L I M ,|<«*«»'W"'l'"™|''"'"™'»!i<, 1 2 7 l\«ISia.lJ,ztL*sL;!:,:A J!L«^ M88x »;P::pjffl "fflfi "ftj-.'-flnt^tt/ini,^ ""%,■ """^■'s \ ■ ''rv ■te ill b' : y ''\>.^ ¥ uTuir uujt wwirtir- uuutitu «rnKi«m utmotBDiWHi 7 umawir- mKtxjimm -imui CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3JI924 081 289 963 iAliE TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE IN THE NORMAL DEPARTMENT OE BATTLE CREEK COIXAGE, BATTLE CREEK, MICH. AUTHOR OF bOTTER^ NEW ELEMENTARY GEOGIViPHY, ETC. ETC.' I cs-^ [Ci)>c)^ CoiuMBiA Book Company. PHILADELPHIA. Copyright BY ELIZA H. MORTON. 1891. REVISED EDITION. Copyright BY COLUMBIA BOOK CO. 1898, 1901, 1903. CAUTIOIT.— The engravings, maps, and lithographic work, as well as ihe printed matter, heing fully protected by copyright, we desire to caution all persons against copying or reproducing in any form ; any one so offending wIIl be prosecuted. T^HE DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF THIS BOOK IS to Cultivate independent thought, to discourage mechanical memor- izing, and to make the study an attractive one. ■ ' ■ ■• Geography is regarded as a science based on great principles, which, when woven together in a natural order, form a complete framework' into which, facts and details may be gathered and fitted in all after life. Man is made the central object, and the adaptation of the earth to his wants is clearly shown. The great slopes op the earth are, considered in their relation to drainage, climate, productions,ij and animal life. "" '^ The history of nations is traced in connection with their physical characteristics, thus clearly-^ showing the natural development of civilization. Locality is taught mainly by association and map-drawing. Map-drawing is presented by means of a pleasing method which appeals to the eye, cultivates the taste and imagination, improves the reasoning powers, and strengthens the memory. The attractive side of the subject is brought to light by means of vivid word-paintings and facts calculated to awaken curiosity, to hold the attention, and to create an abiding interest. The memory is assisted by the comparative method, which calls attention to striking contrasts and remarkable resemblances. Clearness of thought is developed by the concise language of the text, by the appropriateness of the illustrations, and by constant appeals to the reason and judgment of the pupils. A Teacher's Edition of the book gives an epitome of a library of helpful methods, devices, suo-gestions, illustrations, blackboard sketches, and attractive information for supplementary work. With the aid of these notes the inexperienced instructor may properly prepare his daily lessons, and be inspired with the belief that he can easily gain the power to maintain an enthusiastic interest and to benefit his class ; while the experienced teacher cannot fail to find suggestive hints stimulating his mind to renewed activity and opening vistas of investigation, leading to the most profound thought and to the highest and noblest preparation for his work. ^ Eliza H. Morton. 3 PA6K The Eaeth — Inteoductory 5 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Representations of the Earth 6 Form and Size of the Earth 6 Motions of the Earth 6 Heating of the Earth hy the Sun 7 Circles of the Earth 8 Locality 8 Latitude and Longitude 8, 9 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Land 9 Waters of the Atmosphere 10 Oceanic Waters 11 Motions of the Ocean 11 Continental Waters 12 The Hemispheres 13 The Great Slopes of the Earth 13 Map-Reading Exercise 16 The Wind Belts . . : 17 The Rainfall of the Globe 18 Climate 19 Vegetable Life 20 Animal Lite 21 The Human Race 21 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Conffitions of Society 22 Industries 23 Religion 23 Government 24 .25 Map-Developing North America. Description 37 The Arctic Coast 27 The Atlantic Coast 27 The Pacific Coast 28 The Great Slopes of the Continent 28 The Primary Highlands 28-30 The Secondary Highlands 30, 31 The Atlantic Plain 31 The Great Central Plain 32 Drainage 32 North American Rivers 32 North American Lakes 33 Climate 33, 34 Vegetation 35 Animal Life ? 35 People . . . .• 36 Centres of Industry 37 Political Divisions 37 Map-Reading Exercise 38 4 The United States. Description 40 Inhabitants 40 i Centres of Industry 42 Great Routes of Travel 46 Standard Time ■ ; . 46 Government 46, 47 Map-Reading Exercise 50 The New England States. Description 50 Map-Reading Exercise 56 The Middle Atlantic States, Description 58 Map-Reading Exercise 66 The Southern States (Eastern Division). Description 68 Map-Reading Exercise 70 The Southern States (Western Division). Description ; . . 72 Map-Reading Exercise , .... 74 The Northern Central States (Eastern Division). Description 76 Map-Reading Exercise 80 The Northern Central States (Western- Division). Description 80 Map-Reading Exercise 84 The Pacific States and Territories (Southern Division). Description 85 Map-Reading Exercise 90 The Pacific States and Territories (Northern Division). Description 90 Map-Reading Exercise 94 General Questions on the United States 94 British America. Description 96 Danish America. Description 99 Map-Reading Exercise 100 Mexico, Central America, and the West In- dies. Description 102, 104 Map-Beading Exercise 106 South America. Description 107 Map-Reading Exercise ,. 114 Europe. Description 115 The British Isles 118 Map-Reading Exercise 120 The German Empire and Western Europe .... 122 Map-Reading Exercise 130 Eastern Europe 130 General Questions on Europe 134 Asia. Description ' . . 136 Map-Reading Exercise 146 Africa. Description 147 Map-Rfeiding Exercise 153 Oceania. Description 153 Map-Reading Exercise 157 • MAPS. The Ocean Currents 13 The Wind Belts 17 The Rain Belts 18 The Isothermal Lines and Climatic Belts 19 The Zones of Vegetation or Plant-Life 20 The Distribution of Animals and Races of Men . . 22 The Western Hemisphere 14 The Eastern Hemisphere 15 Physical Map of North America 29 Physical Map of the United States 41 Physical Map of South America ... .... 109 Physical Map of Europe 117 Physical Map ot Asia 137 Physical Map of Africa 149 Physical Map of Australia 154 Political Map of North America 39 Commercial Map of the United States 44, 45 Political Map of the United States 48, 49 Map of the New England States 57 Map of the Middle Atlantic States . '. 67 Map of the Southern States (Eastern Division) ... 71 Map of the Southern States (Western Division) ... 75 Map of the Northern Central States (Eastern Di- vision) 79 Map of the Northern Central States (Western Di- vision) 83 Map of the Pacific States and Territories (Eastern Division) 91 Map of the Pacific States and Territories (Western Division) 95 Map of the' Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland . 101 Map of Mexico, Central America, and West Indies . 105 Map of South America Ill Map of the British Isles 121 Map of the German Empire and Western Europe . . 131 Map of Europe 135 Map of Asia 145 Map of Africa ' 152 Map of Oceania 156 New Possessions of the United States .... 157 Commercial Map of the World . . 160,161 APPENDIX. Geographical and Statistical Tables . . . igg Weather Bureau and System of Signals . jgy Map of Territorial Acquisitions . . . jgg Dates of Ratification of the Union \nU A.lmissicin of States . ... 168 Pronouncing Vocabularv ... .... 169 HOW GEOGRAPHY SHOULD BE TAUGHT. "Go into the -wide world, travel the mountains of thoughj; be a pilgrim in the land of beauty and perception; catch every sun-ray peculiar to each soul, — so shalt thou gather all the beams that shine through the hearts of men." Tee importance of Geography as a school study has long been underesti- mated. When viewed as a collection of disconnected, unrelated, facts, appealing to the memory alone, it leaves the mind in a state of hopeless and helpless confusion ; but when regarded as a simple science, harmonious in all its parts and adapted to the gradual growth of young minds, it becomes the nucleus of all school-work. In the early stages of the study the material fromwhich instruction should be given is under the children's feet, over their heads, in the air about them, and on every side of their path. The first lessons in Geography should be redolent with the fragrance of meadow flowers, bright with the beauty of' sparkling waters, and sweet with the carojs of singing birds. The child should be asked to accept but little blindly. His natural love of activity should he turned into educational channels, and his powers of obseVvation cultivated by calling attention to those natural objects most likely to captivate his eye ; such as the babbling brook, the darting humming-bird, and the buzzing bee. As his mind 'expands and his perceptive faculties grow keen, his eyes may be directed to nature in nobler forms. The mountains,' distant, grand, and hjgh, The valley and the plain. The starry vault of heaven above. The sunshine and the rain,— all may be made subjects for Geography lessons, The first steps should be entirely observational and the instruction oral. As the child grows older he should derive his information less from the teacher and more from independent investigation of the text-book. The subject-matter,jirrangem6nt, and, general plan of the book used- are of the greatest importance, for while a skilful teacher may accomplish good results with a poor book, more valuable work could be performed with a good book. An inexperienced instructor with a helpful book may do fair work at first and rapidly improve, but a poor teacher with a poor book must be a com- plete failure. Geographical text-books must of necessity present more mat- ter than the children should be asked to memorize, but they' need not be bur- dened with the minutiae of the world and loaded down with pages of ques- tions, which are to the wide-awake teacher, if obliged to use -them, torture and bondage, and to the active child chips and saw-dust. A reasonable number of questions are useful and perhaps essential in a Geography, but they should not be altogether test questions pertaining to the memory of localities. They should be largely development queries;, appealing to. the understanding and awakening thought,, ■ Geographical text-books cannot fully develop the subjects they present. They must in many respects be inteomplete for want of space. It should not be their aim. to burden the mind with useless details. Geographical facts are constantly changing, but the great principles of the science, the well- defined physical laws which underlie civilization and govern the world, remain ever the same, and these should be presented as a firm foundation on which to build all the work of all the years to come. The memorizing of ten thousand facts and the location, of ten times as many places may be a gym- nastic exercise for one faculty alone, but the discipline is not calculated to quicken doruLint energies and to awaken independent thought. The earth should betreatf' as a unit and the mutual adaptation of its parts shown. Its great sloi-es af the springs of its life, and these should be considered in their relaiion to aru la^re, vegetation, climate, and man. Important facts in the commercial and inciuistrial world, great routes of travel, and marked con- trasts between la- - and people, are worthy of attention. Political divisioi^s should not be con/iuered separately until the concept of the whole earth as a sphere, is'distinct and plain ; then they may be studied in their relation to the globe and to one another. The historical element, showing how the forces of nature have been ^p^ade to obey the minfl of- man and to help extend his dominion, should hot be overlooked.* The text-bo6k should not confine itself to dry statements andjbjief definitions. More pleasing than tales of flctiori' are the wonders of earth, sea, and air. Arabian fables are not more thrillii% than descriptions of real life in foreign lands. * Vivid word-paintings that quicken the imagination, cultivate a taste for' the bea,utiful, and appeal to the higher faculties of the mind are allowable. Poetry with jts refining influence and practical aid may be enlisted in the work. The -limited number of pages to be devoted to the entire world forbid the use of much material of this kind, but it may be interwoven in brief throughout the work. * The best text-book may be abused, and the child must be taught how to study and how to use his book. How best to do this must be determined by the individual temperament of each child. The pupil must be studied as a physician .studies' thC'Case he is called to treat. Some children will need more, personal help than others. The, likes and dislikes of each child must be considered. If a pupil is remarkably stupid in determining the location 'of places or in hunting up information, try to find out the lines of greatest activity of his mind. If he is quick at figures, introduce as many problems as possible into the lesson. Allow him to hunt ovet the statistical tables and tO: make comparisons. Study with the pupils, make yourself one with them. Say, " We will study about this." You will thus gain an influence over them powerful for good. Endeavor to pla'nt in them " an intellectual conscience," so that they will not think it right to commit to memory words or expressions which they do not understand. Persuade rather than compel them to study: The natural lOve of activity, the desire for the approbation of parents and friends, the hope of future usefulness, and the pleasure of acquiring kniow- ledge may all be used as incentives to study. The manner of conducting recitations will greatly affect the pupils' study of the book.. If thought is aroused and quickened and curiosity awakened, the study hours will be less liable to be spent in memorizing the exact words of the lesson. Children quickly see when tasks are meaningless and useless,, arid study accordingly. Mechanical memorizing may be broken up. by changing the -wording of ques- tions so as to demand thought. Formulate your own questions, base each query on the preceding, leave no chance for a choice of answers; put old questions in new forms, and do not as a general thing ask questions that can be answered by " Yes " or " No." The true teacher ever seeks emancipation from the slavery of one text- book. His' aim is to teach subjects rather than the opinions of an author; his field is the world of knowledge contained in all nature and all good books. In preparing to teach the subjects presented by this book or any other similar work, consult other books, read much, study how to illustrate obscure points, how to arouse enthusiasm, and how, -to hold the attention of the class. No one method is applicable to all schools and to all cir- cumstances. Therefore become familiar . with many methods, and select, improve, adapt, and by study make your own those devices best calculated to aid you in your work. The teacher must know much more than he expects to teach; When a lesson has been assigned in the text-book, ask w' at subjects are introduced for consideration. Encourage the pupils to search for ideas and facts in the reference-books to which they have access. Show them where to find information, and make constant efforts to have them realize the keen pleasure that always accompanies an earnest search after truth ; doing this, you will be freed from the dull drudgery of routine-work i u POTTER'S ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. and instruction will become an ever-increasing source of self-culture. As far as possible place in the hands of your pupils books of history and travel and direct their home readings. In teaching locality link some human association with each place. It is allowable to use facts for this purpose that are, strictly speaking, of no geo- graphical importance. Allusions may be made to the pages of biography, literature, and history. Indeed, all the sciences may be made to contribute items of interest to this one science to which all are indebted. In teaching the subject matter of the book make the surroundings of the child a type of the wide, wide world beyond his field of vision. Show that all the great forces of nature are manifest in miniature near home, and that from familiar objects ideas may be gained of places and things thousands of miles away. Working on this principle, foreign scenes become so associated with the home life, and the mind becomes so impressed by the comparisons made, that the pictures stamp themselves upon the memory in a way to be reproduced in after years with startling vividness and power. Familiarity mixed with novelty adds a charm to wider explorations. Talk alone will never enable you to thus impress the mind. It has been said that the true teacher is known by the amount of crayon he uses, and in all grades of geographical teaching- the blackboard can be made an important auxiliary. If you are not a natural artist do not despair. Know beforehand just what you want to do and just how you intend to do it, and then you can proceed with confidence and without hesitation. If will- ing to work, you can soon acquire the ability to draw creditably well. Prac- tice much at home; plan out your diagrams and illustrations. If you cannot draw well, study to represent the'object you wish to sketch with as few lines as possible, and to produce the most striking eflect in the shortest space of time. Do not begin by saying, " I cannot draw a very good picture," or in any way call attention to the quality of the sketch. Make your strokes with a strong, steady pressure, and let them come in incidentally, as if you were so fiill of the subject that you could not help making a few lines on the board to illustrate it. For example, when talking about the ostrich-farms of South Africa a very few strokes of the crayon will hold the attention of the class and make the lesson seem more real ; and so also with other subjects. Make map-work the basis of all advanced geographical work. The marks, lines, dots, and colors represented on the flat surface of maps form an alpha- bet of map language which should be elucidated in the primary grades. As words may be taught before ideas are imparted, so map-reading may be made simply a study of meaningless names, boundaries, and localities, which being devoid of interest give no mental growth and are soon forgotten. Map-read- ing to be of the highest educational value must be made a means of develop- ing thought. In order to do this, what is represented by the map must be associated with it. The flat surface must be made to glow with life and move- ment. The eye must look beyond the symbol and see the thing symbolized. The power of imagining great unseen forms must be developed. Pupils cannot think of concepts that are not in their minds ; hence it is a part of the teacher's work to give word-paintings and to jiid the children in gaining mental power to interpret map signs. Having formed the mental picture in your own mind, give it in your own words, constantly appealing to the imagination of your hearers and asking if they can see the vision. Allow some pupil to give you the picture as it exists in his own mind after you have painted it with words, and illustrations. Arrange a series of questions that will help the mind to grasp the subject under consideration. Lead the child to apply his own powers of observation and thought, to discover facts, to compare one with another, to form conclusions, and to give' descriptions in well-chosen language. The proper use of the physical eye must precede that of the mind's eye. Ruskin says, " The more I think of it, I find this conclusion more impressed upon me : that the greatest thing a human soul ever does in this world is to see something and tell what it saw in a plain way. Hundreds of people can talk, to rnie who thinks ; but thousands can think, to one who can see." In map-drawing vagueness of conception on your part in regard to the places to be represented will lead to failure. You cannot and must not expect more of your pupils than you can do yourself. It is your duty to closely watch their mental activities, to notice the obstacles over which they may stumble, and by timely suggestions to help them to rise to higher levels of thought and action. In interpreting map signs pictorial illustrations are of the greatest value. Those should be selected which can be used as types ; thus a rock-bound, clifi'-skirted coast may be used to represent the Pacific shores of North Amer- ica and all similar coasts. A flat-roofed Peruvian city may be made a type of nearly all the cities in the highlands of South America. Do not show too many pictures at a time, and talk about those shown in a way to deepen im- pressions. The world is flooded with illustrated newspapers, magazines, and books, many of which contain fine views of scenery, etc. Look over your stock of books and papers at home, interest-your friends in your needs in this direction, and secure the co-operation of your pupils. Old books and papers containing pictures of value can be bought for a trifle at second-hand book-stores, and illustrated railway-guides can be obtained at almost any railroad-station. Ever be on the alert with eyes wide open, and you will find plenty of material adapted to your wants. Seek for current information on geo- graphical subjects. One important and convenient plan for a teacher is to keep the clippings from newspapers or other sources in large envelopes prop- erly classified. By so doing the scholars can be shown the changes that are constantly going on in the world. Invite the pupils to bring geographical clippings to the class as contributions to these envelopes, or to a scrap-book or letter-file which may be called the Class Encyclopedia. Simple specimens of familiar objects, when associated with the countries from which they were obtained, become interesting to geography classes. It is possible for nearly every school to obtain many curiosities and objects from different countries. A school cabinet is always interesting if properly cared for and used. The science of Geography can thus be interwoven with one's every-day life, and is well calculated to give intellectual growth. Its principles are so sim- ple, so plain, and so practical that the little child is charmed with their beauty, and yet its truths are so grand, so wonderful, and so unsearchable that the most mature mind finds in them depths of thought which cannot be fathomed and intricate problems which cannot be solved. It is a study which elevates and ennobles the mind, and like the undertones of a great organ seems to invite a universal song of praise. An Oriental fable describes a beautiful and intricate piece of embroidery which represented sparkling lakes, green trees, dashing waterfalls, verdant meadows, and many other scenes calculated to please the eye, while through the entire work was woven a golden thread, appearing in the glint of the sunset clouds, in the glimmer of the river's flow, and in the sparkle of the ' quiet lakes. This thread of light was so skilfully wrought as to add to the general beauty of the fabric, and yet to form the name of the artist who fash- . ioned it. No one can study aright the marvellous lessons which the natura,l world reveals without seeing the thread of gold and reading the name of - Infinite Poweb. TEACHERS* NOTES. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. The diagrams given in the teacher's notes are merely suggestive, with the latest available statistics. In showing them upon the blackboard the teacher should always construct them in harmony These notes are presented to teachers as a collection of methods, illustra- tions, and interesting supplementary matter from which each individual instructor can select the material best adapted to his special wants. They are not designed to encourage inactivity on the part of the teacher by doing his work for him, but rather to lighten his burdens, to give him reserve power, to quicken his thoughts, and to suggest ways and means whereby he can infuse new life into his school, and thus make Geography a study long to be remembered. In preparing the lesson for the day read the subject-matter and the notes carefully, and arrange in your mind or on paper a series of questions calcu- lated to develop in consecutive order the points to be taught. Decide what illustrations to use. Have your pictures, maps, and other objects at hand. Notice the connection of the lesson of the day with those that have preceded it, and establish the relation by means of a few review questions. Teach each topic separately, and, for the time being, make it the subject of the lesson. THE EARTH. Descriptive Text, page 5. As these first lessons are to some extent a review of elementary principles, the time to be spent on each topic and the amount of oral instruction to be given must be determined by the ability of the class. Carefully note the points that the children do not seem to comprehend, and bend all your ener- gies to the elucidation of those principles. The earth may be compared to a great ship sailing in an ocean of space. Its relation to the sun and to the other planets may be shown by sketching the Solar. System on the blackboard. A circle two inches in diameter, colored red, will represent the sun ; a circle about the sun with a radius of three inches will represent the orbit of Mercury; one with a four-inch radius, Venus ; five inches for the earth's orbit, seven for Mars, eighteen for Jupiter, thirty-two for Saturn, sixty-five for Uranus, and ninety-six for Neptune. It will be necessary to represent the orbit of TJranus on the side of the room above the blackboard, while that of Neptune may have to be imagined for want of space on the wall. State that sol is the Latin word for gun, hence the sun and its planets are called the Solar System. The Solar System may be compared to a family, of which the father is the governing power. State that the sun shines by its own light, while the light we receive from the moon is not its own, but sunlight reflected from its surface. A little talk about the moon will be of interest. Explain its lack of water and air, its phases and their causes, also its elevations and depres- sions, which form the famous " Man in the Moon." If the sun could be hollowed out and the earth placed in the centre, there would be room enough for the moon to revolve in her orbit, which is 240,000 miles from the earth, and still leave considerable space between that and the inner surface of the sun. The sun may be compai'ed to a globe six feet in diameter ; then the earth on the same scale will be represented by a pellet the same diameter as a three-penny piece; or if the diameter of the sun be represented by a line six inches long, that of the earth on the same scale would be smaller than that of the letter o as used in the words on this page. A circle half an inch in diameter placed by the side of another 54 inches in diameter will repre- sent the comparative sizes of the earth and the sun. It has been estimated that if an express-train had started from the sun to travel to the earth when the Pilgrim Fathers sailed for this country, it would not yet have reached us, although travelling day and night. The fare for such a journey at regu- lar rates would be about $2,000,000. Encourage the children to notice the aspect of the heavens at night. State that the word planet means wanderer, and that the stars that move about in the heavens were thus named to distinguish them from the fixed stars; which are liipposed to be suns. The fixed stars may be known by their silvery, twinkling light. A few facts about the planets will interest the class. Tell about the four moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and the red appearance of Mars. Note that of the first four planets the earth is the largest, while Jupiter is the largest of the second four. Show a picture of the earth surrounded by its atmosphere and fioating in space ; then direct the attention to the earth and the clouds as seen from the window, thus connecting the illustration with the object represented, noticing, however, the dififerent points of view. The cosmosphere is an ingenious instrument presenting to the eye the appearance of the heavens as seen from, any part of the earth. It also well illustrates the movements of the sun, moon, and stars. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Descriptive Text, page 6. Although a thorough study of this branch of Geography may well be deferred until toward the close of school-life, yet an understanding of a few of its elementary principles seems necessary at this stage of progress. If the whole conception is plain to the teacher, and the various points are pre- sented orally with clearness and vigor, the average pupil will be interested and instructed. If any points seem too di£Scult for the class, it will be bet- ter to omit those paragraphs, rather than to require the pupils to memorize sentences the meaning of which they cannot comprehend. It will be well to precede, as well as to accompany, these lessons with oral instruction. The representations of the earth should be illustrated by displaying the objects defined, and allowing the class to compare one with another. Show the advantages and disadvantages of representing the earth's surface by means of a globe. Ask why pictures instead of maps cannot be employed to represent the entire surface of the earth. Show that the peel of an orange cannot be laid on a flat surface without breaking it at some point, and from the illustration draw out the fact that it is quite impossible to give a true representation of any large portion of the earth's surface on a flat map. A- divided globe is of use in explaining the map of the hemispheres, although an apple cut into halves will answer the purpose. The maps dra^wn on Mercator's projection may be explained by means of a piece of paper rolled around the lower part of a bottle.- The earth is regarded as a cylinder in order to represent both sides of it on one map. By this method the poles become circles equal in size to the Equator, and therefore the lands in those regions must be represented much too broad; The direction of one place from another is always correctly shown ; hence these maps are much used by navigators and for charts of the entire surface ^^p._OCEA^M ^ ■?-' ^f ^v '"^ 4 EuROpE \(\ '£ iv POTTER'S ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. of the earth. The word "Mercator" is Latin for merchant, the German of which is Kaufmann, the name of the geographer who first employed this method in the charting of sailing-routes. Compare the map of the world as shown in 900 B. c. with that of the world as now represented. Greece was then supposed to be in the middle of a great round plain surrounded by the ocean. A black|)oard sketch may be made of the map of the world as ahown at that time. [See sketch on preceding page.) Tell how real relief maps actually show the elevations and depressions of the earth's surface in miniature, while those in the text-books are simply photographs taken from models made in plaster or clay. Those in the book combine the features of a relief map with the perspective of a bird's-eye view. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EAUTH. Descriptive Text, page 6. It will be interesting to give the pupils a sketch of the ancient beliefs and discoveries in regard to the shape of the earth. Show how the school globe can be an exact representation of the form of the earth, even though the earth is flattened at the poles and the globe is a perfect sphere. Show that when we look at a small part of a curved surface it looks flat. To illus- trate, cut a round hole in a piece of cardboard and lay it on the globe; the portion of the globe seen through the hole will appear flat. If your school is near a long sandy beach, visit it with the class and set up three stakes six or eight feet high and some distance one from another ; then allow the children to sight from the first to the last, and to notice that the middle one seems to be the highest ; which is a rough proof that the beach is spherical and not level. The horizon to a person in a balloon seems to enlarge until he appears to be hanging over a huge hollow bowl. Notice that the horizon is always circular, just as a slice cut from a spher- ical body, as an apple, has a circular boundary-line to its rounded surface. If the slice be cut from a lemon, its boundary-line will usually be elliptical in form. In digging canals engineers make allowances for the curvature of the earth, which at the distance of one mile is eight inches ; two miles, thirty-two inches ; three miles seventy-two inches ; and in corresponding ratio. Hold the globe in the light of the sun and allow the class to notice the form of its shadow on the wall. Turn the globe on its axis and show that its shadow is unchanged. Experiment in the same way with a plate and an egg. In Arizona is a flat expanse of desert beyond which is a high mountain. As a west-bound train approaches, the top of this mountain -first appears, and more and more of the peak becomes visible until the entire mountain comes wholly into view. If an eclipse of the moon is soon to occur, interest the class to observe for themselves the shape of the shadow cast by the earth on the moon. The voyage of Magellan's ship round the earth may be traced on a globe. Ask if any one in the class ever heard of a person travelling round the world on a bicycle. Trips of this kind can be described. If you have time, it would be ipteresting to trace' some route round the earth taken by tour- ists of the present day. The guide-books and circulars issued by the managers of popular round-the-world excursions will give all necessary information. State that the North Star appears nearer and nearer the horizon as one travels toward the Equator, and ask how it would appear if the earth were flat. The spherical form of the earth, its uneven surface, and its flattening at the poles may be explained on the. supposition that the earth was once in a chaotic state, without form and void, and that the particles of matter scat- tered through space collected around a common centre and formed a spher- ical body, just as particles of mist run together and form a raindrop. It is supposed that the outer crust of the earth shrunk and formed mountains and valleys. The manner in which the earth may have acquired the form of an oblate spheroid may be shown by rapidly whirling a stick thrust through a ball of wet clay. A few whirls will make the clay bulge midway between the poles. The theory that the earth has a liquid interior, sur- rounded by a solid crust only forty or fifty miles thick, is not now admitted by scientists, although once believed to be true. The interior of the earth is no doubt highly heated. * Show that the mountains and valleys on the earth, as compared with its entire surface, are uo more than the irregularities to be seen on the outside of an orange. Ask if the earth would be more beautiful to us if it were perfectly smooth. If the class consists of those who are unfamiliar with most of the points presented in the book, do not confuse their minds by giving many additional proofs, but make those noticed in the text very impressive. The size of the earth is a subject too vast to be comprehended by the most mature mind. It may be best illustrated by problems estimating the time it would take a traveller to go round the earth by rail, by steamer, or on foot. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. . Deecriptive Text, page 6. The daily motion of the earth may be illustrated by the spinning of a top. Ask if the axis of the earth can be seen. Ask if it can be located. Ask if the earth has the same rate of rotation at the Equator as at the Poles. Some pupil may ask the question, " Why does not the earth move slowly, and finally stop, as the top does?" Show that a top will spin longer on a smooth surface than on a rough one, and that its movement is stopped by the fric- tion of the air and that of the surface on which it spins. The principle that it requires as much force to destroy motion as was required to produce it may be stated. The earth may be compared to a huge top spinning in empty space without any resistance to overcome. Eefer to the belief of the ancients that the sun, moon, and stars moved once a day around the earth. How we know that the earth rotates may be illustrated in various ways. The following well -known experiment is interesting : Take a large bowl nearly full of water and sprinkle over the surface of the water a coating of lycopodium powder, which can be obtained of almost any apothecary. Upon the surface of the powdered water make a straight black line with pulverized charcoal. Place the bowl upon the floor of a room which is not exposed to shaking or jarring from the streets. Lay a stick by the side of the bowl parallel with the black mark. In a few hours you will notice that the black mark when compared with the stiek has moved a short distance from east to west. Note that the greatest speed of the earth's rotation at the Equa- •tor is about 1000 miles an hour, and that its speed decreases toward the Poles. That the rotation of the earth is less at the Poles than at the Equator may be illustrated by a rotating wheel, the tire of which moves faster than the hub. Fouoault's experiment to prove the rotation of the earth was to suspend large pendulums above its surface. These pendulums had sharp points so arranged as to scratch the earth as they vibrated. At the Equator, where the relation between the plane of vibration and the earth's surface is not changed by the rotation, the pendulum, made only one line, but pendulums nearer the Poles made lines approaching a star-shaped figure in form. This can best be illustrated by means of a large globe to which a pendulum is attached. Unless the class is well advanced it will be best not to attempt an explanation of this experiment That the real motion of the earth upon its axis from west to east causes the sun to appear to move from east to west, and the earth to stand still, may be shown by the familiar illustration of the steam-car. The fences and objects along the road appear to the traveller to move in an opposite direc- tion. The earth seems to move from or return to the aeronaut as he rises or descends in his car. To one looking from the cabin-window of a ship as it swings round in a landlocked bay the whole shore seems to pass in a circle around him. When we travel by night and can see no objects around us, we feel no sense of progress other than the tremor of the vehicle. Ask the following question : If the land rotated in an opposite direction from what it now does, where would the sun rise ? In explaining the result of the rotation of the earth a student's lamp with a silver reflector is better than a candle or an ordinary lamp. Hold the globe in the light of the lamp and put a rubber band about it so as to mark the limit of day and night. By turning the globe slowly from west to east sunrise and sunset may be illustrated. A wafer attached to the globe some distance east or west from the rubber band will show that the place thus represented cannot have sunrise or sunset at the same time. A black cap covering, which may be called a night-cap, for half of the globe will be found very useful in teach- ing how the earth is lighted by the sun. The alternation of day and night may also be illustrated by immersing a ball representing the earth in a pan of water. The hemisphere which is above the surface will represent that illuminated by the sun's rays, while the immersed hemisphere will answer to the part over which night prevails. Ask what would be the result if the earth failed to rotate for a year. Note that by the word " day " we ordinarily mean the time during which the sun is above the horizon, which varies in different seasons and in different parts of the earth, as will be more fully shown in a future lesson. TEACHERS' NOTES. To illustrate the two motions of the earth combined, let one pupil represent the sun and another pupil carry the globe around him, rotating it all the time. Tell the class to imagine that the earth leaves a mark after it in space as it revolves around the sun, and they can understand what is meant by its orbit. Let them imagine they can see the space enclosed by the line thus made as they can see the area of the flat side of half an apple, and they will comprehend what is meant by the plane of the earth's orbit. Draw a circle on the floor, one on the blackboard, and one on a slate, and ask the class to designate the plane of each figure. Show that the earth's orbit is not an exact circle, but an ellipse. State that the sun is not in the centre of the ellipse but near it; hence the distance of the earth from the sun differs at different times. The earth is nearly 3,000,000 miles nearer the sun in December than in June. Sketch an ellipse on the blackboard. That the earth's axis during its journey around the sun constantly remains par- allel to itself, or preserves the same direction in space, should be made very emphatic. It may be illustrated by tracing an ellipse with a pencil held in one direction, as shown by the blackboard sketch. Paste a bit of tinsel-paper high up on the north side of the school-room to represent the North Star. On the table represent the sun by means of some bright object. Carry the globe around the representation of the sun, keeping the North Pole directed to the North Star. This can be better shown by fixing a gilded ball near the centre of a large dish full of water, and floating a weighted rubber ball so that it will be inclined 23J degrees toward the surface of the water. On the ball should be represented the Equator, the Tropics, and the Polar Circles. The relation that the North Pole sustains to the North Star can then be clearly shown, also the plane of the earth's orbit. Attention may be called to the fact that the motions of the earth are the only convenient measures of time, and have been used as such from the earliest ages. The fact that the entire solar system for ever sweeps on through space may be mentioned, but not made a subject of lengthy discussion, as it enters the province of Astronomy. Watch the faces of your pupils ; if they brighten with intelligent interest then know. that your illustrations have not been in vain. If their counten- ances cloud with discouragement, then endeavor to ascertain the obscure points in the lesson, and kindly and patiently try to lead the class to a more, complete understanding of the subject. HEATING OP THE EAUTH BY THE SUN. i Descriptive Text, page "7. :By ineans of the diagram in the pupils' book, the apparatus described in aj, fqr^going paragraph, and judicious questioning, the pupils may be led to dis-; cover for themselves the main principles of this lesson. If the class is im- mature in thought and has not received thorough elementary drill, it willj be best to make this and the other lessons in Mathematical Geography almost purely oral. If possible secure a copy of the log of some vessel plying between New York and the southern part of South America, and let the class notice the seasons as recorded. An extended study of the change of seasons can well be postponed for the graduating class. The poem " Bidding the Sun (feod-^ight in Lapland," by JoyAliison, will be appropriate to read when telling about the long days of the polar regions. State that to meet the exig- ency caused by continuous daylightjand to know whether it is twelve o'clock 4ay or night, the count after midday g;oes on until twenty-four o'clock midnight. OIEOLBS OP THE EARTH. Descriptive Text, page 8. The Oiroles of the Earth should be shown as represented on maps and globes. The Arctic Circles, Tropics, and Equator should be so connected with the heating of the earth as to be remembered. Encourage each pupil to.obtain a croquet-ball or slated globe, also dividers and pen-points, and to use these objects in studying the various subjects introduced by the lessons. Make the point clear and distinct that the various lines and circles repre- sented on globes and maps are simply used to measure distances and define positions, and are in no sense a part of the natural features of the earth. It may be well to state that a real circle is the surface inclosed by the cir- ^mference, but in geography the word circle is applied to the circiimference alone. To show the location of the polar circles hold a crayon on the far- thest point of the surface of the globe beyond the North Pole that the lamp- light reaches, and as the ball rotates let the crayon draw a circle. State that long ago people thought they could find pictures in the sky. The stars are arranged in groups, one of which is called the Great I^ipper, and another Cancer (a crab). Each of ithe other groups has a distinct.ivp name. As the sun seems to the people on the northern tropic to be overhead anion*^ the group of stars called Cancer, that name was applied to the circle that marks the northern limit of the sun's rays. Over the southern tropic is a group of stars called Oapricornus (the goat), hence the name Tropic of Cap- ricorn. The North Pole points to a group of stars called Arctos (the bear), hence the name Arctic Circle. The word anti means opposite, heiice the origin of the name of the Antarctic Circle. Explain the solstices or turn- ing-points of the sun. A small slated globe is inexpensive, and will be found of great use in teaching the circles of the earth. Do not over-illustrate what you attempt to teach, for superfluous proof is only wearisome. Seek to develop self-improvement in your pupils by directing their activities rather than by cramming their memories. LOCALITY. Descriptive Text, page 8. If possible display a compass. Explain what is meant by " boxing the compass." Display a magnet and show its effect upon a box of iron filings. Note that magnetism was known to the ancients, and was first noticed in the loadstone, a species of iron ore found near Magnesia in Asia. Show how the earth acts like a magnet upon the magnetic needle. Tell how artificial magnets may be made. The magnetic needle is an artificial magnet. How to find the Pole Star may be shown by a blackboard illustration. . ^^^^ \ / / / / / / / / / ^ / / / V \ ^^ / "\ ^ \ / .#'• \- 1 ^' ^ o^^ \ To illustrate up and down, stick several pins into various parts of an apple ; then suspend it by a string, and explain that all point downward as far as the apple is concerned. Take one out and show that by so doing you move it up. Mark the limit of the sunlight on the school-room floor at noon, from which mark notice its change each day. Constantlj', associate the sun-shad- ows with the cardinal points. Show by your manner that knowledge is of more yalue than the hoarded gold of earth. Your enthusiasm will enkindle that of the whole school; therefore, be so thoroughly in earnest that the dullest pupil will catch the spirit and be Aroused and ammated tb energetic efforts. d POTTER'S ADVANCED GEOGRAPMY. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. Descriptive Text, page 8. Latitude and longitude should be illustrated before the class. No amount of descriptive text-book matter can compensate for the lack of simple oral instruction on this point. These subjects may be illustrated, first in a rude way, by drawing a parallelogram, and making a dot within its boundaries at random, and asking the pupils to tell you exactly where the dot is situated. Show that lines dividing the figure into squares will help" to determine the exact location of the dot. , Ask the pupils to locate a dot on an orange without the aid of lines. Allow them to represent the Equator and the Poles on the orange. Ask, How many degrees is the North Pole from the Equator ? Allow them to draw other circles parallel to the Equator, and to estimate the distance of each in degrees from it. Ask them if they can now locate their dot on the orange. They will at once see that they can tell how many degrees it ,is north or south of the Equator, but not its exact location. Explain Meridian Circles and Meridians, and ask how many meridians can be drawn on the orange. Show how it is necessary to have a starting-point in reckoning degrees east and west around the earth. Let them represent the Prime Meridian on the orange, and then give the exact location of the dot.— Note that it is more expressive to call the Prime Meridian the Meridian, for it is usually thus marked on maps and globes. Explain that longitude means hngth and latitude means breadth. The Komans supposed the earth to be longer from east to west than from north to south, and hence used the terms longitude and latitude for these measure- ments. Give the pupils much practice in finding places when the latitude and longitude are given. It is a waste of time to require pupils to memorize the latitude and longitude of more than a veiy few places. State that sailors on the ocean can find their latitude and longrtude by observing the sun. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. LAND. Descriptive Text, page 9. It will be noticed that this lesson consists mostly of definitions which it is supposed that the children have been taught by means of observation lessons and the mouiding-board in~a lower grade ; hence it will not be a mere memory exercise, but a review of ideas previously received. Test the children's- know- ledge thoroughly by asking many questions. The comparative areas of the land and ■water on the earth's surface may be shown by a simple diagram. Lead the pupils to discover that most of the land-divisions are group- ed together on one side of the earth, while most of the water is on the other. Let them indicate these hemispheres by placing a string around the globe. An island may be compared to an eye in the face. Note that continental islands are larger as a rule than oceanic isl- ands. If the class is not familiar with the formation of coral, instruction on this subject may be to the point. Ask what is meant by " doubling a cape." High coasts and low coasts may be illustrated by means of blackboard sketches. Compare mountains to reservoirs for the distribution of water over the land. Show how peaks have been made in mountain-ranges by unequal wearing. Call particular attention to the fact that the crests of mountain systems and ranges seldom correspond with the divides between the water- sheds. A sheet of thick writing-paper crumpled in the hand and roughly spread out will represent river-J)asins and divides. Call attention to the rude resemblance of most mountain-ranges to a comb, the peaks represent- ing the teeth, and the passes the spaces between them. Mountains may be compared to living beings, their rocks corresponding to bones, the fog around them to clothing, their shadows to veils, their streams to veins, their colors to jewelry, their clouds to wigs, their golden light to crowns, and the water and soil they send to the valleys to rich gifts they bestow. Show that the height of a mountain is the distance of its summit above the level of the sea on a vertical line. It will interest the class to tell them how the height of a mountain may be ascertained, viz. : The boiling-point of water at the level of the sea is 212° F., and one degree less for about every 533 feet of ascent ; hence by noting the temperature of water when it boils on the summit of a mountain, the height of the elevation can be easily determined. The mercury in the barometer lowers a tenth of an inch for about every ninety feet of ascent above the sea-level ; hence the height of a mountain can be told by observing the barometer. State that isolated mountain-peaks are of rare occurrence, and they are nearly always volcanic. Show that a mountain-range is never a row of peaks arranged in line. There is some confusion among authors in regard to the use of the terms ridge, range, and chain. Geologists commonly define a range as a flexure or fold of the earth's strata, the surface of which is worn by the action of natural forces into, ridges. Le Conte and Dana call a parallel group of Sketob tf a High Oout. TEACHERS' NOTES. Vll ranges near together a chain ; some authors make the words rang*, ridge, and chain synonymous. Show that a mountain system include^ the cross- spurs of the highlands as well as the ranges, and that these cross-si)urs some- times form with their crests a complex network. ^ Sketoli of a Low Coast. In showing pictures of mountains be careful not to display those which exaggerate slopes to too great a degree. Show the advantages of the eleva- tions of the earth in making it beautiful. State that their usefiilness will be illustrated in future lessons. State that.all parts of the earth's surface are undergoing more or less changes of elevation. Some are slowly rising and others slowly subsiding. Show that mountains have had a greater influence on the civilization of man than have plateaus. Although neither offer much encouragement to settlers, the former .develop a hardy, independent spirit, and by separating nations have influenced the history of the world. The following rule may be of use to pupils : Double the average height of the great plateaus for that of the mountain-ranges. Eefer to the different names applied to plains on different continents. In North America broad treeless, grassy plains are called prairies, in South America llanos and pampas, and in Asia and Europe steppes. Show that a plateau may be a high valley or a pass, or it may flank a moun- tain. How volcanoes are produced can be shown by mixing sugar and chlorate of potash together in the proportion of one to two. Heap soft mud around the mixture, leaving a small opening at the top. Drop a few drops of sulphuric acid into the opening, and chemical action will take place, making a volcano on a small scale. Note that the earth and the stones thrown from a volcano generally form the mountain around it, and that a volcano may occur on a plain. If possible display a bit of pumice-stone from a volcano, and show how it will float in water. Compare the eruption of a great vol- cano to an immense piece of fireworks; only explain that what appears to be fire is but the reflection of the white-hot lava within the crater, which gives to the sky and vapor a lurid appearance. Compare the lava-stream issuing from the crater of a volcano to a current of melted iron escaping from a furnace. It moves at first quite rapidly, but soon cools on the surface and forms a hard black crust, while the interior continues to flow. Explain that volcanic ashes are pulverized lava and not ashes in the ordinary sense of the term. Pieces of lava several tons in weight have been thrown from volcanoes. The light- ning often plays around the summit of a volcano during its eruption. This is probably due to the gases evolved and to the condensation of the mists that escape into colder regions. In describing earthquakes compare the most common motion to that of the waves of the sea. The motion of the earth is often from a central point, like the ripples produced by drop- ping a stone into a lake. The vertical motion may be compared to the explosion of a mine beneath the ground. The whirling motion is the most dangerous. This form of earthquake has so disturbed farms that fields have changed places or been so twisted into one another that their owners could not recognize their own property. Humboldt mentions an earthquake that hap- pened in Chili where the ground was so shifted that three great palm trees were twisted around one another like willow wands. , An oasis generally has a basin-shaped stratum of clay or limestone beneath its soil. This holds the water which finds its way from the sur- rounding highlands. An oasis may be compared to an island : as the one is surrounded by sand, so the other is surrounded by water. A desert spotted with oases has been compared in appearance to the skin of a leopard. "WATERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. Descriptive Text, page 10. The atmosphere may be compared to an envelope which fits the earth firmly, and moves along with it both in rotation and revolution. It may also be compared to a blanket that retains the heat of the body it covers. The thicker this atmospheric blanket, the more slowly the earth is cooled. The air may also be compared to an ocean at the bottom of which are living beings. Vapor. — As examples of the condensation of aqueous vapor call attention to the windows of a warm room in winter and to the mist to be seen in front of the mouth on a cold day. If cold water be poured into a dry glass on a hot day, the outside surface of the glass will become damp by the precipita- tion of the moisture. A snow-storm in the house may be formed when the weather outside is intensely cold and the rooms filled with steam, by sud- denly opening the doors and windows and letting in the cold air. In the process of ordinary distillation the liquid to be distilled is heated and con- verted into vapor- in one vessel, and chilled and reconverted into liquid in another. The earth and its atmosphere have been compared to a vast distil- ling apparatus, the equatorial ocean acting the part of the boiler, the poles that of the condenser, and the sun furnishing the heat. By filling a vessel with pounded ice and salt, and placing it in a room in which there is considerable aqueous vapor, the surface of the vessel will become coated with hoar-frost so thick that it may be scraped off and made into a snowball. Ask why no dew is found on the under side of leaves. State that during cldtidleSs nights in the tropics the dew is so copious that it resembles gentle rains, and runs on the ground in streams. Tell the class to examine a hailstone and to note its concentric layers, sim- ilar to those of an onion. The engraving in the pupil's book shows these layers. Explain how a warm and cold current of air meeting might cause a rotary motion, and carry a snowflake first from one strata to the other and fortn hail. Talk a little while about the beauty of snowflakes and the won- derful law that governs crystallization. It will be interesting to show other forms of crystals, and to note the order and symmetry that exist in the mi- nutest of natural objects. OCEANIC WATERS. Descriptive Text, page 11. The oceans may be compared to a chain that binds the continents together rather than to a barrier that separates theni. The first steamboat which crossed the Atlantic carried a package of pamphlets written by an educated man to prove the impossibility of the trip. The ocean may also be compared to a great highway. State that one would hardly expect dust to arise from this highway, yet to walk the deck of a vessel at night is to become covered with a thin coating of salt sea-dust so fine as to be hardly noticeable, but which in time becomes sufficiently crystallized to be obvious to the eye. During the day the deposit is less active. Note that salt water is heavier than fresh, and not so easily tossed about by the winds. State that it has been estimated that, supposing the average depth of the sea to be two miles and a half, the salt if abstracted from the water would cover North America to a depth of more than one mile. Show that rivers carry considerable saline matter into the sea, and as the water evaporates the salt is left behind, as in the case of a dish of brine placed in. the sun. The Bed of the Ocean. — Ask the class to imagine how the earth would look if its waters could be emptied from their beds. In speaking of the Tel- egraphic Plateau a brief account of the manner in which the first Atlantic Cable was laid will be of interest. Tell the pupils about other ocean cables. There are cables on nearly every sea and ocean bed, the total length of wire being very many thousand miles. There is seldom any derangement of the lines, and then only for a short time, for they can be mended nearly as easily as those on land. The Color of the Ocean. — State that in the Indian and Pacific Oceans long tracts of red, of white, and of brown water are frequently seen. On the Banks of Newfoundland the water has a peculiar green tint. A large part of Bafiin Bay has a deep olive hue, caused by the presence of marine ani- malcula. It will be interesting to tell about the phosphorescence of the sea. MOTIONS OP THE OCEAN. Descriptive Text, page 11. The ocean maybe compared to a living being, and points of resemblance noticed. It moves, roars, leaps, seems to smile, frown, breathe, etc. If youi Vlll POTTER'S ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. school is near the sea, the phenomenon of the tides can be actually seen every day, also the action of the waves upon the coast. That waves do not advance, only as in shallow water the tops curve over and break, may be shown by throwing a stick into the water at some distance from the land, and noticing that it remains lifted again and again by the waves instead of rolling with the first to the shore. Waves can be made in miniature by blowing along the surface of a basin of water. The currents in the ocean can be illustrated with a tin pan of water, con- taining in one end a piece of ice and a quantity of coloring matter, or saw- dust, and having under the other end a lamp which will heat the water and cause the currents to circulate in the pan. Show how the great ocean-cur- rents are so connected,- one with another, as to form a circulatory system throughout the sea. Show what advantage it is to the sailor to know all about the ocean-cur- rents. Note that the great ocean-currents have the same general direction as the winds blowing along their surfaces. Show how the currents of the ocean keep its waters pure. CONTINENTAIi WATERS. Descriptive Text, page 12. The phenomenon of a geyser eruption may be produced on a small scale by heating the stem of a clay tobacco-pipe red-hot, and holding it in a hor- izontal position while the bowl of the pipe is filled with cold water. Note that a lake bears the same relation to a continent that an island does to the ocean. licad the class to follow in imagination the water from the time it leaves the earth as vapor until it returns to it again through a river. Show how it forms clouds to beautify the sky and to screen the earth, and falls as rain to refresh the land, feeds springs, wears away rocks, turns mills and machinery, floats ships, and carries productions long distances. Ask what becomes of the rocks and earth swept along by the rivers. Show how large alluvial plains are formed. Speak of the fineness to which the material is ground in its passage, and the freedom of alluvial plains from stones, although great rocks are carried away by the waters above. The manner in which streams dispose of the soil from the mountains may be compared to a boy who, when running down hill, often goes more sl6wly near the base, and perhaps takes off his coat and leaves it behind. In speak- ing of river-valleys, refer to the channels upon a hill-slope which are cut by little rills during a violent rain, and from these let the class imagine what a great stream flowing for a long time might do. Trace on the blackboard the Greek letter Delta (A), also a river showing its delta. Sketch of a Biver and its Delta. Explain that the word erosion applies to general surface degradation, such as the washing away of the surface of the land by rains and melted snows, and the transportation of disintegrated rock from one place to another by flowing water. Draw out why all rivers do not have deltas. When speak- ing of rivers, refer to those that^un under ground for miles. The coast of Algeria presents instances of underground rivers emptying into the sea. Note that the increase of volume in a river is not due entirely to its trib- utaries, and that the widest part is not always near the mouth. It will be interesting to state, when speaking of glaciers, that, in passing over the upper portions of these ice-rivers during certain stages of the atmosphere, a blue light issues from every hole made by the foot or staff in the snow. Travelers sometimes come to tables on the glaciers; these are made of large slabs of stone supported on legs of ice. THE HEMtSPHEEBS. Descriptive I'ext, page 13. This lesson should be an observation-lesson on the map and the globe^and not a mechanical memory-exercise. Teach the class to photo- graph on the tablet of the mind the map and the globe, and, after concepts have been clearly gained to recall the facts, read from the representations of the earth. Do not teach this lesson, by holding the book before your eyes and asking the printed questions. Free yourself from that terrible bondage, and so study the lesson as to be able to teach it from your own mental resources. A few pencil-notes on a piece of paper will enable you to make your points in consecutive order. Throw your whole soul into your work, and teach your pupils to concentrate their thoughts, which you can compare to soldiers to be trained. Let the full force of your nature operate on that of your class, and let them see that your aim is to make them wiser and better. THE GREAT SLOPES OF THE EARTH. Descriptive Text, page 13. Considerable time should be spent with this lesson, as its principles form the foundation of all future work, and are therefore of the utmost import- ance. If you have a small globe, mould on its surface the primary high- lands. These can be represented on a turnip if no globe is at hand. The outline of the earth's surface {Mercator's projection), with the northern ex- tremities slightly inclined toward each other and the primary highlands represented in sand, will show nicely the globe relief. Kepresent the same with curved lines on the blackboard. • Illustrate that secondary highlands have no effect on the general shape of the basin by arranging books of different sizes in circles, decreasing in height like the sides of an amphitheatre. A picture of the Coliseum in its original condition will well illustrate Ihe same point. Talk for a short time about the great slopes of the earth, allowing the children to compare the inner slopes with those outside of the great plateau that extends almost around the earth. Suppose it possible to pump the Atlantic Ocean dry, and allow the children to imagine the appearance of the basin of the globe-relief after the occurrence. As a rule, the long slope of a continent is always four or five times as long as the short slope. Compare the peninsulas of the Old World to the " fringes of a royal robe." Note that the wedge-like form . of the continents is repeated on a small scale in the penin- sulas of Europe and Asia. The star-shaped figure of the land-hemisphere is best shown by a horizontal pro- jection of the Northern Hemisphere. Attention may be called to the singular parallelism between the Atlantic coasts of the Old and the New World, but it is not best to draw any conclusions. The frequent occurrence of the number three in the arrangement of the natural divisions of land and water may be noticed as a curiosity in numbers ; thus, three continents are grouped together; there are three great indentations in the southeru coast of Europe and also of Asia, three great seas in the centre of the Old World, three peninsulas south of Europe, etc. This lesson should be mostly a tirill-exercise on the map and globe, appealing to the perceptive powers. The visible representations of the earth should be used until they are photographed on the mind. Occasionally cover the map and globe, asking if the places mentioned can be seen. WINDS OF THE EARTH. Descriptive Text, page 17. That heated air expands may be shown by means of a flask, a narrow glass tube, an alcohol lamp, and a cork. Pass the tube through the cork and place the cork in the mouth of the flask ; heat the tube in the lamp and bend it downward, so that when the flask is standing upright the open end of the tube may dip into water; cause the flame of the lamp to heat the flask, and the air therein will be expanded, driven through the tube, and issue in bubbles from the water. Hot air entrapped in a paper bag will carry the bag upward. The bursting of roasting chestnuts is due to the heating and expanding of the enclosed air. The adverse motions of qq1rtant, though small, and call attention to the melting of the snow at the source of the Arctic streams, thus inundating the northern plains and making them des- olate fields of ice.' Ask the pupils to write a list of American rivers each of which is one thousand or more miles long. Note that nearly all the large rivers of North America rise in the region between Long's Peak and Mount Brown. Show why the Sacramento and Columbia rivers are the most important of the Pacific slope. Befer to the great work of deepening the channel of the St. Lawrence River from Montreal to Quebec, successfully accomplished not long since. Where there were formerly only eleven feet of water, there are now twenty-seven and a half feet ; thus the commerce of Montreal has been increased by opening a channel for large ocean steamers. Refer to the break- ing up of the ice on the St. Lawrence in the spring, and to the bridges car- ried away by these freshets. Notice the Thousand Islands on the upper part of the St. Lawrence. Instead of accumulating too many pictures of rivers, display a few, and teach the children to recognize in them the points developed in the lesson by comparisons. Show the class how to construct a diagram showing the comparative lengths of rivers. Cards may be made having on one side the name " North America ;" on the other side the name of a system with its rivers or a river with its trib- utaries. Children like to record their knowledge in a way to impress the mind through the medium of the eye and the hand, and devices of this kind are hailed with pleasure. The Qre^ Lakes may be compared to immense bowls of difierent sizes, the water flowing from one to another. Notice the depth of Lake Ontario below the sea, it being nearly equal to the height of the lake above the ocean. This may be represented by drawing a horizontal line on the black- board to indicate the top of Lake Superior, and another below, for its bed, TEACHEHS* NOTES. XV and one between the two for the surface of the sea. Two oblique lines drawn through these will represent the lake. The other lakes can be represented in a similar manner and comparisons made. Colored crayons add to the attractiveness of these diagrams when repre- sented on the blackboard. En- ameled crayons do not color the hand and are dustless. Eefer to the fact that the need of copper led to a knowledge of this great system of American lakes. Tell something interest- insr about Niagara Falls not found in the text-books. In winter, when the sun shines on the trees frosted by the spray, the scene makes one think of fairy-land. The ice covers every stump and bush below the Falls, an3 assumes strange forms. The ice carried over the cataract piles itself up below, and forms an ice-bridge across the stream and an ice-mountain before each fall. It is said that boys sometimes climb these mountains and slide down. If a person stood long in the falling spray, he would become coated with ice and freeze to the spot. The rumble of the Falls can be heard, the trembling of the earth felt and the spray seen many miles away. Review what has been taught about the formation of the brack- ish lakes or lagoons along the eastern coast of the continent. Bepresent the lakes on your sand-map with bits of tin-foil or silver-paper. Introduce some supplementary reading to deepen impressions. Do not try to teach too much. A few vivid impressions made lasting as life are of more value than thousands of facts crowded into the mind to be forgotten in a week. . Climate. — Call particular attention to the contour of the continent, show- ing how the deep cut made by the Gulf of Mexico opens the whole southern part to the moist winds of the tropics ; then call attention to the relief, show- ing how the mountains of Mexico deflect the winds northward, and the Pacific Highlands help precipitate the moisture in the Mississippi Valley. Draw out why there is the most rainfall in the north-west and south-east. Have ready the chart showing the degrees of rainfall on the globe, and notice the location of North America in regard tfl the rain-belts. Draw a line from tlie western shore of the Gulf of Mexico directly north, and it will cut off to the east all that part of the continent which is reached by south winds. A line from the same point, parallel with the Atlantic coast, gives the sweep of the south-west winds. Show that the western coast, from Alaska to the Columbia •River, is open to warm currents and the counter trade-winds. It has been stated by travelers that any photograph of the forests of Alaska during a perfect calm would give the idea that a violent easterly wind was raging. snow falls and not much ice forms, except upon the mountains. When considering the climate of Mexico draw a rough outline of a table-land on the blackboard, and iijdicate that the torrid zone includes all the region that lies between the sea-level and the height of 2000 feet. Above for the tortured and wind-torn branches stretch their supplicating arms toward the west, having grown and fixed themselves into the position given them by the strong prevailing winds. Draw two straight lines, one from Northern Texas to Puget Sound, and the other to Pamlico Sound, and note that south of these boundaries very little that height, to 5000 feet, mark temperate regions, and stiU higher the frigid lands. Study the conditions that cause the lines of heat to vary. Refer to the average annual temperature of the school-district, and have the children find its belt on the map. Imagine a journey in some one belt, and ask the children to judge which one from the description given. Let some pupil describe the climate in a certain place, and ask the class to name the belt. It will be a pleasing exercise to allow the class to prepare descriptions of this kind to be read at the next recitation. Vegetable Life. — Group tl^e plants first in great heat-belts, and then call attention more closely to their association with the surface-structure of the continent. Review briery the general laws that regulate plant-life. Show that the continent owes muclf pf its fertility to the Gulf of Mexico and the trade-winds. Display a chart on which is represented the plant- belts into which the continent inay be divided. The division may be made as for climate. In speaking of the "barrens," recall the mental pictures that have been formed. State-that in parts of Greenland dried moss and blubber are used for fiiel. Show that ■jihe Arctic forest-belt extends in an almost unbroken line three-fourths of the way round the earth. Speak of how the intense cold of these regions often splits the trunks of large trees with a loud, clanging noise. Show that the temperate region also has forests. On the western side the forest-belt ejftends farther northward than on the eastern. Show how this is due, in the main, to the winds and the currents. Divide the surface of the Mississippi Valley into sections, show- ing the region of wheat and corn in the upper part, farther south that of tobacco and hemp, and then cotton and sugar-cane. Draw out the fact that sugar-cane and cotton need a rich soil and a long, warm season, while most cereals ripen during a short, warm summer. Pine trees flourish in cold regions ; palms demand a warm climate. Knowing these and similar prin- ciples, the children can locate each production in its proper section with but little aid. Recall what has been taught about plants being transferred from place to place, not only by man, but by winds, currents, birds, and other agencies. Encourage the children to bring to school whatever specimens they can find to illustrate the lesson. Refer to the fences made of rows of the century-plant to be seen in Mexico. Tell the children that after reading about the stiff, thorny vegetation of this country they will understand why the Mexican infantry soldiers wear very thick, high-topped boots. Tell about the prickly pear that is cultivated for the cochineal insects that breed upon it. The women brush the insects from the plants with squirrel-tails, and then immerse, them in hot water and expose them to the sun. It will be interesting to refer to the dahlias, sweet-peas, heliotrope, and other of our garden-plants that grow wild in Mexico. The heliotrope there grows to be a large shrub, and sends out a perfume so strong that it cannot well be kept in the house. It is supposed that the class has had previous instruction in regard to the manner of growth and characteristic features of the more common produc- tions, and it will not be well to spend much time in this direction, as the main object of this lesson should be to impress on their minds the regions where the leading productions flourish and the principles that underlie tbeir distribution over the continent. XVI POTTER'S ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. With these lessons about regions far away, continue the study of home surroundings, and constantly make comparisons, using the phenomena that come under the eyes of the children to illustrate that too far away to be seen. Teach the children to carry note-books in which to record observa- tions made. in the fields. Have them bring to school the first pussy-willow, tpe first shoots from trees, the first wild flowers found in the spring, and to rfecord when certain trees blossom, and other facts of interest. 'Leaf-albums may be made, into which may be copied poems about trees aind sketches of historic trees. Leaves may be pressed and glued to the blank pages. The b6st way to press flowers and leaves is to place them carefully between thin sheets of cotton batting, with a slight pressure on top. Leaf- cards may be made, each representing a tree. A brief description should be written below the leaf and a bit of the bark of the tree fastened to the card. Grain-cards can be made in the same manner. In making production-maps, different colored inks may be employed or colored crayons used ; thus the gijain-lands may be painted yellow, the prairies light-green, the forests ,dark- gieen,. and the fruit-regions red. (By means of exchanges specimens of the productions in various parts of our country can easily be secured. The names of teachers in different States can be obtained froni school;officers and postmasters, and letters and speci- mens exchanged. The children can be interested in this work, and a cor- respondence opened, under the supervision of the teachers, between classes in different sections of the country. Missionaries in foreign lands some- times- can be interested in helping in this co-operative geography-work. Animal Life. — ^Talk a few moments about animal life in general, and show the effect of the distribution of food-plants on the grouping of animals. ISietF adaptation to their physical surroundings has been considered in the preceding grade, but if not understood by the class should be briefly re- viewed. Compare our summer and winter as to the abundance of insects and reptiles, and show that there is a more marked difference between the northern and southern belts of the continent. ' Lead the children to see why animal life is more abundant in the water in the frigid zone than on the land. Becall the principles that animals like warmth, and that the water absorbs and retains more of the sun's heat than does the earth. Dra-w a blackboard sketch of the seal's home, and if time will permit talk a little while about the habits of this animal. Show that the Esquimaux love their homes as do more civilized people, and are homesick if taken from them. Talk a little while about explorers who have risked their lives to obtain a more thorough knowledge of the Arctic lands. Speak of the value of the furs obtained in that region. The Esquimaux sometimes shoe their sledges by squirting a thin stream of Review what has been taught about the vegetation in the central belt. Show how with the progress of settlement the wild animals have been driven westward. Contrast the bright plumage of tropical birds with; the dull feathers of those found in the North. It will be interesting to assign each pupil an animal to write about, the articles to be read at the next recitation. These should be attached to the outline maps, filled in by the children, and be filed away for future inspection. Connect this lesson with the lessons about the home-surroundings. Have the children notice the first living insect in the spring, note the migration of birds in the fall, and other facts of interest. This lesson will give an opportunity to guide the homerreading of the pupil. Recommend the best books about animal life. If you live near a public library, the librarian Will.no doubt assist you in the work. Population. — Write a table on the blackboard showing the number of inhabitants on each continent. Lead the children to make comparisons and to construct a diagram. Draw out why the natives of the North, as a class, aire not very intelligent. Describe the houses of some tribes of Indians in Alaska. The first building is a shanty, under which a hole like a well is dug, thence a passageway runs sflme yards to the dwelling proper, which is mostly underground. A dome-shaped roof is above the surface, which has a hole in the top to let out the smoke. The dogs sometimes tumble through this hole. Compare this bouse with the home of the seal. water from their mouths upon the runners, where it congeals. Sometimes, when they want a sledge in haste, they cut one out of a cake of ice, and harness their dogs to it and ride away. When traveling they save their eyes from snow-blinding by means of spectacles of wood or ivory in which are slits for eye-holes. These shades are tied behind the ears with strings. Tell how the Esquimaux take a strip of blubber, swallow the end and cut off" a piqce, and then swallow again. It is well their noses are short, or they would cut them off' eating. Show on the map that these people are found from Alaska to Labrador, along the American side of Bering Sea, and along the northern coast of Hudson Bay. The Esquimau women have a peculiar boat called oomiak [oo'mi-ak'), or " woman's boat.'' It is made of skins sewed together and drawn over a Trame and tied. It is so trans- lucent that the water can be seen through its sides, and when rapped with a stick it rattles like a drum. The men think it a disgrace to row one of these boats. Measure in the yard a line thirty-six feet long : have the class imagine a boat as long, six feet wide and two and a half feet deep, and they can form some idea of the size of an oomiak. The men have a boat called kayak {kay'ak). It is canoe-shaped, made of sealskins, and air- and water- tight. It has a hole in the centre in which the man sits, fastening his seal- skin jacket over an elevated rim, thus making himself a part of the boat, which comes only about two inches above the water. State that Captain Hall says that some of the Esquimaux can turn somer- saults with their kayaks or boats, going over and over, boat and all, and wetting only their hands and faces. When speaking of the aborigines, show that many of the names of places on the maps are Indian words. Some of these are quite long. Abbott says : "This is because they are made up of several different words as the Indians spoke them, while we write them in one word ; just as if the Indians were to go to England, where there is a place called the Elephant and Castle, and were to write and call it Elephantandcastle, or were to, call the mouth of the river, The mouthoiitheriver." Show how the surface, climate, and vegetation of the" central belt are favorable for the fullest cultivation of man's powers. Speak of the free schools, colleges, and means, of education in the land. Contrast the condition of the people in the northern belt with that of those in the southern. Show how Nature is the more lavish with her gifts in the latter region. Show how outside influences can affect civilization, and cause im- provements where Nature seems to check them. Speak of the impetus given civilization in the northern and southern belts by the push and progress of the people in the central belt. \-. Note the progress of the population westward. Eemart that at the close of the eighteenth century a famous Englishman visited this country and wrote a book about it, in which he declared that the Alleghany Mountains were a wall that must ever keep our population along the At- lantic seaboard. Let the class decide as to whether this prophecy has been fiilfilled. The Mexicans were at first inclined to resist the introduction oif any im-" provements from the North. One Creole tried to stop an engine by lassoing its smokestack. When speaking of the sandals used, show thit pegged shoes could not be worn in parts of Mexico, as the climate is such that thib wood would shrink and the pegs speedily drop out. " Centres of Industry. — Review what has been taught about the climate TEACHERS' NOTES. XVll" vegetation, and soil in the northern belt. Show that men naturally congre- gate where they can find means of subsistence. Refer to the dignity of being usefully employed, and the eflTect that industry has upon individual as well as national life. Review the productions of the central belt, and display your chart showing the great grain, cotton, fruit, and sugar regions. Show how the rivers and watercourses in a measure determine the location of the cities which form the commercial centres of the various industries. Contrast the advantages of a farm in the West with those of one in New England. Show that the ■ level surface of the former enables the workmen to use machines with greater facility and to cultivate the ground with less labor. The soil is also more fertile. Give some idea of the immense amount of cotton, grain, and other ^vegetable products raised in the central belt. When speaking of the northern belt, show that the Arctic Current is not only a source of fishing wealth to the coasts of the North, but also sends its influence along the eastern coast of the United States. Display your chart showing the forest-belt of the continent, and review what has been taught concerning it. If time will permit, talk a little while about lumbering. Show how the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River are made useful in transporting the lumber to the coast. A word-picture of a lumber-camp will be of interest. Refer to the privations and dangers incurred by the fur-hunters of the North. Contrast the North-west with the North-east, and recall princi- ples previously taught. Encourage the children to add to their cabinets specimens of the raw materials used in manufacturing establishments, such as paper-pulp, cocoons, spun silk, wool, asbestos, sand from which glass is made, etc. When speaking of mines, specimens of minerals may be displayed, and bits of them fastened to a production-map or laid on the relief-map over the localities where they may be found. If the class has had no previous instruc-"' tion in this direction, encourage them to become familiar with the stones' that they find in the fields and to bring specimens to school. Show that foreign commerce, manufacturing, and fisheries are confined chiefly to the coasts and navigable rivers. In teaching the exports of the continent a pleasant game is tO' divide the class into two groups, selecting a leader for each side. Let the leader of one group write an export of North America on a slip of paper and- pass it to each one on his side, so that all may know the word. The -pupils' on the other side are to find out this export by asking a given number of questions. If they fail to discover it, t^ey lose five pupils from th'eir side,' The name of the export is then written on the blackboard, and the- leader chooses another word. If the opposite side tells the export by asking the" given number of questions, the leader can call five pupils from the otherj side to his ranks and select the export to be named. This game can be varied and improved at will. Do not try to cover this topic with one lesson unless the class has had;^ thorough elementary instruction. It is better to spend a week considering the subject than to pass over it lightly and in a superficial manner; espe- cially if you desire your pupils to become thoroughly proficient. THE UNITED STATES. Descriptive Text, page 40. Call the attention of the class to the fact that the United States occupies the most desirable portion of the continent. Arrange on the black- board a statistical table giving the area of several of the large countries in the world, and allow the class to compare the United States with each of those countries. (See Sketch, page 4^.) Likewise the area of the continents. Show that it is well that the first settlements were not along the Pacific coast, for the great highlands of the West would have proved a bar- rier to the rapid progress of civilization. Contrast a map of this country when the Union was formed with one of the present day. (See Map, App.) Ooasts.^Show the advantages of the long coast-line of our country. Compare its length with the distance around the world. Draw Irom the class an enumeration of the means of preventing disasters along the coasts, such as lighthouses, fog-horns, buoys, and lightships. Describe the equip- ment of Life-saving Stations and the methods of work practised by the crews. A few incidents concerning the service will interest the children, as they always like to hear of the brave deeds of noble men. The Pacific coast has a few life-saving stations, but not so many as the Atlantic. Contrast the Atlantic coa^t with the Pacific When sketching these coasts associate with each place indicated some interesting fact. Cape Cod may be compared in shape to a bended human arm or to the letter L. Cape May fcas a lighthouse with a revolving light. Cape Hatteras 'Jivides the Atlantic coast into two nearly equal parts, while Cape Mendocino does the same |l for the Pacific coast. Florida ^ninsula is sometimes called the " Land ' of Flowers," although one traveler calls the southern part the " Land of Frogs." Why ? Dela^ware Bay is noted for its long breakwater, which ' it may be well to briefly describe to the class. Chesapeake Bay is the hunter's paradise. Why? San Francisco Bay has at its entrance a channel called the " Golden Gate." Kevlew what has been taugh-f" about the great slopes and drainage of the Central Belt. Show how the surface-structure determines the drain- ^ age. Tell a few additional facts of interest about the rivers. Make map- reading a part of every lesson. The Cannon-ball River is one of the upper branches of the Mississippi. In this stream are great quantities of '^ round, heavy stones that look like cannon-balls. No one can tell how thejr were formed. Tell when the first steamboat was launched in America. ; An Indian thus described' its appearance: "No row, pot boil, and she walk um." Speak of what "Fulton's Folly" (as it was called) has done- for the' country. The first trip irom New York to Albany was completed in thirty- six hours. Ask the class to ascertain in what time that trip now can be made. Tell how the Hudson River plays " hide-and-seek " with the High- i lands. In describing the Rio Grande River tell how for miles and miles a railroad-track runs along a shelf cut in the side of huge bluffs towering above the river. Climate. — If possible reproduce the rain-chart given in the book on the blackboard, enlarging the scale. Contrast the climate in the northern part of the United States with that in the southern part. Show how the surface- structure of the country affects its climate. Encourage the children to notice the daily weather-reports in the newspapers. Inhabitants. — Arrange a statistical table on the blackboard showing the population of several of the most important countries of the world, and allow 'the class to compare the United States with each. Give a few more interest- ing facts about the Chinese in California. When a Chinaman of wealth dies, one of his friends rides on the hearse and continually throws bit^bf gold-colored paper into the street. It is believed that the devil follows the. corpse, and, mistaking this paper for gold, stops to examine it,, and thus; enables the body to arrive at the grave before him. At the end of the funeral procession comes an express-wagon loaded with roast pig, boiled rice, lights, gold paper, etc. The eatables are thrown into the grave and the lights left burning beside it. Allusion may be made in this connection^ to the acts of Congress concerning the immigration of the Chinese to iMs. country. Consider briefly the introduction of negroes from Africis, the growth of slavery, its' abolition, and the gradual improvement- of the race-. The means used by the Government of the United States to improve the condition of the Indians should receive attention. Show how the surface-? XVlll POTTER'S ADVANCED GEOGHAPHY. structure of the country has determined to a great extent the distribution of its population. The Centres of Industry may be easily read from the map. Contrast the farms in the East with those in the West. Show that the rough surface of the land in the East prevents the use of the large, heavy machines used in the West. Describe some of the difficulties that attend breaking up new land and making a home in unsettled regions. Speak of the vast unde- veloped resources of our country, and the advantages they present to young, enterprising, industrious men. Contrast the variety, quantity, and quality of the vegetables, grains, and fruits raised- in the North-east with the variety, quantity, and quality of those raised in the West and South. In considering the productions of the country classify the cotton-, bay-, sugar-, wheat-, tobacco-, and corn-producing States; also allow the children to ascertain, from the statistical tables, the State that leads in each of the most important productions. Teach the class how to construct comparative diagrams from these tables, showing to the eye, by means of squares, parallelograms, and circles, the facts usually given by figures alone. A most e&'ectual lesson in temperance may be given by the follow- ing blackboard illustration, which shows the annual expenditure in the United States for various articles: Encourage the children to look in the newspapers, and to notice the imports at certain harbors as given in the trade and commerce reports. The statistics pf commerce are variable, and require constant study on the part of the teacher. Do not burden the mind with long lists of exports and imports, but rather teach principles that will be as nails driven in sure places iind clinched. It will be well to speak in this connection of the assistance of ithe postal service,, telegraph, and telephone in directing the commerce of the country. The following lines will amuse the class: -r ''Tinne was ^when one must hold his ear Close to a whispering voice to heap, Like deaf men, nigh and nigher; But now from town to to^vn he talks. And puts his nose into a box And v\rhispers through a wire. " In olden times along the street A glimmering lantern led our feet When on a midnight stroll ; But no-w we snateh, -when night comes nfgh, A piece of lightning from the sky, And stick it on a pole." Great Bbutes of Travel. — Eeview what has been taught about the contour of the United States, and show how the long coast-lines facilitate its commerce. Show that the terminations of the routes of travel are great d6p6ts for the produce of surrounding districts, which determine the kind of articles exported. Lead the children to see that the exports of the United States are principally from agriculture. Review the great agricultural belts of the continent, and let the children determine why the great trunk-lines of railway run from east to west.^ Compare the means of transportation in Greenland with that of the United States. Classify the cities that form the great trade-centres according to size and commercial importance, observing to notice only the most important, so as to maintain the unity of the subject. Blackboard stencils of railway-maps can be obtained for a small amount, and almost any of the leading railroad companies will furnish charts and maps of this kind free to teachers. Ask where commercial cities are usually situated, and what part of the Central Belt is best adapted to their growth. Ask why New York has become larger than Boston, and compare the situation of Chicago with that of St. Louis. -Let difierent pupils act as merchants in various cities, importing goods to sell, while others act as manufacturers and exporters. Compare the railroads in the Central Belt to a great net spread over the land. If the railway-lines in the United States could be projected in a continuous line in the air, they would reach one thousand miles beyond the moon. Refer to the dauntless spirit dis- played by man in constructing railroads. The project of building the Central Pacific road was at iirst called the "Dutch Flat swindle," and ridiculed and derided. All the material for this road had to be shipped from New York around Cape Horn. Ten thousand Chinese were brought from Asia to complete the work. Show that Denver is the central point of the mining interests, and therefore the metropolis of the Rocky Moun- tains and the gate to their wonders. Inquire as to the advantages of connec- tion with the Pacific. Let the children point out the leading cities which have sprung into existence as the direct result of the great Pacific lines. Do not try to represent too much on the progressive map. Indi-. cate only the great trunk-lines of railway and the leading water-routes of travel. Note the time made by express- and passenger-trains from various poipts, and encourage the children to obtain and consult time-tables. Teach them the value of these' tables in making connections when taking long journeys. Take an im- aginary journey over some great line of travel, and allow the children to attend to the business part of the trip. Let the imaginary jourpeys over the continent hereafter be along the great routes of travel. Standard Time. — Review what has been taught about the sunset-line moving westward with the passing hours. Show that the gain or loss of a day in traveling around the earth is only apparent, and not real, as may be seen in the case of two twins who journey, the one east and the other west, around the earth. Their reckoning when they come together is two days apart, but the one is not two days older than the other, for if so the process might be repeated until one would become a year or two older than his twin brother. Time itself is not in- creased or diminished by a journey around the earth, but only its computation. The revolutions of the earth itself, as measured at fixed localities, number the days. The traveler, by going east or west around the world, puts himself at variance with the numerical order of the earth's revo- lutions as computed at any fixed point, and thus must adjust his reckoning as he journeys in order to keep the correct time ; or, in other words, the definite day may be said to travel around the world, and the traveler to travel with or against it, and thus apparently to gain or lose time. The International IJate or Day Line may be explained in this connection. Tell hbw Magel- lan's vessel, when sailing around the earth, crossed this line, and the sailors, finding Sunday falling on Monday, accused one another of changing the reck- oning, and engaged in a promiscuous quarrel. The relation of time to lon- gitude may be illustrated by means of a globe, a cardboard ring to mark the sunset, and a candle. Government.— Show in what respect the government of our nation has enhanced its prosperity. Contrast the government of the United States with that of Turkey or some other inefficiently ruled nation. That the safety of our government depends entirely on the virtue and intelligence of the common people should be dwelt upon. Make the relation of education to government clear, and show that the schoolhouse is a friend to free govern- ment. Ask how many in the class have ever read the Constitution of the United States. Direct their attention to it as something worthy of the most careful study. Religion.— Show that the religious belief of a nation affects its civiliza- tion and political life, and that religious liberty is the very corner-stone of our republic. Ask the pupils to make a list of all the religious denomina- tions of which they have heard. Remark that in no other nation is there such freedom of thought and action in this direction. Education.— Draw from the class their idea of the advantages of a good education. Refer to men who have become great scholars notwithstanding adverse circumstances, and show how fortunate are the girls and boys of our country in being born in a land where they can become well educated even though poor. Notice that one of the most striking evidences of the advancement of the United States is the attention bestowed upon the highei TEACHERS' NOTES. XIX education of women. The right of women to aspire to the learned professions is now almost universally conceded, and colleges are opening their doors to them. Contrast this state of affairs with the inferior position that women occupy in some of the countries of the Old World. In studying about the States in sections or individually, dissect- ing-maps if properly used are of the utmost value. They can be easily made by pasting maps from old geographies on cardboard and outlining the divis- ions with the scissors, or, what is better, paste on thin sheets of wood and outline with a jig-saw. In uSing maps of this kind do not allow the use of any other map as a key ; let the pupils originate plans of building the map at first, and then have them begin with some particular State and build about it. Questions should be asked, and the class drilled upon the boundaries, relative sizes, and general form of the States, and other points. Impress the bound- aries of the States upon the mind by questions similar to the following: If you were in the north-western part of Tennessee, and should travel directly north until you passed into another State, in what State would you be? Now, travel directly west until you pass into another State : what State is it? The following plan has been suggested as one likely to awaken an abiding interest : Prepare a series of small boxes labeled to correspond with the names of the States in the section which is being studied ; in each box deposit the products and newspaper items that can be collected concerning the State represented. The name of the donor should be attached to each object. A class-secretary may be appointed to keep a record of the dona- tions. A correspondence may be opened with one or more schools in various States, and information as well as products exchanged. By means of a simple diagram a clear and connected view may be taken of the outlines of the world's history. As the lessons proceed, links in the chain will necessarily be given in a soinewhat disconnected manner, but by referring them to their proper places in the Historical Lines they present the questions in different forms. A pleasant exercise is .|» name a letter in the alphabet, and call on a pupil to name a place aboiit which they have learned beginning with that letter ; then call on anothet pupil to locate and describe the place named, which, if he does correctly, gives him the privilege of naming a letter. Jhis exercise should be continued only for a short time. The class may become a band of imaginary tourists, each one reading a short letter which he has written upon some topic previously assigned by the teacher. For example, one pupil may write from Mexico, describing the city, the people, the volcanoes near, and other objects of in- terest; another may write from Greenland, telling about the aurorayborealis, the ice-fields, and the monotonous scenery of that region ; while stilj another may write about life in California, explaining why its climate is delightful and its fruits delicious. A review-chart may be made consisting of topical words and phrases. These may be printed on the blackboard or on manila paper. The latter has an advantage, as it can be preserved for future use. With a chart of this kind the teacher can allow the class to do most of the thinking. Questions, however, should be mingled judiciously with the topics, in order to arouse thought and to hold the attention. If you find that the work has not been thorough on any point, stop and make needed explanations, and if necessary assign a lesson on the topic not understood. Written reviews of proper length and form are useful, and serve to show where instruction has been incomplete. It is not best to display wall-maps when reviewing, as your aim should be to teach the pupils to call up a mental picture of the structure of the map at will, and not to be dependent upon the painted canvas or board. If you have plenty of map outlines at hand, it will be a profitable exercise to distribute them to the class and call for the representation of certain features on them, or a large outline may be printed upon the blackboard and the pupils called by turn to draw, describe, and name the natural features of the continent as fast as they are mentioned. ONE; THOUSATi