
 nations). 
 
 Walk, to, arease', T. ; aze, M. 
 
 Warrior, jamaji tipuji (a quarrel- 
 some person), M. 
 
 Water, eavi, T. ; yu'vi, M. ; euvi, S., 
 A.; ena, C. ; ya'/n, T. (W.). 
 
 We, ecuana (dual form, eSsea) T. ; 
 eeama 1 , M. 
 
 When, quietsunu, T. 
 
 White, pasana, T. ; paza'me, M. 
 
 Who, ayde'ni, T. ; Ao^se, M. 
 
 Wife, quema-equani,T. ; quievane, M. 
 
 Wind, fte'n*, T. and M. (from this 
 comes the name of the Rio Beni = 
 Wind river). 
 
 Wing, enabay, T.; ennambai. M. 
 (see Feathers). 
 
 Wish, to, (Span, querer), tsada, T. 
 
 Woman, epuna, a'no, T.; a'nu, M. 
 and S. ; epuna, C, A. 
 
 Wood, ei'rea, T. ; a' qui (= tree), M.; 
 cuati-manu, A.; cmj<£, C. (see 
 i%-e). 
 
19 
 
 Work, to, mudumudu, T. ; mundru, Yes, die, T. ; ee, M. 
 
 M. 
 Ye or you, micuana,T. ; mica've, M. 
 Year, mara, S. 
 Yellow, tidnia, T. ; zahuami', M. 
 
 Yesterday, maita puieha, T. ; maita, 
 
 M. (see To-morrow). 
 Young, edea-ve, T. ; dreja-veve, M. 
 
 (= young man). 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 1 , pea, peada, peara, T. ; pembive, M. ; pe 
 
 2, Seta, T., M. and S. 
 
 3, guimicha, T. ; camischa, M. (Aymara). 
 
 4, pwsi, T. and M. (Aymara). 
 
 5, pichica, T. and M. (Aymara). 
 G, sucuta, T. and M. (Aymara). 
 
 7, si'ete, T. (Spanish). 
 
 8, oefto (Spanish). 
 
 9, MMCTe (Spanish). 
 
 10, tunea, M. (Aymara); peara tunca, T. 
 
 20, beta tunca, M. (Aymara). 
 
 ij, S. ; equene, Cat. 
 
 Tacana-English Vocabulary. 
 
 Aieha, meat, flesh. 
 4i<Za, great. 
 -4raj, blood. 
 Aniuti, to sit. 
 .A'tio, woman, wife. 
 Apareje, friend. 
 Aquatri, mouth, 
 .dgzn, tree. 
 Aquida, thorn. 
 Arease, to walk. 
 -d£nt, mamma?. 
 Aydeni, who. 
 i?a, to see. 
 Babe, to know. 
 Babequisa, to teach. 
 Babe-tsua, to learn. 
 Bacua, snake. 
 Bacua-dada, rattlesnake. 
 SatW, moon. 
 Bai, lake. 
 Banu, salt. 
 Baque, a deer. 
 .Semi, wind. 
 Seto, two. 
 Bruada, cold. 
 
 Bueyupa, sky. 
 
 Budu, sister (elder;. 
 
 Canane, a hoy. 
 
 Can», sister (by brother) 
 
 Ohicli, small. 
 
 China, green. 
 
 Chipilo, money. 
 
 Ghupia, there. 
 
 Co«j, younger brother. 
 
 Coto, kettle. 
 
 Oaabua, canoe. 
 
 Cuati, fire. 
 
 Baja-piucha, always. 
 
 Banane, blue. 
 
 Bapiave, there. 
 
 Data', tortoise. 
 
 Beja, man. 
 
 Depe, silver. 
 
 Berena, red. 
 
 Bevena, black. 
 
 Dto, bird. 
 
 Bia-dia, to eat. 
 
 Dya, maize. 
 
 Kana, tongue. 
 
 Ea'na, ice. 
 
20 
 
 Eavi, water. 
 Ebani, name. 
 Ebbai, skin. 
 Ebue, arm. 
 Echu, head. 
 Echuena, hair. 
 Ecli, old. 
 Ecuana, we. 
 Ecuanasa, our 
 Edeave, young. 
 Edidi, road, path. 
 Edaja, the ear. 
 Edapupu, island. 
 Edeave, a hoy. 
 Edna, earth, land. 
 Ehe, yes. 
 Eicleja, alive. 
 Ei'na, wood. 
 Eina, feathers. 
 Eja, an egg. 
 Ejije, forest. 
 Ejtej, house. 
 Ejude, town. 
 Ema, or eama, I. 
 fc», hand, fingers. 
 E'ma-cJiuai, thumb. 
 Emali, forehead. 
 Emata, hill. 
 E'ma-tichi, nails. 
 Embami, son. 
 Embu, the face, 
 iifaa, river. 
 Enabay, wing. 
 Enidu, soul. 
 Epuna, woman, wife 
 Equani, wife. 
 Equatri, foot. 
 Equatri-ritrana, toes 
 Equita, body. 
 Eruehi, god. 
 Erujai, star. 
 Eshuneba, to love. 
 Etidada, the leg. 
 Etide, charcoal. 
 Etimu, ashes. 
 i£Wpj, neck. 
 
 Etiriani, thunder, 
 iftra driendru, the eye. 
 .Efre, tooth. 
 Etredu, the chest. 
 .Efo-o, hone. 
 ®a, belly. 
 Etubay, star. 
 Evacuepatlia, heaven. 
 Evieni, nose. 
 i?»fe', bark of a tree. 
 .Has, to do, to make. 
 iS*, to drink. 
 ir«fi, sun. 
 Jaraa, food. 
 Jeai'0, to-day. 
 Jctim, squash. 
 Judu'du, to run. 
 Ju/w, uncle. 
 Jutu, jar. 
 
 £isa, night. 
 Madada, bad. 
 
 Maeta puieha, to-morrow or yes- 
 terday. 
 
 Manu, to die. 
 
 Manuame, to kill. 
 
 Manujiji, dead. 
 
 Masumo, heart. 
 
 Malaclm, morning 
 
 Mate, no. 
 
 i/eaTi, earth, land. 
 
 Micla, thou. 
 
 Micuana, you. 
 
 Jftmt, to speak. 
 
 .fl/adM mudu, to work. 
 
 JTa», rain. 
 
 Nari&e, near. 
 
 Nasa, plantain. 
 
 -ZVcng, aunt. 
 
 Niquieisuna, never. 
 
 Nutsa, grass. 
 
 Nutsani, prairie. 
 Onibaquapuna, daughter. 
 Oniei, elder brother. 
 
 Pamapa, all. 
 
 Pea, one. 
 
 Peama, iron. 
 
21 
 
 Piba, to think. 
 Pichiea, five. 
 Pisa, arrow. 
 Pisatri, a bow. 
 Pue, to come. 
 -Pirn, four. 
 Puti, to go. 
 Pifta, girl. 
 Quara, mother. 
 Queda, beard. 
 Quema, my. 
 Quietsunu, when. 
 Quimicha, three. 
 Quisa, to say, to tell. 
 Saipiave, good. 
 Sani, musquito. 
 Satsu, to sing. 
 Se'e, a duck. 
 Sinada, hot. 
 jSm, fish. 
 Sucuta, six. 
 Ta&i, to sleep. 
 Tato, father. 
 Tia, to give. 
 Tidnia, yellow. 
 Tiri-tiri, to dance. 
 
 2on«, sister (younger). 
 Trine, day. 
 Trinetia, evening. 
 Tsada, to wish. 
 Tseru-tseru, lightning. 
 Tsi, to steal. 
 Tsia-tsia, to cry. 
 Tsuati, to ascend. 
 Tueheda, strong. 
 Tu-eda, he. 
 
 Tumu, a stone or rock. 
 £7cAj, a dog. 
 TJilzecua, brother. 
 Umarsi, tobacco. 
 Vpica, here. 
 Uqueda, far. 
 Ttfre-oere, a fly. 
 Fast, husband. 
 Ychu, that. 
 
 Ychucuana, those, they. 
 Ydebati, to laugh. 
 37(6, this. 
 Yucuada, many. 
 Zatna, sister. 
 Zau, brother. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE JIVARO LANGUAGE. 
 
 The material which I have to present on this language is entirely 
 from unpublished sources, and is the more valuable as, so far as I 
 know, not even a vocabulary of this important idiom has ever been 
 printed. 
 
 The Jivaros (Givaros, Xivaros, Hibaros, Xeberos, etc.) are a 
 numerous and powerful nation, mostly yet in a savage state, who 
 dwell about the head waters of the rivers Paute, Morona, Santiago 
 and other upper affluents of the Maranon, between 2° and 4° 30' 
 South latitude, where they occupy the eastern slope of the Cordil- 
 leras. I have described their general culture and history in my 
 work on The American Race, pp. 282-284. 
 
 They are said to present the peculiarity of unusual lightness in 
 color, and features of a decidedly Aryan type.* These traits have 
 
 * "Aujourd'hui le type caucasique y domine,' 
 V Annie Dominicaine, Paris, 1888. 
 
 says Father Joseph M. Magalli, in 
 
22 
 
 been usually explained by a supposed extensive infusion of Spanish 
 blood when their ancestors captured the city of Logrofio in 1599 
 and carried off the white women as wives. More probably they 
 share, with the Yurucares, Tacanas and other Andean nations, the 
 peculiarity of a complexion several shades lighter than that of the 
 Kechuas and Aymaras. 
 
 They have been little influenced by European visitors. A recent 
 authority states that there are scarcely a hundred and fifty Christian 
 families in the whole of the immense province of Canelos, a part of 
 which they inhabit, and the area of which is more than 8000 square 
 leagues.* 
 
 The sources which I have had at command are two MSS. in the 
 British Museum, the name of the author not given, but from some 
 remarks probably a German Jesuit, who was a missionary to the 
 tribe towards the close of the last century. 
 
 The titles are : 
 
 " Vocabulario en la Lengua Castellana, la del Ynga, y Xebera." 1 
 Small 8vo, fol. 35. The vocabulary embraces about 1300 words, 
 and is apparently complete. 
 
 " ' Gramatica de la Lengua Xebera." Same size. This MS. is 
 imperfect, leaves being lacking both at the beginning and the end. 
 
 From these MSS. I have prepared the following sketch of this 
 tongue. 
 
 Phonetics. 
 
 The sounds of the language are described as difficult to a 
 European and fluctuating in character. The indistinct and alter- 
 nating nature of certain phonetic elements appears in the Jivaro as 
 in so many American tongues. 
 
 In vowel sounds, the o is often confounded with the u, the e with 
 the i, and the e with the ce, which is like the German 0. The com- 
 plex vowel sound represented by ou, as in poung, fire, is especially 
 difficult for a foreigner. The vowels a and 0, when followed by i, 
 are often elided. 
 
 The consonants d, I, r and h are frequently alternated (that is, 
 the one sound may be used at will for the other), or an indistinct 
 sound is uttered, which may approach any one of them. The n is 
 
 * So says Father Magalli, above quoted, but the knowledge of this writer falls far short 
 of what is requisite when he adds of the Jivaros and Japaros, "Ilsparlent touslameme 
 langue, le Quichua " (!). 
 
23 
 
 frequently omitted or uttered so slightly as to be scarcely audible. 
 In the syllables quec and qued the final consonants are rarely clear, 
 and both often have the sound q' r . In the vocabulary the '6 and 
 sch should be pronounced as in German. 
 
 Nouns. 
 The relations of nouns are indicated by suffixes, e.g. : 
 
 Tana, the forest. 
 
 Tananquec, to the forest, or, in the forest. 
 
 Tananela, from the forest. 
 
 Some words indicate the genitive relation by the termination 
 qui. 
 
 Nouns may be formed from verbals by the suffix ni or pi, as 
 timinlec, I die; timipi, the dead person, the corpse; also by the 
 suffix asu, as dacotalec, I am ashamed ; dacotasu, one who is 
 ashamed. The infix cuda has the same effect. 
 
 The instrumental sense is conveyed by the termination c, which 
 is the abbreviation of quec or quecla. 
 
 Seotic, knife. 
 
 Seotic quec, with a knife. 
 
 " With," in the sense of accompaniment, is expressed by lee, as : 
 
 Sadasulec, with a married man. 
 Paparulec, with my father. 
 
 Direction from is indicated by the termination quecla; "for" 
 or " instead of" by maleg, as : 
 
 Naiquimaleg, for or in place of another. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 The personal pronouns are : 
 
 I, eoa, qua. We, cuda, qummoa, mapoa. 
 
 Thou, quenma. You, quinma'ma. 
 
 He or she, nana. They, nauba, nanalosa, nanadap'r- 
 
 losa. 
 This one, asu. Those, asudap'rlosa. 
 
 The possessives are : 
 
 Mine, quaqui, ru, ca. Our, cudaqui, mapoa. 
 
 Thine, quenmaqui, palin, ma. Tour, quenmamaqui, palenma. 
 
 His, nanaqui. Their, nanaqui. 
 
24 
 
 The second forms above given are suffixes or infixes, as : 
 
 Sudani, my husband. 
 Sudapalin, thy husband. 
 Loantacasu, my desire. 
 Loantamasu, thy desire. 
 Loantasu, his desire. 
 
 As usual in American languages, there is no relative pronoun, its 
 place being supplied by participial constructions. 
 
 Number and Gender. 
 
 Names of inanimate objects usually undergo no change in the 
 plural. For persons the plural is formed by adding the suffix losa 
 or nanlosa. In possessives the plural suffix is often na, as : 
 
 SucJia, a sin. 
 Huchaneng, his sin. 
 Huchanengna, his sins. 
 
 Saden, his wife. 
 Sadena, his wives. 
 
 In verbals and verbs the plural termination may be doc, as : 
 
 Hucliapidoc, sinnings. 
 
 Anulao, leave me. 
 Anulaodoo, leave us. 
 
 Infixes may be employed in place of these suffixes, especially in 
 nouns derived from adjectives and participles. The most usual of 
 these is a* r , as : 
 
 Nambilec, I live. 
 
 Nambiasu, he who lives, the living man. 
 
 Nambia^casu, those who live, the living. 
 
 The syllable ma, used either as infix or suffix, also conveys the 
 plural sense, as : 
 
 Palen, thine. 
 Palenma, your. 
 
 Feminines are distinguished by the suffix lu or llu, as vila, boy; 
 vilalu, girl; /us, man ; luslu, woman. Also apparently by a change 
 of another vowel to the u, as we find, sadalee, married man ; 
 sudalec, married woman. 
 
25 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 The ancient cardinal and ordinal numbers of the Jivaros were as 
 follows : 
 
 1, ala. 
 
 2, catu. 
 
 3, cala. 
 
 4, encatu. 
 
 5, alacotegladu (_ala, one ; otegla, hand ; du, termination). 
 
 6, intimutu (the thumb, of the second hand). 
 
 7, tannituna (the index finger, of the second hand). 
 
 8, tannituna cabiasu (=the finger next the index). 
 
 9, bitin otegla cabiasu. 
 
 10, catogladu (= two hands). 
 
 This cumbrous plan has long been superseded by the adoption 
 from the Kechua of the names of numbers above five, so that the 
 present numeration is : 
 
 1, 
 
 2, 
 3, 
 4, 
 
 ala. 
 catu. 
 cala. 
 encatu. 
 
 5, 
 6, 
 7, 
 8, 
 
 alacotegladu. 
 sokta. 
 ganchis. 
 pusac. 
 
 Particles. 
 
 9, 
 
 10, 
 
 100, 
 
 iskon. 
 
 chunka. 
 
 pazai. 
 
 A marked feature of this tongue, which it shares with so many 
 others on the American Continent, is the abounding use of particles 
 to modify the meaning of roots and themes. Whether these are to 
 be regarded as themselves the remnants of worn-down themes, or 
 as primitive phonetic elements, is a yet unsettled question, though 
 for myself I incline to the latter opinion. The MS. I am quoting 
 gives a long list of such significant particles, the most important of 
 which are as follows : 
 
 a or ha indicates causative action on another ; as uranlec, I eat ; auranlec, 
 
 I cause another to eat. 
 apa or pa denotes present action, as nambilec, I live ; nambiapalec, I am 
 
 now living. 
 ata or anda is a suffix denoting an interrogation. 
 cun, as an infix, denotes action about to take place. 
 ilala, as an inflx, signifies that the action is of a permanent character. 
 imbo, as an infix, conveys a negative sense, and is often employed with 
 
 the regular negative, cola. 
 
26 
 
 iiu, inserted before the termination of verbs, indicates that the action is 
 
 done for another. 
 la, infixed, signifies that the action is for this one time only. 
 misan, infixed, conveys the sense that the action is shared by all present. 
 na, as a suffix, indicates habit, as intulina, he who is habitually in a bad 
 
 temper. 
 nunda, infixed in the present tense, denotes that the action takes place at 
 
 some other time ; as notonundalec, I do it (am accustomed to do it, 
 
 but am not doing it now). 
 pa or rnba, an affirmatory suffix. 
 qui, as an infix, denotes that the action takes place where the speaker is 
 
 at the time. 
 ti is a frequent euphonic suffix, which does not alter the meaning. 
 van, as suffix or infix, denotes possession; as liuclmvanlosa, those who 
 
 have sins. 
 vanan, like itu, signifies action for another ; as muchavananamasu, thou 
 
 who asks for us. 
 ya or nara, as a prefix, intimates a wish or desire; as pake, I see ; yapalec, 
 
 I wish to see. 
 yn, as a prefix, denotes reciprocal or mutual action ; as yainmali, they 
 
 desire to take each other (in marriage). 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 The verbs have but two tenses, the present and the future. 
 Occasionally the adverb epa, now, is prefixed to define the present, 
 and nuca, pi. naupa, to denote a past time. 
 
 The formation of the future is frequently irregular, but the 
 following examples will show its usual forms. It alone appears to 
 present a dual number. 
 
 I do, 
 I take, 
 I love, 
 I speak, 
 I die, 
 I pray, 
 
 The imperative is formed by the termination qued, often abbre- 
 viated to q'r; as tecakc, I run ; tecaqued, run thou. Other termi- 
 nations of an imperative character are tan, aner, licaa and ma. 
 
 The substantive verb is not found in the language, its place being 
 supplied by terminations, especially the pronouns cu or sucu, etc., 
 as Pedrocu, I am Pedro; Pedroquenma, thou art Pedro; moim- 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 notolee, 
 
 notetic, 
 
 notoa, 
 
 notoaua. 
 
 malec, 
 
 matic, 
 
 maa, 
 
 maaua. 
 
 tandirilee, 
 
 tandenetic, 
 
 tandina, 
 
 iandenaua. 
 
 laonlec, 
 
 laontic, 
 
 laona, 
 
 laonaua. 
 
 iirninlec, 
 
 timintic, 
 
 timiantala, 
 
 timiantalua. 
 
 malealec, 
 
 maleatic, 
 
 maleaa, 
 
 maleaua. 
 
27 
 
 bosucu, I am bad. In a similar sense the verb nolec or nilec, I do 
 thus, I am thus, is often heard. 
 
 There is no trace of a true passive voice, its place being supplied 
 by the sense of the verb or by particles. 
 
 At the conclusion of his MS. the author inserts two versions of the 
 Lord's Prayer — the one " in the Xebera language, as it was spoken 
 in the earliest times of the mission," the translation being that of 
 Father Lucas de la Cueva (about 1655) ; the second in the language 
 of the period of the writer, which I suppose to have been about one 
 hundred and fifty years later. 
 
 Of the second or later of these I have ventured an interlinear 
 translation, while the former I insert without a rendering. 
 
 Lord's Prayer in Jivaro — Later Version. 
 
 Papa mapoa, mosninariloquec napala; linlinpalin nomisansu muchai ; 
 Father our, heaven in art thou ; name thy holy become; 
 
 quenmaquinlosamasu cudaquec unadiai ; loantamasu nomisansu notoi 
 thy kingdom us to come; desire thy holy be 
 
 maponsu, mosninariloquec, nanaposu pilaasu lupaquec unda; uglilosa 
 as heaven in, earth in ; daily 
 
 tandamapoa epala ugli encaodec ; eudaqui huchabidoc anuladoc, maponsu 
 bread our now to-day give; our sins forgive, as 
 
 quenmoa unda alapila dape'dlosaqui huchanengna anulalidoc; anerata 
 
 we others their sins forgive ; 
 
 quenmoa dentatutan, quenmoa cola Dios ayuaimbocaquea ; nanamengtu 
 
 our our us 
 
 moimbosubuegla aliegodac. 
 evil from deliver. 
 
 Lord's Prayer in Jivaro — Earlier Version. 
 
 Papa mapoa, mosenquec napalac linlinpalin ruchapalin ; quenma quilo- 
 samasu cudaquec undiai. Loantacasu notetiuma mapolina mosninariloquec 
 inosupila asuminceriloquec unda. Uglilosa tanda epala ugli encaodoc 
 nulaodoc cutaqui hudabidoc ; dengquina cuda anulalidoc aubaqui hucha 
 nengna; anerata apolata muchaquecamengdana ; moimbocasuquegla atiego. 
 
 English-Jivaro Vocabulary. 
 
 Above, mosenquec. Ask, to, mucha. 
 
 Ankle, tula. Bad, moaimbosu, aperosu. 
 
 Arm, da'mpa. Beard, amucuiola noteri, 
 
 Arrow, na'mu. Belly, du', metpi, oquiulee. 
 
 Ashamed, to be, dacotalec. Below, mlenquec. 
 
28 
 
 Bird, ilans'r, tiperllu. 
 Black, catli, cadladasu. 
 Blind, dapina. 
 Blood, uogladec. 
 Blue, carcaso. 
 Body, loqueglo, timipi. 
 Bone, lansi. 
 Born, to be, oelilec. 
 Boy, vila. 
 Branch, taumee. 
 Brave, nan'tapi. 
 Breast, mudin, titoi. 
 Brother, yalli, yuyu'uc. 
 Burn, to, ugedalec. 
 Buy, to, ucolatolee. 
 Calabash, pabi. 
 Call, to, pbelolee. 
 Child, babi. 
 Clothing, capi. 
 Come, to, undialec. 
 Cold no'qued, noq'r. 
 Cotton, piterlu, boungpalo. 
 Cover, to, patantulee. 
 Dance, to, danzalec. 
 Dawn, to, ugliti. 
 Day, 'ugh. 
 Dead, timiansu. 
 Dear, llada, nunilu. 
 Death, tbminacasb. 
 Deer, boro'. 
 Dog, nini. 
 
 Drink, a, liuasu, ulec. 
 Drink, to, upailacu. 
 Drum, tundo. 
 Dwell, to, nambilec. 
 Ears, bitec. 
 Earth, land, lu'p 
 Eat, to, calec, uranlec. 
 Egg, cado. 
 Elbow, quog'da. 
 Enemy, quegma. 
 Enter, to, da'lee. 
 Eyes, llada, da'pila. 
 Face, llada (see Eyes). 
 Feather, ambo'lu. 
 Female, cuapr". 
 
 Field, tiq'n naua. 
 
 Finish, to, tavantulec. 
 
 Fire, poung. 
 
 Fish, samer, lapisamed. 
 
 Flesh, meat, canan. 
 
 Flint, mosed. 
 
 Flute, pi'learia. 
 
 Flower, a, dancu. 
 
 Food, ca'lo'. 
 
 Foot, la'ndee. 
 
 Forehead, tequeda'. 
 
 Forest, tana. 
 
 Girl, vilalu. 
 
 Give, to, n'galec. 
 
 Go, to, palec. 
 
 Gold, uri. 
 
 Good, mba, rnoali. 
 
 Grandfather, papaiangu. 
 
 Grandmother, ami'. 
 
 Great, euni, chi, halupi. 
 
 Green, canin'rtia. 
 
 Grow, to, zuzulec. 
 
 Hair, Mntic. 
 
 Hammock, ta'la. 
 
 Hand, btegla. 
 
 Have, to, noli, napali. 
 
 Head, uma. 
 
 Hear, to, la'oclec. 
 
 Heart, cangan. 
 
 Heaven, mosninanlo. 
 
 Herb, puma, daubad. 
 
 High, chi. 
 
 Hill, mutopi. 
 
 House, pi'dec. 
 
 How ? mapoli. 
 
 Hot, ucasu. 
 
 If, aa, n'tati. 
 
 In, pa'lec. 
 
 Indian, muda, cuapr". 
 
 Iron, huana'. 
 
 Kill, to, atiminlec. 
 
 Knee, toto'pi. 
 
 Knife, seotie. 
 
 Know, to (things), nintitulec. 
 
 (persons), loatulec. 
 Lake, sangna. 
 
29 
 
 Last, na'pi. 
 
 Learn, to, nintitanalec. 
 
 Life, nambiacasu. 
 
 Light, a, ugli, ocli. 
 
 Light a fire, to, atengtulec. 
 
 Lightning, yilmerlec. 
 
 Lip, u'tec. 
 
 Live, to, nambilee. 
 
 Lizard, tuda, lili. 
 
 Love, to, tan'denlec. 
 
 Maize, totm, ibtrlla. 
 
 Man (vir), quenmopinen. 
 
 Married man, sadalee. 
 
 Married woman, sudalec. 
 
 Medicine man, wizard, pichotasu 
 
 muda. 
 Monkey, duda, isolo, lolo. 
 Moon, ducat. 
 More, hapia. 
 Most, halupi, mointi. 
 Mother, auauc. 
 Mouth, lala'. 
 Much, eupi, bapo. 
 Name, linlin or Mntin. 
 Navel, mumu'la. 
 Near, pa' via. 
 New, na'lu. 
 Night, dogpili. 
 No, cola. 
 Nose, ne'tie. 
 Now, epala. 
 Old, tas'serpi. 
 Old (man), tas'pitosu. 
 Old (woman), tas'serllu. 
 Open, to, hoqusrlec. 
 People, vapomuda. 
 Pray, to, malealee. 
 Raft, sudu*. 
 Rain, to, ola n , olanli. 
 Rainbow, podo'na. 
 Red, pip'rasu, togua. 
 Road, degaun. 
 Root, btecnin. 
 Run, to, tecalec. 
 Salt, lamu'la. 
 Say, to, tulec. 
 See, to, lolec, loapalec. 
 
 Semen, miladoc. 
 
 Send, to, piuglec. 
 
 Shade, shadow, dacJiu'na. 
 
 Sierra, obituna. 
 
 Sin, a, liucha. 
 
 Sing, to, peclalec. 
 
 Silver, culiqued. 
 
 Sister, chayauc, cadecuc. 
 
 Sleep, bitilee. 
 
 Small, hamecha. 
 
 Smoke, cadlo or callo. 
 
 Snake, daua. 
 
 Soul, i)ada, limipi. 
 
 Spaniard, mdan. 
 
 Speak, to, laonlec, lalalec 
 
 Star, tandola. 
 
 Slick, na'la, unguna. 
 
 Strong, nantapi. 
 
 Sun, quo' qui. 
 
 Sweet, yali. 
 
 Take, to, malec. 
 
 Tame, daiali. 
 
 Tapir, pahuala. 
 
 Teach, to, anintilulec. 
 
 Throat, unqued. 
 
 Thumb, iniimutu. 
 
 To, quec. 
 
 Tobacco, pinterlo, uhualec. 
 
 Tongue, ninegla. 
 
 Tooth, la'tec. 
 
 Totem, clan, patun. 
 
 Town, ninan'lo. 
 
 Tree, nala, squig'umti. 
 
 Turtle, mado. 
 
 Uncle, apreha. 
 
 Valley, sa'ca". 
 
 Virgin, inilad. 
 
 Wall, lupa, patenpi. 
 
 Water, doc. 
 
 White, dadapua'su. 
 
 Who, deng. 
 
 Wind, tanlo'a. 
 
 Within, que'negla. 
 
 Without, a'dipi. 
 
 Woman, cuapr", sada 
 
 Wood, deboe. 
 
 Yellow, chapica8o. 
 
30 
 
 III. 
 THE CHOLONA LANGUAGE. 
 
 Nothing has heretofore been printed of the language of the 
 Cholonas. This tribe dwells on the left bank of the upper Hual- 
 laga river, between 8°-9° 30' South latitude. They were visited 
 by Edward Poeppig in 1829, when he found them to number about 
 1000 souls, scattered in missions on the banks of the Monzon, 
 Uchiza, Tocache and Pachiza, small streams flowing into the 
 Huallaga. At the close of the last century they occupied a mission 
 with the Hibitos or Xibitos, and together numbered about 5000.* 
 Pceppig asserts that the Hibitos speak a wholly different tongue, 
 but this is denied by my MS. authorities, who acknowledge only a 
 dialectic difference ; but the German traveler is correct in his state- 
 ment that some of the wild Chunchos of the Sierra belong to the 
 same stock. 
 
 My source of information in regard to this language is a MS. in 
 the British Museum, entitled Arte de la Lengua Cholona. Its 
 author was Fr. Pedro de la Mata, who wrote it inTruxillo in 1748, 
 from which original the MS. in question is a copy made by Fr. 
 Geronimo Clota, in San Buenaventura del Valle, in 1772. It is a 
 small octavo of 132 folios and is complete. , Fathers Jose de Araujo 
 and Francisco Gutierrez wrote also Artes of these dialects, but I 
 have not discovered their manuscripts. There is also a MS. Arte de 
 la Lengua Cholona, apparently anonymous, mentioned by Ludewig, 
 Lit. of Amer. Aborig. Langs., p. 162. 
 
 The Cholona is a language extending over a small area, but it 
 seems connected with no other, forming an independent stock. 
 The only analogies worth mentioning which I have noted point 
 towards dialects of the Arawak stock. For instance : , 
 
 Sun, muxac. This seems = kamu saaehe, "the shining sun," of the 
 
 Moxos. 
 Moon, pel; allowing for r=l, this is close to the pueri of the Jucuna 
 
 dialect. 
 Eye, nache; reminds one of the nuchii of the Canamirim ; the nacuque of 
 
 theUirina, etc. 
 Tooth, ale; again allowing r = l, this is the ari of the Goajiro. 
 Black, zalucli or ehaluch ; ghulekm Araicu. 
 White, cheeh ; glialik in Araicu. 
 
 * See my American Race, p. 288. 
 
31 
 
 Whether these analogies are sufficient to classify it with the Nu- 
 Arawak group of Von den Steinen is doubtful. The differences in 
 the personal pronouns especially seem to isolate it from the dialects 
 of that stein. 
 
 Phonetics. 
 
 The letters b, d, rand f are lacking in the Cholona alphabet. 
 The soft eh (as in " choose ") alternates with the soft th ; the latter 
 is represented in the Spanish alphabet by z, so that in the Arte, z 
 and eh are interchangeable. Initial g is hard before all vowels. 
 The vowel represented by o is slated to be between o and u, and is 
 probably the neutral vowel (as u in "but "). The initial i seems 
 to represent a slight aspiration, as iayuor hayu, man. The elements 
 n and ng appear to be nasals. 
 
 The accent always falls on the last syllable, except in some verbal 
 forms, where it is found on the penult. Pceppig says that the 
 sound of the spoken tongue is disagreeable to the European ear. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 The relations of the nominal theme are indicated by suffixes, 
 which may be arranged to appear like a declension, though not 
 really such. 
 
 Nom. — iayu or iayuiup, the man. 
 
 Gen. — iayuilou, of the man. 
 
 Dat. — iayuJie or iayuge, to the man. 
 
 Ace. — iayute or iayutu, the man. 
 
 Voc. — iayuey or iayupey (fern.), O man. 
 
 Abl.— iayute or tep, pat, nio, with or by the man. 
 
 The plural is formed by the insertion of the particle lol, before 
 the case ending. 
 
 nunlol, the men. 
 nunlolloula, of the men. 
 nunlolge, to the men. 
 nunlolte, the men (accus.). 
 
 o, with or by the men. 
 
 The case -endings are used only when required to render the 
 meaning clear, as Juantup Pedro ilami, Juan killed Pedro, where 
 the accusative termination is omitted, that of the nominative suffi- 
 ciently indicating the relation. Certain particles also give a plural 
 
32 
 
 sense, in which case lol is omitted. These are mec, all ; pullem, 
 along with; comec, incomec and pemec, signifying quantity, and 
 manmin, as many as. Whenever the plural is indicated by the 
 form of the attached pronoun, other plural signs may be omitted. 
 
 There is no grammatical distinction of gender in nouns, differ- 
 ence of sex being indicated by the terms nun, male ; ila, female, 
 which may be either prefixed or suffixed, as : 
 
 Man, nuniayu or iayunun. 
 Woman, ilaiayu or iayuila. 
 Boy, nunpullup. 
 Girl, ilapullup. 
 
 A neuter or epicene gender can be denoted by a suffixed 3, as 
 nuno, a person. 
 
 Various suffixes are added to nouns to modify their meaning, as : 
 
 nie, signifying excess or abundance. 
 zu, signifying absence or negation. 
 
 camayoc, indicating knowledge of a subject or practice in it. This word 
 is borrowed from the Kechua. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 The pronouns possess the prominence in this tongue which they 
 so frequently show in American languages. All parts of speech can 
 be grammatically inflected by their agency, and they generally 
 suffice to indicate the plural without the insertion of the plural 
 sign, lol. 
 
 The primitive pronouns are : 
 
 I, oc. We, quija. 
 
 Thou, mi. You, minaja. 
 
 He, sa. They, ehija. 
 
 The separable or independent possessives are formed by adding 
 to the primitives the particle alou, with slight euphonic changes: 
 
 Mine, oealou. Ours, quihaguilou. 
 
 Thine, mimilou. Yours, mimilouha. 
 
 His, satiou. Theirs, ehihaloula. 
 
 The inseparable possessives are those prefixed to form the con- 
 jugation of verbs, and attached to certain classes of nouns. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 My, a-. Our, qui-. 
 
 Thy, m- (masc), p- (fem.). Your, mi- (both genders). 
 
 His (none). Their, ehi-. 
 
33 
 
 In the transitions of verbs the pronouns are abbreviated and cer- 
 tain other forms used, as : 
 
 
 SlNGULAH. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1st. 
 
 a. 
 
 1st. 
 
 g, <■■ 
 
 2d. 
 
 m (inasc), p (fem.). 
 
 2d. 
 
 m. 
 
 3d. 
 
 y, c, v. 
 
 3d. 
 
 pa, po, mo, la. 
 
 In adjective nouns the former class are used with euphonic 
 changes, as : 
 
 pallou, good, a good thirig. 
 amallou, my good or advantage. 
 mimallou, thy good or advantage. 
 quimallou, our good or advantage. 
 mimallouJia, your good or advantage. 
 cMmallou, their good or advantage. 
 amallouven, it is to my advantage. 
 
 The possessives, which form inseparable prefixes to nouns, are 
 united by means of various ellipses and euphonic changes. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 Yuca, el. 
 
 My yuca, anel. ■ Our yuca, quenel. 
 
 Thy yuca, menel. Your yuca, menelha. 
 
 His yuca, nel. Their yuca, end. 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 The numerals are employed with the addition of particles indi- 
 cating the nature of the objects counted. The most usual of these 
 particles appears to be zel or chil. The absolute forms, without 
 these suffixes, are as follows : 
 
 1, 
 
 an. 
 
 2, 
 
 ip. 
 
 3, 
 
 is. 
 
 4, 
 
 minip. 
 
 5, 
 
 quioe. 
 
 6, 
 
 ipzoc. 
 
 7, 
 
 quilip. 
 
 8, 
 
 pae. 
 
 9, 
 
 oeon. 
 
 10, 
 
 alec. 
 
 20, 
 
 ip-lrc. 
 
 30, 
 
 ix-lee. 
 
 40, 
 
 miuip-lee. 
 
 50, 
 
 quioc-lec. 
 
 60, 
 
 ipzoe-lec. 
 
 70, 
 
 quili-lec. 
 
 80, 
 
 pac-lec. 
 
 90, 
 
 ocon-lee. 
 
 00, 
 
 apichac. 
 
 These offer little resemblance to any other tongue, though the 
 words for 8 and g remind one of the Chinchasuyu/«£ and iskon. 
 3 
 
34 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 All active verbs are conjugated by transitions, formed by prefix- 
 ing the pronoun of the person acting, and inserting immediately 
 after it the pronoun of the person or thing acted upon. Example : 
 
 amcollan, I thee love. 
 
 mayian, thou me watchest. 
 
 payian, he me watches. 
 
 asae apuahihan, my food me they give. 
 
 misac mapuchilan, thy food thee they give (masc). 
 
 pisaa papuchilan, thy food thee they give (fem. ). 
 
 sac hapucMlan, his food him they give. 
 
 ysac apahapuchan, their food them I give. 
 
 These are forms of the verb apuchan, to put before one, a 
 derivative from amchan, to put, to place. Other examples : 
 
 amcolecte amenan, I thee wish to love. 
 macolecte mimenan, thou me wishest to love. 
 Diosqui rigolecte quimenart, we wish to love God. 
 Diostup iceoleete ymenan, God wishes to love us. 
 
 The variation in the third person plural in the transitions appears 
 to depend on the following conditions : 
 
 mo is used when the transition is from the third person singular 
 to the third person plural, as in the expression, " he loves them." 
 
 po where the transition is from any of the other persons, singular 
 or plural, to the third plural, as : 
 
 apoaolla/n, I love them. 
 mipocollan, thou lovest them. 
 quipocollan, we love them. 
 mipocollan, you love them. 
 cJiipoeollan, they love them. 
 
 pa where the verb implies another object besides the direct 
 one, as : 
 
 ychac apahapuchan,, I give them their food. 
 
 la is employed when the transition is from the third person 
 plural to some other person than this, as : 
 
 micollilatan, they love thee. 
 
 chi is confined to transitions from third plurals to third plurals, 
 
 as : 
 
 chipocollan, they love them. 
 
35 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 The construction of phrases will be seen from the following 
 examples : 
 
 Liman ne yayu yzi/p pusimpat anantumild chectan. 
 
 Sierra in men their houses straw with covered are. 
 "The houses of the Indians in the Sierra are covered with straw." 
 
 The noun zip and the verb anantuman have their pronouns in 
 the third person plural, so the plural particle lol is omitted. 
 
 The word chectan is an abbreviation of chiactan, the third person 
 plural of the verb actan, I stand, I am in a place. This verb is 
 much used to signify a usual action with reference to a noun, as 
 cot actan, I bring water ; zip actan, I fix or arrange my house ; 
 ayllan actan, I make the bed, etc. 
 
 Najimac yayu izipte izoz paehaeotan. 
 
 Each Indian his house in his idols keeps. 
 
 "Every Indian keeps idols in his house." 
 
 English-Cholona Vocabulary. 
 
 Armadillo, xax, tacla. 
 Bad, evil, ixivaj. 
 Black, zaluch or dial. 
 Boy, nun-pullup. 
 Die, to, colhae. 
 Drink, a, axitlam. 
 Drink, to, axean. 
 Each, every, nanmac. 
 Eyes, nache. 
 Father, pa. 
 
 Flesh, body, ayclia (K.). 
 Food, apuchan. 
 Fox, sup. 
 Girl, ila-pullup. 
 Give, to, allan. 
 Good, pallou. 
 Green, llin. 
 Hair, pe. 
 Hands, nen. 
 Head, tech. 
 House, zip, chip. 
 Husband, muluch. 
 Idols, izoz, ichnch. 
 Lance or dart, ulluc. 
 
 Louse, culla. 
 Love, to, agollan. 
 
 my love, agole. 
 
 my lover, acoleuch. 
 Maize, each. 
 Man (homo), iayu or hayu. 
 
 (male), nun. 
 
 (married), muluch. 
 Moon, pel. 
 Mother, pan. 
 Mountain, sierra, liman. 
 Nose, quexum. 
 Not, nothing, ma. 
 Place, to, amthan. 
 Bed, llaca. 
 River, xocot. 
 Road, path, pana. 
 Rule, to, capac (Kechua). 
 Sick, cama. 
 Silver, checho. 
 Son, pul. 
 
 Soul, zall or chall. 
 Spittle, olle. 
 Stars, henna. 
 
36 
 
 Straw, dry grass, pusim. Will, wish, men. 
 Sun, muxac. my will, amen. 
 
 Teeth, my, ale. I wish, amtncm. 
 
 Tongue, monzey. Woman (female), ila. 
 
 Town, putam. 
 
 Water, cot. (married), zala. 
 
 White, check. Word, Ml. 
 
 Wife, zala. Yuca, el. 
 
 IV. 
 THE LECA LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Lecos of the river Beni have been erroneously included in 
 the Tacana stock by D'Orbigny and later writers (including myself). 
 The only material I have anywhere found of their language is a short 
 vocabulary given in Weddell's Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie 
 (Paris, 1859); but this is sufficient not only to take them entirely 
 out of the Tacana group, but probably to place them in an inde- 
 pendent position by themselves. As Weddell's book is not to be 
 found in many libraries, I shall translate and rearrange his list of 
 words and precede it with some remarks on the tribe and its possible 
 affinities. 
 
 The Lecos are stated by Weddel] to have resided originally on 
 the Rio Tipuani and its affluent, the Rio Isuaya, whence they 
 removed to the banks of the Rio Mapiri. 
 
 On Arrowsmith's map (1809) the " Rio de Lecos " is located as 
 a branch of the Rio Beni, between 13° and 14 South latitude, in a 
 region assigned to the " Samachuanes," though I suspect these are 
 the " Muchanes " of other writers, and who, according to Weddell, 
 are Mozotenos. 
 
 The mission of Aten, in the valley of the Rio Beni, is distinctly 
 stated by an official authority in the last century to have been peo- 
 pled by the Lecos,* so we must include in them the " Atenianos," 
 whom D'Orbigny classed with the Tacanas. 
 
 A somewhat extended comparison has not furnished me with 
 positive grounds for including the Lecos in any known linguistic 
 group. Most of the analogies I have noted are with the Carib 
 stock, and some of them are striking, but scarcely decisive. 
 
 * " Eli Aten se hablan la. Leca por ser este Pueblo de Indios Leeos." Description de las 
 Misiones del Alto Peru, 1771. 
 
37 
 
 Leca Analogies. 
 
 Sun, he'no ; compare bue'no (Opone, Carib stock). 
 
 Mood, kurea; coinp. kede, siregu (Carib dialects). 
 
 Water, dua; perhaps from Carib tuna. 
 
 Arrow, uela; not far from Carib boul&'oua. 
 
 Arm, bepel; close to Carib yapoule, japali. 
 
 Tooth, bikiri ; nearly the same as the kxier and yeri of Caribs. 
 
 Heaven, kaut ; almost identical with the Bakairi kxau and Carijoua 
 
 cahoue, both Carib dialects. 
 Legs, boo'te ; comp. Carib iebeti, beti. 
 
 I think it is safe to infer from the above comparisons that there 
 is an infusion of Carib elements in the tongue ; but the material is 
 too scanty to assign its true value. 
 
 According to a count made by the missionaries in 1832 there 
 were about two thousand natives at the mission of Aten, all of 
 whom we may assume were Lecos. Dr. Edwin R. Heath, who 
 spent two years in the valley of the Beni about 1880, does not men- 
 tion them, at least under this name, and gives no specimen of their 
 language. 
 
 In personal appearance the Lecos are described (by Weddell) as 
 of pleasant expression, with straight foreheads and horizontal eyes, 
 the mouth of medium size. In temperament they were frank and 
 cheerful. What is unusual, they seemed totally devoid of apprecia- 
 tion or care for music, and had no dances or songs of any kind. 
 
 The alphabet of the vocabulary is the Spanish ; il is the French 
 u; j as tscha in German. 
 
 English-Leco Vocabulary. 
 
 Arm, bepel. Flower, tutha. 
 
 Arrow, uela. Forest, kanda. 
 
 Belly, baualwbo. Hand, bmu. 
 
 Bird, katchu. Head, barua. 
 
 Blood, bile. Senven^kaut. 
 
 Body, bonotchco'10. House, uan. 
 
 Bow, tchava'ta. Leaf, uoia. 
 
 Child, yatclipaik. Legs, boo'te. 
 
 Earth, lal. Man, yubasa. 
 
 Eyes, bisiri. Milk, buchuluro. 
 
 Feet, besel. Moon, kurea. 
 
 Fingers, biui. Mountain, uotJia. 
 
 Fire, moa. Mouth, bokorua. 
 
38 
 
 Nails (finger), biuitd. 
 
 
 Teeth, bikiri. 
 
 No, nai. 
 
 
 Tree, Jas'to. 
 
 Nose, bitchinua. 
 
 
 Village, ue's. 
 
 Bain, cssa. 
 
 
 Water, dua. 
 
 River, dua (water). 
 
 
 "Woman, tchusuaya. 
 
 Salt, tij. 
 
 
 Wood, hamon. 
 
 Skin, busutehe. 
 
 
 Yes, o-o. 
 
 Sun, he'no'. 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 UMERALS. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ber. 
 
 
 2, 
 
 toi. 
 
 
 3, 
 
 tchai. 
 
 
 4, 
 
 didai 
 
 
 5, 
 
 ber-tcha. 
 
 
 10, 
 
 ber-bveque. 
 
 V. 
 
 A TEXT IN THE MANAO DIALECT. 
 
 Two hundred years ago the Manaos occupied an extensive tract 
 near where the Rio Negro empties its dark waters into the Amazon. 
 They were, indeed, the most numerous accolents of the Black river 
 on its lower course, and were estimated at something like ten 
 thousand souls. Their large and shapely canoes and plastered 
 conical dwelling houses bespoke a certain advancement in the arts, 
 and their repute as daring warriors extended far among the Tupi 
 tribes, who adjoined them on the Amazon. 
 
 They were not affined in blood or language to the Tupis, but 
 belonged to what is now known as the Arawak or Nu-Arawak (or, as 
 M. Adam prefers to call it, the Maipure) linguistic stock. In the 
 early history of the country, their name is connected with the 
 legend of El Dorado and the land of the Amazons. Later they 
 willingly received religious instruction from the Carmelite mission- 
 aries, who gathered them in settlements. But the kidnapping 
 Portuguese carried off many of the converts into slavery, and the 
 remainder fled to the trackless forests, so that half a century ago 
 scarcely a pure-blood representative of the tribe could be seen on 
 the river. 
 
 Of their language there are but two specimens known to me ; the 
 one, a vocabulary of about 150 words, collected by the traveler, 
 
39 
 
 Dr. Spix, and published in Martius' Glossaria Linguarum Brasil- 
 iensium ; the other, a short catechetical work, which forms the 
 material of this study, and which has never been printed. The 
 original is in the British Museum, Manuscript Department, and 
 bears the title : 
 
 " Doutrina christa' a pella Lingoa dos Manaos." 
 
 It has long been known to bibliographers, and is referred to by 
 both Ludewig and Von Martius, but no one has copied or pub- 
 lished any portion of it. Its authorship and precise date are un- 
 known, but it has the appearance of a draft or copy of an older 
 work, which it would seem was composed in 1740. The orthog- 
 raphy of the Portuguese words is somewhat irregular, and there 
 also seems to be an uncertainty in the spelling of various native 
 terms. The extract which I give is about one-half of the whole, 
 and is sufficient to show the character of the tongue. 
 
 A comparison of the words of the text with those collected by 
 Spix about a century later shows little change in the dialect, 
 especially when the difference in the method of transcription is 
 allowed for, the writer of the text having employed the phonetics 
 of the Portuguese tongue, while Spix followed that of the German. 
 To illustrate this, and also to facilitate the examination of the text, 
 I append a list of some of the words in the latter, the majority of 
 which are also found in Spix's vocabulary ; the latter I have placed 
 in brackets and appended an S. 
 
 English-Manao Words. 
 
 All, sabaque. Man, herenary (yrin&ly, S.). 
 
 Always, lyxaoari. No, not, mehe (me'e, S.). 
 
 Be, to, sahi. Our, us, dene (Jmene, S.). 
 
 Believe, to, yaniqui. See, to, oabata (pipata, S.). 
 
 Belly, tuba (tula, S. ). Sins, barayda. 
 
 Body, eaeadyr (Jcaty, S.) Son, bauri, dayri (tany, S.). 
 
 Day, samaco (tzamako, S.). Stone, kya (ghua, S.). 
 
 Die, to, mitica (uamatika, S.). Teach, to, cayna. 
 
 Earth, eludeo (ete'e, S.). Three, piaduqui (pialuky, S.). 
 
 Father, yracary (apakony, S.). True, caura. 
 
 God, lupa (mauary, S.). Virgin, sabyra. 
 
 Heaven, quinaueudeo (gMnauigota, Where 1 padeura. 
 
 S.). Why ? capeda. 
 Hell, caman latyma. 
 
 Most of these words are derived from roots extending through 
 
40 
 
 many Arawak dialects, and are the property of that stem. Others, 
 however, are borrowed from the Tupi. This is especially so with 
 the word for God, Tupa, wliich is still in use in the Brazilian 
 "LingoaGeral." 
 
 The personal pronouns as given by Spix are : 
 
 I, no. 
 Thou, pi. 
 He, erouty. 
 
 We, Imene. 
 You, yna. 
 They, nela. 
 
 The ppssessives, however, which are also employed in the con- 
 jugations as inseparable prefixes, differ from these. Thus we have: 
 
 oe-mequer, our Lord. 
 oe-naca, like us. 
 oa-yaniqui, we believe. 
 oa-batar, we shall see. 
 p'yaniqiii, thou believest. 
 ba batare, they shall see (him). 
 
 Doutrina christa'a pella Lingoa DOS Manaos. 
 
 P. De q'. sorte se ha de haver o 
 homem neste mundo querendosse 
 livarsse do inferno, e querendo hir 
 ao ceo ? 
 
 B. Crendo em Deos, fasendosse 
 baptizar, i goardando sua ley. 
 
 P. Ha Deos ? 
 
 E. Ha. 
 
 P. Oredes em Deos? 
 
 R. Cremos. 
 
 P. Quern he Deos? 
 
 It. O que fez todas as couzas 
 
 P. Com que fez todas essas couzas? 
 
 R. Com hua' sua so'palavra. 
 P. Deos tern corpo como nos? 
 R. Nam tem. 
 
 P. Deos teue antiguameute 
 principio? 
 R. Nam teve principio. 
 P. Sempre soy ? 
 R. Sempre. 
 
 P. Ha de ser para sempre? 
 R. Para sempre. 
 
 P. Ca peda lyauaqui samaco 
 anaqui Qamanna tyma gotia, oau- 
 By-y&pa que rey lyua kynaucuda 
 diehe lyoaya edaca u§na? 
 
 R. Tupa yaquer cayta ca lygara 
 anaquyra. 
 
 P. Auflyna ca Tupa ? 
 
 R. Auuynaca. 
 
 P. Pyanyqui Tupa? 
 
 R. Oayaniqui. 
 
 P. Capaqay Tupa? 
 
 R. Sabaqui bayqui tumaquer. 
 
 P. Capa" iiyna pura' Tupa tuma 
 bayqu§ sabayque ? 
 
 R. LygSra iiynapura. 
 
 P. Cacadyra ognaca Tupa ? 
 
 R. Mehe cacaliury. 
 
 P. Oatuquir ha quer rira bauy- 
 napu Tupa? 
 
 H. Meh§ catuquinhaqueri. 
 
 P. Lyxaoari sahir? 
 
 R. Lyxaoari. 
 
 P. BayrichipS. sahi lideuri? 
 
 R. Bayriche. 
 
4L 
 
 P. Aonde esta Deos? 
 
 R. No ceo, e na terra era todo o 
 lugar aonde chamao por elle. 
 
 P. Pode o homem ver aqui a 
 Deos? 
 
 R. Nam pode ver. 
 
 P. Porque? 
 
 R. Porque nam tern corpo. 
 
 P. Aonde o hemos de ver? 
 
 R. No ceo hindo nos la. 
 
 P. Bos que sorem ao Inferno nam 
 o hao de ver ? 
 R. Nam o hao de ver. 
 P. Por que rezam? 
 R. Em castigo desus culpas. 
 
 P. Padeura sahi Deos ? 
 
 R. Quinanoudeo, etedeo sabaqui 
 panoquer deo, padeno oacayta. 
 
 P. Sabyra sahi oabata caydeo 
 Tupa ? 
 
 R. Mehe sahi oabatar. 
 
 P. Caypeda? 
 
 R. Melie cacasyr. 
 
 P. Padire oabatar? 
 
 R. Guinacuda dixe guareda oaba- 
 tar. 
 
 P. Bamane camanhatyma diclie 
 gareda babatare ? 
 
 R. Mehe babatare. 
 
 P. Capeda? 
 
 R. Mehe bayaligara gata oeney- 
 ninique. 
 
 Preguntas sobre a SS. Trinidade. 
 
 P. Quantos Deoses ha? 
 
 R. Hu so Deois verdadero. 
 
 P. Sendo pessoas quantas sao? 
 
 R. Sam tres. 
 
 P. Como se chamao essas tres pes- 
 soas? 
 
 R. Deos Padre, Deos filho, Deos 
 Bspirito Santo. 
 
 P. Aelle se cliama santissima 
 Trinidade ? 
 
 R. Aelle. 
 
 P. Porque rezam ? 
 
 R. Porque em hu so Deos estam 
 tres pessoas. 
 
 P. Esse Deos Padre, Deos Filho, 
 Deos Espirito Santo he o mesmo 
 Deos? 
 
 R. He hu so e o mesmo Deos. 
 
 P. Em quanto pessoas he a mes- 
 ma pessoas ? 
 
 R. Nao : em quanto pessoas Deos 
 Padre he differente, Deos filho he 
 differenf.e, Deos Espiritu santo he 
 differente. 
 
 P. Qual dessos pessoas antigam' e 
 
 P. Paquiby Tupa ? 
 
 U. Baurayma Tupa caiira. 
 
 P. Paquiby lideno paquiby. 
 
 II. Pyaduqui baduqui. 
 
 P. Capacapa mara qui-yo piadu- 
 qui baduqui-y6 ? 
 
 R. Tupan yracary, Tupan bauri, 
 Tupan Espirito Santo. 
 
 P. Lysciniqui oena ss. Trind" ma- 
 cuy? 
 
 R. Lyxiniqui. 
 
 P. Capeda? 
 
 R. Baurayma Tupa lyanaqui pya- 
 duqui baduqui liuri. 
 
 P. Baurayma lioari Tupa ]y Tupa 
 yracary Tupa bayri Tupa Espirito 
 Santo. 
 
 R. Baurayma Tupa oary, 
 
 P. Bauraymara sahi lideobaura? 
 
 R. Maycadi ; bauraymarara Tupa 
 yracari, ayunaca Tupa bauri aiiyna- 
 ca, Tupa Espirito Santo auynaca. 
 
 P. Padeuora lypa bauynapu lypa 
 
42 
 
 soy pr°, Deos Padre soy pr° ou Deos 
 filho ou Deos Espirito Santo? 
 
 E. Nao soy pr nen hum todos 
 sempre foram. 
 
 P. Qual dessos pessoas antiguam te 
 foy a q. se fez homem como nos ? 
 
 R. O mesmo filho de Deos. 
 
 P. Como se chama o filho de Deos 
 depoy de feyto homem? 
 
 R. Nosso senhor Jesus Christo. 
 
 P. Por isso he, que os Christaos 
 tomaram este nome ? 
 
 R. Por isso. 
 
 P. Que quer dizer Christaos? 
 
 R. O que he bapti zado, entre em 
 Jesus Christo filho Deos. 
 
 P. Deyxou antigamente N. S. 
 Jesus Christo outra pessoa em suo 
 lugar antez de hir ao ceo? 
 
 R. Deyxou s. Pedro e todos os 
 Papr.s seos successores p» gover- 
 narem a santa madre Igresia Catolica 
 de Roma assim chamada. 
 
 P. Que couza he Santa Madre 
 Igresja Catolica de Roma ? 
 
 R. Sao todos os que sao baptiza- 
 dos, e estao pela palavra do summo 
 Pontifex Papa de Roma, e agvardao 
 e creem em Jesus Christo. 
 
 P. Quern e nosso senhor Jesus 
 Christo ? 
 
 R. Verdadeyro Deos, e verdadey- 
 ro homem, como nos. 
 
 P. Como he verdadeyro Deos ? 
 
 R. Sendo verdadeyro filho de seo 
 Padre. 
 
 P. Como e verdadeyro homem. 
 
 R. Sendo verdadeyro filho da 
 sempre virgem Maria. 
 
 P. Deos filho tern corpo como 
 nos? 
 
 R. Tern corpo. 
 
 P. Quern fez antigamente o corpo 
 de nosso Senhor Jesus Christo? 
 
 Tupa yracary lypa oacaru Tupa 
 bauri oacaru Tupa Espirito Santo ? 
 R. Mehe lyaquyra quariry. 
 
 P. Capa bauynape qui-yo piadu- 
 quy baduqui di lixir ; herenari cau- 
 ray eaanady oenake ? 
 
 R. Tupan bayri. 
 
 P. Capacay Tupa bauyri-y here- 
 nari caurary tuminhane garedeV 
 
 R. Oemequer Jesus Christo. 
 
 P. Lygayqui cayta Christaos? 
 
 R. Lygayqui. 
 
 P. Capacay caytaca Christaosly? 
 
 R. Tupan bayri catyaca Jesus 
 Christo eyaqu§r. 
 
 P. Nemgda dipa baunape oeme- 
 quer Jesus Christo baura 6e cuni- 
 apay quinaucuda lixyra gereda f ga- 
 taya ? 
 
 R. Nemgda S. Pedro sabaque Pay 
 abarepano mar Simani caydixi santa 
 madre Igreyja catholica mequ§r-ey 
 Papa de Roma oacayta. 
 
 P. Capacay Santa Madre Ig« Ca- 
 tholica de Roma ? 
 
 R. Sabaque caytaca Jesus Christo 
 eyaquer ligara abarepano mar Papa 
 de Roma gara anaguyra. 
 
 P. Capacay oemequSr Jesus 
 Christo ? 
 
 R. Tupan caura, herenari caura, 
 iienaca. 
 
 P. Capeda Tupa caurayri? 
 
 R. Tupa yr&cari bayrinyo. 
 
 P. Capeda herenari caurayri ? 
 R. Santa Maria ababycagoereyma 
 dayri caurayri. 
 
 P. Cacadyra benaque Tupa dayri ? 
 
 R. Cacadyra. 
 
 P. Capabauynapu 66mequer 
 Jesus Christo carytumaquer? 
 
43 
 
 R. Nen huina pessoa, o fez por 
 graca o por obra do Espirito santo 
 foy feyto. 
 
 P. Aonde foy feyto ? 
 
 R. No ventre de hna donzella 
 chamada Santa Maria. 
 
 P. E essa Santa Maria flcou sem 
 lezao assim como otra qualqer vir- 
 gem que nunca pario ? 
 
 R. Nem mais nem menos. 
 
 P. E depois de parir filou sem 
 lezam ? 
 
 R. Nao teve lezao ficou sempre 
 virgem. 
 
 P. De que sorte se houue N. S. 
 Jesus Christo neste vnundo de nas- 
 cer de sua santissima may ? 
 
 R. Padeceo fo mecede e canpacjo 
 e todos os malles de pena por amor 
 de nos f por nosso amor. 
 
 P. Ensinou antigamente N. S. 
 Jesus Christo dando entendimento 
 a gente ? 
 
 R. Ensinou. 
 
 P. Ao depoiz morreo na cruz 
 por nos, em paga de nossos pecca- 
 dos? 
 
 R. Morreo. 
 
 P. Por amor q. sm morreo? 
 
 R. Por amor de nos, por amor de 
 nossos peecados, ou satyfuQum del- 
 les, p a livarnos do Infierno, o levar- 
 nos ao ceo. 
 
 P. Por sua vontade ? 
 
 R. Por sua vontade morreo. 
 
 P. Pois elle nao hera Deos ? 
 
 R. Hera Deos. 
 
 P. Pois esse morreo ? 
 
 R. Nao : o corpo q'tomou de sua 
 santissima may he q e morreo. 
 
 P. Nao havia mos de hir ao ceo, 
 se elle nam morrera ? 
 R. Nao havia mos. 
 
 R. MehecapatomarTupan Espir- 
 ito santo tuma quenda d8o letumin- 
 ha f gra<;a tumaquenda d§o letu- 
 minha. 
 
 P. Padeuora sahi lia6na? 
 
 R. Lymaque sabyra S.anta Maria 
 cayra ababycago ereyma tubadgo. 
 
 P. Lydeu-o Santa Maria enida- 
 gareda sabyray ababy cagoereyma 
 meh§ runida aguyra sayro ? 
 
 R. Lyaquira oary, 
 
 P. Lucaoaniquy pura luy nidan 
 gargda ? 
 
 R. Mehe rupiita. 
 
 P. CapSda oemequer Jesus 
 Christo yma samaco anaquya lyra- 
 caro gatia lynidan gai§da tayapa 
 payni gareda? 
 
 R. Pbatj r yburi metatyr pe le ly 
 poyta sabaque bayque pura ly ta ba 
 o a cady che. 
 
 P. C ayna dalir bafiynapu o e 
 mequer Jesus Christo Lita ecalaya 
 nitia herenari ychy ? 
 
 R. Recaynada. 
 
 P. Guayneypa remotica cruza 
 quadia 6 amane barayda oeney ? 
 
 R. Matica. 
 
 P. Capeda remallca ? 
 
 R. Oagayque c i amane barayda 
 6en§y camanha tymagalia o a u gtiy 
 yapaquer quynauda lixira eda cay- 
 day. 
 
 P. Panangy? 
 
 R. Pananeyra rematica. 
 
 P. Meh§ sayhe Tupaly? 
 
 R. Tupa. 
 
 P. Lydeu-ora Tupa niaiica ? 
 
 R. Mehe ; tupa matica caca ryra 
 liracaro lyxira ba gua iyoari mali- 
 cady. 
 
 P. Mehe oama quynaucuda diche 
 mehe 6 a matica gai eda? 
 
 R. Meb§ oama 
 
u 
 
 P. Quantos dias estenne N". S. P. Paquyby samaco 6emequ8r 
 Jesus Christo debayxo da terra Jesus Ohristo lideo rimatieaoi gar- 
 no teo sepulcro de pedra? eda et8 iiyn a pudeo kya anaquya. 
 
 R. Tres dias. R. Pyaquibaqui samaco. 
 
 P. Era depois como passou? P. Guayney padeura? 
 
 R. Resuscilou. R. Cayd8u-o ocary. 
 
 P. Depois de resuscitar como se P. Ouydguo ocary guayney pad - 
 
 houve? Sury? 
 
 R. Subio ao ceo depois de 40 dias. R. Lycuruca iquinaudadire 40 
 
 samaco buiutiquey. 
 
 P. De que sorte se lia, ou esta P. Paquypa sahe cachadir lid- 
 
 agourla? 6ury? 
 
 R. Esta asentado a mao direyt i R. Tupan yracar sabydi libauray 
 
 de Deos Padre tao honrado e esti- quid8u-o : subinha : aquidi caura 
 
 mado como elle. ymoeta pyrama. 
 
 VI. 
 THE BONARI DIALECT OF THE CARIB STOCK. 
 
 The last of the Bonaris died about [870. At one time they were 
 a tribe of considerable strength, having their homes in the thick 
 forests along the river Uatuma, which empties into the Amazon 
 from the north, not far below the mouth of the Rio Negro. They 
 were, therefore, neighbors to the Manaos, whose location I have 
 already described. 
 
 They were a docile people, and readily collected around the 
 mission Father Nuno Alvarez de Couto established at Sant' Anna 
 do Atuma. There, however, they fell victims to various diseases 
 brought by the whites, and when Canon Francisco Bernardino de 
 Louza visited them, of all the tribe only one old woman survived 
 who was able to give him the words of its speech. These he pub- 
 lished in his book, Para e Amazonas (three parts, 8vo, Rio 
 Janeiro, 1874-5), which is scarce outside of Brazil, and from 
 which Dr. A. Ernst, of Caracas, obligingly copied for me the 
 vocabulary which I subjoin. 
 
 The name of the tribe is taken from the Tupi language or Lingoa 
 Geral of Brazil, and in its proper form Boa-n-uara means "snake- 
 men " or "serpent-people." Other boanari or snake-men are 
 mentioned, one band on the river Uaupes (Von Martius) and 
 another on the river Icanna (Natterer). It was a term probably 
 derived from the totemic sign, or perhaps from some accidental or 
 fancied peculiarity, and has no ethnic significance. 
 
45 
 
 Even a slight examination proves the Bonari a well-marked Carib 
 dialect, and as such it is correctly assigned and located on Karl 
 von den Steinen's linguistic map inserted in his work, Durch 
 Central Brasilien. The only word, however, which he gives from 
 their dialect, keri, moon, is not quite correct, according to this 
 vocabulary. 
 
 English-Bonari Vocabulary. 
 
 Air, calm. 
 Arrow, purena'. 
 Black, tapaiuna. 
 Bow, urapa'. 
 Brother, mimien. 
 Cold, tecominhua' . 
 Dance, timiara. 
 Ear, panare'. 
 Earth, nono. 
 Eye, nurvba'. 
 Fire, uaiu. 
 Fish, uutu. 
 Girl, meacaba'. 
 God, tupan. 
 Grandfather, tamunba. 
 Head, iriopo'. 
 Heat, atupeua 1 . 
 Heaven, maica-paa. 
 House, abeno'. 
 Husband, unho. 
 
 Infant, pitianhea. 
 
 Light, ataquice. 
 
 Man, uguere'. 
 
 Moon, quece. 
 
 Old, tapoucu 1 . 
 
 Old woman, itafoucu' . 
 
 Rain, cunoba. 
 
 River, tuna' (see Water), 
 
 Son, child, meoo'. 
 
 String, ubudiana. 
 
 Sun, usiu'. 
 
 Thunder, darara'. 
 
 Tooth, jore. 
 
 Uncle, uemi. 
 
 Water, tuna. 
 
 "White, tiada 1 . 
 
 Wife, upuiten, 
 
 Wind, iriane'. 
 
 Woman, uauri. 
 
 The influence of the neighboring Tupi tribes is seen in such 
 words as tupan, God; tamunha, grandfather; urapa', arrow 
 (urapa'ra, Tupi) ; tiada, white (//, Tupi) ; tapaiuna, black {iapan- 
 huna, Tupi), and a few others more faintly. These are loan-words 
 which do not affect the mass of the language. 
 
 VII. 
 
 THE HONGOTE LANGUAGE AND THE PATAGONIAN 
 
 DIALECTS. 
 
 Among the manuscripts in the British Museum there is one in 
 Spanish (Add. MSS., No. 17,631), which was obtained in 1848 
 from the Venezuelan explorer, Michelena y Rojas (author of the 
 Exploration del America del Sur, published in 1867). It contains 
 
46 
 
 several anonymous accounts, by different hands, of a voyage (or 
 voyages) to the east coast of Patagonia, " desde Cabo Blanco hasta 
 las Virgines," one of which is dated December, 1789. Neither the 
 name of the ship nor that of the commander appears. 
 
 Among the material are two vocabularies of the Tsoneca or 
 Tehuelhet dialect, comprising about sixty words and ten numerals. 
 These correspond closely with the various other lists of terms col- 
 lected by travelers. At the close of the MS., however, there is a 
 short vocabulary of an entirely different linguistic stock, without 
 name of collector, date or place, unless the last words, "a la 
 Soleta," refer to some locality. Elsewhere the same numerals are 
 given, and a few words, evidently from some dialect more closely 
 akin to the Tsoneca, and the name Hongote is applied to the 
 tongue. This may be a corruption of "Choonke," the name 
 which Ramon Lista and other Spanish writers apply to the Tsoneca 
 (Hongote = Chongote = Choonke = Tsoneca). 
 
 The list which I copy below, however, does not seem closely 
 allied to the Tehuelhet nor to any other tongue with which I have 
 compared it. 
 
 The MS. is generally legible, though to a few words I have 
 placed an interrogation mark, indicating that the handwriting was 
 uncertain. The sheet contains the following : 
 
 Descripcion del Indio. 
 Caveza, seyocup. 
 
 Frente, 
 
 eyssen. 
 
 Ojos, 
 
 can. 
 
 Orejas, 
 
 coana (qy. eoauaj 
 
 Narizes, 
 
 bacsen. 
 
 Cejas, 
 
 suman. 
 
 Boca, 
 
 zuzin,. 
 
 Dientes, 
 
 idis. 
 
 Pescuezo, 
 
 saislan. 
 
 Brazos, 
 
 cheslan. 
 
 Manos, 
 
 cupa'clies. 
 
 Dedos, 
 
 gadyocoye. 
 
 Barriga, 
 
 coaa'. 
 
 Muslos, 
 
 cava'. 
 
 Pierna, 
 
 euxin. 
 
 Pie, 
 
 paxasen. 
 
 A las conchas, 
 
 chavin (?). 
 
 Cuchillos, cJiavi. 
 
47 
 
 1, 
 
 pa. 
 
 2, 
 
 sa. 
 
 3, 
 
 chalas. 
 
 4, 
 
 bok. 
 
 5, 
 
 ciec7i8. 
 
 6 
 
 tesan. 
 
 ?, 
 
 zohs. 
 
 8, 
 
 tachs. 
 
 9, 
 
 tens (?). 
 
 10, 
 
 o'pen. 
 
 No le he podido entender mas. 
 
 
 Canoa, 
 
 tasabay. 
 
 Caualete, 
 
 asaup. 
 
 Toda clase de botones, 
 
 coyocuy. 
 
 Abalorios, 
 
 amis (?) 
 
 A la Soleta. 
 
 
 The above list I translate and arrange in alphabetical order as 
 follows : 
 
 Arms, cheslan. 
 Beads, jamts (?). 
 Belly, coya'. 
 Buttons, coyocuy. 
 Canoe, tasabay. 
 Ears, coana (or couua). 
 Eyebrows, sumati. 
 Eyes, can. 
 Fingers, gaayocoye. 
 Foot, paxasen. 
 Forehead, eyssen. 
 
 Hands, cupa'cfies. 
 Head, seyocup. 
 Knives, chavi. 
 Leg, euxin. 
 Mouth, zuzin. 
 Neck, saislan. 
 Nose, bacsen. 
 Paddle, asaup. 
 Teeth, idis. 
 Thighs, cava-. 
 
 The other vocabulary, although it presents the same numerals, 
 differs widely in some of the words. It gives : 
 
 Fire, kanikerk. 
 Water, cuk-hin. 
 Sun, kekar. 
 Woman, becok. 
 
 Eyes, kavak. 
 Ears, kakuk. 
 Mouth, kakhe. 
 Tongue, kakslilut. 
 
 These are more closely akin to other Patagonian dialects than 
 the words of the former vocabulary. 
 
 It must be acknowledged, however, that we are but poorly sup- 
 plied with information about the tongues of Patagonia and Tierra 
 del Fuego. In the latter country we have, indeed, sufficient ma- 
 terial in the Yahgan, thanks to Brydges, Adam and others; but in 
 
48 
 
 the Onas tongue there is practically nothing and but little of the 
 Alikuluf. 
 
 It is still uncertain whether the last mentioned is a branch of the 
 Yakana-cunny, and whether these latter in turn differ from the true 
 Patagonian or Tehuelhet.* 
 
 D'Orbigny insists that the Puelches, who have for a century and 
 a half occupied the plains between the Rio Negro and the Rio Col- 
 orado (39 to 41 lat. South), are radically different in language 
 both from their Aucanian neighbors to the north and the Patagonian 
 tribes to the south, f For this reason they are called by the Arau- 
 canians Quimnolu-che, " People who cannot understand. "J D'Or- 
 bigny's short comparative vocabulary of the " Patagon " and 
 "Puelche" certainly reveals a wide difference, but a comparison 
 of the few words of "southern Puelche" collected by Hale discloses 
 unmistakable identities between the two idioms, as: 
 
 S. Puelche. Tehuel-het. 
 
 Star, sXalela, tsokalela. 
 
 Tree, apa, opuk. 
 
 Bone, ohatsJc, ohit. 
 
 Mr. Hale collected his vocabularies at Carmen, on the Rio 
 
 Negro; and the influence of the northern tribes is distinctly visible 
 
 in them. Especially the Guachi would seem to have percolated 
 
 into them. The possessive pronoun of the first person singular, ia 
 
 or ya, " my," is seen in both Hale's vocabularies and also in D'Or- 
 
 bigny's Puelche. It is common to the Tsoneca or Tehuelhet and 
 
 the Guachi. 
 
 Guachi. Teh. ob Puelche. 
 
 Nose, ia-note, ia-nots. 
 
 Water, euak, yagup. 
 
 Mouth or lips, ia-pe, ia-pelk. 
 
 Teeth, ia-va, ia-hai 
 
 Mountain, tegec-loan, atecq, yuilhuana. 
 
 The Poyas or Pey-yus are stated in the Informeoi General Pietas, 
 above quoted, to have dwelt (in 1729) from the river Lauquen-leufu 
 one hundred leagues southward and quite to the Atlantic. Twenty- 
 five years ago Guinnard found the "Poyu-che," as he calls them, 
 wandering along both banks of the Rio Negro from Pacheco Island 
 
 * The writers of the Mission Scientiftque au Cap Horn identify the Onas with the Yakana- 
 cunny, and assert that they speak a closely related dialect of Patagonian. 
 
 t V Homme Am&ricain, Tome ii, p. 71. 
 
 X Informe of Don Geronimo Pietas, 1729, quoted by Dr. Darapsky in the Bull, del lnsti- 
 tuta Geographico Argentino, Tomo x, p. 278. 
 
49 
 
 to the Cordilleras.* The words he gives from their tongue — if they 
 can be depended upon — prove it to be an Araucanian dialect. 
 
 Of the Chonos, who were a maritime people on the west coast, 
 we have no linguistic material ; nor can we define the relationship 
 of the Calen and Taijatef, who resided on the shore south of 48 
 and spoke one tongue. 
 
 In the following table I present a comparison of a limited num- 
 ber of common words in Patagonian vocabularies, beginning with 
 the earliest — that collected by Magellan on his first visit to the 
 straits that bear his name, in 1520. It is interesting to note how 
 little the language has changed in the nearly four centuries which 
 have passed since that period. The list is found in Pigafetta's nar- 
 ration. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 1. Patagonian, 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. " 
 
 5. 
 
 6. Tsoneca, 
 
 7. Choonke or 
 Tehuelche, or 
 
 8. Tehuelhet, 
 
 9. Puelche, 
 10. 
 
 11. Hougote, 
 12. 
 
 13. Tekenntka 
 (or Yahgan), 
 
 14. Alikulul', 
 
 Author. 
 
 Pigafetta, 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 Martius, 
 D'Orbigny, 
 Hale, 
 
 Musters, 
 
 Lista, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 MS. Br. Mus I, 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 Brydges, 
 
 Man. 
 
 nuken, 
 
 nuken, 
 
 nuken, 
 
 nuca, 
 
 kina, 
 
 ahonican, 
 
 kine, 
 chia, 
 
 won, 
 ackinish. 
 
 Woman. 
 
 ache, 
 
 zunum, 
 
 zitnum, 
 
 nacuna, 
 
 iamo-kanika, 
 
 karkcn, 
 
 iamo-kanok, 
 iam-kat, 
 
 becok, 
 
 kepa, 
 acklianash. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 calexchem, 
 
 kora, 
 
 kokaua, 
 
 shuim, 
 
 chuina, 
 
 apiuxk, 
 
 gengenko, 
 kenguenkm, 
 tciaxatoka, 
 apiucuc, 
 
 kekar, 
 
 lum, 
 
 lum. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 amania, 
 amania, 
 amania, 
 chuina. 
 
 shouan, 
 sheguenon, 
 api'xok, 
 ■p'ioo, 
 
 hannuka, 
 cuunequa. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Head. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Ear. 
 
 1. Patagonian, 
 
 Pigafetta, 
 
 gialeme, 
 
 holi. 
 
 her, 
 
 oter. 
 
 sane, 
 
 2. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 
 yarra, 
 
 qail. 
 
 gosel, 
 
 jene, 
 
 3. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 hamonaka, 
 
 karra, 
 
 guial, 
 
 qoiel, 
 
 shen&, 
 
 4. 
 
 Martius, 
 
 hamonaka, 
 
 karra, 
 
 guil, 
 
 gottel. 
 
 sheni, 
 
 5. " 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 maja, 
 
 ara, 
 
 dil. 
 
 quter, 
 
 je?i6, 
 
 6. Tsoneca, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 hauakok, 
 
 tagxvp, 
 
 iagoha, 
 
 iatelk, 
 
 
 7. Choonke or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tehuelche, or 
 
 Musters, 
 
 yaik, 
 
 let/, 
 
 kittar, 
 
 oil, 
 
 
 8. Tehuelhet, 
 
 Lista, 
 
 yeike, 
 
 lelie, 
 
 
 otel, 
 
 shaa, 
 
 9. Puelche, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 auixok, 
 
 tagop, 
 
 ia'oe, 
 
 iateteke, 
 
 iatsosk. 
 
 10. 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 aquacake^ 
 
 tagup, 
 
 tacaa. 
 
 iatitco, 
 
 iaxyexke, 
 
 11. Hongote, 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I. 
 
 
 
 seyocap, 
 
 can, 
 
 coana, 
 
 12. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 kauikok, 
 
 kukhin, 
 
 
 kavak, 
 
 kakuk, 
 
 13. Tekennika 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (or Yahgan), 
 
 Brydges, 
 
 pushaky, 
 
 slmmea, 
 
 lukabc, 
 
 deUa, 
 
 vfkhea, 
 
 14. Alikuluf. 
 
 
 tetal. 
 
 chanash. 
 
 of'chocka. 
 
 telkh. 
 
 teldil. 
 
 *A. Guinnard, Three Years among the Palagmians, p. 49 et at. (Eng. trans., London, 
 1871). The prayer he inserts in some dialect not clearly stated on p. 163 is almost pure 
 Araucanian, as are the numerals on p. 261, It is doubtiul if he was ever among the true 
 Fatagonians (the Tehuelhet). 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Motjth. 
 
 Nose. 
 
 Tongue. 
 
 Tooth. 
 
 1. Patagonian, 
 
 Pigafetta, 
 
 ckian, 
 
 or, 
 
 scial, 
 
 for, 
 
 2. *' 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 
 
 deol, 
 
 jor, kor t 
 
 3. " 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 
 6, 
 
 del, 
 
 kurr, 
 
 4. " 
 
 Martius, 
 
 
 00, 
 
 del, 
 
 curr, 
 
 5. 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 ihum, 
 
 ho, 
 
 
 jor, 
 
 6. Tsoneca, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 iapulk, 
 
 ianots, 
 
 
 iaxuict, 
 
 7. Choonke or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tehuelche, or 
 
 Musters, 
 
 
 tehal, 
 
 tal, 
 
 oer, 
 
 8. Tehuelhet, 
 
 Lista, 
 
 shahan, 
 
 or, 
 
 
 orre, 
 
 9. Puelche, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 iapolk, 
 
 ianit, 
 
 iawonok, 
 
 ia hai, 
 
 10. " 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. Hongote, 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 zuzin, 
 
 bacsen, 
 
 
 idis, 
 
 12. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 kakhe, 
 
 
 kakslilut, 
 
 
 13. Tekennika 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (or Yahgan), 
 14. Alikuluf. 
 
 Brydges, 
 
 yeaJc, 
 
 cushvsh, 
 
 fan, 
 
 tn'un, 
 
 
 vffeare. 
 
 nohl. 
 
 luckin. 
 
 cauwash. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Hand. 
 
 Foot. 
 
 House. 
 
 One. 
 
 1. Patagonian, 
 
 Pigafetta, 
 
 chene 
 
 \cori, fingers), 
 
 
 
 
 2. " 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 jan, 
 
 kel, 
 
 cocha, 
 
 jauken, 
 
 3. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 ore, 
 
 kel. 
 
 cocha, 
 
 cJieuken, 
 
 4. 
 
 Martius, 
 
 ore, fan, 
 
 keal, 
 
 cocha, 
 
 cheuquen, 
 
 5. 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 chSmt, 
 
 a, 
 
 
 
 6. Tsoneca, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 
 
 
 Icie, 
 
 7. Choonke or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tehuelche, or 
 
 Musters, 
 
 tsicc'r, 
 
 shankence, 
 
 kou, 
 
 chuche, 
 
 8. Tehuelhet, 
 
 Lista, 
 
 
 alj. 
 
 
 choche, 
 
 9. Puelche, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 ia sk'vp, 
 
 iapgit, 
 
 ahoike, 
 
 lei, 
 
 10. " 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 ia paye, 
 
 
 
 
 11. Hongote, 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 eupacltes, 
 
 pasasen, 
 
 
 pa, 
 
 12. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 
 
 
 pa, 
 
 13. Tekennika 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (or Yahgan), 
 14. Alikuluf. 
 
 Brydges, 
 
 josck, 
 
 cdeea, 
 
 ukkral, 
 
 ocoale, 
 
 
 yuccaba. 
 
 euiliculcul, 
 
 Mi. 
 
 towquidow 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Author. 
 
 Two. 
 
 Three. 
 
 Four. 
 
 Five. 
 
 1. Patagonian, 
 
 Pigafetta, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 
 kear, 
 
 kekague, 
 
 kaszen, 
 
 3. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. 11, 
 
 keukay, 
 
 keash, 
 
 kekagui, 
 
 keitzun. 
 
 4. 
 
 Martius. 
 
 xeukay, 
 
 keash, 
 
 kekaguy, 
 
 kegtzun, 
 
 5. 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. Tsoneca, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 pdefei, 
 
 gotsk, 
 
 mala, 
 
 tanka, 
 
 7. Choonke or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tehuelche, or 
 
 Musters, 
 
 liouke, 
 
 aas, 
 
 carge, 
 
 ktsin, 
 
 8. Tehuelhet, 
 
 Lista, 
 
 jauke. 
 
 kaash, 
 
 kague, 
 
 tzm. 
 
 9. Puelche, 
 
 Hale, 
 
 pe lei, 
 
 got, 
 
 mala, 
 
 tanke, 
 
 10. 
 
 D'Orbigny, 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. Hongote, 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. I, 
 
 sa, , 
 
 chalas, 
 
 bok, 
 
 elechs, 
 
 12. 
 
 MS. Br. Mus. II, 
 
 sa, 
 
 chala&r. 
 
 bot, 
 
 ciech, 
 
 13. Tekennika 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (or Yahgan), 
 14. Alikuluf. 
 
 Brydges, 
 
 combabe, 
 
 mutta, 
 
 carga, 
 
 cup'aspa. 
 
 
 telkeow. 
 
 cup'eb. 
 
 inadaba. 
 
 
 Notes on the Vocabulary. 
 
 Man. — The root in all the allied Tsoneca dialects is ken, kin or 
 kan, which is the generic term for the species homo. It is seen 
 
51 
 
 with a feminine prefix in iamo-kan-ok, karken, ackhanash (=wa- 
 kan-as/i). The English form of this root becomes cunny, found as 
 a suffix to various tribal names. 
 
 Woman. — Zuttum= woman, as zunum nakon, ugly woman; 
 zunum kekalun, girl, young woman; iama or yama means properly 
 " mother;" ache or ysher (Musters) is a woman of the same gens, 
 the masculine form of which is chen, brother; karken is a married 
 woman. 
 
 Sun and Moon. — The two prevailing roots are kar and shuin. 
 They both appear in Pigafetta's calexchem (==kare- shuin). The 
 vocabulary No. 2 translates kora as "sun, heaven, God." The 
 generic term for both orbs is shuin {chuina), which seems allied to 
 the Araucanian cuyen of the same meaning. The Hongote ke-kar 
 shows the radical kar. Another radical for both orbs is the guttural 
 sound variously represented by kok, cue, %ok, keng, geng, sheg. 
 According to Brydges the Yahgans have two different words for 
 sun, lum and usteca, and two for moon, annuca and hunian. 
 
 Fire. — The radical sound appears to be 'aua%, spelled variously 
 yaik, hauak, kauik, etc. The first syllable is visible in maja = 
 ma-ya%. 
 
 Water. — The term jarra or karra means "drinking water," 
 from jara, to drink; iagop is rain water (ciagop, rain, Hale); the 
 Uy and lehe of Musters and Lista appear to be an abbreviation of 
 the ho- It' of Pigafetta. 
 
 Head. — Pigafetta's her^hel, which is a variant of guil, dil, etc. 
 Another radical for the idea is a guttural, '%a, which is at the base 
 of ia'oe, the Hongote se-yocup, Yahgan luka-be, etc. (comp. 
 Araucanian lonco, head). 
 
 Eye. — All the words are clearly related except the Hongote. 
 
 Ear. — The term given by Pigafetta, sane, is repeated w ith slight 
 variation in the various dialects including the Hongote, except the 
 Puelche, where Hale and D'Orbigny give a different word. The 
 verb choinque, to hear, seems related to shene, ear. 
 
 Mouth. — Wide discrepancies appear in the terms for this organ. 
 The words chian, shahan and ihum are probably forms of shum, 
 which is the right word for mouth, while ia pelk, according to 
 Hale, means " my lips." 
 
 Nose. — The general root is a modification of <?, Lista's or = 06, 
 which reappears in tochal, nohl, etc. 
 
 Tongue. — Pigafetta's scial reappears in Muster's tal, etc. 
 
52 
 
 Tooth. — The prevailing radical or may be related to Araucanian 
 or, bone. 
 
 Hand. — Two conceptions are conveyed by the words presented, 
 che'me, che'ne,jan, fan, all forms of the same = upper extremity, 
 arm and hand ; while or, cori, tsic-c'r, ya-s'k'cup all refer to the 
 fingers. 
 
 Foot. — The general root kel probably reappears in 'alj, and even 
 in shan-kence (=chen-kels, lower extremity), cutli-kulkul, etc. 
 
 House. — The root is generally ko'a. 
 
 Numerals. — These display considerable diversity. Several are 
 merely borrowed from the Araucanian, in which we have : i, quine ; 
 2, epic; 3, cula ; 4, melt; 5, kechu. From kechu, for instance, 
 comes Hongote ciech, Tel. keitzun, tzen, etc. Hong, chalas prob- 
 ably =Tel. ka-ash; Hong, .fa = Tel. tct, etc. 
 
 The general conclusion to which these comparisons lead is that 
 the Patagonian dialects are probably more closely related than has 
 hitherto been assumed. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 THE DIALECTS AND AFFINITIES OF THE KECHUA 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 At the time of the discovery, and probably long before that 
 date, the Kechua language was spoken along and near the Pacific 
 coast from 3 North to 35 ° South latitude, that is from the Rio 
 Ancasmayu in Ecuador to the Rio Maule in Chili. 
 
 Of course, in this long extent of nearly twenty-five hundred 
 miles of mountains and deserts, there was considerable variety in 
 its dialects ; but, so far as I can learn, much less than might be 
 expected at first sight. The Abbe Camafio, a learned Jesuit who 
 traveled extensively in Peru about the middle of the last century, 
 and whose Elementi della Lingua Quichua has never seen the light 
 in print, classified the tongue under five dialects as follows : 
 
 1. The Chinchasuyo, spoken in the diocese of Lima. 
 
 2. The Lamano, spoken about Lamas, in the diocese of Truxillo. 
 
 3. The Quiteno, current in and around the city of Quito. 
 
 4. The Calchaqui or Tucumafio or Catamarefio, which prevailed 
 west of the Cordillera in the province of Tucuman. 
 
 5. The Cuzcuano, in and around Cuzco. 
 
 Of these the last mentioned is that which is considered the 
 
53 
 
 classical, and was adopted by the missionaries as representing the 
 language in its purest and most ancient form. In it the drama of 
 OUanla was composed, which is justly regarded as one of the finest 
 productions of American aboriginal literature. 
 
 The identification of the Calchaqui dialect of Tucuman with a 
 patois of the Kechua would settle a vexed question in American 
 ethnography and archaeology. The language and the nation of the 
 Calchaquis have long since disappeared ; but their material relics, 
 in the shape of well-constructed walls of dressed stones, tombs of 
 the same material, ornaments and images in copper and gold, and 
 handsomely decorated jars of earthenware, still remain in sufficient 
 abundance to testify to a condition of culture among them rivaling 
 that of the Kechuas of the western slope of the Cordilleras.* 
 
 The learned traveler, Von Tschudi, imagined that their tongue 
 was the modern Atacameno, and that these sparse inhabitants of 
 the desert were descendants of refugee Calchaquis.f But there is 
 no actual evidence to this effect. 
 
 Florentino Ameghino, who has done so much for our knowledge 
 of the Argentine Republic, claims the Calchaqui as a dialect of the 
 Aymara tongue of Bolivia ;\ and the two latest writers on the sub- 
 ject, S. A. Lafone Quevedo and Dr. H. von Ihering, are equally 
 at issue in their opinions. The latter insists that the Calchaquis 
 spoke an idiom wholly different from either Kechua or Aymara ;§ 
 while the former argues that this extinct tongue was " not exactly 
 Kechuan, but not altogether distinct" from it, and was a mongrel 
 dialect made up of Kechuan, Abiponian and Guaranian elements. || 
 
 When we turn to the old authorities the point is by no means 
 cleared up. The first and best who states anything definite is the 
 Jesuit missionary, Alonso de Barzana (sometimes written Barcena), 
 whose letter from "Asuncion del Paraguay," dated September 8, 
 1594, gives some pertinent particulars. He writes: "The most 
 widely extended languages (in Tucuman) are the Caca, the Tono- 
 cote and the Sanavirona. The Caca is spoken by the Diaguitas 
 and throughout the valley of Calchaqui, and that of Catamarca, 
 and in most of the district of Nueva Rioja. Nearly all the towns 
 
 * See authorities quoted in my work, The American Race, pp. 319 seq. 
 t Reisen in Siid-Amerika, Vol. v, p. 81 ; Organismus der Klielsua-Sprache, p. 71. 
 X Ameghino, quoted by Ihering. 
 j! In Dus Ausland, 1891, p. 914. 
 
 I " Notes in the Calchaqui Region," in the American Anthropologist, October, 1891, 
 p. 358. 
 
54 
 
 about Santiago use it, as well as the natives along the Rio de 
 Estero, and many more who live in the mountains. I have pre- 
 pared a grammar and vocabulary of this language."* 
 
 These statements assign a distribution of the language over an 
 area about 450 miles from east to west, and 300 miles from north 
 to south. It is highly unlikely that so widespread a tongue should 
 utterly disappear while so many of the descendants of those who 
 spoke it still survive. Yet the native population of Tucuman to- 
 day speak only a corrupt Kechua dialect, when not Spanish. In 
 fact, the name applied to the tongue by Barzana, kaka, is the 
 Kechua word for mountain, and signifies in this connection the 
 dialect of the mountaineers. 
 
 The grammar and vocabulary he prepared are lost, and we have 
 no monuments of the language remaining, except the geographical 
 and other names mentioned in the early writers or preserved on 
 old maps. In examining these one is at once struck with the 
 numerous names of villages ending in -gasta. These are found 
 from the Rio Salado to the Cordillera, and from about 26° 30' to 
 31 30' South latitude; in other words, in just about the area 
 assigned by Barzana to the Caca tongue. 
 
 I quote some of them : 
 
 Ambargasta, G-uanagasta, 
 
 Amingasta, Machigasta, 
 
 Auguagasta, Paquilagasta, 
 
 Cahgasta, Tinogasta, 
 
 Calingaata, Tnquiligasta. 
 Chiquiligasta, 
 
 I do not think there can be any doubt but that this gasta is a 
 corrupted form of the Kechua llacta, town or village. In pure 
 Kechua there is no g sound, and the c is a guttural (German cK) ; 
 so that a rough equivalent in the Spanish alphabet would be close 
 to gasta. Moreover, many of the syllables preceding the termina- 
 tion are evidently Kechua, as : 
 
 Cahgasta = caja llacta, cold town ; an appropriate name, as it lies high 
 
 up the Cordillera on the Rio de Limari. 
 Auguagasta = aueea llacta, enemies' town ; occupied by hostile people. 
 Calingasta = ccali llacta, healthy town ; probably from its salubrious site. 
 
 * Barzana's letter is printed in the Helaciones Geogrqflcas de IndiaS, Peru, Tomo ii 
 (Madrid, 1885). 
 
55 
 
 Machigasta= maecMy llaeta, washing town, place where large solid things 
 are washed ; quite suitable to the village of the name on the eastern 
 end of Lake Andalgala. 
 
 The Kechua origin of these names is plain. But if the Caca or 
 Catamareno, as it is sometimes called, was merely a dialect of the 
 Kechua, why did Barzana speak of it as a separate tongue? Pos- 
 sibly because the differences in sound were so great as to render it 
 unintelligible to a person familiar only with the dialect of Cuzco. 
 
 For the present the evidence seems sufficient to consider the 
 Calchaquis a more or less mixed branch of the Kechua family, and 
 the supposition formerly advanced by myself and others that they 
 constituted an independent stock seems unwarranted. 
 
 The Quiteno dialect was held by Von Tschudi to present features 
 of higher antiquity than that of Cuzco. So far as I know, there 
 are few published specimens of it.* 
 
 The Chinchasuyu or Chinchaya dialect, also one of the northern 
 branches of the tongue, has been sufficiently analyzed by Von 
 Tschudi in his work on the language, his materials being drawn 
 from the Appendix to the second and third editions of Diego de 
 Torres Rubio's Arte de la lengua Quechua, and from the manu- 
 scripts of the German engineer, Hermann Gohririg.f He finds the 
 pronunciation softer. Certain differences in the verbs appear, in 
 part, to be neologisms. And there is a rather large number of 
 words which are wholly diverse in the two dialects. 
 
 The Lamafio is said by Von Tschudi to be closely allied to the 
 Quiteno, but he acknowledges that he was not personally familiar 
 with it. 
 
 Whether the Incas, that is, the gens from whom the war and 
 peace chiefs were selected, had a language or dialect peculiar to 
 themselves, as asserted by Garcilasso de la Vega — and by nobody 
 else — has been again brought up for discussion lately by Dr. E. W. 
 Middendorf. He maintains that they had, and that this secret 
 language was the Aymara.J This he does in the face of the fact 
 that every one of the eleven words which Garcilasso quotes from 
 this mysterious tongue turns out either to be pure Kechua or from a 
 
 * An Arte, printed at Lima in 1753, of this dialect, is mentioned by Ludewig, Lit. of 
 Amer. Aborig. Langs., p. 162. 
 
 t Organismus der Ketckua Sprache, Einleitung, p. 65. 
 
 J See the Introduction to his work, Das Runa Simi Oder der Keshua-Sprache (Leipzig, 
 1890). 
 
56 
 
 Kechua radical.* Dr. Middendorf holds his opinion not so much 
 on the evidence, as to support his favorite theory that the Kechua 
 civilization was derived from the Aymaras and that the Inca gens 
 was of Aymara descent. Unfortunately, he has not acquainted 
 himself with the real constitution of the Kechua social system. It 
 has been ably and satisfactorily analyzed by Dr. Gustav Briihl f and 
 later by Heinrich Cunow.J 
 
 The precise relationship of the Aymara language to the Kechua 
 has received considerable further elucidation through Dr. Midden- 
 dorf 's recent studies. He supplies a list of about five hundred and 
 seventy words, which have approximately the same form and sense 
 in the two tongues, and a second list of about one hundred words 
 which are alike in form but with more or less variation in sense. 
 There is also a strong phonetic likeness between the tongues, and 
 their grammatical characteristics approach each other. His conclu- 
 sion is that "Aymara and Kechua are sister languages, but are like 
 children of mixed marriages ; for while they agree in their essential 
 nature (in ihrem Wesen) quite to the most trivial peculiarities, yet 
 in external grammatical form, as well as in the larger part of their 
 vocabulary, they are wholly asunder." § 
 
 This is substantially the conclusion reached by that master of 
 linguistic science, Prof. H. Steinthal, who has ably explained the 
 identities and diversities of these two tongues on principles of 
 the general philosophy of language. || 
 
 It is probable that further light would be thrown on this question, 
 so interesting for the information its settlement would yield on the 
 origin of Peruvian civilization and the archaeology of the region 
 around Lake Titicaca, were the comparison instituted between the 
 oldest, and therefore purest, forms of the two tongues; and it is 
 partly to call attention to some rare or unpublished materials suit- 
 able for this purpose that I have introduced the subject. 
 
 * Von Tschudi, Organismus der Khetsua-Sprache, Einleitung, s. 65. Wilhelm von Hum" 
 boldt was the first to identify the words adduced by Gareilasso as members of the 
 Kechua. 
 
 t Gustav Bruhl, Die Culturvolker Alt-Amerikas (Cincinnati, 1887). 
 
 X "Das peruanische Verwandtschaftssystem und die Geschlechtsverbiinde der Inka," in 
 Das Ausland, '1891. As to the " secret language," Cunow says, after discussing what words 
 of it we find in Gareilasso— " Man sieht, von einer Geheimsprache kanu keine Rede 
 sein." 
 
 § See Dr. E. W. Middendorf, Die Aimara-Sprache, s. 285, seq. (Leipzig, 1891), ana Das 
 Bwna Simi Oder der Keshua-Sprache, s. 25 (Leipzig, 1890). 
 
 ] " Das Verhaltniss zwischen dem Ketschua und Aimara," in the Compte Rendu of the 
 Congres des Americanistes, 7eme Session (1888), p. 465. 
 
57 
 
 Assuming with most Kechuists that the trend of migration was 
 from north to south, we should look towards the north for the oldest 
 forms of the tongue. This, as I have said, Von Tschudi did ; but 
 both he and Dr. Middendorf state that they had not seen the work 
 on the Quiteno dialect printed at Lima in 1753, nor apparently any 
 MS. on the structure of the northernmost branches of the tongue. 
 
 A. vocabulary is mentioned by Von Tschudi, dated in 1S14, which 
 gives words of the idiom as spoken in the dioceses of Maynas and 
 Ucayali. 
 
 This could be supplemented by a later MS. in my library, con- 
 taining a Diccionario castellano-inga (y inga-castelland) segun se 
 habla en las monlahas limitrofes del Ucayali and a Gramatica del 
 idioma Inga acomodado al modo de hablar de los manoitas y Maynas. 
 It is dated 1868, and the author is given as Fr. Mariano Castellan- 
 zuelo ; but it appears, in part at least, to be founded on some earlier 
 work. 
 
 A comparison of this MS. with the grammars of Von Tschudi 
 and Middendorf shows that the dialect of Maynas, the most eastern 
 of all the Kechua dialects, is more closely akin to the Cuzceno than 
 to the Quiteno, both in vocabulary and structure. It does not pre- 
 sent the terminal nga to the verbal stem, common in the latter. In 
 vocabulary it is nearer the classical Kechua than to the Chinchaya ; 
 for example : 
 
 
 Maynas. 
 
 Kechua op 
 
 Cuzco. 
 
 Chinchaya. 
 
 Town, 
 
 llacta, 
 
 llacta, 
 
 
 marca. 
 
 Head, 
 
 uma, 
 
 uma, 
 
 
 pektt. 
 
 Water, 
 
 yaca, 
 
 itnu, 
 
 
 yacu. 
 
 Small, 
 
 ucJiucela, 
 
 liuchuccht, 
 
 ikchiccla. 
 
 Cold, 
 
 chire, 
 
 chiri, 
 
 
 cahcha. 
 
 For the Aymara, the comparison should be made with its purest 
 form. This was confessedly the Pacasa dialect and not the Lupaca, 
 in which the Arte and Diccionario of Bertonio were composed. At 
 present, although the distinction between the dialects has been in a 
 measure erased by the facilities of modern intercourse, there remain 
 extensive variations both in grammar and vocabulary.* The excel- 
 lent work of Dr. Middendorf is founded on what purports to be 
 the Pacasa; and in the Brown Library, at Providence, there is a 
 modern folio MS. by D. B. de Merian, entitled Historia D. N. 
 
 *Dr. E. W. Middendorf, Die Aymara-Sprache, Einleitung (Leipzig, 1891). 
 
58 
 
 J. C. in Lingua Pacasd. It contains the original and an interlinear 
 translation in Latin. I quote the following passage as an example: 
 
 Text in the Pacasa Dialect of the Aymara Language. 
 
 Aneha haclia Uaquisinapana kerisinapa mla humppinapsa 
 
 Summse afflictionis suae agone suo, sanguineo sudore suoque finito 
 tacutaiha collna Jesusa cinti carcta uraquetlia 
 
 divinus Jesus valdfi fatigatus de terra surgens, 
 
 sartussina yaticliatanacparu cutinira. 
 
 ad discipulos suos rediit. Verum eos valde dormientes 
 
 Maasca acanaca conti iquisquiri hacjatassina parajtayana 
 deprehendens, eos excitavit, dicens : "Surgite! Jam enim venit 
 
 sassina sartupjama niupilla puri aljiiihaja 
 
 venditor meus : quomodo vos dormitis? non videtis 
 
 lamisaraqui humana cuja iquisipjiquita hanati 
 
 quoinodo ininiicus meus non dormit, sed Judseorum in manus 
 ulljapjta, camisa aucaltaja hanilma iquiti, 
 
 suas ad tradendum me jam adest?" Verum, divine Jesus, 
 maasca Judiona tana amparanacparu catuyana liattaqui 
 
 non solum de discipulis tuis conquerere, de hujus urbis incolis 
 nialiua piorit Maasca collana Jesusay haniqui 
 
 etiam conquerere, qui in omnibus et singulis animas 
 yatichfitanamatha quejasirati aca rnarca haquenacatha. 
 
 suas salvandi rebus semper dormitant, semper otiosi sunt. 
 
 (From the Historia B. N. J. O. in Lingua, Pacasa, diocesis urbis de la 
 Paz. Descripsit D. B. de Merian. MS. folio.) 
 
 IX. 
 
 AFFINITIES OF SOUTH AND NORTH AMERICAN 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 The first scientific attempt to show a connection between South 
 and North American languages was that read by Dr. Max Uhle 
 before the Congres des Americanistes at Berlin in 1888, and pub- 
 lished in the Compte Rendu of that association. It was confined to 
 demonstrating a relationship between the Chibcha dialects of 
 northwestern South America to the Costa Rican dialects, which 
 have been so fruitfully studied by Gabb and Thiel.* 
 
 * I have summarized the evidence in The American Race, pp. 181-186. I do not over- 
 look the Kev. William Herzog's article in the Archiv fur Anthrop., 1884, entitled, " Ueber 
 die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen der eostaricensischen Indianer-Sprachen mit denen 
 von Central- und Sud-Amerika ;" but it does not take up the subject in a scientific man- 
 ner, and hence its results are unsatisfying. 
 
59 
 
 Still more recently an effort has been made by Dr. A. Ernst, of 
 Caracas, to establish a linguistic connection between the dialects of 
 the Timote stock, who occupy the Cordillera in the district of 
 Merida (8° N. lat.), and the Costa Rican dialects, thus bringing 
 the Timotes into the Chibcha stock, as he expressly claims. He 
 goes yet further and seeks to discover verbal identities between the 
 Timote and the Guatuso, spoken in Nicaragua on the Rio Frio. 
 The latter is not supposed to be related to the Costa Rican dialects, 
 which makes Dr. Ernst's theory the more important could it be 
 substantiated. He has published a list of forty-five words in an 
 article in the Boletin del Ministerio de Obras Publicas for April 8, 
 1891 (Caracas, Venezuela), on which he bases his claim. I trans- 
 late and arrange these words, and shall examine the alleged 
 analogies. 
 
 Supposed Affinities between Timote, Costa Rican and 
 Guatuso Words. 
 
 Timote Stock. 
 
 Costa Eican Stock. 
 
 Guatuso. 
 
 Man, 
 
 caac, 
 
 caga, caca (father). 
 
 
 Woman, 
 
 cursum, 
 
 ra cur, 
 
 curiza (female). 
 
 Wife, 
 
 earigura, 
 
 
 curijuri (woman) 
 
 Mother, 
 
 shugtie, 
 
 
 shu. 
 
 Man, white, 
 
 ticep, 
 
 suat, 
 
 otshapa (senor). 
 
 Woman, white, 
 
 ticiura, 
 
 soora. 
 
 
 Child, 
 
 timua, 
 
 istamura (little). 
 
 
 Boy, 
 
 sari, 
 
 hara, tsliaasoroj, 
 
 araptshaura. 
 
 Brother, 
 
 cushia, 
 
 ayi, tshi. 
 
 
 Head, 
 
 kitsJtam, 
 
 kotshen (a point). 
 
 
 Mouth, 
 
 maeabo, 
 
 
 macokiea. 
 
 Tongue, 
 
 shikivu, 
 
 kerkuo. 
 
 
 Foot, 
 
 cuju, 
 
 bukuru. 
 
 
 Fire, 
 
 shirup, 
 
 yuc, iyuc, tsMcra. 
 
 
 Water, 
 
 sMmpue, 
 
 divua (a torrent). 
 
 
 Stone, 
 
 tituup, 
 
 i-uliu-wali, 
 
 capi (hard). 
 
 Wood, 
 
 tisep, 
 
 dsJd-shiba . 
 
 
 Salt, 
 
 shapi, 
 
 tsheba (pepper). 
 
 
 Meat, 
 
 shoroc, 
 
 susturic (deer). 
 
 
 Flesh, 
 
 
 
 
 Skin, 
 
 misim, 
 
 
 maiza. 
 
 Animal, 
 
 ticaguai, 
 
 ogua. 
 
 
 Dog, 
 
 tiiirki, 
 
 shiti. 
 
 
 Snake, 
 
 sui, 
 
 slmali. 
 
 
 Flea, 
 
 ikis, 
 
 shiike. 
 
 
60 
 
 
 Timote Stock. 
 
 Costa Rican Stock. Guatdso. 
 
 Scorpion, 
 
 ikiyut, 
 
 ikuh. 
 
 Hawk, 
 
 kue, 
 
 zue. 
 
 Egg, 
 
 shicapo, 
 
 cup, icup. 
 
 Pepper, 
 
 sieas, 
 
 sliiboh, Uheba. 
 
 Maize, 
 
 sJiipyae, 
 
 cupae (cornfield). 
 
 Bread, 
 
 suridipa, 
 
 ip (maize). 
 
 Town, 
 
 musipuc, 
 
 coc (place), ami (to dwell), nicona puca (to 
 live). 
 
 Night, 
 
 kisi. 
 
 sliki. 
 
 Thief, 
 
 shisnugui, 
 
 nruoeh. 
 
 Morning, 
 
 sik, 
 
 seek. 
 
 When, 
 
 pena, 
 
 ping. 
 
 Sweet, 
 
 shiboh, 
 
 buuk. 
 
 Togo, 
 
 guateque, 
 
 la toeh ([ go). 
 
 It rains, 
 
 oki moi, 
 
 tslioki. 
 
 One, 
 
 cari, 
 
 krard. 
 
 Two, 
 
 ca-bo, 
 
 buuk. 
 
 On looking over this list it is obvious that the Guatuso affinities 
 are too slight to justify the assumption of a relationship. The 
 syllable cur in the words for woman, and shu for mother, are the 
 only elements that offer a real similarity, and this is too scanty a 
 supply to work on. 
 
 In the Costa Rican analogies the sense is often too remote. It 
 is scarcely fair to consider "father" and "man" as identical 
 ideas; or "child " and "little;" " head" and " point;" " meat" 
 and "deer;" "salt" and "pepper;" "maize" and " cornfield," 
 etc. Selecting words so asunder in meaning and choosing, from 
 several dialects on both sides, apparent analogies can always be 
 found. Other words present, in fact, no resemblance, as su&t to 
 iicep, divua to shimpue, i-uhu-wah to tituup, etc. There remain a 
 few actual similarities which may be linguistic identities ; but these 
 should probably be explained by the fact that the Timote tribes 
 lived near those of Chibcha lineage, and doubtless borrowed from 
 them a number of terms. Such loan words are found in the 
 tongues of all nations who reside in close proximity for a few 
 generations. 
 
 I conclude, therefore, that the Timote must still be regarded as 
 an independent stock, and its connection with any in North 
 America has not yet been demonstrated. 
 
 On crossing the mountain chain which separates Costa Rica 
 
61 
 
 from Nicaragua, we enter a territory which was at the discovery 
 occupied by nations whose traditions and linguistic affinities 
 pointed to the higher latitudes of North America. Such was the 
 Nahuatl tribe, who occupied the islands and southern shores of 
 Lake Nicaragua, and the Mangues, who peopled the borders of 
 Lake Managua. 
 
 The latter were closely related to the Chapanecs of Chiapas, 
 speaking the same tongue with slight dialectic variations. One 
 band of the Mangues, about four hundred in number, was found 
 by the early explorers among the Guaymis, one of the Costa Rican 
 tribes whose language has marked affinities to the Chibcha idioms 
 of New Granada. The close relations thus established between the 
 two stocks reappear in the Mazatec language, spoken in the district 
 of Teutitlan del Camino, State of Oaxaca. 
 
 Availing myself of a MS. vocabulary of this language, furnished 
 me by M. A. Pinart, I have shown that it is essentially a Chapanecan 
 dialect, but with a strong infusion of Costa Rican, and especially 
 Guaymi, elements, and presents the most northern example of the 
 influence of South American upon North American languages.* 
 The following examples will illustrate the similarity: 
 
 
 Mazatec. 
 
 Costa Eican. 
 
 Sun, 
 
 sui, 
 
 chui or sua. 
 
 Moon, 
 
 sa, 
 
 so, sie (or za). 
 
 Ear, 
 
 sehieal, 
 
 quhyca, sehuke. 
 
 Eye, 
 
 schcu, 
 
 s'ocvo, ocua. 
 
 Hair, 
 
 coshe, 
 
 schd, quyhe. 
 
 Man, 
 
 chi, 
 
 he-chi-che. 
 
 Woman, 
 
 chit, 
 
 sue, gui. 
 
 Rain, 
 
 tzi, 
 
 siu. 
 
 Sea, 
 
 dachicu, 
 
 dechequ-m. 
 
 Foot, 
 
 tzoco, 
 
 tsuku. 
 
 Head, 
 
 tku. 
 
 Ookua. 
 
 Nose, 
 
 nito, 
 
 nido-n. 
 
 The Mazatecs were a people of considerable culture, celebrated 
 for their religious fervor, and for the important temples and sanctu- 
 aries established in their country, prominent remains of which still 
 exist. 
 
 * See a paper by me in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, January, 
 1892, entitled ' ' The Mazatec Language and its Affinities.' ' (See Appendix.) 
 
62 
 
 X. 
 ON THE DIALECTS OF THE BETOYAS AND TUCANOS. 
 
 The most recent writer on the Tucanos of the Rio Negro and 
 Upper Amazon, Dr. Franz Pfaff, observes: " Ueber die Stammes- 
 verwandtschaft der Tucanos kann mit einiger Sicherheit nichts be- 
 hauptet werden."* Von Martius believed them a horde of the 
 Tapuya (Ges, Botocudo) stock ; f but their language betrays no 
 such relationship except in a few, doubtless borrowed, words. They 
 are equally far from the great Tupi. Arawack and Carib stocks. 
 But I believe I can show by conclusive evidence that this hitherto 
 unidentified people speak a language akin to that of the Betoyas 
 and Tamas, whose home is located on the eastern slope of the Cor- 
 dillera, between the head waters of the rivers Apure and Meta. 
 
 My further studies of the Betoya dialects have resulted in discov- 
 ering for them a much wider extension than I assigned in The 
 American Race. They can be traced through about ten degrees 
 of latitude (from 3 South latitude northeastward to 7° North 
 latitude) in a large number of tribes resident on the rivers Napo, 
 Putumayo, Caqueta, Uaupes, Negro, Meta and Apure. The affini- 
 ties of many of these tribes are asserted by the early missionaries, 
 whose testimony on such points was based on a study of the lan- 
 guages. One of the most useful of these sources is the Noticias 
 Autenticas del Famoso Rio Maranon, composed by an anonymous 
 Jesuit missionary, and recently published for the first time under 
 the competent editorship of Jimenez de la Espada by the Geo- 
 graphical Society of Madrid. 
 
 Another Jesuit, Father Padilla, in a letter to the Abbe Hervas, 
 stated from personal knowledge that the Siraras, Eles, Airicos and 
 Situjas all speak dialects of Betoya ; while Gumilla names as other 
 dialects the Luculia, Jabua, Arauca (probably for Airicd), Quili- 
 fay, Anabali, Lalaca and Atabaca. 
 
 The town Betoye itself is situated on a small affluent of the Cas- 
 anare, in 6° North latitude, at the foot of the mountain chain 
 known as the "Paramo de Chisga," inhabited by a wild tribe of 
 unknown affinities, the Chitareros. 
 
 The anonymous writer already referred to states that in 1730 the 
 Jesuits had seven "reductions" among the Icaguates (Piojes) of 
 
 * Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesell. fur Anthrop., etc., 1890, s. 603. 
 f Glossaria Linguarum BrasUiensium, p. 283. 
 
63 
 
 the Napo, and their missions extended north to the banks of the 
 Putumayo, on which stream were the ' Amaguages and the Oco- 
 guages. Below the latter, and occupying most of the district be- 
 tween the middle Putumayo on the north and the lower Napo and 
 Amazon on the south, were a number of tribes collectively called 
 Zeonas (Stones), comprising the Cungies, Parianas, Cenceguages 
 and others. These spoke a tongue allied to that of the Icahuates 
 (Piojes); while " the Neguas, Seizos, Tamas, Acunejos and Atuaras 
 are all of one tongue." The editor, Jimenez de la Espada, speak- 
 ing from personal knowledge gained on the spot, identifies the 
 modern Piojes with the Encabellados of the Spanish writers and the 
 Icaguates of the Jesuits. 
 
 It is greatly to be regretted that the ample material existing in 
 manuscript for the study of the Zeona language has not been made 
 accessible. Col. Joaquin Acosta had in his library a Diccionario y 
 Doctrina en lengua Zeona of 416 pages and another MS. of 116 
 pages. He expected to present them to the public library of Bogota, 
 but I have not been able to ascertain whether they are there. 
 
 From these materials I present the following list of tribes who 
 should be classed in this linguistic family : 
 
 The Betoya Linguistic Stock. 
 
 Aeanejos, a branch of the Tamas. 
 
 Aguaricos, a branch of the Tamas. 
 
 Airicos (A.yricoa), adjoin Betoyes to the south. 
 
 Amaguages, on upper Caqueta. 
 
 Anibalis, on Rio Apure. 
 
 Atuaras, a branch of the Tamas. 
 
 Avijiras, on Rio Napo. 
 
 Becuaries, a branch of the Icaguates. 
 
 Betoyes, on and near R. Casanare. 
 
 Cenceguages, on upper Putumayo south of the Correguages. 
 
 Ceonas = Zeonas. 
 
 Cobeus, north of the Tucanos. 
 
 Correguages, on head waters of Caqueta and Putumayo. 
 
 Cungies (Kemgeioios), on R. Cungies, a branch of R. Putumayo. 
 
 Curetus (Coretus), west of the Tucanos. 
 
 Dace = Tucanos. 
 
 Eles, north of Betoyes, on Rio Casanare. 
 
 Encabellados = Piojes. 
 
 Icahuates {Icaguates, Icaguages), former name of Piojes. 
 
 Jamas, on Rio Man acacia. 
 
 Jaunas, near River TJauper. 
 
64 
 
 Jupuas, on Rio Apaporis. 
 
 Lolacos, a branch of the Betoyas. 
 
 Macaguages, on Rios Caucaya, Mecaya and Sensella 
 
 Magueias, a branch of the Icahuates. 
 
 Malifilitos, a branch of the Betoyas. 
 
 Neguas, a branch of the Tamas. 
 
 Ocoguages, on R. Putuinayo, near R. Pineya. 
 
 Pararies, a branch of the Zeonas. 
 
 Payaguas, a branch of the Icahuates. 
 
 Pequeyas, a branch of the Piojes. 
 
 Piojes, on Rios Putumayo, Napo and Cocaya. 
 
 Pouzevaries, a branch of the Icahuates. 
 
 Quiiifayes, on Rio Apure. 
 
 Seizos, a branch of the Tamas. 
 
 Seones = Zeonas. 
 
 Silufas (or Situjas), on Rio Casanare. 
 
 Tamas, on Rio Yari and R. Cagua. 
 
 Tucanos, on the Rio Uaupcs. 
 
 TJaupes, on R. Uaupes. 
 
 Tapuas, a branch of the Piojes. 
 
 Tehebos, a branch of the Icahuates. 
 
 Yetes, a branch of the Piojes. 
 
 Zenseies, a branch of the Zeonas. 
 
 Zeonas, between lower Napo and Patumayo rivers. 
 
 Several of these names are synonyms, or merely the same word 
 with varying orthography. The specific termination of no?nina 
 gentilia in the Betoya dialects would seem to be guage, which is 
 perhaps the guce, house, household, people, of the Correguage. 
 Thus, Oco-guage = water people, this tribe, according to Markham, 
 being remarkably skillful canoemen. YeteSs, the Corr. for " hands." 
 Pioje is the negative "no," with which these natives reply to 
 all inquiries addressed them by travelers. Other of the names be- 
 long to the Lingoa Geral ; as, Payagua ■=. enemies ; Pararie (para- 
 uard), parti-colored, /. e., painted men; Atuara = ihe basket 
 (making) men; Jupua in the Jauna dialect means "tree" or 
 "wood" men, while Jauna means, in the lingoa geral, "water- 
 men." Dace is the name of the Toucan bird in the Tucano dialect. 
 " Curetu " in the lingoa geral 'is an opprobrious epithet, " rascals." 
 It was applied to several tribes. Balbi, in his Atlas Ethnographique, 
 gives a short vocabulary of one of these "rascal" tribes, who 
 lived at Ega on the Amazon. It has no connection with the 
 Curetu of the Rio Apaporis. 
 
65 
 
 The Jupua and Curetu dialects are properly one and the same, 
 the difference which appears in their vocabularies arising simply 
 from inequality in the ears and the orthographies of observers. 
 This is evident by the following comparison of the vocabularies of 
 Martius (German orthography) and Wallace (English orthography) : 
 
 
 Jupua (Hartius). 
 
 Curetu (Wallace), 
 
 Blood, 
 
 thik, 
 
 du. 
 
 Bow, 
 
 patopai, 
 
 patueipei. 
 
 Earth, 
 
 thitta, 
 
 ditta. 
 
 Flesh, 
 
 ga'hi', 
 
 se'hea' . 
 
 Finger, 
 
 moh-asoing, 
 
 mu-etshu. 
 
 Fire, 
 
 pieri, 
 
 piure. 
 
 Flower, 
 
 pagari, 
 
 bagaria. 
 
 Foot, 
 
 g'daplim, 
 
 giapa. 
 
 Hair, 
 
 poa, 
 
 phoa. 
 
 Hand, 
 
 moho, 
 
 muhu. 
 
 Head, 
 
 eo'ere, 
 
 cuilri. 
 
 House, 
 
 icu'i, 
 
 wee. 
 
 Mouth, 
 
 tlmchuh, 
 
 dishi. 
 
 Sun, 
 
 liaum, 
 
 acme. 
 
 Tongue, 
 
 toro, 
 
 dolo. 
 
 Tooth, 
 
 gobackaa', 
 
 gophpecuh. 
 
 "Water, 
 
 thaco, 
 
 deeo. 
 
 "Woman, 
 
 nomba, 
 
 nomi. 
 
 These two, the Jupua and Curetu, together with the Jauna and 
 Cobeu, form with the Tucano a group of dialects closely related 
 among themselves ; and they are a branch of the same mother 
 tongue as the Betoya, Tama, Pioje and Correguage, which, in turn, 
 present also merely dialectic differences between each other.* 
 
 In spite of the imperfect materials yet available to study this 
 extended family, the relationship of its scattered members is de- 
 monstrable. To illustrate it, I submit the following : 
 
 Comparative Vocabulary of the Betoya and Tucano Dialectic 
 
 Groups. 
 
 Betoya Group: B. =Betoi ; C. = Correguage ; P. =Pioje; T. =Tama. 
 Tucano Orovp : Cob. = Cobeu ; Cur. = Curetu; Jup. = Jupua; Tuc. = 
 Tucano. 
 
 * Dr. Pfaff (u. s. p. 603) has compared five words of the Tucano, Coretu and Cobeu, pre- 
 senting similarities ; and Dr. Ernst (Zettsehrift fur Ethnol., 1891) has shown similarities of 
 six words in Tamas and Tucano ; but a general survey of the stock has not heretofore 
 been offered. 
 
 5 
 
60 
 
 Man, 
 
 umasoi, B. ; emiud, C. ; 
 
 «Bm<i, imea, Tuc. ; ermeu, 
 Cob., Cur. 
 
 Woman, 
 
 domi, C. ; romeo, T. ; 
 
 womi, Cur. ; nomio, Tuc. 
 
 Fire, 
 
 to' a, P., T.;fu-tui, B.; 
 
 taiMf, Cob. 
 
 Water, 
 
 oco, B„ C, P., T.; 
 
 oco, Tuc; hoggoa, Jup. 
 
 Rain, 
 
 oco-raime, C. ; 
 
 oco-ro, Tuc. 
 
 Tongue, 
 
 chimenu, P.; 
 
 chemeno, Tuc; erimendo, 
 Cob. 
 
 Hand,' 
 
 r'umoeoso (my hand), 
 
 umoca, Tuc. 
 
 Foot, 
 
 coapi, C. ; 
 
 goapJtae, Jup. ; giipa, Cur. 
 
 Teeth, 
 
 cojini, C. ; 
 
 coping, Cob. 
 
 Nose, 
 
 finkepiu (thy), C; 
 
 enkenha, Tuc. 
 
 Forehead, 
 
 siapue, C. ; jopue, T. ; 
 
 dipua, riglipoah (head), 
 Tuc. 
 
 Breast (mamma), 
 
 oxecho, C. ; 
 
 ox-penno, Tuc. 
 
 Meat, 
 
 guai, C. ; 
 
 g'a'Ai, Jup. 
 
 Maize, 
 
 huka, P. ; 
 
 o-hoha, Tuc. 
 
 Jaguar, 
 
 ia'i, P.; thai, C. ; 
 
 j»A, Jup. 
 
 Parrot, 
 
 gueco, C. ; 
 
 we/fci, Tuc. 
 
 Deer, 
 
 mamas, C. ; 
 
 ikama, Jup. 
 
 Egg, 
 
 ista, C. ; 
 
 dta, Cur. 
 
 Fowl, 
 
 cura, C. ; 
 
 caru-Mn, Cob. 
 
 Monkey, 
 
 tangue, C. ; 
 
 a£%e, Tuc. 
 
 Stone, 
 
 casta, C. ; 
 
 iXtana (=i-cata-na), Tuc. 
 
 Star, 
 
 manioco, C. ; 
 
 joeheo', Jup. ; ambiocowa, 
 Cor. ; ua'coa, Tuc. 
 
 Banana, 
 
 0A0A, P., C. ; 
 
 oAo^, Tuc 
 
 Son, 
 
 sii, C. ; 
 
 si-mugi, Cur. 
 
 Sky, 
 
 quen-eme, C; 
 
 imina, J.; imi-se, Tuc. 
 
 Canoe, 
 
 chogue, 0. ; 
 
 ^tffti, Tuc. 
 
 Devil, 
 
 guatb, C; 
 
 oualin, Tuc. 
 
 Enemy, 
 
 pni-name, C. ; 
 
 wa-pat, Tuc. 
 
 Farewell, 
 
 sasje, P.; 
 
 «%«, Tuc. 
 
 In other words, although the identity of the radicals exists, it is 
 not visible in the forms presented. Thus, in Wallace's vocabulary 
 both " sun " and " moon" are rendered by ««)>0, which is the Be- 
 toya «&?, sky, heaven. 
 
 Domi, nomio, "woman," is really a compound of the Betoya 
 feminine r», female, and «»«, or #/»«, " man " (homo), as is easily 
 seen in the Tama ro-meo. 
 
 Very few analogies are visible to the Tapuya (Ges) dialects, to 
 which the Tucano has usually been assigned. The only one of 
 importance is the word for fire, pekhami (Tuc), pahga (Jauna), 
 which appears to be the Botocudo pek. 
 
67 
 
 The conception of number is very slightly developed in this 
 stock, and even the dialects most closely related show wide varia- 
 tions ; for example : 
 
 
 Betoya. 
 
 
 
 Tama. 
 
 PlOJE. 
 
 1, 
 
 s, 
 
 4, 
 5, 
 
 edoyoyoi, 
 
 edoi, 
 
 ibutu, 
 
 ibutu-edoyoyoi (3 + 1), 
 
 ru-mocoso (hand), 
 
 teyo, 
 ca'yapa, 
 cho-teyo (2-J-l), 
 ca'yapa-ria (2 again), 
 cia-jente (hand), 
 
 mono (finger). 
 
 tsamun-cua. 
 
 tsamun-Iiuente-cua. 
 
 tajeseea. 
 
 teserapin. 
 
 In the vocabularies both moko and jente (Jete) are given for hand, 
 and both are used in the words for " five." 
 
 In the Tucano group the dialect which has retained the strongest 
 affinities is the Curetu : 
 
 CUKETU 
 
 One, tchudyu (= Betoya edyuyu) . 
 
 Two, ap-adyu (= " idyu). 
 
 Three, arayu. 
 
 Four, apaedyai (=2 + 2) . 
 
 Five, tchumupa. 
 
 I believe the evidence here briefly presented will be adequate to 
 prove the extended affinities of this stock, and to vindicate its 
 importance in South American ethnography. How far its analogies 
 may be traced north and west I have not sufficient materials to 
 determine. In The American Race, p. 275, I pointed out a 
 few similarities between Betoya and Choco roots; and I would 
 particularly mention that the words for "man" and "woman," 
 uma and ira, reported by early explorers (in 1515) as in use along 
 the northern shore of Venezuela and the Isthmus of Panama, cer- 
 tainly belong to the Betoya language.* 
 
 * " En toda esta tierra Hainan a los hombres omes, y a las mugeres iras." See J. Acosta, 
 Historia de Nueva Granada, p. 453. The tract referred to is from the Gulf of Uraba to the 
 Punto del Nombre de Dios, along the shore of the Isthmus of Panama. 
 
OBSERVATIONS 
 
 The Chinantec Language of Mexico; 
 
 THE MAZATEC LANGUAGE 
 
 AND ITS AFFINITIES. 
 
 DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN LINGUISTICS AND ARCHEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Philadelphia : 
 
 Press of MacCalla & Company, 237-9 Dock St. 
 
 — 1892 — 
 
/(, 
 
 $(£(> 
 
Observations on the Chinantec Language of Mexico. 
 
 By Daniel G. Brinfon, M.D. 
 
 {Read before the American Philosophical Society, January ij, 1892.') 
 
 Name. — The folk-name Chinanteca, plural of chinantecatl, is a 
 word in the Nahuatl language meaning, "inhabitants of Chinantla," 
 which latter signifies a spot enclosed by cane hedges or palisades. 
 By extension, the common term for "village" was chinamitl, as 
 they were usually protected by such light defenses. The Chinan- 
 tecs, therefore, as a nation, are known to us only by the name 
 applied by their neighbors, the Aztecs, to their chief town. 
 
 The assertion of Orozco y Berra that they were also called Tenez 
 arose from a misunderstanding of the letter of Hernando de Barri- 
 entos to Hernando Cortes (15 21). Barrientos was not among the 
 Chinantecs proper, but in another chinamitl in Chiapas.* Still 
 other Chinanteca are mentioned as resident in Nicaragua. This 
 Nahuatl word has absolutely no ethnographic significance. 
 
 Several authors have confounded these Chinanteca with the 
 "Tzinacanteca," or Bat-people, a Maya tribe in Tabasco and 
 Chiapas. The two are nowise related. 
 
 Location. — Their country was located in the mountains of the 
 eastern portion of the State of Oaxaca and on the frontiers of the 
 present State of Vera Cruz. Their neighbors on the north and east 
 were Nahuatl-speaking tribes, on the south the Zapotecs and Mistecs, 
 and on the west the Mazatecs and Cuicatecs, the latter supposed to 
 be a distant branch of the Zapotec stock. Within these boundaries 
 was a wide variety of climate, ranging from the torrid vales of the 
 tierra caliente up to the chilly regions of the high sierra, where we 
 find one of their villages with the significant name " Holy Mary 
 amid the Snows," Santa Maria de las Nieves. The village of 
 Chinantla itself is situated in a wild and mountainous district where 
 the climate is cool and rainy.f Orozco y Berra gives the names of 
 thirty-four other towns inhabited by them. 
 
 * See the letter of Barrientos in the Cartas y Selaciones de Hernando Cortes. Edition of 
 Don Pedro de Gayangos, Paris, 1866, pp. 204, 205 and notes. 
 fB. Miihlenpfordt, Meziko, Bd. ii, s. 214. 
 
 REPRIHTED FEB. 9, 1892, FROM PK0C. AMEB. PHILOS. SOC, VOL. XXX. 
 
4 
 
 History. — The Chinantecs are an extremely ancient people who 
 have resided on the spot where the Spaniards found them from the 
 earliest period of the traditional history of Mexico. We first hear 
 of them as having been conquered by Ahuitzotzin, ruler of Mexico. 
 This event according to the chronology of Torquemada, who is our 
 authority for it,* took place in the year 1488. 
 
 They were treated by their conquerors with the utmost severity 
 and cruelty, of which the historian Herrera cites several instances, f 
 They were glad, therefore, on the appearance of the Spaniards to 
 throw off the yoke of the Mexicans and lend their aid to the invad- 
 ing strangers. 
 
 Culture. — The Chinantecs are described as a rude savage people, 
 living in huts constructed of branches of trees, and devoid of the 
 culture of their neighbors on either hand, the Zapotecs or the 
 Nahuas. Their principal weapon is said to have been lances of un- 
 usual length which they handled with singular dexterity. 
 
 Literature. — The first to reduce the Chinantec language to 
 writing was Brother Francisco Saravia. He was a native of Seville, 
 in Spain ; by trade a cabinetmaker, in that capacity he emigrated 
 to the City of Mexico, where he married and carried on a pros- 
 perous business. The death of his wife, when he was about 
 thirty-five years of age, led him to renounce the world, and in 1574 
 he joined the order of Dominicans. Having been assigned to the 
 province of Oaxaca, he devoted himself to studying the language of 
 the Chinantecs, and in collecting them from the caves and ravines 
 in which they lived into villages where they could cultivate the soil. 
 His success was great, and the natives regarded him with equal love 
 and reverence. For fifty years of his long life he labored among 
 them, and when he died in 1630, at the ripe age of a nonagenarian, 
 he left in the archives of his order a number of MSS. in and upon 
 the language. Of these we have the titles of a Catecismo, an Arte, a 
 Confesionario and Sermones. Probably the most important was his 
 Gran Homilario Chinanteco, a copy of which he placed in every 
 one of the parishes under his care, so that the native sacristan could 
 read the homily when the priest should be prevented from attend- 
 ing. More interesting to the historian doubtless was his autobio- 
 graphical sketch of the tribe written under the title Noticia de la 
 
 * Juan de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, Lib. ii, cap. lxiii. 
 +Historia de las lndias, Deo. ill, Lib. iii, cap. xv. 
 
Conversion de la Nation Chinanieca y sucesos acaecidos en elia al 
 Autor. 
 
 I do not know of a single copy of any of Saravia's writings; and 
 what is more remarkable, Father Nicholas de la Barreda, who pre- 
 cisely one hundred years after Saravia's death printed in Mexico 
 the only known book in the language, had never even heard of his 
 predecessor's labors, and states specifically in his Prologue that he 
 had not found so much as a word written or printed in this tongue. 
 
 Barreda himself is said to have been a native of Oaxaca, and 
 began his missionary work among the Chinantecs about 1708. 
 For a score of years he had been cura of San Pedro de Yolos, when 
 his book appeared — Doctrina Christiana en Lengua Chinanieca 
 (4to, Mexico, 1730). Of this only two copies are known to be 
 extant, from one of which I possess a careful MS. copy by the 
 hand of the late Dr. C. Hermann Berendt. This learned Ameri- 
 canist had commenced a study of the tongue, and left a few notes 
 upon it, which have also been of some service to me, although they 
 are quite fragmentary. 
 
 The tongue is not included in Pimentel's Cuadro Descriptivo de 
 las Lenguas Indigenas de Mexico, and there is no specimen of it 
 accessible to students of linguistics. It appears, therefore, worth 
 while to present a short description of its character ; the more so as 
 this seems different from many American tongues on account of the 
 singular simplicity of its construction. In fact, I entertain some 
 doubts whether Barreda's version represents correctly the idiom in 
 its pure form. It certainly reveals no such difficulties as he speaks 
 of, and resembles strongly a jargon in which inflections and syn- 
 tactic relations have been reduced to their lowest terms. Several 
 of the translations of the early missionaries have proved, on exami- 
 nation, to be in a jargon or trade language of a tribe, and not in 
 its real speech. This may be the case here. 
 
 The Language. — The Chinantec tongue appears to have no 
 affinity with any of its neighbors. It is described as guttural, 
 rough in enunciation and difficult to learn. Barreda says in his 
 Prologue that many of the priests assigned to parishes in the nation 
 tried in vain to acquire it, and, failing in this, attempted to intro- 
 duce the Nahuatl among the Chinantecs ; and that this proving a 
 failure, had asked for other fields of labor. He himself, after 
 twenty years of study, had succeeded but moderately in mastering 
 it, but adds that he had exercised the utmost care in translating 
 
the Doctrina, submitting every word in it to the most intelligent 
 natives of his parish. The dialect he employed was that of Yolos, 
 which differed, but not greatly, from that of other portions of the 
 nation. 
 
 The pronouns are but slightly developed — a fact in marked con- 
 trast to most American tongues. The same form serves for both 
 the personal and the possessive pronouns, and it is probable that 
 there is no distinction between their singular and plural number, 
 although a slight difference is sometimes indicated. 
 
 Pronominal Fokms — Personal and Possessive. 
 I, na. We, nah. 
 
 Thou, no. You, no. 
 
 He, quia. They, quialia. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the pronoun of the third person, quia, may 
 be used for either the second or the first in its possessive sense ; thus, 
 vi chaaqui quia, " for his sins," instead of vi chaaqui na, as a trans- 
 lation of " for my sins." So again, animas quia, as a translation of 
 "our souls." This is analogous to the language of children, who 
 do not clearly distinguish persons, and often refer to themselves in 
 forms of the third person instead of the first. 
 
 The interrogative is he, which also serves as a relative, and with 
 the addition of the adverb of place, la, here, forms the demonstra- 
 tive, hela, this, as hela cna in, "this first one." The demonstrative 
 " that " is usually given by da or nda. 
 
 The indefinite pronoun cha, some, some one, somebody, is fre- 
 quently prefixed, often apparently in a collective or distinctive 
 sense, as chanuh, "some man" or men, i. e., people in general; 
 charuhno, "thy neighbor;" chazaquiun, "somebody bad" — the 
 devil; chajhian, "somebody else." 
 
 In all cases the possessive pronouns are suffixed to the nouns. 
 
 The verbal forms appear to vary considerably. A terminal e or a 
 appears to mark the infinitive, as pane, to chastise ; ngueihna, to 
 kill. The imperative is characterized by the pronoun, as 
 
 Phua lia cala phua na. 
 Say thou as say I. 
 
 The reflexive has the pronoun before and after the verb : 
 Na juanih na. 
 Me bow I. 
 (I bow myself.) 
 
The interrogative form is thus : 
 
 Cale cuihno nuh quiaha? 
 Didst know thou man her 1 
 
 (Didst thou know her husband ?) 
 
 Ca-cuim-ba-na. 
 I did know him. 
 
 In these sentences ca is the sign of the preterit, as again in the 
 following sentence : 
 
 Ma ca-mea testamento nuh u? 
 Did thy father make a will ? 
 
 Where the present form of the verb is mea, to make. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 The prepositions are properly such, being prefixed to the nouns, 
 and separated from them. 
 
 In, no; as, no toho, "in the belly;" no caliz, "in the calix" (sacred 
 
 cup); no chaaqui, "in sin." 
 On, ni; as, nialtar, "on the altar;" nimuicuila, "on this world." 
 Into, lei; as hini lei gotan tan vino lei muian, " (the) bread into flesh and 
 
 (the) wine into blood." 
 Before, in the presence of, quiani; as quianijhian queeha, "before other 
 
 persons." Before, in time, gean. 
 After, in time, quein. 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 And, tan. 
 Also, jalabajna; as, jalabajna na nina, " also I am poor." 
 
 
 Numerals. 
 
 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 
 1 
 
 cna, 
 
 hela cna in. 
 
 2 
 
 tno, 
 
 Tiela tno in. 
 
 3 
 
 nne, nei, 
 
 hela nne in. 
 
 4 
 
 quiu. 
 
 hela quiu in. 
 
 5 
 
 na, 
 
 hela na in. 
 
 6 
 
 niu, 
 
 hela niu in. 
 
 7 
 
 nyaa, 
 
 hela nyaa in. 
 
 8 
 
 nna, 
 
 hela nna in. 
 
 9 
 
 nu, 
 
 hela nu in. 
 
 10 
 
 nya, 
 
 hela nya in. 
 
 20 
 
 nyanya, 
 
 
8 
 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 40 
 
 tno laa. 
 
 50 
 
 tno laa nya. 
 
 60 
 
 nne la. 
 
 70 
 
 nne la nya. 
 
 80 
 
 guiu la. 
 
 100 
 
 na la. 
 
 200 
 
 nya la. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 
 Texts. 
 
 The Lord's Prayer. 
 
 Phui nuhu nah nujui quinno, gualin cuia liela xi-no ; guoshe 
 Lord father our heaven it in, may blessed that name-thy ; come 
 nah nujui guiehe ; guali heli hoM muycuila, jalabajna nujui; gucehe 
 us heaven thy ; may that will earth on, alto heaven ; give 
 hi nahchahachaha, tan ih-no chaaqui guiee ntih, can jhiala in nali 
 bread us all the time, andwilt-thou sins forgive us, just as we 
 cJiazaguiun guiani nah ; tan ta ton-no nah qitehi vi chaagui ; qui mi na7i 
 sins pardon against us ; and not thou us bring to sin ; take us 
 phui Dios geila he saquiu. 
 Lord God all this evil from. 
 
 Extract from the Doctrina op Barreda. 
 
 Porque se hizo hombre el hijo de He vi calefiuhne Jna Dios ? 
 Dios? 
 
 Por librarnos de los manos del Vi caquinne nah quaacha lin, tan 
 
 Demonio, y por redimir nos del vi caquinne nah ni chaa qui. 
 pecado. 
 
 Que hizo Nuestro Sefior Jesu- He camea phui nah .Tesu Christo, 
 
 Christo para librarnos? vi caquinne nah? 
 
 Padeci6 muchos tormentos, fue Cangfiinne nule Juahui, cajanqua 
 
 crucifjcado, murio y fue sepultado. ni cruce, cajone, can cahanne. 
 
 Que hizo nuestro Sefior Jesu- He camea phuinah Jesu Christo, 
 
 Christo despues que muri6 ? qua male jonne ? 
 
 Al tercerodia despues que murid, Nnemui qua male jonne, cagnihi, 
 
 rescuscit6, y a, las quarcnta dias tan tno la mui qua male cagnihi 
 
 despues que resuscitd subio a. los cangaa na nujui, tan cahuiaa quaa 
 
 cielos y se sent6 a, la mano diestra cha Dios mii geilaha li mea._ 
 de Dios padre todo poderoso. 
 
 Viendra olra vez nuestro Sefior Nijhea que tno phui nah Jesu 
 Jesu-Christo a este mundo ? Christo, mui cuila ? 
 
9 
 
 Otra vez ha de venir quando se 
 acabe el inundo, a tomar cuenta a 
 todos los vivos y muertos para dar- 
 les el cielo para siempre a, todos los 
 que guardaron bien sus nianda- 
 mientos; y a los que no los guar- 
 daron bien, les dam para siempre 
 penas en el inflerno. 
 
 Como muri6 nuestro Senor Jesu 
 Christo? 
 
 Muri<5 como hombre ; no muri6 
 como Dios; porque Dios no puede 
 morir. 
 
 Si Dios no puede morir, como 
 murio nuestro Senor Jesu Christo ? 
 
 Aunque nuestro Senor Jesu 
 Christo era Dios, era tambien 
 hombre, y asi pudo morir como 
 hombre, y no pudo como Dios ; 
 porque Dios nunca puede morir. 
 
 Quando muere la gente en este 
 mundo, tambien mueron sus almas ? 
 
 No mueron sus almas, sino sola- 
 mente el cuerpo muere; porque no 
 puede morir el alma. 
 
 T cuando muere el cuerpo, muere 
 para siempre 1 
 
 No puede morir para siempre, 
 porque el dia que se acabe el mundo, 
 resuscitaran todos los cuerpos, y se 
 juntaron con sus almas, ya para 
 nunca mas morir. 
 
 Adonde van las animas de los 
 defuntos quando ruueren sus cuer- 
 pos ? 
 
 Las animas de los buenos van al 
 cielo para siempre, porque guarda- 
 ron bien lo que manda la ley de 
 Dios ; y las almas de los malos van 
 al inflerno, porque no guardaron 
 bien lo que manda la ley de Dios. 
 
 Cna que, nijhea mui cha in mui 
 cui, jhea quia quenta geilan chaxan, 
 tan cha jon, cha queh nujui geila 
 muiba geilan cha ca hah quiu man- 
 damiento quiaha ; tan hi chaza 
 cahah quiu, queh geila muiba juahui 
 nyajui. 
 
 Ihiala cajonne phui nah Jesu 
 Christo ? 
 
 Cajonne calan cha, aza cajonne 
 calan Dios, chavi Dios aza li jonne. 
 
 Ze Dios aza li jonne, ihiala ca 
 jonne phui nah Jesu Christo? 
 
 Gni cu jua phui nah Jesu 
 Christo yha Dios, ja hala jna yba 
 Suhne; vihe jna le jonne calan 
 chanu, tan aza li jonne calan Dios ; 
 chavi Dios aza li jonne jua lei que. 
 
 Ma jonnencha muicuila, jabala 
 j na jon anima quiaha ? 
 
 Aza jon anima quiaha, ma jna 
 la ha gotamba jonne ; vi aza li jon 
 anima. 
 
 Tan ma jonne gotan, jonne 
 cnaphue 1 
 
 Aza li jonne cnaphue geila muiba, 
 vi quiaha mui cha in muicui, jna 
 tno nigni cala geila gotan, tan nigni 
 cnaha animas quiaha, vi aza jua cna 
 li jonne. 
 
 Jhia cha animas cha jon ma jonne 
 gotan quiaha ? 
 
 Animas chaqui vn cha nu jui 
 geila muiba, chavi hah quiu he quiu 
 hutaju quiaha Dios; tan animas cha 
 zaquiun cha nya jui, chavi za hah 
 quiu he quiu huta ju quiaha Dios. 
 
 Que es cielo ? 
 
 Cielo es un lugar lleno de mucho 
 
 He nu jui ? 
 
 Nujui cnanamba, canle nu phueli 
 
10 
 
 y grande gloria ; lleno de todo 
 genero de bienes, y de todo genero 
 de alegria, en donde esta Dios nues- 
 tro Sefior, la Santissima Virgen, 
 todos los Angeles y todos los Santos. 
 Alii van las almas de los buenos 
 que sirvieron a Dios a descansar 
 para siempre, que nunca se podra 
 acabar. 
 
 gloria, canle cala geila juayanchij, 
 thia nhuiaa phui nah Dios, xanujui, 
 geilan angeles, tan geilan santos. 
 Nda cha animas chaquiun, clia 
 camea ta quiaha Dios, ma bine cala 
 geila muiba, aza jua li chan. 
 
 English-Chinantec Vocabulary. 
 
 Alive, chaxan. 
 
 All, geila, geilan, lagei; geila hejna, 
 
 "all tbese things ;" geila balimea, 
 
 "all-powerful." 
 And, conj., tan. 
 Bad, azaquiu, zaquiu, chaaguiu (= 
 
 not good). 
 Because, chavi. 
 Believe, to, changa. 
 Belly, toho ; "in the belly of the 
 
 virgin," no toho xa muinne 
 Bird, ta. 
 Blood, muian, muien ; "by the 
 
 blood," muien no (mui = water 
 
 and woman). 
 Body, gotan; " in body and soul," 
 
 gotan tan anima quiaha. 
 Boy, quana. 
 Bread, hini. 
 Breast, ehij. 
 Brother, run. 
 Child, yun. 
 Day, muiba 
 Dead, ma-jon, cha-jon. 
 Devil, zaquiun (see "bad"); chalin 
 
 (see "sick"). 
 Die, to, jon-ne. 
 Drink, to, nguhu. 
 Ear, (la)quaha. 
 Earth, muycui. 
 Eat, to, culm. 
 Eye, manihi. 
 
 False, a lie, azacha (— not true). 
 Father, nuh (= man) ; mii; Dios mii, 
 "God the Father." 
 
 Fire, gei. 
 
 Foot, tehi. 
 
 Full, canle. 
 
 Girl, muiyun (= female child). 
 
 Give, to, quce, quas he. 
 
 Good, quiu. 
 
 Grandfather, nyuh. 
 
 Grandmother, nyaa. 
 
 Great, phue ; superlative, nu phueli. 
 
 Hand, quaha ; "open thy hands," 
 
 janquaha! "In thy hands I 
 
 place my soul," nqunlia na 
 
 animaquia. 
 Head, gui ; "throw water on the 
 
 head of the child," yaha muini 
 
 gui yun. 
 Heart, haha. 
 Heaven, nujui, nahui. 
 Hell, nyajui. 
 Herb, ha. 
 House, nu. 
 How, jhiala, cala; how loDg, ja 
 
 mui. 
 Husband, nuquia (= consecrated 
 
 man, i. e., by the Church). 
 If, ze. 
 
 Infant, chimina. 
 Join, to, cun (= to marry). 
 Know, to (saber), nih. 
 Know, to (conocer), cuih. 
 Kill, to, ngueihna. 
 Live, to, xan. 
 Magician, gin. 
 
 Make, to (Span, hacer), mea. 
 Man, nuh, chanu. 
 
11 
 
 Meat, flesh, gno. 
 
 Money, cu. 
 
 Month, zei. 
 
 Moon, zei. 
 
 Mother, xa, xaha. 
 
 Mountain, hill, maa. 
 
 Much, nu, nuU. 
 
 Name, xi; hi xi no? " What (is) 
 
 thy name?" 
 Nephew, niece, nyaa. 
 No, aza, za. 
 Nothing, aza-he. 
 Now, na. 
 Or, qua. 
 
 Pay, to, qui-M, quei. 
 Place, narriba. 
 Poor, nin, nina. 
 Pudenda feminse, yuh. 
 Pudenda viri, cnu. 
 Relation, a, ruh, run (== brother). 
 Shoulder, ca. 
 Sick, chah. 
 Sin, chaaqui. 
 Small, little, miha. 
 
 Son, jna. 
 
 Soon, naba. 
 
 Speak, to, phua. 
 
 Steal, to, Held. 
 
 Stick, wood, ma. 
 
 Stone, cnu. 
 
 Sun, manui. 
 
 Tears, mui nii (= water, eyes). 
 
 Town, jut. 
 
 True, clia. 
 
 Uncle, aunt, Maya. 
 
 Virgin, muinne (v. woman). 
 
 Water, mui. 
 
 When, ma. 
 
 Where, jhia. 
 
 Wife, muiquia (see " husband " 
 
 With, cnalia. 
 
 Wizard, Ian. 
 
 Woman, mui, cha-mui. 
 
 Word, ju; cnaju, "one word ' 
 
 Work, to, ta. 
 
 Year, gni. 
 
 Yes, xa, jna, ma (iba = it is) . 
 
 On the Mazatec Language of Mexico and its Affinities. 
 
 By Daniel G. Brinton, M. D. 
 {Read before the American Philosophical Society, January 75, 1892. ) 
 
 In the northeastern corner of the State of Oaxaca lies a moun- 
 tainous tract, watered by numerous streams, known from earliest 
 times by its Aztec name Teutitlan, the Divine Land, or The Land 
 of the Gods, and officially now as the district Teutitlan del 
 Camino. It has about 26,000 inhabitants, a large proportion of 
 whom are of native blood. These speak three radically different 
 languages — the Cuicatec, which is probably a dialect of the Zapo- 
 tecan stock; the Chinantec, which stands alone, and the Mazatec, 
 of which nothing whatever has been known, and which it is my aim 
 to examine and, if possible, classify in the present study. 
 
 The material I have for the purpose is an unpublished vocabulary, 
 collected by a Danish officer, who was in the service of Maximilian, 
 
12 
 
 and which has been obligingly furnished me by Mr. Alphonse 
 Pinart, whose extensive researches in American linguistics are well 
 known. The only published materials in existence are two trans- 
 lations of the Lord's Prayer into different dialects of the tongue. 
 These have been reprinted by Pimentel, Bancroft and other writers. 
 Their precise provenance is unknown ; as for the vocabulary, it was 
 obtained at Huantla, northeast of the town of Teutitlan. 
 
 Names. — The name Mazatecatl — plural, Mazateca — means " Deer 
 People" in the Aztec or Nahuatl language. It may have been 
 given them by their Nahuatl neighbors on account of their land 
 abounding in deer ; or, as some say, because they worshiped the 
 figure of a deer — that is, had a deer totem among them. There 
 were other Mazatecas living in the present State of Tabasco, and 
 yet others in the State of Guerrero ; but we have no reason to sup- 
 pose that those "Deer Peoples" were at all related to these in 
 Teutitlan. What they called themselves, if they had a collective 
 tribal name, we do not know. 
 
 Nor is it certain why their country was referred to by the Aztecs 
 as "The Land of the Gods." It seems likely that it was on 
 account of the numerous temples that existed there, and the unusu- 
 ally devotional character of the natives. The remains of these 
 ancient religious structures and of the artificial mounds which sup- 
 ported them still bear witness to this, and two of their villages yet 
 bear the names San Antonio de los Cues and San Juan de los Cues, 
 the term cues (a Haytian word) being applied by the Spaniards to 
 artificial mounds. The former is situated in the valley of the Rio 
 Salado ; the latter in an adjacent valley. Unfortunately, no 
 archaeological exploration of them has been reported.* 
 
 Their religious character is also referred to by the early Spanish 
 writers. Sahagun describes them as performing remarkable tricks 
 at certain festivals, such as swallowing live snakes and frogs. f 
 Mendieta speaks of their rigid fasts and abstinence from marital 
 relations for fifteen days after the nuptials. The historian Herrera 
 gives the following description of some of their rites : 
 
 "In the Province of Teutitlan, where the Mazatec language is 
 
 * Another Teotitlan— " Teotitlan del Valle "—is found in Oaxaca. It was so called 
 from the temple of a famous divinity, which was erected on the summit of a high rock 
 near by. This was the goal of numerous pilgrims, and, according to Seflor J. B. Car- 
 riedo, "fuSuno de los santuarios de mas estima y de mas nombre en la gentilidad." 
 Estudios Historicos del Estado Oazaquefio. Tom. i, pp. 15, 16. 
 
 t HUtoria de Nueva Espafia. Lib. ii, Apendice. 
 
13 
 
 spoken, which adjoined that of the Mistecs, they were accustomed 
 to flay the sacrificial victims, and carried the skins to the neigh- 
 boring villages, asking alms. On the day of a certain important 
 festival, which took place annually, the priests ascended the temple 
 and struck a war drum. At this signal all the Indians who were in 
 the fields had to run to their houses and their town. Then those 
 who had carried the skins of the victims sallied forth and ran about 
 the country till midday, and whenever they caught a person they 
 cut his hair so as to form a sort of crown around his head, and such 
 persons were destined to be sacrificed within one year."* 
 
 According to Aztec mythology — which is very rarely to be 
 regarded as historical — the natives of Teutitlan were descended from 
 Xelhua, the oldest of the six sons of Iztac Mixcohuatl and his wife, 
 Ilancuey, the venerable pair who dwelt in and ruled the mysterious 
 northern Land of the Seven Caves, called in Nahuatl Chicomoztoc.f 
 This Xelhua was a mighty man — one of the "Giants," — and was 
 surnamed the Builder, for he it was who constructed the famous 
 Pyramid of Cholula. He is also referred to as chief of the Olmeca, 
 an unknown, ancient people. 
 
 We need attach little importance to these old stories, and will 
 find it more profitable to turn to the language of the Mazatecas to 
 discover their affiliations. 
 
 In investigating its possible analogies with other idioms I have 
 been somewhat surprised at the relationships which it certainly dis- 
 closes. These are not with the Zapotec-Mixtec stock, as I have 
 (erroneously) stated in my work, The American Race,\ but with 
 two quite remote and independent stocks. 
 
 The one of these is the Chapanec, which was spoken in the present 
 State of Chiapas, and also at the time of the conquest by many 
 thousand natives, who occupied the shores of Lake Managua and 
 Fonseca Bay, in Nicaragua, where they were known as Mangues 
 and Orotinans. The dialects of this stock are closely akin to each 
 other. 
 
 The second list of affinities point to a still more remote and 
 unexpected relationship. The Mangues had as neighbors beyond 
 the Cordilleras, in Costa Rica, a group of related tribes — the Tala- 
 
 * Historia de las Indias Occidentalcs, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 15. 
 f Mendieta, Historia Eclesias'.ica Indiana, Lib. ii, cap. 33. 
 
 X The American Race : A Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic Description of the 
 yative Tribes of North and South America, p. 142 (Sew York, 1891). 
 
14 
 
 mancas, Borucas, Bribris, Vizeitas, etc., whom I shall call, col- 
 lectively, " Costa Rican." These have been satisfactorily shown 
 by Dr. Max Uhle, Dr. A. Ernst and other students to be not dis- 
 tantly connected with the important Chibchastem of New Granada, 
 which, at the conquest, was widely extended over that Province, 
 and is the only linguistic stock of South America whose presence in 
 North America has been proved.* 
 
 After presenting the vocabulary furnished me by Mr. Pinart and 
 the texts offered by Pimentel I shall pursue the comparisons of the 
 stock of terms thus supplied. 
 
 English-Mazatecan Vocabulary. 
 
 Arm, chale. 
 
 Bad, minda. 
 
 Banana, naeha'. 
 
 Beans, nalima' '. 
 
 Beard, tza' a. 
 
 Black, twna. 
 
 Blue, iso. 
 
 Boy, indidi(see "Son"). 
 
 Bread, chu hi. 
 
 Breast (chest), animale. 
 
 Brown, schene'. 
 
 Cactus, nan' da. 
 
 Cat, a, chito. 
 
 Chief, chicunai. 
 
 Church, inai. 
 
 Clothing, nihye. 
 
 Clouds, ifi. 
 
 Cow, ngchaha'. 
 
 Daughter, tzadi (see "Girl"). 
 
 Day, gunichi. 
 
 Dead, eoviu. 
 
 Die, to, cuiyane. 
 
 Dog, nanya. 
 
 Door, cliutoa. 
 
 Ear, sehieal. 
 
 Earth, nangi. 
 
 Egg, eho'. 
 
 Evening, gischo. 
 
 Eye, schca. 
 
 Eyebrows, tza ixpan (?). 
 
 Father, tala. 
 
 Finger, noon-tza (see " Hand"). 
 
 Fire, nii. 
 
 Foot, tzoco. 
 
 Forehead, ten. 
 
 Girl, tzadi. 
 
 God, naina'. 
 
 Gold, naleto. 
 
 Good, dani. 
 
 Green, tzare'. 
 
 Hail, tzinayo. 
 
 Hair, coslie'. 
 
 Hand, tza. 
 
 Hat, tzingye. 
 
 Head, tku. 
 
 Heaven, garni. 
 
 Here, ihndi. 
 
 Hill, nindo. 
 
 Iron, quicha. 
 
 Large, tzea. 
 
 Leaf, schcatiya (= ear-tree). 
 
 Light, ase'. 
 
 Lightning, Teuata. 
 
 Lungs, nyesi. 
 
 Maize, name'. 
 
 Man, cMi. 
 
 Meat, yoje. 
 
 Money, to. 
 
 Moon, sa. 
 
 Morning, tanhya. 
 
 Mouth, tzoa. 
 
 Night, nhyu. 
 
 * See The American Race, pp. 184-186. 
 
15 
 
 Hose, nitu. 
 
 Onion, tatzo. 
 
 Palm, schahe'. 
 
 Paper, sehuhu'. 
 
 Plantain, nacha'. 
 
 Plaza, titei. 
 
 Pretty, da. 
 
 Rain, tzi. 
 
 Red, int. 
 
 River, dahoe. 
 
 Road, diya. 
 
 Sea, daeMeu. 
 
 Sheep, ehilzanga. 
 
 Sierra, gihya. 
 
 Silver, tonschua. 
 
 Small, tun. 
 
 Snow, dandya. 
 
 Son, indi (see "13oy "). 
 
 Star, ningutzea. 
 
 Stone, noyo. 
 
 The personal pronouns are ; 
 
 I, gda'. 
 Thou, galiye'. 
 He, lie. 
 
 Summit, the, garonindo. 
 
 Sun, sui. 
 
 Teeth, niiyu. 
 
 There, hani. 
 
 Thigh, chamila. 
 
 Toe, noonlzoeo (see " Foot "). 
 
 Tree, iya. 
 
 Tobacco, naJinu. 
 
 To-day, gandni. 
 
 Tomato, ehiti. 
 
 Town, naschananda. 
 
 Turkey buzzard, nihye. 
 
 Ugly, chiu. 
 
 Water, nanda. 
 
 White, cluihua. 
 
 Wind, to. 
 
 Woman, elm. 
 
 Year, guno. 
 
 Yellow, sine. 
 
 Yesterday, gohia. 
 
 We, galii. 
 You, gahini. 
 They, niahne 1 . 
 
 Of the possessives I find the following : 
 
 Mine, na. 
 Thine, li. 
 
 His, le'. 
 Our, nalian. 
 
 The numerals are given thus : 
 
 go'. 
 
 ho'. 
 
 ha'. 
 
 niliu'. 
 
 u. 
 
 hu'. 
 
 yato'. 
 
 10 
 11 
 15 
 20 
 30 
 
 hi. 
 
 nyaha'. 
 
 te. 
 
 tengo. 
 
 chu. 
 
 cung. 
 
 hate. 
 
 There are two versions of the Lord's Prayer given in Pimentel's 
 Cuadro Descriptivo de las Lenguas de Mexico. They evidently 
 have been made by different persons, and represent different dia- 
 lects of the tongue, and apparently neither is in that of Huantla, 
 
16 
 
 where the vocabulary was obtained. Both, however, are clearly 
 Mazatec, and the differences disappear considerably on analysis. 
 
 They are as follows : 
 
 A. 
 
 "JVddmina naina ga tecni gahami ; sandumi Hi gatirrubanajin 
 nanguili ; cuaha caiama janimali, jacunit die nangui cunit gahami ; 
 niiio rrajinna tey quitaha najin : qntedchatahanajin gadchidtonajin 
 jacunitgajin nedchata alejin chidtaga tedtunajin : guquimittacun- 
 tuajin, tued tinajin cuacha ca/ama." 
 
 B. 
 
 "Tata nahan, xi nacd nihaseno : chacua catoma niere : catichova 
 rico manimajin : catcma cuazuare, donjara batob cornangui, baieco 
 nihasen: niotisla najin ri ganeihinixtin, tiuto najin de hi : ni canuhi 
 ri guitenajin donjara batoo, juirin ni canojin ri quiteisajin: quini- 
 quenahi najin ri danjin quisanda nongo niqueste MeeV 
 
 Referring to the first as A and the second as B we may make the 
 following comparisons with words in the Vocabulary: 
 
 B. 
 
 VOCAB. 
 
 Our, 
 
 
 naina, 
 
 nahan, 
 
 nahan. 
 
 Father, 
 
 
 nadmina, 
 
 tata, 
 
 M<wni("cura" ) 
 
 Thou, 
 
 
 ga, 
 
 nacd, 
 
 gahye. 
 
 Heaven, 
 
 
 gahami, 
 
 nihaseno, 
 
 garni. 
 
 Earth, 
 
 
 nangui, 
 
 nangui. 
 
 nangi. 
 
 Kingdom (thy), 
 
 janima-li, 
 
 manima-jin. 
 
 
 Give (thou), 
 
 
 nino, 
 
 nio-tisla. 
 
 
 To-day, 
 
 
 
 ganei, 
 
 gundai. 
 
 Us (= to us, 
 
 of us), 
 
 najin, 
 
 najin. 
 
 
 Turning now to an investigation of the affinities of the Mazatecan, 
 I present the following arrangement of a number of words, with 
 their corresponding terms, in dialects either of the Chapanecan or 
 Chibchan stock. It is noteworthy that very rarely do we find any 
 word which is at all alike in the three. The Mazatecan terms seem 
 to have been derived from two sources radically dissimilar. 
 
17 
 
 Comparison of the Mazatec with the Chapanecan and 
 Chibchan Stocks. 
 
 
 
 
 Chibchan. 
 
 
 Mazatec. 
 
 Chapanecan. 
 
 Costa Rican. 
 
 New Granadian, 
 
 Arm, 
 
 chale, . 
 
 goloa, ghvlua 
 
 
 
 Banana, 
 
 nacha. 
 
 noko-tona. 
 
 
 
 Black, 
 
 tuna, 
 
 
 turinat, 
 
 funza. 
 
 Blue, 
 
 ISO, 
 
 
 dsdJie, siona. 
 
 
 Breast, 
 
 animate, 
 
 
 aniermi, V. 
 
 
 Cat, 
 
 chito, 
 
 txitu. 
 
 
 
 Chief, 
 
 chicunu, 
 
 
 
 chiquy (priest). 
 
 Dead, 
 
 coviu, 
 
 coijme. 
 
 
 
 Die, to, 
 
 cui-yane, 
 
 hui. 
 
 
 
 Dog, 
 
 nanya, 
 
 nombi. 
 
 
 
 Ear, 
 
 schieal, 
 
 
 sekuke, ikuaga, 
 
 quhyea. 
 
 Eye, 
 
 schcu, 
 
 
 ocua, s'oew, 
 
 upcua. 
 
 Fire, 
 
 nii, 
 
 nio. 
 
 
 
 Flesh, 
 
 yoje. 
 
 nbolioui. 
 
 
 
 Foot, 
 
 tzoco. 
 
 
 tsuku-nukue, V. 
 
 
 Good, 
 
 dani, 
 
 pami, game. 
 
 
 
 Hair, 
 
 cosTie, 
 
 
 seha, 
 
 quyhe. 
 
 Hand, 
 
 tza, 
 
 
 
 yta. 
 
 Head, 
 
 tku, 
 
 Ookua. 
 
 
 
 Here, 
 
 Hindi, 
 
 jaiide. 
 
 
 
 Hill, 
 
 nindo, 
 
 ndili. 
 
 
 
 Hilltop, 
 
 garomindo, 
 
 namando. 
 
 
 
 Lightning 
 
 , kuata, 
 
 koita-pumene 
 (thunder) 
 
 
 
 Maize 
 
 nama. 
 
 name. 
 
 
 
 Han, 
 
 chti. 
 
 
 Aec7iiehe. 
 
 
 Money, 
 
 to, 
 
 tu-mi. 
 
 
 
 Moon, 
 
 sa, 
 
 
 so, sie, 
 
 za (night). 
 
 Mouth, 
 
 tzoa, 
 
 duui. 
 
 
 
 Mountain, 
 
 gihya, 
 
 gua. 
 
 
 
 Night, 
 
 nhyu, 
 
 nyufui. 
 
 
 
 Nose, 
 
 nitu. 
 
 nyungu. 
 
 
 
 Rain, 
 
 tzi, 
 
 
 
 siu. 
 
 Red, 
 
 ini, 
 
 
 bets-ena, serir-ine. 
 
 
 River, 
 
 dahoe, 
 
 naju. 
 
 
 
 Road, 
 
 diya, 
 
 nila. 
 
 
 
 Sea, 
 
 dachieu, 
 
 
 deche, deehequ-in. 
 
 
 Small, 
 
 tua, 
 
 
 txoua-pa, T. 
 
 
 Star, 
 
 ningutzea, 
 
 najuiti. 
 
 
 
 Stone, 
 
 noyo, 
 
 nyugu, noca. 
 
 
 
 Sun, 
 
 sui, 
 
 
 chui, 
 
 sua. 
 
18 
 
 
 
 
 Chiechan. 
 
 
 Mazatec. 
 
 Chapanecan. 
 
 Costa Eican. New Granadian. 
 
 Teeth, 
 
 niiyu, 
 
 niji. 
 
 
 There, 
 
 hani, 
 
 ti-ha. 
 
 
 Tree, 
 
 iya, 
 
 nya. 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 
 
 buzzard, nikye, 
 
 nekatu. 
 
 
 "Water, 
 
 nanda, 
 (stream) 
 
 nanda. 
 
 
 White, 
 
 chuhua, 
 
 
 suruna, suat. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 to, 
 
 tiho. 
 
 
 Woman, 
 
 elm, 
 
 
 »oora, sue, gut. 
 
 Yellow, 
 
 sine, 
 
 
 psi, slioin-ore. 
 
 I, 
 
 gad, 
 
 saho. 
 
 
 My, 
 
 na, 
 
 riba. 
 
 
 One, 
 
 go, 
 
 U-ghe, lieao. 
 
 
 Two, 
 
 u. 
 
 liao. 
 
 
 Three, 
 
 ha, 
 
 haui. 
 
 
 I think that the above comparison will leave no doubt . but that 
 the Mazatec is affiliated with both these stocks. With regard to 
 the Chapanecan, no other supposition will explain the substantial 
 identity of the words for : 
 
 Fire, 
 
 nii 
 
 and 
 
 nio. 
 
 Water, 
 
 nanda 
 
 and 
 
 nanda (stream). 
 
 Maize, 
 
 nama 
 
 and 
 
 name. 
 
 Tree, 
 
 iya 
 
 and 
 
 nya. 
 
 Lightning, 
 
 huata 
 
 and 
 
 Jcoita. 
 
 Night, 
 
 nhyu 
 
 and 
 
 nyu-fui. 
 
 Teeth, 
 
 niyu 
 
 and 
 
 niji. 
 
 Stone, 
 
 noyo 
 
 and 
 
 nyugu. 
 
 Cat, 
 
 ditto 
 
 and 
 
 txitu. 
 
 Here, 
 
 Hindi 
 
 and 
 
 jande. 
 
 One, 
 
 go 
 
 and 
 
 Head. 
 
 Two, 
 
 ho 
 
 and 
 
 had. 
 
 Three, 
 
 ha 
 
 and 
 
 haui. 
 
 Not less positive are the identities of the following words of the 
 Mazatecan and Chibchan (Costa Rican) groups : 
 
 Sun, 
 
 sui 
 
 with 
 
 eliui or sua. 
 
 Moon, 
 
 sa 
 
 with 
 
 so, sie (or za). 
 
 Ear, 
 
 sehical 
 
 with 
 
 gahyea, sehuke. 
 
 Eye, 
 
 schcu 
 
 with 
 
 s'oevo, ocum. 
 
 Hair, 
 
 coshe 
 
 with 
 
 schd, quyhe. 
 
19 
 
 Man, chi with Tie-eld-ehe. 
 
 Woman, elm with sue, gui. 
 
 Rain, tzi with siu. 
 
 Sea, daehieu with dechegu-in. 
 
 Foot, tfzoco with tsuku. 
 
 The words for the colors white, black, blue, yellow and red show 
 rather remote, but, perhaps, actual resemblances. They have no 
 analogy whatever with the Chapanecan color terms. 
 
 The ethnographic conclusion to which this comparison would 
 lead is that the Mazatecas do not constitute an independent stock, 
 but a branch of the Chapanec group, which was at some early date 
 of its history largely infiltrated with blood of the Costa Rican 
 tribes of South American descent. This may have arisen from the 
 adoption of some large band, which had migrated across the moun- 
 tains separating Costa Rica from Nicaragua. The Mangue branch 
 of the Chapanecs lived in Nicaragua, in immediate proximity to 
 these mountains, and must have been in frequent relations with the 
 tribes beyond them. 
 
 But how explain the extensive journey from Nicaragua to the 
 northern limits of the State of Oaxaca ? Here an ancient tradition 
 of the Mangues comes to our aid. It was preserved by Father 
 Remesal in his History of Chiapas, and runs to the effect that at a 
 remote time a considerable number of the Mangues departed from 
 the shores of Lake Managua and journeyed to the north, into the 
 territory of the Zoques. Remesal construed this to explain the 
 origin of the Chapanecs of Chiapas; but the traditions of the latter 
 do not acknowledge this derivation, and it is probable that the 
 Mangues referred to some other division of their community. 
 This may well have been that which conveyed a mixed dialect of 
 Mangue and Costa Rican as far as the northern borders of Oaxaca. 
 
 We have also early evidence that a band of the Mangues, num- 
 bering about four hundred souls, occupied a town in the midst of 
 the Costa Rican tribes, in the valley of Guaymi, fronting on the 
 Golfo Dolce. There they were found by the Spanish explorers in 
 1563.* Doubtless they absorbed more or less of the language of 
 their rulers, the Guaymis; and the following identities between the 
 Mazatecan and the Guaymi vocabularies (published by Mr. Pinart 
 in the Revue d' Ethnographie, 1887) seem conclusive. 
 
 * Peralta, Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panama en d Siglo XVI, p. 777 (Madrid, 1883). 
 
20 
 
 
 Mazatecan. 
 
 Guaymi. 
 
 Sun, 
 
 aui, 
 
 shui. 
 
 Moon, 
 
 sa, 
 
 so. 
 
 Head, 
 
 tku, 
 
 doknia. 
 
 Nose, 
 
 nito, 
 
 nido-n. 
 
 If these identifications are correct, they enable us to trace the 
 influence of a South American linguistic stock as far into North 
 America as the northern border of Oaxaca — a discovery full of sig- 
 nificance for the history of the aboriginal culture of the central 
 portion of the continent.