LIBRARY New York State Veterinary College ITHACA, NEW YORK A The New York Academy of Medicine. 504 Pasteur centenary. P3 N53 504 P3 N53 Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library R 504.P3N53 Pasteur centenary; catalogue of objectf e 3 1924 000 881 585 A ".'"^ - /- ^h niM I Date Due K'ii i..^>^ l^/l'^ =^ digitized by Microsoi r % ^^6i Knrk Pasteur Centenary LOUIS PASTEUR Born, December 27, 1822 Died, September 28, 1895 Digitized by Microsoft® S'o f> CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE FOUNDED BY ROSWELL P. FLOWER for the use of the N. Y. State Veterinary College 1897 Digitized by Microsoft® This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation witli Cornell University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in limited quantity for your personal purposes, but may not distribute or provide access to it (or modified or partial versions of it) for revenue-generating or other commercial purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® DigitiTfid by MicmanM A PUBLIC EXHIBITION of BOOKS, PORTRAITS, MEDALLIONS and OTHER OBJECTS RELATING TO PASTEUR held at The New York Academy of Medicine SEVENTEEN WEST FORTY-THIRD STREET DECEMBER 27, 1922 to JANUARY 10, 1923, Inclusive Daily from 10:00 a. m. to 10:00 p. m. Digitized by Microsoft® BIRTHPLACE OF PASTEUR at Dole (Jura) Digitized by Microsoft® PASTEUR CENTENARY CATALOGUE of OBJECTS Exhibited in Connection with the Celebration oj the CENTENARY OF THE BIRTH LOUIS PASTEUR The New York Academy of Medicine SEVENTEEN WEST FORTY-THIRD STREET, NEW YORK December 27, 1922 to January 10, 1923 Digitized by Microsoft® ft ^ LOUIS PASTEUR 1822 Born at Dole (Jura), December 27th. 1844 Chemical and Crystallographic Studies. Discovery of Molecular Dissymmetry. 1849 Professor of Chemistry, University of Strasburg. 1854 Professor and Dean, Faculty of Science, Lille. Studies on Fermentation. 1857 Sub-director of Science Studies, Ecole Normale. 1860 Studies Concerning Spontaneous Generation. 1862 Member, Academie des Sciences. 1864 Studies on Diseases of Wines. 1865 Studies on Diseases of Silkworms. 1867 Professor at the Sorbonne. 1868 Hemiplegia. 1871 Studies on Beer. "Pasteurization." 1873 Member, Academie de Medecine. 1877 Studies on Anthrax. 1878 Studies on Gangrene, Septicemia, Puerperal Fever. 1879 Studies on Chicken Cholera. Immunization by Means of Attenuated Cultures. Vaccination against Anthrax. 1880 Studies on Hydrophobia. 1882 Member, Academie Francaise. 1885 Preventive Inoculation in Rabies. 1888 Inauguration of the Pasteur Institute. 1895 Died at Villeneuve-l'Etang. September 28th. Digitized by, l^icrosoft® CATALOGUE Photographs and prints of Pasteur's birthplace, his home at Arbois, his place of death. Photographs of The Monuments to Pasteur in France. The Pasteur Institute. Pasteur's Tomb. The Laboratory. The Hospital. Portraits of Madame Pasteur, and of Pasteur's daughter, Madame Vallery-Radot. Reproductions of pastel portraits, done by Pasteur, of his Father and Mother and of neighbors. Photographs, photogravures and engravings of Pasteur at various periods of his life. According to the Index of Prints of the American Library Association there were no likenesses or portraits of Pasteur in the public press until 1882, when he was 57 years old, and had just been elected to the Academic Francaise, and had done most of his important work. After this, public tributes began to pour in. Medals were struck, portraits painted, tablets erected, and his pension was raised to 25,000 francs. Portraits of Pasteur appeared in various journals every year until long after his death. Books and Pamphlets, including Biographies of Pasteur; Works of Pasteur; Books and Pamphlets about Pasteur. In the celebration of the Pasteur centenary an attempt has been made to make the library exhibit as nearly complete as possible. To this end there have been gathered together all biographical matter dealing with Pasteur's life and work, whether books or pamphlets, and also as nearly as possible all his writings as indexed in the Vallery-Radot Pasteur bibliography, which is the most complete in existence. Digitized by [M/proso/?® Of the biographical books there are 16 English, 20 French, 1 Spanish. Of pamphlets and articles in journals there are about 100, which for the most part deal with one or another phase of his activities, medical, chemical or industrial. Of the books and articles which appeared in the current literature of his time, there are approximately 458 in all. A large part of these are included in this exhibit, a few only being unobtain- able. Most of both biographical material and Pasteur's writings are from the library of The New York Academy of Medicine, but we are also greatly indebted for loans from Dr. H. B. Jacobs of Baltimore, the Surgeon General's Library at Washington, the Library of the Museum of Natural History, and the Library of the Chemists Club. Autograph Letters. Case Records (Nos. 9186, 9187) obtained from Pasteur's Laboratory in 1890, and used in keeping records of patients treated for rabies. • Pasteur's "Double Hecatomb." Illustration of the attacks on Pasteur by an English anti-vivisection journal called The Zoophihst. In 1893 Pasteur had been treating rabies for 7 years, and there had been 240 deaths. This was the "Hecatomb." But Pasteur had then treated nearly 8,000 cases. The 240 deaths included the earlier cases of wolf bites and face bites, and cases treated before the technic had been perfected, and the mortality reduced to less than one per cent. Among the vice- presidents of the Anti-vivisection Society opposing Pasteur were many lords, earls, etc., and nine bishops. Among the Honorary members were Cardinal Gibbons, John Morley, and two doctors, Lawson Tait and an F. S. Arnold. A Caricature of Pasteur. Photostat from a colored lithograph in Vanity Fair, 1887. Bronze Bust of Pasteur by Paul Dubois. Loaned by The Rockefeller Institute. Digitized b)( ^crosoft® Bronze Figurine of Pasteur (15 inches high). Loaned by Dr. Erwin F. Smith. Two Glass Flasks, presented by Pasteur to the late Prof. Harold Ernst, of Harvard University. Loaned by Mrs. Ernst. Door Knob of a room in Pasteur's Home, which he constantly used. Loaned by Dr. Alexis Carrel. Model of a Crystal of Tartaric Acid made and labelled by his own hands, and used in his lecture and earnest exposition of molecular dyssym- metry. Loaned by the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Small bust in bronze. Bronze Bust by Naoume Aronson of Paris. Exhibited for the first time. Loaned by Naoume Aronson-. Book of Pasteur Memorabilia — from Custodianship Cabinet. Loaned by the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Phila delphia. Bronze Bust. Loaned by Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf. Medallions and Medals. Loaned by The Academy of Medicine and other sources. Digitized by[ lyijcrosoft® LIST OF THOSE CONTRIBUTING LOANS The Rockefeller Institute. Dr. Henry Barton Jacobs. Dr.' Erwin F. Smith. Lieut.-Col. I. F. Siler, M.D. Dr. Alexis Carrel. Dr. Rufus I. Cole. The College of Physicians of Philadelphia. Mrs. H. D. Dakin (Mrs. Christian A. Herter). Mrs. Harold Ernst (Boston). The New York Academy of Medicine. Mrs. Henry Fairfield Osborn. Mr. Arthur C. Train. Dr. W. Oilman Thompson. M. Pasteur Vallery-Radot. Dr. Simon Flexner. The Pasteur Institute of Paris. Mr. August F. Jaccaci. M. Naoume Aronson. Dr. M. S. Palmer. Dr. Charles L. Dana. Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf. Dr. Henry S. Stark.- . Dr. Harry A. Murray. Dr. Harry Plotz. Dr. Robert Abbe. Dr. Fredric S. Lee. Dr. Graham Lusk. Dr. Max Einhorn. , Dr. Margaret Barclay Wilson. The New York Public Library. The American Museum of Natural History. C. A. Browne, Ph.D. Dr. S. A. Waksman. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Surgeon General's Library, Washington, D. C. Dr. L. E. La Fetra. Dr. H. M. Silver. Digitized b}^ Microsoft® COMMEMORATIVE EXERCISES Wednesday Evening, January 10, 1923, at 8:30 Professor Russell H. Chittenden, Yale University, Contributions of Pasteur to Chemistry. Dr. William H. Welch, Johns Hopkins University, Pasteur's Contributions to Biology. Dr. Erwin F. Smith, United States Department of Agriculture, Pasteur's Study of Silkworm Diseases. Dr. Simon Flexner, The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, The Contributions of Pasteur to the Knowledge of Immunity and Therapy. Dr. Hermann M. Biggs, The New York State Department of Health, Pasteur's Treatment of Rabies. Dr. William W. Keen, Jefferson Medical College, The Influence of Pasteur on Knowledge Concerning Surgical Infection and Puerperal Fever. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTENARY EXHIBIT hy Dr. Robert Abbe The civilized world now speaks of the GREAT PASTEUR. This centenary of his birth has been celebrated in every country of the globe, as no other scientist or humanitarian has ever before been honored. It represents a re-birth of Pasteur due to a full valuation of his life work. The French nation has proudly proclaimed him as her greatest son, and gathered every souvenir available for a permanent exhibition. Our New York Academy of Medicine is the natural center for medical and scientific work fitted to gather material available for honoring this occasion, and has, during many months of search and correspondence, been able to assemble a better exhibition than has been possible elsewhere. Contributions of photographs of his home; of the scenes of his boyhood and life; of his laboratory working material; of the Pasteur Institute; of the many beautiful monuments erected to him in France ; of the many fascinating incidents of his middle and later life, are here displayed, chronologically. Beside these, more than four hundred volumes of his writings, and of books pertaining to him, biographies, and a portfolio of full sized reproductions of his own remarkable portrait drawings of early years testifying to the versatility of his genius, and keen power of observation. From Paris, from Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, and Washing- ton many precious souvenirs have been so arranged in the assembly room of the Academy, that a complete panorama of his life, has been shown. Beside these there have been shown, medals, medallions and bronzes. Above all it has been possible to exhibit four objects personal to him, which cannot be duplicated in this country. (See Frontispiece). The first was given to this country three years ago by Pasteur's successors. Dr. Roux and Dr. Calmette, to be deposited in the cabinet of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, for its educational value. This was loaned to this Centenary exhibit by the courtesy of the council of the college. It is a model of a crystal of tartaric acid four inches high, made, labelled, mounted and used by Pasteur with other models (preserved in France) in his chemistry courses. It represents the early period of his chemistry teaching. Digitized bf 1\iit;rosoft® The second period of his Hfe, which was so fruitful in its resulting brilliant discoveries in bacteriology, fermentation, and immunization as the cause and cure of contagious and infectious diseases, is represented by flasks taken from his store of laboratory material and given to our countryman Prof. Harold Ernst of Harvard. These were loaned by Harvard University. Another glass of more universal interest, was a sealed flask con- taining bouillon, boiled and sealed by Pasteur's own hand, sixty years ago, still clear and uncontaminated. This was given by him to Dr. Ernest LaPlace of Philadelphia, and loaned for awhile to our exhibit. The third personal object represents his home. It is most precious, — a fine porcelain door knob taken from his room in his Arbois home, and given to Alexis Carrel by Pasteur's grand-son Pasteur Vallery-Radot. It invites concentration, for it seems not only to bear the finger-prints of the great master, but it symbolizes his life work, — as if indeed we could see him, as it were, opening a little way a door, through which streams the light, upon a world of misery and distress, — a world of human and animal life, relieved of suffering and disease, — and who, through that open door, get a glimpse of the mystery, the beauty, the compassion, of another world. The method of arranging the exhibit was, by dividing the periods of his life into panels, with tri-color ribbon, which led the observer to visualize his extraordinarily beautiful and fruitful career, — and the logical steps by which he attained his distinction and fame. Many unexpectedly beautiful incidents were shown. A photograph of a large door painting in his home, before Pasteur's birth, — painted by his father, a veteran of Napoleon's army, — who depicted a returned soldier, partly clad in cocked hat and old military coat, — leaning on his spade in the field of his home farm, — dreaming of the glories of France. A photograph of Pasteur after he was paralyzed and had returned to his research work on silk worm disease, dictating notes to his faith- ful wife, in the garden of Alais, is full of character. Another photograph of him sitting under the elms in the garden of the animal laboratories, near Paris, two months before his death, glows with earnest meaning. Finally, pictures of his wonderful mosaic tomb in Paris, and his death mask, mark the end of one of the most eventful careers given to any man to achieve. It is to be hoped that the Academy, in its new home, will find room for occasional exhibits of similar life histories, to stimulate each new generation of medical men. Digitized byWIiprosoft® Contributions of PASTEUR TO CHEMISTRY by Professor Russell H. Chittenden Yale University In considering the work of Pasteur in Chemistry we must go back to the year 1843, when, as a young man 21 years of age, he was entering on his studies at the Ecole Normale of Paris, under the instruction of such inspiring men as Dumas, Balard, and Delafosse. He was deeply interested in chemistry, and his life work, as he had then decided, was to be in this branch of science. For the next few years his time was spent mainly in the laboratory with his polariscope, microscope, test tubes and flasks. While primarily an experimentalist, Pasteur was even at that age a deep thinker, possessed of a wonderful power of concentration together with a vivid imagination, which rendered him most fertile in devising theories and hypotheses. He was, however, in no sense a dreamer. He believed in facts. Trained in habits of careful observation and possessed of calm judgment he realized that theory must rest upon a foundation of incontrovertible evidence and that a theory without facts to support it is a mere speculation of no permanent scientific value. His attitude of mind, his tendency to weigh carefully the evidence and statements presented by others in scientific matters, his disposition to think for him- self and to take nothing for granted are well illustrated in his mental reaction toward the statement of Mitscherlich regarding the two forms of tartaric acid which, as this distinguished chemist had discovered in 1844, behaved differently toward polarized light, though apparently identical in all other respects. In announcing his discovery to the scientific world Mitscherlich added this significant statement, "The nature and number of atoms in these two bodies, as well as their arrangement and the dis- tances between them are identical." Remember, this was the utterance of a man highly distinguished in his field of work, an authority whose views would not be questioned lightly. Yet Pasteur with his habits of careful analysis felt that this reasoning was entirely unjustified. "How," said Pasteur, "can we accept the identity in the nature and number of atoms, admit that the relative Digitized by^ l^i^rosoft® distance and arrangement and the crystalline form are the same in these two bodies, without admitting also their absolute and entire identity throughout? A profound incompatability surely exists between Mitscher- lich's discovery of the different relationship of these two tartrates toward polarized light and his statement that they are identical in every particular." Pasteur did not speculate further on the matter, but turned his atten- tion at once to a microscopic study of the crystals of the ordinary tartaric acid and the rarer racemic acid, soon discovering what had hitherto escaped notice, that on the crystals of the commercial acid and the tar- trates there was a minute face, so placed that he was confident these crystals were dissymmetric, one of a pair of forms: Eventually, he proved that racemic acid, which has no action on polarized light, is composed of equal amounts of a right-handed tartaric acid in every way identical with the natural tartaric acid of the grape, and a left-handed tartaric acid, the one rotating the plane of polarized light to the right, the other to the left in equal degree. Pasteur's discovery, with the theory which it leads to, viz., that molecular dissymmetry is the result of a certain grouping of the atoms within the molecule marks the beginning of stereo-chemistry; the two forms of tartaric acid must have a different arrangement of their con- stituent atoms. It was 30 years later that Van't Hoff developed his theories regarding stereo-chemistry, one of the most fertile fields of modern chemical science. Our present day understanding of the constitution of carbon compounds, the spacial arrangement of the atoms within the. molecule, both of compounds with action on polarized light and innumer- able compounds without such action, is the direct outcome of these early and fundamental researches of Pasteur. The wonderful achievements of chemists like Emil Fischer, Ladenburg and others in building up syntheti- cally such important organic compounds as the sugars and the alkaloid Conine are striking illustrations of what this theory has led to. To quote Professor Frankland, "By these first researches we see, then, that Pasteur became the father of one of the most wonderful departments of modern chemistry — namely the one which has for its ambition the discovery of the spacial distribution of the individual atoms in the molecule. Thus, Pasteur's first researches possessed in themselves purely theoretical interest ; they were, however, masterpieces of thoroughness and exhibited so much experimental skill, intuition and power of careful observation, combined with clear judgment that even had his career been cut short at this stage, we should have no hesitation in recognizing in him one of the most remarkable and exceptionally gifted of investigators." Digitized bvMiprosoft® The stage had long been set for such an advance in thought as Pasteur's discovery led to, but it is remarkable that a young doctor of science, only 25 years of age when he presented his results before the Academy of Sciences, should have been the one to open the door to this advance. Thus, Biot, since 1815 had been more or less continuously at work on the phenomena of polarization. He had called attention to the fact that the many organic substances occurring in nature which possess the power of rotating the plane of polarized light, either to the right or to the left manifest this power when in solution and that consequently the rotation is not conditioned by crystalline form as with quartz, but pre- sumably is dependent upon the molecules themselves. Biot had fre- quently urged that the polarimetric study of organic substances might possibly prove an important avenue to the understanding of their con- stitution, but, as stated by Professor Frankland, "although he had led scientific thought, and directed experimental activity with marvellous instinct in the direction of that new realm of chemistry, so fraught with fascination and absorbing interest to the investigator, it was not given to Biot himself to cross the frontier, but this advance was reserved for Pasteur." It was Pasteur's keenness of vision, power of careful observation and clear thinking that led to his success. Biot himself, 74 years old at the time when Pasteur's work was completed, could not at first believe that this young doctor had overcome difificulties that had proved too much for the renowned Mitscherlich, but when he was finally convinced, he took Pasteur by the arm and said, "My dear boy, I have loved science so much during my life, that this' touches my very heart." Called to Strassburg as professor of chemistry in 1849, Pasteur con- tinued his active work on racemic acid. His search for this acid illustrates his vigor and perseverance under difificulties. He travelled about to the various factories where crude tartar was refined and pure tartaric acid was manufactured. He had indeed found that racemic acid was occasion- ally present in samples of tartaric acid from various countries, but its presence was seemingly an accident and apparently no one knew how to prepare it. He visited Vienna, Prague, Leipzic, Freiberg, and other places where chemical industries were being carried on, but without suc- cess. He came to the conclusion that so far no chemist had ever made pure racemic acid from pure tartaric acid, but he was convinced that such a conversion was a possibility or at least that in some way pure racemic acid could be produced. He set himself to this task and finally after many trials he succeeded by simply exposing cinchonine tartrate to a high temperature for several Digitized by[ Iji^i^rosoft® hours. This was in 1853. In view of the work he was to undertake in the near future, it seems almost miraculous the way his researches had shaped themselves, paving the way as it were for what was to come later. He had spent his energy in studying molecular dissymmetry from a purely scientific motive; he had selected tartaric acid for special study from a similar motive. In the words of Paget "he had chosen — as it were at random — a grape acid, an article of commerce, a product of fermentation; his quest of racemic acid had compelled him to see with his own eyes the whole business of the making of wines, had carried him from crystals to ferments, from experimental physics to one of the world's most colossal industries. He has recorded how, at this time, he discovered that a racemate, in the presence of a ferment, is split up ; that the ferment picks out the right-handed acid and leaves the left-handed acid. Here, over this one observation, we seem to be standing on the very border between the two kingdoms, between 'pure science' and 'applied science.' Only his genius inspired him not to lower science to the level of trade, but to exalt trade to the level of science." Appointed professor and Dean of the Faculty of Sciences at Lille in 1854 Pasteur was brought closely in touch with the manufacture of alcohol from grain and beets, so that he was naturally drawn into a study of the chemical processes of fermentation. At that date the current views regarding alcoholic fermentation were exceedingly vague and unsatis- factory. The commanding position of Berzelius and especially of Liebig in the world of science gave great weight to their opinions and they were both committed to the mechanical theory of fermentation. Liebig main- tained, following the earlier views of Willis and Stahl, that the cause of fermentation is the internal molecular motion which a body in the course of decomposition communicates to other matter the elements of which are bound together by a very feeble afhnity. Alcoholic fermentation there- fore was not to be considered in any sense as a vital process but was due to the dead yeast undergoing decomposition, the disturbed equilibrium being communicated to the elements of the substances in contact and thus the sugar broken down into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Strange as it may seem today, this very philosophical and seductive explanation of an obscure phenomenon was accepted the more generally by men of science because it seemed to give the key not only to alcoholic fermentation, but also to other phenomena of the same kind, such as the transformation of sugar into lactic and butyric acids. Berzelius refused to accept the theory of Liebig, but treated the organic nature of yeast as a "poetico-scientific reverie," only seeing in fermentation an act of contact due to catalytic force and in yeast an Digitized by Microsoft® amorphous principle. Mitscherlich approved the views of BerzeHus, though he admitted the organic nature of the ferment. While these ideas were the prevalent ones at the time of Pasteur's entry into this field, it is to be remembered that earlier observers had pronounced in favor of a vitalistic theory; thus, Astier in 1813 had affirmed that the ferment was alive and that it derived its nourishment from the sugar which was thereby broken down. Later, de Latour came to the conclusion that yeast is a mass of organic globules of vegetable nature capable of repro- ducing themselves by means of buds. He further concluded that probably by some effect of their vegetation the yeast globules could disengage carbon dioxide from the saccharine liquid and convert it into alcohol. Schwann of Jena had likewise observed the budding of yeast cells and he had pointed out that there appeared to be some relationship between the extent of fermentation and the multiplication of the cells. Many other investigators had recorded Similar observations but the theories based on their results were pushed one side and forgotten. Liebig was the dominant authority and his views prevailed when Pasteur began his work on the subject; work that covered a period of twenty years, with discoveries, the consequences of which were to revolutionize at least certain aspects of chemistry. Pasteur with his chemical training and his chemical intuition could not see any tangible reason for belief in the view of transmissibility and continuation of the processes of fermentation or putrefaction from one material to another. What sets the process in motion and what controls its continuance? With infinite patience he set to work and in the many years of labor devoted to this subject he added fact after fact to the sum of knowledge showing clearly that alcoholic fermentation is correlated to the life and organization of the yeast cells and not to their death or putre- faction. The amount of experimental material he gathered during these years of work was enormous, but equally astonishing was his ability, to see things which his predecessors had failed to observe. Thus he dis- covered glycerine and rediscovered succinic acid both as constant products in the fermentation of sugar. As his work continued, the vitalistic or physiological theory of fer- mentation became firmly established and the phrase, "no fermentation without organisms; in every fermentation a particular organism" was thoroughly justified. One can imagine the enthusiasm and delight of Pasteur could he have witnessed the results of Biichner's work in 1897 when this investigator extracted from the yeast cell, the actual ferment, zymase, which is the direct cause of alcoholic fermentation. This com- pletes the story and introduces us to new exercises of theory in chemistry. Digitized Jb^ Mi&rosoft® The old-time dispute between Liebig and Pasteur ends; the formation of zymase in the yeast cell may be expressed in terms of plant physiology, while the action of zymase may be stated in terms of molecular physics. It was to Pasteur a great joy that his many discoveries in fermentation opened up new ways by which the industries of his country could be safe- guarded and improved. These industries were to him naturally "the hunting ground of science," and it was a great satisfaction to realize that his work in this field was enabling his countrymen to improve the bever- ages of the country, to cure the diseases of wines, to speed up fermenting vinegar, to manufacture alcohol out of beet sugar, to understand and con- trol lactic acid fermentation ; but these were merely incidents during his twenty years' study of fermentation, in the larger effort to prove what he had come to see was a fundamental and far-reaching scientific truth, viz., that the processes of fermentation in general, the processes of decomposi- tion and putrefaction are chemical phenomena, co-relative with physio- logical actions of a peculiar nature due to the living dust of the air. Remember that all these processes of fermentation and putrefaction occur through the intermediary of cellular secretions, through physico- chemical agencies, that in putrefaction the toxic actions are the result of chemical products — toxins — an old story today, but in 1864 startling in its novelty and in its suggestiveness. Skepticism was rife, new ideas take root slowly and for a long period Pasteur's work and his views were subject to much criticism. Pasteur was primarily a chemist, and it was as a chemist that he opened the gate to paths which eventually led to new and wonderful con- ceptions in the science and art of medicine. For it is a singular thing that "to change the whole outlook of medicine and surgery, Heaven took and trained a pure scientist," a chemist, and made of him a leader whose fame will never die. Digitized /^jj-W/croso/?® PASTEUR'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO BIOLOGY hy Dr. William H. Welch Johns Hopkins University- Ladies and Gentlemen, the position of Pasteur in the history of the biological sciences, indeed in the sciences in general, is unique. It is unique in several respects. It is unique in the appreciation that has been accorded to him by all branches of science and by those of practical things. It is unique in the tributes that have been brought to him by physicists, chemists and biologists, by surgeons, sanitarians and agricul- turists and by the representatives of many technical branches of industry. He was unique in having such excellent biographers as Vallery-Radot Hedges who have given a presentation of the personal qualities of the man that have come to make Pasteur for all of us, for all students, physicians and investigators, an inspiration and an exemplar of the best type of the man of science. Pasteur's work is also unsurpassed as an illustration of the- correlation of the sciences and likewise as an illustration of the appli- cation of scientific facts to the practical affairs of life. Beginning, for instance, with the study of crystallography he proceeded to study fer- mentation and his investigations in this field led him to the study of spontaneous generation, which was intimately linked with the study of silkworm diseases and with the problems of infection and immunity, and these subjects were of course closely related to his crowning achievement — the finding of a preventive against rabies, a goal that seems far distant from his starting point, the study of tartaric acids, nevertheless, his entire work was a progressive development of one line of ideas, for Pasteur was not a man who went from one point to an unrelated point, but was a man whose mental processes were those of an orderly progress. I doubt if in the entire history of science there is a better example of the correla- tion of physiology, biology and the medical sciences and no discoveries have surpassed in significance those of Pasteur in opening up new chap- ters in science, indeed in opening the doors of new sciences. You have already heard of Pasteur's work in molecular dyssimilarity, which is the foundation of stereo-chemistry and also the foundation of modern biology. This work is unsurpassed in the immediate practical application of great scientific discoveries to the happiness and welfare and to the industries of mankind. Digitized b^ &^(srosoft® Now naturally the committee having charge of the program have assigned different phases of Pasteur's work to different speakers. They have asked me to speak of his contributions to biology. Dr. Chittenden has taken away the principal part of my theme, the study of fermentation, and it already appears that one cannot parcel out his work in separate compartments. Dr. Chittenden has said that none of Pasteur's work is without chemical significance ; if I were eqiially unkind I might paraphrase his statement and say that none of Pasteur's work is without biological significance. I might say something about his work on fermentation, for that is of direct importance in connection with biological science, if any- thing had been left to say after Dr. Chittenden has given us such a detailed and complete description of Pasteur's work on that subject. I might speak of spontaneous generation. It seems at first glance strange that an investigator in the field of crystallography should be interested in the subject of fermentation and putrefaction, nevertheless this was the per- fectly natural and logical outcome of his previous studies. It has already been indicated that his work on molecular dyssimilarity and that on fer- mentation were of a piece, that molecular dyssimilarity is the result of the action of living organisms. As Dr. Chittenden has told you, in the study of the crystallography of ordinary tartaric acid and racemic tartaric acid, Pasteur observed that ordinary tartaric acid bore polyhedral facets on the right side of its crystals, that it rotated the plane of polarized light to the right, while the racemic acid bore similar face s on the left side of its crystals and rotated the plane of polarized light to the left. In seeking the reason for this difference he found that the salts of the relatively inactive racemic tartaric acid were acted upon by a mould Pencilium glaucum which destroyed the right-handed constituent but the left-handed con- stituent remained. This led Pasteur to the study of fermentation which eventually established the sciences of biology, bacteriology and immunity. There were those who claimed that this work on fermentation was but an extension of the work of Emil Fischer on the fermentation of sugars. In this early article on fermentation we see the impress of Pasteur's artistic training in portraiture, as, for example, when he forms the comparison of the lock and key in connection with enzymes. Already at the time that he published this article he had deduced from the fact of the optically inactive racemic acid that fermentation was involved, so it was very logical for him to pass from the study of crystallography to the study of fermentation. One of the most interesting things in connection with Pasteur's study of fermentation, and one not without parallel in the history of other scientific studies, was that the originality and credit of this work was to a large extent due to the active opposition which it encountered. Some Digitized b^ HtSiiprosoft® said that Pasteur was merely following along with the work of Canaird Latour, who in 1830 studied the ferments of beer and that of Shultze and Scham, but Pasteur brought convincing arguments based on accurate experimental work demonstrating the correctness of his claims. If these investigators who opposed Pasteur had not been so aggressive, had done more experimental work and been more accurate in their experiments, and if they had not set up an opposing theory, a purely chemical theory which was generally accepted, Pasteur might not have been so successful in his work and there might have been more truth in the statement that he followed lines already open. But anyone familiar with history knows that Pasteur's predecessors determined nothing that laid a firm founda- tion for the science of biology or solved the problems of fermentation. In all his various investigations and deductions Pasteur was greatly assisted by his previous thorough training in physics and chemistry. I doubt when one contrasts the strength of his opponents with that of Pasteur himself whether any other biologist could have accomplished what Pasteur did. He was perfectly convincing in his demonstration of the relation of microorganisms to the process of fermentation and putre- faction. Is it not peculiar that Pasteur should have been charged with introducing the vitalistic principle into physical science, whereas his whole effort was to get rid of it. Pasteur phrased his statement very carefully when he said, "The chemical action of fermentation is correlated with vital activities, is correlated, beginning and ending in these vital activities. His three papers of significance in connection with the subject of fer- mentation are (1) "Lactic Acid Fermentation"; (2) that on Alcoholic Fermentation, and (3) his paper on Butyric Acid Fermentation. These papers mark a new era in the bacteriological sciences and constitute the cornerstone of the great edifice of bacteriology. I shall not go into his experiments on fermentation and putrefaction, and before I attempt to give their significance, let me pass to the subject of spontaneous genera- tion. To him the charge was laid that by his work on fermentation and putrefaction he had brought up the age-old argument which was mostly concerned with philosophy and religion, namely, spontaneous generation; it was charged that he had brought up a subject most remote from the scientific attitude of mind and he was urged not to enter this field. This charge was true in a sense only. The whole story of Pasteur's studies at this time was to negative the theory of spontaneous generation, to demonstrate that there could be no spontaneous generation and to show the error in the work indicating positive results in revealing spontaneous generation. It took him twenty years to do this. We cannot appreciate too highly the originality, the precision and the patience that he brought to this work, nor should we underestimate the importance of the fact Digitized Jb>t Microsoft® that he was stimulated by his opponents ; their grinding criticism was a great benefit conferred upon him, giving him the firm conviction that he would triumph over his opponents, as he did. You will perhaps recall the experiments of various investigators with fermentable solutions in relation to heat and oxygen.. We have with us - this evening a student of Pasteur's, Dr. LaPloss, who has here one of the original flasks of fermentable solution of veal broth, sealed up by Pasteur in 1862 ; it is perfectly clear to this day. If air entered it in a few days it would become foul, yet all these years it has remained sweet and unfer- mented. This was one of the crucial experiments which gave the answer to the argument on spontaneous generation. These studies on fermentation and on spontaneous generation I should like to summarize in a general sort of way so as to show their significance. First, they led Pasteur to develop his method of bacterial experimental procedure. He made his experiments with a simple apparatus, but adequate to the problem he had to investigate. He had in mind the importance of obtaining pure cultures. How beautiful was his demonstration by which he so successfully overthrew Liebig's view that one could get nothing but crystalline substances when there were no albumins or proteins present. He discovered the source from which these substances were obtained through oxygen and carbon and how they obtained the mineral they needed. These cultures, while they did not furnish a complete guarantee of their purity, were sufficiently pure for the problems he had to attack, and this was the important point: If he had to attack any other problems he would have found the principle equal to their solution. The great difficulty in all the work on spontaneous generation was the discovery or recognition of extraordinarily resistant spores and he solved this difficulty finally, showing that they could be destroyed by a temperature of from 110 to 120 degrees. In doing this work he instituted the use of the autoclave and gave us the method of partial sterilization called by his name. Pasteurization, which has been of such great sanitary value in providing a proper supply of pure milk. All this is the outcome of Pasteur's work in the early sixties when he was working on fermentation, putrefaction and spontaneous generation. But I regard that the great thought running through it all the one that would have been lost without his work on specificity, that is that there are different kinds of organisms having more or less specificity, and that we are dealing with species when we deal with certain groups having the same kind of activities. In regard to the activities of microorganisms these ideas of specificity were held to by Pasteur as closely as Cohn held to his theory, though Cohn's theory was not nearly as strongly supported. Digitized byj^iprosoft® Cohn made another discovery, that is that life is possible without any oxygen, anaerobiosis ; that was the outcome of the studies on butyric acid fermentation. Pasteur's work made it evident that in all life a part is played by micro- organisms in the economy of Nature and that microorganisms are absolutely necessary to a continuance of life on this globe. His studies led him from the study of microorganisms which constituted an essential part of plant and animal life to study how these microorganisms could be utilized in the nutrition of plants and animals. That is a contribution of the very first importance. It is hardly necessary after what Dr. Chittenden has said to speak of practical applications of this work. Pasteur objected to the use of such a term as applied science as something distinct from pure science, but no one was more influenced by a desire to find an application for scientific studies. His nature was so kindly, his love of country, of people, of family were so strong, that it was these that were significant in leading to the practical application of scientific facts. But it can hardly be said that he had a utilitarian aim; he merely recognized that these studies permitted of practical application. There seemed, however, to be a blind spot in his mind in that he was not interested in descriptive biology. That the man who described the little polyhedral crystals so beautifully is not interested in that is a little startling. That he described lactic acid as a form of infusorial animalcula does not alter the fact that he opened the field of bacteriology and today that is his greatest contribution. This group of organisms could no longer be neglected for they applied to processes in Nature of the utmost signif- icance. Pasteur never lost sight of one idea that has never been expressed as it has been expressed by Robert Boyle. Ever since people had made bread and had made wine the analogy between the processes involved had been recognized, but it remained for Pasteur to show that these processes were directly related to the processes known as zymotic diseases. It was Boyle who said that he who illuminates the subject of fermentation holds the key to unlock the door to the knowledge of many diseases, and the work of Pasteur has demonstrated to us how true that prophecy was. Digitized b^ ^i^rosoft® Digitized by Microsoft® PASTEUR'S STUDY OF SILKWORM DISEASES hy Dr. Edwin F. Smith United States Department of Agriculture Ladies and Gentlemen, when Pasteur began the study of silkworm disease he was 43 years of age. He had studied molecular dyssimilarity and he had studied alcoholic and butyric acid fermentation. He had had a lengthy debate with those who believed in spontaneous generation and had won out. He then turned his attention to the study of wines and vinegar. Up to this time he had not been at all interested in the study of the silkworm and knew nothing of the anatomy of this or of other insects. He seemed^ least qualified to go into the silkworm areas of France and elucidate the problems connected with plague among silkworms and thus to lower the losses sustained in that country which was dependent upon the culture of the silkworm. At that time no one knew anything about silkworm diseases. There had been no end of investigation and of talking before academic societies, but nothing had come of it, nothing definite was known and the plague was growing worse and worse. Pasteur went into the silkworm area, first, because he was a good soldier and, second, because he had had great men around him. He had said "Love great men, worship them." In the Normal School Dumont was known for his wonderful lectures. In his old age, in his Jubilee Year, Pasteur spoke of those wonderful lectures of Dumont. He said, "We listened ; we applauded, and we went away filled with great ideas." Pasteur and Dumont had always been friends ; Dumont has become Senator, and it was Dumont who asked Pasteur to go down into the silkworm district, so, much against his will Pasteur consented to go. Though he knew nothing about silkworms he had in some ways a remarkably good training. He knew his microscope. He attended some lectures on the subject and he read a few books on the silkworm, and then he attempted to solve the problem of the silkworm disease. He began by confusing everything, but before this he had decided that fermentation had something to do with human and animal disease and many many times he had wished to study in this field, and now a great field opened up and he felt that he might unravel these problems of silk- worm disease. He first confused two separate diseases and he confused the cause of one of these diseases with the results of this disease. In the most serious of these two diseases, p^brine, the infecting agent was in the egg, the larva and the insect. He found the cause of this disease at once, but thought that it was one of the consequences of the disease. It is Digitized by^ ^i^rosoft® difificult now as we look back at that time to understand the vagueness and darkness surrounding many of the things that now look clear and simple, and this feeling of vagueness and uncertainty was the general feeling, not only of the common man but of the academic man. The organism which Pasteur found was an egg-shaped body which he thought was the product and not the cause of the disease ; he thought that the dis- ease caused the tissues to change into these corpuscles. It was not until the Spring of 1867 that he was able to see that he was wrong and to come back to the right track, and then he found that the corpuscle was the cause of the disease and he found how to eliminate errors and to show that he was on the right track. He knew how to make exact experiments and he knew how to follow them carefully week after week, and month after month, and at length he found not only that this corpuscle was the cause of the disease, but also that there were two diseases. From that time sailing was fairly clear. He worked out the problem and showed that the silkworm ingested these corpuscles and that these corpuscles caused the phenomenon called "black-peppering." He showed by the microscope that if one started with healthy male and female insects it was possible to raise a brood free of infection with the psorosperm. There was, however, one great objection to his method and that was the necessity of testing the insects by microscopical examination. It was said that the farmers could not use this instrument. Pasteur said, "I have in my laboratory a little girl eight years old who can do it." There were, as we have said, two diseases which attacked silkworms. Pdbrine is the first of these; it was unlike any disease Pasteur had ever studied. This little corpuscle after it was ingested into the silkworm swelled up and broke up into one hundred corpuscles and thus spread rapidly. The second disease was like a diarrhea of infectious origin; it was a disease in which a great deal of gas formed and the worms wasted away. It was found that the first disease was transmitted through the egg, from parent to offspring. It was found that the second disease, Flclcherie, was not transmitted from parent to offspring but that it weakened the bodily condition and this weakened physical condition was transmitted. Thus it was shown that there are two types of inheritance. Pasteur learned two things from this: the one was that the point of entrance of the organism makes a great difference, whether it is through the skin by a scratch or abrasion, or whether it is ingested into the alimentary tract. But the great thing that Pasteur got out of this study of silkworm disease for himself and for humanity was a great heartening, in virtue of the fact that he had overcome great opposition, and this put him on his feet again. This success was enough to hearten him for years and to point the way to future great discoveries. Digitized by^ ^i^rosoft® THE CONTRIBUTION OF PASTEUR TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF IMMUNITY AND THERAPY hy Dr. Simon Flexner The Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: The stage has been well set for my part of the program, namely the contribution of Pasteur to the subjects of immunity and therapy as they relate to disease in the higher animals. In reaching this phase in the history of Pasteur's labors, we must assume that in the interval of the stories as told by Doctor Welch and Doctor Smith, Pasteur had turned definitely toward the diseases of animals ; and this assumption is correct. He had become deeply interested, in the period immediately following his investigations of the diseases of silkworms, in such animal diseases as anthrax and chicken cholera to which he gave penetrating attention. It must not, however, be considered that Pasteur himself was a great innovator in finding new and hitherto undescribed microorganisms which incite diseases in the higher animals. In this respect his labors are not remarkable. Indeed, he is credited directly with the discovery of very few pathogenic bacteria. He did observe staphylococci in furuncles, streptococci in puerperal fever, and pneumococci in saliva. But Pasteur's interests at this period lay elsewhere: they were concerned with the bringing of irrefragable proof that microorganisms as we say "cause" disease. Hence he turned first to anthrax in cattle, then to cholera in chickens; and later, when artificial immunity had been dis- covered and perfected, to rouget in swine. To understand this appar- ent lapse one must keep in mind that just as Pasteur shortly before had disestablished, as it were, the notion of spontaneous generation of microorganisms, he now devoted himself to the establishment of the causal relation of bacteria to disease, a concept often discussed but never before proved beyond question. Thus he turned to anthrax and chicken cholera, and becoming incidentally involved in his remarkable dis- coveries in immunity, he did not directly investigate the inciting microbes Digitized bji Wlibrosoft® of disease. In the meantime and while he was engaged in his studies on immunity, Koch devised his methods of cultivation which had so immediate a practical result in revealing in rapid succession a large number of these bacterial agents. And yet this statement is not complete without a reservation. When Asiatic cholera appeared in Marseilles and Paris in 1865 Pasteur exam- ined the air emanating from a ward of cholera patients and determined that no microorganism responsible for the malady could be detetted in this air. And in establishing beyond doubt the relation of the anthrax bacillus to the disease anthrax or splenic fever, he discovered the group of septic vibrios, previously unknown, whose nature and mode of action he elucidated in a manner so complete and convincing as to clear away all the confusion surrounding the relation of the anthrax bacillus to the disease anthrax. Just as he had studied the anthrax bacillus in order to establish relationship between a given bacterium and a definite disease in animals, so afterwards he turned to the study of chicken cholera as another instance of this relationship. The choice of this disease for study was doubly important, for it enabled him not only to confirm the Italian Perroncito's discovery of the bacillus of chicken cholera, but also and far more important skill, to discover artificial immunity. This was in 1880. The study began with cultivation experiments by Pasteur's well known method in which he used fluid culture media. These latter were various: neutral, sterile urine; beef or chicken broth; a solution of mineral salts containing phosphorus and ammonium compounds. He quickly found that one bacterium flourished in a given medium and another not. The chicken cholera germ multiplied poorly in urine and richly in broth. Pasteur already knew from his inoculation experiments that animals are unequally susceptible to different bacteria and he asked himself therefore whether they, like his artiflcial culture fluids, behaved differently in promoting the growth of one while restrict- ing the growth of another. Pasteur discovered that his cultures of the bacillus of chicken cholera induced disease on inoculation, just as did the blood of hens which had succumbed to the disease in the barnyard. Moreover, rabbits upon inoculation also quickly sickened and died, their blood showing innum- erable bacteria of chicken cholera. Not so, however, the guinea pig. The inoculation in this animal induced merely a small abscess which opened, discharged, and healed without affecting the health appreciably. Such apparently healthy guinea pigs would mingle with hens and rabbits [28] Digitized by Microsoft® in the barnyard without effect, until perchance such a small abscess opened and discharged, after which the hens and rabbits appeared mysteriously to develop and succumb to chicken cholera. The explan- ation found by Pasteur was that guinea pigs act as reservoirs or carriers of the chicken cholera germs and communicate them to the far more susceptible hens and rabbits. This is probably the first instance of the description of the now well known "carrier" intermediary in inducing infectious disease. The beginnings of our modern knowledge of immunity and specific therapy may be regarded as in the nature of an accident. But it is the kind of accident that comes only to the informed, or as Pasteur himself would have said, the "prepared mind". Although an inde- fatigable worker, Pasteur could be induced now and then to take a few days of vacation. Returning from such a holiday, he inoculated some hens, not with fresh cultures of the chicken cholera bacillus, but with older ones; to his surprise these hens remained well. Hitherto all had sickened and died. Obviously old cultures were inactive. Instead of merely noting and stopping at this point, Pasteur at the next test of fresh cultures inoculated not only new hens, but rein- oculated the old ones. The former died; the latter lived. Artificial immunity had been discovered, and its significance was at once recog- nized and appreciated. Moreover, the relation to Jennerian vaccination was perceived by Pasteur. Now began what may be called a hectic period of study. The conditions under which the change of the chicken cholera bacterium proceeded from malignancy to protection were sought and believed to be disclosed in the prolonged action of oxygen. A whole future program of work seems to have unfurled itself to his mind also immediately. He quickly thought of attacking anthrax which, economically considered, was a far more important disease than chicken cholera. At this early period he already had in mind protection from rabies, a disease which because of its mortal nature and the superstitions and fears surrounding its name had made a strong impression on his imagination. As regards anthrax, Pasteur soon found that prolonged cultivation sufficient to convert the chicken cholera virus into a vaccine was insuffi- cient for the anthrax bacterium. Thus he was led, and successfully, to the employment of temperatures above the optimum. Such virus- vaccines once obtained could be propagated, from which Pasteur con- cluded that the modified organisms transmitted the altered characters to their progeny; in other words that the characteristics were inheritable. Digitized b^Whrosoft® The method of employment of laboratory animals for increasing and even for diminishing the activity or virulence of bacteria, which we now use every day in our laboratories, dates from this period of Pasteur's studies. It was in this way that he standardized the anthrax vaccine and other vaccines. The difference in the response of the mouse, rat, guinea pig, rabbit, sparrow, pigeon, hen, etc.; or the guinea pig of one day, three days, etc., yielded the data on which the strength of his first and second vaccines were predicated. The final step in this extraordinary series of investigations and the acme and climax of his busy, productive, and beneficient life came with the discovery of protective inoculation for rabies. The ground was all prepared for this great achievement. There is no step in its accomplish- ment which is not a logical outgrowth of earlier investigations. The necessity of securing uniform, consistent results on the inoculation of materials from rabic animals led to subdural inoculation and the use of the brain itself for the inoculum. The necessity of securing a virus of definite and constant activity led to the successive transfer through rabbits. A "fixed" virus once obtained, the need to grade its activity or virulence led to exposure for drying over caustic potash for a deter- mined period of days. Once it was ascertained that a gradual reduction of activity occurred to end in final loss altogether, the reverse process could be invoked in order to build up safely a high and enduring im- munity. All this was first and repeatedly accomplished with dogs before any consideration could be given to the application to man. But the thought and hope of the application to man were always in the background of Pasteur's mind and served to strengthen the will to per- fect the method. As you all know, the perfection came and with it demonstration under peculiarly dramatic circumstances, and after that, acclaim and award such as come to few of the benefactors of man while still living and active. The great Pasteur Institute at Paris stands as the permanent memorial to this last great accomplishment of Pasteur, a fitting tribute to one who successively wrested from nature secret after secret, one more important and far-reaching almost than the other, until at the end there was conferred upon the world a boon, the magnitude of which cannot yet be estimated because it carries with it the possibility and the hope of ultimate emancipation of man and of animals from those most destructive enemies, namely the diseases taking origin from the low and microscopic forms of life. Digitized by( ^iprosoft® PASTEUR'S TREATMENT OF RABIES A visit to his laboratories in the early period of the treatment hy Dr. Hermann M. Biggs New York State Department of Health The prophylactic treatment of rabies was one of the most significant and important discoveries in the whole history of medicine, and was Pasteur's most notable direct contribution to preventive medicine. Its importance does not lie so much in the actual number of lives saved, as the deaths from rabies never have been considerable in number as com- pared with those caused by most of the other more common diseases, but lies rather in the great scientific significance of the discovery and the hope- less and terrifying nature of the disease itself. With this contribution was recorded for only the second time in the history of medicine a method for the specific prevention of an infectious disease affecting human beings, the first being the discovery of vaccination for the prevention of smallpox. The development of the methods for the prevention of typhoid fever, diphtheria, yellow fever and cholera all came at a much later date. For some time previous to the application of the preventive treatment for rabies to a human being, Pasteur had been conducting extensive researches on the causation and prevention of rabies in animals, and it was not until complete protection in long series of experiments had followed the application of the treatment to animals inoculated with massive doses of rabic virus or subjected to the severest infections through the bites of dogs suffering from ordinary street rabies, that Pasteur ventured to subject a human being to the treatment. It is unnecessary at this time to consider in detail the method by which immunity was produced. It is probably familiar to you all. Suffice it Jo say — no discovery in the whole history of medicine has shown a wider vision or more brilliant imagination on the part of the worker than this. The results of the earlier researches on rabies were published during the years 1881 to 1884. 'Then after long experimentation and repeated success in the protection of animals, Pasteur determined to apply the treatment to the first favorable case which presented itself in a human being severely bitten by a rabid dog. Digitized bj Mikrosoft® The feature ot rabies as it occurs both in human beings and animals, which adds enormously to the terror which it inspires is the fact that once the disease has developed not only does it involve the greatest possible suffering, which is most fearful in itself both to the subject and to the observers, but it invariably proves fatal. On the other hand, under natural conditions only a comparatively small percentage of all persons who are bitten by rabid dogs develop rabies. Pasteur had found that bites about the face and neck were especially fatal and that practically all untreated cases of this kind developed the disease. On July 6th, 1885, an Alsatian boy, Joseph Meister, was brought by his parents to Pasteur for treatment. The boy had been very badly bitten about the face and hands and had been untreated. After consulta- tion with his associates and with the consent of the parents, Pasteur determined to submit this boy to the same form of treatment that he had found successful for the protection of animals. Although comparatively small risk was really involved in this experi- ment, as from previous experience Pasteur knew it was practically certain that without some new method of treatment the boy would develop rabies and die, yet as the inoculation became more and more virulent' Pasteur became a prey to intense anxiety and great apprehension. Madame Pasteur wrote to their children as follows: "Your father has. had another bad night. He is dreading the last inoculations on the child, and yet there can be no drawing back now. The boy continues in perfect health." The following letter from Pasteur to Vallery-Radot, his son-in-law, is quoted in the latter's delightful "Life of Pasteur." "My dear Rene: I think great things are coming to pass. Joseph Meister has just left the laboratory. The three last inoculations have left some pink marks under the skin, gradually widening and not at all tender. There is some reaction, which is becoming more intense as we approach the final inoculation, which will take place on Thursday, July 16. The lad is very Well this morning, and has slept well, though slightly restless; he has a good appetite and no feverishness." The letter ended with an affectionate invitation: "Perhaps one of the great medical facts of the century is going to take place; you would regret not having seen it." Vallery-Radot continues as follows: During these days Pasteur was going through a succession of hopes, fears, anguish, and an ardent yearn- ing to snatch little Meister from death; he could no longer work. At night, feverish visions came to him of this child whom he had seen playing Digitized bj^^lhrosoft® in the garden, suffocating in the mad struggles of hydrophobia, Hke the dying child he had seen at the Hospital Trousseau in 1880. Vainly his experimental genius assured him that the virus of that most terrible of diseases was about to be vanquished, that humanity was about to be delivered from this dread horror — his human tenderness was stronger than all, his accustomed ready sympathy for the sufferings and anxieties of others was for the nonce centered in "the dear lad." The treatment lasted ten days; Meister was inoculated twelve times. The virulence of the medulla used was tested by trephinings on rabbits, and proved to be gradually stronger. Pasteur even inoculated on July 16, at 11 a. m., some medulla only one day old, certain to produce hydro- phobia in rabbits after only seven days' incubation ; it was the surest test of the immunity and preservation due to the treatment. Cured from his wounds, delighted with all he saw, gaily running about as if he had been on his own Alsatian farm, little Meister, whose blue eyes now showed neither fear nor shyness, merrily received the last inoculation ; in the evening, after claiming a kiss from "dear Monsieur Pasteur" as he called him, he went to bed and slept peacefully. Pasteur spent a terrible night of insomnia; in those slow dark hours of night when all vision is distorted, Pasteur, losing sight of the accumulation of experiments which guaranteed his success, imagined that the little boy would die. But no unfavorable symptoms were produced by the inoculations and the boy remained well. On October 26th, Pasteur made a statement at the Academy of Sciences, describing the treatment followed for Meister. Three months and three days had passed and the child remained perfectly well. After the completion of Pasteur's statement, which was received with great enthusiasm, Bouley, then Chairman of the Academy, said: "We are entitled to say that the date of the present meeting will remain forever memorable in the history of medicine, and glorious for French science, for it is that of one of the greatest steps ever accomplished in the medical order of things, a progress realized by the discovery of an efficacious means of preventive treatment for a disease, the incurable nature of which was a legacy handed down by one century to another. From this day humanity is armed with the means of fighting the fatal disease of hydrophobia and of preventing its onset. It is to M. Pasteur that we owe this, and we could not feel too much admiration or too much gratitude for the efforts on his part which have led to such a magnificent result." As soon as Pasteur's paper was published, the knowledge of his success was rapidly transmitted to every country, and people bitten by rabid Digitized Jby Mproso/?® dogs began to arrive at the laboratory from all parts of the world. The service for the treatment of hydrophobia became the chief business of the laboratory. In November, 1885, four months after the treatment of the first case and one month after the establishment of the service, four children of workmen in Newark, New Jersey, were bitten by a rabid dog. The widest publicity was given by the newspapers to all the facts and details connected with this accident, and the New York Herald raised a fund to send these children to Paris. They were accompanied by Dr. Frank Billings, a Boston veterinarian of distinction, who had given the subject considerable attention and who had been a student with the writer at the Pathological Institute in Berlin during the previous year. At that time I was in charge of the Carnegie Laboratory of the Bellevue Hospital Medical College. It may be interesting to note here, that this laboratory opened in the spring of 1885, was the first laboratory in this country specifically erected and devoted to teaching and investigation in bacteriology and pathology and was primarily designed for Dr. William H. Welch. Mr. Carnegie became greatly interested in the wide discussion of the subject of rabies and wished a representative of the Carnegie Laboratory to visit Paris to study the methods of treatment, and I was chosen to undertake this mission. I went to Paris, and was at Pasteur's laboratory — there was no Institute at that time — both while the American children were being treated and subsequently, and followed day by day the work which was then being done there. Already nearly forty patients were then being treated daily, and they came from all parts of the world. This number subsequently rapidly increased, and in 1886, 2,671 patients were treated, with 25 deaths, and in the following year 2,770 patients were treated with 14 deaths. Subsequently the number of cases materially decreased. The laboratory at that time was a modest one and had only comparatively meagre resources. Numbers of very distinguished medical men from various parts of the world were already beginning to visit Paris to see Pasteur's work, and I particularly recall that among the group of distinguished Englishmen forming the British Hydrophobia Commission there at that time were numbered Sir Joseph Lister, afterwards Lord Lister, who had made already such remarkably valuable contributions to the study of the surgical infections and to the development of antiseptic surgery; Sir Ernest Hart, for many years the distinguished editor of the British Medical Journal ; and Sir Victor Horsley, perhaps the most distinguished British neurologist and research worker in cerebral localization of that time. Each morning Pasteur visited the laboratory where the inoculations Digitized b^^ibrosoft® were being administered. He still showed quite plainly the effects of the paralytic stroke which he had had in 1868, and from which his recovery was despaired of for a long period. He limped slightly in walking and both the arm and face on the affected side showed some limitation of motion. He was pale, always grave and taciturn, and spoke but little excepting to give directions to his assistants or to formally greet dis- tinguished visitors to the laboratory. Each day he soon retired to his private laboratory. Pasteur saw each one of the new patients who came to the laboratory for treatment and was very kind and gentle to them. There were many very poor people among these patients who were unable to meet the living expenses in Paris, and for them Pasteur provided the means of support while undergoing treatment often from his own resources. Pasteur always disliked to be disturbed when working in his private laboratory and access to him at these times was exceedingly difficult. Immediately after the announcement of his discovery and the estab- lishment of the service for the treatment of rabies, a movement to raise funds for the erection of a national institute began, and rapidly swept over the whole of France. Contributions also came from many other countries, and the French Government made a large grant toward the establishment of the institute. A movement also soon began for the establishment of Pasteur Institutes for the treatment of rabies in various other countries. The men who took charge of these were generally trained and commissioned by Pasteur for this purpose. An Institute was estab- lished in New York City under the direction of Dr. Gibier, and later arrangements were made for the treatment at a laboratory in Philadelphia. About 1901 the Department of Health of the City of New York com- pleted arrangements for giving the treatment free under the direction of Dr. W. H. Park. Since that time more than 10,000 cases have been treated here, and the death rate in these cases has averaged about one- half of one per cent. These results are almost identical with those which have been obtained at the Pasteur Institute and in other laboratories where many cases are treated. There always has been much discussion as to the death rate from rabies previous to the introduction of this method of treatment but usually it has been estimated at between 15 and 40 per cent. The treatment for rabies was the last important research which Pasteur undertook. For several years subsequently he was engaged in overseeing the construction, and later the administration of the new institute; then his health failed and in 1895 he died, regarded by his countrymen and by the world as the Greatest Frenchman of his time. Digitized by ^iprosoft® Digitized by Microsoft® THE INFLUENCE OF PASTEUR ON KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING SURGICAL INFECTION AND PUERPERAL FEVER by Dr. W. W. Keen Emeritus Professor of Surgery Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia "Worship Great Men," said Pasteur to the students at the ter- centenary of the University of Edinburgh (1884), with a childlike naive unconsciousness of any application to himself. It is for such worship that we are now celebrating the first centenary of the birth of Pasteur, one of the world's greatest men. The three most important events in his physical life were his birth on December 27, 1822; his paralysis in 1868, in the 46th year of his age; and his death on September 28, 1895* in the 73rd year of his age. Most fortunately, the paralysis was on the left side of his body, the result of the rupture of a blood vessel on the right side of his brain. Had the rupture occurred in the left hemisphere of his brain, speech would have been lost and for the rest of his life he would have been an intellectual wreck. Compare now what he accomplished before and after his attack of paralysis. Before that attack in 1868, he had made 1st — His discoveries in Crystallography. 2nd — His discoveries in the various fermentations. 3rd — He had given the coup de grace to spontaneous generation. 4th — He had solved the problem of the deleterious changes in beer and wine. Sth — He had begun and made great progress in his studies on the dis- eases of the silk worm. These five alone were enough to make him famous. After his paralysis, his achievements were as follows : 1st — He completed his studies of the diseases of the silk worm, and saved the whole silk industry of France from extinction. Digitized by Microsoft® 2nd — He proved the validity of the germ theory of disease, and thereby revolutionized Medicine, Surgery and Obstetrics. 3rd — He demonstrated the vera causa of Puerperal Fever. 4th — He saved the flocks and herds of France from extinction by the ravages of anthrax — a saving to France in money value of more than the total five billions of francs exacted by Germany after the War of 1870-71. 5 th — He discovered the cause of chicken cholera, and devised a vaccine against it. 6th — He found the cause and discovered a vaccine against swine erysipelas (rouget). 7th — And finally — though not even yet is the actual cause of hydro- phobia known — he devised an antidote which has almost abolished death after attacks by rabid animals. Pasteur, himself, alone, was the greatest and most effective S. P. C. A. ever founded, not only for the animals of France and during his own life- time, but for animals everywhere and for all time. What an amazing number of discoveries, each of vast importance, he achieved after an illness which, with most men, would have meant a future of idle self-care! True, he limped with his spastic left leg but, instead of a limping mind, his was the foremost, most busy and most fertile mind then living. What an encouragement his example should be to future similar paralytics! Be sure to tell this to your patients. He was a many-sided man, with almost as many facets as his dear crystals. What was the state of scientific, and especially of surgical, opinion when Pasteur began his studies on the fermentations? * According to Berzelius and other chemists, fermentation was a catalytic change ; and Liebig and most chemists taught that putrefaction, its alternate, was due to the oxygen of the air. Pasteur proved that the various fermentations were due each to its own specific living organism and not to mere dead chemical reactions. That oxygen was not the cause of putrefaction, he proved by a num- ber of experiments culminating in the celebrated experiment of the twenty flasks in September, 1860. Each contained an easily putrescible liquid. This he boiled and, while boiling, he hermetically sealed each flask by a spirit lamp. In the midst of the Alps, 6,000 feet above sea level, on the Mer de Glace, he broke open the neck of each flask, with *In this paper, I shall use the words "bacteria," "germs" and "microbes" as practically interchangeable terms. Digitized blr%ibrosoft® every minute precaution. The air instantly rushed in, carrying its oxygen and also its germs, if any there were. Each one was then quickly resealed. Of the twenty, nineteen remained pure and sweet; only one underwent putrefaction. Thus Pasteur proved that the air of the Alpine heights was germ-free, save for those accidentally carried there on the clothing and the person of the experimenter ; and that air which was gerra-free could not produce putrefaction. Lister's later famous experiment was with only four flasks. These, again, held an easily putrescible liquid. They were thoroughly boiled to destroy all germs. The narrow neck of one was left vertical and open to the air^ The necks of the other three were turned downward at different angles, and these were also left open. On a shelf in the laboratory, during the cooler night, the air and its oxygen and germs were slowly drawn into all four flasks, and during the warmer day, the air and its oxygen and its germs were slowly expelled. In the one with the vertical neck, the germs in the air easily dropped into the liquid. In the other three, they settled on the inside of the bent necks and could not reach the liquid because they were heavier than the air. The one with the vertical neck quickly became putrid. The other three always open remained sweet and unaltered for ten years until destroyed by a fire. Pasteur's and Lister's experiments with the flasks conclusively demonstrated that microbes or bacteria were the cause of putrefaction. Even in the same year as this experiment (1860), Pasteur wrote, "What would be more desirable would be to push these studies far enough to prepare the road for a serious research into the origin of various dis- eases" — the first hint of his later discoveries of the bacterial origin of dis- ease. His alert, "prepared mind" was already actively engaged in formulating researches into the relation of bacteria to disease. There he found the earliest and long since proved causes of many diseases. Among these was Anthrax. As early as 1850, Davaine had observed in his microscope little rods in the blood of animals dying of anthrax. But it was not till 1863, after reading one of Pasteur's papers, that it dawned upon his mind that these little rods were the cause of the anthrax. When this was established, Pasteur devised a preventive vaccine which saved the horses, herds and flocks of France, and also many human beings, from this terribly fatal disease. Pasteur also noted the fact that certain bacteria were killed by oxygen, and lived and throve in an atmosphere of carbonic acid — the now well known anaerobic bacteria. Digitized b]f%}crosoft® The medical opinion of that day was that "Physiology can be of no practical use in medicine. It is only a 'science de luxe' which could well be dispensed with." Chassaignac — he of the barbarous ecraseur — said, "Laboratory sur- gery has destroyed very many animals and saved very few human beings." When Alphonse Gu^rin dressed the wounded of the Commune riots of 1871 with Acide Ph^nique, or camphorated alcohol, Reclus could scarcely believe that nineteen out of thirty-four patients had survived operations. "We had grown to look upon purulent infection," said Reclus, "as an inevitable and necessary disease, an almost divinely instituted consequence of any important operation." Pasteur and Lister "changed all that." Pasteur enunciated and proved the fundamental principles. Lister added to and expanded these principles and applied them with wonderful skill to surgery. Together, these two men, aided later by many others — surgeons, bacteriologists, physiological . chemists, pathologists and physiologists — revolutionized surgery. Hence the surgery of to-day is a wholly new science. Mankind owes an especial debt of gratitude to those pioneers who explored the dim wilderness of often apparently contra- dictory facts and gradually brought us into the glad sunlight of to-day. Before Pasteur's day, as shown by my quotation from Reclus, surgery had constantly to contend with intense and often fatal infection by various germs, such as the staphylococcus, the streptococcus, the bacilli of tetanus, tuberculosis and other similar microbes. They caused death in twenty, forty, sixty, and sometimes ninety and even over ninety per cent, after accidental and operative wounds and their complications, such as compound fractures, ovariotory tetanus, etc. Observe that all these men were my own contemporaries. Up to 1876, I ignorantly practised the old septic surgery. After hearing Lister in 1876, I utterly discarded it. This new surgery inaugurated a surgical Paradise. Osier thus epitomized Paul Bert's report to the French Government, — "Pasteur's work constitutes three great discoveries .... 1. Each fermentation is produced by the development of a special living microbe. 2. Each infectious disease is produced by the development within the organism of a special living microbe. 3. The microbe of an infectious dis- ease, when cultured under certain detrimental conditions, is attenuated in its pathological activities. From a virus it has become a vaccine." What a marvelous chain of discoveries! What a marvelous gift to humanity and to animals! Digitized by Iwicrosoft® One other especially important discovery already briefly mentioned — it is my gratifying privilege also to consider that woefully infectious dis- ease — childbed or puerperal fever. What a monstrous wrong it was, as in my own younger days in medi- cine, that a normal physiological function, necessary for the continuation of the race, should always involve peril to life in ushering in a new life — that maternity should always be feared — that five mothers out of every one hundred should lose their lives, leaving a husband bereft of his wife and a child bereft of a mother. Our own Oliver Wendell Holmes in 1843 started a bitter controversy by asserting that the doctors and the nurses carried the infection from one case to another. Even seventeen years later, when I began the study of medicine, the fires of controversy were still hot and smoking. In 1847, Semmelweiss of Vienna proved the same truth clinically, by the benef- icent results of his rigorous cleanliness. But it was not until March, 1879, that the actual cause that is the definite germ was demonstrated by Pasteur. He was stirred to action because of the conditions in the Paris Maternity. In 1856 sixty-four out of two hundred and forty-seven mothers died. The hospital had to be closed and the survivors took refuge in the Lariboisiere Hospital, where they nearly all succumbed, pursued, it was thought, by an "epidemic." In 1864, three hundred and ten deaths occurred in thirteen hundred and fifty cases, and the Maternity again had to be closed. The same horrible story was repeated in all other countries in Europe and America. Sometimes, over fifty per cent. — actually more than half — of the mothers died! Yet the heroic mothers of the race never flinched, but bravely faced the perils of maternity. And now, thanks to Pasteur, their successors have their reward: Listen to Roux's account of the scene at the Academy of Medicine in 1879. "In a discussion on puerperal fever at the Academy, one of his most weighty colleagues was eloquently enlarging upon the causes of 'epidemics' in lying-in hospitals; Pasteur interrupted him from his place. 'None of those things,' said he, 'cause the epidemic; it is the nursing and medical staff who carry the microbe from an infected woman to a healthy one.' When the orator replied that he feared that microbe would never be found, Pasteur went to the blackboard and drew a diagram of a chain- like organism, saying: 'There, that is what it is like!' " He had described and drawn that most dangerous of all the pus-producing bacteria, the streptococcus, seen not only in puerperal fever, but in erysipelas, in various forms of blood poisoning, pyemia, septicemia, etc. And what has been the result? I need only give you a single instance published by Dr. A. W. W. Lea of London. In a series of 8373 consecu- Digitized bjWtrosoft® tive cases, not one mother lost her life from puerperal fever! In my 'prentice days, sixty years ago, in over 8,000 cases, more than 400 mothers would have died; and, had a so-called "epidemic" prevailed, over 4,400 might have perished. Note especially the significant fact that the chief diseases still rampant, such as cancer, scarlet fever, measels, whooping cough, etc., are the very ones of which we have not yet discovered the germ. Find the germ and we shall be half way to the goal of discovering its antidote. It is not yet eighty years since the first great surgical victory was won when Anesthesia struck the knell of pain — pain so unbearable that most patients refused the then problematical relief of the knife and deliberately risked the grave. Anesthesia, by its blessed banishment of pain, entirely changed the mental attitude of the sick towards relief by the ordeal of an operation. One barrier still remained, but a terrible barrier — the large percentage of death after even the simplest operations by the very best surgeons of the time. Pasteur found the key which unlocked the door to absolute certitude as to the cause of a multitude of maladies, especially of puerperal fever and of many surgical conditions which had reaped a continuous harvest of death in all countries, in all classes, and in all centuries. Before Pasteur, we could only guess as to the cause of that funda- mental, all prevading condition — the Field Marshal of the Hosts of Death — INFECTION — with its holocaust of victims. He it was who pointed out the road and gave us the weapons by which we won the vic- tory. He it was who first opened our eyes to our multitudinous enemies in the Kingdom of the Infinitely Little. He it was who inspired the labors of his many followers. I do not hesitate to say that for the physical wel- fare of the human race, Pasteur was the Supreme Benefactor! He challenged Ignorance and Prejudice and, after a stiff fight, they capitulated. He challenged Disease, and forced it to yield up its secrets. He challenged Death itself and it fled from his presence. Do you hesitate to accept so sweeping a statement? Come, then, and let us reason together. Recall his saving the lives of the silk worms of France. They are very lowly creatures, I admit, but doubtless they enjoy their succulent mulberry leaves and upon the lives of these myriads of little worms hung much of the prosperity of France. Recall his preven- tion of suffering and his saving the lives of the swine, the fowls, the sheep, the cattle and the horses not only of France, but all over the whole. Digitized by^iprosoft® round world. Recall his prevention of horrible suffering and his saving of hundreds, if not thousands of human lives by his researches on hydrophobia. Recall his saving of suffering and his prevention of the death of countless millions of human beings from medical, surgical and puerperal infections. You will then quickly say ' 'Amen ' ' to my statement, extravagant as you may have deemed it at first. We do well, therefore, to-day, in connection with the centenary of his birth, to celebrate the memory of this great Frenchman, now recognized by every civilized nation as one of the world's greatest benefactors to myriads of animals and millions of mankind. Digitized Jby Mibrosoft® Digitized by Microsoft® THE SPIRIT OF PASTEUR'S WORK by Dr. Etienne Burnet Head, Pasteur Institute, Tunis You would smile at any attempt of mine to praise the men who have paid a tribute to Pasteur in the name of the American Science. Every one is a master, nay every one was a pioneer in his field of research. Every one has his name attached to discoveries that have developed Pasteur's achievements. They have demonstrated that Pasteur belongs to all man- kind. How great is the master, whose inspiring power roused such dis- ciples! After their address, nothing remains to be said, that would be fresh matter. Still I feel that there is something to be said. As a delegate of France and the Pasteur Institute, it is my duty and my privilege to express a pro- found feeling of gratitude to the men here assembled, who have planned this exhibition and this meeting at the New York Academy of Medicine. May I most simply mention some points that seem to be particularly interesting under the circumstances? 1. Pasteur was a chemist, in a time that was in his country the golden age of chemistry. He was a very precise manipulator who could work skillfully on traces of matters, and he applied the chemist's technic to the study of ferments and diseases. What is more for a young chemist of that time, he studied Crystallography ; he very early took a microscope in his hands, so that he was engaged in a sort of microscopic chemistry, and was able to scrutinize minute characters of morphology. The words of his disciple, E. Duclaux, are true : "With Pasteur, Chemistry has taken hold of Medicine, and very likely will not relinquish its grasp." Not only chemistry, but physics, molecular chemistry, have taken hold of medicine, not only by their applications, but by their spirit and methods. This is the message of Pasteur to us, and it remains as true as ever. Though there is still a great deal to be cleared in the field of infectious diseases, from the point of view of descriptive analysis, and natural history, Biology, and consequently Medicine,, ought to turn to Physics for their Digitized b^Wibrosoft® methods, and mathematics for their language, according to the unbroken tradition that Pasteur himself inherited from Descartes, the Ency- clopedists and Lavoisier. 2. When we try to understand Pasteur as a man, much stress must be laid on the personality of his father. Just as Pasteur's scientific inspiration is derived from the XVIII Century and the Encyclopedists, so, in his instinctive feelings and the outstanding features of his nature, he belongs to that epoch that immediately followed the French Revolution. Pasteur's father had served in Napoleon's armies in the years 1811- 1815, and whosoever knows, as the historian does, the mentality of those men will readily infer he had the faith and enthusiasm that animated the Revolution volunteers. Pasteur was born at a time when the bulk of the nation, freed by the Revolution, would enjoy their fresh liberty. Liberty, Nation, Patrie, those words mean the same reality for them ; this was still the time when patriot was synonymous with Revolutionist. The idea that, henceforth, the nation is nothing but themselves, their lives, their posses- sions, their children, and then she must be maintained by their own efforts and devotion, such is the idea that Pasteur, when a child, would daily hear from his father and with which he remained imbued. As a young man of 25, in February, 1848, he offers "sur I'autel de la patrie" all his money — 150 francs. When he was so proud of his red ribbon of the L6gion d'Honneur, it was not by some common vanity, but because this ribbon still meant for him his father's memories and people's exaltation by learning. Purely intellectual gifts, such as versatility and quickness of the mind, the aptness to understand everything and dally with all ideas, these hardly belong to Pasteur. His are earnestness, insight, tenacity of pur- pose, and incredible focussing of all his powers upon the subject at hand. He was a hardworking man, like his father. 3. Nowhere have the Pasteurism spirit and technic more efficiently influenced the features and development of civilization than in America, because the improvement of working through the means of scientific hygiene has become one of the fundamental tenets of what we call Amer- canism. Pasteur has foreseen the organized collaboration of all peoples, with a nobler, a happier life for their ends, and Science and Peace for their means. The celebration of his birthday is an international festival of Science and Peace. He loved, as we know, his country passionately, but we don't know of any utterance of his in which he separated his country's cause from that Digitized bj Wlicrosoft® of mankind. These were his words on the day of his Jubilee in 1892: "Yqu delegates from foreign nations, who have come such a long way to give France a token of sympathy, you bring me the most profound joy that can be felt by a man who firmly believes that Science and Peace will triumph over ignorance and war, that the nations will come to an under- standing, with a view not to destroying, but to edifying." If America received very much from Pasteur, Pasteur's genius found in America its widest radiance. Is not, for instance, a program such as that of the Rockefeller founda- tion, — ^which my country is so much indebted to, — a true embodiment of Pasteurism hygiene, according to the idea that hygiene will not expand throughout the world, unless there is an understanding and federation of all nations in this respect? Before I left Europe, I received and read a paper reviewing the work of this foundation for the year 1921. There I found a noble expression of our common Pasteurian ideal of today. "Bacon, in the 'New Atlantis' describes an ideal commonwealth based upon scientific research and the application of its results to the life of the people. One of the officials in explaining to foreign visitors the organiza- tion of the staff, says: ". . . We have twelve fellows that sail into foreign countries . . . who bring us the books and abstracts and patterns of experiments of all other parts. These we call: Merchants of Light." Thus Bacon ; and these are the words of the author of our pamphlet : "Bacon saw that Science suffers not only from provincialism but from nationalism. The search for truth and its application to human need is a vast, world-wide cooperative task, which demands constant interchange of ideas and more intelligent team-work among workers. Every country would seek entangling alliances in a league for scientific progress." We all of us are sharing the same faith. Every disciple of Pasteur, in every country, passes his word, that he will ever act as a worker in this international duty of improving mankind through Liberty, Peace, Virtue and, above all. Science. [47] Digitized by Microsoft® Press of l. h. biglow be company, inc. New York Digitized by Microsoft© Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft®