"Ill iiiimiiiii iiiiniii ii B * i ii m i ir ii i iii irr»hr i » i r i "m i7wriimtimi?i''itfr!mi'tf --^v^-.-.v.-.v.. ^.-:.ivvv...v. jfti^ara, ^tta ^atk CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WrLLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 19t8 Cornell University Library HQ 1170.H83 Women of the Orient :an ajfi;,?""' S*,,{!?,S,,J 3 1924 023 537 560 Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023537560 ^^^ Women of the OrienT: AN ACCOUNT OF THE RELIGIOUS, INTELLECTUAL, AND SOCIAL CONDITION OF WOMEN JAPAN, ClIIJIA, INDIA, EGYPT, SYRIA, AND TURKEY. REV. ROSS C. HOUGHTON, A. M. •Ten daughters do not in any case equal the value of one son,"— ChINKSE PROVERr^ ■ CINCINNATI: CRANSTON AND STOWE, KEWYOKK: HUNT & EATON Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by HITCHCOCK & WALDEN, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ADDIE R. WILCOX HOUGHTON, WHO FROM MY EARLY MANHOOD HAS BEEN A SAFE COUNSELOR AND READY HELPER IN everV good wokk, ®f)u "Folume is instxihth. PREFACE. THE following pages are chiefly the result of personal observation and study in Japan, China, India, Egypt, Syria, and Turkey', during a tour of the world made by the writer in 1873-4, in company with Bishop W. L. Harris, D. D., LL. D., and Rev. W. A. Spencer, A. M., of Chicago. Rev. J. W. Waugh, D. D. , accompanied the party through Japan and China, returning to his work in India, where he has been an honored and successful missionary for nearly a score of years. We traveled with some degree of leisure, visit- ing nearly all the English and American mission stations in the countries named, making frequent and extended inland journeys in company with ladies and gentlemen who were familiar with the language and customs of the people, and at all times enjoying rare opportunities for careful investigation. My aim has been to make this a reliable volume, and, while I have sought to enliven its pages by the introduction of numerous illustrative incidents of travel, I have labored to present, in convenient 3 4 Preface. form, the principal facts relating to the particular subject treated. I have not thought best to trouble the reader, in every instance, with references to authorities; but have made no statement, however unimportant, without the most ample warrant, either from per- sonal observation or from information drawn from the most relfable sources. The following are the principal works consulted : Griffis's "Mikado's Empire;" Williams's "Middle Kingdom;" Doolittle's "Social Life of the Chinese;" Butler's "Land of the Veda;" Humbert's "Japan and the Japanese;" M. Rousselet's "India and its Native Princes;" Mitford's "Tales of Old Japan;" Marshman's "History of India;" Thomson's "Land and the Book;" and Van Lennep's "Bible Lands." I have also derived valuable aid from numerous monographs, by both native and foreign writers, collected during my tour. I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to English and American friends residing in the countries visited, who not only kindly assisted me in my work during my stay among> them, but since my return home have imparted to me much valuable information through the medium of carefully written letters. I affectionately record my especial obligation to my friend, Dr. J. W. Waugh, whose qualification.s Preface. S as an Oriental scholar, and whose familiarity with Oriental languages and customs, were to me a con- stant source of delightful knowledge during the year of our association as traveling companions. Several valuable quotations are from the Heathen Woman's Friend and the Missionary Link, files of these instructive papers having been kindly loaned me by Mrs. L. H. Daggett, of Boston, and Miss Dora B. Robinson, of New York. Most of the illustrations are from photographs, taken for me by English and native artists. While my purpose has been to write a book which shall be of interest to the general reader, I trust the following pages will be of especial value to those Christian ladies of America whose sympa- thies and efforts are enlisted in the work of elevating Oriental women through the power of Christian education. I also cherish an ardent hope that what I have written will awaken in the hearts of all my readers a deeper interest in the debased millions of Asia, and so hasten the time when the light of the Gospel shall shine in full splendor upon that blighted con- tinent, making "her wilderness like Eden, and her desert like the garden of the Lord." R. C. H. St. Louis, September, 1877. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. TAGa Woman's Place in the Pkincipal Religious Systems of the Orient 13 CHAPTER II. Birth, 39 CHAPTER III. Infanticide, bi CHAPTER IV. Education 82 CHAPTER V. Binding the Feet in China, rii CHAPTER VI. Uetrothal, '25 CHAPTER VII. Marriage in Japan, «39 CHAPTER VIII. Marriage in China 148 7 8 Contents. CHAPTER IX. PAGE Marriage in India 170 CHAPTER X. Polygamy and Divorce 190 CHAPTER XI. Oriental Houses, 212 CHAPTER XII. Woman's Position and Life in the Household, . 241 CHAPTER XIII. Seclusion, ....... . . 261 CHAPTER XIV. Dress, 291 CHAPTER XV. Chastity — Bathing — The Yoshiwara System of Japan — Social Sin in China, . 316 CHAPTER XVI. Chastity— The Nautch-giuls of India — Dancing-girls and Professional Readers of Japan — Eurasian Women, ,,, CHAPTER XVII. Hard and Degrading Labor ,12 CHAFFER XVIII. Widows 3^3 * Contents. 9 CHAPTER XIX. PAGB. Suttee 384 CHAPTER XX. Death and Funeral Ceremonies, ..... 394 CHAPTER XXI. Woman's Foreign Missionary Societies 411 CHAPTER XXII. Orphanages and Schools 429 CHAPTER XXIII. Bible-readers — Zenana-teachers, 448 CHAPTER XXIV. Medical Practice and Female Physicians, . . 461 CHAPTER XXV. A '.'Doctor Lady's" Story, 47° Illustrations. Group of Chinese Women, Entrance to a Shmto Temple, A. Wayside Shrine, .... Sbinto Priest, ..... Shrine of the Goddess of Mercy, . Japanese Girl carrying a Child, Japanese Women and Children, Small Tomb for Bodies of Female Infants, A Japanese Girl, ..... A Chinese Girl, ..... A Hindoo Girl, A Turkish Girl, Chinese Lady's Shoe, .... Field Woman, with Natural Feet, A Bandaged Foot and Shoe, . Chinese Lady's Foot and Slipper, Japanese Wedding Party, Bridal Sedan Chair, .... Bridal Procession Bride and Groom drinking Wine Together, High-caste Girl wilh Jewels, Chinese First Wife, with Small Feet, . A Japanese House, .... Interior of Japanese Dwelling, . Tea-house in Yeddo, .... A Chinese Boat-girl, .... An Oriental Dwelling (Interior Court), . Japanese Family at Dinner, A Japanese Lady Japanese, Lady at Home, Frontispiece, i8 20 22 25 50 53 80 83 86 95 108 III 112 114 118 142 153 156 160 172 195 213 215 222 233 237 242 243 244 Ill ustra tions. A Uiidoo Woman and her Husband, . Chinese Shopman exhibiting his Goods, Begum of Bhopal, , *. . . Group of Fakirs, .... Egyptian Woman Veiled, . Veiled Woman of Constantinople, , Lady of Cairo, ..... llair-dressing in Japan, . Japanese Women with Clogs and Sanda Chinese Style of dressing the Hair, A Lady of Pekin, , . Lady of India in Full Dress, . Low-caste Hindoo Woman, Woman with Painted Eyes, . Japanese Dancing-girl, Nautch-girl, ... The Egg Dance, ..... Japanese Reading and Singing Girls, Women grinding at the Mill, Syrian Maid with Water-jar, . Chinese Woman Selling Fruit, . Egyptian Field-laborers, A Hindoo Widow, .... A Shinto Temple at Yokohama, Orphanage at Bareilly, Christian School-girls of India (Gr.iduates), Class of Boys in Chinese Mission School, Christian School-girls in China, A Native Hindoo Bihle-reader, . Home for Lady Missionaries, Bareilly, India, Medical Dispensary, ..... Women of the Orient. Chapter I. WOMAN'S PLACE IN THE PRINCIPAL RELIGIOUS SYS- TEMS OP THE ORIENT. 'HEN Catherine, the wife of Martin Luther, was weeping and lamenting over the dead body of their daughter, the great reformer said : ' ' Do n't take on so, wife; remember that this is a very hard world for girls!" And, except in those lands where the pure principles of Christian- ity hold swa)', it is a hard world for girls still. The women of America do not generally understand how de- graded their dark-browed Ori- ental sisters are; and even trav- elers, who have the very best opportunities for observation, can not appreciate their real con- dition unless they have some exact knowledge of woman's religious state, and also bear in mind that Eastern governments are despotic, and that no t4 tVOMEN OF THE OrIENT. constitutional safeguards hold in check a thoroughly selfish ai\d profligate nobility. If we except Japan, it may be truthfully stated that throughout the Orient a girl is regarded by the entire household both as an intrusion and a calamity ; and the prevailing estimate of the female sex is most degrading and brutish. In Mohammedan countries, at least, a man makes a profound apology whenever he deems it necessary to speak to another man of either a dog, a hog, a donkey, or a woman. In all false religious systems woman has had a well defined but ignoble place and part, either as the material and ornament of a licentious mythology, or as necessitating observances rigorous and austere. She has either been reckoned as the sensual idol and slave of man, or she has been religiously tlirust aside as the very personification of temptation and impurity. In strict harmony with this historical fact, the present religious systems of Asia all give woman an important but debasing position both in their doc- trines and their sacred observances. The Japanese, although more liberal in their treat- ment of woman than other Eastern nations, habit- ually look upon her as a portion of creation whose only use is to perpetuate her species, and minister to man's pleasure or comfort. Practically, she is rec- ognized only as a slave; and whether in the palace of a prince or the hut of a beggar, she is system- atically condemned to moral and physical degradation. In China also, the idea that woman exists only for the convenience of man, and scarcely shares the same nature, is thoroughly fixed in the national IVoMAN's Place in Religion. 1 5 mind; and a Chinese literatus will profess to find even in their fantastic cosmogony a confirmation of the doctrine. He will tell you that since the Yang, which constitutes the highest heavens, is masculine, or the pure male principle, while the Yin, which pro duced water, and of which the earth chiefly consists, is feminine, it is perfectly plain that man is as much above woman as heaven is above the earth. Confucius, in his great moral system, does not dwell largely upon the relation between husband and wife, or the relative position of woman. What little he does say upon the subject, however, consigns woman to a position of marked inferiority as the servant rather than the companion of her husband. He frequently refers to women and slaves as being on a level, and acknowledges a similar difficulty in managing both. It is a common opinion among the Celestials, that, "ten daughters do not in any case equal the value of one son." Even the cele- brated female writer Pan-hoei-pan plainly tells her countrywomen that they are most certainly inferior to men, that they "hold the lowest rank in the human species, and the least exalted functions ought to be, and in fact are, assigned to them." Buddhism, in its various modification's, is the prin- cipal religion of both China and Japan ; and it pre- sents a most elaborate system of rewards and punish- ments in the future world, involving successive births into a higher or a lower state of existence, accord- ing as one has led a virtuous or a wicked life here. "If he has committed crimes, or failed in his duty towards his relatives, he descends in the scale of being, and must 1 6 Women of the Orient. return to the earth as a woman or an animal. The greater his crimes, the lower his fall, even to snakes or insects. If he conducts himself well in animal life, he may, by the same process of successive births in the ascending scale, again attain to manhood, then become a genius, and so continue to rise until he attains to perfect happiness and perfection by being absorbed into Buddha. If a woman is obedient to her hus- band and his relatives, and has had sons, she may have the happiness of being returned to tliis world as n man, and thus have a chance to reach Buddha's heaven ; but as a woman there seems to be no promise of heaven for her. This belief in the transmigration of souls explains tlie vegetarian diet of the Buddhist. No zealous Buddhist will touch meat or even eggs, neitlier will he kill the smallest insect; for, as he says, in doing so lie may be killing his own relatives.''* '^ All this, so far as woman is concerned, is a kind of "hope deferred" that gives but little inspiration to her religious life; still it is better than nothing, perhaps, and is no doubt of great service to the husbands, who do not fail to hold it up as a reward of obedience and fidelity. Consequently a woman's most earnest prayer is, that she may be a man in the next state of existence. Said the Mandarin Ting to the French traveler Hue, folding his arms, and stepping back a pace or two: "Women have no souls." And when it was insisted and argued that they had, he laughed long and loud at the thought. "When I get home I will tell my wife she has a soul. She will be astonished, I think." Exemplary women are treated with more respect and consideration, especially as regards their religious privileges, as they advance in years. Mothers of sons are usually looked upon with approval, while grandmothers are sometimes actually worshiped. *Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, Foochow, China. Woman's Place in Religion. 17 For any especial act of exalted virtue, such a woman may have an honorary portal erected for her, with the emperor's sanction; and such monuments are among the common architectural adornments of the country, to which the traveler soon becomes quite accustomed. Such a woman may even aspire to deification, as is shown by the fact that some of the costliest and most frequented temples of the empire are consecrated to the "Queen of Heaven," the female "Protector of Sailors," and other god- desses, who were once earthly women, and won their celestial distinction solely as the reward of virtue. Among the women, especially, the belief in the transmigration of souls is universal and firm; and I have heard them frequently remark: "If people are not born over and oyer again, how is it that the world has so many inhabitants? It is impossibl? that a new soul is created for every new body." Elderly women are often strict religionists. They will abstain for years from all animal food, and spend much time and money in worshiping in the temples, going on pilgrimages, and in various ways laying up a great store of merit that will secure happy transmi- grations in future states of existence. On the other hand, women who are conscious that they do not lead a good life will frankly tell you that, as soon as they leave this human body, they expect to become some ugly aninjal or troublesome insect. When visiting the sacred mountains of China of Japan, the traveler usually falls in company with numerous pilgrims on their way to worship at the temples and shrines with which these mountains i8 Women of the Orient. abound. On one such occasion our party met a small procession of old women, from sixty to eighty 'iilliilllfil years of age, who, on being interrogated by our interpreter, declared that they had walked with great fatigue and even suffering a distance of more than one Woman's Place in Religion. 19 hundred miles, to pay their vows to a particular god, and pray for a happy transmigration for their souls. The mother of a son is not only honored in this life, but may expect especial advantages in the future state, even though she may have been very sinful, as will be seen in the following tradition, translated by Miss S. H. Woolston, of Foochow, China: "Once upon a time, a widow and Iier son lived togelher, and had two servants. They were vegetable eaters. The boy's paternal ancestors had ealen no nient for several generations. The widow's brother visited her, and, not liking the fare, said: 'Why do you only eat vegetables? I will go buy meat for us.' He said this not intending to buy meat himself, as he was very poor, but that she might provide it for them to eat to- gether; she replied she could not have it, for her son would be greatly displeased. The brother proposed that the son and man servant should be sent off some distance from home on business; she assented, then they bought dog-meat, chicken, pork, beef, etc., and the bones were buried under the house, that it might not be found out. After a while the son and his servant came home. The servant swept up the house, and found dog-hair and chicken feathers under the idol's shrine. The spirits had placed them there so the son miglit find out about it. The servant forthwith told his master, who accused his mother of eating meat. She denied it bitterly, saying 4f she had eaten it might she die and be punished. She was taken sick, and died. The son was distressed, and went far west, where there were many idols, to consult them and find out where his mother had gone. He learned she had gone to the lowest te ngwoh (hell), for she was very sinful. He went in pursuit of her, found her with a cangue around her neck, loaded with chains, and nothing to eat. He went and pre- pared rice, but, as he was carrying it to her, the devils snatched it away; this made him very sorrowful. Then he went and cooked some rice, red sugar, glutinous rice, peanuts, beans, red dates, sesamum seeds, etc., all up together, making a pal- atable dish; the beans looked like flies, the sesamum seeds like fleas and other insects. The evil spirits saw the food was very 2 20 Women of the Orient. dark and dirty looking, and thought it unfit to eat, so let him take it unmolested to his mother. By constant prayers and ceremonies he succeededin getting her out of te ngwoh, but she could never he allowed to go up to heaven on account of her great sinfulness in eating meat. "The widow's brother who caused so much trouble had his house burned down ; he was burned to death, and metamor- phosed into a donkey for his nephew to ride. "This is why the 2glh day of the first month is celebrated in Foochow and the neighborhood thereof as a feast day, and a good and sufficient reason why this dark but savory dish should then be prepared and eaten in commemoration of fihal piety." A WAYSIDE SHRINE. Both in China and Japan I have found the great majority of worshipers in Buddhist temples to be old women. Young women lead laborious lives and find but little time for worship; and even if they Woman's Place in Religion. 21 did, custom forbids their appearance . in public, or, except on rare occasions, in the temples. . The old women, if heads of households, have but little to do, and feeling the need of religious conso- lations — since they are certain soon to die — they spend much of their time in the temples. They have found that being a woman is, indeed, a great misfor- tune; and if earnest and constant devotion at the shrine of Buddha, and strict observance of prescribed forms and ceremonies will purchase the position of a prosperous man in the future state, they seem in a fair way to secure the coveted prize. The following' description of some peculiarities of female worship in Buddhist temples may prove of interest to the reader: "On worship days a great number of women may be seen slowly making their way to their chosen place of worship. They generally go in small companies, having with them a little basket containing candles and incense-sticks. They are always dressed in their best clothes, or clothes hired for the purpose, as it would be considered disrespectful to the gods to appear before them in their every-day apparel; and they hope, also, by their dress and behavior, to produce the impression upon the gods that they are persons of better circumstances than they rea-lly are. "Arrived at the temple the worship is conducted in the fol- lowing manner: A few candles are lighted and placed before the gods, either by the worshiper or a servant or priest in attendance at the temple. Incense-sticks are also lighted and inserted ir the large bowl of ashes before each idol. The de- sign of the worshiper in doing this is to apprise the gods of her pi'esence and intentions. These incense-sticks are about a foot long, and an eighth of an inch in diameter. They are ma*;;*: of fragrant wood, and one end is rolled in a composition of savr- dust, so that when ignited it will burn a considerable time, emitting a good deal of smoke. "When the incense-sticks have been properly disposed, the Women of the Orient. vrorshiper returns to the place of starting, and makes her pros- trations before each of the idols in succession. This ceremony is preparatory to the more important one which follows, and forms the chief object of the visit; namely, that of obtaining the tieh, or bills for the payment of money in Hades. "When the women apply to the priests for instruction and assistance they are answered much as follows: 'When you die your soul will pass into the land of spir- its, where it may re- main ages or hun- dreds of years before it is allowed to return to earth and inhabit the body of a man. In your journeyings there, when you cross bridges you will have to pay toll; when you cross a ferry you must fee the ferryman ; if you wish good accom- modations and atten- tions in the inns you must be able to pay well for them. It will be very desirable also for you to fee the inferior ofificers of Hades, so as to bring your case speedily be- fore the courts for adjudication, and facilitate your release and advancement. In a word, money answers all things in the land of spirits as well as in this present world.' "The women are further informed tlint the priests have opened communication with the land of spirits, and that their drafts are honored there. In one corner of the temple a priest sells these drafts, called tieh. When the paper lias been bought it receives the great seal or stamp of the temple; and after the name Na-mio-ini-ta-fuh has been chanted over it from three thousand to ten thousand times, it is regarded as veritable money, and is laid aside for future use in a safe provided foi SHINTO PRIEST. WOMAN'S Place in Religion. 23 Ihe purpose. It is supposed that each one will entitle the pos- sessor to a number of cash equal to the number of times the name has been repeated over it. "The priests have contrived to realize an abundant har- vest from the sale of this paper-money. The poor women, having purchased these papers, select a convenient place in the temple for spending the greater part of the day in the vain repetition of Na-mi-o-mi-ta-fuh, having a rosary to assist in counting. Rosaries are made of different materials, and have generally one hundred and eight beads. Persons of wealth have them ornamented witli pendants of gold and silver, such as representations of Buddha; a small tablet containing the religious name of the possessor; miniature representations of drums and other instruments used in temple worship, to indi- cate tlie religious character of those wlio use them; and a little lantern to represent the light which they hope will shine upon their patlis in the land of spirits. These papers gradually accumulate, and, after the death of the worshiper, are, with other paper money of different kinds, supposed to iDe transferred to the regigns of the dead by being burned. " It might be inferred from the above description that these visits to the temple are dull and monotonous, but the very opposite is the case. The scene is full of lively interest, and affords abundant matter for tiie gossip of many days to come. The rich are present, to see and be seen, dressed in costly attire, objects at once of admiration and envy. A few young girls, gayly dressed, have, perhaps, come out for the first time to see the busy world, and get their first impressions of temples and temple-worship. Old acquaintances meet, and mutually enter- tain each other with news of neighbors, family difficulties, the virtues of their own children and faults of their daughters-in-law, and superstitious tales. With the chattering of voluble tongues is mixed the continually interrupted chant of Na-mi-o-mi-ia- fuh, which, when they are in their turn h'stening to tlie stories of others, their tongues seem to repeat almost spontaneously."'* Buddhist nunneries are still found in China, although in some provinces they have been rigidly suppressed. Buddhist nuns with shaven heads, and *China and the Chinese," by Rev. J. L. Nevius, pages 106-uo. 24 Women of the Orient. by their dress, at least, not easily distinguished from the priests, are seen now and then in most Chinese cities. So far as my observation goes, these nuns are neither a good nor interesting class of women. To this, however, there may be some exceptions. They can usually read, and are about as intelligent as the priests, and are said to be quite as immoral. In these nunneries, I am assured, under the garb and name of religious devotees, licentious women often congregate, watching every opportunity to re- cruit their ranks from the young and unsuspecting, or the extremely poor, to whom such a life will afford a livelihood, or by the purchase of female infants to be trained up in sin. In the city of Foochow I was told that some forty or fifty years ago there were several convents furnishing homes for thousands of priestesses. But the inmates became so dissolute that even the Chinese sense of propriety was outraged, and all the establishments were summarily suppressed by the provincial governor, and the inmates compelled to marry or flee the country. Since they could be secured as wives without any very great expense, — and there was a scarcity in the matrimonial market about that time, — large numbers of men, in moderate circumstances, were found willing to unite their fortunes with the frail fair ones; and thus a serious evil was uprooted. Among the gods of the Buddhist pantheon which are held in special reverence by the women are the following: The Goddess of Mercy, who is greatly venerated WOMAN'S Place in Religion. *5 by the married women of the Empire, who usually worship her image of porcelain or coarse clay, or her name written on a slip of paper, at their homes. Childless women, however, almost invariably worship ^"■Biiiiiiiiiiii SHRINE OF THE GODDESS OF ftlERCV. this goddess in her temple, making as costly offer- ings as they are able, and earnestly petitioning her for a male child. The Goddess of Sailors is particularly worshiped' by the inhabitants of seaport towns, and especially by those women whose husbands and sons are exposed to the perils of the deep. Her temples are often very elegant, at least when judged by the Chinese rules of good taste. The most neat and 26 Women of the Orient. costly religious structure I visited in China is in Foochow, and is a sort of temple and Merchants' Exchange combined, .with a gorgeous image of this goddess, who is regarded as the patron divinity of the establishment. The native tradition of this goddess is as follows : " She was Ihe daughter of a man who, with his sons, was engaged on the ocean in the pursuit of a living. He was born during the Sung dynasty, and lived in the Hing Hua prefecture of the province of Fuh-kien. One-day, while she was engaged in the employment of weaving in her mother's house, she fell asleep through excessive weariness, her head resting upon her loom. She dreamed that she saw her father and her two brothers on their separate junks in a terrific storm. She exerted herself to rescue them from danger. She immediately seized upon the junk which contained her father with her mouth, while with her hands she caught a firm hold upon the two junks which contained her two brothers. She was dragging them all towards the shore when, alas! she heard the voice of her mother calling to her, and, as she was an obedient girl, forgetting that she held her father's junk in her mouth, she hastily opened it to answer her mother. She awoke in great distress, and, lo! it was a dream, but not all a dream; for m a few days the news arrived that the fleet in which the family junks were had_ encountered a dreadful storm, and that the one in which her father was had been wrecked, and he had perished, while those in which her brothers were had been signally rescued. The girl knew that she had been the means of the salvation of her brothers, and that opening her mouth to answer her mother's call was the occasion of her failure to rescue her father's vessel. This girl became, as the result of her dream, one of the most popular objects of worship in the Empire. •' The emperors of China have, at different times since her death, conferred various high-sounding titles upon her, some of whicli seem blasphemous. She is called ' Queen of Heaven ' and ■ The Holy Mother in the heavens aboiie.' One is often reminded by the titles given her, and the worship and honors paid her, of the titles which are given to the mother of Jesus IVoM^jv's Place in Religion: 27 by the authority of the Pope of Rome. Sailors often take with tliem some embers or ashes wliich they obtain from the censei before some popular image of the goddess. These ashes they carry about tlieir person in a small red bag, or they suspend them about the junk in Convenient places, or they put them in the censer before the image of the goddess which they worship. When there is a violent storm, and there seems but little hope that the junk will outride it, the sailors all kneel down near the bow with incense in their hands, and call out in doleful and bitter tones upon Ma Chu to send deliverance. In case they reach the port without shipwreck, they are bound to offer her an especial thanksgiving of food, with or without theatrical plays in her honor, according to their vow."* Another goddess, who is simply called "Mother," is very popular with the common people. She has a reputation for great skill as a midwife and a nurse. Mothers worship her with great strictness, presenting offerings according to their means ; and while they thank her for past aid, they are equally anxious to secure her indispensable services for the future. She is the goddess of children, and mothers whose little ones are sick or in any special danger, do not fail to prostrate themselves before an image of the great mother of all, who is believed to have infinite power over fierce diseases and evil influences of all sorts. I have heard several curious legends in regar to this goddess, one of which is the following, which belongs to the neighborhood of Foochow, and explains why ducks can not be offered to hei in sacrifice: "It is recorded as a veritable fact that once, while per forming some of her arts for the purpose of procuring rain in a time of excessive drouglit, standing on a piece of matting •Doolittle's Social Life of the Chinese, Vol. I, page 263. 3 28 Women of the Orient. which was simply placed on the surface of the river Min, opposite this city, and just below where the Big Bridge is situated, she was in great peril from the malicious attempts of some evil-disposed demon in the water, which tried to draw the matting down into the water. A certain tall, white devil is charged with this mischievous attempt to undermine he security of her footing. What the sad results would have been to her personally, as well as to married women and children, generally, had he succeeded, it is not necessary to attempt to deplore or depict; for, as her good fate would have it, four ducks came bravely to her rescue. Each seized hold of one of the four corners of the matting with its bill, and held it firmly in position, so that the imp could not drag it from underneath her. In view of this signal deliverance in her hour of peril, she vowed, as a token of gratitude, never to partake of duck's meat again. She is regarded as having no objection to duck's eggs. A small island in the river at this place, called ' Duck Island,' was raised from the bed of the river by the goddess, in commemoration of her escape, and named after her deliverers; so many Chinese women soberly and stoutly maintain."* Most of the fortune-tellers which I met in the streets of Chinese cities were men, while most of their dupes seemed to be women. There is, how- ever, in China, a class of female mediums, as they are called, who profess to hold intercourse with departed spirits. They are popularly supposed to become possessed, at will, with the spirit of some dead individual, knowledge of whom is desired by female friends, who gather anxiously around, not forgetting first to pay a liberal fee to the woman who deals in such high and mighty influences. The medium passes into a sort of trance, and the deceased person uses her organs of speech to com- municate with the living. This is a decided im- *Doolittle's Social Life of the Chinese, Vol. I, p4»e 265. WOMAN'S Place in Religion. 29 provement upon the more clumsy methods adopted by those spirits who deign to visit our own country, and hold mysterious converse with "the faithful." A widow may thus secure dii'ect and exact news of her departed husband, receiving special comfort from the readily recognized tones of his voice, or a childless woman may secure positive information as to the future, or a sick woman may be informed as to what medicine will be the most efficacious in arresting her malady. Like the priests and the fortune-tellers and the nuns, and the long line of religious impostors, these mediums enjoy an abun dant patronage, and do their full share in the work of riveting the chains of a gross superstition upon the degraded females of this land. An American resident in China writes: " The Chinese appear to have got hold, in some way, of the secrets of ' Modern Spiritualism,' and are using them foi- the piupose of frightening the people against tlie Christian religion. Native 'mediums' represent the ghosts of deceased converts as having returned to eaith unhappy at having been refused admittance to their ancestral heaven. Expatriated from the celestial halls where the spirits of their fathers enjoy the bliss of immortality, they seek to warn those whom they have left, that the latter may turn a deaf ear to the missionaries, and so retain their spiritual birthright. The difference between ■ Chinese spiritualism and that with which we are more familiar, is, that while the latter claims to supersede the old religion of the people among whom it has sprung up, the former seeks to cc/nserve it," » AMONG THE HINDOOS. The population of India is divided, in a general sense, into two great classes. — the Hindoos and the Mohammedans. The Hindoos are by far the most 30 Women of the Orient, numerous, and in proportion to the Mohammedans are about five to one. Hindoos are followers of the Brahminical faith, and are worshipers of idols, being divided into almost ' innumerable sects and castes, which can not eat together or intermarry with each other, although this does not prevent their living to- gether harmoniously in the same social communities. Among the Hindoos nothing is secular; therefore, a correct understanding of the condition of woman can not be attained except by the light of the religious circumstances which attend her. From such knowledge as we have' of what are known as the ancient Vedic times, we gather that respect for woman was then thought to be right, and was even enjoined ^s aii important duty. Hard and degrading work was not required of her; her skill and graces were consecrated to the adornment of the domestic hearth; she was protected and loved by man, and treated altogether with a gallantry not unlike that which characterized the palmiest days of European chivalry. Despising woman, man was said to "despise, his mother;" to wrong her because of her weakness was "a great crime; and to incur her curse was a great calamity. Girls made choice of their own husbands, while husband and wife went hand in hand in all the domestic, social, and religious affairs of life. The smiles of deity rested upon woman as upon man, and her prayers and offerings were equally acceptable. Next to their strictly sacred writings, probably, the ancient Sanskrit epic poetry is most venerated Woman's Place in Religion. 31 by all orthodox Hindoos ; and it is a significant fact tliat the most popular of these, the Ramayatia and the Mahabharata, are principally devoted to the praises of beautiful and virtuous women; indeed, one scholar has called them "galleries of exquisite female portraits." In the latter of these poems the following words are put into the mouth of a prominent personage: "The wife is the honor of the family, — 'she who presents the children. The wife is the man's vital spirit; is the man's half; is his best friend, and the source of all his felicity. The wife, with her endear- ing discourse, is the friend in solitude, the mother to the oppressed, and a refreshment on the journey in the wilderness'of life." But, from the faith and practice of these earlier centuries, the Hindoos have sadly departed. By degrees the religious and social condition of woman has deteriorated until, by sacred law and custom, she is now consigned to a degradation which is prob- ably without a parallel in the history of our race. To be sure. Buddhism, which overran Hindoostan during the fifth and sixth centuries before Christ, made man and woman equals, and preached a tol- erably successful crusade against the superstitions and cruel rites of the Brahminical faith; but its triumph was comparatively short. It was evidently not adapted to the Hindoo mind; and its steady tendency toward monastic life worked its downfall, which was followed by a revival of Brahmin ism, especially in the corrupt form of Krishna worship, which still retains a powerful hold upon the popular 32 Women of the Orient. mind. Had Buddhism survived on the peninsula, the condition of Hindoo women would now be a pleasanter theme on which to dwell; for it is a note- worthy fact that in Burmah, where Buddhism still maintains some of its original characteristics, woman enjoys a degree of freedom not much inferior to that accorded to her sisters in some Christian lands. The Code of Manu, which is the formal promul- gation of the Brahminic faith, drags woman down to the lowest possible religious condition; and makes her incapable, through her own efforts, to render acceptable service to the deity. She is forbidden to read their Scriptures or to offer up prayer or to offer sacrifice in her own name and right. She has no individuality, but always exists in her father or in her husband; and if she has any hopes for the future they are based upon her husband: without him she is soulless! Vileness and brutishness lead men to inflict wrongs upon weak women in all lands; but in India woman's wrongs are the result of a religious system as cruel as it is false, as oppressive as it is devilish; and every poor, debased Hindoo wife knows that her husband can not be guilty of harshness and com- mand her tame submission to any outrage but he can quote the only sacred authority of which she has any knowledge as his justification. Among the teachings of the Shasters in regard to women are the following, which form a part of the "unalter- able religious law" of the Hindoos: "Women liave no business with the texts of the Veda," or sacred book; "thus is the law fully settled: having therefore WOMAN'S Place in Religion. 33 no evidence of law, and no knowledge of expiatory texts, sin- ful women must be as foul as falseliood itself, and this is a fixed rule." " By a girl, or by a young woman, or by a woman advanced in years, nothing must be done, even in her own dwelling- place, according to her mere pleasure." "No sacrifice is allowed to women apart from their hus- bands, no religious rite, no fasting: as far only as a wife hon- ors her lord, so far is she exalted in heaven." '"A husband, however devoid of good qualities, must con- stantly be revered as a god by a virtuous wife. She who slights not her lord, but keeps her mind, speech, and body de- voted to him, attains his heavenly mansion." Manu also writes: "After obtaining a husband, a woman may, at any time, be superseded by another wife, if she drinks any spirituous liquors, though her husband go to bed drunk every night, or if she wastes his property. If she has no children, she may be superseded in the eighth year; if her children be dead, in the tenth; and, provided she has only daughters, in the eleventh; and, if she speaks un- kindly, without delay." Manu "classes her with the stupid, the dumb, the bhnd, and the deaf She may be corrected by her lord, to whom her mind, speech, and body are to be kept in subjection by means of a rope or small cane. While, on the other hand, 'though unobservant of approved usages, or utterly devoid of good qualities, yet a husban-d must be constantly revered as a god by a virtuous wife.' " The Shasters further declare that, "when in the presence of her husband, a woman must keep her eyes upon her master, and be ready to receive his commands. When he speaks, she must be quiet 34 Women op The Orient. and listen to nothing else besides. When he calls, she must leave every thing else and attend upon him alone. A woman has no other god on earth but her husband. He is her god, her priest, and her religion. The most- excellent of all good works that she can perform is to gratify him with the strictest obedience. This should be her only devotion. If he laughs, she must also laugh ; if he weeps, she must also weep ; if he sings, she must be in an ecstasy." According to Dr. William Butler, a religious law of the Hindoos enjoins it as a solemn duty upon a Brahmin "to suspend his reading of the Veda to his disciples should a woman happen to come in sight while h.e is so employed, and directs him not to resume the utterance of the holy texts until she has passed beyond the possibility of hearing them. Her ear is not pure enough to hear what the vilest male thief or sensualist in the bazaar may listen to freely! Woman's religious knowledge must not rise higher than the Shasters. The 'holy' Vedas are re- served for men, and for them alone." Metempsychosis is an important doctrine of the Hindoo religion. The Hindoo idea of eternal happiness is com- prised in passing through many successive births and performing thousands of meritorious acts, until a man becomes perfectly holy, is absorbed into the divine nature, and becomes one with the supreme being. Future punishment consists in a soul being condemned to take up its abode in the body of some despised brute, and thence into one still more abominable, repeating the operation once or a thou- Woman's Placr m Religion. 35 sand times, according to the degree of sinfulness. When a man is prospered, and becomes wealthy, he is believed to have lived a good life in a previous state of existence ; but when a man is extremely poor or sickly or lame or blinds he is said to be suffering for sins committed in a former life. Those who now are poor or ugly, or of low caste, may, if constant in their worship of the gods, be beautiful and rich and greatly honored in the next birth. Numerous legends are current among the common people, of which the following is a sample : It is said that "a Hindoo once wished to offer a ram in sacrifice. He went out of the village to an adjoining jungle or meadow where these animals were feeding, and purchased one; but instead of re- moving the animal in a gentle way began to drag it most unmercifully by one of its legs. Seeing itself thus treated, the brute laughed out: the man, of course, asked him why he laughed ; the ram said it was nothing; but the former insisted on knowing the reason, and the ram at last told him that in the next life he [that is, the man] would be a ram and him- self a man, and would drag him as he is himself now dragged. The Hindoo did not like the idea of being thus handled, and hearing this, let the poor animal go free." Only through this doctrine is any door of hope as regards the future opened to Hindoo women. A woman who is a disobedient wife, or does not wor- ship her husband, and constantly care for his com- fort, will sink to the lowest hell, suffer the most e:!Jquisite itortures, after which she will again be 56 Women of the OsiENt. born a female, and be married only^ to lose her husband very soon, and be a widow; from which wretched condition she must pass to the body of a serpent or a loathsome ins^t. Formerly when Suttee was openly practiced, if a wife refused to be burned with the dead body of her husband, or if he died at such a distance from home that the cerenfiohy was impossible, she was taught to expect to drag out an eternity of mis- cry in the bodies of the vilest animals, and the most horrid monsters of which it is possible to conceive. AMONG THE MOHAMMEDANS. / Mohammedans believe that women have souls, but the Koran teaches that their future salvation depends largely upon their relations to their hus- bands. .In chapter fourth of the Koran, entitled "Women," we read: "Men sliall have the pre-eminence above women, because of those advantages wherein God hath caused the one of them to excel the otiier, and for -that which tliey expend of their substance in maintaining theiy wives. The honest women are obedient, careful in the absence of their husbands, for that God ]Meseiveth them, by committing them to the care and protection of the men. But those whose peiverseness ye shall be apprehensive of, rebuke; and remove them into sep- arate apartments, and chastise tliem. But if they shall be obe- dient unto you, seek not an occasion of quarrel ■i.%,Mw=X. them: for God is high and great."* Strict obedience to their Jiusbands is the only condition upon which even Moslem women can ex- pect to be saved. 'Translation by George Sale, Gent., page lo6. U^OMAN's Place in kEuaioM. 37 It is, perhaps, a common supposition that the Koran teaches that women will not be permitted to enter Paradise — or the highest heavenly abode — since their place will be supplied by the Houris promised to all faithful followers of the Prophet. But this is evi- dently a mistake, since in chapter thirty-six we read: "On this day the inhabilaiits of Paradise shall be wholly taken up with joy: they and their wives shall rest in shady groves, leaning on magnificent couches. There shall they ' have fruit, and they shall obtain whatever they shall desire." And in chapter forty-three we read : " O my servants, there shall no fear come on you this day, neither shall ye be grieved : who have believed in our signs, and have been Moslems: enter ye into paradise, ye and your ■wives, with great joy." In chapter thirty-three it is said: "Verily the Moslems of either sex, and the true believers of either sex, and the devout men and the devout women, and the men of veracity and the women of veracity, and the patient men and the patient women, and the humble men and the humble women, and the alms-givers of either sex, and the men who fast and the women who fast, and the chaste men and the chaste women, and those of either sex who remember God frequently, for them hath God prepared forgiveness and a great reward."* The sum and substance of what the great mass of Mohammedan women (either in India or Turkey) know about religion and heaven is, that the first consists in obedience to the husband, no matter how vile a brute he may be; and the second is only to be secured by them as the reward of such obedience, I never have seen men and women mingling together in Mohammedan mosques at the hour of prayer. *Sale's Translation, pages 345, 381, 331. 38 IVOMEN OF THE OsiENt. Women must do the most of their worshiping at home; or, if at times admitted to the mosques, it must be when the men are not there, since any thing like a recognition of woman's equaHty before God would be regarded as in the highest degree subversive of true social order and piety. Although some show of protection is thrown around her by the Koran, the orthodox Moslem idea of woman is, indeed, most vile and degrading, while the average treatment she receives at the hands of the so-called superior sex is most brutal. If in any one point more than another this system gives proof of its falsity, it is by its violation of the divine law of love in the wicked treatment of defenseless woman. Very timely and appropriate was the prayer of Charles Wesley: "The smoke of the infernal cave. Which half the Christian world o'erspread, Disperse, thou heavenly Light, and save The souls by that impostor led, That Arab thief, as Satan bold, Who quite destroyed thy Asian fold." The Mohammedans have numerous proverbs ex- pressive of the very low estimate they put upon women, from which I select the following, translated by Dr. H. H. Jessup in his valuable book entitled "The Women of the Arabs:" "Obedience to women will have to be repented of." "The heart of woman is given to folly." "Women are the whips of Satan." "Alas for the people who are ruled by a woman!" "Trust neither a king, a horse, nor a woman; for the king is fastidious, the horse prone to run away, and the woman is perfidious." Chapter II. BIRTH. AT a social gathering of missionaries and travelers in Beyroot, Syria, in the Spring of 1874, the following incident was related by a lady present: The Arab children of a mission school were play- ing together one morning, when the teacher over- heard one little girl speaking to another about the size of something she had seen the day before. "It was very small," she said. "How small was it?" asked her playmate. "Oh," said the first girl, "It was a little speck of a thing." "But just how little was it?" urged the second girl; when her compan- ion replied — with a true Oriental comparison, as beautiful as it is pathetic — "As little as was the joy of my father on the day I was born." There is compressed into that brief expression a huge vol- ume of mournful facts; facts which the Christian world must meet and modify, even though a knowl- edge of them may send a thrill of pious horror through every enlightened soul! There is great rejoicing among all Orientals over the birth of a son, not only on account of the. nat- ural preference for a male posterity which is com- mon to nearly all lands, but for various other rea- sons. A son, if he survive, will perpetuate the name as well as the memory of his father. If it be 39 46 Women of the dniENt. in China, a son can alone acceptably worship the spirits of his departed ancestors, and furnish offer- ' ings for their comfortable sustenance in the ghostly- realm of which they have become inhabitants. If it is in India, a sort of religious despair takes posses- sion of a man who is likely to leave behind him no sons; for, in that case, the Shrad — a funeral cere- mony considered essential to his happy transmigra- tion and future welfare — must be performed by some other relative, and the poor ghost must remain in limbo a much longer time. A Hindoo father often awaits in an agony of sus- pense the birth of a child until the announcement of sex is made; and an utter desolation of soul has come upon him when he has heard the words "It is a girl;" for then he knows that the hope he has cherished of an honored funeral pile, and a happy passage through the next transmigration, is all in vain. This is his religious faith, and we must re- spect it, at least so far as to pity him in his un- affected distress. If the Shrad is not performed at all, the spirit must forever wander about the universe in the form of a fiend called Bhuta, who has a sort of roving commission to neutralize good influences, and tor- ment mankind in general. Hence the birth of each successive boy makes it the more certain that the soul of the father will not be friendless and neg- lected in the future world. Sons alone are an assurance of support in old age, in lands where daughters become the absolute property of families into which they marry, or, BiSTit. 41 remaining unmarried, are a burden and disgrace, unable or unwilling to assist their parents. In China and India, at least, a son is regarded as under every possible obligation to assist in maintaining every feeble or necessarily unemployed member of hi;! father's family; and while such a reason as this for desiring sons would be of weight in any land, it is absolutely unanswerable in those countries which are so over-populated that the great majority of the people are wretchedly poor, and literally live "from hand to mouth." In India the great expense of the marriage cere- monies and feasts, together with the dower which must go with every respectable female, makes the birth of a daughter an unmitigated calamity in the estimation of a poor man. My friend. Rev. J. W. Waugh, D. D., who is probably as accurate in his knowledge of Indian manners and customs as any American resident in that country, .says: "It certainly is iinieasonable to ask the man who receives only enough each year to feed and clothe himself and family to welcome the coming of another and still another daughter, when the marriage of each he well knows will inevitably sink him hopelessly in debt for years, and, perhaps, for life. I do not speak now of the almost fabulous sums at times lavished by more wealthy parents on the marriage of their daughters, but of the hard cash acuially necessary to secure ihem a respectable settlement in life; and if they fail in this, disgrace— unuLter- able disgrace — awaits them. I have known a father to borrow money at seventy-five per cent per annum, in order to secure wliat would be a very modenite dower, and thus burden him- self with a very millstone of del5t, nither than \)e.Q.o\ne. ■n riiarked man in his caste for having failed 10 secure such an outfit as would save his daughter from a life of slavery or infamy, and himself and family fiom social ostracism. " 42 Women of the Orient. Again, a son is expected to be the constant de- fender of his mother and sisters in countries where the widow and the fatherless are often cruelly op- pressed, and where unprotected women can expect no favors. L.astly, since the sons and their families never set up housekeeping for themselves while the father lives, • but make a part of the paternal household and are under the paternal government, each son born will eventually add largely to the father's patriarchal authority and dignity. For these reasons among all the Orientals a man is looked upon as especially favored who has a large number of boys in his family; while, for the same reasons, a girl is regarded as even worse than useless. As a matter of course, where there are several wives, their rivalry for the husband's regard is often great; and she who first and oftenest piesents him with sons has a corresponding advantage over her associates, and it is by no means uncommon for poison or the dagger to be employed by less fortunate wives to turn such a triumph into desolation and mourning. On the birth of a son, congratulations pOur in upon the happy father; but when a female infant comes into the world, if the father does not actually hide himself from the people because of the ill tidings, he goes out into the bazaar to receive the condolence and sympathy of his male friends to support him in his unwelcome trial, while the afflicted mother is obliged to endure ten extra days of purification. The Orientals never cease to wonder at the fact that Christians, in their delight at the birth of a child, seem to make no distinction in favor of a son SlRTH. 43 over a daughter; and numerous incidents are related to travelers where English or American residents ir. Eastern lands have actually received visits of con- dolence from their polite native acquaintances when the birth of a daughter has been announced, since strict courtesy would not permit such a domestic calamity to remain unnoticed in the neighborhood. When girls are born and permitted to live, it is customary for the fathers almost entirely to ignore them. A father will spare no time or pains to insure the comfort of his son, watching over him with all a woman's tenderness and patience when he is sick; nothing is too good for a son, the pride and glory of the household. On the contrary, although a father may speak kindly and pleasantly to a daughter, yet custom prevents his taking her up in his arms or kiss- ing her or instructing her, or showing her any of those attentions so dear to the heart of a child. In speak- ing of the number of his children, a true Oriental seldom takes the trouble to count in the daughters. A wealthy Chinaman, in Shanghai, who was ex- hibiting to me his elegant residence, permitted me to see the female apartments, where, besides his three wives, were five or six little daughters. While I con- fined myself to the examination of the costly orna- ments about the room, with frequent expressions of surprise and wonder, my host was complacent; but when I began paying some attention to the little girls, — who were really quite pretty, and were in an ecstasy of delighted curiosity at my presence, — he very emphatically gave me to understand that I was fooling away my time noticing girls, and, with 4 44 Women of the Orient. the air of a man who invites and expects your sym- pathy, he wondered what he had done to offend the gods that they had denied him a son, to perpetuate his memory, and worship at his grave, while tlieyhad fairly flooded his household with useless daughters. In Japan, although the desire for male children prevails, and sons are given a decided preference in all the affairs of life, still I could not learn that female children are particularly unwelcome. Daughters are treated with affectionate tenderness by fathers, and are allowed a degree of social liberty unknown on the continent of Asia. In China, however, the low estimate in which females are held is immediately noticed by travelers who hold any intercourse with intelligent natives, and fully explains the debased condition of the sex throughout the Empire. I have frequently been interrogated by the Chinese after this manner: ' ' How old are you ? How many children have you?" "One." "Is it a boy or a girl?" "A girl." "What a pity! Would you not prefer a boy?" "No; I am thankfulthat providence has sent me my sweet little daughter." Whereupon my interlocutor would invariably elevate his eyebrows with an in- credulous shake of the head, and dismiss the subject by saying: "In my opinion, boys come from the gods, while girls are from the demons; boys are a blessing, but girls are a curse ; and the quicker you get rid of them, the better!"' The present and eternal happiness of a Chinese wife depends upon her becoming the mother of a son; hence, her greatest desire is, that she may be Birth. 45 I 'US blessed. A son is her chief pride, while her daughters are regarded with a corresponding indiffer- ence. Her daughters will be, married at an early age, and become (body and soul) the property of other families; and for care, when she is sick or aged, she must depend upon her son and his wife. Hence it is not strange that the happiest households in China are those where there are most sons. A lady friend, resident in China, said : " Last year there came to my knowledge a case illustrating well the dreadful effect of the Chinese social and reh'gious systems. A couple had been married many years, and had no children. The wife made many prayers and offerings in a neighboring tenVple, and promised the idol a splendid feast if she should have a son. At last her desire was fulfilled, and the delighted couple wished to pay their vow to the idol. But they were very poor, having only a small piece of land on which they lived, and from which they got their whole support. They considered much what they should do. They had no rich friends from whom to borrow, no handsome clothes that they could pawn, and no way of earning more than their daily bread; yet the idol must be satisfied, or it might do them and the child great harm. There was only the land, on which was their whole dependence. After much distressed debate, in which fear of the idol prevailed, they sold the land for thirty dollars, and spread a thanksgiving feast before the god. Then they struggled on, not hopelessly, because they had a son, and need not go hungry nor naked in their old age in this world, nor. in the world of spirits. By working at odd jobs here and there, they managed to keep themselves alive, and feed the child. When the boy was eight years old, another son was born to them. Again tlie idol must have a thank-offering; but this time they had no land to sell, and were in the last stages of poverty. Their only valuable possession was their eight-year-old boy. He was bright and handsome, and a rich, childless man wanted him for his own. After much discussion, agitated by fear of the idol and desire for its beneficent influence on the babe, and all other means of getting money failing, they sold the boy for 46 Women of the Orient. fifteen dollars, and again made a feast before tl e god. The eldest boy gone, and the feast over, the baby took smalljpox, and died. The raving, despaijing mother carried the corpse and bound it on the breast of the idol, saying: 'You' have eaten our land; you have eaten our house; you have eaten our pots and pans; you have eaten our eight-year-old boy; nil we ever had has gone to your maw; now eat this!' "* A girl from her very birth experiences the sin- ister influences of these prevailing ideas, and is con- stantly tormented with a sense of her inferiority and comparative worthlessness. Dr. Morrison very completely describes the difference between the sexes in the following curious quotation from a Chinese classic : ** When a son is born, He sleeps on a bed ; He is clothed in robes; He plays with gems; His cry is princely loud! But when a daughter is born, She sleeps on the ground ; She is clothed with a wrapper ; She plays with a tile, She is incapable either of evil or good ; It is hers only to think of preparing wine and food. And not giving any occasion of grief to her parents If The Modammedans have a proverb: "The thresh- old weeps forty days when a girl is born;" and I am told that, at least throughout Syria, when a wedding takes place, the wish which custom re- quires each guest to express to the happy couple is: "May your wedded life be long and peaceful, with plenty of sons and no daughters!" Mohammedans are very sorry when a girl is •Miss Adele M. Fielde, Swatow. t Dictionary, Vol. I., page 6oj Birth. 47 born ; and the grief of the mother is most sincere and pitiable. Slie weeps as her female friends flock in to express their sorrow, and they all weep to- gether. And well they may, for most keenly can they , appreciate the life-long disappointment and suffering which await the innocent babe. Some- times the mother and grandmother will refuse to kiss or to fondle the child for months after its birth, or to give the slightest expression of regard for the little stranger; but this antipathy gradually wears away, natural affection asserts its supremacy, and the little girl comes to be kindly tolerated, if not heartily welcome. When a boy is born he is greeted as a special blessing in answer to prayer, and there is great re- joicing! Presents appropriate to his condition in life are sent in by the relatives and particular friends of the family, and the happy father especially is the recipient of many heartfelt congratulations. Usually a feast, as costly as his circumstances will permit, is given by the father to his male friends, as an expres- sion of his personal gratification. But no rejoicings are indulged in when an unwelcome and despised girl is born, for such an exhibition would be singu- larly inappropriate. A common custom among the Mohammedans is to call a father by the name of his son. For ex- ample, a man whose son is named Yusef will be courteously entitled Aboo -Yusef— ox the father of Joseph. If, however, a man have no sons, but a daughter, he is never called by her name, but, in- stead, the name of some imaginary son is compas 48 Women of the Orient. sionately bestowed upon the unfortunate gentleman. If an orthodox old Mussulman have a beautiful, dark-eyed daughter Miriam, no matter how much he prize her, no matter if she be his only child, you can scarcely put a greater insult upon him than to call him Aboo -Miriam. One day, when on our horse-back tour through Palestine, our chief mule- teer Ibrahim fell into a violent dispute with one of his subordinates. In true Arab style, there were more words than blows. Louder and more bitter grew the curses and imprecations hurled from one to the other, until the climax was reached by the rebeUious servant contemptuously shouting out to Ibrahim, amid the loud laughter of all the by stand- ers: "Aboo-Rachel " for Rachel was the name of Ibrahim's eldest daughter. This was more than even a "true believer" could bear, and the result was a severe beating administered to the saucy ras- cal by the enraged muleteer, which was only termin- ated by the authority of our dragoman. IN JAPAN. Some of the customs of the Orientals at birth and for several subsequent months are extremely novel and interesting. In Japan but little if any distinction is made in these usages between boys and girls; and the national vivacity and domesticity of character render these ceremonies peculiarly en- joyable. Their marriage ceremonies and ceremonies connected with the birth and training of children, constantly claim the attention of curious travelers. Birth. 49 Taking English and American residents in Japan, as well as my intelligent native friends, as authority, I conclude that what is regarded among Christian peo- ple as a natural delicacy in reference to child-birth is entirely unknown among the Japanese. As seen as a young wife has the hope of becoming a mother, all her relatives and friends are notified, and assemble at her house, where they hail the glad news with vulgar congratulations, indiscreet questions, and an abundance of hygienic counsels. An old woman is immediately appointed as obassan or attendant, and the young wife must thereafter entirely submit to her control. At the third month the friends assemble to witness a second solemnity, which is the placing of a girdle of red cords about the young wife, which can only be laid aside on the completion of the sixth month. At the time of delivery, the poor woman is surrounded by a crowd of friends and neighbors, who act as assistants and counselors to the obassan ; and to all their practices, no matter how superstitious or whimsical, she must humbly and patiently submit. The birth of a child does not end her pains; for an incomprehensible, but inexorable, custom requires that the young mother shall not be permitted a mo- ment's sleep, however imperatively exhausted nature may demand it, until her child is washed and dressed, and placed in her arms, — an operation which usually requires several hours. For two years, at least, the mother will nurse the child; and whenever her female friends visit her, po- liteness requires that she promptly bestow her lacteal gifts upon any little children who may accompany 5° Women of the Orient. their mothers upon the occasion. She must not be too careful of her baby. It must be carried out into the fresh air every day, with its head shaved, and perfectly naked ; and if the mother is otherwise en- gaged, the little girls of the neighborhood are always glad of the privilege of performing this duty for her, not only as an expression of friendship, but that they may become skillful in what they are taught to regard as one of the main duties of their future vocation. Groups of girls at play, each with an infant ingeniously strapped to her back, may be seen any day in the streets of a Japanese town or village. In order to avoid as much as possible the fatigue of carrying the child about, the mother places it upon her back, fastening it be- tween her chemise and the collar of her kirinwn, or outer garment; and the traveler constantly sees women on the highways and the wives of the farmers working in the fields with a little shaven head wagging about between their shoulders. How the little ones endure the heat of the sun is more than I can understand; and yet, sleeping or waking, they seem to be patient and happy. In a Japanese house the children are often left entirely to themselves, and this can be done with JAPANESB GIRL CARRYING A CHILD, JSIRTH. 5' absolute jafety, for they can tumble about upon the soft mats, and there is no furniture against which to fall in their attempts to walk, and no ornaments within their reach for the busy fingers to injure. Their playmates are little pug dogs, greatly prized by the Japs, and a species of cat with white fur, set off by yellow and black stripes, and, hke the cats of Java and the Isle of Man, with no tails, unless a stump about an inch long may be dignified wiih that name. On the thirtieth day after birth the child receives its first name. If a boy, he will be given a second name on coming of age, and a third on the day he is married, and a fourth if he is ever appointed to a government office; and an additional name is be- stowed each time he is advanced in ranlc, until after his death, when his last name, by which his mem- ory will be held sacred by his friends, is carved upon his tombstone. The Japanese have a ceremony at the first nam- ing of a 'child which corresponds to our baptism, and which I have frequently witnessed in the tem- ples. The child is brought with considerable cere- mony and display to the temple where the parents regularly worship; and after certain forms of purifi- cation have been observed, the father hands a sheet of paper with three names written upon it to the officiating priest, who copies them on three separate slips, which he shakes up together in a sacred dish, repeating over them a certain number of prayers, and cabalistic sentences, after which he throws them into the air, and the first which falls to the floor of the K 5" Women of the Orient. sanctuary indicates tlie name which the gods have selected as proper to be bestowed upon the child. This name is then inscribed upon a sheet of orna- mented paper by the priest, and given as a talisman to the father, who bestows a hberal fee in return; and if wealthy he at the same time generously remembers all the other priests of his religion who reside in the neighborhood. This ends the religious part of the ceremony, which is followed by feasts and music and proces- sions, and various other rejoicings according to the social condition of the child; and a number of pre- scribed presents are bestowed by the family friends, among which are two fans if it be a boy, and a pot of pomade if it be a girl. The fans are emblem- atical of swords, and the pomade is the presage of those feminine charms which are expected to make the little' maiden one of the most attractive of her sex. To the other gifts a ball 'of flax thread is al- ways added, which signifies a wish for a long life, The priest is required to place the child's name on the temple roll, and to watch over its spiritual wel- fare as it grows up, with faithful prayers and instruc- tions. These temple registers are said to be very accurately kept, and often to be examined by the government. After the first few years, of course, more attention is paid to the training of a boy than to the training of a girl, since the boy must be fitted to take part in public life, and intelligently assume the duties of citizenship. Japanese parents are very fond of their children, and give themselves up to their amusement and com- S3 JAPANESE WOMEN AND CHILDREN. fort with a hearty enjoyment which seems to suit the children admirably, and certainly delights the traveler with frequent glimpses of home life and enjoyment such as can be had in no other East- ern land. 54 Women of the Orient. IN CHINA. The following curious customs are peculiar to the Chinese, at least to those who inhabit the Fuh- kien province, in which I spent a longer time than in any other part of the empire, and enjoyed some- wliat better opportunities for observation- and in- quiry. Married life in China is seldom satisfactory and pleasant unless blessed with male children ; and in case these are denied, the wife will resort to all sorts of superstitious expedients to remove her dis- grace. Most of these involve visits to the temples and liberal donations to the gods and the priests. Upon the fulfillment of vows made at such times •■he priests depend largely for repairs in the temples, and the regilding and painting of the ugly images under their care. When a child is born it is not washed or prop- erly dressed until the third day. This washing is performed with great ceremony before an image of the goddess called '■'Mother," and offerings of meat and fruit are made; which offerings, after the smell of them has sufficiently regaled her ladyship, are feasted upon by the relatives and friends in attend- ance. This is a day of special rejoicing, congratu- lations and presents; and well it may be, for the child is now clean, a fact which can probably never again be truthfully stated in regard to him, though he may live to be an hundred years old. In connection with the washing the custom of "binding the ivrists" is observed. This usually con- sists in tying a loose red string around each wrist; Birth. 55 but if it be a boy or the family is wealthy, little sil- ver and even gold toys are added. Generally the string is removed on the fourth day, although some- times it is allowed to remain for several months, or perhaps a year. This ceremony is performed in order to secure the obedience and submission of the child as it grows up, and it is believed to be very efficacious. However that may be, I am certain tliat Chinese children are among the most obedient in the world, and this praiseworthy conduct usually continues as long as the parents live. When the child is one month old, it is, for the first time, allowed to leave the bedroom with its mother; and on that day is observed the important and characteristic ceremony of "shaving the child's head," which operation is performed before an im^ age of "Mother," if the child is a girl; on the con- trary, a boy's head is shaved before the tablets of his ancestors, and again the gods and the priests are remembered in offerings of food and money. Other relatives may send presents on that day if they choose, but the child's maternal grandmother is always expected to remember it in some substantial gift, appropriate to its station in life. This is always a day of great rejoicing, particularly in the case of a boy, and among the rich large sums are often ex- pended upon the festivities. After this the cere- monies connected with childhood are altogether too numerous to be even referred to here, except, per- haps, two or three. On the day the child is four months old it is first allowed to sit in a chair. When the child is one 5* Women of the Orient. year old, other offerings are made to the gods, and other presents are expected from the maternal grand- mother. A boy must receive upon that day at least a pair of boy's shoes and a cap, and a girl must re- ceive ornamental wristlets and head-gear. On this occasion a set of money-scales, a pair of shears, a foot measure, a brass mirror, pencil, ink, paper and ink-slab, one or two books, the abacus, a silver or gold ornament or implement, and fruits, etc., are placed before the child with much ceremony. It is a moment of great importance to all assembled, for it is supposed that the article first taken up by the child indicates its future state and occupation in society. If the child is a boy, and he seizes upon a book or a pen, it is expected that he will become a great "scholar; on the contrary, if he grasps the money- scales or the ornaments, it is certain that he will be- come a very wealthy and fortunate business man. If these predictions are not verified in after life, it is said to be owing to' the malignant influences of certain spirits, who, for some reason, are jealous of the child or its family. Many remarkable incidents are related to support this time-honored custom. When visiting a Chinese gentleman in Canton, tc witness the festivities in honor of his son, who had just taken his second literary degree, I was told by the happy father that, when his son was one year old, at the ceremony of "grasping playthings" the babe first took up a book, and, in an unintelligible jabber, imitated the tones of a reader. A wealthy merchant in Foochow said to a frieno in my presence that, when he himself was a babe, Birth 57 on the occasion above alluded to, he first grasped two silver dollars, and held them for several hours, resisting with loud cries any attempt to take them from him. He was a fair representative of his class, and, according to my friend, had long before brought the science of "grasping and keeping" to perfection. A very common legend among the people is the following : " 111 the Sung dynasty, a certain lad, on the day when he was one year old, while seated on a sieve, according to custom, first seized hold of two miniature military weapons in one hand, and in the other two vessels, like those used in sacrificial ceremonies on some state occasions. After a few moments he laid these articles down, and took up a seal. After this he pnid no attention to the other playthings before liini. Now, mark the result — this lad became a chancellor of the Empire T^ Every month or two during the entire period of childhood some important ceremony is observed by the family, and e.specially if the child is sick or does not thrive; all sorts of superstitious performances are resorted to, — since the real science of medicine is unknown among the Chinese, — in which the priests contrive to have a prominent part, and expect a corresponding reward. On all these occasions the child, whether boy or girl, is made to worship the gods in a certain prescribed manner, usually by mov- ing its hands up and down a few times. Every respectably trained Chinese child is taught from its earliest infancy to worship idols, and to pray and offer sacrifices before the tablets of its ancestors.* *For exact knowledge upon some of tlie above points I am xn- ilebted to Doolittle's "Social Life of tlie Chinese." S8 Women of the Orient. IN INDIA. In no other country on the face of the globe is there so much genuine anxiety on the approach of child-birth as in India, for in no other land does so much depend on the expected child being a boy rather than a girl. Mothers are sometimes almost crazed with fear, that their child may be a daughter. The female infant is, in every sense, an intruder, with no moral claim upon parental affection. In all Hindoo families, in easy or affluent circumstances, a room is set apart as the birth-chamber. To this apartment each expectant mother repairs as her hour of anxiety and sorrow approaches. Over the main entrance to the female apartments the painted skull of a sacred cow is often placed at such a time, to ward off evil influences, to facilitate delivery, and to increase the chances for a male child. This birth- chamber is quite generally a small shed, used for stabling the family cow, and the floor is raised a step or two above the ground. It is always in what is known as the woman's court. When a woman takes possession of these quar- ters a mat is stretched across to separate her from the cow, and a bed is prepared by spreading a mat upon the well-swept cement floor. Even in high caste and wealthy families, every child must be born in this place; and there mother and child must remain until the child is twenty-eight days old, when they may be removed to the mother's own room above. In the meantime no person of the same oi higher caste must touch the mother, not even her Birth. 59 own nearest relatives. No matter how sick she may be, or how much she may suffer, no kind hand is permitted to stroke her throbbing temples, or per- form any little offices of affection for her. Her food, and all she may need to make her compara- tively comfortable, is brought to her by some poor coolie woman employed for the purpose. If the child is a girl, or dies in a few days, it is hardly thought worth while to provide even this one attend- ant, and food is brought to the polluted mother upon a plantain leaf (which can afterward be thrown away as defiled), and laid within reach by some female member of the household. All the time a fire of charcoal or buffalo-dung is kept burning in the shed, no matter how hot the weather is. Of course, poor women of the lower castes do not receive any such attentions as these; and, as a con- sequence, child-birth is not so serious a matter with them. Two or three days' absence from work is usually all that is required. Religious worship is not an occasional act with a zealous Hindoo, but is a part of every thing he does, and, of course, must be an integrant part of the care and training of his children during the first few months and years of their life. A father is per- mitted to see a son when he is ten days old, but he can not look upon a female child until she is twenty-eight days old. On the birth of son (and sometimes on the birth of a daughter, if the parents are wealthy) an astrologer is cons'ulted, and paid for casting the child's horoscope, and writing out his prediction in regard to the future. When it is 6o Women of the Orient. removed to the mother's upper room the child is given a name. When it is six months old a cere- mony is performed called "averting the evil eye." At three years of age the child has its head shaved and its ears bored. Shortly after this, if a boy, he is laught the alphabet, and so on, the ceremonies seeming to multiply until — if a Brahmin, that is, of the priestly caste-^^he is invested with the sacred thread about his left shoulder, as the badge of his order; which rite is performed at. about fourteen years of age, on the day the astrologers appoint. At each one of these ceremonies, two or more Brahmins officiate, and are liberally paid, besides finally appropriating all the food and other costly offerings made to the family gods. The feasts, to which many friends are invited, are often very ex- pensive, and always impose much hard labor upon the various wives of the estabhshment, since caste laws require that all food and sweetmeats must be prepared by their hands. Chapter III. INFANTICIDE. n ' N the Orient a female child may be permitted to live for various reasons, among which are the fol- lowing, some of which apply more particularly to China : First. There may be a prospect of her being useful as a laborer in the fields or upon the boats, if her parents belong to the working class. Second. The father may have an opportunity to betroth her to the son of an acquaintance, so that there is no danger of the family being disgraced by her remaining unmarried ; and, if it be in China, he will be reimbursed for the expense of rearing the child. In those sections where infanti- cide is most common, males usually predominate; and it is often difficult for parents to secure proper wives for their sons; they will, therefore, make a bargain with a family into which a daughter has just been born, for a certain consideration, to spare her life and pledge her to their son. In such cases the little girls are often taken from their parents at a very early age, to be trained up in the families of their betrothed husbands until they are married. 6i 62 Women of tHE ORTENt. Third. She may be the first child born to tlie parents, and, therefore, be not altogether unwelcome. If the family has been blessed with sons already, and they are in easy circumstances, one or two girls may be tolerated with patient resignation, or even loved after a fashion. Fourth. The father may be absent from home when the little girl is born, and the mother's natural affection for her offspring may lead her to bear the curses of her relatives and neighbors for bringing another "useless mouth" where there is not food enough for those who can work to earn it, and to spare its life. When the father returns, he finds that the fates are against him; he is powerless, for it would be — at least in China — a great crime to kill a child when one or more days old. Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, of Foochow, relates: " The other day my nurse remarked to me, ' I am the largest of six sisters' I looked at her in utter Hmazement, and exclaimed : 'Six sisters! I never heard of such a number in a Chinese family. I did n't suppose there was a family in the Empire so afflicted. How is it?' She laughingly explnined how her father worked away from home, and never happened to be at home when the girls were born ; ' and,' said she, 'my mother loved them, and couldn't endure to kill them. When my father came home he would fly into a great rage, and say, ' What, another giil ; so many already, and still an- other!' Then he would scold my mother dreadfully, and ask her how she dared to have girls. But mother did n't care, and saved the little girls all the same, and he did n't dare kill them when several days old. So there are six girls of us and one boy, and all are living.' " This mother comes heie sometimes to see her daughter. She is a poor, bent, homely old woman, but to me she is al- most beautiful, for I know that this dreadful heathenism has tNFANTICibB. 63 not been able to crush out utterly the tender, loving nature; and I see in her that true moral courage that dared to defy custom, and her husband's wrath and hatred. Yet so sad is the life of a heathen woman that I often feel that this dreadful crime of infanticide is overruled for good to the little ones thus liurried out of the world." Lastly. Revolting as it may seem, the father may sell his little daughter, to be taken from her mother at a suitable age, and trained up to a life of shame, which is a common custom. Men and women, whose business it is to recruit the dens of licentiousness which abound in every city, are always on the watch to purchase infants where parents are willing to sell, in which case all track and trace of the child is, of course, at once lost. Sometimes female children are sold or given away to traders, who in turn dispose of them as best they can, and for any purpose. Miss A. M. Fielde, of Swatow, writes: " Some months ago, in walking near a neighboring village, I met a man carrying two large covered baskets on the ends of a pole over his shoulder. Cries were issuing from the baskets, and I made him stop and let me see what was in them. There were three babies, one in one basket, and two in the other, all lying on their backs, blue with cold, and hungry and crying with all their small might. The man was a baby-merchant, and had taken out six in the morning to sell, and, having dis- posed of half his stock, was returning home at nightfall with the remainder. He said if I would take them all, he would sell me the lot very cheap. I suppose he would have considered a dollar apiece a sufficient compensation." If none of these reasons make it desirable that the child should live, in very many cases she is im- mediately put out of existence. Fathers especially believe themselves to be per forming a praiseworthy act in quietly suppressing f>/\ Women of the Orient. existence at its threshold; and the tales that are related to missionaries by the mothers whose confi- dence they gain, are of the most horrible character, abundantly confirming their worst suspicions as to ^the existence of this custom almost throughout the entire Orient. PREVALENCE OF THE CRIME. Some writers on China and India are decided in the opinion that infanticide prevails to a frightful degree throughout the whole extent of both em- pires. From the numerous facts I was able to gather while in these countries, I am of the opinion that, although instances of this crime may be found in every part of China and India, still as a prevailing custom it exists only in certain provinces. I am satisfied that in the north of China infanti- cide is not generally practiced. Careful investiga- tions have been made in and about Canton, and the conclusion is reached that in that province it is comparatively rare, and is almost unanimously disap- proved of by the inhabitants, although not officially noticed by the government. On the other hand, at Amoy, Swatow, and Foochow, and in other mar- itime provinces, investigation has disclosed the exist- ence of this crime to a fearful extent among all classes of people. The lady above quoted says: "Of ten women now learning to read in my Bible- class at Swatow, five have among them destroyed twelve daughters, and five have destroyed none be- cause they have each borne less than three." This was before they became Christians, of course. It is Infanticide. 65 confidently stated by American residents at Amoy that an average of about forty per cent of all girls born in that province are murdered. In one village on Amoy Island an American gentleman found from the statements of the inhabitants, freely made, that more than one-half of the girl^ were destroyed at birth. This was corroborated by the numerical ine- quality of the sexes. I am fully persuaded that infanticide prevails in the Fuh-kien province to a greater extent than in any other part of China. Missionaries, with whom I am personally acquainted, give ample testimony in support of that opinion. One lady questioned a native woman in her employ as to the commonness of the crime, and was told that "in the rural vil- lages there is scarcely a house in which one or more girls have not been destroyed." The woman said that one of her near neighbors out of a family of seven daughters had destroyed five. She herself, she said, had not committed the cruel deed, though she had borne three daughters and one son; the son was alive, but the demons (query, mid wives?) had carried off all the girls. * Miss Beulah Woolston, who has had an exten- sive experience in mission life, and is an accurate observer of Chinese manners and customs in and about Foochow, says, in speaking of a recent visit to the .soa-coast: "We went out Monday after dinner to the rocks near the sea. Three women came and entered into conversation. «Maclay's "Life Among the Chinese," page 347. 66 Women of the OribnT. '"In your country, when people have more girls than they want, what do they do with them, drown them?' "'No; never!' "One of them said, 'I have had eleven girls— we saved one and killed ten — and three boys.' '"How terribly wicked! You have drowned ten girls and three boys!' " 'No, not the boys. If we should have a hundred boys we would save them all.' " 'And why do you not save the girls?' "'We have nothing for them to eat and notliing for them to wear. We don't want them. We drown them.' "Another said, 'Shall we let them starve to death or "chill to death?" It is Ijetter to drown them.' "They say all this with as much indifference as though they were talking about destroying a rat. At another time a woman made us a ciiU, and, in speaking of her children, said she had had four girls, but had given lliem all away. She really seemed to have some feeling about it, and proceeded to descrilje the process of drowning their girl babies, ending witli, 'We put them in a bucket, and when the water is poured in they strug- gle so in the water!' " Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, who has made this a special subject of investigation, and was able to give me much exact information, says: "The moment it is discovered that a female child has en- tered the world, the cry goes forth, 'It is a giil! be quick, Ijring the water and drown it!' Sometimes the murderer does not even talce the trouble to see that there is sufficient water to quickly end tlie tragedy, but casts the innocent little babe into a tub in which there is so little water lliat its death struggles are prolonged for hours. I have been in the habit for some years of asking the women, as I met them on the hill and in the ■ country, about their children, and almost all of them that have had girls will tell me that they have drowned one, two, or three." When in conversation with the natives of Foo- chow upon this subject, I found that they unhesitat- ingly admitted the prevalence of infanticide in that Infanticide. 67 province. One man in the employ of an American merchant, said his brother had destroyed seven out of nine children born to him, one of the survivors being a boy. A native Christian preacher told me tliat among the farmers of that region at least one- half of the girls born are immediately put out of the way; and "that even among the wealthy this kind of murder is quite generally practiced, especi- ally after they have already spared the number of girls they are willing to rear. Notwithstanding the terrible facts above stated, the actual proportion of girls destroyed to the en tire female population of China is, of course, very small, and has been often unwarrantably exaggerated. Turning now to India, we find the destruction of female infants to be "an ancient, systematic, and prevalent crime among the Hindoos." Down to the year 1802 there was no law against this crime, and it was very extensively practiced; in some parts of the empire the murder rate running as high as seventy per cent of all the females born. Since 1802 British law has prohibited the practice and made it punishable with deatli; and as gradually British authority has been spreading on the penin- sula, and now the entire empire is under the control of the English governor-general, no doubt the extent of the crime has been greatly lessened. Still there are the very best of reasons for believing that infant- icide is now practiced in all parts of British India. During the year 1871 the Friend of India gave numerous extracts from reliable government docu- ments on this subject. Some of these were collected 6 68 Women of the Orient. bj- Rev. P. T. Wilson. Mr. Hobart, joint-magistrate of Bustee in 1868, wrote: "I believe that the returns of one hundred and eighty cer- tainly of the two hundred and sixteen villages visited are as correct; with regard^to numbers and age, as they possibly can be. Nearly all spoke of the crime as one of the past; I regret that I can not think the crime obselete, or eyen diminished. It is practiced with greater secrecy, perhaps, but it is certainly extensively practiced. "The Soorujbunses of the, Rharut Dwaj clan are the high- est caste of Rajpoots in the district, and are the most addicted to infanticide. They are very numerous, and live mainly in Perqunnah Amorha. They have two great divisions, entitled Baboos and Koours. The former is of higher rank, and is subdivided into sixteen families, inhabiting fifty villages, and the latter is subdivided into four families, inhabiting sixty-six villages. The Rajah of Amorha was the head of the tribe. Of these villages, ninety-nine were visited, and no less than eighty-six found suspicious. The Baboos of Khudawur Kalan live in ten villages, in seven of vvliicb I found one hundred and four boys and one girl, who, luckily for herself, was born and bred at the house of her mother's family, and who has not been permitted to come to her father's house. Their other villages are said to contain two girls. They admit that for ten years there has been but one girl married in all those villages. They have been always an unfeeling sect. Their villages are notorious for Suttee monuments, and their tanks are said to be deep with infants' bones.' "Next came the Baboos of Nagpore, who live in twenty- seven villages. In the nineteen visited, I found two hundred and ten boys and forty-three girls. In fifteen of the villages no marriage of a girl had taken place for a decade. In their three remaining villages, there would appear to be three girls. "The Baboos of Rumgurh live in sixteen villages. In the nine villages visited, I found seventy-one boys and seveji girls. In four of these no girls exist, and in seven no girl has been married for at least ten years. "The Baboos of Purtahgurh live in five villages. In the two visited, I found thirty-one boys and one girl. One girl is said to exist in their other three villages. The Baboos of Infanticide. 69 Asogpoor preserve tlieir old reputation. They have twenty boys and no gills; and no girl has ever been married from among them, or Icnown in their village. "Nearly all the families of the Baboos and Kooiirs practice the crime. The former are perhaps more addicted to it; but tlie Luchmunpore Koours, of Luchmunpore, form an honor- able exception. They have in their village twenty boys to twenty-one girls. The Baboos of Koodrukee are also a worthy exception. "The Tliakoors of Poorah IVlnrnah Zillah Fyz.ib.id are a large element in the Soorujbuns clan in Amorha, and are en- tirely unconnected with the former class. They live in forty- one villages, of wliich seventeen were examined, and one hundred and fifty-four boys and fifty-four girls found therein. In eight of their villages a marriage has not taken place for ten years. This clan is not so addicted to the practice, but some of tlieir villages are very bad. In six of them tliere are seventy-six boys and only seven girls. It was with regard to Aodeypoor, one of these, that Ramjeeawun Pundit (a man who is much respected, and was rewarded for loyalty) said to me, 'I have lived near the place, as boy and man, close on eighty years, and I never saw a marriage in it.' " Rev. W. A. Gladwin, of Cawnpore, says: "In some sections more directly under English dominion, the practice is so carefully watched that it can not be performed at the time of birth, but the little ones are allowed to live for several weeks or months for a fit opportunity for murder. In more remote sections the dark deeds can be more easily ac- complished. But it must be done, and the girls must certainly be disposed of, sooner or later, according to the inexorable laws of the caste. "I am officially informed that in the Bustee district, two Thakoor towns, canvassed in the recent census, reported the first, — one hundred and thirty boys and two girls, and the other about two hundred boys and no girls. In the Thakoor villages about Cawnpore there is but from three to five per cent of girls among the children and youth. Judge Halsey, of this city, in an official statement to the government, says that in the Cawn- pore district two hundred and sixty-one villages are red-handed with blood, the girls all being murdered. And he recommends 70 Women -OF the Orient. that, in one hundred and sixty of them, an extra police shouli be stationed. The civil surgeon of the district informs me that, during this Summer, he has held an average of twenty-eight post-mortems monthly, of which ninety per cent were upon the bodies of female infiints murdered by their parents, as nearly as can be ascertained." My highly esteemed friend, Rev. J. T. Gracey, wrote in 1870: "It is popularly understood tliat the British Government in India proliibits infanticide, and, so far as the statute and some general oversight avails, it does. But it can scarcely extend its prosecutions to all cases of studied neglect and ex- posure resulting in disease and death. "A recent census discovered the fact that, in the city of Umritsur alone, witliin a year, some three hundred children had been stolen by wolves. Now, it so happens that the wolves will steal children. Tliey recently entered the enclosure of a Mission Orphanage at Cawnpore and took away three children. They do not always destroy them, but they will steal them. "The reniaikable thing about tlie Umritsur case, however, was, tliat of the tliree hundred children said to have been stolen within the year, all were girls. "Thus the Britisli Government does prohibit female in- fanticide in India, but it can not well assume to prevent such an exhibition of good taste as this on the part of the wolves. "The suljterfuge may be a shallow one, but it is only one of a thousand, and merely illustrates the impracticability of reaching such evils by politics and police. Our missionary women, with their Zenana and bazaar schools, have the only real remedy for this, as of other evils of 'the habitation.-) of cruelty.' " All classes and conditions are guilty of the crime, but it especially prevails among the higher castes, such as the Rajpoots, etc. The infernal custom has become so rooted and grounded in the social life of India that the people seem to have no conscience in the matter, and, Infanticide. 71 unlike China, the mothers themselves are usually the murderers ; and they will even defend their acts by claiming the divine sanction, quoting or per- haps, rather, misquoting their sacred books for their authority. As the result of careful inquiry while in India, I am morally certain that, at the very lowest estimate admissible, fully one-third of the girls born among the natives of that country are still secretly mur- dered, seeming to say during the brief hour of their existence : "To the all-engulfing tomb Quick I hastened from the womb ; Scarce the dawn of life began, Ere I measured out my span. I no smiling pleasiiies knew ; I no gay delights could view; Joyless sojourner was I, Only born to weep and di'E." METHODS EMPLOYED. The methods employed are various. In China, the child is often thrown out by the highwayside, where it quickly falls a prey to cold or starvation or the dogs. Another and most common method is by drowning in a tub of water. Sometimes the child is thrown into a running stream, or even buried alive. The father is almost invariably the executioner. The mother's heart often clings to her helpless offspring, and she pleads that the babe may be given away rather than destroyed ; but quite commonly the parents are agreed in the opinion that it is better to destroy it than to resign it to a Hfe of poverty or infamy. 72 Women of the Orient. Sometimes the mother manifests a sincere sorrow ■at the loss of her children, as will be seen by the following incident related by Mrs. Baldwin: "There came a time of sonow and darkness to us in our home. Our precious htlle May was taken out of oui' arms suddenly, unexpectedly. The sunlight seemed gone, and for a time clouds and darkness surrounded me. I was sitting one day sewing, and oh, so heavy-hearted the sighs would come, and comfort came not near. long Chuo, a woman who had been employed by one of our number, and was now aljout to return to her home, came into the room where I was sitting to bid me good-by. I hardly noticed her coming in at first. She sat down, and, putting her hand on her heart, drew a long, heavy sigh, and said: ' Sing-Seng-Niong (teaclier's wife), I know just how you feel; I know all about it.' By this time she had secured my attention, and proceeded to tell me hei afiBictions; and oh, how did my burden of sorrow grow hglit in comparison with that of the poor, ignorant, yet tender-hearteil and loving woman before me. 'Yes,' s:iid she, 'I know all about it. I was married, and our first child was a girl. Oh, how I loved it as soon as born! It was large and beautiful;' and she described with all a mother's pride this little first-born. 'But,' said she, 'it was a girl, and my husband said it must die. He went after ii tub of water immediately; he put it down on the floor in my room, and then he took my babe, my little girl. I begged and cried, besought him not to drown it. I told him it might grow up and become a wife, and he could get money for her. But no, he would not hear; he took it. and plunged its little head into the tub of water.' "Think of it, ye mothers who know the weakness of those first hours after another life has been added to yours; think of that being done before that tender mothers eyes, for she had a tender mother's heart. I could in very pity almost wish she had not! Once the father pushed the little head down into the water and, said she, 'I heard the water gurgling in its throat. I shut my eyes and stopped my ears, but still I heard— twice, thrice he pushed the head down, and then all was still." The little spirit had gone to God; Satan had overstepped the mark I Safe from every taint of sin, from the degradation of heathen- i-sm, these little ones go straight to heaven, and are saved from Infanticide. 73 Satan. 'And,' said this poor lieathen woman, 'anotlier child <^me. Oh, I prayed for a boy! I made my offerings to tlie mother god for a son, but again it was a girl; again the tub of water was brought, and again tlie little one was destroyed by its father's hands. A third time a little one was given to me, and oh, joy, it was a son, and my husband was so pleased and I so happy. He was a beautiful boy, and lived to be so ijig' (showing with her hands) ; "and then he died, and soon after my husband died, and I cry nearly all the tinte ; that is the reason my eyes are so sore.' When she had finished her sad story I said: 'Where are your children nov,-? 'Buried in the earth,' she replied. Then I told lier of Christ the Savior, and that her babes were all with him in a beautiful, happy land, and that she could go to them if she would repent of sin, believe in Christ, and do all the good she could. I wish you could have seen the eagerness with which that poor creature caught these words. She fairly clutched at them, exclaiming, ' I go to my children; does the Sing-Seng-Niong say that?' I assured her she might, and she bade me good-bye, saying, 'These are com- forting words. I will remember them.' " In India, a skillful pressure on the neck or a small pill of opium will quietly accomplish the pur- pose. Or the mother, while nursing the child, will apply a sufficient quantity of opium to the nipple of her breast to put the child to sleep forever. Sometimes the child will be overfed with milk, and gorged until it sickens and dies. Often a strong piece of cloth is bound tightly around the chest, so that the lungs are unable to perform their office. Again, tobacco poison is administered, or the infant is thrown into the river, or abandoned in the jungle where wild, beasts quickly do their work. Twice, while walking by the Ganges, in Cawn- pore and Allahabad, I saw the body of a female in- fant being devoured by the adjutant birds, which act as scavengers in that country. Occasionally I heard 74 Women of the Orient. of instances where female children were buried alive, as a method of death quite likely to insure the birth of a son on the next occasion. One instance is related as occuring in Bareilly, where a little girl- baby was found in the Christian cemetery, buried in the earth with only its mouth uncovered. It was rescued by the kind missionaries, and taught to nurse a she goat, by which means It was raised, and afterward trained in the girls' orphanage of that city. SPOKEN OF WITH LEVITY. Chinese women, especially, converse with levity or indifference on the subject of female infanticide, as an every-day and unimportant affair. When men and women alike are seriously conversed with on the subject they will often admit that it is contrary to reason, „and does violence to nature ; and yet they will boldly and persistently defend it as necessary. Missionaries testify that they rarely meet with moth- ers or fathers that show the slightest sorrow for the loss of their girls. They frequently manifest the greatest amazement and amusement at the horror expressed by foreigners when they admit the com- monness of this infernal crime. "Indeed," say they, "why should one feel sad for drowning a girl just born ! If it lives we have n't rice and clothing for it." The Chinese are an extremely shrewd and intelligent race; and when conversing with educated native gentlemen on this subject, and arguing against the practice of infanticide, I have several times been told, with a triumphant toss of the head, "Oui custom is not so bad as your American custom of Infanticide. 75 ante-natal murder, for that practice involves the destruction of as many boys as girls, and to kill a boy is one of the very worst of crimes." REASONS FOR THE PRACTICE. Many reasons are assigned for this unnatural custom, some of which are valid, while others are plainly fanciful. We can not, I think, intelligently and truthfully claim that the Orientals are naturally more hard-hearted or cruel than their Western neigh- bors. Human nature is essentially the same the world over, and its tenderest attributes can no more be uprooted in one land than in another. Heathen fathers and mothers love their children ; but the* necessities of their situation and the corrupting influ- ences of their heathenism seem to so change their methods of thought, and so pervert and deform their moral natures, that the systematic commission of this crime becomes possible. In India the relig- ious element enters largely into the practice. There are good reasons for believing that many children are still destroyed by the Hindoos in fulfillment of vows to the gods; vows made in sickness, or by childless wives, who promise Kali that if she will grant them children the first one born shall be sacri- ficed at her shrine; and I found it the general belief of the missionaries that this kind of child- murder still prevails to a considerable extent. In- deed, numerous instances are annually recorded where, under the importunity of the priests, who are zealous to maintain their ancient customs, mothers are driven to cast their babes into the embrace of 70 IV OMEN OF THE ORIENT. Mother Ganges, where ugly alligators quickly end the tragedy. In China, however, it is certain that neither Con- fucianism, Tauism, nor Buddhism teach or sanction infanticide. It is not practiced to propitiate the gods or demons, nor do the natives expect to reap any spiritual advantage whatever from it. Almost the only reason assigned by the Chinese for destroying their female children is the expense and trouble of rearing such useless beings, who quite generally "cost more than they come to," even when dis- posed of in marriage to the very best advantage. The motives seem to be purely parsimonious, except 'among the extremely poor, who claim that they are compelled to choose between this and starvation. In the most thickly populated parts of China the demand for the most nourishing food is certainly greater than the supply, and "human life is cheaper than human provender." For reasons already men- tioned, a soa must be permitted to live; but, these people argue, where one more mouth to fill is really a calamity, a useless girl can scarcely be permitted to be the means of putting all the rest on short rations. From some provinces large numbers of coolies, or laboring men, emigrate to other countries, where work is more plenty and workmen are better paid, and they never return. This causes a surplus oi females, since respectable Chinese women rarely, if ever, leave their own shores. The chances for a respectable marriage are, therefore, greatly decreased, and for this reason parents consider it necessary to kill their girls. Infanticide. 77 In India, the single word caste is a sufficient explanation for much of the infanticide practiced. It becomes impossible to provide for more than a prescribed number of girls in what is regarded as honorable marriage, and death is preferable to the prospective disgrace of remaining unmarried. Many of the high-caste Hindoos are very poor, and, as custom demands a large expenditure of money in religious ceremonies and feasts at the marriage of a daughter, to permit more than one girl to survive in a family is deemed impossible. The British Gov- ernment is no doubt on the alert, but it can not, from the very nature of the case, very materially lessen the evil. Leaving the occasional religious motives among the Hindoos out of the account, the reasons for this inhuman practice may be thu.s condensed: so low is the estimate put upon woman's life and happiness throughout tljie Orient, that suffer- ing a female child to live, or destroying it at birth, becomes a mere question of paternal convenience. FOUNDLING ASYLUMS IN CHINA. Female foundling asylums are found in almost every Chinese city with which foreigners are at all familiar. They are established as a meritorious act by wealthy persons, and are usually endowed with a permanent fund, or with lands donated for the purpose. To these establishments female infants are brought by parents who are too poor to support them, and yet have not the courage or the heartless- ness to destroy them. These asylums are almost entirely occupied b_v 78 IVOMEN OF THE ORIENT. female children born in wedlock, — for the percentage of illegitimate births is extremely small in China, — and from them poor men can secure wives for their sons at a greatly reduced rate. If there is no room in the always crowded asylum, tender-hearted par- ents will often take their girls to Buddhist nunneries, where a limited number are received. The Roman Catholics also easily increase the number of their adherents by adopting these waifs, and training them up in their convents, or as wives for their native male proselytes. _ THE PRACTICE CONDEMNED. The teachings of Chinese moralists, and of the literati in general, seem to condemn infanticide. At the time of the literary examinations speeches are madcj and books are distributed among the people and huge placards ace posted about the streets, all denouncing in emphatic words the great crime of infanticide. The priests insist upon it that terrible punishments in the future world await all who persist in this sin. In a certain temple in Shanghai, where the sufferings of the finally damned are depicted with great minuteness by grotesque but skillfully made figures in wax and clay, we found a considerable space set apart for the representation of the agony of those parents who have been guilty of the crime of child-murder, and are being changed into snakes and other monsters, and to whom the jubilant demons are paying especial attention. But the Chinese are a hard people to frighten in that way, and the "slaughter of the innocents "still goes on. Infant/cids. 79 A few English and Amerfcan residents in India are of the opinion that there infanticide has largely abated during the past few years; but I found the general and positive belief of the great majority to be that it prevails almost as extensively as ever. To be sure, the British Government is bent on its suppression, and to all outward appearance is suc- cessful in persuading many native chiefs and gentle- men to profess to abandon and discountenance it; but an ubiquitous police can not be established, and the practice is still secretly maintained. CHILDREN'S FUNERALS UNKNOWN. Among the Chinese, and, so far as I can learn, among the Hindoos, children's funerals are utterly unknown. A sick child will be tenderly cared for, but when dead it is regarded as a vile and hateful thing. No parent looks forward to a happy reunion with the sweet and innocent child that has been removed from the family circle by death. Among their other absurdities. Buddhism and Hindooism teach that, through the mutations of transmigration, children who sicken and die are probably enemies of the family, or creditors who, in a former existence, were unable to collect their dues from the family, and so have been born into the household, and have stayed long enough to get the full equivalent of the debt, principal and interest, in the trouble and expense they have caused, and for which they have left nothing to show but disappointment and mortification. The little body, if in China, is rolled in a mat or a piece of cloth, and handed to a 8o Women of the Orient. Infanticide. 8i stranger, who either buries it in some unmarked spot or casts it out by the wayside, to shock the unaccustomed traveler while it is being devoured by the dogs, or throws it into what foreigners call a "Baby Tower." This is simply a small enclosure surrounded by a high wall, built by some benevolent person, and into which dead children are tossed and left to decay. The first one of these I encountered I was curious to peer into by the aid of my chair- bearers, who carried me up to the wall, I not know- ing the use to which the structure was put; but one glance into the horrid charnal-house was quite enough, and ever after I gave such institutions a wide berth. When the little body leaves the door of the home, every, trace of, the child's existence is industriously removed. Its name is no longer mentioned ; the tracks of the coolie who carried it away are carefully obliterated; some member of the family smites the threshold with a knife, representing the fact that every tie that once bound the little one to the house- hold is now severed; the house is thoroughly swept; fire-crackers are exploded and gongs are beaten, and all manner of noise is made to frighten away the little spirit forever. Thus does heathen superstition pursue its victims even after death. Chapter IV. EDUCATION. MOST Oriental nations boast of their culture, but, practically, all education in any way worthy the name is confined to the male sex. Women, with the rarest exceptions, are denied even the first rudiments of learning. The Eastern mind is eminently quick and subtle, and women as well as men are endowed, with strong natural intelli- gence; but the only knowledge within their reach is either too insignificant to satisfy the mind, or too absurd to raise it above the level of quick-witted childhood. Females are regarded as an inferior order of be- ings, and in the matter of education, as in all other respects, are treated accordingly. Almost every- where throughout the East any departure from these ancient customs is regarded with a jealous eye, and any thing looking toward the mental elevation of the sex is bitterly opposed by all right-minded hus- bands and fathers. The prevailing sentiment was well expressed by a Hindoo Baboo in Benares, who replied to one of my questions on this point: "We have trouble enough with our women now; and if we were to educate them, we should not be able to manage them at all." Education. 83 FEMALE EDUCATION IN JAPAN. The Japanese are more liberal in their entire treatment of women than are other Orientals, and, to a certain extent, may be said to form an excep- tion to the above statements. The Japanese girl literally passes by an immediate transition from her doll to her child; but during the few years that precede her marriage she not only enjoys considera- ble personal free- dom but receives a little education, such as it is. In " Old Japan " the early education of boys and girls of the middle and lower classes was left to par- ents or private tutors; and after a few years, the boys were trans- ferred to the gov- ernment schools. In more mod- ern times chil- dren of both sexes, and of all ranks, have been almost invariably sent to the primary schools throughout the country, where they are taught to read and write, with some knowledge of accounts. As a consequence, it is a A JAPANESE GIRL. 84 Women of the Orient. fact that nearly the whole adult population of the empire can read, write, and calculate. This is re- garded as a suiificiently liberal education for the lower orders. The boys and girls of the nobility, and the Samurai, or two-sworded class, however, pass on to government schools of a superior grade, where they are carefully instructed in general literature, in morals, and manners. The Japanese have reduced etiquette to a comprehensive science, and the chil- dren of these schools are trained in the minutest laws of good breeding as connected with all the associations of life from the domestic circle up to the forms and ceremonies of the Imperial Court. To this is added a most thorough knowledge of the almanac, by which marriaige, journeys, feasts, and all other important affairs are controlled; for it would be regarded as both vulgar and disastrous to pro- ceed in any of these matters upon an unlucky day. Girls are taught housekeeping, common needle-work, with all kinds of • ornamental work, and any thing else that is considered useful to them as mothers and mistresses of families. In fancy embroidery the Japanese ladies are scarcely equalled in the world, and the entire nation is noted for politeness and agreeable manners. Within a few years past the Japanese Govern- ment has established schools of a high grade, under the management of English and American teachers, where the English language and the various sciences are taught to boys of the higher classes who are destined for positions under the government. When Education. * 85 visiting these schools in 1873, I looked in vain among the pupils for a sprinkling, at least, of females. The boys are remarkably bright and pro- ficient as students, and I w^as curious to see how girls would compare vi^ith them under the same fostering influences; but I was informed that the government could see no reason why even the daughters of the aristocracy should be educated beyond the immediate demands of their position. Since then this view has been considerably mod- ified, and the mikado, or emperor, has adopted a more liberal policy. The empress has recently estab- lished a normal school for girls at Yeddo, which is conducted by American teachers, and is under the especial patronage of her majesty. Other schools of this character are projected, if not actually estab- lished at other great centers of the empire. Many lady missionaries are employed as teachers by the government. The government is thoroughly in ear- nest, and has recently sent to this country a num- ber of Japanese young ladies of high rank, who are securing an education in Washington and other cities. Their capacity for advanced mental training is fully established by their high standing in their classes and the fact that several of them have al- ready carried off first prizes in competition with American girls of their own age. This is certainly a long step in advance, and will no doubt result in placing girls throughout the em- pire on an equal footing with- boys as regards the privileges of education ; and, as the next step, their social equality before the law can not long be denied. 86 Women of run Orient. FEMALE EDUCATION IN CHINA. When a Chinese female child escapes the terrible dangers surrounding her at birth, and is fairly en- tered upon the race for life, natural affection prompts the mother to care for her as well as she can. She receives her share of food, is decently clothed, and, if of the common class, as soon as her age permits, she is taught to spin and 5- weave and sew I after a fashion, and I cook rice, and care for the younger children of the fam- ily. After a few years have passed I she must be trained for a field hand, or a boat woman. Her lot is henceforth a hard one; for she must dig in the soil, or tug at the oar, or stagger along the highway under burdens out of all proportion to her strength. Her training is most effective, and it is not long before she can jostle and scold and shout and swear with . the roughest and rudest, in the crowded thoroughfares of the land. If she is the daughter of a literatus, or a govern- ment official, or a man of wealth, she must, of A CHINESE GIRL. Education. 87 course, be trained for a lady. She is to be, virtually, a prisoner for life, but she must be a well-trained and well-dressed prisoner; and, although destined for a life of idleness, or at best of frivolous occu pation, she must be taught how to bear the curse in strict accordance with time-honored custom. Theoretically the general plan of education among the Chinese is very complete, although practically it is seldom, if ever, realized. Among the many man- uals for the guidance of parents and teachers in the training of children is the Siau Hioh, or "Juvenile Instructor," which gives the following directions: "Let fathers choose from among their concubines those who are fit for mii'ses, seeking such as are mild, indulgent, affectionate, benevolent, cheerful, kind, dignified, respectful, and reserved and careful in their conversation, and make them governesses over their children. When able to talk, lads must be instructed to answer in a quick, bold tone, and girls in a slow, gentle one. At the age of seven, they should be taught to count and name the cardinal points; but, at this age, should not be allowed to sit on the same mat nor eat at the same table. At eight, they must be taught to wait for their superiors, and prefer others to themselves. At ten, the boys must be sent abroad to private tutors, and there remain day and night, studying writing and arithmetic, wearing plain appaiel, learning to demean themselves in a manner becoming their age, and acting with sincerity of purpose. At thirteen, they must attend to music and poetry. At fifteen, they must practice archery and charioteering. At the age of twenty they are in due form to be admitted to the rank of manhood, and learn additional rules of propriety. At thirty they may marry and commence the management of business." During the early years of their home training, both boys and girls are supposed to be taught mor- als and manners, filial obedience, with rules of the toilet and customs of social Hfe. 88 Women op tub Orient. From an article in the Leisure Hour we make the following extracts: "The following m ;i ti;iiisl:ilioi] of one of tlic very few Cliincse woiUh t\i:<\^i,ni:<\ for the inslruclioji of women. The anlhor is a Liicly 'I'siiii (or, an sIji; prefers to style herself, 'Tsair l;i kii,' '(;r(.;il-:iiiiil Tsiiii'), the date of whose (-xistencc is lost in remote .iiiliiiiiity. It is plain Ih.it the wiitcr did not expect her work to be superseded liy others siiiled to niiiliire wonirnihood, or even to jidviineeil ;if;e, foi- she eanieH on her counsels step by slep to llie time when ihe (;iil wlioni she ;it first addiesses has jjeconic a grandniolher. Alllioirj;!) the iiilelleeliial training of the |iMpil is entirely omitted, and llie allii'iions to licr moral conduM but few, il (onlains, neveilln!- less, much ^;ood advice, and we can not Imt wish that il was accessible to a jjrealer number of China's dau^dilers. It is not the custom lo recite it for the benefit of llie uncdiic.ited, nor would it be understood if read alond to Ihein (excepiing the ea-iiest p:issa;,;es) ; it is, therefore, only liscfnl lo Ihe exireinely small pro|K)rlion of girls who learn lo read. The entire snb- jection of woman lo her male relalivi", and to Ihe family of lier husb.-ind may be seen ';n every page, and it is < liiefly on this accouni, as giving to a tlion(',li(ful mind a ijrealer ireii(;lil into the manneis of Chinese families than could be (gained from many long desciiptions, ihni it is presenled lo oirr ri-,\(\i:\^. It is well so far that the jiative books, unlike those of India, contain mure good llian evil; yet is the thonfdil a sad one that hundreds of ;;iiieralions of Chinese women have had no higher motive for well-doinj; set before them llian the opinion of (hi ir neighbors. " ''ITie Girls' Classic' is written in a regular meter, a verse of four lines arranged in two columns, the first and '.econd lines usually rhyming together. "TJIK girls' classic. "'This Girls' Classic is the instruction of a woman ; let the girls attend to it! '"Every day rise very early, at the fifth watch ; do not sleep until the sun is bright. With an old handk.rrchief cover up your hair; go quickly and sweep the veranda. If the women's house is clean, your father and mother will be pica ,e/l. Brunt, Education. 89 your hair briglil; wash your face clean; soon go into tlie liall and use your needle and tliread. Depict tlie peacock, einl^roider the plicenlx, work tlie mandaiin ducks. In your leisure time do not gossip; the sliorlcomings of the Chang family or of the Li fainily arc no business of mine Ylit., "tlie lon^js of tlie CliaiiK^ and the shorts of the Li "]. If women, my rel.ilioiis or lu-ighbors, ( ome to see us, I must receive them politely, and help In wait upon them; if they discuss the ii|)|)earance of my father's or mother's sisters, I must not join in the cojivc- rsation ; a girl must he rareful of her words. " ' III Ihe evening, if il is not moonlight, do not go out; if you must do so, do not j^o alone, but call a woman-servant to carry a lantern liefore you. Do not laugh loudly or call in a loud tone, lor fear your neighbors should hear. When you walk, iicillier skip nor jump; when standing, do not lean against the door. " 'At seven years old, copy grown-up people. Rise early and fold np your own clolhes. When you have brushed your hair and washed your bice, bind your feel, and do jiot go wandering about. " 'At eifdit and nine you are growing older; you should love your elder and younger brotheis, and share with them your lea, rice, wine, (U" meat; do not quarrel if your part is rather less than theirs. " 'At leii years old, do not idle .aboiit, but diligently make shoes or sew seams; eaily and laic sit with your mamma, and do not leave llic liouse without cause. " 'At eleven you arc grown up. Induslriously make the tea, boil the rice, and Till ii|) your s|)aic lime with embroidery; clearly set forth every leaf and flower. " 'At twelve and thirteen you should understand etiquette. Rise up to receive guesLs; do not treat your aunts impolitely. " 'At fourteen and filteeii, and up to twenty years of age, there are not many days for you to remain at home; and in that lime lliere arc many things for you lo do, for a girl must learn all she will have to do when married. " 'The lirst doctrine is, that you must obey. Heaven will know whelher you are obedient oi- not; the grace of your fallier and mother is as deep as heaven and earth; as long as I live 1 must be grateful to them. " 'The second good thing is, to respect your elder brother 90 Women of rHE Orient. and his wife. Let there be no quarrels in the family; a young girl must not be jealous of those who have money or influence; kindness is the most precious thing in the house. " ' The third important thing is, do not waste rice or flour ; be careful of the soy, vinegar, oil, and salt; in the day of plenty think of a day of want, that when that lime comes you may not have to beg. " ' The fourth good deed is, carefully to prepare the tea and rice, and to get food ready for your family and guests. " 'The fifth virtuous action, O daughter, attend to! Whether your clothes are new or old, let them be clean. If you are clean and active, who among your neighbors and relations will not respect you? " 'The sixth exhortation is, think not wrong thoughts; do not covet so much as a needleful of thread belonging to others. If you neglect your duty to speak against other people you will bring contempt upon your parents and brothers. " 'The seventh stringent rule is, you must be humble. The husband is to the wife what heaven is to earth. If the hen crows in the morning the house will not prosper, and those who look on will certainly say it is your fault. " 'The eighth thing a girl must mind, you must work unweariedly, so that the house may be kept in order. As n good son does not depend on his parents for support, so a good daughter will not depend only on her wedding-clothes, — that is, will work to earn others for herself. " 'The ninth regulation, — love purity. Who is not pleased with, a beautiful gem without a flaw ? In ancient limes women, fearless of death, preserved their honor with a heart firm as iron. " 'If Miss Chang or Miss Li, who are older than you, come to see you, be friendly to them; do not show your temper, and say things that may give offense. Why do you have your ears pierced ? Lest you should listen to every body's advice {liter- ally, "Usten to Chang and Li"]. Why do you wear ear-rings ? To remind you of this. " 'Why do you wear divided garments, — that is, skirts and jackets, — while men wear a long robe? Because a woman is not equal to her husband. You must give way to him in every thing, and not be like the hen that crows in the morn. " 'Why are your feet bound? Not because it looks well for Education. 91 lliem to be arched as a bow, but to prevent your constantly going out of the house-door; therefore, they have a thousand bandages and ten thousand wraps.' " r "! In China, — a land of books, such as they are, — not one female in a hundred can read; and even those who secure this accomplishment for the most part practice it just as many girls in our own land are taught to thrum a few tunes on the piano ; the entire process is forced and mechanical ; they read as a parrot would read, calling the characters, but often having no correct idea of their meaning. Even under the most favorable circumstances the entire education of a Chinese female is restricted to a hmited knowl- edge of cooking, — the higher departments of that necessary art being monopolized by the bakers and confectioners of the land, — and fancy dressing, to- gether with the most important forms of worship connected with the particular religion adopted by the family. Especially is she trained in the rules and customs pertaining to the marriage ceremony, in which she becomes a principal actor as soon as years and growth will possibly allow. Most boys of- all classes are taught in the private schools, established wherever there is a demand for them, but girls' schools are wholly unknown; and you ask even a wealthy man to send his daughter to school, or em- ploy a teacher for her in his own house, and he will reply: "It is of no use. In a few years she will be married, and belong to some other family; why should I waste my money or my time teaching her? It is no matter whether girls know any thing or not. They will bring no more money when sold in mar- ^,^ Women of 7///i Of^//'j.7 ristge on *oc'/ «-/ k" 'y -ift/Jge, are iiirfi Jate/i b;/ the pr^ti to tsl^re upon themselves the severe labor of a thorough mer^tai trairtn^ >r> ■^''J.v'v/-. to their :;•.>.•. y domestic fLit'u^^. Tuf, doctrines, fA "Wo-fteTi» Kight^i" are not altogeth^ unknown, even in Cldn^-., arvl I suspect that one :r,'.p-',rtaflt rca-ion why feT.'i;^,;^ ez-iucatt^yn is '^fA encouraged is tfiat the mer. sr-ss/iy find it extrcmdy diffirolt at ' -rr;^ to carry out in actual practice thdr Education. 93 peculiar ideas as to the inferiority of woman, and are, consequently, fearful that if the curse of ignoranci; were removed a recognition of her social rights must inevitably follow. All this, of course, would involve a change which no Chinaman, with a well regulated mind, could contemplate as even prospective with any other emotions save those of alarm and horror. Notwithstanding the correctness of the above state- ments, it is an anomalous fact that whenever Chinese women advance to high attainments in literature they are universally respected, and enthusiastically praised. The difficulties to be overcome are so numerous and so great that such successes are extremely rare ; but historians and the learned men of the nation will refer you, with great pride, to the scholarship of a few superior women who have graced the literary circles of their times, and the most popular novelists almost invariably represent their heroines as familiar with the learning of the schools, and skilled in writ- ing both poetry and prose. It can not be denied, also, that the writings of many distinguished Chinese scholars furnish ex- amples of correct notions in regard to female edu- cation. Some of them enlarge upon the importance of all girls in the upper classes, especially, being thoroughly educated as the future mothers of the nation's statesmen and rulers. They faithfully point out the many dangers resulting from female igno- rance, and even specify the particular branches of learning best calculated to fit women for their pecul- iar duties in life. All this looks well on paper, but superstitious custom makes it a dead letter, and 94 Women of the Orient. Chinese females, so far as any relief from their own countrymen is concerned, arc as far from the exer- cise of their God-given intellectual or moral rights as they have ever been. The only present hope for them is in foreign in- fluences as represented by the efforts of Protestant teachers in mission-schools; which efforts are certainly to some small degree encouraged by the fact that, in theory at least, the idea of female education is neither new nor distasteful to the best minds of the nation. EDUCATION OF HINDOO GIKLS. The education of a Hindoo girl is more elaborate than that of a Chinese maiden, and yet it falls far below any correct standard of mental or moral cul- ture. The Hindoo mother is the sole instructor of her daughter, and since she can teach no more thin she herself knows, the curriculum is very linjlkted, while the strict seclusion in which the better cTass of females live does not admit of its expansion. Judicious government of children is practically an unknown excellence in the families of India. Young children are allowed their own way in nearly every thing. The mother usually has the sole care of them; they are almost her only source of comfort and joy, bringing with them the little sunshine that falls across her life path; hence, .she dotes on her children. She does not puni.sh a boy, because he is of the superior sex, and she rarely can find it in her heart to punish a girl, because she knows but too well the sorrow that awaits her in the slavery of marriage, after the brief years of a comparatively Education. 9S A HINDOO GIKL. free childhood. Hindoo children, therefore, while they come to mature years with but little wholesome restraint, arc blessed with a most natural and fervent love for their mothers, a love which yields only to the inexorable laws of their cruel religion. In this love mothers have their compensation for many of the bitter hanlships of their lot. 96 Women of the Orient. Until about six years of age the only articles of dress commonly worn by Hindoo girls are a necklace, bracelets for the wrists, and bangles for the ankles. These are of gold or silver, or white metal, according to the wealth or liberality of the father. Whether in the house or on the street, of high or low caste, these articles usually constitute the entire wardrobe of a female infant. When five or six years of age a sarree is sometimes added. This is a long strip of cotton or linen cloth, or perhaps of silk or even thin India gauze, about a yard wide, and often orna- mented with a bright colored border. Except on rare occasions this is the only article of clothing worn by a girl before her marriage. It is fastened to the waist by a sash, one end enveloping the lower part of the form, and the other end gracefully thrown over the breast and head. This upper part is called the chuddah or veil; but is never used to cover the face until after marriage, and even then, if married at an early age, the face is not covered dur- ing the years the girl remains in her parental home. Before the English became dominant in India but few persons outside the Brahmin or priestly caste were taught to read or write; but for the past cen- tury or more the stimulus of prospective employ- ment by the government, or of money making in the various branches of foreign trade, has led all classes to seek for education, and in these latter years the thorough system of public schools, comprising village schools, seminaries, and even universities, all sup- ported by the British Government, places a fair education within the reach of the poorest. As a JiDUCATION. 97 result a very large number of the Baboos, or native gentlemen of India, are now quite liberally educated, speaking English fluently, ivhile some of the lower castes even aspire to respectable literary attainments. But there is no money, no civil or social advance- ment in female education; hence that important branch is still utterly neglected. No girls are found in the government schools, and until within a few years past no schools of any kind for girls could be found in all India. Even in the wealthiest families a girl receives no mental training. Reading and writing are for the most part regarded as not only unnecessary but positively hurtful. The idea that naturally women have as good minds as men, and that their minds should be elevated, has not yet dawned upon the average Hindoo understanding. The prevailing idea for centuries has been that the only way to keep woman manageable is to keep her ignorant. She is regarded as more beautiful because her mind is comparatively a blank, like the mere doll that she is even in her very best estate ; and one of the most popular poems of India expresses the commonly accepted sentiment that woman's orna- ment is to be a simpleton, utterly dependent upon her husband for all her ideas. When Dr. Caldwell, a very eminent missionary in Tinnevelly, was opening a girl's school, the peo- ple laughed, and one of them said: "Why, this missionary will teach the cows next;" and when Rev. J. Walton, an English missionary in India, was superintending the erection of a school bungalow for the girls and pupils in a certain village, an old 98 Women of the Orient. man came and remonstrated with him on his folly. "Why," said he, "if you teach the girls to read and write they will be writing love-letters to the men, and the country" will be turned upside down." Said a Hindoo father: "You may educate my sons, and open to them all the stores of knowledge, but my daughters you must not approach, however benevolent your designs. Their ignorance and seclu- sion are essential to the honor of my family — a con- sideration of far greater moment with me than any mental cultivation which I can estimate. They must be married at an age when your plans of education could scarcely commence." Sometimes a husband who is especially "fond of his wife and daughters will venture to teach them to read; but (unless he belong to the Brahm6 Somaj, a sect which has proclaimed its independ- ence of all superstitious and illiberal customs) it must be done on the sly, for if it becomes known he will never hear the last of it ; in fact, he will at once lose the good opinion of all his male acquaint- ances. In Lucknow I was told that a little more liberty is granted to native women of the better class in this matter than in other parts of India; and yet even here but few are taught to read, and a lady who can read and write is considered quite a superior person; and if in addition she possesses a slight knowledge of arithmetic and grammar, she is very learned indeed. When in Benares I was informed that a young Baboo of that city once determined to teach his intelligent wife, to whom he was strongly attached, Education. -95 to read and write. According to the prevailing custom they lived in the same house with the young man's parents and brothers, and their families; con- sequently, he could not carry out his plan during the day-time for fear of being observed. So, after ten o'clock at night, when the dinner had been eaten by both the men and the women of the establishment, the young couple would meet in their room, and the husband would instruct his wife in readinj; and writing Hindee. After a time, she became profi- cient in these accomplishments. Gradually, how- ever, this flagrant departure from ancient custom became known, and they soon found themselves the objects of the most vulgar ridicule from the entire circle of their acquaintance. Every body condemned them, and the affair made as much excitement in the city as the most radical advocates of woman's right to dress and act like a man have ever produced in this country. The old men put their heads to- gether, and proved conclusively, from the sacred books, that it was a sin against the gods to teach a ivoman to read and write, as well as entirely subver- sive of all good order in society; and in this they resemble certain divines in our own land, who spend much time and scholarship to prove from Scripture that women have no right to "speak in meeting,'' but must religiously "keep silence in the Churches." "Educate a woman!" said an orthodox Hindoo to me one day; "you may as well attempt to edu- cate a monkey or a jackal!" Frequently, when soliciting native female chil- dren to attend their schools, our American ladies are 9 loo Women of the Orient. told that, if a girl is taught to read, she will be led into sins that will sink her to the lowest hell. If taught to read, girls might be tempted to touch and read the most sacred books, which would be a great crime. When these ladies go from house to house to attempt, at least, to instruct heathen women, they are usually told: "Oh, I don't know any thing; I am nothing at all, only a woman. Go to my husband. He can understand you. He can read. He knows our religion, and whether it is or is not best to change it for yours." The prevail- ing ignorance among the women of India is shown by some recent investigations in the province of Bengal. In two selected districts of this province containing together thirty-six thousand women, only six women were found that could read or write in their own tongue. An acquaintance of mine who was urging upon an intelligent Hindoo the import- ance of an immediate improvement in the education of women was finally dismissed with the following sentiment: "All this. Sahib, may be very true with your people, but it will never do for us. It cer- tainly would be impossible for Hindoos to keep their wives in subjection if they were educated. Our women are not like yours. If educated they would be refractory, and would no longer carry bur- dens and collect cow's dung for fuel!" To epitomize all Hindoo ideas in regard to woman we simply need to say, she is made only for marriage. Consequently, from the very first, she is trained with this one idea in view. Especially must she be- come proficient in the rules of what is considered Education. loi good house-keeping. Needle-work, as understood by American women, is almost unknown by the girls of India. Certainly their dress does not demand any particular skill in this direction, and the few articles of clothing or bedding to be used in after years can cither be purchased ready-made in the bazars or they can easily learn to run them together themselves when they are needed. I am told that Mohammedan girls in India are more apt to understand the art of neat sewing than their Hindoo neighbors, and, from cer- tain specimens which I have in my possession, I am sure that some of them at least really excel in em- broidery with silk and gold-thread. Except, perhaps, among the veiy rich, the female children of India are far from being trained in idle- ness. After the limited household duties are per- formed they must assist in the fields or on public works, or must spin and weave or care for the younger children. If wealthy, they are taught to manage the servants and to understand all the details of a house-keeping which, in its strict conformance to sacred rules and customs, partakes largely of the nature of a religious service. If poor, they must do the cooking for the family; and if rich, or of high caste, they must at least learn how to cook. All Hindoo women, even of the highest castes, daily cook the food eaten by their husbands. This is required by their religious law, and not to be able to do it is a very great disgrace. Certain kinds of food are allowed, and certain kinds are forbidden by each caste; each article must also be cooked in a pre- scribed manner. Certain things may be eaten at I02 Women of the Orient. one time that are strictly forbidden at another. To neglect, or willfully to depart from any of these customs, or to allow the cooking-utensils to be pol- luted by the touch of a person of a lower caste, involves the most alarming consequences. A girl is taught to believe that not only the preservation of her husband's caste, but even his health and his life are committed by the gods to her keeping, and any neglect on her part whereby her husband shall eat any improper food is the very worst of crimes, for which both her husband and herself must forever suffer. Hence the most religious care is observed in making every Hindoo girl familiar with the dis- tinctions and usages of "her caste" as regards the gospel of the kitchen. As illustrative of the wearisome restrictions im- posed by caste in eating, an American lady in Cal- cutta relates that, in one of the zenanas she has visited, "Two of the ladies have been ill for some time. I found one just convalescing from a fever, but so feeble that she needed something very nutritious to eat. I directed her mother how to prepare some arrow-root with port-wine, but learned that she was not permitted to touch port-wine, as it is against •her caste. Then 1 proposed a custard, but found she could not eat a chicken's egg, although that of a duck was allowable. It really must be difficult for them to remember what they may or may not eat. Oh that they may soon learn that it is not by meat or drink that we can serve God, but by righteousness and true holiness !"* The girl must also become instructed in the mythology of her country, and the multiplied forms •Miss H. G. Brittan. Education. 103 and ceremonies of idolatrous worship ; also in certain portions of the Shasters which teach particularly her duty when she shall become a wife. With all these it is necessary that she become thoroughly familiar that in turn she may teach them to her children. The duty of in-structing her in these things de- volves entirely upon her mother, who, since she can neither read nor write, imparts her lessons orally. Much time is also occupied in filling the mind of the child with the legends and stories and poems which make up the national literature for females, and which are always absurd, and almost invariably of a vulgar and licentious character, well calculated to develop the worst passions and thoroughly to corrupt both mind and heart. Many of them relate to the low amours of the gods and goddesses, or the adven- tures of a soul after death in passing through the various transmigrations until it is purified and fitted for its eternity of happiness. The child is also taught to repeat certain Mantras, which are said to be a sort of cross between a prayer and an invo- catory hymn, and to possess great virtue among men, and to have a certain controlling power over even the gods themselves. Mothers with young babes are supposed to be especially subject to evil influences, and the girl must be provided with a good supply of the proper kind of Mantras to be used in the approaching times of emergency. These can only be lawfully taught by a Brahmin, who must receive a liberal fee. Hence, this part of a girl's religious education is unusually expensive. The peculiar virtues of these Mantras are illus- I04 Women op the Orient. trated by various legends, two of which are given as follows by Miss H. G. Brittan in a little book entitled "Shoshie:" "Dasaiii, king of Madura, married a daughter of the king of Benares; b\it after they were married she told him that she could never go home with him to be his wife, because she had learned a Mantra which had made her so holy that she never could be the wife of any man who had not been purified in the same way ; tliat, as she was his wife, she could not tell him this Mantra, because in so doing she would become his teacher, and, consequently, his superior. But the next day they went in search of a holy man, who, when he knew for what they had come, told them both to fast a whole day, then to bathe in the river Ganges, and then to come to him again. The king did this, and then went back to the holy man. He was then told to sit down, facing the east; and the holy man sat beside him, with his face to the west, and secretly whispered in his ear, 'Annah Strayd,' — health to Sira. "As soon as the king had learned these two wonderful words, he felt as if filled with purifying fire, and directly a great many black crows sprang out from all parts of his body, and, flying to the sky, disappeared. These were all the sins he had committed at his former births. The king and his wife thus purified lived together for many years, and retired at last to reunite with Brahma in the abodes of bliss, without being ob- liged to be re-born any more upon earth. "The god Sliiva once chose to give the knowledge of a most wonderful Mantra to a boy, who was the son of a widow of the Brahmin caste; but the mother had done something disgraceful, and so she had lost her caste, and on this account the boy was once excluded from a wedding-feast. He had not lost his caste, but he was considered disgraced on account of his mother. He took his revenge by merely pronouncing two syllables at the door of the apartment where the guests were assembled, and by the power of those syllables all the food ■provided for the guests was instantly changed into toads. Of course, such an occurrence created great confusion among the guests; but they were all sure that this boy had played the trick, and if they did not admit him they might have more of his mischievous tricks played upon them; so they opened the Education. 105 door and let him in. Then lie imniediately pronounced the same sylliibles in reveiseU ordei-, when directly the toads changed ;igain into the food tliey were ;it first." Many of the tales relate to Krishna, the Indian Apollo, who is described as a youth of rare beauty and grace, noted for his amours, and the special favor with which he regards his female devotees. Krishna is, par excellence, the favorite god of Hindoo maids and matrons, and one of the most infamous characters found in any mjthology. Many of the popular songs sung by girls and women, especially, narrate the love passages of this god with pretty girls, and are altogether too vile to bear repetition, even for the sake of illustration. One or two only, which happen to be free from objectional words, maybe given. "My Krishna is in Bindiaban; I sought him evei'y-vvhere, but could not find him. My Kri.slma is in Bindvaban; I wandered In jungles from morning to evening, But could not find the place of my Heir. My Krishna is in Bindraban." "Oh Krishna unkind has broken my pitcher at the water place! When I left the house in the morning to draw water, a crow cawed on (he house ; I saw a cat on my right, and heard a sneeze on my left: These were bad omens! Oh Krishna unkind has broken my pitcher at the water place! When lie caught hold of my wrist, he broke my ring. I never heard such a flute as his ! Oh Krishna unkind has broken my pitcher at the water place.'' LIBERAL HINDOOS DESIRE SECULAR EDUCATION FOR THEIR WOMEN. Many of the Hindoo Baboos are very wealthy, reckoning their possessions by the million pounds io6 Women of the Orient. sterling. Many of the young men of this class are themselves tolerably well educated, and, influenced by the liberal ideas which are slowly gaining ground among them, they greatly desire a limited educa- tion for their women, if it can be secured without disturbing their religious notions. They want no Christianity taught. So they are importuning the government, which has been so liberal in establishing public-schools for boys, to provide for a system of free zenana or household teaching by competent English ladies, who shall be pledged not to teach religion. But this the government has thus far re- fused to do. The Baboos love their money, and, with all their liberality, are loth to spend it upon their women by themselves employing purely secular teachers, so they turn to our missionary ladies, who will teach for little or no compensation for the sake of access to the^e secluded women. For the sake of the desired instruction these gentlemen tolerate the religious notions and teachings of our ladies, while, at the same time, they do not fail to continue petitioning government for relief. In the mean time a door is thus opened for the most hopeful of all missionary efforts. With all its mistakes, the Brahmd Somaj, the great purpose of which is to do away with distinctions of caste and religion, is certainly accomplishing much good by spreading these liberal views of female education in all parts of India. The following letter, written by an educated Baboo to an officer of the British Government, is, I think, a fair exponent of the views which are entertained by the more liberal of his class on this subject: Education. 107 "You ask whelher there is any thing in our religion or caste that can serve as a bar to the progress of female educa- tion in tliis country. I say, decidedly not; but there are two great obstacles, namely, early marriage and purda (seclusion), and these must be removed ere there can be any substantial improvement. It will take years and years before a consumma- tion like this can take place; but a beginning I am quite con- vinced can be made in both these directions, and we see signs about us showing that ihe initiative has already been taken. Young and grown up women should receive a systematic course of training. Now the question is, how best to promote this education ? \ '"The Hindoo patriot is right in saying the purda can not and ought not to be toin in sunder all at once, but he is not so just when he deprecates all government aid to educate the zenana ladies. In my opinion, government or no govern- ment, some organized agency must be set at vi^ork for the performance of ihe gigantic task of educating our wives, daughters, and sisters. "There must be, in the first place, trained teachers; with- out that any beginning would be impossible. I honestly put the question. How many educated men are there in Ben- gal, and in other enlightened parts of India, who can and who really do the work of teachers in their families? De- cidedly not five in a hundred. Not that they always lack inclination and ability, but situated as by far the majority of them are, their working time being for the most part not their own, they really can not do the work. Will not these men hail as a god-send any measure, be it adopted by government or any one else, which without violating their ancient prejudi- ces can give them a happy and enlightened home?" FEMALE EDUCATION AMONG THE MOHAMMEDANS. Since Mohammedanism is a long stride in ad- vance of Brahminism, we find that Mohammedan women of India are superior to their Hindoo coun- try-women, and are admitted to the enjoyment of numerous privileges denied to the latter. Very many of them are taught to read and write, and io8 Women of the Orient. a few are thoroughly familiar with Mohammedan literature. Among the Moslems of Asiatic Turkey some girls, while yet quite young, are sent to the public- school, if one is ac- cessible, with other children of both sexes. But at the age of eight or ten they are promptly withdrawn, and very rarely is their edu- cation continued in their subsequent se- clusion. The girls of the wealthier and aris- tocratic classes are sometimes, in addi- tion to the usual 'training for married life, which begins at an early age, taught to read the Koran ; but the great mass of Moslem men are bitterly opposed to the instruction of women. A blind old Sheikh, who knows the Koran by heart, will be employed to visit the woman's apart- ments, and, seated on the divan at one extremity of the room, while his pupils, of whom there are always two or more, sit at the opposite extremity, he drills them in reading the Koran, and in a knowl- edge of its teachings. In Syria more particularly, A TURKISH GIRL. Education. 109 Moslem girls are permitted to attend the American, English, and Prussian schools, which are usually . connected with the mission stations, and where they are taught to read and write and sew. But these privileges are not enjoyed to any great extent by the debased Arab Moslem girls, the great mass of whom are still doomed to utter ignorance. Even those who do attend these schools can not, for the most part, be taught more than the bare rudiments of education, since they are removed and married at such an early age. This fact is always a very great liinderance to the success of sucli schools. And yet the good work goes steadily on, and prejudices are being slowly overcome, as may be seen by the fol- lowing incidents from Dr. H. H. Jessup's admirable book, "The Women of the Arabs." "Not long since, I was conversing with several of the aris- tocratic Mohammedans of Beyroot, who were in attendance at the commencement of the Beyroot Protestant IMedical College. The subject of the education of girls was introduced, and one of them said: 'We aie beginning to have our girls instructed in your Protestant schools, and would you believe it, I heard one of them read the other day ' (probably his own daughter), ' and she actually asked a question about the construction of a noun preceded by a preposition! I never heard the like of it. The things do distinguish and understand what they read, after all!' The others replied, 'Mashallah! Mashallah !' 'The will of God be done!' "Some ten years ago, an influential Moslem Sheikh in Bey- root brought his daughter Waliidy (only one) to the Seminary to be instructed, on condition that no man should ever see her face. As Mr. Araman was one of the teachers, and I was accustomed to make constant visits to the school, she was obliged to wear n light veil, which she drew adroitly over her face whenever the door was opened. This went on for months and years, until at length in recitation she would draw the veil no Women of the Orient. aside. Then she used to listen to public addresses in the school without her veil, and finally, in June, 1867, she read a compo- sition on the stage at the public examination, on, 'The Value of Education to the Women and Girls of Syria,' her father, Sheikh Said el fihur, being present, with a number of his Moslem friends." Chapter V. BINDING THE FEET IN CHINA. ALTHOUGH Chinese par- ents may fail in the mental training of their daughters, there is one custom — in the prepara- tion of females for respectable CHINESE i,ADv-s sHo.!. nfg — whlch thc/ scWom fail to observe, and that is the cruel custom of systemati- cally crippling their feet for life. The Manchu Tartars subjugated the Chinese some centuries ago, and are the dominant race at the present time. They do not bind the feet of their Women, and no "small-footed" female is ever per- mitted to enter the palace and grounds of the em- peror at Pekin, much less to become an inmate of the "celestial sovereign's" harem. The custom, therefore, prevails only among the pure Chinese, and is observed with much greater strictness in that part of the empire south of the latitude of Shanghai thkn either in the capital or any of the northern provinces. In Shanghai a very large proportion of the women one meets in the streets or houses have small feet. In and about Kiu-Kiang I did not see a single native woman with natural feet. In Foo- chow nearly all the women brought up in the city have small feet, while on the river and in the coun- Women of The Orient. try about the city the "large-footed" women seem to be in the majority. In Canton I saw no large - footed females, except among the boat population, and the slave girls sold in infancy- for various purposes. As a general rule it may be correctly stated that there are but three classes of pure Chinese women which are permitted to have feet of the natural size; namely, the laboring women in the fields or on the boats; the secondary wives or concubines in wealthy families; and the prostitutes of the land. All others — by a social law, as rigid as it is ancient — are required to have their feet band- aged and compressed for life into a gilded slip- per from thi'ee to four inches in length. The line of social distinction between even respectable large and ^^ small-footed women is -'■s tt '^s'T marked. There i^ as wide a difference as exists in America be- tween the coarsest labor- ing women and a re- fined and cultivated lady. Respectable large-footed women, wherever you find them, belong to the menial class, condemned to be "hewers of wood and drawers of water" for their 1^ FIELD WOMAN WITH NATURAL FEET. Binding the Feet in China. 113 social superiors. Even in the same family some of the daughters may have bound feet and others may have unbound feet: the former are ladies, and must be supported as such ; but the latter are servants, and can never be any thing else. In America I find the impression is very general that only the daughters of the upper classes are thus deformed. But this is a mistake. Small feet are not so much a mark of wealth or high position as of fashion, and any family may adopt the custom if they can afford to do so. It is as much a finan- cial as a class question. It is an index of gentility; and mechanics, day-laborers, and even farmers are anxious to bind their little girl's feet, that — with this badge of ladyhood — they may have at least a chance of entering the upper class by marriage, which, with natural feet, they may never hope to do, excepting as secondary wives. Rigid custom specifies certain distinctions in dress between the two classes, even though their representatives may be sisters in the same family. The lady must wear the long trowsers, which en- tirely cover her limbs, and the little embroidered silk shoes. She may dress in rich silks, and gar- ments of bright and various colors, with rings and bracelets and headbands as costly as can be afforded ; she also dresses her hair in a peculiar elegant style. But her large -footed sister must dress in sober colors, usually go bare-foot, with pantaletts reaching only to the knee. She wears much less costly and abundant ornaments, and is treated as the family drudge, with but few rights of her own. 114 Women of the Orient. These customs are so rigid that I am told no respectable woman of the large-footed class can be persuaded to put on any part of the dress permitted to small-footed females. She would, in such a case, invariably be looked upon by her neighbors with just that sort of suspicion which is aroused in the mind of a respectable citizen by the overdressed representatives of the deini-tnotide, who daily roll through the streets of Paris or New York in their luxurious carriages. Only one day in her toilsome life is a woman of the large-footed class allowed to don a bright-colored dress, and that is on her wed- ding-day, when she rides in a sedan chair, arrayed in a scarlet robe usually hired for the great occasion. There is a marked difference between the various provinces, and between the countrj' and the city women, not only in the form of the shoe, but in the degree of compression to which the foot is subjected. Some are left at half the natural size, while others are brought down to the extreme of aris- tocratic littleness. In many cases small feet are counter- feited, the full grown foot being bound up, and only the toes thrust into a little shoe, the woman actually walking on tip-toe. In other A BANDAGED FOOT AND SHOE, cases, womcu Tcsort to the Binding the Feet in China. 115 expedient of placing a block of wood shaped to re- semble a small foot, under the center of the shoe, which compels the peculiar hobbling gait in walk ing that characterizes little-footed women, and in which case the real foot is carefully concealed, thus rendering the deception very perfect. This is never regarded as a "pretty foot," although it is looked upon by all right-minded citizens with approval as a proper concession to the superior wisdom of re- fined society. In some parts of the empire all re- spectable females are compelled at least to simulate bound feet, since only lewd women appear with full- grown feet. In such localities laboring women go bare-footed while at their work, and assume their bandages and imitation feet only when about to ap- pear in public. The origin of this strange fashion seems to be in- volved in obscurity, and I could find no native, how- ever intelligent, who could really enlighten me on this subject. One literatus, who claimed to be " well up" in the history of the Flowery Kingdom, in- formed me that many years ago an empress named Tak-ki had club feet, and, on the principle that "misery loves company," she ordered all the ladies at court so to bind their feet as, at least, to simulate her deformity. The fashion soon spread to all the upper-class ladies of the empire. Other native gen- tlemen, with the greatest sincerity of manner, relate that some centuries ago the male Celestials became extremely jealous of the women, and to keep their wives in comparative seclusion, and prevent their gadding about the market places and gossipping 10 ii6 Women op the Orient. from house to house, they invented the present method of crippling them. Some explain it by re- lating a legend, the substance of which is, that about eleven hundred years ago an emperor had a concu- bine who introduced the fashion by binding her already extremely small feet, and thus affecting a su- periority over others. The challenge was accepted, and in a^short time little feet were "all the rage." The practice probably arose somewhere among the ages of the past, from a somewhat natural strife among the ladies for the distinction of having the smallest feet, and has gradually been brought to its present ridiculous extreme. But whatever may have been the origin of the custom, like all other customs ill China, it has long since become an inflexible law; and any mandarin, or literary man, or private gen- tleman would consider himself most decidedly dis- graced were he obliged to take up with a large- footed woman for his chief wife. He might take her, at a, fair price, for his concubine, but for his legal first wife never; the proposition could not be entertained for a moment by any high-toned gentle- men, however poor or unknown to fame he might be. MANNER OF BINDING THE FEET. It is supposed by many foreigners that this curi- ous compression of the feet is accomplished by means of wooden or iron bound shoes placed upon the feet in infancy, effectually dwarfing them by preventing their growth altogether. But this is by no means the case. It is next to an impossibiHty for a foreign gentleman to secure the privilege of Binding the Feet in China. 117 examining a foot thus deformed; but after more than a week of the most skillful diplomacy, in all of which I was aided and abetted by ' Miss Lucy H. Hoag-, preceptress of the mission-school for girls in Kiu-kiang, I succeeded in persuading a girl about fifteen years of age to allow me to be present when the gay covering was removed from her foot; after- wards, in Shanghai, by the liberal use of money, an elderly woman of the small-footed class was per- suaded to gratify my curiosity by removing the bandage from her foot, and from the knowledge gained on those occasions and afterwards I will briefly describe the method of "making the foot," as it is called. The binding is rarely, if ever, commenced before the child is five years, and in most cases not until she is six_ or seven years old. This delay is to allow the limbs a vigorous start and growth, and the girl to learn how to walk firmly. The operators are usually women who make this their business, although frequently the mother, or some other female member of the house- hold takes the matter in hand. In the first place, all the toes, excepting the great toe, are folded down un- der the foot, the fleshy part of the heel is forced down- ward and forward, and a bandage (consisting of a strip of colored muslin four or five feet long and three inches wide), is wound back and forth in a figure of eight, over the folded toes, along the length of the foot, across the instep, and around the heel, press- ing that toward the great toe to shorten the foot. The bandage is wound snugly at first and then tightened a little at each succeeding operation. This n8 Women OF the Orient. gradually throws the instep up, and virtually breaks it, so that when the bandage is removed the front part of the foot may be moved like a door upon its hinges. Under this process the foot becomes atten- uated until it is merely a mass of bones covered with CHINESE lady's FOOT AND SLIPPER. tendons and skin. The development of the muscles of the calf is also checked, and the leg tapers from the knee downward, and the entire limb loses its elasticity, although no excessive weakness is ob- served. How the circulation is kept up through the extremities is more than I can understand. Binding the Feet in China. 119 In the course of six or eight years, if daily attended to, the elongated bone of the heel, which is about all that is left of this part of the foot, is brought within a very few inches of the great toe ; the broken instep and folded toes are bound together with the ankle in an ugly bunch bulging outward above what seems to be the foot, and the great toe and the heel alone are thrust into the little embroid- ered shoe, and it is pronounced a perfect lady-foot. The heel is usually an inch or more higher than the toe, and a block of wood is placed in the back part of the slioe to support it. This gives the woman the appearance of wallcing upon her tip-toes, as she wriggles along, stepping with nervous rapidity, and throwing out her arms to balance herself A lady with very small feet is obliged to use a cane in walkfng, or to rest her hand upon the shoulder of a servant, which is a mark of especial gentility. The wide and embroidered trousers conceal the unsightly bunch above the shoe, and the uninstructed observer supposes that he is looking upon a tiny but perfectly formed foot. The length of the shoe is -really a mere matter of taste. The most fashion- able length is, I think, about three inches, although I have a pair in my possession, once worn by a woman in Foochow, which are but two and one-half inches long on the bottom. Of course, so far as any heavy work is concerned, small-footed women are useless; and the housework in families where t!ie women have small feet is alwaj's performed by males, or by female servants who have natural feet. At first the operation of bandaging is very painful. no WOMEN OF THE ORIENT. The bandage is removed every morning; the foot is cleansed, carefully inspected, and then rebound. Of course, before the foot is utterly "dead," as it is termed, the quickening of the circulation when the bandage is removed and the severe compression when it is again applied cause excruciating pain. In the early morning hours the traveler, in moving about a Chinese city, will hear from almost every house the cries of little girls undergoing their daily torture. A well-known missionary gives the following illustration : "I remember being greatly distressed one day by the crying of a child: 'O Auntie, Auntie, do n't do so, it hurts; it hurts so mucli!' And then followed a long, quivering sobbing '0-o-oh!' I tried not to mind it at first, and kept on with my writing for a little while, but I could n't stand it very long, — the sobbing was too pilious. So I laid down my pen, put on my hat, and went round the corner into the alley where the sounds came from. It was dirty enough and narrow enough, I can assure you; but that was nothing. I only. wanted to find out what could be the cause of this pitiful outcry, and what it was that 'auntie' was doing. So I pushed open the door that led into one of the court-yards, and there I saw how the matter stood. On a high bench, with her feet dangling half-way to the ground, sat a little girl about five years old, her face swollen vi?ith crying, and the tears pouring down her flushed cheeks; and near by, seated in a chair, was that dreadful 'auntie,' a fat, middle-aged woman, who held one of the child's feet in her hand, while the other foot was hanging down bandaged very tight, and looking more like a large pear, tied round with blue cotton cloth, than a natural shaped foot. There the old auntie s;it, with the other little bare foot in her hand, looking at it first on one side and then on the other, and particularly examining the parts where the little toes had been turned under and com- pressed by the bandages which had just been removed. She found these parts full of cracks and sores, and into these wliat do you think she put? Powdered saltpetre, to keep the sores from mortifying; and then she bound up the little foot again as Binding the Feet in China. 121 tight as she could, and left the poor little suffeier with stream- ing eyes and dangling feet still sitting on the bench!" Girls often giow thin and spiritless during the first year after binding is begun. Often the skin cracks or (just over the instep) it bursts, and severe disease sets in, and not unfrequently mortification or gangrene ensues; and, as amputation is regarded as very dishonorable, and is, therefore, rfot allowed, of course the little sufferer soon dies. When three or four years have passed, if the operation has been carefully performed, the foot be- comes, so far as feeling is concerned, lifeless, and ceases to give pain. But, all through life, the band- aging must be continued, to keep the foot in shape, and to enable the woman to walk* at all. Unband- aged, the foot would have no firmness, — it would be a mere powerless mass upon the limb, with which it would be impossible to move. With the foot firmly batld'aged, some of these poor creatures mince along at quite a respectable rate of speed, and, strange as it may seem, some of them will even walk ten or twelve miles in a day on their way to and from some especially sacred temple, or in making visits to their friends. Notwithstanding the severe pain resulting from this bandaging at first, mothers insist upon it, and little girls are often quite anxious to have it begun, for it is the fashion; and, according to the average female estimate in all lands, a little suffering, more or less, is of no consequence when contrasted with the di.sgrace of being "out of fashion." Of course, the little girls are not always under the immediate eye r22 Women of the Orient. of their mothers; and when, for a moment, the pain overmasters their pride, they will slyly loosen the bandage; but the fault is soon discovered, and the relieved member unmercifully brought back to its cruel bondage. So far as I can learn from those most familiar with the facts, compression of the feet is more incon- venient than dangerous, either to life or health; and intelh'gent natives have frequently assured me, with all that superior wisdom which an educated China- man knows so well how to assume, that they did not regard it as half so pernicious as the custom our American ladies have at times adopted, of compress- ing their waists, since the former, at the worst, only endangers the individual, while the latter entails feebleness and suffering upon posterity. Some travelers, in China, profess to be greatly pleased with what they call the dainty little feet of the ladies, and go into ecstacies over their exquisitely wrought shoes ; but to me, especially after I became familiar with tlie modus operandi, it was a hideous and repulsive deformity, all the more offensive since it was self-imposed. No amount of sentiment could reconcile me to the siglit of those poor cripples hobbling along in momentary danger of falling, — the very picture of degraded helplessness. Perhaps in justice I ought to add, that some few Chinamen of advanced ideas whom I met professed to regard tliis custom as useless and wrong; but even while they were ready to admit its evils, they were no less em- phatic in the opinion that there is no help for it. Custom is a law, which no one dreams of violating. BiyDiNG TUB Feet IN China. i^^ THE CHRISTIAN SHOE. At first. Christian missionaries in China were obliged to be patient and forbearing with their con- verts from heathenism in regard to this and many other objectionable customs. Neglect of these cus- toms amounted to social ostracism. This tlie weak converts had not the courage to face, and so compres- sion of the feet was not made a case of conscience or discipline. As the mission work has prospered, and the native members have become stronger both in numbers and in faith, they have gradually introduced the reform themselves. At the meeting of the Foo- chow Methodist Episcopal Mission in 1875, at which five missionaries, eleven ordained and forty-seven unordaincd native preachers were present, it was re- solved to forbid altogether the practice of binding the feet of girls in families connected with the Church. As the meeting represented a native' Christian mem- bership of two thousand three hundred souls, the action is one of no little present and prospective importance. The presiding elders (all natives) were made a committee, to prepare a paper setting forth what native usages are allowable and what forbidden to Christians, in connection with marriage and burial ceremonies. The native members of nearlj' all Protestant Mission Churches in China either have taken action similar to the above or are seriously agitating the question, and the reform, so far as the Christian Chinese are concerned, will no doubt soon be complete. Tliis departure from ancient and honorable custoift 124 Women of the Orient. at first gave rise to a serious trouble, since, \\ henever the girls of Christian families appeared upon the streets, they were liable to be taken for improper characters. But our missionary ladies were equal to the emergency, and they soon relieved the difficulty, by inventing a peculiar kind of shoe, in shape some- what like the shoe worn by the Empress, who is a Tartar, and, therefore, does not bind her foot. This they call the "Christian shoe;" and it is worn by all our native Christian girls and women whose feet have been permitted to grow to the natural size, so that, when they appear upon the street, people say: ' ' Yes, to be sure, they have large feet; but it is because they have embraced the foreign religion." Chapter VI. BETROTHAL. T OVE is an essential faculty of human life, -L-' and it can not be wholly extinguished even ill those states of society where it is ignored as a necessary foundation of true domestic happiness. Under such circumstances it sometimes develops strength in proportion to its hindrances; and, break- ing down all barriers, sets at defiance all theories and customs. Usually, however, in sucli countries, true love degenerates into a mere selfish fancy, and consents to walk in the prescribed path of usuage. The fixed notion of the Orientals is that love has nothing to do with marriage, necessarily; and that, if it comes at all, it must be after that import- ant event. In order to the timely and proper devel- opment of the tender passion the complete separa- tion of the sexes in all social life is not only a commendable custom but one to be jealously main- tained by all right-minded persons. Love being thus summarily dismissed as a factor in the prob- lem, the adjustment of marriage relations in the East becomes almost altogether a pecuniary affair, to be managed by the heads of the families con- cerned, without any reference to the likes or dis- likes of the parties whose entire future will be affected thereby; namely, the boy and the girl. 125 126 Women of the Orient. Throughout the Orient the intervening space be- tween the birth and the marriage of a female child is very brief Betrothal is as sacred and binding as real mar- riage, and, of course, may occur at a much earlier age. The breaking of a betrothal bond is rarely known. Not only is the money which passes be- tween the parties a security, but public opinion and family reputation are additional safeguards, making a breach of faith almost impossible. The Hindoo Shasters say: "A girl is marriag- able when she is seven years old; but should cir- cumstances prevent she may wait until she is ten years of age." When a girl's fifth birthday arrives, arrangements must immediately be made for her betrothal, and the family would be unequivocally disgraced if she should reach her tenth natal day without the celebration of that important event. It is regarded as so very reprehensible for a father to permit his daughter to remain unmarried until she is eleven, that such an occurrence becomes town talk, and the negligent parent is subjected to all manner of criticism and abuse; and unless the wrong is immediately righted, he becomes a social outcast. This emphatic expression of public sentiment finds its justification in the requirements of the law- giver Menu, who says: "Reprehensible is the father who gives not his daughter in marriage at the proper time. To an excellent and handsome youth of the same class let every man give his daughter in marriage according to the law, even though she have not attained her age of eight years." Menu Betrothal. 127 further pronounces the most fearful maledictions upon the father who has a daughter twelve years of age unmarried, and even separates him from his own children by requiring them to refuse him all respect and obedience. There are some sects of the Brah- min caste with whom it is an invariable custom to pay a certain considerable sum to the parents of the bridegroom when their daughters are married. Such fathers are sometimes very poor, and before a sufficient amount can be realized for the purpose, a girl will reach the age of eighteen or even twenty. Such an occurrence, however, is a great reproach to all concerned, and the guilt is only overlooked in consideration of the rank of the offender. Boys of eight or nine years are betrothed to girls of five or six, and these little folks are taught to speak of each other as husband and wife, just the same as after actual marriage, which takes place in a few years, as girls arrive at maturity at a much earlier age than in colder countries. After betrothal is duly solemnized by an officiat- ' ing Brahmin, it is declared by the religious law to be binding upon both parties; and should the boy die before the full nuptials are celebrated (which is, of course, frequently the case) the girl is hence- forth regarded as his widow, and as such is forbid- den ever to marry another. Examples of marriage at a very early age are constantly coming under the personal observation of foreigners in India. Here is one from the pen of an American lady: "You will, I think, understand my surprise when, on enter- ing my school one day, I saw a little one with the mark of mar- 128 Women of the .Orient. riage — some red paint, about half a finger's length — in the part- ing of the hair. I called the teacher, and said: 'Is that little one married?' 'Yes,' was the reply. 'What is her age?' 'Five years.' 'And she is married, at that early age ?' was my sur- prised question. ' Yes ; she has been married a year. Her father had her married when she was four years old.' This is, of course, an unusual case ; but is it not dreadful to think of? What childhood can she know? For after marriage the liberty of little ones is taken away ; they must be veiled, and are not free to run about and play as before." Hindoo girls are carefully taught to pray for husbands, and to implore the gods not to permit them to arrive at the age of eleven or twelve un- married, else they lose their caste. If by chance any woman, of a respectable family, remains unmar- ried, she is neglected and abused by those who are her natural protectors; and a little before her death she is carried to the Ganges — if within reach — and hastily married to any Bra.hmin who may happen to be dying at the same time with his feet in the sacred waters. The woman is thereby believed to be saved from becoming one of the lower animals in the soul's approaching transmigration. American ladies in India have informed me that* when they visit the native women in their homes the first question asked them is: "Are you mar- ried?" If the reply is in the negative the most pro- found astonishment is manifested by the entire female Household; for to be unmarried and childless is, in their opinion, the greatest misfortune that can hap- pen to a woman; and they will reply: "None of our females are ever unmarried except the dancing- girls, and they are married to the gods." "What," said a high-caste woman to a young lady acquaint- Betrothal. 129 ance of mine, "one as old as you unmarried? Were there no men in the country you came from?" The young lady saw that her reply was "marvelous, almost past belief;" and, when she told them that "there were many ladies in her country who stayed unmarried from choice, either because the man they loved had died, or they had not seen one whom they wished to marry, or from some other reason, they really did think she was telling them some- thing perfectly untrue; they could not believe her. They thought she must be a widow, but for some reason wished to conceal it from them." In China early betrothal is universally practiced. Parents sometimes contract their unborn children on the sole contingency of a difference of sex; but usually bethrothal is deferred until the children are from five to ten years of age. A lady already quoted, and who has had years of constant famil- iarity with Chinese customs, writes in reply to ques- tions touching the early betrothal and sale of girls : " These two subjects are intimately connected, and the formef is in a great degree the result of the later. The money consideration is Inrgely the occasion of the early betrothal, as the younger the child the less she costs, so that the mass of parents seek to betroth wives to their sons when very young. You ask what is the necessity of buying and selling? The Chinese reply, "Our fatliers did so; it is our custom.' Some more frank and honest will tell you plainly, 'I have fed and clothed the girl all these years, and I must get my money back. This is tlie only profit one has in girls, selling them off well.' Mothers, whose hearts have been wrung by the drowning of their girls, have tried to save them by appealing to the cupidity of the father, urging him to restrain his murderous hand be- cause, by saving their lives, he might sell them as wives for a good price. I have met with one or two missionaries Vho 130 Women of the Orient. objected to using tlie word 'sell,' and who urged, with very poor logic and no support from facts, that the money given was very much after our style of a dowry to the bride, or to meet the expenses of the wedding. 13ut the likeness fails in every point, as with us the father gives to the daughter, meet- ing all wedding expenses, while here, the parents of the son give a stipulated amount to the parents of the bride, and they struggle to get her as cheaply as possible. Tlie very same characters are used in buying and selling a horse, cow, a pound of pork or tobacco, and a wife! Parents also sell theii girls to the highest bidder, not but that some do really love their giils and seek good husbands for them, yet it is still true that a good sum of money is generally the chief consideration. I have one case in mind just here. The wife of our personal teacher is a graduate of the American Board girls' boarding school at this place, and the daughter of a widow woman, a member of that mission. She refused to allow her dauj;hter to marry a preacher in her own mission because he could not pay enough money to meet the wishes of the mother and uncles, and our teacher secured the prize solely because he had the dollars; moreover, sard dollars did not go to the bride as a dowry, but went to the mother and the fatlier's family to enrich them with fields, etc. Another case: The young widow of one of our members was sold by her heathen father- in-law to secure money to buy a wife for another son. Wives are commonly spoken of as varying in price ; thus they say, 'Wives are cheap or dear this year,' or 'they are much cheaper at Hokchiang than here at Foochow.' Among some few wealthy or official persons marriages are sometimes con- summated without using the terms ' buy ' and 'sell.' This was true in the recent marriage of the son of a wealthy native gentleman, who, however, is very foreign in his tastes, and thoroughly detests many of the Chinese customs. He told us that he gave no money for the bride, that he would have been ashamed to speak of it. It is true. However, tliat he sent iIk" bride's parents most elegant and valuable presents. "We are driven to concede the universal custom of selling and buying girls for wives, and we are compelled to meet this custom in our Church. Our native Christians scorned to ihiuk there was no alternative but to sell their dau.i;hiers and buy wives for their sons, and this involves early betrothal, as they Betrothal. 131 I are generally poor and must buy as cheaply as possible. In earlier years, when our members .were few and but a smal\ number of children in the Cluirch, there seemed no way out of the difficulty. If Cliristian sons Ijad wives they must pay for them, as no one would give to them; then, too, it was often the case, as it slill is, that daughters were sold and wives bought for the sons before tlie parents entered the Church. In such cases nothing could be done, as bethrolhal here is almost as sacred as marriage; but now that we have a large number of members with a corresponding number of children, it seems quite easy to abolish this buying and selling business alto- gether, and theie would be a real gain in that girls would not be sent into heathen families nor boys allied to heathen wives. Yet it may still be true that a Christian might not be able to find a suitable husband for his daughter, or wife for his son, .among the families of our mission, and in such a case there must be difficulty. "But such cnses must be rare, especially as there are three Christian missions here, and no Christian needs be limited to his own Church in his search. "I fear much that the chief difficulty is found in the un- willingness of our members to resign the money conbideration for their girls. They are very willing to acce[)t wives for tlieir sons 'gospel free,' but when it comes to letting their daughters depart in the same free manner, alas! 'old natur' squirms.' "* Mrs. Tui, a middle aged Chinese lady, who became a convert to Christianity at Swatow, a few years since, and who, I think, was laboring as a Bible- reader in that mission at the tiine of our visit in 1873, told the following story of her life to one of the missionaries, who translated it and has since published it in a paper called the Macedonian: "I was born at Koi Tau, a village in Po Leng, forty miles west from here. My father was a store-keeper, and I was the youngest of seven- children. When I was seven years old I was betrothed for eight dollars to a man at Nam Leng, a village a mile from my home. I had never seen the man nor any of *Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, of Foocliow, China. 132 Women op the Orient. Ills family. I took nothing from liome with me but the one tiini'-. and paii" of trousers which I wore. My mother and the go-betweens, who had acted as agents in my bethiothal, led me to his house and left me there. I jumped up and down, and screamed to go back with my motlier; and my husband's mother told me not to cry, for my home was to be with her henceforth; and my husband's grandmother carried me on her back to please and quiet me ; but I kept crying more or less for years. Indeed I never really stopped crying till I had children of my own. In the family tlieie were my husband's grand- father, grandmother, father, mother, uncles, aunts, five brothers, and four sisters-in-law. I was told which man was to i^e my husband; and, though he was handsome, I immediately dis- liked him, because he seemed so old to me, for he was nine years older than I. "I never saw my own mother again for three years, for, she was afraid I would cry and be discontented if I saw her. "I always slept with my mother-in-law, and during the day I spooled the yarn which the elder ones spun and wove into cloth. At this I worked from daylight until dark, only stopping to eat. I had plenty to eat, and was only whipped when I nodded over my spogls. Once a year one of my brothers came to see if I was well; he stayed but a few minutes when he came, because it might make me homesick if he talked much with me. When I was eleven years old I went to my father's house and slayed four months, and did tlie same each year thereafter until I was married. I learned to spin and weave and sew and cook. All this time I never spoke to my betrothed husband, and he only spoke to me to tell me to do something. At fourteen, when his mother told me to do so, I became his wife. 1 cooked rice, fed the pigs, and did other work for the family. "My husband never called me by any name whatever. When he wanted me to do any thing he said, "Here you,' and of course I knew he meant me. When I was sixteen I had a little girl, and then another and another; but the third one I strangled when it was born, for I was frightened, for I knew that I should be hated for having so many girls' Then I had three boys and another girl, and, when I was forty, I had nine chil- dren. My husband was a very quiet-tempered man, and he was not very hard to me. In all the forty years I lived with Betrothal. i3-} nim he beat me only four or five times. That was when I moved too slowly in serving him, and then answered back ••'hen he scolded me. Tliere are not ten men in a thousand m China who do not beat their wives at all." Girls in the East are women and very oftei^ mothers at the age of twelve. In India native girls fourteen years of age are expected to be mothers of at least two children. It is no uncommon thing in any Eastern land to find a toothless old man of sixty married to a girl of twelve or fourteen years. H such men itiarry at all they are obliged to marry children, as widows are not allowed to marry a sec- ond time. A multitude of illustrative instances of early motherhood might be given, but three or four must suffice. A zenana teacher in Calcutta, in speaking to me of a certain married pupil of hers, said: "She is only thirteen years of age, and has a baby three months old." The same lady writes: " In one school which I visited, I found the daughter of one of my old pupils, whose mother was married when she was eight years old, and this little girl was her first child. She was born when her mother lacked one 'week of being ten years of age. As long as this system of very early marriages continues, how diffi- cult it is for a girl to receive education. In the house of a very rich Baboo one of my scholars, a pretty young thing now only seventeen, has lost four children." An English surgeon in Lucknow gave me an instance which had just come under his personal observation, and was also vouched for by two or three missionaries, where a native married woman nine years and nine months old had given birth to a plump and healthy boy, and was able to furnish 134 Women of the Orient. abundant nourishment for the new-comer. Anothei instance illustrative of early marriages, as practiced in the province of Bengal, is given by an English lady engaged in zenana teaching: "Anothei" house in this neighboihood is regularly visited, in which tlie pupils are new beginners. A mother and daughter learn her^e, while another woman, from another house, joins them in their lessons. She is allowed to do so because her husband lias forsaken her. Last Fiidaywhen I went to visit her house I found this woman crying. Her hair was not arranged; and, as she had mud rubbed all over her body, she looked most miiserable. I asked her to come and learn, but she said her fate was burned and her happiness blasted. At first I could not understand what she meant. The others who were studying with nie related, with distressed faces, about lier husha-ndi's second marriage. Before ten minutes had elapsed a crowd of people entered the house, when I observed my pupils covering their faces. In a whisper they told me, 'This man is her husband, the man with bright yellow clothes." After a while the man spoke a few words to his first wife and then disappeared. A great number of women and children, all dressed in their best and covered with jewels, came in, followed by a little girl four years old, dressed in a red bridal suit, who was carried into this room. The old women sur- rounded the first wife, and, placing the innocent little child in her lap, told the little one to call her sister. I could teach no more that day owing to the disturbance. When I called again, I found, on inquiry, that the new bride was sent to her mother's to be kept there until she attained the age of twelve. The former wife is living with her husband on friendly terms again." If an intelligent Chinaman or Hindoo is asked the reason for such early marriages he will reply that social purity is secured thereby, and that wives by thus being trained for a particular husband, and oftentimes under his very eye, are better fitted to please him by obedience and a strict attention to his peculiarities and necessities. Betrothal. 135 A more numerous progeny is also not the least important result of such marriages. The sacred writ- ings of the Hindoos declare that, "If a daughter is married before six years of age, the .father ascends after death to the highest heaven ; if not before seven, to the second heaven; and if not until the age of ten, he goes to the lowest place assigned to the blest." On the other hand, " If a girl is not married by the time she is eleven years old, all her progenitors for many generations will suffer severe pains and penal- ties in the other world in consequence of the neg- lect of the child's parents." Consequently all the elder members of a family are never at rest till the children are married, for fear they shall have to suffer in the next world for the omission. The following curious instance illustrates the in- exorableness of this custom : "An intelligent old Bnboo, in whose house I have been teaching for more than two years, had a daughter, who, for five years, had been ill with rheumatic fever, and was as helpless as an infant. For a few weeks the child became a little better, so that she was able to move about. To my astonishment, the next time I went to the house, I found that this little girl was married; and in three weeks afterward she died, the fatigue and excitement having been too much for her. I asked her father how they could think of having the child married in her state of health. 'It is our custom,' was the reply. With a strange smile, he added: 'Do you not know that, if our daughters are not married before they are eleven years old, all their ancestors, for six generations, will suffer dreadful pains and penalties in the other world ?' 'But,' I said, 'you do not believe this?' He answered: 'I do not know what to. believe, — my own religion . seems slipping away from me; but I am an old man, and shall soon be gone from here. I must put my trust in something; and I know nothing better than the religion of my fathers.' Poor old man, I have always felt a great interest in him. He 136 Women of the Orient. is intelligeiil and well educated; but, on the brink of the grave, IS groping about in the dark, without a foundation to rest upon. His education makes him distrust his own religion, although he has not been taught the true foundation on which to build; and now, the Bralimin priests will not permit him to read the Word of God, and he is too superstitious to dare to ofifend them."* Of course, there are many serious objections to this custom, not the least of which is the amount of crime which results, directly or indirectly. A gentleman, who had visited a jail in the province of Bengal, said to me that, out of three hundred and fifty native women confinei there, nearly all were murderers, and imprisoned for life. A very large proportion of them had murdered their husbands. One hundred of these women were less than twenty- five years of age, and nearly fifty were less than twenty years old. They had been forced or coaxed into such early and ill-assorted marriages, that domes- tic life was a burden, to which even a criminal's doom was preferable. One poor child, of whom I heard in Benares, murdered her old and cruel hus- band when she was only nine years old. In some parts of China, among the more intelli- gent classes, the evils of early betrothment are so thoroughly appreciated that families agree together to defy custom, and put ofif arranging for marriages until their children are grown, and more suitable alliances can be effected for them ; but such depart- ures from the rules of good society are rare. Usually, the contracts made during the infancy of the parties must be fulfilled, although the proposed »Miss H. G. Briltan. Betrothal. 137 husband may prove to be totally unfit for a decent girl; and it is positively certain that he will cruelly ill-treat her from the very first. The miserable bride, in such a case, often resolves to put an end to her existence; and instances of suicide by newly married women are quite common. In Shanghai, I saw the body of a girl, not more than fifteen years old, who had drowned herself, because of her sufferings at the hands of a cruel husband, to whom she had been married but a few days. Near the city of Amoy, a few months before my visit, a girl, who had heard of the worthless character of the young man to whom she had been engaged from early childhood, deliber- ately hanged herself rather than fall into the hands of one she had learned to hate and fear. In Han Kow I was introduced to a bright-eyed, inteUigent young native woman who had fled from the cruel treatment of her husband and his fam- ily, leaving all her valuables, including quite a sum of money which she had herself saved. She had protested against marrying the man, who was much older than herself, for he was a notorious opium smoker and of a very fierce and cruel disposi- tion. But she had been engaged to him from her infancy, and Chinese custom knows no mercy. This young woman was received by the missionaries, and afterward became a convert to Christianity and an efficient worker in the mission. Of course, she was regarded by her relatives as irretrievably disgraced, and was formally discarded as a vile character; her husband retained her valuables and money, and speedily solaced himself with another wife. 138 Women cf the Orient. No doubt early marriages, in the Orient, are tlie fruitful source of much crime and misery, and such marriages must, in the nature of things, often bring unhappiness, especially to the wife; yet when we consider the low state of morals in the East, and that there are absolutely no influences calculated to keep men and women pure, and that many men find gf&at difficulty in obtaining a livelihood, we must admit that if marriage were not thus early con- summated, before an opportunity is given the parties to object, or to urge the difficulties in the way, an overwhelming amount of idleness and profligacy would certainly follow. Until Christianity spreads its benign and protective influences over these lands, the present custom can hardly be supplanted with safety. Chapter VII. MARRIAGE IN JAPAN. MARRIAGE customs, so far -.^^ as the details of the wed- ding ceremony are concerned, differ even in different sections of the same country. I shall, there fore, content myself for the most part, with such general statements as apply to all portions of each country and afford a correct gen- eral knowledge of this important institution among the Orientials. In Japan the marriage of a daughter is always celebrated with a greater or less degree of rejoicing in the house of her husband. It is, however, too important an affair for any but the relatives and confidential friends of the parties to participate in; strangers and mere acquaintances are therefore excluded, and unlike the Chinese (who invite foreign guests, and make a great ado, for the gratification of public curiosity), the Japanese celebrate their weddings with discreet reserve. In general, a Japanese marriage is the re- sult of an arrangement made long before between the parents of the parties; although now, more 12 139 140 Women of the Orient. frequently than in former years, Japanese matches are love matches, and the prehminary agreement is voluntarily made by the bride and groom acting from deliberate choice. Ordinarily a Japanese bride brings no stated dowiy to her husband, except her trousseau, which, as a mattir of family pride, is always as extensive and elegant as circumstances will permit. The Jap- anese ckijics say that a bride "must have an unsul- lied repv.tation, a gentle and yielding disposition, an amount of education fitted for her sex, and the acquirements of a good house-keeper:" reasonable requirements certainly, which, had they been met in' all cases, would long since have made Dai Nippon the envy of , all nations. From careful inquiry, I conclude that pecuniary considerations are usually regarded as of secondary importance in Japanese mar- riage contracts; although the claims of rank and social position are always rigorously considered. A Japanese bride is generally from sixteen to eighteen years of age, and the groom about twenty. Some time before the wedding, a betrothal ceremony takes place ; at which all the preliminaries are settled, and a complete understanding arrived at between the families represented. Very frequently at the betrothal ceremony the young people discover, for the first time, just what arrangements the discreet parents have been making, for their future happiness. After betrothal the young man and woman have frequent opportunity to meet and cultivate each other's acquaintance; formal visits are interchanged by the contracting families, and Marriage in yAPApi.. 141 presents are made according to the circumstances of tlie donors. The following description of the foniial wedding ceremonies is from the pen of Aim6 Humbert, who was for several years Minister Plenipotentiary of the Swiss confederation in Japan, and enjoyed extraor- dinary opportunities for observation and study of Japanese manners and customs: "Early in the wedding morning, tlie bride's trousseau is brouglit to the groom's dwelling, and laid out very tastefully in the apartments where the.wedding feast is to be held. In the chief room an altar is erected, adorned with flowers, and laden with offerings to the family gods, patron saints, and other worthies, whose pictures are hung in front. All the rooms are ornamented with pictures and flowers. About noon a splendid procession enters the apartments thus prepared; the young bride, veiled and arrayed in white, advances, led by two female friends, and followed by a crowd of relatives, friends, and neighbors, in robes composed of scarlet brocade, gauze, and embroidery. "Two friends do the honors of the occasion, distribute the guests, see to the arrangements for the rep:ist, and flit about from one group to another. They are called the male and female butterfly, and personify the charming couple who, in popular story, set an example of conjugal felicity. "Except among certain Buddhist sects, priests have no place in a marriage celebration in Japan. The decisive cere- mony, by which the Japanese replace our sacred ordinance, possesses an affecting symbolism. A vase in the form of a pitchei", with two mouths, and beautifully ornamented, is pro- duced. At a proper time one of the brides-maids fills it with saki (native wine) ; the other takes it by the handle, raises it to the height of the mouths of the kneeling bride and groom, and makes them drink alternately, each from the pitcher mouth placed opposite their lips, until the vase is emptied. It is thuz that, husband and wife, they must drink from the cup of con- jugal life; he on his side, she on hers; but they must both taste the same ambrosia or the same gall; they must share equally the paiiis and sorrows as well as tlie joys of this new existence. 142 Women of the Orient. ^my/Mw^^' JAPANESE WEDDING PARTY. If the poetic charm of the symbolism of the natural affections sufficed to render people moral, the Japanese should be the best husbands in the world. Unhnppily, the same man who has the right to kill his wife on the slightest suspicion (if, for example, he should see her in conversation with a stranger, no relation of the family), has no scruples about introducing a first con- . cubine, and soon a second, then a third, nnd it may be even a fourth, under the conjugal roof. "The expenses of the wedding are borne by the groom; and many a young couple among the poor classes have to struggle bravely for years to pay the debt thus incurred. Others have had sufficient courage and good sense to resist the temptationb Marriage in '/apan. 143 of Ihe nntionnl custom. In sucli iiistiinces llie proceedings testify to the national talent for acting.' An Iionest couple li4ve a nianiageaijle daughter, and the, latter is acquainted with a fine young fellow, who would be a cii|)ilal match if only he possessed the necessary means of making his lady love and her parents the indispensaljle wedding presents, and of keep- ing open house for a week. "One fine evening, the father and molher returning from the bath, find the house empty, — the daughter is gone. They make inquiries in the neighborhood; no one has seen her, but the neighbors hasten to offer their services in seeking her, to- gether with her distracted parents. They accept the offer, and head a solemn procession, which g-oes from street to street to the lover's door. In vain does lie, hiding behind his panels, turn a deaf ear. He is at length obliged to yield to llie impor- tunities of the besieging crowd; he 'opens the door, and the young girl, drowned in tears, throws herself at the feet of the parents, who threaten to curse her. Then comes the interven- tion of charitable friends, deeply moved by this spectacle; the softening of the mother; the proud and inexorable attitude of the father; the combined eloquence of the multitude employed to soften his heart; the lover's endless [irotestations of his resolution to become the best of sons-in-law. "At lengtli, the father yields; his resistance is overcome; he raises his kneeling daughter, pardons her lover, and calls hini his son-in-law. 'Then, almost as if by enchantment, cups of saki circulate through the assembly; every body sits down upon the mats; the two culprits are placed in the center of the circle, large bowls of saki are handed to tliem, and when they are emptied the marriage is recognized, and declared to be validly contracted in the presence of a sufficient number of witnesses; audit is registeied the next day by the proper officer without any difficulty. "The fashion of wedding-trips is unknown in Japan. Far from leaving the young people to enjoy their happiness in peace, their friends resort to every sort of pretext for over- whelming them with invitations and visits, which are always accompanied by prolonged bouts of eating and drinking.'' During my stay in Yokohama, a young Japanese, whose name- 1 think was Taro, was employed by ar :44 Women of the Orient. acquaintance of mine, an American gentleman, as a betto, or groom. One day it came to the knowledge of his master that Taro had been smitten by the tender passion, and greatly desired to take to him- self a wife. Although poor, and belonging to the common class of laborers, he had saved enough from his moderate wages to pay the expenses of a suitable feast; and since he was certain that his six dollars a month would furnish ample support for a wife and family, he saw no reason why he should not marry at once. Through a friend he had learned that a certain young lady of sixteen was in the mat- rimonial market, and, as she was represented to him as possessed of every desirable attraction of form and features, to say nothing of her mental and moral excellencies, the susceptible groom had set his heart on obtaining h6r for his own. We ascertained that, by some means, he had succeeded in seeing her once, although she had no knowledge whatever of him. According to custom, Taro at once employed a mediator, who, going to the house of the girl's par- ents, and, gaining their ear, proceeded most, elo- quently to enlarge upon the superior excellencies and attractions of his client ; declaring that, although each of the other suitors for the young lady's hand" no doubt had his good qualities which commended him to their favor, still Taro possessed such a com- bination of virtues that he would certainly make the most desirable son-in-law of them all. Without con suiting the girl at all, a bargain was closed. Taro was to advance a certain sum as a present to the par- entis, and also as a seal to the contract. Since it Marriage in Japan. 145 was an unostentatious marriage in low life, my friend and myself were readily accorded the priv- ilege of being present in the little house of the groom, in one corner of the compound, when the final ceremony took -place. It was about eight o'clock in the evening, and, on our arrival, Taro appeared, dressed in his best, and attended by a few friends, male and female, all in holiday attire, all as gentle and polite as the Japanese know so well how to be, and uttering pleasant wishes for our comfort and happiness in well-chosen words of their soft and flowing language. The little building was illuminated with gay lan- terns, and bedecked with grotesque pictures ; and every little household ornament belonging to Taro or his expected bride was displayed to the best advantage. Presently the entire company formed a sort of semi-circle, sitting upon the soft, clean mats, and conversation became general, the natives chat- ting and laughing quite hilariously. In the meantime the mediator, or friend of the bridegroom, and a government officer, or registrar, were completing the ceremonies at the house of the bride, by recording the contract made with the par- ents, to which the parents and the mediator signed their names, and the officer affixed his official seal. About half-past eight our attention was attracted by lights near by upon the street, and, in a few mo- ments the mediator, the government officer, the parents, the bride, and a few of her select friends, presented themselves at the entrance of the cot- tage, and, removing their clogs and sandals, stood 146 Women of the Orient. together upon the clean matting of the little veranda-. At this point Taro proceeded formally to welcome- them, using the most elaborate terms known to Japanese etiquette, at the same time bowing and prostrating himself before them and bestowing all manner of humiliating epithets upon his most un- worthy self. His courtesy was promptly returned by the father of the bride. When this rather tedious performance was ended, the new arrivals proceeded to join the squatters already referred to, the groom and bride sitting to- gether by themselves in the center of the room. After some unimportant preliminaries, the registrar, with much show of official importance, and after the payment of an appropriate fee, produced his book, and carefully recorded the fact that the bride was at that hour, and with time-honored observances, brought to the house of Mr. Taro. The names of the parties to the contract and all those present at the wedding were added to the entr)'. After this came the supper, which consisted of rice, sweet potatoes, ducks' eggs, meat, and fish, with a great variety of confectionery; winding up with an abund- ance of the best salci, alternated with pipes and to- bacco. The feagt was evidently as sumptuous as the purse of Taro could possibly command, and was cer- tainly most enjoyable. About ten P. M. the guests, including the parents of the bride, all took their de- parture with many bows and smiles and good wishes, leaving' Taro and his wife alone to get acquainted at their leisure — since up to this time the^' had never exchanged a word — and the bride especially had , Marriage in J^apan. 147 enjoyed no opportunity to determine wbetlier her husband was agreeable to her or otherwise. At present the position of woman is being more rapidly advanced in Japan than in any other Asiatic country. Girls are securing, in the public as well as private schools, an education better suited to their wants as married women ; husbands, among the higher and more intelligent classes, are many of them proud to proclaim the fact that they honor and re- spect their wives, and accord to them their rightful position. Quite a number of advanced gentlemen have entered into marriage contracts which secure to the wife the same rights and privileges before the law that have formerly belonged exclusively to the husband. The government has set itself to improve the condition of woman by improving the marriage laws, and by allowing young people greater liberty in the choice of companions, and removing all re- strictions upon intermarriage between the different classes of society. Chapter VIII. MARRIAGE IN CHINA. IN China, marriage contracts are always n^ade tliroLigli the agency of a person called a "go-be- tween." Even where an intimate acquaintance exists between two families it would be regarded as indeli- cate and an inexcusable disregard of social conven- tionalities for the parents of either party to attempt to arrange a betrothal without the aid of a mediator. These match-makers belong to a class always em- ployed at weddings and funerals, and are regarded as servants of the more respectable sort. They circulate among the families of the neighborhood, and are supposed to be thoroughly familiar with every grade of article, male or female, which at any time is in the matrimonial market, and, therefore, able to sug- gest to parents .some particular place where they will be likely to find a suitable helpmate for their son. In families of the literary class, the entire mattei is sometimes arranged by a mutual friend in.stead of a professional go-between. This is regarded as a highly respectable method of procedure, and is a safeguard against either a lad or maiden who has some blemish or deformity being palmed off upon either family, a trick which an ordinary mediator will sometimes per- petrate for a suitable pecuniary consideration. Persons bearing the same family name are nevei 148 Marriage in China. 149 betrothed, no matter how distant the relationship. Those really most interested in the affair, — namely, the boy and the girl, — are seldom, if ever, consulted, since the boys are supposed to be entirely indiffer- ent, and the girls are not of sufficient importance to warrant any deference to their likes or dislikes. Courtship, love, or love-letters are out of the question. A girl may be offered to the son of her father's friend or to the son of an utter stranger, — it is a mere matter of business; no other consideration enters into the transaction. The initiative is usually taken by the parents or friends of the young man. The matrimonial broker is furnished with the ances- tral name of the young man, together with a memo- randum of the hour, day, month, and )'ear of his birth. When a family having a marriageable daughter is found willing to negotiate, they first consult a for- tune-teller, or cast lots before some popular god, to find out whether the proposed union will be pros- perous or not. The decision is made after comparing the name and exact age of the girl with those of the boy. If the reply is favorable, the negotiations proceed. The next step in order is, to determine the price to be paid to the parents or guardians ol the maiden. This depends upon the size of her feet, her age, the price of 'rice, and various other things pertaining to the particular locality in which she lives. If the girl in question is very young, and on account of the poverty of her parents, or for any other reason, is to be immediate^ transferred to the family of her future husband, where she will be 15° WOMEJ^ OF THE ORIENT. reared and trained exactly to his mind, she can usually be purchased for from five to ten dollars. In Foochow, I was told that a girl of six years could be purchased for fifteen dollars, while a girl of marriageable age, — say twelve or fourteen, — the expense of whose training is already met, costs from fifty to one hundred and fifty dollars. If a girl has small- feet she can only be purchased by a family able to maintain her without work. They are, therefore, expected to pay roundly for such an ornament. The large-footed girl, who is des- tined for the wife of a laborer, or, as a secondary wife, to be a useful and laborious member of the household, may be purchased for a much smaller sum. If the times are hard, and rice is high, and money is scarce, of course wives go down in the market, like pigs or poultry. At least a part of the stipulated price is paid at the time of betrothal, as bond money; other- wise the father's overmastering cupidity, which is a national trait, would certainly persuade him to dispose of his daughter to a higher bidder, should one chance to come along in the interim between betrothal and marriage, and thus the poor suitor would be suddenly left wifeless, with no possible chance of redress for the wrong done him. During the further progress of the negotiations, various ceremonies of a symbolic character are ob- served, and presents of greater or less value, accord- ing to the station and wealth of the parties, are exchanged. As with all other transactions in China, •there is a vast amount of "red tape" connected with these preliminaries; but, if the proposed match is to Marriage in China. 151 be a safe and profitable one, every law of custom must be strictly observed, even to the most un- important. A detailed account of these betrothal and marriage formalities would fill volumes, and be of little, if any, interest to the ordinary reader. The interval between betrothal and marriage varies from one month to fifteen or even twenty years, according to the age of the young people. As the day of marriage approaches the furniture of the bride, together with her entire outfit, except the robes and ornaments to be worn by her on the wed- ding-day, are sent, with great ceremony and display, to the home of her future husband, and the full amount of her purchase money is paid to her parents. This latter ceremony, the payment of her price, is never omitted or delayed, since this is positively the only compensation a Chinese father expects, or, in most cases, even values, for the trouble of rearing a daughter. Very frequently is the traveler in the narrow street of a Chinese city suddenly squeezed into a corner to make way for a procession convey- ing the effects of a bride to her husband's house. These consist of all sorts of things connected with household affairs, such as chairs, tables, boxes, trunks, bedding, fancy lanterns, paintings, choice plants and flowers, sedan chairs, pigs and chickens in coops, and provisions of every variety. Chinese families love to swell the display and attract the admiration of the crowd at such times, and, lacking the means to purchase, will oftentimes hire a large number of articles for the occasion, and thus by a judicious distribution of the expense the same outfit will serve 152 Women of the Orient. to grace the nuptials of a score or more candidates for matrimonial honors. If the betrothal take place after the bride has come to be a young woman, she is required to maintain the strictest seclusion until marriage. She sees only her relatives, and whenever she goes abroad it must be in a closed sedan chair; — and in her inter- course with her brothers and all her male relatives) she is expected to maintain the most dignified re- serve. She can form no new acquaintances, nor begin or even continue any of those associations which, if permitted, would add so much to the en- joyment of her future life. Her days of virtual seclusion from the world have already begun, to be ended only by old age or death. The principal ceremonies of the marriage-day are every- where the same in China; although the de- tails differ in different provinces, and even in different districts. In some localities the procession and chief ceremonies take place in the night; but usually the -day-tnme'is selected as more convenient and pro- pitious. Consequently no sight is more common to the traveler in this thickly populated country than the noise and parade and ornaments and feasting attendant upon these joyful occasions. I have wit- nessed several Chinese weddings, both in high and in low life, and have often stopped in the streets of large cities to make observations and notes when a marriage procession of more than usual magnitude and importance was passing. Instead, however, of giving a detailed account of a wedding in some particular locality, it will be Marriage in China. 153 better to follow the plan I have adopted, and men tion only those observances wliich seem to be gen- eral and invariable. The sedan chair in which the bride is to be carried to her future home, is furnished 154 Women of the Orient, by the family of the groom, and sent to the house of her parents a day or two before the wedding. A band of music goes before it, and a greater or less number of friends and hired attendants, with red hats, and bearing red lanterns, red umbrellas, red banners and streamers follow after. The straggling procession is accompanied by the usual number of noisy boys and street idlers, including a score or more of ownerless barking dogs. This bridal chair is. invarably red, and when the family of the groom is wealthy it is covered with some expensive ma- terial like silk or velvet, with an abundance of tassels,, streamers, festoons, and. other costly ornaments. On the morning of her marriage the bride arises very early, and proceeds, by the help of numerous attendants to bathe, and to make as elaborate a toilet as is possible under the circumstances. Her break- fast is. sent by her future husband, but is partaken of sparingly. When the appointed moment arrives, the bridal veil (also provided by the groom), is thrown over her head completely to hide her face, and, after observing various superstitious rites (of very much the same import as the custom, often observed in this country, of throwing an old shoe after a newly married pair when they leave the home of the bride), she takes her place in the bridal chair, which is closely shut. She is now ready for the WEDDING PROCESSION, to which she has always looked forward as the crowning event of her life; the especial feature of the day for which all other days were made. Some- Marriage in China. 155 times the bridegroom, and a few friends who have accompanied him, make a part of the procession; but more frequently he awaits, in his father's house, where the invited guests are assembled, the coming of the bride^ A great procession is a Chinaman's ideal of grand- eur, and, next to the triumphal progress of a man- darin, a marriage procession among the wealthy is, from a Chinese stand-point, as near perfection as any thing can be expected to approach in this world. By imperial edict both the groom and bride are permitted to wear certain articles of clothing forbidden, at other times, to all but the royal family. The bride may also have four bearers to her sedan chair, an honor usually granted to government officials alone. All such customs are designed to emphasize the importance and dignity of the marriage relation. But now the procession is ready to move, and all passers-by must clear the narrow street (never over eight feet wide), while curious foreigners may cram themselves into some side alley or shop door, from which the odd performance may be observed. First come four men, each bearing an unusually large and elegant silken lantern: two of these are inscribed with the ancestral name of the groom, and two with that of the bride. Next is usually borne a huge red umbrella, followed by a band of music. And such music! All the horns, gongs, cymbals, two-stringed fiddles, flutes, and 'drums in the neighborhood seem' to have been pressed into service for this occasion. No two in- struments are tuned alike; no performer seems to iS6 ll'OAt/iA' OF THE Ofi/Ji.Vr. '57 have the least idea of time or measure; it is simply one squeaking-, rasping, grating, thundering din, smiting upon tlic ear of the foreigner like what he might conceive to be the howling of lost souls, and banishing from his mind all thought whatever of dulcet sound or sympathetic cadence. A combina- tion of Scotch bagpipes, tin-pans, bass-diums, and horse-fiddles (when the boys of an American town are all out on a Fourth of July), would be celestial harmony compared to it. But the Chinese always seem to enjoy it, and cherish an open contempt for the uncultured "outside barbarian" whose ear finds no melody in gongs, no echoing sweetness in the lusty blasts of a bamboo horn. Following the band comes the bridal chair — closely shut. Sometimes her tiny feet may be seen peeping out from beneath the silken curtain in front; but her beaut}' and the elegance of her apparel must, at least for the time being, remain a matter of conjecture. The remainder of the procession is made up of friends and relatives of the families, followed by a greater or less number of common laborers and beggars employed for the occasion, and arrayed in showy and sometimes costly gowns and hats, but (like the ass in the lion's skin), their tattered and dirty condition is usually discovered beneath. These carry flags, tablets, banners, inscribed with the titles and excellencies of the contracting families, lamps, embroidered canopies, flaming torches even in the day-time, flowers, and other ornaments. Like the average American political procession, these walk in pairs, one on each side of the street, at long inter- 158 Women of the Orient. vals, and shout and sing in harmony with the band, and with a vehemence and persistency in proportion to their pecuniary compensation. 1 The entire parade seems to be under the direc- tion of a sort of drum-major dressed Hke a harle- quin, in a red cloak and pointed hat, who capers about like a monkey, .and lays full stress upon the importance of the occasion and himself. Sometimes these ludicrous processions extend for a mile or more. Curious spectators throng the streets and bridges and shops, discussing the families interested; and commenting upon the value and beauty of the articles displayed, including the bride as common report describes her. Unlike the Syrian or Indian custom of going out to meet the bridegroom, in most parts of China a deputation, consisting of the brothers or several inti- mate friends of the bridegroom, is sent out to re- ceive the bride. They usually meet the procession about half-way — always in a conspicuous place — and the ceremony of "receiving the bride" is observed. Various civilities and cards are exchanged by the two groups, and many bows and hand-shakings are indulged in. At this point, the two men with lan- terns bearing the bride's name turn back to her former home ; her name is now changed to that of her betrothed; her brothers and relatives of the family, who have thus far made a part of the procession, follow the retreating lantern-bearers; and, henceforth, the bride is in the midst of entire stranger^, except- ing her female servants, if she have any, who, I am told, still remain with her. Marriage in China. 159 When the door of the groom's house is reached great quantities of fire-crackers are let off, and the music by the band is louder and more terrible than ever. The chair is borne into the reception-room, and the groom stands by while the bride, still closely veiled, is assisted to alight by two married women who have borne male children, and are in virtuous and quiet subjection to their husbands. The groom and bride are now conducted to the bridal chamber, and are seated side by side on the edge of the bedstead, where they remain for some time, while a universal silence prevails in a most impressive contrast to the hurly-burly which has preceded it. When sitting down the groom tries to get a portion of the bride's robe under him, by which act he is supposed to insure her submission in the future; but sometimes she is too sly for him, and actually succeeds in setting herself down on a part of his dress, thus declaring her determination to insist upon her rights, and to repel any undue usurpation of domestic authority on his part. After this usually comes the religious part of the ceremony, which consists of offerings, and worship by the bride and groom before certain tablets in- scribed with the names of their deceased ancestors. At this a priest may or may not preside, according to the wishes of the parties. Following this are various ceremonies, among which is that of drinking wine together. Two gob- lets of jade stone, united by five colored silk threads, are partly filled with wine, which is then tlioroughly r6o Women of the Orient. mixed by pouring back and forth from one cup into the other. One goblet is now presented to the groom, and one to the bride. After they have sipped a httle of the wine, the goblets are changed, UlilNKING WINE TOGETHER. and the bride drinks from the one just used by the groom, while at the same time he finishes her por- tion. Sometimes, however, no silk threads are used; and then, again, only one goblet is used. The cus- tom as just described is, however, quite general, and symbolizes the joys and. sorrows of life which must be met by husband and wife together. Soon Marriage in China. i6( after this ceremony the bride's veil is removed, her liair elaborately arranged, her costliest robes put on, and she sits down with her husband at the table, — the only time in all her life that she is permitted so to do. Of the wedding-dinner he may eat as much or as little as he pleases, but she must not partake. She maintains a modest silence, while he usually, for the first time, beholds her features, and finds out whether she is pretty and attractive, or cross-eyed and ugly; whether he has drawn a prize, or been cunningly cheated in his matrimonial speculation. After he has gazed upon her and criticised her as long as he pleases, the parents and the invited guests are permitted to enter the room, to scan the bride, and freely to comment upon her appearance. Some pretty severe criticisms are usually indulged in by the females of the company. If the bride is regarded by the groom as handsome and a good bargain, any acquaintances of the family who may be near by, and even strangers who may be passing upon the street, are invited --to come in and take a look at her. During this cruel examination the bride is expected to smile modestly and show no temper, no matter what remarks may be made. If she succeeds in doing so, it is a good omen, and very much to her credit. She is now introduced to her husband's parents and other relatives, which act completes the marriage ceremony proper. Later in the day the groom sits down with his male friends to a feast appropriate to his circumstances. I am told that, in some parts of China, these male guests are each expected to bring the groom a valuable present, 1 62 Women of the Orient. usually of money, to assist him in meeting the in- creased expenses of his establishment. These dinners among the wealthy are often very -elaborate and costly affairs. One such which I at- tended, more in the character of a spectator than a guest, may be briefly described, as it was explained by the missionary friend who accompanied me. The dining-hall occupied one entire side of a beautiful court, fragrant with flowers, and ornamented with two or "three miniature fish-ponds. The place was alive with noisy attendants, fully impressed with the importance of the occasion, and determined to raise a corresponding hubbub. The hall was furnished with a long row of small tables, so arranged that three persons occupied each table, leaving the fourth side open to the interior of the place. The invited guests, most of whom were government officials, were gorgeous in their rich colored silks, fine embroidery, and costly ornaments, and had the self-satisfied air of men who enjoy the process of fattening at the public crib. When all were seated, each table was immediately covered with all sorts of delicate dishes, confectionery predominating ; and in the center, on an elegant silver stand, was placed the dish which constituted the course. With their wooden chop- sticks — which at the beginning of the feast are united at the big end like a couple of matches, to show that they have not been used before — the guests helped themselves as they chose to the various side dishes; but courtesy demanded that they should in- variably taste of the center dish, which was soon removed to make way for the next course. The Marriage in China. 163 dinner began at twelve o'clock, and did not conclude until after five in the afternoon. There are usually about fifty courses. A little cup on a silver stand, at the right of each, guest, was kept constantly filled with tea, without either milk or sugar. A second cup, on the left, was supplied with a kind of wine, which none but a Chinaman can drink. The servants glided about and kept each table well supplied, evidently anticipating the wants of the guests, as Chinese servants know so well how to do. Even to mention all the dishes which came and went would be, of course, impossi- ble, since there are mysteries about Chinese cooking, which only the thoroughly initiated can ever hope to fathom. The feast commences with tea, and finishes with soup. Relying upon my friend, and upon detailed ac- counts by others, who are equally familiar with such repasts, I may say, in general, that there were sharks'- fins; birds'-nests, — a curious glutinous substance built into their sea-cliff nests by a species of swallow, and very good eating too; peacocks'-livers; fricassee of poodle, — a little dog, rather like a pig; there was rice, of course, better than it can possibly be cooked in America; salted shrimps; baked almonds; cabbage in a variety of forms; the root of the lotus plant, tasting very like a boiled cucumber; there was green ginger, and preserved ginger; stewed fungi; fresh fish of almost every variety; onions mixed with every thing; salt; duck; and pig in every possible form, — roast, boiled, fried; and in the most delicately cured ham that the world affords. 14 .64 Women of the Orient. Along the side of the hall, opposite the open court, was erected a stage, upon which, during the entire dinner, a theatrical performance was going on. The play was historical, and represented the actions of both men and demons. The dresses were fan- tastic ; the actors spoke in a shrill, falsetto voice, very disagreeable to our ears ; the ground and lofty tumbling, freely introduced, was a marvel of skill and muscular strength ; the musicians sat at the back of the stage, stopping, if necessary, to tune their instru- ments in the middle of a scene ; the actors changed their robes without retiring; and one act ended with the beheading of a traitor, which was so well done that we could scarcely persuade ourselves it was not a reality. The singing was nasal and screeching, a falsetto of the most agonizing quahty; in fact, the least said about it the better. But the Chinamen seemed to delight in it, and the feast went merrily on to its close. The whole affair was a scene of costly profusion, in marked contrast with the poverty of the common people. Marriage feasts among the middle classes, several of which I attended, are similar to the one just de- scribed only less elaborate. These feasts are com- mon among the native population, and are prepared with more or less display, according to the purse or . the tastes of the giver. Sometimes, a great deal of money is expended in what is known as the Feast of Betrothal, as will be seen by the following ac- count given by Mrs. E. E. Baldwin, of Fpochow: "A Hole is a mandarin of the Crystal Button. A number of foreign ladies, willi nnself, were invited to be present at.tlie Marriage in China. " 165 celebration of the betiotlial of A Hok's little girl, six years old, to a little boy of eight. A large number of native ladies, of the very creme de la creme of Chinese society, -vcre present. No men were invited, of course, tliougii some of the male members of the immediate family were lookers-on. Six rooms were elegantly adorned for t!ie entertainment. It would be vain for me to attempt a description of the scene. The great variety and exquisite workmanship of many of the orjianients; the brilliant lanterns and chandehers; the flowers every-wliere; the professional musicians, and the jugglers with tlieir wonder- ful tricks; the elegantly dressed official ladies with their per- fection of 'heavenly feet,' incased in the tiniest satin shoes daintily embroidered; the marvelously beautiful and valuable head ornaments of the most delicate gold filigree work, on these same ladies' heads, their grace and elegant manners; the 'tiffin ■ (lunch) at five P. M., at which we were expected to eat but little, and the dinner at seven P. M., at whicli we must pay due courtesy, by eating of each of the seventeen courses and sixteen standing dishes — altogether, my dear friends, it was a recherchi affair, and 1 wish that you could, every one, have been there to 'look see' the entertainment, as the Cliina- man says. "The musicians played (and such music !) from four o'clock to half-past eleven P. M., at which time we left, grateful that we still retained the use of our ears, in spite of Chinese guitars, violins, drums, etc., etc. Occasionally the leader of the singing brought a fan, with a list of the songs printed on it, to us, for us each to select a song for them to sing. "The little bride was elegantly dressed, and seemed to enjoy the occasion. Tlie solid gold bracelets her little future husband sent her cost two hundred and seventy dollars. With them he sent her a bridal suit of scarlet Ijrocade silk, of very fine quality, which is to be preserved for the future wedding- day, some time in the years to come, proving the satisfactory permanence of Chinese fashions. At intervnls througliouL the afternoon and evening, servant women passed long silver pipes for the ladies to smoke. The foreigners respectfully declined, but the native ladies each time gave a puff or two on the pipes, letting the smoke come out of the nose ! The dinneij was served in tiny plates (ihere always being a central dish, into which every one dipped), and eaten from silver cups and plates, with 1 66 Women of the Orient. silver-bound chopsticks, and two-tined silver forks, also silver ladles for dipping into the common center dish! I append our bill of fare : BILL OF FARE. STANDING DISHES. Four kinds sweetmeats. Sweet picliles and cooked cucflmbers. PicUlcd cabbage and meat. Liver, gizzards, hearts, etc., of fowl. Preserved pork and red peppers. LiLtle fish, dried duck, and beans. Ham and mushrooms. Lotus root with mushroom. Mandarin oranges. Cooly oranges. Pumaloes, pears, dried watermeioD seed. Dried beans. DISHES IN COURSE. ist. Bird's -nest soup with pigeons' eggs. zd Ducks'-feet soup. 3d. Fish-brain soup. ■ 4th. Fresh shell fish. 5th. Fresh water fish with onions and Chutney. 6th. Chicken soup, yth. Sharks' fins. 8t1i. Mushroom and ham. 9th. Roof of pig's mouth and entrails. loth. Rice and vegetables. nth. Chicken stew and bamboo sprouts. i2th. Sponge cake and fruit pudding. 13th. Pork soup. 14th. Pork. 15th. Fowl cut up. i6th. Meat in pastry. 17th. Almond soup. "There! you have the list. Is n't it enough to make one's mouth water? /like bird's-nest soup with pigeons' eggs, can endure sharks' fins, don't long for pigs' brnins, and detest the roof oi pig's mouth and entrails! That dish just mentioned was too much for even my ocean-trained stomach. I immedi- ately appointed Miss P taster for the good of the missionary cause, and the poor woman nearly martyred herself swallowing red peppers so disguised that she never suspected what they were! Mrs. De Sano, the wife of our consul, ate of every dish, and rejoiced therein. She assured us that she would be very hungry for a Chinese dinner before she could be again favored with one. "I considered kercsXl to China w^j/ emphatic. But as foi myself, I am entirely resigned to do without Chinese dinners; at least I prefer to have not nlore than one a year!" At the marriage feast proper, the men, in their most convivial moments, even deign to chant (they can with no degree of truthfuhiess be said to sing) an occasional marriage song, from the classics, in Marriage in China. 167 praise of women; for example, tlie following, trans- lated by Dr. S. Wells Williams: "Our high dame is of lofty slalme. And wears splendid rolies, lienealh others of a darles settled in the belief that what little happiness there is for a girl in this world is derived from these things. Indeed, the poor consolations of religion are not offered to an unbetrothed maiden ; only with marriage does the religious life of a Hindoo woman really begin. Generally, among the better sort of people wheri a father has a daughter who has reached the proper age, he sends a message to some gentleman who has an unbetrothed son, of sixteen or eighteen, inviting him to a meeting. If the conditions are favorable, 170 Marriage IN INDIA. 171 the meeting takes place (the respective mothers are seldom even notified of the matter), and a full agree- ment is soon reached as to the amount of money and presents to be exchanged between the contract- ing parties, and the day is fixed for the ceremony. A father will contract his daughter to a man of middle age, or even to an old man just as readily as to a youth, if it is for his pecuniary or social advan- tage to do so. During my visit to Calcutta, a bright little girl of twelve years, the pupil of an American lady, was given in marriage to a toothless old man of sixty-five. Sometimes a gentleman will send out a professional female match-maker to find a suitable wife for himself or for his son. Says Miss Roderick, of Calcutta: "One day I went to visit a zenana where I teach only a little girl of ten. I found my pupil sitting on a ni;it, having her hair dressed by her motlier. The mother asked me to wait for a little while, as a woman had come in search of a wife for a Baboo, and she wanted to show the child to her. After the girl's hair was dressed, the mother brought some small boxes, and, taking out the jewels tliey contained, she made her daughter wear them. I watched the proceedings with great inte.'e.'it, and remarked that besides the ear-rings, my pupil wore a large jewel nearly the size of half my hand, on her hair above her ear, and made to fall on it. I thought it was a very ingenious device for hiding the dirty little pair of ears. A dark blue sarree was worn instead of a white one. When she was ready for the presentation, the mother said: 'What, have you not chewed a betel leaf, as yet? Do it directly.' The little girl dived under a bedstead in tlie room, and taking from thence some of the stuff they like so much, hastily put it into her mouth. "The cliild was then carried off to an adjoining apartment, with an injunction to put her arm out from her sarree, to show the jewels on it, and to say 'Good morning' to the person who had come in search of a bride." IS 172 Women of the Orient. These professional match makers are quite gen- erally employed by the middle and lower classes, and the wliole matrimonial transaction is a mere matter of busi- ness. Courtship, in our sense of the word, is an unheard of thing in India. The boy and girl know nothing of each othef ; never even write to each other. The boy laughs and jokes with his young asso- ciates about the proposed union, and talks as though a fine HKw, c-AsiR G.R.. w.THjrnviiLs. liorse, Or a rich shawl was about to be purchased for his enjoyment. The girl is instructed tp pray diligently for a go.dd husband, and then quietly to leave the entire mat- ter with her father As in China, the preliminary arrangements de- pend largely upon the decision of the astrologers and the Pundits, or. learned Brahmins; these all being favorable, and no questions of consanguinity, name, physical condition, nation, or family interfering, the contract is duly signed and sealed. The boy and Marriage in India. 173 girl, or man and girl as the case may be, are then lawfully betrothed by an officiating Brahmin, the wedding to take place in a longer or shorter time, according to the respective ages of the parties. As the bride is always (in India) a girl, she im- mediately, after betrothal, enters upon a new life. She must henceforth be secluded; she can no longer go into the streets or fields; and no man must look upon her face except her father and her own brothers. She often goes to her mother-in-law's house for a visit, but not to remain for any great length of time. She now enters upon the course of careful training for her marital duties, spoken of in a former chapter, in which her mother-in-law has more control over her than her mother. In her mother-in-law's presence she is obliged always to keep her veil, or chuddah, drawn over her face; she must not speak above a whisper, or even sit down, unless her mother-in-law expressly commands her. In visiting from time to time her mother-in-law's house, she is carefully ex- amined as to her proficiency in household matters, and is required, for weeks together, to prepare food and sweetmeats, such as her proposed husband de- lights in, and which he will eat if good, or reject if they do not please him; but she rarely^ if ever, sees her betrothed. The element of superstition enters largely into the preliminary arrangements for marriage, and almost every family has some custom peculiar to itself. Caste holds undisputed control in marriage, as in all things else, among orthodox Hindoos; and the insults which caste laws and ceremonies heap upon 174 Women of the Orient. women are mean and debasing to the very last de- gree. Hindoo law will not permit men of a high caste to marry women of a lower caste; and yet, since woman is but an article of merchandise, and has no particular rights which men are bound to respect, this law is often set aside by a specified sum of money being added to the bride as a make- weight, to render her social value equal to that of her husband. The Institutes of Menu declare: "Men of the twice-boni classes who, through weakness of intellect or irregiilaritj', iiKirry wonieii of tlie lowest class, very soon degrade their families and progeny to the state of Sudras. A Brahmin, if he takes a Sudra as his first wife, sinks to the region of torment; if he have a child by her, he loses even his priestly rank." The most fashionable months for weddings among strict Hindoos are said to be April and May. "But no father will have a marriage in his house during June, July,. August, and September, the universal belief being that the deity is then, during the wliole rainy season, down on a visit to the celebrated Rajah Bull, and is, consequently, unable to bless the rite with his presence." Even under British rule in India, and by decision of British courts, the will of a Hindoo father in all matters pertaining to his daughter's marriage seems to be absolute law, as appears by the following ex- tract from the India Evangelical Review: "An important case has lately come before the Judicial As- sistant Commissioner at Bangalore, T. R. A. Thumbu Chettiar Esq., of which the following is an epitome: In the year 1870, Marriage IN India. 175 Hucbi, a Hindoo girl of the Devangada or weaver caste, who had been for some time in one of the Caiiarese day-schools of the London Mission, became impressed witli the truth of Chris- tianity, and resolved to abandon Hindooism and profess lier faith in Cluist. In order to prevent tliis she was removed from the school by her parents, and subsequently, against her will, betrothed (that is, mariied, in the Hindoo sense) to one, Appiali, and carefully guarded. In 187 1, liowever, she found means to escape, and was baptized, slie being then about fourteen years ' of age. Immediately after her baptism she was forcibly taken away by lier relatives, and kept in close confinement for a con- siderable time. At length, in 1872, liearing that it was in con- templation to perform the shobdnd, or consummation marriage ceremony, she managed to elude the vigilance of her relatives, and went to tlie house of Miss Aiistey, Superintendent of the Girls' Day-school, who received and protected her. Subse- quently, a respectaljle native Christian offered to marry her; but on notice of the marriage Ijeing published, Appiah, to whom tlie girl had been forcibly betrothed, protested against the marriage, and claimed the girl as his wife. The action was brought by Miss Anstey on the girl's behalf, in order to obtain relief and damages for preventing her marriage. The exam- ination of witnesses occupied several days, and excited great interest, especially among the heathen population, who crowded the court on the days of trial. "The chief point to be determined was, whether the forcible betrothal of the girl to Appiah held good, she having resisted to the uttermost of her power, and the marriage never having been consummated. It was argued on the girl's behalf that the law does not allow of tlie marriage of a Hindoo girl above eleven years of age, except with her own consent; and that, in this case, no such consent having been given, the betrothal was void. "The judge, in an elaborate judgment, gave it as his opin- ion that Hindoo girls have no personal rights, but are under the control of their parents or guardians until they are eighteen years of age; and, therefore, dismissed the case with costs. " The case will be appealed to a higher court, in order to ascertain whether the above judgment rightly interprets the law. But however the law may now stand, there is evident need of some enactment that shall protect the rights of minors, 176 IVOMEN OF THE ORIENT. when they manifest so much intelligence as the judge himself admitted was manifested by the giil in this instance, in hei examination before tlie court." Although the wedding ceremonies of the Hindoos differ in different provinces of the great Empire and among different castes, there are certain general cus- , toms observed by all, which may be' appropriately noticed here. A gentleman traveling in India may have personal knowledge of certain public ceremonies in connection with marriage, both among the rich and the poor, but of those observed in the privacy of the family residence, and in the presence of the I'elatives and friends of the parties and the officiating priest, he can have no knowledge, except through his lady friends, who are sometimes invited by native families, where they are sufficiently well acquainted. I shall, therefore, take the liberty to place before the reader a description of a wedding in a high-caste and wealthy family, by Miss H. G. Brittan, irj the Missionary Link for October, 1864: "I have just returned from the wedding, and will try my best to describe it. As we entered, we found the doorkeeper waiting for us at the door, to clear the way for us into the house. The court was roofed over with a handsome painted canvas, the pavement covered with a good Brussels carpet, on which about two hundred men were sitting. At the upper end was the god's house, tastily hung witli small red curtains, and brilliantly lighted. A number of Brahmin priests were sittmg near it. We went up-stairs to the upper veranda over- looking the court, where were a number of Baboos. Chairs were placed for us here to witness the ceremony, after we had paid our respects to the ladies and our handkerchiefs were saturated with rose-water. "During this time the two fathers and the groom were sitting on the platform among the Brahmins, making their Marriage IN India. 177 sctllements and agreements, the groom promising llic bride's f'atlier to be kind and good to liis daugliter. Soon some boys presented every guesl witli a small bouquet of flowers, very tastefully arranged. Again, a silver box was passed around, filled with some exquisite perfume, into which each one dipped a finger. After this, a garland of small while flowers, with an odor like our tuberose, was thrown around the neck of every one. We were then called to go to the ladies' apartments, and were permitted to see the bride. Many thousand rupees' worth of jewels had been given her by her father, forming a part of her wedding dower. "She was dressed in a red silk sarree, embroidered with gold, with a golden border. On her head was an elegant orna- ment of gold, most richly wrought, and set with jewels; a fringe of gold and pearls hanging over her forehead. This is placed just where the hair meets the forehead, and passes around to the back of the head, while front the center of the forehead another blind, exactly similar, passes across the parting, and joins the back hair. Her ears were pierced in six places, and loaded down with ear-rings of the most exquisite workmanship. Both arms were covered with armlets and bracelets, excepting just at the bend of the elbow. Passing four times around her loins was a heavy gold chain, fastened by a massive gold buckle set with precious stones. "She had as many as a dozen silver bangles on each leg, some falling over the foot as far as the toes; these being very wide, and edged with a fringe of small silver bells that made a soft tinkling noise as she moved. She had just been bathed in rose water, and her feet and hands dyed afresh with henna. After inspecting the bride wewere led into the veranda that over- looked the inner court for the women. On the ground of the court below us stood a small pan, filled with little flaming balls, which shed a bright light. Close beside this fire stood the groom, as motionless as a statue, dressed in a sarree of bright pink silk and tinsel; on his head a very high cap, composed ot white silk and tinsel, with immense tassels depending from each side. In front of him stood the family barber, who was mas- ter of ceremonies, blowing the trumpet. The groom stood thus motionless, on and surrounded by plantain leaves, when pres- ently a procession of closely veiled women appeared, each bearing something on her head in a sort of tray of basket-work 178 WOAfEN OF THE ORIENT. "The first was the bride's mother, who carried in the tiay on her head a number of blazing balls, and in her right-hand a dish of water, 'i'lie other women had various kinds of food in their trays. They passed around the groom seven times, the mother spilling the water so as to form a circle. The seventii time, when she was directly behind the groom, she suddenly threw the tray, with fire, over his head, which fell in front at liis feet. She then came round, turned the tray right-side up in front of the groom, and stood on it, saying something to him, while touching his face and cliest with plantain oil. Suddenly the bride appeared for tlie first time, carried, Ijy the barlaer and his assistants, on a piece of board, covered with emblematical devices. Slie was carried seven times around the court witliin the circle formed by lite- water, and then placed at his feet, while all tlie time tlie groom moved not a muscle. At this time the bride's sarree was not drawn over her face, but slie held it down so that he could not see her at all. "The barber and his assistants now lifted the bride to a level with the groom's face, a large sheet was brought and held over the heads of all, the bride's mother and one of tlie aunts standing under the sheet. These held lights close \\\> to the pair, who were supposed now to look at each other for the first time. They remained in this position about five minutes. Dur- ing this time the barber would vary his performance of blow- ing the horn by occasionally uttering a wild shriek. This was imprecating curses on whoever should presume to say any thing evil of the young couple. "The slieet was now removed, and the groom passed tlirough the passage, leading to the first court, and into the god's house, and the bride was carried after him. Here they were seated opposite each other in a circle which had been elaborately chalked on the floor the day before by the bride's mother; while between them was placed a vase filled wilh flowers. The groom's hand was placed on this with the pahn upward — the bride's on his in the same way. In her open palm was placed a number of rupees. Then wreaths of white flowers were thrown over their heads, and.a cloth over them. The rupees were for the priests, who now laid down the law most emphat- ically to the two fathers, but saying nothing to either the bride or the groom. The father of tlie bride and one of the priests then sat in front of the young couple. In front of the fnllicr Marriage in India. 179 was a silver disli, sha.ped like a shoe, and filled with water, also coiilainiiig a very handsome ruby ring, and a tliiii iron brace- let. The ring was given to the groom, the bracelet to the bride; tlien some of the water was sprinkled on them and some flowers thrown at them. The bride was then lifted upon the boards and carried first to the groom's right, and then to his left side, there seated wliile the ends of their sarrees were tied together, and the priest pronounced them man and wife. The groom then stood up, the bride was placed standing in front of him with her back toward him, and his arms were put around her. A plate was put into her hands with some rice and plantains, and a wisp of straw was lighted and placed flam- ing at her feet. Again the bride was seated by the groom's side, he putting some red powder upon lier hair at the parting, which is the distinguishing mark of a married woman, and lier sarree was drawn like a veil over lier head and face. "On her forehead, over the veil, were placed two broad sil- ver plates, like Jewisli phylacteries, and then both parties dis- appeared tlrrough the side-door, and the ceremony was over. The groom went among the Baboos, and the bride to the women's apartments. We retired soon after ten, but the whole night was spent by the company in feasting, watching the dancing-girls, etc." The meaning of these ceremonies can not well be ascertained by a foreigner, but all are symbolical, and none of them can be omitted by orthodox Hin- doos; especially those parts which put money into the pockets of the Brahmins. In many instances, when that point in the ceremony is reached where the bride sits at her husband's left-hand, the little lady claims the right of a bride by asking of her husband seven things: " I. Without her advice lie shall purchase no cattle. "2. He shall love her in childhood, youth, and old age. "3. He shall never sacrifice to the gods without her. "4. Household work shall be in her charge. "5. He shall give her food and garments suitable for all seasons. (8o Women of the Orient. "6. He shall not abuse her in the presence of other ladies. "7. He shall take her advice in all principal work.'" In turn he asks of her that " I. She shall go nowhere without his order. "2. She shall not talk with drunkards, madmen, etc. "3. She shall not leave the house at midnight or at noon-time. "4. She shall not hate the 'garment or form of her husband.' " Among the poor of the lower castes these wed- ding ceremonies are, of course, not so elaborate, but all essential features (especiall)' the religious) are observed with equal care. The public part of the wedding is the procession on the occasion of carrying the bride to her perma- nent home in the house of her husband. If the girl is of age at the time of the wedding she is taken to her husband's home at once ; but if she is too young the wedding procession is deferred until the third, fifth, seventh, or ninth year after. The bride- groom, according to superstitious custom, can not remove his bride from her father's house except in these years. If the parties are poor they walk in the wedding procession, all except the bride, who rides in a bul- lock-cart or a palanquin. The greatest share of the expense falls upon the family of the bride, as they are obliged to enteftain the groom and his friends, on this occasion, as long as they choose to remain. Among the very wealthy the carrying home of the bride is an occasion when the Asiatic passion for display reaches its highest point of gratification, and often is not even limited by the real ability of the Marrjagb in India. 181 parties concerned. In city or in country the traveler is constantly meeting these processions when the groom is either going for or carrying home his new wife. Our Savior, in the parable of the wise and foolish virgins, represents this ceremony as taking place at midnight, and this is frequently the case in India. Several times I have been aroused from my sleep in a ddk-gdri, or palanquin, or perhaps in the house of a friend, or a dak-bungalow, by the music and shoutings of such a parade. According to the translation of my resident friends, the cry on such an occasion was invariably "The bridegroom cometh! tlie bridegroom cometh!" Flaming torches, abundant wedding presents, stately elephants, or gayly bedecked palanquins usually made up the show. In Moradabad, northern India, I met such a pro- cession just a little before sunset. In this case the parade was led by a most majestic elephant, decked out with abundant and extremely showy trappings, and really seeming to enjoy the attention he attracted from the crowd. Upon his back was the groom going for his bride. With him were several men in fantastic dress who at intervals scattered pice, the smallest coin of Jhe country, among the poor people who followed after. Behind the elephant came the friends of the groom, some in bullock-carts, and some in wagons drawn by horses, some on horseback, and some on foot, a motley crowd indeed. The same night, on our way out of the city in a ddk-gdri, a little be- fore midnight, we met the same groom carrying home his bride, when our curiosity was still further gratified by the flaming torches, revealing the dusky 1 82 Women of the Orient. features of the enthusiastic crowd, and by the weird- ness of the entire scene, as the procession straggled along through the darkness. Our di'iver blew his horn, our servants joined the general shout, and the hubbub was enough to wake the Seven Sleepers. All this, I was informed, would be highly gratifying to the groom, as the louder the noise the greater the "swell." The first Hindoo marriage procession which I met was in the day-time, in the city of Calcutta. First came a band of native music, which was far more powerful than pleasant, and yet it might have been worse, especially had it been a Chinese band under similar circumstances. But it was eminently adapted to calling the attention of every body to the approaching show, and, as that was the sole object of the music, it was most certainly the right thing in the right place. The procession was the usual one on the occasion of carrying home the bride. Next the music the bridegroom made his appearance mounted on a richly caparisoned white horse, which pranced and caracoled in a manner well calculated to show off the really fine horsemanship of the rider. ,The groom wore a sort of crown on his head, a flowing coat trimmed with gold thread, silken trousers and profusely embroidered slippers. As he was very \/ealthy his crown and garments were resplendent with jewels, and a double necklace of pearls was twined round his neck and hung loosely upon his breast. Belted round his waist and thrown carelessly over one shoulder was an Indian .shawl, which my Marriage in India. 183 missionary friend assured me was probably worth no less tiian two thousand dollars. His male friends were, some of them, shouting and dancing around him, while others brought up the rear in vehicles of various sorts. In some wedding processions which I saw, the bridegroom was seated on a sort of platform covered with an awning of rich silks, and borne on the shoul- ders of eight or ten men. Immediately behind the bridegroom came the palanquin of the bride, an elegant conve3'ance carried by bearers dressed in gaudy costume, and shouting with the rest of the crowd. The bride and her beauty we had to take on trust; but we were assured that she was within the palanquin, gorgeously appareled and closely veiled ; the blinds or curtains were closely shut, and thus, in jealous seclusion, the little creature was being borne on to a famil)'^ circle with which she can prob- aljly have no sympathy, to a life every year of which will undoubtedly be marked by wrongs and insults and oppression unknown to the outside world, neither seeking nor expecting from her husband that love and sympathy which might have been given her by a man of her own choice. When such a procession nears the young man's home quite a number of the invited guests there as- sembled, and who, if it is at night, have kept ' ' their lamps trimmed and burning, go forth to meet the bridegroom." The bride enters her apartments in which she is ever after to be a close prisoner, the door is shut, while in the more public parts of the r: ^ablishment the great feast goes merrily on until t84 Women of the Orient. morning dawns and sometimes even for several days. By that closed door the young Hindoo bride is shut in from nearly all that can render life worth having, from all inspiring and compensating associations, from all intelligence, from all true happiness, and well- nigh from all hope. Her bridal procession is ended, the day to which she has looked forward as the crown- ing glory of her life has passed. The door is shut. For the purpose of illustrating both classes of Hindoo society, it may not be amiss to introduce here a description of a wedding in a poor family, by Rev. F. B. Cherrington, of Seetapore, in the province of Oudh: "The other day our dhobie (washerman) came to me, say- ing: 'Sahib, meri hirkian sham ko shadi kurciigi ' (Sir, my girls will be married this evening). 'Well,' said I, 'what of it?' Looking meek as only a Hindoo can, he replied: 'Sahib, it is the custom of our^ountry for employers to give presents on such occasions to their servants.' Not knowing much about the nice way these people have of begging (I have grown wiser since) I gave him a present for each girl. I then asked if he would let me see the wedding. Clasping his hands and bowing almost to the floor, he said nothing would gratify him more than to have the Sahib's presence in his poor hut at that time. "I went on with my work jjntil about four o'clock, when all at once general bedlam seemed let loose right in front of my study. Not knowing what to make of it, I rushed to the door, and saw about twenty dhobies in gala dress, near the veranda. Two fellows (not dhobies) were dancing at a furious rate, while two others were singing Hindoostani songs through their noses, and thumping kettle-drums. It was the wedding- party; and in this way the compliments of the bridegrooms were delivered to the Sahib. "The two bridegrooms seemed about fourteen and sixteen years old; they were dressed in bright-colored gowns that came down to their feet, and on their heads were crowns of red, white, green, blue, and yellow tissue paper. Marriage in India. 185 "After looking at them awhile, I said 'bus' (enough); so they went on to the dhobie's house, sat down in a circle, ate sweetmeats, smoked, and then danced again. Inside the hut the women were getting ready tlie brides, one fifteen and the otlier thirteen years old. "Late at night the old pundit, or priest, went through the marriage ceremony, wliich required a vast amount of powwow- ing on his part, a good deal of bowing, twisting, and turning from the guests, and a great deal of present-giving from the l^arents. "The father of the girls had to give to the fathers of the boys forty-five dollars' worth of clothing, cooking utensils, and furniture, though his wages are only two dollars a month. Each of the fathers of the boys then gave him in return about two dollars' worth of clothing. You see, there is quite a differ- ence in the cost between getting one's boys married and getting somebody to take one's girls in this country. "In addition to the gifts made by the girls' father, he had to bear the whole expense of the wedding-feast, which con- tinued three days and nights, with about fifty guests present all the time. The whole cost to the father must have been nearly a hundred dollars. How he will ever be able to pay it out of two dollars a month's salary is to me a question hard to answer. But it is no uncommon thing for Hindoos to be in debt for their great-grandmother's wedding expenses. Do you wonder that they always think it a calamity to have girls instead of boys? This is one reason why so many of the poor people used to kill their little girls. The little girls wore dresses of the gaudiest possible colors, — red, green, and yellow figures of large size and fantastic shape; around their waists, and drawn up over tlieir heads, were fine white muslin chuddars ; around their necks were necklaces of solid silver; on thumbs, huge rings, with 'sets' on them as big as a half-dollar; their arms, from wrists to elbows, were covered with bracelets of silver, brass, and brightly painted wood; on their ankles were heavy-looking silver anklets; on their toes, rings of awkward shape and in- convenient size; in their ears were cruel rings, the part going through the ear being as large as a man's thumb. "There are several stages in a Hindoo wedding. Six different ceremonies must take place, several weeks apart. The one I have described was the next to the last, which takes 1 86 Women of the Orient. place at the bridegroom's house when the bride goes to her new home. No guests are invited outside of the caste except the priests, who must he Brahmins, and must be liloerally paid for their services." In many parts of India, the American and En- glish ladies who are engaged in teaching native girls and women are effecting the beginning of a very great change in the customs relating to marriage. They bestow upon young girls of low caste such an education as makes them vastly superior to their high-caste sisters, and fits them for wives of the most intelligent men. It is already stated by reliable per- sons that many young Brahmins of the more liberal and intelligent sort are marrying these girls in spite of their caste, preferring either to lose caste or pay a heavy penalty, a^id secure wives who are their equals in intellectual culture, rather than marry girls of their own high caste who are little better than chat- tering dolls. Important changes are also slowly going on through the influence of the sect called the Brahmd Somaj. This is the theistic reformed sect, now led by Keshub Chunder Sen. Their religion and doctrmes are rather after the kind of prof^ressive Unitarianism. These Brahmos do not believe in caste or any of the old superstitions, and are progressive in all points relating to morals and social life. They do not ac cept Christ as divine, although they reverence his character and teachings. The movement has been very popular among the most intelligent Baboos; but further than striking a vigorous blow against idolatry it has hardly met the Marriage IN India. 187 expectations of Christian scliolars. Members of this sect have adopted substantially Christian ideas and customs relating to marriage, thereby creating, in some parts of the country at least, quite a social commotion. The following account of a wedding among the Brahm6s is from the Delhi Gazette of July 7, 1871: "A novel sight was seen nt Lucknow night before hist. A marriage, according to the Bralini6 ritual, was performed for the first time in this city. INlore than five hundred persons of all ranks were present. Hindoos, Mohammedans, and Chris- tians joined the wedding piirty. Persons of all creeds and color were respectfully welcomed, and every one was pleased with the urbanity and affability of the bride's father. "Here we must inform our European readers that the cere- mony did not take place in a temple or a church during the day, but at night under the open canopy of heaven, at the honse of the bride's father. Europeans sat in chairs, and the natives sat on carpets in the usual posture. "The place was elegantly decorated with garlands of flow- ers and creeping plants. Usually in a native marriage there is much noise and conftision; but nothing of the kind was per- ceived on this occasion. The bridegroom was taken to a court- yard adjoining the zenana, — or apartments for the females,- where also seats weie arranged for the spectators. "Baboo Keshub Chunder Sen, in his capacity of high priest, dressed in dhotee and chadar, sat on a raised platform, with two small books bound in vellum before him. On his left were placed different articles to be presented by the bride's father to the bridegroom. In front of him sat the latter, facing the former. A most interesting ceremony then commenced. Baboo Keshub Chunder made, in Bengalee, a short, excellent prayer of thanksgiving, invoking the blessing of the AU-rtierci- ful Father. His Bra1im6 friends sang a touching hymn, and stillness prevailed to such an extent that even a pin-fall could be heard. The high-priest asked the bride's father to take permission of the gentlemen present to unite his daughter in the holy bonds of matrimony. Then came the blushing bride of about twelve years of age, wrapped from head to foot in a 16 |S8 WOMSN OF THE ORIENT. licli Benares Saree, wearing a few jewels and looking lovely. She s;U wiLli downcast eyes on tlie lefl-liand side of Iier fiitlier, ficing her intended husband. All eyes were fixed on them and all present, in their motionless attitude, seemed to ask by their ea^er looks, ' Hurry on, we are getting impatient to observe what will next follow.' Baboo l'r:\lap Cluinder Majoomdar, the Icctin-er of Saturday night, sat on the left side of the bride- groom, with a poihee of red leaves in his hand, assisting Baboo Keshul) Chunder. Helsegan to read mantras in Sanskrit and Bengalee, which was first repeated by the bi idegroom's father, and then by the bridegroom and the bride. After presentation of flowers and a ring, the bridegroom was requested by the bride's father to marry his daughter. Just at this moment the high-priest, in his clear, sonorous voice, asked both the bride and bridegroom whether they, of their own 'accord, wished to be united. Such bashfulness came over them, that for a few seconds none of them would say any thing. Then an almost inaudible 'yes ' was heard. Baboo Keshub Chunder prayed to God to jom them inseparably as husband and wife. 'J'he blessing of the Most High was eloquently invoked, the Scicred Unot was tied (with the words, 'Your heart is mine and mine is yours'), and the happy pair was addressed to love and help each other in happiness and sorrow. All the Brahmds present then sang in chorus, praising God and blessing the holy union. Our hearts thrilled when all the Brahni6s, with closed eyes, in most humble and suppliant attitude, prostrated themselves, and, with one voice, burst forth, 'God's love and mercy are our only treasures on earth; this is our only help. He is one and indivisible; peace and good-will among men. Amen.' " The ceremony ended, for a few minutes not a single v/ord was spoken ; every one felt the charm and remained spell-bound, transfixed on the ground. There was no noisy applause, no clapping of hands, or any thing to indicate the feel- ings of the company. The interest taken was too deep to be expressed by acclamation. The ceremony occupied about an hour and a half, and during this time perfect order was niain- lained. Then came shaking of hands and congratulations of friends. The new husband and wife joined the ladies who were not among the mixed assembly. Brahm6 ladies, we understand, have no objection to appear before others; but the scene was too public, and they did well, we think, in not Mark /AGE in India. 189 making their appearance. They witnessed every thing, how- ever, from behind the chicks. "The up-country gentlemen manifested so nuich concern in all that went on before them, that many of them camo to IJaboo Keshub Chunder, and eagerly requested him to trans late tlie ritual into Urdoo. It would do good, they said, and socd by this means may be sown, which may bear noble fruit'i in future. Tlie company dispersed at about eleven P. M., ex- tremely pleased with all they saw and heard." The question of marriage is the occasion of much trouble among Christian missionaries in the Orient, as the converts to Ciiristianity hardly have courage enough to bear tlie social disgrace of having their girls grow up unmarried. But as the number of converts increases and young people are being trained up together under the enlightening influences of the Gospel, heathen customs and superstitions are grad- ually abandoned, and the pure and simple principles of Christianity regarding marriage are adopted. In weddings among native Christians there is often an amusing mixture of European and Asiatic customs; but the rehgious observances of these occasions are invariably according to the usages of the Christian Church, fully recognizing the rights of both parties to the solernn transaction. The firmness of our mis- sionaries upon this point is productive of great good and worthy of all commendation. Chapter X. POL YGAMY AND DIVORCE. POLYGAMY, in one form or another, has always been the bane of Oriental nations; the fruitful source of many great evils peculiar to those nations. From the days of Abraham until now, deceit, heart- burnings, bickerings, strifes, jealousies, intrigues, murder, and licentiousness have followed in its train; true love has, in its presence, given place to sensual passion, and woman has become the slave, rather than the companion of man. The word home, as symbolical of confidence, sympathy, rest, happiness, and true affection, is not found in the vocabulary of polygamous lands. Polygamy is subversive of God's order; and, beginning by poisoning the very sources of domestic and social prosperity, its blighting influ- ences are felt and seen in every dep'artment of national life. Polygamy, wherever found and however modified, is an unmitigated curse. A Japanese husband has but one legal wife, and yet so low is the estimate placed upon woman, and so numerous and trivial are the reasons which justify legal divorce, that sue cessional polygamy is quite common. If the first lawful wife presents her husband with the children he desires and expects, she is, in the great majority of cases, retained; but even then her husband may, I go Polygamy AND Divorce. 191 if he choose, introduce one or two or more concu- bines into his family. Abihty to support them is the only limit to his personal gratification in this particular. If the first wife is childless, and is still retained, an agreement is often entered into by her- self and husband, whereby he is permitted to bring one or more handmaidens into the family, the wife having a voice in their selection. At this the lawful wife is said to feel no jealousy, but to regard it as an increase of her household dignity and authority, since, nominally at least, she is undisputed mistress over them all. The middle and lower classes of Japan are pro- tected from this scourge by their narrow means. The great mass of shopkeepers, artisans, farmers, and laborers are engaged in a hand to hand struggle with poverty, and any additions to the household beyond those which come as the result of regular marriage, are undesirable, if not impossible. Yet even among these, for the reasons above given, suc- cessional polygamy is not uncommon. After consulting the very best authorities, I am convinced that the actual proportion of men who maintain more than one wife is not over eight per cent of the entire population. Some; light is thrown upon the practical workings of this system among the upper classes by the following statement which is made by Mrs. M. Pruyn in relation to a pretty Japanese girl whom I saw in her household at Yokohama : " 'O'Hatz,' as she is called, was brought here by her hus- band, wlio is a prince of high position, and, as such, is entitled 192 Women of the Orient. to several wives. He is an ambitious man, and had purposed going to America to study for three years, and as she was liis youngest wife, and of a family equal to his own in rank, he took a fancy to have her educated here, while he went abroad, and accordingly made arrangemeuts with us to keep her for several years. She was a quiet, timid little girl, just fifteen yeai-s old, afFeclionale and gentle, with very little energy or mental power. She gave us a fair illustration of the inert and helpless life of the women of the higher classes in Japan, for whom there is nothing more elevating than to eat, sleep, smoke, and phiy on their musical instruments. Brought into contact with so much that was new and stimulating, she became quite a different being, and we had begun to have great hopes that she would develop into a woman of some character and influence. But these hopes were not to be realized. Her husband became ill just after slie came to us, and, after several months of sickness, was obliged to abandon the idea of going to America. With this change in his own plans, he seemed to lose all ambition for her education, and finally, after several intimations of his purpose, he sent a messenger to take her from us. It was a sad day for the poor child when she was compelled to leave us, and as she clung to us in her tears and sorrow, we almost won- dered she could be so unwilling to go to her husband and lier home. It was not till Miss Crosby went, some months after- ward, to visit her, that we had any just conception of the misery of her life. There we found that the presence of other and more favored wives condemned our poor little 'O'Hatz' to a position little better than that of a slave, and that she was living in utter subjection to the caprice and tyranny of both husband and wives; Oh, is not this a picture of the condition of women in Japan that should stir up the sympathy of all who live in favored Christian lands?" In Chitia a itian is allowed as many wives as he may desire and can maintain. It is simply a question of dollars and cents. Among the laboring classes it is rare to find more than one woman to one man; but merchants, government officials, and, in fact, mechanics and farmers in easy circumstances, quite commonly grace their establishments with one or •Polygamy AND Divorce. 193 more "inferior wives," as they are called. These are either purchased as slaves, or are the daughters of poor people, who are not able to secure a more desirable marriage settlement for them. These in- ferior wives are more than concubines, in the com- mon acceptation, since they have some legal rights, and are regarded as in the highest degree respectable. When a man marries an inferior wife, the com- pensation to her parents is small. She brings little, if any, outfit with her. She is borne to her hus- band's home in a common black sedan chair, with but little parade and no public announcement. A marriage ceremony is always observed in such a case, elevating the woman to the position of a wife, although inferior; but before she and her husband worship the ancestral tablets of the family together, she is required to kneel before her husband and his principal or first wife, and worship them, vowing to obey the first wife as her mistress.. Thus consti- tuted, the model household is illustrated in the Chiiiese classics by comparing the first wife to the moon and the inferior wives to the stars, both of which, in their appropriate spheres, wait upon and revolve around the husband as theii^ sun. Such an arrangement as this, although sanctioned by custom and by the first wife, does not, as a mat- ter of course, conduce to peace and harmony in the family. This the Chinese very well know, and tiiey have a proverb that "nine women out of ten are jealous." This, however, does not seem to affect the matter one way or the other, and the man who is able to support them, increases the number of his 194 Women of the Orient.- matrimonial incumbrances according to his own will and pleasure. If wealthy, he will sometimes strive to compromise with evil by providing a separate es- tablishment for each of his wives. If he travels much he usually takes one favorite wife with him; or if business calls him regularly to several different places, he will support a wife and household in each of them. Mrs. Nevius, of Ningpo, relates that she was one day paying a visit to a respectable Chinese family who lived near her, when the lady of the house, as they sat conversing, informed her guest, with no ap- parent annoyance at the fact, that her husband had three wives, adding, "I am the chief" A younger woman soon entered with tea and tiffin. Pointing to her, the hostess remarked, "She is the mother of these children" — two nice little boys, who hung about her with as much freedom and affection as if she had been their own parent. The third wife was absent with her husband, at a place some distance from Ningpo. In any case, however, a "much married man" will usually realize more trouble than pleasure from such mixed and: unnatural relations. The principal or first wife of a wealthy Chinaman is always of the small-footed class, and is, of necessitj', maintained as a lady. To avoid, as far as possible, the evils of a divided household, the principal wife is the legal mistress of the establishment, while the inferior wives are practically maid-servants. All the children of the household call the principal wife mother, and are governed by her. These inferior wives are Polygamy and Divorce. 193 almost always of the large -footed class, and perform the labor of the household; or, if the husband be a farmer, they as- sist him in the fields. Upper class fami- lies are strongly ad- verse to allowing their daughters to occupy any but the position of first wife, and never con- sent to it except un- der the most press- ing circumstances. Inferior wives, and even the single wives of the poorer classes, are bought and sold, under cer- tain le^al restric- fiust wife, wh-h small feet. tions, like so many cattle, and often without the slightest reference to their personal wishes in the matter. Doolittle says: "Very poor funiilies are frequently unable to find reputable girls wlio are willing to many tlieir sons, and sometimes tliey are quite unable to be at the expense of buying a wife, or of marrying lier according to the estaljljshed customs. 'I'liey therefore sometimes plan to purchase the wife of a Uviiig man, who may desire, for some reason which to his mind is a justi- fication of the act, to sell her. The price paid for such a wife is much less than it would be necessary to payifor a girl or a female slave, and the expense of the marriage festivities would also be much less tlian in case of marrying a reputable girl. The purchaser of a living man's wife must receive from him a 17 196 Women of the Orient. hill of sale, slating that she is sold by liim lo be llie wife of the buyer. Tlie woman must be willing to be thus disposed of She is conveyed in a common black sedan to her purcliaser's lesidence, where she and he worship heaven and earth and the ancestral tablets of his family, and eacli other, in much the ustial manner as on otiier wedding occasions, and Iiis friends and relatives are invited lo a feast. 'Die custom of mairying the wife of a living man is not very common, and is prac- ticed oflener in country places than in cities. The Chinese use the same terms to indicate the sale and the purchase of children and wives that they use when speaking of the sale and purchase, of land or cattle, or any description of property." The whole system of polygamy in China evi- dently has its origin in the universal desire for male children to perpetuate a man's name and to burn incense before. his tablet after death; which involves the fact, already referred to at some length, that female children are of no value or importance; a curse rather than a blessing — an imposition upon the dignity and prosperity of the family. Accord- ing to the Chinese philbsopher Mencius, "there. are three kinds of filial impiety, the greatest of which is to be without male descendants." And thus from its inception to its hideous maturity, polygamy is a burning insult to woman, degrading and enslav- ing where Christian marriage would elevate and bless her. There are the best of reasons for believing that polygamy, as an institution, was unknown in India in the ancient Vedic times, and that it was intro- 'kiced about the' time of the earliest Moslem inva- sions. Polygamy is not sanctioned b}' the earliest .sacred writings of the Hiiido.os, but, on the con- trary, is condemned- by such passages as the follow- Polygamy AND Divorce. 197 ing: "Man is strength — woman is beauty; man is courage — woman is prudence; man is strength and woman is wisdom; and where there is one man lov- ing one woman, and one woman loving one man, in that house the very angels love to come and sit and sing." The Hindoo legend which gives an account of the creation of man and his one female companion certainly gives no countenance to polygamy. This legend, which I will take the liberty to abridge and simplify somewhat, is substantially as follows: "When the Supreme Brahma made man and woman, lie thought of them both at tlie same time; and he created them both at the same time. He placed them upon the beauliful. island of Ceylon. Encouraged by their attractive surround- ings, and each delighted with the other's perfection of loveli- ness in body and mind, they soon became ardent admirers of each other; for the Supreme Brahma had already decreed that love should always precede marriage. By mutual glad con- sent they became husband and wife together. The god then said to them: 'You must never leave this island.' For a time "all went merry as a marriage bell-' but finally, in his extended walks about the island, the man discovered a narrow strip of land which connected tlie island with the main shore of the Indian peninsula. His brief sight of tlie newly discovered country fairly bewitched him; such mountains, such hills, such valleys, such flowers and fruits, such unlimited room for enjoy- ment and increase of knowledge he had never before con- ceived of. He hastened back to his wife, and, after consulting together, she at first trying hard to discourage him in the under- taking, they deliberately concluded to disregard the command of iheir creator, and to hasten to take up their abode in the coveted paradise. The man, being very considerate of the woman, who was the weaker of the two, took her upon his back, and carefully made his way across the extremely narrow isthmus. But just as they reached the main land, the illusion which, from the very moment of their discovery, at! evil spirit 198 Women of the Orient. had been permitted to cast 1,'efore tlieir eyes, was siKklciily dis- pelled, and they saw notliing but the sand, and rocks of a great desert. They turned to go back, liut tlie path they had just traced had disappeared, and they were effectually sluit out from their beautiful island, which had been to tlieni a home of so much joy and peace. "At this point the Supreme Brahma made his appearance, and proceeded to pronounce a curse upon them both, when the man stepped forth like a brave husband as he was, and cried out to the deity: 'The woman was not to blame, it was wholly my fault; punish me according to thy supieme pleasure, but, I pray thee, do not punish her!' Pleased with his devotion and honesty, the god was about to grant his request, when the woman ruslied frantically to embrace his feet, and said: 'Spare him, spare my husband, because I love him !' And llic Su- preme Brahma graciously spared llieni both." Even Menu, whose institutes have done more to drag woman down to her present degraded state than all other Hindoo sacred writings combined, says, when first speaking of the marriage relation : "The right-minded man should have but one wife, as the virtuous woman should have but one hus- band." But from these earlier and purer ideas the Hindoos have been gradually led, by the almost unlimited license of Menu's subsequent writings, and by various social influences, aside from the pres- ence of the polygamous Mohammedans, to the unre- strained practice of this great crime against nature. In India, among the Hindoos^ a man has a right to become a polygamist if he choose; and the possi bility, to say the least, of being superseded by an- other hangs like a dark cloud over every Hindoo wife, no matter how faithful she may have been to her husband, no matter how long she may have served him, obeyed him, and provided for his domes^ Polygamy AND Divorce. 190, tic wants. Through long years of association she may possibly have become tenderly attached to him, but at no time is she absolutely secure in her hus- band's affections. The code of Menu gives abundant license to a husband in the following words: "A wife who drinks any spirituous liquors, who acts immor- ally, who shows hatred to lier lord, who is incurably diseased, who is mischievous, who wastes his property, may at all times be superseded by another wife; a barren wife may be super- seded by another in the eighth year; she whose children are all dead, in the tenth; she wTio brings forth only daughters, in the eleventh; she who speaks unkindly, without delay; but she who, though afHicled with illness, is beloved and virtuous, must never be disgraced, though she may be superseded by another wife with her own consent." So flexible is the law, and so selfish is its sole interpreter, the husband, that a Hindoo woman lives in a constant state of uncertainty, knowing that to- morrow may find her second where hitherto she has been first, or, perhaps, wandering, a forsaken outcast, unpitied and unloved. When, however, we take into consideration the vast population of the country, we can not say that polygamy is very common among the Hindoos, Those best informed are of the opinion that not more than one man in a thousand has more than one wife. This proportion, I am convinced, will hold good even among the wealthy, if we except the Rajahs, or princes, who will usually have from ten to one hundred, or more, ladies in their zenanas, regarding the custom as not only a proper personal gratification, but as an exhibition of their wealth and splendor. A failure on the part of the first wife to 2 00 Ik'OMEN OF THE ORIENT. present her husband with male children is the usual reason alleged by a Hindoo for taking to his home a second wife; and this second wife is often taken with the consent and even at the request of the first wife. In a family where there are several wives, all are ladies, and not servants; hence subordination is not so easily secured as in a Chinese household, where the line of distinction is so plainly drawn; still Hindoo law provides that the first married remains, nominally at least, the mistress of the family; and whatever may be the actual state of affairs, theoret- ically she is supposed to watch over and instruct the other wives like a mother or an elder sister. Prac- tically, however, in a Hindoo zenana, the reigning favorite is the mistress for the time being, and the others must submit with more or less grace accord- ing to the circumstances. / The Friend of India for July, 1875, has the fol- lowing interesting statement of a custom connected with polygamy, as practiced among the Hindoos: "The ciislom among Brahmins, still acted up, to, lluit uiicler ceitain' circumstances men must marry plants, is curious. If a Braliniin is desirous of taking to himself a third wife, he goes through the marriage ceremony correctly, but abbreviated in details, with a yekke gida [Aristolockia indica). This is looked upon as the third marriage; after the ceremony has been com- pleted, the yekke ^da is cut down and burned. The man is now free, witliout fear of evil consequences, to wed the woman who is nominally his fourth wife. This custom owes its origin not to tree-worship, but to the belief that the number three is an onlucky one. By burning the third wife all bad kick is averted. It sometimes happens that the elder brother, not having come across a suitable wife, is still unmarried when the younger brother wishes to get married. Before the yonnger can do so, however,llie elder goes through the ceremony of marriage with Polygamy and Divorce. 201 a plantiiin-tree, which is afteiwards cut down, and the younger is then free to wed. The privileges of chewing betel-nut, wear- ing flowers in the hair, using sandal-wood paste on the body, and tying up the cloth behind in a particular manner are con- fined to married men only. By going through the ceremony of marriage with a plantain-tree the unfortunate bachelor who can not get a wife is entitled to exercise all the coveted privileges." There are, among high-caste Hindoos, some strange customs in connection with marriage which are, not only cruelly unjust to the girl, but at the same time must outrage every sense of decency even in a thoughtful polygamist. Among these is the license allowed to a Kulin Brahmin. A Kulin be- longs to the very highest rank among the Brahmins or priests of the land; and no matter what his sin^ and imperfections, he is regarded as, in one sense, a divine being, and to be connected with him in any way is considered a very high honor. A low- caste man thinks himself and all his family fortunate if a Kulin even condescend to strike him for some offense, real or imaginary. These Kulins are often very poor, and depend for their support, in the vag- abond life they lead, upon the rich, who are glad to purchase their favor. A Kulin is permitted to marry as many wives as he desires, living with each one as long or as short a time as he may elect. He pays nothing, either in money or presents, for his bride, but, on the contrary, refceives from her father a large sum as compensation for the high honor conferred by the alliance. The bride, in such a case, remains in her father's household, her noble husband coming and going at his own sweet will. A Kulin with whom I conversed in Benares was 202 Women of the Orient. said to have fifty wives, some of whom he had never seen but once, and none of whom he supported. His conduct — which my Christian notions led me vehemently to denounce — was as stoutly defended by his satellites on the ground of his sacred char. acter, and the blessings secured 'to his numerous wives, both in this life and the future life, through such a holy alliance. Terrible as the fact may seem, this is a common custom ; and when such a man dies, .ill his wives (and some of them are mere girls) must be regarded as widows, and ever after suffer the slights and abuse attendant upon such a lonely condition. Miss Lathrop, of Calcutta, gives an illustrative incident: "I hiive Ijeeii much interested hitely in a young Brahmin gill, who has Ijeen oliligecl to i;o to tlie hospital for an opera- tion. This poor girl is one of the numerous wives of a Kulin Brahmin. She does not know where her husband is; in fact, she has seen him but a few times, and he has never done any thing for her support. Now her father and mother are'dead, and she is obliged to cook in wealtliy families. Brahmin cooks are alw.-iys in great demand among Hindoos, as all castes can eat the food they prepare; but for a young girl, this is a very dangerous position to be in. She is anxious to learn, and is much interested in the books read to lier, 'The Old, Old Story,' and 'Come to Jesus.' I have sen! her some books to begin learning, and when she comes out from the hospital, I hope we may do something more for her. This horrid system of allowing an old man to marry a great number of young girls, and then leave them virtitally to a condition of widowhood, leads to an almost endless amount of sin and misery." Miss Caddy, of Allahabad, relates the following: "Kaminee, one of my pupils who was removed from our school, but continued lessons at her home, where I also taught her mother, has at last been married. The bridegroom is quite a young man, a Kulin, and since the ceremony has taken Polygamy AND Divorce. 203 place, they do not find him as satisfactory as they had ex- pected, 'i'liis is frequently the case, especially wlien one of the party comes from a distance, when it is impossible for tliem to know much of each other. Kaminee was getting to be such a big girl tliat-tliey were in despair of finding a luisband for her, her mother telling me that if she were not married this year they would lose their caste! So tlie uncle came down all the way from Lalioie and went to Calcutta, where he found this young man, wlio was wilhng to marry on condition that his family gave nothing to tlie bride, all the expenses of the wed- ding to be borne by Kaminee's family, and the bridegroom to receive a present of one tliousand rupees. All that Kaminee's father required of him was, that he should live with them and study law. Now that the ceremony is over, he refuses either to remain or to study; but demands his money, so that he can return to Calcutta immediately. He is an unprincipled young man, and addicted to drink. This is very sad for poor Kaminee; but as it can not be supposed that the child loves him, we hope that she will be content to remain with her par- ents. It is indeed a gieat blessing that she can remain with them and is not obliged to go and live with her mother-in-law, where she would probably be subjected to ill-treatment from her husbanti and his mother. "Although I visited the house frequently during the prep- arations for the marriage, and even while the ceremony lasted, Kaminee was, of course, too much occupied with what was going on to care to listen to any religious instruction, so I did not urge it upon her. Since her marriage, however, she has been reading again. One day her mother and grandmother both being out, I had a long conversation with her. I sought to ascertain, if possible, what impression all the recent gayeties had made upon her mind, and to place before her the duties and responsibilities of life, telling her that in her own strength she would be unable to meet those responsibilities; but that Jesus was willing to be her Savior and friend if she would ac- cept him as such. She seemed much impressed with the con- versation. Let us pray earnestly that she may indeed be led to accept Clirist, and to cast all her burdens upon him." The daughters of these Kulins often remain unmarried, for they are not permitted to marry into /04 Women of the Orient. a lower caste, and the father rarely has money enough to marry them properly in their own caste. A short time before my visit to Calcutta an aged Kulin was carried by his relatives to the bank of the Ganges to die. There was in the neighborhood a young Kulin girl, who up to that time had re- mained unmarried. Her relatives thought this a favorable time to wipe out their di.sgrace, so, accord- ing to my friend who related the incident, they actually married the child to the dying priest. Shortly after the old man expired, and the little crea- ture was condemned henceforth to be known as his widow, and to suffer all the pain and privation of that saddest of all conditions. Among the Mohammedans polygamy is allowed, yifthough restricted by the Koran to four wives, ex- cept in the case of a king, who is allowed eight. In India the Mohammedans quite generally use their license in this particular; the more wealthy mer- chants and the Nawdbs, or princes, recognizing no law in the matter, limit the size of their harems only by the length of their purses. In Syria and Turkey polygamy is said to be restricted to a few, such as very wealthy merchants, officers of the gov- ernment, lawyers, and the priests. The households of princes and all of royal blood are usually very large, and, if common report is correct, vety select. Taking Dr. Henry J. Van Lennep as authority: "A Mohammedan sovereign is usually a fine-looking man, the custom having long prevailed of introducing into the royal harem none but slaves bought with money, whose chief recom- mendation consists in their personal attractions. The sovereign never allies himself by marriage either with his subjects or Polygamy AND Divorce. 205 with neighl)oring princes. We weie lold by an eminent English artist engaged upon a portrait of the late sultan Ab- dool Mejid, that he had never seen so fine a mouth; to use his own expression, it was a perfect 'Cupid's bow.' These princes usually look soniewliat effeminate ; for they no longer lead their armies, and resign the reins of government mostly to a grand vizier and other officers of state."* Notwithstanding all statements to the contrary, it is certain that in all Mohammedan countries where the harem system is in operation slavery, as a do- mestic institution, still exists. This is true even in Egypt, where such an ado has been made of late over the suppression of the slave trade. According to reliable dispatches, the wives and concubines uf Mofettish — some three hundred in number — were sold at auction in Cairo in December, 1876, while, at the same time, the Khedive was professing to put forth every possible effort to destroy the slave-trade in the Red Sea. It is well understood that the finan- cial embarrassments of the Khedive himself are largely owing to the expense of his unusually exten- sive harems. An English official in Cairo states that for two female slaves alone, purchased recently at Constantinople from the chief eunuch of the Sultan, the Khedive paid no less than ;^30,ooo. ' ' Of course, " says the writer, "they were the most beautiful of houris — in fact, so much so as to have aroused the jealousy of the other inmates to an extent which at last compelled their proprietor to send them away. " The evil effects of polygamy, and the troubles among wives and children which it originates, are faithfully described in Gen. xxx, i-iS; i Sam. i, 6-8; * Bible Lands, page 644. 2o6 Women of the Orient. and Gen. xxxvii, 18-24; ^"d what was true of this vile institution in patriarchal times (an institution which was not sanctioned but condemned by the sacred law and the inspired writers who gave us such a faithful picture of its abominations) is true of it now, and even tenfold more. Rather than tending to prevent licentiousness, as some will argue, I am free to state, not only as the result of my own ob- servation, but on the authority of many who are in the highest degree competent to give reliable infor- mation upon the subject, that nowhere do the crimes spoken of in Romans i, 29-32 prevail so generally as in polygamous countries ; and especially among those who possess the most populous harems. Miss .Thoburn, of Lucknow, India, once over- . heard a conversation something hke the following, between two Mohammedan ladies who met at her house: " 'You are Moonshee 'swife?' 'Yes.' ' He has another wife, hasn't he ?' This was answered by a nod and a frown. ' Which does the Moonshee like best?' 'He don't care any thing for me now!' 'Of course you quarrel with her?' , 'Yes, every day.' 'Is she handsome?' 'She is cross-eyed and ugly as a buffalo.' At this they both laughed heartily." The Parsees (or descendants of the ancient Per sians, who are numerous in and about Bombay, India) are permitted by their sacred law to have two wives when the first wife is childless, and at the same time is willing to divide her own authority and her husband's affection with another. In the island of Ceylon and among the Himalaya Mountains of India, polyandria is still practiced, I am Polygamy and Divorce. 207 told, to a limited extent. Several men become the husbands of one wife, she distributing her time be- tween them according to the amount which they severally contribute for her support. This seems a shocking state of affairs, and yet is really no worse than the harem system whereby one man is per- mitted to gather about him as many wives as he can support. This is indeed a very poor rule, but it cer- tainly can work both ways. The reasons assigned by the natives for this seemingly barbarous custom are the poverty of those who adopt it and the scarcity of women in such sections, since all the prettiest and best girls are sold at .highly remunerative prices for the zenanas of the Ganges Valley. DIVORCE. As might well be expected, where the will of the husband is almost the only law, divorce is a very easy and a very common transaction throughout the Orient. Indeed, the Asiatics are formidable rivals of the very high reputation which some of our own Western States enjoy in this particular. In China and Japan the husband has virtually an unlimited power of divorce. According to the law, in both these countries, a husband may put away his wife for any one of the following seven reasons: I. If she be disobedient to her parents-in-law. 2. If she be barren. 3. If she be lewd or licentious. 4. If she be jealous. 5. If she have a loathsome or contagious disease. 6. If she steal. 7. If she talk too much. And, as the husband is the sole judge in the matter, these seven reasons may be made to cover 2o8 Women of the Orient. every case which his desire or his caprice may orig- inate. If all the others fail him, still the last rea- son — loquacity — is always at hand, and, of course, \t the one most frequently resorted to. For the poor wife there is no redress ; she must simply obey in this as in all things, and bow to the will of her lord and master. In some cases the law fixes the amount of alimony to be paid the divorced wife, while in others (such, especially, as barrenness and adultery), she has no legal claim to any kind of maintenance. Under no- circumstances, upon no plea whatever, can a wife, in either China or Japan or among the Hindoos of India, demand a- separation from her husband; no matter what may be his sins, such an idea is regarded as simply preposterous. In Japan, at least, adultery on the part of the wife is punish- able with death, but is regarded as entirely excusable if committed by the husband. There is a show of consideration in a law, both of Japan and China, which renders all the seven reasons for divorce null and void in case the parents of the wife are not alive to receive her back again. " There are two other things, either of which, except in the most aggravating cases, will prevent, according to theory, a divorce of the wife by her husband. These are, first, if she has lived with him and served his father and mother until they are both dead; second, if he has become rich and honored with office under the government since their marriage, at the time of marriage he being poor and not in the enjoyment of offi- cial trust."* But, like many other things touching morals and social justice in China, and which look so well on * Doolittle, Vol. I, page 107. Polygamy and Divorce 205 paper, these rules are more theoretical than practical, and seldom stand in the way of an evil-minded hus- band who has determined to thrust out his wife and to fill her place with another more to his fancy. In any case, a husband must give his wife a bill of divorcement. This he may or may not give in presence of a magistrate, as he chooses. Usually it is written in the presence of the parents or other near relatives of the wife. Among the Hindoos absolute divorce, to say the least, is not common. The author of the "Land of the White Elephant" tells us that " Marriage among the Burmese is a most peculiar institu- tion, and tlie marriage-knot is very easily undone. If two persons are tired of each otiier's society, they dissolve part- nership in the following simple and touching, but conclu- sive manner: They respectively light two candles, and, shut- ting up their hut, sit down and wait quietly until they are burned out. The one whose candle l^urns out first, gets up at once and leaves the house forever, taking nothing but the clothes he or she may have on at the time — all else then be- comes the property of the other party." Among Mohammedans divorces are common, and a husband may put away his wife at will, provided he pay her alimony, except in cases where none is allo-Aied. Since adultery is a crime punishable with death, when detected, the usual reasons assigned for divorce are bad temper or extravagance in the wife. In case a husband is guilty of cruel treatment, or neglect, a wife may apply for a divorce, in which case the husband is not required to grant her ali- mony, but she must go forth, even when judgment is in her favor (which is a rare case), portionless and 2 10 Women of the Orient. penniless. Often a villainous Moslem will first dispose of all the property his wife has brought him, and then treat her so badly that she is forced to resort to the courts for deliverance; and this process he will re- peat again and again for a score of times or more, thus making quite a speculation, and living like a gentleman on the profits of his matrimonial ventures. Dr. Thompson told me of one Mohammedan near BejTOOt who had been married, in thiJ way, to thirty women. It is common, in Syria at least, for a divorced woman to become the wife of another man, while in every Oriental land the husband who, by death or in any other way, loses a wife takes another just as soon as the proper arrangements can be made. The Koran says: "You may divorce your wives twice, and take them back again ; but if the husband divorce her a third time, it is not lawful for him to take her again until she shall have been actually married .to another husband, and then divorced by him." Dr. Jessup testifies : " I have known cases where the Inrsband, in a fit of pas- sion, has divorced his wife the third time, and, in order to get her back again, has hired another man to marry her and tlien divorce lier. A ricli Effendi of my acquaintance had divorced his wife the third time, and wishing to remarry her, hired a poor man to marry her for a consideration of seven hunched piastres. He took the wife and the money, and the next day refused to give her up for less than five thousand piastres, which the Effendi was obliged to pay, as the woman had I>e- come the Uiwful and wedded wife of the poor man."* When the Sultan, or any other Mohammedan ruler, wishes to dispose of a wife or concubine of * " Women of the Arabs," page 14. Polygamy AND Divorce. 211 wliom lie has become weary, the common method is to provide her witli a proper dowry, and then marry her off to some favored courtier, who, distaste- ful as the arrangement may be to him, must cheer- fully acquiesce, and is regarded by all his friends as highly honored by the distinction. An American officer in the employ of the Khedive of Egypt, says: "In one case -vvliich cnme to my knowledge, an officer in the Egyptian anny who had been lionored by tlie hand of one of the Khedive's cast-off fiivorites, on seeing his bride for the first time after the wedding, found lier so unattractive thnt he refused to live with her, and persisted in his determination, al- though warned of the displeasure whicli he would incur in liigh quarters. The sequel lo the story is equally instructive, and throws much light on Oriental habits and customs. The hus- band was iippoinled the 'wakil' or depuly of the governor of a town far away in the interior, ;ind during ihe absence of his chief on a campaign, had occasion lo open the government dispatches, among which were instructions lo the effect that he was himself to be put out of the way, eillicr by poisoned coffee or other means. The officer, as in duty bound, acknowledged the receipt of the letter intended for his superior, merely add- ing that during the hitter's absence the request it contained could not be complied with without detriment to the public service, but that upon his return every thing should be done as directed. In the meanwhile I believe the gentleman found it convenient to seek employment elsewhere." The depraving effects of this Oriental freedom of divorce upon both sexes may be easily imagined. It is the devil's seal upon those false systems of re ligion which uphold it — systems which are a blight and a curse upon the fairest and richest portions of our earth — systems which best prove their hellish origin by taking cowardly advantage of woman's weakness to refine and perpetuate woman's wrongs. 18 Chapter XI. ORIENTAL, HOUSES. THE Orientals love best to con- gregate in villages and crowded ^^^M^^^^t cities. Even the farmers live in small communities; and seldom, if ever, does the traveler see a dwell- ing separated by any great distance from others of its kind. In Japan, especially on the picturesque, cone- shaped islands of the inland sea, very frequently a solitary temple, in the midst of a pretty grove, may be seen surmounting an eminence, at the foot of which nestles a town or \illage: a well-worn foot-path between the two attesting the devotion of the people; and, in China, sacred edifices of every kind are usually on some elevation, and apart from other structures, but houses are invariably in groups, ranging in size from the ha-mlet of fifty inhabitants to the city of two millions. All Japanese houses, except the castles and man- sions of the nobility, are directly on the street, and are so universally kept open during the day, that it is by no means difficult to form a correct idea of their interior arrangements; and, as the traveler is almost invariably welcome to sit and chat a longer Or/entai. Houses. 2T3 or a shorter time, as may please him, with the in- mates, his observations of domestic life are in the liighest degree satisfactory. One thing he soon learns, and that is that there is not so much differ- ence between tiie various classes, in their manner of living, as in other lands. The lower part of the residences of the nobility and very wealthy are sometimes built of stone, and surmounted by a wooden structure of greater or less elegance; but all other dwellings are constructed of wood, mud, or frames covered with matting. The sides of wooden houses are usually of plank, set upright, the edges fitting square against each other, and are almost always destitute of paint. A JAPANESE HOUSE. Mud houses are built of a mixture of clay and chopped straw, the better sort having the walls coated with a cement which gives them the appear- 214 Women of tiih Orjea't. ance of stone. Some buildings of the better sort are built of plaiik pinned togetlier in a sort of trestle-work, to resist more successfully tlic frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Such walls are usually covered on the outside with blue, diamond shaped slate, joined together by heavy lines of white cement; giving a sort of checker-board appearance that is more peculiar than tasteful. The roofs are made of tiles, or a thick thatch of rice straw, or of extremely narrow shingles, held In placd by long transverse strips of split bamboo. Japanese houses are usually small, and consist of one story, except in cities, where two stories are the rule; the first floor serving for the sliop or store, and for general business, the second floor (reached by a pretty staircase running up from the center of the room below) being devoted to the private apart- ments of the familj''. The front of the house is so constructed of sliding window-frames that it may be thrown open during the day, and the visitor may sit upon the edge of the floor next the street if he do not choose to enter. The window sashes are covered with thin paper, in lieu of glass, and are sometimes closed by day, but always at night; and, when the family retire to rest, a. further protection is afforded by strong wooden shutters outside of all. Usually only a part of the inside area is covered by a floor, there being at least a small space (jut- ting in from the street), where the ground is bare, and beaten down hard like a pavement. The floor is a sort of platform, elevated from one to two feet, and just as clean as great care and frequent scrub- Oriental Houses. 215 bing can make it. The interior walls and ceiling of the best houses are frequently of rich-grained, highly polished woods, set in panels and patterns. INTERIOR OF JAPANESE DWELLING. In some more modern houses, which are imitations of European styles, the windows have glass, and are pr'otected by Venetian blinds. Nearly all first-class houses are encircled by a narrow veranda, upon which all the rooms open. The street side of such dwellings is usually dignified by a large portico and entrance, where servants and those on business wait, where visitors leave their congoes, palanquins, um- brellas, clogs, and sandals. The apartments of the servants are also connected with this grand entrance. The back of such a house is always devoted to the family rooms, the verandas, above and below, over- looking the garden and ornamental grounds, and is always light and airy. The floors are invariably covered with matting, which is just as invariably clean, for no shoe or clog ii6 Women of the Orient. is ever permitted to come in contact with it, these being left outside upon the bit of bare ground re- ferred to, or upon the veranda. The Japanese mat is the national standard of superficial measurement, and a house or a piece of ground is said to be so many mats in size. A mat is always six feet three inches in length, by three feet and two inches in width, and four inches in thickness. They are made of rice straw, very skillfully plaited with a close, smooth upper surface. Every house is provided with plenty of sliding screens, or partitions, which run in grooves prepared for the purpose between the mats here and there; and the entire liouse may be thrown into one large room, or into a series of smaller apartments as may be desired, which apart- ments, however, are always of regular dimensions, the floor of each being exactly covered by a given number of mats. The mat takes the place of several articles of furniture deemed necessary to houses^ in other lands. It is a carpet, chair, and table by ^ay, and a bed at night. Dropping upon their, knees, and then sitting back upon their heels, a position to which their joints are accustomed from childhood, they have no need o^' chairs; bringing out from the closet the wooden pillow upon which the neck alone rests, and a cot- ton-stuiifed quilt with which to cover them as they camp down upon the thick and yielding mat, they certainly have no need of a bedstead or mattress ; and when the mat is covered with a clean paper- spread, and the principal dishes are set upon low stands in the midst of the family circle, and each Oriental Houses. 217 person takes a smaller dish in one hand, and the mysterious chopsticks in the other, could they or their guests reasonably ask for a better table? All the unlacquered wood-work of the interior is kept scrupulously clean, by the liberal use of hot water and alkali, for the Japanese are the most cleanly people, both personally and in their dwellings, among the Asiatics. Although they have never heard our proverb, "Cleanliness is next to godli- ness," they have one of their own which harmonizes with it; namely, "When the houses of a people are kept clean, be certain that the government is re- spected and will endure." There are seldom any chimneys in Japanese houses. In cold weather, or for cooking, the fire, which is invariably of charcoal, is sometimes kindled in a shallow pit walled up from the ground; but oftener the fire is in an earthen or metal brazier sit- ting on the floor. The fire-bed is half filled with ashes, and even in the coldest weather the little heat that radiates from the smoldering embers is more of an aggravation than a comfort. The establishments of the nobility are usually very extensive, covering many acres. Within the grounds, which are laid out according to the Japan- ese principles of landscape gardening, are Summer- houses, shrines, little groves, grass-plats, flower gar- dens, lawns, miniature lakes well stocked with gold and silver fish, little waterfalls, and babbling streams crossed by rustic bridges, all in exquisite taste, and surpassingly beautiful. The lord of all this dwells with his family in the very midst of this fairy scene, 2 1 8 Women of the Orient. in a large house made^ according to the general pattern already described, all the interior wood-work beautifully ornamented, and all the furniture of costly lacquered ware, porcelain, and bronze. The walls are covered with paper in fancy gold, silver, and colored patterns. There are pictures in profusion on silken screens, on sliding partitions, and on scrolls hung against the walls. Tlie best of these paintings have considerable merit, both in design and execution. The houses of the samurai, or military aristocracy of the land, and even those of the wealthy rrlerchants, are often equal 1)' elegant, although never so extensive in their appointments. Nearly every Japanese merchant has in connection with his residence or place of business a fire-proof go-down, or store-house, where he keeps the most valuable of his goods. Private families of the class above referred to also have these go-downs, and deposit in them their most valuable effects, such as pictures, books, choice old lacquered ware, collec- tions of curiosities, etc., which are brought out and displayed only on important occasions. These go- downs are built of stone or mud walls; but the whole wood-work, — doors, floor, and roof included, — is Covered with a fire-proof cement at least half a foot thick, and the window openings are closed with copper shutters. Thus secured, they are usuall)' impregnable when one of the frequent conflagrations bursts forth among the peculiarly combustible houses of a crowded city. Although the houses of the common people are usually clean, and more or less attractive, they an; O&iENTAL Houses. 215 always low, seldom containing more than one good story, and they occupy but little space; but among all classes there is, in connection with the dwelling, an attempt at least at a garden of the landscape pattern. Walking along the crowded streets of a city you catch glimpses, through open doors, of sparkling little fountains, miniature trees, with the luxuriant foliage of a waxen green, peculiar to Japan, or at least of a little artificial mound of earth and rock work, covered with flowers and trailing vines. The natural formation of the country about many of the principal cities is peculiarly favorable for the characteristic Japanese garden, and the evergreen shrubbery well adapted to the Japanese style of training into representations of animals, junks, tem- ples, and various other fanciful forms. The garden is always back of the dwelling, and, if possible, on a little hill-side rising from the veranda. The feathery bam- boo makes a tall and impregnable hedge to separate it from the outer world, and a profusion of clambering vines, with rocks loosely arranged here and there, sometimes give the place quite the air of a virgin forest. The inevitable lakelet, the abundance of lotus, iris, water-lilies, camellias, roses, dwarf-pines, and palms arranged witk the skill of the Japanese gardener (the arrangement is always admirable, although sometimes a little stiff) add to the beauty of the scene. In nearly every instance, a family chapel or shrine, small but elaborately carved and ornamented, completes the picture which I certainly have not overdrawn. I have often been invited into these gardens b)' the hospitable people, whose 19 2 20 Women of the Orient. curiosity was fully equal to mine, and -who were as eager to extend tlieir courtesies as I was to receive them. The master or mistress of the place, or, per- haps, the entire family, would show me their flowers, always plucking" me a small bouquet; cdnduct me up the winding paths, over the bridges, and into the artificial grottoes; point out the fish and the birds; lift the curtains of the shrine (evidently taking great pride in showing me how royally they provided for the comfort of their family god), and always conclude by pressing me to sit down upon the clean matting of the house or the garden pavilion, and partake with them of tea and rice-cakes. Except in tea-houses, and amongst the most mercenary of the trades-people in Yokohama and Yeddo, and other treaty ports of the Empire, never would they accept the coin which" I offered as re- muneration for my refreshment. Tea-houses are the inns and restaurants of the country, and the best ones usually have all the attractions, in house and grounds, already mentioned as belonging to the pri- vate residences of the wealthy. The tea-house keeper picks out the prettiest place he can secure for his establishment. If possible, its front overlooks a bay or a lake or a river or a-picturesque waterfall, and its rear opens upon an elaborate garden. Many of them are two stories high, and built entirely arounq a spacious court, with a grand entrance. Verandas above and below around the outer wall of the house and around the inner court add to the spaciousness of the place. Sometimes all partitions and side screens, which answer for the outer walls of the Oriental Houses. 221 house, are removed, and the place is like a huge pavilion, with its tent-like roof supported by numer- ous slender columns; and then, again, the sliding frames, covered with fancy paper, make up rooms of various dimensions to suit the guests. Along the street front are displayed flags and streamers inscribed with names and crests of titled persons who, from tim^ to time, have stopped for entertainment. Pretty girls come and go with tea and cakes and pipes and fans for the travelers; every body seems to have plenty of time, and to be bent, on enjoyment. The tiny cups and trays and tea-pots placed upon the mats or on low stands seem like toys. The nicely dressed girls pour the tea, fill the pipes, and light them, too, by means of a live coal embedded in ashes in a little dish made for the purpose, and flourish the fans and replenish the cake and rice trays, all the time chatting and laughing in that engaging manner peculiar to young girls the world over. Nearest the street, seated on low benches or on the mats, are artisans and coolies talking together, playing games of chance, or lazily fanning themselves, while their wives light their pipes at the common hibachi. The place is deliciously cool and comfortable, the host very attentive and the other guests polite and sociable, and altogether it is a most restful and agreeable spot to the weary traveler overcome by the heat and dust of the way. One such tea-house in which we spent some hours commanded a complete view of "Hakoni Lake" (a crystal gem in an emerald setting), lying among the Oriental Houses. 223 Hakoni Mountains at an elevation of two thousand feet above the sea. Altogether it was one of the most charming views my eyes ever rested upon, well worth going to Japan to see. Above us, ten thou- sand feet, towered in unapproachable solitude the sacred "Fuji-Yama," his head crowned with per- petual snow. The entire scene reminded me more than any thing else of our own Lake George. From another tea-house where we spent the night, on the island of Yeno Shima, a noted Japanese Sum- mer resort, we enjoyed a fine view of the ocean, and the pretty little islets which fringe the coast in that region. On our way to "Fuji-Yama " we once spent two nights at a tea-house in the village of "Hata," fa- mous among all Japanese travelers for its generous ac- commodations and abundant cheer. It was large and even -elegant, a fair representative of its class, and kept by a sharp, sprightly woman, whose husband carried on an establishment near by, where the fa- mous Fuji Yama cabinets were made. There was a large court opening to the street, and surrounded on the other three sides by rooms occupied by the family, and the moie common class of guests. In one set of these rooms, on the first night after our arrival, seventy-five pilgrims took lodgment, and in little groups enjoyed their evening "chow-chow." After this was finished they stretched themselves out side by side in long rows upon the floor, and the waiter girls covered them for the night with spacious quilts provided in large numbers for the purpose. A second suije of rooms, occupying the entire rear of the house, and beautifully fitted up with soft"mats, 2 24. Women of the Orient. inlaid and lacquered cabinets, and fancy paper slides and screens, was devoted to the accommodation of our party of ten foreign gentlemen. Along the front of our quarters ran the usual ve- randa, at the foot of which was a crescent-shaped pool, filled with gold-fish and crossed by a tiny stone bridge, beyond which, upon the abrupt side hill, was a lovely garden, so arranged that it seemed to cover ten acres, although the actual space occupied was probably not more than one. Here were flowe'-s and shrubs of evergreen trained in various fantastic forms, and little by-paths, and rustic seats, and sly lit- tle grottoes, all surrounded by a very high and well- kept hedge. Down the center of the garden ran a little stream which gained the pool by a succession of- three silvery water-falls. At the top of the garden was a pretty little Summer-hou.se, where severargirls of the establishment drew monotonous music from the Samisen for the delight of such cultivated ears as could appreciate it. After night-fall the entire house and grounds were lighted up by innumerable paper lan- terns, suspended from the ceiling within,- and the branches of the trees without. Stepping from our congoes on our arrival in the outer court, we removed our boots, and taking pos- session of our apartments proceeded to make ourselves comfortable. I took my station,